^■pp i^ ^ 1 GIFT OF J. B. Peixotto http://www.archive.org/details/cyclopdiaofbiogrOOrichrich / CYCLOPEDIA OF UNIVERSAL BIOGRAniY. In active Preparation, UNIFOBM WITH THIS VOLUME, CYCLOPAEDIA OF HISTORY: A COMPLETE SERIES OF CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE WORLD TO THE PRESENT TIME, ON A NEW PLAN, COMPREHENDING AN ARRANGEMENT ACCORDING TO DATES, AND AN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT. CYCLOPEDIA BIOGRAPHY: EMUSACrSG A SERIES OF ORIGINAL MEMOIRS THE MOST DISTINGUISHED PERSONS OF ALL TIMES. WRITTEN FOR THIS WOEK BY SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON, D.C L. WILLIAM BAIRD, M.D., F.L.S. SIR DAVID BREWSTER, F.R.S. JAMES BRYCE, A.M., F.G.S. JOHN HILL BURTON. PROFESSOR CREASY, A.M. PROFESSOR EADIE, D.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR FERGUSON, A.M. PROFESSOR GORDON, F.R.S.E. JAMES HEDDERWICK. JOHN A. HERAUD. ROBERT JAMIESON, D.D. CHARLES KNIGHT. JAMES MANSON. JAMES M'CONNECHY. PROFESSOR NICHOL, LL.D. ELIHU RICH. PROFESSOR SPALDING, M.A. PROFESSOR THOMSON, M.D., RALPH N. WORNUM. EDITED BY ELIHU RICH. W&\ ^nmxamt gStftnrfum. LONDON AND GLASGOW i • RICHARD GRIFFIN AND COMPANY, PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. 1854. ^n fi Fmjla GLASGOW tBLNTED BY BELL AND BAIX, ST. ENOCH SQUARE. PREFACE. Several works, more or less resembling the present one, being already in circulation, it is necessary to state why the Publishers have ventured to expect a share of the public favour for a new Biographical Dictionary. To many of these Dictionaries, considered as the production of individual writers, a degree of merit, far from slight, must, in fairness, be conceded ; but it would seem sufficiently evident, that no single scholar, however extensive his attainments, could ever be expected to catch, or even appreciate all the points of interest belonging to the numerous and varied classes of lives, which must be included in a General Biography. The necessity of seeking a combination of apt and effective talent, for the right production of any comprehensive Dictionary, has long been recognized in the case of our great ' Encyclopaedias ;' and such a combination was obtained for the service of Biography, by the editors of the voluminous 'Biographie Universelle.' But the principle has not hitherto been applied in the construction of any work of the latter kind, which would be por- table and adapted for general circulation. The volume now issued aspires to be a first attempt in the important direc- tion alluded to. The Publishers have desired to intrust the execution of the principal lives of each class of remarkable men, to practised writers, who have cultivated the corresponding departments of Learning ; and from whom they had therefore reason to expect biographical notices, really characteristic, and of assured value. In the departments appertaining to History, Politics, Law, Military science and art, and Ecclesiastical affairs, valuable assistance has been obtained from Sir Archibald Alison, John Hill Burton, Professor Creasy, Professor Eadie, Professor Ferguson, and the Editor. The latter has also endeavoured to delineate the peculiar character and services of the leading Mystics. Classical authors are treated by Professor Ferguson. Theological and Reli- gious literature was given in charge to Professor Eadie and Dr. Jamieson. Poets, Novelists, and other great Men of Letters, are described by Professor Spalding : a memoir of Shakspeare comes from the pen of Charles Knight ; and notices of the Bards of Scotland from James Hedderwick and Thomas Davidson. The principal names in the department of the Mathematical and Physical Sciences were intrusted to Sir David Brewster and Professor Nichol. In the Experimental Sciences, the department of Chemistry has been treated by Dr. R. D. Thomson ; that of Natural History by Dr. Baird ; and Applied Science by Professor Gordon. 369300 VI PREFACE. The distinguished names in Medical Science are treated by Mr. M'Connechy. The eminent Geographers have been attended to by Mr. Bryce, who has endeavoured, by considerable research, to give exact information on the discoveries made by great travellers. In Mental Philosophy, our volume is chiefly indebted to Frofessor Nichol, who has furnished a resume of the doctrines taught by many of the Founders of the great schools, under their respective names. To render this department more complete, the Editor has ventured to introduce the name of Sir William Hamilton, although, happily for science, that distinguished Metaphysician still labours amongst us. The list of articles written by Professor Eadie in Theology and Church History, includes the Fathers and Reformers, besides many of the mediaeval Divines and School- men. Dr. Jamieson's catalogue is graced by the names of our modern Divines, Missionaries, and Philanthropists. In the department of the Fine Arts, the great Painters, Engravers, Sculptors, and Architects, are characterized by Mr. Wornum, whose exact acquaintance with the literature of these subjects is well known. The same may be said regarding the Musicians, under charge of Mr. Manson ; and of the great Actors, whose lives have been written by the dramatic writer and critic, Mr. Heraud. In a work so varied in its contents, so closely printed, and produced by so many hands, the Editor is conscious that there must be error ; and that to many readers, the space will appear unequally divided. Perfection in all respects is not pretended to ; but it is certainly hoped, that the design of the work, and its general execution, entitle it to be regarded as a step of the right kind in furtherance of popular literature. It has been his aim to allot sufficient space for a satisfactory — however brief— memoir of all the leading or representative men in each department ; room being provided, by limiting those of lesser note to a chrono- logical notice, or brief description. It will be found, that many thousand names are contained in this volume more than in any other portable Biography ; and among novelties, may be mentioned the names of sovereigns, and ancient families of importance, arranged in complete lists. The advantage of such lists to the reader of history, will be obvious : many of them have been collated with great pains, in order to the removal of current discrepancies. The volume is further enlivened by numerous illustrations of the birth-places, monuments, or other memorials of departed greatness ; all copied from the most authentic sources. London, 10th Mat/, 1854. LIST OF WRITERS. Initials. A.A. Sir Archibald Alison, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.E. W.B. William Baird, M.D., F.L.S. British Museum. D.B. Sir David Brewster, F.R.S. L. & E., K.H., LL.D., &c. Principal of the United College of St. Salvador and St, Leonard, St. Andrews. J.B. James Bryoe, Jun., A.M., F.G.S. Head Master of the Geographical Department, High School, Glasgow. J.H.B. John Hill Burton, Esq. Author of a History of Scotland. E.S.C. E. S. Creasy, A.M. Professor of History in the University of London. T.D. Thomas Davidson, Esq. J.E. John Eadie, D.D., LL.D. Professor of Biblical Literature, United Presbyterian Church. G.F. George Ferguson, A.M. Professor of Humanity, King's College, Aberdeen. L.D.B.G. Lewis D. B. Gordon, F.R.S.E. Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Glasgow. J.H. James Hedderwick, Esq. J.A.H. John A. Heratjd, Esq. R.J. Robert Jamieson, D.D. Minister of St. Paul's, Glasgow. C.K. Charles Knight, Esq. J.M'C. James M'Connechy, Esq. J.M. James Manson, Esq. J.P.N. John P. Nichol, LL.D. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. E.R. Elihu Rich, Esq. W.S. William Spalding, A.M. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of St. Andrews. R.D.T. Robert Dundas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S. Professor of Chemistry, St. Thomas's Hospital College, London. R.N.W. Ralph N. Wornum, Esq. Department of Practical Art, Marlborough House, London. The Articles which have no initials attached to them are, with few exceptions, written by the Editor. CYCLOPAEDIA OF BIOGRAPHY. AA AA, Peter Van Der, a distinguished jurist, | pres. of the council of Luxembourg, 1530-1594. AA, Peter Van Der, a learned bookseller of Leyden, editor of numerous works, died 1730. AA, Chr. Ch. Hy. Van Der, a celebrated minister of Haerlem, 1718-1792. AA, Gerard Van Der, a distinguished pa- triot of the Netherlands, in the time of Philip II. AAGARD, Christian, a Dane, distinguished as a writer of Latin poetry, 1616-1664. AAGARD, Nich., a philosophical and critical writer, supposed brother of the above, 1612-1657. AAGESEN, Svend, better known as Sueno, a Danish historian whose works date about 1186. AALAM, a renowned Persian astrologer of the 9th centv., confidant of the sultan Adah-Eddaulah. AALSH, AALST, or AELST, EverhardVan, a Dutch painter, 1602-1658. His nephew William, of the same name, also a painter, 1620-1670. AAMA, Guillardin, ak. of Ethiopia, 8th cent. AARE, Dirk Van Der, bishop and lord of Utrecht, celebrated for the perilous war which he maintained against the count of Holland, d. 1212. AARON, the associate and supposed brother of Moses, died b.c. 1451. AARON, St., a British martyr, 303. AARON, St., an abbot of Brittany in the 6th century, supposed founder of its earliest monastery. AARON of Alexandria, a priest and physician of the 7th century, the earliest writer who is known to have mentioned the small-pox and measles. AARON of Barcelona, a Spanish Jew, au. of a work in Hebrew on the precepts of Moses, d. 1293. AARON, a Scotchman by birth, made abbot of St. Martin of Cologne, 1042, died 1052. Left a work on the advantage of chanting the psalms and other vocal music in churches. AARON, Abhas, or Aves, a learned rabbi, and editor of an edition of the foregoing, 1703. AARON of Ragusa, a rabbin of the 17th cent. AARON, or ARON, Pietro, generally called a Florentine, but supposed to be a Fleming by birth, was canon of Rimini in the 16th century, a com- poser and auth. of many laborious works on music. AARON, Ben Asser, a learned Masorite of the 11th century, commonly called Ben Asher, author of a work on the Biblical Accents, and probably chief of the college of Tiberias. AARON, Ben Chaim, bom at Fez, in the 16th century, author of Commentaries on the Scriptures. AARON, Hacharon, a rabbi of the Caraites, born in Nicomedia 1346, author of several dogma- tical works and commentaries. AARON, Harischon, a rabbi of the Caraites, lorn in the 13th century, at Constantinople, author . . i - « ABA of a celebrated ' Commentary on the Pentateuch,' a ' Treatise on Grammar,' &c. AARON, Isaac, a Greek Jew, interpreter to the emperor Manuel Commenus, died of torture upon an accusation of sorcery, 1203. AARON, Margalitha, a Polish rabbi, and professor of Jewish antiquities, born 1665. Re- markable for his conversion to Christianity, and his unhappy death, which occurred in prison about the year 1730 ; author of numerous * Dissertations.' AARON, Nasi Babel, a great cabalist, supposed to have lived early in the Christian era. AARON, Schascon, a learned rabbin of Thes- salonica, died 1650. AARSCHOT, Due D', a celebrated soldier of the Roman church, died at Venice, 1595. AARSENS, Corneille Van, a renegade pa- triot and statesman of Holland, 1543-1623. AARSENS, Francis Van, son of the preceding, celebrated as a diplomatist, 1572-1641. AARSENS, Francis, grandson of the last named, author of a work of travels, 1655. AARTGENS, or AERTGEN, a Dutch painter, 1498-1564. AARTSBERGEN, Alex. Van, a Dutch noble- man of the 17th century, distinguished for his ta- lents and industry while at the university at Ley- den, and afterwards eminent as a statesman. AARTSEN. See .Ertsen. AASCOW, A. B., a Danish physician, died about 1780. ABA, Owon, or Albon, a tyrant of Hungary, slain by his soldiers, 1044. ABA, a reputed magician, put to death by order of the caliph Merwan, in the 7th century. ABACO, Anthony, a Roman architect of the 16th century, author of a work illustrated with engravings by his own hand. ABACO, A v. Fel. D'El, a celebrated composer and violinist of Verona, 1662-1726. ABACO, Baron, an amateur composer and violinist, lived at Verona in the 18th century. ABACUC, a Christian martyr, reign of Claudius. ABAD I., first Moorish king of Seville and Cordova, died 1055, after a reign of 26 years. ABAD II., son and sue. of Abad I., d. 1069. ABAD III. succeeded to the throne of Seville 1083, made prisoner by the sultan of Morocco, and died miserably in Africa. ABADI, Ebn al, au. of a work on the Koran. ABAFFI, Michel, a nobleman of Transylvania, elected king, died 1690. ABAFFI IL, son of the preceding, whom he succeeded when only 14 years of age, was compelled to renounce his sovereignty, and d. in Vienna, 1713. B ABA ABAGA-KHAN, emperor of the Moguls, dis- tinguished as r.n opponent of the crusaders, d. 1282. ABAGARUS. See Abgarus. ABAI, Hussein, author of a Harmony to the various Commentaries on the Koran. ABAI LARD. See Abelard. ( ABAISI, Tommaso, a sculptor employed with his two sons in the cathedral of Ferrara, 14^51. ABAKER-KHAN. See Ab \oa 7 K h in; ; ABAKUM, a Ruso ; r.n ecclesiastic; ris&J 1684. ABALANTIUS, Leo, a Greek, who aidedbi the murder cf N-ecphorus. J J • /. ABALPRAT i native cf Ispahan,, celebrated/ for having translated the work of Apolloniu's on Conic Sections into Arabic. ABANCOUR, C. X. J., Franqueville D', nephew of the celebrated Calonne, and one of the victims of the French revolution, 1792. ABANCOURT, C. Frerot D\ a French officer, born 1801, author of ' Memoirs on Turkev.' ABANCOURT, F. J. Willemain I)', author of ' Fables,' &c, 1754-1803. ABANO. See Apono. ABANTIDAS, a tvrant of Sicvon, k. B.C. 251. ABARBANEL. See Abrabanel. ABARCA, or AB-ARCA, Sanctius, king of Arragon and Navarre, killed in an engagem., 926. ABARCA, D. Jeromiano, author of a history of Arragon, lived in the 16th century. To another of the same family a history of Levant is attributed. ABARCA, Martin De, a nobleman of Arragon, eminent for his love of literature and knowledge of numismatics : about the end of the 16th century. ABARCA, Dona Maria De, a Spanish lady, distinguished as an amateur painter, time of Rubens. ABARCA, Pedro De, a Jesuit of Spain, emi- nent as an historian and theologian, 1619-1682. ABARIS, a reputed magician of Scythia, ABAS, an ancient sophist, to whom certain historical commentaries are attributed. ABASCAL, D. Jose Fern., viceroy of Peru during the South American war of independence. He was a native of Madrid. 1743-1821. ABASCANTUS, a physician of Lyons, 2d cent. ABASSA, a Turkish officer, strangled 1634. ABASSA, ABBATSA, or A'BBAZAH, a sister of Haroun al Raschid, whose singular marriage and its results have furnished the romantic incidents of many an oriental story. ABASSARUS, the name of an officer who was charged by Cyrus with the rebuilding of the Temple. ABASSON, an impostor who persuaded the French and the Grand Turk that he was the grand- son of Abbas, and was finally put to death. ABATE, Andrea, an artist of Naples, d. 1732. ABATI, Degli, a mediaeval Florentine family, one of whom is placed in the ninth circle of hell, by Dante, for his treacherous conduct to the Guelphs. ABATI, an Ital. ecclesiastic and poet, 16th cent. ABATI, Anthony, an Italian poet, d. 1667. ABATI, an Italian physician of the 16th century. ABATI, Nicolo, a painter in fresco, employed at Fontainebleau and many Italian palaces, born 1512, died 1571, called also Dell 'Abate. His relations Anthony and Peter of the same name were also distinguished as painters. ABATIA, F. Antoni, an alchymist, 17th cent. ABATINI, Guido Ubaldo, a fresco painter of Rome, 1600-1656. ABB ABATUCCI. SeeABUArrrrT. ABAUNZA, Peter, a Spanish au., 1599-1649. ABAUZIT, Firmin, an esteemed French author, distinguished also by the friendship of Sir Isaac Newton, born at Uzes, 1679, died at Geneva, 1767. ABAZA, a Turkish pasha, remarkable for bis military talents and official career, died 1636. ABBA, author of a work explaining the difficult words of the Talmud, 1543. ABBA, Arica, a Jewish rabbi of the 3d cent. ABBA, Thulle, king of the Pelew Isles, 1783. ABBACO, Paul, Del, a Florentine poet and astronomer, cotemporary with Boccaccio. ABBADABU, Amon, sultan of Seville, 1042, noted for his magnificence and military talents. ABBADIE, Jambs, a celebrated Protestant theologian, 1658-1727. ABBADIE, the author of a Dissertation on the Conversion of the Gauls, published in 1702. ABBADIE, Vincent, a French surgeon, trans- lator of MacBride's Essays, 1766. ABBAS, an uncle and zealous partizan of Mahomet, died 653. ABBAS, Ebu Abbas Ap.dallah, snrnamerl Rabbhani, was a son of the foregoing, and chief of the Sahabuh or companions of the prophet, d. 687. ABBAS I., the seventh shah or king of Persia, by whom the ancient seat of empire was transfer- red to Ispahan. This prince is celebrated for his victories over the Ottomans. Many acts of domes- tic cruelty tarnish the successes of a long reign of 41 years: died 1628, aged 70. ABBAS II., the son and successor of Sephy, became shah of Persia, 1642, at the age of 13; died 1699 from the effects of his debaucheries. The most remarkable event of his reign was the conquest of Candahar. ABBAS III. succeeded to the throne of Persia when only eight months old, and died in 1736, after a merely nominal reign, under the usurpa- tion of Nadir Shah. ABBAS, Ali, a Persian physician and astrono- mer of the 10th century. ABBAS, Ibu Abd-l-Mutalib, paternal uncle of Mahomet. His great grandson founded the dynasty of the Abassides. ABBAS, Haly. See Ali Ben-Abbas. ABBAS, Mirza, prince royal of Persia; distin- guished by his efforts to introduce the culture of Europe among his countrymen, 1785-1833. ABBASAH, 1558-1634, a pasha of the Turkish empire. Distinguished as a military leader in two successive revolts. ABBATUCCI, Ja. P., a native of Corsica, dis- tinguished in its wars with the Genoese and the French, afterwards opposed to Paoli, 1726-1812. ABBATUCCI, Charles, son of the foregoing, became general of brigade in the French army, and was killed at the early age of 26, 1796. ABBATISSA, a poet of Sicily, 1570. ABBE, H., a painter, lived at Antwerp, 1670. ABBE, Louise, called La Belle Cordonniere, celebrated for her personal attractions and poetical talents, lived at Lyons in the 17th century. ABBEVILLE, Claude D', a Capuchin father, one of a mission to Marignon, the history of which he wrote, 1614. ABBIATI, Filippo, an historical painter in oil and fresco, born at Milan 1640, died 1715. 2 Aim ABBO, Flortacknsis, a learned abbot and historian of the 10th century, who was employed in an important mission to the pope, killed in a tumult, 1004. ABBON, or ABBO, Cernuus, a Norman monk who was at the siege of Paris in 886, of which he left an account in Latin verse ; died about 923. ABBOT, Abiel, an American clergyman, au. of Sermons and Letters, 1770-1828. ABBOT, Charles. See Tenterden. ABBOT, Charles, created Baron Colchester 1817, on retiring from the speakership of the H. of Commens, was distinguished as a practical statesman, 1757-1829. ABBOT, Charles, author of a work on the flora of Bedfordshire, was vicar of Oakley and Goldington in that county ; died 1817. ABBOT, George, archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., was the son of a clothworker, and early remarkable for his po- lemical skill. He was an influential man at court until Laud came into favour : he lost ground from Ids attachment to Calvinism, 1562-1633. ABBOT, Robert, bp. of Salisbury, and eldest brother of the foregoing, is esteemed for his pro- found and extensive learning, 1560-1617. ABBOT, Maurice, youngest brother of the foregoing, was an eminent merchant, and one of the first directors of the East India Company. Served in the office of sheriff and lord mayor, and was knighted by Charles I. ; died 1640. ABBOT, George, son of Sir Maurice, took up arms in favour of Parliament, was author of several religious works, 1600-1648. ABBOT, Samuel, an English painter, born 1762, became insane and died 1803. ABBT, Thomas, a German moralist, professor of philosophy and mathematics, 1738-1766. ABDALCADER, a Persian sheik of distin- guished piety and wisdom. ABDALLAH, the father of Mahomet, is re- nowned in the traditions of his country, both for his personal beauty and the purity of his manners. He was originally a camel driver. ABDALLAH, a pretender to the caliphate after the death of his nepnew, the first of the Abassides; slain by the troops of his rival, 755. ABDALLAH, a caliph of the Saracens, who con- quered Jerusalem in the eighth century. ABDALLAH, governor of Badajos, and chief of the Moors and Arabs in Portugal, 11th century. ABDALLAH, the Arabian king of Spain at the close of the 9th century, when the sovereignty was entire, but in a declining state ; died 901, after a troubled reign of four years. ABDALLAH, king of Grenada on the close of the 10th century. At this period the governors of the chief cities had assumed the regal title. ABDALLAH, Ben Yussim, founder of the powerful but short-lived dynasty of the Almor- avides, which flourished from 1094 till 1148, and included the Arabian empire of Spain with that of Africa, ABDALLAH, fourth and last sheik of the Wah- abees, defeated by Ibrahim Pasha, and beheaded at Constantinople, 1818. ABDALLATIF, a celebrated historian of Bag- dad, 1161-1231. ABDALMALEK, fifth caliph of the race of the ABE Ommiades, distinguished for his military conquers. Commenced a prosperous reign of 21 years in 684. ABDALONYMUS, a descendant of the kings of Sidon, restored by Alexander. ABDALRAHMAN an Arabian author, born at Cairo in the middle of the 18th centurv. ABDAL WAHAB, the founder of the Wah- abees, a political and religious sect, who began their opposition to the sultan about the middle of last century. ABDAS, a Persian bishop, the cause of the per- secution under Theodosius, in which he himself perished, 430. ABDEL-ASIS, chief of the Wahabees, murdered while at his devotions, 1803. ABDEL-MELEK, caliph of Damascus, 685. ABDEL-MUMEN, founder of the dynasty of the Almoades, (which succeeded that of the Almor- avides,) under the title of the Great Mehedi, or forerunner of the Messiah, died 1163. ABDIAS, the supposed author of an apocrypha] history of the apostles ; about the 5th or 6th cent. ABDOA, a Persian martyr, 250. ABDOLMAMEN, or ABDOLMUMEM. See Abdel-Mumen. ABDON, a judge of Israel, B.C. 1148. ABEILLE, Gaspard, a French wit and dra- matist, born at Riezin 1648, died at Paris 1718. ABEILLE, Scipio, brother of the above, au- thor of a work on surgery, died 1697. ABEILLE, Louis, pianist and composer, b. 1765. ABEILLE, L. P., polit. economist, 1719-1807. ABEL, according to Genesis, a son of Adam. ABEL, the second son of Vladimir II., became sole master of the Danish sovereignty after the murder of his brother Eric. Killed in battle, 1252. ABEL, Ch. F., a German violinist, 1725-1787. ABEL, Dr. Clarke, an English physician and naturalist, the historian of Lord Amherst's embassy to China, died 1826. < ABEL, Hans, a painter of Frankfort, 15th cent. ABEL, E. A., a painter of miniatures, last cent. ABEL, Gaspar, a Germ, historian, 1676-1763. ABEL, J., a disting. Germ, painter, 1780-1818. ABEL, Nich. H., a distinguished geometrician of Norway, 1802-1829. ABEL, Thomas, a distinguished divine, teacher of grammar and music to queen Catherine ; exe- cuted by order of Henrv VIII. 1540. ABELA, J. F., knignt com. of Malta, author of • Malta Illustrated,' 1647. ABELARD, Peter, (ABAILARD, Pierre,) one of the most illustrious of the mediaeval school- men, was born in 1079 of a noble family, at Palais, near Nantes in Brittany. The stirring incidents of his chequered life, and especially his renowned attachment to Heloise and its melancholy fruits, have thrown a peculiar and romantic charm round the name of Abelard. From his youth he devoted himself to study, and throughout his whole career he was at no pains to conceal his conscious pos- session of superior ability. His first teacher was Rosceline. Coming to Paris at the age of twenty, and having soon rivalled and eclipsed his tutor, Guillaume de Champeaux, he removed in two years from Paris to Melun, thence to Corbeil, and thence to Palais, his birthplace, teaching philosophy all the while with great success. The attractions of Paris soon drew him again to the ABE metropolis, whore he attacked the Realism of his old master with such dialectic dexterity and vigour, that Champeaux's school was speedily extinguished. By and bye his antagonist was made bishop of Chalon-sur-Marne, and Abelard commenced to study theology under Anselm at Laon. Having by his transcendent talent made the seminar}' at Laon his envious enemy, he re- turned to Paris, and opened a School of Divinity with unrivalled popularity. In that school were trained many men, from various countries, who afterwards arrived at high ecclesiastical honours- one pope, nineteen cardinals, and above fifty bishops. In this zenith of his fame, when, accor- ding to his own confession, pride and luxury had seduced him, he fell in love with, and seduced his pupil, Heloise, a young and fatherless lady not over twenty years of age, and a niece of canon Fulbert, one of the Parisian ecclesiastics. Heloise was conveyed to Brittany, and bore a son in the house of Abelard's sister. The canon insisted upon a marriage, which accordingly took place, a union which Heloise openly denied, to her uncle's great vexation. Abelard next placed her in the convent of Argenteuil ; but her uncle took a ter- rible revenge for the abduction of his niece, by means of some hired ruffians who broke into Abe- lard's chamber, and inflicted on his person a dis- graceful mutilation. Heloise on this took the veil and became a nun, and Abelard retired as a monk into the Abbey of St. Denis. At length he re- sumed his prelections, but had the misfortune of being suspected of heresy, and was condemned in 1121, by a council which met at Soissonns. Dis- gusted with the persecuting and exasperated monks of St. Denis, for he had denied their St. Denis to be 'Dionysius the Areopagite,' he retired to Troyes, and selected a retreat which his subdued and chastened spirit named the Paraclete, or Comforter, and in this convent Heloise was at length established as superior. But the un- fortunate recluse next provoked the ire of his neighbour, Bernard of Clairvaux, and again for suspected heresy did the council of Sens put its brand upon him. He appealed to Rome, but did not follow out his appeal. Worn out with fatigue, persecution, and infirmity, he at length took refuge in the priory of St. Marcel, where he died 21st April, 1142, at the age of 63. His body, first interred at Cluni, was soon removed to the Paraclete; and twenty years afterwards Heloise was buried beside him at her own request. Their ashes lay undisturbed for 300 years ; but in 1497 they were transferred to the church of the abbey ; then in 1800 removed to the garden of the Musee Francais, in Paris ; and lastly, in 1817, they were deposited beneath a Gothic shrine in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise.— The brilliant talents and oratory of Abelard are beyond dispute. As a subtle and accomplished dialectician he had no rival. His ' Conceptualism' forms an epoch in tne history of mind, and gave a salutary impulse to the age in which he lived. In his ' Theologia' we discover a vigorous and original mind, often ham- pered by its position and ecclesiastical subordina- tion, but often asserting its native freedom and untrammelled right, as, for example, in his illus- tration of the mutual provinces of reason and faith. In his book on Ethics, which he quaintly ABE called 'Scito te Ipsum,' he opposes the Romish doctors on many points of morality ; and in his other Treatise, 'Sic et Non'— 'Yes and No,' he exposed their boasted uniformity of doctrine, and produced in a series of 157 rubrics, the contradic- tory opinions of the older teachers of the church. His works were published at Paris in 1614 ; and at the same place in 1836, Cousin published ' Ouvrages inedits d'Abailard.' LJ-^0 [Tomb of Abelard and lleloiso.] ABELIN, J. Ph., better known as Jean Louis Gottfried, a German historian, 17th century. ABELL, Jno., a musician, celebrated at the court of Charles II. ABELLI, Louis, bishop of Rhodes, 1604-1691. ABELLY, Ant., a Fr. ecclesiastic, emin. as a preacher, confessor to Catherine de Medicis : 16th ct. ABELLY, Louis, a Fr. ecclesiastic, author of numerous theological works, 1603-1691. ABENCHAMOT, an Arabian chief, whose ex- ploits against the Portuguese were the admiration of the 16th century. ABENDANA, Jac, a Spanish Jew, author of a Hebrew Commentary, died 1685. ABEN-EZRA, a celebrated rabbin, astronomer, and mathematician of Spain, whose commentaries on the Sacred Scriptures are in high repute, both among Jews and Christians, fl. in tne 12th cent. ABERCROMBIE, John, author of several works on horticulture, published originally under his own name and that of Mawe, 1726-1806. ABERCROMBIE, John, M.D., the eminent author of ' Enquiries concerning the Intellectua I Powers,' published 1830, and the 'Philosophy of tlu< Moral Feelings,' published 1833, was born at Aber- deen, Nov. 11, 1781, and attained the highest rank as a practical and consulting physician at Edin- burgh ; died Nov. 14, 1844. ABERCROMBY, Alex., Lord, youngest brother of Sir Ralph, a judge of Scotland, and occasional essayist in connection with Mackenzie, 1745-1795. ABERCROMBY, Dav., a Scotch physician and author, 17th century. ABERCROMBY, Sir John Robt., lieut.-gen., second son of Sir Ralph, took the Isle of France while governor of Madras in 1810; died 1817. ABERCROMBY, Patrick, a Scotch historian, physician to James II., died 1726. ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph. This gallant and skilful soldier, and upright and humane man. ABE was born at Menstrie, in the county of Clackman- nan in Scotland, in October, 1734. He entered the army at the age of eighteen, and saw some ser- vice during the last part of the seven years' war in Germany. He was not employed in the American war ; and it was not until the war against revolu- tionary France broke out, that the important part of Abercromby's career commenced. — He acted as lieutenant-general to the Duke of York in the campaigns in Holland, from 1793-5. Abercrom- by's promptitude and courage, and also his good sense and humanity, were greatly signalized during these unfortunate operations of our troops ; and both foreigners and fellow-countrymen noted the contrast which his skill presented to the incompetency of the other leaders of our army at that period. At the end of 1795 Sir Ralph was appointed com- mander-in-chief in the West Indies, and conquered several islands from the French. He was sent to Ireland as commander of the forces, during one part of the Irish rebellion, but his disgust at the system sanctioned there by the government, caused him to make indignant remonstrances, which were answered by his recall. He served again in Holland as second in command to the Duke of York, in the disastrous expedition to the Helder in 1799 ; and he again acquired the re- spect both of friends and foes, by his good conduct amid the imbecile blunders .of those who were associated with him in command. But it is from the expedition to reconquer Egypt in 1801, when he was placed in unfettered authority at the head of a British army destined for a worthy object, that the lustre of his fame is dated. Sir Ralph reached the Egyptian coast in March, with a force of about 12,000 effective men. The French army that occupied Egypt, under General Menou, was much stronger ; but Menou, though aware of the approach of the English expedition, detached only })art of his force, under General Friant, to oppose the anding of Abercromby's army. Abercromby placed his men in boats on the 8th of March, and made good his landing, though he was met by Friant's troops with a heavy cannonade ; and the English, as they reached the beach, were fiercely and repeatedly charged both by the cavalry and the infantry of the French. Abercromby then moved upon Alex- andria, where the chief force of the Irench was posted. A slight action took place on the 13th, in which the English had the advantage ; but it was on the 21st that the decisive battle was fought which liberated Egypt. On that day General Menou attacked the British with the whole disposable force that he could concentrate upon their position. He had from 12 to 14,000 troops in the field, a large proportion of whom were cavalry; and his artillery was also numerous. Abercromby had about 10,000 foot, and only 300 horse. He was also far inferior in guns. The battle, (which the English call the battle of Alex- andria, and which is termed by French historians the battle of Canopus,) began about an hour be- fore daybreak, and raged with unusual obstinacy till a little before 10 a.m. The French troops were all veterans of Napoleon's army of Italy ; they at- tacked with impetuosity ; and the English, who had the fullest confidence in their chief, re- sisted with their national stubbornness. Our right wing rested on the ruins of some old Roman ABE buildings ; and this point was the key of our posi- tion, and the especial object of the French assaults. Abercromby rode to this spot, and encouraged his men by voice, gesture, and example, C-n the other side, Lanusse, the best of the French generals, led on the assailing columns. Lanusse was shot dead, and his columns driven back, but they soon rallied and returned to the charge ; and a splendid division of French cavalry, under General Roize, galloped forward upon the English infantry that was posted near the Roman walls. Sir Ralph was attacked in person by some of these daring cava- liers, and the brave old general, though he dis- armed his first antagonist, received a sabre wound in the chest from another French trooper, who was instantly shot down by a Highlander of the 42d. Soon after this Sir Ralph received a musket shot in the thigh ; but he refused to quit the field until the enemy were thoroughly repulsed, and he saw them flying from the field, which was strewed with 1,700 of their killed and wounded, and also with nearly 1,400 of the victorious English. When the excitement of the battle was over, Sir Ralph fainted and was carried off the field in a hammock, amid the blessings and tears of the soldierv, who loved him as a father. He was immediately car- ried on board Lcrd Keith's flag ship, where he died of the gunshot wound in his thigh, on the evening of 28th March, 1801, in the 63d year of his pure and honourable life. [E.S.C.] ABERCROMBY, Sir Robt., General, a younger brother of Sir Ralph. For thirty years governor of the castle of Edinburgh, died 1827. ABERLI, J. L., a Swiss painter, 1723-1786. ABERNETHY, Rev. J., an Irish dis.,1680-1740. ABERNETHY, John, (1763-1831,) a cele- brated surgeon. A native of the north of Ireland, he was educated in London, where his parents are said to have resided. He became a pupil of John Hunter, by whom he was thoroughly em- bued with a determination to devote his remark- able energies to the reform of the mode of practis- ing the profession to which he was devoted. By his master he was admirably instructed in the organization of the human body, and his career is a brilliant example of the successful application of his early knowledge to the legitimate treatment of disease. It was in combating the empirical ten- dencies of his predecessors that he perhaps became rather dogmatical in his manner, which, although it rendered him a favourite with his pupils from its eccentricity, produced enmity by its brusque- ness. To a celebrated friend of the writer of this, who was familiar with him, he said, upon taking a patient to him, and commencing to explain the symptoms of the complaint, ' Hold your tongue, sir, what have you to do with it ?' He became, at an early age, surgeon to St. Bartholomew's Hospi- tal, and lecturer in its medical school. His most important works were on Physiology, on Surgery, and on the treatment of local diseases. His great merit was in pointing out the legitimate road on which to practise the profession, and in carrying out the principles of his great master, John Hunter, with amazing energy and determination. [R.D.T.] ABERNETHY, Tuos., a Jesuit missionary in Scotland, 1636. ABERTINELLI, a Flor. painter, about 1512. ABESCH, AssaB., a painter on glass, d. 1750. ABG ABGARUS, either the proper name or the title of several kings of Edessa, one of whom was co- temporary with our Saviour, and is said to have written to him. ABGILLUS, a prince who accompanied Charle- magne to the holy land, and is known hy his sur- name of Puesteh John. ABIAH, the second son of Samuel. ABIATHAR, high priest in the time of David. ABICHT, J. G., aGerman orientalist,1672-1740. ABIGAIL, the wife of Nabal and David. ABIHU, one of the sons of Aaron. ABIJAH, son of Jeroboam, king of Israel. ABIJAH, king of Judah after Jeroboam. ABIJAH, the wife of Ahaz, and mother of Hezekiah, king of Judah. ABILDGAARD, P. Ch., a Danish physician and naturalist, died 1808. ABILDGAARD, N. A., brother of the foregoing, an historical painter, 1744-1809. ABILDGAARD, Soren, a Danish nat., d. 1791. ABIMELECH, a k. of Israel, killed b.c. 1206. ABINGER, James Scarlett, Lord, an emi- nent English practising barrister and judge, was born in Jamaica about the year 1769. His family was eminent and influential in the West Indies, and his younger brother, Sir William Anglin Scar- lett, became chief justice of Jamaica. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, entered at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar on the 8th July, 1791, taking his degree of A.M. three vears later. His practical sagacity, aided by a full, handsome person, which gave him, even in youth, an appearance of sedate importance, procured for him a rapid and lucrative business. His temper, discretion, and industry, were alwavs to be relied on; and few English barristers, while yet junior counsel, have been intrusted with the sole manage- ment of so many important cases. There was nothing striking or inspiring in his eloquence, nor was he remarkable for original or profound legal views ; but he had the most lucrative of all char- acters attached to his professional fame, that of getting many verdicts. A writer in the public press, signing himself ' Lorgnette,' who seems to have intimately studied his career, summed up his characteiistics as a practical lawyer by saying : — ' Watchfulness, prudence in the management of a case, great moral courage in the choice or rejection of the means to be used on behalf of a client, ex- perience of human nature, and great self-denial in the exhibition of that experience ; these were the chief agencies by which he acquired his ascendancy over juries; while it is not surprising that he should have also acquired great influence over the bench, when he added intimate knowledge of the intricacies of law to an unusual personal prefer- ence for judges, and the prestige which almost un- varying success gave him.' He received a silk gown in 1816. He had before that date made un- successful attempts to get into parliament, where he first sat in 1818 for Peterborough, a nomination seat. He was one of the many eminent lawyers whose peculiar forensic powers have failed to please the House of Commons, and he was not much heard there except on professional matters. He had been an advocate of Romilly's law reforms, and was generally counted in the Whig ranks, but he took a distinct step in a gradual change, ADS by becoming attorney-general under Canning in 1827. When Sir Charles Wetherall was dismissed in 1829, for opposition to Catholic emancipation, Scarlett took a farther step by becoming again attorney-general under the Wellington administra- tion, and he followed up his accession by severe pro- secutions of the opposition papers. In 1834 he was made chief baron of the Exchequer, and raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Abinger. He died on 7th April, 1844, of paralysis, wnich at- tacked him when on circuit at Bury St. Edmonds. His first wife, manned in 1792, died in 1829, and he was married a second time, a few months before Ins death. [J.H.B.] ABINGTON,Thos., an English hist., 1560-1647. ABINGTON, Fr., a comic actress, 1731-1815. ABIOSI, an Italian phys. and astrol., 15th cent. ABIRAM, one of the seditious Jews, Numb. xvi. ABISBAL, Enrique O'Donnell, Count of, a Spanish general who achieved many successes against the French, 1770-1834. ABISHAI, a nephew of David, king of Israel, and one of the commanders of his army. ABLAVIUS, a prefect, murdered by Constans. ABLESON, John, a naval commander, 17th ct. ABNER, flrst cousin and captain of the host to Saul, murdered by Joab, B.C. 1068. ABNEY, Sir Th., distinguished for his friend- ship to Dr. Watts, and his public spirit while lord mayor of London in 1700; died 1722. ABOS, the name of two brothers who distin- guished themselves by the defence of Malta against the Turks, end of the 17th century. ABOS, author of the opera of ' Tito Manlio.' ABOU, a judge eel. under Haroun al Raschid. ABOU AMROU. See Ahmed-ben Mohammed. ABOVILLE, F. M., Count D', a French general, 1730-1817. ABRABANEL,Isa AC, a Portuguese Jew, author of numerous commentaries, 1437-1508. ABRADATAS, a king of Susa, of whom a beau- tiful fiction is related by Xenophon. ABRAHAM, the patriarch of the Jews, was probably the youngest son of Terah, a descendant of Shem. The chronology of his life is uncertain, but it dates beyond 2000 years b.c. ABRAHAM, Nich., a learned Jesuit, 1589-1656. ABRAHAM, a Sancta Clara, a Roman Cath. preacher, highly popular in Vienna, and re- markable for his eccentric writings, 1642-1709. ABRAHAM, St., an anchorite of the 4th cent. ABRESCH, Fr. Louis, a celebrated critic and hellenist, 1699-1782. ABREU, Alexis, amed. wr. of Portugal, 1622. ABREU, Don J. Ant., a Sp. annalist, d. 1775. ABREU, J. M. De, a geometrician, 1754-1805. ABRIAL, A. J., a Fr. statesman, highly distin- guished by Napoleon, 1750-1828. ABRIL, a teacher of the classics, 1530-1590. ABRILOLA, an Arabian poet, 973-1057. ABROSI, an astrol. and phys. of Italy, 16th cent. ABRUZZI, a landscape painter, 18th centurv. ABRUZZO, Balth., a Sicilian phil., 1601-1665. ABSALOM, the son of David, k. b.c. 1023. ABSALOM, archbishop of Lund, distinguished for his public spirit and exploits in arms no less than for his learning, 1128-1191. ABSCHATZ, Assman Von, a German states- man and poet, 1646-1699. ABS ABSTEMIUS, Laurentius, fabulist, 15th cent. ABU, Moslem, governor of Khprassan, and one of the chief instruments in establishing the Abas- sides, put to death by Almanzor, 759. ABU-AMON. See Ahmed-ben Mohammed. ABU BEKIR, the first caliph, and successor of Mahomet, distin g. by his warlike talents and personal moderation. The scattered chapters of the Koran are supposed to have been collected by him ; d. 634. ABUCARA, Theod., a controversial divine, bishop of Caria in the 8th century. Another of the same name who lived a century later, is noted for the insincerity of his public life. ABUDADAHER, the chief of an Arabian sect, disting. himself by the pillage of Mecca, d. 953. ABUL ABBAS, first caliph of the Abassides, reigned 749-753. ABULFARAGIUS, Gregory, an Arabian historian, born 1226. ABULFAZEL, a vizier and historian of the Mogul empire, assassinated 1604. ABULFEDA, Ismael, a Syrian prince and geo- grapher, 1296-1368. ABULGAZI, Behader, khan of the Tartars, 1G45, and author of a Tartar history. ABULOLA, an Arabian po»t, 973-1057. ABUNDANCE, Jean D', a Fr. poet and satirist, 16th cent., most of whose works still exist in MS. ABU-NOWAS, an Arabian poet, a favourite of Haroun al Raschid. ABU-OBEYDAH, a Mohammedan general, dis- tinguished as the conqueror of Palestine and Syria, and by the friendship of Mahomet, died 639. ABU-TALIB, a native of India, author of a Journal of Observations upon the English, trans- lated by Major Stewart, died 1806. ABU-TEMAN, an Arabian poet, esteemed the second in degree of superiority by his countrymen ; originally worked as a tailor, 805-6—845-6. ABUZAID, Mirza, a great-grandson of Ti- tnur, proclaimed sultan at Asterabad during the eivil wars fomented by Uleg Beg and his son. Taken prisoner in the endeavour to extend his empire, and put to death, 1469. ABYDENUS, an historian, quoted by Eusebius. ACACIUS, founder of the Acaciani, 4th cent. ACACIUS, bishop of Berea in Syria, died 436. ACACIUS, bishop of Caesarea, 339. ACACIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, 471. ACACIUS, bp. of Amida at the beginning of the 5th cent, disting. for a great act of benevolence, hav- ing ransomed 7000 Persians, who had been made prisoners of war, by the sale of his church plate. ACADEMUS, a private citizen of Athens, from whom the Academic grove, the favourite resort of pertain Athenian philosophers, took its name. ACAMAPIXTILLI, first king of the Aztecs, and founder of the city of Mexico, died 1420. ACARQ, D', a Fr. gram, and critic, died 1795. ACCA, bishop of Hexham in the 8th century, celebrated as a divine, also for his versatile literary talents, and his skill in psalmody. ACCA, the nurse of Romulus and Remus. ACCAMA, Bernard and Mathias, two Dutch painters of the 18th century. ACCARIGI, Fr., professor of civil law, d. 1622. ACCARIGI, Jac, professor of rhetoric, d. 1654. ACCIAJUOLI, Donatus, a disting. scholar of the 15th century. ACH ACCIAJUOLI, J., an au. and lecturer, 16th c. ACCIAJUOLI, M., a Florentine poetess, d. 1610. ACCIAJUOLI, Ph., a dramatic poet, 1637-1700. ACCIAJUOLI, Nich., a disting. Neapolitan statesman, 1310-1366. ACCIAJUOLI, Reinier, nephew of the pre- ceding, conqueror of Athens, Cormth, and Bceotia. ACCIAJUOLI, Zenobio, a Greek scholar and poet, librarian to Leo X. 1461-1520. ACCIEN, governor of Antioch when that city was besieged by the crusaders, 1097. ACCIO-ZUCCO, author of a versified transla- tion of iEsop, with poetical additions, 1479. ACCIUS, L., a Roman tragedian, died b.c. 180. ACCIUS, Nevius, a Roman augur, who op- posed the expedition of Tarquin the elder against the Sabines. ACCIUS, T., a Roman orator, 1st century b.c. ACCIUS, Tullius, the prince of the Volsci, with whom Coriolanus formed an alliance when he revolted from Rome. ACCOLTI, Benedetto, a eel. jurist and hist., secretary of the Florentine republic, 1415-1466. ACCOLTI, Fr., brother of the preceding, a jurist and poet, surnamed Aretinus, died 1483. ACCOLTI, Bernard, son of Benedetto, an improvisatore of disting. powers, d. about 1535. ACCOLTI, Peter, a second son of Benedetto, and card, of Ancona; noted as the composer of the papal bull against Luther in 1519 ; 1455-1532. ACCOLTI, Benedetto, card, of Ravenna, and nephew of the two preceding, was called the Cicero of the age. He was highly distinguished by Leo X. and his successors, 1497-1549. ACCOLTI, Leonardo, son of Fabricio, a na- tural son of the preceding, author of a life of the first Benedetto, t&c. ACCOLTI, Ben., a conspirator against Pius IV., executed 1564. ACCORAMBONI, the name of several noted Italians, one of whom was a niece of Sixtus V., and the author of some poetry, murdered 1585. ACCORSO, Fr., afams. Ital. jurist, 1182-1229. ACCORSO, Fr., son of the preceding, also cele- brated as a jurist, died 1328. ACCORSO, Mariangelo, a critical an., 16th c. ACCUM, Fr., an eminent chemist, 1769-1838. ACCURSIUS. See Accorso, Fr. ACERBI, Enrico, a eel. Ital. surgeon, d. 1827. ACERBI, Giuseppe, au. of Travels, publ. 1798. ACERBO, Fr., a poet of Naples, 17th century. ACERNUS, S. B., a Polish poet, called the Sarmatian Ovid, 1551-1608. ACESEUS, a Gr. artist eel. for his embroider}'. ACESIUS, bishop of Constantinople in the reign of Constantine. ACEVEDO, F. A., Sp. revolutionist, killed 1820. _ ACEVEDO, Alonso, a Spanish advocate, dis- tinguished for his humane opposition to the use of torture, died about 1780. ACH, Van, an historical painter, 1566-1621. ACHjEUS, an ancient Greek poet. ACHiEUS, gov. of Asia Minor, 3d cent. B.C. ACHAIUS, king of the Scots from 788 to 819. ACHAN, a Jew, stoned to death, B.C. 1451. ACHARD, Anth., a learned divine, 1696-1772. ACHARD, abbot of St. Victor in Paris, d. 1172. ACHARD, Cl. F., a phys. and antiq., 1753-1809. ACHARD, F. C, a Prussian chemist, d. 1821. ACH ACHARDS, Eleazar, bp. of Avignon, d. 1741. ACHARIUS, Eiuc, a botanist, 1757-1819. ACHARY, or ASHARI, founder of a Mahom- medan sect, called after his name in the 9th cent. ACHENWALL, Godfrey, a celebrated Prus- sian jurist, the founder of statistics, 1719-1772. ACHER, N., a French judge, author of an abridgment of ' Plutarch's Lives,' died 1807. ACHERLEY, Roger, a polit.writer, 1727-1740. ACHERY, J. L. D\ a learned monk, 1609-1685. ACHILLAS, minister and general of Ptolemy. ACHILLES, one of the great chiefs of the Ho- meric poems, is represented as the grandson of ^Eacus, and son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidones. His share in the siege of Troy, and particularly the death of Hector, is described in the Iliad, and his death in the 24th book of the Odyssey. ACHILLES, Alex., a Prussian nobleman, au. of works on physical science, d. in poverty 1675. ACHILLES, Tatius, a Christian bishop, and author of a Greek romance in the 3d century. ACHILLINI, the name of three Italians of the 16th century, disting. in professional literature. ACHISH, a king of Gath, with whom David took refuge, B.C. 1060. ACHMET I., suit, of the Ottomans, 1588-1617. ACHMET II. succdd. as sultan 1691, d. 1695. ACHMET III. succdd. 1703,depsd. 1730,d.l736. ACHMET, dey of Algiers, from 1805-1808. ACHMET, a gen. of Solyman, exec, for rebelln. ACHMET, an Arabian wr. on dreams, 4th cent. ACHMET-GIEDIC, grand vizier under Maho- met II., was one of the greatest warriors and states- men that ever conducted the affairs of a nation. He was the idol of the people and the army. After repeated displays of magnanimity, he was secretly strangled by order of Bajazet, 1482. ACHTER, Ulr., a Bavar. musician, 1777-1803. ACHTSCHELLING, Lucas, a painter, 16th c. ACIDALIUS, Valens, a classical wr., 16th ct. ACIEY, Michel V., a Fr. sculptor, 1736-1799. ACILIUS, Aviola, a Roman officer, burnt alive, e.c. 19. ACILIUS, Aviola, consul of Rome, 54. ACILIUS, Caius, a Roman soldier of distin- guished valour, in the time of Julius Caesar. ACILIUS, Glabrio, consul of Rome, 2dct. B.C. ACILIUS, Glabrio, consul of Rome, 91. ACINDYMUS, Septimus, Roman governor of Antioch, 4th century. ACINDYMUS, Gr., a controversial au., 14th ct. ACINELLI, a Genoese historian, 18th century. ACK, Johann, a painter on glass, 16th century. ACKER, Peter, a painter on glass, 15th cent. ACKERMANN, Conrad, a comedian of Ham- burgh, esteemed the Garrick of Germany, d. 1771. ACKERMANN, J. F., a physiologist, 1765-1813. ACKERMANN, J. Ch. Gottlieb, an eminent phys. and medical writer of Germany, 1756-1801. ACKERMANN, Rudolph, a German trades- man settled in London, noted for his improvements in lithography, &c, 1764-1834. ACKERSDYCK, Cor., a writer on Logic, 1666. ACKMAN, Wji., a Scotch artist, cotemporary with the poet Thomson, whose merits he was the first to appreciate. ACKWORTH, G. Dr., one of the reformation authors, a favourite of Archbishop Parker. ACOLUTH, Andr., an orientalist. 1654-1704. ADA ACONTIUS, Jas., an eminent philosopher and divine, converted to the protestant iaith, 16th cent. ACORIS, king of Egypt, 4th century, b.c ACOSTA, Chr., a surg. and naturalist, 16th ct, ACOSTA, Gabriel, a divine of the 17th cent. ACOSTA, J., edt. of the Calcutta Times, d. 1820. ACOSTA, Josh., a Peruvian Jesuit, author of a history of the West Indies, died 1600. ACOSTA, Manuel, author of a history of the Jesuit missionaries to the East, 1541-1604. ACOSTA, Uriel, a Portuguese, distinguished for his inquiring spirit, who after many times changing his creed and enduring much persecution, committed suicide, 1640 or 1647. ACQUAVIVA, A. M., Duke of Atri, distin- guished as a patron of literature, and the first publisher of an encyclopaedia, d. 1529. Many others of this family are remarkable as comman- ders, statesmen, and men of letters. ACREL, Olap, a Swedish surgeon, 1717-1807. ACRON, Hel?:nius, a Roman grammarian. ACRON a Sicilian physician, 5th century, B.C. ACRON, or Acronius, John, a physician and mathematician of Friesland, 16th century. ACRONIUS, John, a Dutch writer in opposi- tion to the church of Rome, 17th century. ACROPOLITA, G., a Byzantine histor., d. 1283. ACROPOLITA, Const., son of the preceding, a theologian and minister of state. ACROTATUS, son of Cleomenes, k. of Sparta, rendered himself odious by the murder of Sosis- tratus ; he died without having reigned. ACROTATUS, grandson of the foregoing, be- came king of Sparta, B.C. 268, killed in battle. ACTON, John or Joseph, the son of an Irish physician, settled at Besancon, became prime minister at the court of Naples towards the close of the last century, and is noted as a bitter oppo- nent of the French, 1737-1808. ACTORIUS, Nason, hist, age of Augustus. ACTUARIUS, Jo., a Greek physician, 13th ct. ACUNA, Ant., bishop of Zamora, notorious for his part in the civil wars of the period, behd. 1521. ACUNA, Chr., a Jesuit missionary, author of a work descriptive of the river Amazon. ACUNA, Fernando De, a native of Madrid, a great favourite with the emperor Charles Y., and a writer of pastoral poetry, died 1680. ADA, queen of Caria, b.c. 344. ADEUS, or ADDEUS, a Greek poet, 4th ct. B.C. ADAIR, James, an Indian trader, author of a work in which he deduces the descent of the North American Indians from the Hebrews, pub. 1775. ADAIR, James, serjeant at law, distinguished as a counsellor and recorder of London, died 1798. ADAIR, James Makittrick, a Scotch phy- sician, auth. of several professional works, d. 1802. ADAIR, John, F.R.S., a Scotchman, distin- guished as an hydrographer, end of 17th century. ADALARD, abbot and founder of New Corbie, which was designed by him as a nursery of mis- sionaries to convert the northern nations. This distinguished monk was cousin-german of Charle- magne, and was born about the year 753. ADALBERON, archbishop of Rheims, distin- guished for his learning and statesmanship, con- secrated Hugh Capet, 987, and died 988. ADALBEKON, Ascelin, bishop of Laon, also a politician, noted lor his treachery, died 1030. ADA ADALBERT, a French bishop of the 8th cent., who claimed inspiration, was condemned by the council of Soissons, 744, and died in prison. ADALBERT, bishop of Prague, savagely mur- dered by the Bohemians, 997. ADALBERT, archbishop of Bremen, died 1072. ADALBERT, archbishop of Magdeburg, d. 1137. ADALBERT I., duke of Tuscany, 847-890. ADALBERT II., son of the preceding 890-917. ADALBERT III., associated with his father Berenger as king of Italy, 950-961. ADALOAD, king of Lombardy, 604-625. ADAM, the first man, according to the received chronology, lived to be 930 years of age ; the date of his creation is fixed at 4004 years B.C. ADAM of Bremen, an eminent historian of the church, lived in the 12th century. ADAM de la Halle, a French poet, 13th cent. ADAM, Scotus, a doc. of the Sorbonne, 12th ct. ADAM, Adolph. Ch., a musician, born 1804. ADAM, Alex., Dr., a learned schoolmaster of Edinb., au. of ' Roman Antiquities,' &c, 1741-1809. ADAM, Al., a painter of battles, 1786-1812. ADAM, G., a German landscape painter, d. 1823. ADAM, Jacq., a learned Fr. writer, 1663-1735. ADAM, Jean, a Jesuit preacher, 17th centurv. ADAM, L. S., an em. Fr. sculptor, 1700-1759. ADAM, Nich. S., brother of the preceding, rendered famous by his admired statue of Pro- metheus chained, 1705-1778. ADAM, Melchiok, rector of a college at Heidel- berg, noted as a voluminous biographer, d. 1622. ADAM, Nich., a Fr. grammarian, 1716-1792. ADAM, Robert, a celebrated architect, much employed in London in conjunction with his brother James, most distinguished for the Adelphi Build- ings, 1728-1792. ADAM, Robert, author of the ' Religious World Displayed,' 1770-1826. ADAM, Th., a clergyman who continued rector of Wintringham for 58 years, though preferment was continually offered him, 1701-1784. ADAM, Rt. Hon. Wm., a distinguished lawyer and politician, finally chief commissioner of the Scottish Jury Court, 1751-1839. ADAMjE US, Theod., an author of the 16th ct., especially of a work designed to promote a union of all Christian churches, died 1560. ADAMANTEO, a learned Talmudist, d. 1581. ADAMANTIUS, a physiognomist, 4th century. ADAMANUS, the biographer of St. Columba, 8th century. AD AMI, Ernest, a Polish writer, 1750. AD AMI, Leonard, an Ital. scholar, 1690-1719. ADAMS, Abig., eel. by her ' Letters,' 1744-1818. ADAMS, Geo., eel. as a mathematical inst. maker, and scientific writer, died 1786. ADAMS,Geo., son of the preceding, author of an ' Essay on Vision,' &c. 1750-1795. ADAMS, John, the assumed name of Alex. Smith, one of the principal mutineers of the Bounty, and since known as the patriarch of Pit- cairn's Island,where the mutineers settled; d. 1829. ADAMS, John, an astrol., reign of Charles II. ADAMS, John, Rev., minister of the Scotch church in Hatton Garden, and author of many works of elementary instruction, died 1814. ADAMS, J., an Amer. poetand preacher, d. 1740. ADAMS, John, a celebrated American states- ADA man, the second President of the United States, was born at Braintree, Massachusets, on 19th Oct., 1735. His fame is not associated with brilliant oratorical displays, or with critical triumphs in party conflict. His qualities were those of the accomplished man of business, but they came forth at a time, and under conditions that made business capacities of the most momentous im- portance to his own countrymen and to mankind at large. The United States are the sole great exception to the saying of Burke, that ' constitu- tions are not made, they grow.' That a consti- tution was framed for the States, on principles which have attested their soundness for the place and occasion bv their durability, is mainly to be attributed to the sagacity of Adams, and espe- cially to his thoroughly English capacity to turn existing institutions and habits to the new condi- tions of the people, instead of inventing untried novelties. Hence his friend and rival Jefferson, called him ' The column of Congress, the pillar of support to the Declaration of Independence, and its ablest advocate and defender.' — Having studied at Cambridge, Massachusets, he joined the Suffolk bar in 1759, and practised in Quin- cey. He married, in 1764, Abigail Smith, a woman of great ability and high patriotic aspira- tions, who brought to him the influential local connection of the Quincey family, to which she was related. Adams dated his expectation of the coming revolution, and his preparation to partici- pate in the reorganization of government in Bri- tish America, to what he observed in 1761, when the question of the legality of writs of assistance, under the English exchequer system against the Boston merchants, was tried. His first open advo- cacy of colonial independence was in the support of the application of the Boston citizens to have the courts of law reopened, when they had been closed on the ground that their proceedings were informal without the use of that cargo of stamps which had been forcibly detained by the citizens. He showed his thorough independence, and brought on him- self considerable odium by becoming counsel for the soldiers charged with murder for snooting citizens of Boston.— In 1774, when Gage dissolved the as- sembly of Massachusets, he was one of the five who, before separation, were appointed to meet with other committees of Washington, and he was thus instru- mental in the construction of congress. On the 6th of May, 1776, he took the first step in the declaration of independence, by a prominent motion ' to adopt such a government as would, in the opin- ion of the representatives of the people, best con- duce to the happiness and safety of their constituents and of America.' He was one of the committee for preparing the celebrated Declaration. He had, in the meantime, organized the system which gave its war-service to the United States, and had been chiefly instrumental in putting the anny into the hands of Washington. By his management of the committee of correspondence, he organized another great branch of service, that of the foreign depart- ment. He was one of the commissioners appointed to treat with France and Holland, and afterwards was sent to negotiate the treaty with Britain. In 1789, he became vice-president, and on the retire- ment of Washington, in 1797, he was chosen president of the United States, remaining in office ADA for one period of four years. He was all Ins life, more or less, concerned in public business, and lived to a good old age. The juncture of his death was remarkable : it occurred in 1826, on the 4th of July, the anniversary of the declaration of inde- pendence. Before breathing his last, he made the remark, 'Jefferson survives 1 ;' but it was not so — Jetferson had died at an earlier hour on the same day. [J.H.B.] ADAMS, John Quincey, an American states- man, the son of John Adams, was born at Brain- tree, Massachusets, on the 11th July, 1767. He received his name of Quincey from his maternal grandfather, an influential citizen of the colony, who died just as his celebrated grandcbild was born. Adams was cradled in the revolution, and when but nine years old heard the first reading of the declaration of independence from the old state house in Boston. He accompanied his father in his missions to France and Holland, and there ac- quired the knowledge of foreign languages and countries, and the wide systematic views which made him invaluable to a country in which such qualifications were necessarily rare. He took a degree at Harvard with high distinction in 1787. In 1791, under the signature of ' Publicola,' he sug- gested some grave doubts about the soundness of the principles actuating the French revolutionists, very remarkable as the production qf a republican pen. In 1803, he was sent from the state of Massachusets as representative to the senate in congress, and sat until 1808. He had been for a short time professor of rhetoric in Harvard, when, in 1809, he was appointed representative of the States at the court of Russia, and began his brilliant and multifarious diplomatic career. In London he completed the negotiations for the conclusion of the second British American war. He was called home in 1817, to serve in the cabinet of President Monroe. On the election of a president in 1825, the name of Adams was returned with those of Jackson, Crawford, and Clay; but as there was not for any one candidate the majority of electoral votes required by the constitution, the selection fell into the hands of the representatives who chose Adams. He retired in 1829, declining the party advocacy, which it was said might ensure his re- election, and he has been looked back on with regret as the last of those who occupied the chair without being borne into it by a victorious faction. In 1831 he began a career of valuable services as a member of the House of Representatives. He made many enemies by his sympathy with the cause of negro emancipation. He was an active pamphleteer, and contributed to periodical litera- ture. He died, full of years and honours, on the 23d of February, 1848, and it has been customary to speak of him as the last of the old and higher class of American statesmen. [J.H.B.] ADAMS, Jos., an em. medical au., 1758-1818. ADAMS, Sam., one of the most ardent defen- ders of American independence, member for Mas- sachusets in the first general congress, noted for his inflexible integrity, 1722-1803. ADAMS, Sik Th., lord mayor of London, 1645, distinguished as a royalist, 1586-1667. ADAMS, Wm., an English divine, a friend of Dr. Johnson, and author of an answer to Hume on Miracles, 1707-1789. ADD ADAMSON, Pat., abp. of St. Andrews, equally noted for his talents and misfortunes, 1536-1599. ADAMSON, Hy., nephew of the preceding, and author of a curious poem, died 1639. ADAMUS SCOTUS, a eel. author of the 12th century, best known for his curious ' Dialogue be- tween the Reason and the Soul.' ADAMUS DORENSUS, awr. on mnsic, 13th c. ADANSON, Michel, a celebrated botanist, was born at Aix, in Provence, in 1727, died in 1806. He was educated at Plessis, studied in Paris under Reaumur and Bernard de Jussieu at the Garden of Plants, and afterwards made a voyage to Senegal. He remained in Africa five years, and during his sojourn there collected an immense number of plants and animals. Upon his return to France, he found that Linnaeus had already promulgated his artificial System of Nature to the scientific world. To Adanson this arrangement, and the arbitrary nomenclature of Linnaeus, were particularly distasteful. His grand aim was to produce a classification of the objects of nature, based upon the natural relations which these have one with another. The first work in which he proposed this method was his ' Voyage to Sene- gal,' in which he made an attempt to classify the mollusca according to the structure of the animal, and not the shell which they inhabit. The next was his ' Families of Plants,' in which he strove to carry out the same principles in botany as he had commenced in conchology. He has not been very successful in this attempt, as a compari- son between his system and that of Linnaeus will show; but still, along with his teacher, Bernard de Jussieu, he has the merit of indicating a method of arrangement of plants by their natural affinities, in opposition to the artificial system then in vogue. He possessed a great knowledge of botany, and was an accurate observer. He is the author of a very interesting account of the immense tree called by the natives of Africa the Baobab ; since named after him Adansonia. He wrote also an account of the trees which produce the gums of commerce. At the revolution, Adanson was reduced to great poverty, but afterwards received a small pension from government. His will directed that a garland of flowers, selected from the 58 families of plants which he had established, should be the only de- coration of his coffin. [W.B.] ADAOUST, a Provencal poet, died 1819. ADASHEV, Alexis, eel. in Russian history as the minister of Ivan the terrible, and disting. by his virtues and talents, died in prison, 1561. ADASHEV, Dan., younger brother of the pre- ceding, disting. himself against the Tartars, and was executed, together with his little son, and all the near relations of Alexis, soon after the death of that minister. ADDA, one of the kings of Northumbria. ADDA, a disting. artist and soldier of Italy. ADDINGTON, Anth., a physician and politi- cian, father of Lord Sidmouth, 1713-1790. ADDINGTON, S., Dr., adis. minis. 1729-1796. ADDISON. G. Hy., author of ' Indian Reminis- cences,' born 1793. ADDISON, Launcelot, father of the cele- brated writer, and dean of Lichfield, was early distinguished by his attachment to the Stuarts. lie is the author of several works ; 1632-1703. 10 ADD ADDISON, Joseph, was the eldest son of a clergyman, able and learned, but not wealthy. He was born in 1672, at the rectory of Milston in Wiltshire. He was educated chiefly at the Charter House and at Oxford, and distinguished himself as a writer of Latin verses, a good many of which were afterwards published. He first appeared in print by contributing English verses, some of which were original, and others translations from the classics, to Dryden's collections of miscellaneous poems. Another of his poetical efforts was a poem complimenting king William on the campaign in which he took Naraur. It was written after he [Eirth-plnce of Addison.] had been introduced to the notice of leading states- men of the Whig party ; whose patronage of him, prompted bv their expectation of his usefulness in political life, appears to have been the cause of his abandoning the intention he once had of enter- ing the church. A pension, procured for him by the interest of Lord Somers, enabled him, in 1699, to visit the continent, where he resided for three years. The best of his poems, a ' Letter from Italy,' addressed to Lord Halifax, his earliest patron, was written in 1701, while he was still abroad; and his ' Travels in Italy,' the first large work which he attempted in prose, exhibited very promisingly both his classical and miscellaneous knowledge, and his skill and liveliness in composition. Not very long after his return to England, he wrote, on the sug- gestion of the prime minister Godolphin, ' The Cam- paign,' a poem celebrating Marlborough's victory at Blenheim. He immediately received an appoint- ment as one of the commissioners of excise, the place having become vacant by the death of the celebrated Locke ; he was speedily promoted to be an under-secretary of state ; and he was secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1710, when the ministry which he served was dismissed from office. — The time of his steadiest and most successful activity in literature embraced the four years ex- tending from this loss of place to the end of Queen Anne's reign. The Tories being in power, he was excluded from public employment. But, a short while before this, he had begun to produce those periodical essays by which his fame has been longest and most securely preserved. In 1709, he began to furnish papers to the Taller, which was con- ducted by his schoolfellow and friend, Richard Steele. Early iu 1711, these two writers eom- ADD menced the Spectator, which was continued every week-day till the close of the following year. It was then dropped, after having made up the 555 numbers commonly printed in its first seven vo- lumes; Addison and Steele contributing almost equally, and together writing all the essays except sixty or seventy. In the course of 1713, the Guardian received a large number of essays from Addison: and then also appeared his celebrated tragedy of ' Cato.' The immense popularity which, partly through political considerations, this stately drama gained, both among readers and among plav- goers, raised the reputation of the author to its highest point. During the latter half of the year 1714, he contributed a good many papers to the new series of the Spectator, making up its eighth vo- lume.— The accession of George I., occurring a little before the publication of the Spectator was closed, restored the Whigs to power, and thus again diverted Addison from literature to politics. After having acted as secretary to the regency, he was appointed one of the lords of trade. Down to this point in his history, there seems to have been really no good ground for the allegations commonly made of his inefficiency as a man of business. He had, indeed, failed in parliament, having either not spoken at all, or broken down in the only attempt he made. His literary celebrity, however, and his modesty and urbanity of manners, though they might have pro- cured him a reception into the society of persons of rank, could not have obtained and preserved the confidence of successive statesmen if he had not been quite competent to the practical details of office. But it cannot well be doubted that he was unfit, though it had been only through his in- efficiency as a debater, for the last step which he ventured to take on the ladder of ambition. In 1717, a dissension having occurred in the minis- try, Townsend and Walpole, the ablest members of the cabinet, passed over to the opposition : and in the administration which was formed by the other Whigs, Addison became a principal secretary of state, having Lord Sunderland, Marlborough's son-in-law, as his colleague. His acceptance of this office is commonly attributed to the influence of his wife, the Countess-Dowager of Warwick ; whom he had married a few months before, and who is said to have, by her haughtiness and vio- lence, made her husband unhappy, and to have driven him to dissipation as a means of escape from domestic discomfort. That Addison did be- come sottish in the last years of his life has not been clearly proved ; and one is glad to catch at any reasons for disbelieving it. At all events, his health was now giving way ; and the state of it was made the excuse for his resignation of office, which he tendered in April, 1718, after having held it for less than a year. His only subsequent efforts in literature that are worth noticing were, an angry controversy with his old friend Steele, who had joined the opposition section of the Whigs, and his uncompleted treatise on the ' Evidences of Christianity.' He died at Holland House, in Ken- sington, in June, 1719, a few weeks after having completed his forty-seventh year. — Addison's poetry is of very small account. His minor compositions in verse hold but a low rank even in that did- actic and half-prosaic school to which they be- long. ' Cato' itself owed its fame, in a great mea- 11 ADD snro, to extrinsic circumstances : and it could not have been successful at all had not dramatic art been then in a state of decay. It is a series of dialogues rather than a drama: its speeches, often eloquent, and almost always morally noble, are seldom truly poetical, and never passionate or pathetic : and there is an equal feebleness in the incidents and in the characters. It must be al- lowed, likewise, that no very great value belongs to any of his prose writings, except his contribu- tions to the Spectator and other periodical papers. These, however, make up a large mass of literary compositions, and possess distinguished merit and importance. In the history of English style, a marked epoch is constituted by the appearance of the writers who are oftenest described as the Wits of Queen Anne's time : and among these there were none who exerted, on the manner of later authors, so strong an influence as Addison. His grace and refinement, accompanied by an admirable command of familiar idioms, gave him a charm that was wanting in the bare and stern writings of Swift : and he was superior to Steele, not only in these points, but also in his comparative freedom from looseness and inaccuracy, and in his power of ris- ing to dignity without losing ease or freedom. In respect to matters higher than style, the merit of the Periodical Essays is chiefly shared between Steele the projector, and Addison, the only other steady and active contributor. In those sketches of charac- ter and manners, and those fragments of invented stories, which were the most popular things in the Taller and its successors, Steele showed more de- cisive originality, and greater breadth and force of humour: but his coadjutor excelled him by far both in delicacy of sentiment, and in the skill, in- genuity, and consistency with which he worked up his materials into finished pictures. To Addi- son the Spectator owed, with hardly any exception, its papers of a more elevated and solid cast, those which made it an instrument of enlightenment to its contemporaries, and entitle it to the grateful attention of posterity. Such were its critical dis- sertations, always abounding in good taste and eloquent expression, the best of these being the criticisms which did so much for recalling notice to Milton : such were the papers on the ' Pleasures of the Imagination,' (efforts highly meritorious in the circumstances,) towards ascertaining the principles on which philosophical criticism must be founded : and such, also, were many meditative and religious papers, some of them purely didactic in form, and others allegorical, and all of them excellent alike tor their high ethical tone, and for their natural and fine reflectiveness. If Addison's prose writ- ings were once overvalued, the neglect and depre- ciation with which it has lately been fashionable to treat them, involve an error which goes at least as far the opposite way. [W.S.] ADDISON, Thos., an Engl. Jesuit, 1634-1685. ADDY, Wm,, a writer on stenography, 17th cent. ADEL, or ADIL, k. of Sweden, 5th or 6th cent. ADELAIDE, the amiable queen of William IV., whom she married 1818 ; she was daughter of the Duke Saxe-Meiningen ; born 1792, died 1819. ADELAIDE, the good and beautiful empress of Germany, was the daughter of Kodolph II., king of Burgundy; she was taken from a prison to marry the emperor Otho I. 951 ; died 999. ADII ADELAIDE, mistress of Albert, duke of Ba- varia ; assassinated by his son, 1392. ADELAIDE of Savoy, the widow of Louis the Fat, and wife of Montmorency, assumed the veil in the abbey of Montmartre, and died 1153. ADELAIDE, marchioness of Susa, and founder of the dominion enjoyed by the house of Savoy in Piedmont, was the contemporary and rival of the celebrated Matilda, duchess of Tuscany, 11th cent. ADELAIDE, Madame Marie, eldest daught. of Louis XV. and aunt of Louis XVI. k. of France, born 1730, fled before the revolutionary storm, 1791, died at Trieste, 1800. ADELAIDE, Eugenie Louisa, sister of Louis Philippe, and his best counsellor, was born 1777 ; she was privately married to Gen. Athelin ; died 31st December, 1847. ADELAIS, second queen of Henry I. of Engl, eel. by the troubadours as ' the fair maid of Bra- bant,' and ancestress of the Howards, died 1151. ADELARD, a learned monk of the 12th cent. ADELASIA, queen of Sardinia, 13th century. ADELBOLD, bishop of Utrecht, died 1027. ADELBURNER, M., an astronomer, died 1779. ADELER, Curtius, a naval com. in the service of the Venetians and Danes, 1622-1675. ADELFRID, a Saxon king, whose succession united the prov. of Bernicia and. Deira, 559. ADELGISUS, king of the Lombards, 8th cent. ADELGISUS, prince of Beneventum, 9th cent. ADELGREIF, J. A, a German scholar of high attainments, who believed that he was the representative of God upon earth, that he was accompanied by seven angels, and that he had a mission to banish all evil from the world ; executed on a charge of sorcery, 1636. ADELHER, a schoolman and divine, 12th cent. ADELUNG, Jac, a musician, 1699-1762. ADELUNG, John, Ch., known throughout Europe as a philologist. His great works are a grammatical and critical Dictionary of the German tongue, and a work of vast research called ' Mith- ridates,' in which the remarkable affinities be- tween the words of all languages are discovered. His general knowledge of literature and the arts is also displayed in various historical treatises, more especially in a cyclopaedia of what he terms 'Human Folly.' He resided at Leipzig and Dresden, usually devoting fourteen hours a-day to hard study, and yet noted for his good cheer. His works in all make about seventy volumes. He was never married; 1734-1806. [E.R.] ADELUNG, Fb., nephew of the preceding, also distinguished as an historian and linguist, b. 1768. ADELWALCH, a king of Sussex, slain 686. ADEMAR, or AYMAR, an historian, 11th cent. ADEODATO, an Italian artist, 12th century. ADEODATUS, pope after Boniface IV., 614-617. Another of the same name elected 673. ADER, Wm., a phys. of Toulouse, an. of a work on the diseases cured by our Saviour, pub. 1621. ADET, P. A., a writer on chemistry, envoy from France to the United States, 1796. ADGILLUS, first Chr. king of Frisia, 8th cent. ADHAD-EDDAULAH, sultan of Persia, died 983, after a glorious reign of 34 years. ADHED, last caliph of the Fathnite dynasty, dethroned by Saladin, and died 1171. ADHELM, bp. of Sherborne, the first ecclcti- 12 ADH nstic distinguished in the Anglo-Saxon church; he is considered the father of Anglo-Saxon literature, and the first English poet, died 769. ADHEMAR, a troubadour of the 12th century. ADHEMAR DE MONSEUIL, created duke of Genoa by Charlemagne, on account of his success against the Saracens, was chief of the illustrious house of Orange. ADHEMAR DE MONSEUIL, of the same family, was a distinguished general of the crusades, and bp. of Pays ; died of a contagion at Antioch. ADHEMAR DE MONSEUIL, another of the family, also a great soldier, made bishop of Metz in 1327, died 1361. ADIMARI, a Florentine family of the middle ages, which has produced several disting. men of letters ; one member of this family is known as a partizan of the Guelphs. ADJUTI, Jas., convert to protestantism, prof, of theology at Wittemberg, 1602-1663. ADLER, Gaspar. See Aquila. ADLER, G. Ch., a disting. teacher, 1674-1741. ADLER, G. Ch., son of the preceding, a classi- cal scholar and divine, 1734-1804. ADLER, J. G., a Danish orientalist, born 1756. ADLER, Ph., a German engraver, 16th cent. ADLERBETH, G., a Swedish poet, 1751-1818. ADLERFELDT, Gust., a Swedish noble who accompanied Charles XII. in his campaigns, of which he wrote a history; killed at Pultowa, 1709. ADLZREITER, chancellor and historian of Bavaria, died 1662. ADMIRAL, H., a poor Frenchman, executed 1794, for an attempt on the life of Robespierre. ADMO, a German engraver, time of Augustus. ADO, a distinguished abp. of Vienna, died 875. ADOLF ATI, an Italian composer. ADOLFI, Giacomo, an It. painter, 1682-1741. ADOLPH, a Germ, painter in England, 1750. ADOLPH, a German sculptor, 16th century. ADOLPHI, C. M., a medical writer, 1676-1753. ADOLPHUS, count of Nassau, elected emperor, 1292 ; fell in battle against his rival Albert duke of Austria, 1298. ADOLPHUS, count of Cleves, andbp. of Muns- ter, distinguished for his turbulence, died 1394. ADOLPHUS, count of Cleves, son of the pre- ceding, and founder of the order of Fools, d. 1448. ADOLPHUS, duke of Gueldres, noted for his repeated and cruel rebellions against his father Arnold, and his desperate courage, 1438-1477. ADOLPHUS, duke of Saxony, born 1685, noted for his active and glorious share in the wars of the empire during the first half of the 18th century, and especially for the check given to Frederick the Great after the surrender of Prague. Entered into military service 1701, succeeded unexpectedly to the duchy 1736, died 1746. ADOLPHUS I., count of Holstein, 1106-1131. ADOLPHUS II., his son, succd. 1131, k. 1164. ADOLPHUS III., son of the preceding, de- spoiled of his duchy in a war with Denmark, and soon after died at the beginning of the 13th cent. ADOLPHUS IV., son and successor of the pre- ceding, recovered his duchy, 1227, but retired from the world 1238, and spent the remaining fourteen years of his life in a monasterv. ADOLPHUS VIII., son of Gerard, count of Hulsttin, sustained a long war with Denmark on ADR account of Schleswig ; he is disting. as a wise ruler, also for his moderation in refusing the crown of Denmark afterwards offered to him ; died 1459. ADOLPHUS I., duke of Holstein and Schleswig, celebrated as a warlike prince, 1544-1586. ADOLPHUS, Frederick II., son of Frede- rick I., king of Sweden, ascended the throne, 1751, being then 41 years of age. In 1757 he was com- pelled to take a part against Prussia in the 7 years' war, though he was some years previously mar- ried to a sister of Frederick the Great. Intrigue and dissension marked the whole period of his reign, and though a party in the state made strenuous endeavours to extend the royal preroga- tive, the king exercised little real power. The state of the country at his death in 1771, is repre- sented by a native historian as a picture of the extremest anarchy that a state can reach under a representative government. [E.R.] ADOLPHUS, John, a eel. barrister and his- torian of London, 1766-1845. ADOMMAN, abbot of Iona, and author of the curious life of St. Columba, died 703. ADON, abp., and au. of Chronicles, 9th cent. ADONIJAH, a son of David, put to death by Solomon, B.C. 1010. ADRETS, Fr. De Beaumont, a leader of the Huguenots, noted for his daring and cruelty, died 1587. His son, of like character, took a share in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. ADREVALD, a theologian of the 9th century. ADRIA, a Sicil. author and phys., died 1560. ADRIAENS, L., a Fl. paint, on glass, 15th cent. ADRIAENSEN, Alex., a Flm. paint.,17th cent. ADRIAENSEN, Cornelis, a learned ecclesi- astic, 16th century. ADRIAM, Marie, a young girl who fought in the defence of Lyons when besieged by the troops of the Convention, and was executed, 1793. ADRIAN, a Greek writer of the 5th century. ADRIAN, Eman., Flemish musician, 16th cent. ADRIAN, or HADRIAN, Publius jElius, the Roman emperor was born 76, and brought up under the eye of the empr. Trajan, his father's kinsman, who adopted him as his son, and to whom he succeeded, 117. He was a success- ful soldier, and a great lover of literature and the arts, but disgraced by the indulgence of sensuality. In the course of his reign he visited nearly every part of his dominions, and when in Britain, 120, built a wall eighty miles in length, from the mouth of the Tyne to Solway Frith, to prevent the incursions of the Caledonians. He was the restorer of Jerusalem, winch he named JElia Capitolina, and where, on Mount Calvary, he erected a temple to Jupiter; died 138. [E.R.] ADRIAN I., pope of Rome, 772-775. ADRIAN II., succeeded as pope, 867, died 872. ADRIAN III., elected pope, and d. 885. ADRIAN IV., an Englishman, at first a servant in a monastery, elected pope 1154, died 1159. ADRIAN V., elected pope, and died 1276. ADRIAN VI., succeeded Leo X. 1522, d. 1523. ADRIAN DE CASTELLO, a native of Italy, distinguished for his learning and ability ; became bishop of Hereford in the reign of Henry VII., and afterwards residing in Italy was accused of conspiracy against Leo X. His subsequent fate is unknown. Id ADR ADRIANI, M. V., a Greek scholar, chancellor of Florence, died 1521. ADRIANI, J. B., his son, an hist., died 1574. ADRIANI, M., son of the last named, d. 1604. ADRIANO, a Spanish painter, d. 1650. ADRICHONIUS, Cir., a Dutch hist. 1533-1585. ADRY, J. F., rhetorician and hist., 1749-1818. ADSO, Hermericus, a monastic wr., 10th cent. ADUARTE, Diego, a Spanish hist., d. 1637. ^CIDES, or jECIDAS, a king of Epirus, said to be a descendant of Achilles, killed B.C. 313. DECIDES, k. of the Molossi, after Alex, the Gt. ^EDESIA, a female Platonist, the mother of Ammonius. vEGIDIUS, k. of the Franks from the deposition to the recall of Childeric ; assassinated 464. jEGIDIUS, de Columna, a monastic philoso- pher and theologian, dieting, in the 13th centurv. jEGIDIUS, Peter, a Flemish lawyer, d. 1533. ^GIMUS, an ancient Greek physician. jEGINHARD, the secretary of Charlemagne, author of annals of his reign, and equally celebrated for his love adventure with the emperor's daughter. jELF, a Swedish theologian, 18th century. jELFRIC, St., surnamed the Grammarian, was archbishop of Canterbury in the middle of the 10th century. He is distinguished as one of the bright- est luminaries of the age in which he lived, d. 1005. ^ELIAN, the celebrated author of a ' History of Animals,' a ' Treatise on Providence,' &c, distin- guished for the purity with which he wrote the Greek tongue, supposed to have lived in the 2d cent. ^ELIAN, Claudius, a Roman military writer. jELIAN, a general in the time of Valens. jELIANUS, Meccius, a Greek physician. iELIUS MELISSUS, a Roman jurist, 2d cent. iELIUS SEXTUS, one of the most eel. Roman jurists, successively aedile, consul, and censor ; au. of the earliest known work on jurisprudence. .ELST. See Aalsh. jEMILIANI, St. Jer., a noble Venetian, the founder of an hospital and religious order, 16th cent. jEMILII, The, one of the most ancient and noble of the patrician families of Rome. ,EMILIUS, Anth., a Dutch hist., 1589-1660. 7EMILIUS, G., a Latin poet, related to Luther. jEMILIUS, Paulus, consul of Rome, B.C. 216 ;md 219, slain at the battle of Cannae. JEMILIUS, Paulus, son of the preceding, dis- tinguished in the Macedonian war, 3d cent. b.c. jEMILIUS, Pau., an em. hist, of Verona, d.1529. iENEAS, one of the heroes of Troy. jENEAS, a Greek military author, 360 b.c. iENEAS, or jENGAS, a monastic writer, 9th c. .(ENEAS GAZiEIUS, a Platonist, 5th cent. jENESIDEMUS, a sceptical phil., 1st century. iEPINUS, the assumed name of Hoeck, one of the most zealous of Luther's followers, 1499-1533. jEPINUS, Franz, a German philosopher, 1724. jERIUS, founder of a sect of the 4th century. -ERSEUS. See jErtsen. ^RTGEN. See Aartgexs. jERTSEN, or .ERSENS, Peter, an em. hist, painter, called Pietro Longo, on account of his tall- ness. There are several Flemish painters of the same name, three known to be sons of the preceding. jESCHINES, an orator of Athens, 4th ct. b.c. /ESCHINE8, a poor Athenian philosopher, the personal friend and pupil of Socrates. JESO iESCHRION, an ancient physic, of Pcrgamos. iESCHYLUS, a celebrated Greek dramatic wri- ter, was born of a noble family at Elcusis in Attica, b.c. 525, and died at Gela in Sicily, b.c 456. From an anecdote which is related of him by Paus- anias, it appears that his youthful fancy was early captivated by the exhibitions of the drama; and he accordingly devoted his life to the service of the tragic muse. At the age of twenty-five, B.C. 499, he first presented himself at the festival of Bacchus as a competitor for the public prize; and fifteen years afterwards, B.C. 484, gained his first victory. The pre-eminence which he thus acquired was successfully maintained till B.C. 468, when he was defeated in a similar contest by his younger rival, Sophocles; an event which exercised a strong in- fluence over the rest of his life. Mortified at the indignity which, as he thought, had thus been put upon him, he quitted Athens and went to the court of Hiero, king of Syracuse. Of the remaining por- tion of his life but little is known, except that he continued to prosecute his favourite pursuit ; and that his residence in Sicily was of some duration, may be inferred from the tact that it was sufficient to affect the purity of his language. His thirteenth and last victory was gained B.C. 458. On the manner of his death, which was singular, the an- cient writers are unanimous. While sitting mo- tionless in the fields, his bald head was mistaken for a stone by an eagle which happened to be fly- ing over him with a tortoise in her bill. The bird dropped the tortoise to break the shell, and the Eoet was killed by the blow. iEschylus is said to ave been the author of 70 tragedies, of which only seven are now extant. The improvements which he introduced in the economy of the drama, were so important as to gain for him the distinction of the Father of Greek Tragedy. To the single actor of Thespis he added a second, and thus presented the regular dialogue. He abridged the length of the choral odes and made them subservient to the main interest of the plot; substituted a regular stage for the moveable wain of his predecessor; provided appropriate scenic decorations, and dresses for the actors ; and removed all deeds of murder and bloodshed from public view. His style is bold, lofty, and sublime, full of gorgeous imagery and magnificent expressions, suitable to the elevated characters of his dramas. His plays have little or no plot ; and have therefore been blamed as defi- cient in dramatic interest. But jEschylus was illustrious not merely as a poet. Along with his brother Cynaegirus he distinguished himself so highly in the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490, that his exploits were commemorated by a descriptive {minting in the theatre of Athens ; and it is pro- >able that he took part in the subsequent battles ot Artemisium, Salamis, and Plataeae. His warlike spirit is vividly pourtrayed in his tragedies, the ' Persians ' and the ' Seven against Thebes.' [G.F.] jESOP, generally known for the Fables attri- buted to him, lived in the 6th century B.C. His history is not well authenticated, but it is under- stood that he was born in Phrygia, and acquired his Greek education as a slave in Athens. He is regarded as the inventor of the apologue, of which his own compositions are also the purest models. They have been trans, into all modem languages. jESOP, Joseph, a Hebrew poet, 16th century. 11 ^ESOPIUS, Cl., a Roman actor, 1st cent. B.C. iETION, an ancient Greek sculptor. jETION, a Greek painter, time of Apelles. JiTIUS, a celebrated heretic of the 4th century. jETIUS, a Roman general, eel. for his repulse of Attila, assass. by the emperor Valentinian 454. jETIUS, an ancient physician of Sicily. iETIUS of Amida, a physician of the 5th cent., author of a vast collection of medical treatises; understood to be the first Christian physician whose writings have come down to us. AF ACKER, G., a German theologian, 17th ct. AFER, Domitius, a eel. Roman orator, one of the vilest partizans of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. AFFLECK, Sir Ed., a naval officer, died 1787. AFFLITTO, Eust. D', a Neapolitan au., 1782. AFFLITTO, J. M., a Neapolitan au., d. 1673. AFFLITTO, Matt., a Neapolitan writer, chief- ly on legislation, 1430-1510. AFFO, Iren^eus, an hist, of Italy, 18th cent. AFFRY, Count Louis D', a Swiss commander and statesman during the revolution ; died 1810. AFRANIA, a Roman lady, eel. as an advocate. AFRANIO, inventor of the bassoon, 16th cent. AFRANIUS, L., a Roman orator and dramatist, 1st century b.c. AFRANIUS, L. N., consul of Rome, B.C. 61. AFRANIUS, T., adist. Rom. gen., 1st cent. B.C. AFRASIAB, an ancient king of Persia. AFRE, St., a German martyr, 4th century. AFRICANER, Chr., one of the most dreaded chiefs of South Africa, remarkable for the fruits of his conversion to Christianitv, died 1823. AFRICANUS, Julius, a" Christian hist., 3d ct. AFRICANUS, Sextus, a Roman jurist, 3d century B.C. AFZELIUS, Adam, a Swed. bot., 1750-1836. AGABUS, a Christian prophet, 1st century. AGAMEMNON, one of the heroes of Homer, represented as the king of Argos, the Grecian Peloponnesus, and (listing, at the siege of Troy. AGANDURU, R. M., a Spanish missionary and historian, 17th century. AGAPETUS I., elected pope, 535, d. 536. AGAPETUS II., elected pope 946, died 955. AGAR, P. Anth., a Provencal poet, died 1551. AGAR, Jacques, a French painter, died 1716. AGARD, Arthur, an antiquary of disting. learning, one of the founders of the Royal Anti- quarian Society, 1540-1615. AGAS, Ralph, a disting. surveyor, 16th cent. AGASIAS, an ancient Greek sculptor. AGATHA, St., a martyr of Sicily, 3d century. AGATHANGELUS, an Armenian historian, 4th century. AGATHARCHIDES, an historical and geogra- phical writer, guardian or tutor of Ptolemy Pliila- delpbus, 2d century b.c. AGATHARCUS, a Greek painter, 4th ct. B.C. AGATHAMERUS, a geographer, 3d century. AGATHIAS, a Greek historian, 6th century. AGATHINUS, a Greek physician, 1st century. AGATHO, elected pope 678 or 679, died 682. AGATHOCLEA, a mistress of Ptolemy Philo- pator, noted for her share in the usurpation of the supreme power by her brother Agathocles. Killed, together with her accomplices, in a massacre by the populace, about 204 B.C. AGATHOCLES, an ancient Greek historian. AGR AGATHOCLES, the tyrant of Syracuse, was the son of a potter, born about 359 B.C., and elevated by his talents and intrigues from the rank of a simple soldier until he became general, and made himself master of all Sicily. He is said to have died by poison, b.c. 287. AGAZAVI, an Italian musician, 17th century. AGELADAS, a Greek sculptor, 5th cent. B.C. AGELET, Joseph, an astronomer, born 1757, perished with La Perouse, 1785. AGELIUS, Anth., a prelate of Naples, d. 1608. AGELNOTH, archbishop of Canterbury, 1020. AGER, Nich., a phys. and botanist, 17th cent. AGESANDER, a sculptor of Rhodes, 5th cent. AGESIAS, a Platonic philosopher of Alexandria. AGESILAUS I., kg. of Sparta 957 to 913 B.C. AGESILAUS II., king of Sparta from B.C. 399 to 361, is one of the most prominent characters in Grecian history. He is renowned for his con- quests in Asia Minor, b.c. 395, and for his vic- tories over the Boeotians and Athenians. In this war, however, he was at length defeated by Epa- minondas, b.c. 363, died 361. AGGAS, Ralph, a surveyor and engineer, 16th century. AGGAS, Robt., a landscape painter, died 1679. AGILA, king of Spain, from 549 to 554. AGILAN, king of the Sp. Visigoths, 549-554. AGILULFUS, king of the Lombards, 591-619. AGIS, a Greek poet, time of Alexander. AGIS I., king of Sparta, B.C. 1060 ; a second king of this name reigned in Sparta, B.C. 427-399 ; a third, B.C. 358-331 ; a fourth, b.c. 240. AGLAOPHON, a Greek painter, 5th cent. b.c. AGLIONBY, Edw., a poet, age of Elizabeth. AGLIONBY, J. Dr., distinguished as a scholar and critic, chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, d. 1610. AGLIONBY, William, a diplomatist and cul- tivator of the Belles Lettres, 18th century. AGNELLO, doge of Pisa, 1364 to 1369. AGNELLUS, And., a canon of Ravenna in the 9th century, author of Chronicles of that see. AGNES, St., a Christian martyr, 303. AGNES, queen of France, 1196-1201. AGNES, empress of Constantinople, 12th cent. AGNESI, Maria Gaetana, an Italian lady of distinguished learning, 1718-1799. AGNESI, Maria Teresa, sister of the preced- ing, distinguished as a musician, born 1750. AGNOLO, B., a Florentine sculpt., 1460-1543. AGNOLO, G., an architect of Naples, 16th ct. AGOBARD, a distinguished prelate, 9th cent. AGOP, J., au. of critical and gram, works, 1675. AGORACRITES, a celebrated Greek sculptor, a pupil of Phidias, 5th century b.c. AGOSTIN, M., a Sp. wr. on ngriciilture, 17th c. AGOSTINI, L., an eminent antiquarv, 17th cent. AGOSTINO, Paul, a eel. musician, 1593-1629. AGOUB, Joseph, a lyric poet, reviewer, and Arabian scholar, 1795-1832. AGOULT, W. D', a Provencal poet, 12th cent. AGREDA, Maria D', a Spanish abbess, author of a life of the Virgin Mary, alleged to be written from Divine vision, 1602-1665. AGRESTI, Livio, an Italian painter, 16th cent. AGRICOLA, C. L., a Ger. painter, 1667-1719. AGRICOLA, Cneius Julius, an eminent Roman general, the father-in-law of Tacitus. Born in the reign of Caligula, 40. He distin- 15 AGR guished himself by the subjugation of a great part of Britain, of which he was made governor by the emperor Vespasian. His successes and his high character excited the jealous fears of Domitian, by whom he was covertly withdrawn from public emplovment, and soon aftor died, 93. AGRICOLA, Fr., an eccles. au., 1575-1616. AGRICOLA, Geo., a metallurgist, 1494-1555. AGRICOLA, G. A., a horticulturist, 1672-1738. AGRICOLA, John, a controversial divine, the opponent of Luther and Melancthon, and leader of the Antinomians, 1492-1566. AGRICOLA, Nicil, a Swedish reformer, d.1557. AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, one of the restorers of science and letters in Europe, 1442-1485. AGRICOLA, St., bishop of Chalons, 6th cent AGRIPPA, an ancient sceptical philosopher. AGRIPPA, an astronomer of the 1st century. AGRIPPA, Camilltjs, an Italian arch., 16th c. AGRIPPA DE NETTESHEIM, Henry Cor- nelius, a talented mystic philosopher, secretary to the emperor Maximilian, 1486-1535. AGRIPPA I., Herod, grandson of Herod the Great, and under Claudius, king of all Palestine, died 44. See Acts xii. 23. AGRIPPA II., Herod, son and successor of the preceding, died about the close of the 1st century. AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, general of the Roman armies, and friend of Augustus Caesar, born 64 or 63 B.C. His virtues and military talents contributed greatly to the felicitous course and the glory of the reign of Augustus, whose daughter ne married, and whom he would have succeeded in the empire, but d. before him, B.C. 12. AGRIPPA, Menenius, consul of Rome, B.C. 503. AGRIPPINA, the daughter of Vipsanius Agrippa, and wife of Caesar Germanicus, was born some time before B.C. 12 ; d. in banishment, A.D. 35. AGRIPPINA, daughter of the preceding, and mother of the infamous Nero, was born some time before a.d. 17 ; assassinated a.d. 60. AGUADO, Fr., a Spanish Jesuit, 1572-1654. AGUESSEAU, Henry D', a French states- man, 1634-1715. AGUESSEAU, Henry Francis D', son of the preceding, a eel. magistrate and advocate, finally chancellor of France, 1668-1751. AGUILA, C. J. E. D\ a French hist., d. 1815. AGUILLON, Francis, a mathema., died 1617. AGUIRRA, J. S. D', a eel. Sp. prelate, d. 1699. AGUJARI LUCREZIA, an It. singer, d. 1783. AGYLJSUS, H., a jurist, (listing, in the war of the United Provinces against Spain, 1533-1595. AHAB, king of Israel, 915 to 893 B.C. AHAZ, king of Judah, died B.C. 722. AHAZIAH, king of Judah, B.C. 885. AHAZIAH, king of Israel, died B.C. 897. AHLE, J. R., a Ger. musician, 1625-1673. AHLE, J. G., son of the preceding, died 1707. AHLWARDT, C. G., a Ger. philolog., 1760-1830. AHLWART, Peter, a learned German, cele- brated as the founder of the Ahelites, 1710-1791. AHMED, an Arabian poet, 10th century. AHMED-BEN-FARES, surnamed El Razi, author of an Arabic Dictionary 10th century. AHMED-BEN-MOHAM.M'KD, or ABOU AM- ROU, a Moor of Spain, celebrated as an oriental poet and annalist, died 970. AHMED -BEN -TIIOL'LOUN, an Egyptian AIT chief, founder of the dynasty of the Thoulounidcs, 9 th century. AHMED Ghiedik. See Achmet Giedic. AHMED-KHAN, emp. of the Moguls after his brother, Abaker-Khan, 1282, killed 1284. AHMED RESMY HADJY, chancellor of the Turkish empire, author of an account of his own AHMED-SHAH EL ABDALY, an Affghan chief, founder of the kingdom of Candahar and Cabul, eel. for his victories over the Sikhs, d. 1773. AHRENDT, or ARENTS, M. F., a great traveller and investigat. of Scandinavian antiquities, d. 1824. AHRUN. See Aaron of Alexandria. AHUITZOL, king of the Aztecs before Monte- zuma II., when thev were conq. by the Spaniards. AIBEK, First Mameluke sultan of Egypt, 1254, assassinated 1257. AIDAN, one of the earliest preachers of Chris- tianity in Britain, afterwards bp. of Lindisfarne, died 651. AIGNAN, Stephen, a political writer and tragic poet of France, 1773-1824. AIGNEAUX, R. and A., lb Chevalier, Sieurs D', two brothers, noted as classical scholars, 16th century. AIKIN, E., a writer on architecture, died 1820. AIKIN, John, M.D., celebrated as a miscel- laneous writer, chiefly on moral and biographical subjects, was born at Kibworth-Harcourt, in Lie- cestershire 1747, and in 1764 became a student at the university of Edinburgh, but pursued his pro- fessional and literary career in London. His medi- cal memoir appeared in 1780 ; and his principal work, the General Biographical Dictionary, the labour of which he shared with Dr. Enfield, at various intervals from 1799 to 1815. From 1796 to 1806 he was also editor of the ' Monthly Maga- zine,' and for nearly half a century continued to enrich our literature with numerous elegantly written and useful dissertations. Died at the age of 75, 1822. [E.R.] AIRMAN, Wm., a Scotch painter, 1682-1731. AILLAND, P. T., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1759-1826. AILLY, P. D', a cardinal and theological dis- putant, president of the council of Constance by which John Huss was condemned, 1350-1419. AILMER. See Aylmer. AILRED, ETHELRED, or EALRED, a well- known ancient historian, 1109-1166. AIMAR, Rivault, jurist and adv., 16th cent. AIMAR VERNAI, Jacques, a French peasant celebrated as a diviner, 17th century. AIMOIN De Varennes, a French poet, 13th c. AIMON, or AIMOIN of Fleury, a French his- torian, died 1008. AIMON, or HAYMOND, an historian, and dis- ciple of Alcuyn, died 853. AIMON, bishop of Valence, 943-977. AIMON, an ascetic writer, died 1174. AINSWORTH, Henry, a nonconformist divine, celebrated as a Hebrew scholar and Biblical com- mentator, died 1622. AINSWORTH, Robert, author of the well- known Latin Dictionary, 1660-1743. AIRAULT. See Ayrault. AITKEN, Robert, a printer, noted as a jour- nalist, &c, during the American revolution, d. 1N02. AIT ON, William, an Engl, botanist, d. 1793. 1J AIT AITZEMA, F. Van, a diplomatist of Friedland, commissioned from Holland and Bohemia to the imperial court, 1636. AITZEMA, Leon, nephew of the preceding, historian of the United Provinces, 1600-1669. AIZO, a chief of the Goths, 9th century. AJAX, one of the Homeric heroes, called the Locrian, or the Lesser, to distinguish him from his more illustrious namesake. AJAX, called the Great, is represented by Homer as the son of Telamon ; he is said to have died at Troy in consequence of a dispute concern- ing the armour of Achilles. AKAKIA, Martin, a medical author, 1479- 1588. His son, of the same name, and other mem- bers of the family, also distinguished themselves in the same profession. AKBAH, or AKBEY-BEN-NAFY, a Saracen governor of Africa, who overran the country as far as the Atlantic Ocean, and prepared the conquest of Spain, killed 682. AKBAR MOHAMMED, emperor of the Moguls, one of the greatest princes of modern Asia, died 1605, after a reign of 50 years. AKENSIDE, Mark, was born in 1721, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where his father was a butcher. Designing in his youth to become a presbyterian preacher, he received from a fund of the English dissenters the means of studying in the university of Edinburgh, which afterwards he honourably paid back. He speedily turned to [Birthplace of Akenside.] medical studies, which he completed at Leyden, graduating there in 1744. In the same "year appeared his well-known poem, 'The Pleasures of the Imagination.' This work not only has the unavoidable faults of all didactic poetry, but hovers in a middle sphere between fancy and philosophy, in a manner which makes it obscure and _ unsatisfactory, even to readers who are both poetical and metaphysical. But it contains some noble pictures, many trains of finely reflective •entiment, and not a few nice felicities of diction. His subsequent effusions in verse comprehended only a few very poor odes, some classically-con- ciiv.'d inscriptions, and a 'Hymn to the Naiads.' After having unsuccessfully attempted medical practice in the country, he removed to London, being aided by a pension from a wealthy and generous friend. He now busied himself chiefly ALA in professional pursuits, attaining some scientific eminence, but no large share of employment. He was a man of high respectability and integrity, but dogmatic and irascible ; and his brother- physician, Smollett, ridiculed his pedantry in hLs description of the 'feast in the manner of the ancients.' He died in 1770. [W.S.] AKERBLAD, J. D., a Swed. orient., 1760-1819. AKERMANN, A., a Swed. engrav., 1718-1778. AKIBA-BEN-JOSEPH, one of the greatest of the Jewish rabbis, eel. for his confederacy with Bar-Cokeba, the false Messiah, died of torture in the reign of Hadrian. AKOUI, a famous Tartar general, 18th cent. ALABASTER, Wm, a learned divine, d. 1640. ALADIN, or ALA EDDYN, a prince of Arabia, who assumed the title of K. of the World, d. 1236. ALA EDDYN I., emp. of Hindostan, 1294-1316. ALAIN, R., a Fr. dramatic writer, born 1680. ALAIN, Chartier, a Fr. writer, 14th century. ALAIN DE LILLE, called the Great, also the elder, to distinguish him from the following, was bishop of Auxerre, 12th century. ALAIN DE LILLE, or DE LTSLE, a divine of such renown as to be called the Universal Doc- tor, lived in the 12th or 13th century. ALAMANNI, Louis, a statesman and poet of Florence, 1496-1556. ALAMIN, caliph of Bagdad, 809-813. ALAN, chancellor of Scotland, 1291. ALAN DE LYNN, a famous theolog., 15th cent. ALAN, ALLEN, ALLYN, or ALLEYN, Wm., an English cardinal, who, in the interest of the Romish church, prompted the intended invasion of England by Philip II., 1532-1594. ALAN, of Tewkesbury, the friend and historian of Thomas a Beckett, died 1201. ALAND, Sir J. Fortescue, otherwise Lord Fortescue, an able judge and man of letters, born 1670, died between 1733 and 1748. ALANO, H. De, a jurist of Padua, 14th cent. < ALANSON, Edw., a eel. surgeon, 1747-1823. ALARD, Fr., a prot. theologian, converted from the Roman church, died 1578. ALARD, Wm., son of the preceding, d. 1644. ALARD, Lambert, son of the last named, celebrated as a Greek and Latin scholar, d. 1672. ALARIC, a Saxon king, middle of the 6th cent ALARIC I., king of the West Goths, and con- queror of the Roman empire at the commencement of the 5th century, is one of the most remarkable characters in the history of those times. Before the appearance of this distinguished military leader, some three centuries of despotism and corrupt admi- nistration had reduced the one time mistress of the world to a deplorable state of baseness and effemi- nacy ; while the warlike Goths, engaged in a bor- der warfare with the Roman troops, and sometimes ravaging the provinces of the empire in return for the insults heaped upon them, and the suspicion with which they were regarded, were daily growing more formidable. The defeat of the emperor Va- lens had long since discovered to the ' barbarians ' their superiority over the masters of the fertile pro- vinces which spread so temptingly before them; yet their chiefs were kept in a willing obedience to Thcodosius the Great, and their ambition was a long time satisfied by serving in the Roman armies. At length, a.d. 395, the deulh of Theo- 17 ALA dosius, and the division of the empire between his sons Honorius and Arcadius, renewed the disgrace- ful intrigues which had been kept in suspense by his r.ble administration. The public immorality and political baseness of the period were only equalled by the private vices of the degenerate Ro- mans; and the conviction became general that nothing could avert the disorganization by which society was threatened. At this juncture the Go- thic hordes were set in motion by a party inimical to the government of Arcadius in the east, and Alaric, whose wild ambition had been flattered by these overtures, commenced his famous march from the Danube. It is possible that his fortunes had been rising since the death of the Gothic king Athanaric, a.d. 381, but nothing certain is known of his early history save that he belonged to the princely family of the Balti, descended from the Asse or demigods of Scandinavia. The course of Alaric at the head of his victorious troops was through Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia, and Thessaly, into Achaia, and everywhere the officers of Arcadius betrayed their trust, or refused to fight ; while the most glorious monuments of Grecian art fell a sacrifice to these martial iconoclasts, whose name is still synonymous with that of destroyer. The em- peror of the west, taking alarm at his unexampled successes, sent an army to the aid of his brother, under the command of Stilicho, by whom Alaric was kept in check, and prepared for terms of ac- commodation with a foe for whom he had no other feeling than that of contempt, 398. By the terms of the armistice— for it was really only an armed truce which ensued— -the Gothic chief was acknow- ledged master of the Eastern Illyricum by the em- peror of the east, who also declined the further assistance of Stilicho; and by his own followers proclaimed king of the West Goths, and of all the tribes who acknowledged their kindred or allegiance. Situated between the two empires, and subject to the continued hostility of the Romans, Alaric em- ployed himself in perfecting the equipment and discipline of his troops, and after two years of pre- paration suddenly forced the passage of the Alps. His usual success attending him in a succession of battles and sieges, he was on the point of captur- ing Honorius, when, at the critical moment, Stilicho arrived with a levy of troops collected from Ger- many and the other barbarian provinces of the em- pire. The result was the final retreat of Alaric to his own government; but he had now measured his strength against the legions of Rome in the sunny plains of Italy, and had also come to a good understanding with Stilicho, a man of splendid abilities, and of a kindred origin with himself, though he was now the sword and buckler of the western empire. After the retirement of Alaric, Italy was invaded by a host of the Gothic tribes, commanded by Radagaisus, who were defeated by Stilicho, and distributed over the face of the coun- trv. Alaric was rewarded for the strict neutrality which he observed on this occasion by a rich pre- sent from the Roman senate ; but he demanded a more fertile province for the settlement of his own people. While this demand was in agitation, Stilicho was basely murdered at the instigation of Honorius, whose tottering throne his arms and diplomacy had so long upheld, and who had grown jealous of his popularity— perhaps, also, of his ALA affinity with the powerful king of the Goths, and of the friendly understanding between the two leaders. The threatening attitude now assumed by Alaric, as the avenger of his friend, attracted the discontented of all Italy to his standard, and invitations from the court of Hono- rius were not wanting to excite him to the enter- prise. He commenced his second march towards Rome in the year 405, and after a victorious pro- gress entered the eternal city, its first conqueror in six centuries. On this occasion his extreme moderation, and perfect command of his troops, have won for him the applause of the most cautious historians— his exactions only amounting to a few thousand pounds' weight of gold and silver, and certain costly robes of silk and pieces of scarlet cloth. Retiring from the city to negotiate, he pitched his camp in the plains of Tuscany, but was drawn into Rome a second time by the perfidy of Honorius. He now deposed a sovereign with whom it was manifest no faith could be kept, and made Attalus, a much esteemed Roman prefect, emperor. The friends of Honorius, however, on the departure of Alaric, endeavoured to rally again; the new emperor was deposed ; and the negotiations which Alaric set on foot at a distance from the seat of empire, proved fruitless. These events, in fine, brought the now angry conqueror of Rome for the third time into the midst of its doomed palaces and temples, and the city was given up to pillage. In all probability the nameless horrors of such a scene, infamous as the sack of Rome is represented, were not greater in degree than similar disasters which have occurred within the memory of man, and under the eye of more enlightened commanders. — The fall of Rome was followed by the desolating march of Alaric and his troops towards the coast, where he was preparing to embark for Sicily ; but was surprised by a short illness, which terminated in his death, a.d. 410. His faithful followers pre- pared his grave in the bed of the river Busentinus, which they diverted from its channel for the pur- pose; and when the waters once more rolled in their accustomed course, the workmen were put to death, that no tongue might tell where the hero lay buried, with the choicest spoils of Rome to do him honour. [E. R.] ALARIC II., was the ninth king in descent from Alaric the Great, and succeeded his father Euric, who had really added the Gothic monarchy of Spain to that of Gaul, a.d. 484. Alaric had the misfortune to ascend the throne at the critical period when the Franks, under the celebrated Clovis, were extending their dominions at the expense of the neighbouring potentates, and was weak enough to surrender Syagrius, the prince of Soissons, who had been defeated, and had taken refuge at his court, to the Frank king. The affronts to which he submitted seem to have chafed the proud spirits of his high-minded and chivalrous subjects, and the general discontent which it occasioned was aggra- vated by religious differences arising from the con- stantly increasing opposition of his bishops to the tenets of Ariamsm, always held by the Gothic kings. Under these circumstances his kingdom was invr.ded by Clovis, with the avowed design of extirpating the Arian heresy, and a battle being fought at Vouelle, in which the two princes met in personal conflict, Alaric fell worthily by the 18 ALA hand of his rival, a.d. 507. The body of laws which is known as the code of Alaric, was digested by order of this prince from those of Theodosius, and applied to the exigencies of his own people. After his fall, the arrival of his brother-in-law Theodoric, king of the East Goths, redeemed the honour of his kindred in the battle-field, and Clo- vis was compelled to accept terms of peace. See Theodoric the Great. [E. R.] ALASCO, J., the reformer of Pol., 1499-1560. ALBA-LITTA, Count, a learned It., 1759-1882. ALB AN, St., first Christian martyr of Great Britain, killed at Rome, 303. ALBANEZE, an Italian singer, died 1800. ALBANI, J. J., cardinal, distinguished as a theologian, 1504-1591. ALBANI, Alex., a member of the same family, distinguished as a virtuoso, 1692-1779! ALBANI, J. F., card., nephew of the preceding, disting. as a man of letters ; reduced to poverty by the French, 1720-1803. ALBANI, or ALBANY, Louisa Maria Caro- line, countess of, the unfortunate wife of the last pretender, Charles Stuart, married 1772, d. 1824. ALBANO, Fr., an Italian painter, 1578-1660. ALBANO, G. B., younger brother of the preced- ing, also a painter, died 1668. ALBANY, a ducal name, assumed by many {)rinces of the royal house of Scotland. The first ine began with the son of Robert II., and was ex- tinguished in H. Stuart, 1460. The second line commenced with Alexander Stuart, second son of James II., and failed in his son John, who d. 1536. ALBATEGNI, an Arabian astron., 9th cent. ALBEMARLE, duke of. See Monk. ALBEMARLE, A. J., Keppel, count of, a Dutch gen., favourite of William III. 1669-1718. ALBERGATI, C, an Italian actor, died 1802. ALBERIC, a monastic historian, 13th century. ALBERIC I. and his son ALBERIC II. tem- poral lords of Rome in the 10th century, before the civil power was consolidated with the papacy. ALBERONI, Giulio, card., a celebrated states- man of Spain. The son of a gardener, he rose to be prime minister: born 1666, died in exile 1752. ALBERT of Aix, an hist, of the crusades, 12th c. ALBERT of Stade, a chronicler, 13th century. ALBERT of Strasburg, a chronicler, 14th cent. ALBERT, Erasmus, a Germ, divine, 16th cent. ALBERT, or ALBRECHT I., the son andsucces- sor of Rudolph of Hapsburg, both as duke of Aus- tria and emperor of Germany, assassinated 1308. ALBER'I, archduke of Austria, and from his alliance with Isabella, daughter of Philip II., joint sovereign of the Netherlands, 1559-1621. ALBERT I., founder of the house of Branden- burg, from which the royal house of Prussia derives its origin, 1106-1170. ALBERT, marquis of Culmbach, surnamed the German Alcibiades, a principal actor in the wars of Charles V., 1522-1558. ALBERT I., duke of Brunswick, died 1279. ALBERT the Fat. son and successor in com- mon with his elder brother Heinrich, to Albert I., died 1318. He is the common ancestor of the reigning house of Brunswick, and its junior branch the house of Hanover. ALBERT, Charles, duke of Luyne.s, constable of France, under Louis XIII., 1578-1621. ALB ALBERT, Louis Ch., duke of Luynes, a brave commander and man of letters, 1620-1690. ALBERT, Louis Joseph, duke of Luynes, commonly called Count Albert, distinguished him- self as a general, 1672-1758. ALBERT I., dk. of Mecklenburg, 1335 to 1379. ALBERT II., son of the preceding and of the daughter of Magnus, king of Sweden, elected king of Sweden 1363, dethroned by Margaret of Den- mark 1389, died 1412. ALBERT, Jane. See Albret, Jeanne D'. ALBERT, Hy. Chr., a Germ, linguist, d. 1800. ALBERT. See Albertus Magnus. ALBERTET, a Provencal poet, 13th century. ALBERTI, Aristotle, a celebrated mechanic and architect of the 15th century. ALBERTI, Ben., a patriot of Flor., 14th cent. ALBERTI, Cherubino, a celebrated Italian painter, 1552-1615. His brother Giovanni was also a painter of eminence. ALBERTI, Dominico, a Venetian composer, celebrated for his skill on the harpsichord, last cent. ALBERTI, G. W., a Germ, divine, 1725-1758. ALBERTI, Jas., an Italian jurist, 15th cent. ALBERTI, John, a Germ, orientalist, d. 1559. ALBERTI, Leander, a monastic hist., d. 1552. ALBERTI, Leoni Baptista, a universal artist and man of letters, surnamed the Florentine Vitru- vius, born 1404, died about 1480. ALBERTI, S., a German anatomist, d. 1600. ALBERTI DI VILLANOVA, Francis, an Italian lexicographer, 1737-1800. ALBERTINELLI,M., an It. painter, 1475-1520. ALBERTINI, Fr., an It. antiquary, 16th cent. ALBERTINI, Paul, a Venetian ecclesiastic and man of letters, often employed by the state, 1430-1475. ALBERTRANDY, J. Chr., a Polish antiquarian and historian, 1731-1808. ALBERTUS MAGNUS, or Albertus Gro- tus, was born at Lauingen, in Suabia, according to some in 1193, and according to others in 1205. It is said that in early youth he was singularly obtuse. But he soon displayed prodigious capacity, so that his immense and varied acquirements rapidly raised him to eminence. He studied at Paris, Padua, and Bologna; in 1222 he became a Do- minican friar, in 1224 was installed provincial of the order, and was raised to the Dishopric of Ratisbon in 1260. Cologne was the chief scene of his popularity and usefulness, though other cities had been at an earlier period privileged with his learned visits. But he had little relish for church preferment, and resigned his episcopal honours, in 1263, into the hands of Pope Urban IV. Thomas Aquinas was a favourite pupil of his, and the Albertists were a noted sect after their mas- ter's death, in 1280. The fame of Albert rests not on his genius, but on his multifarious erudi- tion. He seems to have embraced the entire circle of knowledge. Not only did he lecture on Aristotle and his Arab commentators, Avicenna, and Averhoes, with mediaeval acuteness and pro- fusion, but his works comprise dissertations on Theology, Alchymy, Physical Science, Natural History, and Astronomy. His voracious mind had stored itself so vastly with the encyclopaedic knowledge of his age, that his books are rendered comparatively useless by an incredible farrago of ID ALB references, quotations, and digression?. Still, his anient pursuit of knowledge, and his patient attempt to present it in a connected and syste- matic form, must ever cause him to be regarded with peculiar veneration. His works, collected and published at Cologne, in 1621, fill 41 folio volumes, three of which are taken up with an explication of the ' Sentences' of Peter Lombard. [J. E.] ALBI, Bernard D', friend of Petrarch, d! 1350. ALBICANTE, J. A., an Ital. poet, 16th century. ALBICUS, or ALBICIUS, a phys. and arbp. of Prague, noted for his lenient treatment of the Hussites, died 1427. ALBINI, Al., an Italian painter, died 1630. ALBINOVANUS, a Rom. poet, age of August. ALBINUS, a Rom. gen. proclaimed emp. same time as Septimus Severus, deftd. by him a.d. 197. ALBINUS, a Roman procurator under Nero. ALBINUS, consul of Rome B.C. 157. ALBINUS, Bernard, a Germ, phys., d. 1711. ALBINUS, Bernard Siegfred, eldest son of the preceding, a great anatomist, 1696-1770. ALBINUS, Chr. B., brother of the preceding, also distinguished as an anatomist, died 1778. ALBO, Jos., a Spanish rabbi, 15th century. ALBOIN, king ot the Lombards, 6th century. ALBON, a civilian and man of letters, d. 1789. ALBON, Jacques D', marquis de Fronsac, better known as the marechal de St. Andre, an eminent French general, killed at the battle of Dreux, 1562. ALBONI, Paolo, a landscape painter, d. 1730. ALBRECHT, J. Seb., a naturalist, 1695-1774. ALBRECHT I., prince of Anhalt, died 1316. ALBRECHT II., nis son and successor, d. 1362. ALBRECHT L, elector of Saxony, d. 1260. ALBRECHT II., second son of Al. I., d. 1297. ALBRECHT III., sue. as elector 1419, d. 1422. ALBRECHT of Bavaria. See Albert. ALBRECHT of Brunswick. See Albert. ALBRECHT of Mecklenburgh. See Albert. ALBRECHT, a German poet, 13th century. ALBRECHTSBERGER, Johann Geo., the most learned contrapuntist of modern times, was born at Kloster Neuburg, a small town in Lower Austria, in the year 1736. He acquired his first knowledge of the organ and composition of M. G. Monn. In 1772 he was appointed court organist at Vienna, and subsequently chapel-master at the cathedral of St. Stephen's m the same city. He had for his pupils some of the most eminent musi- cians of the last age, and amongst these the name of Beethoven figures as the chief. Haydn had the greatest friendship and esteem for Albrechtsber^er, and it is said tnat he frequently consulted nim professionally. His principal work is his ' Elemen- tary Treatise on Composition,' which was first published at Leipzig in 1790. Albrechtsberger died in 1803. [J.M.] ALBRET, Chas., lord of, constable of France, commander of the French army at the battle of Agincourt, where he was killed, 1415. ALBRET, Alain, lord of, grandson of the pre- ceding, a general under Louis XII., died 1522. ALBRET, Jean D', son of the preceding, mar- ried to Catherine, queen of Navarre, died 1516. ALBRET, Jeanne D', daughter of Margaret, queen of Navarre, and mother of Henry IV. of France, died 1572. ALC ALBUMAZAR, an Arabian philos., 9th cent ALBUQUERQUE, min. of Alph. XL, d. 1354. ALBUQUERQUE, Adolrhus, founder of the Portuguese dominion in the East Indies, d. 1515. ALBUQUERQUE, C. E., an historian, d. 1688. ALBUQUERQUE, AL, a Portuguese general, died 1646. ALBUTIUS, C, a Rom. orator, time of Augustus. ALCAMENES, a Greek sculptor, 5th ct b.c. ALCAMENES, king of Sparta, 8th cent. B.C. ALCjEUS, a Greek lyric poet, 6th cent. b.c. ALCiEUS, a somewhat later poet of Messenia. ALCiEUS, a Greek comedian, 4th cent. B.C. ALCIATI, Andr., an Italian jurist, one of the first to revive the study of literature, died 1550. ALCIATI, Fr., cardinal, nephew of the preced- ing, also a distinguished jurist, died 1580. ALCIATI, Terence, a Jesuit, 17th century. ALCIBIADES, a Christian martyr, 2d cent. [Alcibiades— From an Ancient Dust.} ALCIBIADES, the son of Cleinius, one of the most remarkable men of antiquity, was born at Athens about B.C. 449. He inherited from his parents the highest rank, with almost boundless wealth, and was endowed with a person unusually handsome, with manners the most fascinating, and with talents which would have raised him to the highest distinction independently of the ad- vantages which fortune had bestowed upon him. Left an orphan at an early age, he was placed un- der the wardship of his relative Pericles ; and be- came the favourite pupil and companion of So- crates. But his great qualities were marred by inordinate vanity and love of notoriety, which led him into wanton and offensive excesses ; evil tenden- cies which the lessons of the philosopher failed to counteract. The stirring events of the Pelopon- nesian war, B.C. 431-404, could not fail to call into active operation the energies of a mind so ambi- tious and so unscrupulous ; and accordingly, from his first appearance in public life, B.C. 421, when he prevented the truce between Sparta and Athens from being carried into effect, he made the interest! of his country and his own reputation alike sub- servient to his schemes of ambition. In B.C 419 he was chosen general, and during the next three 2'J ALC years took a prominent part in the complicated struggle of intrigue and war which was carried on in the Peloponnesus. In B.C. 415 he was the leader in advocating the Sicilian expedition, and shared the command with Nicias and. Lamachus. Soon after the fleet set sail, an agitation was re- vived against him on the ground that he was im- plicated in the mutilation of the busts of Hermes, and his enemies succeeded in procuring his recall. The proud spirit of Alcibiades could not brook this indignity ; and, therefore, instead of returning to Athens, he proceeded to Sparta, and becoming the avowed enemy of his country, disclosed the plans of the Athenians, and suggested the operations by which their measures in Sicily were defeated. Sen- tence of death was consequently passed upon him, his property was confiscated, and a curse pro- nounced upon him by the ministers of religion. Through his instrumentality an alliance was formed between the Spartans and Tissaphernes, satrap of Lydia, which led to the revolt of many of the Asiatic allies of Athens. But his influence at Sparta was not long maintained ; in B.C. 412 he took refuge with Tissaphernes, and by his un- rivalled talents soon gained his favour; and in- duced him to withdraw from his Spartan allies. Being again the open enemy of Sparta, Alcibiades now wished to effect a reconciliation with his countrymen; and entering into a correspondence with the leading men in the Athenian fleet at Samos, was pardoned and recalled by the sol- diers, and appointed one of their generals. For the next four years he remained abroad, rendering im- portant services to his country ; and having, by the victories which he gained, re-established himself in public favour, he returned to Athens, B.C. 407, where he was received with great enthusiasm. His property was restored to him, the priests were ordered to revoke their curse ; and as the crown- ing honour he was appointed commander-in-chief of all the forces by land and sea. But the fickle- ness of the Athenian character again displayed it- self. In consequence of the defeat of the Athenian fleet at Notium b.c. 406, he was superseded in the command, and went into voluntary exile in the Thracian Chersonesus. After the establishment of the tyranny of the Thirty in B.C. 404, he was condemned to banishment. Upon this he took refuge with Pharnabazus, satrap of Bithynia, in- tending to proceed to the court of Artaxerxes, when one night his house was surrounded by armed men and set on fire. He rushed out sword in hand, but fell overwhelmed with missiles, B.C. 404, in the forty-fifth year of his age. [G.F.] ALCIDAMUS, a Greek rhetorician, 4th c. B.C. ALCIMUS, high priest of the Jews in the time of Judas Maccabaeus. ALCIMUS, a Latin historian, 4th century. ALCINOUS, a Platonic philosopher, 2d cent. ALCIPHRON, a Greek writer, 3d or 4th c. B.C. ALCMiEON, a natural philosopher and anato- mist, 6th century B.C. ALCMAN, a Gr. lyric poet, 7th century B.C. ALCOCK, J., founder of Jesus College, Cam- bridge, d. 1500. ALCOCK, John, a comp. of music, d. 1806. ALCOCK, Nathan, a physician, celebrated as a Wturer on anatomy, last century. ALCOCK, Thos., a medical writer, d 1803. ALE ALCUIN, or as he Latinized his name, Flac- cus Albixus Alcuinus, was in all likelihood born at York about the year 735. Educated in the monastic school at York, under Egbert and Ael- bert, both of whom afterwards held the see of York, he was promoted subsequently to be master of the same school, and taught in it till 780. Arch- bishop Eanbald sent him, in 781, to Rome, to get for him the pallium, and Alcuin, on his return, visited Charlemagne, at Parma. The emperor at once became deeply attached to him, brought him to his court, and heaped upon him honours and emoluments. At the court of Charlemagne, Alcuin was a general preceptor and counsellor. Ultimately he retired to Tours, where he died 19th May, 804. Alcuin was not only a distinguished scholar, polemic, and poet himself, but aided and directed his imperial master in patriotically diffus- ing through the empire the means of literary and theological education. He assisted at the councils of Frankfort and Aix-la-Chapelle, at which the errors of Felix and Elispandus on the person of Christ were condemned. Altogether he Avas the most distinguished man of his age. [J. E.] ALCYONIUS, Peter, an Italian scholar, celebrated for his work on the Evils and Consola- tions of Exile, died 1527. ALDEGRiEF or ALDEGREVER, a German painter and engraver, 1502-1562. ALDEGUELA, a Spanish architect, last cent. ALDEN, J., a colonist of New Engl., d. 1687. ALDERETE, Bernard, a Sp. Jesuit, d. 1657. ALDERETE, D. G. De, a Sp. classic, d. 1580. ALDHELM, St., an English prelate, d. 709. ALUHUN, bp. of Durham 29 years, d. 1018. ALDINI, Tobias, aphys. and botanist, 17th ct. ALDINI, Giovanni, a natural philosopher, nephew of Galvani, 1762-1834. ALDOBRANDINI, Sylvester, an Ital. jurist, in favour with Paul III., d. 1558. ALDOBRANDINI, Cle., his son, became pope, and is known as Clement VIII. Others of this name are among the cardinals and princes of Rome. ALDRED, archbishop of York, by whom Wil- liam the Conqueror was crowned, d. 1069. ALDRIC, St., bishop of Le Mans, 9th century. ALDRICH, Hy., a theological scholar, famous also as an architect and com. of music, 1647-1710. ALDRICH, Robt., bishop of Carlisle, d. 1555. ALDROVANDUS, Ulysses, a celebrated na- turalist and collector of objects, 1522-1605. ALDRUDE, countess of Bertinoro, celebrated for her heroic defence of Ancona, 1172. ALDUIN, a king of the Lombards, 6th cent. ALDUS. See Manutius. ALEA, Leonard, a religious writer of France, who endeavoured to counteract the atheistical spirit of the Revolution. ALEANDRO, Gioralino, cardinal, commonly called Aleander, a distinguished cultivator of the belles lettres, noted for his fiery zeal against the Reformation, 1480-1542. ALEANDRO, Gioralino, great nephew of the preceding, celebrated as one of the most learned men of the time, d. 1629. ALEMAN, a cardinal of the 13th centurv. ALEMANNI, Nich., an antiquary, 1583-1626. ALEMBERT. See D'Alembert. ALEN, John Van, a Dutch paint,, 1651-1C98. 21 ALE ALENCON. A long line of counts and dukes of this name were celebrated in the middle aces, from the 11th to the 15th cent., the greater number of whom were of the blood royal of France. ALENIO, Julius, a Jesuit missionary, d. 1G49. ALER, Paul, a French Jesuit, author of the 4 Gradus ad Pamassum,' 1727. ALES, Alex., a theologian, 13th century. ALES, Alex., a Lutheran divine, d. 1565. ALESIO, M. P. D', an Italian painter and en- graver, a pupil of Michael Angelo, d. 1600. ALESSANDRI, Alessandro, a lawyer and scholar of Naples, author of some curious essays on dreams and apparitions, &c, 15th century. ALE SSI, G albas, arch, of the Escurial, d. 1572. ALEXANDER, a philosopher of the 1st cent., preceptor to the emperor Nero. ALEXANDER, St., a Christian martyr, 177. ALEXANDER of Paris, a Norman poet, 12th c. ALEXANDER, an English abbot, excommu- nicated and imprisoned by Pandulph, d. 1217. ALEXANDER, Aphrodisiensis, a famous Aristotelian philosopher, 3d century. ALEXANDER, J., a Scotch engraver, celebrated for his copies of Raphael, 18th century. ALEXANDER, Noel, a Dominican, writer of a church history in 26 volumes, 1639-1724. ALEXANDER, Polyhistor, so called from his vast erudition, 15th century B.C. ALEXANDER, Solomon, right rev., a learned Talmudist, converted to Christianity, and made bishop of Jerusalem, 1799-1845. ALEXANDER, Thos., earl of Selkirk, known as a political writer and colonist, died 1820. ALEXANDER, Wit., an artist, author of a work on the costume of China, 1786-1816. ALEXANDER, Sir W., Earl of Stirling, a statesman and poet of Scotland, d. 1640. ALEXANDER, William, a major-general in the American army ; usually called Lord Stirling, from his claim to the earldom, died 1783. ALEXANDER, J., a writer on algebra, 1693. ALEXANDER, Trallianus, a Gr. phys., 6th c. ALEXANDER AB ALEXANDRO. See Alessaxdri. ALEXANDER DE MEDICI. See Medici. ALEXANDER I., succeeded his father as king of Macedon, B.C. 501, died B.C. 451. ALEXANDER II., the elder brother of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, succeeded as k. "^srfMacedon, B.C. 369. Assassinated B.C. 367. ALEXANDER III., surnamed the Great, son of Philip, king of Macedonia, was born at Pella in the autumn of B.C. 356. In the short space to which we are necessarily restricted, it is impossible to do more than enumerate a few of the leading events in the life of this extraordinary man. In his fourteenth year, B.C. 342, Alexander was placed under the immediate tuition of Aristotle, and continued to receive his instructions till he was unexpectedly called to the throne. Under the supenntendence of such a master the power- ful mind of Alexander was rapidly developed, and enriched with stores of practical and use- ful knowledge. His physical education also was carefully attended to ; he was trained to expert- ness in all manly exercises ; and in horsemanship is said to have excelled all his contemporaries. When sixteen years old, B.C. 340, Philip, set- ALE ting out on an expedition against Byzantium, delegated to him the government during his absence. Alexander's first essay in arms was made two years later, B.C. 338, at the battle of Cha?ronea, by which his father established the Macedonian supremacy in Greece. The murder of Philip in B.C. 336, when about to march into Asia at the head of the combined forces of Greece, raised Alexander to the throne at the age of twenty; and involved him in difficulties from which the promptest energy could alone have saved him. Several of the Grecian states, still fretting under the effects of the battle of Chaeronea, con- certed measures for throwing off the galling yoke, but the vigorous promptitude of the youthful [Alexander— From, an Antique Gem] sovereign frustrated their plans, and awed them into submission. The assembled Greeks at the Isthmus of Corinth, with the single exception of the Laceda?monians, elected him as successor to his father in the command against Persia, thus virtually acknowledging him as their sovereign. Having now quelled opposition in the south, he turned his attention to the barbarians in the north, B.C. 335, and west, who had renounced their allegiance, and established his dominion from the northern limits of Scythia to the shores of the Hadriatic. Alexander now devoted him- self to preparations for his Persian expedition; and, crossing the Hellespont in the spring of B.C. 334, gained his first victory over the Per- sian army on the banks of the Granicus, a small stream which falls into the Sea of Marmora. After reducing the towns on the western coast of Asia Minor, he marched to Gordium in Gala- tia, where he untied with his sword the famous Gordian knot, and thereby established his claim as the conquerer of Asia. Having been joined here by reinforcements from Macedonia, he pro- ceeded through the centre of Asia Minor to Cilicia, where he nearly lost his life by bathing when over-heated in the waters of the Cydnus. His second engagement with the Persians took place on the plain of Issus, on the shores of the Gulf of Scanderoon, B.C. 333, and ended in the total defeat of Darius, who fled to the eastern bank of the Euphrates, leaving his mother, wife, and children in the hands of the conqueror. The 22 ALE magnanimity of Alexander was honourably dis- played in the delicacy and respect which he showed to his helpless prisoners. The battle of Issus de- cided the fate of the Persian empire ; but before advancing in pursuit of Darius, Alexander judged it prudent to make himself master of Phoenicia, and especially of the towns on the coast. Tyre, after a siege of seven months, Was taken, B.C. 332, and the inhabitants massacred or sold as slaves. Proceeding next into Egypt, he received the ready submission of the inhabitants, and founded the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the western branch of the Nile. In the spring of the same year, b.c. 331, he set out in quest of Darius ; and proceed'- ing through Phoenicia, Syria, and Mesopotamia, at length, in October, met with the immense host, said to have amounted to more than a million of men, on the plains of Guagamela, a village of As- syria, about fifty miles from Arbela. Darius, who was irretrievably defeated, fled to Ecbatana (Hamadan) in Media, Alexander, as the con- 3ueror of Asia, now assumed the pomp and splen- our of an Eastern despot ; and proceeding to Ba- bylon, Susa, and Persepolis, was received by the inhabitants as their undoubted sovereign. In the beginning of b.c. 330, he marched into Media in pursuit of Darius, who had there collected a new torce, and, following him through the deserts of Parthia, had nearly reached him, when the unfor- tunate king was murdered by Bessus, satrap of Bactria. The magnanimous conqueror caused the body of his fallen enemy to be buried in the tombs of the Persian kings at Persepolis, and spent the remainder of the year in consolidating the con- quests which he had already made. But uninter- rupted success produced its usual effects upon the mind even of Alexander. Hitherto sober and moderate, he now became the slave of his passions ; gave himself up to arrogance and cruelty ; and in the af ms of pleasure shed the blood of his bravest and most faithful generals. The next two years were spent in reducing under his sway the remain- ing countries of Central Asia ; and in the spring of b.c. 327, he crossed the Indus, and entered into the country of the Punjab, where he met with no resistance till he reached the Hydaspes (Jelum.) On the eastern bank of this river he was vigor- ously opposed, but in vain, by Porus the native king. Still pressing forward, he crossed the Ace- sines (Chinab) and the Hydraotes (Ravee,) and was preparing to cross the Hyphasis (Garra) when the Macedonians, at last worn out by fatigue, re- fused to proceed ; and Alexander, after using every effort to induce them, was obliged to lead them back. Returning to the Hydaspes, he there built a fleet and sailed down the river, receiving as he proceeded the submission of the inhabitants on either side. On reaching the confluence, he de- spatched a portion of his army into Carmania, and continued his voyage down the Indus, the mouth of which he reached about the middle of B.C. 326. He here committed his fleet to the care of Near- chus, and commenced his return by land to Persia, reaching Susa in the beginning of B.c\ 325. In the spring of B.C. 324 he arrivea at Babylon, which he intended to make the capital of his empire* But his boundless ambition was not yet satisfied. He commenced preparations for the invasion of Arabia; but, while cherishing this and other gigan- ALE tic schemes of conquest, was attacked by a fever in May or June B.C. 323, and died after an illness of eleven days. — ' The history of Alexander forms an important epoch in the history of mankind. Unlike other Asiatic conquerors, his progress was marked by something more than devastation and ruin ; at every step of his course the Greek lan- guage and civilization took root, and flourished; and after his death Greek kingdoms were formed in all parts of Asia, which continued to exist for centuries. By his conquests the knowledge of mankind was increased ; the sciences of geography, natural history, and others, received vast additions ; and it was through him that a road was opened to India, and that Europeans became acquainted with„ the products of the remote East.' £G.F.] ALEXANDER IV., a posthumous son of Alex- ander the Great and Roxana, put to death at an early age by Cassander. ALEXANDER V., the son of Cassander, assas- sinated by Demetrius, B.C. 295. ALEXANDER BALAS, k. of Syria, B.C. 149, dethroned B.C. 144. ALEXANDER, Zabixas, king of Syria, b.c. 125, dethroned b.c. 121. ALEXANDER, Jannjeus, king of the Jews, from 106 to 75 B.C. ALEXANDER, son of Aristobulus IL, king of Judasa, beheaded at Antioch, B.C. 49. ALEXANDER Sevkrus, emperor of Rome, was born 205; succeeded 221 ; assassinated 235. ALEXANDER, emperor of the East, born 870; succeeded 911 ; died 912. ALEXANDER I., bishop of Rome, 108-117. The second of this name pope, 1061-1073 ; the third, 1159-1181 ; the fourth, 1254-1261 ; the fifth, 1409-1410; the sixth, 1492-1503; the seventh,. 1655-1667 ; the eighth, 1689-1691. ALEXANDER, king of Scotland. The first, son of Malcolm, 1107-1124; the second, 1214-1249. ALEXANDER III., son of the preceding, born 1241; crowned, 1219; defeated the king of Nor- way, 1263; died, 1286. ALEXANDER, Jagellox, grand duke of Lithuania, and afterwards king of Poland, born 1461 ; king, 1501 ; died, 1506. ALEXANDER NEVSKY, grand duke of Rus- sia in the 13th century ; celebrated in the annals of the country as a saint and hero; 1218-1263. ALEXANDER PAULOWITCH, emperor of Russia and king of Poland, born 1777 ; succeeded his father, Paul I., 1801. Joined the league of Austria and England against France, 1805. In alliance with Napoleon, under the articles of a se- cret treaty, 1808-1810. Joined a new coalition against Napoleon, 1812. Banished the Jesuits from the Russian empire, 1820. Died Dec, 1825. ALEXANDRINI, Julius, a physician, 16th ct. ALEXIAS, a Gr. physician, 4th century, B.C. ALEXIS, a Greek comedian, 3d century B.C. ALEXIS (Comxexus) I., emperor of the East at the period of the first crusade. His reign is signalized by the extension and consolidation of his dominions, through his victories over the Turks* Scythians, and Normans. 1048-1118. ALEXIS (Comxexus) IL, succeeded as emp. 1180 ; dethroned and murdered, 1183. ALEXIS (Axgelus) III., usurped the empire 1195; dethroned, 1203; died, 1210. ALE ALEXIS (Le Jeuwb) IV., reigned with Ins father after the deposition of the preceding, until he waa himself deposed and put to death, 1204. ALEXIS (Ducas) V., reigned a few months after the murder of the preceding, when he was dethroned by the crusaders, and put to death by order of Baudoin. ALEXIS the False, an impostor who endea- voured to pass for Alexis II. in 1191. ALEXIS, Drago Comn knits, a descendant of the Commenes, served in the French army, became governor of Perche, and died 1619. ALEXIS del Anco, a Sp. painter, 1625-1700. ALEXIS, Mich.klovitsch, czar of Russia; born, 1629 ; succeeded, 1645 ; died, 1677. ALEXIS, Petrovitsch, son of Peter the Great, disinherited by his father, and died in 1719. ALEXIS, William, a Norman monk and poet, supposed to have been martyred, loth century. ALEXIUS, Comn en us. See Alexis. ALEYN, Charles, an English poet, d. 1640. ALF, Abdal, a Persian poet, 15th century. ALFARABIUS, an Arabian philos., 10th cent. ALFARAZDAC, an Arabian poet, 8th century. ALFARO, Juan De, a Spanish painter, 17th c. ALFENUS, Varus, a Roman jurist, 1st c. b.c. ALFIERI, a Roman architect, died 1767. ALFIERI, Count Vittorio, descended of a family both noble and rich, was born in 1749, at Asti, in Piedmont. Left an orphan in childhood, he early displayed his self-willed obstinacy of cha- racter ; and his education left him nearly as igno- rant as it found him. At the age of sixteen he became the uncontrolled master of his fortune and his conduct ; and for several years his career was one of restless wandering and dissipation. A love of horsemanship and horses was one of his two strongest passions: the other involved him in a series of profligate amours, of which the most scandalous had its scene in London. A love-affair, not at all more creditable, in which he engaged on returning to Turin in 1772, had the effect of awak- ening for the first time his poetical susceptibility and his ambition of literary fame. His qualifica- tions for success were as unpromising as possible. He appears to have added, during his travels, little or nothing to the very small stock of knowledge with which he left school ; and he never showed any aptitude for observation either of men or of other objects external to him. In point of lan- guage, he was even whimsically deficient. He had learned no Latin : the Italian dialect of his native province is hopelessly corrupt : and, while he was totally unpractised in writing, he spoke but indif- ferently even French, the language of the Piedmon- tese nobility and court. The young poet, inspired by the thirst for glory yet more than by his newly- awakened love of letters, set himself determinedly to vanquish all difficulties, by now educating him- self. He learned Latin enough to put some of the classical writers at his Command ; and he studied assiduously both the Tuscan or literary dialect of Italy, and" the principles of the drama, the kind of composition by which his fancy had been attracted. After bringing a play on the stage at Turin, in 1775, he took up his residence at Florence, for the study of the Italian tongue in a region where it is purely spoken. — In 17M, he published his first series of tragedies, the Filippo, Polinice, Antigone, ALF and Virginia. A second series of six tragedies, ap- pearing afterwards, contained, among others, the Timoleone and the Rosmunda. In the third and last series, which embraced nine, were the two Brutuses, the Maria Stuarda, the Conspiracy of the Pazzi, and the Saul, which contests with his Filippo the honour of being his best work. In the meantime, however, his studies suffered many in- terruptions; and he travelled much, chiefly that he might be near a lady to whom he had become attached in Florence. This was the Countess Stolberg, who derived the title of Countess of Al- bany from being the wife (ill-used and neglected) of the Chevalier Charles Edward Stuart. After the death of this unfortunate prince, in 1788, his widow and Alfieri lived together, and were under- stood to have been privately married. They were in Paris during the massacre of 1792, and, escap- ing with difficulty, resided thenceforth at Flo- rence. Alfieri's literary employments were now prosecuted with increasing ardour; in his forty- eighth year he began to learn Greek, for the pur- pose of studving the Attic drama ; and he wrote a large number of pieces, embracing satires in verse, a strange kind of political comedies, and his Me- moirs of his own Life. He died in 1803, and was buried in the famous Florentine church of Santa Croce. — His character was exceedingly peculiar, and notwithstanding some fine and elevated points, can- not but be pronounced unamiable. Its most promi- nent features were an indomitable energy of will, which was shown by the whole of his literary career, a ceaseless craving for celebrity, and a boundless self-esteem, which exhibited itself in a reserved haughtiness of manner, and made him really a bigoted aristocrat at heart, while professing and supposing himself a violent democrat. Not less singular are his Tragedies, the works on which his literary fame depends. In their structure, they carry to the farthest possible extreme the unity and simplicity of the French drama of the seven- teenth century. Their representation of character is monotonous and deficient in individuality, but sometimes very powerful, as in the portrait of Philip II. ; and, in respect of sentiment, their strength lies in the gloomy and deeply tragic. The diction has, perhaps, more of vigour than any other works in the same language, though this ex- cellence is gained at the cost of adopting a con- ciseness which is always rugged, and sometimes obscure; and the versification is as unmelodious as any combination of Italian words could be made. Altogether these are remarkable works, which can- not soon be forgotton, but whose literary merit will always be differently estimated by different critics. [W. S.] ALFONSO I., surnamed the 'Catholic,' b. 693, elected king of Oviedo and Asturias, 739, d. 757. ALFONSO II., called the 'Chaste,' succeeded as king of Asturias, 791, abdicated 835, died 842. ALFONSO III., surnamed the 'Great,' b. 848, k. of Asturias 866, added the kingdom of •Leon to his dominions, and was dethroned bv his son, 910. ALFONSO IV, surnamed the "'Monk,' king of Leon and Asturias 924, abdicated 930, died in a monastery, 933. ALFONSO V., b. 994, king of Leon 999, pre- pared the way by his conquests and policy for the union of Castiie j killed at the siege of Viseu, 1028. 21 ALF ALFONSO VI. of Leon and I. of Castile, suc- ceeded his father 1005, and added the latter king- dom to his dominions 1072, died 1109. ALFONSO VII., the title assumed by Alfon- so I. of Arragon, from his marriage with the daughter of the preceding, and vainly contended for during a period of seven years. ALFONSO VIII. (or the VII., omitting the last named,) of Leon and II. of Castile, b. 1100, succeeded 1126, made himself chief lord of all Christian Spain, and assumed the title of emperor 1135, died 1157. ALFONSO IX., called the 'Noble,' b. 1155, succeeded as king of Leon 1158, died 1230. ALFONSO X., called the 'Learned,' b. 1221, king of Leon and Castile 1252, dethroned by his soiTl282, died 1284. ALFONSO XL, succeeded as king of Leon and Castile in the year of his birth 1312, defeated the Moors 1340, died while besieging Gibraltar, 1350. ALFONSO I., surnamed the ' Battler,' king of Arragon and Navarre 1104, contended for the sovereignty of Castile as Alfonso VII. until the death of his wife, and the succession of her son to that kingdom ; died 1134, after gaining thirty-five successive victories over the Moors, led by the Almoravides. Alph II. reigned in Arragon 1163- 1196. Alph III. 1285-1291. Alph IV. 1327-1336. ALFONSO V. of Arragon and I. of Naples, b. 1385, succeeded his father as king of Arragon, Naples, and Sicily, 1416; died 1458. Alph II., of Naples, reigned 1494-1495. ALPHONSO, or AFFONSO I., inherited the county of Portugal from his father, and was pro- claimed king after a bloody victory over the Moors 1139, died 1185. Alph II., reigned king of Por- tugal 1211-1223. Alph III., 1248-1279. Alph IV., 1325-1356. Alph V., 1438-1481. Alph VI., was deposed after a short reign of singular brutality, 1657, died 1683. ALFONSO, D'Este, the first of this name, duke of Ferrara, 1505-1534; tlie second, 1559-1597; the third, 1628-1629 ; the fourth, 1658-1662. ALFORD, Mich., a Latin hist., 1587-1652. ALFRAGAN, an Arabian astronomer, 9th cent. ALFRAGO, And., an Arabian scholar of Italy, author of a history of Arabian physicians and philo- sophers, &c, died 1520. ALFRED, an English bishop and historical writer of the 10th century. ALFRED, the ' Philosopher,' a writer greatly esteemed at Rome in the 13th century. ALFRED, a king of Northumberland, 7th cent. ALFRED, the bastard, brother and successor of the preceding, noted for his love of letters. ALFRED, a Saxon prince, brother of Edward the Confessor, who met with a cruel death in an attempt to gain the crown, early in the 11th cent. ALFRED, AELFRED, or ALURED, a cele- brated Saxon monarch, is commonly called The Great, and has better merited that title, by emi- nent services to the world, than perhaps any other of the celebrated inonarchs who have borne it. He is one of the men whose life forms an era, and thus, like Lycurgus and Charlemagne, his name is associated not only with the legislative improve- ments actually accomplished by him, but with many others which had an earlier origin, and came to maturity near the time of his reign. From the ALF propensity to attribute to him every early and beneficent feature in the English constitution, it is sometimes difficult to discover his actual achieve- ments ; while annalists and historians, anxious to provide an ample account of one so famous, have endeavoured to give particulars of so many events in his life which could not be ascertained, that it is difficult to separate the truth from the falsehood, and tell what is really known of him. It seems well ascertained that he was born in the middle of the 9th century ; the year is stated as 849. He was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons. Giving promise of great capacity, his father gave him in his early youth opportuni- ties of instruction by travelling twice to Rome, and living for some time in France ; and there is no doubt that the knowledge thus acquired by him of a higher civilization, prepared him for the exercise of that beneficent influence over his people which enabled him to accomplish so many social improvements among them. While his elder brother, Ethelred, was king, they were both called on by the king of Mercia to assist him and his people against the Danish hordes overrunning the [Alfred's Jewel.] country, and oppressing the Saxon people. They conducted a long contest with varied success ; but though conduct and leadership seem to have been on the side of the Saxon princes, the Danes had numbers and ferocity. At a battle near Reading, Ethelred received a mortal wound, in the year 87 i, and when he died Alfred succeeded him. He derived but gloomy prospects from the state of the country, deeming the triumph of the Danes in- evitable, but with an energy and courage, which in spite of painful disorders never left him, he resolved to defend, step by step, the territories committed to his charge. A contused history follows, in the course of which it is said that nine great battles were fought in one year. The Danes, receiving ever fresh recruits from the continent, pressed him by degrees, until he ceased to command an army, or even a guard, and, wandering alone, found safety in a peasant's hut at Athelney, in Somer- setshire. The old chroniclers tell a storv so cha- racteristic, that it has secured general belief, about 24 ALG his being set by the peasant's wife to watch the baking of some cakes, and when — his mind far away devising projects for relieving his country from the invaders — he allowed the cakes to bum, the honest woman scolding him sarcastically as one ready enough to attend to the function of eat- ing them, though he could not be at pains enough to watch them.— After he had been a few months in this retreat, he found means to gather some of his most trusty followers, and to make at last a small army, which harassed the conquerors, and gradually increased. There is a well-known legend of his preparing at last for a pitched battle "with the leader of the Northmen, Guthrun or Gorm, and ascertaining beforehand the state and number of the forces, by penetrating the camp in the dis- guise of a harper. The battle which followed crowned a series of successes, and in the year 897 restored him to his throne. It was his policy not to attempt the extirpation of the marauders, but to christianize and civilize them, mixing them up with the other inhabitants of the country. The Danish chiefs, from fellow-kings, sunk to tribut- aries, and, in the year 894, Alfred might be said to be king of England. He had not been long at rest, however, ere the Danes, reinforced from the continent, and headed by a powerful leader, Hast- ings, drove him into a new and arduous conflict, which terminated in his favour in the year 897. In the meantime he built vessels, and trained men so effectively in maritime warfare, that he has been deemed the founder of the British navy. He con- firmed and consolidated the Saxon institutions, which divided the country into grades of munici- palities, making the several communities of citizens checks on each other's conduct, by being responsible for the offences committed withm their respective communities. Thence he has been called the inven- tor of the arrangement of the country into shires, hundreds, and tithings, though he probably only regulated and confirmed what had been previ- ously in existence. He has been called the author of trial by jury, but in our present understanding of the system, it was not m practice until long after his* day. He was a great scholar and author, and translated Boethius on the Consolations of Philosophy, with other works, into Saxon. He died either in 899 or 900. The memoir of him, which bears the name of his contemporary Asser, was long deemed a genuine life, but its authenticity has of late been doubted. [J.H.B.J ALGARDI, Alex., an Italian sculp., 17th ct. ALGAROTTI, Francis, a Venetian, equally skilled in the sciences, letters, and arts, 1712-1764. ALHAZAN, an Arabian astronomer, died 1038. ALI, Ben-Abbas, commonly called Abbas Haey, a celebrated physician b. in Persia, d. 982. ALI, a near relation and confidential vizier of Mahomet, equally eloquent as an apostle, and valiant as a warrior of the new faith. Succeeded to the caliphate 655, murdered by a faction 661. ALI, an Almoravide sultan of Africa and Spain, succeeded 1107, died 1143. ALI, sultan of Africa, 1331-1351. ALI, king of Granada, 1466-1483. ALI, of Oude, the adopted son and successor of the late Nabob, Asuf-ud-Dowlah, was born of a poor servant 1781. Having broken faith with the English he was deposed, and subsequently im- ALI Irisoned for the murder of the English resident, ►ied in his confinement 1817. ALI, Beg, a native of Poland, first dragoman of Mahomet IV., celeb, for his skill in lang., d. 1675. ALI, Bey or Beg, chief of the Mamelukes, dis- tinguished for his surprising valour and genius, born 1728, killed 1773. ALI, Ibn BUWATH, founder of a Persian dynasty in the 10th century. ALI, Ibn Hammud, founder of a dynasty in Cordova and all Moham. Spain, 10th century. ALI, Pacha, of Jannina, was born about the year 1750, at the little fortified village of Tepelene, in Albania, in European Turkey. Ali's family belonged to one of the Albanian tribes that had long embraced Mahometanism ; and his ancestors for some generations had been chieftains of Tepelene. — Ali's fr.ther had been stripped of the greater part of his possessions by a con federacy of the neighbouring chiefs ; and when the old man died of a broken heart, Ali was but a boy of fourteen years. But Ali's mother, Khamko, survived, and was a woman of remarkable energy. She successfully defended Tepelene, the last remnant of her son s heritage, against his father's foes : and to her example and influence, much both of the vigour and of the ferocity which characterized Ali in after years, may be attributed. As the lad grew up, the mother trained him to make glory and revenge the sole objects of his existence. He collected a small band of armed followers, and made repeated forays into the lands of his hostile neighbours. Sometimes he sought adventures and booty alone, as a common freebooter, or Klephtis, according to the modern Greek title. — Ali's early youth was passed in this adventurous manner; and many of the vicissi- tudes that he encountered are far more romantic than any novelist ever invented. By the time that he was twenty-four, he had recovered the greater part of the hereditary territories of his family ; his wealth and his retainers were increasing rapidly, and his fame as a military chief was spread throughout Albania, and the neighbouring provinces. — He now began to intrigue for promotion and influence at the sultan's court ; and lavished his treasures for that purpose in bribes among the leading members of the divan at Constantinople. Partly by these arts, and partly on the strength of the more creditable claims which he acquired by doing good service at the head of a body of Albanians in the war of 1787, against Austria and Russia, Ali obtained official rank and favour from the sultan. He was made pacha of Tricala, in Thessaly, and soon held other appointments ; but his great object was to obtain the pachalic of Jannina, in southern Albania, and by audacious craft and bribery, he succeeded in this in 1788. Jannina thenceforth was the capital of his dominions. — Ali proved almost invariably an overmatch for the other pachas who entered into rivalry with him. He sometimes put them down by open force, but he more frequently ridded himself of such adversaries by secret assas- sination, or by sowing calumnies against them at the sultan's divan. The suppression of the little local chiefs, and the subjugation of the indepen- dent towns and tribes in Albania, was a task of more difficulty. In particular, the tribe of the Suliotes resisted him with the noblest courage; and called into activity against them that fiendish 26 ALI vindictiveness which was a leading feature in his character. Many years passed away before it was gratified; and All sustained from the Suliotes more than one humiliating defeat. By degrees this heroic race was overpowered, and in 1802, the garrison of their last stronghold was massacred, after a war in which AH sullied himself by the meanest perfidy, as well as by the most blood- thirsty barbarity.— Ali extirpated the robber-chiefs who (as he himself had done in his youth) infested the mountain passes of Albania. He crushed the local independence of the chiefs, and made his authority practically as well as nominally supreme over their hereditary jurisdiction. His dominions were made as orderly, and as secure for the merchant and the traveller, as those of any European poten- tate. He enriched Jannina and his other cities with stately buildings, and secured them with fortifications. He encouraged and protected fo- reign merchants. He sternly enforced a complete equality of the members of all religious creeds. Swift to discover, and merciless to punish all crimes, save his own, he gave Albania a degree of tranquillity and prosperity, such as the country had never enjoyed since the days of its ancient Epirote princes. — Ali Pacha watched with eager interest the wars that raged throughEuropean Chris- tendom, after the breaking out of the French revolu- tion. His great object was to make himself master of an ample and compact dominion, which was to in- clude Albania, the Ionian isles, Macedonia, Thessaly, and the whole of Greece. — He obtained posses- sion of the city of Prevesa, and other towns on the mainland, but he could not gain the Ionian islands, though he entered into a long series of intrigues, alliances, and hostilities with the French and their enemies, in succession. But though unable to realize the magnificent scheme which he had formed, Ali was for many years a prince of high power and renown, whose favour was courted by the statesmen of European as well as of Asiatic courts. — Had the late sultan Mahmud been as im- becile as were his immediate predecessors, Ali Pacha would, in all human probability, have closed his career in prosperity and peace. But sultan Mahmud was resolute to reform the anarchy of his kingdom ; and his proud spirit chafed at the idea of permitting his authority to be bearded by ft vassal like Ali, whose insubordination was so imperious, and so notorious throughout the world. A pretext was soon found for assailing him, and the sultan proclaimed Ali a rebel, and all faithful Ma- hometans were ordered to destroy him. The war between the pachas who marched at the sultan's bid- ding, and the old pacha of Jannina, commenced in 1820. At first Ali had the advantage ; but sultan Mahmud inspired his lieutenants with some of his own spirit. Many of Ali's strongholds were wrested from him — the greater part of his troops deserted him — his sons made terms with the ene- my, or were slain; and before the end of 1820, Ali was closely besieged in Jannina. It was in vain that he bribed the sultan's ministers : Mahmud declared that any person who spoke in behalf of Ali should be put to death. Other sums of money were sent from Jannina to Greece, with the view of rr.ising an insurrection, and drawing away the besif u a rude observation of the changes of form orl AX A mode, through which water may pass. Anaxagoras had the merit of discerning the necessary futility of all such generalizations, — declaring that the ele- ments, first principles, or atoms of things, must be very numerous, or even infinite ; elements so far resembling each other as to be capable of com- bining together, and forming, by their various anions, those varied properties or qualities which we recognize in things. But, beyond this step — in itself highly important — Anaxagoras adventured on another, ot still greater consequence. Accepting, [ike all the Ionians, the dogma that matter is eter- nal —that nothing can really be either created or an- nihilated — he saw, nevertheless, that the simple pro- perties of an eternal and inert matter could not 2xplain the activity and harmony characterizing the material universe. Hence, said he, the neces- sity of another power — the power of Intelligence. '• All things were in chaos ; then came Intelligence, which introduced Order.' The functions of Intel- ligence, as he conceived them, were indeed limited — nerely supplementary, as Aristotle alleged, to those )f the physical forces : but the formal recognition )f the necessity of such an energy, was surely a novement in philosophy as momentous as new. It must be recorded, in fairness, and in palliation )f the condemnation of Anaxagoras, that to the :harge of impiety, that of a political crime was idded — the greatest, certainly, of which a Greek dtizen could be suspected — the crime of Medism, >r of favouring the interests of Persia. [J.P.N.] ANAXAGORAS, a Gr. sculptor, 5th cent. b.c. ANAXANDRIDES, a Greek satirist, starved to leath for libelling the government, 400 B.C. ANAXARCHUS, a Greek philosopher, the sup- )osed master of Pyrrho, 4th century b.c. . ANAXIMANDER, an Ionian philosopher, the lisciple and successor of Thales, 610-547 B.C. AN AXIMENES, the disciple and successor of \.naximander, died 500 B.C. AN AXIMENES, a Greek historian, one of the sreceptors of Alexander. ANAXIPPUS, a Gr. comedian, 4th cent. b.c. ANCHIETA, Jos., a Portuguese missionary, lalled the Apostle of the New World, died 1597. ANCHWITZ, N., a member of the Polish diet, ;he betrayer of his country in 1782, killed 1783. ANCILLON, C, a Fr. historian, 17th century. ANCILLON, David, a Fr. divine, 1617-1715. ANCILLON, J. P. F., an historical and philo- sophical writer of Prussia, 1766-1837. ANCILLON, L. F., a religious writer, d. 1814. ANCKARSTROEM, John James, the assassin )f Gustavus III., born 1758, executed 1792. ANCONA, C. D', an Italian antiquary, 15th ct. ANCOURT, FlorentC. D', a French drama- ;ist and actor, 1661-1726. ANCUS MARTIUS, k. of Rome, 634-614 b.c. ANCWITZ, Count. See Anchwitz. ANDERSEN, Geo., a Ger. traveller, 17th cent. ANDERSON, Ad., a Scotch historian, d. 1765. ANDERSON, Alex., a scholar, 17th centurv. ANDERSON, Sir E., lord chief justice at the trial of Mary Stuart, died 1605. ANDERSON, Geo., at first a labourer, but subsequently accountant-general, author of a work >n the affairs of the East India Co., 1760-1796. ANDERSON, G., an Eastern travel., 17th cent, ANDERSON, J., a Scotch advoc, 17th cent. AND ANDERSON, James, a miscel. wr., 1739-1808. ANDP^RSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy at Glasgow, 1726-1796. ANDERSON, John, a magistrate and author of Hamburgh, died 1743. ANDERSON, L., chancellor of Sweden under Gustavus Vasa, 1480-1552. ANDERSON, R., M.D., a critical and biogra- phical author, died 1830. ANDOCIDES, a Greek orator, 468 b.c. ANDOQUE, P., an historian, died 1664. ANDRE, B., a learned Jesuit, born 1745. ANDRE, C. C, a learned German, 18th cent. ANDRE, J., a German composer, 1741-1800. ANDRE, J., a Lutheran dime, 1528-1590. ANDRE, J. V., a German mystic, one of the first Rosicrucians, 1586-1654. ANDRE, John, a major in the British army during the American war of independence, hung as a spy, Oct. 2, 1780. ANDRE, St. See Albon, Jacques D\ ANDRE, Y'ves Mari, a French Jesuit profes- sor of mathematics, 1675-1764. ANDREA, a chronicler, 9th century. ANDREA, Caval Canti, a novelist and mis- cellaneous writer of Italy, died 1672. ANDREA, C, an Ital. tragedian, 17th century. ANDREA, S., an Italian poet, 17th century. AND RE AD A, Ferdinand, a Portuguese ad- miral, the first adventurer to China, 1518. ANDREiE, John Geo. Reinhard, a natural- ist of Hanover, 1724-1793. ANDREAS, James, a German reformer, sec- retary of the conference at Worms, died 1590. ANDREAS, John, a Corsican prelate, distin- guished as a promoter of printing, 1417-1475. ANDREAS, a learned prelate of Sweden, arch- bishop of Lund, died 1228. ANDREINI, Fr., a Sp. comic wr., died 1616. ANDREINI, Isabella, wife of the preceding, distinguished for her beauty and for her talents as an improvisatore, 1562-1604. ANDREINI, J. B., son of the preceding, ;i dramatist and poet, born 1578. ANDRELINI, Publio Festo, professor of poetry and philosophy, died 1518. ANDREOLI, G., an Italian sculptor, 16th cent. ANDREOSSI, Anth. Fr., Count, a French diplomatist and military officer, 1761-1828. ANDREOSSI, Fr., an engineer, 1633-1688. ANDREOZZI, Anna, an Ital. singer, d. 1801. ANDREOZZI, G., an Ital. composer, 18th cent. ANDRES, Juan, a Spanish author, 1740-1817. ANDRES DES VOSGES, J. F., a miscellaneous author and translator, bom 1744. ANDREW, St., the apostle, crucified 95. ANDREW of Cyrene, leader of a Jewish revolt in the reign of Trajan. ANDREW of Pisa, distinguished as an archi- tect and universal artist, 1270-1345. ANDREW of Ratisbon, an historian, loth cent. ANDREW, John, bishop of Aleria, d. 1493. ANDREW, Tobias, a Greek scholar, d. 1676. ANDREW I., king of Hungary, 1047-1061 ; Andw. II., 1204-1235 ; Andw. III., 1290-1301. ANDREWES, Gerr., a preacher, 1750-1826. ANDRE WES, H., a mathematician, computer of the ephemeris, 1744-1820. ANDREWES, J. P., a miscel. an., 1737-1779. 33 D AND ANDRE WES, PKT, M i LBS, a dramatist, d. 1814. ANDREWS, Launcelot, bishop of Winches- ter, disting. as a scholar and divine, 1566-1626. ANDRIEU, B., a medallion engrwr.. 1761-1822. ANDRIEUX, Fr. W. 1.. Stanislaus, a Fr. dramatist, poet, and miscellan. wr., 1759-1833. ANDRIOLI, M. A., an Ital. writer, 17th cent. ANDRISCUS. a pretender to the crown of Ma- cedon, put to death 148 B.C. ANDROCLES, an Athenian demasjotrue. ANDROMACHUS, the physician of Hem ANDRONICUS, Livius, the oldest Latin dra- matist, and Latin translator of Homer, 240 B.C. ANDRONICUS, a Gr. architect, 4th cent, B.C. ANDRONICUS of Rhodes, the restorer of the works of Aristotle, b.c. 63. ANDRONICUS of Thessalonica, one of the Greek refugees from Constantinople, to whom we owe the revival of learning, died 1478. ANDRONICUS I., emperor of Constantinople, horn 1110; shared the crown with Alexis, 1163; caused him to be mnrd., 1183 ; dethr. and k., 1185. ANDRONICUS II., born 1258 ; emperor, 1282; dethroned, 1328; died, 1332. ANDRONICUS III., born 1295; rebelled, 1321-5; emperor, 1328; died, 1341. ANDRONICUS IV., joint sovereign with his father, 1355; disinherited, 1373. ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, James, an architect, distinguished in Paris, 16th century. ANDRY, Nich., a medical author, died 1742. ANEAN, Barth., a French poet, killed 1565. ANELIER, a troubadour of the 13th century. ANEURIN, a chief of the ancient Britons, distinguished also as a poet, 6th century. ANFOSSI, P., an Ital. musician, 1736-1795. ANGE, Fr., of Pennsylvania, d. 1767, aged 134. ANGELI, Bonaventura, an hist., d. 1576. ANGELI, Peter, a Latin poet, 1517-1596. ANGELICO, John, an Italian painter, d. 1448. ANGELIO, a Latin poet, 1517-1596. ANGELIS, Stephen De, a mathemat., 17th e. ANGELO, Fioriozzola, an Ital. poet, d. 1548. ANGELO, Policiano, a learned wr., 15th c. ANGELO, Michel. See Michelangelo. ANGELONI, Fr., an Italian historian, d. 1652. ANGELUCCI, Theodore, an Italian poet, translator, and physician, d. 1600. ANGELUS, Chr., a refugee from Greece, pro- fessor of the Greek tongue at Cambridge, d. 1638. ANGERSTEIN, J. J., a virtuoso, distinguished for his collection of paintings, 1735-1822. ANGILBERT, St., abbot of Requier, d. 814. ANGIOLELLO, J.M., a Venetian hist., 15th c. ANGOT, a celebrated French privateer, d. 1551. ANGOULEME, Charles De Valois, duke of, a natural son of Charles IX. and Marie Tou- chet; distinguished for his bravery in the civil wars of France, and in the campaigns of Flanders a.id Germany, 1575-1650. ANGUIER, Fr. and Micil, sculptors of Nor- mandy ; the former of whom was most celebrated, ;aid died 1669 ; the latter, 1686. ANGUILLARA, L., a botanist of the 16th c. ANGUILLARA, an Italian poet, b. 1517. ANGITISCIOLA, a female painter, 16th cent. AN1IALT-DESSAU, Leopold, prince of, the creator of the Prussian army, 1676-1747. ANIAN US, an artist and poet, 15th century. ANS ANIOIT, Pktfk, an astronomer, 1723-17C6. ANICHINI, Lewis, a medaller, 16th century. ANJOU, the dukes or counts of, descendants of the Carlovingian kings, ruled the province from about 870 to 1204, when the line ended in John, king of England. The dukes of the house of Capet reigned 1246 to 1290. The house of Valois, 1200 to 1480. Since this period the dukedom has been reserved as an appanage for the younger princes of the royal family of France. ANKASTROM. Sec Anckarstroem. ANNA COMNENA, daughter of Alexis I.. emperor of the East, celebrated for her beauty and acquirements, born 1083: being defeated in a con- spiracy for placing the crown on the head of her husband, she devoted her life to letters, and wrote the history of her father's reign ; died 1148. ANNA de C andalles, queen of Ladislaus VI., of Hungary, married 1502. ANNA of Hungary, b. 1503; married Fred. of Austria, 1521; died 1547 ANNA IVANOWNA, empress of Russia, born 1693 ; succeeded, 1730 ; died, 1740. ANNA PETROWNA, in whose honour the order of St. Anne was instituted, born 1708 : married, 1725 ; died, 1728. ANNE, queen of England before George L, was the second daughter of James II. and Anne Hyde; b. 1664; mar. to George, brother of the k. of Denmark, 1683 ; sue. her father, 1702 ; d. 1714. ANNE of Austria, queen of Louis XIII. , and mother of Louis XIV. of France, b. 1602 ; m. 1615 ; regent of the kingdom, 1643-1661 ; d. 1666. ANNE of Bretagne, queen-consort of France, b. 1477 ; married to Charles VIII. 1491, and to Louis XII. 1499 ; died 1514. ANNE of Cleves, b. 1515 ; married to Henry VIII. and divorced, 1540 ; d. 1557. ANNE of France, daughter of Louis XL, b. 1462; married to the lord of Beaujcu, 1474; go- vernante of Charles VIII., 1483-1488 ; afterward* duchess of Bourbon till her death, 1522. ANNESE, Gennako, a leader in the Massa- niello insurrection, 1647. ANNESLEY, Arthur, by turns a royalist and republican, created earl of Anglesey for his share in the Restoration, 1614-1686. ANNESLEY, S., a eel. Eng. divine, 1620-1696. ANNETT, Peter, a sceptical writer, d. 177S. ANNICERIS, a Greek philosopher, 3d c. B.C. ANNIUS of Viterbo, a Dominican monk, author of a literary imposture, d. 1502. ANNO, archbishop of Cologne, 11th centurv. ANOT, P. N., a miscellaneous author, d. 1823. ANQUETIL, L. P., a French savant, author of a Universal Historv, 1728-1808. ANQUETIL DU PERRON, A. H., broth, of the preceding, disting. as an Oriental scho., 1731-180^ ANSALDI, C. J., an antiquarian, 18th centurv. ANSALDI, an Italian painter, d. 1816. ANSART, A. J., a Fr. historian, 1723-1790. ANSCARIUS, bishop of Hamburgh, 801-864. ANSEAUME, N., a Fr. dramatist, d. 1784. ANSELM, bom in Piedmont in 1033, died in April, 1109 ; the celebrated churchman and meta- physician — one of the greatest of those famous men who have held the see of Canterbury. On the death of Lanfranc in 1089, Anselm, then on a visit to England, and whose wisdom, gentleness, 31 ANS md solidity of character had gained for him Euro- pean repute, was nominated to the primacy by Wil- iam Rufus. It is not necessary to refer here to :he political history of this celebrated prelate ; nor •an we glance otherwise than cursorily at those products of his genius— the Monologium and the f'roslogium, by which he is known in philosophy, rhese two remarkable writings are dedicated to an ;xposition of two demonstrations of the Existence >f God. The Monologium contains the usual in- itiative argument — inferring from the qualities of Mature, absolute qualities or divine attributes ; and esolving these into a divine and absolute Being, ^.nselm's original work is the Prosoloqium ; and icrtainly he has stated there, in every fulness, the )eculiar argument afterwards expounded by Des Jartes. Briefly, the argument is this, expressed learly in his own words : — ' The madman who lenies the reality of God, conceives, nevertheless, of i Being more elevated than all others that exist, or ather so perfect, that nothing — no form of being — an be called superior to him. But he affirms that iiere is no real existence corresponding to this men- nl conception or idea. In making such an affirma- ion, however, he contradicts himself. Denying the .ttribute of existence to this very Being, to whom, tevertheless, he attributes all perfection, he virtu- lly says, that the most perfect is inferior to many ther things which are not perfect, but which en- ay the supreme attribute of existence.' We shall peak more fully of this peculiar form of argument, y which the being of God is attempted to be in- irred from the idea of God, in our notice of Des Partes. — Anselm's metaphysical wri tings have re- ently been republished by Bouchitte - , under the itle, Rationalisme Cretien : and Remusat has just ompleted a valuable volume on the prelate's life nd character. [J.P.N.] ANSELME of Paris, 1625-1694. ANSELME, Anth., a French preacher, also a istinguished savant : 1652-1737. ANSELME, Geo., the Elder, a mathematician, .. 1440. His grandson, of the same name, distin- ;uished as a physician, d. 1528. ANSON, George, Lord, was born at Colwich, ear Rugeley in Staffordshire, on the 23d April, 697. His father was William Anson, Esq. of hugborough, a property in the same county, pur- hased in the reign of James I. by William Anson of r which Anson's name is best known. It proved ne of the most disastrous on record ; not by any Hilt of the commander, but owing to the igno- mce and imbecility which prevailed at head-qur.r- ANS tors. Several of the slaps were ill-conditioned; he was obliged to receive on board 260 infirm old men, out-pensioners of Chelsea College, most of whom were above 70, and none under 60 years of age ; and the sailing of the squadron was de- layed till the worst season. It did not leave St. Helen's till 18th Sept., 1740, and soon after passing Madeira, scurvy, fever, and dysentery broke out among the crews. Tremendous gales, encountered in rounding Cape Horn, dispersed the squadron ; two ships were driven back along the coast of Brazil, and never rejoined ; one was wrecked on the coast south of Chiloe ; the commodore's ship the Centu- rion, 60 guns, and the Tryal sloop, 8 guns, reached Juan Fernandez on the 9th June ; the Gloucester, 50 guns, not till 23d July, having been under sail for five months in a stormy ocean, ' a circumstance unparalleled in the history of navigation.' The health of the crew was completely restored in this delightful island ; but out or the original comple- ment for the three ships of 800 men, there now re- mained only 335. A cruise of eight months on the coasts of Peru and Mexico secured some rich prizes, but added very little in the way of geographical discovery, if we except some coast and port sur- veys. The two other ships being disabled were de- stroyed, and with the Centurion only, containing all the useful stores and the surviving men, whose ranks had been again fearfully reduced by disease, An- son crossed the Pacific to China, having remained some time at Tinian, one of the Ladrones, ' an earthly paradise,' to recruit. Leaving the Canton river after a stay of five months, refitting and provisioning, he lay in wait, on the coast of Luzon, for the Acapulco galleon, which annually brought an immense treasure from Mexico in re- turn for goods from Manilla. This rich prize he captured after a smart engagement with a force more than three times his own, and thus possessed himself of nearly a million and a-half of dollars and 35,682 oz. of pure silver. Returning to Canton he sold the galleon, and soon after sailed for Eng- land. Touching at the Cape, passing in sight of St. Helena, and running in a fog through the middle of a French fleet cruising in the channel, he reached Portsmouth in safety, on 15th June, 1744, after an absence of three years and nine months. Not one of the 260 veterans returned. The trea- sure was welcome ; — the only other advantage was the familiarizing British seamen with the dreaded 'southern ocean.' In 1748 an account of the voyage in a thick 4to vol. was published by sub- scription, ostensibly drawn up by Rev. Richard Walter, A.M., chaplain in the Centurion, but really, as Sir J. Barrow has shown in his life of Anson, by Col. Robins, an engineer officer who went with him. Several editions were called for. A second volume, to contain the nautical observations, was promised, but never appeared, owing to Robins being hurried off to India. Even from the account we have, however, we can see that mrny errors in seamanship were committed ; but the chronometer was not then invented, and the lunar method, though known to astronomers, was not yet prac- tised at sea. Not long after his return we find Anson at the head of the Admiralty Board as first lord. In this capacity he rendered great service to the nation; he improved the ships, promoted the most deserving officers in defiance of etiquette, ANS and did much in laying the foundation of that pre- eminence which the navy of Britain has lone main- 1. In 1747, on occasion of a victory which he gained over the French, he was created baron -Anson of Soberton in the county of Hants. In 1748 he married the lady Elizabeth, daughter of the lord chancellor, earl Hardwicke. His or- dinary residence was Moore Park, Hertfordshire. He died without issue, 6th June, 1762, having out- lived his wife two years. His elder and only brother, Thomas, died also without issue in 1771. The bulk of the property of both was inherited by George Adams, Lscj. of Sambrooke, Staffordshire, son of their only sister, who assumed the name and arms of Anson ; but the title became extinct. A new creation took place, however, in 1806, and in 1831, the third viscount Anson was created earl of Lichfield. [J. B.l ANSON, P. H., a French author, 1744-1810. ANSPACH, Elizabeth, margravine of, for- merly lady Craven, 1750-1828. ANSTEY, Chr., an English poet, 1724-1805. ANSTIS, John, an Eng. antiquary, die i 1744. ANSTRUTHER, Sir A., a lawyer, died 18U ANTAR, the hero of an Arabian romance, a chief and poet of the 6th century. ANTHEMIUS, consul of the East, 405. ANTHEMIUS, emperor of the East, 467-472. ANTHEMIUS, an architect of the 6th century. ANTHING, Frederic, an officer in the Russian service, companion of Suwarrow, died 1805. ANTHONY of Burgundy, distinguished in the military service of France, 1421-1504. ANTHONY, P. G., a theologian, 17th century. ANTHONY. See Antonius, Antony. ANTIGNAC, A., a French song- writer, b. 1770. ANTIGONUS CARYSTIUS, a Greek writer, 3d cent. B.C. ANTIGONUS, \ the Cyclops,' one of Alexan- der's companions in arms; afterwards king of Asia; killed 301 b.c. ANTIGONUS, Gonatas, grandson of the pre- ceding, king of Macedon, 277-241 b.c. ANTIGONUS, Doson, regent and king of Ma- cedon, 230 B.C., till his death, 221. ANTIGONUS, Sochceus, the reputed founder of the sect of Sadducees, 3d century b.c. ANTIGONUS, associated with Aristobulus I. as king of Judaea, 107-106 B.C. ANTIGONUS, son of Aristobulus II., king of Judsea, B.C. 40 ; killed, B.C. 37. ANTIMACO, Mark Antony, an Italian scholar and poet, 1472-1552. ANTIMACUS, a Greek poet, 5th century b.c. ANTINE, M. F., a chronologist, 1688-1748. ANTINOUS, a beautiful youth, eel. as the com- panion and favourite of Adrian, drowned 132. ANTIOCHUS, a Platonic phil., 1st cent. B.C. ANTIOCHUS, a monastic writer, 7th century. ANTIOCHUS I., k. of Syria, d. b.c. 261. Ant. II., k., b.c. 261 ; d. 246. Ant. III., called the Great, k., B.C. 223 ; assassinated 187. Ant. IV. succeeded his father, but was kept a prisoner by the Romans till 174 B.C. ; d. 164. Ant. VI., king, B.C. 164 ; dethroned 162. Ant. VII., king, b.c. 140; dethroned 128. Ant. VIII. reigned B.C. 126-97. Ant. IX. shared the kingdom with the preceding, B.C. 112-95. Ant. X. and XI. reigned 93-92 B.C. Ant. XII. reigned for a short 3G ANT time before 83 B.C. Ant. XIII., king, b.c 69; dethroned by Pompey, who reduced Syria to a Roman province, B.C. 65. ANTIOCHUS I., king of Commagena, from about 69-32 b.c. The second of the same Dame, king till 29 B.C. The third is supposed to have reigned about the commencement of the Christian era. The fourth, from 38-72. ANTIPATER, a Macedonian general, regent for Alexander, and after his death master of the European provinces : died 318 B.C. ANTIPATER, k. of Macedon, 298-295 b.c. ; a third of the same name reigned a few davs, 278 b.c. ANTIPATER, father of Herod the Great, and minister of Hvrcanus, 63-43 B.C. ANTIPATER, son of Herod the Great, put to death for conspiracy, 2. ANTIPATER, L. C, a Rom. historian, 2 b.c. ANTIPATER of Sidon, a philos., 2d c. b.c. ANTIPATER, a Stoic philosopher, 1st c. b.c. ANTIPHANES, a Gr. poet, time of Alexander. ANTIPHILUS, a Greek poet, time of Nero. ANTIPHILUS, a Greek painter, 4th century. ANTIPHON, a Greek orator, killed 411 b.c. ANTIQUARIUS, J., an Italian scho., d. 1512. ANTIQUUS, a painter of the 16th centurv. ANTISTHENES, a Gr. command., 4th c b.c. ANTISTHENES, fnd. of the Cynics, 5th c. b.c. ANTOINE. See Antony. ANTOINETTE. See Marie Antoinette. ANTON, Ch. Gottlieb, a German writer of curious history, 1751-1818. ANTON, C. G., a philologist, died 1814. ANTONELLI, P. A., a Fr. officer, 1747-1S17. ANTONELLI, a painter, 15th century. ANTONI, Seb. Degli, a tragedian, 17th cent. ANTONI, an Italian officer, 1714-1786. ANTONIANO, Sylvio, a poet, 1540-1603. ANTONIDES, J., a Dutch poet, 1647-1(J«4. ANTONIDES, J., an Arabian scholar, 17th c. ANTONINA, wife of Belisarius, distinguished for her public spirit, 499-565. ANTONINE DE FORCIGLIONI, a prelate and saint of Rome, 1389-1459. ANTONINI, Annibal and Joseph, two bro- thers distinguished as historians, 17th and 18th c. ANTONINUS, Liberalis, a Gr. au., 2dc. b.c. ANTONINUS PIUS, a Roman emperor, b. 86 ; succeeded Adrian, 138 ; died 161. ANTONINUS, Marcus Aurelius, successor of Antoninus Pius, 121-180. ANTONINUS. See Commodus, Caracalla, DlADUMENIANUS. ANTONINUS, St., abp. of Florence, d. 1445. ANTONINUS, bishop of Constantine, 5th ct. ANTONINUS, a geographer, age unknown. ANTONIO, or AXTONELLO, a painter, 15th c. ANTONIO, a Spanish historian, 1617-1684. ANTONIO, Pedro, a Spanish painter, d. 1675. ANTONIUS, Godfrey, a Germ, lawyer, 1 7th c. ANTONIUS, JIlius N., a Span, hist., 16th c. ANTONIUS, L., a Portuguese phys., 16th c. ANTONIUS, Marcus, a Rom. orat., proconsul B.c.103 ; proscribed by Marine, put to dth. b.c. 67. ANTONIUS, Marcus, the eel. triumvir, grand- son of the preceding, bom B.C. 86 ; disting. in the Jewish war; and afterwards as the compa arms and friend of Julius Ca'sar. After 1 1 sination of the latter, and the overthrow of the re- ANT publican party by the defeat of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, Mark Anthony fonned the triumvirate with Octavius and Lepidus, B.C. 42. Anthony married the sister of Octavius, hut neglected her for the blandishments of Cleopatra; and having quarrelled with his coadjutors, was defeated at the battle of Actium, and put a period to his own existence, B.C. 30. ANTONY of Tuscany, a lawyer, 15th cent. ANTONY, St., the Great, born in Egypt, 251 ; retired to the desert, where he formed the first community of monks, 305 ; died, 356. ANTONY, St., of Padua, 1195-1231. ANTONY of Bourbon, king of Navarre, by his marriage with Jeanne D'Albret, 1548, and father of Henry IV. of France, d. 1562. ANVARI, a Persian astrologer, died 1206. ANYSIUS, Giov., an Italian poet, d. 1540. ANYTA, a Greek poetess, some centuries B.C. ANYTUS, an Athenian orator, 4th cent. B.C. AOUST, the Marquis D', one of the violent members of the French convention, d. 1812. APACZAI, John, an Orientalist, died 1659. APAFFI. See Abaffi. APEL, or APELLES, John, a German re- tainer: 1486-1536. APELBOOM, a Dutch poet, died about 1780. APELLES, founder of a heresy, 2d century. APELLES, the most celebrated painter of mtiquity, was born about 365 B.C. at Cos, or at rjolophon in Ionia. When already an accom- slished master, apparently, he entered as a pupil n the celebrated school of Pamphilus, at Sicyon, md pr.id the enormous fee of this school, a trlent, ^about £220 sterling,) purely for the sake of the •eputation enjoyed by its pupils. — Apelles seems :o have earned his unrivalled reputation partly by lis unintermittent industry, which became pro- verbial, even among the Romans — ' nulla dies rine linea ' is a saying, according to report, which originated with this great Greek painter. Painting itself is sometimes termed by the Romans the Apellean art. — An examination of the particular services of Apelles does not seem to justify his ;xtraordinary reputation, for he appears to have been little more than a portrait painter, though loubtless one of the very highest class. In every respect, save one, however, he was surpassed by some one of his rivals, but in the management of the whole, in that peculiar quality which the Greeks called Charts, grace or beauty, he was un- rivalled. A list of his known works will convey the most accurate notion of his style. Perhaps tbe most celebrated was the Venus Anadyomene, or Venus rising out of the ocean, which became in after (rears such a favourite picture among the Romans, that Ovid (Art. Amat. lii. 401,) paid it the extra- ordinary compliment of saying, that but for this picture, Venus would have still remained buried Beneath the waves of the sea. The picture was painted for the people of Cos, where it remained antil removed three centuries afterwards by the jmperor Augustus to Rome, who took it in lieu of 100 talents tribute; an enormous price, and yet less by some thousands than was recently paid for the Soult Murillo by the French government. Hie picture was, unfortunately, much damaged on the voyage, and was, within a century from the time of its dedication in the Temple of Julius APE Ca?sar, dictator, at Rome, replaced by a copy, by order of Nero. The history of this picture is worthy of note, as it is the prototype of so many similar stories of later ages. Other celebrated works were, King Antigonus on horseback ; a por- trait of Campaspe, a beautiful slave and favourite of Alexander the Great, who presented her to the painter in reward for the picture which he made of her ; several portraits of Philip of Macedon, and of Alexander himself, who is said to have given Apelles the exclusive right of painting him ; for one of these, representing the king as Jupiter hurling his thunderbolts, Alexander is said to have presented Apelles with 20 talents of gold, about £50,000 sterling, twice the largest sum ever recorded otherwise, as the price of a pic- ture. Further, are mentioned a figure of For- tune, seated ; a naked hero ; a back view of a Hercules ; a clothed figure of one of the Graces ; Clitus preparing for. battle, mounted on his charger, and receiving his helmet from his arm- bearer ; Antigonus in armour walking by the side of his horse ; Archelaus with his wife and daugh- ter; and the two following works, the only two pictures by Apelles recorded, which appear to have contained a considerable number of figures — Diana surrounded by her nymphs, in which he was allowed to have surpassed the lines of Homer, from which he took his subject ; and the pomp or procession of the high priest of Diana at Ephesus. —The pictures of Apelles were probably mostly painted upon panels of larch, (he used to boast that he never painted upon a wall,) and executed in distemper : the impasto was doubtless very similar to that of the Italian quattrocento masters before the introduction of oil painting. The Greeks had abundant resources in colours, and there is every reason to suppose that they were in every respect as great in painting as in sculpture. Apelles himself, among other distinctions, is re- nowned for having introduced a veiy effective mode of glazing, or toning his pictures, which Sir Joshua Reynolds assumed to be the same process adopted by the Venetians of the sixteenth century. [See Protogenes.]— Many anecdotes are re- corded showing the intimacy between Alexander the Great and Apelles, and others of still more value, showing his own liberality of disposition, and great skill and judgment in his art. One anecdote, related by Pliny, as illustrating a pecu- liar feature of Greek customs, may be recorded here:— Apelles had put in at Alexandria, driven there by contrary winds ; Ptolemy I. was then, at the close of the 4th century, b.c. king of Egypt, with whom, while he was genenl, Apelles had been on bad terms. Some of the painter s rivals at the court of Ptolemy, taking advantage of this circumstance, endeavoured to do him an injury; they persuaded the royal fool to invite Apelles to sup with the king. Apelles attended accordingly, but Ptolemy indignant at the intrusion, demanded by whom he had been invited ; when the painter seizing an extinguished coal from the hearth, drew upon the wall the features of the man who had in- vited him with such mastery, that Ptolemy in the very first lines recognized the portrait of his buf- foon, and through this trifling incident became re- conciled to the painter and received him into his favour.— Apelles survived Alexander many years; u7 APE he does not appeal* to have accompanied him as far :.s Babylon; the date of Ms death is unknown. He left writings on the arts, which he dedicated to his pupil Perseus; they have not hecn preserved. He was celebrated for the beauty of the horses in his pictures. — There was another Apelles, of Ephe- sus, mentioned by Lucian, who lived at the court of Ptolemy Philopator, about B.C. 220.— (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 36; Plutarch, Aral. 12, Alex- ander 4, Fort Alez. Mag. 2, 3; Junius, Catalogm Art 'ileum. &c. &c— Wornum, Epochs of Painting, vol.'i.) [R.N.W.] APELLICON, a philosopher, 1st century b.c. APER, Makcus, an orator, 1st century. APER, Arius, a Roman prajfect, killed 284. APHTHONIUS, a rhetorician, 3d century. APIAN, Peter, a German astron., 1495-1589. APICIUS, a noted glutton, time of Augustus. APIN, J. L., a medical writer, 17th century. APION, or APPION, a celebrated grammarian, and historian of Egypt, 1st century. APOLLINARIS^ Caius S., a grammarian who taught at Rome, 2d century. APOLLINARIS, bishop of Laodicea, 4th cent. APOLLINARIS, son of the preceding, and re- puted author of a heresy. APOLLINARIUS, Claudius, a learned writer, bishop of Hieropolis, 2d centurv. APOLLODORUS of Athens. See Zeuxis. APOLLODORUS of Damascus, one of the most celebrated architects of antiquity. He built the forum and column of Trajan at Rome, of which there are still magnificent remains, in the year 113 a.d. and was much employed by Trajan in Rome and elsewhere. His most remarkable work, however, was the great bridge over the Danube in Bulgaria, where the Alt runs into that river; it stood on 20 piers, 150 feet high above the founda- tions, 60 feet wide, and 170 feet apart. It was built for the emperor Trajan ; the bridge was of wood, but the piers were of stone. The wood- work was afterwards destroyed by Hadrian, as it gave the barbarians too great facilities for crossing the Danube. Remains of the piers are still stand- ing. Apollodorus is said to have fallen a victim to the jealousy of Hadrian, who dabbled in archi- tecture as well as other arts.— (Dion Cassius, lxviii. 13, brix. 4; Procopius de JEdif. Justiniani, iv. ; Hirt. Geschichte der Baukunst.) [R.N.W.] APOLLODORUS, a Greek painter, 5th c. B.C. APOLLODORUS, a Greek gram., 2d cent. B.C. APOLLODORUS, a naturalist, 1st centurv. APOLLODORUS, an architect, killed 130. APOLLODRUS, a philosopher, time of Cicero. APOLLONIA, a female martyr, 248. APOLLONIUS, a Christian martyr, 2d cent. APOLLONIUS, bishop of Ephesus, 2d cent. APOLLONIUS, Collatius, a monastic poet of Navarre, 15th century. APOLLONIUS, Dyscolus, a grammatical writer and historian, 2d century. APOLLONIUS, Myndus, an astronomer and astrologer, time of Alexander the Great. APOLLONIUS of Peiiga, author of a treatise on conic sections, 3d century B.C. APOLLONIUS, Rhodius, a poet, librarian of Alexandria, died B.C. 240. APOLLONIUS, Tyaneus, a Pythagor. philos., and reputed worker of miracles, 1st century. AQU APONO, or ABANO, Peter of, a celebrated professor of medicine, noted for his studies in as- trology and magic, 1250-1316. APOSTOLI, G. F., a Latin poet, 16th centurv. APOSTOLIUS, Michel, a learned Givek re- fugee from Constantinople, 15th century. APPERLEY, C. J., a writer on sporting sub- jects, known as ' Nimrod,' died 1843. APPIAN, a celebrated historian, lived in the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antonine. APPIANI, Andrea, a painter, 1750-1818. APPIAN O, P. A., a disting. Jesuit, 17th cent. APREECE, or RHESE, John, an antiq., 10th c. APRIES, or HOPHRA, king of Egypt, 595 B.C. ; dethroned by Amasis, 570 B.C. APROSIO, A., a monastic writer, 1607-1681. APTHORP, East, a divine, 1732-1816. APULEIUS, a botanist, 4th century. APULEIUS, Lucius, the eel. author of a philo. romance, entitled the ' Metamorphoses, or Golden Ass,' a Roman Platonist of the 2d century. AQUARIUS, a scholastic philosopher, 16th c. AQUAVIVA, Andr. Matt., duke of, a cele- rated scholar and soldier, 1456-1528. AQUAVIVA, Claude, a Jesuit, 1542-1615. AQUAVIVA, Octavio, abp. of Naples, 1612. AQUILA, an architect and savant of the 2d cent., who was excom. for practising astrology. AQUILA, Caspar, (the Latinized form of his proper name Adler,) a friend and fellow-worker of Luther in the Reformation of Germ., 1488-1560. AQU1LANO, an Italian poet, 1466-1500. AQUILANUS, a physician of Padua, d. 1543. AQUINAS, Thomas, usually called the Angelic Doctor, was a younger son of the count of Aquino, and was born at the castle of Rocca Sicca in 1227. This place was situated on the border line between the states of the church and the territory of Naples. From his earliest years he was smitten with the love of solitary study, and when a very young man he entered the Dominican order. Force was em- ployed to prevent his becoming a monk, but in vain. So much was the youthful scholar wrapt up in his own cogitations, that when he studied at Cologne, under Albertus Magnus, his fellow-pupils gave him the name of Bos Mutus, ' mute ox, on ac- count of his taciturnity and apparent stupidity. In 1255 the university of Paris gave him the title of Doctor in Theology. He lectured with brilliant success in Paris, in several of the Italian uni- versities, and ultimately at Naples. Being sum- moned by the pope to attend a general council at Lyons in 1274, he commenced his journev, and had reached Terracina, where he died, at the age of forty-eight. He was canonized by pope John XXII. in 1323. The Parisian edition of his works is in twenty-three folio volumes. But the amaz- ing industry of Thomas during his brief life, is wholly eclipsed by his prodigious mental wealth, as displayed in his 'SummaTheologise' and 'Com- mentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard.' In concise and earnest simplicity of style, in subtle and daring speculation, in purity and loftiness of aim, in orthodoxy of religious sentiment, in acute- ness and vigour, in breadth and depth of view, in intellect and heart, in piety and temper, Thomas Aquinas is the acknowledged prince of the medi- aeval schoolmen and divines. [J.E.] AQUINO, Ph., a learned rabbin, died 1650. AQU AQUINO, L. Cl., an organist, died 1772. AQUINO, Ch., a Jesuit, 1654-1740. ARABCHAH, a Mahomed, historian, d. 1450. ARABELLA STUART, a first cousin of James I., and, from her near affinity to the crown, an ob- ject of suspicion both to that prince and his pre- decessor, Elizabeth. Died in the Tower, where her long and melancholy confinement deprived her of reason, 1615. ARAGON, Tullia of, a poetess, 16th cent. ARAJA, Fr., a musician, 18th century. ARAM, Eugene, a schoolmaster of disting. learning, executed for murder, 1759. ARANTIUS, a celebrated anatomist, 16th cent. ARATOR, a Latin poet, died 556. ARATUS, a poet and astronomer, 3d cent. B.C. ARATUS, general of the Achaean league, born at Sicyon, 275 b.c. ; died 216 b.c. ARBACES, governor of Media, 9th cent. B.C. ARBAND, F., a French poet, died 1640. ARBOGAST, L. F. A.,aFr. savant, 1759-1803. ARBOGASTES, a general in the Rom. armies, of barbarian origin, d. 395. ARBRISSEL, Robert of, an abbot, d. 1117. ARBUCKLE, James, a Scotch poet, d. 1734. ARBULO, P. M., a Spanish sculptor, 16th c. ARBUTHNOT, Alex., a Scotch divine, distin- guished as a reformer, 1538-1583. ARBUTHNOT, Alexander, a Scotch printer, 16th century. ARBUTHNOT, John, an em. physician of the 17th century, but more distinguished as a man of letters and a wit ; the associate of Pope and Swift, and the companion of Bolingbroke, at the court of Queen Anne: 1675-1735. ARCADIUS, emperor of the East, 395-408. ARCERE, Ant., a French Orientalist, d. 1699. ARCERE, Louis St., a French hist., 18th c. ARCESILAUS, a Gr. philosopher, 4th c. B.C. ARCHELAUS, the teacher of Socrates in phy- sical philosophy, 5th century B.C. ARCHELAUS, a geographer, time of Alexander. ARCHELAUS, bishop of Mesopotamia, 278. ARCHELAUS, bishop of Caesarea, 440. ARCHELAUS, chief general of Mithridates VI., king of Pontus, 1st century b.c. ARCHELAUS L, son of the preceding, high priest of Comana, 63 B.C.; afterwards, by his mar- riage with Berenice, king of Egypt; dethroned and put to death b.c. 55. ARCHELAUS II., son and successor of the pre- ceding as the priest-king of the city of Comana ; deposed by Julius Caesar 47 B.C. ARCHELAUS, son of the last named, king of Cappadocia, b.c. 34 to a.d. 16. ARCHELAUS, king of Macedon, B.C. 413-399. ARCHELAUS, king of Sparta, 9th cent. b.c. ARCHELAUS, the successor of his father Herod the Great as ruler of Judaea ; deposed and banished by Augustus on account of his cruelty, 7. ARCHIAS, a Corinthian archit., 3d cent. B.C. ARCHIAS, Aulus, L., a client of Cicero. ARCHIDAMUS I., king of Sparta, b.c. 630 ; the second of this name king, b.c. 469, died 427 ; the third, reigned B.C. 361-355 ; the fourth, B.C. 296-293; the fM, B.C. 240. ARCHIDEMUS, a Stoic philosopher, b.c. 160. ARCHIGENES, a Greek physician, 81-117. ARCHILVETRUS, a Greek satirist, 7th c. b.c. AP.0 [Archimedes— Hosti, Gemme Antic/ie.] ARCHIMEDES, the most celebrated of the ancient geometers, was born at Syracuse, about 291 b.c. He was related, on his father's side, to Hiero king of Syracuse, who deemed it an honour to have so distinguished a philosopher as his relative. Having acquired at an early age all the knowledge which could be obtained in his native city, he visited Egypt, which had long been regarded as the great seat of science, and he remained there for several years, enjoy- ing the society of its distinguished men, and stor- ing his mind with the knowledge which they imparted. With a partiality which cannot be too severely condemned, one of the biographers of our philosopher has asserted that he conveyed to the Egyptians more knowledge than he received ; but even if we had not been assured by Abulpharagus that he derived all his knowledge of mechanics from the Egyptians, we might have deduced the same truth from the well-known practice of the Greek philosophers, who, in the infancy of their science, went in quest of it to Egypt. — Upon his return to Syracuse, laden with the intellectual spoils of the" East, he devoted the whole of his time to the cultivation of the mathematical and physical sciences, and it was only when his country was in danger that he abandoned his studies, and directed all the energies of his mind against the enemies of Syracuse. — In the war which was carried on by the Romans against Hiero, about the year 212 B.C. they had obtained some signal advantages in Sicily, and were thus emboldened to lay siege to Syracuse itself. Inspired with terror at the naval and military preparations of the Roman general, the inhabitants were disposed to offer an ignomi- nious capitulation. Archimedes, however, removed their fears, and inspired them with courage. He is said to have erected vast machines, under the protection of the walls of the city, which baffled the attempts of the Roman engineers, and carried terror into the camp of the enemy. The machines by which he resisted the assaults of the Romans have not been described, and we can easily con- ceive that he erected works of defence which dis- concerted and alarmed his enemies; but when we are told that he sunk the ships of the be- siegers when they approached the city, by means of long beams of wood, and that, with grappling hooks at the end of levers, he raised the vessels into the air, and dashed them against the rocks or the walls, we feel that we are in the region of fable and romance, and must regard all such asser- tions as among the impossibilities of practical science. The inventions by which he is said to ARC have destroyed the Roman fleet when at a distance are less incredible. We may well believe that he had so improved the ballista? of the ancients as to throw stones or missiles to a greater distance, and with a greater force, than had been done before ; and we may even admit that, by a number of plane mirrors throwing the reflected image of the sun upon one point, he could burn a ship at a distance ; but we cannot believe that the Koman fleet was thus destroyed, unless we had it in evidence that the crew were asleep. We have in the present day better mirrors than Archimedes could com- mand, and better machinery for uniting their re- flections upon one point, but we venture to say that a British or a French admiral would laugh at any such attempt to annoy him. Buffon, it is true, has endeavoured to attach a degree of proba- bility to the story of burning a ship optically. He combined 168 plane mirrors so that he could direct the light of the sun which they reflected to one spot, and he found that he could burn wood with them at the distance of 200 or 300 feet. — This curious subject has been more recently discussed by M. Peyrard. Assuming the accuracy of Button's experiments that Jive times the heat of the sun is sufficient to inflame planks smeared with tar, M. Peyrard supposes that eight times the sun's heat will set fire to all kinds of wood ; and upon this supposition he found that, at the distance of about a mile and a-half, it would require 2267 mirrors to burn wood, and at the distance of three quarters of a mile 590. This calculation proceeds upon the supposition that their reflections are all coincident, and that the mirrors have their two surfaces perfectly plane and parallel. But it is well known that these conditions are impossible, and that the most perfect mirror that the most skilful optician could grind and polish, would, at the distance of three quarters of a mile, and much less, scatter the light which it reflects over a sur- face ten times greater than its own, and would have very little power in the combustion of wood. But there are other conditions necessary before these mirrors, even if mathematically perfect, could set fire to ships. The ships must be abso- lutely at rest before the combined reflectors could inflame the wood upon which they fell, and, as has been already stated, the crew must be asleep in the daytime when the sun is shining. We regard, therefore, the story of the burning of the Koman fleet to belong as much to romance as the fishing for ships with hooks at the end of levers, the sinking of them by long beams, and the whirling of them in the 'air by ropes and grappling hooks. It is no slight presumption in Favour of these opinions that the gigantic mech- anism which the Syracusan philosopher is said to have wielded against the Roman power was of little avail in the defence of the capital. The sieg« was converted into a blockade. During the celebration of the festival of Diana, when the Syracusans had indulged in a fatal security, the Romans attacked and obtained possession of the city. Marcellus had issued an order that Archimedes and his house should be snared ; but, either from ignorance of the order on the part of a Roman soldier, or from the obstinacy of Archi- medes in refusing submission, he was run through the body while drawing a geometrical diagram on ARC the sand. Marcellus was deeply afflicted when he heard of the event. He took the relatives of the philosopher under his special protection, and in erecting a monument to his memory, he fulfilled the wish that Archimedes had expressed in his lifetime, that a sphere inscribed in a cylinder should be engraven on his tomb.. The death of Archimedes took place b.c. 212, and 14U years afterwards, Cicero, while questor in Sicily, Avent with a party of Syracusan nobles in search of the tomb ot the great philosopher, which his country- men had allowed to go into decay. ' Remem- bering;' says Cicero, 'some verses, said to have been inscribed on his tomb, which mentioned that on the top of it there was placed a sphere in a cylinder, I looked around me upon every object at the Agrigentine Gate, the common re- ceptacle of the dead. At length I observed a small column rising above the thorns, upon which was placed the representation of a sphere in a cylinder. This, said I to the nobles, must be what I am seeking. Several persons were immediately got to clear away the weeds, and lay open the spot. As soon as a passage was made, we found on the op- posite base the inscription, with nearly the latter half of the verses obliterated.' — The reputation of Archimedes did not require to be sustained by the fables with which the vanity of his countrymen has surrounded his name. His discoveries in geo- metry, mechanics, and hydrodynamics would have immortalized him, had posterity never heard of his magical artillery against the Roman fleet. He discovered that the surface as well as the solidity of any sphere is equal to two-thirds of its circum- scribing cylinder ; and that the ratio of the dia- meter of a circle to its circumference is nearly as 7 to 22. It is to him that we owe the demonstra- tion of the fundamental property of the lever, and the method of finding the centre of gravity of plane surfaces. He discovered the quaquaversus pres- sure of fluids, and pointed out the condition under which a solid body is in equilibrio when floating in a fluid. He invented the screw for raising water which bears his name; and we owe to him the process of detecting the adulteration of the precious metals, which he so successfully applied in proving the impurity of the gold in king Hiero's crown.— A splendid edition ot the works of Archimedes was printed at the Clarendon Press at Oxford, in 1792, edited by our countryman, the Rev. Abraham Ro- bertson. [D.B.] ARCHINTO, the name of a noble family of Milan, many of whom were distinguished as men of letters, ecclesiastics, and statesmen, from the 12th to the 17th cent. Charles, founder of a scientific academy, 1669-1732. Philip, abp. of Milan, d. 1558. Giuseppe, abp. and card., d. 1712. Octavius, an antiq. and diplomatist, d. 1656. ARCHON, Louis, an antiquarian, 1645-1717. ARCHENHOLZ, J. W. Von, a German his- torian, 1695-1777. ARCHENHOLZ, J., a Swed. hist., 1695-1777. ARCHYTAS, a mathe. and philo. of the Pytha- gorean schl., dist. for his prac. abilities, 5th c. B.C. ARCO, Alph. De, a Sp. painter, died 1700. ARCO, Nich., Count, a Latin poet, died 1548. ARGON, J. Cl. Eleon. Lemiceaud D', a military engineer of France, 1733-1800. ARCO US, Caesar of, a Fr. advocate, d. 1681. ■iu ARC ARCUDIUS, Peter, a Greek priest, diplomatic agent of Clement VIII., died 1685. ' ARCUDI, Alex. Thos., of, a biographical writer of Venice, died 1720. ARCULPHUS, a French traveller, 7th century. ARCY, Patrick, a military writer, died 1779. ARDELL, J. M., an Irish engraver, died 1765. ARDENE, Esprit Jean De Rome D', a poet of Marseilles, 1684-1748. ARDENE, Jean Paul, brother of the preced- ing, distinguished as a botanist, 1689-1769. ARDERN, John, an English surgeon, 14th ct. ARDERNE, Jas., an English divine, died 1691. ARDINGHELLI, M., an algebraist, 18th cent. ARDUIN, elected king of Italy 1002, d. 1015. AREAGATHUS, a Greek physician, 3d c. B.C. AREGIO, P. De, an Italian painter, 16th cent. ARENA, Anth., a French poet, died 1544. ARENA, Jos., a Corsican in the French service, exeeut. 1802 on a charge of consp. agt. Bonaparte. ARENA, James of, a jurist, 13th century. ARENDS, Th., a Dutch poet, died 1700. ARENDT, M. F., a Danish antiquary and tra- veller, remarkable for the singularity of liis life and adventures, 1769-1824. ARENSBECK, P. D., a Swedish schl., d. 1673. ARESI, Paul, an Italian prelate and theologi- cal and philosophical writer, 1574-1644. ARE SON, the last Roman Catholic bishop of Ireland, beheaded with his sons 1550. ARETiEUS, a Greek physician, 1st century. ARETIN, A. and J. G., two brothers and art- writers of Germanv, 18th century. ARETIN, J. A'. C. J., baron of, a diplomatist and man of letters, 1769-1822. ARETIN, J. C, brother of the preceding, a statesman and author, 1773-1824. ARETINO, Charles, a classical scholar, cele- brated at Florence, 15th centurv. ARETINO, Fr., a lawyer, 15th century. ARETINO, Guido, a musician, 11th century. ARETINO, an Italian painter, 14th century. ARETINO, Leonard, an historian, died 1443. ARETINO, Peter, an Ital. poet, eel. as a reck- less satirist of princes and churchmen, 1492-1557. ARETINUS, an Italian musician, 16th cent. AREUS, king of Sparta, 268 B.C. ARETIUS, Ben., a Swiss botanist and theolo- gical teacher, died 1574. ARGjEUS, king of Macedon, 618 B.C.; a second ol the same name usurped the throne, 393 B.C. ARGAIS, Greg., a Spanish historian, 17th ct. ARGALL, R., an English poet, 16th century. ARGAND, a chemist of Geneva, died 1803. ARGELLATI, Ph., an Ital. printer, born 1685. ARGELLATI, Fr., son of Phelix, author of an imitation of Boccaccio, died 1754. ARGENS, J. B. Boyer, marquis of, a philoso- phical and miscellaneous writer, 1704-1771. ARGENTERO, J., a phys. of Piedmont, 16th c. ARGENTI, A., a poet of Ferrara, died 1576. ARGENTRE, Bertrand, an historian and jurist, president of Rennes, died 1590. ARGHUN-KHAN, king of Persia, 1284-90. ARGOLI, Axo., an Italian physician and mathematician, 1570-1653. ARGOLI, John, son of Andrew, a poet and !"jrist, died 1660. ARGOUNE, Noel, a critical author, d. 1704. ARI ARGUELLADA, Raymond, a Sp., disting. for his share in framing the constitution of 1812. ARGUELLES, Augustus, a Spanish patriot, brought into note by the revolution of 1812. ARGUIJO, Juan De, a Sp. poet, 17th cent. ARGUSTIN, Anth., a Sp. antiquary, 16th ct. ARGYROPYLUS, John, one of the Greek sa- vants, refugees of the 15th century. ARI, or ARA FRODE, a scholar and historian of Iceland, 11th century. ARIADNE, a Gr. princess, daughter of Leo. I.» remarkable in the politics of the period, 457-515. ARIARATHES, ten kings of this name -eigned in Cappadocia from the 4th to the 1st cent. b.c. ARIAS MONTANUS, an Orientalist, 16th ct. ARIBERT I., king of the Lombards, 653-661. ARIBERT II., succeeded 701, deposed 712. ARICI, Caesar, an Italian poet, born 1785. ARION, a Greek poet, 7th century, b.c. ARIOSTI, Attilio, a composer 17th century. ARIOSTO, Lodovico, the son of a gentleman in the sen-ice of the dukes of Ferrara, was bom in 1474, at Reggio, near Modena. His life, though not prosperous, was far from being eventful : dur- ing the whole of it he was employed, in various capacities, by the ducal house of Este, who, nig- gardly and careless in their treatment of this great poet, behaved even worse in the next generation to the unfortunate Tasso. From the schools of Ferrara he passed to Padua, where he was compelled to study law for five years, busying himself also with the classics, and being at length allowed by his father to abandon the legal profession. About 1503 he was received into the retinue of cardinal D'Este, a younger son of the reigning duke of Fer- rara. As he grew older, he was repeatedly employed on confidential public missions by Alfonso, the next duke, the cardinal's elder brother; and when, in 1517, he lost the cardinal's favour by declining to attend him into Hungary, duke Alfonso took him into his own sen-ice. He received some trifling ecclesias- tical appointments, capable of being held by a per- son not in orders; and for three years, from 1522, he was busied in organizing and governing the mountainous district of Garfagnana, which had just been re-acquired by the house of Este. He con- tinued to be a needy man, though there is no rea- son for supposing that he lived extravagantly or irregularly; and, even if there was insufficient ground for his complaints of the parsimony of his patrons, it seems to be quite certain that they were blind to his literary merit. His last few years were spent in Ferrara, where he died in 1533.— Ariosto would hold a place in the history of Italian literature, although he had contributed to it nothing but his minor works. His Rime, or short pieces of familial- verse, such as sonnets and otner lyrics, are excellent in their class ; his seven poetical Satires, gay, good-humoured, and wittily observant, stand in the first rank among Italian compositions of the kind; and there is much of felicitous wit, not without great indecency, in his five versified Comedies. But it is the ' Or- lando Furioso' that makes him immortal, as one of the greatest of modern European poets. This celebrated work stands in an odd relation to simi- lar poems that preceded it In the course of the fifteenth centurv, metrical romances of chivalry appeared in Italy; and towards the close of tha't 11 AP.I century Fulci and Boiardo, borrowing from the romances the fabulous history of Charlemagne and his paladins, and imitating much of that union of the serious and the comic which marked the effu- sions of the minstrels, worked up these materials into chivalrous poems. Boiardo's ' Orlando In- namorato ' takes its name from the love of its hero, the knightly Orlando or Roland, for the Eastern princess Angelica. Of this poem, Ariosto's, (first published incomplete in 1516, and then in its present shape in 1532,) is just a continuation. Orlando's madness, caused by jealousy, fur- nishes its title, and a considerable part of its incidents. But Charlemagne's war with the Sa- racens is fully related : isolated adventures of many of his champions are continually intro- duced; and a prominence, which increases as the work proceeds, is bestowed on the knight Rug- giero and the beautiful amazon Bradamante. The poem closes with events which remove ob- stacles to the marriage of these personages, who are represented as the ancestors of the family of Este ; and their history is regarded as the leading story of the Orlando, by those critics who are un- willing to allow that it is nothing more than a collection of episodes. If unity of design was really attempted by the poet, he has certainly failed in the execution : no one series of adventures is so decisively prominent as to fix the attention of the reader ; and the several stories are interwoven, and alternately droppedand resumed, with a ca- price and complexity which make it no easy task to follow the windings. The mixture of gaiety with seriousness is continual ; yet these dissimilar ele- ments are harmonized with much skill and deli- cacy : and the airy sportiveness of fancy which is prevalent throughout, and the extraordinary ani- mation with which the chivalrous perils and acts of heroism are depicted, concur in shedding over the poem a charm which is irresistible. In point of poetic adornment, the Orlando is at once rich and original : Ariosto is as much superior to Tasso in native genius, as he is inferior to him in skill of constructive art. [W.S.] ARIOSTO, Gabriel, brother of the celebrated poet, also a poetical writer. ARIOSTO, Horace, son of the preceding, a poet and comedian, died 1693. ARISI, Fr., an advocate and poet, 1657-1743. ARISTiENATUS, an elegant Greek wr., 4th c. ARISTARCHUS, a grammarian and critic of noted severitv, 2d century B.C. ARISTARCHUS, a Greek philosopher of the 3d century B.C., whose works on astronomy show that he was acquainted with the rotation of the earth upon its own axis. ARISTEAS, a Jewish chronicler, 1st cent, b c. ARISTIDES, a Greek painter, 3d cent. B.C. ARISTIDES, jElius, a Gr. orator, 2d ct. b.c. ARISTIDES, Quintillian, a didactic writer, author of a work on music, 2d century. ARISTIDES, a philosopher, 2d century. ARISTIDES of Thebes, a painter, contem- porary with Apelles, was, according to Pliny, the greatest master of expression among the Greeks. The same writer relates that when Alexander the Great stormed Thebes, he was so struckwith a picture by him of a dying mother with a child at her bosom, that he ordered it to be sent to his palace at Pella. ARI The works of Aristides were in great repute even during his lifetime. Mnason, tyrant of Elates, paid him £-3,600 for a single easel picture of a battle of the Persians, containing one hundred figures only. After the siege of Corinth, 146 b.c, Attains III., king of Pergamus, offered £5,300 for a picture of Bacchus and Ariadne by Aristides, but the Roman feneral Mummius, thinking the picture had some idden value in it, sent it to Rome, where it was dedicated in the temple of Ceres. A celebrated picture by this painter, preserved in the temple of Apollo at Rome, was destroyed by a picture re- storer, to whom the praetor, M. Junius, had given it to be cleaned before the celebration of the Apol- linaria ; another of the incidents which show now similar are the stories of ancient and modern art. Aristides painted in encaustic, that is with wax colours, the picture being afterwards burnt in. — (Pliny, Hist. Nat. vii. 39, xxxv. 4 8, 10 36, 11 39, 40.) [R.N.W.] ■l> [The Pnyx at Athens.] ARISTIDES, surnamed the Just, an Athenian general and statesman, whose intrepidity greatly contributed to the victory of Marathon. Being banished through the intrigues of Themistocles, b.c. 483, he was recalled by his countrymen to oppose Xerxes, and distinguished himself at the battle of Salamis. After serving in the highest offices of the state, he died a poor man, 467 B.C. ARISTIPPUS, king of Argus, killed 242 B.C. ARISTIPPUS, a pupil of Socrates, and founder of a school of philosophy at Cyrene, 4th cent. B.C. ARISTO, an Aristotelian, 3d century B.C. ARISTO, Titus, a Stoic, time of Trajan. ARISTOBULUS I., a Jewish prince, succeeded his father Hyrcanus as high priest, and took the title of king 107 B.C.; died 108. ARISTOBULUS II., usurped the throne 70 B.C. ; deposed by Pompey 63 b.c. ARISTOBULUS, brother of Mariamne, wife of Herod the Great, killed 35. ARISTOGITON, an Athenian, executed B.C. 516, for conspiring against the Pisistratides. ARISTOMENES, a Greek general, representa- tive of the royal house of Messene, 7th cent. B.c. ARISTOPHANES, a celeb, name in the Greek drama, author of numerous comedies, equally re- markable for the beauty of their composition, and their pungent satire, flourished in the 5th ct. B.C. His life and works have given occasion to a vast amount of learned writing and critical inquiry, but the facts known concerning him are few in number. Out of 44 compositions of his, only 11 are extant. ARI [Aristotle— From mi Antique fiust.] ARISTOTLE. This distinguished philosopher, founder of che celebrated Peripatetic school, was born at Stagira, a city of Thrace, in the year 384 before Christ, His father, Nicomachus, was the physician of Amyntas, king of Macedon, and his mother, Phaestis, as well as his father, believed to have been descended from Esculapius. Having lost both his parents in early life, he was placed under the guardianship of Proxenus, an eminent citizen of Atarneus, a city in Mysia, and after completing his seventeenth year, he repaired to Athens, to study in the school of Plato. Here he remained for twenty years, imbibing the noble spirit of his master, devoting himself to the acquisition of everv species of knowledge, and honoured in the estimation of his teacher and of his companions, as ' the intellect of the school.' — Upon the death of Plato, 348 b.c, Aristotle took up his residence at Atarneus, on the invitation of his friend Her- meias, who though originally the domestic slave of an Athenian banker, who had permitted him to attend the school of Plato, was now independent sove- reign of Atarneus and Assos. At the small but interesting court of his friend, and surrounded by the scenes of his early studies, Aristotle spent three happy years, enjoying the society of intellec- tual friends, and devoting himself with unremitting assiduity to the study of nature. Here, too, he had formed ties warmer than those of friendship. Pythia, the niece of the king, had gained his affec- tion, and when the unfortunate sovereign had been betrayed by some worthless individuals who had enjoyed his hospitality, and had forfeited his life as a rebel against the king of Persia, Aristotle fled to Lesbos with the family of his friend, and was soon afterwards married to his niece, who did not long survive her uncle. — During his residence at Mytelene, in Lesbos, which was continued for two years, Aristotle seems to have received from Philip, king of Macedon, the nattering invitation to superintend the education of Alexander his son. The compliment thus paid to his talents and cha- racter was too high to be rejected; and though the duties which such an office demanded might have interfered with the progress of his studies, he cheerfully accepted of it, and took up his resi- dence at Pella, when Alexander had reached his fourteenth year. The king received him with the most marked attention, and science and learning have in no future age been more highly honoured than they were at the court of Macedon in the person of r the distinguished Stagyrite, and through ARI the liberality of the most powerful of sovereigns. The Macedonian prince was instructed during five or six years in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and in those branches ol physics which had even at that time made some consider- able progress. Aristotle made a new collection of the Iliad for the use of his pupil, and composed a treatise 'On a Kingdom,' which has not descended to our times. — Upon the death of Philip, in 336 B.C., JUexander succeeded to the throne, when in the twentieth year of his age, and Aristotle continued to live with him as his friend and counsellor till he set out on his Asiatic campaign in 334 b.c. The delicate constitution and intellectual habits of the philosopher prevented him, at the age of fifty, from following his pupil in his martial career, and he accordingly returned to Athens, where, in the charming retreat of the Lyceum, he delivered his lectures to crowded audiences, while walking in the shade, amid the trees and fountains with which it was adorned. — While thus instructing his pupils, and enjoying the popularity and reputation to which he had attained, he became, like all illus- trious teachers of philosophy, the object of envy and persecution. His rivals in learning directed against him the usual calumnies which genius is ever destined to endure from the ignorance and malice of its enemies; and the heathen priests, dreading the progress of truth as the greatest enemy of their faith, charged the philosopher with impiety and sedition. The friendship of Alexander had hitherto shielded him from open persecution, but upon the death of that monarch, in B.C. 323, he was charged before the Areopagus as an enemy to the religion of his country, and avoided the fate of Socrates, which he knew awaited him, by mak- ing his escape to Chalcis, a city of Euboea. In this city of refuge he spent the remainder of his life. Exhausted with mental labour, and broken in spirit by his misfortunes, his feeble constitution gave way, and he died in 322 b.c, in the sixty- third year of his age, about a year after his retreat to Chalcis. His remains were carried to Stagira by his fellow-citizens, and an altar and shrine erected over his grave. The festival of Aristotelia was instituted in gratitude for his services, and even in Plutarch's time the garden of the philoso- pher, with its walks and bowers, was exhibited to the public. In his personal appearance, Aristotle was defective. He is described as having little eyes and slender limbs, with a feeble voice and an imperfect utterance ; and he is said to have im- proved the symmetry of his person by great atten- tion to dress, and the use of elegant ornaments. — The writings of Aristotle were carried to Rome among the other spoils of Athens, when it was captured by Scylla, and they were edited by An- dronicus the Rhodian, about three hundred years after they were composed. In our narrow limits we can neither record the number nor estimate the value of his writings. He divided philosophy into three departments— theoretic, embracing phy- sics, mathematics, theology, and metaphysics ; effi- cient, including logic, rhetoric, and poetry; and practical, including ethics and politics. See Dr. Gillies's Ethics and Politics of Aristotle, with an account of his Life, 2 vols. 4to, 1797. [D.P.. j ARISTOXENUS, one of the most celebrated disciples of Aristotle, 4th century B.C. 43 ARI ARIUS, the noted heretic, was born about the middle of the third century. His entire life was embroiled with disputes, principally with bishop Alexander and with Athanasius on the divinity of Christ. Arius held that God created his Son, that the Son had not existed from all eternity, and was not in dignity and essence equal with the Father. This fatal heresy was solemnly condemned by the great council which met at Nice in 325. After numerous vicissitudes, strifes, and intrigues, Arius was in the act of celebrating a triumph in Constantinople, when he retired from the crowd to satisfy a call of nature, and then and there sud- denly died at a very advanced age. His enemies rudely reckoned his manner of death a judgment from heaven. Arius was a man of bustle and ambition, soured by disappointment, and irritated by dehant opposition, and his errors, if not prompted, were at least shaped to some extent by the excit- ing circumstances in which he was placed. [J.E.] ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, an extraordi- nary man, whose genius has created a permanent influence on the constitution of civilized society. Bom in Preston in 1732, of humble parents, the youngest of 13 children, he was brought up as a barber. About 1760 he quitted this precarious business, and dealt in hair, which he collected about the country, and discovered how to dye it and prepare it for wig-makers. From 1767, not till he was 35 years of age, Arkwright gave him- self up exclusively to the subject of inventions for spinning cotton. In 1768 he was in Preston con- structing his first machine. At this time his poverty was such, that ' being a burgess of Pres- ton he could not appear to vote till the party with whom he voted gave him a decent, suit of clothes ! ' Apprehensive of meeting with the same hostile treatment from the operative weavers of the dis- trict as Hargreaves had met with, Arkwright re- moved to Nottingham, where he became a partner with Mr. Jedediah Strutt, the ingenious improver and patentee of the stocking frame, and who ren- dered essential assistance in perfecting the inven- tion for which Arkwright obtained his first patent in 1769. — The improvement for which the patent was obtained, consisted mainly in the use of two pairs of rollers, the first pair, between which the carded cotton in the form of a 'spule,' or soft cord, passed, revolving slowly ; and the second pair revolving two, three, or ten times as fast, so as to draw out the spule to one-half, one-third, or one- tenth of its thickness when between the first rol- lers. This invention was followed up by various improvements and combinations of machinery, and mills for spinning cotton by this method were erected in Nottingham first, and then at Cromiord in Derbyshire. The system has since been univer- sally adopted, and in all its main features remains unaltered to the present time. Out of this inven- tion have grown up the largest manufacture, the largest trade, some of the largest cities, the largest revenue, and the largest national prosperity in the world Arkwright did not escape the system of robbery and persecution, the fate of most patentees of successful inventions then as now. By aid of false witnesses a combination of the persons in the spinning trade succeeded in 1781 in depriving Arkwright of his patent right. The evidence upon which the patent was annulled, and upon ARM which it has been much the fashion to depreciate Arkwright's talents, was that of persons in a low station of life, who spoke of circumstances which had occurred 18 years before ! — Arkwright's genius was not that of a mechanic alone. Although the details of manufacturing or commercial busi- ness were altogether new to him, and although it was five years before the works at Cromford returned any profit, yet by indomitable energy he turned the tide of prosperity and wealth to his own ad- vantage, and for several years regulated the cotton market. He left great wealth to his heirs, who in their generation increased their patrimony to the most colossal fortune, perhaps, that has been realized in Britain. [L.D.B.G.] ARLAND, J. A., a painter, died 1743. ARLER, Peter Von, an architect, 14th cent. ARLOTTO, M., a facetious writer, 15th cent. ARMELLINI, M., a learned monk, died 1737. ARMFELDT, Charles, baron of, a Swedish general, time of Charles XII. ARMFELDT, Gustavus Maurice, count of, a Swedish statesman, died 1814. ARMINIUS, or HERMANN, a German chief, who maintained his ground for years against Varus and Germanicus, and was at last slain by the treachery of one of his countrymen, 21. ARMINIUS, (V AN Harmine,) was born at Oudewater, South Holland, in 1560. After study- ing at Leyden he went to Geneva, and enjoyed the prelections of Beza. His mind seems to have had an early love of innovation, an early itching to oppose established forms of thought and belief, and he became a romantic supporter of the philo- sophy of Peter Ramus. At the age of twenty-six he was ordained minister of one or the churches in Amsterdam, and preached with great acceptance. His views soon became unsettled, and he was en- tangled in controversy. In 1603 he succeeded Junius in the chair of theology at Leyden. Next session he attacked the doctrine of predestination, and based it upon foreknowledge of faith and merit. Gomar became his resolute antagonist. The warfare waxed hotter and hotter, and the States-general interfered, but to no purpose. Arminius died in 1609. The candour and honesty of Arminius are unimpeached, and his ability is un- doubted, but the system which now bears his name was elaborated after his death by Episcopius and Limborch, several of its distinctive tenets not being held by its name-father. [J-F-] ARMSTRONG, John, a eel. phys., au. of many valuable works on medical science, 1784-1829. ARMSTRONG, John, M.D., a Scotch physi- cian, better known as a poet, was born at Casleton, on the banks of the Liddal, in Roxburghshire, 1709, and graduated at Edinburgh, 1732. He was already distinguished by his love of literature and the arts, but more especially for his classical attain- ments and taste in poetrv. After one or two pro- fessional essays, he published, 1735, a poetical brochure, entitled, an 'Essay for Abridging the Study of Medicine,' a pleasant attack on the or- thodox faculty, in the dialogue of which he is said, to have caught the very spirit of Lucian. This was followed in 1737 by a professional work on a subject; requiring great delicacy in its treatment, and two years afterwards by ' The Economy of Love,' a poen which passed through several editions, ' more to tin 41 ARM profit of the publisher than the reader.' His repu- tation, clouded by this unfortunate sally of humour, was fully established in 1744 by the ' Art of Pre- serving Health,' which is still regarded as one of the best didactic poems in the English language, and has placed its author in the same rank as Akenside. From this period to 1758, Dr. Arm- strong published several fugitive pieces, more or less correct in taste, and in the last-named year a volume of sketches, remarkable for their ill-humour, under the pseudonyme of Launcelot Temple, Esq. In 1760, his poetical epistle entitled 'The Day ' was Eublished, as the preface declares, without the nowledge or consent of the author, and procured for him the enmity of Churchill, who retorted its reflections in severe, and it may be unjustifiable, terms. Armstrong was evidently dissatisfied with his place in public esteem, and in all probability had cherished a morbid sensibility on this subject, which waa ill concealed by the affectation of a good-natured cynicism, described by the poet Thom- son, who was also his intimate friend, as ' both humane and agreeable, like that of Jacques in the play.' This quality, whether agreeable or the contrary, was abundantly manifest in a volume of medical essays, published 1771, in which, however, some advanced views in physiology are put forth. The professional career of Dr. Armstrong brought him little distinction. In 1741, we find him soli- citing the appointment of physician to the West Indian fleet. In 1746 he was appointed to the hospital for lame and sick soldiers behind Buck- ingham House, and in 1760 accompanied the Ger- man army as physician. His collected poetical works were published in 2 vols. 8vo, 1770, and along with them his tragedy of the ' Forced Mar- riage,' which had been rejected by Garrick. Dr. Armstrong died in consequence of a fall when stepping from his carriage, in 1779, and surprised his friends by leaving a saving of three thousand pounds out of his moderate income. [E.R.] ARMYNE, Lady Mary, a woman of distin- guished benevolence and attainments, died 1675. ARNAL, J. P., a Spanish architect, died 1805. ARNALD, a commentator, died 1756. ARNALL, M., a political writer, noted as a partizan of Walpole, died 1741. ARNAUD, F. S. B., a miscellaneous author of France, 1718-1757. ARNAUD DE MERUIL, a Fr. poet, d. 1220. ARNAUD, Fr., a French ecclesiastic, disting. as a journalist and savant, 1721-1784. AKXAULD DE VILLENEUVE, a famous alchymist and physician, 1238-1314. ARNAULD, Anth., a political writer, time of Catharine de Medici, 1550-1619. ARNAULD, Robt., son of Anthony, an an- nalist and translator, 1589-1674. ARNAULD, Henry, another son, born 1597, bishop of Angers 1649, died 1692. ARXA ULD, Anth., another son, eel. as aphilo- sopher, theologian, and controversialist, 1612-1694. ARNAULD of Brescia, an Italian reformer and martyr, of the 12th century. ARNAULT, A. T., a Fr. dramatist, died 1834. AKNDT, Joshua, brother of Christian, author of « Ecclesiastical Antiquities,' 1626-1685. ASNDT, Charles, son of Joshua, a professor of Hebrew, 1673-172L ARN ARNDT, Chr., a logician, 1623-1683. ARNDT, C. Gottlieb Von, councillor and literary assistant of Catherine II. ARNDT, Joh. Gottfried, hist., 1713-1767. ARNDT, John, a divine, 1555-1621. ARNE, Thomas Augustine, Mus. Doc, the son of an upholsterer, was born in King-Street, Covent Garden, London, in the year 1710. Arne, who was by his father intended for the legal pro- fession, was educated at Eton, and served a, regular term to an attorney ; but his love of music prevailed overall obstacles, and contrary to his father's wishes, he forsook the subtleties of law for the then less lucra- tive study of music. His ungovernable taste led him to have recourse to strange and eccentric me- thods for its gratification, of which the following incident furnishes an example:— While engaged in the attorney's office his means were limited, and his musical appetite insatiable, but that he might have an opportunity of gratifying it, he often, as we find on the authority of Dr. Burney, ' used to avail himself of the privilege of a servant, by borrowing a livery and going into the gallery or the opera, which was then appropriated to domestics.' While an apprentice with the lawyer, the young enthusiast received some lessons on the violin from Michael Christian Festing, a German vio- linist then in much repute, and in a short time made so much progress upon that instrument that he quitted his legal master and adopted music as a profession. The first notice his father had of this circumstance, was when on one occasion happening accidentally to call at the house of a neighbouring gentleman, he found to his surprise and consterna- tion the young Thomas Augustine playing leading violin with a party of musicians. This incident de- cided the fate of Arne. The world gained a musi- cian of much taste and delicacy of feeling, and lost perhaps a discontented pettifogger. Soon after this, Arne discovering that his sister, who after- wards became Mrs. Cibber, had not only a fine taste in music, but a ' sweet-toned and touching ' voice, he gave her a course of instructions, and qualified her to appear in Lampe's opera of Ame- lia. Her voice and manner took so well with the public, that Arne, then only eighteen years of age, set to music for her Addison's Rosamond, in which she personated the heroine, his younger brother supporting the character of the Page. Arnc's suc- cess in his first opera induced him to compose music for Fielding's Tom Thumb, which was brought out in 1731. In 1738 he produced the music to Comus, which established his reputation as a lyrical composer. In 1740 he married Miss Cecilia Young, a pupil of Geminiani, and went with her professionally to Ireland, where both were well received, he as composer and she as singer. In 1742 he returned to England, and produced two masques, Britannia and The Judgment of Paris; also Eliza, an opera, and Thomas and Sally, a humorous after- piece. In 1745 Arne and his wife were engaged by the proprietor of Vauxhall, and here he com- posed his charming songs, which are now so rarely to be seen, and so greedily sought after by ama- teurs and collectors in all parts of Great Britain. It was not long after this that he composed his two oratorios, A bel and Judith, but they met with no suc- cess. His Artaxerxes, a free translation by himself | from the Artaserse of Metastasio, upon which his 45 AHN f:imo as an operatic composer now rests, was com- posed in 17G2, and it met with the most triumphant success. In 1769 the university of Oxford conferred npon Arnethe degree of Doctor in Music. After this he composed his opera The Fairies, the music for Mason's Elfrida and Caractacus, additions to Pur- i ell's Kiny Arthur, several of Shakspeare's songs, and the Stratford Jubilee, besides many glees, catches, and canons. For his excellence as a writer of glees the Catch Club awarded him no fewer than seven gold medals. His song and chorus, Rule Bri- tannia, which will live for ever, ' may be said to have wafted his name over the greater half of the habit- able world.' Dr. Arne was seized with spasms of the lungs, and died on the 5th of March, 1778. On his deathbed, having been educated a Roman Catholic, he sought consolation from the rites of that church, and his last moments were cheered by a hallelujah sung by himself. Mrs. Arne died about the year 1795. Dr. Arne left an only son, Michael, who evinced a precocious taste for music, but never attained the same eminence as his father. He in conjunction with Mr. Battishill produced the open of Alcmena at Drury Lane in 1764, and afterwards Ci/mon at the King s Theatre, from which he de- rived both honour and fame. He died without issue, but in what year we have been unable to discover. [J-M.] ARNE, Cecilia, wife of the celebrated Dr. Arne, a distinguished cantatrice, d. 1795. ARNE, Michael, son of the preceding, also a composer of music, died about 1785. ARNIGIO, an Italian poet, 1523-1577. ARNHEIM, or ARNIM, a German baron, dis- tinguished in the thirty years' war. ARNIM, Ludwig A. Von, a romancist and poet of Germany, 1781-1831. ARNISiEUS, a metaphysician, 16th century. ARNOBIUS, Afer, a Christian writer, 3d ct. ARNOBIUS, a biblical commentator, 5th cent. ARNOLD, Benedict, an American general who was at first distinguished in the cause of indepen- dence, but in 1780 entered into an engagement with the British for the treasonable surrender of West Point, where he commanded, 1740-1801. ARNOLD, Chr., an astronomer, 1646-1695. ARNOLD, God., a mystic divine, 1665-1714. ARNOLD, John, a mechanician, 1744-1799. ARNOLD, Nicil, a polemical dis., died 1680. ARNOLD, Richard, a chronicler, 15th cent. ARNOLD, Samuel, Mus. Doc, was born in London, in the year 1740, and received his musical education at the Chapel Royal, St. James's, from Mr. Bernard Gates and Dr. Nares, who discovered in him the most promising ta- lents. In the year 1760 he became composer to the Covent Garden Theatre, and in 1766 he undertook the duties of the same office at the Hay- market. Dr. Arnold produced four oratorios, eight odes, three serenades, forty-seven operas, three burlettas, besides many overtures, concertos, songs, and smaller pieces, the number of which is not on record. The most popular of his works, several of which still keep their place in public estimation, were The Maid of the Mill, The Son-in-law* The Castle of Andalusia, Inkle and Yarico, The Battle of Hexham, The Surrender of Calais, The Chil- dren in the Wood, The Mountaineers. The Cure of Said, Abiindtdi, The Insurrection, and The 4G ARN Prodigal Son. The university of Oxford con- ferred upon him their degree of Doctor in Music about the year 1773. In 1783, on the death of Dr. Nares, he was appointed organist at the Chapel Royal and composer to the king; and at the commemoration of Handel, which took place in the year following, Dr. Arnold was nominated one of the directors. He succeeded Dr. Cooke as conduc- tor of the Academy of Ancient Music in 1783, and was appointed organist of Westminister Abbey in 1793. Dr. Arnold, who is described as having possessed those personal manners and social virtues which secure esteem, died on the 2d of October, 1802, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Dr. Arnold married a lineal descendant of the Baron of Merchiston, and left one son and two daughters. [J.M.] ARNOLD, Thos., a physician, 1742 1816. ARNOLD, Thomas, D.D., was torn at West Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, on 13th June, 1795. He belonged to a respectable family, his father be- ing collector of the customs in that place, and having been destined for the ministry in the Church of England, was in due time entered a student in the university of Oxford. On completing his col- lege studies in 1819, he obtained deacon's orders, and immediately after took up his residence at Laleham, near Staines, where for the nine follow- ing years he kept a private boarding establishment, intended chiefly as a school of preparation for the universities. In the superintendence of this semi- nary, the character of Arnold rapidly developed itself, and was marked by an indefatigable activity, a manly decision and deimiteness of purpose, above all, by a settled religious faith, little to be expected from the indolent and dreamy habits of his youth. He was an eminent Christian, as well as a ripe scholar ; and the principles on which he acted with the utmost earnestness himself he infused into the minds of his pupils, by leading them to unite a high standard of intellectual accomplishments with a Christian culture of the heart and affections. The success of this system extended his fame far beyond the obscure and limited locality of Lale- ham ; and in 1827 he became head master of Rugby school, having been nominated to that influential office by a unanimous vote of the trustees, who were told, on high authoritv, that ' he would change the face of education all through the public schools of England.' That expectation was not long in being realized; for having also obtained the appointment of chaplain to the school at Rugby, in which capacity he preached discourses, which have long been admired as models of ser- mons for educated youth, he succeeded, while fully sustaining the ancient celebrity of the institution as a classical seminary, in imparting to it a new and Christian tone. The great principle of his educa- tional system was to make his pupils good men as well as good scholars ; and accordingly, while la- bouring to store their minds with useful and elegant literature, he taught them to make religion the daily rule of their life— not to confine it to Sabbath and the church, but to carry it into the school-room, the play-ground, the secular duties and familiar intercourse of every day. The bene- ficial effects of the method pursued at Rugby led to its general adoption in the other great English schools, and produced a marked improvement on ARN the religions tone of sentiment and feeling among the young gentlemen who thenceforth repaired to the universities. — The principle of combining reli- gion with secular education, which Dr. Arnold had successfully adopted in his school, he endeavoured to carry out in all that he undertook. Thus he maintained the identity of church and state, realiz- ing a condition of society in which all the laws, institutions, and measures of a Christian country should be based on purely Christian principles. With the same view, he accepted a place in the directory of the London university, which he zea- lously encouraged, from a liberal desire to extend the benefits of a literary and scientific education to all classes, irrespective of sectarian tests ; but he wished to give it a religious character, and failing in his efforts to make examination in the Scriptures necessary for obtaining a degree, he resigned his con- nection with that institution. In like manner, hav- ing attempted in vain to infuse a Christian spirit into the Penny Magazine, he established, at his own risk, The Englishman's Register — a periodical to which his name and character would probably have gained a wide circulation; but finding that the publication demanded more time than he could spare, he was obliged, after the issue of a few numbers, to relinquish the undertaking. —Dr. Ar- nold is known as an author by several volumes of discourses, by his History of Rome, composed on the principles of Niebuhr, and by various pamph- lets on matters of contemporary interest in religion and politics. The government of Lord Melbourne rewarded his public services by appointing him to the chair of modern history in Oxford : but he had only given his inaugural lecture, when a spasmodic affection of the heart suddenly cut him off at Rugby, on 12th June, 1842, in the forty-seventh year of his age. [R. J.] ARNOLDE, R., a chronicler, 16th century. ARNOLFO, an Italian architect, died 1300. ARNOT, Hugo, a Scotch historian, 1749-1786. ARNOUL, king of Italy, 892 to 898. ARNOUL, a French prelate, 12th century. ARNOULT, S., a French actress, 1740-1802. ARNOULT, J. B., a French writer, 1689-1753. ARNULPH, or ERNULPHUS, bishop of Ro- chester, historian, died 1124. ARNTZENIUS, Otho, a Dutch savant, d. 1765. AROMATRI, J., an Ital. physician, 1586-1660. ARPINO, Jos., an Italian painter, 1560-1640. ARRIA, the wife of Caxina Paetus, distinguished by her tragical death, 42. ARRIAN, a Greek historian, 2d century. ARPJGHETTI, Ph., an Italian wr., 1582-1662. ARRIGHETTO, or ARRIGO, Henry, a Latin [)oet and ecclesiastic of Florence, 12th century. ARRIVABENE, L., bishop of Mantua, 16th ct. ARRIVABENE, J. F., an Italian poet, 16th ct. ARROWSMITH, Aaron, distinguished as a maker of maps and charts. 1750-1823. ABR< >WS.\HTH, J., a puritan divine, d. 1659. A USAGES I., elected king of the Parthians after conquering Seleucus, 288 B.C., killed in battle 250 b.c. The succeeding kings were called Ar- sacidae, to the number of twenty-eight, the dynasty becoming extinct 217, when Artaxerxes succeeded. AJRSACES, king of Armenia, slain by Sapor 369. A USE NT US, tutor of Arcadius, 4th century. ARSES, king of Persia, B.C. 339. ASC ARSILLI, Fr., an Italian physician, 16th cent. ARSINOE, mother of Ptolemy I., king of Egypt after Alexander the Great. ARSINOE, daugh. of Ptolemy, b. B.C. 316, mar. to Lysimachus, k. of Thrace, 300 B.C., dethd. 280. ARSINOE, sister of Cleopatra, by whose wish she was put to death, B.C. 41. ARTABAN L, king of Parthia 216 to 196 B.C. ARTABAN II., succeeded 127, killed 124 b.c ARTABAN III., king 14 b.c, several times dethroned by the Romans, died a.d. 44. ARTABAN IV., king 216, dethroned 226. ARTALIS, Joseph, a poet of Sicily, d. 1679. ARTARIS, an Italian statuary, 17th century. ARTAXERXES I., k. of Persia, 465 to 424 b.c ARTAXERXES II., king, 404 to 362 b.c ARTAXERXES III., k. 359, d. by pois. 338 b.c ARTAXERXES, or ARDSHIR,the first Sas- sanide king of Persia, reigned 217-240. ARTAXIAS, the name of three kings of Ar- menia; thej^rs^, about the middle of the 2d c. B.C.; the second from 30 to 20; the third a.d. 16 to 18. ARTEAGA, St., a Spanish author, died 1799. ARTEDI, P., a Swedish naturalist, died 1735. ARTEMIDORUS, a geographer, 1st cent, b.c ARTEMIDORUS, a writer on dreams, 2d cent. ARTEMISIA I., queen of Caira, 480 b.c ARTEMISIA II., queen consort of Caira, 376 to 352, queen 352 to 350, b.c ARTEMON, a military engineer, 5th cent. B.C. ARTEVELLE, James, chief of the popular party in Flanders, killed at the instigation of the nobles of Ghent, 1345. Philip, his son, leader of a revolt 1382, killed the same year. ARTHUR, the famous British prince, is sup- posed to have flourished at the time of the Saxon invasion, and to have d. in the battle-field abt. 520. ARTHUR, duke of Bretagne, son of Jeffrey, elder brother of John king of England, born 1187; excluded from the throne 1199; taken prisoner 1202 ; assassinated, as supposed, 1203. ARTIGAS, Don John, disting. in the wars of the Banda Oriental, and Buenos Ayres, 1760-1826. ARTIZENIUS, H., an historian, 1702-1759. ARTIZENIUS, J. H., son of Henry, disting. as a writer on jurisprudence, 1734-1797. ARTIZENIUS, Otho, uncle of the preceding, professor of the Belles Letlres, died 1763, aged Go. ARTOIS, J. V., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. ARTUSI, G. V., a musical author, 16th cent, ARUNDEL, Mary, countess of, a lady of dis- tinguished learning in the 16th century. ARUNDEL, T., abp. of Canterbury, noted for his violent persecution of the Reformers, 1353-1413. ARUNDEL, Sir Thos., first lord of Wardour, received his title from James I., distinguished against the Turks, died 1639. ARUNDEL, Thos., Howard, earl of, son of the preceding, died at Padua, 1646. ARUNDEL, Blanche, wife of the last named, mem. for her defence of Wardour castle, 1583-1649. ARVIEUX, Laurent D', an agent of the Fr. court in Palestine, and the East, 1635-1702. ARZACHEL, an astronomer, 11th century. ASAPH, St., a British monk, 5th century. ASBURY, Fr., bishop of the Episcopalian Methodists, U. S., 1745-1816. ASCHAM, Roger, a man of great learning, the instructor of Elizabeth, died 1568. 47 ASC ASCII AM, Antii., envoy from Cromwell to Spain, where he was assassinated, 1650. ASCHER, a German rabbi, died 1321. ASCLEPIADES, a Greek physician, d. B.C. 63. ASCOLI, Lkcco Di, a mathematician of Flo- rence, burned as a heretic 1358. ASCONIUS, a grammarian, 1st century. ASDRUBAL, a celeb, general commanding the army of Carthage, killed B.C. 220. Another Car- thaginian general of the same name, d. B.C. 489. ASDRUBAL, Barca, brother of Hannibal, vanquished and slain 208 B.C. ASELLI, Caspar, an anatomist, 17th cent. ASGILL, Sir Ch., a British officer, died 1823. ASGILL, John, a barrister, died 1783. ASH, John, LL.D., a lexicographer, d. 1779. ASHBURTON, Alexander Baring, Lord, b. 1774, commenced his political life as Whig member for Taunton, 1812 ; president of the Board of Trade under the Peel ministry, 1834 ; envoy to the United States on the Oregon question, 1842 ; d. 1848. ASHIK, a Turkish poet, 16th century. ASHLEY, John, a musician, last century. ASHLEY, Robert, a miscellan. wr., 16th cent. ASHMOLE, Elias, celebrated as an antiquary and alchymist, 1617-1692. ASHMUN, John Hooker, a distinguished scholar of America, 1800-1833. • ASHWELL, Geo., an English div., 1612-1C93. ASHRAF-SHAH, king of Persia, 1722 to 1729. ASKEW, Anne, a prot. martyr, reign of Henry VIIL; b. 1521, burnt afive aft. suffer, the rack, 1546. ASKEW, Anth., a scholar of the 18th century. ASMONiEUS, a Levite from whom the illustri- ous Asmona?an princes derive their name. ASPASIA, a lady of ancient Greece, whose house at Athens became the resort of the greatest masters in philosophv and art, 5th century B.C. ASPINWALL, Wk, a physician, 1743-1823. ASSELIN, G. T., a French poet, 17th century. ASSELYN, J., a Dutch painter, 1610-1650. ASSEMANI, Step., a catholic writer, 17th ct. ASSER, a French historian, died 883. ASSER, a Talmudist, died 427. ASSERMO, Menevensis, the instructor and biocrapher of Alfred the Great, died 909. AST, G. A. F., a philologist, died 1841. ASTARIK, F., a composer, died 1803. ASTEL, Mary, a divine and philos., d. 1731. ASTLE, Thos., an archaeologist, died 1803. ASTLEY, Ph., the eel. equestrian, 1742-1814. ASTOLPHUS, k. of the Lombards, 749 to 756. ASTON, Sir Arthur, a royalist, killed at Drogheda when taken by Cromwell, 1649. ASTON, Sir Thos., a royalist of Cheshire, taken prisoner and killed 1645. ASTOR, John Jacob, a native of Germany, disting. as a merchant of New York, and particu- larly for his enteq)rise in the establishment of the American fur trade, 1763-1848. ASTORGA, Marquis of, a Spanish diploma- tist, viceroy of Naples 1672. ASTORGA, Marquis of, disting. by his oppo- sition to the French usurpation in 1807, declared a traitor by Napoleon 1808, died 1814. ASTORI, J. A., a Venetian scholar, 17th cent. ASTORINI, Elias, a physiologist, died 1702. ASTYAGEO, last king of the Medes, dethroned by Cyrus, 6th ceiitury i;.c. ATT ASTBUC, J., a French physician, 10S1-1766. ATAHUALPA, last Inca of Pern, killed 1553. ATAIDE, viceroy of India 1569, died 1580. ATANAGI, Denis, an Ital. author, 16th cent. ATAULF, king of the Visigoths after Alaric. ATHA, Hakim Bek., the' original of Moore's 'Veiled Prophet of Khorassan,' who gave himself out for an incarnation of the Deity, aud met with a tragical end, 8th century. ATHALARIC, king of "the Ostrogoths, 526. ATHANAGILDUS, king of the Visigoths. .",4. ATHANARIC, king of the Visigoths, 4th cent. ATHANASIUS, the great champion of ortho- doxy in the fourth century, was born perhaps about 296. His first appearance was in support of his patron, bishop Alexander, against the Arians, and he was not only present, though simply a deacon, at the council of Nice, but was an active and intrepid member of that assembly. His rising fame led to his elevation to the see of Alexandria when Alexander died. Bishop Athanasius was immediately involved in contests, which ended only with his life. Deposed most unjustly in 335, he was reinstated in 338. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. His enemies prepared the most unscrupulous charges against him, all of which he refuted with an overwhelming force of proof and eloquence. Again in 355 was he sen- tenced to be banished, when he retired to the. Egyptian deserts, and again was he welcomed back to the Egyptian capital. Once more Julian the apostate exiled him, and once more he was restored. A fifth time was he banished by the emperor Valens, who, however, soon recalled him, and Athanasius, after holding the primacy for the long space of forty-six years, died at length in 373. He was a man of holy life, a bold and noble defender of the Godhead of the Saviour, an orator of ready and commanding eloquence, and a prelate of heroic and indefatigable activity. The !>rejudices even of Gibbon were softened toward urn, and he has pronounced upon him a splendid eulogy — History, chap. xxi. fhe monks of St. Maur published the works of this illustrious father in three folios, Paris 1698. [J.E.] ATHANASIUS, a prince bishop of Naples, ravaged Italy, and died 900. ATHELSTAN, king of England 925 to 954. ATHENJEUS, a military engineer, 3d ct. B.C. ATHENiEUS, a grammarian, 3d century. ATHENAGORAS, a philosopher of the 2d ct. ATHENAIS, the empress of Theodosius, distin- guished for her learning, died 460. ATHENADORUS, a Greek physician, 1st cent. ATHIAS, Jos., a learned Jew, 17th century. ATHLONE, Godfrey, count of, a Dutch general, time of William III. ATHOL, John Murray, duke of, died 1830. ATKINS, Robt., a divine, 17th century. ATKINSON, Hy., a mathematician, died 1831. ATKINSON, Thos., a miscel. writer, d. 1888, ATKYNS, Sir Robt., the patriotic defender of Lord Wm. Russell, born 1621 ; chief baron of the: exchequer, 1688 to 1693 ; died 1709. ATKYNS, Sir Robt., son of the preceding, his- torian of Gloucestershire, died 1711. ATKYNS, Rich., a writer on printing, d. 1677. ATLEE, S. J., a French officer, died 1786. ATTA, a dramatic poet, 1st century b.c. 48 ATR ATRATUS, Hugo, cardinal, an English physi- cian and natural philosopher, died 1287. ATTARDI, B., a monastic writer, 18th century. ATTENDOLI, Darius, a writer on duelling. ATTENDOLO, J. B., a poet, died 1592. ATTERBURY, Lewis, D.D., father of the famous Atterbury, 1631-1693. ATTERBURY, Francis, bishop of Rochester, celebrated as an eloquent preacher, born 1662, arrested on a charge of conspiracy in favour of the Stuarts 1722, died in exile 1732. ATTERBURY, Lewis, LL.D., brother of the bishop, author of sermons, &c, 1656-1731. ATTICUS, Herodes, a eel. Greek rhetorician, b. at Marathon 110, preceptor of Marcus Aurelius and Verus, consul and governor of the free cities of Asia 143, and subsequently ; died 186. ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius, the eel. friend of Cicero, disting. for the purity of his lang., d. B.C. 33. ATTILA. This distinguished leader was of Mongol-Tartar origin, and succeeded his uncle as king of the Huns, a.d. 434. At first the sovereign authority was divided between Attila and his brother Bleda, who together invaded Thrace, and compelled the emperor of the East to purchase their forbearance by a heavy fine and annual tri- bute of gold, a.d. 442. Some three years later Bleda was deposed and put to death, and Attila ac- knowledged as only and sovereign lord of the noma- dic hordes of Hungary and Scythia. This event is only obscurely related, but it was either precipitated, or shortly afterwards followed by the discovery of a sword, the possessor of which acquired a sacred character in the eyes of the Scythian barbarians, who worshipped the god of war under that em- blem; in short, it was believed that the divine right to universal empire was bestowed on Attila when this old weapon, which had long been buried in the earth, was placed in his hands ; and it was in this faith, added to the love of adventure and the hope of gain, that he succeeded in rallying to his stan- dard nearly all the barbarians of Scythia and Ger- many. The war, in fact, to which Attila, soon at the head of 700,000 combatants, challenged the whole civilized world, was a struggle for the ascendancy between the free life of the desert and the luxurious settlements which had transferred the sovereign authority to some of the meanest and basest of mankind. The character of Theodosius the younger, emperor of the East at this time, contrasts unfa- vourably in nearly every point with that of Attila, who was remarkable for his simplicity and general moderation, though subject to gusts of passion, which, with his cruelty in war, well entitled him to be called the 'terror of the world' and the 'scourge of God.' The East, according to some accounts, as far as the plains of Armenia, resounded with' the tramp of his armed hosts, and from the Euxine to the Adriatic some threescore and ten cities were given to fire and the sword ; while Theodo- sius, who ought to have protected them with the terror of his arms, was wringing the disgraceful tribute and the means of supporting the equally disgraceful splendour of his court, from his unhappy subjects. Not daring to meet the enemy in tne tented field, the emperor, by his splendid promises, one of the members of an embassy from Attila to poison him on his return home, but the miserable man, overawed by the commanding pre- ATT sence of his chief, confessed the plot ; and perhaps the most striking passage in his nistory is the bar- baric scorn with which Attila denounces this at- tempt of Theodosius as the treachery of a slave towards one whose fortune and virtues had made him master of the world ! The death of Theodo- sius, a.d. 450, and the preparations of Marcian, who replied to the usual demand for tribute, ' that he had gold for his friends and iron for his ene- mies,' diverted the course of Attila from the East, and pointed to the Western empire. Other induce- ments to this famous expedition were not wanting. Honoria, the sister of the reigning emperor Valenti- nian HI. had offered her hand to Attila as the means of escape from a cloister to which she had been con- signed for incontinence, and Genseric, the king of the Vandals, had solicited his aid against Theodo- ric king of the West Goths, whose destruction was also a darling object of Attila's ambition. He com- menced his march to Italy, a.d. 450, with an immense army of Huns, swelled by the numerous tributaries who owed him allegiance, and, crossing the Rhine, carried devastation through the greater part of Gaul and Burgundy, routing armies and destroying towns in his progress. Meantime the Roman army, under the command of iEtius, strengthened by an alliance with the West Goths, at whose head was Theodoric the Great, and with the gallant Franks, prepared to offer the last resist- ance of Italy to his advance. The armies met in the environs of Chalons-sur-Marne, when the ap- proach of Attila had already threatened Orleans with destruction, and a bloody conflict ensued, at which the slain has been variously estimated at from one hundred and sixty to three hundred thou- sand men. Although not routed, Attila was com- pelled to retreat beyond the Rhine, and was hardly dissuaded from an act of self-destruction which he had contemplated rather than be taken captive. The morrow of the battle discovered to him that he could continue his retreat without molestation, and he returned home only to recruit his forces, and spread equal devastation the year following in the plains of Lombardy. Ravenna and Rome itself now trembled at his near approach, and his retire- ment, with a vast ransom, from the cities of Italy, has been attributed to a miracle. Between this period and the death of Alaric, a.d. 453, a second invasion of Gaul is mentioned, which proved as destructive to human life as the preceding. The East also was again menaced with a reign of ter- ror, and Italy feared that his threats to compel the surrender of Honoria would yet be executed. These, and the thousand wild apprehensions which prevailed from the east to the west of Europe, while he lived, were allayed by his sudden death, occasioned by the bursting of a blood-vessel, on the night of his marriage with the beautiful Ildico. His wide -spread sovereignty, and the dreaded power of the Huns, died with him ; the confederacy of so many barbarous tribes, and the savage enthusiasm with which they ranged them- selves under his banner, being alike due to his singular power of command and personal prowess. —It may be observed here, that the Hungarians so called at the present day are not descended from the Huns of Attila, but are chiefly a Majiar race, with a mixture of Roman, Turk, Mongol, Slavonic, and German elements. [E.R.J •i'j ATT ATTIRET, J. Fk., a French Jesuit missionary and painter, 1702-1768. ATWOOD, Geo., F.R.S., a writer on mechanics and mathematics, 1745-1807. ATTWOOD, Thomas, an eminent composer, was born in the year 1765, and commenced his musical career as one of the children of the Chapel Royal, St. James's, under Dr. Nares and Dr. Ayr- ton. Happening on one occasion to perform at Buckingham Palace, he attracted the notice of George IV., then Prince of Wales, who took him under his patronage, and sent him at his own ex- pense to Naples m 1783, where he studied for two years under Filippo Cinque and Ga?taus Latilla. He afterwards visited Vienna, where he immediately became a pupil of Mozart, from whom he received instructions till the year 1786, when he returned to England, where he soon became one of the chamber musicians to his royal patron, and musical preceptor to the Duchess of York and the Princess of Wales, afterwards the unfortunate Queen Caroline. In 1795 Attwood succeeded Dr. Jones as organist of St. Paul's Cathedral, and in 1796 he was appointed composer to the king. About this period of his life he turned his atten- tion to the composition of music for the stage, and produced several operas, the literary portion of the most of which may be regarded as dead, though the music of many of them is as much admired as it was when first performed. Amongst the most popular of his operas may be named The Prisoner, The Mariners, The Adopted Child, The Castle, of Sor- rento, and The Smugglers. The fantastic tricks, and petty vanities of leading performers, disgusted Attwood, and caused him to turn his attention to sacred music, in which he was very successful. For the coronation of George IV. he wrote his an- them The King shall Rejoice, and for that of Fang William III., Lord, Grant the King a Long Life, both of which hold the highest place amongst this class of musical compositions. In 1837 the Bishop of London appointed him without solicita- tion to the office of organist to the Chapel Royal. He died in 1837, and his remains were buried in St. Paid's Cathedral, beneath the great organ, with every honour that the church and his professional brethren could confer. Many of Attwood's works, and they are very numerous in all the classes, are destined to enjoy a lengthened popularity. His style was founded principally upon that of his great teacher, Mozart, who, according to Michael Kelly, once said, ' Attwood partakes more of my style than any pupil I ever had.' [J.M.] AUBERT, Abbe, a French fabulist, last cent. AUBIGNE, Theod. Agrippa D', one of the most remarkable men of the 16th cent., an hist., satirist, and poet, persecuted on account of his attachment to the reformed religion, 1550-1630. AUBIGNE, Constant, son of the preceding, and father of Mad. de Maintenon. AUBLER, J. B. C. F., a botanist, 1720-1778. AUBREY, John, an antiquarv, died 1700. AUBRIET, Claude, a French painter, d. 1740. AUBRIOT, Hugh, mayor of Paris, time of Ch. V., incarcerated in the Bastile, which he had erected as a fortress against the English, on a charge of heresv, and rescued by the insurgent populace 1382, clied same year. AUBRY, Steph., a French painter, died 1781. AUD AUBRY DE MONTDIDIER, a French knighfc whose murder was discovered by the hostility ttf his dog to Richard de Macaire, 1371. AUBRY, C. L., a mathematician, last century. AUBRY, J. B., a French prior, 1735-1809. AUBRY, J. F., a Fr. physician, last century. AUBRY, Mdlle., a ballet dancer, worshipped in Paris as the goddess of reason, 1793. AUBRY DE GANGES, Marie Olympik. i female republican, executed by Robespierre. AUBRY, Dubonchet N., a French economist, deputy to the Estates General, 1789. AUBRY, F., a member of the Fr. Conven. and the Committee of Public Safety, died in England 1802. AUBUSSON, J. D', a troubadour, 13th cent. AUBUSSON, Peter D', a soldier of the church, distinguished against the Turks, 15th century. AUCHMUTZ, Sir Sam., an Eng. gen., d. 1822. AUCKLAND, Wm. Eden, Lord, a diplomatist and ambassador, 1744-1814. AUDE, Joseph, a dramatist, last centurv. AUDEBERT, G., a Latin poet, died 1678. AUDEBERT, J. B., an engraver, distinguished in subjects of natural history, 1739-1800. AUDEFROI, a poet of the 12th century. AUDENAERD, R. Van, an engraver, d. 1743. AUDIFREDI, an astronomer, last century. AUDIFFREDY, Therese, disting. in Cayenne for saving Pichegru and other victims of the coup d'etat, 18th Fructidor, from starvation. AUDIFRET, J. B., a diplomatist, died 1733. AUDINOT, N. M., a dramatist, died 1801. AUDLEY, Thos., chancellor of Henrv VIII. AUDONIN, king of the Lombards, 6th cent. AUDONIN, J. Vict., entomologist, d. 1841. AUDRA, Joseph, a French philosopher of the revolutionary school, 1710-1770. AUDRAN, the name of a Lyonese family which has produced many distinguished artists : the most eminent are Charles, 1594-1674; Claude, 1597-1677; Claude, the Younger, 1641-1684; Gerard, 1640-1703; John, 1667- 1756 ; and Claude, a nephew of the first of this name, 1658-1734. AUDRAN, P. G., a Hebrew scholar, last cent. AUDRIEN, Yves M., a French ecclesiastic and revolutionist; assassinated 1800. AUDUBON, John James, a celebrated Ame- rican ornithologist, was born in Louisiana in 1782. He died in 1851. From his earliest years he was devoted to the study of ornithology, roaming the wild woods of his native country, listening to the song of the singing birds, and picking up from his father all kinds of information about their habits, instincts, and migration. He commenced sketch- ing his favourites while a mere boy ; but a few years afterwards, when sent by his father to Pans, ho< enjoyed the opportunity of having lessons in paint- ing from the celebrated David.— Intended for a I commercial life, he entered into partnership with] a young Frenchman, and returned to America to I carry on their business there. While his partner! was keeping the accounts, Audubon was snooting birds in the woods or painting them in the count- ing-house. At last wearied of the drudgeries o£ business, he shook the trammels off, and, in spitei of the entreaties of his friends, betook himself to a wandering life in the forest. Sleeping by night at; the foot of a tree, subsisting on the game which OiJ ATJE he shot, and which he cooked for himself; floating down the silent rivers for hundreds of miles in a frail canoe, and sketching from nature as he went along, he accumulated a large collec- tion of faithful and accurate drawings of the feathered tribes of America. These were made the size of life in every case, and he added the de- tails of feet, legs, talons, and beaks, all measured accuratelv by compass. Not being able to procure subscriptions in America to enable him to publish them, he visited England and Scotland. In Edin- burgh he was received enthusiastically ; his draw- ings were admired and highly praised, and there he commenced engraving the figures which have procured him such a high reputation. The publi- cation of this extensive and gigantic work extended over thirteen years ; during the intervals of which he continued his journeys to the vast prairies and forests of America, and neglected nothing which could add to its value. If Audubon be indebted to friendly assistance for his descriptions of his birds, his drawings are his own, and his highest claim to admiration is founded upon them, as they exhibited a perfection never before attempted. His work consists of 435 plates, containing 1,065 figures of the size of life, and has been pronounced by Cuvier ' as the most gigantic and most magni- ficent monument that had ever been erected to nature.' Besides his great work, ' The Birds of America,' Audubon is the author of another, en- titled, 'Ornithological Biography.' A second edition of 'The Birds of America' was published in royal 8vo ; and before his death he had com- menced the 'Quadrupeds of America,' This he has left to be finished by his sons, who continue to prosecute the science in which their father won Buch fame. [W.B.] AUEBBACH, J. G., a German painter, 17th c. AUERSBERG, Herbard, baron of, disting. in the frontier war between the German empire and the Turks, 16th century. AUGE, D. G., a French author, 16th century. AUGER, Athaxasius, a political and learned writer of France, 1734-1792. AUGER, L. S., a Fr. journalist, 1772-1829. AUGEREAU. Pierre Francois Charles \ugekkau, was born 11th November, 1757, in one )f the faubourgs of Paris. His father was a working nason, his mother sold fruit. Young Pierre had 10 education, except that of the Paris streets. He inlisted while a lad ; and after some years of ser- vice as a private in the French army, he entered he Neapolitan, rose to the rank of sergeant, and ras a fencing-master at Naples when the wars of he French revolution broke out. Augereau then eturned to France, and joined one of the insurrec- ionary levies of 1792. He gained his successive teps of promotion on the battle-field ; and in 1796, rhen Buonaparte took the command of the army of taly, he found Augereau in high repute as a bold nd skilful general of division. That reputation ras augmented at Millesimo, at Ceva, at Lodi, at lastiglione, at Roveredo, and many more of the cenes of carnage that were so numerous at the lose of the last, and at the commencement of the Ment century. In 1805, Augereau was a mar- lal of France, and Due de Castiglione. It is from ■M f'.cts that Augereau's military talents must e judged, and not from the terms in which Na- 51 AUG poleon, and the writers of the Napoleonic school have spoken of him. Augereau was not only a furious, but a sincere republican of the revolu- tionary era, and he gave frequent and deep offence to Buonaparte by the coarse frankness of his lan- guage after the establishment of the empire. At last he reproached Napoleon on the battle-field of Preuss Eylau, for the useless butchery to which the French troops were exposed. For this he was sent into retirement, and except a short period of employment in the Peninsula, he was not again intrusted by the emperor with a command till after the disastrous reverses in Russia. Augereau acknowledged Louis XVIIL, after Napoleon's ab- dication in 1814, and acknowledged Napoleon again as emperor in 1815. But he was not em- ployed in the campaign of Waterloo. He was one of the court-martial that was first appointed to try Marshal Ney, and refused to sit in judgment on their comrade. Augereau died in 1816. [E.S.C.] AUGIER, G., atroubadour, 12th century. AUGURELLO, G. A., a scholar, poet, and al- chymist, 1440-1524. AUGUSTIN, Anth., a Sp. prelate, d. 1586. AUGUSTIN, or AUSTIN, St., called the apostle of England, died 610. AUGUSTINE, bishop of Hippo, and most fa- mous of the Latin church fatiiers, was born at Tagasta in Numidia, 13th November, 354. In early life he was loose, roving, and sensual, but at Milr.n the influence of his mother Monica, and the preaching of St. Ambrose, produced, about 386, a saving and permanent change on his heart and life. He had already left the Manichean philosophy, and now he renounced the study of rhetoric, which he had taught with success at Carthage, Rome, and Milan. He was ordained a presbyter 391, and four years afterwards became coadjutor to Valerius in the diocese of Hippo, now Bona in Algiers, and he finally succeeded his colleague in 396. His life was spent in active literary opposition against Manich- aeans, Donatists, and Pelagians. "When Hippo was menaced by the Vandal hosts, Augustine died, in the third month of the siege, at the good old age of seventy-six. The influence of Augustine's theo- logy has been felt in all succeeding ages of the church. He compacted the truths of religion into a system, with a logic whose severity is relieved by the glow of his eloquence and the fervour of his piety. His autobiography is contained in his famous 'Confessions; ' and his 'Civitas Dei' is universally admired. But he wrote too much, and on too many subjects, to be at all times either lucid or self-con- sistent. His works are very numerous, and have been often edited and published. The Benedictine edition, Paris, 1679-1701, is in eleven handsome folios. L7.E.] AUGUSTULUS, the name given in derision to Romulus, last Roman emp. of the West, dethroned and pensioned by Odoacer, 475. AUGUSTUS, the first Roman emperor, was born at Velitrae, a town of Latium, in the consul- ship of Cicero, B.C. 63. He was the son of Caius Octavius by Atia, the niece of the famous C. Julius Caesar; and was consequently the grand- nephew of the dictator. His real name was Caius Octavius ; but, in consequence of his adoption by the will of the dictator, he assumed that of Caesar; and in B.C. 27, he received from the senate the AUG title of Augustus, the name by which he is now best known. Having lost his father at the ape of four years, he went to reside with his grandmother, Julia, who watched over his feeble boyhood with the most assiduous care. From his early years he showed a great capacity, and gave evidence of that prudence and foresight which characterized his subsequent career. On the death of his grand- mother, in his twelfth year, he pronounced her funeral oration ; and returned to the house of his mother, who, along with her husband, L. Marcius Philippus, henceforth superintended his education. At the age of sixteen he assumed the toga virilis, the symbol of legal maturity; and in the same year was made a member of the College of Pon- tiffs. The dictator, who had always showed great attention to his youthful relative, now took a more active part in training him for public life, and mani- fested his affection by the honours which he bestowed on himself, and on the family to which he belonged. Augustus seems to have been present in his camp at the battle of Munda, B.C. 45 ; and it was here that the dictator made him his heir, and adopted him into the family of the Caesars. Soon after their return to Rome Augustus was sent to Apol- lonia in Epirus, for the purpose of advancing his military education, previous to accompanying the dictator in the expedition which he meditated against the Parthians ; and it was while here that he was called upon to commence a contest the most arduous perhaps that was ever undertaken by a youth of eighteen. On the Ides (15th) of March, B.C. 44., the dictator was assassinated iu the senate house; and Augustus, on receiving the news, set out for Italy with a few attendants. As the adopted son of the dictator, he now as- sumed the name of Caesar ; and, encouraged by the support of the veteran soldiers, proclaimed his re- solution to avenge the death of his father; in other words, to assert his claim to the sovereignty. Appearing before the praetor, he formally accepted the dangerous inheritance of the dictator's name and property; and in the complicated struggle which ensued, played his part with an art which baffled the prudence of the oldest statesmen of Rome. The contending parties first met under the walls of Mutina, when Antony was defeated, and forced to take refuge on the other side of the Alps. In B.C. 43 Augustus was raised to the consulship, notwithstanding the strenuous opposi- tion of the aristocracy ; and, finding that his posi- tion now rendered a reconciliation with Antony desirable, proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul ; and here the celebrated interview took place between Antony, Lepidus, and himself, which resulted in the formation of the second triumvirate — a union which was cemented by the blood of many of the noblest citizens of Rome. About the close of B.C. 42 the decisive battle of Philippi was fought, which completely broke up the party of the senate. During the next nine years Augustus relieved himself of all his formidable opponents, with the exception of Antony, with whom ne had long fore- seen that the final contest lay. The last struggle took place at Actium, on the 2d of September, B.C. 81, when Antony was totally defeated, and Augustus placed in the undoubted supremacy of the Roman empire. After settling affairs in the East he returned to Rome, B.C. 29, and his arrival ATJB was celebrated by three triumphs on three succes- sive days. In B.C. 27 he affected to propose to the senate to restore the old republican form of government ; but at the request of his friends he consented to retain the administration of affairs for ten years ; and soon after was invested with the highest military and civil authority, both in the city and throughout the provinces. The same pretended resignation and resumption of power was repeated at intervals till the end of his life. The great events of the period of Augustus belong to the history of Rome, and cannot even be re- ferred to here. After a reign of almost uninter- rupted prosperity, he died at Nola, on the 19th of August, 14, and was succeeded by his stepson, Tiberius Claudius Nero. Augustus was a man of middle stature, but well made ; and the expres- sion of his handsome face was that of unvarying tranquillity. Though naturally of a feeble consti- tution, he attained to a great age by a strict ob- servance of temperance in eating and drinking. His early education had embued him with a taste for literature, which he continued to cultivate throughout his long life ; and his liberal patron- age of learned men, especially in the persons of Virgil and Horace, has procured the name of the Augustan age for the brilliant period in which he lived. [G.F.] [Tomb of Augustus.] AUGUSTUS I., elector of Saxony, 1553-15SB AUGUSTUS II., born 1670; elector, 169* king of Poland, 1697 ; deposed by Charles X1I.U 1704 ; reinstated, 1709 ; died 1733. AUGUSTUS III., his son and succes., d. 1763J AUGUSTUS Fked., d. of Sussex, 1773-1843.1 AULISIO, Dominic, a jurist, 1639-1717. AULNAGE, F. H. S., a Sp. wr., 1739-1830. ( AULUS GELLIUS, a eel. Latin scholar, autho* of the ' Attic Nights :' lived 2d century. AUMALE, Claude, count of, created duke of] Guise by Francis I., died 1550. AUNGERVILLE, R., tutor of Edward III., afterwards lord chancellor, &c, died 1345. AUNOY, Countess of, a French wr., d. 1 7(M AURELIAN, Luctus Domitius, b. 212, enfl of Rome 270, conq. of Palmyra 274, assassin. 29 | AURELIO, Louis, an historian, died 1637. o2 AUR AUEENG-ZEBE, one of the greatest of the Mogul emperors, reigned 1659-1707. AURIA, Vinci., an historian of Sicily, d. 1710. AURIA, Jo., an astronomer, died 1595. AURIGNI, Giles D', a Fr. poet, died 1553. AUSEGIUS, a French ahbot, 9th century. AUSONIUS, St., a martyr of the 3d century. AUSONIUS, a Roman poet, 4th century. AUSTEN, Jane, a novelist, 1775-1817. AUSTREA, Don Juan, a Sp. admiral, b. 1545. AUVERGNE, Ant. D', a composer, d. 1797. AUVIGNY, J. D', a French writer, born 1712, killed at the battle of Dettingen, 1743. AVALOS, Feed., marquis of Pescara, a distin- guished Spanish general, 1489-1525. AVALOS, Alph., nephew and successor of the preceding:, 1502-1546. AVAUX, Claude De Mesne, count of, a French diplomatist and scholar, died 1650. AVELLANEDA, Alph. Ferd., the assumed name of a Spanish writer, who displayed his enmity to Cervantes by publishing a continuation of Don Quixote, and attacking the author, 1614. AVELLONE, F., an Ital. dramatist, last cent. AVE RANI, Ben., a miscel. writer, died 1707. AVE RANI, Jos., a scientific writer, died 1738. AVENTINE, J., an annalist, 1466-1534. AVENZOAR, an Arabian phys., 12th century. AVERDY, Clem. Ch., De L', comptroller- general of France, guillotined, 1794. AVEROLDI, an antiquary, died 1717. AVERROES, an Arabian philosopher, 12th ct. AVERSA, Til, a dramatic author, 17th cent. AVESBURG, Robert of, a chronicler, 14th centurv. AVIANO, Jerome, an Ital. poet, 16th cent. AVICENNA, an Arabian philosopher, d. 1037. AVIDIUS, a Roman emperor, 175. AVIENUS, R. F., a Latin poet, 4th century. AVILA, John D', a Spanish priest, called the Apostle of Andalusia, died 1569. AVILA-Y-ZUNIGA, Louis D\ a soldier and diplomatist, time of Charles V. AVILA, G. G. D', an antiquary, died 1658. A VILER, A. C. D', a French architect, d. 1700. AVIRON, James Le Bathalier, author of legal commentaries, 16th century. AVISON, Ch., a musical composer, died 1770. AVITUS, Flaw, a Roman emperor, elect. 455. AVITUS, St., a Latin poet, 5th century. AVOGADRO, the Count, a patriotic noble- man of Brescia, defeated 1502. BAB AVOGADRO, Lucia, a poetess, died 1568. AVRIGNY, C. J. L., a French poet, d. 1823. AXELSON, Eric, a Swed. statesman, d. 1840. AY ALA, a Dutch physician, 16th century. AYALA, Peter Lopez D,' a statesman, general, and. historian of Spain, died 1407. AYALA, B. D', a Spanish painter, died 1673. AYALA, J. L. D', a Spanish astrono., last cent AYAMONTE, Marquis of, a patriot of Anda- lusia, executed 1640. AYESHA, wife of Mahomet, died 677. AYLMER, J., a controversial divine, bishop oi London, time of Elizabeth. AYLOFFE, Sir Joseph, an antiquary and miscellaneous writer, 1708-1781. AYMON, count of Savoy, 1329 to 1343. AYMON, a priest of Piedmont, 17th century. AYOLA, J. De, governor of Buenos Ayres 1536, killed by the Indians 1538. AYRAULT, P., a French lawyer, 16th century. AYRTON, Edm., a composer, died 1808. AYSCOUGH, S., an antiquary and miscellane- ous writer, 1745-1804. AYSCOUGH, G. E., a writer last century. AYSCUE, Sir G., an English admiral, coadju- tor with Admiral Blake. AYTON, Sir R., a Scotch poet, died 1638. AZAIS, P. H., a miscellaneous writer, last cent. AZALIAS, a female troubadour, 12th century. AZARA, Don J. N. De, a Spanish diplomatist, author, and antiquary, died 1804. AZARA, Don Felix De, a commissioner sent out by the Spanish government in 1781, to arrange with Portuguese deputies regarding the boun- daries of their respective territories in S. America. He constructed good maps of the La Plata and its affluents, and wrote an account of Paraguay, whose chief value consists in its contributions to natural history. [J-B.] AZARIAH, high pr. of the Jews, 9th ct. b.c. AZABIAH, or UZZIAH, king of the Jews, 8th century, B.C. AZARIO, P., an historian, 13th century. AZANAR, count of Gascony, founder of the kingdom of Navarre, died 836. AZOR, J., a moralist, 16th century. AZUNI, Dominic Albert, a writer on mari- time law, died 1827. AZZO, P., an Italian jurist, 13th century. AZZOLINI, Lorenzo, a satirist, died 1632. AZZOLINI, Decio, an Italian cardinal, confi- dant of queen Christina, died 1689. B BAAHDIN, Mah., a Persian jurist, 16th cent. BAALE, St. V, a dram. p. of boll., 1782-1822. BAAN, J. De, a portrait painter, d. 1702. His son James, also distinguished as a painter, d. 1700. BAARDT, P., a Flemish poet, 18th century. BAARSDORP, C, a physician, died 1565. BAASHA, the usurper of the kgd. of Jeroboam, whose whole race he exterminated, 10th cent. B.C. BAAZIUS, J., a prel. and his. of Swe., 1581-1649. BABA, a Turkish adventurer, 13th century. BABA-ALI, first independent dey of Algiers, elected 1710, died 1718. BABA-ALI, a learned Mahomedan, d. 1569. BABACOUSCHI, A. R. Mustapha, a Ma- homedan author, 14th century. BABBINI, M., an Italian singer, died 1816. BABEK, Khoremi, a Persian socialist, de- feated and slain, after 20 years' conflict, 837. BABEUF, Francis Noel, born at Saint Qucn- tin, 1764, and unknown during the first years of the revolution, except for his work on the Regis- tration of Lands, has acquired a memorable place in the history of the Directory, first, by editing the ' Tribune of the People,' and afterwards by conspiring against the government. The prin- ciples he advocated were those of absolute equality, 53 BAB as the apostle of which, at the critical period when the power of Napoleon Buonaparte was just ris- ing, he displayed a singular inflexibility of purpose and good faith. Before the appearance of the 4 Tribune,' he had published a work entitled the 'Life and Crimes of Carrier,' which is considered the most impartial account of that inhuman monster. In his Journal, Babeuf took the sur- name of ' Caius Gracchus,' and it is to his denun- ciations of all terrorism, that we owe the well- known apellation of the system which he de- nounced. He was arrested in the month of May, 1796, and did not hesitate to make a daring avowal of his ambitious hopes as the chief of a great party. He endeavoured to escape the ig- nominy of the guillotine by stabbing himself several times with a poignard, secretly conveyed to him by his son, but was dragged bleeding to the scaffold twenty-four hours afterwards, with the instrument of death still rankling in the wound. His object, beyond all doubt, was to overthrow the present constitution of society, and this, perhaps, with the fallacy of his principles, is the worst that can be alleged against him. [E.R.] BABIN, F., a French casuist, died 1734. BABINGTON, Anth., a catholic accused of conspiring to place the unfortunate Mary Stuart on the throne of England ; executed 1586. BABINGTON, G., a learned bishop, 17th cent. BABINGTON, Dr. W., an English physician and mineralogist, 1757-1833. BABO, J. M., a German dramatist, 1756-1822. BABOUR, Mahomed, grandson, of Tamerlane, proclaimed sovereign of Tartary 1483 ; conqueror of Delhi 1525 ; and foimder of the dynasty which reigned in Hindostan till the 19th cent., d. 1530. BABRIAS, a Greek poet, long known as Ga- orias, through an error of the copyist. BABUER, Theod., a painter, 17th century. BABYLAS, St., a martyr of the 3d century. BACAI, Ib. ben Omar, a wr. of biog., 15th c. BACCAINI, B., a learned writer, died 1721. BACCALAR Y SANNA, Vincent, a comman- der and author of memoirs, died 1726. BACCHANELLI, J., an Italian plivsic, 10th c. BACCHIDjE, a dynasty of Corinth". BACCHIDES, governor of Mesopotamia, and commissioner of Demetrius, king of Syria, in the time of Judas Maccabaras. BACCHIUS, a Greek writer on music. BACCHUS. See Boccaus. BACCHYLIDES, a Greek lyric, 450 B.C. BACCIO, And., an Ital. phy. and au., 16th ct. BACCIO, F. B., an Italian painter, died 1517. BACCIOCCHI, Maria Anne Eliza Buon- aparte, princess of, was the sister of Napoleon, born 1777 ; married to M. Bacciocchi 1797 ; crowned with her husband, princess of Lucca and Piombino 1805 ; fell with Buonaparte 1814, d. 1820. BACELLAR, A. B., a Port, historian, d. 1663. BACH, J. A., a jurist, 1721-17:>!». BACH, Johann Sebastian, one of the most eminent masters of musical science, was born at Eisenach in Upper Saxony, on the 21st of March, 1685. The ancestor of "the remarkable family, from which sprung the subject of the following memoir, was Veit Bach, a native of Presburg in Hungary, which city he was forced to leave dur- ing the' religious struggles of the 16th century. BAC He ultimately settled at Vechmar in Saxe Gotha, where he resumed his trade of miller and baker, and amused his leisure hours by practising on the guitar. He imparted a taste for music to his sons, and they again to their families, most of whom adopted music as a profession, until they filled all the offices of musicians, organists, and chanters, in their native province. The greatest, however, of the name, and one of the greatest of his age, was John Sebastian, upon whom all writers on music, as well in England as in Germany, have bestowed the most unbounded laudations. Among many others who have left their written opinions of the excellence of this master, it is only necessary to mention the names of Forkel, his biographer, Marpurg, Handel, Matheson, Reichardt, Beetho- ven, Von Reaumar, Mendelssohn, and Friedeman. In 1695 the father of John Sebastian Bach died, and he was left to the care of an elder brother, who does not seem to have possessed that kindly and affectionate nature which, like music, was hereditary in the family. This brother, instead of assisting him in his early studies, did all he could to hinder him from progressing as rapidly as he otherwise would have done. He even de- stroyed a collection of studies which the young Se- bastian, being denied candles, had copied by moon- light. After the death of this brother, Sebastian at a very early period of his life commenced his professional career as a treble singer in the choir of St. Michael's school at Luneburg. In 1703, for reasons not now known, he quitted Luneburg and went to Weimar, where he was appointed court musician, and in 1708 court organist, and director of the concerts to the duke. It was not long after this that he received an invitation to visit Dresden, where Marchand, a celebrated French organist, then held office. A musical con- test between this professor and Bach was arranged to take place, but the Frenchman left Dresden through fear of the German artist, whose fame had preceded him. On his return to Weimar, Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Cothen gave him the situation of chapel master, and in 1723 he accepted the office of director of music at Leipzig, which ap- pointment he held till his death. On one occa- sion he was invited by Frederick the Great to visit Potsdam, where he was most honourably enter- tained, and was received with the most marked condescension by that monarch, for whom he com- posed his world-renowned fugue, under the title of 'The Musical Offering.' Ibis was Bach's last journey. Constant study, frequently for days and nights together, first weakened, then deprived him of his sight. He died of apoplexy on the 30th of July, 1750. Bach composed a great number of works in almost every class of music, and all excel- lent ; but it would occupy too much space to enu- merate them here. He was great as a contrapun- tist beyond all who went before him, and was no more than equalled by the (greatest of his contem- poraries. His ' Passionsmusik ' and 'Chorales,' or psalm tunes, have always been held in the highest estimation of all his vocal compositions. The first time that any portion of Bach's vocal music was publicly performed in Great Britain was at the London Institution, at the course of lectures de- livered by Dr. Ganntlett in the spring of 1887. In the 'German Musical Gazette ' for 1823, tl 01 BAC was published a curious genealogical tree of the Bach family, which shows that from Veit there were, down to John Sebastian, who appears in the fifth generation, fifty-eight male descendants, all of whom, according to Forkel, made music their pro- fession. — Among the most famous of the relations of Sebastian Bach may be mentioned, John Philipp Emanuel his son, born in 1714, known as Bach of Berlin, who was chapel master to the Princess Amelia of Prussia. He died at Hamburg in 1788. This composer left upwards of fifty different com- positions, several of which were published after his death. — John Christian, another son of Sebas- tian, the date of whose birth has not been pub- lished, was known first as Bach of Milan, and afterwards as Bach of London. This composer came to London about the year 1769, and brought out his opera of ' Orione, ' which was much ad- mired for the richness of its harmony. He died in London in the year 1782. — John Christopher Friedrich, the ninth of the eleven sons of Sebas- tian, was born at Weimar in 1732. He held the situation of master of the concerts at the court of Buckeburg. He is said to have been the ablest of performers upon the organ and clavichord of all his brothers. — William Friedeman, the eldest son of Sebastian, was born in 1710, approached in his compositions most nearly to the singular originality of his father. He died at Berlin in 1784. — George Christopher was a famous composer and singer at Sehweinfurt about the end of the 17th century. — John Bernhard, nephew of Sebastian, was or- ganist at Ordnuff, where he died in 1742. — John Ambrosius, the father of Sebastian, was musician to the town and court of Eisenach, and John Christopher, twin brother of the preceding, held a similar situation to the court and town of Arm- stadt. — John CHRiSTOPH,organist to the court and town of Eisenach at the close of the 17th century, was considered one of the greatest masters of har- mony and performers on the organ of his time. One of his works, which is still extant, a piece of church music, has twenty obligato parts, 'and yet,' says the biographer of the family of the Bachs, ' it is perfectly pure in respect of harmonv.' — Johann Ernst, chapel master to the duke of Wei- mar, was born in 1712, and died in 1781. — Johann Ludwig, chapel master to the duke of Saxe-Mein- engen, and composer of church music, was born in 1677,anddiedinl730. — Johann MiCHAEL,brother to Johann Christoph, who composed some good church music, was born at Armstadt in 1660. fJ.M.] S Fr. polit., afterwards known as an au., 1624-1702. BACHAUMONT, L. P. De, a Fr. his., d. 1771. BACHE, B. F., an American journalist, d. 1799. BACHE, Rich., son-in-law of Franklin, d. 1811. BACHELEY, J., a French engraver, d. 1781. BACHELIER, J. J., a French painter, d. 1805. BACHELIEN, Nich., a Fr. sculptor, d. 1554. BACHELLERIE, Hugh, a troubadour, 12th c. BACHIENE, G. A., an astronomer, died 1783. BACHER, G. F., a medical author, 1765-1772. BACHER, Alex., son of the preceding, con- tinued the observations of his father, died 1807. BACHER, Theobald, a French diplomatist and political agent, 1748-1813. BACHMEISTER, H. L. C, a distinguished wr. of works on Russia, historical and other, d. 1806. BAC BACHOVIUS, Reinier, and his son of the same name, both known as jurists, the latter at Heidelberg, 16th century. BACHOT, Gaspard, a medical writer, 17th c. BACICI, J. B. G., an Italian painter, d. 1709. BACK, Abr., a Swedish naturalist, d. 1775. BACKER, Jac, a Dutch painter, died 1664. BACKER, A., nephew of the preceding, d. 1686. BACKHOUSE,W.,apracticalalchymlstandau., instructor of the eel. Elias Ashmole, 1593-1662. BACKHUYSEN, Rudolph, or Ludolph, an eminent Dutch marine painter, 1631-1709. BACKUS, Azel, a theologian, died 1824. BACKUS, Isaac, a Baptist historian, d. 1806. BACLER D'ALBE, Aubert L., a military engineer and geographer, 1761-1824. BACMEISTER, a German family of this name has produced many distinguished men, lay and clerical. Henry, a jurist, 1584-1629. Henry, the younger, counsellor of Wurtemburg, 1670. John, professor of medicine at Tubingen, 1710. Lucas, a celebrated Lutheran divine, 1530-1608. His son of the same name, also a theological writer, 1570-1638. The son of the latter, also of the same name, professor of theology, d. 1679. Mat- thew, son of the elder Lucas, a medical author, 1580-1626. Sebastian, an historian, 1646-1704. BACON, Anthony, elder brother of Sir Fran- cis, known as a man of letters and political in- triguer in the reign of Elizabeth, born 1558. BACON, Francis, Lord Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, Lord Chancellor of England under James I., Author of the ' Instauratio Magna.' The attempt to describe or surround a mind like that of our immortal Englishman, is akin to the effort to survey some grand Power in Nature, whose mani- festations are almost infinite in form, and the sphere of whose efficacy is wide as the Universe. The industry of all vast minds is unwearied : nor is it ever safe to say of such, that any one department of labour, or species of activity, belongs to them peculiarly. From early manhood Bacon was im- mersed in public affairs, intrusted with very oner- ous functions ; in the first rank as Jurisconsult, he moved in the work of reforming and arranging the laws of England ; as Statesman he laboured effec- tively in promotion of the treatv of Union — that foundation-stone of our modem British greatness; in the capacity of Historian he produced the first work in English literature meriting the name of History, viz., his work on the reign of Henry VII.; as Orator and Writer he had no equal in his age — -joining to energy and weight of expression, a splendour of diction which sometimes may dazzle too much ; and besides he renovated Philo- sophy. There are two features only, in a charac- ter so various and illustrious, to which we can re- fer in our brief sketch, viz.: — Bacon's achieve- ments and value in philosophy, and his deserts as a Man.— I. The enterprise undertaken by this won- derful Intellect, indicates by its very elevation and comprehensiveness, the capacity of the genius that conceived it. Bacon resolved to rescue science from the deplorable uncertainties and obstructions which then surrounded it— to reconstruct the edi- fice of human knowledge from its very foundations. Of his projected • Instauratio Magna,' the works he has left are only fragments ; nor could they be otherwise, for the execution of the gigantic plan is 55 BAC one of the leading tasks delegated to humanity, which cannot be completed so long as the condi- tion of humanity remains a progressive one. The 1 Instauratio Magna,' has six main parts : — First, Bacon felt it needful to challenge anew for inquiry the respect and dignity that belong to it, to detect the vices of the philosophy prevailing at his time, and to point out the deficiencies requiring to be filled up. Such is the aim of the treatise 'De Augmeiitis.' Secondly, the Remedy had to be discovered; the only certain cure for the evils signalized. This cure is the use of the true Me- thod, in the adoption of observation and experi- ment instead of hypothesis, as instruments for the discovery of fact, and in the substitution in such inquiries, of induction for deduction or syllogistic reasoning. The principles and processes of the new method are elaborately exposed in the ' No- vum Organum.' The third and fourth parts of the 4 Instauratio ' were planned as an exemplification or instruction in the use of the new Organon ; the former, viz., the 'Historia Naturalis et Experi- mentalis, ' being dedicated to the collecting, by aid of observation and experiment, of the greatest possible mass of facts; and the latter, the Scala lntellectus, to exemplification of discovery by induc- tion, of general laws from these facts, and of the application of these general laws by the inverse Erocess of deduction, to particular cases compre- ended within them, lo finish this memorable undertaking, it yet remained that the results of the method, or the truths of philosophy be collected and arranged; but rightly seeing that the dis- covery of these was not a task he had to accom- plish, but a legacy he had to bequeath, Bacon was satisfied with drawing up other two books, the first, or the fifth of his plan, named by him ' Anticipations,' and the second or sixth, ' Philosophia Secunda Sive Activa,' having refer- ence to applications — to action, or practice. — Such the grandeur of the intellectual Globe which the mind of this Englishman endeavoured to span ! — It is in the second division of his great work that Bacon's more positive achievements are un- folded. And it must not be conceived that he is here satisfied with a set of general precepts, or with general statements concerning the value and superiority of his Organon. The new Method of Inquiry, on the other hand, is examined under every light, and its right practice exposed in detail. In the first place, Bacon passes under review all the procedures of observation and every kind of experiment, showing with what special precaution facts must be sought for, and how we may esti- mate the value of the various sorts of facts bearing on any inquiry. With corresponding pains, and still greater success, he unfolds in the second book of the Organon in what way Induction en- ables one to detect from the collected facts, the true cause, or the true law of a phenomenon. Having collected by observation all the facts which precede or follow the phenomenon, it is necessary to exclude those in whose absence the phenomenon can be produced — to notice and separ- ate those others in whose presence it always is produced ; and lastly, to select from among the latter class, such facts as vary in intensity when the phenomenon varies, i.e., which increase or diminish m proportion to an increase or decrease of inten- BAC sity in the phenomenon. In this way, according to Lord Bacon, the true cause is found ; and an ap- plication to this cause of a similar process, will evolve its cause, until in the end we reach supreme causes and universal laws. — In appreciation of these important and memorable labours, we have room for only three brief remarks. First, it can- not well be denied that in certain respects Lord Bacon too much decried, or perhaps too little un- derstood the syllogism; and that its peculiar meaning and value, as the only legitimate instru- ment in Deduction, ought to have preserved it and Aristotle, its immortal author, from the unjust dis- paragement which one regrets to find upheld by the authority of so great a name. Nevertheless, this injustice to the Greeks, arising partly from defect of critical acquaintance with them, but more from his well-grounded revolt against the deplor- able methods sustained in physical inquiry under shelter of their authority, m nowise impairs the edifice Bacon himself reared, or attaches to it any incompleteness. Secondly, it is not pretended, with some exclusive and enthusiastic partizans, that previous to the writings of our countryman, no philosopher had sought truths by Induction, or based his inquiries on observation and experiment. It is certainly far from being true that Galileo, for instance, in conducting his immortal researches, pursued an erroneous course, or that although he had studied the 'Novum Organum,' his career of discovery would have been materially different ; what is true is this — no one before Bacon had seen the full importance of the experimental and inductive method, had discovered the extent of the sphere of which it is the only legitimate occupant, had explored its principles, and from principles deduced rules for it as an Art. And it is equally true, that every inquiry of value, undertaken since the publication of his inductive code, has been conducted, with or without the consciousness of the Inquirer, according to laws laid down in that code. Lastly, since the publication of the induc- tive code, its iaws have been enlarged and greatly particularized, so that— be it said, with perfect re- spect to the Organon — it is not to our countryman's writings alone "that we would point now for full in- struction in his own philosophy. The exigencies of the modern sciences, as well of observation as of experiment, have obliged us to refine his pro- cesses and multiply his precautions. The doctrine of probabilities enables us to discern the relative values of difierent classes of facts, with a precision Bacon never dreamt of; and in the writings of mo- dern authors — let us say oi'Mr. Mill — the methods of induction are unfolded with a superior compre- hensiveness and effect. But although the advance of the physical sciences, caused by the impulse Lord Bacon communicated, has exacted for them pro- cesses more complete and perfect than his ; wlien, as to the moral sciences — as to inquiry, political, ethical, and religious — shall the time arrive in which inquirers sh.,11 practically recognize the validity even of the most general precepts in the Organon? The ultimate application of these pre- cepts is sure ; but humanity has not yet acquired the strength to accomplish it. — II. The length to which our analysis of Bacon's philosophy has ex- tended, prevents our dwelling much on the charac- ter of the Man. Nevertheless, one earnest, though 56 EAC brief word, in deprecation of the harshest treatment which, with one exception, has ever been applied to a mind so great. It is a canon we think which may- be observed absolutely with far greater safety than it ever can be broken — that highest intellect and vir- tue are most closely allied ; nay, notwithstanding appearances, their severance is impossible : certainly no mind like Bacon's, living through its duration amid great ideas, ought to be suspected of volun- tary descent to utter meanness, unless on evi- dence which, concerning transactions of the kind charged against him, has not come down assuredly from that age. Dissimulation, indeed, — corrup- tion, treachery to friendship — it matters not what the mind may be that is guilty of them ; the acts are mean, and the mind foul. But the error in the popular judgment lies here — dissimulation and corruption are inferred on the strength of obscure circumstances, and without the necessary inquiry whether — taking the character of the mind into consideration — the said acts could possibly signify to it, either dissimulation or corruption V At an Old Bailey indeed, or in Banco Regis, .judg- ment must be summary ; but the Muse of History holds in her hands scales of another order — her question is, do I rightly understand this Man t It is passing strange to find Lord Bacon in the guise of an ordinary criminal, and treated with no more than the ordinary courtesy, before Lord Campbell's judgment seat ! The errors of Bacon, in so far as they are distinctly established, were mainly those of compliance; and it will probably be found that they must be classed among those involuntary acts, which connect the best and wisest, through sheer force of circumstances, with the times in which they live ; — involuntary, inasmuch as they are done because they are usually done, and without rigid examina- tion. Sad it were if through cause of conventional compliances, every eminent personage of our own day might justly be branded as unveracious, and a hypocrite ! Such as he was — since Bacon's time, England has seen no ejeater and seldom abetterMan. atue ol Bacon.] ' And be it said he had this excellence, That undesirous of a false renown, lie ever wished to pass for what lie ivas ; One that swerved much and oft, hut being still BAC Deliberately bent upon the right, Had kept it in the main : one that much loved Whate'er in man is worthy high respect, And in his soul devoutly did aspire To be it all, yet felt from time to time The littleness that clings to what is human, And suffered from the shame of having felt it.' — Lord Bacon was born in London on 22d Jan., 15C0, d. 1626. There have been various editions of his work — the last by Basil Montague ; but an unexcep- tionable edition is still a desideratum. [J.P.N. ] BACON, John, an eminent sculptor, the best of whose works are the statues of Dr. Johnson and John Howard in St. Paul's, and the funeral monument of Lord Chatham, 1740-1799. BACON, Nath., one of the earliest and most valiant patriots of America, educated as a lawyer in England, died 1676. _ BACON, Sir Nath., half-brother of Sir Fran- cis, known as a painter, died 1615. BACON, Sir Nicholas, lord chancellor in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and father of the cele- brated philosopher, 1510-1579. BACON, Anne, wife of the preceding, known for her trans, from the Ital. and Latin, 1528-1600. BACON, Ph., D.D., a comic writer, d. 1783. BACON, Ph., a naval com., time of Charles II. BACON, Robert, an English monk, influential as a preacher at the court of Henry III., 1233-1248. BACON, Roger, a Franciscan monk of the thirteenth century, born near Ilcester in Somer- set. This remarkable person, most worthy of the name he bears, failed to be the restorer of philosophy, neither from defect of energy or will, but because the times were not yet ripe. Living at an epoch of intellectual torpor and profound igno- rance, and surrounded by men neither instructed nor caring to become so, Bacon, as with the Chan- cellor afterwards and the great Des Cartes, first grappled with the question, Why is this ignorance? Why is our human Reason a willing captive ? < The exposition of his reply occupies a large portion of the ' Opus Majus ;' and the reply itself is not dif- ferent m kind tHm that which in all ages must, by every original thinker, be found to the same question. Irrational deference to Authority ; slavish respect for Custom ; subjection to popular^ preju- dices, and that vulgar selfishness which induces men to reject as dangerous, or despise as puerile, all knowledge they "do not themselves possess, — these are the causes of darkness in all ages : nor can they be overcome unless the independence and dignity of Reason be acknowledged, the influence of authority, custom, and prejudice discredited, and Truth sought through careful and systematic investigation ot Nature. And in his quiet cloister near Oxford, the monk wrought out principles and modes of legitimate investigation, and success- fully followed them. If not entitled to take rank as the founder of experimental philosophy, Roger Bacon was unquestionably the earliest philosophi- cal Experimentalist in England. He recognized as fully as Francis, the importance of experiment as distinguished from deduction: and he had this immense advantage over the Chancellor— he joined example to precept, and put in use, before his co- temporaries, his own counsels. It is interesting to reflect on the amount of actual discovery which rewarded so much laborious research. Bacon made signal advances in optics; he was an exccl- 07 BAC lent chemist, and in all probability discovered gunpowder; nevertheless, it is on his clear discern- ment of true Method that his fame must rest. During his unswerving pursuit of knowledge he encountered the usual oppositions, and a share also of encouragement. Pope Clement IV. aided and cheered him ; but after the death of this protector the smothered jealousy and dislike of the Francis- cans broke forth, — the mean and the weak are of course ever the readiest and fiercest persecutors. It is at once unjust and unwise to consider errors and crimes of this sort as exclusive attributes of the Romish church ; their root, on the contrary, lies deep in the heart of man. The domain of phy- sical inquiry is now wholly safe from the disorders of intolerance; but there are large departments of knowledge within which Reason is still not free, where authority abides on its throne, and popular prejudice stores up its thunderbolts. [J.P.N.] [Roger Bacou's Study at Oilord.] BACON, or BACONTHORP, John, a learned monk of the 14th century, died 1346. BACOUE, Leonard, a Latin poet, d. 1694. BACQUERRE, B., a medical writer, 17th ct. BACQUET, a French lawyer, died 1597. BACZKO, a Polish chronicler, 13th century. BADAJOZ, Juan De, a Spanish architect, middle of the 16th centurv. 15ADCOCK, S., a polemical wr., 1747-1788. BADEN, one of the sovereign families of Ger- many, distinguished by many eminent statesmen and military leaders since the 11th century. Charles Frederick, born 1728, was defeated several times by Moreau, and concluded a treaty of peace with the French republic 1796 ; adhered to the Confederation of the Rhine 1805, and received the title of Grand Duke ; died 1811. BADEN, James, a critical writer and lexico- grapher of Denmark, 1735-1805. BADEN, Richard De, the original founder of Clare Hall, Cambridge, 1326. BADENS, Fr., a Dutch painter, died 1603. BADESSA, Paul, an Italian poet, 16th cent. BADI-EL-ZEMAM, the last descendant of Ta- merlane who reigned in Khorassan ; died 1517. BADIA, Domingo, a political agent and traveller of Spain, 1766-1*21. BADIALI, Alex., an Italian etcher, 17th ct. BADILE, Ant., an Italian painter, 1480-1560. BADILY, a naval officer, time of Cromwell. 58 BAII BADUEL, Cl., a protestant theologian, d. 1561. BAELI, F., a Sicilian historian, 17th century. BAENGIUS, P., a Swedish historian, 17th ct BAERSIUS, H., a mathematician, 16th cent. BAERSTRAT, a Dutch painter, died 1687. BAFFIN, William, a skilful English naviga- tor of the 17th century, deserving honourable mention as the first who applied observations ox the heavenly bodies for the determination of the longitude at sea. Rules for the practice of the method which he employed are given in his account of the fourth voyage of James Hall, whom he ac- companied to the coast of Greenland in 1612, pro- bably in the capacity of pilot. Nothing is known of his history prior to this date. In 1613 he com- manded a whaling ship in the sea of Spitzbergen. In 1615-1616 he went as mate with Robert Bylot, on two voyages, whose object was the discovery of a N.W. passage. In the second of these, the ex- tensive bay named after him (which should now be termed a sea, since it is known to open north- wards), was discovered, and in grent part traced. He wrote an account of these voyages also. Many of his statements are important, and highly suggestive. He calculated the horizontal or maximum refraction at 26'; the present estimate is 32' or 33'. In 1618 we find him mate of a merchant vessel in the Arabian sea. In 1621 he was killed at the siege of Kismis, a fort near Ormuz, while engaged in an English expedition co-operating with the Persians, in endeavouring to drive the Portuguese out of the Persian Gulf. [J-B.] BAFFO, G., a Venetian poet, died 1768. BAFFO, a Venetian lady who was taken cap- tive, and becoming his favourite sultana, enjoyed great authority under Amurath III. BAF-KARKAH, an Arabian mathematician. BAGDEDIN, Mahomed, a mathemat., 10th c. BAGE, Robert, a novelist, 1728-1801. BAGFORD, J., an antiquarian, died 1716. BAGGER, J., a learned Danish prel., 1646-1693. BAGGESEN, Jens, a Danish poet, 1764-1806. BAGLIONE, Caesar, a fresco painter, 17th ct. BAGLIONE, G., a fresco painter, died 1644. BAGLIONI, J. P., usurper of Perugia, put to death by Leo X., 1520. BAGLIVI, G., a medical writer, 1667-1706. BAGNATI, an ascetic writer, 1651-1727. BAGNIOLI, J. C, an Italian poet, died 1600. BAG O AS, the murderer of Artaxerxes Ochus, king of Persia, put to death b.c. 356. BAGOPHANES, gov. of Babylon, time of Alex. BAGOT, Lewis, bishop of Bristol, &c, author of Sermons on the Prophecies, 1740-1802. BAGRATION, K. A., a Russian commander, killed at Moscow, 1812. BAGSHAW, Cur., an English catholic, and ecclesiastical historian, died at Paris 1626. BAGSHAW, Ed., a political writer and par- tizan of the Royalists, died 1662. BAGSHAW, Ed., son of the preceding, assis- tant of Dr. Busby, died 1671. BAGSHAW, fl., another son of Edward, author of Sermons, &c, died 1709. BAGSHAW, Wm., a religious writer, d. 1703. BAHA-ED-DOULAH, son of Adad-el-Doulah, shah of Persia 989, died 1012. BAHALI, an Arabian grammarian, died 842. BAHIER, J., a French poet, died 1707. BAH BAHRAM, or BEHBAM, L, king of Persia, 272-276. Bahram II., 276-293. Bahram III., reigned four months, 293. Bahram IV., 383-393. Bahram V., 421-440. BAHRDT, C. F., a German divine, died 1792. BAIAN, And., a native of Goa, converted to Christianity, and ordained as minister 1630. BAIER, J. G., a botanist, 1677-1735. BAIER, J. W., a German divine, died 1694. BAIF, Lazarus, a French ambassador and author, time of Francis I., died 1547. BAIF, J. A., son of Lazarus, distinguished as a poet, founder of an academy, 1570. BAIL, Louis, a French divine, 17th century. BAILEY, Nathan, a lexicographer, d. 1742. BAILEY, Peter, a miscellaneous wr., d. 1823. BAILEY, Walker, a medical author, d. 1592. BAILIE, Lieut.-Col., distinguished for his gallantry in the last war, 1778-1836. BAILLET, Adrien, a Fr. critic, 1649-1706. BAILLIE, Joanna, was born in 1762, at Both well, in Lanarkshire, of which place her father was the parish minister. Her mother was sister of John and William Hunter, the famous anatomists. Her life was spent in domestic pri- vacy, and marked by no events more important than the appearance of her successive works. Her brother, who became Sir Matthew Baillie, having settled as a physician in London, Miss Baillie removed thither at an early age. She resided in the metropolis, or its neighbourhood, almost constantly, and died at Hampstead in Feb- ruary, 1851. Her first volume of dramas was published in 1798. Their design, as to which it is not too much to say that the works were good in spite of it, not by means of it, was indicated in the title : ' A Series of Plays, in which it is at- tempted to delineate the Stronger Passions of the Mind, each Passion being the subject of a Tragedy and a Comedy.' A second volume of the ' Plays of the Passions ' appeared in 1802, and a third in 1812. The tragedies are fine poems, noble in sentiment, and classical and vigorous in language. But they were not fit for the stage; and 'De Montfort ' itself was with difficulty supported for a while by the acting of John Kemble and Mrs. Siddons. The tragedy of ' The Family Legend,' not contained in the series, was acted in Edin- burgh in 1809, after a visit the poetess had paid to Sir Walter Scott. In 1836 she published another series of ' Plays of the Passions,' of which ' Henriquez,' and ' The Separation,' the former a very striking piece, were attempted on the stage. Some of Miss Baillie's small poems were exceed- ingly good. [W.S.] BAILLIE, Colonel John, distinguished as a negotiator in the East Indian service, d. 1833. BAILLIE, Matt., D.D., an anatom., d. 1823. BAILLIE, Robert, a minister and delegate of the Scotch Church, died 1662. BAILLIE, Roche, better known as La Riviere, a celebrated empiric and astrologer, died 1605. BAILLOD, Daw, a Swiss writer, 16th century. BAILLON, Eman., a naturalist, died 1802. BAILLOU, Wm. De, a physician, distinguished as 'The French Sydenham,' died 1616. BAILLY, David, a painter, 17th century. BAILY, Jean Sylvain, celebrated because of liLs attachment to science ; still more through his BAK eloquence as the Historian of Astronomv ; most of all on account of his connection with the unfold- ing of the first or great French revolution, and his melancholy fate. Baily was born in Paris in the year 1736 ; in 1790 he presided as mavor of Paris at the Champ de Mars, over that vast' assemblage when the united French people hailed the sup- posed commencement of the Reign of Liberty and Universal Brotherhood; in 1793 one of countless illustrious victims he perished on the scaffold. In his attachment to the cause of rational liberty Baily was constant through all calamity : it was not desire of fame, nor the thirst to overthrow, that led him towards the front ranks of the Revo- lution; so,_ through abiding faith in humanitv, he died _ without the shame of relinquishing his early principles and hopes, merely because the effort to realize them had brought evil to himself. — Baily's Histroy of Astronomy is still very fasci- nating: as a strictly philosophical work it does not answer the highest ends, — he was led astray by the then novel and false doctrine of the value of some ancient and forgotten knowledge. As a technical History it is supplanted by the laborious, but yet very insufficient history of Z>e- lambre. [J.P.N.] BAILY, Fr., the celebrated astron., 1774-1844. BAINBRIDGE, Chr., an English diplomatist and churchman, made a cardinal 1511. BAINBRIDGE, Dr. John, an eminent phy- sician and professor of astronomy, 1582-1643. BAINBRIDGE, Wm., an Amer. capt., d. 1833. BAINE, Mich., a theologian, 16th century. BAINES, Edward, the distinguished member of parliament, b. 1774; representative of Leeds, 1833 to 1840 ; died 1848. BAINES, R., a Hebrew scholar, 16th century. BAION, a French naturalist, last century. BAIRD, General Sir David, distinguished by his services in the East Indies, in the expedition by which the Cape of Good Hope was taken, and subsequently at Corunna, where the command of Sir John Moore devolved upon him : entered the army as an ensign, 1772, died 1829. BAJARDI, an Italian jurist, 16th century. BAJARDO, an Italian painter, died 1670. BAJAZET, or BAYAZID, proclaimed sultan on the field of battle 1390; after overrunning Greece, he defeated Sigismund of Hungary and the crusaders 1395 ; conquered and made prisoner by Tamerlane 1402, died 1403. BAJAZET II., succeeded 1481 ; after sustain- ing a long conflict with the Christian powers, and conquering Moldavia, Bosnia, and Croatia, he was poisoned by his second son Selim, who usurped the throne over Achmet, 1512. BAJAZET, the original of one of Racine's heroes, was a son of Achmet I., strangled by his brother Amurath IV., 1655. BAJOLE, J., a French historian, died 1650. BAKE, Laur., a Dutch poet, died 1714. BAKER, David, a monastic writer, died 1611. BAKER, Geoff., a monastic historian, 1347. BAKER, Sir G., a physician and antiquarian, born 1722, a baronet 1776, died 1809. BAKER, H., a naturalist, born 1704, married a daughter of De Foe, 1729, died 1774. BAKER, David Erskine, son of Henry, a writer of theatrical biography in 1764. BAK BAKER, Tim., an antiquarian, 1856-1740. BAKER, Sib Richabd. author of English Chronicles, 1568-1645. HAKE WELL, Robt., a grazier, died 1795. BAKHTISHWA, the name of several physi- cians at the court of Bagdad. BAKI, an Ottoman brie, died 1600. BARKER, P. H., a Dutch poet, died 1801. BALAAM, a prophet or diviner, 14th cent. b.c. BALADAN, a king of ancient Bahylon. BALAKLEI, a Tartar prince, 13th century. BALAMIO, Ferd., a physician, 16th century. BALASSI, Mario, a painter, 1604-1667. BALBI, Adr., a geographer, 1784-1848. BALBINUS, D. C, a Roman consul, elected emperor, and slain 238. BALBINUS, A. B., an historian, 1611-1689. BALBIS, J. B., a botanist, died 1831. BALBO, Lodovico, a composer, 16th century. BALBOA, Vasco Nunez De, a Portuguese discoverer, put to death 1517. BALBUENA, Bernardo De, a poet, d. 1627. BALBUS, Lucius Cornelius, a Spaniard, made consul of Rome, b.c. 40. BALBUS, a philologist, 15th century. BALCANQUAL, Walter, chaplain to James I., afterwards dean of Rochester, and bishop of Durham, died 1642. BALCHEN, J., an admiral, lost 1744. BALDERIC, an annalist, 12th century. BALDI, Bern., an Italian poet, died 1617. BALDI, Camillo, an Aristotelian, died 1634. BALDI, Jas., a German poet, died 1668. BALDI, Laz., an Italian painter, died 1703. BALDI DE UBALDIS, a jurist, died 1400. BALDINGER, E. G., a medical writer, d. 1804. BALDINI, Baccio, a physician, died 1585. BALDINI, J. F., an Italian savant, died 1765. BALDINUCCI, Ph., an artist and historian of Florence, 1634-1696. BALDOCK, Ralph DE,bp. of London, d. 1307. BAfcDOCK, Robert De, chancellor of Eng- land in the reign of Edward II. BALDWIN, an archbishop of Canterbury, who went to Palestine with Richard I. BALDWIN, the name of several counts of Flanders. The first of this name, elevated from the office of grand forester, 837 ; d. 877. The second succeeded 888, d. 918. The third began his reign 958. The fourth succeeded 989, d. 1034. The fifth succeeded 1034, and was regent of France during the minority of Philip I., d. 1067. The sixth succeeded 1067, d. 1070. The seventh reigned for a short time in 1071. The eighth from 1111 to 1119. The ninth succeeded 1191, and d. 1195. BALDWIN I., first Latin emperor of Constan- tinople, was a son of the last named ; joined the crusaders 1200; elected emperor 1204 ; taken prisoner by the king of the Bulgarians, and pro- bably died before 1206. BALDWIN II., last Latin emperor of Constan- tinople, succeeded 1228 ; dethroned by Michel Palieologus 1261, died 1273. BALDWIN I., king of Jerusalem, succeeded his brother Godfrey Bouillon 1100 ; conquered the most important cities on the sea coast ot Palestine from 1101 to 1109, died 1118. BALDWIN II. succeeded Baldwin I., 1118; taken prisoner 1124 ; ransomed 1126 ; died 1131. BAL BALDWIN III., kins 1144; married into tl family of Commenus 1158; died 1162. BALDWIN IV., king 1173; died 1185. BALDWIN V. succeeded Baldwin IV. 118; and a few months afterwards died of poison. ] 1187, Jerusalem was captured by Salaain. BALDWIN D' ANESNES, son of Margan countess of Flanders and Hainalt, known to liter; ture as the historian of his house, 13th century. BALDWIN, Abr., an American senator, boi 1754, elected 1799, died 1807. BALDWIN, Ben., an archaeologist, 16th cent BALDWIN, Fr., a jurist, 16th century. BALDWIN, J., a French savant, died 1650. BALDWIN, Theod., a monk, died 1191. BALDWIN, Sir T., a miscellaneous wr., 17th BALDWIN, Thos., a baptist, died 1828. BALDWIN, William, a moralist, died 1564. BALE, John, a zealous reformer and contn versialist, 1495-1563. BALE, Robert, an annalist, died 1503. BALECHOU, N., an engraver, died 1765. BALEG, an Egyptian chief, 8th century. BALEN, Heindrich Van, an historical ar landscape painter, 1560-1632. BALES, Peter, a writing master, died 1600. BALESDENS, J., an advocate, died 1675. BALESTRA, Anth., a painter, died 1720. BALFOUR, Alex., a novelist, died 1829. BALFOUR, Sir And., a botanist, died 1694. BALGUY, John, a theologian, died 1748. BALGUY, Tho., son of John, 1716-1795. BALIN, J., a priest and poet, 16th century. BALIOL, Sir Alex., appointed chamberhv of Scotland by Edward L, 1291. BALIOL, Henry De, a Scotch nobleman wh in 1241, accompanied Henry III. of England Gascony, died 1246. BALIOL, Sir John De, founder of a college i Oxford, and guard, of Alex. III. of Scot., d. 126 BALIOL, John De, son of the preceding, raise to the throne of Scotland under the protection Edward I., 1291 ; in counter-treaty -with Fram 1294; prisoner of Edward 1296-1299; d. 1314. BALIOL, Edw., son of the preceding, invad< Scotland and was crowned at Scone 1332 ; aft many reverses of fortune he finally resigned h crown to Edward III. 1355 ; died 1363. BALL, John, a preacher of reform, distin in the Kent insurrection, executed 1381. BALL, John, a puritan theologian, 1585-164' BALLABENE, Gr., a composer, died 1803. BALLANDEN, J., a miscellaneous wr., d. 155 BALLANTYNE, James, the eel. printer of tl works of Scott, ed. of the Kelso Mail, &c, d. 183 BALLANTYNE, John, brother of James, ai confidant of Sir W. Scott, died 1821. BALLARD, Geo., a Saxon scholar, died 175^ BALLARD, S. G., a naval officer, died 1829. BALLARD, Volante Vashon, a fellow-vo] ager with Vancouver, born 1774 ; captain in tl R.N. 1807 ; rear-admiral 1825 ; died 1832. BALLENDEN, J., a Scotch historian, d. 155' BALLERINI, Peter and Jerome, two br< thers of Verona, distinguished as men of leamin and joint editors of theological and classical work: the first, 1698-1764 ; the last, 1702-1780. BALLESTEROS, Fr., a Spanish offic, d. 18& BALLET, Fr., a religious writer, 1702-1762. BAL BALLEXSERD, J., author of a prize essay on the medical and domestic treatment of children, 1726-1774. BALLIANI, J. B., a writer on physics, d. 1666. BALLIN, Claude, artist in gold and metals to Louis XIV., 1615-1678. BALINE, C. D., a medical author, died 1805. BALMEZ, J. L., one of the most distinguished of the modern writers of Spain, 1810-1848. BALSAMO, L. and 0., Sicilian poets, 17th ct. BALSAMON, patriarch of Antioch, died 1214. BALSHAM, Hugh De, bishop of Ely, d. 1286. BALTHASAR, Aug. De, an historian, d. 1779. BALTHASAR, Chr., a protestant wr., 17th ct. BALTHASAR, J. A., Felix De, a Swiss his- torian of William Tell, died 1810. BALTHAZAR, last k. of Babylon, 6th c. B.C. BALTHAZARINI, an Italian composer, dis- tinguished in the ballet, 16th century. BALTICUS, ML, a Latin poet, 16th century. BALTUS, J. F., a Jesuit theolog., 1667-1743. BALUE, John La, minister of Louis XL, born 1421 ; confined in an iron cage for treason, from 1469 to 1480 ; died 1490. BALUZE, Step., a Fr. biographer, died 1718. BALZAC, John Louis Guez De, an elegant French author, 1594-1654. BALZAC. This name, borne in the first half of the 17th century, by one of the classics of French prose, has again been made celebrated in our own day, by one of the most vigorous, original, and Srolific of French novel writers. Honore De alzac was born at Tours, about 1799. He came to Paris when a very young man, and was thenceforth engaged constantly in the toils and ex- citements of authorship. For several years he was very obscure ; and the only separate works which he then published, bore the assumed name of Horace de St. Aubin. In 1829 there appeared, with his real name, his romance of 'La Peau de Chagrin,' which at once gained him a celebrity that never r.fterwards flagged. This striking story exhibits, not only Balzac s extraordinary power of impres- sive representation, but some of the most marked characteristics of the school to which he belongs, and in which, if he is not equal to Victor Hugo, he is much superior to Dumas, and still more to Sue and De Kock. They luxuriate in characters and incidents which are horrible, rather than genu- inely tragic ; and, when they condescend to pro- fess a moral aim, they mar it by the gratuitous grossness which they throw into the details of the execution. The story of 'The Shagreen Skin' tells how a young ruined gamester, about to throw himself into the Seine, is rescued by a sorcerer, who gives him a talisman, consisting of a piece of shagreen. The possession of it ensures him the ? ratification of every wish he chooses to form; ut with every gratified wish the skin shrinks in size, and when it is quite wasted away the posses- sor dies. In another story, ' El Verdugo,' a young Spaniard beheads his parents, and his brothers, and his sisters, by common consent; life being offered by a French general to any one of the family who will be the executioner of the rest. There is less of exaggeration, with very much of intense interest, and of sternly accurate dissection of social vices and evils, in several of the best of Br.lzac's other novels. They are far too numerous BAN to be named. It may be enough to refer to « La Femme de Trente Ans,' and 'Le Pere Goriot.' Balzac attempted the drama likewise, but with little success ; and he was an active contributor to the 'Revue Parisienne,' and other periodicals. After the revolution of 1848 he contemplated writing romances of military life, and travelled to collect materials. He died at Paris in Aug. 1850. |"W S 1 BAMBRIDGE. See Bainbridge, Chr. BAMPFYLDE, Fr., a learned nonconformist and member of parliament, d. in Newgate 1684. BAMPFYLDE, Sir C., a royalist, died 1691. BAMPFYLDE, Sir C. W., a descendant of the two preceding, assassinated 1823. BANCHI, S., a Florentine priest who saved Henry IV. from assassination, died 1622. BANCROFT, J., bishop of Oxford, died 1610. BANCROFT, R,, archbp. of Canterb., d. 1610, BANDARRA, G., a Portuguese poet, 16th ct BANDELLO, M., a writer of fiction, d. 1561. BANDINELLI, B., an artist, died 1559. BANDINI, A. M., an antiquarian, died 1800. BANDURI, A., an historian, died 1743. BANIER, Ant., a fabulist, 1673-1741. BANIM, John, an Irish novelist, 1800-1842. BANISTER, J., an anatomist, died 1624. BANISTER, J., a botanical author, 1680. BANISTER, J., a violinist, died 1679. BANKERT, J. Van, a Dutch admiral, 17th ct. BANKES, Sir J., a justice distinguished for his loyalty to Charles I., died 1644. BANKS, J., au. of a work on Cromwell, d. 1751. BANKS, J., a dramatic author, 17th century. BANKS, Thomas, a sculptor, 1735-1805. BANKS, Sir Joseph, Bart., a celebrated bo- tanist and traveller, was born in London in 1743. He died in 1820. Inheriting at an early age an ample fortune, he resolved in order to gratify his love for botany, to visit foreign countries at that time little known to naturalists. For this purpose he made a voyage to Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador ; he accompanied Captain Cook in his celebrated voyage of discovery to the South Seas; he visited the coasts of Scotland, and spent some time in Iceland. Banks never published any ac- count of the vast collections of objects of natural history he had made ; still they were not lost to science. Fabricius described his insects; Brous- sonet his fishes; Gaertner profited by his fruits and seeds; Robert Brown's Prodromus of tho plants of New Holland was composed in the midst of his herbarium ; and many other botanists owe him similar favours. Our parks and gardens are indebted to Banks for many fine new trees and shrubs from New Holland ; our colonies for a vari- ety of the sugar cane from Tahiti, richer in sugar, and which admits of more frequent cropping: no our commerce for the flax of New Zealand, which fromises to be of such importance to our navy, n 1777 he was elected president of the Royal Society ; soon afterwards created a bart., a K.B., and a member of the privy council. He was a great favourite with George III., who was fond of botany and agriculture. His wealth and position in society enabled him to become the patron of science in his native country, and during the long war which embroiled all Europe, he was ever ready to assist, both by his purse and advice, scientific men of all nations. Many a man of science has CI BAN b3cn indebted to his generous liberality, and ten different collections of objects of natural history made for the Garden of Plants, which had fallen into the hands of our cruisers, and brought to England, were saved by his interference, and in several instances, at his own expense, safely trans- mitted to Paris. His published memoirs are few in number, and not of any great importance, yet his name remains intimately connected with the history of science. He presided for 41 years over the Eoyal Society ; and at his death he bequeathed his herbarium and splendid library of books of na- tural history to the British Museum, where they remain monuments of his patriotism, talent, and assiduity. [W.B.] BANNAKER, Benj., a negro slave, disting. as a mathematician and astronomer, died 1807. BANNIER, John, field-marshal of Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus, 1601-1641. BANNISTER, John, the celebrated comedian and vocalist, born 1760 ; engaged at Drury Lane, 1779 ; retired 1815 ; died 1836. BANQUO, a Scotch Thane, 11th century. BANTI, Signora, a singer, died 1806. BAODAN, an Irish king, 6th century. BAPTIST, a Dutch painter, died 1691. BAPTISTA, Fr., a curious writer, 17th cent. BAPTISTE, J., a Flemish painter, 1635-1699. BAPTISTE, J. G., a painter of Antwerp, em- ployed by Sir Peter Lely, died 1691. BAPTISTIN, J. B. S., a composer, died 1716. BAR, N. De, a French painter, 17th century. BARAGUAY-D' HILLIERS, L., a French gen- eral, distinguished in the Italian and peninsular campaigns, 1734-1812. BARAHONA, Louis, a Spanish poet, 16th ct. BARANZANO, R., a mathematical philosopher, correspondent of Bacon, 1590-1622. BARATIER, J. P., dist. for his early knowledge of many languages, also as a critic, 1721-1740. BARBA, A. A., a mineralogist, 17th century. BARBADILLO, A. J. De, a dramatist, 17th c. BARBANEGRE, J., a French general, d. 1830. BARBARELLI. See Giorgione. BARBARIGO, Augustin, doge of Venice, 1486 to 1501. Nicholas, ambassador from Ve- nice to Constantinople, died 1579. Gregory, a cardinal and bishop of Padua, 1625-1697. John Francis, twice ambassador to Louis XIV. ; afterwards cardinal and bp. of Padua, 1658-1730. BARBARINO, Francis, a poet, 1264-1348. BARBARO, Francis, a noble Venetian, dis- tinguished as a commander and scholar, 1398-1454. Ermolao, a classical scholar, d. 1470. Ermolao the younger, an ambassador and classical scholar, 1454-1493. Daniel, a classical scholar and rhe- torician, ambassador to England, and patriarch of Aquilea, 1513-1570. BARBAROSSA, Arolsh, a daring corsair, son of a Greek renegade, who dethroned the Arab sheik, and made himself dey of Algiers, 1516 ; defeated and slain by the troops of Charles V., 1518. BARBAROSSA, Khair Eddyn, brother and successor of Aroush, the greatest sea captain of his age ; died 1546. BARBAROSSA. See Frederick. BARBAROUX, C. J. Ma., member of the Fr. convention, and one of the Girondin leaders, bom 1767, executed 1704. C2 BAR BARBATELLI, an Italian painter, died 1612. BARBAULD, Anne L/etitia, chiefly cele- brated for her ' Prose Hymns,' and 'Early Lessons' for children, was the daughter of the Rev. John Aikin, a dissenting minister resident in Leicester- shire, where she was born on the 20th of June, 1743. While a child she was remarkable for quickness of intellect, no less than for the natural goodness of her disposition ; and in later years for the ele- gance of her taste, the extent of her acquirements, and her skill in classical literature. For these advantages Miss Aikin was greatly indebted to the affectionate zeal with which her father culti- vated her talents, and in some measure to the liter- ary circle into which he was able to introduce her on removing to Warrington, where he took charge of the celebrated school in 1758. After fifteen years of quiet seclusion, passed in these academic shades, Miss Aikin was induced to publish a volume of miscellaneous poems, which appeared therefore in 1773, and met with the most flatter- ing success. In the spring of the following year she became the wife of the Rev. Rochemond Bar- bauld, with whom she opened a school in the vil- lage of Palsgrave, Suffolk ; and took an active and influential part in its management as teacher of composition, and the graceful exercises of reading and speaking. Here they continued to reside for the next eleven years, and it is to this period that we are indebted for the works first alluded to, and for some devotional compositions. Mr. and Mrs. Barbauld then visited the continent for a short time, and on their return home, the former became pastor of a small congregation at Hampstead, where the subject of our notice resumed her pen ; first in the interest of the dissenters on the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, and next in a poetical address to Mr. Wilberforce, suggested by the rejection of the slave bill. These spirited ap- peals were followed by some religious essays, the most remarkable of which is a singular discourse for the Fast-day of 1793, entitled ' The Sins of the Government the Sins of the Nation.' In 1802 Mr. Barbauld became minister of a congregation at Newington Green, where he died in 1808, and in this neighbourhood his widow resided till her death in 1825, enjoying the company of her brother, and literary friend, Dr. Aikin. The simplicity of .Mrs. Barbauld's life and manners, the refinement of her imagination, and the purity of her soul, are well represented in the works which have rendered her name a household word in England, and to which the cause of education is so much indebted. The versatility of her talents is shown in the critical and biographical notices with which she amused herself in the early period of her residence at Stoke Newington, which include a selection of papers from the ' Spectator,' and similar classics, published in 1804, and an edition of the ' British Novelists ' in 1810. Her last publication was a re- markable poem, named from the year preceding its appearance, 'Eighteen Hundred and Eleven.' Her collected works were published soon after her death, with a memoir by her niece, Miss Lucy Aikin ; and the day is probably far off when her ' Early Lessons ' will be superseded by anything superior of the same class. [E.R.J I'.AKBAULT, J., an architect, last century. BARUAZAX, Step., a French savant, d. 1770. EAR BARBAZAN, A. W. De, a French general dis- tinguished in the wars with Burgundy and Eng- land ; defended Melun 1420 ; died 1432. BARBEAU DE LA BRUYERE, a French geo- grapher and historian, 1710-1781. BARBERET, a French agriculturist, last cent. BARBEYRAC, C, a French physician, d. 1699. BARBEYRAC, J., nephew of the preceding, a distinguished jurist, 1674-1747. BARBIANO, Albkric, count of, an Italian pa- triot, made grand constable of Naples, 1384-1409. BARBIER, A. A., author of a dictionary of anonymous and pseudonomous works, died 1825. BARBIERI. See Guercino. BARBOSA, Aug., bishop of Ugento, d. 1648. BARBOSA, Arias, a scholar, died 1540. BARBOSA, Edward, a navigator, known as the fellow-voyager of Magellan, killed 1521. BARBOSA, Jo., an historian, 1674-1750. BARBOSA, P., a lawyer, died 1596. BARBOUR, John, a Scotch poet and chroni- cler, chaplain of David Bruce, 1320-1378. BARBOUR, J., an Amer. statesman, d. 1824. BARBOUR, Ph. P., an Amer. lawyer, d. 1841. BARBOUR, T., an American politician, d. 1825. BARBUOT, J., a physician, 17th century. BARCALI, a Mahommedan author, 16th cent. BARCHAM, Dr. John, an antiquary, histo- rian, and writer on heraldry, 1541-1605. BARCHOCHEBAS, a seditious Jew who gave himself out for the Messiah, and was slain after a long resistance, and with an immense number of his followers, 135. BARCKHAUSEN, a chemist, died 1723. BARCLAY, Alex., a miscellaneous wr., 16th c. BARCLAY, J., a Scotch clergyman, minister of Cruden, and au. of a curious poem, 1675-1710. BARCLAY, J., a Scotch sectarian, died 1798. BARCLAY, N., an eminent Scotch civilian, rose to be counsellor of Lorraine, 1543-1605. BARCLAY, John, son of the preceding, dis- tinguished as a satirist, 1582-1621. BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated Apologist, was bora in 1648, at Gordonstown, county of Moray, and descended from an ancient and hon- ourable ancestry, who for centuries had flourished in the North of Scotland. The unsettled state of things at home induced his father, Colonel Barclay, to send him at an early age abroad, and accor- dingly he received the greater part of his education at Paris, under the superintendence of his uncle, who filled the office of rector in the Scots College. His parents being led from circumstances to appre- hend that familiarity with continental manners might produce in their son a disposition favourable towards the Roman Catholic religion, recalled him to his native country, where he appeared an accomplished youth, and combining the advantages of a liberal education with great natural abilities, he rapidly rose to distinction. His family having embraced the principles of the Quakers, he was persuaded ere long to follow their example, and in conforming to the peculiarities of a sect which was held in great disrepute, particularly in Scotland, he felt himself laid under a necessity of vindicating that course by the publication of several treatises in their defence, characterized by great variety of learning, as well as power of argument. His first work, which was published EAR in 1670, was entitled 'Truth Cleared of Calum- nies,' and appeared in the form of a controversial pamphlet, in answer to an attack on Quakerism by the Rev. Wm. Mitchel, a minister of the Church of Scotland. His next publication, which was issued in 1673, was a Catechism and Con- fession of Faith, containing an exposition of the principles of his religious communion ; and to this he soon after added his 'Theses Theological,' or Theological Propositions.— Becoming enthusi- astically attached to the cause of Quakerism, which he identified with that of truth and the best interests of humanity, he resolved on devoting his future life to its extension in the world ; and with this view, he in 1676 accompanied William Penn in a tour of propagandism through England, Hol- land, and Germany. It was while sojourning at Amsterdam, in the course of those peregrina- tions, that he published the great work which had long occupied him, and on which his fame chiefly rests— 'An Apology for the True Christian Divin- ity, as the same is preached and held forth by the people in scorn called Quakers.' This treatise was originally published in Latin, but was speedily translated into most of the languages of Europe, and while it greatly extended the reputation of its au- thor, the principles it advocated became the subject of keen and prolonged agitation. Barclay, on his return to his native country, suffered much from the severe edicts issued against the nonconformists of the period, being imprisoned five months in Aberdeen, besides other petty kinds of persecution in the form of obloquy and fines. His high character, however, for sincerity, as well as for talent and learning, carried him triumphantly over all oppo- sition, and latterly he enjoyed much distinction, being honoured with an introduction to the English court, and the partial regards both of Charles II. and his successor, James II. Through the royal favour he received a commission as governor of East Jersey for life, whence he several times re- turned to visit his native land, and it was in 1680, the last visit he paid, he was seized with fever, and died amongst his relatives, at Ury, in Aberdeen- shire, in the forty-second year of his age. [R. J.] BARCLAY DE TOLLY, M., field-marshal of Russia, born 1755 ; director of the war against Napoleon 1810 ; com. of the Russian troops at the battle of Leipzig 1812, and in France 1815 ; d. 1818. BARCOCHAB. See Barchochebas. BARCOS, M. De, a Jansenist, died 1678. BARD, Peter, a Flemish monk, died 1535. BARD, J., a medical author, died 1799. BARD, S. M. D., a disting. physician, d. 1821. BARDAS, brother-in-law of the emp. Theo- philus, and guardian of his son Michael ; usurper of the supreme power 24 years ; put to death 86G. BARDAS PHOCAS, and BARDAS SCLERUS, rival generals of the Greek empire, who disputed for many years the supreme power, 970-990. BARDE, J. De La, an ambassador and his- torian of France, 1600-1692. BARDESANES, a Theosophist of Syria, foun- der of a sect in the 2d century. BARDI, the name of several distinguished Flo- rentines in the 17th century. BARDILLI, C. G., a metaphysician, last cent. BARDIN, P., a French author, died 1637. BARDZUIKI, J. A, a poet, 17th century. GJ BAR BAREBONE, Praise God, a fanatic from whom the Barebone's Parliament derived its name, 1653. BARENT, Dietrich, a Dutch nam., 1534-1582. BARENTIN, C. L. P. De, a French politician, noted for his opposition to Necker, 1738-1819. BARENTZ, William, a skilful Dutch pilot, sent out by the United Provinces on three voyages, between the years 1594 and 1597, in search of a N.E. passage to China. He failed in the object, but made some important additions to geography. Bear, or Cherry island, and Spitzbergen were dis- covered by him ; the latter, in 80°, was found to have good herbage and herds of deer, while Nova Zembla, in 76o, was a barren waste. Suddenly enclosed by ice on the coast of Nova Zembla, on 26th August, 1596, Barentz was obliged to remain on this inhospitable shore till the following sum- mer, and was thus the first navigator who wintered in the Arctic regions. He left the island on the 14th June, with a crew of fifteen persons, in two small boats, his ship being disabled. He died from fatigue on the 20th; but the adventurous survivors held on their perilous voyage — the most extraordinary on record — and traversing a stormy ocean filled with floating ice, exposed to the ex- treme of cold, famine, and sickness, and to fre- quent attacks from bears borne along upon the ice islands, or pursuing them through the water, they reached in six weeks the port of Kola, in North Lapland, a distance of 1600 miles. Here they found three ships from their own country. [J.B.J BARERE. See Barrere. BARETTI, Jo., an Italian author, 1716-1789. BARGRAVE, Isaac, chaplain to James I., afterwards dean of Canterbury, died 1642. BARHAM, Rev. Rich. Harris, the disting. humourist known as Thomas Ingoldsby, 1789-1845. BARISON, a nobleman of Pisa, created k. of Sardinia by Frederick Barbarossa, d. in prison 1154. BARKER, E. H., distinguished as a critic and classical reviewer, 1788-1839. BARKER, G., F.R.S., distinguished as one of the original promoters of railways, died 1845. BARKER, G. P., an American politic, d. 1848. BARKER, J., a medical writer, 17th century. BARKER, M. H., a fugitive writer, known in magazine literature as the Old Sailor, died 1846. BARKER, Robert, a portrait painter, inventor of the panorama, died 1806. BARKER, Sam., a philologist, died 1760. BARKER, Thomas, a poet, 1721-1808. BARKHAM. See Barcham. BARKOK, a sultan of Egypt, 14th century. BARKSDALE, Cl., a miscellan. wr., 17th ct. BARLAAM, a theologian, 14th century. BARLiEUS, a Latin poet, died 1648. BARLAUD, A., a Dutch critic, died 1542. BARLETTA, Gabriel, a preacher, 11th cent. BARLOW, Francis, an artist, died 1702. BARLOW, Joel, a political writer, deputy from the U. S. to the French convention, and am- bassador to Napoleon when he died, 1811. BARLOW, Thomas, bishop of Lincoln, a casu- ist, and controversial writer, 1607-1691. BARLOWE, W., bp. of Bath and Wells, d. 1658. BARLOWE, W., son of the bishop, a writer on natural philosophy, died 1625. BARMEK, the founder of the illustrious family called the Barmecides, whoso various talents con- BAR tributed to the glory of Haroun-al-Raschid and his predecessors, and who were massacred, 802. BARNABAS, St., the fellow-labourer of Paul, supposed to have been stoned to death about 60. BARNARD, J., D.D., a biographer, died 1683. BARNARD, Sir John, lord mayor, and M.P. for London, the latter for 40 years, 1685-1764. BARNARD, Theodore, a Dutch painter. BARNAUD, Nich., an alchymist, 16th cent. BARNAVE, A. P. J. Marie, by profession an advocate, was born 1761, and distinguished in the parliament of Grenoble during the first omi- nous struggle against the despotic administration of Lomeme-Brienne. Deputed to the states- general by the province of DauphineJ in 1789, his eloquence, and his almost wild enthusiasm in the popular cause, marked him out as the rival of Mirabeau, and when the latter favoured the court, as his most dreaded adversary. One of a memo- rable trio, his characteristic talent is well ex- pressed in the epigram pointed at them : ' What- soever these three have in hand, Dupont thinks it, Barnave speaks it, Lameth does it. His love of justice, in the abstract, was carried to a reckless extreme in his decrees, as a member of the diplo- matic committee for the reorganization of the colonies, and their fatal effects led him to abandon the system, though Sieyes and Robespierre de- nounced his inconsistency as a treason. A member of the famous Jacobin Club, he fought a duel with the royalist Cazales, who had denounced the pa- triots as 'sheer brigands,' but neither of them received any serious injury. Like many others, his enthusiasm for the revolution was saddened and cooled down as he reflected upon the disasters which had accompanied it, and his return to mo- derate counsels was hastened by the situation into which he was momentarily thrown by the flight oi the royal family, and their arrest at Varennes. Appointed with P^thion and Latour-Maubourc to secure the king's return, Barnave rode in the carriage with the Queen and Madame Elizabeth, and touched by their distress, his conversion to the principles of a constitutional monarchy was completed. He was now denounced by the Jour- nalists as a deserter of the popular cause, and at the close of the session returned to private life, in his native town of Grenoble, where he married the daughter of an advocate. In August, 1792, he was arrested on a charge of conspiring with the royal family, with whom it was alleged he had held treasonable correspondence ever since the arrest at Varennes, and after a confinement of five months, conducted to Paris, and condemned by the revolutionary tribunal of Tinville. The effect of his eloquence on this occasion was such as to move even his sanguinary judges, and his friend Camille Desmoulins wept on hearing his last words. Arrived at the scaffold, he raised his eyes to heaven: 'Behold, at length,' he exclaimed, ' the reward of all I have done for liberty ! ' He was executed in 1793, at the early age of thirty- two ; and has left behind him a character remark- able indeed for indiscretion, but equally so for its honesty of purpose; and a name, as an orator, scarcely surpassed by any in the revolutionary annals. [E.R.] BARNES, Joshua, a friend of the famous lh\ Richard Bentley, was a native of London, where 04 BAR lie was born in the year 1654. His rudimentary education he received at Christ Church Hospital, whence he was removed to Emmanuel College, Cambridge. There he devoted himself to the study of classical literature with so great assiduity and success, that he rose to eminence as a Grecian ; — bis knowledge of the language of ancient Greece, however, being more minute and accurate than comprehensive, more limited to the niceties of the grammarian, than based on the enlarged and liberal views of the philologist. His reputation Jirocured him the appointment of Regius Pro- fessor of Greek at Cambridge in the year 1695 ; in 1700 he changed his state by forming a matri- monial alliance with a Mrs. Mason of Hemingford, a wealthy widow, and by means of the fortune ac- quired by his marriage with this lady, he was en- abled to bear the expenses of his edition of Homer. That work was published in 1710. The sale, however, was not such as to remunerate him, for in 1711 he applied, though unsuccessfully, to Lord Hr.rley for preferment in the church, in a series of letters setting forth his claims, which are pre- served in the Harleian collection. He died in 1712, and was buried in Hemingford churchyard, where his widow erected a monument to his memory. His works, which are now forgotten by all but a few scholars, were very voluminous. The fol- lowing may be considered a correct list of them in the order of publication: — Sacred Poems, 1669; The Life of Oliver Cromwell, The Tyrant, an Eng- lish poem, 1670; Xerxes, and other dramatic pieces in English and Latin ; a Latin Poem on the Fire in London and the Plague ; a Latin Elegy on the Beheading of John the Baptist ; Estheraa His- toria Poetica Paraphrasi, 1679 ; Select Discourses, 1680 ; The History of Edward the Third, 1686 ; an edition of Euripides, 1694; a Discourse on Matthew ix. 9; an edition of Anacreon, 1705; an edition of Homer, 1711, 2 vols. [R.J.] BARNES, R., D.D., a protestant martyr, 1540. BARNES, Thomas, a political writer, late principal editor of the Times, 1786-1841. BARNEVELDT, John D' Olden, a Dutch statesman, executed on a charge of treason, 1619. BARNEY, J., an Amer. sea capt., 1759-1818. BARO, Pierre, a protestant divine, 16th ct. BAROCCIO, Fred., an Ital. paint., 1528-1612. BARON, Bonadventure, the pseudonyme of an Irish classic, named Fitzgerald, died 1696. BARONIUS, C.,wr. of church annals, 1588-1607. BAJtOZZI, Jas., an Ital. architect, 1507-1577. BAROZZI, F., a Venetian nobleman, the most learned mathema. of his time, died in the inquisi- tion, being confined on a charge of magic, 16th ct. BARRAL, Peter, a Fr. antiquarian, d. 1772. BARRAL, Louis Mathias De, a Fr. emigrant, archbishop of Tours under the empire, died 1816. BARRAS, Louis, Count, a naval commander, died a short time previous to the revolution, BARRAS, Paul Francis, Count De, was bom of a noble French family of Provence, of whom it was proverbial to say, ' Noble as the Barrases, old as the rocks.' He was successively member of the convention and directoiy, and played an impor- tant part in the progress of the trench revolution. As early as the year 1775, when twenty years of age, he sailed for the Isle of France with the rank of second lieutenant, and was shipwrecked on the BAR Mnldive Islands. After this he is found at Pon- dicheny, then invested by an English armv, and peace being concluded, returns to France, ready to share in the political troubles of 1789. He is re- presented at this time as a man of reckless and dissipated habits; subject to fits of courageous impulse ; tall and handsome of person, and of yel- lowish complexion : in regard to mental character, remarkable for the practical quickness of his ap- prehension, and singular presence of mind under emergencies. Fired with the prevailing enthusi- asm in favour of reform, or seeing the means of repairing his shattered fortunes, and satisfying his restless spirit in the career it opened to him, he presently declared against the court, and was ad- mitted a member of the famous Jacobin Club From 1790 to 1792 we find him in the office of administrator for the department of the Var, and some other public employments, including that of commissary for the army of Italy. As a member of the convention in 1792, he voted for the long's death, and declared against the Girondins. In 1793 he was sent to the south of France, and com- manded the left wing of the army besieging Tou- lon, where he became acquainted with Napoleon, then captain of artillery in the same operations. When the savage excesses committed by the com- missioners and soldiers of the convention on this and similar occasions became the subject of re- monstrance in Paris, Barras and Freron were exempted from the general imputation, and it was only the popularity and audacious bearing of the former that deterred Robespierre from laying hands upon him. As the reign of terror drew near its close, and Henriot menaced the convention with his troops, Barras was intrusted with its defence, and it was he who seized Robespierre and conveyed him to the scaffold. The vigorous measures which he now adopted against the party of the Mountain, gained him the appointment of general-in-chief, decreed unanimously \y the convention ; and the merit belongs to him of engaging Buonaparte in the public sendee on the famous 13th Vendemiaire, (4th October, 1795,) when the revolt of Lepelletier was suppressed, and soon afterwards the govern- ment of the directory established, of which Barras was one. Residing in the Luxembourg palace, he affected almost royal pomp, and for a while exer- cised a marked ascendancy over his coadjutors; but their subsequent dissensions, and the intrigues of a formidable party, at the head of whom was the notorious Sieyes, gradually sunk them in pub- lic esteem, and prepared for the return of Buona- parte from Egypt, and his sudden elevation to the consulship. Barras is accused of conspiring with the English government for the restoration of the Bourbons, and this for the vilest of considerations, yet he hailed with apparent joy the advent of the illustrious soldier to whom he had first opened the path of preferment. Without _ recounting the petty intrigues of his later years, it is sufficient to say, that his public career— the mingled good and evil of his political life— closes with this epoch. For whatever reason, he obstinately refused the employments that were offered him through the agency of Tallevrand, and at last died in retire- ment on the 29th January, 1829. ' [E.R.] BARRE, William Vixcknt, a Fr. refugee, an. of a hist, of the first consulate, com. suicide 1829. C5 BAR BARRERE, P., a French naturalist, d. 1755. BARRERE DE VIEUZAC, Bertraxd, 'The Anaereon of the Guillotine,' as Burke styled him, is one of the most sinister and conspicuous char- acters of the French revolution, more especially as a member of the Committee of Public Safety during the reign of terror. He was born at Tar- bes in Gasccny, 1755, and being educated for the bar, met with considerable success as a youthful advocate at Toulouse, besides being admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences for his liter- ary attainments. In 1785 he married a lady of fortune, and it may here be remarked, that his private virtues have been extolled in singular con- trast with his perfidious conduct in public life; to which anomaly, perhaps, his moral weakness, and the brilliant talents which made him ashamed of it, and caused him to assume the airs of a bravo without the heart of one, among his more ierocious, or to say the least, less polished colleagues, may be in some measure the key. In 1789 he was sent to Paris, as the representative of his own province in the ' Third Estate ' of the 'Etats Generaux,' and took his place with the more moderate reformers. At this period he published a journal entitled ' Le Point du Jour,' and acquired a nigh degree of popu- larity by his eloquence both as editor and represen- tative. At first loyal to the king, he was gradu- ally carried away by the rising tide of republican- ism, and we find him, on the 17th June, in the ranks of those who provoked the revolution by which the commons of the third estate constituted themselves a national assembly. When this body at length separated, Barrere was appointed a judge in the High Court of Appeal, and in 1792 deputed to the National Convention for the de- partment of the Hautes Pyrenees ; acting as pre- sident, in fact, when the king was interrogated, whose situation in bygone times had excited his most compassionate feelings. From this time he became the mouthpiece of the Jacobins, and voted for the death of the king with the ob- servation, so often since repeated, ' L'arbre de la liberte ne croit qu' arrose par le sang des tyrans,' (the tree of liberty only grows when watered by the blood of tyrants.) On the 1st of April, 1793, he was elected on the Committee of Public Safety, and constantly acted as the reporter of its projects to the convention, in which employment his in- genious plausibility, and facile wit, were of essen- tial service to those who had else stood grim and stark in the midst of their atrocious conceptions. It was Barrere who created the revolutionary army by the memorable decree, — ' All France, and whatsoever it contains, of men or resources, is put under requisition ;' and who gave for the motto on their banners, ' Le peuple Francais debout contre les tyrans,' (The French people risen against ty- rants !) It was he who denounced Danton on the one hand on a charge of too much moderation, and Hebert on the other for his anarchic doc- trines; who stereotyped the scenes of greatest horror in a joke or an epigram, as when he said, — ' II n'y a que les morts qui ne reviennent pas,' (It is only the dead who do not come back again.) His fear of breaking with Robespierre made him the instrument of cruelties which he jested upon, and which he endeavoured to hide under the con- ceits in which he clothed them, while his heart E.R.I -1784! BAR revolted ; and if the absence of all principle is rendered more conspicuous in one circumstance than another of his public career, it is in the haste with which he moved the execution of the fallen dictator without trial on the 9th Thermidor: scarcely four-and-twenty hours after he had fawned upon him. The disgusting facility of his conversion did not prevent the reaction aflectine himself, more especially as he proposed the 'ooih tinuation of Fouquier Tinville in his office ol public acccuser. The result was, his trial and condemnation at the bar of the convention, the fall of which, and the political complications of the period, favoured his escape and concealment until the amnesty which followed the 18th Brumaire enabled him to return to Paris. He now presented himself to the senate as a candidate for admission into the legislative body, but Napoleon mistrusted him, and he disappeared till 1815, when he turned up as a member of the chamber of representatives during the hundred days. At the second restora- tion of the Bourbons, he was compelled to retire by the royal ordinance which expelled the regi- cides, and resided at Belgium till the revolution of 1830, when he once more returned to his country, and died 1841. He is the author of numerous poli- tical and historical works, besides the ' Point du Jour,' and an anti-British journal, entitled the 'Argus,' published under the imperial government. His own memoirs have been published by MM. Hipp, Carnot, and David, in 4 vols. 8vo. [E. BARRET, Geo., a landscape paint., 1730- BARRETT, W., a topographical wr., d 1789. BARRINGTON, John Shute, Viscount, a wr. on protestant theology, 1678-1734. Several of his sons also distinguished — Daines, as a lawyer, 1727-1800 ; Samuel, as a naval officer, d. 1800 ; Shute, his sixth son, as bp. of Durham, 1734-1826. BARROS, John De, a Portuguese his., d. 1570. BARROW, Dr. Isaac, celebrated both as a mathematician and a divine, was born in London, in 1630. He was sent at an early age to the Charterhouse School, where, however, his quarrel- some temper, pugnacious habits, and proverbial idleness, occasioned great annoyance to his teachers, as well as deep dissatisfaction and pain to his family. On his removal from that institution to Felsted in Essex, he began to show a better dis- position ; for applying himself to his studies with spirit and indefatigable industry, his progress was so rapid, and his attainments in various departments of learning so high, that his master appointed him tutor to Viscount Fairfax, of Emely in Ireland, who was at this school. His father, who had early destined him to a learned profession, entered him, in 1645, a student of Trinity College, Cam- bridge. But his fortune having been greatly in- jured through his attachment to the royal cause, young Barrow would have been destitute of the means to continue the expensive style of living at that university, had it not been for the liberality of the famous Dr. Hammond, who gave him the benefit of his valuable friendship, and through whose influence he, in 1649, obtained a fellowship in the college. Having finished his literary and philosophical course, he directed his studies with a view to the practice of medicine, and made great proficiency in the subsidiary sci- ences of anatomy, botany, and chemistry. But, CG BAR by the counsel of his uncle, bishop of St. Asaph, and his own growing convictions of the duty imposed on him by his oath as a fellow, he with- drew from the further prosecution of those sciences, and devoted himself to the study of divinity, re- taining, however, his strong predilection, and ear- nest pursuit of mathematics. Disappointed in his hopes of obtaining the Greek professorship, he resolved to dispel his chagrin by visiting the con- tinent, but was so poor at the time, that to meet the expense of his travels he had to dispose of his books. In 1660, he was chosen to the Greek chair at Cambridge ; and in July, 1662, he received another appointment more congenial to his tastes, that of feometry professor in Gresham college, London, n 1663, he received the high honour of being the first Fellow elected by the council of the Royal Society after they were incorporated by charter; and almost immediately after he was appointed first professor of a mathematical lectureship founded by Dr. Lucas, at Cambridge. This office he held for six years, and then resigned it to Sir Isaac Newton, having resolved to dedicate the rest of his life to divinity. Several small preferments he obtained in the church, till having by his pre-eminence as a preacher been marked out as capable of filling the most dignified stations, he was, in 1670, created Doctor in Divinity, prepar- atory to his being appointed Master of Trinity College, and chaplain to the king. Charles had conceived a strong partiality for him, and on be- stowing these honourable preferments upon him, said ' that he had given them to the best man in England.' A further honour awaited him, in being elected, in 1675, to the Vice-Chancellorship of the university. But he was not destined to en- joy these honours long, for on 4th May, 1677, he was seized with fever, which in a few days ter- minated his brief, though brilliant career. — His works in mathematics are still held in great esteem. His sermons, with the exception of* two, were posthumous, though he had prepared them for the press. They are remarkable for abundance of matter, treasures of erudition, for splendour of description, and a spirit of glowing piety. Charles II. used to call him ' an unfair preacher, because he exhausted every subject, and left nothing for others to say after him.' [R. J.] BARROW, Sir John, Bart., F.R.S., secretary to the admiralty from 1804 to 1845; a distin- guished biographical writer and promoter of dis- covery, 1764-1848. BARRUEL, Augustus, a French abbe, chiefly kn. for his memorials of Jacobinism, 1741-1820. BARRUEL DE BEAUVERT, Count Anth. Jos., a partizan of the Bourbons, well known as a journalist and biographical writer, 1756-1817. BARRY, Girald, or Giraldus Cambrensis, an English prelate and historian of the 12th cent. BARRY, J. T., an ar. and wr. on art, 1741-1806. BARRY, Spranger, a eel. actor, 1719-1777. BARRY, Marie Jeanne De Vaubernier, Countess Du, celebrated for her beauty and infamous licentiousness at the court of Louis XV., commenced her career in a millinery establishment, through which she entered upon the life of a courtezan, and was taken under the protection of the Count du Barry. Presented at court 1759, when the place of Madame Pompadour was va- 07 BAS cant, she became the king's mistress, and acquired the most unbounded influence over him. The dismissal and exile of the prime minister Choiseul was decided upon under her influence, guided bv the ' corrupt D'Aiguillon,' and the ' time-serving Mau- peou,' who were the most implacable enemies of the parliament, which had now maintained a quar- rel for nearly a quarter of a centuiy witli the cou#. France, at this period, as the most vigor- ous and deep-sighted writer of the present age has described it, 'with a harlot's foot on her neck,' was preparing for the fearful struggle of the revolution, in which Du Barry, with so many others who were either the glory or the shame o*f their country, were doomed to perish. At the death of the king, in 1774, she was ordered by Louis XVI. into the convent of Pont-aux-Dames, near Meaux, but after some time permitted to reside in the chateau built for her by the old king. Here she lived some years in a creditable retire- ment, but coming to England to procure money for the use of the royal family by the sale of her diamonds, she fell under the displeasure of the revolutionary tribunal, and was condemned to the guillotine at the age of forty-nine. It is the com- mon remark of historians, that France was in- debted for much of its demoralization to this prostitute ; rather, it might be said, she had the address to avail herself of the incredible corruption that prevailed at the very heart of society. She suffered at the close of the year 1793, uttering the most pitiable cries for mercy on her way to the scaffold. [E.R.] BARSEBAI, sultan of Egypt, 1422-1438. BARTAS, Wm. De Saluste Du, a French soldier and diplom., dist. also as a poet, 1544-1590. BARTH, John, a French privateer, 1651-1702. BARTHELEMI, Nich., a religious wr., 15th c. BARTHELEMON, Francis Hippolite, a comp. and violinist, b. at Bordeaux 1741, d. 1808. BARTHELEMY, John James, a Fr. savant, member of the Acad., and au. of the ' Voyage of the Younger Anarchasis in Greece,' &c, 1716-1795. BARTHEZ, P. J., a Fr. medic, wr., 1734-1806. BARTHOLDY, J. S., a Prus. diplom., d. 1826. BARTOLI, or BARTOLUS, a celebrated jurist, whose works occupy 10 folio vols., 1312-1356. BARTOLI, Cosmo, an Italian hist., 16th cent. BARTOLI, D., hist, of the Jesuits, 1608-1685. BARTOLO, an Italian jurist, 14th century. BARTOLOZZI, Fr., an engraver, 1728-1815. BARTON, Bernard, dist. as the 'Quaker Poet,' by profession a banker's clerk, 1784-1849. BARTON, Elizabeth, a poor girl of Kent, the subject of religious ecstacies, which led to her execution, on a charge of high treason, 1534. BARTRAM, J., an Amer. botanist, 1701-1777. BARTRAM, Wm., son of the preceding, a dis- tinguished ornithologist, died 1823. BARWAK, J., a royalist divine, 1612-1604. BARWAK, P., an em. physiologist, died 170o. BASEDAW, J. B., a German wr. on education and moral philos., fndr. of a normal school culled the ' Philanthropinum,' at Dessau, 1723-1790. BASEVI, an architect, b. 1795, killed 18 1.. BASIL, St., the Great, a celebrated patriarch and ascetic of the Greek church, 326-379. BASILIUS, a celebrated heresiarch, burnt alive at Constantinople, 12th century. BAS BASILIUS, Valentine, a jurist, 15th rout. BASILIUS I., emperor of the East, 866-886 : the second of this name, who reunited Bulgaria to the empire, reigned 976-1025. BASILIUS, confid. of Constantine VII., d. 961. BASILIDES, inventor of the Abraxas. 2d ct BASILISCUS, emperor of the East, 475-477. BASILOWITZ, J., first czar of Russia, d. 1584. BASKERVILLE, John, celebrated for im- provements in letter-casting and print., 1706-1175. BASKERVILLE, Sir Simon, a phys., d. 1641. BASNAGE, Benj., a protestant divine, 1580- 1652. Anthony, his son, minister at Bayeux, 1610-1691. Samuel, son of Anthony, author of politico-ecclesiastical annals, died 1721. Henry, second son of Benjamin, a writer on jurispradence, 1615-1695. Jacques, son of Henry, the historian of the Jews, &c, 1653-1723. Henry, brother to the last named, a journalist and hist., 1656-1710. BASNET, Edw., an Irish priest and soldier, died in the reign of Edward VI. BASS, George, a surgeon in the English navy, who went out to New S. Wales, seven years after the formation of that colony, along with Governor Hunter, on board a ship in which the celebrated Flinders was midshipman. Soon after reaching Port Jackson, he and Flinders fitted out, at their own expense, a small boat, eight feet long, which they called 'Tom Thumb;' and in this, with one boy for their companion, they made two surveying voyages in 1795 and 1796, along the coast south- wards. Their report on the country led to the founding of new settlements. Sent out by the government in 1797, in a whale boat, with a crew of six men, and provisions for six weeks, Bass con- trived to make these last eleven weeks, and per- formed a voyage of 600 miles. He traced a portion of the southern shores of the continent, and found that Vau Diemen's Land, instead of being con- tinuous with it, as Cook and others had asserted, was separated by a wide strait. The question was not, however, regarded as quite settled; and in 1798, on Flinders' return from Norfolk island, Bass and he were sent out in a vessel of 25 tons, with instructions to sail round Van Diemen's Land, and examine the capabilities of the coasts. Their successful voyage and favourable report soon led to further colonization. The strait received the name of its discoverer. No danger could check the ardour and daring of Bass. In 1796, he attempted to penetrate through the extraordinary rocky harrier which divides the maritime belt on the east from the interior plains, and during fifteen days encountered the greatest perils, ascending preci- pices by means of iron hooks fastened to his arms, and descending by ropes into the most frightful abysses. Like many previous attempts, this proved unsuccessful, and it was not till 1813 that a prac- ticable pass was found, due west of Sydney. [J.B.] BASSANI, G., a composer, 17th century. BASSANO, an Italian painter, 1510-1592. BASSANO, H. B. Maret, duke of, a political writer and statesman of France, ordered to quit England along with the ambassador Chauvelin, 1792 ; afterwards secretary of state and confidant of Buonaparte, as well as editor of his official organ, the Moniteur; fell with the empire, but returned from exile 1820, and was recalled to official employment by Louis Philippe; 17"> ^-1839 BAT BASSET, Peter, historian of Henry V. BASSI, Laura, M. C, an Italian lady, mad doctor of philo., and prof, at Bologna, 17ll-177?j BASSOM PIERRE, F., a Fr. marsh., 1575-1G4( BASSUET, Peter, a Fr. surgeon, 1706-1757. BASTA, George, a military writer, 16th ct. BASTIDE, J. F. De La, a mis. au., 1721-17'.'' BASTWICK, John, a controv. wr., 1593-165C BATE, George, a dist. physician and medics writer, historian of the civil wars, 1593-1669. BATE, H., a poet and journalist, last century. BATE, John, a writer on logic, 15th centurv. BATECUMBE, W., a geometrician, 15th cent BATEMAN, W., fndr. of Trinity Hall, d. 1351 BATES, Joah, an em. musician, 1740-1799. BATES, W., a religious biographer, 1625-1699 BATHE, Wm., au. of a curious philological work ma?ter of the Irish school at Salamanca, 1564-1614 BATHURST, Allen, Earl, a distinguished op pon. of Walpole in the House of Lords, 1684-1775. BATHURST, Henry, Earl, son of the preced ing, some time lord chancellor, 1714-1794. BATHURST, Rt. Rev. Henry, bishop o Norwich, 1744-1837. BATHURST, Dr. H., son of the preced., d. 1844 BATHURST, Ralph, a Latin poet, 1620-1704 BATHYANI, C. J., a noble Hungarian, field- marshal of Austria, born 1697, in service, 1710- 1747, died 1772. See also Batthyanyi. BATHYLLUS, a eel. mimic, time of Augustus BATOMI, P. G., an Ital. painter, 1708-1787. BATOU, Khan, sue. of Zenghis-khan, d. 1276 BATSCH, A. J. G. C, a naturalist, 1761-1801 BATTELY, John, an antiquarian, died 1708. BATTEUX, Ch., a French classic, 1713-1780. BATTHYANYI, Louis, a Hungarian noble man, distinguished for his connection with tin Austrian conflicts of 1848, and his unhappy fate He was born about the year 1809, of one of tin most illustrious families of the proud aristocracj of Hungary. He was for many years the leade' of the opposition to Austrian domination, in th< upper house of Hungary, and by his talents anc judgment increased the influence naturally awardec to his rank in that assembly. When the sweep o revolutionary events in 1848 rendered it necessarj to form a Hungarian cabinet, Batthyanyi was in- trusted with the function. It is said that at cour: he was encouraged to treat Jellachich, the Ban o Croatia, as a traitor, at the very time when thai leader was encouraged to invade Hungary anc subdue it for Austria. In September, as priint minister of Hungary, he went to Vienna to en- deavour to make moderate stipulations for preserv- ing the nationality of Hungary on the one hand and on the other restraining it from violent out- break ; but he found influences at work which ren- dered this hopeless, and resigning, retired to hit estates. An accident disabled him from joining ii the warlike resistance to Jellachich had he desirec it, but he took part in the Hungarian parliament He went with a deputation to Prince WindischgraetJ to accommodate terms, but was not received. Hi wis arrested, and after some delay, by order oi Marshal Haineau, tried by court-martial and con- demned to death. The conviction was for vague offences, among others for resigning office ; and it was said that the Austrian government took ven- geance on a Hungarian nobleman for the disturb- 68 BAT ances of Vienna, and the murder of Latour. He was condemned to be hanged, but an attempt to commit suicide prevented the execution of the sentence, and he was shot on Oct. 6, 1848. BATTIE, Wm., a wr. on insanity, 1708-1776. BATTISHILL, Jon., a composer, 1708-1801. BATUTA, Ibn, an Arab Moor of Tangicrs, a celebrated traveller of the middle ages. He left his native town in 1324, and travelled for 28 years over the various countries of the East, chiefly for tbe purpose of seeing holy places, and returned through Central Africa to Fez, where he took up his abode in 1353. A pretty fall account of his interesting journey is given by Mr. W. D. Cooley in his Hist, of Inl. and Mar. Disc. vol. i., from the only materials known to exist, ' an extract from an epitome.' [/LB.] BATZ, Baron De, a member of the constituent assembly, noted as a fmancialist, died 1822. BAUDEAU, N., a Fr. economist, 1730-1792. BAUDELOQUE, J. Z., a French accoucheur, and writer on midwifery, 1746-1810. BAUDIN, P. C. L., a French civilian, deputy to the assembly and the convention, 1751-1799. BAUDIUS, Doninic, a rhetorician, 1561-1613. BAUDOT DE JUILLI, Nicholas, au. of a hist, of the conquest of England, &c., 1678-1759. BAUDOUIN, Bex., a Fr. archaeologist, 17th c. BAUDOUIN. See Baldwin. BAUDRAIS, a theatrical writer, magistrate of Paris during the reign of terror, 1749-1832. BAUDRAUD, M. A., a geographer, 1633-1700. BAUER, Fred., a German artist, died 1826. BAUHINUS, John, a botanist, 1541-1613. His brother Gaspard, also awr. on botany, 1560-1624. BAULDRI, Paul, a chronologist, 1639-1706. BAUME, Anth., a chemical author, died 1805. BAUME, J. F. De La, a Fr. divine, died 1757. BAUME, Nich. Aug. De La, marquis of Mon- trevel, and marshal of France, 1636-1716. BAUMER, J. W., a naturalist, 1719-1788. BAUMGARTEN, Alex. Gottlieb, a German metaphysician and prof, of philosophy, 1714-1762. BAUR, Fr. Wm. Von, a Russian general, au. of memorials for a history of Wallachia, d. 1783. BAUR, J. W., an archi. and painter, 1610-1640. BAWDWEEN, Wm., an antiquary, died 1816. BAXTER, And., a Scotch plnlos., 1686-1750. BAXTER, Richard, adivine of great note among the English nonconformists, was born 12th Novem- ber, 1615, at Rowton, Shropshire. His father's con- versation and example were the means of bringing him under early impressions of religion, and al- though he for a time contracted evil habits, such as lying, stealing fruit, &c, his juvenile piety was never wholly extinguished. Unfortunately, his education was committed to teachers whose in- competency, or unfaithfulness were such, that he cannot be said to have enjoyed the advantages of regular instruction ; and yet, by dint first of his father's counsels, and afterwards of his own genius and industry, he made attainments in knowledge superior to those of most of his contemporaries. His parents, who wished to procure him a place at court, engaged him to the master of the revels ; but the bustle and pageantry of the daily scenes in which that situation brought him to mingle were totallv uncongenial to a mind like his, fond of contemplation and retirement. With redoubled BAY zest he returned after a month's experiment to his studies, and resolving to devote his attention to divinity, prepared himself for the work in connec- tion with the Church of England. Having at the age of twenty-three received ordination, he offi- ciated, first, as assistant at Bridgenorth, where his reputation as a preacher procured him an ear- nest invitation to become pastor of the church and parish of Kidderminster. In that town his min- istry commenced in 1640, and was distinguished by a zeal and success rarely equalled. The un- settled state of the times drove him from that post of usefulness, and obliged him to seek an asylum in various parts of England. Though he espoused the cause of the parliament during the prevalence of the civil war, and became chaplain of a regiment, he was of decidedly moderate opinions, disapproved of revolutionary principles, especially of the violent measures adopted towards the late king, and did not disguise his disagreement, in many respects, with the conduct of both parties, in conducting the affairs both of the church and the state. His integrity and honest independence procured him general respect, notwithstanding which, however, he was subjected to much harassing annoyance. Mr. Baxter, at the earnest solicitation of the people, returned to Kidderminster, and discharged the ministerial functions in that place with all his wonted assiduity for a period of fourteen years. Having begun to entertain conscientious scruples about the et ccetera oath, he relinquished the Church of England, and repaired to London, where, arriv- ing immediately before the deposition of Richard Cromwell, he preached to the parliament the day preceding their vote for the restoration of the king. Having obtained a license, he preached frequently in the metropolis, till, in 1676, a meeting-house was built for him ; but after preaching there once, he was dispossessed, seized by a warrant from the Lord Chief Justice Jefferies, tried and condemned for some passages in his Paraphrase on the New Testament. Through powerful influence exerted in his behalf with king James II., he was pardoned, and on regaining his liberty he resumed his minis- terial functions, preaching to large and attached congregations in various parts of London. Mr. Baxter was a most volummous author, one hun- dred and forty-five distinct works having proceeded from his indefatigable pen. The chief of these are his own ' Life and Times,' his ' Dying Thoughts,' his ' Saints' Everlasting Rest,' and his ' Call to the Unconverted,' of which 20,000 copies were sold in this country in a single year, besides trans- lations of it into all the languages of Europe. His whole soul was absorbed by zeal for the glory of God, and the salvation of men, and in the dis- charge of his duty, he was fearless^ as much in reproving Cromwell and remonstrating with the profligate Charles, as in addressing a congregation of plain and ordinary people. |.R- J-] BAYARD, P. du Terrail, Chevalier De, a French knight, celeb, for his valour and loyalty, killed in the Italian wars of Francis I., 1476-1524. BAYER, John, a German astrono., 17th cent. BAYER, T. S., a philologist, 1694-1738. BAYEUX, N., a Fr. historian, killed 1792. BAYLE, G. L., a French med. au., 1774-1816 BAYLE, Moses, a member of the Fr. conven- tion and Com. of Safety, proscribed 1795, d. 1815. C9 BAY BAYLE, Peter, born at Carlat, in the county of Foix, in 1647 : the son of a Calvinist minister • — one of the most learned and laborious men of any age ; — witness that grand monument he has left, the ' Dictionnaire Historique et Critique.' His own account of the cause of his extraordinary productive power is this, — meriting •well a prominent place among the memoranda of the ambitious student, — 'Amusements, pleasure- parties, games, collations, trips to the country, visiting, and other recreations, necessary — accord- ing to what they say — to many literary "men, have no place in my manner of lite ; I lose no time in them, neither do I spend any on domestic cares, or in interfering with anything, soliciting any- thing, or meddling at all with business. In this way, a writer may accomplish much.' — The events of Bayle's life are eminently characteristic of his habit of mind: at one time a Calvinist; at the next a catholic ; then Calvinist again ; finally of no tangible creed or even profession or care about faith oi any sort : — if his singular logical acuteness enabled him to cut in pieces the arguments then passing current for reasons, the defective force of his moral and intellectual instincts seemed to render him quite as happy and comfortable without a be- lief as with one. His writings, accordingly, are essentially critical and sceptical: he delights in showing how those important questions which philo- sophy would fain resolve are engirt by innumer- able difficulties. Take as a specimen his treatment of the position ' There is a God. 1 The usual proofs — apparently the soundest — on which one rests this position, that one, for instance, which would infer the existence of a perfect Being, from the ex- istence in the human mind of a corresponding idea — are open to manifold objections. Touching the Divine essence, our ignorance seems insur- mountable. Though all men might be said to agree as to the betng of a God, where is their agreement regarding Ins nature; who can reconcile his immutability with his liberty, his immateriality and his immensity? His unity is not demon- strated. His prescience cannot easily be accom- modated to the free-will of man ; nor his good- ness with the physical and moral evil prevailing in the world, or with, the eternal punishment of the wicked. His decrees are impenetrable ; his judg- ments incomprehensible. We can reach no higher than negative conceptions regarding his divine perfections. . . . Thus Bayle doubts rather than reasons ; — nay, he concludes, in the true spirit of the Pyrrhonist, "that Reason is not a safe guide. Never was sh/le better adapted to such a thesis ; clear, polished, keen, and passionless. No good library should want the Dictionary ; and there are few Inquirers who may not derive benefit from its singular pages. Besides this Opus Majus, he wrote several miscellaneous treatises, collected in his ' (Euvres Diverses,' four vols. 8vo. He died ' pen in hand ' at the age of fifty-nine, in Decem- ber, 1706. [J.P.N.] BAYLEY, AXSSLM, a Hebrew schol., d. 1791. BAYLEY, the Right Hon. Sir John, jus- tice of the King's Bench, mem. of the privy coun- cil, and author of a professional work, died 1841. BAYLEY, Lewis, bishop of Bangor, died 1632. BAYLEY, N., writer of a dictionary, 1753. BAYLEY, Rich., a eel. anatomist, 1745-1801. BEA BAYLEY, Thomas IIaynks, a lyrical poet, di matic writer, and novelist, 1797-1839. BAYLEY, Wm., an astronomer, died 1810. BAYON, J. De, a French annalist, 14th cen: BAZARAD, a Wallachian prince, 14th centn BAZARD, Amand, a French carbonaro, ai'tt wards a follower of St. Simon, 1792-1832. BAZIRE, Cl., am. of the Fr. conven., 17644 BEACON, Thos. an Enghah reformer, d. 15' BEARDE DE L'ABB AYE, an econom., d. 17; BEATON, Card., abp. of St. Andrews, d tinguished for his persecuting spirit, assass. 154 BEATON, Jas., neph. of the card., bp. of Gh gow, and au. of a history of Scotland, 1530-160 BEATRICE, a martyr and saint, 3d century. BEATTIE, James, the well-known Scot poet and moralist, was the son of a small farn and shopkeeper, and was born at Laurencekirk Kincardineshire, 5th December, 1735. After pi suing his studies with the most brilliant success Marischal College, Aberdeen, he was appoint usher to the Grammar School of that city 17; where he enjoyed the society of many distinguish men, especially of Reid, the metaphysician, fr< whom he acquired the principles afterwards ilh trated in his 'Essay on Truth.' In 1761, bei then in his twenty-sixth year, Beattie made 1 debut in the literary world as translator of t Eclogues of Virgil, and author of several sm poems which had appeared anonymously at va ous times in the ' Scots Magazine.' In 1765 he pu lished ' The Judgment of Paris,' and in 1766 selection of his poems, with the addition of soi which had not hitherto appeared. Between tl period and 1770 he was preparing his fame essay, which he designed to counteract the bane: effects of materialism, by demonstrating the ii mutability of moral sentiment, which involves, fact, the principle of a priori instruction and 1 velation. His personal history during this peri acquires some interest from his marriage with M Dun, which took place in June 1767, and the frien ship of the poet Gray, soon to be terminated by t death of the latter. The ' Essay on Truth ' at on established the fame of its author, who received t flattering recognition of a degree as doctor of phi! sophy from the university of Oxford, and the offer the professorship of moral philosophy in the univt sity of Edinburgh, which, for personal reasons, declined to accept, as he did a handsome living the Church of England proffered by Dr. Portei It was in the flush of his success that Beattie r sumed his poetical studies, and gratified the Engli public with his ' Minstrel,' a poem, written in t style and stanza of Spenser, and embodying, the character of Edwin, a transcript of his ov ideas and pursuits in his younger days. The fir book of this celebrated poem appeared in 1771, t second in 1774, and a new edition of the whole 1777, and it brought the author so prominent before the public that his merits were ackno^ ledged in 1773 by an annual pension of £200 fro the crown, graced, a little subsequently, by a pi vate interview with the king and queen. In 171 his essays ' On Poetry and Music, ' On Laught and Ludicrous Composition,' and ' On the Utilii of Classical Learning,' appeared, forming oi volume with a new edition of nis ' Essay on Trutl In 1790 and 1793 respectively, the two volumes 7U BEA his 'Elements of Moral Science' were first pub- lished, and as a further proof of his industry, there is scarcely an interval between the publication of the 'Minstrel' and his retirement in 1796, in which literature was not more or less enriched by his pen. It is sad to record that the insanity of his wife some years past, and the death of his sons, the younger of whom was suddenly snatched from him at the period just mentioned, affected at last his well-regulated mind. Though he re- covered this shock, it was only to pass the remain- der of his days in his now solitary home, where he died of paralysis, 18th August, 1803. Beattie has been described by one who knew him as a man of middle size, robust in appearance, some- what corpulent, and slouching in his gait. ' His features were very regular ; his complexion some- what dark. His eyes were black and brilliant, full of tender and melancholy expression, and in the course of conversation with his friends, be- came extremely animated.' His eldest son, James Hay Beattie, 1768-1790, gave proof of his philo- sophical and poetical talents in some fragments which were edited bv his father, 1791. [E.R.] BEATTY, Sir Wm., M.D., F.E.S., author of an ' Authentic Narrative ' of the last moments of Kelson, with whom he was professionally present at the battle of Trafalgar, knighted 1831, d. 1812. BEAUCHAMP, Alph. De, a French historian, of the war in La Vendee, Suarrow, &c, 1767-1832. BEAUCHAMP, Jos., an astronomer, political agent of Buonaparte in the East, 1752-1802. "BEAUCHAMP, Richard, an Engl, architect, employed at Windsor and elsewhere, died 1481. BEAUCHAMPS, P. F. G. De, a dramatic poet and historical writer on the drama, 1689-1761. BEAUCHATEAU, Fr. Mat. Chastelet De, a linguist and poet, remarkable for the precocious development oi his talents, 1615-1660. BEAUCHATEAU, Hippolyte, brother of the preceding, disting. as a religious writer and orator. BEAUFORT, Francis de Vendome, duke of, killed at the siege of Candia, 1669. BEAUFORT, Henry, an English prelate, half- brother of Henry IV., made a card. 1426, crowned Henry VI. at Notre Dame, 1430, one of the judges of La Pucelle, 1431, died 1447. BEAUFORT, Louis De, an historian, d. 1795. BEAUFORT, Marg., countess of Richmond, mother of Henry VII., k. of England, 1441-1509. BEAUHARNAIS, Fanny, countess of, strictly, Mary Anne Fanny Mouchard, a writer of some theatrical pieces, and poems, &c, 1738-1813. BEAUHARNAIS, Francis, marquis of, a Fr. royalist, nephew of the preceding, 1756-1819. "BEAUHARNAIS, Alexander, Viscount, br. of Francis, a disting. general condemned by the rev. tribunal, and executed 1794. See Josephine. BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene De, son of the preceding and of Josephine, born 1781; in the service of Buonaparte 1804-1814; viceroy of Northern Italy 1805 ; married to the daughter of the king of Bavaria 1806, and made duke of Leuchtenburg by his father-in-law at the restora- tion, died 1821. For Hortensk EuGBXIB, sister of Eugene, and q. of Holland, see Hortensk. BEC BEAULIEU, Sebastian De Pontault De a celebrated military engineer, time of Louis XI \"' BEAUMARCHAIS, Peter Aug mix CaboN De, a dramatic author and musician, 1732-1799. BEAUMELLE, Laur., a Fr. critic, 1727-1773. BEAUMESNIL, the pseudonvme of H. A. Vil- krd, a Fr. actress and mus. composer, 1718-1803. Sr^USJS' £' £ E ' a Fr - ^teaman, d. 1375. BEAUMONT, C. De, abp. of Paris, 1703-X781. BEAUMONT, C. E. De, a F. archi. 1757-1811. BEAUMONT, E. De, a F. advocate! 1732-1785. BEAUMONT, Francis, the celebrated dra- matic poet and fellow-labourer with Fletcher, was born in Leicestershire about 1581, and died about 1616. The plays of these attached friends, who were singularly alike in genius and taste, are re- markable for their humour and delineation of char- acter, and for some time contested the palm with Shakspeare, but they are disfigured by the gross indecency which disgraced the court oi" James I. BEAUMONT, Sir J., a judge, 1582-1628. BEAUMONT, Joseph, author of a religious allegory, professor of divinitv, died 1689. BEAUMONT, J. T. B., an accountant and man of letters, disting. for his public spirit as the originator of savings banks, &c, 1771-1811. Beaumont, marie leprince de, a Fr. authoress of works adapted for youth, 1711-1780. BEAUMONT DE PEREFIX, Hardouin, a French ecclesiastic and historian, died 1670. BEAUNE, F. De, a mathematician, died 1652. BEAURAIN, J. De, a geogra. wr., 1697-1771. BEAURIEN, G. G. De, a popular Fr. author of a work on natural history, &c, 1728-1795. BEAUSARD, P., a Fr. mathematician, d. 1577. BEAUSOBRE, Isaac De, a celebrated protes- tant theologian, author of a defence of the re- formed doctrines, &c, 1659-1738. BEAUSOBRE, C. L. De, son of the preceding, also a divine and protestant writer, 1690-1753. BEAUSOBRE, L., another son, distinguished as a natural philosopher and economist, 1730-1783. BEAUVAIS, C. N., a Fr. historian, 1715-1791. BEAUVAIS, W., a wr. on numis., 1698-1773. BEAUVILLIERS, Francis De, duke de St. Aignan, disting. as a courtier and poet, 1607-1687. BEAUVILLIERS, Paul De, son of the preced., and coadjutor of the archb. of Cambray, d. 1711. BEAUXALMIS, Th., a Fr. theolog., 1521-1589. BEAVER, John, a chronicler of the 11th cent. BECCADELLI, Antig., an histo., 1371-1171. BECCADELLI, Louis, an Ital. biogra., d. 1572. BECCARI, Augustin, an Ital. poet, d. 1520. BECCARI, J. B., a physiolo. wr., 1682-1766. BECCARIA, Cesar Bonesana, Marquis, author of a celebrated treatise on crimes and punishments, which is regarded as one of the best works ever written on legislation, 1785-1794 BECCARIA, G. B., an experi. phil., 1716-1781. BECERRA, Gaspard, a Sp. artist, d. 1570. BECKETT, Thomas a, the illustrious, high- spirited, and ill-fated churchman canonized 1173 by Alexander III., was the son of a London citizen, one time a crusader, and was born in Lon- don on the festival of St. Thomas, 1117. He re- i ceived a collegiate education at Oxford, completed BEAUJEU, Chr. De, a Fr. officer and man i by the study of the civil and canon law at Bologna, of letters, disting. in the Spanish war, 16th cent. ; under the patronage of Theobald, wchhuhop ot BEAUJOUR, L. F. De, a diplom., 1763-1836. Canterbury, and was early carried to preferment 71 BEC BEG by his undoubted abilities, aided by a handsome I them left the royal presence in hot anger, after person and refined manners ; but still more by the jealousy which divided the civil and ecclesiastical Sowers at that time. On his return from Italy Beckett was appointed archdeacon of Canterbury by his patron, and soon after the accession of llenry II. in 1154, was raised to the dignity of high chancellor ; doubtless by the influence of* the prelacy favouring his own ambition. At this time, it should be remarked, the power of the popes had risen to an arrogant height, and the dispute about investitures, the subjection of the clergy to lay jurisdiction in criminal matters, and various alleged abuses on either side, were subjects of continual and bitter strife between the church and the crowned heads of Europe. It is not likely that Beckett was ever undecided in his own views on any of these subjects, or on the part he was destined to play in the politics of the period ; but it is easy to imagine that each party would see the means of advancing its own pretensions in the splendid abilities, the acknowledged purity of life, and the courtly manners of the young churchman. On the death of Theobald, in 1162, the king and the chief prelates were equally urgent for his elevation to the see of Canterbury ; but once consecrated, it devolved upon him whether he would serve the church or the state, and he declared for the former without hesitation. The king and his late minister were equally matched for then' inflexibility, quickness of resolu- tion, undaunted courage, and statesmanlike abili- ties ; and both were influenced, further than their own consciousness extended, by the spirit of the age. Three years of strife led to the council of Clarendon, convoked by Henry in 1164, when Beckett yielded to the entreaties or menaces of the barons, and signed the famous 'Constitu- tions,' by which the differences between the church and state were regulated. These articles not only rendered the state supreme in all that concerned the general government of the nation, but virtu- ally separated the Church of England from Rome. The pope, therefore, refused to ratify them, and Beckett, seeing his opportunity, and really repent- ing of the compliance that had been wrung from him, refused to perform his office in the church, and endeavoured to leave the kingdom, in which, at last, he succeeded, only to draw down the vengeance of Henry upon his connections. The Erogress of the quarrel belongs rather to the istory of the times than a single life. Beckett remained in exile six years, and matters being in some measure accommodated, returned to England in 1170, shortly after the coronation of the king's son, which had been designed by Henry as a means of securing the succession. Beckett's refusal to remove the censures with which the agents in this transaction had been visited, his haughty contempt of the crown, and the sentences of ex- communication which he continued to fulminate from the altar of Canterbury cathedral, provoked anew the indignation of the king. It is idle to judge the actions of men in those iron times by the formulas of the present day. The question stripped of all dis- guise was simply this— whether Thomas a Beckett or Henry Plantagenet was henceforth to be king in England. The Norman lords resolved the matter |n their own rude way, when at length four of hearing of some fresh indignity, and determined on bringing the controversy to a bloody close. The tragedy they enacted forms one of the most dra- matic incidents in English history, and the last cry of the dying martyr, ' To God, to the Blessed Mary, to the holy patrons of the church in which he had ministered, and to the blessed martyr St. Dionysius,' must have sunk into every heart. Beckett was murdered during the celebra- tion of the vesper service on the 29th of December, 1170. [E.R.] BECKFORD, William, was born in 1760. Ten years afterwards, by the death of his father, whose mayoralty of London was noted in the his- tory of the times, he succeeded to a princely for- tune. He was precocious, both in his love of litera- ture and art, in his vigour of thought and expres- sion, and in his retired eccentricity of disposition. After having lived much in France, and visited Italy and other continental countries, he married, in 1783, a daughter of the earl of Aboyne, who died young, leaving two daughters, one of whom became duchess of Hamilton. In 1784 he pub- lished in French his Eastern romance of • Vathek,' which has been admired so warmly by the literary men of our time. Though he sat in more parlia- ments than one, politics occupied very little of his attention : he soon retired to the continent ; and his fondness for architectural construction and embel- lishment showed itself first in a house he built at Cintra, in Portugal. In the commencement of the present century he began to build on his Wiltshire [Fonthili Abbey.] estate his magnificent mansion of Fonthill Abbey, which became all the more famous for the diffi- culty of satisfying curiosity in regard to it. The cost exceeded a quarter of a million. The pile had not long been completed and fitted up, when, in 1822, it was abandoned and the estate sold. Mr. Beckford spent his latest years chiefly at Bath, indulging his refined taste and his turn for secluded study. In 1834 he published ' Italy, with Sketches of Spain and Portugal,' containing recollections of his early travels, and abounding alike in eloquence and satire ; and afterwards there appeared a simi- lar volume, commemorating two Portuguese mon- asteries. He died in 1844, in the eighty-fourth year of hit age* [W.S.] PECKINttHAM, Chas., a dram, wr., d. 1730. BEC BECKMANN, J. A., an economist, 1739-1811. BECLARD, P. A., a Fr. anatomist, 1785-1825. BEDDOES, Thomas, a distinguished physi- cian and chemist, cotemporary with Priestley, and in intimate friendship with Dr. Darwin. He is the author of numerous works, and is character- ized by Sir Humphrey Davy, as ' a truly remark- able man, but more admirably fitted to promote inquiry than to conduct it : ' 17G0-1808. BEDE, usually named the Venerable Bede, was born about 672, at Yarrow, near the mouth of the Tyne, in Northumberland. At the age of seven he was sent to the neighbouring monastery of St. Peter to be educated, and in a short time he transferred himself to that of St. Paul, which was also in the vicinity. In his nineteenth year he was ordained deacon, and eleven years afterwards he entered into priest's orders. His subsequent life, which was spent principally in the two religious houses referred to, was one of monastic punctuality and discipline, and of constant literary labour. Pope Sergius even could not induce the English recluse to visit Rome. His commentaries on the larger portion of the Old and New Testament are to a great extent compilations from his Greek and Latin predecessors. His well-known ' Ecclesiastical His- tory of the English Nation,' is replete with proofs of its author's industry, honesty, and credulity, and still maintains its place as a high authority. Bede died about the year 735, occupying his last hours with earnest devotional exercises, and aii'ectionate counsels to his younger brethren. His learning, which was great, was equalled by his sanctity. His numerous works have been often printed: the best and last edition in 12 volumes, octavo; London, 1843-44. King Alfred translated into Saxon Bede's 'Historia Ecclesiastica ;' a rare honour for a book of church history. [J.E.] BEDFORD, Arthur, a theolo. wr., 1668-1745. BEDFORD, Hilkiah, an English theologian, the reputed author of a work in the Jacobin inter- est, written by George Harbin, died 1724. BEDFORD, John Plantagenet, duke of, third son of Henry IV., and regent of France after the death of Henry V., 1422 ; died 1435, after a glorious administration of thirteen years. BEDFORD, John Russell, sixth duke of, a Whig nobleman and patron of letters, 1766-1839. BEDLOE, Wm., Capt., a notorious informer, known in the case of Sir E. Godfrey, &c, d. 1680. BEECHEY, Sir W., R.A., a distinguished artist, best known for his portraits, 1759-1839. BEETHOVEN, Ludwig Van, was bora at Bonn, on the 17th of December, 1770. His father, Johann Van Beethoven, who was a tenor singer in the electoral chapel of Cologne, died in 1792. His grandfather, who died in 1773, was music director and bass singer at Bonn, and performed operas of his own composition during the life of the elector Clemens Augustus. The musical edu- cation of Beethoven began under his father when he was only five years old. His next tutor was M. Pfeiffer, for whom the great composer always retained a warm regard, and to whom he felt himself more indebted than all his other teachers. Beethoven acquired his knowledge of the organ from M. Von Der Eden, after whose death the young musician studied under M. Niefe, BEE who made him acquainted with the works of Sebastian Bach. In 1787 Beethoven met Mozart, who, when he heard the youth extemporize upon a theme given him, predicted his future success. In the year 1792 he was sent, by the elector of Cologne, to Vienna, that he might receive instruc- [ Birth-place of Beethoven.] tions in the theory of music from Joseph Haydn. He soon made the acquaintance of many of the nobility, of the artists, and literati in 'Vienna. Beethoven was the pupil of Haydn until the latter went to London, when he then took lessons in composition and harmony from Albrechtsberger. At this period of his life, Beethoven was more ad- mired as a performer than as a composer ; and it was thought, by the best German critics, that his power principally consisted in extemporary perform- ance, and in the art of varying any given theme without premeditation. About this time he finally took up his residence at Vienna, and composed his first quartettes. In 1800, Beethoven was engaged in the composition of his oratorio — ' Christ on the Mount of Olives,' which was first performed on the 5th of April, 1803. In 1804 he finished his ' Sinfonia Eroica,' and in 1805 he wrote his opera of ' Leonora,' known in England as 'Fidelio,' about which time he was first attacked with that deafness which, with other matters, made him distrust- ful and taciturn, and became the master-malady of his life. It began gradually, but was soon beyond the power of remedy, until at last he could_ only communicate with the outer world by writing. A decided enemy to flattery, and disdaining to court the favour of any one, Beethoven lived in Vienna depending solely upon the means which his compositions might produce, and was fre- quently reduced to straits little compatible with the greatness of his genius. The taste of the court had changed, and Italian music had almost banished the grander music of the German mas- ters. In these circumstances he, in 1809, resolved to accept the office of chapel-master at the court of Jerome Buonaparte, then king of Westpliali.i, with a salary of 600 ducats; and it was only after the archduke Rudolph of Austria and the princess Lobkowitz and Kinsky settled upon him 73 BEG an annuity of 4,000 florins, that he changed his mind. About this time also he resolved to accept an invitation from the Philharmonic Society to come to England, but his almost total deafness prevented him. In 1810 Beeth- oven brought out his first mass. In the same year he made the acquaintance of Bettino Bren- tano of Frankfort, whose correspondence with Goethe has made the reading world acquainted with the private manners of the great composer, though her narrations are sometimes less full of character than of caricature. Through Bettino, Beethoven was introduced to Goethe in the year 1812, a friendship which reflected quite as much honour upon the rich and courtly poet and minis- ter, as it did upon the poor, but independent and high-souled musician. On the 8th, and again on the 12th of December, in the year 1813, the first performances of ' The Battle of Vittoria,' and his symphony in A major, took place in the hall of the university, for the benefit of the Austrian and Bavarian soldiers disabled in the battle of Hanau. In 1815 Beethoven was exclusively employed in writing harmonies to Scotch songs for George Thompson of Edinburgh. From this period till the end of his life, Beethoven was harassed from various causes, chiefly of a domestic nature, and which ought never to have fallen upon him. These, together with his loss of hearing, begat a habit of gloomy thought, and a violent desire for solitude, till, by slow degrees, his frame, which was naturally robust and healthy, yielded to mal- adies which were induced by the constant and long-continued mental irritation to which he had been subjected. Forgotten by the Viennese, hardly appreciated by the rest of the world, Beethoven was seized with his last sickness; and the unnatural thoughtlessness and greed of his relatives con- tinued till the period of his death, which took place on the 26th day of March, 1827. Beeth- oven died unmarried. His portraits, of which there are several, are all like him. He did not teceive much education in his early youth, but when he became a man he read a great deal, and was well acquainted with the literature of Germany, and particularly admired the writings of Goethe and Schiller. With Shakspeare's works he was well acquainted, and admired them with the relish of a true artist. He was usually reserved, but when he entered into conversation he became ani- mated, and original in the turn of his thoughts and expression. Beethoven left upwards of 120 works in all styles. His melodies are beautiful and new; and his instrumental music bears the unmistakeable evidences of the grandeur and sub- limity of his unrivalled genius. In 1845 a grand statue of Beethoven was erected in his native town amid great rejoicings, and in presence of the queen of England. [J.M.] BEGA, Cor., a Dutch painter, 1620-1664. BEGEYN, Aura., a Dutch painter, 17th cent. BEHADER-KH AN, a sul. of Persia, 1317-1335. BKHADER-SHAH, emp. of Hind., 1707-1712. BEHMEN. See Bobhm. BEHAIM, or BEHKM. M., a navigator, 15th c. BEHN, Ai'HK.v, a fugitive authoress, d. 1689. BEHRING, Vrrrs, by birth a Dane, after hav- ing performed several voyages to the E. and W. Indies, entered the service of Russia while still BEL young. Having risen by the usual stops in t' sen-ice, he became captain-commander in 172 and was sent by the empress Catharine in char of an expedition (planned by Peter the Great b fore his death), whose object was to determii whether Asia and America were united. Crossii Siberia, he sailed from the river of Kamtschatka July, 1728 ; and reached hit. 67° 18' N., havii passed through the strait since called after hii without knowing it. Discovering that the lai trended greatly westward, he concluded that t! continents were not united, and returned ; withou however, seeing America. In another voyage, 1741, he touched upon the American coast, in la 58° 28' N. ; and gave name to Mount St. Elia In returning, his ship was cast upon an islan since named after him, an outlier of the Aleuti: group, and here himself and many of his ere perished. On his discoveries is founded the clai of Russia to that part of America lying west the meridian of Mount St. Elias, 141° W. [J.B BEICH, J. F., a German painter, 1665-1748. BEINASCHI, J. B., an Ital. painter, 1634-168 BEK, or BEAK, Anthony De, bp. of Durhar one of the eel. sold, priests of the mid. ages, d. 131 BEK, David, a Dutch painter, 1621-1656. BEKKER, Euz., a wr. of fiction, 1738-1804. BEKKHER, Balthasar, a celebrated prote; tant preacher, author of the ' World Bewitchec &c., for which he was suspended, 1634-1698. BEL, Ch. And., professor of poetry, 1717-178 BEL, John James, an au. and compil., d. 173 BEL, Mathias, hist, of Hungary, 168-4-1749. BELA, the name of four kings Oi Hungary. Tl first reigned 1059-1062; the second 1181-1141 the third 1173-1193 ; the fourth 1235-1270. BELESIS, a governor of ancient Babylon. BELGRANO, Manuel,, a commander in tl South American war of independence, died 1820. BELIDOR, Bernard Forest De, a Frenc engineer, author of a diet, of his art, 1695-1761. BEL1NG, Richard, an Irish rebel, 1613-167' BELISARIUS. ' One of those heroic nam. which are familiar to every age, and to ever nation.' Thus does Gibbon justly characterize tl emperor Justinian's victorious general. Belisarii first distinguished himself in the wars between tl Byzantine empire and the kings of Persia. In 53i he was placed Dy Justinian at the head of the arm by which that emperor sought to recover the ol Roman province of North Arrica from the Vandal; who had been in possession of it for seventy year: Belisarius was completely successful in his entei prise, and led the last Vandal king, Gelime: as a captive to Constantinople. He was then ser on a similar expedition to conquer Italy from th Goths, who held dominion there. He thorough] effected this purpose, capturing Rome, Ravenm and other cities, inflicting severe defeats on th Goths in the field, and signalizing his own courag and prowess as a soldier, as well as his skill as" commander. The Goths offered to make him thei king, but his loyalty was proof against all tempta turn, and when recalled by Justinian, he promptl returned in submission to the will of a capricaon and thankless master. After his departure i'ror Italy, the (Joths recovered the greater part of tha country, and Belisarius, who in the interval ha been defending the south-eastern frontiers of th 71 BEL empire against the Persians, was sent a second time to Italy in 540. Being ill supplied with money and troops, he could effect but little against the numerous and well-appointed armies of the Goths, and Justinian angrily deprived him of the command with every mark of disgrace. The old general was once more summoned into activity and glory before his death, and saved Constanti- nople in 559 from a host of Bulgarians, who had suddenly advanced against it. When this signal ser- vice was effected, Belisarius was again dismissed with ignominy by his ungrateful sovereign, and ended his days in poverty and neglect ; though the story of his having begged his bread in blindness and utter destitution is a mere fiction of later ages. Beli- sarius died in 5G1, a few months before the death of the emperor whom he had served so well, and by whom he had been so ill requited. [E.S.C.] BELL, Andrew, Dr., the eel. projector and founder of the national school system, 1753-1832. BELL, Beaupre, an Eng. antiquarian, 18th c. BELL, Benj., a writer on surgery, 1749-1806. BELL, Sir Charles, an eminent physiologist, born at Edinburgh, 1774, died at Edinburgh, 1842. The subject of our memoir was the son of a clergy- man of the Scottish Episcopal communion, in Edinburgh, who had other two sons, likewise distin- guished— John, as a surgeon, and Geo. Joseph, as a lawyer, being professor of law in the univer- sity of Edinburgh. Sir Charles Bell early settled in London as a lecturer and surgeon, and in the first capacity proved highly successful, but his scien- tific tendencies could ill brook the commercial asperities often attendant on surgical prac- tice, and he appears never to have attained the position in his profession, lucratively speaking, which his great talents and acquirements deserved. He was lecturer at the Windmill-Street School, afterwards at University College, and the Middle- sex Hospital, and latterly in the university of Edinburgh. The main labour of his life consisted in perfecting his great discovery respecting the nervous system, that mysterious portion of the animal frame. This discovery, second perhaps only to that of the circulation of the blood by Har- vey, required an extensive series of experiments upon living animals, which long deterred him from Carrying them into execution. But ultimately, by discovering humane methods of procedure, his exertions were crowned with success, and demon- strated that the nerves given off by the spinal cord, the great nerve deposited in the backbone, are destined for one of two purposes ; those which leave the spinal cord in front bestow the power of muscular motion, while the posterior roots supply sensibility. When the anterior roots of the nerves of the leg are cut, in experiment, the animal loses all power over the leg, although the limb still con- tinues sensible. But if, on the other hand, the pos- terior roots are cut, the power of motion continues, although the sensibility is destroyed. His subsequent researches showed that every muscle in the body has two nerves appropriated to it, one for sensation, and the other tor motion ; the first to carry the influence of the will resident in the brain towards the muscle, and the second to connect the muscle with the brain. It may be truly said that such men as Watt and Bell require no sepulchral monu- ments, since locomotives, railways, and steam- BEL boats contribute an ever augmenting immortal tribute to the one, and every student in medical science is a hereditary guardian of the genius of the other. f R.D.T.1 BELL, Henry, an ingenious engineer, the first m Britain who successfully applied the steam en- gine to propelling vessels, "'though Millar's experi- ments were long prior, and Fulton had launched his first steam-boat on the Hudson four or five years previously to Bell's successful application of steam to the purposes of navigation. In 1811 Bell launched his boat, called the Comet, in refer- ence to the appearance of a large comet that year. He constructed the steam engine himself, and in January, 1812, the first trial of the Comet took place on the Clyde. After various experiments the Comet was at length propelled on the Clyde by an engine of three horse power, which was subse- quently increased to six. This engine is still in the museum of Glasgow College. Thus to Henry Bell is due the honour of having first done in his own country, what others who had attempted it — the great Watt himself— had failed in doing, not- withstanding superior advantages of capital. Bell's perseverance and skill were not rewarded with the outward test of success. Had it not been for the liberality of the magistrates of Glasgow, who set- tled upon him a small annuity, he must have spent the latter years of his life in poverty. He was born in Linlithgowshire 1767, and died at Helens- burgh on the Clyde in 1830. A monumental stone to his memory is erected on a rock in the Clyde near Bowling. [L.D.B.G.] BELL, James, a geographical writer and ga- zetteer, originally a weaver, 1769-1833. BELL, John, an em. Scotch surg., 1762-1820. BELL, John, au. of various travels, 1691-1780. BELL, John, an enterprising publisher, founder of the 'Weekly Messenger,' 1746-1831. BELLAMY, James, a Dutch poet, 1757-1786. BELLANGE, Th., a Fr. paint., 16th and 17th c. BELLARMIN, Cardinal Robert, was born at Monte Pulciano in Tuscany, in 1542. Enter- ing the order of the Jesuits in 1560, he was or- dained priest in 1569. He filled the chair of theo- logy at Louvain for seven years from that period. Going to Rome in 1576, he distinguished himself by shrewd, bold, and popular polemical prelec- tions, and was, as the great champion of the church, elevated to the rank of cardinal in 1599. His latter days were spent in Rome, where he died in 1621. His ' Opus Controversiarum ' fills three folio volumes. He has also left a Commentary on the Psalms, several smaller pieces, some of them devotional, and a treatise ' De Potestate Summi Pontificis.' Bellarmin was a man of no mean powers and mental resources ; and unequalled as a skilled controversialist among the numerous de- fenders of the Church of Rome. [J-EJ BELLAY, Joachim Du, a Fr. poet, 1524-1560. BELLA Y, John Du, a Fr. cardinal, 1492-1560. BELLEFOREST, F. DE,aFr. hist,, 1530-1583. BELLEISLE, Ch. Louis, Count De, a French marshal, time of Louis XV., 1684-1761. BELLENDEN, William, a Latin au., 17th c. BELLIARD, Aug. Daniel, Count, one of the best of Napoleon's generals, distinguished also as an ambassador, and most lately in the establish- ment of the Belgian kingdom, 1773-11:32 BEL BELLIEVRE, Pomponius De, a Fr. diplo- matist, distinguished in the reigns of Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV., 1529-1607. BELLINI, Gentile, an Italian painter, of the same school as his brother Giovanni, 1421-1501. BELLINI, Giovanni, a celebrated Italian painter, was born at Venice about 1426. He belongs to the school of painters known as the quattrocento, in Italy, literally the fifteenth cen- tury masters, but distinguished as much by their style as their period. This style, lately here designated, very inappropriately, the preraphaelite, is well illustrated in Bellini's portrait of the Doge Loredano, in the National Gallery — hard and dry, but exact in detail, and high and positive in col- ouring. — Giovanni Bellini was one of the first of the Venetian artists to adopt the new method of oil painting in lieu of the old process with tempera vehicles, that is, with saps and gums. His best works are in oil ; they consist chiefly of madonnas and portraits. He died at the advanced age of ninety, November 29, 1516. Titian and Giorgione were two of Bellini's many eminent scholars. (Vasari, Lives of the Painters, &c. ; Ridolfi, Maraviqlie dell' Arte, &c. ; Cadorin, Tiziano Vecellio.) [R.N.W.] BELLINI, L., a celeb, anatomist, 1643-1702. BELLINI, Vincenzio, was born at Catania in Sicily, in the year 1806. Bellini received his musical education from Zingarelli, in the Conser- vatorio of Naples, and produced, at the theatre San Carlo of the same city, his opera ' Bianco e Ferdinando,' before he was twenty years old. In 1827 he composed ' II Pirata ' for the Scala at Milan, and soon after ' La Straniera ' for the same establishment. These operas were succeeded by 4 La Sonnambula ' (which has perhaps been per- formed a greater number of times in Great Britain than any other foreign opera,) at Naples, ' I Capu- letti ed l Montecchi,' at Venice, 'Norma' at Milan, ' I Puritani,' for the Theatre Italien at Paris, &c. The life of Bellini was unmarked by incidents. He was pure in morals, and his manners, like his com- positions, were gentle, mellifluous, and elegant. Subject to pulmonic disease, he was unequal to violent effort of any kind, so he never attempted the lofty or sublime in music. He died of consumption in 1835. A writer (L. W. Tinelli) in the ' Musical World ' says of Bellini — ' The enthusiasm excited by this astonishing production (Norma) is beyond all description. In a few months the " Norma " became the favourite performance of all the Italian and foreign stages, and crossed the immense dis- tance of the ocean to delight the ears of the trans- atlantic inhabitants. Soon after this new triumph he was called to Paris, where he wrote, in his greatest style, " I Puritani." It was the last song of the swan ! ' One morning in the month of Octo- ber, 1835, the inhabitants of Paris hastened to the streets of that immense capital to contemplate the numerous and select crowd which was following a funeral procession. Some of the most celebrated men were amongst the crowd. Sadness and sor- row were in the countenance of every one. A plaintive and moving music added to the melan- choly scene. Death had reaped one of the finest flowers of nature. The funeral concourse stopped at the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, where the coffin was deposited, and, one hour alter, a modest BEL cross was raised on the ground, with the followin inscription : " Pray for the peace of Vincent Bellini, Bellini was only twenty-nme years of age when 1 died. His disposition was good, though exceei ingly passionate. His appearance was noble an expressive. His genius was vast as creation, an his soul innocent and gentle as the first sigh < love.' This is the eulogium of a friend and admire) let it live in the memory of all musicians. [J.M. BELLMAN, Ch. M., a Swed. poet, 1741-179i BELLONI, Jerome, a commercial wr., d. 176i BELLORI, J. P., an Ital. antiquary and cor noisseur, an. of 'Lives of Modern Painters,' d. 1691 BELLOSTE, A., a Fr. army surgeon, 1654-1731 BELLOTI, Peter, an Ital. paint., 1625-1700 BELON, Peter, author of travels, 16th cent. BELOSIELSKY, Prince, a Prussian noblemai author of poems in the French tongue, died 1809 BELSHAM, Thos., a eel. unitarian, 1749-182! BELSHAM, Wm, brother of Thomas, a mii cellaneous and historical writer, 1752-1827. BELSHAZZAR, a k. of Chakkea, abt. 560 b.< BELSUNCE, Henry Francis Xavier De, Fr. prelate and hist, of disting. benev., 1671-175; BELUS, the supposed first king of Babylon. BELYN, a Brit, commander under Caractacus BELZONI, Giovanni, celebrated for his dii coveries in Egypt, was a native of Padua. H early studies, which had a view to the monast life, were prosecuted at Rome, from which h family had originally come. The French invasic of 1798 caused a change in his plans ; and in 18( he left Italy, and visited several parts of Europ He came to England in 1803, where he soon afti married. He was tall and robust in person, i uncommon strength, and commanding mier qualities which, united to great intelligence ar sagacity, perseverance and a love of enterpris gave him immense influence among the wild peop with whom he so long associated. His remi tances from home were scanty ; and he seems 1 have turned to profitable account a knowledge i hydraulics which he had acquired at Rome. Oftei however, he was obliged to obtain a livelihood I exhibiting feats of strength. Leaving England i 1812, he visited Spain, Portugal, and Malta, ar in 1815 went to Egypt, where he was for a sho: tune employed by Mehemet Ali in erecting in draulic machinery at Cairo. Driven thence t the prejudice of the natives against his improve plans, ne visited many parts of Egypt and Nubi and the shores of the Red Sea, discovering burn cities, rock temples, &c, and displaying the grea: est skill in the removal and shipment of sue gigantic works as the bust of Memnon, and otlu remains now in the British Museum. The peci niary means, besides a personal remuneratioi were supplied chiefly by Mr. Salt, the Englis consul, but partly also by Burckhardt the tn veller. In September, 1819, Belzoni left Egyp and on his way to England visited his native towi where he was received with honour. His ' Nai rative of Operations,' &c, was published at Lot don in 1820, in a 4to vol. with atlas. In 182; accompanied by his wife, he left England for M( rocco, with the view of penetrating to Timbuctoi He had neither commission nor assistance froi government, or any society, and except £200 suj plied by the Messrs. Briggs of Alexandria, depende 76 BEM solely on his own resources. Failing to obtain Eermission from the emperor, he sailed to the light of Benin, and was forwarded on his journey by the king of that country. Not long after, how- ever, he was seized with dysentery, and died at Gato, in Dec., 1823. Directions concerning his property, and his last regards to his wife, had been the day before sent by letter to his friend Mr. Hodg- son, then on the coast with the brig Swinger. [J.B.] BEMBO, Ben., a Venet. ambassador, d. 1519. BEMBO, J., a Venetian doge, died 1618. BEMBO, Peter, a Venetian poet and histo- rian, secretary to Leo X., and cardinal bishop of Bergamo under Paul III., 1470-1547. BENBOW, John, a gallant English admiral, distinguished in action with the pirates of Barbary, and afterwards with the French under the com- mand of Du Casse, died of his wounds, 1702. BENCIO, Francis, an Italian poet, died 1594. BENEDETTO, C, an Ital. painter. 1616-1670. BENEDICT, St., reputed founder of the mo- nastic life in the West, which he commenced in the ruins of atem. near Naples, b. at Spoleto480, d. 543. [Boncdictine Monk. J BENEDICT, St., an English prelate, 600-690. BENEDICT I., pope, 574-578. Benedict II., 684-65. Benedict III., 855-858. Benedict IV., 900-904. Benedict V., 964-965. Benedict VI., 972-974. Benedict VII., 975-983. Benedict VIII., succeeded 1012. Benedict IX., 1033-1048. Benedict X., 1058-1059. Benedict XI., 1303- 1304. Benedict XII., 1334-1342. Benedict XIII., 1724-1750. Benedict XIV., distinguished as one of the greatest popes who has governed the church, 1740-1758. An anti-pope, under the title of Benedict XIII., was elected 1394. BENEDICT, an English abbot, died 1703. BENEVUTI, Ch., a Jesuit, 1716-1789. BENEZET, Anth., an American au., d. 1784. BENGENHIELM, J., Baron De, a Swed. states- man, poet, and professor of history, 1629-1704. BENGER, Elizabeth Ogilvy, a writer of biographical and historical works, died 1827. BENHADAD, two kgs. of Syria, abt. 9th c. B.C. BENI, Paul, an Ital. philologist, died 1627. BENINI, Vincent, an Ital. phys., 1713-1764 BEN BENJAMIN of Tudela, an Eastern traveller in Asia, au. of a work in Heb. on the subject, d. 1173. BENNET, Hy., earl of Arlington, one of the council of Ch. II., known as the Cabal, 1618-168,". BENNET, Thos., a Hebrew scholar, 1673-1720. BENNINGSEN, Levin Augustus, Baron, a Piussian commander, disting. in the war against Poland, at the battle of Eylau, &c, died 1826. BENNITSKI, A. P., a Russian poet, 1780-1808. BENSERADE, Isaac De, a Fr. poet, d. 1691. BENSON, Geo., a dissent, minister, 1669-1762. BENT, John Van Der, a painter, 1650-1690. BENTHAM, E., au. of Sermons, &c, 1707-1776. BENTHAM, Jas., br. of the preceding, au. of the ' History and Antiq. of the Church of Ely,' d. 1794. BENTHAM, Jeremy, bora in London in 1748, where he lived during most part of his lon«- life of eighty-four years ; one of the most remark- able thinkers and writers England has recently produced — equally estimable as a citizen and a man. Bentham's labours must be divided into two grand parts, — the first by far the least impor- tant, although the one through which he is popu- larly known. As a writer on the Science of Morals, properly so called, he has contributed little that will be permanent in philosophy. Great as a jurist and reformer, especially in our Criminal Laws, he naturally sought to weigh the value of actions by their external effects; and unhappily he transported this conception — correct in it's relation to Public Law — into the domain of Sci- entific Morals, taking as the root of his system, that good and bad, just and unjust, must be synonymous with the utility or inutility of an action. Reserving discussion of this peculiar theory for the article Epicurus, we hasten here to the agree- able task of pointing out Bentham's rare, original, and incontestible merits. He may be said to have been the first thinker among us who gained clear ideas of the cumbrousness and iniquity of our artificial English Laws ; and although questions may well be started as to the practicability of his sweeping codification, it cannot be doubted that from his mind most of the statesmen who have since effectively laboured to simplify these laws, drew their best inspirations. On many special doc- trines or theories of Law, his speculations threw abundant and important light — for instance, the Doctrine of Punishments and the Theory of Evidence. Discerning the value of Education as a preventive means, he threw himself into that subject with great eagerness — producing his cunous Chrestomathy. On kindred moral sub- jects, he also wrote much, — often perhaps not very considerately, always with fearlessness and power. His labours, in {'act, attach to every great question of reform which later times have cast up; and there were few men of eminence in his time who did not court a friendship, ever open to the deserving. Mr. Bentham's most distinguished associates were probably Sir Samuel Romilly and James Mill. — His works were first published in a collected form in the French language, under the care of M. Dumont: an English edition has since appeared, edited according to the philoso- pher's own request, by Dr. Bowring. [J. P.N.J BENTHAM, Thos., bp. of Lichfield, d. L578. BENTINCK, William, the intimate friend of William III., created earl of Portland, died 1709. 77 BEN BENTDSTCK, W. H. Cavejdwh, third duke of Portland, born 1738; lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1782; chancellor of Oxford, 171)2; home secretary, 1704-1801 ; first lord of the treasury, 1807; Sacra Coena,' was published at Berlin in 1834 ; tin manuscript of it having been found by Lessing ii 1770 in the ducal library of Brunswick. [J.E." BERENGER, Jas., a celeb, anatomist, d. 1550 BERENGER, L. P., a Fr. poet and rhetorician author of ' Les Soirees Provencales,' &c, 1749-1822 BERENGER, P., a disciple of Abelard, 12th c. BERENGER I., king of Italy 888, electee emperor 916, deposed 922, assassinated 924. BERENGER II., king 950, deposed 962, d. 96G BERENICE, the name of several princesses o: Syria and Egypt, of whom the most celebrated an the wife of \Antiochus, strangled B.C. 248. Tin daughter of Ptolemy Auletus, and usurper of hii throne, who was deposed and killed by the Romans The daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who con- secrated her hair to Venus. And the daughter o Agrippa, king of Juda;a, the mistress of Titus. BERENICIUS, a Dutch adventurer, 17th cent BERESFORD, Rev. James, a miscellaneous writer and satirist, 1764-1840. BEEETTINI, P., an Ital. architect, 1596-1G69, 78 BER BERG, J. P., a German theologian, 1737-1800. BERGEN, C. A. De, a Ger. anat., 1704-1760. BERGEN, Dkrk Van Der, a painter, d. 1689. BERGHEM, Nich., a Du. painter, 1624-1683. BERGIER, N. S., a wr. against deism, d. 1790. BERGIUS, P. J., a Swedish botanist, d. 1791. BERGMANN, Torbern Olof, a eel. Swedish chemist, to whom many and valuable discoveries are attributed, besides the reconstitution of the science of mineralogy, 1735-1784. BERIGARD, C., an Ital. philosoph., 1578-1663. BERINGER, J. B., a Germ, mineralogist, 18th c. BERINGTON, Joseph, a Roman Catholic his- torian and biographical writer, died 1827. BERKELEY, George, earl of, author of ' His- torical Applications,' and member of the privy council to Charles II., died 1698. BERKELEY, George, bishop of Cloyne, born in Ireland in 1684 ; died at Oxford in 1753. The interest connected with this rather remarkable man is measured by that of his system of philo- sophy, which we shall shortly characterize. It is necessary to a right understanding of Berkeley's speculations that one recall the false conceptions certainly prevailing at his time regarding the mode or manner in which we know ; — Ave allude to the Theory of the Idea. It was thought that the idea through which we know, and the thing that we knowlhrough it, are perfectly distinct. The idea of an object was fancied a sort of image of the object capable of being perceived by the mind : just as the mind, in seeing, discerns not the object but the image on the retina. Adopting this to the fullest extent in respect of all that knowledge which we call the knowledge of external things,_ Berkeley yet held that knowledge of the mind itself and of "its operations, comes at once and without the interposition of any medium — through a simple act of internal perception : from which foundation, 'his strict logic led to the following singular super- structure. What are termed external objects, be- ing seen not in themselves but through or by ideas, what right have we to imagine the existence of these objects at all? Supposing them real, they are confessedly not discernible by the human mind; why then assume their existence? True know- ledge, on the other hand, comes to us directly respecting the mind: is not mind and its pheno- mena therefore — spiritual entities — the sole reality in the universe ? Like Malebranche after him, the good Bishop of Cloyne reached this singular conclusion the more readily, because of the fer- vency of his religious principles. 'If the prin- ciples I entertain,' he alleged, 'come to be admitted among men, the consequences that I think will follow immediately are these — atheism and scepticism must utterly fall.' He assuredly had weighed with little care the consequences inseparable from the concession to logic of a supremacy over our primary intuitions. Scarcely was the ink dry with which he wrote, ere the remorseless dialectic of Hume attacked with equal vigour the existence of the spiritual world — reduc- ing all possible knowledge to the bare fact — / exist! It certainly appears singular that even religious fervour could take so extravagant a turn in so acute a man : nevertheless, the moving prin- ciple of Berkeley's speculations was a spirit of rev :ipie or iserKeiey s speculations was a spirit ui evolt against the materialistic philosophy that BER issued from Locke's 'Essay on the Huinnn Understanding,'— A iciphron or the Minute Philo- sopher being mainly a protest against the para- dox of Mandeville, that virtue is only an artificial product of policy and vanity.— Berkeley's know- ledge was extensive ; he was fond of physical science, and he struck out a sound theory of vision. His heart was a noble one, and his life pure. He was valued and admired among the best writers of the day, numbering among his friends Swift and Stella, the Duke of Grafton, Lord Peterborough, and Pope. There is now a good edition of his works in 3 vols. 8vo. [JPNl BERKELEY, Vice-Ad. Sir W., k. in ac. 1666. BERKENHOUT, J., a miscell. wr., 1731-1791. BERKEY, John Lefrancq Van, a Dutch physician, naturalist, and poet, 1729-1812. BERKLEY, Sir W., gov. of Virginia, d. 1677. BERLICHINGEN, Gcetz De, surnamed iron- hand, a German knight, distinguished in the wars of Bavaria, 1480-1562. BERNADOTTE, king of Sweden and Norway, under the title of Charles John XIV., was the son of a lawyer, born 1764; sergeant in the marines, 1789; colonel, 1792; general of brigade, 1793; marshal of France and prince of Ponte Corvo, 1806 ; chosen crown prince of Sweden, 1810 ; king, 1818, to his death in 1844. BERNARD, St., of Menthon, founder of the hospices in the passage of the Alps, 923-1008. BERNARD, St., founder and abbot of Clair- vaux, one of the most influential and talented ecclesiastics of the middle ages, 1091-1153. BERNARD of Pavia, a jurist of the 13th ct. BERNARD of Thuringia, an enthus., 10th c. BERNARD, Cath., a French poetess, last ceati BERNARD, C, a benevolent priest, 1588-1641. BERNARD, Edw., a pupil of Wallis, author of a treatise on ancient measures, &c, 1638-1697. BERNARD, James, a prot. hist., 1658-1718. BERNARD, John, an actor, died 1828. BERNARD, J. F., an antiquarian, last cent. BERNARD, J. S., a medical au., 1718-1793. BERNARD, P. J., a French poet, 1710-1775. BERNARD, Sim., a milit. engineer, 1779-1839. BERNARD, duke of Weimar, command, of the Swed. army after the death of Gustavus, 1604-1639. BERNARDEZ, D., a soldier and poet, d. 1596. BERNARDI, A. F., a Germ, gram., 1768-1x20. BERNARDI, J. E., a wr. on civil law,1751-lS24. BERNARDI, J., an engrv. and archit., d. 1555. BERNARDIN DE ST. PIERRE, Jas. J I v., the eel. author of 'Paul and Virginia,' 1737-1813. BERNARDIN, St., vicar-general of the Fran- ciscans, reformer and founder of more than 300 monasteries, 1380-1444. BERNI, Fr., a burlesque poet, died 1536 ; an- other Italian of the same name, disting. as a poet and dramatic author, 1610-1673. BERNIER, Fr., a eel. traveller, died 1688. BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, disting. as a painter, statuary, and architect, 1598-1680. BERNIS, Fr. Joachin De Pierres De, a cardinal and ambassador of France, distinguished also as a poet, 1715-1794. BERNOUILLI. The family name of a cluster of famous mathematicians living at the penod of the revival of science, when Newton evolved the law of the celestial motions, and he and Leib- 79 BER nitz invented and promulgated the higher calculus. All distinguished by eagerness in the pursuit of Analysis, and the two elder especially, by much vivacity of temper — they mingled earnestly in the keen commerce and conflict of scientific writers, which so enlivens the history of those times, and renders the details of personal history part and !>arcel of the history of the progress of know- edge. Our limits confine us within a simple enumeration of these distinguished men, and a bare statement of their main achievements. — 1. James Bernouilli, probably the most ori- ginal analyst of the group; born at Basle in 1654, — died in 1705. He had great powers of in- vention, and much taste for simplicity in method and composition. He greatly extended the theory of the quadrature of the parabola, and the geometry of curve lines, spirals, &c. His chief contributions, however, relate to the summation and doctrine of infinite series; and we owe him the first syste- matic work on the now very important theory of chances. His writings are collected in 3 vols. 4to. — 2. John Bernouilli, brother of James ; born in 1667, died in 1748 ; also a very great analyst. Besides his essays on the management of ships and the elliptical figure of the planets, John Bernouilli wrote on almost every branch of the existing mathe- matics ; and he touched nothing he did not expand and improve. The great age he attained was worthily bestowed on him ; he died full of honours. His col- lected writings fill four 4to volumes. — 3. John Ber- nouilli, son of the preceding; professor of mathe- matics in St. Petersburg, where he died in 1726 ; born in 1695. — 4. Nicolas Bernouilli, nephew of 1 and 2, born in 1687; died in 1759; professor of mathematics in Padua. — 5. Daniel Bernouilli, son of Nicolas, a very eminent philosopher, rivalling the glory of the elder brothers of the family. He was born in 1700, and died in 1782. His two great works are the 'Exercitationes Mathematical ' and his ' Hydrodynamica :' but besides writing occasional treatises and memoirs, he contested, and gained or divided with the greatest mathematicians in Em-ope, no fewer than ten prizes offered by the Academy of Sciences. No name of the time stands higher than that of Daniel Bernouilli. — 6. John Bernouilli, bro- ther of Daniel, professor of mathematics at Basle, born 1720, died 1770. — 7. James Bernouilli, nephew of the two preceding, born in Basle 1759, died in 1789, too early for science. At this close of the family of the Bernouillis, its former glories seemed about to blaze out again. In the space of about five years, the younger James presented no less than eight memoirs to the Imperial Aca- demy of Sciences, which have been printed in the ' Nova Acta;' and he was a correspondent of other academies besides. Everything he wrote dis- played singular acnteness. — It is not often that the' historian of Science has to record concerning such a family. [J-P.N. J BERNSTORFF, John Hartwig Ernest, Count, a Danish statesman, disting. also as a pa- tron of science and art, 1712-1772. His nephew, And. Peter, eel. as a minister of state for the enfrancbisem. of the Dan. peasants, &c., 1735-1797. BEROALDUS, Ph., a rhetorician, 1453-1505. His nephew of the same name, a poet, died 1518. BERODACH, son of Baladan, king of Babylon. BER BEROSSUS, a Chaldean priest and hist., frag- ments of whose works exist in the writings of Ensebios: time of Alexander the Great. BERBETTNL, Nigh., an It. paint., 1617-1682. BERRI, John, of France, Duke De, 1340-1416. BERRI, Ch. Ferd. De Bourbon, Duke De, second son of Ch. X., and father of the duke de Bordeaux, claimant of the Fr. crown, 1778-1820. BERRIMAN, Wat, au. of Sermons, 1688-1758. BERRUYER, Jos. Is., a religious wr., d. 1758. BERRUYER, J. F., a Fr. general, 1737-1804. BERRY, Rear-Admiral Sir Edw., K.C.B., distinguished at the Nile and Trafalgar, d. 1831. BERRY, Sir John, a naval command., d. 1601. _ BERRY AT, F., first edit, of a collect, of observa- tions from the memoirs of learned societies, d. 1 751. BERSMANN, Geo., a Ger. classic, 1538-1611. BERTHIER. Alexander Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, was born in Paris in 1753, of higher parentage than that of most of the military chiefs of the French revolution and empire. He saw some service in Rochambeau's auxiliary corps in the American war, and con- tinued m the French army after the fall of the monarchy. It is chiefly as Napoleon's favourite chief of the staff" that he acquired distinction. His talents for independent command were slender, but he possessed the power of rapidly comprehending Napoleon's wishes and tactics, and he showed an alacrity and a skill in carrying the imperial orders into effect, that made him most valuable, and procured him high promotion and favour. On the downfall of Napoleon, in 1814, Berthier, like other marshals, professed allegiance to the Bour- bons, and he is said to have shown more readiness and zeal in so doing, than became one who had been, like Berthier, the favoured friend, as well as the highly rewarded servant of the ex-emperov. On Napoleon's return in 1815, Berthier quitted France with the Bourbon princes ; but he suffered deeply in spirits and in conscience, and at last, after watching a body of Russian troops who were marching through Bamberg against France, Ber- thier committed suicide. [E.S.C.] BERTHIER, J. B., an architect, &c, 1721-1804. BERTHOLLET, F., a Fr. historian, d. 1755. BERTHOLLET, Claude Louis, born at Tal- loire, near Annecy, in Savoy, 9th December, 1848, died at Paris, 6th November, 1822, aged seventy- four, affords one of the most illustrious examples of a genius for the practical application of science among the savants of the last century. Educated for the profession of medicine, in an obscure corner of the country, he came to Paris destitute of friends and acquaintances; but having learned that M. Tronchin, a distinguished practitioner in the me- tropolis, was a native of Geneva, he made bold to call upon his countryman, and, fortunately for science, was kindly received and patronised by him ; and through his means Berthoilet was made physician to the duke of Orleans. _ It was through this nobleman that he was placed in the position of superintendent of the government dyeworks, where he acquired the information contained in his valu- able work on this art, and which led him to apply to practice in bleaching, the important fact, dis- covered by Scheelc, of the decolorizing properties of chlorine gas. It would be difficult to estimate, in its true light, either morally or pecuniarily, the 80 BER enormous benefits conferred on humanity by this application alone. James Watt introduced this application soon after from Paris to Glasgow. To the chemist Berthollet, too, is due the salvation of his country ; for, when hemmed in by Austrian and Prussian troops, and the English navy, her com- merce cut off, and the very instruments of self-de- fence denied her, Berthollet instituted native iron and saltpetre works, and supplied the cannon, swords, and gunpowder to withstand the ruthless invaders. Eminent for his love of art as well as of science, he Avas chosen by the Directory, in 1786, to pro- ceed in company with his friend Monge to select such works as were best fitted to adorn the Louvre ; , and in 1798 he accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt on a similar errand. By the illustrious general lie was courted as a friend, not only from his simple and unobtrusive manners, so becoming his pro- fession, but also from his force and depth of cha- racter, which rendered him a valuable companion. How seldom does the man of science acquire credit for the benefits conferred on his fellows? In no instance is this affirmation more remarkably exem- plified than in the discovery by Berthollet of the chlorate of potash, a salt which not only, as an in- dispensable ingredient in the lucifer match, admi- nisters to the convenience of every one, but enables many a poor shivering outcast to supply his daily wants. Berthollet, too, was the discoverer of detonating silver, the first of those compounds so valuable in their application to fire-arms — which are thus rendered independent of the seasons. He discovered, likewise, chlorocyanic, and first showed that the familiar volatile gas ammonia is a com- pound of 1 vol. of nitrogen and 3 vols, of hydro- gen. Although the more modern views of chemical combinations have set aside his views on these sub- jects, it is impossible to read them without being struck with the ingenuity of his arguments, and the force of his reasoning powers. In one point he successfully combated the opinions of the cele- brated Lavoisier, who believed that oxygen was the acidifying principle. Berthollet, on the other hand, showed that sulphuretted hydrogen and prussic acid are distinctly acid, and yet contain no oxygen. Subsequent observations have only strengthened the views of Berthollet. Berthollet was endowed with the greatest liberality and benevolence of disposition, and was destitute of that narrow and contracted selfishness so often complained of in these days of competition, which is too apt to mar the lustre "of the scientific character. In his latter years he removed to the village of Arcueil, three miles from Paris, near his friend La Place, for whom he entertained a warm affection. Here he fitted up a laboratory, and formed the So- ciety of Arcueil, composed of a number of young chemists and friends, whom he encouraged by his example and kindness. Their names will show how happily was his friendship bestowed — La Place, Biot, Gay Lussac, Thenard, Collet-Descotils, Decan- dolle, Humboldt, and his son A. B. Berthollet. The society published three volumes of valuable me- moirs. To a chemist, we know of no more sacred place than the hamlet of Arcueil. But the last days of the good old man were dimmed by the sui- cide, by means of the fumes of charcoal, of his only son, in whom his affections were concentrated. Prom this sad calamity he never recovered ; and, to BER complete his misfortunes, his friend, the emperor having been replaced by the Bourbons, science was again, as in so many other instances, sacrificed at the shrine of politics, and the eminent chemist was reduced from a state of affluence to comparative poverty. Death, in 1822, stepped in to his release, and posterity alone can yield some requital by rever- ing the memorv of the "good Berthollet. [R.D.T.] BERTHOLON, a French chemist, last centurv. BERTI, Alex. P., an Ital. author, 1686-1752., BERTI, J. L., an It. monk and hist., 1696-1766. BERTIE, Wiixoughby, earl of Abingdon, a wr. of several polit. and satirical pamph., d. 1791. BERTIER, J. S., a Fr. physician, 1710-1783. BERTIN, Antii., a French poet, 1752-1790. BERTIN, H. Le J. B., a French comptroller- general, disting. for promoting manuf., 1719-1792. BERTIN, J., a Fr. phy. and anatom., 1712-1781. BERTIN, J. V., a French painter, 1775-1841. BERTIN, St., fndr. of the monas. so called, 7th c. BERTIN, Theod., a Fr. stenogph., 1760-1819. BERTINAZZI, C. A., a comedian, 1713-1783. BERTIUS, P., a Flem. geographer, 1565-1629. BERTOLI, G. D., an antiquarian, 1676-1758. BERTON, J. B., Baron, a French general, con- demned and exec, on an accus. of conspiracy, 1822. BERTRAM, C. B., a Heb. scholar, 1531-1594. BERTRAND, E., a Swiss natural., 1712-1790. BERTRAND, Henry, Count, one of Napoleons most distinguished generals, and his companion in exile, 1770-1844. BERTRAND, J. B., a Fr. physic, 1670-1752. BERTRAND DE MOLLEVILLE, Anth. F., one of the royalist noblesse, min. of marine in 1791, afterwards an histor. of the revolution, 1744-1817. BERULLE, Card. Pierre De, fndr of the Car- melites and congregation of the oratory, 1575-1629. BERWICK, James Fitz-James, duke of, mar- shal of France, and natural son of James II., a gallant soldier, killed at Philipsburg, 1734. BERYLLUS, a speculative theologian, 3d cent. BERZELIUS, John Jacob, b ; 1779, d. 1848, the son of a parish schoolmaster at Vafersunde, in the south of Sweden, as is said. The subject of our memoir possessed the opportunity of acquiring the elements of a good education in a country where read- ing and writing are understood to be within the grasp of the poorest peasant. He was educated for the medical profession at the university of Upsala, and obtained his first acquaintance with chemistry from Professor Afzelius, a nephew of Bergman, Ekeberg, and Ghan, to whom chemists are indebted for the establishment of the blowpipe as an indispensable instrument in chemical research. From the period of his first publication, his Animal Chemistry, in 1806, till his death, Berzelius's career was one of the most active and industrious of any chemist who ever existed. His mechanical powers of manipulation were of the highest order, and he set himself at an early period to make the most scru- pulously accurate analyses. It was irom this power of minute investigation that, in company with Hisinger, he was enabled to detect, at the outset of his career, the new earth oxide of OtU'iUW, and afterwards selenium and thorium. It was l>y his accurate investigations that he was enabled to follow up the foundation-stones of the atomic theory laid by Dalton, Thomson, and Wollaston, and assist in raising a valuable superstructure, and 81 G BER to demonstrate, in 1815, that the mineral world, as had been enunciated by Smithson, is a naturally existing exemplification of the beautiful doctrine of definite proportions. It would be difficult to over-estimate the value of the contributions made to the science by this indefatigable chemist, whose body and mind seem to have been in incessant action for the best part of half a century, whether we view them in his valuable investigations of the constituents of nature, in the various editions of his System of Chemistry, which contained a com- plete digest of the knowledge possessed by chemists at the time they appeared, of chemical substances, or in the annual reports which he published, in continuation of those of Thomson, of the progress of his favourite science. The part which he took, too, in modifying the system of symbols, introduced into the science by Thomson, so as to suit all na- tions, is highly deserving of commendation, since without symbols it is difficult to understand how chemical constitution could be rendered intelligible in its present complicated condition. The ingenious generalizations which he sometimes made, although generally ultimately found to be untenable, were productive of vast benefit in encouraging and sti- mulating inquiry. Among these views may be noticed his ideas of the compound nature of chlo- rine ; his theory of electro-chemistry, of isomer- ism, of catalytism, &c. It is much to be regretted that the free inquiry and liberty of deduction which he clahned for himself he did not always allow to others, and that the closing years of his busy life should have been occupied in a coarse warfare with his contemporaries and the younger spirits of the age, and in an attempt, which ever must prove fruitless, to bind to the chariot-wheels of a past time the new discoveries which uniformly refuse to be attached to old-fashioned inventions. Much of this asperity of literary manner may undoubtedly be attributed to isolation during his earlier years, from the softening influences of fife, and to dete- riorating habits, which it is understood were too unsparingly encouraged. Berzelius contributed, in a remarkable degree, in disseminating the study of the science over the continent of Europe, by the able pupils who were educated under his eye, and who did not fail to communicate in their turn to their successors the accurate lessons which they themselves had so bountifully received. To have communicated the elements of the science to such men as Gmelin, Arfwedson, Rose, Mitscherlich, and Wohler, is no small piece of good fortune. No de- partment of the science has escaped the masterly touch of Berzelius ; even organic chemistry, which he was desirous of confining under obsolete rules, was indebted to him for many early elucidations, which paved the way for those who were to follow. In no portion of the science were his labours of more value than in that of analyses, the processes de- pending on an intimate acquaintance with the properties of the various kinds of matter, by which the chemist is enabled to tell, to the most minute fraction, how much of any element is present in a compound. Berzelius was for many years profes- sor of chemistry in Stockholm. During the latter years of his life he retired to the country, and married, and was elevated to the rank of baron. But to the last he took a deep interest in his science, and even when paralysis had denied to him BEZ the power of locomotion, he continued to dictate to his amanuensis his annual report, striving, as it were, to bid against nature, and to lengthen out the space of terrestrial mental existence. [R. D.T.] BESBORODKO, a Rus. min. of state, d. 1799. BESCHI, C. J., a eel. Indian missionary, d. 1742. BESOLDE, Chr., an Austrian hist., 1577-1638. BESOZZI, Ambr., an Ital. archi., 1648-1706. BESSARION, John, a cardinal and theol., one of the restorers of learning in the 15th c., 1395-1472. BESSEL, Dr. F. W., a Prus. astro., 1784-1846. BESSIERES, John Baptist, duke of Istria, one of Napoleon's generals, marshal of France, born 1784, killed at Rippach 1813. BETHLEM-GABOR, a native of Transylvania, who usurped the throne of Hungary 1618, cl. 1629. BETHLEN, Wolfgang, Count De, a states- man and historian of Transylvania, massacred by the Tartars, 1679. BETHUNE, the ancestral name of Sully. BETTERTON, T., a eel. tragedian, 1635-1700. BETTINELLI, X., a eel. It. author, 1718-1808. BETUSSE, Joseph, an Ital. poet, 16th cent. BEUERNONVILLE, Peter Kiel, count of, a statesman, diplomatist, and marshal of France, minister of war under the convention, 1752-1821. BEVERIDGE, William, bishop of St. Asaph, eminent as an Oriental scholar and theologian, author of 'Private Thoughts on Religion,' 1638-17U8. BEVERLY, John of, the tutor of Bede, d. 721. BEVERNYNCK, J. Van, a Dutch statesman, disting. also as a contributor to botany, 1614-1690. BEVERWICK, J. De, amed. auth., 1594-1647. BEVIN, Elway, a Welsh music, time of Jas. I. BEVIS, an English astronomer, 1695-1771. BEWICK, John, an artist and naturalist, cele- brated in the history of wood engraving, d. 1795. BEWICK, Thos., brother of the prec, d. 1828. BEWLY, Wm., an experi. philosopher, d. 1783. BEYER, Aug., a Germ, theologian, 1707-1741. BEYER, Dr. G. A., prof, of Gr. litera., 18th c. BEZA, or THEODORE DE BEZE, was born of noble parents at Vezelai in 1519. His studies were begun at Orleans under Wolmar, a German, to whom may be traced his pupil's attainments in Greek. Here he studied law, and having at the age of twenty obtained a diploma, he spent the next nine years in Paris ; living in the midst of such enjoyments as an ample fortune can at all times secure in the gay capital of France. Here he published his ' Juvenilia,' a collection of poems, many of which are just in character and gallantry, what might have been anticipated in the circumstances. His own conscience, his secret marriage, and a severe illness, combined in solem- nizing his mind, so that at length he fled to Geneva, and publicly avowed his attachment to the protestant reformation. In a very short time he became professor of Greek at Lausanne, and after ten years' labour there he returned to Geneva. From the period of his return to Geneva in 1559 to his death there, October 13, 1605, Beza was identified with the Swiss reformation. He was the first rector of the new academy established there, and he succeeded Calvin in the chair of theology in 1564. After the great Reformer's death, Beza occupied the first place of influence and responsi- bility, not only in the church of Geneva, but in the neighbouring cantons and in France. In 1571 K2 BHA he was moderator of the great protestr.nt assembly at Rochelle, by which the French confession was emitted. Beza revisited France about 1560, and was introduced to, and favourably noticed by Catharine de Medici and the Cardinal Lorrain, and he occasionally preached in the suburbs of Paris. He was also on the battle-field with the great Conde in 1563. The Greek scholarship of Beza was consummate, and one of his early works at Lausanne was his famous translation of the New Testament into Latin, printed by Robert Stephens at Paris in 1557. In 1565 he published his first edition of the Greek New Testament, making use of a MS., containing the four Gospels and Acts, which usually goes by his name, and which in 1581 he gave to the university of Cam- bridge. This edition, which is almost the same as that of R. Stephen, was four times reprinted by him, and the last edition of 1598 was taken as the basis of the authorized English version of the New Testament. Beza wrote many other treatises, especially on the power of the magistrate in mat- ters of religion. But it is as an editor, translator, and commentator in connection with the New Tes- tament, that all subsequent scholars hold Beza in high esteem, not only for his own lofty acquire- ments, but also for the impulse which he gave by his example and his publications to biblical studies. [J.E.] BHARHIHARI, an Indian poet, 1st cent. B.C. BHAVABHOUTI, one of the greatest dramatic poets of India, flourished in the last century. BHERING. See Beheing. BLANCHE, Ant., a Venetian poet, last cent. BIANCHI, Fe., a composer, end of last cent. BIANCHI, John, a eel. anatomist, 1693-1775. BIANCHI, V., an Ital. diplomatist, d. 1738. BIANCHINI, Fe., an Ital. savant, 1662-1729. BIAS, one of the seven sages of Greece. BIBARS L, Mameluke sultan, 1260. IE, 1309. BIBIENA, Beenaedo De, a cardinal of Rome under Leo X., and au. of a comedy, 1470-1520. BIBIENA, F. G., a paint, and arch., 1657-1743. BICHAT, Maeie Feancis Xaviee, one of the most celebrated physiologists of France, au. of several important medical works, 1771-1802. BICKERSTAFF, Isaac, a dramatic au., last ct. BICKERSTETH, Edwaed, a highly popular writer of religious works, was born 19th March, 1786, at Kirby Lonsdale, in Westmoreland. After receiving the rudiments of learning at the gram- mar school of his native town, he obtained, at the age of fourteen, a situation in the General Post Office, London, and although that employment put an end for a time to his classical studies, it trained him to those business habits which quali- fied him pre-eminently for the peculiar work which Providence had in reserve for him. Dis- gusted with the monotonous routine of his duties m the post office, he turned his attention to the study of law, and obtained admission into the chambers of an eminent London attorney, to whom, after two years 1 and a-half service, he became prin- cipal clerk. At a later period he settled in Nor- wich as partner to Mr. Bignold, a young and flourishing attorney, and connected himself still more closely with that gentleman by marrying Miss Bignold, his sister, on 5th May, 1812. For many years previously, Mr. Bickersteth had been BIE under deep impressions of personal religion. Amid all the engrossing avocations of his legal business he attended to the one thing needful, never allow- ing a day to pass without devoting a portion of it to the regular study of the Scriptures, with private devotion, and adopting various other methods for promoting his personal improvement and his walk with God. The principles he regarded as so vital to the welfare of his own soul he longed to impart to others, and mourning over the multitudes in the town of his adoption who were growing up in ignorance and irreligion, he commenced a Sunday- school by collecting a few poor children for in- struction in scriptural knowledge. This school, which gradually increased till it became a large and important institution, encouraged him to try other means of Christian usefulness, and accor- dingly he originated a benevolent visiting society, a church missionaiy society, a society for the con- version of the Jews, all of which, in spite of strong opposition from several quarters at first, continued to grow in numbers and influence. Haying published his ' Help to the Study of the Scriptures,' which proved an eminently useful and acceptable work, he was earnestly pressed by several Christian friends to enter the ministry. The advice accorded with his own ardent aspira- tions, and at length a door having been opened by Providence, he was ordained deacon in the Church of England, and preached his first sermon in Nor- wich, 10th December, 1815. In the beginning of 1816, Mr. Bickersteth undertook a special mission for the purpose of inspecting the settlements of the London Missionary Society in Africa, and after having accomplished the important objects of his embassy, returned to the shores of Britain in the following August. For many years he acted as one of the secretaries of the Missionary Society, and in that capacity led a life of incessant activity, journeying in all parts of the country, and address- ing public meetings in behalf of the institution. Resigning this laborious office, he became, in 1829, sole pastor of Wheler Chapel, London ; and on 23d October, 1830, he undertook the charge of the rural parish of Watton, Herts. After a life of such indefatigable labour as he had led, this situ- ation was a comparative sinecure. But by multi- plying the services, both on Sabbath and week-days, 'he worked,' to use his own phrase, 'as busily as a bee.' In all questions affecting the interests of religion he took a prominent part, for he was looked up to as the head of the evangelical party in the Cnurch of England, and in private he was unwearied in advancing the cause of Christian truth with his pen. The ' Christian Hearer,' the ' Christian Student,' a treatise on ' Baptism,' the 'Testimony of the Reformers,' and many other works, well known in the religious world, attest his piety and zeal. Mr. Bickersteth, in February, 1850, was seized with a paralytic stroke, which soon after carried him off, in the sixty-third year of his age. [R. J.] BIDDLE, John, a eel. unitarian, 1615-1662. BIDERMANN, J. G., a Ger. savant, 1703-1772. BIDLOO, Godfeey, a Dutch anat., 1649-1713. BIEL, Gab., a phil. of the Nominalists, 15th c. BIEL, J. Ch., a learned German divine, d. 1745. BIELFELD, J. F., Baron De, a political writer, counsellor of Frederick II., 1717-1770. 83 BIEVRE, the Marquis De, a writer of some fugitive pieces, eel. as an inveterate wit, 1747-1789. BIEZ, Oudart Du, marshal of France, d. 1551. BIGLAND, John, a misceL wr. 1750-1832. BIGNON, Jero., a learned Fr. wr., 1589-1656. BIGNON, J. P., grandson of Jerome, a (Hating. eccles. and member of the Fr. Academy, 1662-1743. BIGNON, L. P. E., a diplomatist," and ml of a 'History of French Diplomacy,' written by the desire of Napoleon, by whom he was frequently em- ployed, and held in the highest esteem, 1771-1841. BIGOT, Amebic, a French classic, 1626-1689. BIKAM, W., an English engraver, last cent. BILDERDYK, Wm., a Dutch poet, 1756-1831. BILFINGEE, G. B., a Ger. savant, 1693-1750. BILLAUD-VARENNES, John Nicholas, was the son of an advocate, and like Fouche', was educated by the Jesuits, but compelled to leave the congregation of the oratory on account of his licentiousness. He remained in obscurity until the outbreak of the revolution, when the revolt and fearful sacrifice of life at Nanci in the month of August, 1790, gave him an opportunity of at- tacking the government, especially in a work of 3 vols. 8vo, entitled ' Despotisme des Ministres de France.' Between this period and the autumn of 1792 he published several political brochures, re- markable, it is understood, for their brutal vehe- mence rather than for any originality or show of argument ; and it was only on the 10th of August in that year, when the death-struggle of the Swiss guard, followed by the sack of the Tuileries, and the imprisonment of the royal family took place, that he emerged from the obscurity of the Fau- bourgs as one of the hundred and forty-four who turned out the old municipals, and declared them- selves the magistrates of the people. In the hor- rible massacres of September he was seen standing in his official scarf, short brown coat, and black wig, with one foot on a corpse and the other in a pool of blood, urging the murderers at the Abbaye to continue the work of slaughter, of which, from mere physical exhaustion they were growing weary, fie was remarkable on all occasions for his repugnance to any regular form in the admin- istration of the people's wild vengeance, and had a principal share in the erection of the Re- volutionary Tribunal, to which Marie Antoin- ette and many other victims were sent at his particular instance. On the 9th Thermidor he consulted his own safety by joining in the clamo- rous accusation of Robespierre, and a few days after his fall, was himself excluded from the committee which his cruel heart, and some- times declamatory eloquence had so often served. The reaction having set in, he was condemned to transportation, and afterwards to death, by the convention, but the sailing of the ship saved his life, and he remained twenty years in Cayenne be- fore he effected his escape. In 1816 he made his way to St. Domingo, where the mulatto Petion was in power as president of the newly-established republic, by whom he was allowed a small pension. On this pittance the ' resolute unrepentant man ' contrived to subsist till the world was finally rid of him in 1819. [E.R.] BILLARD, Ch. M., a Fr. surgeon, 1800-1832. , BILLAUT, Ad., a Fr. poet, time of Richelieu. BILLBERG, J., a Swed. mathemat., d. 1717. BIR BILLING, Sigis., a Fr. patriot and soldier of the revol., coadjutor of Lafayette in 1830, d. 1832. BILLING SLEY, Sir Hy., a mathemat., d. 1616. BILSON, Thos., bp. of Winchester, 1536-1616. BINGHAM, Jos., an eccles. wr., 1668-1728. BINGHAM, Sir Geo. Ridout, an officer in the Peninsular war ; afterwards accompanied Buon- aparte to St. Helena, 1777-1833. BINGLEY, Wm., a wr. on nat. hist., d. 1823. BIOERN, the name of four kings of Sweden. BION, a Greek poet, 3d century B.C. BION, a Greek philosopher, 3d century B.C. BION, Nich., a Fr. mathematician, d. 1753. BIONDI, Sir Fr., an historian, 17th century. BIRAGUE, Clem., a Germ, engraver, 16th ct. BIRAGUE, Rene De, an It. cardinal, resident in France, promoted the massacre of St. Bartho- lomew, and was made chancellor, 1509-1583. BIRCH, Sam., a disting. citizen of London, ma- yor in 1814, promoter of the Lit. Fund, 1757-1841. BIRCH, Thos., a Quaker historian, 1705-1766. BIRD, Edw., R.A., a painter, 1705-1766. BIRD, John, a math. inst. maker, d. 1766. BIRD, or BIRDE, or BYRDE, William, the admired musician, and great pupil of the cele- brated Tallis, was born about the year 1540, and is supposed to have been the son of Thomas Bird, one of the gentlemen of the chapel of Edward VI., where Bird received his first instructions in music as one of the singing-boys. In 1563, he was made organist of Lincoln cathedral, which office he retained till 1569, when he was appointed gentleman of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and in 1575 became organist to her majesty. Up to the period of his death, which happened in 1623, he composed a great amount of vocal music, chiefly sacred, and from the circumstance that the words he chose were, for the most part, portions of the Romish ritual, it is supposed that he was secretly a professor of that faith, though from the appoint- ments he held, he must have conformed to the reformed religion. It is impossible now to name the number or his works, if we include his instru- mental compositions, of which no fewer than seventy-three are to be found in Queen Elizabeth's celebrated Virginal book. Bird is, however, now chiefly known by his great canon 'Non Nobis Domine.' And though some persons have sought to deprive him of the fame of its authorship, and have attributed it to Palestrina, nevertheless, those best able to judge have never hesitated to regard it as the work of William Bird, and to all time it will be looked upon as a national work and an enduring monument of his greatness as a musician. Bird was highly esteemed, both in his private and public capacity. [J.M.] BIREN, John Ernest De, dk. of Courland, and regent of Russia after the dth. of Anne, 1687-1772. BIRGER DE BIELBO, Count Palatini:, and regent of Sweden at the death of Eric, 1210-1266. BIRKBECK, George, M.D., the founder of mechanics' institutions, b. at Settle, 1776, d. 1841. BIRKBECK, M., au. of travels, &c, d. 1825. BIRKENHEAD, Sir J., a pol. wr., 1615-1679. BIRON, Armand De Gontaut, Baron De, marshal of France, slain at the siege of Epernay, 1524-1592. Ch. de Gontaut, son of the pre- ceding, b. 1561 ; admiral of France, 1592 ; marshal, 1594; duke, 1598; beheaded, 1602. Ch. Abmamd, 81 BIS grand-nephew of the last, marshal, 1663-1756. Louis Anthony, his son, marshal of France, 1701-1788. Armand Louis, duke of Lauzun, nephew of Louis Anthony, and after his death duke de Biron, celebrated as a companion in arms of Lafayette in America, and afterwards as a soldier of the revolution, beheaded 1793. BISACCIONI, Count, adis. It. gen.,1582-1663. BISCOE, Richd., an English divine, d. 1748. BISHOP, Samuel, an English poet, 1731-1795. BISSET, Ch., awr. on fortification, 1716-1791. BISSET, James, a fugitive writer, died 1832. BISI, Bona venture, an Ital. painter, d. 1662. BIVAR, Don Rodrigo Dias De. See Cm. BIZOT, Pierre, a wr. on numismatics, 1636-96. BLACAS, Due De, a French diplomatist, fa- vourite of Louis XVIIL, 1770-1839. BLACK, Joseph, born near Bourdeaux, 1728, died 1790. His father, a native of Belfast, resided for some years at Bourdeaux, as a wine merchant. He was of Scottish origin, and had married Miss Gordon, of Hillhead, in Aberdeenshire. The young chemist was first at school in Belfast, and after- wards at the universities of Glasgow and Edin- burgh. In 1756, he was appointed lecturer on chemistry and professor of anatomy, afterwards of medicine, in Glasgow. Here he remained till 1766, when he was chosen to the chemical chair in Edinburgh. During this period he made the important discovery of the cause of the differ- ence between limestone and quicklime, and showed that quicklime is limestone deprived of a portion or its weight in the form of car- bonic acid. It was by this experiment, while yet a student, that he drew attention to the impor- tance of the use of weights, a precaution which had hitherto been neglected by chemists, and from which omission many erroneous theories had been propagated. His second important discovery was that when water changes into steam, 140° of heat enter into it which are not perceptible by the thermometer, and which he termed latent. It is obvious that on this fact depends some of the im- portant circumstances with regard to the economy of the steam engine. These two capital discover- ies of Black have been of greater service to science than perhaps any equal number of data ever pointed out by philosophers. Dr. Black was a man of elegance, modesty, and indolence. _ His active life in science terminated in his thirty-eighth year, for after his removal to Edinburgh he en- gaged in no inquiries, and contented himself with teaching the science. He was beloved as a friend, medical adviser, and teacher, and his name must long occupy a niche in the scientific temple of fame. [R.D.T.] BLACKBURNE, Fr., a theologian, 1705-1787. BLACKLOCK, Thos., D.D., was the son of an English artizan settled at Annan, in the county of Dumfries, where he was born, 1721. At the age of six months he lost his sight from an attack of the small-pox, yet arrived at distinction as a classical scholar and poet; not, indeed, to very high rank in the latter respect, but to a degree of recognition exceedingly creditable to his taste and intelligence under the circumstances. For the early cultivation of his mind he was indebted to the kind friends who read, for his behoof, the works of Spenser, Milton, Prior, and Addison, and BLA subsequently to the friendship of Dr. Stephenson, who procured his admission to the university of Edinburgh. His first attempts in poesy were made in his twelfth year, and a few years later gave proof of his passionate love for music. In 1759 he was licensed to preach in the Scotch kirk, and in 1762 was presented with the living of Kirk- cudbright, by the earl of Selkirk ; but after two years of strife, abandoned this field of labour, in consequence of objections both to his preaching and his blindness, urged by the parishioners. A small annuity was settled upon bun at this time, with which he retired to Edinburgh, where he passed the remainder of his life in literary pursuits, partly employed as a teacher. The best of his poetical pieces is ' The Graham,' an heroic ballad. He married in 1762 ; and in 1767 the degree of D.D. was conferred upon him by the Marisehal College, Aberdeen. The last edition of his works was published in 1796, with a life of the author, by Mr. Spense. Dr. Blacklock died at the age of seventy, July 7, 1791. [E.R.] BLACKMORE, Sir Richard, a very indiffer- ent poet of the time of Dryden, in better repute as an honest man and a physician, died 1721. BLACKSTONE, Sir William, a judge and celebrated commentator on the law of England, was born in London on 10th July, 1723. lie was the posthumous child of a silk mercer, and lost his mother in infancy. When about seven years old he was sent to the Charter House, where he was ultimately placed on the foundation. He studied at Pembroke College, Oxford, and in 1743 was made a fellow of All Saints. In 1746 he was called to the bar from the Middle Temple. He had written some popular fugitive pieces, chiefly poetical, one of them called ' The Lawyer's Fare- well to his Muse.' His qualifications were not of the kind which bring business through the usual channels, and he retired on his fellowship. Finding, however, that his studies took naturally the direc- tion of the law and constitution of England, he opened a course of lectures on the subject in 1753. Mr.Viner, struck by the importance of a foundation for teaching this important department of know- ledge, founded the Vinerian professorship, which Blackstone was the first to occupy in 1758. The popularity of his lectures, and of some minor tracts on jurisprudential subjects, opened the way to prac- tice, and he returned to the law courts, entering parliament in 1761. In 1762 he received a patent as king's counsel, and the honorary office of solici- tor-general to the queen. About the same time he married Sarah Clithroe, by whom he was the father of nine children. The first volume of the celebrated • Commentaries on the Laws of Eng- land' was published in 1765. The other three volumes followed in rapid succession. No English law book has been at once so popular and so gravely censured. Both the praise and blame were elicited by the same features. In England, so much weight is attributed to the sentences and individual words in which the law is expressed, that its interpreters generally seek safety from re- sponsibility in employing the exact terms in which it has been originally given forth, in statute, deci- sion, or the opinion of some early sage of the law. This practice gives their works a hard, disjointed, ifd piebald appearance, forbidding as a whole, huw- 86 BLA ever valuable the separate parts may be. Black- stone tried to convert the mass into a readable well-arranged book, and succeeded. He lias made many people readers of the law, and more or less instructed in it, who otherwise would not have ap- proached the forbidding science. But on the other hand, the deeper practical members of the profes- sion have pronounced his work unsatisfactory and superficial. To make his book consistent and readable, he endeavoured to give a reason for every- thing, while other writers told it baldly as it stood. The tendency of his commentaries was "thus to make whatever existed in the law appear to be exactly what it should be. Now that many of the things which he commended as the perfection of wisdom, have been abolished as tyrannical and absurd, his rea- soning in their support sometimes appears suffi- ciently ludicrous. The disposition to justify things as they were, made his writings acceptable to government, and they were the more so that in ac- counts of the origin of national institutions, he ever kept out of sight the more violent revolution- ary movements by which the constitution was created. Only in his celebrated passage against the game laws does he take a side contrary to what may be called conservative predilections. The 'Commentaries' are still in active use, and ever call for the services of fresh editors. Black- stone disliked political contention, and declined the opening to high promotion offered to him in the office of solicitor-general. He was, in 1770, appointed one of the justices of the King's Bench, and in a few months transferred to the Common Pleas. He died on 14th February, 1780. [J.H.B.] BLACKWALL, Ant., an Eng. critic, 1674-1730. BLACKWELL, Alex., a Scotch physician and economist ; settled in Stockholm, and beheaded for conspiracy, 1747. His wife, Elizabeth, disting. as the authoress of a ' Herbal,' with 500 plates, drawn, engraved, and coloured by herself. BLACKWOOD, A., a Scotch au., 1539-1613. BLACKWOOD, Sir H., anav. com., 1770-1832. BLADEN, Martin, a miscel. writer, d. 1746. BLAEUW, Wm, a Dutch geogr., 1571-1638. BLAINVILLE, M. De, an anatom., 1778-1850. BLAIR, Hugh, D.D., a celebrated Scotch divine, and miscellaneous writer, 1718-1800. BLAIR, J., a chronological author, died 1782. BLAIR. Robt., au. of' The Grave,' 1700-1746. BLAKE, Wm.. an artist and poet of singular genius and originality, remarkable also for his extraordinary visions, 1759-1827. BLAKE. In all the long list of England's naval heroes, there is not a name more glorious than that of Admiral Blake. Perhaps he deserves to be ranked even highest of all, if we look not merely to the number and brilliancy of his victories, but to the originality of his genius, and to the high character of the commanders and the crews whom he encountered and vanquished. Blake tamed the J)ride of the Dutch navy when it was in the per- ection of equipment, discipline, spirit, and skill. He triumphed over Van iromp andDeRuyter; admirals who, until they coped with Blake, were reputed invincible. Nelson himself never signalized his genius and his bravery against such competi- tors as these. Robert Blake was the son of a merchant at Bridgewater in Somersetshire, and was born there in August, 1599. He was well BLA educated, first at his native grammar school, and then at Oxford, where he was distinguished for his strictness in religion, and for his liberal poli- tics. At the age of twenty-seven, in consequence of his father's embarrassments and death, Blake was called on, as the eldest son, to take the man- agement of the wreck of the family business, and to maintain his mother and several younger bro- thers and sisters. He did this duty in private life for many years ; but on the outbreak of the civil war between Charles I. and the parliament, Blake came forward on the popular side, and raised a troop of dragoons, which he personally com- manded. Blake's military career has been eclipsed by the superior lustre of his naval achievements ; but he was one of the ablest commanders and bravest soldiers that fought for the Houses ; and some of his exploits in the west of England showed genius of the highest order. It would be difficult to find parallels, either in ancient or modem history, for Blake's defence of Lyme against Prince Maurice ; or for his daring occupa- tion of Taunton and successful defence of that place against Goring. When the war was over, Blake was made a commissioner of the navy, and placed in command of the ships that were sent against Rupert's piratical squadron. Blake was at this time fifty years old. He may have had some acquaintance with a seafaring life when he was a Bridgewater merchant, but besides his na- tural courage, decision, and promptitude, he must have possessed remarkable quickness of apprehen- sion and fertility of genius to enable him to adapt himself to his new command in naval war, and to inspire those whom heled,with his own daring, alac- rity, and indomitable resolution. He was equally active and sagacious as a reformer of the numerous abuses which he found prevalent in the admiralty, and in every department of the service ; and Blake did for our navy in the middle of the 17th century what Earl St. Vincent did afterwards for it at the close of the 18th. Blake's successes against Ru- pert and other enemies of the commonwealth, caused him to be raised to the chief command of the English fleet when war broke out between the English and Dutch republics in 1652. A series of naval battles ensued, which are unequalled in history for the skill and for the obstinate valour displayed on both sides. Once, and once only, the Dutch had the advantage, on the 29th of November, 1652, Avhen Blake was obliged with less than 40 ships to fight Van Tromp with 80 in the Downs. _ But our English admiral more than redeemed his fame in the February following, when he completely defeated Van Tromp in their great three days' sea fight along the channel. At last, when after two years of desperate warfare, Blake had nearly destroyed the Dutch navy, Hol- land was compelled in 1654 to sue for peace. Cromwell had turned out the parliament and made himself protector of England during this period, but Blake declared that a sailor's duty was to serve his country against the foreigner, and he continued to guide our fleets wherever the honour of England required. Cromwell sent him to the Mediter- ranean, where he made our flag universally re- Bpeoteo. He compelled the Maltese knights and the Tuscan government to pay for the seizure of some English merchant vessels, and made the BLA pope pay also for having allowed them to be sold in his ports. He awed the dey of Algiers into the surrender of all his English captives; and when the dey of Tunis refused to do the same, Blake burnt the pirate fleet under the guns of the town, destroyed the forts, and compelled the haughty barbarians to obey his orders. He did good service in blockading the port of Cadiz, when the Spanish war began; and his last and most daring enterprise was the destruction of the Spanish Treasure fleet and the fortifications at Santa Cruz in Teneriffe in 1657. Even the royalist English called this achievement • miracu- lous.' Blake has been censured for rashness in attempting it, but his last and best biographer, Mr. Hepworth Dixon, has proved that the enter- prise was as ably planned as it was heroically ex- ecuted. This was Blake's final service to his country. He sickened as his victorious fleet re- turned to England, and he died during the very entrance of his ship into Plymouth Sound. It would be diflicult to find a character more purely bright than Blake's. He was sincerely religious, and he was as honest and as generous as he was brave. His morals were stainless. His friend- ships and his domestic affections were warm ; but they never betrayed him into weakness ; and he sternly cashiered his own favourite brother who showed want of courage in command of a ship at Santa Cruz. Cromwell caused the great admiral to be buried with the highest pomp at Westmin- ster ; but on the restoration of the Stuarts, they heaped eternal infamy on themselves by outraging the mortal remains of the hero before whom they and their despotic friends on the thrones of Europe for so many years had trembled. The great ad- miral was at the age of sixty when he died in his country's service. [E.S.C.] BLANCAS, Jer., a Spanish historian, d. 1590. BLANCHARD, Fr., a celeb. Fr. aeronaut, d. 1809 ; his wife, also an aeronaut, killed 1819. BLANCHARD, James, a Fr. paint., 1600-1638. BLANCHARD, J. B., prof, of rhet., 1731-1797. BLANCHARD, Laman, a disting. contributor to periodical literature, committed suicide, 1845. BLANCHARD, Wji, a eel. corned., 1769-1835. BLANCHE, queen of Navarre, died 1441. BLANCHE of Artois, q. of Navarre, d. 1300. BLANCHE of Bourbon, q. of Castile, poisoned by her husband, Peter the Cruel, 1361. BLANCHE of Castile, daug. of Alph. IX., b. 1187, q. of Louis VIIL of France 1201, d. 1252. BLANCHELANDE, P. F., governor of St. Domingo, executed as a counter-revolutionist 1793. BLANE, Sir G.,phys. to Geo. III., 1749-1834. BLANKEN, John, a Dutch engineer, last ct. BLANTYRE, Lord, a Peninsu. officer, k. 1830. BLAU, F. A., a Ger. theol. and critic, 1754-98. BLAYNEY, Dr. Benj., a biblical wr., d. 1801. BLEISWICK, Peter Van, a Dutch statesman, author of a Latin treatise on dykes, 1724-1790. BLESSINGTON, Marg. Power, countess of, eel. for her contrib. to polite literature, 1789-1849. BLETTERIE, J.B.R. De La, anhis., 1696-1772. BLIGH, Geo. M., a naval commander, d. 1835. BLIZZARD, Sir W., adisting. surg., 1742-1835. BLOCH, Marcus E., a naturalist, 1723-1799. BLOCK, Joanna K., disting. for her imitations of landscapes, portraits, &c, in paper, 1650-1715. BLU 5K™. J. V., a clas. schol., 1788-1816. St nSKv? HR ' 9-' a min - P ain ter, 1670-1741. iJLONDEL, a minstrel celebrated in the history PT C ™rU'T ai V? le discoverer of his dungeon. £t nCin^T ' £ AV1D ' a P r °tes. wr., 1591-1655. t>t SSJSt ' t *' a wr - on ar chitec, 1617-1680. W nunm' f'f V n architect ' 1705 "1774. SfSSRSr' I' N 'V. a Fr " grammar., 1753-1832. BLONDIN, P., a French botanist, 1682-1713 m S5 L ? G ' A ' C -> a . Dutch engrav.,1634-1690. BLOOD, Thomas, originally a col. in the army, notorious for his attempt on the regalia, died 1680. [Bioomfleld's Cottage.] BLOOMFIELD, Robert, an amiable man and a pleasing descriptive poet, is chiefly remark- able as an instance of the triumph of literary in- clinations over external difficulties. He was bora in 1766, at a village near Bury St. Edmund's, where his father, a tailor, left him an orphan in infancy, and the widow taught a little school. He was a journeyman shoemaker in London, when he wrote his pastoral poem, ' The Farmer's Boy.' This, the work of his that is most likely to live, was published in 1800, and attained an extraor- dinary popularity, well deserved in itself, and natural in the barrenness which then reigned in poetry. Among his subsequent volumes were ' Good Tidings, or News from the Farm,' and a collection of • Rural Tales ' and other pieces. His feeble health impeded efforts made to provide for him by persons of rank who took an interest in the self-taught poet ; and after much distress and sickness, which in the end affected the mind as well as the body, he died at Shefford in Bedford- shire in 1823. [W.S.] BLOUNT, Charles, earl of Devonshire, and Lord Mountjoy, quelled Tyrone's rebel., 1563-1606. BLOUNT, C, adeistical wr., com. suicide 1693. BLOUNT, Sir H., an Eastern trav., 1602-1682. BLOUNT, Thos., a fugitive hist., 1619-1679. BLOUNT, Sir Th. Pope, Bart., author of a catalogue of celebrated authors, &c, 1649-1697. BLOW, John, a composer of music, d. 1708. BLUCHER. Gebhart Lebrecht Von Blucher was born at Rostock in Mecklenburg- Schwerin in 1742. His family was ancient but poor. Young Blucher enlisted in a regiment of Swedish hussars at the age of fifteen, but soon afterwards he entered the army of Prussia, the country which 87 BLU lie was dostined to serve so ably. He was present in some of the battles of the seven years* war ; and acquired a high reputation as a daring and resolute soldier, though his coarse and violent temper brought him into frequent difficulties, and im- peded the rate of his promotion. He retired from the service in 1770, in anger at a supposed slight, but returned to it again in 1786, and when the wars of the French revolution commenced, Blucher was colonel of a regiment of Black Hussars. He commanded the left wing of the duke of Bruns- wick's army in 1783, with great credit for skill as well as courage ; and in 1806, in the second war between France and Prussia, he was commander of the Prussian cavalry. After the disasters of Jena and Auerstadt, Blucher signalized himself by the ability of his retreat, and by his desperate resist- ance before he capitulated to" his pursuers. From 1806 to 1813 Blucher lived in retirement, watch- ing eagerly for Prussia's opportunity for rising against her French oppressors. This came after "Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812. Blucher was now seventy years old, but his spirit Avas as fiery as ever, and tliere was no general in the war of German liberation whom his countrymen fol- lowed with more enthusiasm, or who did more for the rescue of the fatherland. He commanded an army formed partly of Prussians and partly of Russians, which was called the army of Silesia. On August 26, 1812, he routed and nearly de- stroyed the French army under Marshal Mac- donald, at the Katzbach, a victory that redeemed the reverses of Lutzen and Bautzen. Blucher was by Napoleon's own confession, the keenest, the most indomitable, and the most formidable of the foes, who now drove the French back across the Rhine. No reverses disheartened him, no difficulties appalled him; and it was only when held back by the more cautious policy of other chiefs of the allies, that the veteran was ever heard to express displeasure or anxiety about the progress or the war. In 1814, when the allies entered France, Blucher was again the first and the fiercest among Napoleon's assail- ants. He had the advantage over him at Brienne ; he was surprised and severely punished by the emperor at Montereau ; but he was soon pressing forwards again upon Paris, fought desperately at Craon, was victorious at Laon, and finally joined in the attack upon Paris on the 30th March, 1814, which caused the surrender of the French capital, and the end of the war. When Napoleon returned from Elba in 1815, Blucher commanded the Prussian army in Belgium, which in conjunc- tion with the British army under Wellington, fought the campaign of Waterloo. Blucher's army was the first that the French emperor attacked ; on the 16th of June the obstinate battle of Ligny took place, in which, as Blucher himself re- marked, the Prussians lost the day, but not their honour. Though forced to retreat in consequence of this def -at, Blucher had his army rallied and ready for action again before twenty-four hours were over; and on the 18th he marched accord- ing to promise to aid Wellington at Waterloo. Blucher came on the field in force towards the evening of that ever-memorable day. He led his columns on Napoleon's right Hank and rear, with the intention of not only succouring the English, BLU but of utterly crushing the French. His success is well known. Often repulsed, and at last fiercer? charged in front by the duke's army, the French were unable to hold back Blucher on their right, and were swept from the field in irretrievable ruin. After that decisive battle Blucher advanced into France in conjunction with the duke, anil a time was present at the surrender of Paris. Blu- cher's fierce animosity against the French made him wish to storm their capital, and he expressed a purpose of shooting Napoleon himself on the very spot, in the ditch at Vincenncs, where the Duke D'Enghien had been murdered. He yielded. however, though sullenly and reluctantly, to the sage advice of his English colleague. 1 Shu her died in extreme old age at Kricblowitz, in Silesia, September 12, 1819. He was almost idolized by the Prussian nation, who justly looked on him as the saviour of the country. Blucher knew little of strategy, but he had the good sense to be aware of his own deficiency, and to follow in military plans and manoeuvres the able advices of General Gneisenau, to whom he always frankly expressed Iris obligation. Old 'Marshal Forwards' (as the soldiers loved to call Blucher) exercised an animat- ing influence over his men, which was invaluable, amid the general prostration of spirit which the successes of the French before 18i2 had created ; and except our own Wellington, no man did more than Blucher towards the liberation of Europe from Buonaparte's military oppression. [E.S.C/] BLUM, J. Chr., a German lyric, 1739-1790. BLUM, Robert, one of those active spirits raised to eminence by the revolutionary events of 1848. He had spent his early life in so much ob- scurity that little is known oi him. He is said to have been born at Cologne in 1807, to have been a working jeweller travelling about after the man- ner of the young German nandicraftsmen, and to have settled in Cologne in 1830, as box opener of the theatre. Afterwards he excited attention among the friends of advancement in Germany by his contributions to the press, and especially by his exposures of the ultramontane religious party in the affair of the holy coat of Treves. When the parliament of Frankfurt was embodied in 1848, he represented Cologne, and became distinguished as the leader of the extreme revolution party. He had a rapid denunciatory eloquence, whence he was called the German O'Connell. He mixed him- self up with the revolutionary movements at Vienna, and on their suppression was condemned by a court-martial to be shot on the 9th of Novem- ber, 1848. The act was significant, as the begin- ning of the stern measures pursued by Austria agamst the liberal party in Germany. BLUMAUER, L., a Ger. sat. poet, 1755-1798. BLUMBERG, C. G., an Orien. sehol.,166 1-1735. BLUMENBACH, Jean Frederic, a cele- brated comparative anatomist, physiologist, and naturalist, was born at Gotha in 1752. He died at Gottingen in 1840. Whilst still a child the young Blumenbach exhibited a strong inclination for those pursuits which in after vears rendered him so distinguished. He studied first at the uni- versity of Jena, then at Gottingen. At this latter place he succeeded in persuading the university to frarchase a large collection of objects of natural listory, philology, and ethnology, belonging to one *a BLU of the professors. _ He was appointed curator of this museum, which he soon rendered famous by the extensive additions he made to it. Shortly afterwards he was elected professor of medicine in the university ; an appointment which he held for sixty years. During all this time he devoted himself with uninterrupted assiduity to the study of com- parative anatomy, physiology, and natural history, especially his grand study, the natural history of man. He was the first to establish the division of the human race into five varieties, the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay. But the grand idea predominant in Blumenbach's mind, was the subject of the unity of the human species. To establish this he proved from anatomy and physiology that a wide interval, without connec- tion, without transition, separates man from every other species of animal. He shows that not only no species of animal approaches him, no genus does, no family even. The human species is one, and one alone. His numerous works upon this subject, upon natural history, physiology, and comparative anatomy, have obtained for Blumen- bach a world-wide reputation. He held highly re- sponsible offices connected with his university and the town in which he lived. He maintained a cor- respondence with the most eminent philosophers of all countries ; received all scientific persons who visited Gottingen, and was justly esteemed the patriarch of the university. The town of Gottin- gen owed most of its prosperity to him. Seventy- eight learned societies reckoned him amongst their members. Medals were struck in his honour. Each anniversary of his professorship was cele- brated by fetes, and prizes were established in his name. Beloved by his pupils and townsmen, re- vered by his country, he closed a calm and peace- ful life at the advanced age of eighty-eight. [W.B.] BLUTEAU, D. R., a lexicographer, d. 1734. BOABDIL, last Moorish k. of Granada, 1491. BOADICEA, the celebr. British heroine, queen of the Iceni, vanquished and died by poison, 61. BOBROF, Simon S., a Russian poet, d. 1810. BOCTHOR, Ellious, an Arab, schol., d. 1821. BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, is illustrious as one of the three founders of the literature which arose, in the Italian language, in the course of the four- teenth century. Dante's extraordinary poem led the way; Boccaccio and Petrarch were the re- storers of Greek learning to Italy, and thus the {compters of a new literary spirit ; and, while the atter of the two elaborated thebeautiful language of Tuscany in its metrical shape, the former was the earliest writer of symmetrical and polished Italian prose.— Boccaccio was the natural son of a Floren- tine merchant and a Frenchwoman. He was born either at Florence or at Paris in 1313, was edu- cated at Florence till his tenth year, and was then for six years the apprentice of a merchant at Paris. But his inclination, always averse to commerce, and not less so to law, soon led him, in spite of his father's wish, to devote himself wholly to liter- ary pursuits. His authorship began at Naples, when he was not far from his thirtieth year. His first noted production was the ' Filocopo,' an in- different prose romance, in which he celebrated, un- der fictitious names, his attachment to a natural daughter of king Robert. Much more meritorious was the ' Tcseide,' a poem hi the Italian ' Ottava BOC rima,' of which measure Boccaccio is commonly believed to have been the inventor. In costume this work is a chivalrous romance, Theseus and the sons of (Edipus being invested with feudal man- ners and characters, and made the heroes of adven- tures wearing a romantic, not a classical air; but in regularity of design and purity of language, it was a mighty step beyond the rude effusions of the medi- aeval minstrelsy. It has interest for us, as having probably prompted the 'Knight's Tale 'of Chaucer- while the stoiy was also used by our poet Lidgate, and in a fine drama with which Shakspeare has been supposed to have had some concern. At Naples, likewise, about 1350, and on the suggestion (it is said) of Queen Joanna, was composed ' The De- cameron,' the work on which Boccaccio's celebrity is most securely founded. There was to be found already, among the literary stores of the earlier middle ages, a vast stock of invented stories, which had arisen in northern France sooner than in any other European country, but had lately begun to be related in the Italian tongue. From those older sources, especially the French familiar tales called 'Fabliaux,' Boccaccio borrowed freely. The same section of the popular literature sug- gested to him the idea of connecting a number of separate stories by one leading thread. He repre- sents a party of gay ladies and gentlemen as re- tiring from Florence to a villa in the neighbouring hamlet of Fiesole, during the plague of 1348, and as amusing their leisure by the recital of the stories which make up the greater part of the book. It derives its name from the ten days during which the diversion lasted ; and, ten tales being told each day, the number in all is a hundred. In point of style, the ' Decameron ' is admittedly one of the masterpieces of the language in which it is writ- ten ; it is admirable also for its grace and liveliness in narration. These qualities are, in many of the tales, debased by a lamentable grossness ; but some others, such as the 'Griselda,' are not only morally fine and elevated, but seriously and pathe- tically interesting. The story of ' Giletta of Nar- bonne ' was, indirectly, the original of ' All's Well that Ends Well ;' and other pieces of the collection were imitated by Chaucer and by Dryden. — Not long after the composition of the ' Decameron,' Boccaccio came into possession of a considerable patrimony ; and thenceforth his favourite occupa- tions were the study of the Greek tongue and its literature, (then hardly known at all in Western Europe,) and the collection of manuscripts of the classical authors. Residing chiefly at Florence, he was employed on several public missions, which gave him opportunities for prosecuting those re- searches ; ana one of these made him acquainted with Petrarch, who was ever afterwards one of his dearest friends. About his forty-eighth year the exhortations of a Carthusian monk, strengthened by an alleged supernatural vision, inspired him with thoughts so serious, that he meditated retir- ing into a convent. The remonstrances of Pet- rarch diverted him from this step; but the im- pression which had been made produced a benefi- cial amendment in his views and conduct, and awoka much sorrow both for the excesses of-his earlier life and for the licentiousness of the 'Decamerun.' To those later years belong chiefly his works in Latin prose, which, though they were valuable as 88 BOC aids in the infancy of classical studies, are now curious only as monuments of the past. Some of his smaller Italian compositions likewise are un- important. His last undertaking was the deliver- ing of public comments on the great poem of Dante, in a lectureship to which he was appointed by the Florentine magistracy. The zeal with which he prepared himself for this task was said to have hastened the decay of his health. He died in Tuscany in 1375. ' [W.S.] BOCCAGE, M. A. Le P., a poetess, 1710-1802. BOCCALINI, T., an Ital. satirist, 1556-1613. BOCCHEKINI, Luigi, a musician, 1740-1805. BOCCHI, Achilles, a patron of litera., 16th c. BOCCHOPJS, an ancient king of Egypt. BOCCHUS, k. of Numidia, vanquished 103 B.C. BOCCOLD, John, commonly called John of Leyden, the chief of a revolt in the 16th cent. BOCCUCI, Joseph, a Sp. comedian, last cent. BOCH, John, a Latin poet, 1555-1609. BOCHART, Samuel, a protestant divine, eel. as a biblical wr. and Oriental scholar, 1599-1667. BOCK, a German botanist, 1498-1554. BODARD DE TEZAZ, a French poet, last c. BODE, Chr. Aug., a Ger. linguist, 1723-1796. BODE, J. Ehlert, a Germ, astron., 1747-1826. BODE, J. J. C., a bookseller and trans., d. 1793. BODENSTEIN, the tutor of Luther, 1480-1541. BODIN, John, a wr. on jurisprud., 1530-1596. BODLEY, Sir T., a diplom. and man of letters, founder of the Bodleian library, 1544-1612. BODMER, J. Jac, a German poet, 1695-1783. BODSON, Joseph, a French revolutionist who had the care of the royal family at the Temple. BOECE, an Italian philosopher, 470-525. BOECE, Hector, a Scotch histor., 1465-1536. BOECLER, J. H., a Swed. historian, 1611-1692. BOEHM, And., a disciple of Wolff, 1720-1790. BOEHM, W. A., a German divine, 1673-1732. BOEHM, or BCEHMEN, Jacob, surnamed ' Teutonicus,' was born at Old Seidenburgh, a short distance from Gorlitz in Upper Lusatia, 1575. His parents being poor, he was employed in tend- ing cattle from a very early age, and afterwards ap- prenticed to a shoemaker, a business which he con- tinued to follow after his marriage in 1594. He had the good fortune, for one in his station at that period, to learn reading and writing at the village school, and this was all the education he received, the terms from the dead languages introduced into his writings, and what knowledge he had of alchy- my or the other sciences, being acquired in his own rude way subsequently; chiefly, perhaps, from con- versation with men of learning, or a little reading in the works of Paracelsus and Fludd. Whilst he was a herd boy, as the legend runs, he once re- tired to a little stony crag, known as the Land's Crown, and there discovered an opening through which he penetrated into a rocky enclosure, where he saw a great wooden vessel lull of money, but was too much alarmed to take any of it, and when he returned with his companions they sought often and with much diligence, but never found tlie en- trance again. This circumstance made a deep impression on Boehmen, the rather as a stranger arrived there some years later, who was skilled in the finding out such magic treasures, and taking it away, did indeed enrich himself, but perished by an infamous death, the treasure, it is said, having BOE laid there under a curse to him who should ever become possessed of it. Another legend, which relates that a stranger, of a severe hut friendly countenance, came to his master's shop while he was yet an apprentice, and warned him of the great work to which God should appoint him, ex- hibits the singular faith of Boehmen in the Divine guidance; and the religious habits in which he was thus encouraged soon rendered him as con- spicuous among his profane fellow-townsmen, as his humility and love of peace among the arrogant clergy, by whom he was afterwards persecuted. His study of the Sacred Scriptures had been con- stant and profound, but more especially, if we may judge from the spirit of his theological system, of the Apocalypse and the writings of Paul. His letters manifest the deep earnestness of his convictions, and the sincerity with which he represented him- self as the subject of Divine inspiration. * Art,' he says, 'hath not written here, neither was there any time to consider how to set it punctually down according to the right understanding of the words, but all was ordered according to the direction of the Spirit, which often went in haste ; so that in many words letters may be wanting, and in some places a capital letter for a w r ord ; for the penman's hand, by reason he was not accustomed to it, did often shake; and though I could have written in a more accurate, fair, and plain manner, yet the reason was this, that the burning fire did often force forward with speed, and the hand and pen must hasten directly after it, for it cometh and goeth as a sudden shower.' ' I, indeed,' he con- tinues, 'can write nothing of myself, but as a child which neither knoweth nor understandeth anything, which neither hath ever been taught, but only that which the Lord vouchsafeth to know in me.' The genuineness of his humility, often ex- pressed in this or similar language by Jacob Boeh- men, and the simplicity of his faith, cannot be doubted by those who have examined his works, any more than the fine religious thoughts, and the depth of mystic wisdom contained in them. The hrst of these was called the ' Aurora,' or ' Morning Red- ness,' and was written after he had been for seven days together, as he expresses it, ' environed with the Divine light ;' so that he discerned all things in their inward essences, as explained subsequently in his ' Signatura Rerum,' or corresponding forms of things. Experiences of this kind, indeed, were repeated over a period of twelve years, before he was driven to embody his apprehensions in ex- ternal writing, and when he dm so, his MS. was handed about among those who chose to borrow it, until the clergy and the town council interfered, and finally, not only proscribed his writings and pro- phecies, but poor Boehmen himself, who was con- strained to depart for Dresden ; a catastrophe which will be better understood when it is known that many passages in his writings are as red thunderbolts launched against oppression and sham religion. The space to which we are limited renders it impossible to give even an outline of his system, but we may observe generally, that it con- tains the first principles of Oriental metaphysics, as delivered by the ancient sages, and contained in the fragments of their philosophy, and that its hrilliant lights and definite outlines only fade away into vacuity, Avhere they ought to be brought BOE down into the physical nature of things. This defect prevented him from acquiring the world- wide fame of Newton, who applied tne principles demonstrably contained in the writings of Jacob Boehmen to the planetary system ; and the same deficiency has ever prevented the poor unin- stracted seer of Gorlitz from ranking with the philosophers, or indeed with the no-philosophers of whom anything intelligible can be reported, down to the present time. The key to all his works, perhaps, is contained in the right under- standing of the seven universal properties, three of which are hidden under fire and three manifested; the fire, or Spirit, being as the magnetic blaze which brings the first three into the last ; next to which may be the study of fire in ten forms, be- ginning with the eternal liberty, or silent tranquil- lity of God without nature; and after this the three principles — darkness, light, and generation. The greatest master of Boehmen's philosophy was a German named Frere, some of whose manu- scripts are in the British Museum, and through whom and his acquaintance with the family of Dr. Francis Lee, William Law derived his knowledge, as well as the diagrams by which the principles are in some measure illustrated. As an apostle of reli- fion he has had followers in all parts of Europe, ut as he never sought to establish a sect in his lifetime so all efforts of this kind have failed since, and we must look for the real proceeds of his in- fluence in such movements as those of Primitive Wesleyanism and the Moravian Brethren ; add to which the most intelligent of the later mystics, followers of Law and Boehmen, accepted the revelations of Swedenborg. Boehmen died happily on Sunday, November 18, 1624. Early in the morning he called his son and asked him if he heard that excellent music, and on his replying in the negative, directed him to open the door that he might hear it the better. Asking after- wards what the clock had struck, he was told 'two,' upon which he remarked that his time was yet ' three hours hence.' When it was near six he took leave of his wife and son, blessed them, and said, 'Now I go hence into paradise!' He then bade his son turn him, and with a deep peaceful 6igh, his spirit departed. [E.R.] BOEHME, J. E., a Ger. historian, 1717-1780. BOEHMER, G. R., a eel. botanist, 1723-1803. BOERHAAVE, Herman, physician, the pupil of Pitcairn. He was the son of the parish clergyman, andb. 1668, at Vorhout,near Leyden, d. 1738. Boer- haave presents a striking example of the successful results of the proper exercise of talent, integrity, and industry. Without friends, and left an orphan when a boy, he became one of the most popular physi- cians and teachers in Europe, and by the soundness of his views, and good sense, contributed to elevate the profession to which he belonged from the degraded and empirical condition in which it was previously involved. Living at a time when all natural studies together did not embrace so much as one science in the present day, it is not to be expected that any of his labours should now sur- vive. But learned in the knowledge of the .medicine, chemistry, and botany of his time, he must be viewed as one of the dispellers of mysti- cism, and founders of a great fabric which the revolutions of centuries cannot even perfect, while BOH to his successors must be left the duty of recog- nizing the efforts of such true creators of science. His works were the 'Institutions of Medicine,' ' Diagnostic and Curative Aphorisms,' a ' System of Chemistry,' and a small work on Materia Medica. His memory is still ardently cherished in the uni- versity of Leyden, and in the Botanic Garden, where some relics of the great physician are still ext.int; while a portrait of him adorns one of the halls. Boerhaave was a successful practitioner, as he is said to have left upwards of £200,000. TR.D T 1 BOESCHENSTEIN, J., a Heb. gram., 15th ct. BOETHIUS, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus, was born at Rome of a rich and noble family about 470. The first eighteen years of the orphan were spent in diligent study at Athens, and he returned to Rome a young man of unequalled intellectual accomplishment. Soon after he en- tered the senate as a member of the patrician order, and under Theodoric, king of the Goths, obtained high preferment. Boethius had been consul in 487 under Odoacer, king of the Heruli, and in the eighteenth year of Theodoric he was elevated a second time to the same dignity. His domestic life was one of undisturbed felicity, and his prosperity had also been crowned by seeing his two sons advanced to consular rank. But a sudden and fatal reverse overtook him, and after more than twenty years of faithful sendee, he was, during the period of his third consulship, accused of treasonable correspondence, condemned and banished to Pavia, where after more than a year's imprisonment, he was by royal mandate beheaded in prison, October 23, 526. It is said to have been a vindication of the doctrine of the Trinity, that stirred the Arian prejudices of Theodoric and his courtiers against the orthodox philosopher and patriotic statesman. His most famous work, ' De Consolatione Philosophise,' was composed during his last year's confinement at Pavia. It has both prosaic and poetical chapters, and dialogues in its five books ; and philosophy personified adduces comfort to the prisoner, not from Scripture, but from Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno. His other works are numerous, and on a vast variety of subjects. He translated Plato and Euclid, — his special favour- ites, — commented on Aristotle, Cicero, and Por- phyry, published versions of Ptolemy and Archi- medes, and wrote on music, rhetoricj mathe- matics, metaphysics, and theology. It is hard to say whether Boethius was a Christian at all in the proper sense of the term. His pure theism, his ideas of prayer, and his trust in a Divine Pro- vidence, appear to have been borrowed from those opinions with which Christianity was leavening indirectly so many classes of society, who did not formally enter the communion of the church. His works were published with notes at Basle, folio, 1570. [J.E.J BOETTCHER, J. Fr., a Ger. alchym., d. 1719. BOGDANOVITSCH, H. Theod., & miscvll.i- neous i Courier, BOGORIS, BOGUD, a king of Mauritania, 1st c. B.C. BOGUE, David, a eel. dissenter, 1749-1825. BOGUPHALUS, a Polish chronicler, d. 1253. BOGUSLAWSKI, a Polish dramat., 1752-1829. BOHEMOND, prince of Antioch, died 1111. 'JL BOH BOHN, John, a German physician, 1610-1719. BOHUN, Edm., apolitical wi\, 17tli century. BOICHOT, Jean, a Fr. sculptor, 1738-1814. BOIELDIEU, Adrian, a composer, 1775-1834. BOIGNE, B. L., Count De, an adventurer in the military service of the Mahrattas, died 1830. BOILEAU-DESPREAUX, Nicolas, born in 1636, was the son of an officer of the parliament of Paris, and belonged by descent and connections to a family of lawyers. While his two elder bro- thers were precocious in youth, Nicolas was slow as well as sickly ; and he, the future satirist, was described by his father as a good-natured boy,. who would never speak ill of any one. He was a dili- gent student, but showed little either of invention or of ambition ; although, mistaking his vocation as others then mistook it, he wrote a boyish tragedy. At the age of twenty-one he was ad- mitted as an advocate; but his neglect and dis- like of professional pursuits scandalized his rela- tions. He was allowed for a time to contemplate the clerical profession, and held for some years a sinecure benefice; which, however, on determin- ing not to take orders, he resigned, refunding also all the profits. — He now betook himself wholly to letters ; and, beginning in 1666 his series of Satires in verse, which at length amounted to twelve, he was at once hailed as a valuable contributor to a literature, in which Corneille, though in the full career of his genius, was as yet appreciated but by few, while Moliere was only beginning to write. French versification, and French style, alike took a new and finer shape in his hands. The didactic kind of poetry to which he had devoted himself, was cultivated with a success still more brilliant in his series of Epistles. Even now, if his French admirers hesitate in asserting that the Satires come up to the nice perfection of their Horatian models, they extol the Epistles as decidedly superior to those of Horace. Boileau seemed to have deter- mined on furnishing materials for completing the parallel. Besides a few odes and other small pieces, which are confessedly poor, he again mea- sured lances with the Roman poet, by publishing in 1673 his ' Art Poetique,' a poem in four cantos. In the course of that year appeared the first four cantos (increased afterwards by two indifferent ones) of ' Le Lutrin,' a mock-heroic poem. It celebrates a contest as to the placing of a pulpit, which broke out among the canons of the Chapel of Saint Louis, attached to the Palais de Justice. — He was now high in favour at court, and re- ceived, with Racine, a joint appointment as his- toriographer of Louis XIV. He had, long since, been universally acknowledged by the public voice as one of the most distinguished among those men of genius whose writings adorned the Au- gustan age of France. He lived in cordial inti- macy with most of those literary men who be- longed to the first rank, such as Racine, Moliere, and La Fontaine ; and he was really both a pru- dent and modest man, and a kindly one, and even exhibited frequently an honourable liberality and generosity. But he had been, and was, merciless to the smaller citizens of the republic of letters ; and many enemies were necessarily made by a man who often, by one epigrammatic couplet, was able to destroy the reputation and the lvelihood of a poor dramatist or romance -writer. Accord- BOL ingly Boileau was not received into the Academy till 1684 ; and then only in obedience to a significant hint from the throne. The later years of his life were embittered by much sickness and infirmity ; and he died of dropsy in 1711, bequeathing almost all his property to the poor. —The principal works of Boileau nave already been named. They place him as one of the members of a literary triumvirate, to which belong, with him, Horace and Pope. While none of the three is a poet of the highest class, the distinctive elements of poetry are very much more scanty in the French critic and versifier than in either of the others. Pope owed much to him, receiving many hints, and not infrequently trans- lating from him literally ; and in the art of terse and striking expression, our countryman, success- ful as he is, can scarcely be pronounced equal to his model. Pope's juvenile 'Essay on Criticism ' is by no means so masterly as the 'Art Poetique;' but' The Rape of the Lock,' if it wants that air of comic verisimilitude, which is so staking in the ' Lutrin,' rises far above it through its super- natural and other imaginative ornaments, to which nothing similar is presented by the French poet, or could have been invented by his timid and slugaish fancy. [W.S.] BOILEAU, Giles, a classical wr., 1631-1669. BOILEAU, Jas., an eccles. writer, 1635-1716. BOILEAU, John J., aFr. moralist, 1649-1735. BOINVILLE, A. De, a Frenchman of noble family, who joined the republican party, and was aid-de-camp to Lafayette, 1770-1812. BOISFREMONT, C. De, a Fr. painter, d. 1838. BOISROBERT, Fr. Le Metel De, a wit and poet, one of the fndrs. of the Fr. Acad., 1592-1662. BOISSARD, J. J., poet and antiq., 1528-1602. BOISSAT, P. De, a miscel. writer, 1603-1662. BOISSY, L. De, a dramatic writer, 1694-1658. BOISSY D'ANGLAS, Fr. Anth., eel. as a member of the French convention, and after the fall of Robespierre of the Comite" de Salut Public, and the council of 500 ; and when the government of Buonaparte was established, of the French senate. He has the reputation of being a sincere lover of liberty, though somewhat of a changeling, and has left behind him a great number of works, chiefly political, which have been published to- gether, under the title of ' D'Etudes d'un Vieillard,' (experiences of an old man,) 1756-1826. [E.R.] BOL, Ferdinand, a Dutch painter, 1611-1681. BOLD, Sam., a controversial divine, died 1737. BOLDONIC, C, an Italian author, last cent. BOLESLAUS I., king of Poland, 999-1025. BOLESLAUS II., succeed. 1058, d. about 1083. BOLESLAUS III., b. 1085, sue. 1102, d. 1139. BOLESLAUS IV., sue. his br. 1146, d. 1159. BOLESLAUS V., b. 1219, sue. 1227, d. 1279. BOLEYN, Anne, q. of Henry VIIL, 1507-1536. BOLINGBROKK, Henry _ St. John, Lord, an orator, statesman, and philosophical essayist, was bom at his father's seat at Battersea, on 1st October, 1678. His family was divided between the two great contending parties of the seventeenth century, and it so happened that the high Tory statesman and sceptical philosopher was educated by a presbyterian grandmother, under the infiu-. ence of Daniel Burgess, the dissenting divine. Little is known of his early education. In 1700 he married Frances, daughter of Sir Henry Winch* i>2 BOL comb, but there was little happiness in the match, or cordiality between them, for young St. John's habits called for more than the average amount of marital liberality. He made himself renowned for the extent of his dissipation in a very dissipated age. Entering parliament in 1701, he began his }>olitical career. His model was Alcibiades, and le was ambitious of showing that the pursuit of pleasure and of political ambition might be united in the character of one possessed of his brilliant attainments. In an age when statesmen were liable to little responsibility, he in a great measure succeeded. With his friend Harley he joined the ranks of the Whigs, and changing with him be- came his colleague in the celebrated Tory ministry, which in 1710 owed its existence to the triumph of Abigail Hill over the duchess of Marlborough. His bold unscrupulous temper made him the rul- ing spirit in a government now condemned by all !)arties for its recklessness. Ere its extinction, lowever, by the death of Queen Anne, a rivalry between St. John and Harley had ripened to a deadly animosity and struggle for ascendancy. In 1712 St. John was raised to the peerage as Vis- count Bolingbroke. It is remarkable that none of the speeches delivered by him in either House have been preserved. Their absence makes a gap in our senatorial oratory. They are reputed to have been very brilliant, and his published works have a full sententiousness much better adapted to ora- tory than to literature. There has always been a great question whether Bolingbroke was one of those who were plotting for the restoration of the exiled house on the death of Queen Anne, and the light which has been thrown on the mystery in later times, leaves little doubt of his guilt. He immediately felt, along with his colleagues, that he must count on the hostility of the new government. For some time he seemed to court and brave in- vestigation, but on the 25th of March, 1715, fol- lowing up well -laid aiTangements he escaped secretly to France. He was attainted on impeach- ment, and justified the condemnation by entering the service of the Pretender. He was soon dis- gusted with this trifling narrow political arena, and showed extreme anxiety to be reinstated at home. He received permission to return, and by special statute his property was restored, but Walpole would not give so dangerous an enemy the means of attacking him in debate, and his attainder was not reversed so as to restore him to his seat in the Lords. He occupied himself in writing bitter pamphlets and other works against the govern- ment. He had taken for a second wife the Mar- quise de Vilette, whose social and religious views seem to have been adapted to his taste. He died on 15th December, 1751. His works on mental philosophy, and the foundations of belief, received with a cry of execration, but now little read, were published after his death. [J.H.B.] BOLIVAR. Simon Bolivar was born in 1783 at Caraccas in Venezuela in South Amercia. He was educated in Europe, and returned to America in 1809 ; holding the rank of lieutenant- colonel in the Spanish service. When the revolu- tionary movements commenced, by which the Spanish provinces in America sought to establish their independence, Bolivar took an active part in them, and in 1813 he was at the head of the army BON which liberated the greater part of Venezuela from the government of Spain. He was driven out of Venezuela in the following year by the Spanish troops, but (after one unsuccessful attempt) he forced his way back in 1817, at the head of a force which he had collected at St. Domingo, and re- commenced the war of liberation. In 1821 Vene- zuela and New Granada were freed from Spain, and these two provinces were united into a repub- lic, called Columbia, of which Bolivar was presi- dent. Bolivar next took an active part in aiding in the liberation of Peru, and was made dictator of that country in 1822, an office which he resigned when Peru was completely liberated by the victory of Ayachrcho on 9th December, 1824. The inhabi- tants of Upper Peru formed their country into a separate republic, which they named Bolivia in honour of Bolivar. Bolivar's desire seems to have been to unite all the liberated provinces of South America in one federal republic, but his latter years were passed amid incessant tumults of fac- tion, and frequent outbreaks of civil war, and he died at last broken in health and spirits on the 17th December, 1830. He had previously resigned his presidency of Columbia, and taken leave of the inhabitants of that state in an address, in which he solemnly asserted the purity of his motives throughout his career, and complained bitterly of calumny and ingratitude. Amid the conflicting and obscure accounts of the South American wars of independence, it is difficult to judge correctly on many points as to which the character of Bolivar has been called in question. But his bravery, his energy, and the services which he rendered against the Spaniards are undeniable. Nor should we lightly credit charges of selfish ambition, of cruelty, and perfidy against a man, who unquestionably de- voted his own ample fortune, as well as his time and fife, to his country; who more than once voluntarily laid down absolute power; who ab- horred slavery, and set the example of emancipat- ing the numerous slaves on his own estate ; and who entertained the most liberal and enlightened views as a lawgiver, and as an earnest promoter of national education. [E.S.C.] BOLLAND, Sir W., a eel. lawyer, 1773-1840. BOLLANDUS, J., a Flem. savant, 1596-1665. BOLOGNE, J. De, a French sculptor, 17th c BOLSEC, Jek., a controversial wr., d. 1582. BOLSWERT, S., a Dutch engraver, d. 1586. BOLTIN, Ivan, a Russian hist, critic, 1735-92. BOLTON, Edm., an antiquary, 17th century. BOLTON, Robt., a religious wr., 1571-1631. BOLTON, Robt., dean of Carlisle, d. 1763. BOMBELLI, Raphael, an algebraist, 16th c. BOMBELLI, Seb., a painter, 1635-1685. BOMBERG, Dan., an early printer, d. 1549. BOMILCAR, a general and magis. of Carthage. BOMILCAR, fav. of Jugurtha, killed 107 n.c. BON, L. A., a soldier of the revol., 1770-1799. BONA, Cardinal, an Ital. savant, 1609-1674. BONA, J. De, an Italian physician, 1712-1786. BONAC, Marq. De, aF. statesman, 1672-1738. BONALD, L. G. Amb., Viscount De, a dis- ting. Fr. wr. on religion and politics, 1753-1840. BONAMY, Aug., J. B., a gallant Fr. general, especially distinguished in the campaign ol Bttsna. BONAMY, P. N, a periodical wr., 1691-1770. BONANNI, Ph., a Roman historian, d. 172u. 93 BON BONARELLI, G. U., an ltd. poet, 1553-1608. BONASONI, G., an Italian painter, 1498-1564. BONASIA, B., an Italian carver, died 1527. BONAVENTURE, J. F., a Rom. eccle., d. 1274. BONAVENTURE of Padua, a cardinal, noted as a friend of Petrarch, assassinated 1386. BONCERF, P. F., a wr. on civil law, 1745-1794. BONCHAMP, A. De, a Vendean chief, k. 1793. BONCIARIO, M. A., an Ital. au., 1555-1616. BOND, J., a physician and classic, 1530-1612. BOND, Oliver, an Irish rebel,1720-1798. BONDT, N., a Dutch historian, 1732-1792. BONE, Henry, an enameller, 1755-1834. BONEFACIO, Ven., an Ital. painter, d. 1630. BONER, Ulrich, a German fabulist, 13th ct. BONIFACE, one of the greatest captains of the 5th cent., count of the Roman empire, slain 432. BONIFACE, St., a eel. missionary, killed 754. BONIFACE, the first, pope of Rome, 418-422 ; the second, 530-532 ; the third, 606 ; the fourth, C07-614; the fifth, 617-625; the sixth, 896; the seventh, 974-984 ; the ninth, 1389-1404. BONJOUR, Wm., a Chinese missionary, d. 1714. BONNATERE, P. J., a Fr. natural., 1747-1804. BONNEFONS, John, a Latin poet, 1554-1614. BONNER, Edm., the notorious bishop, d. 1569. BONNET, Ch., an em. physiologist, 1720-93. BONNE VAL, Cl. Alex., count of, a deserter from Prince Eugene, master of the Turkish ord- nance under the title of Achmet Pacha, died 1747. BONNEVILLE, N., a journalist and poet of the French revolution, the friend of Lafayette and Kosciusko, au. of 'Esprit des Religions,' 1760-1828. BONNIER, A. E., arepub. diplom., 1750-1799. BONNIER D'ARCO, A. S., aFr. diplo., d. 1797. BONNINGTON, R. P., an Eng. artist, 1801-28. BONNYCASTLE, J., an Eng. math., d. 1821. BONOMI, J. F., legate of Gr. XIII., 1536-1589. BONOMI, Joseph, an Ital. architect, d. 1808. BONNOR, Honore, a Fr. historian, 14th cent. BOOKER, Rev. Luke, LL.D., a Church of Eng. clergyman, and miscellaneous wr., 1762-1835. BOONE, Dan., an American advent., d. 1822. BOONEN, A., a Dutch painter, 1669-1729. BOOS, Martin, a Bavarian divine, 1762-1825. BOOTH, Barton, an actor and au., 1681-1733. BOOTH, Sir F., disting. for his gift of £20,000 to the arctic expedition of Sir John Ross, d. 1850. BOOTH, George, a royalist, created baron Delamere at the restoration, died 1684. BOOTH, Henry, son of the preceding, created earl of Warrington by William III., died 1694. BOR, P. C, a Dutch historian, 1559-1635. BORDA, John Ch., a Fr. mathema., 1733-99. BORDE, J. B. De La, a miscell. wr., ex. 1794. BORDELON, Laur., a misc. wr., 1653-1730. BORDEU, Theop. De, a medical au., d. 1776. BORELLI, J. A., an Ital. philoso., 1608-1679. BORGHESE, the name of a family disting. in Ital. history, one of whom married Maria Pauline Buonaparte, sister of Napoleon, and was made governor of the Transalpine provinces. The Prin- cess Borghese, after sep. from her husband, d. 1 825. BORGHESI, Diomed, an Ital. wr., 1540-98. BORGHINI, V., an Ital. antiquar., 1515-1580. BORGIA, Caesar, son of Alexander VI., and equally disting. for his wicked ambition, k. 1507. BORGIA, Lucrece, daughter of Alexander VI. BORGIA, Steph., an It. cardinal, 1731-1804. M BOS BORLASE, W., a county historian, 1696-1772. BORN, Bertr. De, a troubadour, 12th cent. BORN, Baron De, a mineralogist, 1742-1791. BORRI, J. F., a religious adventurer, d. 1632. BORROMEO, Ch., an Ital. cardinal, disting. by his virtues and literary talents, 1538-1584. BORROMEO, F., a bshp. of Milan, 1564-1631. BORRONIMI, Fr., an architect, 1599-1677. BORY, Gabriel De, an astron., 1728-1801. BOS, Lambert, a Greek scholar, 1670-1717. BOSE, Gaspard, a German botanist, last cent. BOSC, L. Aug. Wm., a naturalist, last cent. BOSC, Peter Du, a celeb, preacher, d. 1692. BOSCAWEN, Edw., a naval com., 1711-1761. BOSCAWEN, W., a classic, schol., 1752-1811. BOSCH, Bernard, a Dutch poet, 1746-1830. BOSCH, Jerome, a Latin poet, 1740-1811. BOSCH, L. A. G., a French naturalist, last c. BOSCOVICH, Roger Joseph, a learned and profound Jesuit ; born at Ragusa in 1711 ; died at Milan in 1787. The writings of Boscovich are numerous and important. His dissertations on 'Vires Viva?,' on 'Light,' and on the 'Solar Spots,' gave their author highest rank amongst the physical philosophers and astronomers of the time. He grasped the great conceptions of New- ton, and did much to hasten the general accep- tance of the theory of gravitation ; but his chief claim on the attention of posterity, rests on the speculations in his 'Theoria Philosophica? Na- turalis' — speculations which touch on one side, the afterwards celebrated hypothesis of monads, and seem to point towards a physical scheme of Idealism. According to Boscovich the ultimate elements of matter are atoms, or points indivisible and without extension. Each atom, or point, being suiTounded by numerous concentric rings of influence — alternately of attraction and repulsion, one atom may exist towards any other in various relations, determined by their distance from each other. For instance, the two atoms may be with- in the sphere of each other's attraction — then is the body solid: or the two atoms may be within the sphere of mutual repulsion, — then is the body gaseous and elastic; or two atoms may be so placed that they neither repel nor attract, being on the line of indifference, — then is the body liquid. Gravitation, or universal attraction, is, ac- cording to this view, the relation which atoms bear to each other after they have passed beyond the smaller or molecular distances; while the phenomena of physics and chemistry depend upon and arise out of their various and varying relations while they are within these infinitesimal or molecular distances. This singular and probably far from inaccurate conception, destroys the common notion that matter is brute and inert; and represents the phenomena of Nature as the immediate issue of Active Forces ; — a view which the progress of mo- dern science unquestionably favours. [J.P.N.] BOSQUILLON, E. F. M.,aGr. schol., 1744-1816. BOSSCHE, P. V. D., a Dut. savant, 1686-1736. BOSSI, C. A., an Italian poet, 1758-1823. BOSSU, Rene Le, a philos. critic, 17th cent. BOSSUET, James Benigne, a celebrated French divine, was born in 1627, at Dijon, the capital of Burgundy, now in the department of Cote D'Or. Having commenced his education at the college of Jesuits in his native place, he re- BOS moved in 1642 to Paris, where being destined for the clerical profession, he prosecuted the requisite studies at the college of Navarre. He was distin- guished by his attainments in classical and patris- tic lore — two branches of knowledge which are deemed of indispensable importance in the Roman Catholic church; but to these he added also an extensive and familiar acquaintance with the Sacred Writings, the perusal of which, in a stray copy which chanced to fall into his possession, made a deep and indelible impression on his juve- nile mind. At the age of sixteen he began by occasional exhibitions, to evince his extraordinary powers of pulpit eloquence ; and having, on his be- coming duly qualified for the discharge of the sacred functions, been appointed to the chinch of Metz, first as canon, and successively as arch- deacon and deacon, he there established his reputa- tion as one of the most eminent preachers in France. An invitation to Paris was ere long the result of his high provincial fame ; and having by his preaching before the court won the favour of Louis XIV., he was intrusted with the superin- tendence of the dauphin's education. It was for the benefit of his royal pupil that he composed his abridged view of ' Universal History,' one of the most admired and valuable of his works. On the completion of the prince's studies, he was re- warded for his zeal and fidelity in the discharge of that responsible duty, by promotion to the see of Meaux, and soon after was appointed a counsellor of state, and almoner to the duchess of Burgundy. That elevated position he adorned by the splen- dour of his talents and the extent of his learning ; nor was he less distinguished by his zeal for the diffusion of religion throughout his diocese, and his energetic defences of the catholic church. In fact, his life was divided between the performance of his proper duties as a bishop, and the composition of his controversial works. The strength and sin- cerity of his religious convictions have never been assailed, any more than his eminent talents and learning have been called in question. But the violence of his temper, and the cavalier treatment he gave to the amiable Fenelon, have exposed him to severe and merited censure. The latter years of his life were passed in retirement. He was a voluminous author. Amongst the numerous works he left behind him, his 'Funeral Orations' are held in high admiration, although it is to be re- gretted that he often prostituted his great powers of oratory in eulogizing unworthy characters. His efforts in the protestant controversy were met by the energetic opposition of Claude and other divines among the French protestants, as well as of Archbishop Wake in the Church of England. This great genius died at Paris on 12th April, 1704, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. [R. J.] BOSSUT, C. A., a learned geom., 1730-1814. BOSTON, John, a monastic writer, loth cent. BOSTON, Thos., a eel. Scotch div., 1676-1732. BOSWELL, James, well known as the friend and biographer of Dr. Johnson, 1740-1795. BOSWELL, Sir Alex., son of the preceding, and a literary amateur, killed in a duel, 1822. BOSWELL, James, a second son, editor of en edition of Malone's Shakspeare, 1779-1822. BOTELLO, Don N. A. De, a Portuguese vice- roy of India, killed in action 1629. BOU BOTH, J. and A., Flemish paint, of the 17th ct. BOTHWELL, Jas. Hepburn, earl of, the third husband of Mary Stuart, d. in exile 1577. BOTT, John De, a Fr. architect, 1670-1715. BOTTARI, an Italian philosopher, 1689-177."). BOTZARIS, Marco, a hero of mod. Gr.,k. 1823. BOUCHARDON, E., a Fr. archit., 1698-1762. BOUCHAND, M. A., a Fr. jurist, 1719-1804. BOUCHER, Fr., a French painter, 1704-1770. BOUCHER, Jonathan, an English divine, author of the ' Cumberland Man,' died 1804. BOUCHER, Luke, the raurd. of Ferand, 1795. BOUCHER, P., a Jansenist writer, 1691-1768. BOUCHOTTE, J. B. Noel, a soldier and states- man in 1793, min. of war to the repub., 1754-1840. BOUCICAULT, J. Le Maingre, lord of, a French crusader and marshal, 1368-1425. BOUDET, J. P., a Fr. chemist, 1748-1828. BOUFFLERS, Louis Fr., Due De, disting. as the defen. of Lille ag. Prince Eugene, 1644-1711. BOUFFLERS, S., a French emigrant, d. 1815. BOUGAINVILLE, Louis Antoin De, was born at Paris, 11th November, 1729, and though educated for the profession of law, joined the army at an early age. Soon after his enlistment, he published a treatise on the Integral Calculus ; and during a residence in London as secretary of legation, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In the war which terminated in 1760 with the loss of Canada to the French, Bougain- ville gained great distinction. In 1763-64 he per- formed two voyages to the Falkland isles, where he founded a colony, himself being the first pro- jector, and a large proprietor jointly with the merchants of St. Malo. In 1766 this colony was given up to Spain on payment of 500,000 crowns; and Bougainville was sent out, 15th November, to make the formal transfer, and with instruc- tions thereafter to complete the circumnavigation of the globe. He had but two ships, the Boudeuse, 26 guns, 214 men, and the Etoile, store ship. He safely accomplished the object, visiting many islands in the intertropical Pacific, some of which were till then unknown, but without making any remarkable discovery, and reaching St. Malo on 16th March, 1769. He was accompanied by Prince Sieghen of Nassau, and the naturalist Commercon. Bougainville published a pleasing account of his voyage, which was translated by Forster in 1772. He afterwards commanded one of the ships of war, sent to aid the Americans in their great straggle with Britain. He died at the age of eighty-two, 31st August, 1811. [J.B.] BOUGAINVILLE, Jean Pierre De, elder brother of the above, was a literary man of some note, and held several important offices in Paris. One of his poems is said to contain the germ of Pope's ' Universal Prayer.' He died in 1763, at the early age of forty-one. [J.B.] BOUGEANT, G. H., a Fr. author, 1690-1743. BOUHIER, John, a learned wr., 1673-1746. BOUILLARD, J., a Fr. engraver, 1744-1806. BOUILLE, Francis Claude Amour, Mar- quis De, born 1739, one of the bravest and ablest generals in the interest of the crown at the period of the French revolution ; joined the allies when Louis foolishly allowed himself to be captured at Varennes, and died in London, after writing his curious and valuable memoirs, 1800. 95 BOU BOUILLY, J. N., a diplo. and hist., 1763-1840. BOULAGE,T. P., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1768-1820. BOULAINVILLIERS, Henry De, comte de St. Saire, a political writer and hist., 1658-1722. BOULANGER, N. A., a Fr. engin., 1722-1759. BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, A. C. J., Comte De, distinguished as a moderate republican, and also as a political writer and orator, was born 1761, appointed to the civil tribunal at Nanci, 1793, and to the council of 500 in the year 1795. He took an active part in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire, and was remarkable for his fidelity to Napoleon, whom he regarded as the representative of national independence, and of the principles of the revolution. He was proscribed by the Bourbons at the second restoration, and passed some years in exile, when he wrote his ' Tableau Politique des regnes de Charles II. et de Jacques II.,' containing his review of the causes which led to the establish- ment of the English republic in 1649. Buonaparte made honourable mention of him at St. Helena, as a fearless and honest man. The last years of his life were passed tranquilly in the midst of his family. [E.R.] BOULLIAU, Ishmael, a French astron. and general scholar, au. of several works, 1605-1694. BOULTER, Hugh, abp. of Armagh, d. 1742. BOULTON, Matthew, an engineer of disting. fame in connec. with his partner Watt, 1728-1809. [Soho Work*, near Birmingham.] BOULTON, Rich., an English physician, last c. BOURBON, the reigning family of France, Spain, and Sicily, the princes of which trace their descent from ' Robert the Strong,' killed 866. BOURBON, Charles De Montpensier, Due De, known as constable of France, 1480-1527. BOURBON, Louis, cardinal and abp. of Toledo, distinguished in the revolution of 1812, 1777-1823. BOURBON, Louis, Hy. Jos., Due De, and prince de Cond£, father of the ill-fated due d'Enghein, found hung in his bed-chamber, 1830. BOURBOTTE, N., one of those remarkable characters raised to an unenviable notoriety by the French revolution, whose intrepid bearing might be mistaken for heroism, if its fire wore not darkened by savage cruelty and ambition without principle. Little is'known of his early life, but he was about twenty-seven years of age when deputed to the na- tional convention, 1792, as a member of the Jacobin party. He now signalized himself by voting for BOU the death of the king 'sans appcl et sans surds,* (without appeal and without delay), and afterwarda of the unhappy Marie Antoinette. Commissioned to La Vendee by the national convention, he gave evident proofs of his military courage and adminis- trative talents, but committed excesses which led to his recall and accusation by the Committee of Public Safety. He had the good fortune to be ac- quitted, and was subsequently appointed to the army of the Rhine, where he again manifested his soldier-like qualities, tarnished by the same faults. In 1794 he commanded openly in the insurrection which overthrew the power of Robespierre, and was on the high road to the dictatorship when he and his colleagues were crushed by Legendre at the head of the sectional forces. Condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, he stabbed himself with a dagger, but survived to see his fellow-prisoners beheaded, and to undergo the same fate. He re- tained his courageous self-possession to the last moment, and manifested in his dying_ words the unconquerable spirit which animated him. [E.R.] BOURCET, P. J. De, a Fr. milit. an., d. 1780. BOURCHIER, J., gov. of Calais un. Henrv III. BOURCHIER, T., abp. of Canterbury, d. 148a BOURDALOUE, L., a Fr. preacher, 1632-1704. BOURDELOT, John, a classical com., d. 1638. BOURDELOT, P. M., anat. andphys., 1610-85. BOURDELOT, P. B.,au. of Annotations, d.1709. BOURDON, Leonard John Joseph, a mem- ber of the French convention in 1792, is chiefly memorable for the interest he took in national education, and for his part in the denunciation and arrest of Robespierre, on which occasion he shared the command of the national guard with Barras. He was also charged with the translation of the remains of Marat to the Pantheon, and directed the ceremonies of their entombment. When his party was defeated by Legendre, Bourdon was de- nounced as an assassin, and met the charge by heading a conspiracy which broke out 1st April, 1795, and led to his imprisonment at Ham. Re- stored to liberty by the amnesty of October in the same year, he afterwards appeared in the council of 500, only to hear the same accusation repeated, this time by Boissy D'Anglas. The charge was not pressed against him in legal fonn, and Bour- don was subsequently appointed agent for the directory at Hamburgh. Though a violent Jacobin, it is by no means clear that he was the sanguinary monster sometimes represented. He died a natural death as master of a primary school in Paris, some years after the re-establishment of authority by Buonaparte. [E.R.J BOURDON, Francis Louis, one of the most sanguinary members of the convention in 1792, obtained his seat by favour of Leonard Bom-don, who had been elected for two departments, and allowed his namesake, though not related to him, to usurp one of them. He was notorious for the atrocity of his imprecations in the convention, always securing his own safety by attaching him- self to the strongest side. He was among the fifty-throe deputies condemned to transportation on the 19th Fructidor, (5th Sept., 1797), and died soon after his arrival at Cayenne. [E.R.] BOURDON, Skbastian, a Fr. painter, d. 1671. BOURDONNAISE, B. P. M. De La, a French naval officer, gov. of the Isle of France, 1G99-1755. l«j BOU BOURGEOIS, D., a Fr. mechanic, 1698-1781. BOURGEOIS, Sir F., a painter, 1756-1811. BOURGET, John, a Fr. antiquary, 1724-1775. BOURGOING, John Fr., Baron De, a French historian, ambassador of the republic, 1748-1811. BOURIGNON, F. M., a Fr. antiq., 1755-1796. BOURIGNON, Antonia, born at Lille, 1616, is remarkable for her claims to illumination, and her singular histoiy, the fonner supported by a body of followers who were once numerous in France and Scotland. She was unhappy in her parentage and education, her mother having con- ceived an aversion for her, and treated her with severity, from her earliest years, chiefly, it is sup- posed, on account of her uncomely appearance, but at last, perhaps, in revenge of the perverse tem- per which she had herself excited. As the poor girl advanced in years with no one to love or care for her, she gave her mind to the study of mvstic theology, and acquired a morbid conviction oi the duty of self-mortification, which she carried to the utmost extreme that her frame was capable of sustaining ; at the same time refusing to confess herself to the priests, and declaring that she was guided by the immediate Spirit of God, vouchsafed in answer to her prayers and sufferings. In 1653, when the death of her parents had placed her in possession of a handsome property, she undertook the care of a female orphan asylum, which led, through a series of the strangest circumstances on record, to her arrest on a charge of witchcraft, of which, however, she was acquitted. Wisely avoid- ing any further entanglement in affairs of this na- ture, she now busied herself in the diffusion of her principles through the press, and it may here be remarked, that she wrote with great facility in the French, Dutch, and German languages. The opposition of the authorities exposed her to con- tinual vexation and insult, so that her life now, as in childhood, was one of perpetual trial ; and still more aggravated by the fatal gift of a preterna- tural genius which no one knew how to compas- sionate or control. In her case, as in many others of a similar nature, we have to lament a nobly endowed mind sacrificed in a just revolt against a priest-made religion, for want of the guidance which only the Word of God, accepted in sincerity of heart, and consulted with the utmost simplicity of purpose, can afford. Her principal works are a treatise on 'The Blindness of Man, and Light Bom in Darkness,' ' The New Heaven,' ' The Re- newal of the Evangelic Spirit,' a 'Treatise on Solid Virtue,' and the ' Truth Discovered.' The substance of all her writings has been formed into a system by the celebrated Poiret, in his work en- titled ' Economie de la Nature,' contained in 21 vols. 8vo. She died at Franeker, East Fries- land, after passing the last years of her life in min- istering to the poor. [E.R.] BOURMONT, Louis Auguste Victor, Count, a French marshal and royalist, minister of war under Charles X., and previously the chief instru- ment in Ney's condemnation, 1773-1846. BOURNE, Vincent, a Latin poet, died 1747. BOURRIENNE, L. A. Fauvelet De, a French diplomatist, the schoolfellow, and afterwards the so.vretarv of Napoleon, au. of ' Memoirs,' 1769-1824. BOURSAULT, Edw., a Fr. dramat., 1638-1701. BOUTEEWECK, F., a Ger. philo., 1766-1828. BRA BOWDICH, Dr. N., F.R.S., an American philosopher, translator of La Place, &c, d. 1838. BOWDICH, Th. Edw., an English naturalist and traveller in the service of the African Com- pany, 1790-1824. BOWER, Arch., a Scotch hist., 1676-1766. BOWLES, Wm, an Irish naturalist, 1720-1780. BOWLES, Rev. William Lisle, a poet and misc. wr., rect. of Bremhill, in Wiltshire, 1762-1850. BOWYER, Wm., an English printer, 1G99-1777. BOXHORN, M. Z., a Latin writer, 1612-1653. BOYCE, Wm., an English composer, 1710-1779. BOYD, H., an English translator, last century. BOYD, Zachary, a Scotch relig. wr., d. 1653. BOYDELL, J., an English artist, 1719-1804. BOYE, J., a Danish philosopher, 1756-1830. BOYER, Abel, a Fr. grammarian, 1664-1729. BOYER, Abel, a pharmacopolist, died 1768. BOYER, Alexis, Baron, aFr. surg., 1760-1833. BOYER, Claude, a Fr. dramatist, 1618-1698. BOYER, J. B. N., a Fr. wr. on disease, d. 1/68. BOYLE, Rog., the first em. name of this family, whose ancient seat was in Hertfordshire, d. 1576. BOYLE, Richard, son of the preceding, known as the great earl of Cork, distinguished as a statesman in the reign of James L, 1566-1643. BOYLE, Roger, son of the preceding, and earl of Orrery, a royalist of the restoration, 1621-1679. BOYLE, Lord Charles, son of Roger, and nephew of the preceding, a fugitive writer and scholar, 1676-1731. BOYLE, Robert, brother of Roger, and son of Richard, earl of Cork, a very distinguished In- quirer of the 17th century ; born at Lismore in Ire- land in 1626, the year of Lord Bacon's death ; died in London in 1691. Boyle was an able and sedulous Investigator of Nature by Experiment; and he contributed much to many branches of Physics, Optics, Pneumatics, Natural History, Chemistry, and Medicine; — Pneumatics probably gaining most from his researches. He was one of the foremost of those illustrious men who founded the Royal Society in 1645, for the purpose of improving experimental knowledge, on the plan laid down by Bacon. Boyle's mind was essentially reverential, and he wrote largely on reli- gious topics. He founded a Lectureship at Oxford, which lias produced a number of valuable works on the being and attributes of God. [J.P.N.] BOYLE, John, earl of Cork and Orrery, son of Lord Charles, and, like him, a scholar and author, (Life and Writings of Swift, &c.,) 1707-1762. BOYLE, Richard, earl of Burlington and Cork, an amat archit., and patron of learning, 1695-1753. BOYLSTON, Z., an Amer. phys., 1680-1766. BOYS, Wm., an antiq. and naturalist, d. 1803. BOYSE, Sam., a fugitive wr. and poet, d. 1749. BOYSEAU, a Spanish general, 1659-1740. BRACCIOLINI, Fr., an Ital. poet, 1566-1645. BRACHMANN, Louisa C, a poet, and fugitive wr. of Ger., who unhappily drowned herself, 1822. BRACTON, Hy. De, a writer on law, 13th ct. BRADFORD, J., a martyr of the refor., 1555. BRADLEY, Jam., an Eng. astronomer, d. 1 762. BRADLEY, Rich., a wr. on botany, d. 1782, BRADSHAW, J., a republican lawyer, pratfd. of the court for the trial of Charles L, d. 1659. BRADSTREET, Anne, a poetess of the 1 7th e. BRADWARDIN, T., abp. of Cantcrb., d. 1849 07 BRA BRAHE, P., Comte De, a distir.g. Swede, tutor of Christina, and fndr. of many universities, d. 1G80. BRAHE, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer, was born on the 14th December, 1546, at Knudstorp in Scania, and was the eldest son and the second child of a family of five sons and five daughters. Having been adopted by his uncle, George Brahe, and placed under his care, he commenced the study of Latin in his seventh year; and in opposition to the wishes of his father, who had destined him for the military profession, he prosecuted his scholastic studies for five years under private teachers. About three years after his father's death in 1559, he went to the university of Copenhagen, with the ■view of preparing himself for the profession of the law by the study of rhetoric and philosophy. He had spent little more than a year at college when a great eclipse of the sun, on the 21st August, 1560, excited general interest, and made Tycho an astronomer. Surprised at the close agreement be- tween the calculated and observed phenomena, he resolved to study a science which, in addition to its power of predicting future events, was, in general opinion, connected with the destinies of man. While he was indulging this new passion by the study of Stadius's ' Tabula? Bergenses,' he was sent from Copenhagen, in February, 1562, under the charge of a tutor, to study jurisprudence at Leipzig. There he devoted all his leisure hours to the study of astronomy, making calculations, con- structing instruments, and carrying on astronomical observations. — In May, 1565, he left Leipzig to take possession of the estate of his uncle, to which he had succeeded ; but in consequence of the op- position made by his parents to his astronomical studies, he quitted Denmark in order to pay a visit to some of the more interesting cities in Germany. From Wittemberg, which he reached in 1566, he went to Rostock, where in a duel with a country- man of his own, he lost his nose, which he very ingeniously replaced by one of gold and silver. Here he remained till 1569, when he visited Augs- burg, where he made the acquaintance of John and Paol Hainzel, two distinguished citizens and ardent lovers of astronomy. Paul Hainzel con- structed for him, at his own expense, a magnifi- cent quadrant, which exhibited single minutes on its graduated limb, and with which Tycho made many valuable observations during his stay at Augsburg. On his return to Denmark in 1571, Tycho found that his reputation had preceded him. The king invited him to court, and his maternal uncle, Steno Bille, gave him, at the convent of Hcrritzvold, where he resided, apartments for an observatory and a laboratory. Tycho, most un- fortunately, conceived a passion for alchymy, and indulged in the hope of converting the baser metals into gold. He was roused, however, from this dream by the appearance of the new star in Cassi- opeia, which continued visible from November, 1572, till its disappearance in March, 1574.— After marrying a peasant girl in 1573, and delivering, at the king's request, a course of lectures on astro- nomy, he visited Hesseland, Frankfort, Basle, and Venice, and returned in 1575 to Batisbon to wit- ness the coronation of the i lolph. Tvcho's reputation in foreign countries had now begun to excite notice in his own. Frederick II. sent messengers to invite him to his capital, and BRA Tycho willingly obeyed the royal summons. The kmg received him with the most flattering atten- tion, gave him a grant for life of the island of Huen, and offered to erect at his own expense all the buildings and instruments that were necessary for carrying on his astronomical and chemical studies. The celebrated observatory of Uraniburg, or the city of the heavens, was founded in August 1576, and supplied with instruments; and within its walls Tycho earned on those observations with which his name is inseparably connected. — Upon the death of Frederick II., and the accession of Christian III., the prospects of Tycho were greatly changed. Although a temporary glorv was thrown around himself and his children by a visit from Jam es VI. of Scotland, and other princes, yet his studies were unwillingly tolerated by the Danish court. The nobles grudged him his pension and the magnifi- cent establishment at Uraniburg. The physicians envied his popularity as a medical practitioner, and with such influential enemies, Walchendorp, the president, had no difficulty in indulging his own personal dislike to Tycho by measures of in- justice and persecution. — Resolved to abandon for ever his ungrateful country, Tycho, with all his apparatus of instruments and books, his wife, five sons and four daughters, along with his pupils, assistants, and servants, male and female, em- barked at Copenhagen to seek the hospitality of a better country. After landing at Rostock in 1597, he went by invitation to the castle of Wandesberg, near Hamburg, the seat of Count Rantzau, where his family remained till he was munificently established at Prague, the capital of the emperor Rudolph. This distinguished sovereign gave him the castle of Benach as a residence, with a pen- sion of 3,000 crowns. There he was visited in 1600 by Kepler, for whom he obtained the ap- pointment of imperial mathematician to the em- peror, on the condition of assisting Tycho in his observations. Tycho did not long enjoy the liber- ality of Rudolph. The persecutions and sufferings to which he had been exposed, had preyed upon his mind, and disturbed its tranquillity. An exiio from his beloved country, and a stranger in a foreign land, his studies lost their power over his mind, and under the influence probably of a pain- ful disease with which he was affected, a temporary delirium overshadowed some of his latest hours. From this painful condition, however, he recovered, and resigned himself with true piety into the hands of his Maker on the 24th October, 1601, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. The instruments of Tycho were purchased from his heirs by the em- peror Rudolpn for 22,000 crowns They were shut up in the house of Curtius, and were regarded with such veneration, that not even Kepler was allowed to examine or make use of them. They remained in the same place till the death of the emperor in 1619, when they were earned off, or de- stroyed, during the troubles which agitated Bohemia. — Tlie island of Huen was, in Tvcho's lifetime sold to a Danish nobleman. The buildings were all de- molished, excepting the farm-house, which belonged to Tycho. His dwelling house and his observatory are marked by two pits and a mound of earth which enclosed the garden. A very full account of the life and labours of Tycho will be found in Sir i David Brewster's 'Martyrs of Science.' [D.B ] 8 BRA BRAINERD, Da v., a eel. missionary, 1717-47. BRAMAH, J., a disting. mechanic, 1749-1814. BRAMANTE, Donato, or Bramante Laz- zari, one of the great Italian architects of the Renaissance, was born near Cast el Durante, in the duchy of Urbino, in 1444. He followed in the great path of Brunelleschi, who died almost within a year i'rom the time that Bramante was born. He was originally a painter, and studied the works of Fra B:;rtolomeo, of Urbino, but first distinguished him- self as an architect at the court of Ludovico il Moro, at Milan. Bramante remained chiefly in Milan until 1199 ; he was employed on the cathedral, and on the repairs of the Basilica of Sant' Ambrogio ; and was much engaged in neighbouring cities. In 1500 he settled in Rome ; here he took advantage of the opportunities afforded by the ancient ruins of perfecting his knowledge of classical art, and qualified himself for the high position as an archi- tect which he eventually attained. His works, however, are more properly termed Italian than classic, as he accommodated the classic features to the wants of modern society. The Cancellaria Apostolica at Rome, built as the private residence of the cardinal Riario, in 1495, is a fine example, and at the same time is one of the best specimens of the architecture of the Renaissance. The Vatican, however, was the arena of the greatest glories of Bramante ; here he carried out vast works for Julius II. ; he first joined the Belvedere villa to the old palace of the Vatican, and enlarged and embellished this by the addition of the Court of San Damaso, and the famous Loggie containing the celebrated arabesques of Raphael, with many other improvements. In 1506 he commenced his great work, the rebuilding of St. Peter's. Julius If. laid the first stone on the 18th of April of that year : but Bramante did not live to execute much more than the four great piers which support the dome, which, however, became the key to the whole. Bramante died, in 1514; and the great work was carried on by Raphael, aided by Giuliano da San Gallo, and Fra Giocondo, till 1518, and after Raphael's death, in 1520, Baldassare Peruzzi was appointed architect, and continued the work until 1536. Peruzzi was succeeded by Antonio da San Gallo, the nephew of Giuliano, who con- siderably altered the plan. After the death of Antonio, in 1546, Michelangelo Buonarroti pro- secuted the work and completed the dome. After the death of Michelangelo, in 1564, the work was carried on by Vignola, and Pirro Ligorio, under the condition that they were to adhere to the plan of Michelangelo. Ligorio was removed by Pius V. for wishing to infringe this condition. At the death of Vignola, in 1573, Giacomo della Porta assumed the direction, who with Domenico Fon- tana at length completed the cupola, and fixed the cross, during the short pontificate of Gregory XIV., in 1590. After the death of Della Porta in 1604, the work was earned on by Carlo Ma- demo, and Giovanni Fontana; and the greatest and most magnificent of Christian churches was eventually consecrated by pope Urban VIII., in the year 1626, one hundred and twenty years after the laying of the first stone by Julius II.— (Vasari, Vite dti Pittori, &c. ; Platner and Bunsen, Bcschreibunq (lev Stadt Rom.) [R.N.W.] BRAMHALL, John, an em. English prelate, BRI born at Pontefract in 1593. He was prosecuted by Cromwell, but escaped to the continent, where he resided till the restoration, d. at Armagh, 1662 BRANCAS LAURAGUAIS, a Fr. nobleman, disting. for his scientific discoveries, 1735-1824. BRAND John, a political writer, died 1809. BRAND, John, an antiquarian, 1743-1806. BRANDENBURG, an electorate of the German empire, from 1417 to the time of Frederick Wil- liam, who succeeded as elector 1640, and created the kingdom of Prussia. BRANDER, G., an antiq. and nat,, 1720-87. BRANDT, a Dutch alchymist, died 1692. BRANDT, Ernevold, Count De, a Danish statesman, executed for conspiracy, 1772. BRANDT, Geo., an exp. philosopher, d. 1768. BRANDT, Seb., a satirical poet, 1454-1524. BRANTOME, Peter De Bourdeilles, lord of, au. of memoirs illus. life in the 16th c, 1527-1614. BRASAVOLA, A. M., an Ital. phy., 1500-1555. BRATHWAYTE, Rich., a poet, 1588-1673. BRAVO, John, a Spanish physician, 16th ct. BRAY, Sir Reg., a fav. statesman of Henry VII., and architect of the famous chapel, d. 1503. BRAY, Dr. Th., a eel. missionary, 1656-1730. BRAY, Wm., F.S.A., a literary antiq., d. 1832. BREDA, John Van, a painter, died 1750. BREDERODE, a Dutch patriot, 1466-1490. BREE, Robt., an English physician, 1759-1839. BREENBERG, Barth., a painter, 1620-1660. BREGUET,A. L.,a Swiss watch-ma., 1747-1823. BREISLAK, S., an Ital. geologist, 1768-1826. BREMER, Sir James John Gordon, disting. for his share in the late war with China, 1786-1850. BREMOND, Fr. De, a Fr. naturalist, 1713-42. BRENNER, E., a Swedish antiquary, 1647-1707. BRENNER, Hy., a Swedish Orientalist, d. 1732. BRENNUS, the name given by Greek and Ro- man authors to two Gaulish chieftains : the first, leader of the memorable assault upon Rome, 388 or 389 B.C. ; the second, chief of the hordes which invaded Thessaly and Greece, 278 B.C. BRENTON, Capt., E. P., a naval officer, dis- ting. by his prof, inventions and liter, works, d. 1839. BREQUIGNY, L. G., a Fr. histor., 1716-1795. BREREWOOD, Ed., a mathemat., 1565-1613. BRET, Anth., a Fr. poet and critic, 1717-1792. BRETISLAS, duke of Bohemia, died 1055 ; a second of the same name sue. 1093, assass. 1100. BRETON, Nich., a poet, time of Elizabeth. BRETON, Raymond, a missionary, d. 1679. BREUGHEL, Peter, an em. painter, 1510- 1570. John, his son, also a painter, 1568-1612. Peter, another son, 1567-1625. Abraham, a third son, of the same profession, died 1672. BREVAL, J. Durant De, an histor., d. 1739. BREVES, F. S. De, a Fr. diplomatist, 1560-1628. BREWER, Ant., a dramatist, time of James I. BREYNIUS, Jas., a German botanist, d. 1697. BRIDAINE, Jas., a trav. preacher, 1701-1767. BRIDFERTH, a Brit, monk and math., 10th c. BRIDGEWATER, Fr. Egicrton, duke of, eel. for his enterprise in canal navigation, 1736-1803. BRIDPORT, A. Hood, a Brit, adm., d. 1814. BRIET, P., a geographical writer, 1601-1668. BRIGGS, H., professor of geometry, 1536-1630. BRIGGS, W., a distinguish, oculist. 1650-1704. BRIGHT, Timothy, an English physician and theologian, author of numerous works, died 1616. 'J'J BRI BRILL, M., a landscape painter, 1550-1584. BRILL, Paul, a landscape painter, 1556-1G26. BRINDLEY, James, the man who first devoted himself to civil engineering as a profession. In Great Britain engineering works were not in- trusted to civilians till about the middle of the 18th century, when capitalists began to embark their wealth in speculations that promised a pecu- niary return only, without regard to their own neighbourhood being the scene of the projected im- provement, or facilities being afforded by it to their peculiar business. The change was the forerunner of increased national means, and by the enlarged field of employment it opened up, gave rise to this new order of professional men, — pioneers of civiliza- tion. Brindley was born in 1716, at Thorsett, near Chapel-le-frith in Derbyshire. He followed the usual labours of agriculture until his seven- teenth year, without the advantages of even the most ordinary education. But he was a genius — 'Of mother wit, and wise without the schools.' He was apprenticed to a millwright, who left him often to work out what the master himself should have designed and directed. Thus his inventive faculties were brought into exercise, and he fre- quently astonished his employer by the ingenious improvements which he effected, and by the results of his zeal for his master's honour. When his ap- prenticeship ended he engaged in business on his own account. In 1752 he erected machinery for draining coal pits at Clifton, in Lancashire. The water wheel was 30 feet under ground, and the water was supplied from the Irwell, by a tunnel COO yards long. This was a work of boldness and ingenuity a century ago, though we may smile at it now ! In 1756 he erected a steam engine at New- castle-under-Lyne, which was calculated to effect a great saving in fuel over the ordinary Newcomen engine. About 1757 Brindley was consulted by r£% [Aqueduct over the Irwoll ] the duke of Bridgewater as to the practicability of constructing a canal from Worsley to Manchester. Brindley's success in this undertaking was the means of awakening public attention to the ad- vantages of canals. Had a man of inferior genius, or less dauntless courage, undertaken the works, it might probably have turned out a failure, and the development of our inland navigation might have been deferred some years longer. When the canal RRI was completed as far as Barton, where the Irwell is navigable for large vessels, Brindley proposed to carry it over that river by an aqueduct 39 feet above the surface of the river ! This project was ridiculed by the practical men of the day. One much respected individual of the time would not discount the duke of Bridgewater's bill for £500, and when the dimensions of the canal aqueduct were communicated to him, he exclaimed:— 'I have often heard of castles in the air, but never was before shown where any of them was to be erected.' The duke raised the money, however, and in less than one year Brindley completed the aqueduct! Within forty-two years after the duke of Bridgewater's canal was opened, ap- Jdication had been made to parliament for 165 acts or making canals in Great Britain at an expense of £13,000,000. Brindley engineered the great undertakings which opened an internal water com- munication between the Thames, the Humber, the Severn, and the Mersey, and united the great ports of London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull, by canals which passed through the richest and most indus- trial districts of England. Brindley died 1772, at the age of fifty-six, the victim of intense applica- tion to an arduous and exciting profession. He was interred at New Chapel, in Staffordshire. Brindley is reported to have answered a Committee of the House of Commons, when asked for what object rivers were created:— 'To feed navigable canals.' Railway engineers of the present day conceive they are turning rivers to then- primitive destinations, for canals are being converted into railways ! Brindley could neither read nor write until late in life, and then but poorly. He had great powersof men- tal calculation, was of unwearying application and industry, and eminently successful. [L.D.B.G.] BRINKLEY, Dr. J., an astronom., 1760-1835. BRINVILLIERS, the notor. poisoner, ex. 1676. BRISBANE, Admiral Sir Ch., an officer of distinguished gallantry in the late war, the com- panion in arms of Rodney, Hood, and Nelson, ap- pointed governor of St. Vincent, 1808 ; died 1829. BRISSEAU, Pet., a Fr. physician, 1631-1717. BRISSON, M. J., aFr. naturalist, 1723-1806. BRISSOT, Peter, a medical au., 1478-1522. BRISSOT, Jean Pierre, distinguished in the history of the revolution as leader of the Gir- ondins, was an orator and political writer of the first ability. The commencement of his public career as a journalist was characterized by a singular stroke of vanity, whereby the plebeian appellation of the humble pastry-cook who begot mm, was metamorphosed into the name of his birth-place, and shone with aristocratic refulgence as ' De War- ville.' In the obscurity of his early life he seems to have acquired all the experience of men and things necessary to a political intriguer. Restless, scheming, and ambitious, he was indefatigable in his zeal for reform, especially for the amelioration of the criminal code and the abolition of slavery. It is difficult to say whether his character was spoiled, or rather made, by the philosophy of Rousseau. Madame Roland, when it became her fate to meet him, was certainly disappointed in his appearance, for she saw no passion in his countenance corresponding to that of his style, rather struck by the busy mobility of a novice than the dignity of an apostle in his con- 100 Bin vorsation and manners. When the revolution first dawned he was the advocate of a constitutional monarchy ; growled at by Marat for ' giving his paw to Lafayette,' and again as bitterly denounced, especially by Eobespierre, for his imprudence in blazing forth the word ' Republic ' when his con- victions were changed. While the states-general were discussing the constitution, Brissot associ- ated himself with Condorcet and Claviere as joint proprietors of the Moniteur, and in 1791 was re- turned to the first parliament. His love of occu- pation, his activity as a senator, as a member of the Jacobin Club, and in the coterie at Madame Eoland's — perhaps also his extreme shiftiness in argument — soon marked him out as the head of the middle class republicans, first distinguished by his own name, and called ' Brissotins ' by the spirited Camille Desmoulins. His hour of triumph was under the ministry of Roland and Claviere, with whom he, of course, fell at the period of Ma- rat's insurrection, 2d June, 1793, when his name appeared first of the twenty-two Girondins ordered under arrest. He endeavoured to escape disguised as a merchant travelling to Neufchatel, but was discovered en route by the Revolutionary Commit- tee of Moulins, and finally placed with his col- leagues, ' all chief republicans,' • the eloquent, the young, the beautiful, the brave,' at the bar of Fouquier Tinville. Brissot defended himself with the courage of a patriot and the serenity of a philo- sopher, and though it was not him, but his friend Lasource who addressed the tribunal in an epigram, it exactly expresses the feeling of the whole party, 'We die on the day when the people have lost their reason, ye will die when they recover it!' The philosophical repast in prison, and the chorus of the Marseillese at the scaffold on the following morning, 31st October, have been often described, and it was at the former that Brissot emphati- cally said, in answer to the question whether he believed in the immortality of the soul and the providence of God — ' I do believe in them ; and it is because I believe in them that I am about to die.' His history is that of his party, a well-in- tentioned and talented body of men, but too scru- pulous of forms, too philosophical and studious of theory as legislators, and in a word, hardly auda- cious enough for the exigencies of the period. He left behind him many works of importance, but especially on criminal jurisprudence. The chief of these are 'Theorie des lois Criminelles,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1780, and ' Bibliotheque Philosophique du Le'gislateur, du Politique, du Jurisconsulte ; sur les lois Criminelles,' 10 vols. 8vo, 1786. As to personal appearance, he was a man of small sta- ture, with thin pale features, lighted up by intel- ligence, and ennobled in circumstances of danger by intrepid determination. His dress and habits had been formed to the Quaker model during his residence in America, where he had taken refuge from the terrors of a 'lettre de cachet,' before the outbreak of the revolution. [E.R.] BRISTOW, R., a Roman Catholic polem., 16th c. BRITANNICUS, son of Claudius, and so named from his father's succes. in Brit., pois. by Nero, 55. BRITTON, T., an amateur music, 1654-1714. BROCKLESBY, R., a wr. on music, 1722-97. BROGUE, Victor Francis, Due De, marshal of France, and gen. of the emigrants, 1718-1804. BflO ; BROIGNART, A. L'otfifc, aTiYchSmist, d. 1804. BROKE, Rear-Admiral Sir Philip Bowks Vere, the gallant com. of the Shannon, 1776-1841. BROME, Alex., a satirical poet, 1620-1666. BROME, Rich., a dramatist, died 1632. BROMFIELD, W., an Eng. med. au., 1712-1792. BROMLEY, John, an Eng. clergyman, 17th c. BRONDSTED, P. O., a Dan. antiq., 1780-1842. BROOCMAN, C. U., a Sw. wr. on educ. d. 1812. BROOKE, Frances M., a novelist, died 1789. BROOKE, H., a novelist and mystic, whose principal work is « The Fool of Quality,' 1706-1783. BROOKE, Sir R., a wr. on civil law, d. 1558. BROOKES, J., an em. anatomist, 1763-1833. BROOKS, J., aphy. and man of let., 1752-1825. BROOME, Dr. W., a classical scholar, d. 1745. BROSCHI, Car., a disting. singer, 1705-1782 BROSSE, Guy De La, a Fr. botanist, 17th ct. BROSSES, Ch. De, a Fr. savant, 1709-1777. BROSSETTE, Claude, a Fr. hist., 1671-1746. BROTHERS, R., a pretended prophet, whose public hist, and publicat. date from 1793 to 1802. BROUGHTON, H., a Heb. schol., 1549-1612. BROUGHTON, T., a fugitive writer, d. 1774. BROUKHUSIUS, J., a Dutch schol., d. 1707. BROUNCKER, Wm., Lord, a philos., d. 1584. BROUSSAIS, F. J. V., a medic, au., 1772-1838. BROUSSONET, P. A. M., a Fr. nat., 1761-1807. BROUWER, Adr., a Dutch painter, 1608-40. BROWALLIUS, J., a writer on bot., 1707-1765. BROWN, C. B., an American novelist, d. 1810. BROWN, J., D.D., an essayist, 1715-1766. BROWN, J., a Scotch artist, 1752-1787. BROWN, J., a biblical expositor, 1772-1787. BROWN, J., M.D., a wr. on pathology, 1735-88. BROWN, John, an engraver, died 1801. BROWN, L., a landscape gardener, 1715-1782. BROWN, R.,fn. of the independents, 1560-1630. BROWN, Sir Samuel, Capt., R.N., inventor of iron suspension bridges, 1777-1852. BROWN, Thomas, a recent Scottish meta- physician; successor of Dugald Stewart in the university of Edinburgh. Born near Edinburgh in 1778, he died at an early age in 1820. His tastes were literary ; and he relished philosophical discussion. When only eighteen years of age he published a refutation of Darwin's Zoonomia; the first edition of his Essay on Cause and Effect appeared in 1804, on occasion of a singular but unprofitable and ill-managed controversy that had arisen within the Scottish Church : he afterwards issued a fragment entitled Outlines of the Physi- ology of the Human Mind: but his principal work consists of Lectures, of which multitudes of editions have been sold in Great Britain and America. Brown likewise paid offerings to the Muses : his poems were collected into four volumes, but they are already forgotten. The metaphysical system — if so it may be called — to which the writings of this philosopher gave currency, is certainly no continuation of what is termed the Scottish School, but rather an effort at revolt, alike against its leaders and doctrines. In the first place, he makes an elaborate attempt to create an impression that the supposed merits of Dr. Reid in refutation of the Ideal Theory, are reducible to his successful demolition of a fallacy held by no important metaphysical writer, (except- ing perhaps Berkeley and Maletranche)— apurecre- lol .-. :: : :i>ro ;••/;: : : •". ' ; bru ationof Eeiti'sewTrfimcy. « On'thialnstm^rtirpbmt" BROWNE, Ulyssks May we shall remark at length under the article lieid; suffice it to state here, that Brown has completely failed, and shows besides an ignorance of the true merits of the question, quite remarkable in a man of undeniably quick apprehension. The subject of Sensation disposed of, he next attacks the account given by his predecessor of our mental. faculties — a word to the use of which he strongly objects ; producing instead of the careful description of phenomena occupying the volumes of Iieid and Stewart, an artificial classification of specious sim- plicity, but throwing no real light either on the nature of the more important psychological facts, or their relations. Mental phenomena, he conceives, should be divided into external and internal Stales of the thinking principle, — the former being our sensations, the latter the con- tents of the Intelligence. Internal states, he con- siders, are either the reproduction of ideas of absent objects, by means of what he calls simple sugges- tion, or the perception of their relations, through relative suggestion. Adding our Emotions, classed into immediate, retrospective, and prospective, Brown conceives he has described and explained all mental phenomena. — It were easy to show that in most of his attempts to simplify, Brown has mistaken and contorted the great facts of psycho- logy; his fatal error, however, is this — an error which may be inferred from the mere phraseology of his system, — he confounds the will with merely passive desire, from which it had been a prime aim of his predecessors clearly to distinguish it. The will, he says, is simply desire, coupled with the belief that the object of the desire will follow as an effect. That great faculty, the coequal of Sensibility and Intelligence, the source and condi- tion of human liberty and dignity, is thus purely and simply suppressed ; nor was it possible for Brown to evade consequences which ever belong to that suppression; — his philosophy is on the edge of those two abysses, scepticism and fatalism. It is in nowise a favourable symptom either of the taste or acuteness of the time, that these Lectures have obtained a currency so wide. If their meta- physics are bad, their style, considered as a philo- sophical one, is certainly the reverse of com- mendable. Diffuse and inaccurate, it is wearisome and misleading. Ambitiously rhetorical, its metaphors and digressions, often pleasing by themselves, distract the attention of the student from the thought. Brown himself seemed to imagine that a philosophy might be improvised: and it is to be feared that his example and writ- ings have done much, to maintain the youth of our time in the delusion, that acquaintance with the Science of Mind may be promoted, and truth dis- cerned, through glib use of the mere forms of philosophical thought. There is no use in such popular philosophy. If an aspect of dialectic is demanded of public instructors now, the time will come, when, to obtain acceptance, they must exercise reflection also. [J.P.N. ] BROWNE, Anth., an English lawyer, d. 15G7. BROWNE, Geo., Count, an officer in the Rus- sian service, 30 yrs. gover. of Livonia, 1698-1792. BROWNE, Isaac Ha wkins, a poet, 1706-1776. BROWNE, Pat., M.D„ a naturalist, 1720-1790. BROWNE, Simon, acontrov. divine, 1680-1732. tU., an Irish exile, field-marshal in the service of Austria, 1705-1 7o7. BROWNE, Sir W., a wr. on optics, 1692-1774. BROWNE, Wm m a pastoral poet, 17th century. BROWNE, W. G., a disting. traveller, k. 1814. BROWNRIGG, W., an exp. philos., 1714-1800. BRU, MOSBS V., a Spanish painter, 1682-171)3. BRUCE, Robert, king of Scots, was born in the year 1274. It is unusual to call monarchs by their family name, but Bruce has generally been made an exception, as he rather gained his kingdom by his services than acquired it by hereditary suc- cession. After the death of Margaret of Norway, the daughter of Alexander III., there were several competitors for the Scottish throne, chiefly among those adventurous Norman knights who were col- laterally connected with the Scottish royal family. Among these was a Robert of Bruce — supposed to be a corruption of Bruix, his ancestral domain in Normandy — whose claim was that he was the son of Isabel, second daughter of David earl of Hunt- ingdon, the brother of King William the Lion. On hereditary principle, as we now understand it, there was, however, a preferable claimant in John Balliol, who was grandson of the eldest daughter of the earl of Huntingdon, and there were many other claimants. The advantage which the Eng- lish king took of this confusion, and his attempt to subjugate Scotland, are well-known chapters in British history. Had he been less tyrannical the Scots might have submitted to his sway, but he brought in high Norman notions of prerogative and feudal exactions, to which the Scots were un- accustomed. Exasperated and prepared to free themselves, they offered a good opportunity to any daring and ambitious man who could put forth a title to head them as their king. Robert, the grandson of that Bruce who had been one of the original claimants, after attending the court of Ed- ward, and for some time hesitating, was at length, partly by accident, driven to take up his position as the kingly leader of the Scots. He had been concocting with Cumyn, who had similar claims, a plan for one or other of them starting for the crown, and receiving the assistance of the other, who should be largely rewarded with the private estates of both. Cumyn revealed the project, and Bruce, secretly warned, escaped from the English court to Scotland. Unconscious that his treachery was known, Cumyn met the fugitive in the Church of the Franciscans in Dumfries. Hot words passed, and Bruce in his fury stabbing him, he was de- spatched by an attendant. The deed of sacrilegious violence, while it occasioned Bruce's excommunica- tion by the pope, drove him in desperation to raise the banner of Scottish nationality. Finding an enemy not only in the English invader, but in the Celtic potentate the lord of Lorn, his cause seemed lon» hopeless. But oppression increased the number or his followers, and at last he gained such substantial success, that Edward resolved to go again to Scot- land to crush him. He died on the way, and when his strong hand was removed the Scots rallied in larger numbers round the liberator, and put him at the head of a considerable army. Edward II., attempting to restore the English power by lead- ing into Scotland a vast army of the flower of the English chivalry, only brought them to destruction at the field of Bannockburn. This conclusive 102 BRU battle was fought on the 14th of June, 1314. Its history shows that Bruce was a consummate gen- eral according to the tactic of the day. His prin- ciple of warfare was what has always proved the best for a poor nation ; not to ape cavalry, but to trust in highly trained foot soldiers well placed. His frame was injured by the hardships of his early struggles, and he died on 7th June, 1329. [J.H.B.] BRUCE, James, F.R.S., the celebrated explorer of Africa, was born on the 14th of December, 1730, at Kinnaird, an estate and mansion near Larbert, in Stirlingshire, which had been in the possession of the family for about 400 years. In 1590, Sir Alexander Bruce, of Airth, made over the lands of Kinnaird to his second son, Robert, a minister of Edinburgh. This Robert Bruce, who was distinguished in the times of the Reformation, had two grandchildren, Robert and Alexander : the former died of his wounds after the battle of Wor- cester, without issue; the latter, ill requited for his services in the royal cause, died in 1711, leav- ing two daughters, of whom the eldest, married to David Hay, of Woodcock-dale, Mid- Lothian, was heiress of Kinnaird, and left the property to her eldest son, David, he assuming the name and arms of Bruce. David Hay Bruce was the traveller's father. The Hays of Woodcock-dale were a branch of one of the oldest families in the three king- doms. There is no foundation for the statement that the family of Bruce is descended from King Robert:— that line Avas itself a branch, and be- came extinct on the death of David II., 1371. All the families who have any records, are de- scended from the youngest of three sons of the fourth Lord Annandale, lineally sprung from Robert de Bruis, who came over from Normandy with William the Conqueror. The name was variously spelt, Brus, Bruis, Bruise, Bruix, and afterwards Brace. — The subject of this notice was educated in London, Harrow-on-the-hill, and the university of Edinburgh. Obliged to abandon his studies for the profession of advocate on account of his health, he went to London in 1753, in order to make arrange- ments for settling in India in the way of trade. He here changed his plans, and marrying a Miss Allan, daughter of a rich wine merchant, deceased, he became partner in that business. His amiable wife died within a year, leaving him in the deepest grief. Rallying, however, he set himself vigorously to several studies, which proved of the greatest use afterwards, and had meanwhile the effect of chang- ing the current of his thoughts. In 1757, he went on a lengthened tour to the continent, combining pleasure with business connected with the firm. His father's death the year following, hastened his return. Though he now succeeded to the property, and though his income from it began to improve considerably from the year 1760— owing to the establishment of the Carron iron works — no change took place in his designs. He was, in fact, in daily expectation of an appointment from govern- ment. He had made some suggestions about a descent on the Spanish coast, which brought him under the notice of Mr. Pitt and Lord Halifax ; and from the latter, in 1762, he received the ap- pointment of consul at Algiers, with the under- standing that it was to be temporary, and was to facilitate plans of discovery, which had been dis- cussed between Lord Halifax and himself. Promises BRU of assistance in carrying out these were made only to be broken; and on his being superseded, in 1765, he left Algiers, and having visited many parts of North Africa, and Western Asia, he reached Alex- andria on the 20th June, 1768, and entered, at his own cost, upon that long and perilous journey to discover the sources of the Nile, for which he is famous. The head waters reached by him are now known not to have been those of the prin- cipal stream, but of an important branch of the great river, whose sources, though never yet reached, are ascertained to lie close upon the equator, 800 miles south of the point reached by Bruce. His singular adventures going and return- ing, and during his residence in Abyssinia of two years, are detailed at length in his Travels. He reached Cairo, on his return, on 10th Jan., 1773 : but remaining in France and Italy for the restor- ation of his health, he did not arrive in London till June 1774, having been absent twelve years. Returning to Scotland, he was actively engaged for some time in improving his property. He married, May 20, 1776, Mary, daughter of Thos. Dundas of Fingask and lady Janet, daughter of Charles, sixth earl Lauderdale, by whom he had two sons and one daughter. Mrs. Bruce died in 1784. It was not till 1790 that his Travels appeared — in 5 vols. 4to. They excited universal interest, and were translated into French and German. Many of his most startling statements, which caused his veracity to be seriously called in question, have been since amply confirmed — among others, that of the horrid practice of devouring flesh cut quivering from the body of a living cow ! On the evening of April 26, 1794, when handing a lady down stairs to her carriage, he fell headlong, and was taken up insensible, but without apparent hurt. He ex- pired next morning — in the sixty-fourth year of his age. He was succeeded by his second son, the eldest having died an infant. His daughter mar- ried John Jardine, Esq., advocate, of Edinburgh. His remains were interred in the family vault at Larbert. — Mr. Bruce was tall of stature, being six feet four inches in height, his person was large and well-proportioned, and he had a commanding air. He was extremely expert in the use of fire- arms, and of the javelin and lance— no small recommendation among the rude tribes with whom he sojourned. [J.B.] BRUCE, John, a moral philosoph., 1744-1826. BRUCE, Michael, one of the minor Scotch poets, was born at Kinnesswood in the county of Kinross, 27th March, 1746, and died of consump- tion in the twenty-first year of his age, 6th July, 1767. His parents were in poor circumstances, his father being a weaver ; but the merit belongs to them of improving the genius which they early discovered in poor Michael by a liberal education, with the view of qualifying him for the ministry. They even sent him to the university of Edinburgh for three or four years from 1762, where he made great progress in his classical and philosophical studies ; but the graces of poetry and the Belles Lettres were his chosen pursuit, in which the pen- sive melancholy to which men of genius are so frequently subject, and the gifts of his imagination, could be more freely indulged. There is little to record of his innocent uneventful life. In 1765-6 he was teacher of a school at Gairney Bridge, near 103 BRU Kinross, and felt the heart-sickness of a disap- pointed attachment for the daughter of the people with whom he lodged, and who was a pupil of his. Several of his_ poems have perpetuated the memory of this circumstance, and the bestiof them is his ' Alexis, a Pastoral,' in which the refinement of the scholar is elegantly blended with the poeti- cal sense of the muse, and the plaintive eloquence of the lover. In 1766 he removed to a school near Alloa, where he composed his ' Lochleven,' a de- scriptive poem in blank verse, in which he has gratefully remembered the virtues of his tried friends Arnot and Henderson. All this time his health was gradually sinking, and the fatigues of the village school, no longer relieved and hallowed to his heart by the evening instruction of his ' Eumelia,' were more than he could endure. In the winter of this year he abandoned whatever ex- pectation he may have formed in the great busi- ness of life, and returned to his parents, that the loving hearts which had watched him with so much solicitude in the morning of his days might hush him to rest in their early evening. His last words are a celebration of the return of Spring : — 4 but not to me returns The vernal joy my better years have known ; Dim in my breast life's dying taper burns, And all the joys of life with health are flown.' The pathos and melody of many passages in this elegy with the 'Alexis' already alluded to, and his farewell to Lochleven, in imitation of ' Lochaber nae Mair,' fairly represent the natural talent of Bruce for poetry. In personal character he was remarkable for ingenuousness and modesty, and, as a matter of course in a poet, for a feeling heart and a lively imagination. Living a few short years, consumed by hard study and anxiety, his poems are few in number. They were published in a volume, with some others added to make a miscellany, but without any means of distinguish- ing the authors, soon after his death, by his friend and fellow-poet the Rev. John Logan, and at a later period, properly discriminated, in the collection of Dr. Anderson. [E.R.] BRUCE, P. H., a Ger. officer and trav., d. 1757. BRUCKER, John J., a Ger. critic, 1696-1770. BRUCKNER, John, a Luther, min., 1726-1804. BRUEYS, D. A., a Fr. dramatist, 1640-1723. BRUEYS, F. P. De, a Fr. admiral, 1760-1798. BRUGIERE, C. J., a Fr. dramatist, 1670-1754. BRUGMANS, S. J., a eel. phvsician, 1763-1819. BRUGNATELLI, L., an It. chemist, 1726-1818. BRUGUIER, John, a Fr. protes. divine, d. 1684. BRUGUIERE, A. A., a French author, d. 1823. BRUHL, Hy., Count, Polish minister of state, 1700-1763. Frederick Louis, his son, a dramatic writer, 1739-1793. HansMoritz, his nephew, an astronomer and political economist, d. 1809. BRUNCK, R. F. P., a disting. critic, 1729-1803. BRUNE, W. M. A., marshal of Fr., 1763-1815. BRUNEAU, Mathurin, a pretender to the crown of Fr. under the title of Louis XVIL, 1818. BRUNEL, Marc Isamrard, a civil engineer of great fame, a consummate mechanical genius, a man of rare singleness of mind and kindly disposition. He was born at Hacqueville in Nor- mandy, in 1709 — the year that produced so many notabilities. He began an education for the church 101 ERU at the seminary of St. Nicain, at Rotten. His genius had a different bent, however, and he so distinguished himself in mathematics and physical science, that the superior of the establishment re- commended his adopting another profession. He entered the royal navy of France— constructed a quadrant for himself — made several voyages, and returned home in 1792, during the reign of terror. Being a royalist, he emigrated to the United States, where necessity became the mother of his wonderfully fertile invention. He surveyed for canals, planned sawing mills, erected boring mills for the ordnance, was architect of the first theatre in New York (since burned down); and while in America conceived the blockmaking machi- nery, the success of which should alone give him a conspicuous place in the annals of industrial mechanism. With the block machinery on paper he came to Britain in the year 1800. Lord Spen- cer, then first lord of the admiralty, became his friend and patron. From this time Brunei con- tinued to reside in England, and refused to enter- tain propositions made to him to settle abroad, under the auspices of other governments. After much delay, he was employed to make a set of block machinery for Portsmouth Dockyard. With happv discrimination Brunei selected the late Henry Maudslay as the maker of the machines, and thus was laid the foundation of one of the most extensive and perfect engineering establishments in the king- dom. The machines were made exactly after Brunei's models. They have been for forty-seven years at work, and no change or improvement in any of them has since been made or suggested. This is a type of all Brunei's work. His plans and drawings were kept to himself till so elaborated that they really contained the essence of all that could be done in simplifying the means to accomplish the end in view. His circular saw for cutting veneers, the machine for winding cotton balls, as inven- tions in pure mechanism — and the Chatham Dock- yard and the Thames Tunnel, amongst works of civil engineering, may be cited in illustration. The first steam-boat that ran on the Thames, and the first double acting steam engine used for propelling steam vessels, were erected under his instructions in 1816. — The history of the Thames Tunnel is too recent and familiar to require that we should repeat it here. Despite its failure, commercially speaking, Brunei continued to look upon it as his greatest achievement, and devoted the latter years of his valuable fife in completing it. It is undoubt- edly a great and marvellous triumph of skill, and only those who know the extraordinary variety of engineering resources which it called into play, can sufficiently appreciate the talents of the engineer who planned them and superintended their execu- tion. Brunei died in 1849, in his eighty-first year. His son carries his father's fame in full vitality to another generation. Brunei was knighted in 1842. He was V.P.R.S., and corresponding member of the Institute of France. [L.D.B.G.] BRUNELLESCHI, Filippo, one of the earliest and most celebrated Italian architectsof the Revival, was born at Florence, in 1377. He was brought up a goldsmith, but devoted himself equally to sculpture and architecture. He paid, also, early attention to perspective, and instructed Masaccio in this science. Brunelleschi joined the competi- BBU tion, in 1401, for the bronze gates of the Baptis- tery of St. John, at Florence ; but both he and his celebrated contemporary, Donatello, admitted that they were surpassed by Ghiberti, who gained the commission, though then a mere youth ; the cen- tre gates were not fixed up until half a century after the competition, 1452. — Brunelleschi visited Rome, where the Pantheon seems to have made a great impression on him, and to have determined him to undertake his great work, the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, or cathedral of Florence, which had been left unfinished by Arnolfo di Lapo. He returned to Rome in 1417, and made a model of the dome, but without convincing his contem- poraries of the practicability of his scheme, until after the great congress of architects at Florence, in 1420, who then looked upon him as mad. At length, however, in 1423, he was appointed sole architect of the cathedral, Lorenzo Ghiberti being at first joined with him; and though he did not live long enough to see his great work quite completed, it was sufficiently advanced to secure its completion by his successors. This dome is the largest in the world constructed of masonry, it being some feet wider than that of St. Peter's at Rome. The angular interior diameter is 78 Tuscan ells, nearly 150 English feet. — Brunelleschi executed many other great works in Florence, and elsewhere; in Florence, are worthy of mention, the magnificent Pitti Palace, the residence of the Erand dukes of Tuscany, and the church of San orenzo. He died in 1446, and was buried with great pomp in the cathedral. — (Vasari, Vite dei J'itton, &c. ; Moreni, Vite del Brunellesco, &c. 1812 ; Fantozzi, Guida di Firenze.) [R.N.W.] BRUNET, Fr. F., a Fr. philos. and theological writer, author of ' Parallele des Religions,' d. 1806. BRUNNER, J. C, a Swiss physio!., 1653-1727. BRUNO, a Roman saint, founder of the order of the Carthusians, lived 1030-1101. [Carthusian Monk ] BRUNO, Giordano, a remarkable Italian In- quirer of the 16th century, whose very daring and original speculations derive fresh interest from his fate — he was burnt as an Atheist by the Inquisition at Rome, on 17th February, ll BBU Wearied of shackles inseparable from his first position as a Dominican priest, Bruno fled to Geneva in 1580, where he lived two years. The rigour, the despotism, and intolerance of Calvin, did not, however, suit him ; and finding no ade- quate compensation in the intellectual power, logi- cal acuteness, or vehement courage oi that great Reformer, he departed for Lyons, Toulon, and Paris. For some years, indeed, Bruno was a wanderer over Europe ; he lived in London at the close of 1583 ; but led by an unhappy fatality, or through effect of that home-sickness which fs part of the moral being of every Italian, he weaned of free and safe lands, and returned to teach in Padua. The Inquisition arrested him, and retained him in prison for two years — vainly attempting to re- duce him to recantation. On 9th of February he was degraded, excommunicated, and delivered to the secular magistrate, after the usual dis- gusting formula — * That he be dealt with as mercifully as possible, and punished without effusion of blood.' 1 Bruno exclaimed, — ' Your sentence strikes more terror into your own hearts than into mine,' and he died as a brave man ought. — It is far from wonderful that Bruno called down ecclesiastical fury on his head. His writings consist for the most part of keen and scarcely- concealed satire on the Romish Church and priest- hood: nor was his philosophy less unacceptable, for, revolting against the despotism of that Aris- totle of the middle ages, he took refuge with Plato and the School of Alexandria. His errors lay not in the direction of Atheism, but in that of Panthe- ism : so far from bringing down the absolute and ever-living Cause towards things or forms finite, he rather inclined to diminish the importance of the created or external universe ; nor is it precisely easy to see, in what way he provided for, or saved human liberty and responsibility in his really de- vout and imposing scheme. We shall characterize his peculiar phase of the doctrine of the ' absolute ' under the article Spinoza. Bruno wrote very largely. His Italian writings were collected and published at Leipzig in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1830. A very interesting account has recently been given of his life and general philosophy by the French writer Bartholomess. [J.P.N.] BRUNSWICK, Otho, duke of, chief of the ducal house of Brunswick and Luneburg, 1204-1252. BRUNSWICK, Ernest Aug., duke of, de- scendant of the preceding, created elector of Han- over, father of George I., 1629-1698. BRUNSWICK, Ferd., duke of, one of the most disting. generals in the seven yrs.' war, 1721-1792. BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURGH, Ch. W. Fred., duke of, neph. of the preced., noted as com. of the forces intended to liberate Louis XVI., killed 1806. BRUNSWICK- WOLFENBUTTEL, Maxim. Jul. Leop., duke of, br. of the prec, 1751-1785. BRUNSWICK-OELS, Fred. Aug., duke of, eel. as the au. of an essay on great men, 1740-1805. BRUNSWICK-OELS, Fred. Wm., duke of, brother of Queen Caroline, distinguished in the peninsular war, and killed at the head of his troops two days before the battle of Waterloo, 1771-1815. BRUNTON, Mary, a novelist, 1778-1818. BRUSCH, Gasp., a Bohem. savant, 1518-1559. BRUSONIUS, L. D., a classic, compiler, 16th c BRUTI, J. M., an historical writer, 1515-la'Jl. lOo BRU [Lucius Junius Brutus] BRUTUS, the surname of a Roman family, several members of which appear in history. 1. Lucius Junius Brutus, was the son of Marcus Junius, and of Tarquinia, sister of Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud,) the last king of Rome. When still young he lost his father and elder brother by the cruelty of Tarquin ; and he himself escaped a similar fate by feigning idiocy ; which perhaps gave origin to the surname Brutus or Dullard. The violence offered by Sextus, the son of Tarquin, to Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, called forth the true character of Brutus. Being a witness along with her husband and father to her injured virtue, he drew from her bosom the knife with which she -vindicated her innocence, and bound himself by the most solemn oath to visit the crime of Sextus upon Tarquin and all his accursed race, and to suffer no man thereafter to be king in Rome. The populace were easily ex- cited, and these being readily joined by the army, Tarquin and his family were banished from Rome, B.C. 510. In the following year Brutus and Colla- tinus, the husband of Lucretia, were elected as the first consuls, and headed the army against the at- tempts which were made to restore the banished family. When loading the cavalry against Porsenna, who had espoused the cause of the Tarquins, Brutus engaged in single combat with Aruns, the son of the exiled king, and both fell, pierced by each other's spears. 2. Decimus Junius Brutus, served under Cassar in Gaul ; and, on the breaking out of the civil war, B.C. 49, actively exerted himself in promoting his interests. He afterwards obtained the command of Further Gaul, and performed services so important, that Ca;sar promised him the government of Cisalpine Gaul, with the prator- ship for B.C. 44, and the consulship for B.C. 42. Being thus in possession of the entire confidence of Caesar, his co-operation was of great value to the other conspirators; and he was accordingly sent by them to conduct their victim to the senate house on the day of the assassination. The mo- tives which induced Brutus to join the conspi- racy against his friend and benefactor, are not known. After the death of Caesar, B.C. 44, he went to his province of Cisalpine Gaul, from which he was expelled in the following year by Antony, to whom the same province had been assigned by the people. Ke now resolved to cross over into 106 BRU Macedonia to Marcus Brutus, but his soldiers de- serted him on the march ; and he was betrayed by Camillus, a Gaulish chief, and put to death by or- der of Antony. 3. Marcus Junius Brutus, son of M. Junius Brutus, by Servilia, sister of Cato of Utica, was born b.c. 85. When the civil war broke out between Csesar and Pompey, B.C. 49, Brutus, contrary to expectation, joined the party of the latter, and fought under his banners at the battle of Pharsalia, b.c. 48. Having thus incurred the displeasure of the predominant party, he solicited and obtained the pardon of the con- queror, who restored him to his confidence, and generously allowed him to spend his time in his favourite literary pursuits. In B.C. 46 he was made governor of Cisalpine Gaul ; and in B.C. 44 obtained the office of city praator ; thus not only acquiescing in the usurpation of Cassar, but ac- cepting favours and offices from the dictator. The change of mind which at this time took place was effected through the influence of Caius Cassius, by whom he was persuaded to join the assassins on the Ides of March. Failing to enlist the people on the side of the conspirators, he retired to Athens, where receiving a large sum of money, he collected the scattered troops of Pompey, and pro- ceeded to take possession of Macedonia, the pro- vince which Caesar had assigned to him. After making himself master of Greece and Macedonia, he went to Asia and joined Cassius, whose efforts in raising an army had been equally successful. Brutus and Cassius now returned to Macedonia, and met Augustus and Antony on the plains of Philippi, B.C. 42. In the first engagement the army of Augustus gave way before that of Brutus, while Cassius was defeated by Antony. But in a second battle, fought about twenty davs later, Brutus was defeated, and fell upon Ins own sword. [G.F.] BRUYERE, Jean De La, a native of Nor- mandy, was born in 1644. After having been royal treasurer at Caen, he was appointed, on the recommendation of Bossuet, to give instruction in history to the duke of Burgundy, the grandson of Louis XIV. He remained attached to the court, and died in 1696. In regard to the details of his life very little has been recorded ; but a prudent and unobtrusive reserve seems to have accompanied those habits of keen observation, on which mainly his literary fame was built. His ' Characters,' pub- lished in 1687, but much augmented in following editions, placed him immediately in the highest rank as a master of French style; and they still entitle him to be named with Rochefoucault and Montaigne, among those writers whom the French regard as most thoroughly acquainted with human nature. The work is unlike the 'Characters' of Theophras- tus, (a translation of which was prefixed to it,) in substituting minutely drawn portraits, full of indivi- duality, for outlines of characteristics common to large classes of men; and from those sketches of a similar kind which had been so frequently pro- duced in England during the first half of the 17th century, it differs not only in the variety and par- ticularity of its scenes and figures, but also in the Srominence it gives to general maxims, and to re- ections prompted by them. It abounds, to an extraordinary degree, both in striking thoughts expressed with epigrammatic force and concise- buy ness, and in fragmentary sketches of men and manners, which suggest to every one parallels en- countered in actual experience. The attempts which were eagerly made (and which are embodied in a key usually attached to the book) to identify the personages described, proved at once the Pari- sian love of scandal, and the general conviction that the writer had drawn faithfully from the life. La Bruyere's view of human nature is severe, but less bitterly so than that of Rochefoucault ; and he excels in a delicate and philosophical irony, which he applies with especial dexterity in half-hinting his real opinions on questions about which he dissented from his contemporaries and countrymen. [W.S.] BRYAN, M., a wr. on art biography, 1757-1821. BRYAN, Sir F., a statesman and poet, 16th ct. BRYANT, Jac, au. of an ' Analysis of Ancient Mythology,' and other works of research, 1715-1804. BRYDGES, Sir S. Egerton, Bart., an au. of extraord. fertility and range of subjects, 1762-1837. BRYDONE, Dr. P., au. of travels, 1741-1819. BUACHE, Ph., a Fr. geographer, 1700-1775. BUAT-NANCAY, Louis Gabriel, Comte Du, a French diplomatist and historian, 1732-1787. BUCELIN, G., a German historian, 1599-1691. BUCER, Martin, was born in 1491 at Schele- 1 stadt in Alsace. His early life was spent among the Dominicans, who sent him to Heidelberg to pursue his education, and there he had a dispute with Luther on free-will. In 1521 he became a convert to the Reformation. At Strasburg he was both a pastor and teacher of theology for many years. At the diet of Augsburg he incurred such suspicion and danger by opposing the ' Interim,' that he welcomed an invitation from Cranmer to come and reside in England. He taught theology at Cambridge with no little acceptance, and died there in February, 1550. Under the intolerant and fanatical reign of Mary, his ashes were dug up and burnt. His works are numerous, and some of his commentaries are still held in repute. Car- dinal Contarini said of him, — ' That ne was able to contend alone with all the doctors of the Romish church.' [J.E.J BUCHAN, Rt. Hon. Stuart Erskine, earl of, founder of the Antiq. Soc. of Scotland, d. 1829. BUCHAN, W>i., a Scotch physician, au. of the well-known ' Domestic Medicine,' 1729-1805. BUCHAN, Elizabeth, a visionary, 1758-1791. BUCHANAN, Dr. Claudius, was a native of Cambuslang, in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, where he was born, 12th March, 1766. His father, who was parish teacher of that place, and a very pious man, brought him, both by his precepts and example, under the early influence of religion ; and the character and pursuits of his future life took their direction, in all probability, from the impres- sions received under the parental roof. The family having removed to Inverary, young Buchanan re- ceived his education at the grammar school of that town, of which his father had become master; and having made great proficiency in his knowledge of Latin and Greek, he obtained, while vet under four- teen, the appointment of tutor to the sons of Mr. Campbell of Dunstaffnage. During the two years that he continued in that office, he exhibited a prudence and practical knowledge above his years; and what is more, he advanced in piety and strict habits of devotion, in which he engaged daily in a BUC lonely spot on the sea shore. Repairing in 1787 to London, he there acquired the friendship of the good John Newton, under whose ministry he sat ; and having, after a ripened intimacy, communi- cated to that venerable counsellor his earnest wish to be employed in preaching the gospel abroad, he was introduced to the notice of an eminent Chris- tian philanthropist, Mr. John Thornton, who de- lighted to spend his fortune in advancing the cause of Christ. That gentleman, having satisfied him- self as to the character and principles of the young Scotchman, resolved to undertake the expense of giving him a university education, and accordingly Buchanan was in 1791 admitted into Queen's Col- lege, Cambridge. After a very distinguished career at the university, Buchanan was in 1795 ordained by Bishop Porteus, and in the March following sailed for India as a chaplain in the East India Com- pany's service. In that character he was destined to render important services to the cause of Christ; and indeed the name of Claudius Buchanan stands foremost in the history of the propagation of the gospel in India. Amid much opposition he con- tinued his evangelical labours; and having been appointed by the marquis of Wellesley, Vice- Pro- vost of the College of Fort- William in Bengal, he issued in 1804 the first translation ever made of the gospels in Persian and Hindostanee. In 1806 he published proposals for a subscription to aid in translating the Scriptures in fifteen Oriental languages ; and through his zealous exertions the British and Foreign Bible Society, the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Glasgow, were induced to aid in that important undertaking. To qualify himself by more familiar acquaintance with its dia- lects, he devoted a year to travel through the In- dian continent. On Lord Minto's appointment to the gov. -generalship in 1807, Mr. Buchanan, who considered the course of administration pursued unfavourable to the interests of religion, published his celebrated ' Memoir of the Expediency of an Ecclesiastical Establishment in British India.' Compelled through declining health to abandon the field of his arduous labours, he left India and ar- rived in England in the month of August, 1808, and after having visited his friends in Scotland, he re- turned to England, where he preached, and after- wards published 'The Star in the East,' and ' Christian Researches in Asia,' an interesting and eloquent appeal on behalf of missions. He finally settled as incumbent of the parish of Ouseburn, Yorkshire, where he died of a paralytic shock on 9th February, 1815. [R.J.] BUCHANAN, George, the celebrated Latin poet and historian of Scotland, was born of an old but respectable family in the parish of Killearn, Stirlingshire, February, 1506, and having lost his father when young, was educated by his maternal uncle, James Heriot. He had been at the univer- sity of Paris about two years when the latter also died, and Buchanan was reduced to such indigence that he enlisted as a common soldier in the duke of Albany's army, but at the conclusion of the war he was enabled to resume his studies, and took a master's degree in 1528. Between this period and 1539-41 he was employed under various circum- stances as a classical teacher, and was residing with the earl of Cassihs in Ayrshire, when his unlucky wit, and the Lutheran principles he had lu; BUC imbibed, led to his imprisonment for some satirical versos written against the Franciscans. He was fortunate enough to escape from St. Andrew's castle, and finding his way heyond seas, lived some twenty years in exile, undergoing much persecu- tion, even to confinement in the prisons ot the In- quisition, yet always recovering himself and living by his professional avocations. About the year 1562 he is known to have been residing in Scot- land again, and had the good fortune a Yew years later to be intrusted with the education of the young prince, (James VI.,) whom he made 'a pedant' because, as he said, 'he could make no- thing better of him.' Whether at home or abroad, Iiis literary industry never flagged, and few men have received more uniform * praise from the learned, who seem to have vied with each other in celebrating the graces of his style, especially in his beautiful paraphrase of the Psalms, composed in the imprisonment of a monastery, and his Scotch history ; at the same time that he is generally blamed as an historian, for writing of things as he was casually informed, and especially for his severe expressions against the unhappy Mary Stuart. The examples of rovalty with which he had made acquaintance were hardly calculated to impress him with much reverence for the institution, and his work ' De Jure Regni apud Scotos,' was really a vindication of the democratic control of prin- ces. Sir John Scot, in his short description of Buchanan, quaintly observes: — 'He was in so great disgust with the court before he died, that they caused summon him before them sitting in council, for some passages of his history too plain of the king's mother and grandmother; and he bad undoubtedly run a great hazard of his life if the Lord had not freed him of the miseries of this w r orld betwixt the citation and the day of com- pearance.' His life was thus curiously saved on the 28th September, 1581, and as he left no pro- perty, he was buried at the expense of the citv of Edinburgh. [E.R.] BUCHEZ, Arnold, a Dutch hist., 1565-1641. BUCHOZ, P. J., a naturalist, 1737-1807. BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, duke of, minister of Charles I., assassinated 1628. His [Hou*e at Foiumouth in which Buckii-fe'liam wuaaaaasauiatcd ] BUL profligate son, of the same name, the unprincipled minister and favourite of Charles II., 1627-1688. BUCKINGHAM AND CHANDOS, An.m. Eliza, duchess of, a lady of distinguished accom- plishments and benevolence, 1779-1836. BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, John Sheffield, duke of, author of ' Memoirs of the Revolution of 1688,' in which he took a part, 1649-1720. BUCKINK, Arnold, an engraver, 15th cent. BUCKLER, B., an antiq. and div., 1716-1 780. BUCKMINSTER, J. S., alrnd. div., 1784-1813. BUDDiEUS, John Francis, author of a Ger- man ' Historical Dictionary,' 1667-1729. BUFFON, George Louis Le Clerc, Comte De, an eminent naturalist, was born at Montbard, in Burgundy, in 1707. He died in 1788. Buflon w:is educated at the college of Dijon. When nineteen years old he travelled through Italy, and it is most probably owing to his having inspected in person the effects of the convulsions of nature, and the proofs of ancient revolutions of the globe in that country, that we are indebted for the works which have immortalized his name. In 1739 he was ap- pointed superintendent of the Garden of Plants ; and from that time he devoted his whole life to the study of natural history. He was assiduous in his attention to the duties of his office; and under his excellent management the garden, and museum of natural history attached to it, became the first in Europe. For ten years he devoted him- self to his grand work, his "Natural History, the first volume of which appeared in 1749, the remain- ing following at short intervals. The object of this work is to give a general theory of the globe which we inhabit, the disposition, the nature, and origin of the substances which it offers to our view, the grand phenomena which operate at its surface or in its bosom ; the history of man, and the laws which preside at his formation, in his development, dur- ing his life, and at his death ; the nomenclature and the description of quadrupeds and birds, the examination of their faculties, and the delineation of their manners. This work is written with great elegance of style; and his eloquent descriptions, the brilliancy of imagination which pervades them, and the correct taste he exhibited in arranging his subjects, soon made it the most popular book of the kind ever written. An extraordinary impulse was given by Buffbn to the study of natural his- tory in his own country ; and he has the great merit besides of having spread a love for the study of nature far and wide. The solid anatomical por- tion contributed to the history of the quadrupeds by Daubenton, added much to its value amongst scientific men; and many of the best works in natural history, that have been written in France since his death, have been published under the name of Suites a Buffbn. [W.B.] BUGEAUD, Marshal, duke of Isly, (listing, in the wars of Napoleon, and in Africa, 1784-1849. BULL, John, a disting. composer, 17th cent. BULL, George, a theological au., 1634-1709. BULLANT, Jean, a French architect, 16th c. BULLER, Rt. Honb. Ch., a polit., 1806-1848. BULLIALDUS, Ismael, an astron., 1605-1694. BULLIARD, Peter, a Fr. botanist, 1742-1793. BULLINGER, Henry, was born at Bremgar- ten in 1504, studied logic and scholastic philo- sophy at Cologne, was gradually weaned from 103 BUL r, then became the confidant of Zuinglius at "Zurich, and at length was appointed to succeed him by the suffrages of the senate and the ecclesi- astical synod. For more than forty years he pre- sided over the church in Zurich with "singular pru- dence and success. He was a bulwark and an apostle of the Reformation, and he displayed great hospitality to the refugees from England under the persecution of Queen Mary. His works are not very numerous, nor are they of present value. Died September 17, 1575. [J.E.] BULMER, Wm., an Engl, printer, 1746-1830. BULOW, F. W., Count Von Dennewitz, a Prus- si.-.'.i general in the late war, 1755-1816. BULOW, Henry, Baron Von, a Pruss. diplom., at length minister of foreign affairs, 1790-1846. BUNYAN, John, the celebrated author of the ' Pilgrim's Progress,' was born in 1628 at Elstow, in Bedfordshire. His father, though a travelling tinker, had taught him to read and write; but seduced by evil example, he plunged into every species of vice, and acquired the character of a notorious and hardened profligate. He became a soldier in the service of the parliament, and was at the siege of Liecester, where having been drawn on one occasion to act as sentinel, he narrowly escaped the fate of his comrade, who was shot by a musket ball from the royalist camp. Many other remarkable deliverances are recorded in his early histoiy, clearlv showing that Providence, who threw over him the shield of Divine protection, had some important work in reserve for him. Overhearing the conversation of four pious women, who were talking to each other of the necessity and blessedness of a religious life, and the hopeless misery of the wicked, his conscience was struck ; he began to think seri- ously, and his dissolute companions perceiving a sudden alteration in his conduct, which all their raillery could not affect, gradually abandoned his society. As for Bunyan, he put himself in private communication with Gitt'ord, a dissenting minister in Bedford, whose chapel he attended, and being persuaded that baptism by immersion was the only Scriptural mode of receiving the ordinance, he was in that manner received, in 1653, into the com- munion of the church. Conceiving himself called to proclaim the gospel, he perambulated the country as an itinerant preacher. After the res- toration, this course of life brought him within the grasp of the law, which prohibited conventicles, and as he could not desist from a duty to which he imagined himself specially called, he was con- demned to perpetual banishment. This severe sentence was not carried into execution ; but he was confined in Bedford jail for the long period of twelve years and a-half. In that place he supported himself and family by tagging laces, and although cut off by his protracted confinement from all oppor- tunity of public preaching, he was, in the overrul- ing providence of God, more extensively useful than while in the enjoyment of unfettered liberty; for having during his leisure hours exerted the extra- ordinary talents with which he was endowed, he produced the ' Pilgrim's Progress,' a work which has been more extensively circulated, and done more good in the world than any other book, except the Bible alone. Bunyan being at last released through the kind intercession of Dr. Barlow, bishop BUR of London, he was chosen pastor of the baptist church in Bedford. Wherever he went, he was at- tended by crowded audiences, amongst whom were sometimes found persons of high eminence both in the church and state. He died in London, 1688, m the sixtieth year of his age, and was buried in Bunhill cemetery. His other works, 'The Holv War,' and ' Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sin- ners,' are pieces of great merit, though their fame is eclipsed by his unrivalled allegory. [K.J.] [Bedford Jail,] BUONAFEDE, Appian, a phil. wr., d. 1792. BUONAPARTE, Chas., father of Napoleon, born towards 1746, distinguished himself in the Corsican war of independence under Paoli, d. 1785. BUONAPARTE, J., an Ital. histor., 16th cent. BUONAPARTE, Joseph, elder brother of Napoleon, born 1768 : commissary of the army of Italy, 1796 ; deputy to the council of 500, and am- bassador to Rome, 1797 ; king of the two Sicilies, 1806-1808 ; king of Spain, 1808-1813 ; lieutenant- general of the empire to the abdic. of Napoleon, 1814 ; and again in the hundred days, 1815 ; d. 1844. BUONAPARTE, Laetitia Ramolino, mother of Napoleon, has no place in polit. hist., d. 1840. BUONAPARTE, Louis, third br. of Nanoleon, and father of the present emperor of the French, born 1778 ; king of Holland 1806-1810 ; died in a philosophical retirement as count of St. Leu, 1846. BUONAPARTE, Lucien, the next br. after Napoleon, born 1775 ; agent of the war department 1793-1795 ; member of the council of 500 1797 ; president and confederate of Napoleon 1799; prince of Canino 1807 ; died 1840. BUONAPARTE, N., an Italian poet, 15th cent. BUONAPARTE, Napoleon. SeeNAPOLEO*. BUONAPARTE, Nap. Fr. Ch. Joseph, only son of the emperor and Maria Louisa of Austria, saluted king of Rome at his birth, 1811-1832. BUONARROTI. See Michelangelo. BUONO, Bartollomeo, an Italian architect and sculptor, 15th century. An architect of this name flourished also in the 12th century. BUPALUS, a Greek sculptor, 6th century B.C. BURBAGE, Rich., an actor, age of Elizabeth. BURCARD, bishop of Worms, died 1026. BURCH, Eow., an English artist, 1730-1814. BURCHARD, J., a Roman prelate, died 1505. BURCKHARDT, John Ludwig, was born at Lausanne, in Switzerland, in the year 1784, or 109 BUR 1785. He studied at Basle, Leipzig, and Gottin- gen, graduating at the latter. Introduced by Blumenbach, in 1806, to Sir Joseph Banks and the African Association, he was engaged to travel under their auspices in central Africa : and having carefully prepared himself by various studies, he received his instructions in January, 1809. These bore tbat he was to remain two years in Syria, perfecting himself in the Arabic, thence to proceed to Mourzouk, in Fezzan, from which he was to cross the desert to Soudan, and the sources of the Niger. While in Syria, he visited most places of interest. In 1812 he reached Cairo, and being repeatedly disappointed in finding a caravan to convey him to Mourzouk, he performed various journeys in Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, on the shores of the Red Sea, and through Arabia, collecting a great amount of most important information. When, at length, in the autumn of 1817, the long expected caravan was ready to depart, Burckhardt was seized with dysentery, and expired at Cairo, October 15, 1817, in the thirty-third year of his age. His last days were cheered by the kind attentions of Mr. Salt, the English consul; and his death caused lively regret in Europe. His Travels occupy 4 vols. 4to, published at different times between 1819 and 1830. [J.B.] BURCKHARDT, J. C, an astron., 1773-1825. BURDER, Geo., an evangelical minis., d. 1832. BURDETT, Sik Francis, an eminent popu- lar and parliamentary leader, was born on 25th January, 1770. The younger son of a younger son, it was only after a series of unexpected and calamitous deaths that he succeeded to the title and estates of his ancient and affluent family. Before that event he had in 1793 married a daugh- ter of Thomas Coutts, the banker. He began his eventful parliamentary career by advocating an exposure of abuses in the Coldbath Fields, and other prisons. It was from the popularity thus achieved that in 1802 he was started for Middle- sex. After a hot contest of fifteen days he was returned, but the House found the election void, and imprisoned the sheriffs. The contest was still carried on by him in vain at enormous expense. In 1807, when disabled by a wound in a duel, he wa.s started on the memorable contest for West- minster. His friends were successful, and he sat nearly thirty years for that constituency. The main" incident in his subsequent career is that in a quarrel with the House of Commons, he attempted to resist the Speaker's warrant for his arrest, and created a disturbance, in which lives were lost. On this occasion the Serjeant at arms found him affected by teaching his child magna charta. It was always suspected that his politics were founded more on love of popularity than conviction, and he proved this bv capriciously changing them in 1835, and vehemently adopting the other side. When pro- fessing democracy he was a thorough aristocrat in personal feeling. His appearance was handsome and commanding, and with his dress and deport ment made him the picture of a high bred English Sentleman of the old school. He died on 23d anuary, 1844. • . [J.H.B.] BUR DON, Wm., a philosophical wr., d. 1818. BURGESS, D., a popular preacher, 1645-1713. BURGESS, Rt. Rev. Thus., bp. of Salisbury, dist. for his proles, and literary labours, 1756-18157. BUR BURGH, James, a Scotch moralist, 1714-75. BURGH, John De, earl of Comyn, a soldier of the mid. ages, descended from Charlemagne, d. 1324. BURGKMAIR, Hans, a German painter and wood engraver, was born at Augsburg in 1472. Though a painter of great excellence in his time and style, he is better known for his series of woodcuts, chiefly illustrating the achievements and life of the emperor Maximilian ; as 'Der Weiss Kunig,' (the wise king), an account of the acts of the emperor Maximilian I., with 237 large cuts, published with the life by Treitzsauerwein, at Vienna, in 1775 ; and the triumphal procession of the same emperor in 135 large cuts folio, executed in 1519 ; ' Le Triomphe de l'Empereur Maximilien I.,' accompanied with the ancient description dic- tated by the emperor himself to his secretary Marc Treitzsaurwein, Vienna, 1796. There is a third curious book of the ' Saints ' of the imperial family, also by Burgkmair. — The above works, especially the ' Weiss Kunig,' are very valuable for the great variety and accuracy in detail of the illustrations of the manners and customs of the commencement of the sixteenth century. The blocks of these cuts, and many others by Burgk- mair, are still preserved in the imperial library of Vienna. They are only partly executed by Burgk- mair, he was aided by Albrecht Durer, and several other of the principal artists of his time : it is sup- posed that he actually cut very few of the blocks. The date of his death is uncertain, it is fixed by some authorities as late as 1559. [R.N.W.] BURGOYNE, John, a general in the first Amer. war, now remembered as a dramatic au., d. 1792. BURIDAN, John, a philosopher, 14th century. BURIGNY, J. L. De, a Fr. author, 1691-1785. BURKE, Edmund, a celebrated orator, states- man, and philosopher, was born at Dublin on 1st January, 1730. It has been much questioned whether he was from the beginning what is termed a political adventurer without means of liveli- hood to keep-him independent, or entered on life w'th a considerable fortune. His family was said to be high and ancient, but his enemies, who were many and bitter, treated this as a common na- tional boast of all Irishmen, and spoke of Burke as a sort of barbarian, who had come from a wild tribe to fight his way on in civilized life by the fierce unscrupulous habits in which he had been brought up. His early education, however, was derived in the calm seclusion of a Quaker semi- nary at Ballitore in Kildare, where he probably ac- quired much of the solemn reflective character which tempered his natural ardour. He studied, but not with any known distinction, at Trinity College, Dublin, where he took his master's degree in 1751. He was destined for the bar, and en- tered the Middle Temple, but legal studies seem to have had no charm for him. His abilities must have been seen in 1752, for it is known that there was then a proposal to choose lum professor of logic in the university of Glasgow, though he does not appear to have been, as David Hume was, an avowed candidate. His first literary work, called ' A Vindication of Natural Society' — a close imita- tion of Bolingbroke, was published in 1756. Im- mediately afterwards appeared his well-known essay on the Sublime and Beautiful. Its originality of thought, and luxuriant flow of words and 110 BUR ideas, at once arrested attention; and whatever may be thought of the leading principles, so well ridiculed by Payne Knight, and others, the liter- ary merits of the work entitled it to its high repu- tation. In 1757 he published his account of the settlements in America, and shortly afterwards co-operated with Dodsley in the 'Annual Register.' In 1703 his ability as a political partizan obtained for him a pension of £300 a-year on the Irish establishment, and the event was rendered remark- able by the indignation with which Burke repelled the claims which the gentleman known 'as single speech Hamilton,' made on his political allegiance, on the plea of having obtained for him this pen- sion. He entered political life, for which he had been industriously training himself, by becoming private secretary to the marquis of Rockingham, when first lord of the treasury in 1765, and at the same time entering parliament as representa- tive of Wendover. At the conclusion of this min- istry, he commenced that long opposition to its successors which became memorable from the tone of philosophical and constitutional wisdom with which he pleaded what, after all, was in reality the restoration of his own party connections to power. On the re-establishment of the Rockingham ad- ministration in 1783, he was made paymaster- general. His subsequent career is entwined with the history of the period. Its main features are his share m the prosecution of Warren Hastings, and that stem denunciation of the revolutionary- progress of France, which caused his dramatic Quarrel with Fox and his other old political friends. Fe made a large contribution to the parliamentary oratory of his day, and his speeches were remark- able for their richness of language and abundance of imagery. He died on July 8, 1797. [J.H.B.] [Tomb of Burke.] BURLEIGH, William Cecil, Lord, ^ an eminent English statesman, was born in 1520. His father was master of the robes, and thus naturally opened a court career to the capa- cities of the son. He married in 1541 a sister of Sir John Cheke, who soon dying, after she had fiven birth to the son who became earl of Exeter, e was united in 1546 to Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, the director of the royal BUR studies. He was appointed master of requests by the Protector Somerset, He was at first involved with the fall of his master, but not expressing anv romantic fidelity to him, speedilv rose again, and was made secretary of state. His sagacity and caution prevented him from committing himself to the claims of Lady Jane Grey. Though thus commended to Queen Mary, it was neither consis- tent with his principles nor his caution to aid her efforts for the re-establishment of the power of Rome, and he kept himself apart, offering a modi- fied opposition to the court. He was in the mean- time in close communication with the Princess Elizabeth, helped her to evade the dangers sur- rounding her, and prepared her to occupy the throne. On the day of her accession he took that place as her principal adviser, which he retained while he lived. In 1571 he was raised by the i queen, always sparing of her honours, to the rank of baron. The history of his administration is the history of England. He was essentially a states- man of wise management rather than of constitu- tional views. Talcing the immediate results of his policy, no statesman was ever more successful, but looking at ultimate effects, it may be said that he did more than any other man to bring England near to a despotism, and thus to lay the foundation of the civil wars of the ensuing century. It was his principle to make himself acquainted with the individual histories of men, and to dive as nearly as possible to the bottom of their character and intentions. Thus among his characteristic studies was genealogy, and he kept up such a potent sys- tem of secret inquiry as Britain never knew before, and has not known since. One of the most un- popular and unjustifiable of his acts was the death of Mary Queen of Scots. He was affected to the extent of a lively apprehension by the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and thought it inconsistent with the safety of England and the protestant cause, that the captive queen should continue to live. He was in general, however, moderate and averse to severity. He lived a moral, domestic life, char- acterized by the grave deportment of the age. He was neither malignant nor greedy, and left behind him a high name for integrity. He died on the 4th of August, 1598. [J.H.B.] BURMAN, Peter, a Dutch savant, 1668-1741. BURMAN, John, an em. botanist, 1707-1779. BURN, Richard, LL.D., a literary compiler and historian, author of ' Bum's Justice,' d. 17< s i». BURNABY, And., au. of 'Travels,' &c, d. 1812. BURNES, Lieut.-Col. Sir Alex., polit. resi- dent at Cabool, afterwards interpreter to the army of Scinde, assass. at the age of thirty-seven, 1841. BURNET, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, an ecclesiastical historian, 1643-1715. BURNET, Thos., an ecclesiastical wr., d. 1715. BURNETT, G. T., F.L.S., a botan., 1800-1835. BURNETT, Jam., Lord Monboddo, the well- known speculative wr. on language, &c, 1714-1779. BURNEY, Charles, Mus. Doc, was bora at Shrewsbury in 1726, and partly educated at the free school there, and partly at the public school in Chester. His first music master was Mr. Baker, organist at Chester; he received further in- structions from James Burney, his elder hah -bro- ther, organist at Shrewsbury, and he was tine,, yean under the tuition of Dr. Arnc. In 1rtii- nary promise. While he was still at the univer- sity, he circulated privately copies of a thin volume of verses, which was prudently reserved for friend- ly readers and soon suppressed. But before the end of 1807., and when in his twentieth year, lie was rash enough to face the public with tin: ' Hours of Idleness ' a collection of poems, from the very best of which no one would have ventured to presage 115 BYR the strength he was soon to exhibit. This strength was brought to a point by the anger which the young poet felt at the famous criticism on his book m the ' Edinburgh Review.' Studying the satiri- cal poets as models, and collecting every available piece of gossip that could point an ill-natured jest, he at length, in 1809, poured forth his wrath, all the wanner for the nursing he had given it, in his poetical satire 'English Bards and Scotch Re- viewers.' Scurrilously personal, and indiscriminat- ingly contemptuous of all the literary celebrities of the day, this poem showed powers which evidently wanted only maturity and fit guidance to achieve very great things. — In the same year he embarked with Mr. Hobhouse on a two years' journey on the continent, in the course of which he visited the Peninsula, extended his travels to Greece and Turkey, and, with his poetical enthusiasm now fairly awakened, composed in great part the first and second cantos of ' Childe Harold's Pilgrimage.' The publication of these, in the spring of 1812, when he had just completed his twenty-fourth year, made him at once the most popular poet of the time. The few who had already learned to appreciate Wordsworth and Coleridge, found, in the new poet, a freedom both from the affectations of the one and from the obscurities and eccentricity of the other ; while there were united with these a poetic elevation and richness not exceeded by either. The popularity, again, which Sc- tt had won, by the ' Lay,' ' Marmion,' and the ' Lady of the Lake,' was already beginning to suffer from the satiety produced by bad imitations ; and the Scot- tish minstrel's favour with the public waned rapidly, when Byron, deserting trie meditative poetry of the 'Pilgrimage,' adopted, like Scott, the seductive form of the metrical romance, and gave it the charm of novelty by choosing Turkish and Grecian stories. In 1813 appeared his wildly striking fragment ' The Giaour,' and the more re- gular 'Bride of Abydos.' ' The Corsair ' and its sequel ' Lara,' followed in 1814, and were accom- panied by the ' Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte.' In the beginning of 1816, the first and most charac- teristic series of Lord Byron's works was closed by the appearance of 'The Siege of Corinth' and 'Parisina.' — While he was thus building up his poetical fame, his domestic history underwent several changes, to which he was no way slow in inviting attention. 'Childe Harold,' the sated voluptuary, seeking to refresh his sick heart amidst the magnificence of nature, but contem- plating all things through the medium of a cyni- cal and despondent philosophy, had been avowedly presented as an idealized portrait of the young poet himself, bitterly convinced, by a premature experience, of the hollowness of worldly pleasures, yet unable to discover any higher truths, in the contemplation and realization of which happiness might be attained. Till the publication of the earlier cantos of ' Childe Harold,' Byron's proud and sensitive spirit had been tempted to misan- thropical discontent by the equivocal position he held in society, partly through accidental circum- stances, partly through the reputation of his youth- ful irregularities. But the stump thus imprinted on his earlier poetry was too much in accordance with his natural temperament to be easily effaced. The exaggerated and theatrical exhibition of his BYR own character, in the persons of his heroes, wns repeated even in those of his tales, which were written while he was the idol of fashionable society, and enjoyed the prospect of domestic happiness ; and when misfortune and opprobrium darkened round him, the petulant rashness of ill-trained youth passed into a permanent mood of morbid and naughty defiance, to which his later poems gave utterance with increasing eagerness and constancy. With as little power as any great poet ever pos- sessed, of observing or delineating the character and passions of other men, Byron was not true to na- ture, unless when he drew his materials from within ; but his poetry, thus unreal and fantastic in all its representations of human life, has the singular charm which belongs to the self-drawn image of a nature nobly endowed with the poetic elements of great- ness, and vacillating in its moral aspect between the extremes of goodness and of evil. — In the autumn of 1814, after having passed some years in that round of extravagant and unsatisfying dissipation into which he had been initiated even in boyhood, Lord Byron married the daughter of Sir Ralph Milbanke. The marriage proved unhappy for both parties, through causes which have never been clearly explained; pecuniary embarrassments aggravated dissension; and in the beginning of 1816, soon after the birth of a daughter, Lady Byron quitted her husband's house never to return. — Very soon afterwards Lord Byron left England, in which he never again set foot. His first place of residence was in the neighbourhood of Geneva, where the sublime scenery of Switzerland, and the society of the poet Shelley, co-operated in awaken- ing his mind to an elevation and purity of poetic inspiration such as he never reached before or after. Here were written ' The Prisoner of Chillon,' and the third canto of ' Childe Harold.' The influence of Swiss landscapes lingered fondly in his imagination during the next stage of his travels. It gave birth to ' Manfred,' which, with all its faults, ethical and dramatic, is perhaps richer in poetical imagery and sentiment than any of his other works. In the end of 1816 he took up his abode at Venice, where he remained for three years, visiting Pome, and there gathering materials for the fourth canto of ' Childe Harold.' His residence at Venice was disgraced by low and gross debauchery; and if there was greater refinement, there was no real im- provement of morality, in a more lasting attach- ment which he next formed for the Countess Guic- cioli, and which is not recommended to our Eng- lish feelings or notions, even by the countenance vouchsafed to it by the lady's father and brother. In the beginning of 1820 Byron followed the countess and her family to Ravenna ; where, with them, he became engaged in political plots, which soon caused his Italian friends to be banished from the papal states. Pisa then became the abode of the party. Here Byron received Mr. and Mrs. Shelley, and afterwards Mr. Leigh Hunt, and with these coadjutors attempted unsuccessfully the periodical called ' The Liberal.' His poetical vein, however, flowed freely during his residence in Italy. Besides ' Manfred ' and the last canto of ' Childe Harold,' and several works which are uni- versally admitted to be poor, he then produced ' Mazeppa,' ' The Lament of Tasso,' and his Dra- matic Poems, of which, while 'Cain' abounded in 116 CAA the old leaven, the tragedies indicated, morally, though not poetically, an inclination to rise into a higher and purer region. Other inclinations, how- ever, were betrayed by a new class of poems, in which the strength and versatility of the poet's genius were strikingly displayed. They were modelled on the burlesque poetry of the Italians, which had hardly been emulated in the English language except by Frere. Byron's first attempt in this path was * Beppo ;' and the ethical looseness of this lively piece became exaggerated into open depravity, while it was accompanied at first by much noble poetry, and always by much stinging wit, in the notorious cantos of ' Don Juan.' — That Byron was secretly weary of aimless profligacy, and eager for opportunities of honourable action, may be inferred from his willingness to take part in the abortive Italian conspiracies. A more promising field was now opened to him, soon after the unfortunate death of his friend Shelley. The London Committee of Philhellenes requested him to take part in the CAB emancipation of Greece; and he enthusiastically accepted the invitation. He sailed from Genoa in July, 1823, and began his philanthropic exertions in the island of Cephalonia. In January, 1824, he landed at Missolonghi, already labouring under illness, which he had aggravated by bathing in the sea in the course of his last voyage. Disappoint- ments in the great object of his expedition gathered round him, and were bravely borne j but his health was further injured by anxiety, and by repeated exposure to bad weather in an unhealthy climate. He died at Missolonghi, of rheumatic fever, or its accompanying inflammation of the heart, on the 19th of April, 1824, soon after having celebrated, in affecting verses, the completion of his thirty- sixth year. [W.S.] BYTHNER, Victorious, an Oriental., d. 1664. BYWALD, Leop., an Aust. med. wr., 1731-96. BYZANCE, L. De, an Orientalist, 1641-1722. BZOVIUS, or BZOVSKI, Abraham, a Polish scholar and ecclesiastical historian, 1567-1637. C CAAB, or KAAB, Ben Zohair, an Arabian poet, at first disting. as the satirist of Mahomet, and afterwards as his friend and eulogist, d. 622. CABADES, a king of Persia, 491-532. CABADES, a Sp. theologian, close of last cent. CABALLERO, Don Jose Antonio, Marquis De, a Spanish liberal and adherent of Joseph Buonaparte, born about 1750 ; condemned to per- petual exile by Ferdinand VII. in 1818 ; and re- called by the constitutionalists of 1820. CABALLERO, R. D., a Sp. hist., 1740-1820. CABANIS, Pierre Jean Georges, a very celebrated physician and philosopher, belonging to a recent school ; much concerned with the events which marked the close of the last and the beginning of the present century in France. He was born in Conac in 1757, and died in Paris in 1808. Cabanis was closely associated with the greatest men of the revolution; it was he who gave Condorcet that fatal dose of stramonium, through whose energy he escaped death by the Siillotine; Cabanis attended and ministered to hrabeau during his last illness, and he was the favourite physician of Napoleon. Considerable interest still attaches to the physiological and Ssychological speculations of Cabanis : whoever esires fullest acquaintance with the best com- pacted physiological theory of mind, must indeed betake to this author. A thorough disciple of Condillac ; starting with it as an axiom that all our ideas are but compositions and transformations of our sensations, (see Condillac and Locke,) — he sprang at once to the physiological expression of that theory, viz : that thought or soul is the secretion of vital organs — a result or phenomenon of vital structure. ' If,' says he, ' Condillac had known the animal economy better, he would have seen that soul is a faculty, not an existence.'' Among the physiological schools prevailing during the times in which he lived, the position of Cabanis is apparently as follows. There are three of these schools ; the first discerns in the animal economy nothing save peculiar physical phenomena, evolved by the same laws winch rule inorganic sequences ; the second admits that independently of physical phenomena, life is a set of special actions, or consists of vital properties ; the third, to which Cabanis belonged, and which he represents, con- cedes that with material elements, some peculiar vital principle has been conjoined. Although this principle did not in the mind of Cabanis have any relation with intelligence or reason, nevertheless the concession — far from insignificant in France at the time — seems gradually to have opened his mind to those more advanced views expressed in his famous letter to M. Fanriel, in which he de- clares at least for the possibility of the existence of the moral system governed by this principle, after the dissolution of the organism. The student will find enough to repay perusal in the works of Cabanis. His style is literary, distinct, and strong; and he has thrown much light on the really phy- siological and physical phenomena of our human nature. A good edition of his collected works has recently appeared in Paris. [J.P.N.] CABARRUS, Francis, Count De, Sp. minis- ter of finance under Joseph Buonaparte, 1752-1810. CABESTAN, or CABESTAING, William De, a Provencal poet, said to have been k., and his heart served up to his mistress, by her husband, 13th c CABEZA DE VACCA, a Sp. naviga., 16th c. CABOT, Sebastian, was born at Bristol, about the year 1477, but the precise date is uncertain. His father, John Cabot, or Gabotta. was a Ven- etian, who, in the pursuits of trade which occupied him, had occasion to reside at intervals in England. He seems to have been a man of superior intelli- gence and information, interested in the progress of discovery by sea, and possessed of considerable wealth. He returned to his native country when Sebastian was four years old, but came again to England while his son was still young,— and hence the belief long prevailed that Sebastian was a native of Venice. Having already, at the age of eighteen or nineteen, acquired the knowledge necessary for a commander, imbued with his father's tastes, and fired by that spirit of enter- prise which the discoveries of Columbus were 117 CAB everywhere exciting, Sebastian projected an ex- pedition across the N. Atlantic, ostensibly, it is said, with the important practical object of dis- covering a N.W. passage to Cathay, the 'Land of Spice.' Henry VII. gave his countenance to the scheme; and under government auspices an expedition was fitted out, and intrusted by patent, dated 5th March, 1496, to John Cabot, and his three sons, Louis, Sebastian, and Saucius. They were authorized to occupy and possess all lands in the name of the king, who reserved a fifth of the profits ; but the right of traffic was to belong to the patentees exclusively. In May, 1497, the expedition sailed from Bristol under command of Sebastian, his father and brothers most probably accompanying him. On the 24th June he reached the coast of Labrador, about lat. 56°, and was thus the first to discover the conti- nental land of the Western world — Columbus, in his third voyage, not having entered the Orinoco till August, 1498. Nothing else is known of this voyage; but it appears that he returned almost immediately to England, and made two other voyages in 1498 and 1499, the latter being to the Gulf of Mexico, but no records of them have been preserved. About this time, John Cabot seems to have died, Louis and Saucius to have settled in Italy ; of Sebastian all trace is lost till 1512, when he arrived in Spain, having been sent for by King Ferdinand, who had formed a higher estimate of his genius and merits than had been entertained in his own country. He enjoyed honour and a handsome emolument, till the death of Ferdinand in 1516. The enemies of Columbus then became his, and he was obliged by the annoyances which he suffered to return to England. In 1517 Henry VIII. sent him, with Sir Thomas Perte, on a voy- age to the N.W., during which he reached lat. 67£°, and entered Hudson's Bay — but no details are" known respecting his discoveries. After this voyage he visited Spain, and was reinstated in honour and income by the emperor Charles V. Having visited the banks of the great river, first named by him the La Plata, in command of an expedition intended for the Moluccas, and per- formed several other voyages, he came again to England in 1548 ; and soon after was granted a pension of 250 merks, (£166 13s. 4d.) by Edward VI., and appointed grand pilot of England. By his advice, the expedition of Willoughby and Chancelor was sent out in 1553 ; which, though failing in its primary object, the discovery of a N.E. passage to Cathay, had a far more impor- tant result in the establishment of trade with Russia. Cabot was afterwards made governor of a company of merchant traders to that country. So sanguine were the promoters of this expedition, that they had the ships sheathed with lead to protect them from the worms in the water of the Indian Ocean — a contrivance long practised by the Spaniards, but now for the first time used in England, and therefore most likely suggested by Cabot. He appears also to have been the first who gave steady attention to the variation of the compass. The pension which Cabot enjoyed was continued till 1557, four years after the king's death; it was renewed to him by Mary, jointly with one William Worthington, of whom very little is known. All his maps and documents CAD were given to this person, who either destroyed them, or handed them over to Mary's husband, Philip of Spain ; — no trace of them has ever been found. Cabot was now in his eightieth year ; he seems to have died soon after, though nothing is certainly known either of the time or place of his death. Of high genius and acquirements, steadily pursuing through a long life one great object, infusing into the marine of England a spint of enterprise which has animated it ever since, and opening up new sources of trade which gave an impulse to her commerce, Cabot must be re- garded by us as one of the most illustrious of navigators. The confusion and misrepresentations which long prevailed regarding him were fully cleared up hy the author of a ' Memoir of the Life of Sebastian Cabot, Illustrated by Documents from the Rolls,' London, 1831, who has placed the events of his life in their true light. [J.B.] CABRAL, F., a Portuguese missionary, author of ' Letters from Japan and China,' 1528-1609. CABRAL, Pedro Alvarez De, was sent out by the king of Portugal soon after the return of Vasco de Gama, in command of a fleet of thirteen ships, with 1,200 fighting men, and a number of Franciscan monks as missionaries, with the object of making settlements in the East Indies. He was the first who had the boldness to adopt the route now generally followed in order to reach the Cape without incurring the delays and dangers of the coast voyage. His plan was to sail S.W. till he should gain the latitude of the Cape, and thus cross the Atlantic twice. Following this route from the Cape Verde islands, he came in sight of the coast of Brazil, about, lat. 10° S., on 3d May, 1500. Coasting S. as far as lat. 17°, he took possession in name of his sovereign, and the cross then erected at Porto Seguro is still preserved. A ship was sent home with the news ; and although Yanez Pinzon had visited this coast on the part of Spain three months earlier, the claim thence derived was waived, and the sovereignty of Brazil secured to Portugal. In crossing to the Cape, Cabral lost four ships in a dreadful storm which lasted twenty days. With the rest he reached India, made some settlements, and returned in July, 1501, with rich cargoes. Yet he was coolly received by his master, on account of the great loss of life which had been sustained, though with- out any fault on the part of Cabral, who was undoubtedly a navigator of high ability. [J.B.] CACCIA, Feud., an Ital. savant, 1689-1778. CACCIA,GuGLiELMO,anItal.paint.jl568-1625. CACCINI, Guilio, a comp. of music, d. 1615. CACCINI, Franc esca, daughter of the preced- ing, a poetess and musician of the 17th century. CADALOUS, P., bishop of Parma, elected anti-pope, under the title of Honorius II., 1061. CADA MOSTO, Aloisto De, a Venetian gentleman sent out by Don Henry of Portugal, in 1444, with Vicento de Lagos, and again in 1446, to examine the coast region of W. Africa. He afterwards published a very interesting account of Madeira, the Canaries, and the districts which he visited on the mainland as far as the Gulf of Guinea, by which he gained some celebrity. [J.B.] CADAMOSTO, M. A., an Ital. astron., 16th c. CADE, John, the notorious rebel of the reign of Henry VI., assumed the name of Mortimer, and 118 CAD appeared at the head of 20,000 men, levied in Kent, in the beginning of June, 1450 ; entered London on the 15th July, and after several reverses, be- came a fugitive, and was slain at Holkfield, in Sussex, by a gentleman named Alexander Iden. CADER-BILLAH, caliph of Bagdad, 991-1032. CADET, J. M., a Corsican geologist, last cent. CADET DE VAUX, Axthoxy Alexis, a French savant, known as a writer on agricultural economy, &c, 1743-1828. CADET DE GASSICOURT, Charles Louis, brother of the preceding, disting. as a chemist, &c, 1731-1799. His son of the same name, author of a * Diction, of Chemistry,* ' Travels,' &c, 1769-1821* CADMUS, the reputed founder of Thebes, and inventor of the earliest Greek alphabet, supposed to have flourished in the 16th century b.c. CADMUS, a Greek historian, 6th century b.c. CADOCUS, a Brit, or Welch ecclesiast., d. 550. CADOG, a Welch bard of the 6th century. CADOGAN, William, first earl of, distin- guished as the companion in arms of the duke of Marlborough, 1680-1726. CADOGAN, Wm, M.D., a medical au., d. 1797, CADOUDAL, George, one of the chiefs in the insurrections of La Vendee, executed for a con- spiracy to assassinate the first consul, 1769-1804. CADWALADYR, Casail, a Wei. poet, 16th c CADWALLADER, Thos., a med. au., d. 1786. C iECILIUS, Statius, a comic poet, 2d c. b.c. MELIUS AURELIANUS, a Gr. phys., 2d ct. CjESALPINUS, Andre, a celebrated botanist, was born at Arezzo in Tuscany in 1519. He died at Rome in 1603. Destined for the medical pro- fession, he was educated under Luke Ghines, at the time director of the public gardens at Pisa, It was this undoubtedly which gave him such a love for that branch of study by which his name is most favourably known to posterity. After teaching medicine and botany at Pisa, he was invited to Rome, was made physician to pope Clement VIIL, and elected professor of medicine at the college of Sapienza. His medical and philosophical works, of which he wrote a considerable number, are seldom now looked into ; and were it not for his book * On Plants,' the name of Caesalpinus would probably ere this have been forgotten. Previous to his time natu- ralists had studied plants more as classics and physicians than as botanists. Caesalpinus was the first who studied them according to nature ; and the publication of his system, though very imper- fect, forms a decided era in the study of botany. His method was founded upon the parts of fructifi- cation and the germination of the plant ; and his observations upon these two subjects have laid the foundation for the natural arrangement of plants formed on the differences of the cotyledon, and the more artificial divisions of Linnaeus drawn from their sexual distinctions. Ray, Tournefort, and Linnaeus, unite in giving him great credit for his botanical knowledge, and are not above acknowledging the assistance they derived from him in their systems of botany. In his work ' De Plantis,' Caesalpinus, amongst other things, shows that he had a toler- ably good idea of the circulation of the blood. In- deed a knowledge far beyond the age in which he lived, is the grand characteristic of Caesal- pinus. [W.B.] CiESAR, Aquil. J., a Gr. savant, 1720-1792. 119 CES [Julius Caesar— From an Ancient Statue.] CiESAR, Caius Julius, the dictator, was born on the 12th of July, b.c. 100. Connected bv birth with MariuS) and afterwards by marriage with Cin- na, he was naturally placed m opposition to the dictator Sulla ; and the injuries and insults which he received from the dominant party led, perhaps, to that settled purpose of breaking the power of" the aristocratical party, which he cherished from his first appearance in public life. At an early age he distinguished himself both in the camp and in the forum ; and had he devoted his great mind to the study of eloquence, he would, doubtless, have been a formidable rival of his great contemporary, Cicero. ^ At the age of twenty-three, (b.c. 77,) he made his first appearance in the forum as a public accuser ; and though forced for some time by his youth to act a subordinate part, he steadily kept m view the grand object which he had proposed to himself, and used every means to increase his popularity. He served as qua>stor in Spain, n.c. 68, was elected aedile for b.c. 65, and in the fol- lowing year was made pontifex maximus at the age of thirty-six. When pra^tor-elect in B.C. 63, during the famous Catilinarian conspiracy, his avowed hostility to the aristocracy excited a sus- picion that he was himself privy to it, but no proof was adduced even by his enemies. In the fol- lowing year he obtained the province of Further Spain, and there first displayed that genius for war which has entitled hiin to be tanked among the greatest generals of the world. Returning to Rome in B.C. 60, he found Pompcy ready to desert the aristocracy; and having succeeded in effecting a reconciliation between him and Crassus, he formed CUES •with them the coalition which is known in history as the First Triumvirate. By the influence of his new friends he was elected to the consulship for B.C. 59, and, while in office, obtained the provinces of Transalpine Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul, and Illysicum, with six legions, for five years. Having thus ob- tained the command of an army, and the manage- ment of an important war, he proceeded to prepare himself for the struggle which he foresaw was im- pending at Rome. His field of operation afforded him peculiar advantages; the Gauls were the here- ditary enemies of the Romans, and the glory of subduing them could not fail to increase his popu- larity; while the opportunity of passing the winter in the north of Italy enabled him to watch the proceedings of parties in the capitol. During the next nine years ne was occupied in the subjugation of Transalpine Gaul ; having also twice (b.c. 55 and 54) landed in Britain, and received the sub- mission of the inhabitants of the southern portion of the island. The interval of Caesar's absence from Rome had produced a great change in the state of parties. Pompey, jealous of the fame of a man to whose elevation he had mainly contri- buted, had effected a reconciliation with the aris- tocratical party ; and, aided by their support, resolved to crush the conqueror of Gaul. Accord- ingly in b.c. 49, a decree of the senate was passed, ' that Caesar should disband his army by a certain day, and that if he did not do so, he should be re- garded as an enemy of the state,' the predominant party relying on the influence of Pompey, to whom the management of the contest had been intrusted. But the feelings of the army were entirely with Caesar; and he, finding that his men were ready to follow him, crossed the Rubicon, which sepa- rated his province from Italy, and thus commenced the civil war, the issue of which invested him with dictatorial power. In three months he made him- self master of the whole of Italy. Proceeding next to Spain, the stronghold of Pompey, he reduced it to subjection ; and, after passing a short time in Italy, followed his opponent into Greece, and brought the contest to a final issue on the plains of Pharsalia, 4th Aug., B.C. 48. The battle of Pharsalia decided the fate of the Roman empire : Pompey fled to Egypt, but was murdered as he landed on the coast; and Caesar, who followed him, speedilv quashed all opposition in the eastern portion of the empire. After a short residence in Rome in B.C. 47, he proceeded to Africa to prosecute the war against Scipio and Cato, who had there collected a large army, and finally brought it to a close on the 6th of April, B.C. 46, by the battle of Thapsus, in which the Pompeian party were com- pletely defeated. In his absence Caesar had been elected dictator for ten years ; and his return to Rome was signalized by four magnificent triumphs. Devoting himself now to the duties of a legislator, he corrected various abuses which had crept into the state ; reformed the calendar, thereby confer- ring a real benefit on the civilized world ; and ex- ercised his unlimited power with a degree of mo- deration which affected even bis enemies with surprise. But his career wms destined to be short: a conspiracy against his life was formed at the beginning of B.C. 44 ; and on the Ides, or 15th of March, he perished by the bands of assassins in the senate house, iu the fiftieth year of his age. CAI As a warrior, a statesman, and a man of letters, Caesar was one of the most remarkable men of any age. [G.F.] CAESAR, Sir Julius, adist. lawyer, 1557-1636. CJESARIUS, a dist. abbot of the 6th cent. CjESARIUS, John, a German physician and professional teacher of philosophy, bora at Juliers 1460, died at Cologne 1551. The best known of his writings are his notes on Celsus, and his edition of Pliny's Natural History, but he is the author of treatises on dialectics and" rhetoric, now almost for- gotten. He suffered much persecution for Luther- anism, but returned again to the catholic church. CAFFA, Melchior, an Ital. sculp., 1631-1687. CAFFARELLI DU FALGA, L. M. J. M., a re- publican general, born 1756, killed at St. Jean D'Acre, 1799. His brother Ch. Ambrose, a philos. wr., 1758-1826 CAFFIAUX, J., awr. on music, &c, 1712-1777. CAFFIERI, P., an ornamen. artist, 1634-1716. CAGLIARI, Paolo, commonly called Paolo Veronese, was born at Verona in 1528. He was the pupil of his uncle Antonio Badile, and having earned considerable reputation in Verona and its vicinity, settled finally in Venice, where he was the rival of Titian and Tintoretto, and where he died in 1588. Paul Veronese may be accounted among the first of the machinist painters, many of his works being little more than ornamental schemes, such as the celebrated 'Marriage at Cana ' in the Louvre, containing 120 figures, or portions of figures, of the natural size. The mag- nificent architectural backgrounds to some of these works are said to have been executed by his brother Benedetto Cagliari. The St. Nicholas in the National Gallery, though small, is a fine example of his style : the chief attraction of his pictures is their gay and rich colouring ; they are further distinguished for their great freedom of execution, but are often careless in drawing, and for the most part purely capricious in costume. — (Ridolfi, Maravigtie delV Arte, &c; Zanetti, Delia Pittura Veneziana, &c.) [R.N.W.] CAGLIOSTRO, Alexander, Count, the as- sumed name of Joseph Balsamo, the most noto- rious charlatan of modern times, 1743-1795. CAGNOLA, a eel. Ital. architect, 1762-1833. CAGNOLI, Anth., an Ital. astron., 1743-1816. CAGNOLO, Jer., an Ital. lawyer, 1492-1551. CAHER-BILLAH, Abasside caliph, 932-950. CAILLAU, J. M., a medical and poetical wr., au. of a great number of prof, memoirs, 1765-1820. CAILLE, Nicholas Louis De La, a French mathematician and astronomer, 1713-1762. CAILLIE, a young and enterprising Frenchman who penetrated from Senegambia to Timbuctoo, in 1827-28, among the first to visit that part of central Africa. He returned across the great desert to Marocco, but his discoveries were not important. He had not, indeed, properly qualified himself by previous training. His travels have been published. [J.B.] CAILLEAN, A. C, a French an., 1731-1798. CAILLOT, a eel. French actor, 1732-1816. CAILLY, J. De, a French poet, 1604-1673. CAIN, the eldest son of Adam and Eve. CAINAN, the son of Enos, Gen. v. 9; the same nam* is given as a son of Arphaxad, Luke iii. 36. OAIAPHAS, high priest of the Jews, 29-37. CAI CAIUS, or GAIUS, a Roman lawyer, 3d cent. CAIUS, Mutius, a Roman architect, 100 b.c. ■ CAIUS, proconsul of Asia, time of Augustus. CAIUS, an ecclesiastic of the 3d century. CAIUS, a Roman saint, pope, 283-295. CAJETAN, (Thos. De Vio, cardinal,) so called from his birth-place, Gaeta, in Latin Cajeta, was horn in 1469. At the age of twenty-nine he pub- lished a noted book in defence of the papal prero- gative as to the calling of general councils, and was in consequence raised successively to the bishoprick of Gaeta and the archbishoprick of Pisa. In 1515 he was created cardinal. As the papal legate, he met Luther at Augsburg, and was sig- nally outwitted by the reformer. Cajetan relied on philosophy and Peter Lombard, but Luther ap- pealed to the Bible and St. Paul. The cardinal's last \ r ears were spent in writing learned commen- taries on the scholastic philosophy, and on many books of Scripture. He died in 1534. [J-E.] CALAMAN,the name of twoks. of Bulgaria; the Jirst, reign. 1242-5 ; the second, sue. and k. 1258. CALAMIS, an Athenian sculptor, 5th cent. B.C. CALAMY, Edmund, a presbyterian divine, member of the Westminster Assembly, &c, 1600- 1656. His son of the same name, minister of a private church in Cripplegate, 1635-1685. Ben- jamin, son of the last named, a celebrated preacher, prebend of St. Paul's, died 1686. Ed- mund, nephew of Benjamin, a celebrated noncon- formist and polemic, 1671-1732. CALANDRINI, J. L., a Swiss phil., 1703-1758. CALANUS, an Indian phil., time of Alexander. CALANUS, a bishop ot Hungary, 12th century. CALAS, John, a victim of religious fanaticism, executed for the alleged murder of his son, 1762. C ALA VIO, Marcode, aHeb. schol., 1550-1620. CALCAGNINI, Coelio, an Italian officer, dist. as a political agent and man of letters, 1479-1541. CALCRAFT, John, M. P. from 1796 to 1831, when he gave the casting vote in favour of the Re- form Bill, and shortly afterwards commitd. suicide. CALDARIC, L. M. A., an Ital. anat.,1725-1813. CALDAS, F. J., a Sp. naturalist, and patriot of New Granada, put to death by Murillo, 1816. CALDERON DE LA BARCA, Pedro, the Shakspeare of Spanish literature, was born at Madrid, of a noble family, in 1600. After having completed his studies, he was for some time at- tached to the court; after which he served for several campaigns in the Low Countries and in Italy. He had already become famous as a dra- matic poet, when in 1636 he was called to Madrid by Philip IV., a patron of letters, and himself a play-writer. From this time he was fixed at the court, and produced dramas with incessant rapid- ity. After he had reached his fiftieth year he took holy orders, and now busied himself oftenest in composing dramatic pieces on sacred subjects. His life was spent in an affluence and popularity very unlike the fate of Cervantes, and did not close till he was very old. He died in 1681 at earliest, and perhaps some years later. — Calderon was neither the founder of the Spanish drama, nor in any respect an improver of its forms or ideas. It had been completely developed before the death of Lope de Vega, which happened while Calderon was still young. But he brought to it both a wealth of fancy, an intensity of feeling, and a fertility and i 121 CAL dexterity of invention, which were not paralleled by any other Spanish dramatist, and hardly bv those of any other country. Full scope was given for his powers by the structure of the Spanish drama, in which the irregularities of the old Eng- lish school were not equalled merely, but far out- done. As a painter of character he has little either of strength, of precision, or of accurate observation; he is neither a master of human nature nor a poet of the highest order, while Shakspeare was both ; and, indeed^ the lyrical cast of all his works gives them the air of dramatic poems rather than of poetic dramas. But, within his own circle of thought and sentiment, he treads with a vigorous and elastic step ; and there are very few poets that have stronger attractions for minds keenly alive to the poetical and the romantic— Calderon's dramas are said to have amounted to not fewer than five hundred ; a surprising number, (though not more than a fourth of Lope's,) and a number which pre- cluded the possibility of deliberate care in con- struction. The principal of those which have been preserved are distributable into three groups. The first contains his comedies of familiar life, the 'Comedies of Cloak and Sword,' as they were called in Spain. These are equally remarkable for their grace and fluency of dialogue, and for their poetic beauty ; for the liveliness and interest which animate the stories of the best of them, their general in- genuity in situation and incident, and the equivo- cal morality and singular violations of good taste which prevail in them all. From among them may be named, 'The Fairy Lady,' 'Welcome, Evil, if it Come Alone,' and 'Give Time to Time!' The second division consists of the Heroic Comedies, among which are to be found some of the very finest and most dignified of his works. His master- piece is usually held to be one of these, ' The Con- stant Prince, which represents with profound pathos the self-sacrifice of Don Fernando of Por- tugal, in an unsuccessful expedition into Barbary. The ' Heraclius' became famous in France, Corneille having been asserted to have imitated it. The singular play, called 'Life is a Dream,' unites poetical imagination with melancholy reflective- ness in a way which imparts to it a charm alto- gether peculiar. The third class of Calderon's dramas embraces his Religious Pieces, or ' Sacra- mental Acts,' (Autos Sacramentales,) composi- tions which bear a strong resemblance to our own miracle-plays of the middle ages, and are, like them, deformed by fantastic extravagances of reli- gious opinion and feeling. Some of them, how- ever, are beautifully poetical. One of the most characteristic, held also by some critics to be the best, is ' The Devotion of the Cross,' a strange farrago of the wildest supernatural inventions, and the most impractically-motived exhibitions of hu- man conduct, but breathing a poetic spirit which is wonderfully impressive. One of its main inci- dents is the legend of one dead man shriving an- other, which had been used in a narrative poem of Lidgate, our old monk of Bury. [W.S.] CALDERWOOD, David, one of the founders of Presbyterianism, banished for his opposition to Episcopacy, died 1651. CALDWALL, Rich., an Eng. phy., 1513-1585. CALEB, a patriarch of the Jews, 15th cnt. B.C. CALENIUS, Walter, a Welch hist., 12th ct. CAL CALETTI, Giuseppe, an Ital. paint., d. 1660. CALIDASA, an Ind. dram., supposed 1st c B.C. CALIGNON, S. De, a political writer and his- torian, chancellor of Navarre, 1550-1606. CALIGULA, a tyrant of Rome, whose proper name was Caius Ca?sar Augustus Germanicus, was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and began his reign at the age of 25, a.d. 37. After reigning happily a few months, he suffered frcm a fever, which is supposed to have affected his mind. Four years of the most revolting excesses followed this misfortune, when a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated. CALIPPUS, a Ger. mathematician, 4th ct. B.C. CALIXTUS, the first pope of Rome, 219-222 ; the second, 1119-1124; the third, 1455-1458. CALIXTUS, G., chf. of a prot. sect, 1586-1656. CALL, J. Van, a Dutch engraver, 1655-1703. CALLCOTT, John Wall, the son of Thomas Callcott, bricklayer and builder, was born at Ken- sington, Gravel-pits, in the county of Middlesex, on the 20th of November, 1766. At a very early age he gave indications of that love of literature, and for the acquisition of knowledge, which distin- guished him in his after life. At seven years of age he was sent as a day-boarder to a neighbour- ing school, where he remained five years, made considerable progress in the Latin language, and commenced the study of Greek. He acquired the first rudiments of music from Henry Whitney, organist of Kensington church, to whom he was in- troduced in the year 1778. In 1779 he began to prac- tise upon the spinnet, with the view of becoming an organist. In 1780 he learned to play upon the cla- rionet, and made his first essay in musical composi- tion. In the meantime he continued to improve him- self in classical learning, and acquired a knowledge of French, Italian, and German, and made an attempt to master the Hebrew and Syriac languages, while mathematics and algebra also occupied his atten- tion. About the year 1782 he became intimate with Drs. Arnold and Cooke, whom he always re- garded as his first patrons. In 1783 he obtained the situation of assistant organist at the church of St. George the Martyr, which he held till 1785. At this time his musical compositions were both numerous and varied ; but the connections he had formed induced him to make glee-writing his par- ticular study. His first glee, ' O Sovereign of the Willing Soul,' was written in the year 1784. In 1785 he obtained three medals from the Catch Club, for a catch, a canon, and a glee. In the same year he took his degree of Bachelor in Music, and in 1786 he had two medals awarded him by the Catch Club. In 1787, Dr. Arnold and Call- cott established the Glee Club, which has ever since continued to form one of the most attractive musical societies in London. In this year he was admitted among the honorary members of the Catch Club, and received two medals. In 1789, and every year till 1793 inclusive, he obtained all the four medals by the club, and took his place as the most popular glee-writer of the day. In 1789, as colleague with Mr. Evans, he entered upon the office of organist at St. Paul's, Covent Garden, which situation he held until the church was de- stroyed by fire six years afterwards. In 179U Haydn arrived in England, and Callcott became one* of his earliest pupils ; and in the same year he CAL took his degree of Doctor in Music at Oxford. In IT'.tl Callcott was married, and on that occasion he wrote the words and music of his glee ' Trium- phant Love;' and the following year was appointed organist in the chapel of Female Orphans, which place he held till 1802, when he resigned in favour of Mr. Horsley. In 1797 he commenced to collect materials for a musical dictionary, which was never published, but which led to the publication of his musical grammar, which appeared in 1805. Shortly- after this he was appointed to succeed Dr. Crotch, as lecturer at the Royal Institution, but his life of arduous and unremitted study weakened his mind, which at length sank under the burdens he had laid too heavily upon it. He died on the 16th of May, 1821. Dr. Callcott was one of the brightest ornaments of the British school of music, and he had the strongest claim to esteem and reverence as a man. His works are well known to all glee clubs, but are much too nume- rous to be mentioned by name here. A fine selec- tion of his glees, edited by his son-in-law, William Horsley, Mus. Bac, Oxon, was published in 2 volumes in the year 1824. [J.M.] CALLCOTT, Sir A. W., R.A., eldest br. of the composer, disting. as a landscape paint., 1779-1844. CALLCOTT, Lady Maria, wife of the pre- ceding, author of several works of travel, a history of Spain, &c., 1779-1842. CALLET, J. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1744-1798. CALLETT, A. F., a Fr. painter, 1741-1823. CALLIMACHUS, archi. of Corinth, 6th c. B.C. CALLIMACHUS, a Gr. poet, and hist., 3d c. B.C. CALLINICHUS, a Gr. rhetorician, 3d cnt. B.C. CALLINUS, a Gr. orator and poet, 8th c. b.c. CALLIPUS, a phil. of Athens, assass. 351 B.C. CALLISTHENES, a Gr. phil., the disciple and grand-nephew of Aristotle, and one of the savants who accompanied Alexander into Asia, 365-328 b.c. CALLISTRATUS, an Athen. orator, 4th c. b.c. CALLY, Piene, a French catholic divine, dist. for his controver. and philosoph. writings, d. 1709. CALMET, Augustine, was born in 1672, near Commercy. After studying at Breuil and Port-a- Musson, he entered the order of Benedictines, as- suming the vows' finally in 1689. Afterwards he was removed to Miinster as sub-prior. For a short time he held the priory of St. Lay, and he was abbe* of St. Leopold of Nancy when he was removed to Senones, where he died in 1757. Calmet was a biblical scholar of no mean preten- sions and acquirements, as is shown by his Com- mentaire Litteral, by his Lictionnaire de la Bible, and by many dissertations on biblical subjects. His dictionary is well known in various English translations and abridgments, the most famous of the former being that of C. Taylor, in 5 volumes quarto. [J.E.] CALMO, Andrea, a Venet. poet, 1510-1571. CALO, John, a chief of Bulgaria, loth cent. CALOGERA, Father, a philolog., 1699-1768. CALONNE, Charles Alexandre De, con- troller-general (or finance minister) of the French government from the fall of Necker, 1783 to 1787. His name is chiefly memorable as the last of the plodding, intriguing, accommodating, and unprin- cipled statesmen by whom the French monarchy was hurried to the declivity of the revolution ; and especially for his daring experiment of assembling 12: CAL 1 the notables ' on the 22d of February, 1787. In- stead of extricating him from his difficulties, this measure really proved the signal of the revolution, as it did of Calonne's disgrace and exile. He was born at Douai, 1734, and educated for the law, which he dishonoured by his treacherous conduct to his client La Chalatois. He is the author of numerous political works and financial memoirs, the best of which may be his ' Tableau de l'Europe in November, 1795.' Buonaparte permitted him to return to France in 1802, where he died on the 30th of Oct., about a month after his arrival. [E.R.] CALPHURNIUS, J., a Greek scholar, 15th c. CALPRENEDE, Walter De Costes, lord of La, a French novelist and dramatic poet, d. 1663. CALPURNIUS, Titus J., a Latin poet, 3d c. CALVERT, Denis, a Dutch paint,, 1565-1619. CALVERT, Frederic, seventh Lord Baltimore, author of a ' Tour to the East,' &c, d. 1771. CALVERT, George, secretary of state to James I., first Lord Baltimore and founder of Maryland, died 1632. CALVET, Esprit Cl. F., a natur., 1728-1810. CALVI, Lazzaro, an Italian painter, d. 1606. CALVIN, John, (Cauvin Jean), was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. Law and theology were combined in his earliest studies. He received, when he was but twelve years old, a benefice in the cathedral of his native town, and, at the age of seventeen, there was added to this previous gift the pastoral cure of Monteville. At his father's request he pursued legal studies at Orleans and Bourges. His mind, however, had been gradually opening to the errors of popery; and, in the place last named, he openly avowed himself a disciple of the reformation. In 1532 he proceeded to Paris, but, having provoked the Sor- bonne by his zeal for the new doctrines, he was obliged, with his friend Cop, to quit the city in haste. Under the anticipated patronage of the queen of Navarre, he returned to the French capital in 1534, but the fate of his previous visit again pursued him, and he retired to Basel, then travelled into Italy, visited the duchess of Ferrara, soon came back, and arrived, 1536, as if by accident, at Geneva — the city with which his name is now immortally iden- tified. His early labours and stem discipline did not at first suit the Genevese, and he was banished along with Farel. The reformer halted at Berne for a time, and then removed to Strasburg, in one of the churches of which town he laboured as pas- tor with all his characteristic activity and deci- sion, and not without marked success. In 1541 he returned to Geneva — or rather was recalled — and from that period till his death, his labours were unremitting in the pulpit and from the press. As a citizen, as a pastor, as an ecclesiastical ruler and reformer, and as a correspondent and counsellor of foreign churches, he was instant ' in season and out of season.' The literary work which he exe- cuted is almost incredible, especially when we consider the weak and emaciated constitution in which his indomitable spirit was lodged. Fre- quent headaches and frequent fastings to relieve those spasms, — nocturnal study with a dim lamp suspended from the canopy of his humble bed — watchful anxiety, and domestic bereavement — contributed to shorten his life, and on the 27th of May, 1564, he died at the age of fifty-five. He 123 CAM had previously summoned the syndics of Geneva to his deathbed, and solemnly adjured them to persevere in their adherence to the pure gospel of Christ. The works of Calvin comprise commen- taries on nearly the whole of the Bible— in all of which, with varying success, the mind of the sacred writers is simply and forcibly expounded, without the parade of erudition, but with a clear perception and logical analysis of the process of inspired thought and argument. His ' Institutes,' published at the early age of twenty-four, are a remarkable monument of precocious ability, and not only speedily gained for its author a European renown, but contributed in no ordinary degree to strengthen, fortify, and extend, the protestant reformation. _ The Latinity of the long dedica- tion to the king of France is remarkable for its elegance and purity. His numerous tracts against popery have wit as well as wisdom in them — especially the one called the 'Inventory of Sa- cred Relics.' His voluminous correspondence has been partly published, but a very large collec- tion of letters remain in MSS. in the library of Geneva. The industry of M. Bonnet has, dur- ing the last two years, discovered many others, and collected them with a view to speedy publica- tion. Of the system of theology named Calvin- ism, espoused so extensively in France, Britain, and America, this is not the place to speak. The merits of Calvin have been acknowledged by men of very opposite sentiments — as even by Simon and Bayle. No one now will justify Calvin's share in the burning of Servetus. The other reformers, even the gentle Melaucthon, vindicated the sad tragedy, it will not suffice to say that Calvin was drawn into the measure, or that the fate of Servetus was in accordance with the law of the state, and therefore beyond the control of the reformer. Calvin distinctly understood his own part in the business, and felt that compassion was to yield to conscience. The only apology for him is, that Calvin was not, in the matter of religious liberty, before his age. He was no exception to the general rule. Cranmer sent Joan of Kent to the stake, and himself in a few years fol- lowed. Five Genevan disciples of Calvin were burnt in France about the same time that Servetus was committed to the flames in Geneva. John Knox and Peter Dens use the very same argument and imagery for the capital punishment of heretics. Nay, Servetus himself admitted the legal theory under which he suffered ; for in his work called Restitutio, published a few months before his own death, he says expressly that the crime of blasphemy is worthy of death — 'simpliciter' — 'without dis- pute.' Similar doctrines are propounded in old books of Scottish theology, by Samuel Rutherford, and in 'The Hind Let Loose.' It took a long time to teach protestants that man is responsible to God alone for his belief, and that liberty of con- science is a universal birthright. [J.E.] CALVISIUS, Sellius, a composer and writer on music and various subjects of learning, 1556-1617. CAM, or CANO, Diego, a Portuguese who discovered the river Zaire or Congo, and traced part of the S. Guinea coast in 1484-85. [J.B.] CAMARAY Y MURGA, a Sp. prelate, d. 1641. CAMBACERES, Jean Jacques Bkou In duke of Parma, prince of the empire, &c, born at CAM Montpellier 1753, died at Paris 1824. Though a child of the revolution, and from the first favour- able to its progress, the ambition of Cambaceres was rather constructive than otherwise, ami added to his education for the law, well qualified him for his great share in the preparation of the civil code, and the judiciary organization of France. He pos- sessed the rare talent of preserving his credit for patriotism, without committing himself to the strife of parties, and in 1799 was associated with Napoleon Buonaparte in the consulate. It does not appear that the first consul had much regard for him, and his conduct must be regarded as equivocal, at the least, when it is considered that he rose to fresh honours under the second restora- tion. The real product of his political activity is fairly represented by his ' Projet du Code Civil, et Discours Preliminaire,' published 1794, and the practical application of it in following years. The most distinguished of his relations were his bro- ther, Stephen Hubert De Cambaceres, arch- bishop of Rouen, and peer of France, a most esteemed prelate, 1756-1818; Baron Camba- ceres, his nephew, and one of Napoleon's generals, 1778-1826 ; and his uncle, the Abbe De Camba- ceres, distinguished as a religious writer and preacher, 1721-1802. [E.R.] CAM BON, Joseph, one of the more violent Jacobins of the French revolution, was born at Montpellier, 1754, and returned to the legislative assembly, 1791. He is chiefly memorable as the reporter of the finance commission, by which some kind of order was eliminated from the confusion left by Calonne and his predecessors, and the basis laid for the subsequent financial prosperity of his country. Whatever share he may have taken in the agitation of the period, the merit belongs to him of pursuing this one aim with steady perse- verance. He was disliked by Robespierre, and contributed to his fall on the 9th Thermidor, (27th July, 1794,) but was shortly afterwards compelled to save himself by flight. In 1815 he reappeared on the public stage as a member of the representa- tive assembly, and in 1816 was driven into exile as a regicide. He died at Brussels in 1820. [E.R.] CAMBRIDGE, Adolphus Frederick, duke of, youngest son of George III., born 1774, served as volunteer with the duke of York 1793-1795, viceroy of Hanover 1815-1837, d. 8th July, 1850. CAMBRIDGE. R. Owen, a miscel. wr., d. 1802. CAMBRONNE, Pierre Jacques Etienne, Bai-on De, the brave commander of the old guard at the battle of Waterloo, 1770-1842. CAMBYSES, the first of this name, father of Cyrus, lived about 595 B.C. ; the second, son and sue. of Cyrus, began to r. 529 or 530 B.C., d. 522. CAMDEN, Charles Pratt, Earl, a distin- guished lawyer and statesman, lord chancellor in 1766, president of the council 1782, 1713-1794. CAMDEN, John Jeffreys Pratt, Marquis, K.G., distinguished as a disinterested servant of the state for sixty years, 1759-1840. CAMDEN, William, the celeb, antiquarian, an. of ' The Britannia,' ■ Annals,' &c, 1551-1623. CAMELLI, G. J., a mis. and botanist, 17th ct. CAMERARIUS, Joachim, a learned German, 1500-74. His son of the same name, one of the first physic, botan., andchem. of his age, 1534-1598. CAMERON, Lieut.-Gen. Sib Allan, distin- CAM guished for enrolling the ' Cameron Highlanders,' at his own expense, m 1793, died 1828. CAMERON, John, a Scotch theologian, pro- fessor of divinity at Glasgow, and afterwards at Montauban, in France, died 1625. CAMILLA, a princess of the Volsci, k. in battle. CAMILLA, J. A. V., an Ital. actress, 1735-68. CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, a Roman general of distinguished patriotism, made dictator B.C. 396, died B.C. 365. CAMILO, F., a Spanish painter, 1610-1671. CAMOENS, Luis De, is the only Portuguese poet who enjoys a European celebrity. He was of noble family ; and his ancestors on the father's side were Spanish. He was probably born at Lis- bon ; and the date of his birth was 1527, or a few years earlier. After having been educated at Coimbra, he passed some time in courtly society at Lisbon ; but an attachment to a lady ot distinc- tion brought on him a sentence of banishment to Santarem, where he composed several of his poems, and is said to have planned or begun that which is the greatest of them. He then volunteered into the fleet, distinguished himself against the African Moors, and lost his right eye in an attack on Ceuta. On his return he found himself neglected and poor ; and in 1553 he embarked for India, declaring a resolution of never again seeing his native countiy. Escaping from a storm, in which the other vessels of the fleet foundered, he reached the Portuguese settlement at Goa; and sixteen years passed over him in the East, amidst perilous adventures, and continual disappointments and misfortunes. He failed to obtain employment in the public service, and entered as a volunteer in two expeditions, the one to Cochin, (in which almost all the Europeans were destroyed by the climate,") the other against the pirates of the Red Sea. A versified satire on the abuses of the government, provoked the viceroy to banish the poet to Macao, where he lived for five years, glad to support himself by the fees of a small [Grotto of Cainoens at Macao.] office. In this period his great poem is believed to have been completed. He saved the manuscript with difficulty on being shipwrecked on the coast of Cambodia, when at length allowed to return to Goa. Here he was twice imprisoned, first on a groundless charge of malversation in office, and again for debts which he was unable to pay. He 124 CAM now took up arms again, in the service of the governor of a remote settlement ; and there, weary and dispirited, he was tempted to sail for Europe in a homeward-bound vessel which happened to pass. He returned to Lisbon in 1569, as poor and unprosperous as he had been when he departed. He published his noble poem, but gained by it neither fame nor profit. The public were blind to its value; and the government and court were otherwise occupied. It was probably about this time that Camoens would have died of hunger, had not a black servant begged for him at night in the streets. In 1578 King Sebastian, embark- ing on his fatal expedition against Morocco, perished in the bloody battle of Alcazar; and, while his mind had been diverted alike from ad- ministration and from literature by his chivalrous dreams, his successor, an aged churchman, was engrossed by ecclesiastical business and dismayed by public calamities. The great poet of the na- tion was left to his fate. He died in a public hospital in the year 1579. — Camoens left untried hardly any department of poetry, from the tragedy to the sonnet ; and high praise is given to many of his smaller compositions. But his immortality was caused by the magnificent heroic poem which we commonly call 'The Lusiad.' The name he himself gave to it was 'Os Lusiados,' that is, ' The Lusitanians,' or ' Portuguese.' He designed in its ten books to celebrate the glory and great- ness of a nation, as to which he triumphantly de- clared that it was soon to surpass the fame and ma- jesty of all others in the world. The main story is the voyage in which Vasco de Gama rounded the Cape of Storms, and discovered the passage to India ; but the whole history of Portugal is en- grafted on this stock. Nearly a third of the poem is occupied by a narrative of the rise of the king- dom, which Vasco delivers to the king of Melinda, much in the manner of ^Eneas's tale to Dido ; and occasion is taken for introducing minor incidents and characters in shorter episodes. A plan em- bracing a field so wide, could not well be executed without making too heavy demands on the atten- tion of the reader ; and undoubtedly there are few who do not feel the poem, as a whole, to be want- ing in interest. Another weakness lies in the want of local truth which pervades it, and which exhibits itself both in the scenery and in the char- acters. The work abounds in supernatural machi- nery, which is nothing else than a repetition of the heathen mythology, while it often passes into un- disguised allegory. Nor is any attempt made at describing exactly either the landscapes or the manners of the East : all is general and unchar- acteristic. But the glow of patriotic and warlike animation, the frequent pathos, (as in the story of Inez de Castro,) and the constant affluence of imagery beautifully poetical, combine in present- ing us with a series of pictures, such as is very rarely to be met with in poetry, and fully sufficient to vindicate the place of Camoens as one of the greatest among modern poets. The diction and versification, also, are pronounced by competent critics to possess the very highest merit. [W.S.] CAMPAN, Madame De, a lady of the royal household, celebrated for her memoirs of Marie Antoinette, 1752-1822. CAMPANELLA, Thomas, a distinguished CAM Spaniard of the lGth century, no less remarkable from the originality of his writings, than through the extraordinary reverses of his life. The contempo- rary of Bacon and Des Cartes, he ranks with Gior- dano Bruno and a few others, as evidence that the time had come for a successful revolt against the philosophy of the Peripatetics and the Church. Like Bruno, his tendencies were towards Platonism ; many of his views, also, were tinted with mysticism. He had, however, a clear conception of the nature of metaphysics ; and he has contributed one of our many ' Utopias ' to political theory, in his ' Civitas Solis.' Campanella found in the Spanish govern- ment a mortal foe. Seven times did he undergo the horrors of the question ; he passed seven years in a dungeon — supporting his courage and nourish- ing his soul, with thought. At length he escaped to France, and found a protector in Richelieu, with whom the hatred borne him by Spain was sufficient recommendation. Campanella's works cannot be overlooked by the thorough student of metaphysics : the more important of them have been recently collected and published in Ger- many. [J.P.N.] CAMPANILE, an Italian satirist, 1630-1674. CAMPANIUS, Th., a learned Swede, author of a description of New Sweden, America, 1701. CAMPBELL, Archibald, marquis of Argyle, a distinguished partizan of the covenanters, be- headed 1661. His son of the same name, earl of Argyle, disting. as a royalist, and beheaded 1685. CAMPBELL, Arch., bp. of Aberdeen, d. 1744. CAMPBELL, George, D.D., a professor of divinity in the presbyterian church, 1709-1796. CAMPBELL, J., d. of Argyle and Greenwich, a partizan of the house of Hanover, 1671-1743. CAMPBELL, John, a Scotch archit., d. 1734. CAMPBELL, John, a miscellan. au., d. 1775. CAMPBELL, Major-Gen. Sir Neil, British resident at Elba in charge of Napoleon, died 1827. CAMPBELL, Thomas, was born at Glasgow in July, 1777. His father, descended of a good family in Argyleshire, was a Virginia merchant ; but before the birth of the poet, the youngest of his eleven children, he was in decayed circum- stances, and subsisted on small annuities from mer- cantile societies, and by receiving young men into his house as boarders. Thomas, after distinguish- ing himself at school, passed through the univer- sity of Glasgow with high reputation, which, how- ever, was gained less by steady industry or exact learning, than by the precocious brilliancy of his essays m prose and his versified translations from the classics. Till the end of his life, Greek was his favourite study ; and he was vainer of his pro- ficency in it than of his poetry or the fame it brought him. His studies at college were assisted by a bursary or exhibition, and by the hard-won gains of private teaching; and he became suc- cessively, for short periods, tutor in two fami- lies in the west of Scotland. The poverty of his family precluded his pursuit of the more ambitious professions ; and a few months spent as a copying clerk in Edinburgh, disgusted his sensitive ami in- dolent mind with the drudgery and captiousness of the attorney's chambers. This migration intro- duced him to the notice of literary men ; and to the encouragement and criticism of Dr. Robert Ander- son, more than to anything else, was owing Ids 125 CAM prosecution of poetical composition. — One of his first printed efforts was 'The Wounded Hussar,' which appeared when he was about twenty years of age. About the same time, living in humble lodgings in Edinburgh, and supporting himself by private teaching of the classics, and by obscure drudgery for booksellers, he was composing poetical fragments, which were gradually incorporated into 'The Pleasures of Hope.' This poem, published in 1799, in its author's twenty-second year, be- came immediately and deservedly famous; and though, in spite of advice, he sold the copyright absolutely for sixty pounds, the publishers, on its success, were for some time very liberal to him ; and the reversion of the copyright became profitable in his declining years. Being now determined on making literature his profession, he spent upwards of a year in Germany. A great poem, 'The Queen of the North,' ardently projected, was soon dropped ; but he transmitted from abroad, to the Morning Chronicle, several of his finest lyrics, among which were, 'Ye Mariners of England,' and ' The Exile of Erin.' He had intended set- tling in Edinburgh, where he had long been inti- mate with Jeffrey, Brown, Scott, and Stewart, and most of all with Alison ; and with this design he set down his parents in that city. To them, indeed, to his mother after her husband's death, and to his sisters always afterwards, he was steadily and honourably affectionate and generous. — In 1803, however, he found it advisable to re- move to London ; and in the same year, uncertain though his prospects were, he married his cousin Miss Sinclair. Next year he obtained an engage- ment with the Star newspaper, from which he received about four guineas a-week, chiefly earned by translating foreign gazettes. About the same time appeared 'The Battle of the Baltic' For seventeen years from this date he inhabited a house at Sydenham, near London. In 1805 his circumstances were improved by a pension of two hundred a-year bestowed by Fox's administration ; partly, perhaps, for zealous advocacy of Whig prin- ciples, but prompted also by his poetical celebrity, and by the necessities of one who was always thriftless, and disqualified, both by temperament and by feebleness of health, for steady labour as a bookseller's hack. In 1807 was published one of the fruits of his taskwork, ' The Annals of Great Britain,' for which he received three hundred pounds from an Edinburgh bookseller. In 1809 appeared 'Gertrude of Wyoming,' to which, the year after, ' O'Connor's Child ' was annexed. The place which Campbell justly holds as one of the classics of English poetry was now securely gained, when he had only reached his thirty-third year ; and, though his life was but half spent, it may safely be said that nothing which he afterwards wrote was worthy to be ranked with his earlier achievements. His time, in fact, was thenceforth frittered away in desultory and occasional studies, and in toils which had no higher purpose than the subsistence of his family ; and the exquisite deli- cacy and correctness of taste, which give such a charm to his finest poems, did no more than im- pede him in his prose writing. The romantic glow of imagery and sentiment, which had in- spired, in youth, his ethical meditations, and which had risen into a more manly enthusiasm in his 126 CAM martial lyrics, died away amidst the hurry and coarseness of real life; and the poet certainly wanted the leisure, and probably wanted the na- tive vigour of thought, which might have furnished him with other and severer themes, and prompted a new tone of poetic inspiration. — In 1812 he de- livered, with great popularity, six lectures on poetry at the Royal Institution : two years afterwards, a long visit to Paris, while the masterpieces of Gre- cian sculpture and Italian painting were still un- removed from the Louvre, gratified his classical taste, and suggested much of attractive reflection. Soon afterwards a legacy from a Highland cousin placed at his command the income of a sum, which in the end exceeded four thousand pounds. In 1819 appeared his well-selected ' Specimens of the British Poets,' accompanied with criticisms, which, written with very fine judgment and fair know- ledge, are the only prose compositions of Camp- bell that are likely to be remembered. In 1821 he became editor of 'The New Monthly Magazine,' to which he contributed a good many critical essays and poems ; and the editorship, though ne- ver carefully attended to, was retained for ten years. During these years several events occurred. The ill success of 'Theodric' disappointed him grievously. His surviving son, (the other having died in infancy,) was now, at the age of fourteen, pronounced to labour under mental aberration, which proved to be hopeless ; and in 1828 his do- mestic calamities were completed by the loss of his wife. In 1825 he was chiefly occupied in organiz- ing the London university, visiting Berlin to ob- tain information for the purpose. In November, 1826, he was elected rector of the university of Glasgow ; and, exerting himself actively in pro- moting and suggesting reforms, he was re-elected twice afterwards. About and after the close of this period, also, very much of his time was taken up with the affairs of the Polish refugees. — In 1831, having resigned his first editorship, he for a short time edited the Metropolitan. Seven or eight months from September, 1834, were spent by him in Algiers, which he seems to have had no purpose in visiting except that of making a book. He executed this design in his 'Letters from the South.' Among several pieces of drud- gery which he now performed was his ' Life of Mrs. Siddons.' ' The Pilgrim of Glencoe,' the last of his considerable poems, published in 1842, was not successful even in his own estimation. His health, long uncertain, was now irretrievably shattered ; and fond of society, and often tempted to convivial excesses, he had taken but too little pains to pre- serve health, especially since domestic distresses had fallen so heavily on him. His affr.irs too, became much embarrassed ; and in July 1843, giving up the last of several houses he had successively oc- cupied in London, he retired with his niece to Bou- logne. There, after a winter of suffering, he died in June 1844. [W.S.] CAMPE, J. H., a German author, 1746-1818. CAMPEGGIO, Lorenzo, cardinal nuncio to the court of Henry VIIL, 1474-1539. CAMPER, Pierre, a celebrated anatomist and naturalist, was born at Leyden in 1722. He died in 1789. He was educated as a medical man, un- der Albinus, Gaubius, and Musschenbroek. After he had taken his degree, and paid the last duties CAM to his parents, he visited England and Paris, where he made the acquaintance of such men as Hunter, Sir Hans Sloane, Buffon, &c. He succes- sively rilled the chairs of philosophy, medicine, and surgery, at Franeker, Amsterdam, and Gron- ingen. At the latter place he spent ten years de- voted to study and the duties of his professorship, and used to say these years were the happiest of his life. He was twice elected deputy to the as- sembly of the states, and was at length nominated councillor of state. Camper possessed a singular facility for acquiring languages. He spoke fluently in Latin, English, German, and French, and read Greek and Italian with ease. The dissertations and memoirs upon medical subjects which he pub- lished, extended his fame to all parts of Europe ; but it is upon his profound knowledge of compara- tive anatomy applied to the study of natural his- tory, that his chief reputation depends, and it is by it that his name will descend to posterity with the greatest eclat. One of the great objects of Camper's life, was to show from anatomical de- tails applied to natural history, that there is a re- gular gradation in animal beings from man down- wards, and a scale of proportions by which it might be demonstrated how all living beings are connected one with another in the general system of creation. He was one of the first to lead the way in the study of Paleontology, and in a me- moir upon fossil bones, after examining and com- paring a series of those with the skeletons of ani- mals existing at the present time, he arrived at the conclusion (since his time so ably carried out by Cuvier) that certain species of animals have at dif- ferent times been destroyed by various revolutions of the globe. One of his most striking discoveries was that of the bones of birds containing air. It was known that the bones of birds were light, and pos- sessed no marrow ; but it was reserved for Camper to show from anatomical demonstration that there was a direct communication between the cavities of the bones and the lungs. Hunter made the same dis- covery soon afterwards. Camper's memoirs upon the organs of hearing in fishes — on the anatomy of the orang-outang — on the origin and colour of the negro— and on the facial line as applied to charac- terize the different races of man, snow great talent and observation ; while the zeal with which he undertook the cure and prevention, by inoculation, of the terrible epizootic which raged amongst the horned cattle in Holland in 1768, proved him to be a patriotic citizen, as well as an enlightened anatomist and physician. [W.B.] CAMPHUYSEN, Dykk, a Dutch paint., 17th c. CAMPI, Ben., an Italian painter, 1522-1592. CAMPI, P. E., an Ital. dramatist, 1740-1796. CAMPIAN, Edmund, a Jesuit hist, and dram., executed for conspiracy against Elizabeth, 1581. CAMPIGLIA, A., an Italian historian, 17th c. CAMPIGLIA, J. D., an ItaL paint., 1692-1770. CAMPISTRON, J. G., De, a French dramatist, a, protege of the celebrated Racine, 1656-1723. CAMPO-LONGO, A., a Neap, paint., d. 1580. CAMPO-LONGO, E., an Ital. phy., 1550-1604. CAMPO-LONGO, E., a satir. poet, 1732-1801. CAMPOMANES, Pedro Rodriguez, Count De, a Spanish statesman, distinguished as a poli- tical economist, 1723-1789. CAMPSON, G., sultan of Egypt, 1504-1516. CAN CAMUS, A. G., deputy to the states-general, 1789; member of the convention, 1792; president of the council of 500, 1796 ; distinguished as a man of letters, 1740-1804. CAMUS, E. L., a Fr. mathemati., 1690-1768. CAMUS, John Pet., a Fr. prelate, 1582-16.02. CAMUSAT, Nich., a Fr. historian, 1675-165& CANALETTI, A., a Venet. paint., 1697-1 76s. CANAAN, according to Gen., the son of Ham. CANDACE, a queen of Ethiopia, Acts viii. 27. CANANI, J. B., an Ital. anatomist, 1515-1579. CANAO, a count of Bretagne, 547-560. CANCLAUX, J. B. Camille, Count De, an officer in the revolutionary army, afterwards a member of the senate, 1740-1817. CANDAULES, a king of Lydia, 735-718 b.c. CANDIANO, a dis. Ven. family, 9th and 10th c. CANDIDUS, a Ger. historian of the 5th cent. CANDIDUS, P., a protest, histor., 1540-1608. CANDOLLE, Augustin Pyramus De, a dis- tinguished botanist, was born at Geneva in 1778. He died in 1841. From the age of sixteen he de- voted himself to the pursuit of botany. He be- took himself to Paris, where he attended the lec- tures of Cuvier, Lamarck, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, &c, and prosecuted his botanical studies under Jussieu and Desfontaines. He adopted the na- tural system, and became one of its most distin- guished supporters. In 1807 he was elected pro- fessor of botany at Montpellier. This chair he re- signed upon the restoration of the Bourbons, at which time his native city was restored to its in- dependence. Hither he retired, and was appointed in 1816 to the chair of natural history, which was expressly instituted for him. His botanical works are numerous and excellent. The 'Prodromus Systematis Regni Vegetabilis,' is the most im- portant, though he did not live to complete it. His incessant studies, it is to be feared, at last told heavily upon his constitution. For some years his health was declining, and though in 1840 he undertook a journey as a relaxation from his labours, he did not derive any decided benefit from it. M. De Candolle was distinguished, in addition to his great and deserved reputation as a botanist, for his activity in promoting measures of public- utility, such as the improvement of agriculture, the cultivation of the arts, the advancement of (rablic instruction, and the amelioration of the egislative code of his native city. [W.B.] CANGE, Charles Du Fresne Du, a French histor., in high repute for his learning, 1610-1688. CANINI, J. A., an Ital. paint, 1617-1665. _ CANNEMAN, Elias, a Dutch statesman, prin- cipal agent in restoring the house of Orange, 1813. CANNING, George, a distinguished British statesman, was born in London, on 11th April, 1770. He began life in circumstances little likely to have fostered a statesman. His father, a man of good family, suffering from the light in which his connections viewed an imprudent marriage, died while George was an infant. The widow was subsequently twice married, tried the stage, and, though there was no blot on her reputation, by a wandering and rather discreditable life, justified the distaste towards her of the Canning family. It is, however, among the amiable features of tliis statesman's character, that, when he was attract- ing the attention of the world, and must have felt 127 CAN his mother an impediment to his prospects, he treated her with uniform kindness and public respect. He was educated by his maternal uncle, a merchant in the city, and studied at Christ Church, Oxford. He early showed the versatility of his powers, by not only taking a high academi- cal position, but gaining a host of admirers among his own contemporaries by his conversational powers and efforts in light literature. His early association with Sheridan marked him out as a probable acquisition to the Whigs, and a dramatic anecdote is told of Godwin having been sent to offer him the championship of the friends of the people — an offer on which lie is said to have deli- berated ere he rejected it. In 1793, however, he entered parliament as a supporter of Pitt. His opinions were naturally liberal, but his fastidious taste, and somewhat scornful temper, revolted against popularity, and thus it was, that, while he joined the Tory party, he carried into it a decided practical leaning to Whig principles. While the aris- tocracy have charged him with betraying them, he wrote in the 'Anti jacobin,' and other quarters, some of the bitterest satires against democracy that have appeared since the days of Theophrastus. He took office, as under-secretary of state, in 1796. In 1800, he married one of the daughters of General Scott of Balcomie, in Fifeshire, whose large for- tune rendered him no longer liable to the imputa- tion of being an adventurer. On the return of the Tory party to power in 1807, he was made foreign secretary. In 1809, in consequence of a quarrel with Castlereagh, which produced a duel, he re- signed his office. He soon afterwards commenced his pleadings for catholic emancipation, which tended so greatly to the consummation which he did not live to see. He was on the eve of his de- parture to be governor-general of India when the death of Castlereagh, in 1822, made him yield to the urgent demands that he should strengthen the ministry by taking office as foreign secretary. In 1825, he performed one of his favourite achieve- ments in the acknowledgment of the independence of the Spanish settlements in South America. In February, 1827, he succeeded Lord Liverpool as prime minister. The chancellor, Eldon, and some other members in the government, of high Tory principles, resigned office on the occasion, in a pe- culiarly emphatic manner: and Canning sought and to a considerable extent obtained the sup- port of the Whigs. But in his short career he was so severely harassed by the opposition of his for- mer colleagues, that he died on 8th August, 1827, exhausted both in body and mind. [J.H.B.] CANO, Alonso, a celebrated Spanish painter and sculptor, and also architect, was born at Granada in 1601. He studied at Seville, sculpture with J. Montanes, and painting under Pacheco and Juan de Castillo. He was ap- pointed painter to Philip IV., and practised some time at Madrid, but settled finally at Granada, where he established a considerable school ; he died there in 1667. The extent and versatility of his powers have procured Cano the title of the ' Michelangelo of Spain ;' his pictures are rich in effect, and display great vigour of exe- cution; they are numerous at Seville, Madrid, Toledo, and Granada, where are still preserved some celebrated altar-pieces. — (Can Bermudez, CAN Diccionario Tlislorico de. los mas Tlustres pro fen- ores de las Bellas Artes en Espagna.~) [ R.N.W.] CANO, James, a Portug. navigator, 15th cent. CANO, J. S., a Spanish navigator, died 1626. CANOVA, Antonio, one of the most cele- brated sculptors of modem times, was born in the village of Possagno, near Trevigi, in 1757. He was sent at an early age by the Venetian govern- ment to complete his studies in Rome ; for which purpose he was granted a pension of 300 ducats per annum for three years. This judicious liber- ality of the Venetian government was the indirect cause of Canova's settling in Rome, and similarly in a great measure contributed to the revival of the arts in the nineteenth century. His first work of note was the group of Theseus and the Minotaur ; this was succeeded by the great monuments to popes Clement XIIL, and XIV., and Pius the VI., which raised the reputation of Canova above that of all his contemporaries ; the monument of Clement XIIL is that in St. Peter's of which the celebrated reposing lions form a part. — Canova's works are extremely numerous, and are generally beautiful, combining nature with classic beauty and proportion; his extraordinary ability, and perhaps industry also, are well displayed in the noble collection of casts after his works, preserved together in the academy at Venice, among which Hercules in the tunic of Deianira hurling Lichas into the sea from the rock, is a most imposing group. Some of his best works are preserved in the Vatican, as the Boxers and many others ; his celebrated Venus is in the Pitti Palace at Flo- rence ; the three Graces are in this country. At Apsley House is a colossal statue of Napoleon. Canova died at Venice, October, 1822, and a magnificent design which he had made for a public monument to Titian, was with slight alterations adapted, and in 1827 executed by some of his pupils in commemoration of his own memory ; it is in the church of the Frari. — Canova was in every sense a most successful artist; his reputation is European; he amassed great wealth, and was created marquis of Ischia by the pope ; there is a portrait of him by Sir Thomas Lawrence. — (Mis- sirini, Vita di Antonio Canova, 1827; Canova's Works by Moses, &c, &c.) [R.N.W.] CANOVAI, Stanislaus, a math., 1740-1811. CANSTEIN, Ch. Hildkbrand, Baron, a Ger- man nobleman, discoverer of an art analogous to stereotvping, died 1719. CANTACUZENUS, John, one of the most famous emperors of the East, succeeded 1341, ab- dicated 1354 ; afterwards distinguished as an his- torian and theologian, died 1410. His descendants have given many princes to Moldavia and Wal- lachia, and the last of the name distinguished him- self in the cause of Greek independence, 1821. CANTARINI, Simon, an Ital. painter, d. 1648. CANTEMIR, Constantine, vaivode of Molda- via, 1630-1693. Demetrius, his son, hospodar of Moldavia, distinguished as an historian, 1673- 1723. Constantine Demetrius, son of the last named, adiplomatist and man of letters, 1709-174 !. CANTERBURY, Ch. Manners Sutton, Vis- count, speaker of the H. of Commons, 1780-1845. . CANTIPRATANUS, Thos., a philos., 13th ct. CANTON, John M. A., an astron., 1718-72. CANTON, J. G., a Germ, painter, 1710-1753. 128 CAN CANUEL, Simon, a French general, distin. as a royalist in the war of La Vendee, b. 1767. CANUTE L, king of Denmark 863-873. Can- ute II., surnamed the Great, succeeded 1014, sole master of England, 1016, conqueror of Norway, 1028, died 1035. Canute III., called Hardi- canute, or Canute II. of England, died 1042. Can- ute IV., king of Denmark, 1080-1086. Canute V., 1182-1202. Canute VI., 1182-1202. CANUTE, a king of Sweden, 1168-1192. CAPEL, Arthur, Lord, a royalist, noted for the defence of Colchester, bhdd. by the parlmt. 1648. CAPEL, Arthur, earl of Essex, son of the pre- ceding, charged with participating in the Rye-house plot, found with his throat cut in the Tower, 1683. CAPELL, Edward, an English critic, editor of an edition of Shakspeare, 1713-1781. CAPELLEN, G. A. P., Baron, a Dutch states- man, minister of the interior under L. Buonaparte. CAPELLEN, T. F., aDutch v.-adm., 1750-1824. CAPELLO, Bianca, celebrated as the mis- tress and wife of one of the Medici, supposed to have been murdered, 1587. CAPISTRAN, John, De, many years a papal nuncio, preacher of the crusades against the Hussites and Mahomet II., 1385-1456. CAPISUCCHI, Blasius, marq. of Monterio, a soldier of the eh., dis. against the Huguenots, 1569. CAPISUCCHI, P., bp. of Neocastro, d. 1539. CAPITOLINUS, Titus, a Rom. citizen, br. of Cincinnatus, six times consul from 471 to 439 b.o. CAPO D'ISTRIA, John, count of, a Greek diplomatist in the service of Russia; aided the cause of Greek independence, and became presi- dent of the Greek government m 1828 ; ass. 1831. CAPONI, A., oeheaded for conspiring with Machiaud and Bacconi against the Medici, 1513. CAPPE, Newcome, a religious wr., d. 1791. CAPPELLE, J. P. Van, a Dutch savant, tax. of a history of the Low Countries, 1783-1829. CAPRARA, Card., archbishop of Milan, con- cluded the concordat of 1801 with Napoleon, whom he crwd. k. of Italy at Milan in 1805, 1733-1810. CAPUION, Issante De, a troubadour, 13th c. CAPUSSO, anltal. divine and poet, 1671-1746. CARA-YOUSSOUF, first prince of the dynasty of the Turcomans, chief of a faction called ' black sheep,' died 1420. CARACALLA, Marcus Aurelius Anton., emp. of Rome, b. 183, sued. Severus, 211, kid. 217. CARACCI. The name of a celebrated family of painters of Bologna. — Agostino Caracoi, was born at Bologna, where his father carried on the business of a tailor, in 1559. He was placed first with a jeweller, and studied painting after- wards under Prospero Fontana, Domenico Tib- aldi, and Cornelius Cort ; with the last he prac- tised also engraving. Agostino was the most active teacher in the academy opened by the Car- acci in Bologna in 1589 until 1600, when he went to Rome ; he was then employed by his brother Annibale to aid him in the Farnese Gallery there, for which he executed the ' Cephalus and Aurora,' and the 'Triumph of Galatea;' the cartoons of these two frescoes are in the National Gallery. But the brothers disagreeing, Agostino retired to Parma, where he died shortly afterwards, March , defeated by the Romans, 75. 22, 1602. He was more distinguished as an en- graver than painter. — Annibale Caracci, 129 CAR the younger, brother of Agostino, was born at Bologna in 1560 ; his father" intended him to be a tailor, but his cousin, Ludovico Caracci, induced him to follow painting, for which Annibale showed decided ability, and in which his cousin gave him all necessary instruction. After carrying on con- jointly with his brother and cousin the celebrated academy of Bologna for ten years, Annibale was invited by the cardinal Farnese to Rome in 1600, and he there executed the celebrated frescoes, known as the ' Farnese Gallery,' for that cardinal, receiving a salary of £25 a-year besides mainten- ance. This great work was finished in 1604, when Annibale received a further donation of 100 guineas. It was preferred by Poussin to all the works in Rome after the frescoes of Raphael ; it has been engraved by Carlo Cesio. Annibale ap- pears to have been an invalid after the execution of this work, for he did little more in Rome, and died there 15th July, 1609 ; he was buried in the Pantheon by the side of Raphael. — Ludovico Caracci, the founder of the eclectic school of Bologna, was born there in 1555 ; he appears to have been very dull in his youth, and at the school of Prospero Fontana was known as the ox, (il hue.) He studied afterwards many masters in various places, as Correggio, Julio Romano, Titian, and others, and in endeavouring to combine their several beauties led to the establishment of the prin- ciple of eclecticism, and was actually the founder of the academic system. — He was the real head of the academy of tlie Caracci established in 1589, and after the departure of his two cousins for Rome, carried on by him alone until his death in Decem- ber, 1619. Domenichino, Guido, Albani, and Lan- franco, were among the numerous distinguished scholars of this celebrated school. Ludovico's principal works were the frescoes of the convent of San Michele in Bosco, near Bologna, long since perished, but existing in the prints after them by Giovannini. There are several excellent oil pic- tures by Ludovico in the gallery of Bologna. — (Bellori, Vite de' Pittori Moderni. &c.; Baglione, Vite de 1 Pittori; Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice; Wornum, Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of tlie National Gallery.) [R.N.W.] CARACCIO, Ant., a tragic wr. of Ital., 17th c. CARACCIOLI, Dominique, Marq. De, an Ital. minister of state, and viceroy of Sicily, 1715-1789. CARACCIOLI, Francisco, a Neapolitan ad- miral, born 1748, and hanged at the mast-head of his own vessel, on restoration of k. Ferdinand, 1799. CARACCIOLI, J., a Neapolitan gentleman, fav- ourite of the q. of Nap., disgraced and slain, 1432. CARACCIOLI, J., prince of Melfi and marshal of France, d. 1550. His son Anthony, bishop of Troyes, conv. from the Rom. Cath. faith,and d. 1569. CARACCIOLI, J. B., a pain, of Nap., 1580-1645. CARACCIOLI, Louis Anthony, a fertile writer, most celebrated for his pretended letters of Ganganelli, &c, 1721-1803. CARACCIOLI, Marin, an expert political agent, and governor of Milan, 1468-1538. CARACCIOLI, an Italian bishop, d. 1495. CARACTACUS, or CARADOG, king of the Silures, a British tribe inhabiting South Wales, CARADOG, a Welch chronicler, d. 1156. CARAFFA, A. C, a French painter, d. 1812. CAR CARAFFA, Anthony, :i statesman of Naples, loth cent. A cardinal, and great scholar of the same name, consin of pope Paul IV., died 1591. CARAFFA, J. A., put to d. by Pius IV., 1560. CARAFFA, V., a gen. of the Jesuits, 1583-1649. CARDAM, a king of Bulgaria, 776-806. CARAMUEL DE LOBKOWITZ, John, bishop of Messi, disting. as a divine and poet, 1606-1682. CARASCOSA, Baron, a disting. partizan of the French in the Neapolitan revolution, b. 1769. CARAUSIUS, Marcus Aurelius Valerius, proclaimed emp. in Britain 287 ; assassinated 291. CARAVAGGIO, Michelangelo Merigi, commonly called Michelangelo da Cara- vaggio, where he was born in 1569, was origi- nally a mason's labourer, but while still young gained so considerable a position as a portrait painter at Milan, that he was induced to try his fortune in Venice, where he became a student of the works of Giorgione ; and he eventually estab- lished himself in Rome. His poverty was a seri- ous obstacle to his success in the great capital of the arts, for some time, when he was obliged to work for the Cavaliere d' Arpino; but his cele- brated picture of the ' Card Players,' and shortly afterwards a few religious pieces, of which his masterpiece is the ' Deposition of Christ,' now in the Vatican picture gallery, established his reputa- tion as one of the principal painters of his time. — Caravaggio's good fortune was of short duration : being of a violent temper, he killed a companion in consequence of a dispute at a game of tennis. He fled to Naples, thence he went to Malta, and spent some time at Palermo ; but finally having obtained the pope's pardon for the act of homicide, he set out in 1609 in a felucca for Rome ; he was arrested on his way by mistake, by a Spanish coast guard, and when he gained his liberty he discovered that the crew of the felucca had gone off with all his property ; he wandered despond- ingly along the coast to Porto Ercole, where, what with disappointment and the extreme heat of the weather, ne was seized with a fever, and died in a few days, at the early age of forty. — Caravaggio was a great colourist, but his pictures are black and heavy, and so ordinary in their general treatment of form and accuracy, that his style was designated the naturalist, in contradis- tinction to the prevailing ideal taste of the time. He had many imitators, who are called naturaiisti and tenebrosi; the celebrated Spagnuoletto is the most distinguished of his followers. This taste was much spread in Spain, and had its votaries in France and the low countries. Valentine and Honthorst (Gherardo, della notte) were decided imitators of Caravaggio. — (Bellori, Vite de 1 Pittori, &c, Rome 1672.) [R.N.W.] CARDAN, Jerome, one of our true ' curiosities of literature,' born in Pavia in 1501, said to have caused his own death in 1576, that he might not, bv living longer, falsify his prediction of that event ! There are not many characters more diffi- cult to delineate by a few sketches than Cardan's. Of great industry, undoubted originality and power, and extensive acquirements, his fame yet rests for the most part on his pure charlatanerie. As a moral entity, if indeed the term can with de- cency be applied to him, he was also a mass of contradictions ; he loved knowledge, sought appar- CAR ently for truth, and experienced high aspirations ; nevertheless he never shrunk from deceit and false- hood ; his practical life full of disorder; his scien- tific faith worth nothing — he stole from Tartaglia, and published as his own the famous rule for the solution of cubic equations. He wrote on everything— often advancing knowledge ; but he pretended to deal with all difficulties under the sun. He said that, like Socrates, he had a demon ; like Swedenborg afterwards, he claimed superna- tural insight during the extasis ; — it is not impro- bable that he was affected by that singular modifi- cation of vitality now known as mesmerism. It were useless to recount seriously the opinions of a man so strange and disorderly ; nor can we un- dertake to reckon up even the topics on which he wrote. His productions fill 10 volumes folio ; the oddest of them being the treatise ' De Vita Pro- pria,' — something of the cast of Rousseau's ' Confes- sions,' as full of vanity, of insincerity, of passion, of eloquence. Cardan's fame, while he lived, re- sulted from his skill as a physician, and his astro- logy. He was doubtless helped in his profession by superior acquaintance with chemistry ; to which, one may safely give the credit of his celebrated cure of the archbishop of St. Andrews. As might have been expected, his private life and affairs were ever in confusion: one son fell under the axe of the public executioner, because he had poi- soned his wife ; another was shut up in prison for safety's sake, at the instance of his own father. — These notices may help the imaginative to con- ceive something of Cardan. [J.P.N.] CARDI, Louis, an Italian painter, d. 1613. CARDONNE, Denis Dominique De, an East, schol. and historian, professor at Paris, 1720-1783. CAREL, James, a French poet, 17th century. CAREW, George, made earl of Totness by Charles I. for his military services, historian of the Irish wars, died 1629. CAREW, Sir George, a courtier and fugitive historian, knighted by Queen Elizabeth, d. 1614. His brother, Richard, a topographical wr., d. 1620. CAREW, Henry, earl of Monmouth, eminent as a scholar and translator, d. 1661. CAREW, Thomas, a dramatic poet, d. 1639. CAREY, Henry, a distinguished ballad-writor and composer, died by his own hand, 1743. George Saville, his son, also a song-writer and playwright, died 1807. CAREY, Joseph, a French printer, regarded by his country, as the inv. of stereotyping, d. 1801. CAREY, William, was born on 17th August, 1761, in the village of Paulerspury, Northampton- shire. Although his father was clerk of the parish, he early displayed a tendency to dissent, and hav- ing announced his adherence to the principles of the baptist persuasion, was in 1783 baptized in the river Nen, and soon after chosen pastor of a small baptist church in _ the neighbourhood of Northampton. While assiduous in the discharge of his official duties, he prosecuted his studies with intense ardour in private, and was greatly distin- guished for the extent and variety of his know- ledge, his accomplishments embracing all the modern European languages, and several branches of science, particularly botany and natural history. In 1787 Carey was removed to the pastorate of a more numerous church hi Leicester, where his 130 CAR fiock comprising many educated members, be found better scope for tbe exercise of his natural and acquired talents. But bis mind was absorbed with visions of missionary enterprise among the heatben; and while on a visit to Mr. Fuller at Kettering, along with Dr. Ryland and Mr. Sutcliffe of Olney, he laid the foundation of a baptist missionary society, of which he himself became the first agent and the brightest ornament. Accompanied by nis wife and sister-in-law, he embarked on 13th June, 1793, for India, and after experiencing some very trying vicissitudes, he chose Mudnabatty for his station ; but tbe Indian govern- ment having refused their permission to any per- manent establishment of a missionary kind, he was obliged to quit that place. Through the influence of the governor, who was exceedingly favourable to the missionary cause, Mr. Carey now established his head-quarters at the Danish settlement of Ser- ampore, where, assisted by Messrs. Marshman and Ward, his efforts for the Christian good of a popu- lous and extensive province were followed by a degree of success far exceeding his most sanguine expectations. Carey was appointed by the mar- quis of Wellesley to the professorship of Bengalee in the College of Fort-William, and as he volun- tarily added to the duties of this chair instruction in the Sanscrit and Mahratta languages, he became familiar with the leading dialects of India. Many literary works connected with this department of Oriental philology proceeded from his pen. But his greatest achievements were in the province of biblical translation, having been the main instru- ment in issuing new versions in upwards of forty of the Indian languages, and bringing the Scrip- tures within the reach of three hundred millions of human beings. Under these indefatigable exertions tbe health of Dr. Carey at length sank, and he died in 1834, in the seventy-third year of his age. [R. J.] CARLETON, Sir Dudley, Lord Dorchester, a statesman of arbitrary principle, au. of • Letters ' during his embassy to Holland, 1616-1620, d. 1632. CARLETON, Geo., bp. of Chichester, and au. of numerous works celebrated in their day, d. 1628. CARLETON, Sir Guy, created Lord Dorches- ter for his services in the American war, d. 1847. CARLETTI, F., an Italian navigator, 16th c. CARLETTI, N., a Neapol. archbp., 1723-1800. CARLISLE, Sir Anthony, a distinguished English surgeon, 1768-1840. CARLISLE, Nich., an antiqu. wr., 1771-1847. CARLISLE, Thomas Howard, earl of, uncle and guardian of Lord Byron, himself a poet and dramatic author, and in politics a Whig, b. 1748. CARLOS, Don, crown prince of Navarre, noted for his frequent rebellions, 1420-1461. CARLOS, Don, son of Philip II. of Spain, and the hero of one of Schiller's tragedies, 1545-1567. CARLOS, the Duke of San, one time English ambassador from Spain, a great promoter of na- tional improvements, died 1828. CARLYLE, Joseph Dacre, an Oriental scbol. and poet, fellow-traveller with Lord Elgin, d. 1804. CARMELI, Michelangelo, an Orient, schol., ed. of the Gr. classics, and au. of'commen., 1706-66. CARMONTELLE, amiscel. Fr. wr., 1717-1806. CARNARVON, Hy. Jno. George Herbert, earl of, and formerly Lord Porchester, distinguished as a writer of his travels, 1800-18-i'J. CAR CARNE, J., au. of 'Trav. in the East,' 1789-1840. CARNEADES, a Gr. philosoph. and ambassad., eel. for his eloquence as a dialectician, d. 125 B.C. CARNOT, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, characterized by Bourdon de l'Oise as ' the man who had organized victory in the French armies,' is one of the fairest and most steadfast characters in the history of the French revolution. He was distinguished in early life for his apphcation to the exact sciences, and tbe mathematical aud philosophical works which he has left behind him are no mean monument of his genius and industry in the pursuit of his favourite studies. But it is as a military engineer and minister of war under the revolutionary government and the empire that the reader of history is most interested in him. He was born in 1753, and was only eighteen years of age when his skill in fortification and tactics procured him an appointment as second lieute- nant in a corps of engineers. In 1783 be received the laurel crown from the academy of the ancient capital of Burgundy for his eulogmm of Vauban, and in 1791 was sent to the legislative assembly by the Pas-de-Calais. In the convention he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and in the Commit- tee of Pubhc Safety was implicitly and exclusively trusted with the direction of the military opera- tions, a trust which he fully justified by his ad- mirable conduct of affairs on the defection of Du- mouriez. His influence and daring in the com- mittee, where he always opposed himself to the dictatorial ambition of Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just, was due to his 'cold mathematical head,' which enabled him to organize so many armies and send them all to combat with the prestige of victory. After the revolution of the 18th Bru- maire, he was some time minister of war, but voted against the consulate for life and the empire, and when all hope of the republic was lost, retired from pubhc life and devoted himself to literary and scientific pursuits. The disasters of 1812, and the dangers which threatened France, recalled his public spirit, and he frankly offered bis sword to the emperor, who appointed him to the command of Antwerp, and on his return from Elba restored him to his old functions as minister of war. He opposed the second abdication, but it was in vain, and Napoleon manifested his esteem and regret in the memorable words, — 'M. Carnot, I have known you too late ! ' He was proscribed at the restora- tion, and died at Magdeburg in 1823. Some of his brothers have also acquired a name in French history, of these we may mention Joseph Fran- cois Claude, a magistrate and writer on criminal law, born 1752 ; and Claude Marie, a military officer and minister of state, born 1755, whose identity, perhaps, is sometimes confounded with that of his brother Lazare. [E.R.] CARO, Annibale, a scholar and poet of Italy, engaged in pubhc affairs as secretary to the car- dinal Alexander Farnese, 1507-1566. CAROLI, F. P., an Italian painter, 1638-1716. CAROLINE, queen of George II., 1682-1737. CAROLINE, Amelia Elizabeth, sister of the duke of Brunswick, and wife of George IV., born 1768; married 1795; quitted England 1814; returned 1820, died 1821. CAROLINE, daughter of the cmp. of Germany, known in recent history as q. of Naples. 1752-181 i. 131 CAR CAROUGE, B. A., a Fr. astronom., 1741-179*. CARPACEIO, V., an Italian pointer, 16th ct. CARPENTER, Dr. Lant, an industrious thru- logical writer, and unitarian minister, 1780-1840. CARPENTER, Richard, a theologian, 17th c CARPI, Ugo Da, an engraver, 10th century. CARPINI, J., a Venetian painter, 1611-1674. CARPOCRATES, founder of a heresy, 2d cent. CARR, Sin John, au. of several 'Tours,' d. 1822. CARR, W. H., a clergyman, and patron of the fine arts, distinguished for a bequest of pictures to the National Gallery, died 1830. CARRA, Jean Louis, a political and historical miter, condemned a\ ith the ill-fated Girondists by the revolutionary tribunal, 1793, was one of the earliest in the field at the outbreak of the French revolution, as editor of the ' Annales Patriotiques.' He was bora in 1743, and though his parents were in narrow circumstances, received a liberal educa- tion. He was a man of adventurous spirit, and astonished Mirabeau by offering to raise all Ger- many against the emperor with only ' fifty thou- sand men and twelve printing presses.' He is worthy of remembrance as the chief instrument in exciting a vindictive feeling against the royal family, and this, perhaps, may be considered his real part m the revolutionary drama. His condemnation with the illustrious party of the Gironde, was an honour to which he was scarcely entitled, and is a sign, at least, of his improved taste as he approached the end of his career. Having when a young man spent some time in the Danubian provinces, he published a work on the history of Moldavia and Wallachia, with an essay upon their actual state in 1776. [E.R.] CARRANZA, B., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1503-1573. CARRARA, Francis, lord of Padua, memor- able for his wars with the Venetians, died 1393. His son of the same name, after a long struggle with them, strangled in a Venetian prison, 1406. CARRA-SAINT-CYR, J. F., Comte De, a Fr. officer distinguished in the late wars, died 1834. CARRE, the name of several Dutch painters, flourished at Amsterdam 17th and 18th centuries. CARRE, a Fr. East Indian voyager, 1666-1671. CARRE, Louis, a Fr. geometrician, 1663-1711. CARRE, Remi, a writer on singing, 1706-1773. CARRE, W. L. J., a wr. on civil law, 1777-1832. CARREL, Nicolas Armand, one of the most sincere patriots and noble-minded men of modern times, chief editor of the National, and author of several historical works, was born at Rouen, 1801, and killed in a duel by M. Girardin, 24th July, 1836. He received a military education at St. Cyr, and fought in the auxiliary legions of Spain in the late struggle against absolutism. He took the direction of the National after the revolution of 1830, and distinguished himself by his fine spirit and patriotic sincerity. He was extremely sensitive in points of honour, and had fought several duels Wore his last fatal rencontre with his more wily opponent. He bears the reputation of a good man, and was much beloved by his friends in private life. His principal work is a ' History of the Counter-Revolution in England.' [E.R.J CARRERAS, Jose Miguel, a patriotic Span- iard of South America, engaged with h}s two brothers, Juan and Luis, in the revolution of Chili, and executed in 1822, as the latter had been 1818. CARRIER, Jean BACTlflTB, born 1756, was CAR an obscure attorney, brought into note by the pro- gress of the French revolution, and sent to the na- tional convention, 1792. His memory is held in execration for deeds of horror without a parallel, except in the similar scenes of iniquity enacted by his rival in cruelty, Collot D'Herbois. He was sent to Nantes in October, 1793, to assist in re- pressing the civil war commenced in La Vendee by the priests and royalists. He selected his com- mittee, to give an air of legal sanction to his atrocities, from the very refuse of the canaille, and at length dispensed with all form whatever, and executed his prisoners en masse, no less than 15,000 being disposed of by fusillades or drown- ings in one month, with whose corpses the waters of the Loire were literally infected and the banks strewn. The refinement of cruelty with which all this was accomplished, and the obscenities with which he seasoned his repast of blood, almost sur- pass belief. He was at length recalled by the Committee of Public Safety, and on the fall of Robespierre, condemned by the revolutionary tri- bunal and executed. A memoir upon the life and crimes of Carrier was published by Babceuf in 1798. Care should be taken not to confound this mon- ster with a professor of civil law, and author of various treatises on jurisprudence, born 1770, who must have felt it a misfortune to bear precisely the same names. [E.Pi.] CARRIERES, L. De, a biblical com., 1662-1717. CARRINGTON, N. T., an Eng. poet, 1777-1 830. CARRION, E. R. De, a learned Spaniard, 17th c. CARS, Laurence, a Fr. engraver, 1703-1771. CARSTARES, William, a Scotch divine, an adherent of William, prince of Orange, afterwards his chaplain, 1649-1715. CAR f E, S., a wr. on chronology, died 1740. His son Thomas, dist. as an antiquarian and historian, noted in the polit. troubles of the period, 1686-1754. CARTER, Elizabeth, daughterof aclergyman, disting. for her extraordinary learning, 1717-1806. CARTER, John, an antiquar. wr., distinguished also for his skill in drawing and engraving, d. 1818. CARTERET, John, earl of Granville, an ad- herent of the house of Hanover, born 1690 ; secre- tary of state 1721 ; lord-lieutenant of Ireland 1723- 1726, and again 1727-1730 ; in opposition to Sir R. Walpole 1730-1741 ; in office again as secretary of state 1742-1744 ; and as president of the council from 1750 till his death, 1763. CARTERET, Ph., a naval officer, 18th cent. CARTIER, Jacques, a native of St. Malo, who, in 1534, under commission from the king of France, took possession of Canada in the name of his sovereign. The next year, he returned, and ascended the St. Lawrence, or Hochelaga, as the Indians called it, as far as a beautiful island con- taining a picturesque and fertile hill, which he named Montreal, royal or king's mount, close to which was an Indian village, called by him a city, also named Hochelagft. Cartier wintered in the river, and returned home on the breaking up of the ice. He did not effect a settlement; and not having taken home any specimen of gold or silver, he did not receive much favour from his master ; so that in the expedition of M. Roberval, sent out as viceroy in 1540, Cartier had no higher appointment than that of pilot. [JTB.] CARTOUCHE, L. D., a Fr. brigand, exec. 1721. 132 CAR CARTWRIGHT, Dr. E., a clergyman of the Church of England, distinguished" for his dis- coveries in mechanics, died 1824. CARTWRIGHT, John, one time major of the ITotting. militia, a not. advoc. of reform, 1740-1824. CARTWRIGHT, T., a biblical com., 1535-1603. CARTWRIGHT, W., a royalist divine, disting. alio as a playwright and poet, 1610-1643. CARUS, Marcus Aurelius, emp., 276-282. CARUSO, J. B., a Sicilian historian, 1673-1724. CARUSO, Luigi, a composer of music, last ct. CARY, F., a Fr. antiquarian writer, 1699-1754. CARY, Rev. H. F., the well-known biogr. wr., translator of Dante, and ed. of the poets, 1772-1844. GARY, Robert, LL.D., a learned div., d. 1688. CARYL, John, a poet and tragical writer, secretary to Mary, queen of James II. CARYL, Jos., au. of a ' Com. on Job,' d. 1673. CASA, John Della, an Italian orator and poet, disting. as a statesman and ecclesiastic, 1503-1556. CASALI, J. B., a Roman antiquarian, 17th ct. CASALI, Joseph, an archaeologist, 1744-1797. CASALINI, Lucia, a female artist, 1677-1762. CASANOVA, Mark Ant., a Lat. poet, d. 1527. CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, J. J., an unprin- cipled adventurer and intriguer, called the Gil Bias of the 18th century, remarkable for his proficiency in science and literature, 1725-1803. His brother Francis, a painter of landscapes and battle-pieces, 1727-1805. A third brother, Jean Baptists, Erofessor of paintina; at Dresden, and fellow- ibourer with Winckelmann, 1730-1798. CASAS, Bartholomew De Las, a Spanish prelate, distinguished as a missionary and his- torian of South America, 1474-1566. CASAUBON, Isaac, one of the most learned 6chol. and penetrating critics of his age, 1559-1614. CASAUBON, Meric, D.D., son of the preced- ing, and like his father, a controv. wr., 1599-1671. CASE, John, a scholastic philosopher, d. 1599. CASENEUVE, P. De, a Fr. antiq., d. 1650. CASELLA, P. Le, an hist, and Lat. poet, 16th c. CASIMIR I., the Pacific, k. of Poland, 1034-1058. CASIMIR II., the Just, dethroned and d. 1194. CASIMIR III., the Great, born 1309 ; elected king on the death of his father, 1333 , died 1370. CASIMIR IV., formerly d. of Lith., 1447-1492. CASIMIR V., bom 1609 ; became a Jesuit and cardinal, and was secularized when elected king, 1648 ; abdicated 1667, and died abbe of St. Ger- main-des-Pres, 1672. CASIMIR, St., son of Casimir IV., and duke of Lithuania, since his death canonized and invoked as the patron of Poland, 1458-1483. CASLON, W., an Eng. type-founder, 1692-1766. CASSAGNES, J., a Fr. poet and preacher, translator of Sallust and other classics, 1636-1679. CASSANDER, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, and after his death a sharer in the divided monarchy, as k. of Maccdon, &c, d. 298 B.C. CASSANDER, F., a French savant, 1620-1695. CASSANDER, G., a Germ, savant, 1515-1566. CASSARD, J., a eel. Fr. navigator, 1672-1740. CASS ASS, L. P.. a Fr. painter and architect, au. of an illust. book of Travels in the East, 1756-1827. CASSERIO, Guilio, an Ital. anat., 1556-1616. CASSIBELAN, or CASSIVELAUNUS, a C&ief of the Britons at the time of Caesar's invasion. CASSINI. The family name of several dis- CAS tinguished observers and astronomers.— 1. JonN Dominic, bom in Piedmont in 1625 : the first professor in the Royal Observatorv in Paris, which was founded in 1670. Cassini was one of the earliest to conjecture that the comets, like the planets, move in regular curves; he published valuable observations on Jupiter's satellites ; but his fame chiefly rests on his discovery of four of the satellites of Saturn. He laboured also at measurement of the meridian through France. He died in 1712. — 2. John James, son and suc- sessor of the foregoing, also enriched science with valuable observations and discoveries — in physics as well as astronomy. Through an unfortunate mis- apprehension he maintained in opposition to New- ton that the figure of the earth is an oblong spheroid ; and as the contest grew keen, the French sovereign sent out two commissions, one to the equator, the other to the polar circle, to decide it. These are the famous commissions, the first under- Bouguer and La Condamme, the second under Maupertuis, &c. Newton's view was of course confirmed. Cassini died in 1756. — 3. Cassini De Tiiury, Cesar Francis, second son and successor of James. Also a good and laborious observer, he was chiefly occupied with the measurement of the meridian in Europe. He observed also a transit of Venus, and wrote much on parallax and refrac- tion. He died in 1784, and was succeeded in the observatory by his son, Count John Dominic, with whom terminated a family illustrious in the scientific annals of France. CASSINI, A. H. G., a botanist, 1781-1832. CASSIODORUS, Marcus Aurelius, a Latin historian, minister and consul of Rome, 6th cent. CASSIUS, J. L, a Latin historian, 2d c, B.C. CASSIUS, Longinus Caius, fellow-patriot and conspirator with Brutus, and called by him ' the last of the Romans,' supposed to have died by his own hand at Philippi, B.C. 42. CASTAGNO, A. Del, an Ital. paint., 1409-1480. CASTALIO, or CASTELLIO, Sebastian, author of a very valuable Latin and French version of the Old and New Testaments, once the friend of Calvin, by whom he was cruelly treated in after years when living in poverty, 1515-1563. CASTEL-CICALA, Fabi Rufo, prince of, a minister and ambassador of Naples, died 1822. CASTELL, Edmund, celebrated as author of a dictionary compiled in seven languages, 1606-1685. CASTELLAN, A. L., a pain, and eng., 1772-1838. CASTELLI, Bern., a Genoese pain., 1557-1629. CASTELLO,G. L., an antiq. of Sicily, 1727-1794. CASTELLOSA, Donna, a female poet, 13th c CASTELNAU, M. De, a Fr. states., 1518-1592. CASTELNAU, R. De, a troubadour, 13th cent, CASTELVETRO, L, an Ital. critic, 1505-1571. CASTI, J. Battista, an Ital. poet, 1721-1803. CASTIGLIONE, Baltil, an Italian statesman and ecclesiastic, distinguished also as a poet and man of letters, 1468-1529. CASTIGLIONE, G B., a landscape painter of Genoa, a pupil of Vandyck, 1616-1670. CASTILLEJO, Chr. De, a Sp. poet, d. 1596. CASTILLO, Aug. Del, a Sp. paint., 1565-1626. CASTILLO, Bern. Dias Del, companion in arms of Cortez, and hist, of his campaign. 1519-1560. CASTILLON, J. F. Salv. De, a pliil , 1709-91. CASTLEREAGH, Robert Stewart, mar- 133 CAS quis of Londonderry, a British statesman, was born on 18th June, 1769. In the Irish Earliament, where he first sat, he was reputed to elong to the opposition, but obtaining a seat in the English Commons, he chose the ministerial benches. On his accession to the title of Castle- reagh, in 1797, he returned to the Irish parliament. As secretary of state, he made great and success- ful efforts for the achievement of the Irish Union, and he was one of the statesmen most prominently marked out on that occasion for the wrath of the Irish people. He sat for Down in the united par- liament, and in 1805 became the war and colonial secretary, resuming these offices on the restoration of his party in 1807. In 1809, a dispute, in the unfortunate Walcheren expedition, drove him to a duel with Canning, and the resignation of his offices. In 1812, tie again became foreign se- cretary; and in 1814 and 1815 he represented Britain at the settlement of Europe by the con- gress of Vienna. He was popularly charged with connivance at the aims of the European despots ; and yet, arbitrary as were his principles, it is now understood that his liberality and firm- ness did much to check the tyranny and rapacity of the continental monarchs. In April, 1821, he succeeded his father as marquis of Londonderry in Ireland, but this did not prevent him from retain- ing his seat in the House of Commons. He was a man of fine person, and commanding manner, and could look a proud defiance when assailed, which often elicited the admiration of his many adver- saries. He was a ready but bad speaker, and his contorted and jumbled similes have often been quoted with much ridicule. In the session of 1822, he seemed to be suffering severely from over- exertion and excitement, and on the 12th of August he deliberately terminated his days by a slight incision in the carotid artery. [J.H.B.] CASTOLDI, Giov. Giac, a composer, 16th c. CASTOR, the first chronological wr., 200 b.c. CASTOR, St., founder of an abbev, 4th cent. CASTRACANI, C, an Ital. general, afterwards duke of Lucca, known also as a poet, 1281-1328. CASTRO, Alvar De, a Sp. general, d. 1239. CASTRO, Don Ferd. De, favourite of Peter the Cruel, died a refugee in England, 1375. CASTRO, Gabriel Pereira De, an Epic poet, complimented as the second Camoens, 1571-1632. CASTRO, Inez De, a beautiful lady of Castile, secretly married to Pedro, son of Alphonso IV., and assassinated by order of the latter, 1357. CASTRO, John De, a Portuguese commander, afterwards governor of the Portuguese possessions in the East Indies, 1500-1548. CASTRUCCI, P., a eel. violinist, last century. C ASTRUCCIO, a chf. of the Ghibellines, d. 1328. CATALANI, Angelica, the eel. cantatrice and opera performer, born at Sinigaglia 1782, d. 1849. CATEL, C. S., a compos, of music, 1770-1830. CATESBY, Mark, a naturalist, 1680-1749. CATHALINEAU, James, general-in-chief of the royalist armies in La Vendee, surnamed by his soldiers the ' saint of Anjou,' where he was born 1759- mortally wounded in the attack on Nantes, 29th June, 1793. CATHARINE, St., of Bologna, an extatirpio, of the order of St. Francis, canon. 1724, 1413-63. CATHARINE, St., a virg. and martyr, 4th ct. CAT CATHARINE, St., of Genoa, canonized 1737, an. of a dialogue between the sold and body, 1448-1510. CATHARINE, St., of Sienna, celebrated for the political influence of her revelations in the pontificate of Gregory XL, and for her extatic writings, 1347-1380. CATHARINE, queen of Bosnia, died 1478. CATHARINE of Arragon, daughter of Ferdi- nand and Isabella, b. 1483 ; married to Prince Arthur 1501, and to her brother-in-law, afterwards Henry VIII., 1514; died 1536. CATHARINE of Braganza, or Portugal, born 1638 ; married to Charles II., Icing of England, 1661 ; died 1705. CATHARINE of France, daughter of Charles VI., b. 1401 ; married to Henry V., k. of England, 1420, and after his death to Owen Tudor; d. 1488. CATHARINE PARR, queen of Henry VIII. 1543, afterw. wife of Sir Thos. Seymour, d. 1548. CATHARINE DE MEDICI, the only child of Lorenzino de Medici, duke of Urbino, and Madde- laine de la Tour, a French princess, sister-in-law of the duke of Albany, was born 1519, and mar- ried to the duke of Orleans, afterwards Henry II., 1533. During her husband's lifetime, who was mortally wounded at a tournay, 1559, the politi- cal history of Catharine possesses little interest for us. He was succeeded by their eldest son, Francis II., who also died the following year, 1560, when Catharine was named regent of France during the minority of her second son, Charles IX. The great events which now succeeded each other, and which belong to the early history of the reformation, were the battle of Dreux, fought between Guise and Conde 1562 ; the truce concluded between the rival inter- ests represented by these leaders, 1563 ; the league of Bayonne formed against the protestants, and the recommencement of the religious war, 1566; the battle of St. Denis, and the death of Montmorency, 1567; the battle of Jarnac, and assassination of Cond6, 1569 ; the appearance of the courageous Jeanne D'Albret with her son Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henrv IV., in the camp of the protes- tants, and the battle of Mont-Contour, 1569 ; the peace of St. Germain, to which Catharine sub- mitted under the dictation of Coligni and the pro- testants, 1570; and the treacherous massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572.— In 1574 Charles IX. died of the fruits of his debaucheries, and Catha- rine's third son, who had been elected king of Po- land the previous year, succeeded under the title of Henry III., the virtual government of the king- dom still remaining with the queen-mother, who alone preserved it from total anarchy. In 1575 Henry of Navarre was the recognized leader of the protestants. In 1576 the famous catholic league was formed, and the duke of Guise appointed chief of the crusade. In the next year or two, the war had been renewed from one end of France to the other, and the kingdom was threatened with entire destruction by the rival factions. In 1587 Henry of Navarre gained the battle of Coutras. In 1588 the people of Paris were in insurrection, the states-general were assembled at Blois, and the duke of Guise was assassinated in the palace. In the following year Catharine died. A bare outline of the political complications which pro- duced these events would rill many pages, but they all turn upon the struggle between the catho- 134 CAT lie and protestant leaders which rent the kingdom to pieces, and the reckless determination with which the daughter of the Medici endeavoured to maintain the royal authority. To estimate her conduct with perfect fairness the character of the age must be considered, and especially the preten- sions of a severe Calvinism, its vast network of af- filiated societies overspreading France, and the social revolution which it threatened. We have no wish to apologize for the crimes of a Medici, but to un- derstand how they were possible. If a woman with- out human sympathy occupied the throne of France, can we contrast her cold heart and plot- ting intellect with an example of Christian meek- ness and* womanly tenderness in the curule chair of Geneva ! As we venture to read history, the massacre of St. Bartholomew stamps the period, rather than this single actor in it, with deserved infamy, and when we have said this, enough re- mains in the Machiavel-like subtilty of her policy, and the dark ambition which did not scruple at the debauchery of her own sons, to justify the hatred of her memory. It should not be forgotten that the lurid colours in which this extraordinary wo- man has been painted are brightened by command- ing talents, and by that taste for art, hereditary in the family of the Medici, which has graced her adopted country with the palace of the Tuileries, and which commenced a new era in arts and literature, [E.R.] CATHARINE I., empress of Russia, as the wife and successor of Peter the Great, 1689-1727. CATHARINE II., one of the greatest sovereigns of the Russian empire, b. 1729 ; wife of Peter III. 1745 ; crwnd. empress after his death 1762 ; d. 1796. CATHARINE of Russia, daughter of the em- peror Paul, queen of Wurtemberg, 1788-1819. CATHARINUS, Amb., a catholic wr., d. 1553. CATILINE, Lucius Sergius Catilina, the Roman conspirator, subject of Cicero's famous declamation, which precipitated the action before Rome, in which he was defeated and slain, B.C. 62. CATINAT, the name by which Abdias Maurel, one of the most intrepid of the Camisard chiefs, is known, (the revolted protestants of Languedoc,) distinguished as a cavalry officer, burnt alive 1705. CATINAT, Nicii., a Fr. marshal, 1637-1712. CATO, the Wise, or the Sagacious, was a name first given to Marcus Porcius Cato the Censor. I. This extraordinary man was born at Tusculum, a municipal town of Latium, B.C. 234. At the usual CAT began to distinguish himself in the forum, and be- came a candidate for office. Passing through the subordinate offices of qua?stor, aedile, and praetor, and exhibiting in these the principles which ho had adopted in youth, he was elected consul in B.C. 195, along with his friend and patron Flaccus. In Hither Spain, which was assigned to him as his Erovince, he displayed military genius of a very igh order, which speedily reduced the whole coun- try to subjection. In b.c. 191, he distinguished himself greatly in the battle of Thermopylae, and there seems to have finished his career as a soldier. Cato henceforth appears as an active and leading citizen, taking a conspicuous part in every public measure. The great epoch in nis life was his elec- tion, in b.c. 184, to the censorship, the duties of which he performed with the fearless strictness of an ancient Roman. His unshaken firmness in checking the luxurious habits of the nobles, and in assailing their crimes and vices, exposed him to great obloquy ; but he pursued the course which he had prescribed to himself regardless of the con- sequences. With all his rusticity, Cato was a friend to literature, and was one of the patrons and ad- mirers of the poet Ennius. He applied himself in old age to the study of Greek literature, and is represented by Cicero as an ardent admirer of the historians, philosophers, and orators of Greece. Cato died in b.c. 149, at the age of eighty-five, leaving behind him 150 orations, which were ad- mired for many ages ; a work on rural affairs, en- titled 'De Re Rustica;' and an historical work entitled • Origines.' — II. Marcus Porcius Cato, surnamed Uticensis (of Utica), the great grandson of Cato the Censor, was bom b.c. 95. Even when a boy, he is said to have given indications of sturdy independence ; and as he advanced towards man- hood, he displayed that decision, severity, and harshness of character which marked him out from his contemporaries during the remainder of his life. Taking his great ancestor as his model, he adopted his principles and imitated his conduct ; strengthening his vigorous constitution by exposure to cold and fatigue, and bearing physical infirmi- ties with a degree of patience worthy of the Stoic philosophy to which he had attached himself. He commenced his military career in B.C. 72, as a volunteer, in the servile war of Spartacus; _ and afterwards earned a high reputation as a military tribune in Macedonia. After some time spent in the study of his favourite philosophy, and in dill— * he military age he commenced his career as a soldier , gent preparation for the duties of official life, ... in B. c 217, the year in which Hannibal was lay- was elected qua?stor for B.C. 65 ; and acting on ing waste the north of Italy ; and served again I the principles which he had prescribed to himself, of Tarentum (b.c. corrected various abuses which had been sanctioned under Fabius at the capture 209), and under Claudius Nero in the memorable battle on the banks of the Metaurus (b.c. 207). His fame, however, does not rest on his military achievements alone. In the intervals of war he employed himself in cultivating his hereditary farm, adopting the simple habits and manners of the peasantry; and soon became conspicuous among them "for superior intelligence, prudence, and sagacity. Having in this way attracted the notice of L. Valerius Flaccus, a young nobleman of considerable influence, by whom his military talents, eloquence, and integrity were duly appre- ciated, he was induced to remove to Rome ; and there, aided by the support of his patron, soon 135 by his predecessors. As the supporter of Cicero, in B.C. 63 in all his measures for suppressing the Catilinarian conspiracy, he decided by his speech, on the 5th of December, the motion that the con- spirators should be put to death. Along with the senatorial party he strenuously opposed the coali- tion of Caesar, Pompcy, and Crassus, in B.C. 60 ; but the supporters of the triumvirate dexterously removed him from the scene of action by confer- ring upon him an appointment which called him first to Cyprus, and afterwards to Byzantium. When pra;tor in B.C. 54, he was exposed to the outrages of the mob, in consequence of his en- deavours to put a stop to the bribery and corrup- CAT tion which prevailed. On the commencement of the civil war in B.C. 49, Cato joined the party of Pornpey; and, after the battle of I'harsalia, pro- ceeded to Africa, where the hopes of the republican party were finally extinguished by the battle of 1' hapsus (6th April, B.C. 46). The town of Utica alone remained in the interest of the followers of Pompey ; and Cato, failing to inspire his country- men who were collected there with courage to en- dure a siege, resolved not to outlive the downfal of the republic. After providing for the safety of his friends, and instructing them as to the means of effecting a reconciliation with the conqueror, he spent the greater part of the night in perusing Plato's Phaedo, and then inflicted on himself the wound of which he died in the forty-ninth year of his age. Caesar's estimate of Cato's character is shown by the exclamation which he uttered when he heard of his death : ' Cato, I grudge thee thy death, since thou hast grudged me the glory -of sparing thy life !' fG.F. Ji CATTENBURG, A. Van, a theolog., 166£l737. CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, an amatory and epigrammatic poet, the rare elegance of whose compositions is most -unfortunately dis- figured by then; licentiousness, .died B.C. 40. CATZ, James Van, a statesman and poet, sur- named the La Fontaine of Holland, 1577-1660. CAUDERAS, B., a Portuguese painter, d. 1606. CAULAINCOURT, A. G., one of the 'suspects' of the revolution, liberated from prison on being drawn for the republican army, attained eminence under Buonaparte as a general and min. of state, and died duke of Vicenza at the age of fifty-four, 1827. CAUMARTIN, L. De, aFr. statesm., 1552-1623. CAUS, Solomon De, a Fr. architect, d. 1630. CAUSSIN, Nich., a Fr. rhetorician, d. 1651. CAVALCANTI, G., a phil. and pqet, d. 1300. CAVALIER, John, chief of the protestants in revolt agt. Louis XIV., after, a royalist, 1679-1740. CAVALIERI, Bonaventura, a very eminent Italian mathematician ; the pupil of Galileo and friend of Torricelli. Cavalieri's chief work is on the ' Geometry of Indivisibles,' in which he de- tails an artifice by aid of which curve surfaces, &c, may be quadrated. In one respect this method must be reckoned the logical predecessor and herald of the infinitesimal calculus. Cavalieri wrote also on trigonometry, astronomy, and astro- logy. He died in 1647. CAVALLI, F., a Fr. opera composer, d. 1673. CAVALLINI, P., a sculp, and pain., 1259-1344. CAVALLO, Tiberius, an Italian philosopher, inventor of several physical instruments, 1749-1809. CAVANILLES, A. J., a Sp. botan., 1745-1804. CAVE, Edw., the celeb, bookseller of St. John's gate, fhdr. of the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' d. 1754. CAVE, Dr.W., alearn. andrelig. wr., 1637-1713. CAVENDISH, the Hon. Henry, born at Nice 1731, died at London 1810. The father of Mr. Cavendish was Lord Charles Somerset, a cadet of the house of Devonshire. But unlike the class to which his family belonged, the chemist had no sympathies with his fellow-men, either above or below him. He made important discoveries ; but when we are acquainted with his history and his self- seclusion, the wonder is that his researches were not more abundant. Compare the millionaire chemist with the poverty-struck, but indefatigable CAV and noble-spirited Priestley, or with the calm and amiable Black, and we have an intellectual machine contrasted with talent accompanied by humane and generous hearts. ' We start, for soul is wanting there.' Mr. Cavendish was a profound mathematician, electrician, and chemist. Dr. Black, who had discovered carbonic acid, laid the founda- tion of pneumatic chemistry. Cavendish is usually said to nave discovered hydrogen (although it was prepared by Mayow, Boyle, and Hales long ante- riorly), and placed the second stone on the great su- perstructure which was afterwards to be raised by Priestley and others. That common air consisted of oxygen and nitrogen was known ; but Caven- dish demonstrated (1783) that it consisted by a volume of 20*833 oxygen and 79'166 nitrogen — a result which has been thoroughly confirmed by subsequent experiments. He likewise demon- strated the exact constitution of water, although it is confidently affirmed that James Watt at the same time knew its composition, and that his views were known to Cavendish. Cavendish like- wise showed that nitric acid is composed of nitrogen and oxygen — Priestley having previously found that electric sparks, when passed through air, turned litmus red, Cavendish added potash to the solution, evaporated, and obtained nitre. While there is scarcely any doubt that there has been a tendency to overrate Cavendish at the expense of others, he must be always ranked as one of the first of English chemists, who has, by the accuracy of his experiments, assisted in laying the sure foundation of the science. [R.D.T.] CAVENDISH, Thomas, was the son of a gentleman of fortune in Suffolk. Coming into possession of his father's property in 1585, he ap- plied his ample means to the fitting out of a stout barque of 120 tons, and accompanied Sir Richard Grenville to the West Indies and Virginia. The object is not ascertained; but of a second voyage, on which he sailed in July, 1586, the purpose certainly was to recruit his finances, wasted in personal extrava- gance, by plundering on the western sea-board of S. America. England and Spain were long at open war, and among men of fortune this practice was not uncommon in the days of Elizabeth, a com- mission from the queen being previously obtained. He had only 123 men, and three vessels, respec- tively 120, 60, and 40 tons burden, for the fitting out of which he had to sell or mortgage what remained of his estates; with these he circum- navigated the globe in twenty-five months, mak- ing important surveys in Magellan Straits, plun- dering and burning many towns of the Spanish colonies, and capturing on the coast of California the great annual galleon, 700 tons burden, laden with valuable merchandise, and 122,000 Spanish dollars. He also reduced to its proper length the distance between Java and the Cape, which the Portuguese had made much too great ; and reaching home in safety, 'rich enough to purchase a fair earldom,' he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth. His ill- gotten wealth being dissipated in three years, ho embarked in a joint-stock expedition of a like kind, but on a larger scale; this proved unsuccess- ful from disagreement among elements discordant from the first ; and while on his return, in 1593, he died at sea of vexation and fatigue, at the age of twenty-nine. He was the first to point out the 136 CAV importance of St. Helena to the English govern- ment. fj-B.l CAVENDISH, Sir W., a gentleman in the sendee of Cardinal Wolsey, and afterwards of Henry VIII., by whom he was knighted, 1505 1557. His son of the same name, created duke of Newcastle, distinguished in the civil wars as a royalist, 1592-1676. A descendant of the same name, third earl of Devonshire, and friend of Wil- liam III., 1640-1707. John, Lord Cavendish, br. of the last named, and chan. of the excheq., d. 1796. CAVOLINI, Ph., a naturalist, 1756-1810. CAWDREY, Dan., a controversial wr., d. 1664. CAWTON, Thos., and his son of the same name, both dist. as Oriental scholars, d. 1659 and 1677. CAXES, Patrick, an architect of the 16th ct. [Caxton's Printing Office, Almonry, London.] CAXTON, William, dist. as the introducer of printing into Eng., originally a mercer, 1410-1491. CAYLUS, Martha Marg., marquise of, auth. of 'Souvenirs,' edited by Voltaire, 1673-1729. Her son, Anne Claude Philip, Count Caylus, distinguished as a writer on art, 1720-1765. CAZALES, J. A. M. De, a Fr. royal., 1757-1805. CAZALET, J. A., a pharmacopolist, 1758-1825. CAZES, P. J., a French painter, 1676-1754. CAZOTTE, John, a French poet, distinguished for the humour and spirit of his compositions, executed as a royalist, 1792. CAZWYNY, an Arabian naturalist, 1210-1283. CEBA, Aufaldo, a dramatic poet, died 1623. CEBES, a pupil of Socrates, 5th century B.C. CECCATI, D. F., a sculptor of Lombardy, disting. as an artist in wood and ivory, 1642-1719. CECCHERELLI, Al., an Italian hist. 16th ct. CECCHI, J. If., an Italian poet, 16th century. CECCO DE ASCOLI, an Ital. philos. and poet, burnt alive for his practice of the occ. sciences, 1327. CECIL, Robt., earl of Salisbury, son of Lord Burleigh, and minister of James L, 1563-1612. CECIL, Wm., Lord Burleigh. See Burleigh CECILIA, St., a virg. and martyr, 4th cent. CECROPS, the founder of Athens, 16th c. B.C. CEDREMIS, G., a monk and historian, 11th c. CELESTI, And., aVenetian painter, 1637-1706. CELESllNE, the first of this name, pope of 137 CER Rome 422-432; the second, 1143-1144; the third, 1191-1198 ; the fourth, eighteen days only, 1241 : the fifth, founder of the Celestines, 1294-1296. CELESTIUS, a heretic of the 4th century. CELLARIUS, Cil, a Germ, savant, 1638-1707. CELLINI. Benvenuto, a celebrated sculptor • and goldsmith, was born at Florence in 1500, and was brought up as a musician (a flute-player) by his father. He entered the service of Clement VII. at Rome, at an early age, as goldsmith and musician; his active services for this pope and other art-patrons in Rome, especially Porzia Ghigi, were altogether suspended by the sack of the City in 1527, by the soldiers of the constable Bourbon, whom Cellini boasts of having killed in the act of scaling the walls. Cellini returned to Rome a few years afterwards, and continued his works for the pope. Cellini executed several de- signs also in France for Francis I., for the palace at Fontainebleau, but a portion only were carried out. He returned to Italy in 1545 and executed his celebrated bronze of Perseus with the head of Medusa, now in the Loggia de' Lanzi'. — Cellini married at the age of sixty, and died in 1572, leaving two daughters and a son. — Though an able sculptor, Benvenuto Cellini is more distinguished as a goldsmith, or for his ornamental works; he has been long the coryphaeus of silversmiths, and until quite recently, was unrivalled as a metal-chaser, but he is now surpassed by several of the modern artists of France, especially M. Antoine Vechte. — Cellini's style is that peculiarly known as the Renaissance, in which scrolled shields or cartouches, and strapwork perform a prominent part; his works are also conspicuous for a minute imitation of natural objects, as in the celebrated silver hand bell made for Clement the VII., formerly in the possession of Horace Wal- pole. Cellini is the great model to this day of the principal ornamental artists of France. — (See Cellini's Autobiography^) [R.N.W.1 CELS, J. M.,'a French botanist, 1743-1806. CELSIUS, Olaus, a Swed. naturalist, disting. as the teacher and protector of Linnaeus, 1670-1756. CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, a physician who flourished in the reign of Tiberius, in the first century of the Christian era. He is distinguished for having bequeathed to his successors in the healing art his work ' De Medicina,' written in elegant Latin, and familiar to every student in medicine. His views are characterized by great judgment and sense, especially when we recollect the barbarism of science in the times in which he lived. He has explained many of the opinions of Hippocrates, which would be difficult of apprecia- tion without his commentary. [R.D.T.] ~!q cent. CELSUS, an Epicurean philosopher, 2c CELTES, Conrad, a Latin poet, 1459-1508. CENCI, Beatrice, the heroine of Shelley's drama, executed at Rome as a parricide, 1605. CENSORINUS, Appius Claudius, a Roma) consul, elected emp., and murd. shortly after, 270. CENSORINUS, a grammarian of the 3d cent. CENTLIVRE, Mrs., an English dramatic writer, 1667-1723. CEOLWULF, a k. of Northumberland, 8th ct. CERATINUS, J., a Greek scholar, died 1530. CERCEAU, J. A. Du, a Fr. hist, of Ricnzi, &c, an. of Lat. poems, a mem. of the Jesuits, 1676-1730. CER CERDA, J. L. De La, a Spnnish critic, elnssi- cal common., and grammarian, Toledo, 1560-1648. CERDA Y RICO, F., a Sp. savant, 1730-1792. CERDIC, a Saxon king of Wesscx, 519-534. CER DON, a Syrian gnostic, 2d century. CERE, John Nich., a Fr. botanist, 1737-1810. CERINTHUS, a Jew, and a noted heretic of the first century, -who had been taught literature and philosophy at Alexandria, lii the age of the apostle John he propagated many absurdities about the person of Christ and a sensual millennium, based on Jewish dreams and Gnostic speculations. His fantastic reveries need not to be repeated. Ac- cording to some, the fourth gospel was written specially against his tenets, but there is no solid ground for such an opinion, though it has been plausibly defended. [J.E.] CERISANTES, Mark Duncan De, a Scotch physician in the polit. service of Richelieu, k. 1618. CERMENATI, John De, a Latin hist,, 14th c. CERQUEIRA, a Portug. mission., 1552-1614. CERRATO, Paul, an Italian poet, 16th cent. CERULARIUS, patriarch of Constantin., and au. of the Gr. schism, crnd. Isaac Commenus 1058. CERUTI, Feed., a classical schol., 1541-1579. CERUTTI, J. A. J., a Jesuit and miscel. writer, author of an 'Apology' for his order, 1735-1792. CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Miguel De, was born in 1547, at Alcala, in New Castile, of an ancient but poor family. His taste for literature seems to have been early developed, and to have been chiefly directed towards poetry. In his twenty-second year, he quitted Spain for Italy, holding a place in the household of a cardinal ; and, volunteering in the papal army, he fought bravely in 1571 against the Turks, in the battle of Lepanto, receiving there a wound which lamed his left hand for life. He continued to be a soldier, serving under several leaders, till, in 1576, sailing for the Low Countries, he was taken prisoner by an Algerine corsair. His sufferings and adventures during his three years of slavery in Algiers, are said to be described in his novel, ' The Captive,' inserted as an episode in 'Don Quixote.' On being ransomed in 1580, he resumed military ser- vice. In 1584 appeared his first printed work, 4 Galatea,' a pastoral romance, mixing prose and verse after the model of Montemayor's ' Diana.' In it he represented, under feigned names, himself and a lady whom he immediately married. He afterwards wrote a considerable number of plays, which have never become famous. About this time of his life his history becomes particularly obscure. He was for some time, at Seville, a pur- veyor of stores for the Indian fleet ; and he is tra- CIIA celebrity of his great romance, provoked attacks on him, of which the most bitter were introduced into a spurious continuation of ' Don Quixote.' This work was at length completed by the appearance of the second part in 1615. It is needless to com- mend ' Don Quixote;' and this is no place for en- deavouring to analyze its character and design* The author did not long survive its completion. He died in his sixty-ninth year, on the 23d day of April, 1616; and Shakspoare died on the very same day. ' Persiles and Sigismunda,' a romance which Cervantes left unpublished, is universally- allowed to be unworthy of the liking with which he himself regarded it. [W.S.] CERVETTO, a music, of Garrick's time, d. 1783. CESARINI, Jul., a cardinal employed in polit. negotiations, and kd. at the battle of Varna, 1 1 11. CESARINI, Viug., a Latin poet, 1595-1624. CESAROTTI, Melchior, professor of Gr. and Heb., also dist. as a poet and essayist, 1730-1808. CESPEDES, A. G. De, a Sp. geog., 1560-1608. CESPEDES, P. De, a Sp. painter, 1538-1608. CESTI, M. A., a composer of music, died 1688. CESTIUS, Gallius, Rom. gov. of Syria, 1st c. CEVELLOS, the Chevalier De, a Spanish statesman, author of the manifesto on Napoleon's invasion, 1763-1838. CEZELLI, Constance, a heroine of the 16th c CHABERT, J. B., marquis of, a Fr. command., celeb, as a navigator and astronomer, 1724-1805. CHABERT, P., a wr. on veter. surg., 1727-1814. CHABOT, Francis, one of those unquiet ma- lignant spirits raised from the deep by the French revolution, was a Capuchin monk, who abandoned his order when the door had been opened by a de- cree of the constituent assembly, and was deputed to the legislative assembly, 1791, and to the con- vention, 1792. His declamatory powers and vehe- ment passions were directed by the most unsparing hatred of royalty, and according to his own declara- tion, he even ottered himself for assassination that his corpse might be carried through the streets, and the inhabitants of the Faubourgs excited to insurrection. He voted for the king's death with- out appeal to the people and without delay, and proved himself so shameless in the advocacy of violence and murder, that he has been called the type of sansculottism. Chabot foresaw his fate when the national convention succumbed to the dictates of the Committee of Public Safety, and one day re- marked to his compatriots, — ' There ought to be a Cote Droit, (opposition side.) If none else will form it, I will alone. People say to me, you will all get guillotined in your turn ; first, you and Bazire, then Danton, then Robespierre himself.' ditionally asserted to have collected tithes in La | The event proved that these apprehensions were Mancha. In 1605 he published the first part of j well founded. Chabot had married into the 4 Don Quixote.' The appearance of this celebrated family of an Austrian banker, and from his con- work of genius speedily made him famous, with- nection with the financial speculations of his 1 no- out, however, rescuing him from poverty, although I thers-in-law, was accused of falsifying a decree of it brought him some patronage from the court, ] the convention. Whether this was true or false, which drew him to Madrid for the rest of his life. No other work came from his pen tor several years. But in 1613 he published the ' Exemplary Novels,' a collection of twelve stories, some of which are the only minor works of his that are at all worthy of the author of ' Don Quixote.' Next year there was printed his 'Journey to Parnassus,' critical and satirical essay in verse. This piece, and the 138 it served equally well as a pretext for his execu- tion. He was conducted to the scaffold after at- tempting to poison himself with corrosive sub- limate, :;d April, 1794. [E.R.] CHABOT, G. A., a wr. on civil law, 1758-1819. CHABRIAS, an Athenian, general, 6th c. b.c. (II A I'd! V, MARK, a Fr. painter, 1660-1727. CHACON, Ali'H., a Sp. antiquary, 1540-1599. CIIA CHACON, P., a Spanish critic, 1525-1581. CHAH-AALEM, emp. of Hindos. 1759, d. 1806. CHAH-DJIHAU, emp. of Hindost,, 1622-1656. CHAH-ROUKH-MYRZA, son of Tamerlane, 80V. of Khorassan, conq. of Persia, &c, died 1447. CHAHYN-GUERAI, last khan of Tarty., 1?83. CHAIS, Charles, a protes. theolog., 1701-85. CHAISE, F. De La, conf. of Louis XIV., d. 1709. CHALCIDIUS, a Platonic philosopher, 3d ct. CHALCONDYLES, Demetrius, a refugee from Constantinople, au. of a Gr. grammar, d. 1513. CHALCONDYLES, N., a Greek hist., 15th ct. CHALES, C. F. De, a Fr. mathem., died 1678. CHALLE, C. M., a French painter, died 1778. CHALMEL, J. L., a French hist., 1760-1828. CHALMERS, Alex., an industrious editor and contributor to the press, in most repute for his ' General Biographical Dictionary,' 1759-1834. CHALMERS, Geo., a statistical wr., 1744-1825. CHALMERS, Thomas, D.D., LL.D., the cele- brated pulpit orator and divine, was born on 17th March, 1780, at Anstruther, in Fifeshire, of re- spectable and pious, though humble, parents. After receiving the elements of knowledge at the parish school, he was entered a student in St. Andrews College at the early age of twelve ; and soon gave indications of that strong predilection for the phy- sical sciences which he retained through life. He Srosecuted the course of study prescribed to stu- ents in divinity, and obtained license to preach in connection with the Established Church of Scot- land while only nineteen, two years under the legal age, on the express ground that he was ' a lad of pregnant parts.' His views towards the church, however, were at this period of his life entertained, not from any ulterior intention of giving himself to the sacred duties of the ministry, but from the belief that the character of a licentiate would ad- vance him in his path to the summit of his ambition — a university appointment. Accordingly, after having been employed about a year as assistant in the parish of Cavers, he relinquished that situation for the more congenial office of assistant teacher of mathematics in the university of St. Andrews. His eminent success in that department procured him a presentation to the parisn of Kilmany, the [Kilmany Church.] patronage of which was vested in the college, and accordingly he was ordained to the pastoral charge of that place on 12th May, 1803. How subordi- CHA nate to scientific pursuits he then considered the functions of the sacred office to be, appears from the fact that he spent two successive winters in St. Andrews in giving public lectures during the week on mathematics and chemistry, while he returned to his parish only on Saturdays, leaving it again early on Monday morning. A great and happy change, superinduced by long personal illness and several domestic bereavements, took place in his views of religion. From being a very secondary concern with him, he was brought to regard it as a subject of paramount importance. He now be- came as assiduous and earnest in his attention to his sacred functions, as he had been formerly negli- gent of them ; and applying his great powers to the illustration and enforcement oi Christian truth with all the enthusiasm of a new convert, his fame as a zealous and eloquent preacher spread far and wide. His services were now eagerly sought for other and more important places, and accordingly, after having resided twelve years in Kilmany, he was translated in the summer of 1815 to the Tron Church and Parish, Glasgow. His reputation as a preacher continued rapidly to advance. His church was besieged every Sabbath by crowds of admiring listeners ; and a volume of sermons, en- titled ' Astronomical Discourses,' enjoyed a circu- lation as wide as the ' Tales of My Landlord,' pub- lished during the same season. On several public occasions he was engaged to officiate both in Edin- burgh and London at this period of his ministry, and the sensation universally produced by his preaching surpassed all that was ever known or heard of m the annals of pulpit eloquence. Chal- mers had long devoted his attention to the subject of pauperism, on which he entertained some pecu- liar views as to the superior efficacy of voluntary and Christian efforts in meeting its evils. > To en- able him to carry his views into operation, the magistrates of Glasgow erected the new parish of St. John's, to which he was presented as first min- ister, and in which he was allowed the fullest liberty to work his parochial machinery. A number of enlightened Christian laymen aided his efforts; and the scheme in the hands of such an agency met the highest success. But although he wrought it with characteristic ardour, and developed its prin- ciples at full length in his ' Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns,' it never obtained in any other parish, and has long been abandoned as im- practicable, even in St. John's. After a most active and successful incumbency for eight years in Glas- gow, Dr. Chalmers relinquished the exercise of the ministry for the more retired, but not less use- ful office of training the rising hopes of the church. In 1823 he became professor of moral philosophy in the university of St. Andrews ; and in 1827 he was translated by the unanimous presentation of the Town Council of Edinburgh, to the chair of divinity in the university of that city. The splen- dour of his fame attracted an unusual number of professional as well as amateur students to his prelections in both of these offices ; and the ability as well as learning he brought to bear on the topics of his chair, amply justified his elevation to the highest and most responsible position in the church. Dr. Chalmers now commenced a career of authorship, by which he still further extended his reputation as a divine. The most flattering 139 CIIA honours were heaped upon him from various quar- ters; for not only was he elected moderator of the General Assembly — the highest position in the Church of Scotland — but he was chosen president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, created Doctor of Laws by the university of Oxford, selected by the trustees of the earl of Bridgewater one of the eminent writers to publish a treatise in proof of the wisdom and goodness of God in Creation, and appointed corresponding member of the Royal In- stitute of France — a compliment which no clergy- man in Britain had ever previously enjoyed. Dr. Chalmers, who had zealously espoused the popular side in church politics, allowed nimself to c»e pre- vailed upon, contrary to his own better judgment, to propose the enactment of the veto law in 1833, in the fond hope that it would produce the effect of popularizing the Established Church; and there can be no doubt that it was successful to an emi- nent extent in realizing his fondest wishes. Never was the church stronger than during its preva- lence ; and it was on this auspicious period he commenced and carried on his gigantic labours in the cause of church extension. Adhering to the veto act, after the civil courts had decided on its illegality, he mingled in all the stormy controver- sies which followed ; and at length finding it hope- less to maintain the position he had assumed, he seceded in May, 1843, with a large body of adher- ents who joined him in forming the Free Church. He was the first moderator; and indeed there can be little doubt that his name, which was a tower of strength, and his eloquence, which pos- sessed resistless power over the popular mind, con- tributed more perhaps than any other cause, to give the new secession a local habitation in the land. Dr. Chalmers's health, impaired by his ex- traordinary labours, — especially m organizing the new church, sank rapidly, and his death, which was sudden, was lamented by Christians of all de- nominations. His collected works, including ser- mons, theological lectures, &c, amount to 25 volumes. [R-J-] CHALONER, B., a catholic prelate, 1691-1781. CHALONER, Sir Thos., a scholar and states- man of the age of Elizabeth, 1515-1565. His son of the same name, distinguished as a chemist, 1559-1603. Edward, son of the last, chaplain to James I., died 1625. James, a second son, an ad- herent of the parliament, committed suicide at the restoration, 1660. Thomas, brother of the preced- ing, absconded at the restoration, and died 1661. CHALOTAIS, G. R. La, the celeb, procureur- g'neral to the parliament of Brussels, whose ex- pose - of the Jesuits provoked their expulsion and his own imprisonment, which produced a great effect in France, 1701-1785. CHAMBERLAINE, Robert, a poet, d. 1G37. CHAMBERLAYNE, Edw., LL.D., au. of the 4 Present State of England,' 1616-1703. John, his son, a celeb, philologist and translator, died 1724. CHAMBERS, Epjl, the cyclopajdist, d. 1740. CHAMBERS, Sir Wm, an archit., 1725-1796. CHAMBRAY, Roland 1'ki.akd, lord of, a Fr. statesman and architect, time of Louis XIII. CHAMILLARD, M. De, a Fr. states.,1 651 -\1>\. CHAMILLARD, Step., a Fr. antiq., 1656-1730. CHAMISSO, Adelp.eet Yon, a fertile and interesting wr., especially as a natur., 1781-1838. CIIA CHAMPAGNE, Philip De, a distinguished Flemish painter, instructed by Fouquieres, and employed with Lebrun in the Luxembourg palace, and other public buildings of Paris. His works consist of sacred subjects and portraits ; born at Brussels, 1602, died 1674. Hisnephew,.Ii;AN Bap- tiste, also a painter, b. ;it Brussels, 164S, d. 1688. CHAMPEAUX, W. De, a celeb, philosoph. and theolog. of the 12th c., understood to be the first public professor of scholastic divinity, and the fndr. of scientific realism. Abelard was one of his schol., and it is by his attacks upon Champcaux that the latter is best known, his works being lost, d. 1121. _ CHAMPIER, S., a Fr. physician, soldier, and historical writer, 1472-1539. CHAMPIONNET, J. S., a Fr. gen., 1762-1800. CHAMPLAIN, Samuel De, a French naval officer, an able, enterprising, and very devout man, who established the first settlement in Canada, by founding Quebec, in 1608. He fully ex- plored the banks of the St. Lawrence, and dis- covered the lake which still bears his name. An extraordinary zeal for the conversion of the native tribes was excited by him throughout the whole of France, and many persons of wealth and station devoted themselves voluntarily to the cause ; — but the sole direction of the plans for this purpose was soon engrossed by the Jesuits, who proved from that time forward a heavy incubus upon the advancement of the colony. [J.B.] CHAMPMESLE, Mary Desmaees De, a French actress, pupil of Racine, 1644-1698. CHAMPOLLION, J. F., the celebrated French archa?ol. and interpret, of hieroglyphics, 1790-1831. CHANCELOR, Richard, an Englishman, pilot-major of Sir Hugh Willoughby's fleet, sent out by Cabot in 1553, and commander of one of the ships. Landing at Archangel, he proceeded to Moscow, and by his address and judgment in his interviews with the Czar, laid the foundation of the trade to Russia. Returning from a second voyage in 1556, he was drowned, with most of his crew, in Pitsligo Bay, on the E. coast of Scotland. The Russian ambassador, however, who accom- panied him escaped, was conducted to London, and received with great distinction. [J.B.l CHANDLER, E., a wr. on prophecy, 1671-1750. CHANDLER, M., an Eng. poetess, 1687-1745. CHANDLER, R., an antiq. writer, 1738-1810. CHANDLER, Sam., a religious au., 1693-1766. CHANDOS, John, an English general, lieut. of the French provinces for Edward III., k. 1369. CHANGEUX, P. N., a Fr. mathe., 1740-1800. CHANNING, William Elleuy, an eminent member of the society of ' Liberal Christians,' was born on 7th April, 1780, at Newport, Rhode Is- land, in the United States of America. Though descended on both sides of the house from puritan families, who had emigrated from England, he early displayed a spirit of free inquiry into the doctrines of Christianity — and with the ardour of a young man, conscious of intellectual acumen and energy, he keenly discussed, till he learnt to doubt, the leading doctrines of the orthodox faith. Above all, he imbibed a rooted dislike of Calvinism ; and gradually extending his scepticism from one por- tion of the received creed to another, he embraced th.it system of religion which is distinguished by a rejection of all the peculiarities of Christian doc- 140 CHA trine. He was a firm believer in the truth and Divine origin of Christianity, and had carefully- studied it in the inspired records ; hut he regarded it as nothing more than a more complete and au- thoritative republication of the law of Nature. Such were the religious principles which Channing adopted ; and having become a preacher, his pul- pit discourses were characterized by such exhibi- tions of mental power and impressive eloquence, heightened by rich and beautiful imagery, that he was hailed as a new star in the ecclesiastical firma- ment of America. Invitations were addressed to him by two vacant congregations in Boston ; and after due deliberation, he accepted that of ' The Religious Society ' in Federal-Street, where he was ordained on 1st June, 1803. The reputation which Mr. Channing had acquired by his early appear- ances in the pulpit, he fully sustained by the high quality of his regular ministrations. Week after week a laige congregation of intelligent hearers attended his place of worship ; where he discoursed on such subjects as charity, war, and peace — the Bible Society missions, benevolent institutions, the anti-slavery cause — and all public measures that tended to promote the advancement of liberty — the progress of social improvements — the dis- semination, and the final triumph of Christianity ; and to the illustration of these themes he brought all the charms of beautiful diction and a poetical imagination, which led multitudes to hang with rapture on his lips. Mr. Channing was universally acknowledged as the first pulpit orator in America of his time, and accustomed as he was to en- ter so largely into the discussion of public matters, he acquired a paramount influence in society. In summer 1814, he married his cousin Ruth Gibbs, in whose alliance he enjoyed the purest domestic happiness, and whose active partnership in all his plans and views of public usefulness, contributed in no small degree to the success of his public life. His health having shown symptoms of decline, he was advised in 1821 to try the effects of a voyage j and accordingly he spent a year in travelling through Europe. On his return to Boston with recovered health, he resumed his labours as a preacher, and the course of his life was spent in tmdeviating devotion to the duties of the pulpit, except only the keen and active part he took in the unitarian controversy, which in 1815 was waged with great fierceness in America. In the course of that contest Dr. Channing— for he had received from Harvard university the title of Doc- tor in Divinity — gradually advanced from the Arian creed he had hitherto maintained, into the adoption of pure Socinianism. Reports were eagerly circulated, that on his deathbed he re- nounced these principles and returned to the or- thodox faith. But the rumours seem to have been without foundation. He died suddenly, while journeying, at an inn in Bonnington, Ver- mont, on 2d October, 1842, and was buried in Mount Auburn, where a monument was erected to bis memory by his sorrowing people. [R. J.] CHANTAL, Jeanne Francoise, Madame De, a distinguished pupil of St. Francis de Sales, and grandmother of Madame de Sevigne\ was born at Dijon, 1572, and married to the Baron de Chantal in 1592, who died eight years afterwards, leaving her with a young family, to whose instruc- CIIA tion, and the performance of charitable offices to the poor, she devoted her life. She is celebrated for having founded, under the advice of De Sales, the order of the Visitation at Annecy in 1610, and such was her zeal and virtues, that she acquired the reputation of a saint among the common peo- ple, and was canonized 1767. She died 1641. In 1660 a volume of ' Letters ' by her was pub- lished, of which a new edition appeared with a life prefixed in 1823. Her other biographers are the Jesuit Fichet, Maupas de la Tour, Father Beaufils, and the Abbess Marsollier and Cordier. — (Bioqraphie Universelle.) [E R "1 CHANTEREAU, Louis, a Fr. antiq., d. 1658. CHANTREAU, P. N., a Fr. gram., 1741-1808. CHANTRE Y, Sir Francis, was born at Norton in Derbyshire, April 7, 1781. He was bound to a carver at Sheffield, but established himself as a modeller in clay, first in Dublin, then in Edinburgh, and finally in London, where he was aided by Nollekens. — Chantrey distinguished himself by his sepulchral monuments, and as a sculptor of busts, and experienced a uniformly successful career ; he was elected a Royal Academician in 1818, and was knighted by the queen in 1837. He died on the 25th of November, 1841. — By the disposition of his property, Sir Francis Chantrey has secured a more prominent place in the hist 017 of art in Britain, than his mere reputation as a sculptor would have secured him. He left the reversion of the greater portion of his property to the Royal Academy, for the promotion of British fine art in painting and sculpture, including an annuity of £300 for the president, and £50 for the secretary, payable on the 1st of January of everv year. The amount available will be about £2,5*00 per annum, which after the deduction of the salaries of the president and secretary, will leave upwards of £2,000 to be spent annually, on the average, in the purchase of paintings and sculpture executed within the shores of Great Britain, towards the formation of a British gallery of art. The funds cannot accumulate for more than five years, and no commissions can be given to any artists, all purchases must be bona Jide purchases of finished works. — (Jones, Recol- lections of Chantrey, 1849 ; Holland, Memorials of Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A., 1851.) [R.N.W.] CHAO-YONG, a Chinese philosopher, d. 1077. CHAPEAUVILLE, J., a theol. wr., 1551-1617. CHAPELAIN, John, a Fr. poet, 1595-1674. CHAPELAIN, C. J B. Le, a Jesuit, 1710-1779. CHAPELLE, C. E. Luil., a poet, 1626-86. CHAPMAN, Geo., an Engl, dram., 1557-1631. CHAPMAN, John, an Engl, divine, 1704-1781. CHAPONE, Hester Mui.so, afterwards Mrs., the celebrated authoress of 'Letters on the Im- provement of the Mind,' was born in Northamp- tonshire 1727, and introduced to her future hus- band by Richardson the novelist. After being married ten months only, she was left a widow in 1760, and survived her loss till 1801. A collected edition of her works was published in 2 vols., with a sketch of her life prefixed, in 1807. CHAPPE D'AUTEROCHE, a celeb. French astronomer, 1722-1769. His nephew, ClATTDB, noted as the discov. of the telegraph, 1763-1805. CHAPPEL, Wm., an Irish prelate, to whom the authorship of ' The Whole Duty of Man ' has been imputed, (first published 1657,) died 1619. 141 CHA CHAPPLOW, L., an Oriental schlr., 1683-17G8. CHAPPUIS, Claude, a Fr. poet, d. 1572. CHAPTAL, J. A. C, a Fr. chemist, contractor for the supply of gunpowder to the revolutionai government, afterwards one of Napoleon's minis- ters, and count of Chanteloupe, author of works on practical chemistry, 1756-1832. CHAPUZEAU, S., a topographical wr., d. 1701. CHARDIN, Sir J., an Eastern trav., 1643-1713. CHARETTE DE LA CONTRIE, Fr. Athan- asius De, royalist chief in La Vendde, taken and shot 1796. CHARILLUS, a king of Sparta, 8th cent. B.C. CHARLEMAGNE. This illustrious prince, the restorer of order and obedience in a state of society when only the most commanding talents and heroic steadfastness of purpose could have availed him in a struggle against anarchy and ignorance in their worst forms, was the grandson of Charles-Martel, king of the Franks, and lived 742-814, master of an empire which embraced all France, a part of Spain, more than half of Italy, and nearly all Germany. To feel his greatness adequately it must be remembered that all the ancient landmarks of social order had been over- thrown with the colossal Roman power, and that the whole civilized world was covered with its ruins and infested with its crimes. The ancient seat of empire was divided among a score of petty tvrants; the Saracens had overrun Spain and threatened the farther west; the northern king- doms were only known as the cradle of adventur- ous armies, whose leaders in after years organized the feudal governments of Europe ; Russia did not even exist ; and England was just emerging from the confusion of the Heptarchy. Some two cen- turies before, 507-511, Clovis had founded the Frankish monarchy and established himself at Paris, but his power was that of an absolute mili- tary chief, and he was succeeded by a line of phantom-kings, whose action is scarcely distin- guishable from that of the barbarous fermentation proceeding around them. At length Pepin-Heris- tal and his son Charles-Martel, slowly paved the way for a new authority, the former by familiariz- ing men's minds witli justice and goodness in the sovereign, and the latter by his heroic resistance 142 CHA of the Saracens, and the promise of an irresistible power in the government. The successes of Char- lemagne were the natural issue of these circum- stances under the command of his ambition and vast genius, favoured by the compliance of the popes; who were willing to encourage a Christian protectorate in the west as a counterpoise to the eastern empire of Irene, and the dreaded power of Haroun-al-Raschid. A catalogue of the princi- pal events and dates is all that we can give in the space to which we are limited. In 768 Charles suc- ceeded to the government conjointly with his bro- ther Carloman ; and on the death of the latter in 771, became sole master of France by wisely re- fusing to divide the authority with his nephews. In 770 he subdued the revolt of Aquitaine. In 772 he marched against the still idolatrous Saxons, and commenced a conflict which he maintained for upwards of thirty years. In 773 he crossed the Alps, and was shortly crowned king of Lombardy, and acknowledged suzerain of Italy by the pope, with the right of confirming the papal elections. In 778 he carried his arms into Spain, and pur- sued his victorious career as far as the Ebro, but was surprised on his return in the pass of Ronces- valles, where many of his knights perished, and among the rest Orlando or Roland, his nephew, the hero of Ariosto. In 780 Louis-le-Debonnaire, his youngest son, was crowned by the pope king of Aquitaine, and Pepin, his second son, king of Lombardy, both at Rome. Between 780 and 782 he visited a terrible retribution upon the Saxons, and compelled their chief to accept Christian bap- tism. Towards 790 we find him establishing seminaiies of learning, and doing all in his power to elevate the character of the clergy, the most of whom had hitherto known little but the Lord's prayer; besides engaging in projects for the ac- celeration of commerce, the general improvement of the people, and the promotion of science. Be- fore the end of the century he had invaded Pan- nonia, and extended his dominions in this direction to the mountains of Bohemia and the Raab. In 800 he was crowned at Rome emperor of the west ; and in 803 was negotiating a union with Irene in order to consolidate the eastern and western em- pires, when the empress was dethroned and exiled by Nicephorus. From this period to his death, which took place at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the seventy-first year of his age, and the forty-seventh of his reign, he was engaged in fortifying the coasts of France against the Northmen, and various matters relat- ing to the security and the prosperity of the em- pire, including the settlement of the succession. — In person and manners Charlemagne was the perfection of simplicity, modesty, frugality, and m a word, of true greatness ; and though he was too much given to the society of women, he had the reputation of a good father, a tender husband, and a generous friend. He was indefatigable in all the duties of government, and whether in the camp or the court, had fixed hours for studv, in which he took care to engage his courtiers by forming them into an academy. ' For shame !' he exclaimed, to one who came before him attired more elegantly than the occasion demanded, — ' dress yourself like a - and if you would be distinguished, let it be by your merits, not by your garment's.' His nearest friend and companion was the illustrious CHA Alcuyn, and his fame was so widely spread that the only man, perhaps, of kindred genius in that age, the great caliph, Haroun-al-Raschid, courted his good-will, and complimented him by an em- bassage bearing presents. Before his death he confirmed the succession in the person of his son Louis, by an august ceremony. Placing the im- perial crown upon the altar, he ordered Louis to take it with his own hands, that he might under- stand he wore it in his own right, underno autho- rity but that of God. — Perhaps we cannot conclude better by way of further illustrating the character of Charlemagne than with his words of advice to this prince : — ' Love your people as your children,' said he, ' choose your magistrates and governors from those whose belief in God will preserve them from corruption, and see that your own life be blameless.' [E.R.] CHARLEMONT, James Caulfield, earl of, an Irish politician, time of Burke, 1728-1799. CHARLES L, king of England, born 1600; succeeded his father James I. 1625 ; dissolved his third parliament 1629 ; troubles in Scotland 1637 ; long parliament convened 1640 ; battle of Edge- Hill 1642; defeat of Marston Moor 1644; defeat of Naseby 1645 ; executed 30th January, 1649. CHA sustained a disastrous straggle with the English from the death of his father to the appearance of Jeanne d'Arc 1429 : ent. Paris as k. 1437 ; d. 1461. CHARLES VIII.,b. 1470, k. of Fr. 1482, d. 1498. CHARLES IX., son of Henry II. and Catharine de Medici, born 1550 ; king of France 1560 ; civil wars between the catholics and protestants, leading to the massacre of St. Bartholomew 1572 ; d. 1574 CHARLES X., grandson of Louis XV., born 1757 ; left France soon after the taking of the Bas- tile 1789 ; succeeded Louis XVIII. 1824 ; dethd. by the revolution of July 1830 ; died 1836. CHARLES I., II., and III., of Germany, same as France. Charles IV., b. 1316, emp. 1347-1378. CHARLES V., born 1500 ; succeeded his grand- father, Ferdinand, as king of Spain 1516, and was elected emperor of Germany 1519 ; presided at the diet of Worms 1520 ; sustained a long war with Francis I., whom he took prisoner at the battle of Pavia, 1521-1525 ; abdic. in favour of his son, after years of conflict with the protestant princes of Germ., 1556 ; died in the retirement of a convent 1558. CHARLES VI., father of Maria Theresa, bora 1685 ; kg. of Spain 1703 ; emperor 1711 ; d. 1740. CHARLES VII., succeeded his father as elector of Bavaria 1726 ; crowned k. of Bohemia and emp. 1742 ; defeated by Maria Theresa, and died 1745. CHARLES I., king of Navarre, same as Charles IV. of France, successor of his brother Philip V. CHARLES II., born 1332, king of Navarre 1350 ; d., after losing a part of his kingdom, 1387. CHARLES III., son and successor of the pre- ceding, dist. by the surname of ' Noble,' 1387-1425. CHARLES I. of Spain, same as Charles V. of Germ., the great contemp. of Fran. I. and Hen.VIIL CHARLES II., son of Philip IV., bora 1661 ; king of Spain and Naples 1665 ; died 1700. CHARLES III., son of Philip V, born 1716; proclaimed king of Tuscany 1731, and afterwards king of Naples under the title of Charles VI.; succeeded as king of Spain 1759 ; died 1788. CHARLES IV., sue. 1788 ; abdic. 1808 ; d. 1819. CHARLES I., k. of Naples and Sicily, 1264-1285. CHARLES II., king of Naples only, 1288-1309. CHARLES III., succeeded Queen Joan, whom he put to death 1380 ; poisoned after his election to the crown of Hungary, 1386. CHARLES I., or VII., king of Sweden, 1161- 1168. The six preceding of this name are not known to history, but are given in the partly fabulous and partly invented list of Joannes Mag- nus, and the style has been too long sanctioned by the usage of historians to be altered. CHARLES VIIL, elected king 1448, d. 1470. CHARLES IX., fourth son of Gustavus Vasa, born 1550 ; king 1604 ; died 1611. CHARLES GUSTAVUS X., sue. 1654, d. 1660. CHARLES XL, son of the preceding, bora 1655, king 1679-97; distinguished as a Ntccettfil] opponent of Christiern V. of Denmark, and for his able administration. CHARLES the XII. of Sweden came to the throne in a.d. 1697, at the age of fifteen. The CHARLES V., b. 1337; k. of Fr. 1364; d. 1380. i rulers of Russia, Poland, and Denmark, despised CHARLES VI., born 1368 ; king of France j him as a weak boy, and formed a league for 1380; war with England 1404; defeated at Agin- ! humbling the power of Sweden, and appropriating court 1415; treaty with Henry V., and his mar tinge with the French princess 1420 ; died 1422. [Bible used by Charles I. on the scaffold,] CHARLES II., born 1630 ; arrived in Scotland 1650 ; crowned at Scone and Carlisle, and after- wards defeated at Worcester 1651 ; restored to the throne 1660 ; war with Holland, Denm., and Fran., 1663 ; execu. of Russell and Sidney 1684 ; d. 1685. CHARLES, 'the Pretender,' grandson of James II., b. 1720; defeated at Culloden 1746; d. 1788. CHARLES I., of Germany and France. See Charlemagne. CHARLES II., suraamed'the Bold,' b. 823; kg. of France 840 ; emp. of Germany 875 ; d. 877. CHARLES III., king of Suabia 876; king of Italy 879 ; emperor 880 ; king of Saxony 882 ; king of France 884; deposed, and supposed to have been assassinated 887-888. CHARLES IV., born count of La Marche, 1294; king of France and Navarre 1322 ; died 1328. many o¥ her 'best provinces. In this crisis the young Swedish king showed a degree of energy CHARLES VII., bora 1403; dauphin 1417; | and courage that astonished both friends and lues. 1-13 CHA He put himself at the head of his army, invaded Denmark, and besieged Copenhagen. This bold stroke forced the Danish sovereign to beg for peace, and abandon the anti-Swedish confederacy. Charles then turned against his other enemies. On the 30th Nov., 1701, with 8,000 Swedes, he attacked and entirely routed the Russian army of 40,000 men at Narva. He then marched across Livonia and Courland into Poland, gained repeated victories over the enemies of his enemy Augustus, (who was elector of Saxony as well as Icing of Poland,) took Cracow, Warsaw. Dantzig, and other important cities ; and in 170-4 compelled the Poles to depose Augustus, and choose Stanislaus Lescinski as their king. Charles then advanced into Saxony, which he occupied with his victorious troops, and forced the elector to beg a peace, the terms of which Charles dictated, (1707.) Charles lingered for some time in Saxony at the head of his army, which amounted to 50,000 veterans. The eyes of all Europe were now fixed on him. His numerous victories, his daring and resolute spirit, the bearing and discipline of his troops, filled sovereigns, generals, and statesmen with admi- ration and anxiety. Louis XIV. earnestly implored his assistance against the arms of Marlborough and Eugene; and Marlborough himself undertook a special embassy to the Swedish camp in order to baffle the attempts of the French to win over the hero of the North to their alliance. Charles him- self cherished the most ambitious projects. He was bent, in the first instance, on deposing his enemy, Peter, from the throne of Russia, as he had deposed his other enemy, Augustus, from the Polish throne. One year, he thought, would suffice for the conquest of Russia. He next designed to attack the pope ; and he had despatched officers privately into Asia and Egypt, to survey the towns and military resources of those countries, with the intention of entering on a career of Oriental conquest, so soon as he had subdued his European foes. He marched out of Saxony in the autumn of 1707, and entered the Russian ter- ritory in 1708. He crossed the Berisina in June, defeated a Russian army that was entrenched near that river, and advanced as far as Smolensko, where he gained another victory, (28th Sept., 1708.) Instead of marching forward against Mos- cow, Charles now turned to the Ukraine, trusting to the promises of the old Cossack chief Mazeppa, who boasted that he would bring the whole Cos- sack nation over to the cause of Charles, but who was only able to persuade 7,000 men to join the invaders. Charles wintered in the Ukraine ; but he moved forward upon Moscow in the spring of 1709, and besieged the city of Pultowa, where the Kalians had collected large military stores. His army had been fearfully reduced by famine, fatigue, and the fatal frosts of Russia, as well as by the numerous skirmishes and actions in which it had been engaged. He had not more than 25,000 men under him at Pultowa, and at least half of than were Cossack and Wallachian recruits. The Russian czar, Peter the Great, advanced to relieve Pultowa with a well-equipped army, 60,000 strong. The decisive battle of Pultowa, fought July 8, 1709, between the rival sovereigns, ended in the total defeat of the Swedes. Charles made his escape from the field with difficulty, and sought i:i CIIA refuge in Turkey, where he was hospitably received and sheltered. He remained there five years, during which time his enemies were conquering the best Swedish possessions in Germany and on the east of the Baltic. At length Charles suddenly left Turkey, and joined the scanty Swedish hand's that were struggling against the forces of Russia, Prussia, Saxony, and Denmark. After several chequered, though generally unsuccessful cam- paigns, Charles met his death before the fortress of Frederickshall, in Norway, in the winter of 1718. He was leaning, at night, on a breastwork, watching the operations of the siege by moonlight, under the fire of one of the enemy's batteries, when a shot struck him on the head, and he died in- stantly, in the thirty-seventh year of his life, and the twenty-first of his reign. [E.S.C.] CHARLES XIIL, son of Adolph-Frederick, born 1758 ; regent 1792 ; king 1809 ; died 1818. CHARLES I., duke of Savoy, 1482-1489. Charl. II., 1489-1497. Charl. III., 1504-1553. CHARLES EMANUEL I., duke of Savoy, made count of Provence bv the league, 1580-1630. CHARLES EMANUEL II., duke 1638-1675. CHARLES EMANUEL III., second king of Sardinia of the house of Savoy, born 1701, suc- ceeded 1730, died 1773. CHARLES EMANUEL IV., sue. 1796, abdic. in favour of his brother Victor, 1802, d. 1819. CHARLES FELIX, k. of Sardinia, 1821-1831. CHARLES ALBERT, prince of Carignano, bora 1798; succeeded Charles Felix as king of Sardinia 1831 ; made an attempt to liberate Northern Italy from the Austrians 1848 ; and died broken-hearted after his abdic, 18th July, 1 849. CHARLES LOUIS, count palat of the Rhine, mem. of the league formed agt. France, 1617-1685. CHARLES THEODORE, elect, pal., 1724-1777. CHARLES of France, received the duchy of Lorraine from the emperor Otho II., but was vanquished by Hugh Capet, and died 993. CHARLES I., duke of Lorraine, 1371-1431. Charles II., called the Great, 1543-1608. Charles III., was despoiled of his estates by Louis XIIL 1631, and recovered a part by the treaties of 1641 and 1659, died 1675. Charles IV., a general in the service of Austria, married to the sister of the emperor Leopold, died 1690. Charles Louis, of Lorraine, arch-duke of Austria, born 1771 ; companion in arms of Prince Cobourg from 1793 ; commander of the imperial armies on the Rhine 1796 ; defeated by Buonaparte and Massena in Italy; died 1847. CHARLETON, Lewis, bp. of Hereford, d. 1639. _ CHARLETON, Walter, an English physician, distinguished as a writer of natural history, theo- logy, and natural philosophy, died 1707. CHARLEVILLE, Charles Wm., earl of, com. of cavalry during the Irish rebel., 1703-1835. CHARLEVOIX, Peter Francis Xavier De, a French Jesuit and historian, 1682-1761. CHARLOTTE, Augusta, commonly called the Princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV. .uid Queen Caroline, born 1796; manned to Prince Leopold, the present king of the Belgians, 1816 ; died in childbed, 5th November, 1817. CHARNOCK, John, a naval writ., 1756-1807. CHARNOCK, Stephen, an English Calvin- istic divine, distinguished for his learning, d. 1680. CIIA CHAROBERT, or CHARLES-ROBERT, a king of Hungary, 14th century. CHARONDAS, a legislator of Gr., 5th c. B.C. CHARPENTIER, Fb., a man of let., 1620-1702. CHARPENTIER, F. P., an engrav., 1734-1817. CHARPENTIER, J., a Fr. philos., 1524-1574. CHARPENTIER, J. F. J.,amineral., 1738-1805. CHARPENTIER, M. A., a composer, 1634-1702. CHARPENTIER, R., a sculptor, 1680-1723. CHARRERIE, Madame De St. Hyacintiie, a novelist and miscellaneous writer, died 1806. CHARRIER, M. A., a royalist leader of the insurgents of Lozere, executed 1793. CHARRON, Petee, a French moralist and theologian, author of a book famous in its day, en- titled a « Treatise on Wisdom,' &c, 1541-1603. CHART1ER, Alain, a French poet and prose writer, • the father of Fr. eloquence,' 1386-1458. CHARTIER, R., a Fr. Orientalist, 1572-1654. CHASLES, F. J., a French author, last cent. CHASLES, Gbeg. De, a Fr. author, d. 1720. CHASSENEUX, Baeth. De, a writer on civil law, eminent for his conduct as president of the parliament of Provence, when it was in his power to delay the decree against the Vaudois, 1480-1541. CHASSIGNET, J. B., a French poet, 1578-1621. CHASTELARD, P. De Bocosle De, a French gentleman surprised in the bed-room of Mary Stuart, and beheaded on a charge of treason. CHASTELER, J. G., marquis of, an Austrian general, finally governor of Venice, 1763-1820. CHASTELET, G. E. De Bbeteuil, marchion- ess of, translator of Leibnitz and Newton into French, 1706-1749. CHASTELET, Paul Deb Hay, lord of, a Fr. hist., and min. of state under Richelieu, 1593-1636. CHASTE LLUX, Fbancis John, marquis of, a marshal of France, and member of the French Academy, dist. in Germ, and America, 1734-1788. CHATEAUBRIAND, Feancois Auguste, Vicomte De, was born in Brittany, of an ancient family, in 1769. At the age of seventeen he was removed from home to enter the army ; but, his regiment revolting, he retired from the service; and after several of his relations had been executed in the reign of terror, he emigrated, returning only for a short time to serve in the invasion attempted by the emigrants under Conde\ For several years he resided chiefly in England, paying, however, a visit to the United States, in the course of which he dreamt of discovering the North-west Passage, and gathered among the red men materials for 'The Natchez' and 'Atala.' In this period he published his 'Essay on Revolutions,' in which there were expressed a good many opinions speedily abandoned by their writer, as conceding too much to the spirit of the age. — In 1799, when Buona- parte had overthrown the directory, Chateaubriand returned to France. In 1802 he became one of the most celebrated authors in Europe, by the pub- lication of his ' Genius of Christianity,' (' Geme du Christianisme,') a work which is in every way in- structively characteristic both of his merits and his defects. It has no value either theological or philosophical, even for those who regard Christi- anity, as the writer did, from the Roman Catholic point of view. But it is a work possessing great attractions for those readers who can sympathize with its tone of feeling, and who are not so severe in CHA taste as to be repelled by its excessive pomp of ornament. It records, with seeming method, but real desultoriness, and with dazzling force of re- presentation, the reflections, and pictures, and emotions, arising in the mind of a man who, though he did not think either profoundly or ex- actly, possessed a singular fulness of imagination, and was animated by a fervent spirit of religious reverence. Religion, however, interests Chateau- briand most keenly when it is regarded in its rela- tions to literature "and art. He exhibits here the same incapacity to apprehend practical realities, which afterwards distinguished his political writ- ings, and his course of political action : and the ro- mantic turn of his elaborate treatise on sacred things is illustrated by the fact, that there was in- troduced into it as an episode the Indian tale of 'Atala,' subsequently separated from it and re- ceiving the tale of ' Rene ' as a supplement. The 'Geme du Christianisme,' like all the author's other works, is eloquent ; but its eloquence is arti- ficial, theatrical, and monstrously strained. It is often pathetic ; but its pathos continually tends to degenerate into mawkish sentimentality. Such as it is, however, the ambitious effort displayed an animation and warmth which, breaking in on the recent deadness of French literature, excited uni- versal attention and admiration. — The views which the work expressed were likewise in accordance with the ecclesiastical policy of the new ruler of France ; and the imposmg character of Napoleon made a vivid impression on Chateau- briand's excitable fancy. He immediately entered the service of the first consul in the diplomatic de- partment. In 1803 he visited Rome as secretary to Cardinal Fesch. He had very soon an opportunity of exercising that courageous integrity Tby which he was always so honourably distinguished. He had just been appointed minister to the Valais, when, in the spring of 1804, Napoleon sullied his name by the execution of the Duke D'Enghien. Chateaubriand instantly resigned his place, forfeit- ing, of course, all claims to favour under the em- pire. In 1806 he set out on those travels to the East, which are recorded in his 'Itinerary from Paris to Jerusalem.' Now likewise he added an- other imaginative illustration to his 'Genie,' by publishing ' The Martyrs,' a Christian romance of the Roman empire. Afterwards, returning to France, he took no part in public affairs till the fall of Napoleon. — In 1814, while the disposal of the sovereignty of France remained doubtful, he wrote his famous pamphlet, ' Of Buonaparte and the Bourbons.' It is generally allowed that this well-timed appeal did much in diminishing the unpopularity which Louis XVIII. had incurred, by usmg the arms of foreigners in the recovery of his crown. During the Hundred Days Chateau- briand attended the king at Ghent, and acted as his foreign minister. After the battle of Waterloo, he received a seat in the Chamber of Peers, and a nominal appointment as a minister of state. But he held no actual office under the ultra royalist ministry, which was the first after the restoration. He came into place with the more liberal adminis- tration of Villele. In 1821 he was ambassador in London. In 1822 he was one of the two plenipoten- tiaries of France at the Congress of Verona ; and in his History of it he claims the credit of having 145 CHA been the real instigator of the French invasion of Spain. Next year he had, as minister of foreign affairs, the satisfaction of directing the ill-advised expedition undertaken in consequence of that reso- lution of the Congress. He remained in private life during the arbitrary reign of Charles A., ex- cepting that, in 1828, he was appointed ambassa- dor to Rome, but resigned immediately when Po- lignac was placed at the head of the administra- tion. — On the revolution of 1830, Chateaubriand delivered in the Chamber of Peers an oration, in which he advocated strongly, but by no means on high monarchical grounds, the claim of the Duke of Bourdeaux to the throne. This was his last ap- pearance in public life. On the election of Louis Philippe, he refused to take the oaths, resigned even his pension as a peer, and occupied himself thenceforth in literary labours. These were now necessary for his support, Ids whole property hav- ing been spent. Most of his writings during this period of declining age, such as his ' Sketches of English Literature,' are of small value. His chief employment was the composition or completion of his voluminous ' Memoirs from Beyond the Tomb,' (' Memoires d' Outre Tombe ;') and the right of publishing these after his death was sold by him tor a large life annuity. They exhibit an amount of vanity and egotism almost unparalleled; but they are full of interesting details, and have very much of his peculiar kind of eloquence. Chateau- briand died at Paris in the summer of 1848, when he had almost completed his eightieth year. [W.S.] [Turn') of Chateaubriand, at St. Malo.] CHATEAUBRIANT, J. B. V. De, a dramatic poet, member of the French Academy, 1686-1775. CHATE AUNEUF-RANDON, Count De, a Fr. deputy, afterw. gen. under the directory, d. 1816. CHATEAU-RE GNAUD, Fran. Louis Rous- selet, count of, a French admiral, 1637-1716. CHATEL, Fr. Du, a Flemish painter, 16th ct. CHATEL, Peter Du, a Fr. prelate, eel. as a Greek scholar and controversial writer, d. 1552. CHATEL, Tanneguy Du, a Fr. gen., d. 1449. CHATELAIN, J. Le, a monk, burnt alive, 1525. CHATELLARD, J. J., a mathem., 1693-1757. CHATHAM, William Pitt, earl of, was the second son of Robert Pitt of Boconnoc, in Corn- wall, where he was born on 15th November, 1708. His family was extensively connected with the higher English country gentry, and his grandfather, 146 CHA William Pitt, governor of Madras, was the owner of the celebrated Pitt diamond. Young Pitt studied at Trinity College, Oxford, and on leaving the university he obtained a cornetcy in the Blues. Walpole afterwards, following his relentless sys- tem of party warfare, deprived him of his com- mission. Perhaps this act entirely altered his destinies, since he possessed qualities that, had he remained long enough in the army to have felt an interest in his profession, might have developed great powers of military command. He entered parliament for the family borough of Old Sarum, m 1736. He immediately joined the opposition, which placed the name of the Prince of Wales at its head. The most eminent of" his early speeches were delivered in that last effective attack on Wal- pole, which, in 1742, drove him from power. They are said to have been brilliant and astound- ing efforts of oratory, but the usual versions of them are so steeped in the antithetic mannerism of Johnson, who professed to report them for the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' that it is impossible to know how far they are genuine ; while other re- ports, professing to be verbatim, do not justify the high reputation of these earlier efforts. His oppo- sition to the government did not cease with the fall of Walpole. His bold declamation, so much in con- trast -with the personal and narrow party discussions which then occupied parliament, drew a substan- tial token of admiration from a kindred spirit, Sa- rah, duchess of Marlborough, who bequeathed him £10,000. On the other hand, the king had a thorough dislike to him, as a person whose oppo- sition was not of that usual kind which merely tries to remove a ministry and occupy their place, but which aimed at a political power independent of, if not above, the throne. The Pelhams, how- ever, saw the great importance of adding his strength to their ministry, and in 1746 the king unwillingly submitted to his appointment first to a subordinate place, and immediately after to the lucrative office of paymaster-general. The same haughty self-reliance which he had shown in opposition distinguished him in office, and it served to restrain him from drawing on those many sources of irregular emolument which were then attached to official power. His marriage, in 1754, with the sister of George Grenville, opened to him a new political connection. In 1755, he was dis- missed, along with his brother-in-law, but in the ensuing year it was found necessary to bring them both back to a cabinet of which Pitt was virtually the head. In 1757, an attempt was again made to dispense with the services of the ' great com- moner,' but after the country was two months and a-half without a government, he returned with greater power than ever. It was then that, backed by national enthusiasm, he conducted the brilliant operations which paralyzed France and drove her fleets from almost every sea. On the accession of George III. he was superseded by the royal favourite, Lord Bute. Various overtures were made to him to join or form a ministry, and in 1766 he undertook the latter function, choosing, to the surprise of the world, a sinecure place for himself, and a seat in the upper house. Repeated attacks of gout, from an early period of life downwards, had in- jured both his constitution and temper. He resigned office in 1768. Opposed to the taxation CIIA of America, he was, on the other hand, indignant at the proposed abandonment of the colonies, and it was while exhorting the House of Lords against the measure that he was seized with a fit from which he never recovered, dying in a month after- wards, on the 11th of May, 1778. [J.H.B.] [flolwood House, the residence of the Earl of Chatham.] CHATHAM, John, earl of, eldest son of the eel. statesm., and brother of Wm. Pitt, 1756-1835. CHATTLLON, G. De, a Fr. captain, d. 1210. CHATILLON,G. De, constab. of Fr., 1249-1329. CHATILLON, L. De, a Fr. enam., 1639-1734. CHATILLON, N. De, a Fr. arch., 1549-1616. CHATRE, Claude, Baron De La, a Fr. mar- shal, gov. of Berry, under Charles IX., 1526-1614. CHATRE-NANCAY, the Count De La, a military officer of France, au. of Memoirs, d. 1645. CHATTERTON, Thomas, born at Bristol in 1752, was the son of a poor schoolmaster, who died a little before his birth. After having spent some years in a charity school, he was articled to an attorney in his fifteenth year. He was not quite sixteen when he published in a Bristol news- paper the first of his extraordinary forgeries, being an account of an ancient procession, which, on being questioned, he alleged to have been found in the charter-room of the church of St. Mary Red- cliffe. He next exhibited specimens of old poetry, which he asserted were written in the fifteenth cen- tury, by a priest named Thomas Rowley. At the same time, pieces, both in prose and verse, which were avowedly his own, appeared in London magazines ; and these, by their singular force and originality, showed him to be quite capable of having concocted the supposed antiques. Indeed, wonderful as was, in the circumstances, the antiquarian and other knowledge which he wasted on his impostures, their spuriousness was at once evident to the few who were competently familiar with the Old Eng- lish language and history. The poet Gray, and his friend Mason, unhesitatingly denounced the impo- sition, when some of the poems were sent to them by Horace Walpole. The best imitation of the CIIA conduct. He extorted a release from his master before he had served him for three years ; and im- mediately sought and found literary employment m London, busying himself chiefly" with political and satirical writings. A very few months of toil, ill remunerated, and disappointments in his ex- pectation of patronage from the great, drove his undisciplined mind to despair. He became indi- gent to the verge of starvation, and poisoned him- self m August 1770, when he wanted some weeks of completing his eighteenth year. [W S ] [Charter Room, St. Mary Redcliffe, Bri CHAUCER, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry, lived in the fourteenth century, one of those periods which are most important and interesting, both for the history of the nation and for that of our native literature. The sovereigns of England in his time were Edward III. and Richard II.; Wickliffe, his contemporary, to whose opinions, in re- gard to ecclesiastical polity, Chaucer was inclined through his connections at court, was beginning to undermine the rule of the Church of Rome ; the language of the people was now, for the first time, so far developed as to be a fit organ for literary composition, both in prose and verse ; and, while the romances and other poems of France were still the favourite models of poetry, higher aims and greater correctness of execution were taught by the Italian masterpieces of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. — Nothing is known as to Chaucer's narentage, and hardly anything as to the events of his youth. He was born about 1328, probably in London, and is said to have been educated at both universities, and to have also studied law. Very early he obtained public employment, attaching himself to Edward s son, John of Gaunt, ' time- honoured Lancaster.' The second wife of this prince, who had already been his mistress, is be- lieved to have been the sister of Chaucer's wife. In 1359 the poet served, and was taken prisoner, in the king's invasion of France ; and besides dis- charging other foreign missions, he was sent to Genoa in 1373, a journey which is supposed to have given him an interview with Petrarch, antique, is perhaps the minstrel's song inserted in Among other offices which he held in the course the tragedy of Ella ; but everywhere there is evi- dence of genius which, if it had been guided by good intention, and fostered by mature study, would certainly have given birth to poetical mas- terpieces. But perversity of principle was mani- fest alike in the unhappy boy's writings, and in his of this reign, was the comptrollers!) ip of customs in the port of London ; and a pension, with a grant of a daily pitcher of wine, has been aroneooaty referred to as constituting an appointment as poet- laureate. He likewise received a house in the royal demesne of Woodstock ; and there most of 147 CHA his later works arc traditionally said to have been composed. In the disturbances which arose alter 1377, when the feeble Richard II. succeeded to the throne, Chaucer was implicated; and he is said, on doubtful authority, to have been at one time a fugitive to the continent, and at another a prisoner in the Tower. In 1386, however, be was knight of the shire for Kent. He died in London in 1400, soon after the accession of Henry IV., the son of his early patron. One of bis sons became speaker of the House of Commons, and the other married a daughter of the ducal house of De La Pole. — Chaucer deserves commemoration as one of the very earliest of those who wrote prose id a language which can properly be called English. But his compositions of this sort have little value for any but the philologer. His minor poems, also, although they would secure his name from neglect, would cause him to be remem- bered only as one of those who improved most actively a kind of poetry, borrowed m the main from the allegoric arid chivalrous fancies of the French, and cultivated for several generations bo- fore his time. Some of his works are free transla- tions, or loose abridgments. Such are the ' Ro- mance of the Rose,' from the French ; the ' Troilus and Cressida,' from the Italian of Boccaccio ; ' and 4 The Legend of Good Women,' derived from the epistles of Ovid. Among his original poems, 4 The House of Fame,' and ' The Flower and the Leaf,' are very fine in themselves, and have re- ceived injury, not improvement, in the modernized paraphrases of Pope and Dryden. — Chaucer's claim to immortality, as one of the greatest of English poets, and as a poet essentially and strik- ingly original in spite of many borrowings in de- tail, rests on his ' Canterbury Tales.' These are currently said to have been all written after the poet's sixtieth year. But there is reason for sus- pecting that many of the pieces may have been composed before ; and that we are not entitled to assign peremptorily to his old age anything be- [Tomljof Cb yond the collection of the stories into a series, and the writing of that introduction to them which is certainly the best part of the work. This intro- duction is described as tbe Prologue. It relates how a band of pilgrims, bound for the shrine of Saint Thomas a Beckett at Canterbury, meet at the inn of the Tabard in Southwark ; and how CHA they agree to relieve the weariness of tbe way by the telling of stories. The portraits of the pil- grims are among the most admirable things in tbe whole range of poetry : they are equally good for their delineation of character, for their variety and depth of serious sentiment and arch humour, and for a pointed strength and aptness of language which, antiquated though the diction is, may be understood by every well-educated reader with very little study. Similar excellencies belong to the Tales which follow, and which, breaking oft" abruptly, leave us to suppose that the design was not more than half completed. The humorous tales are coarse and sometimes immoral, yet felicitously humorous : some of the serious ones are in every way beautiful. The ' Knight's Tale,' telling in chivalrous guise the adventures of the Greek knights Palamon and Arcite, has aptly been called tbe Iliad of Old English literature. ' [W.S.] CHAUDET, A. D., a Fr. sculptor, 1763-1810. CHAUDON, L. M., a Fr. ecclesiastic, author of historical and chronological works, 1737-1817. CHAUFFEPIE, J. G. De, a Calvinist minis- ter, and historical and critical writer, 1702-1786. CHAUFOURRIER, J., a Fr. paint., 1672-1757. CHAULIEU, W. A. De, a Fr. poet, 1639-1720. CHAULNES, Honore D' Albert, Duke De, marshal of France, and favourite of Louis XIII., died 1649. His son, Louis, an ambassador, 1625- 1698. A later inheritor of the title, distinguished as a mathematician and naturalist, 1714-1769 ; and his son and successor as a chemist, 1741-1793. CHAUMETTE, Pierre Gaspard, one of the vilest scoundrels by whom the French people were maddened in the period between 1789 and 1794, was the son of a shoemaker, and before bis advent as a street orator and journalist, had run through a career which seems to have perfected him for every species of villany, as a cabin-boy, a schoolmaster, a lawyer's clerk, and a novice in a convent. He was born in 1765, and began bis public career in one of the low clubs. In 1789 he edited a journal entitled 'Les Revolutions des Paris.' In 1792 he was elected ' procureur-syn- dic,' or attorney, for the commune of Paris, on which occasion he formally renounced his chris- tian name, and declared that he took that of An- axagoras, ' a saint who had been hung for bis re- publicanism.' He was the virtual chief of the ' Hebertists,' the inventor of the Feast of Reason, and the high priest who officiated at the worship of the demoiselle Candeille in the cathedral of Notre Dame. His brutal character may be judged from the fact that he presented the prince dauphin with the model of a guillotine for a plaything, and that the revolting questions put by Hebert to the ?meen .originated in nis obscene imagination. His eatures were abject, yet marked by insolence ; and his style of address, to judge from the specimens which have been preserved, was characterized by the vulgarest claptrap, and insolent use of apos- trophe. There is reason to believe that he plotted for the destruction of the entire body of the conven- tion along with that of the Girondins. It became his boast that ' he knew the suspect in the streets by the very face of them.' The prisons of Paris were filled with his victims, and the violence and immorality of bis party were so extreme, that the Committee of Public Safety could not be insen- 148 CHA Bible to tbe danger which threatened the republic from this quarter. Robespierre watched his op- portunity, and these wretched panderers to the worst vices of the people were sent to the guillo- tine on the 24th of March, 1794. [E.R.] CHAUMONT, P. P., a Fr. ecclesias., d. 1697. CHAUNCEY, Ch., D.D., a relig. au., 1705-87. CHAUNCEY, Sir Hen., the well-known hist, of Hertfordshire, knighted by Char. II., 1632-1700. CHAUSSE, M. A. De La, a Fr. archaj., d. 1724. CHAUSSEE, P. A. Nivelle De La, a French dramatist and member of the academy, 1692-1754. CHAUVELIN, G. L. De, a French statesman in the confidence of Cardinal Fleury, 1685-1762. F. Claude, his son, lieutenant-general in the army, and ambassador to Italy, died 1774. Ber- nard Francis, son of the last named, a diplo- matist of the revolution, 1766-1832. CHEDORLAOMER, a king of the Elamites, supposed to be the ancient Persians, or a neigh- bouring people, about 2000 B.C. OHEHAB-EDDYN, an Arab, histor., 1300-67. CHEKE, Sir John, a Greek scholar and states- man, exiled as an adherent of Lady Jane Grey, afterwards confessed Catholicism, 1514-1557. CHEMCOTTE, Alex., a Swed. Orien., d. 1835. CHEMIR, M. J., a Fr. dramatist, died 1811. CHENIER, M. A, a French poet, 1763-1794. CHENIER, M. J., a Fr. dram, poet, 1764-1811. CHEOPS, the reput. build, of the great pyramid. CHERUBIN, a Fr. astron. and math., 17th ct. CHERUBINI, Luigi Carlo Zenobio Sal- vator, founder of the French Conservatory and instructor of thousands of eminent musicians, was born at Florence on the 8th of September, 1760. He commenced his musical studies at nine years of age, first under Bartolomeo and Alessandro Felici, father and son, and afterwards under Bizarri Cas- trucci, and last under Sarti at Bologna, from whom he derived the greatest benefit. At thirteen years of age he wrote a mass which gave ample promise of his future eminence as a composer. From this time till 1778 he wrote a great number of works in various styles, and all successful. During the time he was a pupil at Bologna, some of Sarti's most celebrated operas were produced, and two of these, ' Achille in Sciro,' and ' Giulio Sabino,' were afterwards acknowledged to have been almost entirely from the pen of Cherubini. In 1784 Cherubini came to the Italian Opera at London, where he remained two years, and pro- duced his operas ' La Finta Principessa,' and a re- written version of his 'Giulio Sabino,' both of which were successful. In 1786 he went to Paris, which became thereafter his adopted country. In 1788 he visited his native country and produced his ♦Iphigenia in Aulida.' He never went to Italy again. Soon after this he brought out his ' De- mophoon' in Paris, which from various causes E roved a failure. In 1791 Cherubini brought out is opera of 'Lodoiska' at the Theatre Feydeau, which, though it established his reputation as a first- rate composer, was, however, swamped by Kreut- zer's more popular opera of the same name. In 1794 he brought out ' Eliza,' in 1797 ' Medea,' in 1798 ' T Hotellerie Portuguese,' in 1800 « Les Deux Journees,' in 1803 'Anacreon,' and in 1804 his ballet 'Achille a Scyros.' His fame, which had now spread far and wide, led to an invitation to CHE Germany, whither he went in 1805, and produced his opera ' Faniska' at the Imperial Theatre of Vienna. During his sojourn all his most favourite works were brought out, and became quite the fashion with the Gennan people, and the great musician of Germany, Beethoven, when he beard the ' Faniska,' said Cherubini was the first dramatic composer of his time, and Haydn embraced him, and called him his son. In 1809, having returned to Paris, he produced his opera of ' Pygmalion,' in 1810 ' Le Crescendo,' in 1813 ' Les Abencerrages,' the promising career of which was shortened by the news of Buonaparte's retreat from Moscow. In 1815 Cherubini was invited by the Philharmonic Society to come to London, which invitation he accepted, and composed an overture, a symphony, and a grand concerted vocal piece, all of which were performed under his own direction in the con- certs of that society. On his return to Paris, the dynastic and musical changes had so materially affected the position and prospects of Cherubini, who was of far too independent a temperament to become a courtier, that he retired from some of his situations in disgust. He was, however, soon re- called, and was appointed composer to the king's chapel and professor of composition at the L'Ecole Royale, (of which institution, in 1822, he was ap- pointed director,) and was elected a member of the Academy of the Fine Arts. These appointments were considered all the more honourable to Cheru- bini, as he had never condescended to become a flatterer of royalty, and as because of the indepen- dence of his character he had received insults and indignities from Napoleon. In 1833 he composed his grand opera ' Ah Baba,' which was well received in France, but did not long keep the stage. In 1835, in consequence of the ecclesiastical authori- ties having forbidden the employment of female voices in the service of the church, it was impos- sible that Cherubim's grand requiem could be per- formed at the funeral of Boildieu. He then, at the advanced age of seventy-six, undertook to com- fiose a requiem for male voices only, which was his ast composition, and was chosen as the one which should be performed at his funeral obsequies. Shortly before his death, he resigned the office of Principal of the Conservatory of Music, of which establishment he had been the head for twenty years, and with which he was connected for forty- eight years ; and a month before his demise, which took place on the 15th of March, 1842, he was in- vested with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. Cherubini's fame as a composer of instrumental and operatic music is world-wide, but his reputa- tion with future ages will rest chiefly on his sacred compositions. Cherubini was a good man, as he was a great artist. Thoroughly independent, he spoke fearlessly as he felt, and he was loved and venerated by his pupils and all who belonged to the large circle of his friends. [J.M/j CHESELDEN, R., an English surgeon, d. 1831. CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stan- hope, earl of, son of the third earl, was born in 1694. After studying in his youth with a zeal of which afterwards he thought proper to be ashamed, he learned on the continent his polished smoothness of manners, his love of gaming, and his loose code of morality. He entered public life in 1715, soon after the accession of George I. In 149 CHE the course of this reign he distinguished himself in the House of Commons as an exceedingly skilful and effective debater ; and he supported his repu- tation when his father's death transferred him to the House of Lords, shortly before the prince of Wales, to whose party and household he had be- longed, succeeded to the throne as George II. From this time till 1748, when deafness and other infirmities compelled him to retire from public life, Lord Chesterfield took an active part in the petty intrigues and party squabbles which make up the parliamentary and court history of the reign. His diplomatic skill was made useful in .two foreign embassies; and his lord-lieutenancy in Ireland, beginning in 1745 and lasting only a few months, has always been mentioned with distin- guished praise. After a sickly and melancholy period of old age, he died in 1773. The only writ- ings of this accomplished person that are at all remembered, are his • Letters ' to his natural son, remarkable for their ease of style and their know- ledge of society, but notoriously reprehensible for the principles of conduct which they inculcate. [W.S.] CHETARDIE, Marquis De La, a French diplomatist, ambassador to Russia, 1705-1758. CHETHAM, Humphrey, the eel. fndr. of the college and public library of Manchester, d. 1653. CHEVALIER, A. R., a Fr. Hebraist, 1507-72. CHEVALIER, F., a Fr. historian, 1705-1808. CHEVALIER, J., a Latin poet, 1587-1644. CHEVILLIER, And., a French antiq., d. 1700. CHEVREUSE, Madame De Rohan-Mont- bazon, Duchess De, a court beauty, and political intriguante of the time of Richelieu, 1600-1679. CHEYNE, George, a Scotch physician, and author of works on disease, diet, &c, 1661-1743. CHEZY, A., a French engineer, 1718-1798. CHIABRERA, Gabriel, a lyric poet and dra- matist, surnamed the Italian Pindar, 1552-1637. CHIARAMONTI, S., an Ital. hist., 1565-1652. CHIARI, Fab., an Italian painter, 1621-1695. CHIARI, J., a Roman painter, 1654-1727. CHIARI, Pietro, a comic poet, 1720-1788. CHICHELEY, Hen., an Eng. schol. and states- man, at length archbp. of Canterbury, 1362-1443. CHICOYNEAU, F., a French physician and wr. on the plague of Marseilles, 1672-1752. CHIERICATO, J. M., an It. theol., 1633-1717. CHIESA, Silv., an Italian painter, 1623-1657. CHILD, Sir Jos., a merchant of London, known as a wr. on political economy and trade, 1630-1699. CHILD, Wm., an English composer, 1607-1697. CHILDEBERT, the Jirst of this name k. of Fr., 511-558 ; the second 575-596 ; the third 695-711. CHILDEBRAND, a brother of Charles Martel, and his comp. in amis against the Saracens, 8th c. CHILDERIC, thejirst of this name, k. of France, 457-481 ; the second 656-673 ; the third 742-755. CHILDREY, Josh., a nat. phil., 1623-1670. CHILLINGWORTH, Wm., an Eng. theologian, disting. for his controversial ability, 1602-1644. CHILMEAD, E., a wr. on music, 1616-1653. CHILO, one of the seven Gr. sages, 6th c. b.c. CHILPERIC L, prince of Soissons and Paris, the youngest of the sons of Clothaire I., 561-584. CHILPERIC II., conq. by Ch. Martel, 715-720. CHISHULL, Edm., an Eng. antiq., 1580-1633. CHI-TSONG, emperor of China, 1507-1566. CHI-TSOU, otherwise Kouulai-Khan, grand- CHR son of Gengis-Khan, a celebrated Mogul emperor who reunited China to his dominions, 1214-94. CHITTY, Jos., an English lawyer, 1776-1841. CHOISEUL, Stephen Francis, Duke De, minister of state to Louis XV., by whom he was dismis. under the influence of Du Barry, 1719-1785. CHOISI, Fr., Abbe De, a Fr. hist., 1644-1724. CHOPART, F., a Fr. wr. on surg., 1750-1795. CHOPIN, Fred., a Polish composer, d. 1849. CHOPIN, R., a Flemish priest, 1537-1606. CHORIS, Louis, a Russian painter, 1795-1828. CHOSROES, or KHOSROU I., king of Persia, died in prison after ravaging Asia Minor, 531-563. CHOSROES II., grandson of the prec, 590-628. CHOUL, Wm. Du, a French antiquarian, 16th c. CHRETIEN, Florent, a Fr. poet, 1541-1596. CHRETIEN, G. L., aFr. wr. onmus., 1783-1811. CHRIST, J. F., an art-writer, 1700-1756. CHRISTIAN, C, a gem engraver, 1695-1725. CHRISTIAN, E., an English lawyer, d. 1823. CHRISTIERN I., born 1425 ; succeeded as king of Denmark 1448 ; king of Norway 1450 ; king of Sweden 1456 ; died 1481. CHRISTIERN II., surnamed the Cruel, born 1480 ; succeeded as king of Denmark and Norway 1513 ; king of Sweden 1520 ; defeated by Gustavus Vasa, and d. after many years' imprisonm., 1559. CHRISTIERN III., king of Denmark only, bora 1503 ; succeeded his father, Frederic L, but had to fight his way to the crown, 1533 ; died 1558. CHRISTIERN IV., king of Denmark, b. 1577; succeeded 1588 ; chief of the protestant league 1625 ; peace with Tilly 1645 ; died 1648. CHRISTIERN V., king of Denmark and Nor- way, born 1646, succeeded 1670, died 1699. CHRISTIERN VI., k. of Denmark, 1699-1746. CHRISTIERN VII., king of Denmark, born 1749 ; succeeded and married to Caroline Matilda, sister of George III., 1766, died 1808. CHRISTINA, queen of Sweden, born 1626; sue. her father Gustavus Adolphus 1632 ; abdic. in favour of Charles Gustavus 1654, died 1689. CHRISTINA of France, daugh. of Henry IV. and Marie de Medici, born 1606 ; married to the duko of Savoy 1619 ; regent at his death 1637 ; d. 1663. CHRlSTOPHE, emperor of the East, 920-931. CHRISTOPHE, the first of this name, king of Denmark, 1252-1259 ; the second at the beginning of the 14th century ; the third, king of Denmark and Sweden, celebrated as a legislator, 1440-1448. CHRISTOPHE, Henry, a negro leader in the insurrection of St. Domingo, afterwards king under the title of Henry I., 1767-1820. CHRISTOPHER, d. of Wurtemburg, 1515-1568. CHRISTOPHERSON, John, bp. of Chichester, celeb, for his learning and literary talents, d. 1558. CHROCUS, a king of the Vandals, died 260. CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philosopher, 2d c. b.c. CHRYSOSTOM, John, was born at Antioch about the year 351, and was the son of Secundus, a military officer on the staff of the Roman gover- nor of Syria. While the son was yet an infant, the father died, but the widowed mother devoted her- self with intense energy to her son's education. Having studied under Libanius and others, with a view to his being placed at the bar, where he practised for a short time with considerable promise, lie. ia his twentieth year, embraced a monastic life. Some short time afterwards he was ordained deacon, ai.d 150 CHR began to publish. He was not ordained presbyter, and did not preach till about his fortieth year. Many of his most famous homilies, such as those on the ' Statutes,' were preached at Antioch, and his growing fame soon led to his translation to the see of Constantinople in 398. His vigorous prose- cution of radical reform among the clergy, his fidelity in rebuking offenders of the highest" class, even the empress, and his own sternness of resolu- tion, made him an object of jealousy and dread. An irregular council condemned him in 403 upon the most flimsy grounds, and upon his refusal to sub- mit, he was arrested and sent to Nice in Bithynia, but he had scarce arrived at his place of exile when he was recalled, for fear of an insurrection, and his return had all the appearance of a popular triumph. But the empress was again provoked, and the pa- triarch was again banished, hrst to Cucusus in the mountains of Tauris, where he busied himself in instructing the pagan natives, and then to Pityus, on the bleak borders of the Black Sea. In travel- ling to the latter place, he reached Somana, and died about the age of sixty. Thirty years after his death his body was brought back to Constantinople, and his bones at length found repose beneath the shadow of St. Peter's at Rome, where the Sistine choir daily chaunts its requiem over his ashes. It is not to be denied that the ' golden mouth ' was occasionally impetuous and self-willed, but he bore his misfortunes with manly piety and forti- tude. The faults of his style lie upon the surface of it, in its florid exuberance and continuous accumu- lation of metaphors. His rhetoric sometimes over- laid his logic. Yet the effects of his eloquence were prodigious, his thrilling appeals went at once to the heart His conceptions are all painted — ideas start up as images, and his orations resemble a crowded panorama. The humble conventicles of Syria heard the same gospel which at length rolled in glowing periods beneath the great dome of St. Sophia. Splendour of intellect, mellowness of heart, and gorgeousness of fancy, characterize all his sermons, expositions, orations, and letters. He has left behind nearly a thousand homilies, ser- mons, or expositions, still of great value to the interpreter, besides some polemical writings, tracts on monasticism, and a treatise ' on the priesthood.' The best edition of his works is that of Montfaucon in 1718-38, and in 13 folios. [J.E.] CHTCHERBATOV, a Russian histor., d. 1790. CHUBB, Thos., a deistical writer, 1679-1748. CHUN-YEOU-YU, an early emp. of China. CHUN-TCHI, emperor of China, 1644-1661. CHURCHILL, Chas., an English poet, eminent for the keenness of his satire, and equally noted for the laxity of his morals and love of pleasure, was ordained a priest in the Church of England, but first disgraced, and then contemptuously abandoned his clerical character. He was bom 1731, and as early as 1761 had placed himself in this equivocal position. His poems were all written in the short interval between 1760 and 1764, when he died. Though his productions are highly praised for the humorous and effective character of "their composition, it is as im- possible to regard them with unqualified approba- tion, as to admire the character of the author. CHURCHILL, Sir Winston, father of the duke of Marlborough, known to history as a roy- alist knighted after the restoration, and. to litera- CIB ture by his ' Divi Britannici,' or memoirs of English sovereigns, 1620-1688. CHURCHYARD, Th., an English poet, 17th c CHYR-CHAH, a king of Hindostan, d. 1545. CIASSI, J. M., an Ital. naturalist, 1654-1679. CIBBER, Colley. The life of this comedian has been written by himself, and forms one of the live- liest of autobiographies ; — a work sufficient to dis- prove of itself the charge of being a dunce brought against him by Pope. Mr. Colley Cibber was born, according to his own account, on 6th November, 1671, in Southampton-Street, London. His father, Caius Gabriel Cibber, was a statuary, and native of Holstein, who came into England some time previous to the restoration. ' The basso relievo,' says his son, ' on the pedestal of the great column in the city, and the two figures of the" lunatics, the raving and the- melancholy, over the gates of Bethlehem Hospital are no ill monuments of his fame as an artist.' When ten years of age (1682) Cibber was sent to the free school of Grantham, Lincolnshire, where the boy appears to have shown the same giddy negligence that marked the man ; and to have unconsciously made enemies by an inveterate habit of jesting, besides the envy exer- cised by his literary progress. We may form some idea of his provoking humour from what occurred in 1730, when he had recently received the laurel, and there was so much discontent expressed that it should be conferred upon a comedian. The ' public papers were enlivened with ingenious epigrams, and satirical flirts,' on the occasion. The witty author entered the lists against himself, and published a doggrel copy of verses in the Whitehall Evening Post, in which he lampooned himself. His vanity, as well as his vivacity, had much to do with this strange conduct. But the former is the actor's foible, and must be put up with. Previous to choosing the stage for a profession, Cibber had the offer of several chances for the church, the court, and the army ; but notwithstanding the prejudices of his father, he preferred the boards. The famous year, 1688, witnessed this important revolution in the state of our author's private affairs. At the time that Cibber joined Sir William Davenant's company (1690), the principal performers were Betterton, Montfort, Kynaston, Sandford, Nokes, Underhil, Leigh, Mrs. Betterton, Mrs. Barry, Mrs. Leigh, Mrs. Butler, Mrs. Montfort, and. Mrs. Bracegirdle, — 'all' as Cibber calls them, 'original masters in their different styles ; not mere auricular imitators of one another.' At this period, it was not customary to pay young actors dur- ing their probation, and it was three quar- ters of a year before young Cibber became entitled to ten shillings a-week. By the time that he received double that salary, he ventured on matrimony. Necessity soon made him a poet. Fortune had begun to smile on his new career. By the recommendation of Mr. Congreve, he had the honour of acting before Queen Mary in one of Kynaston's parts. His next step was the produc- tion of a prologue, which was accepted and spoken. Alderman Fondkwife, in the play of 'The Old Bachelor,' next afforded him an opportunity of astonishing his fellow - performers, though he received small encouragement from them. The expediency of writing a part for himself led to his composing the comedy of ' Love's Last Shift,' which 151 CIB was produced on the boards in January, 1695, and in which he acted the character of Sir Novelty. Still Cibber won his way but slowly with the actors ; and even up to the end of his career had not secured their full faith in him. His talents were at least of the versatile order, for he not only fierformed the fops and coxcombs of comedy, but ago, Wolsey, Syphax, and Richard III. in tragedy. But the performance of vicious characters he seems to have considered injurious to his reputation. — Owing to the censure of dramatic poets, by Jeremy Collier, in his 'Short View of the Stage,' the master of the revels became cautious in granting licenses to new plays. Nevertheless, Cibber con- trived to get on pretty well; his muse and his spouse, to use his own words, 'being equally prolific, that the one was seldom the mother of a child, but in the same year the other made him the father of a play.' ' I think,' he adds, ' we had a dozen of each sort between us, of both which kinds some died in their infancv, and near an equal number of each were alive when we quitted the theatre.' 'The Careless Husband' has always been reckoned Cibber's best play. 'The Nonjuror,' however, was the most popular, owing to its Solitical character. It was levelled against the acobites, and was the reason, in fact, of Cibber's being made poet-laureate in 1730, when he quitted the stage. He died in 1757. His ' Apology,' from which we have derived the materials for his life, is an exceedingly amusing work. His works fill 5 vols. 12mo, published in 1760. [J.A.H.] CIBBER, Theopiiilus, son of the celebrated comedian, and like him an actor and play-writer, was a man of profligate character, and very inferior talents, 1703-1758. His second wife, Susannah Maria Cibber, was a sister of Dr. Arne, and often performed with Garrick as a tragedian; 1731-1766. CICERO, Marcus Tulmus, was born at Arpinum, an ancient city of Latium, in B.C. 106 ; the same year which gave birth to Pompey. The great aptitude for learning which he displayed in boyhooa induced his father to remove to Rome, wh'ere the future orator and statesman was edu- cated under the best masters of the time. In B.C. S9 he served his first and only campaign under Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompey, who was then engaged in the Social war. Having thus complied with the custom of his age, Cicero CIC devoted the next six years to the studies which were necessary to raise him to distinction as a lawyer and an orator ; practising declamation in Latin and Greek, and storing his mind with those firecepts of philosophy, which, throughout his event- ul life, cheered him amidst professional toils, and consoled him under disappointment and persecu- tion. At the age of twenty-five he came forward as a pleader, and, even at the risk of incurring the displeasure of Sulla, defended clients who were obnoxious to the dictator. But his health, which was naturally feeble, gave way under incessant application to study; and, for the purpose of invigorating his constitution, as well as correcting certain defects in his style of oratory, he visited Athens (b.c. 79,) made a tour of Asia Minor, and for some time resumed his studies at Rhodes, under Molo, from whom he had received instruc- tions at Rome. After an absence of two years, he returned to Rome with renewed health and en- larged knowledge, and speedily placed himself at the head of the Roman bar. Being qualified by law at the age of thirty to become candidate for the lowest of the great offices of state, he was elected quaestor in B.C. 76, and obtained each of the higher offices as soon as he was permitted by law to hold it, reaching the consulship in b.c 63. During his consulship he was called upon to grapple with the famous Catilinarian conspiracy ; and the courage, prudence, and decision which he manifested in directing the difficult and com- plicated investigations that led to the detection and punishment of the conspirators called forth the encomiums of all classes of the citizens. The fmblic enthusiasm heaped upon him unwonted lonours : in the senate and in the forum he was saluted as parens patriae (the father of his country) ; thanksgivings in his name were voted to the gods; and all Italy united in testifying their admiration and gratitude. But his unex- ampled good fortune had excited the jealousy of many of the leading nobility, and his irrepressible vanity exposed him to the ridicule and assaults of his enemies. He was accordingly destined soon to experience a reverse of fortune as remarkable, and more sudden than his rise. It had been judged necessary to put to death five of the ring- leaders in the conspiracy; and though this was done in virtue of tne dictatorial authority with which the consuls were invested by the senate, and with the consent and approval of that body, Cicero was indicted for having put a Roman citi- zen to death untried, and forced to go into ban- ishment in April, b.c. 58. But private malice soon expended itself, and public feeling, reverting to his signal services in rescuing his country from impending ruin, recalled him after an interval of seventeen months. His reception at Rome cheered his dejected spirits ; but the circumstances which led to his banishment prevented him from ever after recovering his former position. In b.c. 53 he was admitted a member of the college of Augurs, and towards the end of B.C. 52 he was appointed proconsul of Cilicia. He administered the affairs of his province with the strictest im- partiality, corrected the abuses which had been introduced or sanctioned by his predecessors, and realized in practice the precepts which in his writ- ings he had inculcated. He returned to Italy in 152 CIC B.C. 49, at the commencement of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, and finally resolving to espouse the cause of the latter, followed him to Greece. After the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48, at •which he was not present, he again returned to Italy, and was received into favour bv Caesar. Separating himself now entirely from all parties in the state, he arranged and published during the next three years nearly all his most important works on rhetoric and philosophy. But the tu- mults excited by Antony after the murder of Caesar, B.C. 44, again drew him from his seclusion; and Augustus, knowing the value of such an ally, and carefully concealing from him his real inten- tions, gladly availed himself of his services as leader of the senate. Cicero's zeal, which was not always tempered with discretion, now ex- hibited itself in the famous philippics against Antony, which again made him the idol of the Roman people. But the formation of the second triumvirate sealed the fate of the great Roman orator. His name appeared in the list of the proscribed, having been placed there by Antony as one of the conditions of the league ; and after an unsuccessful attempt to escape, he stretched forward his head to his executioners, and called upon them to strike (b.c. 43). His head and hands were conveyed to Rome, and, by the orders of An- tony, nailed to the Rostra. We have not space to delineate the character of Cicero, or to enumerate his works. These have been repeatedly published, both in mass and in detached portions. [G.F.] CICOGNA, Pascal, doge of Venice, 1195. CICOGNARA, Leopold, a painter, 1767-1834. CID, The. Don Rodrigo Layney (often called, by his countrymen, by the abbreviated appellation Ruy Diaz,) was born at the paternal castle of Bivar, in Castile, about the year 1026. He was of the purest Gothic blood ; but his family pos- sessions were small ; and he was indebted to his own valour and martial genius for the renown and importance which he acquired. His military ca- reer against the Moors of Spain was commenced under the banners of Don Ferdinand, king of Castile ; and he soon became celebrated through- out Europe as the model of Christian chivalry. Five Moorish kings, whom he defeated and took captive, and to whom he generously granted life and liberty, bestowed on him the title of Es Sayd, (i.e., my lord); whence arose the name of the Cid, bv which he is best known in poetry and in history. Don Sancho, who succeeded Ferdinand on the throne of Castile, made the Cid generalis- simo of his armies ; whence came the title Cam- Eeador, by which also the hero is often named by is countrymen. Under the next sovereign, Alfonso VI., the Cid was frequently the mark of unmerited royal jealousy ; and he was more than once banished from Castile. On these occasions he took refuge with some of the Moorish princes of the peninsula, where he served gallantly in their wars with one another. But his loyalty to Castile was unblemished ; and when recalled by the capri- cious Alfonso, the veteran Campeador combated for him as zealously as he had fought in his youth for more generous and grateful sovereigns. Among many other achievements, he is said to have wrested the city and kingdom of Valencia from the Maho- metans, and to have annexed it to the Castilian CLA dominions. The reputed year of his death is 1099. His tomb is still shown at Bivar ; and his country- men, after so many centuries and so many changes, still speak of him with enthusiastic pride. His victories and his romantic personal adventures furnish the themes of many of the finest old Spanish ballads ; and they are also narrated in the ' Poem or Chronicle of the Cid,' the earliest great poem of modern Europe, which is supposed to have been framed about fifty years after the hero's death, from an original chronicle written in Arabic by two Moorish pages of the Cid. [E.S.C.] CIMA, J. B., an Italian painter, 15th cent. CIMABUE, Giovanni, commonly called the father of modern painting, was born at Florence in the year 1240. The prominence given to the name of Cimabue in the history of painting in Italy, is due solely to the place he has m the ' Lives of the Painters, &c.,' by Vasari, whose work is the great text book on this subject, as far as relates to the revival of painting in Italy. Cimabue possessed more than ordinary merit in his time, but was little if at all superior to his reputed master Giunta of Pisa, whom he is supposed to have assisted in the church of San Francesco at Assisi in 1253. Cima- bue had several other able contemporaries, as Margaritone of Arezzo, Duccio di Buoninsegna of Siena, and Gaddo Gaddi of Florenee; all, including Cimabue himself, strictly belonging to the Byzan- tine school of painters. Many Greek artists were established in Italy in the thirteenth century, especially at Venice, Pisa, and Siena; the event which brought the eastern and western civilization into more immediate contact at this time, was the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204. — The pictures of this time were executed in tempera, and have generally gold grounds : there is still a large picture of the Madonna, by Cimabue, preserved in the church of Santa Maria Novella at Florence; and there is another of the Madonna and Child in the academy of Florence. Cimabue was still living in the year 1302. He was the master of Giotto, whose ability he discovered and cultivated. — (Vasari, Vite rfe' Pittori, &c.) [R.N.W.] CIMAROSA, an opera comp. of Nap., 1754-1801. CIMON, an Athenian gen., the son of Miltiades, dist. himself against the Persians, 470 B.C., d. 449. CINCINNATUS, Lucius Quintus, the illus- trious Roman patriot, consul about 460 b.c, and twice afterwards dictator. The dates and events are somewhat uncertain, but it is sufficiently known that he delivered the republic from her domestic and foreign enemies with the skill of a statesman and soldier, and retired to his farm refusing all recompense. CINELLI, Giov., an Italian phys., 1625-1706. CINGAROLI, M., an Ital. painter, 1667-1729. CINNA, Cneius Cornelius, consul of Rome 4. CINNA, Lucius Cornelius, the eel. colleague and partizan of Marius, consul B.C. 87, killed 84. CINNAMUS, John, a Gr. historian, 12th cent. CINO DA PISTOIA, an Ital. poet, 1270-1337. CINQ-ARBRES, J., an Orientalist, died 1587. CINTRA, P. De, a Portuguese navig., 15th ct. CIPRIANI, J. B., an Italian painter, 1732-85. CIRILLO, Dom., an Ital botanist, 1734-1799. CITTADINI, J. F., a flower paint., 1616-1681. CLAIRAUT, Alexis Claude, a French mathematician of great genius, of the times of 153 CLA Euler and D'Alembert. He was born at Paris in 1713, and died in 1765. Clairaut wrote on the figure of the earth, and on curves of double curva- ture, besides many separate memoirs and ele- mentary works on algebra and geometry. In his time he belonged to the ' great world ' of Paris : the thorough student will read his writings still ; he had much taste in composition as well as great analytic power. CLAIRAUT, J. B., a Fr. mathem., 1680-1766. CLAIRFAIT, Count De, an Aust. gen., d. 1798. CLAPPERTON, Hugh, was born in 1788, at Annan, in the county of Dumfries, where his father practised as a surgeon. After having entered the merchant sendee, and made several voyages to America, he was impressed on board a man-of-war. By the influence of an uncle, a cap- tain in the marines, young Clapperton soon attained to the rank of a midshipman ; and some time after, while on service in Canada, to that of lieutenant. He gained, in various actions, the reputation of a skilful and brave officer. Being at home on half-pay for five or six years, he became acquainted, at Edinburgh, with Dr. Oud- ney, then engaged in plans of African discovery ; and was soon after associated, under the directions of Earl Bathurst, with this gentleman and Major Denham in an expedition to the sources of the Niger. They crossed the desert from Tripoli to Lake Tchad, which they were the first Europeans to visit, reaching it on 5th February, 1823. Here our travellers separated for a time ; and Clapper- ton explored the country to the S. W. as far as Sokatou, in lat. 13° N., long. 5° 45' E., a dis- tance of 700 miles from Lake Tchad. Dr. Oudney, who accompanied him, died by the way about a month after they started. Meeting in health at Kouka, the capital of Bournou, where they left Mr. Tyrwhit as consul, Denham and Clapperton recrossed the desert to Tripoli, at which they safely arrived on 25th January, 1825. Clapperton was soon after raised to the rank of commander, and equipped for a second expedition, intended to reach the sources of the Niger by ascending the stream from its mouth. This was found imprac- ticable from the unhealthy nature of the delta of this great river. Proceeding by land Clapperton cached Sokatou from the S. W., thus connecting his observations with those of his former journey. Here, however, he was destined to end his active and useful life ; weakened by fatigue, with feelings irritated by the obstacles thrown in his way, he was seized with dysentery, and after a fingering illness, he expired on the 13th April, 1827. Richard Lander, his faithful and attached servant, was the only European who remained of the party, Captain Pearce R.N., Dr. Morrison, and others, having died soon after they left the coast. Full accounts were published of the several journeys, which added immensely to our knowledge of central Africa. [J.B.] CLARE, St., a follower of St. Francis Assise, and founder of an order of nuns, 1193-1253. CLARENCE, George, duke of, brother of Edward IV., drowned in a butt of Malmsey, 1478. CLARENDON, Edward Hyde, earl of, was born in 1608, at Hinton, in Wiltshire, the estate of Henry Hyde, his father. He studied at Oxford with the design of entering the church, but be- CLA came a lawyer on the death of his elder brother, through which, in 1632, he succeeded to his father's property. Although he practised his pro- fession for a time, it does not seem to have ever engaged so much of his attention as literature did at first and politics afterwards. In 1640 he was elected a member of Charles I.'s Short Parliament, in whose moderate attempts at reform he bore an active part ; and when the king contemplated dis- solving it, Hyde took advantage of an intimacy he had contracted with Archbishop Laud, to offer earnest remonstrances against tnat arbitrary and imprudent step. He sat again in the Long Par- liament, which the king was forced to summon be- fore the end of the same year. He concurred in some of the earliest of the strong measures now adopted by the house, such as the proceedings against the judges in Hampden's case, and the impeachment of Strafford ; but in no long time he became startled by the lengths to which the popu- lar leaders were disposed to carry their opposition to the crown. The king seized the first opportu- nity of securing to himself so useful a servant. Hyde, Lord Falkland, and Colepepper, were secretly appointed to manage the interests of the crown in parliament ; and although the cautious and reasonable counsels of the first two of these advisers were disregarded by their master, Hyde continued to frame the royal messages and other documents till the breach with the parliament took place. In 1643, having now attached him- self to the king's person, he was knighted and made chancellor of the exchequer ; after which he was actively engaged in the king's affairs till 1646, when, on the irretrievable ruin of the royal cause, he accompanied the prince of Wales in his flight from England. — He now resided for two years in Jersey, occupying himself in study and in the com- position of his History; after which he joined the prince at the Hague, and continued in his service when his father's death had made him nominally king. He spent more than a year in Spain, vainly soliciting aid, but extending his own knowledge as well as writing moral and devotional treatises. For several years afterwards he was Charles's chief adviser, and, in 1658, received the place of lord chancellor, then only nominal, but soon real. — He returned with Charles II. to England in May, 1660, and immediately began to act- both as speaker of the House of Lords, and as chief judge in the Court of Chancery ; being soon also raised to the peerage. At this time his prospects were seriously endangered, by the discovery of the secret marriage of his daughter to the duke of York, through which he became the grandfather of two queens of England. The storm passed away with- out doing immediate harm. Lord Clarendon was virtually the head of the administration till near the close of 1667; and, as the responsible adviser of Charles II. for more than six years, he cannot but have done many things which would then have been condemned by patriotic men, and many others which would now appear still more censurable. The sale of Dunkirk, and the promotion of the king's marriage, though they were the main causes of the unpopularity which gradually gathered around the chancellor, were certainly not the worst of the steps which were taken, either by his advice or with his sanction and assistance. He had taken 154 CLA a prominent part in the bloody vengeance which, in the beginning of the reign, was inflicted on the regicides and other parliamentary leaders ; he was yet more active in conducting that persecution of the dissenters, of which the Act of Uniformity was the consummation ; and, in conducting the secret negotiations for a loan from France, he made the king of England to be independent of parliament and the pensioner of a foreign and hostile power. Yet even these acts were only such as the circum- stances might have prompted to one who was at once a zealous royalist, a somewhat bigoted churchman, and a statesman fond of power, and actuated by considerations of expediency rather than by elevated principles. If such motives are not very dignified, they are at least very much above the level of those that prevailed among the corrupt and profligate politicians who swarmed about the restored king. Nor was Clarendon's fall caused by any of those acts of his that were really reprehensible. He became unpopular with the nation because of the disgraces incurred in a war undertaken in spite of his dissuasions; he made himself obnoxious to the courtiers by re- served haughtiness of manner, and by a strictness of private conduct which silently rebuked their de- bauchery ; and he lost the favour of the king be- cause he connived only at royal vices instead of pandering to them, and countenanced reluctantly acts of misgovemment to which he was expected to give hearty support. After Clarendon's unpopu- larity had become general, Charles and his parlia- ment vied with each other in their eagerness to ruin him. Repeated messages from the king failed in prevailing on him to make a voluntary surrender of the great seal ; and after he had been displaced, and impeached at the bar of the House of Lords, it was only a distinct warning that his master could not and would not save so much as his life, that induced him to leave the country. — He fled to the continent in November, 1667, and would have returned to face his trial had not illness pre- vented him. He moved from one town of France to another, resuming his studies and writing some of his works ; and at length he died at Rouen in December, 1674. The principal writings which he left were his 'History or the Rebel- lion,' and his Account of his own Life. The former of these, with all its errors and short- comings, is unquestionably a valuable storehouse of historical materials; while its comprehensive- ness of views, its skill in the portraiture of char- acter, and the interest which is excited by its minutely-drawn narratives of events, combine in securing for it a distinguished place among the monuments of English literature. [W.S.J CLARIDGE, R., a Quaker writer, 1649-1723. CLARK, John, a medical author, 1744-1805. CLARK, William Tikrney, a civil engineer of distinguished merit. He was early apprenticed to a millwright in Bristol, and worked succes- sively at Colebrookdale and in London under the great Rennie, with whom he remained till 1811. He was the engineer of the West Middlesex Water Works, and to the advancement of this im- portant undertaking his energies were devoted for many years. Suspension bridges early excited his attention, and he has left Hammersmith, Marlow, Norfolk, and Pesth suspension bridges, as monu- CLA ments of his taste in design, and skill in engineer- ing. The suspension bridge of Pesth, while it stands a monument to his genius, is the admira- tion of all who have seen it. It was the last and crowning act of a life devoted to a profession of which he was an ornament. He died 22d Sep- tember, 1852, aged sixty-nine. [L.D.B.G.] CLARKE, Dr. Adam, was a native of Mov- beg, in Ireland, where he was born, 1760. Like many other men of eminence, he was indebted to the influence of maternal counsels and example in the formation of his youthful character, as well as in the choice of his future course ; for while his father was an episcopalian, his mother, who was a Scotchwoman and a presbyterian, had, on her settlement in England, warmly espoused the cause of Wesleyan methodism, and used every endeavour to bias the ductile mind of her son m favour of that sect. Though rather dull when first placed at school, his faculties rapidly developed and gave strong pledges of his future eminence. Having in his seventeenth year become impressed with deep views of religion, he resolved to conse- crate his future life to the service of God in the ministry of the gospel, and through the recom- mendation of Wesley, was sent to complete his education at the Kingswood school. There his taste for Hebrew and Biblical studies was awak- ened ; and so strong a hold had a love of sacred literature taken of his mind, that even amid all his wanderings and harassing difficulties as a Methodist preacher, he continued with unflagging resolution to carry on his course of intellectual im- provement. He not only occupied his leisure mo- ments while stopping at inns, but even in riding on horseback he generally had a book in one hand ; and by this rigid economy of time, he was storing his mind with useful knowledge, as well as collecting materials for his future works. The cir- cuit assigned him to perambulate as an itinerant preacher was Wiltshire. And although, of course, he had various stations in the country, he pitched his residence at Trowbridge, where he formed a matrimonial alliance with Miss Cooke, daughter of Mr. Cooke, clothier, and a lady of great piety, prudence, and amiable dispositions. Mr. Clarke's fame as an Orientalist and biblical scholar hav- ing spread extensively, he received the honor- ary title of LL.D. from the university of St. An- drews, and was enrolled a member of several learned societies both in Britain and America. His ardent attachment to general, and especially to Oriental literature, led him to take an active part in the management and secretaryship of several of those societies. And the duty of maintaining the various correspondence, together with the pres- sure of his congregational labours, which always held the first place in his regard, so greatly affected his health, that his medical advisers persuaded him in 1815 to resign his pastoral charge. Retir- ing to a rural retreat in Lancashire, which the liberality of a few friends had presented to him, he lived in the enjoyment of literary leisure. His Commentary on the Bible was prosecuted with ardour; but finding himself deprived of many ad- vantages which to a literary man are indispensable, he disposed of his farm, and after a residence iu Lancashire of eight years, returned to establish himself at Eastcott, a small village in the vicinity 155 CLA of London. In Haydon Hall, an elegant mansion he purchased there, he completed his Commentary, an elaborate work in 8 vols. 4to, which had occu- pied his attention more or less for forty-eight years, and the publication of which was issued at intervals from 1810 to 1826. Dr. Clarke, though uncon- nected with any particular charge, had never wholly discontinued the practice of preaching. An en- Sigemcnt of this kind was to have been fulfilled at avswater on the morning of the day on which he died. But having been seized with a sudden at- tack of Asiatic cholera, which was then commit- ting dreadful ravages in London, he was cut off on the 26th August, 1832, maintaining to the last, amid the paroxysms and frightful bodily contor- tions which that formidable pestilence produced, a mind calm, collected, and firmly reposing on the bosom of his Saviour. — Besides his commentary, Dr. Clarke was the author of several other works, the chief of which are, ' The Succession of Sacred Literature,' * Memoirs of the Wesley Family,' 'Fleury's Manners of the Ancient Israelites,' 4 Shuckford's Sacred and Profane History of the World,' • Sturm's Reflections, translated from the German,' and ' Harmer's Observations.' In addi- tion to these he was employed several years by the government in collecting materials for a new edition of • Rymer's Foedera,' which since his death has been carried on by a commission under govern- ment. [R.J.] CLARKE, Alured, au. of sermons, &c, 18th c. CLARKE, Edward Daniel, LL.D., celebrated for his travels through many countries of Europe and Asia, was bom at Wellingdon, in Sussex, 5th June, 1769. His father was a clergyman of rather limited income, and died before nis son's education at Cambridge was completed. After graduating, he obtained, between 1790 and 1798, several situations as resident family tutor ; and as travelling tutor and companion to gentlemen of fortune, with whom he visited most parts of England and Scotland. In the latter year he was elected fellow of his college, (Jesus) and came to reside in Cambridge. In the year following he went abroad as travelling companion to Mr. Cripps, and made an extended journey, occupying three years and a-half, a most interesting account of which, originally given in 6 vols. 4to, was his principal work. In 1808, he was appointed first professor of mineralogy at Cambridge, whose museum and library he had greatly enriched by his collections. The British Museum owes to him the celebrated Sarcophagus, incorrectly called that of Alexander, as well as other objects. He took or- ders in 1805, and enjoyed two livings. His death oc- curred at London on 9th March, 1822. He was, be- sides, the auth. of many papers in Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, on physics, and chemistry ; and of some dissertations on antiquarian subjects. [J.B.] CLARKE, H., LL.D., a mathemat., 1745-1818. CLARKE, Hy. Jas. Wm., Due De Feltre, de- scended from a partizan of the Stuarts settled in France, min. of state under Buonaparte, 1765-1818. CLARKE, Jas. Stanikr, LL.D., brother of Edward Daniel Clarke, a naval historian and founder of the 'Naval Chronicle,' died 1834. CLARKE, John, a Scotch engrav., 1650-1721. CLARKE, John, brother of Dr. Sam. Clarke, a classical scholar, author of sermons, &c, d. 1759. CLA CLARKE, Dn. Samuel, the celebrated meta- physical divine, was born at Norwich on 11th of October, 1675. His father, who had held the highest offices in that city, and was in comfortable circum- stances, determined to afford him the advantages of the most liberal education, and accordingly sent him in due time to Caius College, Cambridge, where amid the various objects of academic in- terest, young Clarke evinced a decided preference for theology. Engaging with untiring ardour in the pursuit of knowledge, he acquired an extensive acquaintance with the different oranches of phvsi- cal sciences, especially optics, and made his first essay before the world as an author by the trans- lation of Rohault's physics — a work which long continued to be regarded in this country as the best elementary work for students. While thus, however, improving his mind in general knowledge, his chief attention was directed to theology, and desirous of drawing his information from the fountain head, he gave himself to the earnest study of the Scriptures in the Hebrew and Greek origi- nals. By such devotion to study, Clarke early shone by his theological attainments, and almost immediately after obtaining orders in 1669, he be- gan his career as a theological author by publish- ing ' Three Practical Essays on Baptism, Confir- mation, and Repentance,' and shortly afterwards, his ' Paraphrase on the Four Gospels.' In 1704 he was appointed to a lectureship on the ' Evidences,' and it was in the course of the duty which this situation imposed on him, that he prepared those profound and elaborate works which have raised him to the first rank of philosophical divines, viz., 'A Lecture on the Being and Attributes of God,' and a second on the 'Evidence of Natural and Re- vealed Religion.' These lectures were afterwards expanded into the form of treatises ; and although a diversity of opinion prevails as to the soundness and value of the d priori argument, no difference has ever existed as to the force with which Dr. Clarke has discussed the subject, and the piety which pervades the composition. The publication obtained for him a European renown as a Chris- tian philosopher, and a more substantial reward followed in the preferments which were liberally offered to him in his own church. In 1706 he was appointed rector of St. Bennett's, Paul's Wharf, London, and though he was the reverse of a popular preacher, he showed exemplary diligence in the performance of his parochical duties. Amid his multifarious engagements his active mind found time to gratify his taste by the culture of physical science; and he published a translation of Sir Isaac Newton's Latin treatise on Optics, for which that philosopher gave him a present of £500, with the still more valuable addition of his private friendship. Dr. Clarke published a new theological treatise entitled 'The Scripture Doc- trine of the Trinity,' in which ho is supposed to lean towards Arianism. He died very suddenly on 7th Mav, 1729, of an inflammatory attack. [R.J.] CLARKE, Lieut. William, in conjunction with Captain Lewis, led the first great national expedition sent out by the United States. It was planned by President Jefferson, and had for its object to ascend the Missouri, cross the Rocky Mountains, and reach the Pacific. All this was successfully accomplished between May 1804, and 15G CLA May 1806. The account is full of interesting adventure and romantic incident ; and the journey contributed greatly to the improvement of geo- graphy. Such a route had been some time before projected by an enthusiastic individual named Jonathan Carver. [J.B.] CLARKSON, D., a nonconfor. div., 1622-1686. CLARK SON, Thomas, was born on 28th March, 1760, at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire. His father, who was a clergyman of the Church of England, taught the free grammar school of the place, and prepared his son for entering St. John's College, Cambridge, which he did in 1783. In that college his accurate scholarship was rewarded by high honours, and the next year when the subject for prize essay among the senior Bachelors of Arts was announced to be, ' Anne liceat invitos in ser- vitutem dare — is it right to make slaves against their will ? ' Clarkson entered the lists with in- creased ardour. In the course of his researches into the history and practices of the slave trade, he was led to read ' Benezet's Historical Account of Guinea ;' and the perusal, which had been under- taken for a special and merely literary purpose, produced a harrowing impression on his feelings which time could not efface. Ease and tranquillity were entirely banished from his mind ; and the first gleam of inward satisfaction that shone into his sensitive and Christian bosom after his introduction to Benezet, arose from his resolution to set about some practicable scheme for mitigating or prevent- ing the horrors of the slave trade. The formation of such a plan was almost as difficult as its execution. But he resolved on surmounting all difficulties. The first step he took was to translate his Latin prize dissertation into English, and by diffusing information on the subject of slavery in as attrac- tive a form as possible, arouse the interest and sympathies of the British public. His proceedings were viewed with earnest attention by several eminent philanthropists, amongst whom were Rev. James Ramsay, Lord Barham, and Granville Sharpe, Esq„ By the counsel and aid of these gentlemen he procured intelligence from every vessel lying in a British harbour that had been engaged in the African trade. In addition to oral information, Mr. Clarkson endeavoured at great labour and expense to obtain specimens of the industry and manufactures of native Africans for public exhibition. And last of all, he procured an accurate engraving of a slave ship, with its cells and gratings and barricades, for the confine- ment of the poor unfortunate creatures that were kidnapped. The impression produced by this draw- ing lent, more than anything else, a powerful im- pulse to the cause in which he was engaged. Be- sides all these preliminaries. Mr. Clarkson pub- lished a pamphlet on the subject of the slave trade every year— although it was not till 1788 that his great work on the impolicy of that traffic was given to the world. Immediately after this pub- lication he went to France for the public advocacy of the cause in that country. His benevolent ex- ertions met with the warmest encouragement, not only from the French monarch and the celebrated Necker, who was then at the head of the govern- ment, but many of the most influential members of the national assemblies, as well as catholic prelates. He needed all this encouragement, for a CLA host of enemies, both in Britain and on the con- tinent, sprang up against him, consisting of parties interested in the maintenance of the slave system, and who foreseeing the hope of their gains to be gone if he should be successful in his aims, used every means, both fair and foul, to thwart his pur- poses, and disgust him with his task. But the fierce opposition of these enemies only made the friends of the cause rally more closely around him ; and two auspicious circumstances turned the scale opportunely in his favour. The one of these was a voluntary and public offer of Samuel Whitbrcad, Esq., ' to make good all injurieswhich any individual might suffer in their business from aiding and abet- ting the movement ;' and the other was the interview to which Clarkson was admitted with the emperor Alexander, at the congress of Aix La Chapelle in 1818, and that emperor's promise to employ his influence with his royal brothers of Austria and Prussia to procure the abolition of the slave trade. The hopes, however, excited in that quarter were slow in being realized. But Mr. Clarkson enjoyed the high satisfaction of witnessing the final triumph of his labours in the enactment of the British legislature in 1807, by which the slave trade was thenceforth declared illegal. Mr. Clark- son belonged to the Society of Fnends, and pub- lished in 1807 ' A Portrait of Quakerism,' and a « Life of William Penn ' in 1813 ; d. 1846. [R. J.] CLAUBERG, J., a Calvinist philos., 1622-1665. CLAUDE, queen of Francis I., 1499-1524. CLAUDE, duchess of Lorraine, 1547-1575. CLAUDE. Claude, Gelee, commonly called Claude Lorrain, from the country of his birth, was born at Chateau de Chamagne, near Charmes, in the year 1600. He was originally placed with a baker and pastry-cook, and when still young went in company with some cooks of Lorraine to Rome. Claude found a situation as ordinary servant with Agostino Tassi, the landscape painter; he both prepared his master's meals and ground his colours for him. It was to this coincidence that Claude seems to have owed the develop- ment of his faculty of painting; he must have been with Tassi towards the close of the pontifi- cate of Paul V.; he became a distinguished lands- cape painter as early as the time of pope Urban VIII. (1623-44). Claude appeared as an engra- ver as early as 1630, and his best pictures seem to have been painted from that time to about 1645 or 50. He was extremely slow and careful in his execution ; his friend Sandrart, who first taught him to sketch from nature, mentions that he would work a week or more at some portion of a picture without showing any progress; he had great difficulty in drawing the human figure or animals : these were generally added by F. Lauri, J. Courtois, or A. Both, and others. He died at Rome in 1682. The National Gallery possesses some good specimens of Claude, and there is a fine collection of his drawings in the British Museum.— (Sandrart, U Academia Todesca, &c. ; Wornum, Descriptive and Historical Catalogue of the National Gallery.) [R.N.W.] CLAUDE, J., a French protestant in the highest repute as a controversialist, 1619-1687. Isaac, his son, also a protestant min., 1653-1695. Jean-Jacques, son of Isaac, a man of letters, afterw. pastor of the Fr. ch. in London, 1684-1712. 157 CLA CLAUDIUS, Appius, decemvir of Rome, noted in the story of Virginius, 451-449 B.C. CLAUDIUS, Appius C.ecus, a Roman censor, the founder of the celeb. Appennine Way, 311 b.c. CLAUDIUS I., by name Tiberius" Drusius Claudius, fourth emp. of Rome, b. B.C. 9 ; elected alt. the murd. of his uncle Caligula, 41 ; poison. 54. CLAUDIUS II., by name Marcus Aurelius Flavius Claudius, proclaimed emp. 268, d. 270. CLAUDIUS, Felix, Roman governor of Ju- dcea in the time of the apostle Paul, recalled 60. CLAUDIUS, Lysias, a tribune of the Roman troops at Jerusalem, whose name occurs in the history of Paul. CLAUDIUS, Matt., a Germ, poet, 1743-1815. CLAUSBERG, C, a German math., 1689-1751. CLAUSEL, Bertrand, a count and marshal of France, dist. in the wars of Napoleon, and since the revol. of 1830 gov. -gen. of Algeria, 1772-1842. CLAVE REAU, N. M., a Fr. archit., 1755-1816. CLAVIER, Steph., a Fr. hellenist, 1762-1817. CLAVIERE, Stephen, born at Geneva 1735, was by profession a banker, and one of the first to unite with Brissot under the republican banner in 1789. He shared in the successes and the fall of the Girondins, especially as minister of finance in 1792, and being arrested with the rest of his party, and condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, put an end to his life in prison, 8th December, 1793. CLA VIGO, Ruy Gonzales De, a distin- guished Spaniard sent by Henry III. of Castile, in 1403, as ambassador to the court of the great Tamerlane, at Samarcand. The account which he published on his return contains many impor- tant observations on the countries through which he passed. [J.B.] CLAVIGERO, Francesco Saverro, a dis- tinguished writer on the ancient history of Mexico, its antiquities, and conquest by Spain, was born at Vera Cruz in 1720. He spent thirty-six years among the Indians as Jesuit missionary, but little is known of his private life. He died in Italy about the end of the century. His work was pub- lished in Italian in 1780-81, 4 vols. 4to, with maps and plates, and is regarded as a high authority. It was translated into English, London, 1787, 2 vols. 4to. [J.B.] CLAYTON, Robt., bishop of Clogher, au. of an ' Introduc. to the Hist, of the Jews,' &c, 1695-1758. CLEANTHES, the pupil and successor of Zeno as chief of the Stoic philosophers, 3d cent. B.C. CLEEF, John Van, a Fl. painter, 1646-1716. CLEAVER, Wm., bishop of St. Asaph, disting. as a Greek scholar and religious writer, died 1815. CLEGHORN, Geo., a Scotch phys., 1716-1787. CLEIVELAND, J., a royal, and poet, 1613-59. CLELAND, Jas., LL.D., astatis.wr., 1770-1840. CLEMENCE of Hungary, queen of France, married to Louis X. 1315, died 1328. CLEMENT, the first of this name, bishop of Rome, generally allowed to be the same that St. Paul mentions as his fellow-labourer, died about 91. Clement II., pope, 1046-1047. Clement III., promoter of the third crusade, 1187-1191. Clement IV., concluded the pragmatic sanction with St. Louis, 1265-1268. Clement V., the first who wore the triple mitre, and removed to Avignon, under the influence of Philip the Fair, 13Uo-1314. Clement VI., noted for his political CLE activity, 1342-1352. Clement VII., under whom Rome was besieged bv the Constable of France, and by whom Henry VIII. was excommunicated, 1523-1534. Clement VIII., whose pontificate was distinguished by the elevation of Baronius, Bellarmine, Du Perron, and other eminent men to the rank of cardinals, 1592-1605. Clement IX., 1667-1669. Clement X., 1670-1676. Clkmknt XI., by whom the condemnation of Jansenius was confirmed, and the bull ' Unicjenitas ' promulgated, 1700-1721. Clement XII., 1730-1740. Cle- ment XIII., noted for his political reverses, the loss of Avignon, &c, 1758-1768. Clement XIV., distinguished by his enlightened policy, and for his Brief suppressing the Jesuits, who afterwards poisoned him, 1769-1774. CLEMENT, Fr., a learned Fr. monk, d. 1793. CLEMENT, J. M. Ber., a Fr. critic, 1742-1812. CLEMENT, N., a French librarian, 1647-1712. CLEMENT, Titus Flavius, was born toward the middle of the second century. In early life he was a pagan, and strongly addicted to philosophi- cal pursuits. After travelling extensively, he be- came a pupil of Pantaenus, master of a Christian academy at Alexandria. Here he became a Chris- tian and a proselyte, and ultimately rose to be the head of this school of divinity, in which capacity he taught with great renown during the reign of Alexander Severus. About the year 202 he retired at length to avoid persecution, and after various wanderings died about a.d. 220. Clement was an Eclectic in philosophy, but with a very decided bias to Platonism. The besetting sin of his theology is a discursive habit of speculation, without regard to fixed principles, and the fault of his exegesis is his excessive love of allegory, which he indulges without, scrapie, and on every occasion. His books are valuable for their delineations and samples of contemporary literature and man- ners. His '■PaedagogusJ in three books, contains good instructions to a young convert, and his ' Ex- hortatio ad Graecos' has many striking and curious thoughts in it But his best known work is his l Stromata' (patch-work) or Miscellany, which is a disorderly storehouse filled with useful and inter- esting information and anecdotes. One of his tracts ' On the Danger of Riches' has been translated into English, London, 1711. The best edition of his works is that of Potter, Oxford, 1715, 2 vols, folio. Some of his treatises have been lost, such as his ' Hypotyposes' 1 or commentaries. [J.E.] CLEMENTI, Muz., an Ital. pianist, 1752-1832. CLEMENTI, Prosp., an It. sculptor, d. 1584. CLEOBULUS, one of the seven Greek sages, and king of Rhodes, 6th century B.C. CLEOMBROTUS, the first of the name, king of Sparta, 480-479 B.C.; the second, 380-371; the third, dethroned by Leonidas, 259-239. CLEOMENES, the first of the name, king of Sparta, 519-489 B.C.; the seco/it/, 371-309 ; the third put an end to his existence in prison, 238-219. CLEOPATRA, the second wife of Philip of Macedon, after his death cruelly murdered, to- gether with her son, by Olympias, the first wife of Philip, and mother of Alexander the Great. CLEOPATRA, the daugh. of Olympias and sist. of Alex, the Great, q. of Epirus by her marr. with Alexander, her maternal uncle, 337 ; assass. 308 B.C. CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egypt, 158 CLE was joint successor with her brother to her father Ptolemy Auletes, 52 B.C. ; and being deprived of her share in the government, was re-established by Ca?sar as sole sovereign, 47. Some fourteen years later several eastern provinces were added to her dominions by Anthony, and on the defeat of the latter at the battle of Actium she put herself to death, probably by the bite of an asp, B.C. 30. CLEPHIS, a king of the Lombards, 578-575. CLERFAYT, Count De, a field marshal of Austria, dist. as com. in the Fr. war, 1733-1798. CLERK, C, a fellovv-voy. with Cook, 1741-79. CLERK, J., a Scotch wr. on tactics, 1730-1812. CLERKE, Captain Edward, commanded the ship Discovery in Cook's third voyage; on whose death he succeeded to the command of the expedition. In attempting to carry out the inten- tions of his late superior, he penetrated through Behring's Straits to lat. 70° 33', when, being stopped by a barrier of ice, he prepared to return home ; but died of decline on reaching the harbour of Petro-paulski, in Kamtschatka. He had served first under Byron. [J.B.] CLERMONT, J. De, a Fr. commander, k. 1356. CLERMONT-GALLERANDE, C. G., a mili- tary officer and partizan of Louis XVTIL, author of ' Memoirs,' 1744-1823. CLERMONT-TONNERRE, Cardinal Anne Ant. Jules De, a deputy to the states-general in 1789, and strenuous opponent of the French min- istry in 1829 ; author of a ' Journal' concerning the captivity of Louis XVI. in the temple, 1749-1830. CLERSELLIER, C, a Cartesian phil., 1614-84. CLEVELAND, J., a royal, and pol. wr., d. 1659. CLIFFORD, G., a Dutch botanist, last century. CLIFFORD, George, earl of Cumberland, one of Q. Elizabeth's most famous sea capt., 1558-1605. CLINE, Henry, F.R.S., a surgeon, died 1827. CLINTON, George, an Amer. statesman and general during the war of independence, 1739-1812. CLINTON, Sir Henry, commander-in-chief of the Eng. forces in America, recalled 1782, d. 1795. CLISSON, Olivier De, const, of Fr., 14th ct. CLIVE, Catherine, an Irish actress, d. 1785. CLIVE. Robert Clive, born 29th Sept., 1725, was the son of a gentleman of good family, but small estate, near Market Drayton, in Shropshire. Robert was noted, in his boyhood, as a daring and unmanageable spirit ; and at the age of eighteen was sent out to Madras as a writer in the Company's service — an appointment which was then regarded in a very different light to what it is now — and CLI which Clive's friends looked on as providing for them a good riddance of a wild and unpromising youth. Our scanty possessions in India were then menaced by the French, and their native allies ; and, fortunately for Clive, he was soon called on, like other merchant-clerks in India, to turn soldier in self-defence. His mercantile employment had been, in the last degree, distasteful to him ; and he had twice in one day, at Madras, attempted suicide, by snapping a loaded pistol at his own head. The pistol missed fire each time. Clive asked a friend, who came into the room soon after- wards, to fire the pistol out of the window ; the pistol then went off. Satisfied thus that the weapon had been duly primed and loaded, Clive sprang up, exclaiming with an oath, ' I must be reserved for something great,' and gave up the idea of suicide. In 1747, three years after his arrival in India, he formally abandoned the mer- cantile profession, and took a captain's commis- sion. He then rapidly distinguished himself, not only as a most daring, out as a most skilful leader; and showed pre-eminently the true characteristic of genius — the power of inspiring all whom he commanded with his own energy and resolution. In 1751 the French were besieging the important city of Trichinopoly ; and Clive proposed to make a diversion in its favour, by an expedition from Madras against Arcot. At the head of 300 sepoys and 200 Europeans, Clive surprised and captured Arcot; and then defended that place successfully against the hostile army, 10,000 strong, that speedily besieged him. Being joined at last by a body of friendly Mahrattas, Clive advanced against his enemies, completely defeated them, relieved Trichinopoly, and captured several places of importance, which had been in the hands of the French or their allies. In 1753 the state of Clive's health compelled him to return to Eng- land, where he was received with great honour. Both the king's ministers and the Company were now eager to employ him ; and in 1755 he was sent out to India as lieut.-colonel in the army, and governor of St. David's. He destroyed some nests of pirates on the Coromandel coast, and reached Madras on the 20th June, 1756. On that very day the English in Bengal experienced the heavy disaster of the capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowlah, the savage who caused his prisoners to perish in the hideous agonies of the Black Hole. Clive sailed from Madras to the Hooghly to save the English power in Bengal from being utterly destroyed by Surajah and his French auxiliaries. He drove the enemy out of Calcutta, and a tem- porary treaty was made ; but hostilities soon re- commenced, and on the 23d June, 1757, Clive, with 3,000 men, only one-third of whom were Europeans, encountered and utterly routed the nabob's army of 50,000, in the ever-memorable battle of Plassey. This decisive victory secured for the English not only the mastery of Bengal, but the permanent ascendancy 'over the East. Clive gamed other important military advan- tages over our European rivals, as well as over native enemies, and returned to England in 1760, loaded with wealth and glory. He was enthusiastically received, and created (by an Irish peerage) Lord Clive, baron of Plassey. In 1764 he was again sent out to India, where our affairs 159 CLO had fallen into confusion during his absence. Clive on this occasion had no opportunity of earning more military fame; but he honourably distinguished himself by his exertions in the more difficult and invidious duty of reforming the gross abuses that abounded in our Indian administration. This made him many enemies ; and on his final return to England, in 1767, he became the object of incessant obloquy and attack in the public press, in the discussions at the India House, and ultimately in the House of Commons. Clive was, in fact, far from a faultless man. Throughout his career in the East, he had, in his negotiations and diplomatic dealings, acted on the maxim, that it was quite allowable to fight the cunning and faithless natives with their own weapons. He said, in his defence, that it was a matter of true policy and justice to deceive such villains. Acts of chicanery, and even of forgery, could thus be truly charged against Clive, which, in the judg- ment of many of the best of his countrymen, no amount of success could justify. But Chve's fear- less defence of himself in parliament was very effective. The magnitude of his services was un- deniable; and the House of Commons, after a long debate on 23d May, 1773, refused to vote that Lord Clive had abused his power, and came to the resolution, that ' Lord Clive has rendered f-eat and meritorious services to his country.' ut though thus honourably acquitted in parlia- ment, Clive's haughty spirit suffered deeply from the attacks aimed at him; his health also was impaired, and he aggravated fearfully both his mental and physical prostration by the immoder- ate use of opium. Robert Lord Clive, baron of Plassev, died by his own hand on the 22d Novem- ber, 1774. [E.S.C.] CLODIUS, a Roman tribune, killed 51 b.c. CLODOMIR, king of Orleans, 523, killed 524. CLOOTS, Jean Baptiste Du Val De Grace, better known as Anacharsis Cloots, the classical prenom being adopted by him from Greek history as a substitute for his baptismal names, which he rejected as having a supersti- tious origin, was a Prussian baron, notorious for his violence in conjunction with the Chaumettes and Heberts of the French revolution, and for his intense hatred of any natural or revealed religion. He was a political fanatic of the blackest dye, and openly proclaimed himself ' the personal enemy of Jesus Christ.' This sentence, from his book en- titled ' De la Republique Universelle,' expresses at once the character of the man and the tendency of his doctrines : — ' The people is the sovereign and God of the world ; France is the centre of the People-God ; only fools believe in any other God or Supreme Being.' His particular monomania was a universal republic, of which he professed himself the ambassador, with the title of ' Orator of the Human Race,' and in this character he paraded bis followers of all nations, or vagabonds attired to represent them, before the bar of the national assembly. He had visited the greater part of Europe, and expended a considerable fortune to propagate his opinions, for which he at last found a platform in the national convention, where he was sent by the department of the Oise, 1792. He is the author or several works pub- lished between 1780 and 17'J3, the last entitled COB • Base Constitutionelle de la Republique du Genro Humain.' He was included in the accusation of St. Just, and executed with Chaumette and others, 1794. [E.R.] GLOSS, J. B., a Ger. phys. and poet, 1735-87. CLOSTERMAN, John, a Ger. paint, d. 1713. CLOTAIRE, the first of this name, king of France, 497-558 ; the second, 584-628 ; the third, king of Burgundy, died 670 ; the fourth, nominal king under Charles Martel, 717-720. CLOTILDA, the queen of Clovis, 493-543. CLOUD, St., a son of Clodomir, devoted to a monastic life after the murder of his brother, 533. CLOVIS, the first, of this name, king of France, celebrated for his conversion to Christianity and his extensive conquests, born 467 ; succeeded^ 481 ; married Clotilda, the princess of Burgundy, 493 ; acknowledged king ot his consolidated dominions by the emperor of the East, and fixed his residence at Paris, 510 ; died 511. CLOVIS II., king of Neustria and Burgundy, 638-656 ; the third of the name, 691-695. CLOWES, John, a clergyman of the Church of England, more than sixty years rector of St. John's, Manchester, distinguished as a religious writer, and translator of Swedenborg, 1743-1831. CLUGNY, F. De, an ascetic writer, 1637-1694. CLUTTERBUCK, R, an Engl, hist., 1772-1831. COBB, James, an Engl, dramatist, 1756-1818. COBB, Samuel, an English poet, died 1713. COBBET, William, a self-taught man, who obtained great celebrity and influence during the early part of the nineteenth century, by his genius, energy, and waywardness, is generally said to have been born in the year 1762. His father was a farmer, who kept a small public house in Surrey. William was brought up to that stolid ignorance which has long been the general inheritance of the English peasant ; but his was not a temper to en- dure such bondage, and from an early age he greedily acquired knowledge, stamping all he ob- tained with that mark of individuality which the self-learner sets on his acquisitions. Fate made him for some time engrossing-clerk to an attor- ney, a pursuit which his soul abhorred. It appears to have been his loathing towards the drudgery of the desk that drove him to enlist in an infantry regiment destined for American service. He be- came a testimony to the small amount which the routine duties of a soldier can take from the avail- able services of an active mind, for in his leisure hours he gave himself an education such as few hard-working scholastically-taught men possess, and performed his duty so punctually and etiec- tively that he was immediately raised over the heads of many seniors to the rank of sergeant-ma- jor. In his service in America he met the young firl who afterwards became his wife, and his con- uct towards her throughout, as well as his domes- tic virtues generally, should be balanced against his public failings. In the year 1791 he desired his discharge from the army and obtained it on the ground of good conduct. He brought a charge of peculation against four officers under whom he had served, and when a large body of witnesses were in attendance, and other preparations were made for the trial, he abandoned it by suddenly disap- pearing, leaving it still a question whether he acted under caprice or settled design. From this 1M COB poriod to the day of Lis death, he led a restless life as a political writer. To enumerate his works hy their mere names, would fill more space than can be afforded here for his biography. The work for which he was chiefly noted in his day was the ' Weekly Register,' which kept him for thirty- three years in the eye of the public. But his most meri- torious service to literature was in his English and ' French Grammar ; while his best gift to the humbler classes, whose cause he always professed, was his 4 Cottage Economy.' He was a signal exception to the uneventful nature of literary fives, for his pen was ever exciting new sources of conflict, and the prosecutions he underwent from men of all parties, make in themselves an incidental history. It may be said that he never supported an opinion which he did not live to attack, or praised a man whom he did not live to censure ; and in his old age he seemed to be returning to those high Tory opin- ions of his younger years, which he employed his middle age in lashing with savage scorn. He had to a wonderful degree the capacity not only of ad- vocating a particular side m a question, but of making whatever he took up seem vitally impor- tant, while everything of a different character was childish or foolish. The reader of the greater portion of his works would pronounce his a mind capable of appreciating merely the material ele- ments of existence, and entirely destitute of ideal- ism, poetic dreaming, or enthusiasm. But this appearance is mainly owing to his perverse cen- sures of all his fellow-workers in the intellectual field. He was in reality a wayward victim to the influence of fancy, though it took its character from his energetic nature, and there are few such instances of a perverse idolatry recorded in later times, as he committed when he brought the bones of Thomas Paine to Britain to be consecrated by his homage, like the relics of a saint. He had made several attempts to enter parliament, but did not succeed until after the passing of the Re- form Act, when in 1832 he was returned for Old- ham. In the House of Commons, where only wonderful eloquence covers such defects as caprice and factiousness, he found his level as a senator, and few members had less influence. To the last, however, his capacity was the object of high ad- miration. Yet he left nothing behind him indica- tive of a permanent influence on the opinions or conduct of mankind. He died on the 18th of June, 1835. [J.H.B. COBDEN, Edward, an En?l. divine, d. 1764. COBENTZEL, Charles, Count De, an Aus- trian diplomatist and governor of the low countries, founder of the Academy of Sciences at Brussels, 1712-1770. Louis, the son and successor to the title of the preceding, a distinguished diplomatist, 1753-1808. John-Philip, cousin of Louis, a diploma, and vice-chancellor of Austria, 1741-1810. COBURG, Frederick Josiah, duke of Saxe, an Austrian general in the coalition against France, dftd. by Moreau and Jourdan, 1737-1815. COCCEIUS, Auctus, a Rom. arch., 1st c. B.C. COCCEIUS, or COOK, John, an eminent He- brew prof., teacher of theolo. at Leyden, 1603-1669. CO-CHEOU-KING, a Chinese astron., 13th ct. COCHLjEUS, John, a famous opponent of the reformation, especially of Luther, 1479-1552. COCHRAN, Wjl, a Scotch artist, 1738-1785. 101 COK COCHRANE, Sir Alex. Forester Inglis, an English admiral, dist. in the wars with America and France, especially for an unequal combat with five French vessels in Chesapeake Bay, 1758-1832. COCHRANE, Archibald, earl of Dundonald, dis. for his useful discov. in chemistry, 1749-183L COCHRANE, Captain John Dundas, R.N., an eccentric traveller who performed a pedestrian journey through France and the peninsula; and afterwards through Russia and Siberia, as far as Petro-paulski, in Kamtschatka; whence, having married a young lady of the country, he returned to England. His travels were published in 1824. Having engaged in mining enterprises, he went to Colombia, where he d. when contemplating a journey- on foot through the whole of S. America. [J-B.] COCKBURN, Catharine, formerly Miss Trotter, a dram., philos., and relig. wr., 1679-1749. COCKER, Edward, an arithmet., 1631-1715. COCLES, Bartholomew Della Rocca, an Italian physician and physiognomist, 1467-1504. CODRIKA, Panagioti, a Greek diplomatist and man of letters, born 1660, died in Paris, 1830. CODRINGTON, Chr., distinguished for his noble bequest in aid of All-Souls College, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1668-1710. CODRUS, the last k. of Athens, 1160-1132, b.c COEN, J. P., founder of Batavia, died 1629. COEUR, James, a wealthy French merchant, who distinguished himself in the political history of Charles VII., 1400-1461. COFFEY, Ch., an Irish dramatist, died 1745. COFFINHALD, J. B., vice-president of the revolutionary tribunal, shared in the fall of Robes- pierre, executed 1794. COGAN, Thomas, an English physician and philosophical writer, 1736-1818. A physician and medical writer of the same name died 1607. COGGESHALLE, Ralph, an English annalist, 13th century. COHORN, Menno, Baron De, a military officer and engineer, called the Dutch Vauban, 1641-1704. COIJNET, Isaac, a Fr. musician, 1736-1821. COKAYNE, Sir Aston, a dram, poet, 17th ct. COKE, Sir Edward, a great practical and institutional lawyer, was born at Mileham in the county of Norfolk, on 1st February, 1552. He was called to the bar on the 20th April, 1578. Next year he began his career of fame and prac- tice by being appointed recorder of Lyons Inn. He was apponted recorder of Norwich in 1586, and of London in 1592. He had not, however, held the office for a year, when lie resigned it on be- ing appointed solicitor-general. In 1594 he be- came attorney-general. He had in such difficult times much very serious and laborious business to transact as a crown lawyer. He has been sub- ject not unjustly to reproach for his overbearing and insulting demeanour to the unfortunate vic- tims of the crown prosecutions, and especially to- wards Sir Walter Raleigh. He was a man of haughty manners, severe spirit, and irritable temper, and he had little toleration for anything standing in the path of what he deemed his duty. But his severity was not dictated by subserviency to the court, and no influence in the corrupt reign of James could prompt him to go out of the line of his duty. He was made chief justice of the If COL Common Picas in 1606, and of the King's Bench in 1618. Here he exerted himself sternly in the investigation of the horrible system of iniquity which Somerset the court favourite concentrated round him, and showed a determination which not only overawed the parasites, but intimidated James himself. In 1616 a systematic attack, in which Bacon had the baseness to aid, was made on the resolute chief justice, and he was dismissed. He was partially restored to favour, but was again subject to attacks, which very naturally disposed him to put his great acquirements at the disposal of the constitutional opposition, which arising in the reign of James, completed its work in that of Charles. He owed much of his success in early life to two marriages — the one bringing fortune, the other connection. After spending his old age in wealthy retirement, he died on 3d September, 1633. His celebrated ' Institute,' which grew out of a commentary on 'Littleton's Treatise on Ten- ures,' has made him the great oracle of English law. His expressions, however antiquated they may appear, are deemed sacred, and are always embodied where their substance has not been superseded by changes of the law, in the works of subsequent commentators. [J.H.B. COLARDEAN, C. P., a Fr. poet, 1732-1776. COLBATCH, John, an English pharmacopo- list, 17th century. COLBERT, Jean Baptiste, a financial states- man, was born at Rheims in 1619. His immedi- ate origin was somewhat obscure. It is disputed whether his father was a wine merchant or a councillor of state, but he met the prejudices of the noblesse against his rise to power by profes- sing to belong to an ancient Scottish family. The recommendation to employ him was a legacy of Cardinal Mazarin to Louis XIV., and in 1661 he was made comptroller-general of finances. Using the great power either for good or evil belonging to this high office, he redeemed much money to the state by mercilessly scrutinizing the proceed- ings and liabilities of the farmers-general, and came to an adjustment with the national creditors. He extended the colonial power of France, carried on great public works, created a navy, and fostered into existence several manufactures. In this last operation, as his administration was very prosper- ous, he seemed to justify the system of govern- ment protection and interference with trade, but it was the spending of the resources which his vigorous financial system put at his disposal that created the appearance of prosperity, and subse- quent reaction showed that successful trade could not be artificially created. He founded the Aca- demies of Inscriptions, of Sciences, and of Archi- tecture. He died in 1683, neglected by the court and suspected by the people, who charged him with acquiring his great fortune by unworthy means. [J.H.B.j COLCHESTER, Lord. See Abbot, Charles. COLCHEN, Victor, Count De, a French diplomatist and senator, 1752-1830. COLDEN, Cadwallader, a Scotch physician, medical author, and naturalist, 1688-1776. COLE, Sir Chr., a naval com., 1771-1836. COLE, Sir G. L., a penins. officer, 1772-1842, COL COLE BROOKE, H. T., an English Orientalist, 1765-1837. COLEONI, B., an Italian condottiere, d. 1475. COLERIDGE, Hartley, son of Samuel Tay- lor Coleridge, remarkable for his original talents as a poet and essayist, and for his unhappy habits, 1797-1849. COLERIDGE, Henry Nelson, cousin of the preceding, a distinguished lawyer and classical* scholar, died 1843. COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, the youngest son of the vicar of St. Mary Ottery in Devon- shire, was born at that place in October 1772. Left an orphan in his ninth year, he was educated for seven years at Christ's Hospital, where Charles Lamb was his fellow-pupil ; and in 1791 he be- came a student of Jesus College, Cambridge. He had already devoured numberless books of all kinds, had especially attached himself in boyhood to metaphysics and theology, and had been inocu- lated with a love for poetry by the sonnets of Bowles. At the university his reading was great ; but it was desultory and irregular, and hardly at all directed to the sciences which led to academi- cal distinction. In 1793, vexed by debts, he went to London, and enlisted in a dragoon regiment, from which he was released after four months, and returned to Cambridge for another term or two. Now, however, his theological creed had become unitarian ; and he at once gave up all views towards academical preferment. In 1794 was published the drama called 'The Fall of Robespierre,' of which the first act was Coleridge's, and the other two were Southey's; and the two poets, then en- tertaining, in common, many of those extreme opinions which they afterwards abandoned so thoroughly, occupied themselves at Bristol in planning a new social community, which they were to found in the United States. At this town and elsewhere Coleridge delivered courses of public lectures (some of which he published), dealing both with politics and with religion ; and he also preached in unitarian pulpits. In 1795 he married Miss Fricker, whose sister soon afterwards became Mrs. Southey. In this year also he became acquainted with Wordsworth. — In 1796 he pub- lished, without success of any kind, ten numbers of a political miscellany called ' The Watchman ;' and in the same year appeared his first volume of 'Juvenile Poems,' to which, hi a second edition the year afterwards, other pieces were added. His genius, however, was not exhibited in its strength till the summer of 1798, when Wordsworth's fam- ous volume of 'Lyrical Ballads' appeared. It contained Coleridge's 'Ancient Mariner,' 'Love,' 'The Nightingale,' and 'The Foster-mother's Tale.' The first part of ' Christabel ' was written in 1797, the second in 1800 ; but both parts were for a good many years known only to a few liter- ary men. The tragedy of 'Remorse' also was written in 1797 ; though being despised by Sheridan, it did not find its way cither to the*, stage or to the press. It is thus a fact, one of the many singular ones in the history of this remarkable man, that almost all the poems on which his celebrity rests, were composed in one short period, not extending much in either direction beyond his twenty-fifth COLE, Hkxry, adist. Roin. Cath. div., d. 1519. I year. We of this generation, whose youth re COLE, William, an English herbalist, d. 1662. | ceived its poetic lessons from a school in which 102 COL Coleridge is one of the masters, have difficulty in apprehending aright either the real importance of Coleridge's poetry, or the reasons which naturally exposed it for a time to extremes of dislike or ad- miration. It bears hardly any traces of those doctrines, in obedience to which Wordsworth worked so doggedly; unless such doctrines dic- tated to him the outline of ' The Ancient Mariner.' Indeed he never, either then or afterwards, was guided in poetical composition by any deliberately- conceived theory. In poetry, as in philosophy, his thinking was fine and subtle, but neither systematic, nor consistent, nor clear. But in imag'ery, as in thought, his poetic originality is marvellous ; his pictures float in an atmosphere romantically and ideally beautiful ; and his tone of sentiment varies from an imaginative rapture to solemn or intense tenderness. ' Christabel,' a poet's hazy dream of loveliness, suggested much both in matter and in versification to Scott, who admiringly owned his obligations : it and others of his poems prompted more than any other works to the later poets of the time ; they were the prototypes of that visionary beauty which was elaborated by Keats and Shelley; and none owed more to them than Byron, who pro- fessed to despise them. — Even before all these fine poems had been written, the poet's worldly help- lessness became but too evident. Scheme after scheme failed in securing to him the means of livelihood; and among these was a proposal by his generous friend Mr. Poole to procure an an- nuity for his support. In 1798 the munificence of Mr. Wedgwood enabled him to reside for more than a year in Germany ; an event which opened to him a new world of thought, and modified essentially the whole subsequent history of his in- tellect. On his return to England he resumed an engagement he had already formed for contribut- ing political articles and poems to the Morning Post newspaper, which was followed, some years later, by similar employment in the Courier. But notwithstanding the acknowledged ability of his essays, he was neither practical nor industrious enough to be a useful newspaper writer. He resided chiefly, for a considerable time, in the Lake dis- trict, near Southey and Wordsworth; and for fifteen months in 1804 and 1805 he made his last attempt as a man of business, by acting as secre- tary to Sir Alexander Ball, the governor of Malta, — His noble translation or paraphrase of Schiller's 'Wallenstein' appeared in 1800. In 1809 and 1810 he wrote and published at Grasmere, in 27 numbers, the periodical called ' The Friend,' which, though undigested and ill calculated for popular- itv (like all his prose works), contains much both of deep speculation and of fine criticism. In 1813 1 Remorse ' was acted with much success at Drury Lane; and 'Christabel' was published in 1816. In that year and the next appeared the two ' Lay Sermons ;' and 1817 produced both the dramatic poem 'Zapolya,' the poems entitled 'Sibylline Leaves,' and the series of essays called the ' Bio- graphia Literaria.' In the last of these works he gave his earliest exposition of those philosophical opinions which he had formed since his return from the continent, deriving his groundwork mainly from the German thinkers who had writ- ten since Kant. His metaphysical system, here presented in its speculative aspect, is in substance COL identical with the 'Natur-philosophie' of Schelling; although in many points of detail there is much of originality and acuteness both of thinking and of illustration. The dreamy indistinctness which, now and ever after, hung about the philosophy of Coleridge, was owing, doubtless, in part, to the difficulty of the problems with which, in emula- tion of his German models, he continually ventured to grapple. Much of it, however, arose from the native character of his own mind, and from that tendency towards excursive musing which had be- come habitual with him. The borrowings from Schelling and others which he made so freely in the ' Biographia,' were repeated, Wilhelm Schlegel being now the lender, in a course of Lectures on Literature which he delivered in London in 1818. He had lectured previously ; but this is the only course which has been preserved, and even it only in the shape of fragmentary notes. — Some time before this he had found a quiet and friendly home, in which were spent the last eighteen years of his life. It was in the house of Mr. Gillman, surgeon at Highgate, where he died in July, 1834. There both mind and body were restored, as far as it was possible, from the excitement and ill health which nad been caused by the use of opium, re- sorted to at first as a palliative of illness, but after- wards taken habitually. There, also, in the close vicinity of London, Coleridge, one of the most strik- ing and eloquent of talkers, drew round him atten- tive listeners to his meditative harangues, and had his words recorded by hands as reverent as those that had chronicled the sayings of Johnson. Some of the fruits were published as his ' Table-Talk.' The principal aim of his thoughts in those later vears was the construction of a Philosophy of Re- ligion, bearing a spiritual and mystical cast, and quite alien from the opinions of his youth ; and to this point tend, more or less directly, almost all his works of that period. In 1825 appeared the ' Aids to Reflection ;' in 1830 the work ' On the Consti- tution of the Church and State;' extracts from his note-books, with the lectures of 1818, and a good many poems, made up four volumes of his ' Literary Remains,' published in 1836-39 ; and in 1840 was printed his short treatise on the inspira- tion of the Scriptures, entitled ' Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit.' [W.S.] [CoU.ridge'8 Cottage J COLIGNI, GAsrABD De, marshal of France. 1G3 COL commander at the battle of Marignano, died 1522. Odet, his son, cardinal archbishop of Toulouse, converted to protestantism, poisoned by his valet, 1515-1571. Gaspard, another son, celebrated as leader of the protestants and opponent of Guise, and one of the first victims of St. Bartholomew, 1517-1572. Francois Dandelot, a younger brother, also a protestant leader and general, 1511- 1569. Gaspard, son of Francois, marshal of France, 158-1-1646. Gaspard, son of the preced- ing, lieutenant-general in the royal army, whose son was the last of the Colignis, 1605-1639. COLIGNI, John De, descended from another branch, a lieut.-gen., author of ' Memoirs,' d. 1686. COLIGNI, Henrietta, a Fr. poetess, d. 1673. COLLATINUS, Lucius Tarquinius, nephew of Tarquin, and husb. of Lucretia, consul 509 b.c. COLLE, C, a French dramatic wr., 1709-1783. COLLIER, Arthur, an original and curious writer, bora in 1680, died in 1732. In 1713 he published his singular work ' Clavis Universalis ' — a book in remarkable analogy with the writings of Berkeley. It is worthy of attention. COLLIER, Jeremiah, one of the English non- jurors of the revolution of 1688, celebrated for his attack on the immorality of the stage, 1650-1726. COLLIN, Henry De, a Ger. dram., 1772-1811. COLLIN, H. J., a German med. wr., d. 1784. COLLIN D'HARLEVILLE, J. F., a French comic poet and mem. of the Institute, 1755-1806. COLLINGWOOD, Cuthbert, Admiral Lord, distinguished at the blockade of Toulon, the battle of Cape St. Vincent, the blockade of Brest, and especially at Trafalgar, where he succeeded to the command on the fall of Nelson, 1748-1810. COLLINGWOOD, Ed., a naval officer, d. 1835. COLLINO, Ignatus, an It. sculp., 1724-1793. COLLINS, Arth., a genealog. wr., 1682-1760. COLLINS, J., an English geometr., 1624-1683. COLLINS, John Anthony, bora 1676, died m 1729 ; a daring freethinker, and a friend of Locke. He attached himself to the most objec- tionable part of Locke's system, denying human liberty, and of course impugning immortality. His writings do not contain much that can in- terest the student now. — He was one of the adver- saries of Dr. Clarke. COLLINS, Samuel, an English phys., 17th ct. COLLINS, Wm, a disting. artist, 1787-1847. COLLINS, William, the most interesting of all the minor poets of England, was bora at Chi- chester, in 1720, and died there in the care of his sister, 1756. He was the son of a respectable tradesman of that city, and was educated at Win- chester and Oxford. Before leaving the university he published the 'Oriental Eclogues,' along with an epistle to Sir Thomas Hanmer on his edition of Shakspeare. In 1744 he came to London as a literary adventurer, and about two years after- wards published his ' Odes,' and made the acquain- tance of Dr. Johnson, who held him in high esteem. His life in the metropolis seems to have been irregular, and until the death of an uncle who left him a legacy of £2,000, was one of con- tinual hardship. His conduct to his publishers on the receipt of this little fortune was most honourable, his first use of it being to repay the losses they had sustained by rating his genius more highly than the unappreciating public. Un COL happily the seeds of disease and occasional insanity had been too deeply sown in his former abject condition to be eradicated, even by the alteration of climate and the scenes of other lands, and after a short sojourn in France, he passed through the doors of a lunatic asylum to his early home. The tribute paid to his memory by Dr. Johnson is too long to cite here, but some passages of it must not be omitted : — • The appearance of Collins,' he says, 'was decent and manly; his knowledge consi- derable, his views extensive, his conversation ele- gant, and his disposition cheerful. He was a man of extensive literature, and of vigorous faculties. He was acquainted not only with the learned tongues, but with the Italian, French, and Span- ish languages His morals were pure, and his opinions pious ; in a long continuance of poverty and long habits of dissipation, it cannot be expected that any character should be exactly uniform. There is a degree of want by which the freedom of agency is almost destroyed ; and long association with fortuitous companions will at last relax the strictness of truth, and abase the fervour of sincerity. That this man, wise and virtuous as he was, passed always unentangled through the snares of life, it would be prejudice and temerity to affirm ; but it may be said that at least he preserved the source of action unpolluted, that his principles were never shaken, that his distinctions of right and wrong were never con- founded, and that his faults had nothing of malig- nity or design.' With regard to his poetical genius, there can be no hesitation in pronouncing the Odes of William Collins to be unsurpassed by anythin of the same species of composition in the Englis language, and that to the ' Passions ' is a perfect masterpiece of poetical description. The Oriental Eclogues are exquisite portraitures of natural feel- ing, and, to do them full justice, perfect cabinet pictures of Eastern scenery. [E.R.] COLLINSON, Peter, an English naturalist and antiquarian, 1694-1768. COLLOT D'HERBOIS, Jean Marie, known for some twenty years previous to the French revolution as a dramatic author and actor, and afterwards as a sanguinary Jacobin, was bora at Paris 1750, and commenced his political career as a club orator, and author of the famous 'Al- manack of Father Gerard,' which raised him into such notoriety that he was sent to the national convention by the department of the Seine 1792. His first act was to propose a decree declaring the abolition of royalty, and ever after his voice was one of the most influential in the Jacobin Club, the Committee of Public Safety, and the convention, and was always raised in favour of the most violent measures. He was a man of drunken debauched habits, but had the advantage of a fine figure and commanding voice. His audacity and hardness of heart pointed him out as a proper agent for the punishment of the Lyon- nese, after the insurrection of that city and its conquest by the army of the republic. His col- league in effecting these reprisals was the notori- ous Fouch6. Finding the guillotine somewhat formal and tardy in its vengeance, they collected their prisoners together and disposed of them by fusillade. Collot himself admitted, and defended the act, that on one occasion sixty prisoners were 1C4 COL killed at a blow by cannonading. It would be dif- ficult to find a redeeming trait in his character, which may be summed up as that of a cruel unprin- cipled adventurer, in whose estimation the scenes in which he acted involved no higher responsibility than those of his own dramas. The tragical reality to him and his party were their fears of Robespierre, to whose fall Collot contributed as pre- sident of the convention on the night preceding the 9th Thcrmidor. He was among the sansculottes scoundrels transported to Cayenne in 1795, where he died in horrible and most appropriate torments through drinking a bottle of brandy when suffer- ing from the yellow fever. [E.R.] COLLYER, Joseph, an Engl, transl., d. 1776. COLLYER, Joseph, an Engl, engrv.,1748-1827. COLMAN, George, was born about 1733, at Florence, where his father was then the British min- ister. While a student at Oxford he began in 1754 to publish, with Bonnel Thornton, the series of peri- odical essays called ' The Connoisseur.' He was afterwards called to the bar, but never prosecuted the profession, and was speedily immersed in other pursuits. In 1767 he became a joint lessee of Co- vent Garden Theatre, and was for some time the acting manager ; and in 1777 he succeeded Foote in the Haymarket Theatre, which he managed till palsy, followed by mental imbecility, unfitted him for all exertion. He died in 1794. Besides a good translation of Terence in blank verse, and a translation and commentary on Horace's 'Art of Poetry,' he wrote several comedies and farces, and altered a good many older plays for the stage. He is remembered as the author of two stock comedies, 'The Jealous Wife,' and 'The Clandestine Marriage,' the latter of which was in part written by Garrick. [W.S.] COLMAN, George, the Younger, the son of the preceding, was born in 1762. After a some- what shifting course of education, he commenced the study of the law, which, however, he, like his father, soon abandoned. He was the manager of the Haymarket Theatre during the years of his father's illness, on whose death he received a re- newal of the patent. He was the author of a good many comedies and farces ; and possession ot the stage is still kept by some of his pieces, such as 'John Bull,' 'The Iron Chest,' 'The Moun- taineers,' ' The Heir at Law,' ' The Poor Gentle- man,' Colman, not very witty in his plays, was remarkably so in his conversation; and there is great liveliness, with still greater coarseness, in his collections of comic rhymes, such as ' Broad Grins,' and ' Poetical Vagaries.' For the last few years of his life he was deputy licenser of plays, and distinguished himself by a more than puritanical severity in the censorship of the language of the faunas he had to read. He died in 1836. [W.S.l COLOCOTRONIS, Theodore, a patriot, and commander in the revolution which established the independence of Greece, 1770-1843. COLOMAN, a k. of Hungary, reig. 1095-1114. COLOMBIERE, Cl. De La, a French Jesuit, disting. for his eloquence as a preacher, died 1682. COLOMBO, M. R., an Ital. physiol., d. 1577. COLOMIES, Paul, a French theol., 1638-92. COLONNA, Fabio, an It. botanist, 1567-1650. COLONNA, Giles, a schol. phil., 1247-1316. COLONNA, Giov., legate to Palestine, d. 1245. COL COLONNA, Leo, an Ital. painter, 1561-1605. COLONNA, Michelangelo, a paint., 1600-87. COLONNA, Prospero, one of the greatest generals of Italy, died 1523. Fabricio, his cousin, and like him in the military service both of the French and Spaniards, died 1520. Marc' Antonio, nephew of the two preceding, the de- fender of Ravenna in 1512, and of Verona in 1515, against the Venetians and the French ; in the ser- vice of Francis I., 1517; killed at the siege of Milan, 1522. Another Marc' Antonio Co- lonna, distinguished against the Turks at the battle of Lepanto, and honoured by a triumphal entry into Rome, 1571, died 1584. COLONNA, Vittoria, an Italian poetess, dist. for her beauty, talents, and virtue, 1490-1547. COLQUHOUN, Patrick, a statistical and economical writer, celebrated for his works on the police of the metropolis, the population and re- sources of the British empire, &c, 1745-1820. COLSTON, Edw., a rich English merchant, dis. for his munificence and philanthropy, 1636-1721. COLTON, Caleb C, an eccentric wr., d. 1832. COLUMBA, St., an Irish or Scotch miss., d. 615. COLUMBUS, Don Bartholomew, brother and fellow-voyager of the great discoverer, whose tutor he had been, remembered as a constructor of charts and founder of St. Domingo, died 1514. COLUMBUS, Christopher, was born in Genoa, about the year 1435 or 1436. His father followed the trade of awoolcomber, and his ancestors had long occupied a like humble position. The name was Colombo in the Italian ; the Latin form was given to it by himself at an early period, in his letters ; and conceiving that Colonus was the Ro- man original, he changed the name to Colon when he went into Spain, better to adapt the word to the Castilian tongue. With the exception of one year spent at Pavia, his education was con- ducted in his native city, and was confined to such studies as fitted him for the nautical profession, to which he showed an early bent. He went to sea at the age of fourteen, and though few of the events which marked his life for twenty years are known, it is certain that he was often engaged in perilous enterprises, both as commander and serv- ing in a subordinate capacity. We find him at Lisbon in 1470, probably attracted by the fame of the dis- coveries on the African coast, and a desire to ob- tain employment under the Portuguese princes. He was now about thirty-five years of age, tall, and well- formed, of dignified carriage, and engaging manners. Already his hair had become quite white, doubtless in consequence of the hardships and anxieties of his early days. About this time he manned Felepe' Monis de Palestrello, daughter of an Italian gentle- man deceased, who had been a navigator under Prince Henry, and had colonized, and been governor of, the isle of Porto Santo. He now occupied him- self in constructing maps and charts, contributing of his means to the support of his aged father at Genoa; he made several voyages to the const of Africa, and resided for some time at Porto Santo, where his wife had a small property ; and here his son Diego was born. He visited also the Canaries and Azores; and, eager to pass the bounds of existing knowledge, made a voyage in 1477 to the northwards of Iceland. Before this date, however, ps early as 1474, he had conceived the design of 165 COL reaching India by a westward course. Judging from the latest and best accounts, he gave by far too great an extension to the east of Asia, and on high authority took the size of a degree consider- ably below the truth, thus greatly under-estimat- ing the earth's size. It followed that the Atlantic might easily be traversed. The scheme was a magnificent one ; but it is difficult for us now, in the advanced state of our knowledge, to look at it in all its grandeur and boldness. He supported his views by the authority of Aristotle and other an- cient writers, who had. suggested that India might be reached by going west from the Pillars of Her- cules ; and by traditions and rumours concerning land to the west, and objects seen floating in the Atlantic, or cast ashore by westerly winds. Copious memoranda of all the grounds of his persuasion were found among his papers. To reach India by sea was still the great problem of geography. Columbus offered to John II. of Portugal to solve it by sailing westwards ; and would most probably have prevailed upon the king to send out an expe- dition, had it not been for the secret counter- plotting of some of the council, whose duplicity, winked at by the monarch, so disgusted Columbus, that he took his departure for Spain. This was in 1484 or 1485 ; his only companion was his son Diego, then about eleven years old, his wife having died some time previously. Though entering Spain in great poverty, he soon made friends, and got an introduction to the Icing and queen. They hesi- tated to undertake so great an enterprise, and several councils reported unfavourably; still Co- lumbus persevered in new applications, and for seven years was kept in a painful state of suspense. At length, after a last trial, in February, 1492, he left the residence of the court, and set out on his way to France. Two of his friends got an imme- diate interview with the queen — overcame her scruples — and Columbus was brought back. Isa- bella had offered to pledge her jewels, but the king was afterwards prevailed upon to furnish the greater part of the funds, Columbus himself undertaking an eighth, and getting the same part of the profits. He was to have one-tenth of all metals, gems, and merchandise, the office of ad- miral, with descent of title, and to be viceroy and governor-general of the new lands. The articles of agreement were signed on the 17th April, 1492. On Friday, 3d August, 1492, the expedition sailed from Palos, near Moguer on the Tinto ; it consisted of three small vessels, two without decks, and 120 men, who had been procured with the utmost diffi- culty, owing to the general dread of the voyage. The celebrated brothers Pinzon commanded the two smaller vessels, of about fifty tons each, named the Pinta and Nina, the admiral the Santa Maria. The only difficulty encountered was the mutinous tendency of the crews, excited by their terrors. Columbus repressed these with extraordinary tact ; he was, besides, a skilful sailor, and had helps which a few years before did not exist. The com- pass had been receiving more attention, and the astrolabe, an instrument like our sextant, had been lately introduced.— Sitting on the high poop of his vessel, at ten o'clock on the night ot the 11th October, 1492, gazing earnestly ahead, Co- lumbus plainly saw moving lights upon some land. Four hours of most exciting suspense followed. COL At 2 A.M., Rodrigo Triana, a sailor in the Pintn, which was a little in advance, saw the land itself. Dawn revealed a lovely island — Guanahani or San Salvador, one of the Bahamas. He afterwards dis- covered Cuba and Haiti; and deeming all these portions of Asia — a delusion under which he la- boured till his latest hour — he called the inhabi- tants Indians; a name which became general before the truth was known. The discovery produced an extraordinary sensation in Europe ; and Columbus was received by the sovereigns, and in every part of Spain, with the highest honour. — On September 25th, 1493, he sailed from Cadiz with a fleet of seventeen ships and 1,500 men, and discovered the Windward Isles, Jamaica, Porto Rico, &c, and founded a colony in Hispaniola. Disappointed in their hopes of making rapid fortunes, many of the adventurers who went out with him became dis- contented, and returning home spread calumnies against the admiral. Leaving his brother Bar- tholomew governor, he returned home, was received with favour, and refuted all the charges preferred by his enemies. His third voyage, entered upon 30tn May, 1498, was rewarded by the discovery of Tri- nidad, the Orinoco, and the coast of Paria. He found the new colony in a disorganized state, and remained some time to restore order. Complaints, however, still reached Spain, and a commissioner named Bobadilla was sent out to institute in- quiries. He exceeded bis powers, and sent Colum- bus home in irons, with his two brothers, Bartholomew and Diego. There was a general burst of indignation in Spain ; the king disclaimed complicity, and the queen bestowed her usual favour. Bobadilla was recalled, but the admiral was not reinstated. This favour he long sought in vain, and till the day of his death he got no redress, though there was not the semblance of proof against him. Columbus had served the king's purpose, who now repented that he had be- stowed such powers and pnvileges. The admiral was, however, sent upon a fourth voyage, 9th May, 1502, to search for a passage from the Caribbean Sea into what was supposed to be the great Indian Sea, from which Vasco de Gama had recently re- turned laden with the richest treasure. The voyage was disastrous ; and the constitution of Columbus, on which the infirmities of age had already made in- roads, never recovered from the shock which it sus- tained. In coasting central America, he got a hint, which if followed up might have led to the discovery of Mexico and the Pacific, and shed new lustre on his declining years. He returned in the end of the year 1504, and renewed his appeals to the justice and generosity of the king. While urging them in person, or by means or his son, brother, and other friends, he was seized with a violent attack of gout, and expired on the 20th May, 1506, in full possession of his faculties, and in a very pious frame of mind. In his latter days his connection with, and neglect of, Beatrice Kn- riquez of Seville, mother of his natural son Fer- nando, ' weighed heavily on his conscience,' and on his deathbed he made provision for her. Fer- nando was now eighteen years of age ; he became the biographer of his father, by whom he had always been treated with the same affectionate regard "is his other son. The latter, Don Diego, renewed the I application for redress ; and at length commenced GG COL a law process against the king before the ' high council of the Indies.' This court decided against his majesty ; and about the same time a mutual attachment having sprung up between the young admiral and the Donna Maria de Toledo, niece of the celebrated duke of Alva, who was cousin-ger- man to Ferdinand, and high in his favour, such intluence was brought to bear, that the king was obliged to yield, though not so far as to restore fully the dignities and privileges at first conferred. As vice-queen in Hispaniola, this lady behaved with great dignity, propriety, and spirit, and did excellent sendee to her husband, who, like his father, was never free from the persecution of ene- mies. Her eldest son, Don Luis, resigned all claim to the former titles for a handsome pension, with the titles of duke of Veragua and marquis of Ja- maica, His eldest daughter married Don Diego, her cousin ; and they jointly enjoyed the honours and estates, but died without issue ; — and the legitimate male line became extinct. At length, in 1608, the property and titles passed into a branch of the house of Braganza, in the person of Don Nuno de Portugallo, who was grandson of Isabella, third daughter of Don Diego Columbus, by his vice-queen, Donna Maria de Toledo. [J.B.] [House in which Columbus dieJ at Seville.] COLUMKLLUS, Lucius, an agricult. wr., lstc. COLUTHUS, a Greek poet of the 5th century, author of ' The Rape of Helen.' COMBAULT, C. De, a French hist., 1588-1670. COMBE, Andrew, M.D., one of the most popular writers on medicine of the present day, distinguished as an advocate of phrenology, but especially for his important practical works on ' The Moral and Physical Management of Infancy,' 1 The Principles of Physiology Applied to the Pre- servation of Health and to Education,' and ' The Physiology of Digestion.' Born at Edinburgh, where he also received his medical education, 1797 ; pub. the above works betw. 1834 and 1839 ; d. 1847. COMBE, Ch., a classical scholar, 1743-1817. COMBE, Taylor, son of the preceding, a clas- sical scholar and antiquarian author, 1774-1826. COMBER, Thomas, the name of three religions and learned writers; the first, dean of Carlisle, 1663 ; the second, dean of Durham, died 1699 ; the third, a rector in Huntingdonshire, died 1778. 167 CON COMBES, F., a Span, missionary, 1613-1663. COMENIUS, J. A, a Moravian brother and gram., au. of the 'Janua Linguarum,' 1592-1671. COMINES, Philip De, lord of Argenton, a Flemish statesman in the service of France, eel. for the memoirs of his own times, 1445-1509. COMMANDINO, F., an It, mathem., 1509-75. COMMELIN, Isaac, a Dutch historian, 1598- 1676. Gaspard, his son, also an historian, 1636- 1693. John, another son, celebrated as a botan- ist, 1629-1692. Gaspard, nephew of the preced- ing, a botanist, 1667-1751. COMMERSON, P., a Fr. naturalist, 1727-73. COMMODUS, one of the most debauched and cruel of the Rom. emp., poisoned by Marcia, 180-192. COMMENUS. For the Eastern sovereigns of this name see Alexis, Andronicus, Anna, David, Isaac, John, and Manuel. The last descendant of this house was Demetrius Stepii- ANOPOLI CONSTANTINE COMMENUS, bom at Corsica, 1749 ; captain of dragoons in the French army, 1778 ; author of a history of the Commeni, 1781; afterwards pensioned by Napoleon and Louis XVIIL, and died 1821. COMPAGON, a French traveller, founder of the French African Company, earlv last centurv. COMPTE, Louis Le, a Fr. mathem., d. 1729. COMTE, F. C. L., a polit. and moral wr., b. 1782. COMPTON, William, Lord Compton, created earl of Northampton, 1618, died 1630. Spencer Compton, son and successor of the preceding, one of the bravest adherents of Charles L, killed at Hopton Heath, 1642. Henry, a younger son of Spencer, the second earl, celebrated as bishop of London, for his adherence to protestant- ism, and the cause of William and Mary, d. 1713. CONAU, the name of several counts or dukes of Brittany; theirs*, 952-992 ; the second, 1040- 1066; the third, 1112-1148; the fourth, 1155-71. CONCINA, D., a Venet. theologian, 1686-175(3. CONCINI, Concino, an Italian courtier, who accompanied Mary de Medici to France, and exer- cised great power during her regency ; assassi- nated, and his wife burned as a sorceress by con- sent of her son Louis XIIL, 1617. CONDAMINE, Ch. Marie De La, a disting. Fr. traveller and natural philosopher, 1701-1774. CONDE, a branch of the house of Bourbon, the most noted members of which are Louis, the first prince, son of Charles Due de Vendome, and chief of the Huguenots, slain at Jarnac, 1532- 1569. Henry, son of the preceding, poisoned, 1552-1588. Louis, son of Henry, usually called the Great Condi, and Due d'Enghien, 1621-1686. Louis Joseph, fourth in descent from the Great Conde, distinguished in the seven years' war, chief of the army of the emigrants at the revolution, 1736-1818. Louis Ant. Henry, grandson of the preceding, known as the Due d'Enghien, bom 1772, shot at Vincennes by order of Napoleon, on the night of the 20th March, 1804. CONDE, L. M., a Fr. naval com., 1752-1820. CONDER, John, D.D., a religious wr., d. 1781. CONDILLAC, Etienne Bonnet De, born at Grenoble, 1715, died in 1780; certainly the meta- physician who, until the recent revival of philo- sophy, has exercised greatest sway in modem times over the tone of speculation in France. It is ex- plained under the article Locke, under what ch- CON cnmstances, and in what direction, the English philosopher gave an impulse to the inquiry con- cerning the origin of our ideas. Erroneously we think, it had become, nevertheless, the ambition of metaphysical inquiry to establish, as its starting point, some theory which mic;ht account for the generation of human thought ; and the doc- trine propounded by Locke had obtained extensive acceptance. Condillac at the outset acknowledged the Englishman as his master ; maintaining in his earliest publication, that all knowledge is made up of our sensations, and of the action of the mind in reflecting upon these. Sensation and Reflection ; no idea exists or can exist in the human intellect which may not be tracked to one or other as its source. As we have shown elsewhere (article Locke) this doctrine ignored the existence of all ideas involving the characters of universality, necessity, and infinity, — reducing them to mere negations, or averments that certain things have no known limit ; nevertheless, it continued to re- cognize as much activity on the part of the Mind, as enabled Locke to preserve the conception of human liberty ; but this too fell before the subse- quent 'simplification' by Condillac. French philosophy — technically so called — reached its cul- mination in the ' Traits' des Sensations ; ' the agency of Reflection being there dispensed with, and all knowledge traced to Sensation alone. As a specimen of Condillac's reasoning, take his posi- tions — fundamental ones — regarding Attention. If, he asserts, a multitude of sensations of equal vivacity are experienced at the same time by any mind, nothing occurs save the perception of the feeling occasioned — a perception which passes off with the circumstances ; but if, amidst the crowd of feelings, some one exists of great comparative vivacity and so predominates, the mind is in- stantly rivetted by this sensation in proportion to its vivacity; — which ri vetting we call Attention. Condillac overlooks, of course, the attribute which chiefly characterizes every act of attention, viz.: its dependence on the will ; to be impressed keenly depends indeed not on us, — to be atten- tive to any impression, does depend on us. In a way quite as faulty, Condillac, with great logical parade, seeks to account for acts of memory, of judgment, of reasoning, and for all our sentiments and emotions. Mind with him is a mere bundle of sensations now being experienced, or which have been experienced ; there is nothing in it save the consciousness of all the- external world is doing to it, or the recollection of all it has done to it. It is easy to see that in such a system, no pre- tence of a recognition of human Liberty could find a place; nevertheless, Condillac was not a materialist. He held firmly by the averment, that the seat of sensation is the soul, not the organ — leaving it to Cabanis to take the next downward step, — even then not the last, for we have seen how the physiologist saved himself by the fancy of a supermaterial vital principle. — The vices inhering in Locke's method, but veiled so far by effect of the good sense and practical sagacity of the English- man, stand out as they really are, and are virtually destroyed through exaggeration, in the writings of Condillac. It never seems to have occurred as desirable to this logician, that he should ascer- tain whether the ideas he is accounting for, he CON really the ideas which constitute hnman thought: certainly it would be reckoned strange now in a physical inquirer, were he to ignore facts, or rather— without compunction and without shame — to twist facts, so that his theory be saved ! Unhappily it is easy to theorize in metaphysics ; it is easy to produce schemes which will account, if not for actual fact, at least for something a little like actual fact : the difficulty lies in the just de- scription and analysis of psychological phenomena, — Condillac's precision and clearness suited the French taste. Not given to introspection, and apparently not capable of it, that accomplished and interesting people have never, notwithstand- ing their acuteness, succeeded in grappling with mental or moral problems ; their metaphysic is like ■ their poetry — purely logical and purely objective. — A student with much leisure may still peruso Condillac with some interest; his writings — especially those on language — contain acute re- mark ; but on the whole they are very wearisome. — In private life Condillac is said to have been estimaole. He mingled with the Encyclopedists — those heralds of the revolution ; but his habitual reserve kept him apart from politics, and from writing either on morals or religion. He was brother of khU Mably. [J.P.N.] CONDORCET, Marie Jean Antonie, mar- quis de Caritat ; an eloquent man, a good mathe- matician, an earnest political writer, and a victim of the reign of terror. Born in Picardy in 1743, he poisoned himself through dislike to the guillo- tine in 1794. The circumstances connected with his death are even affecting. Proscribed after the fall of the Girondins as an accomplice of Brissot, he found an asylum in the house of Madame Vernet ; and there, with no aid from books, he wrote out his ' Sketch of an Historical Picture of the Pro- gress of the Human Mind.' Every evening he gave his protectress the sheets he had written during the day; and it is said he did not even revise them. A new decree of the convention having threatened with death any one who should harbour a proscribed person, Condorcet resolved to leave Madame Vernet's ; and in spite of her en- treaties he did so. Half naked he wandered for several days through fields ; but, hunger pre- vailing, he entered an auberge at Clamont and was arrested. A dose of stramonium (the gift of Cabanis) concealed in his ring, set him free : — it is probable that he thought the right of the con- demned Roman Noble, to choose the manner of death, not extravagant or unreasonable. — Like most literary men or that time in France, Condor- cet was a materialist ; nevertheless, his higher as- pirations could not be silenced ; one sees their vig- our in the very wildness of his dreams concerning the perfectability of our Race. The ' Esquisse ' will amply repay perusal. It is an exaggeration, and often false; but it abounds with penetrating appreciations of history; and the serenity which reigns through it — a serenity undisturbed by word of reproach or repining — deeply interests one in the doomed man. Condorcet's best mathemati- cal work is on the ' Calculus of Probabilities :' his life of ' Turgot ' — perhaps that of ' Voltaire ' — is likely to last. — A worthy and affectionate doge on Condorcet we owe to M. Aran;o. [J.P.N.] CONEGLIANO, C. De, an It. painter, loth c. 108 CON CONESTAGGIO, J. F. De, an It. hist., d. 1635. CONEY, John, an Engl, engraver, 1786-1833. CONFORTI, F., a jurist and theol., 1743-1780. CONFUCIUS, the philosophical Socrates, or rather demi-god of China. He lived about 550 years before Christ. His moral system seems in the main a prudential one • but its entire struc- ture is scientific, and it pronounces much more de- terminately than any mere chronological record could do, concerning the antiquity of civilization in China. There are great ceremonial festivals in honour of Confucius, held through all China in spring and autumn. They approach as nearly to hero-worship as may be possible with this singular people. — A good analysis of the contribu- tions of Confucius to philosophy is a desideratum ; it could not fail to enable us to understand better, at once the history and the character of the remote East. CON GALL, the first of this name k. of Scotland, 470-500 ; the second, 558-568; the third, d. 814. CONGLETON, St. B. Parnell, Lord, a late member of parliament, celebrated for his know- ledge of finance, 1776-1842. CONGREVE, William, the second son of a Staffordshire gentleman, was born near Leeds in 1669. His father, who was in the army, being long stationed in Ireland, he was educated at Kilkenny, and at Trinity College, Dublin. He was entered at the Middle Temple, but speedily deserted law for literature, and for the pleasures of a gay life in London. His first comedy, 'The Old Bachelor,' which had remarkable success, was acted in 1693 ; and 'The Double Dealer' appeared the year after, and was followed by 'Love for Love.' His tragedy of ' The Mourning Bride,' played in 1697, gained for him a brilliant reputation as a serious drama- tist ; and his writings for the stage were closed in 1700 by his comedy 'The Way of the World.' He was perhaps lazy, perhaps disgusted by the ill success of this last play, perhaps alarmed by the severe denunciations of the immorality of the stage which were thundered forth by Jeremy Col- lier, and for which Congreve's comedies, though not the coarsest of their day, yet furnished perhaps stronger grounds than any others, through the coolly systematic immorality which is the staple of them all. In skill of construction, wit of dia- logue, and liveliness in the portraiture of manners, these pieces are very admirable. His tragedy has as little real value as his other verses, though these were pretty numerous. He was placed in easy circumstances by places under government, bestowed by Lord Halifax; and was much esteemed, both as an agreeable companion, and as a friendly though prudent man. He died in Lon- don in 1729. [W.S.] CONGREVE, Sir William, an eminent milit. engineer, inv. of the Congreve rockets, 1772-1828. CONNOR, Bernard O', an Irish physician, flourished at the court of Sobieski, king of Poland, author of ' Medicina Mystica,' &c, 1666-1698. CONNOR, Rory O', the last Irish king of the Milesian dynasty, subdued by Henry II., d. 1156. CONON, an Athenian general, killed 390 B.C. CONON, a Gr. his. and mytholog. wr., 1st c. B.C. CONON, a pone of Rome, 686-688. CONRAD. The emperors of Germany of this name are Conrad I., duke of Franconia, elected CON king of Germany 912, d. 918. Conrad II., duke of Franconia, elected king of Germanv 1024, crowned emperor of the West at Rome 1027, d. 1093. Conrad III., duke of Franconia, bora 1093, elected emperor of Germany 1137, d. 1152. Conrad IV., duke of Suabia, born 1228, elected emperor 1250, d. 1254. Conrad, or Conradin, the son of the last named, was left king of Sicily when only two years of age, and lost the crown and his lite at the age of sixteen, 1268. CONRAD, a king of Burgundy, 937-994. CONRAD, duke of Bohemia, the first succeeded 1092 d. 1093 ; the second sue. 1190, d. 1191. CONRAD D'HOCHSTADT, one of the warrior priests of the middle ages, abp. of Cologne, d. 1261. CONRAD DE LICHTENAU, a German eccle- sias., suppos. au. of the 'Urspery Chronicle,' d. 1241. CONRAD DE WURTZBOURGH, a German poet and historian, 13th century. CONRAD, F. W., a Dutch mathemat., last ct. CONRING, Hermann, a Ger. savant, 1606-81. CONSALVI, Hercules, a cardinal and states- man of Rome, minister of war under Pius VI., 1789, and many years afterwards the political minister of the Roman court, 1757-1824. CONSTABLE, Archibald, a Scotch book- seller, well known for his enterprise and literary taste, com. the ' Edinburgh Review,' 1775-1827. CONSTABLE, Henry, an Eng. poet, 16th c. CONSTABLE, John, R.A., was born at East Bergholt in Suffolk in 1776, and became a student of the Royal Academy in 1800, having selected the department of landscape. He was elected an academician in 1829. He died in London in 1837. — Constable's landscapes are simple in character and composition, and peculiar in execution, having a spottiness which appears to have arisen from a habit of early sketching, when the dew was on the grass, an effect he constantly represents ; his pic- tures improve by time. "He always strongly affected originality of style ; at the very commence- ment of his career, being asked by Sir George Beaumont what style he proposed to adopt, he replied, — 'None but God Almighty's style, Sir George.' The neighbourhood of Hampstead was the chief arena of his labours. — (Leslie, Memoirs of John Constable, &c.) [R.N.W.] CONSTABLE, Thomas Hugh Cliffokt, an Engl, botanist and topographical wr., 1762-1823. CONSTANCE, queen of France, 998, d. 1032. CONSTANCE, q. of the Two Sicilies, 1194-98. CONSTANCE, queen of Sicily, 1261-1297. CONSTANS, the first of this name, emp. of Rome, third son of Constantino the Great, sue, together with his two brothers Constantine and Constantius, 337, killed 350 ; the second of the name, emperor of the East, 641-668. CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, Benjamin. There are- few names in the political and literary history of France, since the first revolution, which present us with a more curious subject of specu- lation than that of Benjamin Constant; but the leading facts of his career, and a very summary judgment upon them, is all that we can give in the space allotted to us. He was the descendant of a French family, denaturalized by the edict of Nantes, and was born at Lausanne, 1767. He came to Paris in the heat of the revolutionary period, and his philosophical spirit led him into 1C9 CON affiance with the most talented men of that epoch. In 179b* he brought himself into notice by a work en- titled ' De la Force du Gouvernement Actuel de la France et de la Necessity de s'y Rallier,' being an ap- peal in support of the directory. The year following lie claimed the rights of a French citizen, and pro- cured a decree which restored the descendants of the religious exiles of France to their proper coun- try; increasing his literary fame about the same period by his treatises on political reaction, and on the effects of terror. Though an influential member of the political circle, M. Constant was not called upon to exercise any public function until the as- cendancy of Napoleon was established, when he became a member of the tribunate, and aspiring to lead the opposition, was ordered to quit France in 1802. Madame de Stael, with whom he was poli- tically connected, being ordered into exile at the same time, they left the capital together, and travelled over many parts of Europe, at length fixing their abode in Germany, where they culti- vated an acquaintance with its rising literature, and enjoyed tne intimacy of Schlegel. It was here that Constant wrote his famous work on the reli- Sious spirit, and the different modes of worship ; is tragedy of ' Walstein,' &c; and besides courting the muses, contrived to form an alliance with the daughter of the Prussian minister, Prince Har- denberg. On the fall of Buonaparte in 1814 Constant returned to Paris, and not only ad- vocated the alliance of the Bourbons, as he hoped, with the institutions achieved by the people, but denounced in bitter language the conqueror, who was even then returning to reclaim his authority. By whatever arguments he was won over to the cause of Napoleon — and there is reason to believe they leave no stain on his patriot- ism — this singular politician figured as a counsellor of state during the hundred days, and though he quitted France at the crisis of the second restoration, he appeared again as a deputy under Louis XVIII. Benjamin Constant, Manuel, and Lafayette in the chamber of representatives (1819), boded no good to the royalists, and the murder of the Due de Berry, followed by the discussion of the electoral laws, was the signal for a new conflict, and for that bril- liant opposition which ended in the revolution of 1830. During this interval M. Constant, besides taking a leading part in the discussions of the chambers, contributed many political and other works to the literature of his country ; and was also actively engaged as one of the editors of ' The Minerva.' The presumed cause of his death, which happened within six months after the abdi- cation of Charles X., was the fatigue and exposure which he underwent during the tumults of July ; and it is singular to add, that he closed his career by accepting favours from Louis Philippy. The {iroblem for the biographer is to reconcile his oyalty to constitutional principles, and his cosmo- politan views with his versatile conduct as a poli- tician. We are inclined to believe that he was trustful beyond what would be esteemed political Eropriety, and hoped, it may be, too much. Hence e was disposed to accept the fait accompli, and make the best of it, and only when his too gener- ous expectations were disappointed, commenced those chivalrous attacks which appear so extraor- dinary in contrast with his liaisons in the camp of 1 CON the enemy. His philosophical refinement, his dramatic tastes, and his high sense of honour when placed on one side, in the scale of royalty, as it was natural they should be, weighed too much against his political sagacity on the other. His romance of 'Adolphe,' also, shows that he thought it dangerous to resist the established opin- ions of the people ; but what rule had he for ascer- taining what should really be considered as estab- lished in scenes so changeful? [E.R.] CONSTANTIA, Flavia Julia Valeria, sister of Constantine the G., and wife of Licinius, d. 329. CONSTANTINA, el. sister of the preced., d. 354. CONSTANTINE I., called the Great, born 274, proclaimed Augustus by the army 306, embraced Christianity 311, transferred the seat of govern- ment from Rome to Byzantium 329, d. 337. CONSTANTINE II., reigned over the Roman empire, in conjunction with his brothers Constant andCoNSTANTius, from 337 to his d. in action, 340. CONSTANTINE III., elected emp. 407, k. 411. CONSTANTINE IV., emp. of the East, 668-685. CONSTANTINE V., sue. as emp. 741, d. 775. CONSTANTINE VI., sue. Leo II. 780, and was dethroned by his mother Irene, who had been re- gent of the empire during his minority, 792. CONSTANTINE VII., b. 905, s. 911, pois. 959. CONSTANTINE VIII., is a title given to the son of Basil, the Macedonian, elected Augustus, 868, and died before his father, 878. Some his- torians give the title to one of the sons of Romanus Lecapenus, d. 944 or 945. CONSTANTINE IX. was associated in the em- pire with his brother Basil II., by John Zimisces, 969, and succeeded the latter 976, d. 1028. CONSTANTINE X., emp. of the East, 1042-54. CONSTANTINE XL, succeeded 1056, d. 1067. CONSTANTINE XII., last emp. of the East, sue. 1448, and died gloriously in the defence of Constantinople, then taken by the Turks, 1453. CONSTANTINE I., k. of Scotland, 458, d. 479. CONSTANTINE II., sue. 858, k. in battle 874. CONSTANTINE III., sue. 903, abdicated 943. CONSTANTINE IV. usurped the throne, and was killed by the brother of Kenneth 1002. CONSTANTINE, ' the African,' a Benedictine monk, known as a medical author, 11th c. CONSTANTINE DE MAGNY, C. F., a critic of Savoy, au. of a commen. on Milton, 1692-1764. CONSTANTINE, Paulowitch, grand duke of Russia and viceroy of Poland, elder br. of the emp. Nicholas, to whom he ceded the crown, 1779-1831. CONSTANTINI, an Italian actor, d. 1729. CONSTANTINUS, a poet and historian, d. 1614. CONSTANTIUS, the first of this name, emp. of Rome and father of Constantine the Great, adopted and named Caesar by Maximinian 292, Augustus 305, d. 306 ; the second, Flavius Julius Con- stantius, second son of Constantine the Great,, born 317, made Caasar 323, emperor 337, d. 361. CONTADES, L. H. Erasmus, Marquis De, a marshal of Fr., dis. in the wars of Italy, 1704-1795. CONTANCIN, Cvriac, a Fr. mis., 1670-1733. CONTARINI, an illustrious family of Venice, which gave seven doges to Venice from 1043 to 1676, and boasts of many ambassadors, cardinals, and men of letters. The most celebrated is Gaspard Contarini, papal legate to the diet of Ratis- bon, and a philosophical writer, 1483-1542. con CONTARINI, J., a Venet. painter, 1549-1G05. CONTE, N. J., a French artist, mechanician, and chemist, attached to the Egypt, exp., 1755-1805. CONTI, Louisa Marg., princess of, celeb, for her beauty and brilliant talents, bom 1577, died in exile 1631. The house of Conti was a younger branch of the princely house of Conde\ and sprang from Armand De Boureon, 1629-1666. The line ended with Louis Francis Joseph, lieu- tenant-general in the royal army, d. 1814. CONYBEARE, John, bp. of Bristol, au. of a Defence of Revld. Relig. against Tindal, 1692-1755. CONYBEARE, John Josias, prof, of Anglo- Saxon and poetry, and author of many contributions tomineralogicaland antiquarian science, 1779-1824. COOK, Captain James, was bom at Marton, near Stockton-upon-Tees, 27th October, 1728. His father, who was an agricultural labourer and farm bailiff, apprenticed him at the age of thirteen to a haberdasher in Staiths, near Whitby. Dislik- ing this business, and having a strong inclination for a sea life, he obtained a discharge, and entered into new indentures with a coal company at Whitby. In then- employment he gained great practical knowledge of sailing, and soon rose to the situation of mate. Impressment for the navy was actively carried on in 1755; being then in the Thames, Cook at first hid himself to avoid the press- gang ; but afterwards judged it best to offer him- self as a volunteer. In 1759, by the interest of Mr. Osbaldiston, M.P. for Scarborough, and Capt. Sir Hugh Palisser he obtained the mastership of a sloop ; and soon afterwards joined the fleet in the St. Lawrence, operating against the French. His judgment, bravery, and great skill in conducting hydrographic surveys, gamed for him the highest credit, and secured his promotion. Returning home in 1762, he married Miss Elizabeth Batts,by whom he had a family of six children. In 1764 he was appointed marine surveyor of Newfoundland and Labrador ; and was chosen three years after to command an expedition to the S. Pacific, sent out on the recommendation of the Royal Society, to observe an approaching transit of Venus over the sun's disc, in order that, by a comparison with obser- vations at home, data might be obtained for a more accurate determination of the sun's distance. He was accompanied by Mr. Green as astronomer, Dr. Solander as naturalist, and a gentleman of fortune, Mr. (afterwards Sir Joseph) Banks. All the pheno- mena were successfully observed at Otaheite, on June 3, 1769. Cook then sailed S. in quest of the supposed southern continent; encountering New Zealand, he circumnavigated it ; sailed up the E. coast of New Holland, and determined that it was not joined to New Guinea ; thence he crossed to Batavia. Before reaching the Cape, Mr. Green, Dr. Solander, and twenty-eight other persons died. On June 12, 1771, the Endeavour came to anchor in the Downs; Cook's promotion to the rank of com- mander followed soon after. It was proved by this voyage that New Holland and New Zealand were not parts of the terra australis incognita; and that if such a continent did exist, it must be beyond the lat. of 40° S. The object of his second voyage was to circumnavigate the globe in high S. latitudes, in order to settle this question. Leav- ing on July 13, 1772, he was absent about three years, during which tune he lost ouly one man by 17 COO sickness. He sailed S.E. from the Cape, and re- turned by Cape Horn; and was the first who traversed the S. Pacific ; the highest lat. reached was 70° 10' S. The results of this voyage were most important, and excited a great interest among scientific men. He was now raised to the rank of post -captain, and appointed one of the captains of Greenwich Hospital, a situation of considerable emolument. In February, 1776, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and soon after received the Copley medal for a paper on the methods used to preserve the health of his crews — which waa thus adjudged to be the best experimental paper of the year. The second voyage having proved that if a terra australis existed, it was too far S. to be of any use — a question set at rest in 1842 by Captain James Ross's discovery of Victoria Land — attention was once more turned to the problem of a N.W. passage between the Atlantic and Pacific ; and the act of parliament of 1745, which had offered a reward of £20,000 for the discovery, hav- ing been recently altered so as to include the king's ships, government proposed an expedition. Cook was entitled to repose ; but having volun- teered to take the command, his offer was accepted ; and in the ship Resolution, accompanied by the Discovery, under Captain E. Clerke, Cook sailed from Plymouth in July, 1776. Passing from the Cape to New Zealand, and thence through the Pacific, he made many important discoveries, of which the chief was the Sandwich group, named after his friend the first lord of the admiralty. Early in the summer of 1778, he reached Behring's Strait ; but was able to penetrate no farther than lat. 70° 44'. Having carefully surveyed the Aleutian group and adjoining coasts, he returned to winter in the Sandwich isles. On the 13th February, 1779, at Owhyhee, one of the boats was stolen by natives during the night. Next day active measures were taken to enforce restitution, and to prevent similar occurrences. For this purpose Cook at- tempted to carry the aged king on board, but on reaching the boats he refused to embark, and his wives set up a lamentation ; at the same time a shot from one of the boats, fired to prevent a canoe leaving the bay, accidentally killed a chief. The crowd was roused to fury, and rushed upon Cook and his men ; four of them were killed, the rest in the confusion could not render assistance to their commander, and he was overpowered, after a desperate and prolonged resistance. His mangled remains were treated with the greatest indignity, and his bones only were recovered by his attached and sorrowing crews. In the extent and value of his discoveries, Cook surpasses every other navi- gator; his surveys and determinations of lati- tudes and longitudes are extremely correct^ he may be said, indeed, to have been the first scien- tific navigator. His success in preserving the health of his crews removed all dread of long voyages ; and this was certainly not the least of his services. A pension was bestowed upon his widow. [J.B.J COOKE, Sir A., tutor of Edw. VI., 1508-1576. COOKE, Benjm., a comp. of music, d. 1814. COOKE, George, an Eng. engraver, 1781-1834. COOKE, George Frederick, the great tragic actor of the eighteenth century, and rival of John Kemble, whose supremacy he might have 1 coo successfully disputed, but for Ins own fatal habits of intemperance, was born in Westminster, 17th April, 1756. His father was an Irish officer and captain in the 4th Dragoons, but died while Cooke was yet an infant. His mother, on her widow- hood, went to reside at Berwick-upon-Tweed, where her son received his school education. In the Town Hall of this place he saw the first play in his experience acted — it was 'The Provoked Husband' — the time either 1766 or 1767; and the circumstance made so strong an impression on his mind, that he began to study a part for him- self, that of Horatio in ' The Fair Penitent.' In 1769 he joined a strolling company of players in a barn in the same town, and attempted Young Meadows, in ' Love in a Village.' From this time his passion for the stage increased, and at the age of fifteen he got to London, notwithstanding he was previously apprenticed to a printer; and afterwards, probably as midshipman on board of a king's ship, visited Holland. He was at all times a sedulous reader of plays, and a diligent playgoer. In 1774, and subsequent years, he witnessed in London the best actors of the time — Foote, Gar- rick, Macklin — and first appeared (1761) as a professed actor himself at Brentford in the char- acter of Dumont. Next year he visited Berwick and Edinburgh, and in 1778 made his debut in London ; but being neglected, retired with chagrin, to return in 1800 with decided triumph. During the interval he acquired those habits in the pro- vinces which were the bane of his future life. Cooke was eight-and-thirty before he made good his position on a metropolitan stage, and this was at Dublin, which place he left, and enlisted as a soldier, from which Messrs. Banks and Ward, the managers of the Manchester theatre, procured his discharge ; and after relieving the distress which his follies had brought upon him, sent him to Manchester. In 1796 he married a Miss Daniels of the Chester theatre, which marriage was after- wards declared null and void by Sir W. Scott in Doctors Commons. — Cooke's successful appear- ance in London was in the character of ' Richard III.' He was at that time in his forty-fifth year. He next performed 'Shylock,' 'Sir Archy Mac- Sarcasm,' and • Sir Pertinax MacSycophant,' in all of which he was unapproachably great. Cooke was exceedingly fine in sarcasm, and both in town and country became immensely popular, notwithstand- ing his irregularities and continual disappointment of his audience. In 1803 he became acquainted with Mr. Cooke, an American actor, wno ulti- mately conceived the design of delivering Cooke from his vices, by changing the scene of his asso- ciations, and after much difficulty and some stra- tagem, got him safely across the Atlantic. The voyage, and necessary total abstinence from spiri- tuous liquors, completely renovated the actor's health ; and for some time he ran a triumphant career in the United States. Gradually, however, he relapsed into his former habits of fatal indul- gence, and died at New York in 1812. Next day his remains were deposited in the burying ground of St. Paul's Church, where many years afterwards his grave was visited by Edmund Kean, w1k.sc character and genius closely assimilated, both in faidts and merits, those of his predecessor, and who erected a tablet to his memory. [J.AIL] COO COOKE, Henry, an Engl, painter, 1642-1700. COOKE, Thomas, an Engl, poet, 1707-1750. COOKE, Thomas, a dist. singer, 1781-1848. COOKE, W., a wr. on bankrupt law, 1757-1832. COOKE, W., a misc. wr. and poet, 1766-1824. COOMBE, Wm., a humorous miscellan. writer, au. of 'The Tour of Doctor Syntax,' &c, 1741-1823. COOPER, Anthony Ashley, first earl of Shaftesbury, disting. as a statesman and political intriguer in the time of Cromwell and Charles II., born 1621, raised to the peerage 1672, d. 1683. He was a talented but dissolute man, and we are in- debted to his administration for the famous habeas corpm act. His grandson and namesake, third earl of Shaftesbury, distinguished as an essayist and moralist, born 1671-1713. COOPER, Sir Astley Paston, Bart., 1768- 1841, was the son of the Rev. Dr. Cooper, rector of Yelverton and Morley, Norfolk, under whom, and the village schoolmaster of Brooke, he received the elements of his education. In 1784, he became a pupil of his uncle, William Cooper, surgeon to Guy's Hospital, and, as soon as he was qualified, a lecturer at St. Thomas's on anatomy and surgery, and speedily acquired great reputation as an operating surgeon. In order to succeed his uncle at Guy's, he found it necessary to change his poli- tics, which were previously liberal ; and, very for- tunately, a certain ' disagreeable sensation' about his throat, which he regarded as a prelude to his fate, added physical to his moral reasons for adopting this step. His important literary labours were his great work on Hernia (1807), his' books on disloca- tions and fractures, and on the Anatomy and Dis- eases of the Breast. Sir Astley was principally distinguished as a bold operator, a decided prac- titioner, and as a most industrious and popular teacher. Perhaps no man has ever taught any branch of medicine who possessed more of this element of great success. His manners were of the most en- gaging kind, while his attention, urbanity, and regard for his pupils, were of the most exemplary character. He thus acquired a hold of the rising profession, which insured him the largest consult- ing practice probably ever enjoyed by any practi- tioner that ever existed, his annual income having been at one time £21,000. [R.D.T.] [House of James Fenimore Cooper.] COOPER, James Fenimore, a celebrated American novelist, was the son of Judge Cooper, 172 coo and born at Burlington, New Jersey, in 1789. After successfully completing his studies at Yale college, he entered the American navy as a mid- shipman in 1805, and continued for six years. In 1810 he married, and quitted the navy, and com- menced his brilliant career as a writer of fiction, and rapidly produced 'The Spy,' 'The Pioneers,' ' The Pilot,' and other novels, which excited great interest. In 1826 he visited Europe, and every- where met with a most cordial reception. His works are throughout distinguished by purity, and brilliancy of no common merit. Died at Coopers- town, in the state of New York, in 1851. COOPER, J. G., amiscel. Engl, wr., 1723-1767. COOPER, Samuel, an Engl, artist, 1609-1672. COOPER, William, an Engl, poet, 1731-1800. COOTE, Sir Charles, arylst. officer, d. 1661. COOTE, Sir Eyre, adescendt. of the preceding, dist. in the service of the East India Co., 1726-1783. COOTWYCK, J., a Dutch traveller, d. 1629. COPERNICUS, Nicolas, or ZEPERNICH, an illustrious astronomer, who restored the true sys- tem of the world as first proposed by Pythagoras, was born at Thorn, in Prussia, on the 19th Feb., 1473. His father was a surgeon, and his maternal uncle bishop of Ermeland. After taking his degree of doctor ot medicine, with the view of practising the healing art, he devoted his time to the study of perspective and the art of painting; but in con- sequence of attending the mathematical lectures of Brudzevius, he entered with great zeal upon the study of astronomy. With this view he became the pupil and assistant of Dominic Maria, pro- fessor of mathematics at Bologna, and he subse- quently went to Rome, where he taught mathe- matics and made astronomical observations. — Upon his return to his native country, he was appointed to a canonry in the chapter of Frauenberg, and chosen archdeacon of the parish of St. John's. His chief residence, however, was at Frauenberg, where he carried on his astronomical studies. Hi order to prove the annual motion of the earth, and the immobility of the sun in the centre of the solar system, truths of which he had conceived in 1507, he constructed a large quadrant, by means of which he made numerous observations, after- wards published along with those of Tycho in 1666. These observations were the basis of his new tables of the planets, and enabled him to complete, in 1530, his great work ' On the Revolution of the Celestial Bodies.' — Although the doctrine of the motion of the earth, and the immobility of the sun, published 100 years afterwards in Galileo's 4 System of the World,' was denounced as a heresy by the Church of Rome, yet these great truths, when propounded by the canon of Frauenberg, were not only applauded by his friends, but adopted by the bishops around him. The cardinal Nico- las Schonberg, bishop of Capua, and Tydeman Gyse, bishop of Culm, urged Copernicus to publish his work, but, dreading the prejudices of the public, he resisted every application. He appears, how- ever, to have taken measures for gradually bring- ing his system before the world. George Rheticns, professor of mathematics at Wittemberg, had re- signed his chair in order to study the new system under Copernicus himself, and they appear to have adopted a method of communicating it to the pub- lic without any shock to their religious feelings. 17 COP In 1540 Rheticns published, without his name, an account of his friend's discoveries, but in conse- quence of its favourable reception by the public, he published a second edition with his name in 1541. Other writers followed in the train of Rhe- ticus, and thus encouraged by the reception which his discoveries had met with, Copernicus placed the MS. of his work in the hands of Rheticus, who superintended the printing of it at Nuremberg, where it was published in 1543, at the expense of Cardinal Schonberg, bishop of Capua. Coperni- cus, however, was not permitted to read lias own work. He received and handled a copy of it on the 22d May, 1543, a few hours before his death, which took place at Frauenberg, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, in consequence of the rupture of a blood vessel, and a paralytic affection of his side. His house at Frauenberg has been lately discovered and also his tomb, with spheres cut out in relief,_in the cathedral church of the same town. 'It is impossible,' says Sir David Brew- ster ('Life of Copernicus' in Edinburgh Ency- clopaedia, vol. vii. p. 203, 4,) 'to survey the preceding sketch ot the life and discoveries of Copernicus without being struck by the indiffer- ence with which the Church of Rome witnessed the propagation of a system so adverse to the prin- ciples of its faith. More than a century after- wards, when civilization and liberal sentiment had made considerable progress, Galileo was persecuted for holding the same opinions which Copernicus had propagated with impunity. We cannot allow ourselves to imagine that the church was less vigilant in 1530 than in 1634, or that the doctrine of the earth's immobility was less heretical at one period than at the other. We are therefore led to consider the persecution of Galileo rather as ths consequence of his personal imprudence than of his astronomical opinions, and to imagine that the cardinals had seized the opportunity which the publication of his dialogues presented of gratifying a private resentment, which might possibly have been well-founded. Upon what other supposition can we account for the extreme severity of the church against the Pisan philosopher, and for its total indifference to the same crime in the canon of Ermeland? The publication of Copernicus's system gave no shock to the public mind; the religions feelings of no individual, and the watch- ful jealousy of no tribunal were alarmed. The most distinguished members, on the contrary, of the catholic church encouraged and pro- moted the propagation of the new system of the world. The cardinal Nicholas Schonberg pressed Copernicus to publish his discoveries. The bishop of Culm employed his influence in the same cause. The work was dedicated to the pope himself. The king of Holland even pro- posed him as a candidate for the vacant bishoprick of Ermeland; and thirty-eight years after his death, Cromerus, bishop of Ermeland, erected a monument to his memory. The charge of heresy was never preferred against Copernicus, either during his fife or after his death ; and we have never oeen able to discover that the slightest dis- approbation had been either cherished or expressed by the church against his system of the universe. Had Galileo been canon of Ermeland, and Coper- nicus professor of mathematics, at this day reli- COP gion would never have been degraded by the persecution of the philosopher, nor science afflicted at the ignominious compromise by which it was averted.'" 'It is a singular fact,' says the same writer, ■ in the history of Coperni- cus, that while he himself was zealously engaged in establishing a system in direct opposition to the faith of the catholic church, he should have viewed with indifference, and even with hostility, the great reformation which Luther was accomplish- ing in Germany. An edict was even issued by Maurice, bishop of Ermeland, in 1526, and signed by Copernicus and the other canons, the lirst article of which was directed against the exertions of Luther ; and it is certainly a remarkable cir- cumstance that the diocese of Ermeland, illumi- nated by the wisdom of Copernicus, should have preserved the catholic religion while all the sur- rounding provinces had embraced the doctrines of the reformation.' [D.B.] COPLESTON, Right Rev. E., bishop of Llandaff, disting. for his polemical wr., 1776-1849. COPLEY, John Singleton, father of Lord Lyndhurst, (list, as an historical painter, 1738-1815. COPONIUS, a gov. of Judaea, time of Augustus. COQUEBERT-MONTBRET, C. S., Baron De, aFr. natural., phy., andwr. on statistics, 1755-1831. COQUILLE, William, a Fr. jurist, 1523-1603. CORAY, Diamant, a Gr. patriot and scholar, dist. in the revival of Gr. independence, 1748-1835. CORBET, Richard, an Engl, prelate, better known as a wr. of humorous poetry, 1582-1635. CORBIAN, P. De, a Provencal poet, 13th c. CORDARA, Julius Cesar, a learned Ital. Je- suit, known as a literary satirist and his., 1704-1790. CORDAY, Charlotte, properly Marianne CfiARLOTTE Corday D'Armans. Charlotte Corday is one of those rare characters in history which it is impossible to contemplate without a feeling of enthusiastic admiration, and with re- spect to whom we are willing that the judgment snould remain in suspense rather than conclude against the instincts of the heart. She was born at St.' Saturnin, near S6ez, in Normandy, 1768, and, as her name testifies, was the daughter of a family belonging to the higher classes of society. She was educated in the retirement of a convent, but having a fine understanding and indomitable spirit, she seems to have followed the bent of her own genius, and formed her mind to the classic models of antiquity. In the bosom of her family she pursued these studies with unabated enthu- siasm, and as the progress of the revolution, and the dispersion of the Girondins, made her ac- quainted with a Louvet and a Barbarous, it is not surprising that her attention was excited by the Spectacle of the squalid, blood-thirsty Marat pre- siding at the sacrifice of all that was noblest and worthiest of her heart's love in her poor country. It has been said that she struck the blow which has re nd ere d her name immortal in revenge of her lover, M. Belsunce, one of the officers in the garri- son of Caen, but this supposition is far from well- founded, and we prefer for many reasons her own declaration : — ' I killed one man to save a hundred thousand; a villain (un soelerat) to save innocents; i\ ferocious wild beast to give repose to my country ! ' How she effected her purpose, and how she paid the sad penalty afterwards, we are under the ne- 1 COR ressity of relating in few words. ITcr resolve was formed, as she declared at the bar of Fouquier Tinvillc, after the proscriptions of the 31st of May, 1793, which is sufficient of itself to prove that she was not moved to it by the murder of M. Belsunce, who was killed in 1790, though it cannot be doubted that the appalling manner of his death must have affected her with a lasting horror of the excesses of sanscullottism. She left home secretly, and arrived at Paris on the 9th of Julv, with an introduction to Duperret, with whom sfie transacted some business connected with certain family papers in the course of the next day or two. On Saturday the 13th she purchased a large knife, and at seven o'clock in the evening procured ad- mittance to Marat with this weapon concealed under her garments. She had obtained this interview by writing to him that she was from the seat of rebel- lion, and would • put it in his power to do France a great service.' Marat was in his bath, with ■ stool by his side to write upon, and entering into conversation with Charlotte, he penned with fero- cious joy the fresh list of victims with which she pretended to supply him. At the instant when he turned aside, muttering of the chastisement they should receive, Charlotte with desperate de- termination, plunged her knife into his heart. Her aim was so sure that the monster could only ex- claim as he choked with blood, — 'A moi, ma chere amie je me meurs,' (Help dear, I am killed !) and instantly expired. It would not be easy to exaggerate the sublime attitude of this beautiful young girl, with her long dark hair and flushed cheek for one moment, and how submissively the next she surrendered herself to the gensdarmes. Her self-possession, sincerity, and maidenly mo- desty at the trial, were marvellous in the midst of the tumult that agitated Paris. The evidence was prepared, and Tinville commenced the pro- ceedings by addressing some questions of form to Charlotte: — 'All these details of form are need- less,' she said. 'It was I who killed Marat.' 'What instigated you?' 'His crimes.' 'What do you mean by his crimes ?' ' The ill that he has done to France since the revolution, and which he would yet do.' ' By whom was this assassina- tion suggested to you?' 'I alone concluded upon it.' 'What are the refugee deputies doing at Caen ?' ' They are waiting till the end of anarchy shall enable them to return to their posts.' ' Was it to a sworn or an unsworn priest that you were accustomed to confess at Caen ?' ' I neither con- fessed to the one nor the other.' ' What end did you propose to gain by killing Marat ?' ' To put an end to the troubles of* the French people.' ' How long since did you form this project ?' ' Since the proscription of the deputies of the people on the 31st of May.' ' It is from the journals, then, that you have judged Marat to be an anarchist ?' ' Yes ; I knew that he had brutalized the French.' And then, raising her voice to prevail over the confu- sion which arose in the hall: — ' J'ai tug - un homme pour en sauver cent mille ; un scelerat pour sau- ver des innocents ; une bete feroce, pour donner le repos a mon pays. I was a republican before the revolution, I never wanted energy.' ' What do you mesa by energy?' • I mean by energy the feeling of those who are willing to forget their own interests for the sake of their country.' Such an- COR swers astonished her judges, and under the circum- stances they are the signs of no ordinary under- standing. It is not surprising that many took off their hats as she went to the place of execution, clothed as a murderess in a red smock, and that one young man should propose the erection of a monument to her memory, with the inscription, 'Greater than Brutus!' She was guillotined, 17th July, 1793. [E.R.] CORDERIUS, the Latinized name of Mathurin Cordier, author of ' Colloquies,' 1479-1564. CORDERO, J. M., a Spanish gram., 1520-1584. CORDLNER, Charles, a Scot, clergyman, anti- quarian, and wr. on the picturesque, &c, 1746-1794. CORDOVA, Alph. De, a Span, astron., 15th c. CORDOVA, Jose M., a comp. in arms of Boli- var, from whom he revolted, and was slain 1829. CORDOVA, P. De, a Spanish painter, 16th c. CORDUS, Euric, a Ger. phys. and poet, d. 1538. COREAT, F., a Spanish voyager, 1648-1708. CORELLI, Arcangelo, called the founder of the Roman school of music, was born at Fusignano in the Bolognese territory in 1653. He is said to have received his instruction in composition from Sinconelli, and on the violin from Bassoni of Bo- logna. In 1672 he was in Paris for a short time, but made no impression. In 1680 he visited Ger- many, and was in the service of the duke of Ba- varia. He returned to Rome in 1682, and between this year and 1694, when he was principal violinist at Rome, he published his celebrated sonatas for violin and violoncello. From that period up till almost the present time, these sonatas have been amongst the first studies which the great masters of the violin have put into the hands of their pupils. His greatest works, the Twelve Concertos, were long known before they were printed. Corelli died at Rome on the 18th January, 1713, and was buried in the church of Santa Maria della Rotunda (the ancient Pantheon), where a monument, sur- mounted with a marble bust, was erected to his memory. Corelli was amiable and gentle in his manners, and his feelings were as remarkably sen- sitive. He received the surname of 77 Divino from his Italian compatriots, and was usually called ' Jmmott&mo professore di violin.'' [J.M.] CORINNjE, a lyric Gr. poetess, 5th cent. b.c. CORIO, Bernard, a Spanish hist., 1459-1519. CORIOLANUS, Caius Marcius, a Roman general, so named from Corioli, the capital of the Volscians, captured by him, 5th century B.C. CORMONTAIGNE, a Fr. milit. engin., d. 1752. CORNARIUS, J., a phys. of Saxony, 1500-58. CORNARO, the name of a patrician family of Venice, of whom three were doges of the republic, the first, 1365-1368 ; the second, 1625-1629 ; the third, 1709-1722. Catharine, descended from the first, was queen of Cyprus, d. 1510. Ludo- vico, another member of the family, is celebrated for his great age, and works on regimen, 1467- 1566 ; and Lucretia Helena, as a poetess and learned writer, 1646-1684. CORNEILLE, a pope of Rome, 251-252. CORNEILLE, Michel, a French painter and engraver, 1601-1664. His son, of the same name and profession, 1642-1708. A second son, Jean Baptiste, also a painter, and writer on the art of painting. 1646-1695. CORNEILLE, Pierre, named 'The Great' by 1 COR his admiring contemporaries, was the first, in the order of time, among those brilliant writers who did honour to France during the reign of Louis XIV. He had not been preceded by any dramatic writer whose genius was powerful enough to pre- serve his name in general remembrance; and, himself preceding Moliere by a good many years, and Racme by a whole generation, he learned but in part, and obeyed with reluctance, those formal rules which French critics were beginning to teach, and to which the French drama was gradu- ally submitting itself. His countrymen are often much at a loss to reconcile their dislike to his irre- gularities in form, with the pride they feel in his well-won fame, and the impression which they cannot help receiving from his magnificent pictures of heroically idealized nature. — Corneille, born at Rouen in 1606, was the son of a lawyer, and him- self attempted the same profession. But as early as his twenty-third year, he entered on an un- interrupted course of devotion to dramatic compo- sition. His first attempts were six rhymed come- dies, and the strong but declamatory tragedy of 'Mede'e.' These pieces were received with ap- plause in a time when there was nothing better, but are now admitted to have been so feeble as to give but poor presage of the strength which worked within him. He was saved from prosecuting this career by being imprudent enough to offend Cardi- nal Richelieu, who had chosen him as one of the men of genius who were to found his French Academy. Retiring to Rouen, he turned his thoughts to tragedy, and studied the Spanish lan- guage to have at his command the dramatic stores which it already possessed : an old courtier, who happened to have sought repose in Normandy, is said to have been his adviser on both points. The fruits appeared in 1636, when he presented his romantic tragedy ' The Cid.' Its success was pro- digious, and was at length allowed to be deserved, even by the academicians who wished to flatter the resentments of Richelieu. It is the most fam- ous, and perhaps the greatest, of all Corneille's works. It is alike admirable for its skill of con- struction, its chivalrous dignity of sentiment, and the dramatic power with which it depicts the con- flict of opposing passions. The poet, however, was sneered at for having freely borrowed incidents and ideas from a Spanish play; and he threw himself boldly on his own resources in his next two works, which stand, with the 'Cid,' among his masterpieces. In 'Horace' he dramatized, with a defective plan, but with great force of pas- sion, and several very striking bursts of sentiment, the Roman combat of the Horatii and Curatii; and on ' Cinna,' celebrating Augustus and the Ro- mans of his age, he bestowed an artful dexterity of management which has recommended it, in spite of its artificiality of feeling, to the especial favour of the French critics. These two fine works, appearing in 1639, were immediately followed by a worthy successor, the ' Polyeucte,' a tragedy of Christian martyrdom. Soon afterwards came ' La Mort de Pompde,' which is fine in some parts; and ' Le Menteur, the only one of its author's comedies that is held worthy of him, and pronounced to have been the earliest comedy of intrigue and character which did credit to French literature. It was imitated from the Spanish, and has itself COR been imitated in English by Steele and translated by Foote. ' Rodogune ' was thought by the poet to be his best work ; and its fifth act is declared by Voltaire to be the finest effort of the French drama. More philosophical critics detect, in tliis imposing tragedy, traces of that over-charged and unnatural turn of thought and sentiment which began to show itself more and more in Corneille's plays, and which, with not unfrequent feebleness, indi- cated that the rich mine was nearly wrought out. The acknowledged failure of ' Pertharite ' in 1653, warned him to pause ; and for six years he pro- duced nothing but a versified translation of Tho- mas a Kempis. Nor did he add to his fame by the few works which he produced after returning to the stage in 1659. These, though not without flashes of the ancient energy, are acknowledged to be on the whole weak ; and they abound in those argumentative and declamatory orations, the occa- sional intrusion of which into his best plays is con- fessed by his most favourable critics. Among the critics of Corneille, he himself must be numbered with honour. The remarks which he published with several of his earlier pieces, contain some ad- mirable criticism. In private fife he was an un- assuming and plain man, who was always most at bis ease m the bosom of his own family. He died in 1684. — His younger brother, Thomas, though now forgotten, was in his day a very popular dra- matist, and famous for his readiness of versifica- tion. The two brothers, whose wives were sisters, lived in the same house ; and it is said that, when Pierre wanted a rhyme, he used to lift a trap-door and call on Thomas for assistance. J_W.S.] CORNELIA, a Roman lady, daughter of Scipio Africanus, and mother of the Gracchi, 2d ct. B.C. CORNELIS, C, a Dutch painter, 1562-1638. CORNELISON, Cornelis, a Dutchman, ad- miral of the fleet sent by the united provinces in 1594, under conduct of William Barentz. CORNELIUS-NEPOS, a Latin hist., lstc. B.C. CORNETTE, Claude Melchior, a French physician and chemist, 1744-1794. CORNIANI, J. B., an Italian dram., 1742-1813. CORNUTI, J. P., a French botanist, 1600-1651. CORNWALLIS, Sir Charles, an English ambassador time of James I., d. 1630. His son, William, author of essays published 1632. CORNWALLIS, Charles, Marquis Cornwallis, was born 31st Dec, 1738. He entered the army early, and obtained deserved promotion and credit in the last campaign of the seven years' war. He served actively and honourably as major-general under Howe and Clinton in the first year of the American war, and in 1780 he held an indepen- dent command. He gained several victories, but was at last shut up and besieged in York Town, where he was obliged to surrender himself and his army, after an obstinate and gallant defence, on October 19, 1781. In 1786 Lord Cornwallis went to India as commander-in-chief and governor- general. He signalized his rule there by the mili- tary advantages that he gained over Tippoo Saib, and by his honesty and vigour as an administra- tive reformer. After his return from India he was, in 1798, made lord-lieutenant in Ireland, where he put down the rebellion that he found raging there. His humanity and his skill in civil government did more even than his military COR talents towards restoring order in that unhappy country. In 1805 he was a second time made governor of India; but his health was now shat- tered. He was suffering severely when he. landed at Calcutta ; but he exerted himself usefully in the introduction of several salutary measures in the civil department of the Indian service; and then endeavoured to put himself at the head of the army, which was actively engaged in the upper provinces. But the old warrior's strength failed him, and he died at Ghazepore, on his way to head-quarters, on 5th October, 1805. [E.S.C.J CORONA, Leo, a Venetian painter, 1561-1605. CORONELLI, M. V., a Venet. geog., 1650-1718. CORRADO, C, a painter of Naples, 1693-1768. CORRADO, Quinto M., a Latin au.,1508-1575. CORRARO, G., a Venet. moralist, 1411-1464. CORREA, P. P., a Portuguese captain, 13th c. CORREA, Th., a rhetoric, and poet, 1537-1595. CORREA-DE-SAA, Salvador, a Portuguese admiral, and governor of Brazil, 1594-1680. CORREA-DA-SERRA, J. F., a distinguished Portuguese botanist, and minister plenipotentiary to the United States, 1750-1823. CORREGGIO. Antonio Allegri, com- monly called Correggio from his birth-place, was born about 1493-4, and appears to have first studied painting under Tonino Bartolotto of Cor- reggio ; m 1519 he was established as a painter at Parma. The celebrated cupola of Parma was commenced in 1520, and in 1522 Correggio under- took the great works of the dome of the cathedral; in the former representing the ascension of Christ, and in the latter, the assumption of the Virgin, both of which series are now admirably engraved by the Cav. Toschi. The frescoes of the cathedral, left unfinished by Correggio, were completed by his pupil Giorgio Gandini. Correggio died of a fever at his native place in 1534, in his forty-first year only. — Correggio's great reputation rests chiefly upon the above mentioned frescoes, but he had executed many excellent oil pictures before he proceeded to Parma in 1519. All his pictures are conspicuous for a remarkable play of foreshorten- ings, a powerful and delicate chiaroscuro, or light and shade, and a graceful grouping of forms. — The ' Notte,' or night, of Correggio, in the Gallery of Dresden, is a picture of the nativity of Christ, in which the light proceeds from the body of the infant Saviour. — (Pungileoni, Memorie Istoriche di Antonio Allegri detto il Correr/gio, Parma, 1827-21. Sketches of the Lives of Covreqgio and Pa-rmiqiano, London, 1823.) [RN.W.] CORSINI, Edw., an Ital. savant, 1702-1765. CORTE, J. De La, a Spanish historical pain- ter, 1597-1660. His son, Gabriel, eminent as a flower painter, 1648-1694. CORTE, Barth., an Ital. med. au., 1666-1738. CORTE, Gottlieb, a learned Ger., 1698-1731. CORTEREAL, G., a Portug. navig., abt. 1500. CORTEREAL, J., a Portuguese poet, d. 1593. CORTEREAL, John Vaz Costa, a gentleman of the household of Alphonso V. of Portugal ; he is said to have discovered Newfoundland about the year 1463. His son, Gaspar, sailed from Lisbon in the year 1500, and discovered Labrador and Greenland. In May, 1501, he again left Lisbon, with two ships, in hopes of finding a N.W. passage to India ; a storm separated the ships on the coast 6 COR of Greenland ; Cortereal's vessel was never heard of, though the other returned in safety. His brother, Michael, went in search of him the next year, with three ships ; these separated in order to examine the coast more closely, agreeing upon a certain rendezvous. Two of them kept the appointment • Cortereal and his vessel were never heard of again. Vasco, the last of the family, master of the household, was anxious to go in search of his lost brothers, but the king would not yield to the most earnest entreaties. [J.B.] CORTEZ. Hernando Cortez was born of an ancient Spanish family in Estremadura, in 1485. At the age of nineteen he left Spain, like many of the adventurous youths of that period, to seek fame and fortune in the new world, that had been discovered beyond the Atlantic. He distinguished himself under Velasquez, in the conquest of Cuba ; and after passing several years in that island, where he was sometimes the favourite of the viceroy, and sometimes the special object of his jealousv and persecution, Cortez obtained leave from Velas- quez to conduct a small expedition to the newly- discovered coast of Yucatan and Mexico. With less than 600 soldiers, with 16 horses, 10 cannons, and four falconets, Cortez sailed, in 1519, to con- quer the most powerful empire in America. Cortez landed on the Mexican coast on Good Friday, the 21st of April, in that year, on the spot where the city of Vera Cruz now stands. He persuaded his followers to destroy their ships, and to march in- land, with no prospect but to succeed or perish. The Indian republic of Tlascala lay between him and the Mexican capital. Cortez defeated the Tlasca- lans, when they attacked him, and then suc- ceeded in winning their friendship. They acted thenceforth as his zealous and faithful allies. Alarmed by the reports of the prowess of the Span- iards, and of the superhuman terrors of the arms which they wielded, Montezuma, the Mexican em- peror, sought to conciliate the Spaniards, and re- ceived Cortez and his troops in the capital. Though they obtained lavish presents, and courteous treat- ment, the treasures which they saw around them in- flamed more and more the cupidity of the invaders. The sight of the idolatrous rites, and especially of the human sacrifices which the Mexicans practised, inflamed their religious bigotry ; the ambition of Cortez thirsted after absolute conquest, and, by a bold stroke of treachery, he seized the person of the Mexican emperor. Cortez, soon after this, received a material increase of strength, from a force which the viceroy of Cuba had sent to depose him and take him prisoner, but which he partly defeated, and partly persuaded to come over to him. But he now found himself plunged into a most desperate war with the native Mexicans, who rose upon the Spaniards, and assaulted them in their fortified quarters in the capital. The Mexicans strove with equal courage, and infinitely prepon- derating numbers, against the superior weapons and discipline of the Europeans, who throughout the straggle were gallantly supported by their Tlascalan confederates. Cortez was now at last obliged to evacuate the city ; and on the night of the 1st July, 1520 (the Noche Triste of the Span- ish historians), Cortez and his shattered force, with difficulty, and severe loss, made good their retreat from Mexico. Encouraged with this suc- COS cess, the Mexicans followed the Spaniards, and fought a pitched battle with them in the open field. In this battle (the battle of Otumba), Cortez gained a complete victory, which was mainly due to his own prowess ; as in the very crisis of the battle, which was turning against the Spaniards, Cortez personally charged the Mexican general, and slew him with hisown hand. After resting and reorganizing his army among the Tlasca- lans, and receiving some reinforcements, Cortez again advanced upon the Mexican capital. Gua- temozin was now emperor of Mexico, and had learnt the inability of his troops to face the Euro- peans in the open field. He remained within the city, which Cortez besieged. The geographical position of the city, and the great numbers of native allies who now served under him, enabled Cortez to establish a strict blockade. Many assaults were made, and met with various fortune. Fire and the sword swept away thousands of the Mexi- cans, but famine was their most fatal foe, and Mexico, on the 13th August, 1521, surrendered, and the whole of its vast empire became subject to the crown of Spain. Cortez disgraced his triumph by putting the brave Guatemozin to a cruel death, an act of which he is said to have afterwards deeply repented. The domestic enemies of the con- queror or Mexico had been busy in their intrigues against him in the Spanish court, and in io28 Cortez returned to Spam to face his accusers. He was coldly received, though with apparent honour; and he could not prevail on Charles V. to continue him in the governorship of Mexico. He returned to America in 1530, a powerful and wealthy noble, but without public authority. He now signalized himself in the arts of peace, in the skilful culture of his ample estate, m the introduction of the •agar cane, and the importation of merino sheep into the province. He made also several brilliant and important voyages of discovery along the Cali- fornian and other coasts of the Pacific. In 1540 he finally returned to Spain, where he was treated by his sovereign with ungracious neglect. Cortez died near Seville, in 1547, in the sixty-third vear of his age. [E.S'.C] CORTICELLI, P. S., a Sp. gram., 1690-1758. CORVISART, J. N., a Fr. phvsic, 1755-1821. CORYATE, Th., an Eng. navigat., 1577-1617. COSIN, John, an Eng. theologian, 1595-1672. COSMAS, an Egyptian monk, who, in the be- ginning of the 6th century, wrote a work on the ' Topography of the Christian World.' Its chief object was to refute the unscriptural and impious doctrine of the earth's sphericity. He argued that it was a plain surrounded by an immense wall, at whose north side there was a great mountain, which concealed the sun every night. His work, however, contains many interesting particulars, especially concerning the East, in which some think he had extensively voyaged ; and hence he is styled fndicqpleustes. [J.B.] COSMO. See Medici. COSSALI, P., an Ital. algebraist, 1748-1815. COSSE-BRISSAC, one of the oldest and moil illustrious houses of France, the most remarkable members of which are — Count Charles, one of the greatest captains of the mid. ages, 1605-1663. Artus De Cosse, marshal under Charles IV, d. 1582. Timoleon, killed at the siege of Mucldan, 177 N COS 1569. Charles, his brother, grand falconer, and statesman under Henry IV., d. 1621. J. 1\ Ti- moleon, marshal, 1C98-1784. L. J. Timo- leon, Due De Cosse, tilled at Robbach, 1757. L. Hercules Timoleon De Cossk-Rbissac, gov. of Paris, b. 1734, com.-gen. of the constitu- tional guard of the king 1791, killed at the mas- sacre of Versailles, 1792 COSTA, F. De Mendoen, a Port, lit., d. 1824. COSTARD, George, an End. astr., 1710-1782. COSTER, J. L., a Dutch printer, 1370-1439. COSTER, Samuel, a Dutch dramatist, 17th c. COSWAY, Richard, an Engl, art., 1731-1821. COTES, Francis, an Engl, artist, d. 1770. COTES, Rog., 1682-1716. Cotes was the friend of Newton, who cherished high admiration for him ; and he wrote that excellent preface still attached to the 'Principia.' He discovered the remarkable property of the circle which passes un- der the name of the Cotesian Theorem; and of which much use has been subsequently made ; and he contributed to several other departments of pure and mixed mathematics. Had Cotes lived he would have been one of the most distinguished scientific men that ever adorned England. COTIN, Chs., a Fr. poet and eccles., 1604-1682. COTTA, J., a Latin poet, died 1611. COTTA, J. F., a German theologian, 1701-1779. COTTA, J. G., Baron De Cottendorf, distin. for his enterprise in newsp. property, 1764-1832. COTTA, L. A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1645-1719. COTTA, Lucius Aurelius, Rom. con., 75 b.c. COTTA, Marcus Aurelius, Rom. con., 74 b.c. COTTIUS, a prince of Cisalpine Gaul in the age of Augustus, from whom the Cottien Alps are named. COTTON, Chs., a burlesque Engl, poet, 17th c. COTTON, Natil, aphys. and poet, 1707-1788. COTTON, P., confessor of Henry IV. and Louis XIII., procured the recall of the Jesuits, 1564-1629. COTTON, Sir R. B., an em. antiq., col. of the library of that name in the Brit. Mus., 1570-1631. COTYS, the name of several ancient kings of Thrace, Cappadocia, and the Cimmerian Bosphorns. COUDRETTE, a Fr. hist, of the Jesuits, d. 1774. COUPLET, Cl. An., a Fr. mechan., 1642-1722. COUPLET, Philip, a Fr. mission., 1628-1692. COURAYER, P. F. Le, a Fr. ecclesiastic, per- secuted for his opinions, d. in London, 1681-1776. COURIER, P. L., a French classical scholar and political writer, bom 1772, assassinated 1825. COURNAND, Ant. De, a Fr. poet, 1747-1814. COURT-DE-GEBELIN, Antil, aFrench min- ister, author of ' Le Monde Primitif,' 1725-1784. COURTILZ-DE-SANDRAS, Gatien De, a Fr. bio., au. of many scandalous disclosures, 1644-1712. COURTIVRON, Mqs. De, a math., 1715-1785. COURTNEY, John, a polit., time of Fox, au. of * Reflections on French Revolution,' &c, d. 1816. COURTNEY, William, abp. of Canterbury and lord chancellor of England, notorious for his per- secution of the Lollards, 1341-1396. COURTOIS, JAMES, a Fr. painter and engraver, celebrated for his battle-pieces, 1621-1676. His brother William, an hist, painter, 1628-1679. COUSIN, Gilbert, a learned Fr. ecclesiastic, persecuted as a heretic, and d. in prison, loOG-lwfJT. COUSIN, J., a Fr. painter and sculp., 1520-1590. COUSIN, Louis, a Fr. historian, 1627-1707. COUSTON, N., a Fr. sculp., 1658-1733. His 17 COV brother William, also a sculp., 1678-1746. The son of William, same name and prof., 1716-1777. COUTHON, Georges, is one of those proble- matical characters in the French revolution upon whom it is difficult to pass judgment, though nothing is easier than to call them hard names, and to hold them up, in general terms, to the exe- cration of mankind. He was born in 1756, and was president of the tribunal at Clermont when the revolution broke out; and though his lower extremities were paralyzed, so that he was com- pelled to speak sitting, he had been remarkable For his eloquence as an advocate. Hia iirst act as a member of the legislative assembly was to pro- cure the abolition of the forms which distinguished the king as sovereign, declaring at the end of his address that ' He would have no other majesty than the Divine majesty and the majesty of the people.' As a member of the convention he voted for the deatli of the king without appeal and without delay. He acted with the party of the Mountain, and was mainly instrumental in the overthrow of the Giron- dins, and on the 2d of June proposed the arrest of the twenty-two deputies, and of the ministers Cla- viere and Lebrun. His conduct on all these occa- sions procured his election to the Comite de Sahtt Public, where he acted with St. Just and Robes- pierre. It was upon his proposition that the con- vention declared the English government to be guilty of ' lese-humanite.' and that Pitt was the enemy of the human race." 1 He was at the taking of Lyons, and devoted many of its fine buildings to destruction, for which purpose he was carried from place to place in a chair, bearing a wooden mallet, with which he struck the unfortunate edi- fice, repeating the formula, ' La loi te frappe.' (the law strikes thee,) after which the work of destruc- tion might be commenced. The charge of cruelty made against him is founded principally on the decree, of which he was the author, for facilitating arrests, and giving new vigour and facility to the revolutionary tribunal, known as the decree of the 22d Prairial; but it is some answer to this, if Robespierre's opinion of his friend is worth any- thing, that when Couthon was proposed to him for a new commission among the disaffected, he answered contemptuouslv, — ' Bah ! he cried like a woman over the punisnment of the rebellious Lyonnese ! ' It is certain that the words of Cou- thon may often be cited against him, as the test, for example, which he gave when the Jacobins were to be purged of all but the ultra democrats, ' What hast thou done to be hanged if counter-re- volution should arrive?' but the question is, what these words really implied under the circumstances, and with what degree of earnestness were they uttered ? Couthon was faithful to Robespierre to the last ; and on the 9th Thermidor endeavoured to kill himself with a poignard, but wanted nerve, and was carried bleeding to the guillotine. His features were mild and pleasing, and his expression remarkable for good-nature. [E.R.] COUTO, Diego De, a Portug. hist,, 1542-1616. COUTTS, Thos., a dist. Lon. banker, d. 1821. COVELL, J., D.D., au. of a work on the Greek Ch.; chapl. to the Eng. embassy in Turkey, d. 1722. COVENTRY, A., an Engl, phys., 1766-1831. COVENTRY, H., a man of letters, d. 1752. COVENTRY, J., an Engl, median., 1735-1812. GOV COVERD ALE, Miles, well kn.ns one of the first Bng. reformers, and transl. of the Bible, 1499-1580. COVERTE, R., an Engl, navigitor, 17th cent, COVILHAM, Pedro De, a Port, travel., thirty- three years resident in Abyssinia, 16th century. COWARD, Wm., an English physician and psy- chologist, commencement of the last century. COWLEY, Abraham, regarded by Dr. Johnson as the chief of metaph. poets, and equally eel. as a naturalist, b. in London 1618, buried in Westmin. Abbey by the side of Chaucer and Spenser, 1667. COWLEY, Hannah, a dram, wr., 1743-1809. COWLEY, Henry Wellesly, Lord, b. 1773, m India with his brother Lord Wellesly 1797, amb. to Vienna 1823-1831, to Paris 1841, died 1847. COWPER, Wm., a Scotch prelate, 1566-1619. COWPER, Wm., an Engl, anatom., 1666-1709. COWPER, Wm., Earl, a disting. lawyer and statesman, reign of Queen Anne, d. 1723. COWPER, William, was the grand-nephew of the Lord Chancellor Cowper, and grandson of a judge in the Court of Common Pleas. His father was rector of Great Berkhamstead in Hertford- shire^ and there the poet was born in 1731. After having spent two years of misery in a country school, he was placed at Westminster School, where he remained, comfortable and lively, till he was eighteen years old. He was then articled to a solicitor in London, was called to the bar in 1754, and resided in the Middle Temple for eleven years, neglecting law, contributing a few papers to ' The Connoisseur,' and gradually exhausting his little patrimony. In 1763 one of his powerful kinsmen appointed him to two clerk- ships in the House of Lords. Doubts of his com- petency, and the fear of appearance in public as- semblies, developed the tendency to insanity which lurked within him. He made several attempts to destroy himself; and was consigned for eighteen months to a lunatic asylum at St. Albans. On his release in 1765, subsisting on the remnant of his property, with assistance from relatives, he took up his residence at Huntingdon, and became a boarder in the house of Mr. Unwin, a clergyman. That gentleman dying two years afterwards, the widow and Cowper removed to Olney in Bucking- hamshire. John Newton was curate of the place ; and his religious views accorded with those which had been adopted by the poet. In 1776 appeared the ' Olney Hymns,' of which some of the best were furnished by Cowper ; but it was only about the time of their publication that the unhappy Eoet was freed from a second confinement, which ad lasted for nearly four years. — Mrs. Unwin, anxious to engage his mind safely, urged him to prosecute verse-making. 'The Progress of Error' was written ; ' Truth,' ' Table-Talk, and • Expos- tulation,' followed it ; and these with other poems made up a volume, which was published in 1782, receiving the approbation of Johnson and other critics, but meeting little attention from the pub- lic. The poet's fame, however, was decisively established by his next volume, which, appearing in 1785, contained • The Task ' and other poems. The publication of ' The Task,' indeed, was an era in the history of English poetry. It was the point of transition from the eighteenth century to the nineteenth. Natural language was substituted for artificial; themes of universal interest were 17 CRA handled, instead of such as told only on a few cul- tivated minds ; even the seriousness and solemnity of the leading tone had a striking attraction, while it was relieved both by strains of pathos and_ touches of satiric humour. More novel and original than anything else were those minute and faithful delineations of external scenery, to which no parallel had been seen since the 'Seasons.' Perhaps, also, the didactic form of Cowper's poems, giving them an equivocal character which hovers continually between poetry and argumen- tation, was an additional recommendation to readers who had long been unaccustomed to the finer and higher kinds of poetical invention. — Cowper now spent six years on his translation of Homer, which appeared in 1791. The neglect which it has experienced is certainly undeserved, at least by his ' Odyssey.' His mental alienation, which had repeatedly threatened him with a return, overcame him ^ completely in 1794; and the last six years of his life produced hardly any literarv fruits except the pathetic ' Castaway.' The death of his dear friend Mrs. Unwin, in 1796, threw him into a gloom which was hardly ever again dispel- led, and he died in 1800. [W.S.] COX, Richard, an Irish historian, 1650-1733. COX, Richard, bishop of Ely in the reign of Elizabeth, a controversial wr., 1499-1531. COXE, Wm., an English historian, 1747-1828. COXETER, Th., a miscell. writer, 1689-1747. COYPEL, Noel, a Fr. hist, painter, 1638-1707. Anthony, son and pupil of Noel, 1661-1722. Cii. Antony, son of the latter, 1694-1752. Noel Nicholas, a younger son of Noel, and br. of An- thony, 1692-1734. COYSEVOX, Antil, a Fr. sculp., 1640-1720. COYTHIER, James, physician to Louis XL COZENS, Alex., a Russian painter, d. 1786. COZZA, F., a Spanish painter, 1605-1682. COZZANDO, Leo, an Ital. histor., 1620-1702. [Birth-place of Crahbe.J CRABBE, George, a poet whose truth to na- ture and strength of homely pathos atone for de- ficiency in ideal elevation, was born in 1754, at Aldborough in Suffolk, where his father was col- lector of salt duties. He went through an appren- ticeship to a surgeon, and for a short while at- tempted practice ; but, always attached to letters rather than business, he had little success, and came to London in 1780 to seek his fortune. When the 9 CRA failure of his first poem, 'The Candidate,' had reduced him to great distress, and when no atten- tion had heen paid to Ins appeals to distinguished persons locally connected With his birth-place, he boldly laid his case before Edmund Burke, This great* man read his manuscripts, received him into his house at LVaconsfield, and introduced him to his friends ; and the poem of ' The Library,' pub- lished on bis recommendation, was received with great applause. His reputation was increased by « The Village,' which appeared in 1783 ; and the publication of ' The Newspaper ' in 1785, closed the first series of his works. In the meantime, orders having been obtained for him, he became chaplain to the duke of Rutland, married happily, and received in succession several moderate pre- ferments. In 1807 he published ' The Parish Re- gister,' to which were added ' Sir Eustace Grey,' and other small poems ; and ' The Borough,' the ious and energetic of his works, made its aip : ranee in 1810. iii 1813, soon after the death ot his wife, he was presented to the living of Trowbridge in Wiltshire, where he spent the re- mainder of his quiet and honourable life. His ' Tales of the Hall ' were published in 1819. His death took place in 1832. [W.S.] CRABBE, Geo., A.M., au. of a • Diet, of Syno- nyms,' and other works, d. Dec 4, 1851, aged 72. CRABETH, F., a Flemish painter, 16th cent. CRADDOCK, S., a nonconformist divine, au- thor of works on practical religion, b. 1620. His brother Zachary, author of sermons, 1683*1695. CRADDOCKE, Luke, an Eng. painter, d. 1717. CRAIG, John, a Scotch mathem., 17th cent. CRAIG, N., a savant of Denmark, 1549-1602. CRAIG, Sir Th., a Scotch lawyer, 1548-1608. CRAIG, Wm., a Scotch barrister and fugitive writer, succ. Lord Hailes as judge, 1745-1813. CRAMER, C G., a Ger. novelist, 1758-1817. CRAMER, Fr., a Ger. musician, 1772-1848. CRAMER, G., a Swiss geometrician, 1704-1752. CRAMER, J. A., a Ger. mis. writer, 1723-88. CRAMER, J. A., a Ger. mineralogist, 1710-77. CRAMER, J. A., dean of Carlisle, celebrated as an antiquarian writer on classical subjects; born in Switzerland 1793, died 1848. CRAMOISY, S., a French printer, 17th cent. CRANACH, Lucas, a Ger. painter, 1472-1553. CRANMER, Thomas, was born at Aslacton in the county of Nottingham on the 2d July, 1489. He entered Jesus College in 1503, became a fellow in 1510-11, and a doctor of divinity in 1523. His opinions on the first marriage of Henry VIII. with his brother's widow introduced him to the king. The favourite's multifarious efforts were in vain to procure a divorce from the papal authorities, but l ard for his services, though lie had been twice married, he was raised by royal favour to the mterbury. On 23d May, 1533, the arch- bishop declared the king's marriage to be null and void, and five d Married Henry to Anna Boleyn. 'Cranmer now became occupied with more meritorious work, the translation of the Bible, and the great work of the English reforma- tion. Al one of the council of regency to Edward VL, and a liturgy, homilies, and articles were composed under royaf patronage, arch died, and Mary at length the Cranmer, who had been drawn CRI into the plot on behalf of the Lady Jane, was sum- moned before the council, then committed to the Tower, and finally sent to the prison of Bocardo at Oxford. He was at length, by Pope Paul IV., declared guilty of heresy, &c. On the 20th of March, the night before his martyrdom, he was entrapped into a written recantation. On the next day, in St. Mary's church, he solemnly de- clared 'that his hand had offended in writing con- trary to his heart.' 'My hand,' said he, 'shall first be punished. For if I may come to the fire, it shall first be burned.' When he was brought to the stake, erected opposite Baliol College, he ful- filled this resolution with a marvellous and unex- pected intrepidity, still earring 'this unworthy hand ! ' But there was a sad infirmity in Cranmer's nature, and his great faults were an apparent vacil- lation and a want of decision and firmness. Yet he was honoured to do a great work in his time. ' He was at once,' says Macaulay, 'a divine and a courtier,' and the attempted combination of the two characters created those inconsistencies which soiled the purity of his life, and detracted from the merit of his actions. [J.E.] CRASHAW, Richard, an Engl, poet, d. 1650. CRASSO, Laurence, a Neap, hist., d. 168a CRASSUS, Lucius L., a Ro. orator, 150-87 B.C. CRASSUS, M. L., a Rom. triumvir, k. 53 u.c. CRATES, a philos. of Thebes, 4th cent. B.C. CRATINUS, a Greek poet, 528-431 b.c. CRATO DE CRAFTHEIM, a physician and literary savant of Germany, 1519-1585. CRAUFURD, Quentin, a Sco. wr., 1743-1819. CRAWFORD, Adair, an English physician and naturalist, 1749-1795. CRAWFORD, David, a Scotch hist., d. 1726. CRAYER, G. De, a Flem. painter, 1582-1669. CREBILLON, Prosper Jolyot De, a French tragic poet, held in the highest respect by his coun- trymen, 1674-1762. His son, Claude Prosper, a novelist, of no great repute, 1707-1777. CREIGHTON, R., D.D., an English composer, au. of ' I will arise and go to my Father,' d. 1736. CRELLIUS, J., a Ger. musician, 1590-1633. CREMILLES, L. H. Boyer De, a French officer, in the army of Flanders, 1700-1768. CRESCENZI, J. B., an It. artist, 1595-1660. CRESCENZI, Pietro, a wr. on agric, regarded as the restorer of the science in Europe, h. 1230. CRESCIMBENI, J. M., an Ital. poet, 1663-1728. CRESTIN, J., a religious prot. writer, d. 1572. CRESSEY, H. P., a Rom. Cath. wr., d. 1674. CRESLIN, the pseudonym of William Du Bois, a French poet and chronicler, d. 1525. CRETI, Donato, a pain, of Bologna, 1671-1749. CREUTZ, Gustav. Ph. Count De, a Swed. diplom. and man of letters, chanc. of Upsalal726-85. CREUZE-LA-TOUCHE, J. Ant., a Fr. econ- omist, dep. to the assem. and conv., &c, 1749-1800. CREVTER, J. B. L., a French hist., 1693-1765. CRICHTON, James, a gentleman of Scotland, surnamed the ' Admirable' on account of his sur- passing abilities and acquirements, 1560-1583. CRIGHTON, R., bp. of Bath and Wells, d. 1672. CRILLON, the name of sev. illust. Frenchmen of Ital. descent. 1. Louis Die Balbe De Berton De Crillon, one of the most hon. and valiant captains of the 16th cent., 1541-1616. 2. Lons Dk Berton De Balbe De Quiers Due De 180 CRI Crillon-Mahon, dist. in the wars of Louis XV., 1718-1796. 3. Louis Athanasius, brother of the last, an em. div. and phil., d. 1789. 4. Fel. Doe. De Bekton De Balbe Due De Crillon, an officer in the Spanish service, deputy to the states-general, and peer of France, 1748-1820. CRISP, Tobias, a famous Antinomian, d. 1642. CRISPUS, Flavius Julius, a son of Constan- tine the Great, put to death by his orders, 336. CRITO, a disciple and fr. of Socrates, d. 380 B.C. CRITO, a Greek sculptor, 1st or 2d cent, b c. CROESE, Gerard, a Dutch savant, 1642-1710. CROESUS, the last king of Lydia, renowned for his immense Avealth, reigned 557-545 B.C. CROFT, H., bp. of Hereford, author of sermons and religious tracts, &c, 1603-1691. CROFT, Sir H., a biographer, &c, d. 1816. CROFT, Sir R., the sue. of the preceding in the baronetcy, surgeon accoucheur to the Princess Charlotte, whose death occas. his suicide, 1817. CROFT, W., a coinp. of sacred music, 1677-1727. CROI, John De, a French protes. wr., d. 1659. CROIX-DU-MAINE, F. G. De La, a French savant and bibliopole, 16th century. CROIX, Fr. Petis De La, an Orient, scholar, 1653-1713. His son, Alex. Louis Marie, d. 1751. CROIX, St. L. De La, a mystic of old Castile, author of ' The Night of the Soul,' 1542-1591. CROKE, Sir A., a miscell. writer, 1800-1842. CROKE, Dr. R., a Gr. schol. and phil., d. 1558. CROMER, M., a Polish historian, 1512-1589. [Mask of Cromwe'.l, taken after death.] CROMWELL, Oliver, the Protector, was born in the town of Huntingdon, on the 25th of April, 1599. His father was Robert Cromwell, a cadet, of a family possessed of a baronetcy, and his mother being a daughter of Sir Richard Stewart, efforts have often been made to show that he was connected with the royal family. He spent a dis- solute and extravagant youth, interrupted by seri- ous misgivings, which brought him at last to stern self-condemnation. When twenty-one years old he married Elizabeth, the daughter of Sir Thomas Bourchier, and thus, both by descent and alliance, he was a member of the higher country gentleman class, or of the nobility as it would be termed in other European countries. In that age, however, refinement was only kept up by attendance in court, and Cromwell, who lived away from town and followed country pursuits, became a man of CRO clownish deportment. Though he had been elected to the brief parliament of 1628, it was not till 1640 that he was known in the House of Com- mons, and Sir Philip Warwick, who observed his rise, has left a curious notice of his personal ap- pearance. His apparel, he said, was very ordi- nary, ' for it was a plain cloth suit, which seemed to have been made by an ill country tailor. His linen was plain, and not very clean, and I remem- ber a speck or two of blood upon his little band, which was not much larger than his collar. His hat was without a hat-band. His stature was of good size ; his sword stuck close to his side ; his countenance swollen and reddish, his voice sharp and untunable, and his eloquence full of fervour.' He had been for some years establishing an influ- ence with the puritan party, who frequented his house and bowed to his strong judgment. He showed his great business capacities in the struggle of the long parliament, but it was not until the parliament raised a military force, to which he brought a troop of horse, that his powers of or- ganization and command were fully developed. He speedily rose to authority as lieutenant-general of the horse, and when he was specially exempted from the self-denying ordinance, so that he could both deliberate in parliament and hold command, he became the most powerful man in the country. He showed his eminent sagacity in reconstructing the army, and infusing into it high spirit along with stern discipline. At the battle of Naseby in 1645 it was seen in the signal destruction brought on the well-officered royal army, how effectively he could strike with the weapon he had con- structed. His military policy throughout was to despise secondary means and ends, Dut to invest himself with overwhelming power and crush his enemy. He saw the large share which artillery must bear in warfare, and anticipated modem generals in fostering that destructive arm. His re- fieated victories over the royalists, his estab- ishment of the predominance of the army over parliament, and of the independents over the presbyterians, his relentless exertions to bring Charles I. to the block, and his dismissal of the parliament, are all great events in the history of the day, which cannot be narrated with sufficient distinctness without much detail. In 1649 he conducted an exterminating war in Ireland, insti- gated by the ferocious principle that whatever hu- man being opposed him should be put to death. In Scotland, where he saw there were more suit- able materials for the sort of government he de- sired, he was rather a pacificator than an oppres- sor. It was on the 16th of December, 1653, that he took the title of Lord Protector, and became virtually king of Britain, and a king who sub- mitted to very little constitutional restraint. How far he was sincere in the religious convictions by which he professed to be led, has been matter of endless debate, and as a secret buried with him who alone possessed it, it may occupy controversy to the end of time. That he was under powerful religious impulses cannot be doubted — the ques- tion arises as to the extent to which he really be- lieved that by their power alone, and by no promptings of worldliness, he was driven on in his ambitious career. He was an enlightened internal reformer, and established many ministerial improve- 181 CRO ments which subsequent governments were com- pelled unwillingly to follow. His latter days were spent in anxiety and depression, if not remorse, and he died on 3d September, 1659. [J.H.B.] CROMWELL, Thos., a statesman and adhrnt. of Wolsev, andafterw. of Henry VIII., beheaded 1540. CRONSTED, A. F., a Swed. miner., 1722-176*5. CROSS, M., an English painter, time of Ch. I. CROWE, Wm, an English poet, 1756-1829. CROWNE, John, a dramatic writer and poet, of the reign of Charles II., by birth an American. CROXALL, S., a Whig wr. and divine, d. 1752. CRUDELI, Til, a poet of Tuscany, 1703-1745. CRUDEN, Alex., au. of the well-kn. 'Concor- dance,' by profession a classical teacher and book- seller, a native of Aberdeen, 1701-1770. CRUIKSHANK, W., an Eng. anat., 1746-1800. CRUSIUS, Chr., a German phil., 1712-1775. CRUSIUS, M., a German schol., 1526-1607. CRUSIUS, T. L., a Saxon engrav., 1730-1769. CRYM-GUERAI, khan of Tartary, 1758-1770. CUBA, J., a German botanist, 15th century. CUBERO, P., a Spanish miss., 17th century. CUDWORTH, Ralph, principal of Christ Col- lege, Cambridge ; a philosopner of considerable emi- nence, and prodigious learning. Born in Somer- set in 1617, died in 1688. Cudworth's life was an unceasing protest against Hobbes ; and the theme he proposed to himself was, very suitably, a defence of Human Liberty. He recognized three kinds of Fatalism — equally destructive of responsibility, and of the foundations of Morals : first, Fatalism purely materialistic, suppressing, with the notion of human Liberty, the idea of God, and the reality of spiritual existences — explaining all phenomena, mental and physical, by concourses of atoms: second, that theological Fatalism, common enough in all ages, which resolves good and evil, justice and injustice, into the simple and arbitrary will of God : third, the fatalism of the Stoics, which con- founds Providence with the laws of Necessity, — re- garding everything as inflexibly pre-ordained. Cud- worth's protest against the first description of Fa- talism, or his refutation of materialistic Atheism, occupies his ponderous ' Intellectual System of the Universe ;' and his effort to rescue the foundations of Right and Wrong from arbitrariness, constitutes the 'Immutable Morality.' He did not live to complete his task by a similar attack on the Stoi- cal, or ultra-Calvinistic form of hostility to human spontaneity. The ' Intellectual System ' especially, is a very storehouse of information concerning cos- mogonic speculation; nor will the reader fail to detect throughout, marks of independent, and even original thought. It contains, for instance, the germ of the modifications afterwards proposed by Leibnitz, on the argument of Des Cartes, for the being of a God. (See article Des Cartes.) The fault of all the writings of Cudworth, is their too much learning ; his positions are overlaid. His works were at first published in folio : an edition of the 'Intellectual System' in 4 vols. 8vo, lias been recently edited by Birch. — Cudworth merits a high place in that class of English divines in which we find the names of Gale, Thomas Burnet, and Henrv More. [J.P.N.] CUFAELER, Abr., a Ger. phil., 17th century. CUFF, Hen., an Eng. schol., execut. for alleged complicity in the treason of the earl of Essex, 1001. CUM CULLEN, William, M.D., 1712-1790, was one of the most remarkable physicians which our country has produced, and took a principal share in elevating the mere art of the practitioner into a science. He was born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, where his father was chief magistrate. Serving an apprenticeship with a surgeon in Glasgow, after the manner of Roderick" Random, voung Cullen made several voyages to the West Indies as surgeon in a London trader; but tiring of the monotony of such employment, he settled as a country practitioner at Shotts, in his native county. There he made the acquaintance, and entered into partnership with Dr. William Hunter, who afterwards became so distinguished in Lon- don, and here he likewise drew towards him the attention of the duke of Hamilton, to whom he was indebted for being placed in a position which enabled him to exhibit his natural powers. By the terms of agreement between Cullen and Hun- ter, it was stipulated that each alternately should be allowed to study during the winter session at some college; Cullen chose Edinburgh, and Hun- ter London ; an arrangement which soon termi- nated their association, as the latter, having obtained employment from Dr. Douglas, never returned. Cullen, who had graduated, was appointed lecturer on chemistry in the university of Glasgow, in 1746, and was afterwards placed in the chair of medicine. But, if we are not mistaken, he also occasionally lectured on chemistry, as we have seen a letter from him to the faculty of the college offering to lecture on chemistry if £30 were given to pay the expenses of the course, and ill-advised parsimony was not the characteristic of that learned body, and Dr. Cullen, on his removal thither, first occupied the chair of chemistry, and subsequently that of medicine. His views of medicine, his enthusiastic love of his profession, his kindness of heart, and his remarkable talents, soon gave an impetus to the scientific study of medicine, which is still felt at the present day. His students not merely respected him as a man of science, but they loved him as one who saw into their hearts, and who, sympathizing with their defects, smoothed their path of study. The im- portant works of Cullen were his ' Nosology,' and his work on medicine, both of which are cha- racterized by admirable arrangement, careful selec- tion, and well-considered deduction — truly won- derful when we consider the limited field of the medical sciences when Cullen wrote. [R.D.T.] CULLUM, Sir J., an Engl, antiq., 1733-1785. CULPEPER, Sir T., a miscel. writer, 17th ct. CULPEPPER, Nicil, an apothecary and astrol- oger, au. of the well-known 'Herbal,' 1616-1654. CUMANUS, governor of Judaea, mid. of 1st ct. CUMBERLAND, the name of an Engl, duke- dom, reserved for the younger members of the royal family. The most noted of this title is WILLIAM Augustus, son of George II., eel. as commander at the victory of Culloden, 1721-17('5. CUMBERLAND. Richard, an Engl, prelate of great learning, au. of ' De Legibus Natura?,' written in opposition to Hobbes, to prove that there is a natural code of morals, 1632-1718. CI MBERLAND, Richard, was the great- grandson of Bishop Cumberland, the author of the treatise ' De Legibus Naturaj.' Ilis mother was a 182 CUN daughter of the celebrated Richard Bentley, and the heroine of Broom's pretty pastoral, • My time, O ye Muses.' His father, a respectable English clergyman, was, for some years before his death, an Irish bishop. Richard Cumberland was born in his grandfather's house at Cambridge in 1732. He was educated at that university, took his de- gree as tenth wrangler, and held for some years one of the two lay fellowships of Trinity College. His family withdrew him from his clerical studies to become private secretary to Lord Halifax, then at the head of the board of trade ; and after hav- ing spent a long time in official duties, he was appointed secretary to the board, and held that place till the abolition of the board in 1782, when lie retired on a pension. In 1780 he was sent on a confidential mission to the court of Madrid, where he spent about a year ; but the negotiations having failed, and Cumberland's expenditure hav- ing much exceeded the scanty advance made to him by the ministry on his departure, he was left, apparently with much injustice, to bear a loss of four or five thousand pounds, which exhausted al- most wholly his slender patrimony. — During his official life he had written many occasional and other pieces, and had given to the stage more than one successful comedy. Soon after his return from Spain he settled at Tunbridge Wells, where he resided for many years afterwards, occupied wholly with literary pursuits, and writing with indefatigable industry. He died in 1811. He was an honourable and amiable man: but his liter- ary vanity was excessive; and his irritable sus- ceptibility to criticism, which made Garrick call him 'the man without a skin,' exposed him to being unmercifully caricatured by Sheridan in the character of Sir Fretful Plagiary. — There is hardly any kind of composition, whether in prose or in verse, that Cumberland did not attempt. But most of his efforts were of little value ; and in the best of them he was hardly more than fluent and agreeable. His epic poem of ' Calvary ' was an utter failure. His series of periodical essays, called ' The Observer,' has much merit in an easy kind of criticism: the best papers are those on the Greek dramatists, the erudition of which he avowed having gleaned from Bentley's papers, but which he embellished by spirited metrical translations of his own. His dramatic pieces, em- bracing everything from tragedy to opera and farce, amounted to more than fifty, of which the larger number were printed. Among them were several comedies that are still remembered : — ' The Brothers,' 'The West Indian,' 'The Jew,' and * The Wheel of Fortune.' [W.S.] CUNIBERT, a Lombard king, 687-700. CUNINGHAM, E. F., a Sc. painter, 1742-93. CUNINGHAM, W., a phys. and astron., 16th c. CUNNINGHAM, Alex., a Sc. hist., 1654-1737. CUNNINGHAM, Allan, a popular novelist and biograph. wr., au. of a well-known memoir of Burns, several lyrical poems and ballads, the novel of ' Paul Jones,' ' The Lives of British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects,' &c, born in Dumfries- shire 1786, died in London two davs after complet- ing the biography of his friend Sir D. Wilkie, 1842. CUNNINGHAM, J., an Irish playwght, d. 1773. CUNO, J. C, a Ger. poet and bot, 1708-1780. CUPANI, F., a Sicilian botanist, 1657-1711. CUV CURIO, Caius, a Rom. tribune, killed 47 B.C. CURIUS-DENTATUS, Maritis, an illustrious Roman general, three times consul, 3d cent. B.C. CURRAN, John Philpot, an Irish barrister and patriot, celebrated for his eloquence, wit, and sarcasm, was born of humble parents in the neigh- bourhood of Cork, 1750. He studied at one of the Inns in London and was called to the bar in 1775, and in about ten years afterwards took his seat in the Irish House of Commons as member for Doneraile. In 1794 he acquired immense popula- rity by his defence of Rowan, and for many years at this epoch displayed his brilliant oratory in par- liament. From 1806 to 1814 he held the office of master of the rolls, on resigning which he removed to London, where he died 1817. CURRIE, Jas., an em. Scotch phys. and med. wr., editor and biog. of Burns in 1800, 1756-1805. CURTI, Jerome, an Ital. painter, 1603-1693. CURTIS, W., an English botanist, 1746-1799. CURTIS, Sir Wm., Bart., a well-kn. alderman and representative of the city of London, d. 1829. CURTIUS, Marcus, a Rom.- patriot, 4th c. B.C. CURTIUS, M. C, a German hist., 1724-1802. CURTZ, A., a German astronomer, 1600-71. CUSA, Nicholas De, properly Nicholas Crebs, a dist. astron. and theologian, cardinal legate to Constantinople, author of a refutation of the Koran, first restorer of the Pythagorean doc. of the earth's motion round the sun, &c, 1401-64. CUSH, the eldest son of Ham, Gen. x. 8, under- stood to be the father of the Ethiopians. CUSPINIEN, J., a Ger. historian, 1473-1529. CUSSON, Peter, a Fr. botanist, 1727-1783. CUSTINE, Adam Philippe, Count De, a gen. in the army of the Fr. republic, exec. 1793. CUSTIS, C. F., a Flem. historian, 1704-1752. CUTHBERT, St., first bishop of Northumber- land, fndr. of the monastery of Lindisfarne, d. 686. CUTLER, Sir J., a royalist of London, d. 1699. CUTTS, John, a brave English officer, created Baron Cutts of Gowran by Wm. III., known as a poetical writer and friend of Steele, died 1707. OUVIER, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, one of the greatest natu- ralists the world has produced, was born at Mont- beliard in 1769. He died in 1832. After finishing his education at Stuttgard, the young Cuvier ac- cepted the situation of tutor in a protestant family in Normandy. Living for some years in that part of France, part of the time on the sea coast, he was enabled to follow up the love for natural his- tory which he had exhibited from his earliest years. The Abbe Tessier, whom the troubles of the times had driven into exile from the capital, intro- duced him by letter to MM. Jussieu and Geoffroy. Several memoirs written about that time and transmitted to the latter, established his reputa- tion, and procured his admission to two or three of the learned societies in Paris. In 1799 he was appointed successor to Dauhenton as professor of natural history at the college of France, and in 1802 he succeeded Mertrud in the chair of com- parative anatomy at the Garden of Plants. From that time he devoted himself steadily to the studies which have immortalized his name. His ' Lecons d'Anatomie Comparee,' and the ' Regne Animal,' in which the whole animal kingdom is arranged according to the organization of the beings of 183 CUV which it consists, have raised him to the pinnacle of scientific fame, and established him as perhaps the first naturalist in the world after Linmvus. His numerous memoirs and works upon these sub- [Statue of Cuvier] jects show a master mind in the study of zoology ; and extending the principles laid down in his comparative anatomy to the study of paleontology, he has been enabled to render immense service to geology. Starting from the law that there is a correlation of forms in organized beings — that all the parts of each individual have mutual relations with each other, tending to produce one end, that of the existence of the being — that each living being has in its nature its own proper functions, and ought therefore to have forms appropriated for that func- tion ; and that consequently the analogous parts of all animals have received modifications of form which enable them to be recognized, he was able to ascer- tain from the inspection of a single fossil bone, not only the family to which it ought to belong, but the genus to which it must be referred. Even the very species of animal was thus to be made out, and the restoration of its external form as it might have lived and died, became in his hands an object of certainty and precision. His ' Regne Animal ' has been frequently translated, and forms the basis of all arrangements followed at the pre- sent time. Cuvier filled many offices of great im- portance in the state, particularly connected with educational institutions. Napoleon treated him with much consideration, Louis XVIII. and Charles X. advanced him to honour, and Louis Philippe raised him to the rank of a peer of the realm. [W.B.] CUYP, Albert, a Dutch painter, 17th cent. CUYP, J. G., a Dutch painter, 1578-1649. CYAXARES, k. of Med. and Persia, 634-594 b.c. CYBO, Aaron, viceroy of Naples, 1377-1457. CYPRIAN, Thascius Cva u.ns, Saint, one of the principal fathers of the Latin church, born at Carthage commencement of the 3d century, electd bp. of Carthage 248, suft'rd. martyrdom 258. CYBENIUS, Rom. gov. of Syria soon after the birth of our Lord, andprev. censor or procurator. CYRIAC, St., patriarch of Constnplc., 595-606. CYRIL. There are three saints of this name— CYR the first, a father of the Greek church, patriarch o Jerusalem, 315-386 ; thesecond, patr. of Alexandria and au. of works agst. the Nestonans and other one mies of the faith, 5th ct. ; the third, called the apostifi of the Slavi, the converter of the Chasars, 9th ct. C YRIL-LUCAR, patr. of Constnple., 1572-1638 CYRUS I., or the ELDER, the founder of th« Persian empire, was the grandson of Astragal the last king of Media. Even in the time of Hem dotus the story of Cyrus was so much mixed uj with fable that it was impossible to scparatf truth from fiction. Astyages had a daughtei named Mandane ; and, in consequence of a drean which portended that her offspring should be tht master of Asia, he married her to Cambyses, a Persian of good family, but of a quiet and unam- bitious temper. On the birth of Cyrus, Astyages ordered the infant to be exposed, and intrusted the execution of his cruel order to Harpagus, one of his most faithful attendants. But the herds- man in whose hands the infant was placed foi destruction was induced by the entreaties of his wife to rear it as his own son, under the name oi Agradates. As is usual in such fabulous narra- tives, the royal youth gave evidence of his descent by superior talents and noble bearing ; and being brought before his grandfather at the age of ten to answer for his severe treatment of the son of a noble Median at play, was discovered by the king to be the son of his daughter. The circumstances of his preservation were then stated, and the boy was sent to his real parents. Astyages forgave the herdsman, but wreaked his vengeance on Harpagus, by murdering his son, and causing his mangled limbs to be served up to his father at a banquet. Harpagus submitted quietly to his fate; but thenceforward meditating revenge, he suc- ceeded not long after in organizing a conspiracy against Astyages, and easily prevailed upon Cyrus [ToiubotCytiw.] to become the leader. Cyrus induced the Per- sians to join in the revolt ; and, after defeating Astyages, took possession of his throne B.C. 559. Crcesus, the rich king of Lydia, and brother-in- law of Astyages, was the nrst to endeavour to check the usurper, but Cyrus anticipated his design, and took possession of his capital in B.C. 546. The extensive dominions of Crcesus, along with the whole of Upper Asia, soon came under 184 CYR his sway. The most noted event connected with the acquisition of this vast country was the taking of Babylon, the capital of Assyria, of which Labynetus, the Belshazzar of Daniel, was king. Cyrus entered the city by diverting the course of the Euphrates, and introducing his army along the dry bed of the river B.C. 538. Cyrus next di- rected his efforts against the Massageta?, a nation of Northern Asia, and offered to marry Tomyris, their queen, who was then a widow. His suit "was rejected; and in a battle which ensued he was defeated and slain in B.C. 529, after a reign of twenty-nine years. Such is the narrative of Herodotus. The Cyropsedia of Xenophon is an historical romance. The life of Cyrus is of great importance, as being the epoch which forms the chronological link between sacred and profane history. [G.F.] CYRUS II., or the Younger, was the second son of Darius Nothus, king of Persia, and was appointed by his father satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia, in Asia Minor, in B.C. 407. On the death of his father, B.C. 404, and the accession of his elder brother Artaxerxes, Cyrus disputed the right of succession, founding his claim on the fact that he was the first-born after his father ascended the throne. For this act of treason he was condemned to death ; but his life was pre- served through the intercession of his mother, Parysatis, whose favourite son he was, and who had secretly encouraged him in his attempt on the sovereignty. On returning to his province he continued to cherish his ambitious views, and immediately began to make preparations for the execution of his design. By various means he DAI succeeded in quieting the suspicions of his brother, while he endeavoured to bribe the Persians who passed between himself and the court, and raised a body of 13,000 Greeks, on whose assistance he chiefly rested his hopes of success. In the spring of B.C. 401, Cyrus set out from Sardis, and, marching through Asia Minor and Syria, reached the plain of Cunaxa, 500 stadia from Babylon. Here he found Artaxerxes ready to oppose him with an immense army. In the battle which took place, the Greek troops routed the Asiatics who were opposed to them ; and Cyrus, rushing into the centre to attack his brother, was slain. The king caused his head and hands to be cut off, and wished it to be believed that he had fallen by his hand. The retreat of the Greeks, as described by Xenophon, who was himself present, forms one of the most interesting chapters in the history of ancient warfare. [G-F. J CYRUS, Flavius, prefect of Constantinople under Theodosius II., afterwards a bishop, 5th c. CZACKI, Thaddeus, a Russian statesman, disting. as a benefactor of Poland, 1765-1813. CZARNIECKI, Stephen, a Polish general, defended Cracow agst. Gustav. Adolph., 1599-1664. CZERNI-GEORGE, the surname of George Petrovitz, a native of Servia, who maintained a long struggle for his country's independence, and was acknowledged by the Porte as prince of Servia in 1806. Being deprived in the year following of a part of his possessions, he took up arms again, and retired to Russia in 1813. In 1817, having returned to Turkev, he was captured and executed. CZERWIACOYYSKI, a Pohsh anatomist, died 1816. D DABELOW, Chr. Christian, Baron De, a German jurisconsult, author of a ' Commentary on the Code Napoleon,' &c, 1768-1830. DABENTONE, Jeanne, a reputed prophetess, burned at Paris in the reign of Charles v., 1372. DACIA, P. De, a Danish astronomer, 14th ct. DACIANO, J., an Italian physician, 1520-1576. DACIER, Andrew, a classical com. and trans., 1651-1722. His wife, Anne Lefevre Dacier, eel. for her translations from the Greek, 1651-1720. DACIER, J. B., a French translator, 1742-1833. DAEDALUS, a Ger. inven. and arch., 10th c. B.C. DAEHNERT, J. C, a Swed. savant, 1719-1785. DAENDELS, H. G., a Dutch gen. in the French republican army, promoter of the revol. in Batavia, and gov. -general of the Dutch Indies, 1762-1818. DAGOBERT. The Frank kings of this name are — Dagobert I., successor of his father Clo- thaire, 628, d. 638. Dagobert II., successor of Childeric, reigned 674-678. Dagobert III., successor of his father Childebert, 711-715. DAGOBERT, L. A., a Fr. tactician, 1740-1794. DAGUERRE, L. J. M.> an eminent French painter, celebrated for his discovery of the photo- graphic process called 'daguerreotype,' and also lor the improvements he introduced in panoramic painting, 1789-1851. DAGUES-DE-CLAIRFONTAINE, Sim. And. Ciis., a Fr. agri. author and compiler, 1726-1797. D'AGUESSEAU, H. F. See Aguesseau. DAHLBERG, Eric, Count, a Swedish marshal, antiquarian author, and designer, 1625-1703. DAIGNAN, Wm., a Fr. med. wr., 1732-1812. DAILLE, Jean, minister of the French Re- formed church at Charenton, a.d. 1639, and ono of the most eloquent preachers of his age. His published works amply justify the high celebrity he enjoyed. He combined the acute argumen- tative powers of a logician with the exercise of a lively imagination, that enabled him to draw illustrations of his subject from every field of nature ; and to these intellectual qualities he added a fervour and pathos that stirred the depths of the human soul. His discourses are characterized by a heart-stirring eloquence, and it has been remarked of him, that he had all the eloquence of Saurin, without any approach to his turgid and bombastic style. The work by which the name of Daille has long been honourably known in this country is his treatise ' De usu Patrum,' a work designed to check or moderate the excessive reverence which is felt in many quarters for the writers of ecclesiastical antiquity. It rendered an important service to the protestant cause in his own country and times, and may still be consulted with advantage in exposing the semi-Popery of our own day. It was published in French in 1632, in Latin in 1656, and a translation of it into English in 1651, under the title of 'A Treatise concerning the Right Use of the Fathers in the Decision of 185 DAL Controversies that are at this Day in Religion. ' Daille was also the author of several expositorv works on books of Scripture — the most esteemed, if not the most valuable, of which have appeared in an English dress. His ' Discourses on the Epistle to the Colossians' were translated in 1672, with ■ preface by Dr. Owen, and of those on the Phil- lppians an elegant English version was given to the world in 1841, by the Rev. James Sherman, minister of Surrev chapel, London. [R.J.] DALAYRAC, N., a Fr. opera comp., 1753-1809. DALBERG, Charles Theodore Anthony Marie, Baron De, prince primate of the Catholic Church of Germany, president of the confederation of the Rhine, and grand duke of Constance under Napoleon, 1745-1817. His brother, Wolfgang Heribert, a dramatic poet, 1750-1806. A third brother, J. F. Hughes, a man of letters, d. 1812. The nephew of these, Emeric J., Due De Dal- berg, a min. of state under Napoleon, 1773-1833. DALBERG, J. K. De, bp. of Worms, 1445-1503. DALBERG, Nils, a Swed. physician, 1735-1820 DALBERGO, F., an Italian hist., 1706-1768. D'ALBRET. SeeALBRET. DALE, Dav., a Scotch mechanic and philanthro- pist, eel. in the his. of the cotton manuf., 1739-1806. DALE, R., an American naval com., 1756-1826. DALECHAMPS, J., a Fr. botanist, 1513-1586. D'ALEMBERT, Jean Le Rond, one of the most celebrated mathematicians and astronomers of the last century, was born at Paris on the 17th November, 1717. Having been exposed by his mother near the church of St. Jean Le Rond, from which he derived his name, he was taken care of by a glazier's wife, and afterwards provided for by his father, when he had learned the fate of his child. He was educated at the Jansenist col- lege of the Four Nations, and so premature was his intellect, that at the age of ten he had acquired all the knowledge that his masters could convey to him. He was regarded by the Jansenists as a second Pascal, and in order to make the compari- son perfect, he was initiated into the mathemati- cal sciences. With a passionate devotion to science, he left the college and took up his residence in the house of his nurse, where he remained for forty years, concealing from her his fame, and generously adding to the little comforts of her lot. — Having, like all other men of original genius, found himself anticipated in his earliest discoveries, he despaired of doing anything that had not been previously done, and abandoning his mathematical studies in despair, he resolved upon following one of the learned professions. — The income of 1,200 livres a-year which his father, M. Destouches, had left him, being insufficient to maintain him in the position which he now occupied, he pursued in succession the studies of law and medicine, and so ardently did he devote himself to the latter, that he banished his mathematical library to the house of a friend. It was in vain, however, that he tried to overcome the earliest and strongest of his passions. His mathematical works gradually found their way back to his house, the profes- sion of medicine was abandoned, and his affections irrevocably fixed on the study of geometry. — At the early age of twenty-four D'AIembert was ad- mitted a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1741 he published his ' Treatise on Dynamics,' DAL founded on a now principle of mechanics, which he applied to the resolution of several beautiful problems. In his 'Reflections on the General Course of Winds,' which was crowned by the Academy of Berlin in 1746, he gave the first de- tails of the calculus of partial differences, of which he was the discoverer. In 1752 be published his 'New Theory of the Action of Fluids,' and also his 'Elements of the Theory and Practice of Music' — About this time he undertook, in con- junction with Diderot, the 'Encyclopedic.' to which he communicated many articles of great interest, and also the preliminary 'Discourse' which was prefixed to that immortal work. These writings were followed by several literary works which we have not room to enumerate, and bv his 'Researches on Different Important Points or the System of the World,' which appeared in 1754 and 1756, and in which he greatly improved the solu- tion of the problem of three bodies, which had occupied the attention both of Euler and Clairaut. — In 1756 D'AIembert, who had previously received a pension from the king, was made a supernu- merary pensioner by the Academy of Science ; and in 1759 he published his 'Elements of Philosophy,' a work of distinguished merit. — After the peace of 1763 D'AIembert was invited by Frederick the Great to fill the office of president of the Academy of Berlin, and the empress of Russia had also so- licited him to superintend the education of her family. Having refused, however, both these ap- pointments, he was in 1772 nominated perpetual secretary to the French Academy, a position in which he wrote no fewer than seventy eloges of its deceased members. Besides the works which we have mentioned, D'AIembert published a treatise ' On the Destruction of the Jesuits,' and a collec- tion of his memoirs under the title of ' Opuscules Mathematiques.' In the latter part of his life he was attacked with a disease in the bladder, and he died of the stone on the 29th October, 1783, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. For a full account of his life, and of the romantic incidents of his at- tachment to Mademoiselle L'Espinasse, we must refer our readers to the 'Edinburgh Encyclopedia,' vol. L p. 400, art. Akmbert. [D.B.] DALIBARD, Th. P., a French botanist, d. 1774. DALIN, Olaus Von, a Swedish poet and his- torian of considerable eminence, successively chan- cellor and councillor of state, 1708-1763. DALLAS, A. J., an English lawyer naturalized in America, and finally secretary to the treasury, and secretary at war, 1759-1817. DALLAS, C. R., an Engl, miscell. wr., bestkn. for his ' Recollections of Lord Byron,' 1754-1824. DALLAS, Sir G., an Indian employee, autln r of the first work printed at Calcutta, and subs. - quently lord chief justice of the Common Pleas, in good repute as a political writer, 1758-1833. DALLAS, Sir Ro., an eminent lawyer, d. 1823. DALLAWAY, J., an English hist., 1763-1834. DALRYMPLE, Alex., hydrogrupher to the admiralty, author of a ' Collection of Voyages in the South Pacific Ocean,' &C, 1737-1808. DALRYMPLE, Sir D., a Scotch his., 172C-92. DALRYMPLE, Sir H. W., a peninsular officer, commander of the army in Portugal, 1760-1686. DALRYMPLE, JAMES, first Viscount Stair, a Scotchjudge,relig. wr., and sec of state, 1619-1695. 186 DAL DALRYMPLE, Sir J., a Sc. hist., 1726-1810. DALTON, Jo., an Engl. div. and poet, 1709-63. DALTON, John, D.C.L., born 1767, at Eagles- field, Cumberland ; died 1844, at Manchester. Dr. Dalton laboured under great disadvantages in reference to his early education, as he had only the benefit of the instructions of the village school till his eleventh year, and -with the modi- cum of knowledge there acquired he himself taught the school in his twelfth and thirteenth years. He was afterwards engaged in husbandly, and in his fifteenth year became assistant in a school at Eenlal, to the rectorship of which he succeeded about his nineteenth year. After remaining there for eight years, he went, in 1793, to Manchester, where he ever afterwards resided, and taught mathematics. The unobtrusive manner of life of a scientific member of the Society of Friends can present few incidents of interest, and except the views with which he enriched science, we shall find the life of Dr. Dalton barren — but these are of first-rate value. His first investigations were in 1801, when he sought to determine the amount of increase in the bulk of gases by the application of heat — a subject of great importance, and which led him to the conclusion that their expansion is the same for equal degrees of heat. His theory of mixed gases was his" next publication, and soon afterwards followed his meteorological views, all of which have thrown much light on the subjects of which he treated. But his most valuable con- tribution to chemistry was the discovery of the atomic theory, communicated to Dr. Thomas Thomson in 1804. It is true that indications of this theory are contained in Higgins's and Richter's works, published several years anteriorly, but it is certain that Dalton was ignorant of these che- mists' views, and that no one had been able to appreciate the importance of the subject from their publications until after Dalton wrote; and the writer has in his possession a statement from a distinguished foreign chemist, who within the last thirty years had read Richter's work most care- fully, but had failed to discover in it the atomic theory. See Atomic Theory in ' Thomson's Cyclo- paedia of Chemistry.' [R. D.T.] DALTON, Michael, an Engl, lawyer, d. 1620. DALYELL, Sir John Graham, Bart., a Scottish antiquarian, died 1851. DAM, Anth. Van, a Dutch painter, 1682-1750. DAMASCENUS, Jo., a learned monk, known as an ascetic wr. and theolo., the first who applied the logic of Aristotle to theological teaching, 676-754. DAMASCENUS, Jo., an Arabian phys., 15th c. DAMASCENUS, N., a phil. and hist., 1st c. b.c. DAMASCIUS, an eclectic philos. of the 6th cent. DAMASUS. The first of this name pope of Rome, distinguished against the Arians, 366-388. The second, pope a few days onlv, 1048. DAMER, Anne S., a female sculp., 1748-1808. DAMIEN, P., cardinal bp. of Ostia, disting. as a biographer, theologian, and politician, 988-1072. DAM I ENS, R. F., the assassin of Louis XV., kn. for his crimes as Robert Le Diable, b. 1715, ex. 1757. DAMIENS DE GAMICOURT, A. P., a French au., ( 4 L'Observateur Francais,') &c, 1723-1790. DAV~ uMINE, P., a Venetian painter, 1592-1631. DAMOCRITUS, a Greek statuary, 400 B.C. DAMOCR1TUS, an ancient Greek historian. DAM DAMON, a Greek musician, 5th century B.C. DAMPIER, William, the son of a farmer near Yeovil, was born in 1652. He went early to sea, and performed many voyages. He then became under-manager of a Jamaica planta- tion ; made an engagement in the coasting trade, and on its expiry joined a party of the freeboot- ing logwood -cutters at Campeachy ; and next, the privateers upon the coast, in an eleven months' cruize. Returning to the wood-cutting, he was very successful; and the year following visited England. Here he married and remained six months, when he returned to Jamaica, and took out goods for which he knew there was a market. At this time he purchased a property in Dorset- shire ; but wishing to realize a little more money before settling upon it, and meeting a number of the leading buccaneers, who were Englishmen, near Port Royal, he joined their company. Hav- ing sacked Portobello, and crossed the isthmus, they waged a merciless war for four years in the Pacific; when disagreeing, a portion of them crossed to the Atlantic again, and finally sailed from Virginia on a buccaneering voyage round the globe, going west, and returning through the In- dian seas. At the Nicobar isles Dampier left the ship and came on alone, reaching home in 1691. Soon after, he published his ' New Voyage round the World,' which excited great interest, being well written, and full of new and interesting mat- ter relating to botany and zoology, as well as to geography and ethnology. Thus brought into notice, he was employed (14th January, 1699) by government on a voyage of discovery to New Hol- land and New Guinea, in which he made many important additions to geographical knowledge. At Ascension, on the homeward voyage, the ship 'foundered through perfect age,' as he expressed it ; but though the crew and part of his collec- tions were saved, and he was no way to blame, he was not again employed by government ; in 1703 a company of merchants, however, gave him com- mand of one of two ships sent out to the South Seas on a privateering cruize. This proved singu- larly unfortunate — he took no rich prizes — his commission was stolen by a petty officer, and he was imprisoned in India by the Dutch. We find him again in England in 1708, and employed in the privateer voyage of Woodes Rogers, fitted out by merchants of Bristol; but on this, his third circumnavigation, in the humble capacity of pilot. The expedition was veiy successful, and re- turned to the Thames 14th December, 1711 — from which time nothing whatever is known of Dampier. His merits as a navigator, an accurate surveyor, and a naturalist, are of the very highest order ; and his moral character seems to have been but little contaminated by the lawless company with which he so long associated. [J.B.] DAMPIERRE, A. H. M. Picot De, a French general, distinguished at Valmy and Jemappes, succeeded to Dumouriez, 1756-1793. DAMPIERRE, H. Du Val, Count De, a cap- tain of the 16th century, distinguished against the Turks, died before Presburg, 1620. DAMPIERRE, J., a Latin poet, died 1550. DAMPIERRE, William De, count of Flanders and father-in-law of Edward I., k. of Eng., d. 1305. DAMPMARTIN, Anne Henri, Viscount, cap- 187 DAM tain of dragoons at the outbreak of the French revo- lution, but chiefly memorable lor bis literary works, was born at Uzes 1750, and died 1823. His early education was intended to qualify him for the church ; but he disappointed the expectation of his friends, and, choosing the profession of anus, de- voted bis leisure to literary studies. He was a friend of constitutional reform, and the subjects of his pen demonstrate the interest that he felt in education and national progress. The principal event in his military career was the assistance he rendered at Avignon, Nov. 1791, in suppressing the brigands and murderers commanded by Jour- dan Coupe-tete. In 1792 he abandoned his regi- ment and retired to Holland. His work, entitled 'Evenements qui se sont passes sous mes yeux pendant la Revolution Franchise,' is valuable for its authenticity, minuteness of detail, and simple sin- cerity. It appeared at Berlin 1799, and now forms the first part of a work in 2 vols., entitled ' Me- moires sur les divers evenements de la revolution et de Immigration,' published at Paris 1825. [E.R.] DAMPMARTIN, P., a biog. wr., 16th century. DAN, the fifth son of Jacob. (Gen. xxx., 4, 5, 6.) DANCER, Daniel, a notor. miser, 1716-1794. DANCHET, A., a Fr. dram, author, 1671-1748. DANCKERT, Cornelius, a Dutch art., 16th c. DANDELOT. SeeCoLiGNi. DANDINI, Cesar, a Florentine painter, 1595- 1658. Vincent, his brother and scholar, 1607- 1675. Pietro, the son of Cesar, 1647-1712. DANDINI, H. F., an Italian priest, 1695-1747. DANDINI, J., a Jesuit missionary, 1554-1624. DANDOLO, a patrician family of Venice, the most celebrated members of which are — Henry, elected doge 1192, leader of the first crusade against Constantinople 1204, d. 1205. John, dis- tinguished by a long war against the patriarch of Aquilea, doge 1280-1289. Francis, surnamed the Don for basely humbling the republic to Clement V., doge 1328-1339. Andre, who sus- tained a long war witli Hungary, and wrote ' Chronicles of Venice,' doge 1342-1354. Faustin, son of Andre, an ambas. and man of letters, d. 1449. DANDOLO, A., a Ven. jurisconsult, 1431-1472. DANDOLO, Mark, a Yen. politic, 1458-1535. DANDOLO, Vincent, a eel. Ven. chemist, pro- veditor of Dalmatia, distin. for his share in the overthrow of the Ven. repub. by the Fr., 1758-1819. DANDRE-BARDON, M. F., a French painter, founder of the Academy of Marseilles, 1700-1783. DANET, P., a French lexicographer, 1640-1709. D'ANGHIARA, Pietro Martire, often cited as Peter Martyr, a learned ecclesiastic and his- torian of Italy, 1455-1526. DANIEL, the Jewish prophet, liv. about 600 B.C. DANIEL, Gabriel, a Fr. historian, 1649-1728. DANIEL, P., a Fr. critic and classic, 1530-1603. DANIEL, Samuel, poet-laureate of Elizabeth, author of a history of England to the reign of Ed- ward III., 1562-1617. DANIEL, St., an ascetic who gained his repu- tation by living on the top of a column, 410-490. DANIELI, F., an It. savant and his., 1740-1812. DANIELL, John Frederick, born 1790, died 1845. Mr. Daniell was originally intended for business, and for some time devoted himself to the refining of sugar ; but afterwards he became engrossed with meteorological, and subsequently DAN with electrical science, to both of which he made some important contributions. I lis work on meteorology was a standard work during his time ; being characterized rather, however, as embodying a clear statement of the views of the author, than as affording ■ practical work for reference. His constant battery was a valuable invention, which contributed much to the convenience of electricd experimenters, and to the development of the science, especially in the department of electro- type, which may be said to have originated from this invention. Mr. Daniell was a man of amiable disposition, and was universally respected for bis social as well as scientific qualifications. [R.D.T.] DANIELL, the name of several artists, distin- guished in African and oriental scenery. Sam d EL, author of drawings illust. the island of Ceylon, d. 1811. Thomas and his nephew William, mem- bers of the Royal Academy, eel. for their large work in 6 folio vols., entitled ' Oriental Scenery,' &c., the former 1750-1840, the latter 1769-1837. DANNECKER, John Henry, surnamed ' The Mystic Sculptor of Germany,' distin. for his fe- male figures, 1758-1834. DANNEVILLE, J. E., a French hist., 17th ct. DANTE, or DURANTE, Alighieri, born at Florence in 1265, holds, in Italian literature, a place corresponding to that which belongs to Chaucer in our own. But his fame is wider, his genius more vigorous and tragic ; and his name has been honoured by his countrymen in all sub- sequent generations, while the father of English Eoetry was for ages neglected and forgotten, (ante lived in a time when the language of Italy was beginning to be used in prose literature, and had been considerably developed in metrical composition ; when the classical models as yet exercised but little influence, the purer Roman poetry being studied very seldom, and Greek literature quite unknown ; and when the trou- badours of Provence were still the only poets that had become famous in Christian Europe. His life was spent in the midst of those storms which raged throughout the middle ages, and of which the Italian republics were noted scenes. He was born of a distinguished family, belonging to the party of the Guelf's, which stood opposed to the Ghibellines or Imperialists, and was oftenest ranged on the side of the Popes. A youthful at- tachment to Beatrice Portinari, who died when the poet was in his twenty-fifth year, was ever afterwards hallowed in his imagination, and was not destroj'ed either by an unhappy marriage, or by the activity with which the Florentine citizen threw himself into the turmoil of political dissen- sion. He served the republic as a soldier, and at the age of thirty-five was one of the priors or chief magistrates of Florence. A quarrel between two factions into which the Guelfs were split, caused him, in 1302, to be banished ; and, during the re- maining twenty years of his life, he wandered through Italy, seeking refuge in those Ghibelline states whose principles he had long combated. His party in vain attempted, more than once, to recon- quer Florence ; petitions for a reversal of the sen- tence of banishment were equally unsuccessful ; the poet's stern and haughty disposition made him unhappy, and probably unacceptable, at the courts of the Italian princes ; and, dejected and hopeless, 188 DAN ho died at Ravenna in 1321. — He wrote both in prose and in verse, and used both the Latin and the living tongues. In the former, he left a Ghibelline treatise ' De Monarchia,' and an essay 4 De Vulgari Eloquentia,' in which he describes the rise of the Italian language and some of the works that had been written in it. His own great poem, also, was begun to be written in Latin hexa- meters. Among his Italian writings are noble Sonnets and Canzoni, and a work called 'Vita Nuova,' in which he connects, by a prose narra- tive, verses in honour of the dead Beatrice. — He is immortal in virtue of the celebrated poem, which, although narrative in form, was called, in confor- mity to a common mediaeval usage, the ' Divina Commedia.' The action is described as taking place in the year 1300 ; so that the whole may be understood to have been produced during his weary years of exile. It has three parts, and a hundred cantos, and describes a Vision of Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. Dante is conducted through the worlds of the dead by the poet Virgil. The first of the parts, containing the ' Inferno,' is by far the most interesting and vigorous. It is here that we encounter those terrible pictures, which make Dante one of the most sublime among poets ; pic- tures conceived with an irregular force of imagina- tion, which is at once singularly original, and strongly characteristic of the spirit of thinking and action in the times in which he lived ; pictures, also, which are conveyed with a pregnant brevity and impressiveness of diction, easily perceptible even to foreigners, and producing an extraordinary effect on the poet's countrymen. The imagery of Dante has peculiarities which defy analysis. It unites, beyond any other, seeming clearness and sensuousness, with great power of calling up sha- dowy suggestions. The tone of sentiment is oftenest gloomy, despondent, or savagely sarcastic : and the celebrated personages of Italian history are pourtrayed at once with striking verisimilitude, and with malicious ingenuity of invention. Yet there are many brief intervals, and some long stretches, of deep and tender pathos. The har- rowing scene in which the condemned spirit of Count Ugolino describes the sufferings of the Tower of Famine, is not more characteristic than the melancholy sweetness that breathes through the story of Francesca of Rimini. From the strange horrors of the ' Inferno,' the poet and his guide pass to the milder objects of the ' Purgatorio,' which are described with much poetic richness, and with a few personal and historical episodes, reminding us of the awfulness with which the first part had made us familiar. At the close of the second part the spirit of Beatrice, descending from a cloud of flowers which angels strew around her, appears to conduct her lover to the bowers de- scribed in the ' Paradiso.' In this, the third part, Dante and his sainted conductress pass from planet to planet, beholding the seats of the blessed, and discussing deep questions of theology. [W.S.] DANTE DI MAJANO, an Ital. poet, 13th cen. D'ANTINE, Francis, a Fr. scholar, editor of the ' French Historians,' the ' Art of Verifying Dates,' &c, 1688-1746. DANTON, Georges Jacques. This man, who united in his own person the contradictory characters of a demagogue and a statesman, anil DAN who controlled the movement of the French revo- lution in its most stormy periods till the time of Robespierre's ascendancy, was born at Arcis-sur- Aube, October 28, 1759. His parents were far- mers, of an ancient and respectable family, such as usually prepare their children for the liberal !>rofessions hy a good education ; and though he ost his father when young, he found a careful guardian in his step-father, M. Ricordin, who was the owner of a cotton mill on the banks of the Aube. He was at Paris practising, or looking for practice, as an advocate, when the revolution broke out ; and, commencing his political career out of doors, he soon acquired that prodigious ascen- dancy over the population of the Faubourgs for which his commanding figure, his voice of thunder, his passionate temperament, his frankness, his good nature, and his genius, so admirably quali- fied him. In 1789, after the States-general had been convoked, when blood had already been shed in the streets of Paris, and the city was divided into electoral districts, the young advocate, already noted for his audacious oratory, obtained the presidency of the Cordeliers, which soon afterwards gave its name to the club founded by Danton to unite those who held the same opinions, rather than persons living in the same locality. These clubbists were the avowed enemies of royalty, of aristocratic institutions, and of the clergy, and for five years afterwards acted as the advanced guard in the revolutionary combats, ever giving ""birth to fresh swarms of Marats and Heberts, until Danton himself grew heart-sick of turbulence, and was willing, as he said, to be guillotined rather than to guillotine any longer. — Danton and his party were the first to perceive the utter im- possibility of forming an alliance between mon- archy and the new institutions, and at the same time to accept the terrible consequences of their foresight, and march in the straight course of the revolution. His voice sent the people to combat at the Bastile, and directed the attack on Ver- sailles, preceded by the insurrection of women when the king and tiie royal family were forced to Paris ; and he was among the last to yield the ' altar of the country ' to the Constituent Asseaibly when the famous petition was signed in the Champ de Mars, praying for the deposition of the king after his arrest at Varennes. This was the middle of 1791, soon after which the constitution was solemnly accepted (30th September), and the Legislative Assembly, or first Parliament, convened, under the Roland administration. Towards the end of the year the country was threatened with the invasion of the emigrant nobles ; and the king's veto, which brought the Assembly to a stand-still, com- menced the last struggle between the people and the crown. At this crisis, it is said, Danton accepted presents from the court, but the writers of the Biocjraphie des Contemporains deny the fact, while admitting his want of integrity in after years when he could supply his necessities from funds placed at his disposal without bartering away his country. In June, 1792, the Roland ministry was dismissed by the king, and the Marseilles' band invited to Paris by the patriots. Danton, who had gone to his native fields to snatch a short period of repose, now suddenly returned, reviewed the organization of the people, 189 DAN lorded the Marseillaise, and prepared the struggle of the 10th of August — the day which saw the throne overturned, the patriots recalled to the administration, and Danton associated with them as minister of justice. The duke of Brunswick was known to he marching upon Paris, and the civil war had commenced in La Vendee. The Ministry and the Legislative Assembly were terror- stricken, and proposed to retire beyond the Loire, hut Danton arrested them with that thrilling appeal, heard above the sound of the generale, and [Club of the Corduliers.] the report of the alarm-gun, which has often since been quoted: — ' Legislators! ' he exclaimed, ' It is not the alarm-cannon that you hear, but the pas- de-charge upon our enemies. To conquer them, to hurl them back, what do we require? De l'audace, encore de l'audace, et toujours de l'audace ! (To dare, and again to dare, and without end to dare!) From this time his supremacy in the commune of Paris was complete, but he purchased it at the price of the September massacres, in which he refused to interfere, and for which, in the heat and terror of those perilous days, he iniquitously thanked the assassins, ' not as minis- ter of justice,' for so he expressed himself, ' but as minister of the revolution ! ' The atrocious casuistry of such a speech is too horrible to con- template. It must be remembered, however, that Marat, and a crowd of bloodhounds who followed him, were proposing the most frightful resolutions to be accomplished under a dictatorial power, and that the preternatural excitement and suspicion of the people had risen almost to insanity, and that Danton himself on many occasions afterwards both regretted his fearful stoicism, and justified it by his position. Space will not permit us to follow his career from this period to the events which hastened the fall of the Girondins, and were so soon followed by his own rupture with Eobespierre; but we may notice briefly that he was anxious to save the followers of Brissot, who repulsed his overtures with scorn, and finally, in the person of Gaudet, declared that they preferred war to any peace that he could make with them. "While the struggle with the deputies of the Gi- ronde was pending, Danton was sent on two missions to Belgium, and it is understood to be proved that he supported his extravagances, though he did not grow rich, at the public ex- DAN pense; in addition to which ho had refused to account for the money disbursed by him as minis- ter, except in the gross. He returned from his first mission in time to vote for the lung's death, laughing to scorn the delicacy of the Convention, which hesitated about deciding the question by a simple majority, though it had decided the fate of an entire nation without scruple. On returning from his second mission at the beginning of March, 1793, he found that his wife had expired two days* before, and was even buried, and giving way to" a passion as rare as it is affecting, he had the corpse disinterred in the night, and snatched a last em- brace from the cold bodv, which, it is said, lie held for a long time locked in his arms. The time was now drawing near when the death of Marat, and the condemnation of many of his scoundrel imitators on the one hand, and the fall of the Girondins on the other, seemed to prepare the field for the last combatants ; and Danton and Robespierre were every day thrown into stronger relief against each other, until the former stood forth as the acknowledged head of a party of clemency, and the latter continued the remorseless career in which they had embarked together. Danton prepared his measures by procuring a decree which erected the Committee of Public Safety into a provisional government, and at the same time refused to take any part in it, alleging for reasons, his need of repose and his recent marriage, but really, it is presumable, that he might separate himself from the odium and re- sponsibility of the rigour still necessary in the opinion of Robespierre. It was so the latter understood it. The hatred which divided these men was displayed on the part of Robespierre with a cool, logical propriety, which only provoked the more Danton's impassioned and defiant utterance of what he felt towards him. He was, like Mars, entangled in the meshes of an almost invisible web while in the embrace of the queen of love, and, giant as he was, fell an easy prey into the hands of his rival. He was informed of a secret nocturnal meeting convened by Robespierre to deliberate upon his death, but he refused to fly. 'They will deliberate,' he said, 'a long time before striking a man like me; and it is I who will surprise them.'' The manner of his arrest, the crowd of charges heaped upon him, and the scene at the revolutionary tribunal, all betray the dread of his accusers lest his voice should once more reach the ear of the multitude. His address at the bar was a lengthened defiance of hk enemies, and when recognized in prison he en- deavoured to conceal his bitterness by a burst of laughter. Danton was undeniably a man of pleasure, for his whole life was a changing scene of passion ; but we have the most affecting proofs that the spring of the domestic virtues welled fresh in his heart, even to the last hour of his stormy career. To follow him from the thunders of the tribune, and the flash of the cruel weapons which he wielded in the political strife, to his wife and children, is like looking upon the face of a smiling landscape after the storm-cloud has passed over it. He was a true Frenchman, capable of the same capable, too, of melting into tenderness the next "P pouring out his whole soul, and with deadly effect, as a lightning flash ; 190 DAN instant, and of spreading the kindly virtues around him as soft, as lucent, and as penetrating as the light of morning. He has heen called the colossus of the revolution, ' head of gold, bosom of flesh, loins of brass, feet of clay,' and with much truth. Nature seemed to pervade him in all her forms, from the woman's heart sleeping in his bosom, to the electric fire of genius which played like a glory around his head, and, downwards, to the corruption which made a ruin of all the vir- tues belonging to him. The closing scene of his life presents us with an epitome of the whole man. He was the last of his party to ascend the scaffold, and stood there for a moment glancing with a defiant and pitying air around him, more like a monument of himself in the tribune, than a victim of the executioner. The next moment the vision of his family and his pleasant fields at Arcis-sur- Aube completely subdued him — ' Oh my wife, my best beloved ! ' he murmured, — ' Oh my children, I shall never see you more ! ' Then suddenly recollecting himself, he proudly exclaimed, ' Come, Danton, no weakness! ' and turning to the heads- man uttered his last words, ' Thou wilt show my head to the people, it is worth showing.' The next moment his head fell, and the executioner, catching it from the basket, carried it round the scaffold : it was the 5th of April, 1794. Danton, therefore, was in his thirty-fifth year when he passed ' like a gigantic mass of valour, ostentation, fury, affection, and wild revolutionary force and manhood, to his unknown home.' In him the revolution lost the only man, perhaps/ who had really mastered its principle, and taken the stain of its horrors, without sacrificing his humanity ; who had bowed to its Moloch throne with the enraged multitude of which he was chief, and having once swept by, to adopt a striking figure of the old Hebrew prophet, 'with confused noise and gar- ments rolled in blood,' preferred to return as the victim, rather than the slave and worshipper of that altar. [E.R.] D'ANTONELLE, Pierre Antoine, Marquis, one of the most sincere actors in the French revo- lution, was born at Aries of an ancient and rich family 1747, and having joined the army when young quitted its ranks in 1782, and devoted himself to the study of moral and political philosophy. The year 1789 found him a worshipper of the rising sun of French liberty, and the year following he was named mayor of Aries. Being selected to aid in the pacification of Avignon and Marseilles, he ac- quired fresh popularity by the satisfactory manner in which he fulfilled his commission, and was de- puted to the Legislative Assembly by the department of the Bouches-du-Khone. On the establishment of the republic he was sent with two colleagues to announce the change to the army of Lafayette, who gave orders for their arrest, and it was not until the general abandoned his command that they re- gained their liberty. He was a member of the revolutionary tribunal when the queen was con- demned, ana also when the twenty-two Girondins were brought up for judgment; but he pronounced against his colleagues on the latter occasion, and was confined in the Luxembourg till the fall of Robespierre. He appears to have acted on all occa- sions as a man of independent principle, and even refused the editorship of the Monitcur under the DAR Directory that he might speak his own language in the Journal des Hommes Libres. The Directory endeavoured to establish a charge against him on the occasion of Babeuf 's conspiracy, but they failed to obtain a conviction. He was ordered to leave France by the first consul, and having returned when the empire was established was compelled to abandon Paris for refusing to address Napoleon as his sovereign. He ended his days at Aries in 1819, and left behind him numerous political works, which testify to his steady love of liberty through the whole period of the revolution. [E.R.] DANTZ, J. A., a Ger. Lutheran divine, d. 1727. D'ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignox, a celebrated French geographer, and member of se- veral learned societies, author of more than 200 charts and plans and 78 treatises upon ancient and modern geographv, 1697-1782. DANZ, F., a German anatomist, 1761-1793. DANZ, Francis, a German composer, d. 1825. DAPPER, Oliver, a Dutch phys., au. of nu- merous works descrip. of foreign countries, d. 1690. DARAN, James, a French surgeon, 1701-1784. D'ARBLAY, Frances Burney, Madame, a distinguished novelist, daughter of Dr. Bumey the composer, and wife of a French officer. Besides her novels, which created quite a sensation in her time, she has written her father's memoirs ; died 1840. DARCET, J., a eel. French chemist, 1725-1801. DARCY, Patrick, Count, a native of Ireland, distinguished in the French army as an engineer and mathematician, 1725-1779. D'ARGENSOLA, Bartholomew, a Spanish historian and poet, chaplain to Maria Theresa, 1566-1631. His brother Lupercio Leonardo, a tragic poet, 1565-1613. D'ARGENSON, Marquis, a French statesman, the first to introduce lettres-de-cachet, 1652-1721. D'ARGENVILLE, A. J. D., aFr. savant, d. 1766. D'ARGILLATA, Peter, an Ital. phys., d. 1423. D'ARGONNE, Noel, a French hist, of litera- ture, a monk of the Carthusian order, 1634-1704. D'ARGOTA, J. C, a Portug. antiq., 1676-1749. DARIUS, the name of three sovereigns of Persia. The Jirst, commonly called Darius Hystaspes, succeeded 522 B.C., was the conqueror of Babylon and restorer of the Jews, defeated at Marathon 490, and died 485. The second, called Darius Ociius, or Notiius, reigned 423-404 B.C. The third, sometimes called Codomannus, in whose defeat by Alexander the Great the Persian empire was consummated, sue. 336, and was k. 330 b.c. DARLUC, M., a French naturalist, 1707-1783. DARMSTADT, Wm, prince of, lieutenant of the imperial armies under Pnnce Eugene, 1660-1705. DARNLEY, Henry Stuart, earl of, the husband of Mary, queen of Scots, perished by the connivance of Bothwell, and perhaps of the queen, when his house was blown up with gunpowder, 1567. DARQUIER, A., a Fr. astronomer, 1718-1802. DARRIGOL, the Abbe J. P., a French phil- ologist, author of a prize essay on the Basque language, 1790-1829. DARU, Pierre Antoine, Noel Bruno, Count, a Fr. statesman, hist., and literary savant. Napoleon describes him as uniting the laborious zeal of the ox with the courage of the lion, 1767-1829. DARWIN, Erasmus, an English physician, known to fame as a poet and botanist, was born at 191 DAS DAV Elton, near Newark, in 1731, and after taking his trios. Danl>cnton wrote many pnpors and memoirs degree at Edinburgh, pursued his professional career at Lichfield, from whence, in 1781, he re- moved to Derby, having contracted a second mar- riage, and died in the latter place 1802. Dr. Dar- win was an original thinker, a great adept in ana- logies, and a respectable versifier. The best known Ot his works is his ' Botanic Garden,' the first part of which is entitled ' The Economy of Vegetation,' and the second ' The Loves of the Plants.' His other works are ' Zoonomia, or the laws of Organic Life,' and ' Physiologia, or the Philosophy of Agri- culture and Gardening,' besides which he published a tract on female education, and several papers in the 'Philosophical Transactions.' The personal character of Darwin was amiable, and his con- versation generally pleasing. His appearance was athletic, he was much pitted with the small-pox, and had an impediment in his speech. His son, Charles Darwin, after taking a prize medal at Edinburgh, and writing a pathological treatise, died at the earlv age of twenty, 1778. [E.R.] DASCHKOWA, Katharina Romanowna, Princess, a Russian heroine, who marched with a body of troops to the assistance of Catharine II. when the latter deposed her husband, and as a student of the sciences and Belles Lettres was one of the most ext inordinary women of the age, 1 744-1 81 0. DASSIER, John, a French medallist, 1677- 1763. His son, Jacob Anthony, distinguished in the same line of art, 1715-1759. DASYPODIUS, P., a Swiss lexico., 16th cent. DASYPODIUS, W., a Latin poet, 16th cent. DATAMES, a Persian gen., k. in revolt, 361 b.c. DATHE, J. A., a Germ. Orientalist, 1731-1791. DATI, Augustine, an Ital. savant, author of histor., philosoph., and miscell. works, 1420-1478. DATI, C. R., an Ital. professor of the Belles Let- tres, au. of ' Lives of Ancient Painters,' 1619-1675. DATI, George, a translator of 'Tacitus,' 1563. DATI, Gregory, an Italian hist., 1363-1436. D'ATTAIGNANT, G. C, a Fr. poet, 1697-1779. DAUBASSE, Amand, a Gasc. poet, 1660-1720. DAUBENTON, Louis-Jean-Marie, a cele- brated anatomist and naturalist, was born at Montbard, in Burgundy, 1716. He died in 1799. After taking his degree in medicine, he retired to his native town to practise his profession. At that time Buffon, who had been a schoolfellow of Daubenton's, had conceived the plan of his cele- brated work, the ' Histoire Naturelle.' He felt, however, that it was necessary to associate with himself some one who was capable of taking the labour of many of the details off his hand, and such a man he found in Daubenton. In 1742 he induced him to come to Paris, and obtained for him the appointment of curator and demonstra- tor of the cabinet of natural history at the Garden of Plants. Daubenton commenced his labours with zeal and enthusiasm, and soon succeeded in making the collection at the museum the first in Europe. While engaged in this task, he was at the same time collecting materials for assisting Buffon in that part of his ' Histoire Naturelle,' the history of quadrupeds. To Daubenton is due the merit of supplying all the anatomical details and descriptions, both external and internal, which rendered that part of Buflbn's work so much esteemed amongst the naturalists of other coun- 192 on theological subjects. He has described several animals new to science ; and was the first to apply the .study of comparative anatomy to the determi- nation of extinct animals from an examination of their fossil remains. In vegetable physiology he has made some valuable additions to our know- ledge ; and in his enlightened endeavours to im- prove the breed of sheep, and to bring nearer to perfection the texture of their wool, he has merited the gratitude of his country. He was interred in the Garden of Plants. [W.B.] DAUBENTON, W., a Fr. Jesuit, 1648-1723. DAUBENY, Ch., an Engl, theolog., 1744-1827. DAUBERVAL, the pseudonym of J. Bebchet, a French ballet-master and composer, 1741-18U0. D'AUBIGNE. See Aubignk. D'AUBIGNY, Jean Louis Marie Villain-, attorney to the par. of Paris, at the revo., 1750-180S. D'AUBUSSON. See Aubusson. DAUBUZ, Ch., a learned Fr. prot., 1670-1740. DAUDIN, F. M., a Fr. naturalist, 1774-1801. DAULLE, J., a French engraver, 1703-1763. DAUMESNIL, P., Baron, a gen. of the empire, especially eel. for his def. of Vincennes, 1777-1832. DAUN, L. J. M., Count, an Austrian field-mar- shal under Maria Theresa, distinguished against the Turks, and in the seven years' war, 1705-1766. DAUNOU, P. C. F., a statesman, historian, and literarv savant of the period of the revol., 1761-1840. DAURAT, John, a French poet, 1507-1588. DAVAUX, J. B., an opera composer, last cent. DAVENANT, J., mem. of the Synod of Dort and bp. of Salisbury, em. as a theolo., 1576-1641. DAVENANT, Sir Wm., a celebrated dramatic writer, successor to Ben Jonson in the laureateship, and author of several masques and other plays, moral piecesfor recitation, &c, 1606-1668. Charles, his eldest son, author of ' Circe,' a tragedy, and a work in 5 vols., entitled ' Essays on Trade,' 1656-1714. William, fourth son of the poet, translator of La Mothe Le Vayer, accidentally drowned, 1681. DAVENPORT, Chr., an Eng. theol., 1598-1680. DAVENPORTE, Richard Alfred, a mis- cellaneous English writer and editor, 1780-1852. DAVESNE, Francois, a mystic writer, dis- ciple of Simon Morin, author of ' Harmonie de I' Amour et de la Justice de Dieu,' ' Tragedie Sainte,' &c, died about 1652-1653. DAVID-AB-GWILYON, a Welch poet, 14th c. DAVID, an Armenian philosopher, 5th centurv. DAVID, a king of Armenia, 980-1046. DAVID, the king of the Jews, 1085-1001 b.c. DAVID, the Jlrst of the name, king of Scotland 1124-1153 ; the second, son of Robert Bruck, lived 1324-1371. DAVID, C. and J., two brothers, distinguished at Paris as portrait engravers, &c, 17th centurv. DAVID COHEN, a Portuguese rabbin, d. 16*74. DAVID-COMMENUS, the last emp. of Trebi- zond, surrendered to Mahomet II. 1453, k. 1462. DAVID-DE-ST.-GEORGE, John Josbmi Alexis, a French translator of Smollet, and pliiio- logical savant, 1759-1809. DAVID, F. A., a French engraver, 1741-1824. DAVID-GEORGE, J., arelig. fanat., 1501-1556. DAVID, J. P., a French surgeon, 1737 DAVID, Jacques Louis, the most distin- guished painter of France of modem times, was DAV torn at Paris, in 1748, and died an exile at Brus- sels, December 29, 1825. David was the pupil of Vien the regenerator of painting in France, who revived the study at once, both of nature and the antique, in the place of the affected mannerism of Vanloo and Boucher, the painters of Louis XV. He accompanied Vien, in 1775, as pensioner to Rome, when the latter was made director of the French Academy there. David was a diligent stu- dent of the antique, perhaps few artists" so assi- duously so. He returned to Paris in 1780, and in 1783 he was elected a member of the French Aca- demy of Painting; his presentation picture was Andromache deploring the death of Hector. David now revisited Pome, and painted his celebrated picture there, 'The Oath of the Horatii.' He tben returned to France, and executed some great works for Louis XVI. ; but this did not prevent his voting for the death of the king, as a member of the National Convention, in 1792. His strong republican spirit was further shown in the re- presentation of two exciting political subjects at this time, 'The Death of Lepelletier, the De- puty,' and 4 The Death of Marat ; ' but personal dangers, and other party difficulties, finally in- duced David to give up politics entirely for the arts, to which, during his short political influence, he had been of considerable service. He became in a few years the favourite painter of the emperor Napoleon, and his principal works have direct reference to Napoleon's eventful career ; the pic- ture of his coronation was especially agreeable to Napoleon. At the restoration of the Bourbons, however, in 1815, David was banished, and retired to Brussels, where he survived his exile ten years. David was an excellent draftsman, after the ideal taste of the Greeks, but his imitation amounted to the servile ; and the majority of his naked figures are of such rigid uniformity of character that they appear to be painted rather from ancient marbles than from nature. He completed the revolution in taste commenced by Vien, and antique-manner- ism was carried to excess by Guerin, and some other of his principal scholars. — (Gabet, Dictionnaire des A rtistes, #c, au dixieme siecle. — 1.) [R.N. W.] DAVID, Luke, a Prussian histor., 1503-1583. DAVID, L. A., an Italian painter, 17th century. DAVID, T. B. E., a Fr. archaeologist, au. of ' In- troduc. to the Study of Mythology,' &c, 1755-1839. DAVIDSON, John, son of a tradesman in Dublin, distinguished as a traveller in North and South America, the countries of the East, and the principal states of Europe, born 1814, murdered in an attempt to reach Timbuctoo, 1836. DAVIDSON, Lucretta Maria, a Canadian girl of humble circumstances, distinguished by the grace and sensibility of her poetical compositions, died in her seventeenth year, 1825. ■ DAVIE, W. R., an Amer. officer and diplomat., disting. in the cause of independence, died 1820. DAVIES, Ed., a Welch archaeologist. 1756-1831. DAVIES, Jno., a Welch div. and scho., au. of a Welch Gram., a Welch and Latin Die, &c, 17th c. DAVIES, John, a classical editor, 1679-1732. DAVIES, Sir J., an Engl, judge, kn. as a poet and polit. wr., au. of an account ot Ireland, derived from his official visit to that country, 1570-1626. DAVIES, Miles, a Welch divine and adherent of George I., known by a work of research, 1715. DAV DAVIES, Robert, a Welch bard and literary savant, author of a Welch Grammar, &c,1770-183(f. DAVIES, Sam., an Amer. dissenter, 1724-1761. DAVIES, Thos., an English performer, dra- matic biographer, and bookseller, 1712-1785. DAVIES, Rev. Walter, a Welch antiquarian and literary savant, distin. by his numerous con- tributions to the literature of his country, but more particularly for his public spirit and his work on the agriculture and domestic economy of North and South Wales, died 1849. DAVILA, Arrigo Cat., an It'al. hist., dis. by his work on the Relig. Wars of France, 1576-1631. DAVILA, D. P. F., a Span, natural., 1713-1785. DAVIS, Edward, an Engl, painter, 17th cent. DAVIS, H. E., one of Gibbon's critics, 1756-1784. DAVIS, John, an Engl, poet, d. about 1618. DAVIS, John, a distinguished navigator, was a native of Sandridge, near Dartmouth, Devon. Between the years 1585-1605, he performed three voyages in search of a north-west passage, in the service of some London merchants, discovering the strait which bears his name, Hudson's Strait, &c, and penetrating northwards as far as 72°, 12'; and five voyages to the East Indies in the service of the Dutch. He published an account of one of each series. He was killed in the straits of Ma- lacca by some Japanese pirates in 1605. [J.B.] DAVIS, R. H., a merchant and banker of Bristol, many years M.P. for that city, 1767-1842. DAVIS, Rowland, an Irish contr. div., 17th c. DAVISON, Wm., a Scotch diplomatist, secry. of state to Queen Elizabeth, and the instrument of the court in the condemnation of Mary Stuart, for which he afterwards suffered fine and imprison- ment ; date of his death unknown. DAVOUST, Louis Nicil, duke of Auerstadt, prince of Eikmuhl, and marshal of France, dis. as one of Napoleon's most faithful generals, 1770-1823. DAVOUST, Louis Alex. Ed. Fr., Baron, bro. of the preceding, and a Fr. officer, 1773-1823. DAVY, Sir Humphry, Bart., born 1778, at Penzance; died 1829, at Geneva. This distin- guished chemical philosopher was brought up at Penzance, principally under the care of his mother, a woman of talent and strong moral sense. He was apprenticed to a surgeon, and at the age of twenty he became assistant at the Clifton institu- tion, which had been established by Dr. Beddoes to determine the influence of different gases in the treatment of diseases. It was here that he dis- covered the remarkable action of nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, on the system, and thus paved the way to the application of those means now in use for alleviating pain in severe operations. — In 1801 he was appointed assistant lecturer at the Royal Institution, where he speedily acquired great popularity and fame. In 1806 he made the im- portant discovery that the combinations and decompositions by electricity are referable to the law of electrical attractions and repulsions, and thus demonstrated the intimate connection be- tween electricity and chemistry. His most bril- liant discovery was, however, that of, in 1807, the composition of the alkalies, which he proved to be combinations of oxygen with metals. In 1810 he found chlorine to be a simple body, in accordance with the view of Scheele announced in the previous century. His other discoveries were 193 DAV that of the Safety Lamp, exhibiting a fine ex- ample of inductive reasoning; and his mode of preventing the corrosion of copper sheathing by the protecting influence of zinc. Sir Humphry Davy was distinguished by a poetical imagination". which would undoubtedly have made him a poet if his time had not been absorbed by science; and, as evidence of his descriptive powers, he has left behind him two works, 'Salmonia,' and 'The Last Days of a Philosopher,' which are not sur- passed in their peculiar department by any com- positions in the English language. [R.D.T.] DAVY, John, an English composer, d. 1824. DAVY, WJt, an Engl, div., author and printer of a religious work in 26 vols., limited to 14 copies, which he also bound with his own hands, d. 1826. DAWE, Geo., an English painter and academi- cian, the biographer of George Morland, d. 1829. DAWES, Manasseh, a pamphleteer, d. 1829. DAWES, Rich., a critic and philos., 1708-1766. DAWES, Sir Wm., abp. of York, in his time a popular preacher, au. of poems and ser., 1671-1724. DAWSON, John, a mathematician, 1734-1820. DAY, John, an English printer, died 1584. His son, of the same name, a preacher and religious writer, 1566-1627. His son Richard, a printer, translator, &c, middle of 16th century. DAY, Thos., a poet and miscell. wr., an. of the well-kn. story of ' Sandford and Merton,' 1748-1789. DAZILLE, J. B., a Fr. med. wr., 1732-1812. DEAGEANT, G., a Fr. pol. intriguer, d. 1626. DE-ANDRADA, Alfonso, a Jesuit of Toledo, au. of ' Lives of Illustrious Jesuits,' &c, 1590-1672. DE-ANDRADA, Antonio, a Portug. mission- ary, first discov. of Cathay and Thibet, 1580-1634. DE-ANDRADA, Dieg'o Payva, a Portuguese theologian and controversialist, distinguished at the Council of Trent, 1528-1575. Francisco, brother of the preceding, historiographer royal under Philip III. Tomas, another brother, belonging to the Franciscan order of friars, died in an African prison, where he wrote ' The Sufferings of Jesus,' 1582. Diego, son of Francisco, a poet, d. 1660. DE-ANDRADA, J. F., a Latin wr., 1597-1657. DEBAST, M. J., a Fr. antiquarian, 1753-1825. DE-BERNARD, C, a Fr. novelist, 1803-1850. DEBONNAIRE, L., a Jansenist wr., d. 1752. DEBORAH, a Hebr. prophetess, about 1285 b.c. DEBRAUX, P. E., a Fr. song-wr., 1798-1831. DECATUR, Stephen, an American naval com- mander, born 1779, killed in a duel 1820. DECEBALUS, king of the Dacians, famous for his long resistance to the Romans, defeated, and died by his own hand 105. DECEMBRIO, P. C, an Ital. savant, 1399-1447. DECIO, Philip, an Italian jurist, 1453-1535. DECIUS, emperor of Rome, 249-251. DECIUS, Conrad, an Austrian transl., 1592. DECIUS, J. L., a German hist., 15th century. DECIUS-MUS, a Roman consul, distinguished by his patriotic conduct and death in a war against the Latins about 340 B.C. DECKER, J., a Dutch poet, 1610-1606. DECKER, P., a German architect, 1677-1713. DECKER, Th., an Engl, dramatic wr., d. 1638. DECLAUSTRE, A., a Fr. liter, savant, last ct. DE-COETLOGON, C. E., an Engl. Calvinist, born of Fr. parents, au. of religious works, d. 1820. DE-COURCY, R., an Irish divine, d. 1808. DEF DEE, John, LL.D., an English divine and astrologer of great learning, celebrated in the his- tory of necromancy, chancellor of St. Paul's, and warden of Manchester college in the reign of Eliza- beth. He is the author of several published works, and some unpublished, which are preserved in the Cottonian library, and elsewhere; born in London 1527, d. 1608. His eldest son, Artiiii:, became physician to Charles I., and is the author of 'a faithful relation' of what passed between his father and some spirits, 1579-1651. DEERING, C, a physic, and naturalist, author of the ' History of Nottinghamshire,' 1690-1749. DEERING, J. P., R.A., the architect of Exeter Hall and other metropolitan buildings, 1780-1850. DEFAUCONPRET, A. J. B. De, a French translator, 1767-1843. DE FOE, Daniel, the son of a butcher in Lon- don, was born there in 1661. Four years in a dissenting academy seem to have furnished the only regular education he received. Engaging in trade, first as a wool merchant and afterwards as a brick and tile-maker, he became bankrupt after some years, but afterwards paid his creditors in full. His attention had been diverted from busi- ness both by literature and by politics. He enlisted under the duke of Monmouth, and narrowly escaped after the rebellion was crashed ; and he published, a little earlier, a pamphlet on the war between the Turks and the Austrians. His literary career, however, did not fairly begin till he was thirty-nine years old, when he abandoned trade, and became an author by profession. The first period of his authorship was devoted entirely to politics, in which he was one of the ablest and most popular among the advocates of Whiggism. He famed the notice of King William by his ' True- orn Englishman,' published in 1700 ; but the in- fluence of Toryism in the ministries of Queen Anne exposed the coarse and energetic adversary of the Stuarts and the Church of England to an almost uninterrupted series of discouragements and per- secutions. In the midst of these, however, he wrote with unbroken courage and unwearied industry. Be- sides publishing innumerable pamphlets, he carried on a periodical paper called the Review, without assistance, during the greater part of the queen's reign. In 1703 an attack on the high church party, in his pamphlet ironically called 'the Shortest Way with the Dissenters,' was punished by the pillory, a heavy fine, and imprisonment for more than a year. In 1706, the ministry of Go- dolphin employed him as an agent for the union of Scotland with England ; and in this character he resided a considerable time in Edinburgh, and found materials for a ' History of the Union.' Under the last administration of the reign he was again committed to prison for vehemently arguing in favour of the Hanoverian succession. After the accession of George I. he seems to have received no countenance from those whose interests he had so keenly espoused ; and, abandoning politics alto- gether, he devoted himself to fictitious composition. This stage of his career, which gave birth to the only works by which he is now remembered, did not begin till he was between fifty and sixty years of age, had fallen into bad health, and had even had a stroke of apoplexy. These were the circumstances in which, in 1719, he published the first part of 194 DEG * Robinson Crnsoe,' one of the best and most popu- lar of all romances. Of a similar kind, though incomparably inferior, were several subsequent tales, such as 'Colonel Jack' and 'Captain Singleton.' In his ' History of the Plague' and 'Memoirs of a Cavalier,' he engrafted historical facts on invented incidents and characters, with a curious force and earnestness of impression. De Foe died in London in 1731. [W.S.] DEGERANDO. See Gerando, Jos. M. De. DEHEEM, J. D., a Dutch flower p., 1604-1664. DEJNEF, S. Ivan., a Russ. navig., 17th cent. DEJOCES, fndr. of the Mede emp., 7th c, b.c. DEJOTARUS, a king of Galatia, 1st cent. b.c. DEKEN, Agatha, a Dutch poetess, 1741-1804. DELABORDE, J. B., a Fr. composer, last ct, DELACAPEDE, Ber. Ger. St. La., a French . naturalist, during the revolution secry. and presid. of the assem., and sen. under Buonaparte, 1756-1825. DELACOUR, Jas., an Irish poet, 1709-1781. DELACROIX, J. V., a Fr. advocate, 1743-1832. DELALAUDE, P. A., a Fr. natural., 1787-1823. DELAMARCHE, C. F., a Fr. geog., 1740-1817. DELAMBRE, M., born 1749, died in 1822, an eminent French cultivator of Astronomy, an ex- cellent observer, and a very voluminous writer. Delambre drew up and published several valuable Astronomical Tables ; but his chief labours related to the measure of the Arc of the meridian through Spain, and the History of Astronomy. The latter has the accuracy which Bailey's wants ; never- theless one sometimes misses the spirit of the J philosophic historian. He also wrote a valuable treatise on Astronomy. DELANDINE, A. F., a Fr. mis. wr., 1756-1820. DELANO, Amaso., an Amer. navig., 1763-1817. DEL ANY, Patrick, an Irish div., 1686-1786. DELARBRE, Ant., a Fr. botanist, 1724-1807. DE-LA-RUE, G., a Fr. liter, savant, 1748-1835. DELATOUR, L. F., a Fr. author, 1727-1807. DELATOUR, Maurice Quentin, a Fr. pain- ter, distinguished for his portraits, 1705-1788. DELAUDUN, P., a Fr. poet, 1575-1629. DELAULUE, S., a French engraver, 1520-1595. DELAVAL, E. H., an Eng. nat. phil., 1729-1814. DELAVIGNE, C, a French poet, 1794-1843. DELEUZE, J. P. F., a Fr. naturalist and librar., au. of a ' Hist, of Animal Magnetism,' 1743-1835. DELEYRE, A., a French liter, savant, d. 1797. DELFINO, the name of a patrician family of Venice, the most distin. members of which are — John, a doge, died 1361. Joseph, captain-gen. of the naval fleet, 1654. Jerome, proveditor-gen., 1691-99. Peter, general of the Camaldules, 114 1-1525. John, a cardinal, 1617-1699. DELFINO, F., an Ital. astronomer, 1477-1547. DELILLE, Jacques, a French didactic poet, in great repute at the end of the last century and un- der the empire, mem. of the academy, 1738-1813. DELISLE, Wm., a native of Paris, 1675-1726, wrought a complete reform in geography by con- structing maps from astronomical observations, to which, thougn greatly multiplied for many years before, map-makers had paid no attention. He seems to have imbibed the views of Cassini, the celebrated astronomer, on this subject; and his father, and younger brother, Joseph Nicholas, were distinguished in the same walk ; the latter especially, who was Astronomer Royal at St. Peters- DEM burgh, and the author of a history of astronomy, and of many valuable memoirs read to the Academy. [J.B.] DELISLE-DE-SALES, the name by which John Baptist Isoard Delisle is known, a Fr. savant, author ot ' Philosophie de la Nature,' 1743-1816. DELIUS, C. T., a Ger. mineralogist, 1730-1779. DELLA-MARIA, D., an Ital. com., 1778-1806. DELLON, C, a Fr. phys. and trav., 17th cent. DELMONT, Deo., a Flem. paint,, 1581-1634. DELMOTTE, H. F., a French author, d. 1836. DELOEUVRE, S. X., aFr. corned., 1765-1807. DELOLME, John Louis, an advocate, born at Geneva about 1745, and known as a political writer, published his first work in 1772, being a parallel between the English government and that of Sweden, which had been overthrown by Gus- tavus. Shortly afterwards he published his cele- brated work on 'The Constitution of England,' which was written in the French tongue, but im- proved and translated into English m 1775. In 1783 he published a ' History of the Flagellants,' or Memorials of Human Superstition.' In 1787, an essav on the 'Union between England and Scotland,' and in the two years following, ' Obser- vations on Taxes and the Regency Question.' He died in Switzerland 1807. DELONGCHAMPS, a Fr. dramatist, d. 1832. DELORME, Ph., a French architect, d. 1577. DELORME, J., phys. to Marie de Medici, Henry IV., and Louis XIII., 1547-1637. His son Charl., physician to Gaston and Louis XIIL, 1584-1678. DELORME, Marion, a Fr. courtezan, 1611-50. DELPHUS, jEgidius, a Latin poet, 16th cent. DELPON, J. A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1778-1833. DELRIEN, E. J. B., a Fr. dram., 1761-1836. DELRIO, M. A., a Flemish savant, 1551-1608. DELUC, John Andrew, a Genevese physi- cian, natural philosopher, and geologist, 1727-1817. DELUC, W. A., brother of the preceding, a nat. and fellow-labourer with him in geology, 1729-1812. DELWARDE, M., a Fr. historian, 1630-1724. DEMANDE, C. F., a Fr. median., 1728-1803. DEMAINBRAY, S. B., an English experimen- tal philosopher, 1710-1782. DEMARATUS, king of Sparta, 529-492 b.c. DEMETRIANUS, a Rom. architect, 2d cent. DEMETRIUS, a Greek sculptor, 4th cent. B.C. DEMETRIUS, a Greek architect, 4th cent. b.c. DEMETRIUS, the first of this name, king of Macedon, having fought his way to the throne, 295-287 B.C., dethroned and exiled by Pyrrhus, and died a simple citizen 283. The second of the name, king of Macedon, 242-232 B.C. DEMETRIUS I., king of Syria, known as Deme- trius Sotor, killed by Alex. Balas, 162-149 b.c. DEMETRIUS II., surnamed Nicator, or the Conqueror, deth. by Zabinas, and k. 144-125 b.c. DEMETRIUS III., sue. with his br. 95, d. 87 b.c. DEMETRIUS I., gr. duke of Rus., 1277-1294. DEMETRIUS II., gr. duke of Rus., 1359-1362. DEMETRIUS III., gr. duke of Rus., d. 1389. DEMETRIUS the False, one of numerous pre- tenders under this name to the throne of Russia, of which he possessed himself 1604, and was assas- sinated 1606. Another of these adventurers was massacred after possessing himself of Moscow by the aid of the Poles 1610 : the last of them perished on the scaffold 1653. 195 DEM DEMETRIUS CYNODIUS, aGr. wt., 14th ct. DEMETRIUS PEPANUS, a Gr. then., 17th ct. DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS, a Greek philo- sopher and orator, known in history as governor of the- Athenian republic, 3d cent. B.C. DEMIDOFF, the name of a Russian family, the founder of which, Demidas, dist. himself under Peter the Great as a cannon-founder, &c. and his grandson Procopius in mining operations. The nephew of the last named, Nicolas DEMIDOFF, distinguished for his philanthropy and public spirit and the high perfection to which he carried the working of mines, 1773-1828. DEMOCEDES, a Gr. physician time of Darius. DEMOCRITUS, the sage of Ahdera : he lived about four hundred years before Christ, at the period of Socrates ; 460 or 470 B.C. is reckoned the date of his birth, and he is said to have sur- vived a full century. Nothing of the writings of Democritus remain save a few fragments ; but with two exceptions, there is no great man of antiquity whose renown fills a larger space, or who seems, alike by his genius and his acquirements, to have better deserved a hold on the world's memories. Urged by thirst for knowledge, he travelled during his youth and manhood through India, Ethiopia, Chaldaea, and Persia; he spent several years in Egypt, and seems to have visited the schools of Pythagoras and Zeno. It is said, also, that he heard Socrates, and com- muned with Anaxagoras concerning the phe- nomena cf Astronomy, and the physical structure of Nature. Cicero tells us that in style Demo- critus might be the rival of Plato — he wrote so clearly, and so adorned what he wrote. The titles of his works relate to Logic, Ethics, Phy- sics, Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine, Poetry, Music, Grammar, and even Strategy. The Ab- derites are recorded to have paid loftiest honours to their sage. They confided to him the care of the state ; and there must have been ground for another pleasing tradition. It is said that Democritus had spent all his substance in travel- ling. But a law of Abdera refused the rights of burial to any one who wasted his patrimony. To escape the penalty, the philosopher read in public his chief treatise, entitled u^iyoa li«.xof its influence on subsequent speculation. He overlooked the essential activity of the think- ing principle, regarding it rather as the subject of certain peculiar changes; and this led him to a profounder misapprehension of the Idea of Sub- 198 DES stance. Leibnitz corrected him by restoring to it, the attribute of cause or force ; but not before the error had led to the engulphing fatalism of Spinoza. — 4. The intellectual vigour of Des Cartes left its marks on many various departments of knowledge. He was fond of Physiology. Kis hypothesis of Vortices prepared for the mechanical theory of planetary Motions. He founded Dioptrics — first impressing on it a geometrical character. But that by which he will longest live in Mathematics, is his most fertile idea of representing the properties of curves by equations. Measured by its influence this dis- covery takes rank with the infmitesmal calculus; nor has its empire been disputed until in the most recent times by the remarkable scheme of Quater- nions. — 5. The life of Des Cartes was given mostly to solitude and thought : nevertheless, on occasions, and with characteristic ardour, he took part in active pursuits. A soldier, he spent several years in camps ; he travelled much, and carried on an extensive correspondence. — Whenever Philosophy falls off, and the throne of Truth is usurped by Scepticism or Dogmatism, regeneration will in- variably come in one w T ay — through restoration of the method and fundamental principle of Des Cartes. [J.P.N.] [Birth-place of Pcscartcs J DESCEMET, J., a French botanist, 1732-1810. DESCROIZILLE, F. A. H., a Fr. che., d. 1825. DESERIZ, J. S., a savant of Hung., 1702-1765. DESEZE, Romain, one of the three counsel selected by Louis XVI. to defend him before the convention, after the restoration became president of the Court of Repeal, 1750-1828. DESFONTAINES, the Abbe P. F. Guyot, a miscellaneous French writer, at first a Jesuit, noted for his immoralitv, 1685-1745. DESFONTAINES, R. L., a Fr. bot., 1751-1833. DESFORGES, P. J. B. C, a French comedian and dramatic author, 1746-1806. DESHAYES, L., Baron De Courmenin, a Fr. diplo., beh. for conspiring against Richelieu, 1632. DESHAYS,J. B., a French painter, 1729-1765. DESHOULIERES, Antoinette Du Ligier De La Garde, Dame, a French poetess and dra- matic writer, 1634-1694. Her daughter, An- toini.tte Theresa, also a poetess, 1662-1718. DESJARDINS, Martin Van Den Booaebt, a Fr. sculp, and caster of stat. in bronze, 1640-1694. DES DESMAISEAUX, P.,uFr. mis. wr., 166G-1746. DESMARETS, C, chief of the French police under the empire, auth. of ' Memoirs' 1763-1823. DESMARETS, H., a Fr. composer, 1662-1741. DESMARETS, J., advocate-general of the par- liament of Paris, put to death by Charles VI., 1382. DESMARETS, N., a Fr. min. of finance, nephew of Colbert, eel. for his upright adininis., lived 1721. DESMARETS, N., a Fr. physician, director of the manuf. of France, mem. of the Acad., 1725-1S15. DESMOULINS, Benedict Camille, born at Guise in Picardy, 1762. and educated for the law at the college of Louis-le-Grand, was known as a wild young student of jurisprudence and Belles Lettres at the commencement of the French revolu- tion, and is supposed to have been early ac- quainted with Robespierre, if, indeed, he was not his college friend. He made the first of those stirring harangues by which the people were excited to the revolutionary combat, from a table on which he mounted in the garden of the Palais Royal, when the Swiss and German troops had been ordered under arms, previous to the dismissal of Necker. It was a moment of intense excitement, for the police were eyeing the young orator, who with a loaded pis- tol in each hand, swore he would not be taken alive. This was on Sunday the 12th of July, 1789, and two days afterwards Camille fought with the future re- publicans at the storming of the Bastile. Before the end of the month the ' Rights of Man ' had been promulgated by the Constituent Assembly, and was succeeded by that flood of journalism and club-eloquence on which so manv obscure men were suddenly borne to the height of popularity. Camille made his first profession of the republican faith in a work which he entitled ' La France Libre,' in which he declared that a democracy was the only form of government suited to a people who were ' w r orthy of the name of men.' This was followed by his ' Discours de la Lanterne aux Par- isiens,' subsequently called 'Les Revolutions de France et de Brabant,' a weekly paper, edited, as he styled himself,' by the ' Attorney-General of the Lamp-Iron.' This atrocious style was chosen by Camille rather as his password to the Faubourgs than the echo of his own sentiments, and he aban- doned it as a jeu d'esprit, too cruel to be taken in earnest. Towards the end of the year he united with Danton in the establishment of the Corde- liers' Club, the fiery element into which these two cast themselves to work out their own destiny, and to accomplish their part in the revolution. About this time he married the beautiful and accomplished Mademoiselle Duplessis, the devoted wife who afterwards hovered about his prison, and rested not till she arrived at the same cruel term of her existence as him she loved. It is re- lated that the cure" refused to marry him because he had written that there was as much evidence for the religion of Mahomet as for that of Chris- tianity, and the dispute between them was referred to Mirabeau, who decided that a man's religion could only be judged by his exterior profession. Camille declared himself a good catholic, promised to amend his ways, and was thereupon married, the priest laughing at the idea of a Mirabeau act- ing as a father of the church. It is painful to- read the words of the bridegroom when on his de- fence five years later: — 'A marked fatality has 199 DE3 ordained,' he said, 'that of sixty persons who signed my marriage contract, there should remain to me only two living friends, Robespierre and Dan- ton ! All the others have fled or are guillotined ! ' After the 10th of August, 1792, when Danton acquired the supremacy as minister of justice, Camille Desmoulins acted as his secretary, and though it is a disputed point whether he took any active part in the execrable massacres of Septem- ber, it cannot be supposed that the 'attorney- general of the Lamp-iron ' was the man to shrink from his share of the responsibility. The incident which marked the return of the friends to moderate counsels soon after the fall of the Girondins is related by Lamartine. It was one of the last evenings in the month of January, when Danton, Souberbielle, one of the jury of the revolutionary tribunal, and Camille Desmoulins came away together from the Palais de Justice, and spoke sorrowfully of the bloodshed of that day, when fifteen victims had fallen on the scaffold, and twenty-seven more had been condemned to suffer. The friends separated at Danton's door, and next day Camille Desmoulins had written the first number of the 'Vieux Cordelier,' in which the system of proscription was denounced, and a ' Com- mittee of Clemency' demanded as a preliminary to clearing the prisons of the 'Suspect.' In the daring burst of eloquence and passion which marked the pages of this journal, the system of Robespierre was attacked under cover of an assault on the cruel atheists Hebert and Chaumette. The quarrel broke out in the Convention as a personal squabble, on the 8th of January, 1794; and Danton supported his friend, thinking it high time, as he expressed himself, that they should make work for the guillotine of public opinion by enlightening the people. Two days afterwards the quarrel was resumed, and Robespierre spoke of Camille as a wayward child whose person it was not necessary to injure, but demanded that his writings might be burned. ' To burn them,' ex- claimed Camille starting up, 'is not to answer them ! ' and then, reckless of consequences, he complained that he had first submitted his copy to Robespierre, but that he had since refused to read his journal because he would not compromise himself by espousing either side of the quarrel. Danton acted as peace-maker on this occasion: but the harvest of death was ripening for this new party of mercy as for the Girondins; and Danton himself, together with his friends Camille Desmoulins, Philippeaux, and Lacroix, were arrested on the night of the 30th March, as Herault de Sechelles had been only a little earlier. His wife, Lucile, addressed an affecting appeal to Robespierre, which, it is believed, never reached him, and Camille found the means of opening a secret correspondence with her. These letters have been preserved, and they are filled with ex- pressions of the most passionate attachment and despair. At the bar of Tinville the prisoners were asked their age, name, and residence, 'My age,' said Camille, 'is that of the sansculotte Jcsu — I am thirty-three ; an age fatal to revolutionists ! ' He had prepared a written defence, but was not allowed to read it, and in a fit of indignation tore the paper to fragments, which, however, were afterwards collected by a friend, and their contents DEV handed down to posterity. The commotion of the people was feared by Robespierre, and the wife of Camille was arrested the following night, thai beauty and the eloquence of her grief might not be the means of snatching away a victory which he had only obtained by surprise and subtlety. She was guillotined a few days after her husband, On his way to the scaffold, Camille Desmoulins forgot all his philosophy, and became almost frantic, struggling with his bonds and appealing to the people whom he had called to arms on the 14th of July — to whom, as he reminded them, he had given the national cockade. At the guillotine he recovered his sangfroid, and, looking on the axe, said to the popidace, ' Behold, then, the recompense reserved for the first apostle of liberty ! ' The date of his execution is the 5th of April, 1794, that of Ins wife's the 10th. He was a man of rare genius, light, sparkling, and sarcastic, but of a most undecided temperament, and headlong in his im- pulses. His dazzling eloquence rained words like fire ; his epigrams flew like polished arrows, and, careless of results, he launched them against men of all parties, from Lafayette 'the liberator of two worlds,' and 'constellation of the white horse,' to St. Just who 'carried his head with the air of a saint-sacrament.' His ridicule of the Girondists in a ' History of the Brissotins," 1 pub- lished 1793, contributed to bring contempt upon that body by its very title; yet it must be remembered, to the honour of Camille and the Dantonists, that their attempt to save their enemies from the guillo- tine was the first step to their own rain. [E.E.1 DESORGUES, Tn., a French poet, 1764-1803. DESOTEUX, F., a Fr. physician, 1724^1803. DESPARD, Edward Marcus, an Irish officer, distin. in the West Indies during the Amer. war, and exec, for conspiring against the life of the kin ^ 1803. DESPARD, John, a brave Eng. gen., 1744-1829. DESPAZE, J., a Fr. satirical poet, 1769-1814. DESPREAUX, J. S., a Fr. dram., 1747-1820. DESSAIX, J. ML a general of the French revolution, member of the council of 500 till the 18th Brumaire, 1764-1825. DESSALFNES, J. J., a slave of St. Domingo, first emp. of Hayti under the title of James I., 1760-1806. DESSOLLE, J. J. P. Augustix, a French gen- eral and statesman, distinguished in the campaign of Italy, Spain, and Russia, 1767-1828. DESTOUCHES, A. C, a Fr. comp., 1672-1749. DESTOUCHES, P. N., aFr. dram., 1680-1754. DESTREM, H., a member of the French con- vention, one of the most vigorous opponents of the coup d'etat, 18th Brumaire, transported after the plot of the infernal machine, 1758-1805. DEUTSCH, N. E., a Fr. painter, 1484-1530. DEVAUX, J., a French surgeon, 1649-1729. DEVAUX, Gabriel, aFr. botanist, 1742-1802. DEVEREUX, ROBERT, earl of Essex, the re- puted favourite of Queen Elizabeth, distinguished as a military officer, gov. of Ireland during Tyrone's rebellion, born 1567, executed 1601. His son of the same name, commander for the parliament at the commencement of the civil war, 1592-1 6 15. DEVILLIERS, C, a Fr. naturalist, 1724-1809. DEVONSHIRE, Gborgiana Cavendish, duchess of, celebrated for her taste in art and the Belles Lettres, and for ber personal charms, authoress of poems, ' Passage of St. Got hard,' &c., 1757- 200 DEV 1806. Elizabeth Hervey, the second duchess, also distinguished for her beauty, her classical taste, and her love of art, 1759-1824. DEVUEZ, Arnold, a Fr. painter, 1642-1724. D'EWES, Sir S., an English hist., 1602-1650. DEWEZ, L. D. J., a Fr. historian, 1760-1834. DE-WTNT, Peter, an English artist, d. 1849. DE-WITT, Jno., a celebrated Dutch statesman, born 1625, grand pensionary of Holland from 1652, sacrificed with his brother Cornelius to the ambi- tion of tbe House of Orange, 1672. DHAFER, Hismail, caliph of Esypt, 1149-55. DHAHER, Ali, caliph of EsvpCi021-1036. DHAHER, Moham., the thirty-fifth caliph of the Abasside dynasty, reigned nine months in 1225. DHAHEZ, a sheik of Palestine, 1693-1775. DIADUMENIANUS, Marcus Opelius Ma- crinus Antoninus, emperor of Rome 217, killed by the soldiers of Heliogabalus 218. DIANA of Poitiers, mistress of Henry II., eel. for her influence and her brilliant court,1499-1566. DIANA of France, a natural daughter of Henry IL, and wife of Horace Farnese and F. Montmorency, 1538-1619. DIAS, B.* a Portuguese poet, 16th centurv. DIAS-DE-LUGO, J. B., a Span, jurist, d. 1556. DIAS-GOMEZ, F., a Portug. poet, 1745-1795. DIAS, P., a Portuguese Jesuit mis., 1621-1700. DIAZ, Bartholomew, a knight of the royal household, was sent by the king of Portugal in August 1486, in quest of the dominions of the imaginary Christian prince, Prester John, supposed to lie in India or Eastern Africa, while Covilhma and Payva went by land through Egypt. Diaz had two caravels of fifty tons each, and a small store-ship. Having touched at the African coast in lat. 26° S., 400 miles farther than any previous navigator had reached, he steered boldly south and lost sight of land. Storms which arose soon after bore him far E. of the Cape of Good Hope, which he was thus the first to double without knowing it. He had advanced to the mouth of the Great Fish River, making frequent inquiry after Prester John, when the crews insisted on his return. He now visited the Cape, determined its position with accuracy, and called it the Stormy Cape, a name which for better augury the king, John II., changed to the present designation. Diaz reached Lisbon in 1487. He perished at sea in 1500, in one of l's ships commanded by him. — Michael Diaz of Arrngon, was one of Columbus. He became governor of Porto Rico and died in 1512. [J.B.] DIAZ, E., a Portug. Jesuit mis., 17th century. DIAZ, F., a Spanish missionary, died 1646. DIAZ, G., a Portuguese painter, 16th century. DIAZ, J., a protestant convert of Spain, murd. by his brother, who afterwards hanged himself, 1546. DIAZ, M., a Spanish navigator, died 1512. DIAZ, P., a Spanish Jesuit and mis., 1546-1602. DIBDIN, Charles, was bom at Southampton in the year 1745, and was educated at Winchester. His father, who was a silversmith, first meant that his son should enter the church, but his early and devoted attachment to music soon frustrated the pa- ternal intentions. He received some lessons in music from Mr. Kent (whose anthems are well known), and commenced his career as poet and musician at sixteen years of age, and produced at Covent Gar- DID den Theatre an opera named 'The Shepherd's Artifice.' About this time he made his debut as an actor, and was well received. In 1768 he was the original Mungo in his own ' Padlock.' In 1772 he produced the music to ' The Deserter ; ' in 1774 the words and music of ' The Waterman ; ' and in 1775 ' The Quaker.' In 1778 he became composer to the Covent Garden Theatre, with a salary ot £10 per annum. About the year 1782 he built "the Cir- cus Theatre, afterwards known as the Surrey, and continued to manage it with indifferent success for nearly four years. In 1778 he published his musi- cal tour, and in 1789 he gave the first of his entertainments, under the title of ' The Whim of the Moment,' which soon became very popular. These entertainments, of which he was performer, f)oet, and musician, furnished his sole means of ivelihood until the year 1805, when he retired from public life with a government pension of £200. In 1813 Dibdin was attacked with par- alysis, and he died in July, 1814. Besides the operas named, Dibdin wrote two novels, and a few smaller literary works, and wrote and com- posed the enormous number of nine hundred songs ! To him is due whatever merit there is of having originated that kind of musical entertainment which has been followed by so many vocalists, from Incledon to Wilson, Templeton, and John Parry. [J.M.] DIBDIN, Thos., eldest son of the preceding, a dist. dramatic author and song-writer, 1771-1841. DIBDIN, Thos. Frognall, D.D., a celebrated bibliographer and antiquarian writer, 1775-1847. DIBIL-AL-KHOSSAI, an Arab, poet, 765-860. - DICEARCHUS, a Greek philosopher, historian, and geographer, disciple of Aristotle, 4th cent. B.C. DICETO, Raoul De, an Engl, hist., 13th cent. DICK, Sir Alex., a Sco. physician, remembered for introducing the culture of rhubarb, 1703-1785. ■ DICK, MajortGen. Sir Robert Henry, a Scotch peninsular and medical officer, killed at the battle of Sobraon, 1846. DICKINSON, E., an Eng. archfeol. 1624-1707. DICKSON, A., a Scot. wr. on agricul., d. 1776. DICKSON, D., a Scotch divine, 1591-1664. DICKSON, J., a Scotch botanist, died 1822. DIDEROT, Denys, was bom in 1713, at Lan- gres in Champagne, where his father was a re- spectable tradesman. Educated for the church, but declining to take orders, he was next placed in the companions of the chambers of a legal practitioner in Paris ; but, in like manner, he abandoned the law. Literature now became his profession ; and, after a few years of obscure drudgery, he became one of the most famous among those literary and scientific men, whose attacks on the established order of things, religious and ecclesiastical as well as political, are alleged to have acted so powerfully in precipitating the "French revolution. It was Diderot that pro- jected the huge work which, receiving the contri- butions of these so-called philosophers in their several departments, gave them their usual title of 'Encyclopedists.' The ' Encyclopedic, ou Dic- tionnaire Raisonne - des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers,' was designed, not merely to supersede the imperfect dictionaries of universal knowledge that already existed, but to teach, on every occa- sion which could admit the teaching, those social doctrines which were held by the writers. Among 201 DID the contributors were Voltaire, Rousseau, and seve- ral very eminent men of science; the work was edited at first by Diderot and D'Alembert, and afterwards by the former alone ; and, among its very unequal contents, his articles are distinguished both for good writing and for versatile ability. The publication continued, amidst many obstacles, from 1751 to 17G9. In the course of it, and after- wards, Diderot wrote several didactic treatises, in- decent and irreligious novels, and two sentimental comedies ; and his published correspondence, espe- cially with Voltaire and Grimm, throws much light on the gloomy picture which French society and morals then presented. He died at Paris in 1784. [W.S.] DIDIER, St., a Christian bp. and martyr, 264. DIDIER, last king of the Lombards, 757-773. DIDO, a princess of Tyre, eel. as the founder and queen of Carthage, supposed date about 880 b.c. DIDOT, the name of a family distin. in the his- tory of French printing, the most celebrated of whom is Firmin, the inventor of stereotyping, and also a classical scholar and author, 1764-1836. DIDYMUS, a Greek grammarian, 1st cent. B.C. DIDYMUS, a divine of Alexandria, 308-395. DIEBITSCH-ZABALKANSKI, a Russian gen- eral and favourite of Alexander, and commander in the war against the Poles 1830, died 1831. DIEFFENBACH, J. F., a German surgeon, celebrated for his skill in supplying artificial noses, curing strabismus or squinting, &c., 1795-1848. DIELIIELM, J. H., aGer. antiquarian, d. 1764. DIEMEN, Anthony Van, governor-general of the Dutch establishments in the East Indies, was born at Kuilenberg 1595, and going to India became successively accountant to the govern- ment, and member of the supreme council. In 1631, or 1632, he returned to Holland as com- mander of the India fleet, and the year following was raised to the dignity which he enjoyed till his death, in 1645. While holding this office, namely, in 1642, he sent Tasman on a voyage to the south, when that part of NewHolland was discovered which has since been called Van Diemen's Land. DIEPENBEKE, A. Van, a Fl. pain., 1607-1675. DIEREVILLE, a French navigator, 17th cent. DIES, Gaspakd, a Portuguese painter, d. 1671. DIETERICH, J. C, a Ger. savant, 1612-1669. DIETRICH, C. G. E., a Ger. painter, 1712-1774. DIETRICH, J. F., a Ger. Latin poet, 1753-1833. DIETRICH, P. F., Baron De, a mineralogist, first constitutional mayor of Strasburg, guill. 1793. DIEU, Anthony, a French painter, 1662-1727. DIEU, Louis De, a Dutch prot. min., eel. as a biblical commentator and Orientalist, 1590-1642. DIEU, St. Jean De, a relig. founder, 1495-1550. DIEZ, Juan Martin, a dist. guerilla chieftain of Spain, exec, for alleged conspiracy, 1755-1825. DIGBY, SirEverard, an English gentleman, executed for his complicity in the gunpowder plot, 1581-1609. His son, Sir Kenelm, a naval com- mander under Charles L, and philosophical writer, 1603-1665. John, of the same family, earl of Bristol, a political negotiator and partizan of Charles I., 1580 1653. GEORGE, Lord Digby, son of John, a zealous royalist, 1612-1676. DIGGES, Leonard, an English geometrician, died 1574. His son Thomas, an astronomer and mathematician, died 1595. Sir Dudley, son of DIO Thomas, a diplomatist and ambassador, author of a treatise on right, 1583-1639. Dudley, son of the last named, au. of some political tracts, d. 16 13. DILLENIUS, John James, a German botanist, first professor of botany at Oxford, 1687-1747. DILLON, the name of an Irish family, the first of whom mentioned by biographers is Went worth, earl of Roscommon, a hanger-on of the English court, 1633-1684. Others are mentioned in the service of France, as Arthur, lieut.-gen., distin. under Vendome and Villeroi, 1670-1733. His grandson of the same name, governor of St. Kitt's and Tobago, deputy to the estates-general, com- mander of the army of the north, and afterwards in the army of Dumouriez, ex. 1794. Theobald, the father of the last named, massacred, and hon- oured with a place in the Pantheon, 1792. DILWORTH, Thomas, author of a series of useful schoolbooks, died 1670. DIMSDALE, Th., an Engl, phys., 1712-1800. DINO, or DINUS, a jurist of the 13th century. DINTER, G. F., a Germ, theologian, 1760-1831. DINTERUS, E., a French chronicler, d. 1448. DIOCLETIAN, a common soldier who became emperor of Rome, 286, eel. for the persecution com. against the Christians 303, abdicated 306, died 313. DIODATI, Dominic, an It. savant, 1736-1801. DIODATI, Giovanni, a protestant divine of Geneva, kn. as a biblical annotator, 1576-1649. DIODORUS of Sicily, a famous Greek his- torian, au. of a universal hist, in 40 books, of which only 15 and some fragments are extant, 1st c. B.C. DIODORUS of Tyre, a Gr. philos., 2d c. B.O. DIOGENES of Apollonia, a Greek philo- sopher of the Ionic or physical school of Anaxi- menes, 5th century B.C. DIOGENES, the Babylonian, a Stoic philoso- pher, teacher of dialectic in Rome, 200 B.C. DIOGENES, the celebrated Greek cynic, was a native of Sinope, in Pontus, where he was born 413 b.c. He was banished from his country for coining false money, and repaired to Athens, where he studied philosophy under Antisthenes, and surpassed his master in the rudeness of his manners, and his austere views of human nature. He walked about the streets with a tub on his head, in which it is said he lodged at night. He is the type of cynicism, and for his zeal as a moralist lias been called the 'Mad Socrates.' Being on a voyage he was taken by pirates and sold into slavery at Corinth, where lie became tutor to the sons of a rich citizen, but died in the greatest misery, B.C. 324. His reputation pro- cured him a visit from Alexander the Great, who asked Diogenes if there was anything in which he could gratify him. ' Only,' he answered, ' do not stand any longer between me and the sun.' Some moral ' sentences ' are extant under his name, but they are thought to be apocryphal. The inhabi- tants of Sinope raised statues to his memory, and the marble figure of a dog was placed on a high column erected on his tomb. DIOGENES LAERT1US, a Greek philosopher, supposed to be of the Epicurean school, celebrated as an historian for his very valuable ' Lives of the Philosophers,' 2d century B.C. DIOMEDES, a Latin grammarian, 5th century. DION, a disciple of Plato, eel. for deliver. Sicily from the tyranny of Dionysius, assassin. B.C. 354. DIO DION CASSIUS, a Greek historian, 3d cent. DION CHRYSOSTOME, a Greek orator, 1st c. DIONYSIUS, a Greek painter, 5th cent. B.C. DIONYSIUS, the first of the name, called the Elder, tyrant of Syracuse, 405-368 B.C. DIONYSIUS, the second., called the Younger, son and successor of the preceding, 368-356 B.C. DIONYSIUS, a patriarch or bishop of Alexan- dria, dist. in the condemnation of Sabellius, 248-265. DIONYSIUS, an ancient geographer, surnamed Periegetes, from his poem containing a description of the world in Greek verse, 4th century. DIONYSIUS, the Akeopagite, a bishop of Athens, to whom certain writings containing an application of Platonism to Christianity have been dubiously attributed, burned alive about 95. DIONYSIUS of Halicarnassus, author of an hist, work entitled ' Roman Antiquities,' abt. 30 B.C. DIOPHANTUS, a mathematician of Alexan- dria, who flourished about the year 480 a.d. He originated a peculiar department of Algebra, which still bears his name. It relates to questions about whole numbers, squares, cubes, primes, &c. The best edition of his work is by Fermat. DIOSCORIDES, Pedanius, a celebrated Greek Physician and botanist, was born at Anazarba in, 'ihcia. The dates of his birth and death are not known ; but it is generally believed that he lived in the reign of the emperor Nero. He is said to have been named Phacas, from his face being marked with spots like lentils. He was a soldier in his youth, and it is surmised he may have been attached to the army as physician. He practised medicine, and he tells us himself that he travelled over Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and part of ancient Gaul, in quest of plants. His works contain chiefly an account of the medicinal virtues of the plants he describes ; and their principal value ap- pears to consist in their having given rise to numerous learned disquisitions, and an immense deal of controversy, in after times, as to the iden- tity of the species he mentions. This, no doubt, contributed much to advance the knowledge of botany amongst the medical men who succeeded him, and who in these times were almost the only persons who studied plants. The first printed edition of his works appeared at Venice, in the original Greek, in 1499 ; but since then many edi- tions have been printed, and translations made into almost every language of Europe, except English. In late times Tournefort made much use of his works, and still more lately they have given origin to the 'Flora Groca' of Sibthorp, which has been edited by Sir James Edward Smith. A genus of plants has been named after him by Plunder; the dioscorea, a genus which contains the yam. [W.B.] DIPPEL, John Conrad, a German physician and chemist, remarkable for his pretensions in theology and alchymy. He is the disc, of Prussian blue, and of an oil which bears his name, 1672-1734. DISNEY, John, an English divine, distin- guished for his activity and disinterestedness as a magistrate, 1677-1730. A descendant of the same name, chaplain to Bishop Law, and author of religious biographies, 1746-1816. DISRAELI, Isaac, the son of a Venetian merchant, of Jewish extraction, who had settled in England, was bom at Enfield, near London, in 1766. His education was chiefly received at Am- DOD sterdam and Leyden, and was completed by a tour in France and Italy. Coming, at an early age, into possession of an independent fortune, he was able to devote the whole of his long life to literary study and composition. In the first stage of his authorship he contributed poems to the' Gentle- man's Magazine,' and other periodicals, and wrote some small novels, of which the satirical piece called 'Flim Flams' is said to have been one. But he soon began to confine himself to his favourite department of Literary History ; commencing, when he was twenty-five years old, those miscellaneous collections and remarks, which, though pleasant and gossiping rather than philosophically critical, have preserved and disseminated a very large mass of cu- rious and valuable knowledge. In 1791 appeared the first volume of his ' Curiosities of Literature,' which were extended to three volumes, graduallv enlarged, and followed by a second series in 1823. In 1795 he published his ' Essay on the Literary Character,' and, in 1796, his ' Literary Miscellanies.' The most interesting of his works, ' The Calamities of Authors,' and ' Quarrels of Authors,' appeared in 1812, 1813, and 1814 ; and these were followed, in 1816, by his ' Character of King James I.' A subsequent work, the ' Commentaries on the Life and Reign of Charles I.,' gained for him from Ox- ford the honorary degree of D.C.L. In 1839 he became blind, but was still able to complete his 1 Amenities of Literature,' which had been designed to be a part in a survey of the ' Literary History of England.' Mr. DTsraeli died in the beginning of 1848, at his country-seat, Bradenham house, in Buckinghamshire. The late chancellor of the ex- chequer is his eldest son. [W.S.I DITTON, HUMPH., an Eng. geomet., 1675-1715^ DJEMCHID, an ancient king of Persia, regarded as the founder of Persian civilization, abt. 800 B.C. DLUGLOSS, J. L., a Polish hist., 1415-1480. DOBROWSKI, J., a savant of Hung., 1753-1829. DOBSON, M., a physician and natural philoso- pher, died 1784. His wife, Susannah, a clever miscellaneous writer, close of the century. DOBSON, William, a distinguishe'd English portrait and historical painter, of the reign of Charles I., was born in London in 1610, where he died in 1646, at the early age of thirty-six. Dob- son's education consisted chiefly in copying pic- tures by Titian and Vandyck, which he met with at his master's, Sir Robert Peake's. He was re- commended to the king by Vandyck, and succeed- ed him as Sergeant Painter to Charles I., who had a high opinion of Dobson, whom he called the English Tintoret. — (Walpole, Anecdotes of Paint- ing in England, &c.) £R.N.W.] DOD, John, a Heb. scholar and divine, called by Fuller ' the last of the Puritans,' 1547-1645. DODD, C, an English catholic historian, d. 1745. DODD, Ralph, a civil engineer, author of many works of great public utility, and a great promoter of steam navigation, 1761-1822. His son, George, dist. in the same prof., the projector and resident engineer of Waterloo Bridge, d. 1827. DODD, Dr. William, author of* num. religious and other works, b. 1729, executed for forgery 1777. DODDRIDGE, Sir J., an Eng. jurist, 1555-1628. DODDRIDGE, Philip, D.D., the son of an oilman, was born in London on 26th June, 1702. Both parents being very pious, took extraordinary 203 DOD pains to rear their numerous family in the nurture and admonition of the Lord; and Philip, the youngest, was introduced by his mother to a Know- ledge <>i't he characters and scenes of the Old and New Testament history through means of some Dutch tiles that lined a corner of their sitting-room. The associations of those primitive pictures, together with the remembrance of the sound and pious re- flections his parent founded on them, made indel- ible impressions on his infant mind. In his child- hood he was left an orphan ; and the little patri- mony bequeathed to him having been lost through the imprudent management of the trustee ap- pointed by his father, young Doddridge was in- debted to the kind liberality of Mr. Samuel Clarke, a dissenting minister, and master of a private school at St. Alban's, who took him into his house, and educated him gratuitously. Doddridge repaid the kindness of his disinterested and pious benefac- tor by not only making uncommon attainments in learning, but by strong and beautiful evidences of Eersonal religion. His early wish was to devote is life to the ministry, but great difficulties lay in the way to the accomplishment of this object ; and while he was anxiously pondering the matter in his mind, he received an oft'er from the duchess of Bedford, who lived in the neighbourhood, and had heard of his character and circumstances, to send him to either of the two universities, on condition of his becoming a clergyman in the Church of England. So tempting an offer it required strong and conscientious principles to resist. But his dissent being the result of enlightened and matured conviction, he respectfully and gratefully declined the proposal of his noble patroness. His old and steady friend, Mr. Samuel Clarke, now undertook to bear the expense of his education ; and Doddridge, regarding this offer as indicating the leading of Providence, gladly embraced it, by repairing to the academy of Kilworth, in Leicestershire, where, under the auspices of the learned and pious Dr. Jennings, he pursued the requisite studies with great ardour. On 22d July, 1722, he was licensed to preach, and such was the fame of his pulpit ministrations that he soon found himself settled over the congregation at Kilworth, as successor to Dr. Jennings. At the end of seven years he re- moved to Harborough, to be assistant to the vener- able Mr. Some ; but this situation, too, he erelong relinquished, to take the superintendence of a dis- senting academy for the training of young minis- ters, an office to which his high celebrity as a scholar and divine procured his unanimous appoint- ment by the electors. A very pressing invitation from the Independent congregation in Northamp- ton, enforced by the advice of Dr. Watts and other friends to accept it, led him to a new sphere of labour; and from 24th December, 1729, he dis- charged in that town the double duty of pastor of a large congregation and tutor to the Theological Seminary. Seldom has there been a more labori- ous — never was there a more conscientious life than that of Doddridge. To serve his Divine Master was the ruling principle of his heart ; and to the advancement of the sacred cause he brought all the energies of an active mind, and all the stores of an almost boundless knowledge daily to bear. Many students repaired from all parts of the king- dom to enjoy the benefit of his prelections; and DOL amongst these not a few who afterwards rose to distinction, not among the dissenters only, but in the established churches of England and Scotland, in America, and even in Holland. The university of Aberdeen conferred on him, in 1736, the honor- ary degree of Doctor in Divinity. He was a volu- minous author. Amongst his works, all of which have long been well known and highly valued in the religions world, we may enumerate his ' Sermons on Regeneration,' his ' Sermons to Young People,' his ' Life of Colonel Gardner.' But the principal are the ' Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul,' and the ' Family Expositor.' Dr. Doddridge's frame, never robust at any time, was enfeebled by his incessant labours, and severe cold having settled on his lungs, and been followed by symptoms of consumption, he was advised to try the eftects of a sea voyage. On 30th September, 1751, he sailed from Falmouth in a vessel bound for Lisbon, where he landed on 13th October, and being completely exhausted he sank in a few days, expressing to Mrs. Doddridge, who accompanied him, his firm faith and joyful hope in Christ. [R.J.] DODINGTON, George Bubb, or according to his title, Lord Melcombe, an English statesman, best known as author of a ' Diary,' 1691-1762. DODON^US, R., a Dutch botanist, 1517-1585. DODSLEY, Robert, the well-known booksel- ler and miscellaneous writer, was born of poor parents, and though he commenced life as a foot- man, rose to considerable eminence as a dramatic author and essayist, and acquired a handsome for- tune as a publisher. His literary connections and friendships include the first names of last century. The most celebrated of his theatrical pieces is ' Cleone,' a tragedy, and the most useful of his speculations the 'Annual Register,' commenced 1758, in conjunction with Edmund Burke. ' He bore an excellent private character, was modest in his prosperity, grateful to his early friends and patrons, and disposed to bestow on others the same kind assistance which he himself had experi- enced.' Born at Mansfield 1703, died 1764. DODSON, M., an Engl, theol. wr., 1732-1799. DODSWORTH, R., an Eng. antiq., 1585-1654. DODWELL, Hex., a famous wr. on controver- sial, theological, and classical subjects, 1641-1711. His son, of the same name, a lawyer and sceptical writer, 1742. His younger son, William, arch- deacon of Berks, and an able divine, 1709-1765. DOEDERLEIN, J. A., a Ger. hist, 1675-17 15. DOEDERLEIN, J. C, a Ger. theol., 1746-1792. DOERFEL, G. S., a Germ, astronomer, 17th c. DOES, Jacob Van Deb, a Dutch painter, 1623-1673. His son, of the same name and pro- fession, distinguished as 'the younger,' 1654-1698. Simon, his eldest son, a pupil of his father, whose style he adopted, 1653-1717. DOGGET, Thos., an Irish playwright, d. 1721. DOGHERTY, Thos., a writer' on iaw, d. 1805. DOGIEL, M., a Polish historian, 17th century. DOHM, C. W. Vox, a Proa, diplom., 1751-1820. DOLABELLA, Publius Cornelius, the son- in-law of Cicero, successively tribune, consul, and governor of Syria; after the death of Ca>sar. he put an end to" his life when besieged by Cas.sius in Laodicea 43 b.c. DOLCE, Carlo, a Floren. painter, 1616-1686. Agnes, his daughter, also a painter, died 1690. 204 DOL DOLCE, Louis, a Ven. liter, savant, 1508-1568. DOLET, Stephen, a French reformer and literary savant, burned as an atheist, 1509-1546. DOLGORUCKI, John Michalovitsch, a distinguished Russian soldier and poet, 1764-1824. DOLIVAR, J., a Spanish engraver, 1641-1710. DOLLOND, J., an English optician, distin- guished in conj. with his sons for many improve- ments in optical and mathem. instru., 1706-1762. DOLOMIEU, Deodatus, a Fr. geologist and mineralogist, whose name has been conferred on a calc. stone which he was first to describe, 1750-1801. DOMAING, Mohammed, an Ar. nat., d. 1405. DOMAT, J., a French jurist, 1625-1765. DOMBAY, F. De, an Aus. Oriental., 1758-1810. DOMBEY, Joseph, a Fr. phys., one of the most eel. French naturalists of the last ct., 1742-1793. DOMENICHINO, the name by which Do- menico Zampieri is commonly known. He was born at Bologna in 1581, and studied some time under Denis Calvert, but afterwards entered the school of the Caracci. Domenichino painted a long time at Rome, and his picture of the Com- munion of St. Jerome there, in the Gallery of the Vatican, is considered one of the masterpieces of Italian painting, yet the painter received only ten guineas for it. Able in drawing, expression, and composition, Domenichino had many enemies, by whom he was much persecuted, both at Rome and Naples. He died in the latter city April 15, 1641, and it was supposed that he was poisoned by the agency of the notorious triumvirate Spagnuolet- to, Corenzio, and Giambattista Caracciolo, known as the ' Cabal of Naples.' Domenichino is gene- rally considered the ablest of the pupils of the Caracci. — (Bellori, Vile de 1 Piitori, &c. ; Passeri, Vlte de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N.W.] DOMETT, Sik W., an Eng. nav. offi., 1754-1828. DOMINIC, De Guzman, generally called St. Dominic, founder of the order of friars named after him, and of the inquisition, noted for his cruel per- secuting spirit, 1170-1221. [Dominican Friar.] DOMINIC LORICATUS, so named from wear- ing an iron cuirass, an Italian monk, died 1060. \)< ).\i IN IS, M. A. De, a Jesuit and phys. of Dal- matia, the fust to explain the rainbow, 1566-1624. DON DOMITIAN, or, with all his names, Titus Flavius Sabinas Domitianus, one of the most cruel and debauched of the Roman emperors, born 51, succeeded Titus 81, assassinated 96. DOMITIUS, procl. emp. at Alexandria, 288-290. DOMITIUS AENOBARBUS, a Roman consul, 122 B.C. A prtetor and consul of the same name was the husband of Agrippina and father of Nero. DON, Sir G., a British officer, 1756-1832. DONALD I., king of Scotland, the first prince of that country who embraced Christianity, d. 216. DONALD II., slain by his successor 254. DONALD III., succeeded 254, slain 260. _ DONALD IV,, distinguished for his piety and for aiding the children of Ethelred to recover Northum- berland, died 647. DONALD V, conquered by the Picts, d. 828. DONALD VI., dis. by his victory over the Danes and the friendship of Alfred the Great, 894-904. DONALD VII., otherwise called Duncan, dis- tinguished for his repulse of the Norwegians, mur- dered by Macbeth, 1034-1041. DONALD VIII., called the Bane, or Donald Bane, usurped the throne 1093-1098. DONALDSON, Jo., an artist and au., 1737-1801. DONALDSON, Jos., a miscel. writer, d. 1830. DONALDSON, W., aphil. writer, 17th centurv. DONATELLO, an Italian sculptor, 1383-1466. DONATI, A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1584-1640. DONATI, V, an Italian naturalist, 1713-1763. DONATO, F., a doge of Venice, disting. for having preserved the neutrality of the state during the wars between Charles V. and Henry II., and for enriching it with works of art, 1545-1553. DONATO, L., a doge of Venice, distin. for his successful resistance to pope Paul V., 1606-1612. DONATUS, an African bishop, the author of tho schism named after him, 4th century. DONN, Abr. ; an Engl, math., 1718-1746. His brother Benjamin, a math, andarith., 1729-1798. DONNE, J., an Engl, poet and theol., 1573-1631. DONNER, Raphael, a Ger. sculp., 1688-1740. DONNINI, Jerome, an Ital. painter, 1681-1743. DONNISSU, Marquis De, a Ven. gen., ex. 1793. DONIZETTI, Gaetano, was born at Ber- famo in the year 1798. His father destined im for the law, but for which profession he him- self had no liking. His first taste seems to have lain towards painting, but he ultimately devoted himself to the study of music, in which lie achieved a very high and prominent position. His first master in music was the celebrated Simon Mayer, and he studied for three years at the con- servatory of Bologna under Mattei. He composed in all sixty-three operas, the first of which, ' Enrico di Borgoyna,' was performed at Venice in 1818, in which Madame Catalani sustained the principal character, and in which Signor Fioravanti also took a part. Up to the year 1827 he had com- posed no fewer than nineteen operas, of which tho ' Zoraide ' was the most successful. In 1828 he ceased to write in the style of Rossini ; and his own great originality first developed itself in 1 Esule di Roma,' which was performed at the San Carlo at Naples, and in which Lablache sustained the principal bass part. This was his earliest triumph, and the new style gave ample promise of the future career of ' II Maestro.' In the same year he composed other three operas. In 205 DON 1829 he produced 'II Paria ' and ' II Castello di Kenilworth,' at the Ban Carlo. In 1830 he wrote four operas for the same establishment, and an Oratorio, ' II Diluvio Universale. ' For the carnival of 1831 he composed his 'Anna Bolena,' which established his reputation, and after which every manager in Europe became desirous to have a work from the great composer. His next opera was ' Fausta.' In 1832 he composed 'Ugo Conte di Parigi,' the ' Elisir d' Amore,' and ' Sancia di Castiglia;' next year he wrote 'II Furioso,' 'Pari- sina,' and 'Torquato Tasso.' 1834 gave to the world his other masterpiece, ' Lucrezia Borgia,' and ' Maria Stuarda.' In the same year he com- posed 'Rosmonda d' Inghilterra.' In 1835 he wrote ' Gemma di Vergi,' ' Marino Faliero,' which was first performed in London, and the world-re- nowned ' Lucia di Lammermoor,' which was brought out at San Carlo. In 1836 he composed ' Behsario ' for the carnival of Venice, and produced 4 II Campanello,' 'Betly,' and ' L'Assidio di Calais.' In 1837 he wrote two operas, namely, 'Pia di Tolomei' and 'Roberto Devereux.' In 1838 he composed ' Maria di Rudenz ; ' in 1839 ' Gianni di Parigi ; ' and in 1840 ' La Fille du Regiment ' for the Opera Comique of Paris. This year he also produced ' Les Martyrs ' and ' La Favorita.' In 1841 he composed '"Adelia,' in 1842 ' Maria Pa- dilla ' and ' Linda di Chamouni.' In 1843 he pro- duced his ' Don Pasquale ' for Grisi, Mario, Tam- burini, and Lablache, which was brought out at the Italian Opera of Paris. In the same year he com- posed for Venice his lyric tragedy, 'Maria di Kohan,' and for the Academie Royale of Paris his ' Don Sebastian de Portugal.' At the carnival of Naples in 1844, his sixty-third and last opera ' Cate- rina Cornaro,' was produced, while two unfinished operas were amongst his manuscripts, and he was preparing another comic opera for Grisi, Mario, Ronconi, and Lablache. At this time his mind, which had been so severely tasked, utterly gave way, and he was first taken to a Maison de Sante at Vitry, near Paris : subsequently his nephew, who was then director of music to the sultan at Constan- tinople, had him removed to a house at the Champs Elysees. He was ultimately conveyed to Bergamo, where it was thought the scenes of his early life might assist his recovery ; but all was of no avail. He died on the 8th of April, 1848, after five days' struggle, surrounded by nis early friends and ad- mirers. Donizetti was married to Virginia Vas- seli, the daughter of an advocate in Rome, who died in Naples in 1835. Donizetti succeeded Zingarelli in the direction of the conservatory at Naples, and held office as chapel-master to the imperial court of Vienna. He composed, besides his operas, various detached vocal pieces, masses and vespers, a Miserere, some quartetts, overtures, variations for the piano-forte, a Monody for the death of Malibran, &c. Donizetti was an excel- lent poet as well as a musician, and wrote some of his own libretti. In rapidity of composition he rivalled Rossini, and has been known to score an opera in twenty-four hours, a period barely suffi- cient for the mere manual labour of writing down the notes. PJ.M.] DON US, the first of the name, pope for about a year, 677 ; the second, elected 974-975. DOODY, Samuel, an EngL botanist, d. 1706. DOU DOPPET, F. A., a man of letters, and gen. of the Fr. rep. army. mem. of the coun. of 500, 1753-1800. DORAT/C. J., a French dram, wr., 173 -1-17NO. DORAT, John, or, according to the Latinized form, Auratus, a Fr. scholar and poet, 1507-1588. DORIA, the name of an illustrious family of Genoa, the chief of whom are — Oberto, dist. for a naval victory over the Pisans, 1284. Zamp.a. who defeated the Venetian admiral, Dandolo, 12981 Paganino, who defeated the Venetian admiral, Pisani, 1352-1354. Lucien, killed in a battle with the Venetians, in which his fleet was victo- rious, 1379. Pierre, who was compelled to sur- render his whole fleet to Victor Pisani, 1380. An- drea, surnamed the ' Father and Defender of his Country,' dis. as the greatest commander and pa- triot of which the state can boast, 1468-1560. DORIA, P. M., a Neapolitan philos., 1675-1743. DORIGNY, M., a French painter and engraver, 1617-1663. His sons Louis and Nicholas, dis- tinguished in the same arts, the former 1654-1742, the latter 1657-1746. DORION, C. A., a French poet, 1770-1829. DORISLAUS, Isaac, a Dutch civilian, lecturer on history at Cambridge, and ambassador to Hol- land, assassinated 1649. DORLEANS, J., a French historian, 1644-1698. DORLEANS, L., a French satirist, 1542-1629. DORPIUS, M., a Dutch savant, 1460-1525. D'ORSAY, Count, a well-known director of fashion, celebrated as a sculptor, died 1852. DORSET, Thomas Sackville, earl of, am- bassador, chancellor of Oxford, and lord treasurer, distin. both as a statesman and author, 1527-1608. Edward, his grandson, bearing the same title, a partizan of Charles I., and regent during his absence in Scotland, 1590-1652. Charles, one of the cavaliers and wits of the court of Charles II., 1637- 1706. Lionel, lord-lieut. of Ireland, 1686-1765. DOSA, G., a peasant of Transylvania, proclaimed k. of Hungary, and met with a horr. death, 1513. DOSITHiEUS, a Jewish priest, 2d cent. B.C. DOSITHZEUS, a heretic of Samaria, 1st cent. DOUCE, Francis, author of ' Illustrations of Shakspeare and of Ancient Manners,' died 1834. DOUCIN, L., a French Jesuit and historian, an ardent defender of the bull ' Unigenitus,' d. 1726. DOUGLAS, the name of an ancient and illus- trious Scotch family, the earliest of whom are — William ' The Hardy,' died 1302. ' The good Sir James,' a companion in arms of Robert Bruce, killed in battle with the Moors, 1331. William, a natural son of the preceding, called ' England's scourge and Scotland's bulwark,' killed 1353. Archibald, brother of Sir James, regent in 1333. William, lord of Liddesdale, 'the flower of chivalry' in the 14th century. After these the following are mentioned with the title of earls : — 1. William, distinguished at the battle of Poictiers, d. 1384. — 2. James, his son, k. at the battle of Otter- burn, 1388. — 3. Archibald, surnamed ' The Grim,' date unknown. — 4. Archibald, born 1374, cele- brated for a victory over the earl of March and Henry Percy 1401, killed at the battle of Verneuil 1425. — 5. Archibald, ambassador to England for the release of James I., 1437. — 6. WnxiAM, treacherously murdered at a banquet in the ca.stle at Edinburgh the same year. — 7. Unknown. — 8. William, the most imperious and powerful of the 206 DOU line, stabbed by James II. at Stirling, 1452. — 9. James, brother of the preceding, and last earl of Douglas, taken prisoner after vainly attempting to revenge his brother's death, and died in a monas- tery, 1488. A younger branch of the same family are distinguished as earls of A ngus. The best known of these are — George, married to the daugh- ter of king Robert III., 1397, and Archibald, called the Great Earl of Angus, distinguished at the battle of Torwood, father of Gawin, bishop of Dunkeld, and of the two Douglases killed at Flod- den, died 1513. The younger branch of the Angus family claims James Douglas, the celebrated earl of Morton, and regent of Scotland, beheaded for the murder of Darnley, 1581. DOUGLAS, James, earl of Morton and Aber- deen, fnder. of the Edin. Philos. Soc, 1707-1768. DOUGLAS, JxVs., a Scotch anato., 1675-1742. DOUGLAS, John, a learned divine and critic, successively bp. of Carlisle and Salisbury,1721-1807. DOUGLAS, Sylvester, Lord Glenbervie, a member of parliament, and chief commissioner of woods and forests, 1743-1832. His son, F. S. N. Douglas, member for Banbury, and author of a ' Comparison between the Ancient and Modern Greeks,' died 1819. DOUGLAS, — , a Scotch botanist, 1799-1833. DOUJAT, J., a French savant, 1606-1688. DOUSA, John, or Van Der Does, a Dutch general and scholar, author of 'Annals of Hol- land,' 1545-1604. His eldest son, John, a Latin poet and scholar, distinguished by the friendship of Scaliger, 1571-1596. His fourth son, Francis, a savant, born 1577. His son Didier, 1580-1663. DOVALLE, C, a French poet, 1807-1829. DOVER, G. J. W. Agar Ellis, Lord, a bio- graphical and historical writer, contributor to the reviews, &c, 1797-1833. DOW, Alexander, a Scotch Orient., d. 1799. DOW, Gerard, a celebrated Dutch Genre painter, was born at Leyden in 1613 ; his father, who was a glazier, brought him up a glass-pain- ter, but having placed him with Rembrandt, when in his sixteenth year only, the good use the young painter made of his opportunity enabled him to establish himself in the more independent profes- sion of a painter. Few men have ever attained such wonderful mastery or delicacy of execution as Gerard Dow. He died rich at Leyden in 1680. Schalken, Mieris, and Metzu, were his pupils. — (Houbraken, Groote Schovburg, &c, 1.) [R.N.W.] DOWLAND, John, a celebrated performer on the lute, was born in Oxford in the year 1562, and took his degree of Bachelor of Music in 1588. He composed a great deal of music, all of which, saving one or two madrigals, is forgotten, and was a great favourite with the public. The ' Passionate Pil- grim' has devoted a sonnet to Dowland, which, even were his beautiful madrigal, ' Awake, sweet Love,' irrecoverably lost, would render his name immortal. He died, it is generally believed, in Denmark in the year 1615. [J.M. ] DOWNES, Andw., a Greek scholar, 1550-1627. DOWNHAM, G., an Irish theologian, d. 1634. DOWNING, C, a puritan divine, 1606-1644. DOWNMAN, Hugh, an Engl, poet, 1740-1809. DRABICIUS, N., a Ger. enthusiast, 1587-1652. 1)1! ACO, a legislator of Athens, 7th cent. B.C. DRAGONETTI, H., an Ital. jurist, 1738-1818. 207 DRA DRAGUT, an Ottoman corsair, killed 1565. DRAKE, Francis, an English antiq., d. 1770. DRAKE. Francis Drake, the chief of the English Naval Worthies of the reign of Elizabeth, and the first man who circumnavigated the globe in a single voyage, was born in 1546, near Tavis- tock in Devonshire. His father was a poor clergy- man ; and Francis was the eldest of twelve sons, nearly all of whom were bred to the sea. He was apprenticed while a lad to the master of a coasting bark, which sometimes made voyages to Holland and France. In this humble employment Drake grew up to be a thorough seaman ; and he also by his steadiness and good conduct so gained the esteem of his master, that when the old man died, he bequeathed his bark to the diligent and skilful young mariner. — Drake continued his old master's trade in her for some time ; but his spirit of adven- ture caused him at last to sell her, and employ the proceeds in a trading voyage to the West Indies in 1565 and 1566, during which he suffered much ill usage and loss from the commander of some Spanish cruizers. On Drake's return he joined Sir John Hawkins in an adventure to the Spanish Main, which proved calamitous at the time, but which must have done much in qualifying Drake for his subsequent achievements. The little squadron which Hawkins and Drake commanded, was treach- erously attacked by a Spanish fleet in the port of St ; Juan de Ulloa, and four out of the six English ships were destroyed. — Drake returned to Eng- land with the loss of all his property; but with the gain of valuable experience, and with an increase to that keen antipathy to the Spaniards, which marked him throughout life, and which is best paralleled by that which Nelson afterwards felt to the French. In 1572 Drake succeeded in fitting out three small vessels, and sailed to the Spanish Main on a voyage of reprisals. He failed in an attack on the city of Nombre de Dios; but he landed on the isthmus of Panama, and captured a large treasure, which was being conveyed on mules to Nombre de Dios for exportation to Spain. It was in the course of this adventure that one of the native guides who led the English across part of the isthmus, showed Drake a lofty tree from whose summit might be discovered the Pacific ocean, along which no Euro- pean flag, save that of Spain, had hitherto ever floated, and the coasts of which were believed to teem with treasure-cities of boundless magni- ficence. Drake climbed this 'goodlie and great high tree,' as he himself termed it, and gazing thence on the broad Pacific, he with great solemnity ' besought God to give him health and life once to sail an English ship in those seas.' — This was no barren vow of transient enthusiasm. On his re- turn to England, Drake prepared a squadron for a voyage into the South Pacific through the straits of Magellan. It consisted of five vessels, the largest of which was only of 500 tons. Drake sailed on the 13th December, 1577, and on the 20th May, 1578, he anchored in the port St. Julian of Magellan. There one of the companions of Drake, named Thomas Doughty, was tried by Drake and the other officers of the fleet, and put . to death on a charge of mutiny and conspiracy. This execution has long been made a subject of heavy imputation on Drake's character, but Sir John Bairow in his late work, 'The Naval DRA Worthies of the Reign of Elizabeth,' has printed some contemporaneous records of Douglitv's trial which prove his sentence to have been Just, and his death necessary. Drake emerged into the Pacific from the perilous straits of Magellan on the 6th of May, but his ship, the Golden Hind. struggled with difficulty through heavy gales; and all her consorts abandoned her or perished. With his one vessel Drake now began his attacks upon the Spanish treasure-ships that were sailing in fancied security along the coast of the Pacific ; and the Golden Hind was soon deeply laden with Spanish gold and other valuables. Drake now thought of returning home ; but an attempt to re- pass the straits would have thrown him within the reach of a large force, which the enraged Spaniards had collected to intercept him. He resolved, therefore, to seek a passage home round the north of America ; and by unrivalled boldness and skill, worked his ship to a high latitude along the wes- tern coast of the Atlantic. Yielding at length to the increased severity of the winter season, and the natural obstacles which his crazy bark and worn-out crew encountered, Drake steered west- ward across the Pacific for the Plulippine islands, and thence for the Cape of Good Hope. He doubled the Cape on the 15th June, 1580 ; and on the 25th September in that year, the Golden Hind came safely to anchor in Plymouth harbour, having been two years and ten months at sea, during which time she had sailed round the whole world. — Drake's exploits, and the treasure which he had brought home, made all England ring with his renown. Queen Elizabeth knighted him, and dined in state with him on board the Golden Hind. The Spaniards were loud in their protestations, and demanded that Drake should be given up to them as a pirate. There was at this time nominal peace between the two countries; but Spanish troops had often aided the rebels against Elizabeth in Ireland, and England, on the other hand, had sustained by men and money the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain. In the New World the arrogant claims of the Spaniards to exclude all other nations from the seas of Central and Southern America, and the cruelties which their officers practised, had created a system of reprisals ; and 'no peace beyond the line,' was the rough and ready maxim of the English mariners. The nation adopted it. Queen Elizabeth refused to give up or to punish Drake ; and in the open war which soon broke out between her and Spain, Drake did noble service to his country and his queen. In 1585 he attacked and burnt the collected shipping in Cadiz harbour, and thereby delayed for a year the sailing of the Spanish Armada against Eng- land. And when in 1588 Spain sent that huge agglomeration of her fleets and armies against our shores, Sir Francis Drake was the boldest and the sagest among that bright band of our naval heroes who baffled and beat the haughty Spaniards; and who forced the shattered remnants of their so-called Invincible Armada to flee in disaster and disgrace round the north of Britain and Ireland back to the harbours of the peninsula, which they had quitted in such confidence of vindictive success. In 1595 Drake sailed on his last voyage in conjunction with his old comrade Sir John Hawkins, on an ex- pedition against the Spanish West Indies. The DRO English were unsuccessful in this enterprise. They Buffered severely by the diseases of the climate, to which the brave Sir Francis fell a victim. Ad- miral Drake died on board his own ship off Porto- bello, on the 28th Januarv, 1596. [E.S.C.] DRAKE, James, a political satirist, 1667-1 707. DRAKE, Dr. Nathan, a physician of Had- leigh in Suffolk, distinguished as an essayist on English literature, and especially on periodical literature from the time of Addison, 1766-1836. DRAN, H. P. Le, a Fr. surgical wr., 1685-1770. DRAPARNAUD, J. P. R., a French naturalist, 1772-1805. His brother, Victor Xaviek, a dra- matist, au. of the ' Prisoner of Newgate,' 1773-1 833. DRAPER, Elizabeth, the friend of Stern Raynal, to whom the former addressed his letters, published under the name of Yorick, 1742-1775. DRAPER, Sir William, a military officer, known as a controversialist from his defence of the marquis of Granby, 1721-1787. DRAYTON, Michael, one of the most esteemed of the early English poets, most admired for his pastorals and chivalrous subjects, born at Harshull in Warwickshire, 1563, buried in West- minster Abbey, 1631. DREBBEL, Cornelius Van, a Dutch philos. and chem., inv. of the thermometer, &c, 1572-lc:: !. DRELINCOURT, Charles, a French protes- tant, author of ' Consolations against the Fears of Death,' &c, 1595-1669. Laurence, his son, a learned divine and author, 1631-1681. Charles, his third son, a physician, died 1697. DREW, Samuel, a methodist preacher, celeb, as a metaphysician for his ' Essay on the Imma- teriality and Immortality of the Soul,' 1765-1833. DROLLINGER, C. F., a Ger. lyric, 1688-1742. DROUAIS, J. G., a French painter, 1763-1788. DROUET, Jean Baptiste, master of the post in the village of Sainte-Menehould, and once a soldier of the dragoons, has obtained a remarkable name in the history of the French revolution by his arrest of Louis XVI. when he attempted to fly the kingdom, 20th June, 1791. His curiosity was awakened by the arrival of travellers under very unusual circumstances, curiosity ended in suspicion, and his suspicions were confirmed by a comparison of the king's portrait, engraved on the French assignats at that time, with the pretended Baron Korff in the Berline. With the zeal of a patriot, and the decision and boldness of a soldier, he galloped by a cross road to the town of Varen- nes, and prepared his measures so effectually, not- withstanding the near neighbourhood of Choiseul and Bouille", that the carnages were stopped, and the king conducted to Pans. If Lafayette was justifiable in declaring the flight of the 'king 'in- famous,' and the country had reason to tremble for its independence with Louis in the army of the coalition, it is impossible to deny that Drouet's arrest of the king was an act of patriotism ; and, viewing it in this light, the National Assembly rewarded him with a gift of 30,000 francs, while the people, in 1792, returned him to the National Convention. In the capacity of deputy he voted for the most violent measures, and had the atro- city to propose that all the English in Franco should be shot. In 1793 he accompanied the army of the North as commissary, and was shut up in Manbeuge, when that place"was reduced to 208 DRO the last extremity by the Austrians, and was taken prisoner in a sortie which he headed. Being confined in the fortress of Spitzberg, situated on a rock some two hundred feet high, he attempted to escape by means of a parachute, but falling heavily to the ground, was captured again. He was subsequently exchanged with some of his comrades against the king's daughter, and sat in the council of 500. He joined the con- spiracy of Babeuf against the order established after the 9th Thermidor, but was permitted to escape by the Directory, .and, after an adventurous career abroad, became sub-prefect of Sainte- Menehould under the consulate. In 1815 he appeared as deputy of the Marne in the Chamber or Representatives during the hundred days, and the following year was banished from France with the regicides. In 1824, an old man who had been known some years past under the name of Merger, and was esteemed a good Christian, died at Macon, when people were surprised to discover that he was no other than the 'bold dragoon ' who arrested the king at Varennes. [E.R.] DROUET, S. F., a French savant, 1715-1779. DROUOT, Gen. Count, artillery offi. under Na- poleon, and one of his most faithful fob, 1774-1847. DROZ, F. N. E., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1735-1805. DROZ, Peter Jacquet, a Swiss mechanician, 1721-1790. His son, H. L. Jacquet, distinguished like his father for his surprising skill, 1759-1791. DRUMMOND, George, distinguished for his public spirit as provost of Edinburgh, and in the rebellion of 1745, 1687-1766. DRUMMOND, James, third earl of Perth, a descend, of Andrew, k. of Hungary, dis. as chan. of Scot., and as a partizan of James II., 1638-1716. DRUMMOND, Thomas, inventor of the lighten. by his name, and under secry. for Ireland, d. 1840. DRUMMOND, Wm., a Scotch poet, 1585-1649. DRUMMOND, Sir Wm., F.R.S., a political ne- gotiator and classical and antiquarian au., d. 1828. DRUMMOND-DE-MELFORT, L. Hector, Comte De, a general in the French service, distin- guished as a tactician, 1726-1788. DRURY, Joseph, a classical scholar and divine, head master of Harrow, acknowledged by Lord Bvron as the ' best and worthiest friend he ever possessed,' 1750-1834. DRUSILLA, Julia, a daughter of Germanicus and Agrippa, mistress of Caligula, died 38. An- other Drusilla was wife of Claudius Felix. DRUSIUS, John, a German critic, 1550-1616. DRUSUS, a Roman consul, poisoned 23. DRUSUS, Claudius Nero, a distin. Roman commander, father of Germanicus, d. 9 B.C. DRUSUS, M. L., a Rom. tribune 122 B.C., consul 112. His son, of the same name, tribune 90-89 B.C. DRYANDER, F. E., a Flem.his., 16th century. DRYANDER, Jonas, a Swed.natur., 1748-1810. DRYDEN, John, born in 1631, was the grand- son of Sir Erasmus Dryden, or Driden, of Canons- Ashby, in Northamptonshire. From his father, the third son of the family, he inherited a small estate, yielding fifty or sixty pounds a-year. He was sent from Westminster School to Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, where he resided till 1657. For the next three years he was engaged in public business in London, under his mother's cousin, Sir Gilbert Pickering, a puritan, and a partizan of DRY Cromwell. His principal kinsmen on the father's side belonged to the eame party. Thus trained and thus connected, he began his literary career by verses on the death of the Protector ; but his disinclination to the principles in which he had been brought up, and the vacillation of opinions by which he was distinguished through life, showed themselves very speedily. — The Restoration, occur- ring when he was in his thirtieth year, excluded him for the time from government employment and patronage ; and he at once devoted himself to literature as a profession. Having to rely on it for support, he did not long content himself with obscure drudgery in prose, or with verses, though he wrote many, on public events. Yet his ' Annus Mirabilis,' celebrating the eventful year 1666, pre- saged his eminence as a descriptive and didactic poet. But the stage, now restored, and becoming the fashionable amusement, offered, itself as the only means through which his pen could furnish a livelihood ; and, in the course of twenty-five years, he wrote twenty-seven dramas. The most remark- able of these were his Heroic Plays, pieces of a kind which, imported from France, was the favourite during the greater part of the reign of Charles II. These have aptly been described by Sir Walter Scott as being just metrical romances of chivalry thrown into the form of dialogues. In this un- natural but seductive class of compositions Diyden was unsurpassed ; and, amidst all their exaggera- tion and unreality, his Tragic Dramas are works of great genius. His Comedies, belonging to the Spanish school which had become so popular, and whose chief merit was sought in complex ingenuity of plot, have little literary value ; and they are tainted, as deeply as any plays of their time, by the moral depravity which disgraced the restored Eng- lish stage till after the close of the seventeenth century. Indeed, the pain which one feels in see- ing the intellectual powers of Dryden wasted on his serious dramas, is aggravated when we contem- plate the moral degradation displayed by his comic ones. — Hardly less mortifying is it to know, that the great poet was conscious of his own inaptitude for the writing of plays; and that he panted to display, on a field better adapted to his diffusive genius, the pomp of imagery, the strength of pas- sion, and the magnificent skill of versification, which he felt to be but ill bestowed on his heroic and tragic pieces of theatrical declamation. It was the cherished dream of his life to give to the English language a national epic, whose theme would probably have been the exploits of the romantic King Arthur. There are, in fact, two circumstances only that can at all console us for the lamentable misapplication of Dryden's labour. In the first place, the writing of his heroic plays served as his apprenticeship to the art of versifica- tion and expression. Out of his rhymed dialogue arose that mastery of the English heroic couplet which he was the first to acquire, and in which no succeeding poet has nearly equalled him. Secondly, the prefaces, dedications, and essays, with which he accompanied his dramas, exhibited him at once as the earliest writer of regular and elegant Eng- lish prose, and as the first who can be said to have aimed in our language at anything like philoso- phical criticism. Those prose fragments of his are still instructive to the critic of poetry ; and DRY they contain some of the most felicitous specimens of style which our tongue has ever produced. — During the few years next after the Restoration, dramatic composition was almost his only employ- ment. Of his heroic plays of this period, which fDryden's House in Fetter Lane ] were written in rhyme, the finest were the two parts of 'The Conquest of Granada.' He was under an engagement to write plays for the king's theatre, which gave him an income of more than three hundred a-year : in 1665 his cir- cumstances were a little improved by his uncom- fortable marriage with Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the earl of Berkshire ; and in 1670 he received, with a salary (irregularly paid) of two hundred a-year and the famous butt of wine, the joint offices of historiographer-royal and poet- laureate. In the latter part of Charles's reign the fashion in dramatic matters began to change : and this, with jealousies of playwrights and courtiers, gave birth to the celebrated burlesque play called 'The Rehearsal,' of which Dryden, under the nick- name of Bayes, was the principal victim. Politics now offered to the laureate a new land of theme, of which he availed himself by publishing, in 1681, his 'Absalom and Ahithophel,' the best of all poet- ical satires. 'The Medal' and ' Mac-Flecknoe,' works of the same kind, followed immediately. Now, likewise, he began to write tragedy in blank verse, 'All For Love' being his most successful experiment of the kind. In the ' Religio Laid,' also, he presented to the public, in 1682, his first elaborate attempt at didactic poetry. The tone of hesitation, and the character of the arguments, adopted in this defence of the Church of England, betrayed a state of mind leading by an easy pro- gress to the change of faith which the poet soon avowed. In 1685, soon after the accession of James II., Dryden was received into the Church of Rome. His conversion secured him in court favour, and was rewarded by an addition of a hundred pounds a-year to his pension. But it was pro- bably sincere ; and the new creed was unflinch- ingly adhered to when it had become unprofitable and dangerous. It produced rich poetical fruit in 210 DUB 'The Hind and the Panther,' in which the dryness of dissertation is enlivened by ingenious allegory. — The Revolution, taking place in the poet's fifty- seventh year, deprived him of his pensions, and of his royal and courtly patrons ; but it neither low- ered the place which he held as the first poet of his time, nor damped the ardour of his literary exertions. The last twelve years of his life, though spent in hard toil and under heavy discouragement*, produced some of his best works. In 1690 he gave to the stage his tragedy of ' Don Sebastian,' the best and most interesting of his serious plays. In 1697, amidst many other labours, he threw "off at a heat his 'Alexander's Feast,' one of the most ani- mated of all lyrical poems, though not conceived in the highest tone of lyrical inspiration. In the same year appeared his nobly spirited translation of Virgil, for which he had trained himself by pre- vious versions from the classics published in the volumes he called ' Miscellanies. Lastly, in the spring of 1700, were published his ' Fables,' in which, imitating in verse the prose of Boccaccio, and remodelling (not always for the better) the antique poetical pictures of Chaucer, he not only showed that his warm imagination burned as brightly as ever, but that his metrical skill had been increasing to the close of his life. That life was about to end. Gout and gravel had long dis- turbed him ; and erysipelas in one of his legs, terminating in mortification, destroyed him on May-day, 1700. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, between the grave of Chaucer and that of Cowley. [W.S.] DUBARRAN, Barbeau, a mem. of the French convention and Com. of Public Safetv, 1750-1816. DUBOCAGE, G. B., a Fr. canal eng., 1626-1696. DUBOIS, Anthony, Baron, a dist. Fr. surgeon, appointed accoucheur to the empress, 1756-1837. DUBOIS, Edward, a periodical writer and journalist, distin. in light literature, 1775-1850. DUBOIS, G., a French historian, 1628-1696. DUBOIS, Jr., a French sculptor, 1626-1694. DUBOIS, J. B., a French essayist, 1753-1808. DUBOIS, P., a French savant, 1636-1703. DUBOIS, P. G., a French translator, 1626-1694. DUBOIS, William, a Fr. cardinal and states- man, justly branded in his. as infamous, 1656-1723. DUBOIS-CRANCE, Edmund Louis Alexis. Dubois-Crance - performed a part in the French re- volution which may be related in few words, but from which the most important consequences have resulted. He was the propounder of that formid- able military engine known as the conscription, the first idea of which he submitted to the national convention in 1793 as reporter of the military com- mission. ' In a nation that would be free, when surrounded by powerful neighbours and rent by faction,' he remarks, ' it behoves every citizen to be a soldier and every soldier to be a citizen, and if there is no hope of this, France is near the term of her annihilation If you once tolerate exemptions and substitutes, all is lost.' The advice of this stem soldier and honest republican was re- sponded to by a decree for the levy of 300,000 men, with promotion from the ranks, and shortly after- wards by Barrere's famous proclamation for a levy en masse. One other memorable service was per- formed for the republic by Dubois-Crance, in the re- duction of Lyons, and such was the esteem in which DUB itary talents were held that he was appointed, ), the successor of Bernadotte as minister of his milita in 1799, the successor of Bernadotte as minister of war. He was a stout opponent of the revolution by which Napoleon attained the supreme power, and ever after remained in the obscurity of private life. He is the author of several military and poli- tical memoirs publ. between 1789 and 1804, and of two pamphlets written against Barrere 1795. Born at Charleville 1747, d. at Rhetel 1814. [E.R.] DUBOS, J. B., aFr. literary savant, 1670-1742. DUBOST, A., a Fr. painter, 1769-1825. DUBOUCHAGE, F. J. Gratet, Viscount, a Fr. minis, of marine under the Bourbons, 1749-1821. DUBOURDIEN, J. a Fr. controv. wr. 1652-1720. DUBRAW, J. S., an hist, of Bohemia, d. 1553. DUBUISSON, P. U., a French dramatist, exe- cuted as an accomplice of Hebert, 1748-1794. DUCANGE, Victor, a Fr. novelist, 1783-1833. DUCAREL, A. C., a Fr. antiquar., 1713-1785. DUCASSE, J. B., a celeb. Fr. admiral, d. 1715. DUCHAL, James, an Irish divine, 1697-1761. DUCHANGE, G., a Fr. engraver, 1662-1756. DUCHAT, J. Le, a French author, 1658-1735. DUCHATEL, Gaspard, a republican of the French revolution and member of convention, memorable for his vote against the execution of the king, to register which he was earned from his sick bed wrapped up in blankets ; bom 1766, guillotined with a party of the Girondins 31st October, 1793. DUCHER, Gilbert, a Latin poet, 16th cent. DUCHESNE, Andrew, a Fr. hist, and geogr., celebrated for the number of his works, 1584-1640. DUCHESNE, A. N., aFr. naturalist, 1747-1827. DUCHESNE, C, physician to Henry IV., and author of ' Memoirs' concerning him, date unknown. Another physician of Henry IV., named Joseph Duchesne, dist. as a chemist and poet, 1544-1609. DUCHESNE, H. G., aFr. naturalist, 1739-1822. DUCHESNE, L., a French savant, born 1588. DUCHESNOIS, J. R., a Fr. actress, 1777-1835. DUCIS, J. F., a French tragic poet, 1733-1816. DUCK, Arthur, an Engl, jurist, 1580-1649. DUCK, Stephen, an English poet, died 1736. DUCKWORTH, Sir J. T., anEng. admiral, dist. in the West Indies during the late war, 1748-1817. DUCLERCQ, J., a curious annalist, 15th cent. DUCLOS, A. J., a French engraver, last cent. DUCLOS, C. P., a French historian, 1704-72. DUCOS, Jean Francois,^ one of the clearest sighted, and most honest in accepting the con- sequences of his convictions, of the party of Giron- dists, was born at Bourdeaux 1765, and was returned as deputy for his native city to the Con- stituent Assembly in 1791, and to the National Convention in 1792. His name is not identified with any particular measures, but his oratory was brilliant, his advice listened to with respect, and his influence felt in the debates, in which he par- took with indefatigable zeal. He was more toler- ant than the other members of the Gironde, and laboured to promote a fusion of republicans of every shade of opinion. He shared the fate of his party, though somewhat later, through the in- fluence of Marat, and was guillotined at the early age of twenty-eight, 1st November, 1794. [E.R.J DUCOS, Roger, like many other actors in the French revolution, was an advocate, and embrac- ing extreme opinions at the commencement of that epoch, succeeded in talking his way to the Na- 211 DUG tional Convention in 1792. He was then thirty- eight years of age, having been born in 1754. There is nothing to show from the beginning to the end of his career, that he had any otner talents than those of a respectable lawyer, or any princi- ples but those which he could adopt with the greatest eclat for the time being. In this spirit he seems to have voted for the death of the king ' without delay,' and afterwards opposed himself to the Girondins. In January, 1794, he served the Jacobin's Club as president, and after a few ups and downs, had settled as a magistrate in a country village, when Barras drew him from his retirement, and he became a member of the direc- tory and the council of elders. On the 18th Bra- maire (9th October, 1799), he lent himself to the coup d' etat of Napoleon, and was rewarded with the third place in the provisional consulate, as the Abbe Sieyes was with the second. On the 20th, Buonaparte, Sieyes, and Ducos, held their first sitting in the Luxembourg, and on Sieyes's suggest- ing that one of them should act as president, Du- cos promptly replied, — ' Vous voyez bien que e'est le general qui preside,' (the general presides of course!) Ducos seconded whatever Buonaparte proposed, and though Sieyes felt that he was re- duced to a mere cypher, they proceeded to frame the new constitution, which was adopted by the votes of the people, and Buonaparte being confirmed in his office of first consul, replaced his former col- leagues by Cambaceres and Lebrun. From this period Ducos is known as a member of the senate, and of the upper chamber during the hundred days. He was proscribed by the Bourbons in 1816, and died the same year in consequence of being thrown out of his carriage. His brother, Nicolas, Baron Ducos, acquired distinction as one of Napoleon's generals, and survived him many years. [E.R.] DUDLEY, Edmund, a minister of state under Henry VII., executed with Empson at the com- mencement of the following reign, 1462-1510. His son John, duke of Northumberland, and father of Lord Guildford Dudley, whom he married to Lady Jane Grey, executed for treason, 1502-1553. Ambrose, another son of the duke, called the Good Earl of Warwick, 1530-1589. Robert, his fifth son, earl of Leicester, celebrated as the fa- vourite of Elizabeth, 1532-1588. Sir Robert, son of the last named, and the Lady Douglas, celeb, for his skill in hydraulic engineering, 1573-1630. DUDLEY, Sir H. B., a noted journalist, poli- tician, and dramatic writer, long known as a man of pleasure in London, and a magistrate, 1745-1824. DUDLEY, The Right Hon. J. W. Ward, earl of, foreign secretary under Canning, 1781-1833. DUDLEY, Thomas, an English engra., 17th c. DUELLI, R., a German historian, died 1740. DUFAU, F., a French painter, died 1821. DUFF, a king of Scotland, 968-973. DUFFET, G., a Flemish painter, 1594-1660. DUFOURNY, L., a Fr. architect, 1734-1818. DUFRENOY, A. G., a Fr. poetess, 1765-1825. DUFRESNOY, Alpil, a French artist, and au- thor of a poem on painting, pub. 1684, 1611-1665. DUFRESNOY, A. I. J., a Fr. phvs., 1733-1801. DUFRESNY, C. R., a Fr. dram., 1684-1724. DUGARD, Wm., an English classic, 17th cent. DUGDALE, Sir William, the famous herald, DUG author of the ' Monasticon Anglicanum,' and other historical and antiquarian works of groat value, (listing, for his adherence to Charles I., 1605-1686. DUGHET, Gaspard, an Ital. paint., 1613-75. DUGOMMIER, J. F. Coquille, a French general, distinguished as director of the siege of Toulon, &c, born 1736, killed 1794. DUGUAY-TROUIN, Rene, a Fr. naval com- manderin the Sp. war of succession, &c, 1673-1736. DUGUESCELIN, Bertrand, a French cava- lier, constable of France in the time of Charles V., chief agent in expelling the English, 1314-1380. DUGUET, J. J., a Fr. relig. wr., 1649-1733. DUHALDE, J. B., a learned French Jesuit, an. of ' Descriptio de la Chine,' &c, 1674-1743. DUHAMEL, J. B., a Fr. ecclesiastic, disting. as a speculative and practical philos., 1624-1706. DUHAMEL, J. P. F. Guillot, a Fr. mineralo., inv. of new methods for joining metals, 1730-1816. DUHAMEL-DU-MONCEAU, H. Louis, a dis. contrib. to science, esp. to agriculture, 1700-1782. DUHAUSSET, Madame, a lady attached to the Marchioness Pompadour, author of ' Memoirs of the Court of Louis XV.,' 1720-1780. DUJARDIN, B., a French historian, last cent. DUJARDIN, C, a Dutch painter, 1640-1678. DUKE, Rich., an Engl. div. and poet, d. 1711. DUKER, C. A., a German savant, 1670-1752. DULAURE, J. A., a Fr. hist, and savant, mem. of the convention and council of 500, 1755-1835. DULON, Louis, a Germ, musician, 1769-1826. DULONG, P. L., a French chemist, 1785-1838. DUMANIANT, J. A., a Fr. dram., 1754-1828. DUMARESQ, H., an Eng. officer, dist. in most of the battles of the late war, and at Waterloo, 1792-1838. DUMAREST, R., a Fr. medallist, 1750-1806. DUMARSAIS, Caesar Chesneau, a French philologist, called by DAlembert 'The La Fon- taine of Philosophers,' 1676-1756. DUMAS, Al. Davy, a Fr. general, 1762-1806. DUMAS, C. L., a Fr. medical wr., 1765-1813. DUMAS, Hilary, a French savant, died 1742. DUMAS, L., a Fr. writer on music, 1676-1744. DUMAS, M., aFr. gen. of division, min. of war under the restoration, au. of memoirs, 1753-1837. DUMAS, P., a French translator, 1738-1782. DUMAS, R. F., a French advocate, president of the revol. tribunal, born 1757, guillotined 1794. His brother, J. F. Dumas, an author, 1754-1795. DUMESNIL, M. F., a Fr. actress, 1713-1803. DUMONCEAU, J. B., a Fr. general, 1760-1821. DUMONT, F., a French sculptor, 1688-1721. DUMONT, F., a Fr. portrait paint., 1751-1833. DUMONT, G., a Fr. statistical writer, 1725-88. DUMONT, G. M., an architect of the last cent. DUMONT, H., music, to Louis XV., 1610-84. DUMONT, John, a political and hist, writer, historiographer to the emp. of Germany, 1660-1726. DUMONT, J., a French painter, 1700-1781. DUMONT, P. S. L., born at Geneva 1759, a friend and fellow-labourer with Mirabeau, and after, with Jeremy Bentham, whose works he translated into French, author of ' Souvenirs sur Mirabeau,' and ' Lettres sur Bentham ;' died at Milan, 1829. DUMONT D'URVILLE, Jules Sebastian Cesar, a celebrated French navigator, was born at Cond^-sur-Noineau, 1791. In 1822 he went out with M. Duperrey as second in command, and DUM made the tour of the world in the corvette La Coquille. In 1826 he was appointed captain of the Astrolabe in a second voyage to the South Seas to discover, if possible, some traces of La Perouse. His voyages have enriched science with valuable collections of objects and discoveries, and France owes to him the Venus of Milo, besides the memoirs which illustrate his vast knowledge and intrepid seamanship. He had been named vice- admiral, when he perished with his wife and child by the accident on the Versailles railway, when the carriages were burnt on the 8th of May, 1842. DUMOULIN, C, a Fr. jurisconsult, 1500-66. DUMOULIN, E., a Fr. journalist, 1776-1833. DUMOULIN, P., a Fr. prot. theol., 1568-1658. DUMOURIEZ, Anne Francois Duperrier, a commissary in the French army, author of a translation of ' Ricciardetto,' an It. poem, 1707-69. DUMOURIEZ, Charles Francois Duper- rier, son of the preceding, a distinguished general of the French revolution, disgraced by his abortive attempt to act the part of a Monk, was born at Cambrai in 1739, and died in exile at Turville Park, near Henley-upon-Thames, 1823. He was educated both as a man of letters and a soldier, and at twenty-four years of age, had seen seven campaigns, and received twenty-two wounds in the cavalry service. Disappointed with the rank of captain, though graced with the cross of St. Louis, and a pension of 600 livres, he endeavoured to open a road to fortune by combining the char- acters of a military adventurer and a political spy; the scene of his intrigues being successively the little island of Corsica, the kingdom of Portugal, Poland, and Sweden, and his reward for the last of these services a short sojourn in the Bastile, which favour was conferred upon him by Louis XV. On the accession of Louis XVI. he had the command of Cherbourg, with the title of colo- nel, but it was not until the revolution broke out that his ambition, his love of adventure, his dauntless courage, and his diplomatic talents, were brought into full play, or his condition elevated above obscurity. Having attached himself to the Girondins, he became in 1792, minister for foreign affairs, and on their dismissal by the king, resumed his duties in the field, and at length found himself in command of the army opposed to the duke of Brunswick. His determined stand in the wood of Argonne, gave the opportunity for Kellerman with his dragoons, and other divisions of the army, to defeat the Prussians at Valmy (20th September, 1792), after which, it appears, he negotiated with the king of Prussia, allowing him to withdraw the defeated army on condition of being permitted to pursue his ambitious designs for acquiring the sovereignty of Belgium. On the 12th of Novem- ber he defeated the Austrians at the battle of Jem- appes, took Liege, Antwerp, and shortly after- wards Breda in Holland, but was beaten at Ner- winden, 18th March, 1793, by Prince Cobourg, with whom he entered into secret negotiations for restoring the constitutional monarchy; his plan being to march upon Paris with the Austrians, dissolve the Convention, and proclaim the due do Chartres (Louis Philippe) king. Reports of his treasonable practices, however, had reached the ear of government, and a commission arrived at his quarters with power, if necessary, to order him 212 DUN tinder arrest. He succeeded, by surprise, in con- signing the members of this commission to an Aus- trian prison ; but it was too late to turn the course of events : his troops were already in revolt, and the next morning (3d April, 1793) he barely succeeded in escaping with his life across the bor- der. A reward of 300,000 francs was offered for his head, but he evaded pursuit, and at length found a safe asylum in England, where he enjoyed the friendship of the duke of Kent, Mr. Canning, and many other distinguished persons. His career is illustrated by a great number of works from his own pen, the bare titles of which would almost occupy the space of this notice ; his ' Memoirs of the Revolution ' may be mentioned as the most in- teresting. [E.R.] DUNBAR, George, a celebrated Greek scholar and professor of Greek in the university of Edin- burgh, author of a Greek lexicon, 1774-1851. DUNBAR, W., a Scottish poet, 1465-1535. DUNCAN I., k. of Scotland. See Donald VII. DUNCAN II., usurped the thr., andassass. 1059. DUNCAN, Adam, Lord Viscount, a Scotch ad- miral, dist. for his victory over De Winter, the Dutch commander at Camperdown, 1731-1804. DUNCAN, Andrew, a Scot, phys., 1745-1828. DUNCAN, D., a French naturalist, 1649-1735. DUNCAN, Mark, a Scotch phil., 17th century. DUNCAN, Martin, acontrov. div., 1505-1590. DUNCAN, W., a Scotch logician, 1717-1760. DUNCOMBE, W., an Engl, dram., 1690-1769. His son John, a miscel. wr. and poet, 1730-1786. DUNDAS, Sir David, a Brit, gen., 1736-1820. DUNDAS, H., Vise. Melville. See Melville. DUNDAS, Robert, a Scotch judge, father of Lord Melville, 1685-1753. His elder son, of the same name, member for Edinburgh, and president of the Court of Session, 1713-1787. DUNDAS, Thomas, a Brit, officer, 1750-1794. DUNDRENNAN, Lord, Thomas Maitland, a distinguished Scotch judge, 1792-1851. DUN GAL, an Irish philos. writer, 9th century. DUNLOP, Wm., a Scottish divine, 1692-1720. DUNN, S., an English mathematician, last cent. DUNNING, John, Lord Ashburton, the cele- brated counsel for Wilkes, attorney-general, chan- cellor for Lancaster, &c, 1731-1782. DUNOD, P. J., a French antiquarian, 1657- 1725. His nephew, Ignace Dunod De Char- nage, an historian and jurisconsult, 1679-1752. DUNOIS, John, a nat. son of Louis d'Orleans, dis. in the expul. of the Engl, from Fr., 1407-1468. DUNS SCOTUS, John, ' the subtle doctor,' was born about a.d. 1265. The place of his birth has not been satisfactorily ascertained, Scotland, Eng- land, and Ireland laying claim to the honour. Some point to Dunse, in Berwickshire, as the spot of his nativity, and others contend for Dunstance, in Northumberland. The probability is that he was of Scottish extraction. He received his ear- liest education at a Franciscan monastery in New- castle, and afterwards studied at Merton College, Oxford, in which he became professor of theology in 1301. His prelections on the 'Sentences' of Peter Lombard are said to have been attended by a crowd of 30,000 students, then resident in Oxford. Though such a statement appears to be a romantic exaggeration, it certainly proves the prodigious fame of the lecturer. In 1307 the DUP philosopher removed to Paris, by command of the general of his order. He had already gained great notoriety in the French capital by a public disput- ation on behalf of the immaculate conception of the Virgin. Immense applause attended his lec- tures in Paris, and he was styled Doctor subtilis. In 1308 he was ordered to Cologne to found a new university there, and defend the same theological dogma. On arriving at that city, the inhabitants met him in a body, and he was drawn into the ancient town in a "triumphal car. Soon after his arrival, however, he was seized with apoplexy, and died in November, 1308, at the early age of forty- three. Duns Scotus excelled in the knowledge "of canon and civil law, in philosophy, mathematics, and theology. His mind was eminently fitted for abstruse discussion, and subtle dialectics, and was sharpened into a morbid acuteness and pertinacity by continued practice. He displayed keenness and versatility in detecting invisible distinctions; in multiplying hypotheses which differed from each other only in some verbal incidents ; in untwist- ing every thought and proposition as by an intellec- tual prism ; in speculating upon themes above the reach of human knowledge, and in the multiplica- tion of ingenious theories without proof to sustain them, or utility to recommend them. Hypothesis supplanted investigation, and the interpretation of nature, or the question, what is ? was superseded by previous conceptions of what might or should be. The Franciscans gloried in Duns Scotus, as their rivals the Dommicans extolled Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas was the more orthodox, and Sco- tus was at least semipelagian. Scotists and Tho- mists divided the mediaeval schools, and the for- mer as being realists, were opposed to the Occa- mists who were nominalists, or held that universal terms were simply names, and not the signs of ac- tual existences. The ' Opera Positiva ' of Duns Scotus are very numerous, and have not been printed ; but his ' Opera Speculativa ' were pub- lished in 12 folio volumes at Lyons in 1639, the editor being an Irishman of the name of Luke Wadding. Six of these tomes are filled with the famed prelections on Peter Lombard, already re- ferred to. The industry that could by its own composition amass such a huge collection of MSS. during so short a life, must certainly have been equal to the genius of the great schoolman. [J.E.] DUNSTABLE, John, an Eng. musician, 15th c. DUNSTAN, St., an English statesman and pre- late, abp. of Canterbury, and absolute master of the kingdom under Edward the Martyr, 925-988. DUNTON, J., abooksel. and mis. wr., 1659-1733. DUPATY, F. B. Mercier, pres. of the pari, of Bourdeaux, author of ' Letters on Italy,' &c, 1746- 1788. His son Charles, a sculptor, 1771-1825. DUPERIER, C, a Fr. and Latin poet, 1620-92. DUPERRON, James Davy, Cardinal, a Swiss recusant from the prot. church, dist. as a contro- versialist, 1556-1618. John, his brother and sue. in the abprick. of Sens, author of ' An Apology for the Jesuits,' died 1621. James, nephew ot the preceding, almoner of Henrietta Maria, died 1649. DUPIN, Baron, a statistical au., 1767-1828. DUPIN, C, a writer on public law, 1700-1769. DUPIN, Louis Ellis, an eccl. his., 1657-1719. DUPIN, P., a French jurisconsult, 1681-1745. DUPLE1X, Oesak, a Fr. satirist, died 1641. 213 DUP DUPLEIX, J., Fr. gov. of Pondicherry, d. 1763. DUPLEIX, Scirio, a Fr. historian, 1566-1661. DUPONT, Leo, a French sculptor, 1795-1828. DUPONT DE LETANG, Count, lieut.-gen. in the French army, minister of war, &c, 1765-1840. DUPONT DE NEMOURS, P. S., a member of the French assembly of notables, &c, a writer on political economy, 1759-1817. DUPONT, A., a French advocate, 1759-1798. DUPORTAIL, N., a Fr. statesman, died 1802. DUPPA, Bryan, an Eng. prelate, 1589-1662. DUPPA, R., a miscellaneous writer, died 1831. DUPRE, A., Fr. consul at Smyrna, died 1832. DUPRE, C, a French savant, 16th century. DUPUIS, Charles Francis, a celebrated philosopher of the period of the French revolution, whose great work, ' Origine de tous les Cultes,' originated the scientific exploration of Egypt in the period of its occupation by Buonaparte, 1742-1809. DUPUIS, T. S., an Eng. musician, 1733-1796. DUPUYTREN, William, Baron, born at Pierre Buffier6, 1777 ; died at Paris 1835. One of the most distinguished surgeons of modern times, and an eminent example of the beneficial results of the system of public competition estab- lished in France. By his industry and talents he became surgeon to the Hotel Dieu at twenty-six, and professor of surgery at thirty- three. He visited the hospital morning and evening at six o'clock, and for twelve years was never once absent ; each morning he attended to 300 patients, delivered a clinical lecture, performed several operations, gave advice to some hundreds of out-patients, and then walked home to breakfast at half-past ten. After this he saw his private patients, attended to the examination of medical students, performed his private operations, and at six in the evening again went the rounds of the hospital. His princi- pal work is his memoir on artificial anus, which forms a happy application of the principles de- veloped by John Hunter. Dupuytren possessed a remarkably fine person and strong constitution, so as to enable him to undergo immense bodily fatigue. But he possessed an extremely irritable temper, which made him insupportably capricious and inconsistent, often impelled him to rash and wrong acts that he would fain have recalled in his cooler moments, and ultimately destroyed his nervous system. He was a most successful practitioner, having left £296,000 to his daughter, Madame de Beaumont, besides £8,000 to endow a professorship, and £12,000 for a benevolent insti- tution for medical men. [R.D.T.] DUQUESNE, A., a Fr. naval offic, 1610-1688. DUQUESNOY, F., a Flem. sculpt., 1594-1646. DURAND, D., a Fr. protes. histor., 1681-1763. DURAND, F. J., a Swiss statistician, 1727-1816. DURAND, J., a French painter, 1699-1767. DURAND-DE-MAILLANE, Peter Tous- saint, a deputy to the constituent assembly, &c, author of a history of the convention, 1729-1810. DURANDI, J., an Italian historian, 1739-1817. DURANTE, Fr., a Neapol. comp., 1693-1755. DURELL, John, a learned divine, 1625-83. David, a supposed descendant of the preceding, distinguished as a biblical critic, 1728-1775. DURER, Albrecht, the most celebrated Ger- man painter of the sixteenth century, was tarn DUR Michael Wolgcmuth, the most eminent painter and engraver at Niirnberg at that time. Albert him- self was not only distinguished as painter and engraver, but also as sculptor. The inscription on his tomb claims for him an unrivalled reputation in these matters— 'light of the arts— sun of artists — painter, engraver, sculptor, without ex- ample.' He died at Niiniberg in 1528, worried to [Albert Durer's House at Nurnbei g.] death, according to Pirkheimer, by his wife's tem- per. _ The enlarged mind of Albert Diirer is shown in his persevering curiosity to travel into other countries, and personally ascertain what was there doing, as well as in the versatility of his accom- plishments as an artist. He visited Italy in the year 1506, more especially Venice and Mantua, and his opinion that Giovanni Bellini was the best f)ainter in Venice is preserved in one of his own etters to his friend Pirkheimer in Niirnberg. He also visited the Netherlands in the year 1521, and some interesting observations are preserved in his diary of this visit. (Reliquien von A Ibrecht Diirer, Niirnberg, 1828.) He was the author of several works relating to his art, as, 'Instructions in Measuring with the Level and Circle,' &c, 1525; 'Some Directions with regard to the Fortification of Cities, Castles, and Villages,' 1527; and 'Four Books on Human Proportions,' 1528; all of which have been reprinted and translated. Albert Durer's reputation as a painter is great in Ger- many, but ne is better known as an engraver and designer out of his own country. His execution is exquisite as a copperplate engraver, but it is doubtful whether he actually executed many wood- cuts; his most celebrated compositions are some series of woodcuts, but he is supposed to have drawn on the wood only. Of these remarkable series of designs the most valued are the Greater, and Lesser, Passion ; the Revelations of John ; the Life of the Virgin ; the Triumphal Car of the Em- peror Maximilian I ; and the Triumphal Arch of the same emperor. The Great Passion appeared iu twelve cuts in 1511 ; The Lesser Passion in thirty- seven cuts in quarto, also in 1511; the Revelations in sixteen cuts, folio, in 1498; the Life of the Virgin at Niirnberg in 1471, and became the pupil of in twenty cuts, date of first edition uncertain. The 214 DUR two series relating to the emperor Maximilian appeared — the Arch in 1515, in ninety-two pieces, and the Car in 1522, in eight pieces. The works of Albert, paintings and cnts, nave all a line dra- matic character ot composition, abounding in sen- timent and the highest order of expression, and though in form or design gothic in taste, correct and select in general proportions ; but his draperies are hard and angular, and his costume is purely fanciful.— -(Heller, Das leben und die Werke Al- brecht Durers, 1831; Nagler, Kunsiler Lexicon; Kucder, Handbuch der Geschichle der Malerei, 1837.) [R.NW.] DURET, C, a French naturalist, died 1611. DURET, F., a French sculptor, 1730-1816. DURET, L., a Fr. medical writer, 1527-1586. D'URFEY, Th., an Engl, song-writer, d. 1723. DURHAM, James, a Scotch divine, 1622-58. DURHAM, John George Lambton, earl of, one of the great leaders of the movement for re- form, born 1792, member of parliament for his na- tive county 1813, married to the daughter of Earl Grey, 1816, distinguished as a parliamentary re- former, 1821, member of the cabinet under Earl Grev, 1830, mission to Russia, 1833, ambassador to Russia, 1835-37, gov.-gen. of Canada, 1838, d. 1840. DURHAM, Admiral Sir P. C. Calder- wood, memorable for his escape from the Royal George, and his services in the last war, 1777-1845. DUROC, J. C. M., Due De Frioul, and marshal of France, a distinguished officer and diplomatist under Buonaparte, whose friend and confidant he remained till his death; born 1772, killed 1813. DURUPT, C, a French painter, 1804-1839. DURY, John, a Scotch divine, 17th century. DUSART, C, a Dutch painter, 1665-1704. DUSSAULT, J. J., a Fr. misc. wr., 1769-1824. DUSSAULX, J., a French savant, 1728-1799. DUSSEK, J. L., a German comp., 1762-1812. DUTENS, Louis, a Fr. miscel. wr., 1729-1812. DUTILLET, J., a French historian, died 1570. DUVAL, Alex. V. P., a Fr. nov., 1767-1842. DUVAL, Andrew, a literary savant of France, 1564-1638. His son William, a physician, and classical scholar, and historian, 1570-1646. DUVAL, Amaury, a French antiq., 1760-1837. DUVAL-D'ESPREMENIL. See Espremenil. DUVAL, J. B., a Fr. Orientalist, 17th century. DUVAL, V. J., a Fr. numismatist, 1695-1775. DUVANCEL, A., a Fr. naturalist, 1792-1824. DUVENEDE, M. V., aFlem. paint., 1674-1729. DUVERNEY, J. G., a Fr. anatomist, 1648-1730. DUVERNOY, J. G., a German anatomist and botanist, instructor of the illus. Haller, 1691-1759. DUVIVIER, C. R., aFr. engineer, 1771-1821. DUVIVIER, J., a French painter, died 1832. DUVIVIER, P. S. B., aFr. medallist, 1730-1819. DUVOISIN, J. B., a Fr. theolog., 1741-1813. DWIGHT, Timothy, S.T.D., LL.D., was bora 14th May, 1752, at Northampton, Massachusets, tracing his descent to Puritan ancestors, who had emigrated from England. His father, who was a pious and intelligent merchant, maintained a strict Srofession of religion ; and his mother, who was a aughter of Jonathan Edwards, whose intellectual vigour and acumen she inherited, used every endea- vour to impress the infant mind of her son with the principles of genuine morality and true religion. Timothy, m his childhood, gave evidences of extra- DWI ordinary quickness. But the judicious manage- ment of his parents averted the sad consequences which the early luxuriance of mental development too often produces in precocious youth. He was withdrawn from school, and, by the prudent direc- tion of his mother, his education was conducted at home in such a manner as to develop the strength, and at the same time exercise the versatility, of her son's opening mind. At the age of thirteen he was considered fit for entering Yale College. During the third year of his attendance he devoted him- self with indefatigable ardour to the pursuit of his studies, and his attainments in literature were as diversified as they were extensive. He acquired distinction especially by the well-known beauty of his penmanship, and by his skill in poetry and music. At the age of nineteen he was appointed tutor in Yale College ; and the extent of his quali- fications for this academic office will appear from the statement of the single circumstance, that he conducted his pupils during the first session through spherics and fluxions into the ' Principia of New- ton.' With an ardent pursuit of the exact sciences he combined the rare talent of a passionate love of poetry ; and he composed at this early age an epic poem on 'The Conquest of Canaan,' which is said to have contained many descriptive passages of great beauty. His first views were directed towards the law as a profession. But changing his thoughts, he determined to study for the ministry, and after completing the usual curriculum he was in June, 1777, licensed to preach the gospel in his native county of Hampshire, in the state of Massachusets. Having accepted the office of chaplain to General Parson's brigade, he joined the army at West Point in October, and he continued in this situation till his father's death obliged him to quit the army and return home to the assistance of his mother. With filial devotion he exerted himself to ensure the sup- port and comfort of his surviving parent and her young family, by accepting various civil appoint- ments, to which he was prompted more by a sense of duty than by any congeniality of taste or inclina- tion. In the midst of these occupations, however, his literary and theological pursuits were continued with unabated ardour. His talents and acquire- ments were widely known, and a vacancy having occurred in 1795 in the Presidency of Yale College, all eyes were directed towards Dwight as the best qualifiedto superintend the interests of that great literary institution. His administration ere long produced a happy revolution on the character of that seminary; by his mild and judicious manage- ment disorders were repressed, and the students, who had been deeply tinctured with infidel princi- ples, and were consequently dissolute in their con- duct, became distinguished for sober-mindedness, and the observances of Christian piety. Respect for the talents and acquirements of the president, as much perhaps as his discipline and lectures, led to this auspicious change. Dr. Dwight was indeed no ordinary man. He possessed a rare union of intellectual qualities, an independent tone of think- ing, great originality of views, a masculine under- standing, a playful fancy, and rich and lively powers of illustration. All these mental characteristics are advantageously displayed in his ' Theology,' a work which, although originally composed in the form of sermons, contains a complete system of 215 DYE divinity, expounded on principles of scientific, ar- rangement. Two other works came from his active pen, viz., : Travels in New England,' in 4 volumes, and ' Posthumous Sermons,' in 2 volumes. In his sixty-third year Dr. Dwight's health began to de- cline, and after a severe and lingering illness his useful life was closed on 11th January, 1818. [R. J.] DYER, Sir E., a pastoral poet, born 1540. EDG DYER, Geo., a famous scholar and miscel. wr., editor of Valpy's edition of the classics, 1755-1841. DYER, John, an English poet, 1700-1758. DYER, Sir J., an eminent lawyer, 1512-1582. DYER, Sam., a learned writer, 1725-1772. DYER, William, a nonconfor: div., 17th cent. DYKMAN, P. a Swedish antiquar., died 1718. DZEHEBY, A., alearn. Mahomedan, 1274-1347. E EACHARD, J., an English theol., 1636-1697. EADMER, an ecclesiastical historian, died 1124. EANDI, J. A. F. J., a wr. on phys., 1735-1799. EARLE, Jabez, a dissenting minis., 1676-1768. EARLE, John, alearn. prelate and royal., au. of 1 Microcosmography,' bp. of Salisbury, 1620-1665. EARLOM, R., an engrav. of London, 1740-1822. EATON, Wm., Amer. con. at Tunis, 1764-1811. EBALD, a king of Kent, 616-640. EBBESEN, Niels, a Danish patriot, d. 1340. EBED-JESU, an Assyrian poet, 14th century. EBEL, J. G., a French geologist, 1764-1830. EBERHARD, duke of Friuli, and father of Be- renger, who became king of Italy, 846-868. EBERHARD, C., a German mathematician in the service of Russia, 1649-1730. His son John, an architect and author, 1723-1795. EBERHARD, J. A., a Ger. philo., 1739-1809. EBERHARD, J. H., a Ger. lawyer, 1743-1772. EBERHARD, J. P., a Ger. natur., 1727-1779. EBERHARD of Franconia, father of Conrad I., k. of Ger., slain in the contest with Otho 939. EBERT, F. A., a German compiler, 1791-1834. EBERT, J., a Ger. Hebraist and theol., 1549- 1614. His son Theodore, a Heb. scho., d. 1630. EBERT, J. A., a German translator, 1723-1795. EBION, supposed founder of a sect, 1st century. ECHARD, Laurence, an English historian and divine, author of a history of England which was in repute until Rapin's appeared, 1671-1730. ECHINUS. See Erizzo. ECKARTSHAUSEN, Chas., a German mystic, natural son of the Count Charles of Haineblausen, and keeper of the archives of Bavaria, known in all languages by his work entitled 'God is the Purest Love,' which, before the close of the last century, had run through sixty editions in the original German, born 1752, died, after a life passed in the practice of every virtue, 1803. ECKHARD, G. L M a German painter, 1769-1794. ECKHARD, J. F., a German savant, 1723-1794. ECKHARD, J. G., a German hist., 1674-1730. ECKHARD, Tobias, a Ger. philol., 1662-1737. ECKHEL, J. H.,an Aus.numismat., 1737-1798. ECKHOF, C, a eel. Ger. tragedian, 1722-1778. ECKIUS, John, a polemical author, celebrated for his oral and written controversies with the re- formers, especially with Luther, 1483-1543. ECKIUS, Leonard, a German lawyer, d. 1550. ECLUSE, Charles De L', better known as Clusius, a Flem. phys. and botanist, 1526-1609. ECLUSE -DES-LOGES, Peter Mathurin De L', a doctor of the Sorbonne, editor of an edition of ' Sully's Memoirs,' 1715-1783. EDDY, J. H., an Amer. geographer, 1784-1817. EDEL1X<:K. <;i:i'..\RD,aFlem.eng., 1649-1707. EDELMANN, J. F., a Fr. pianist, 1749-1794. EDELMANN, J. C, a Ger. philos., 1698-1767. EDEMA, Gerard, a Dutch paint., 1652-1700. EDEN, Sir F. M., a statistical writer, d. 1809. EDEN, Sir M., afterwards Lord Henley, a diplom. and ambass. during the late war, d. 1802. EDENIUS, Jordan, a Ger. contro., 162 1-1 666. EDER, G., a catholic theologian, 1524-1586. EDGAR, a Saxon k. of Eng., reigned 959-975. EDGAR-ATHELING, grandson of Edmund Ironside, andneph. of Ed. the Confessor, the rightful heir to the crown worn by the latter and bv Harold. EDGAR, kg. of Scotl., son of Malcolm" III. and Margaret, sister of Edgar Athelinsr. rgnd.1097-1107. EDGE WORTH, Maria, was'born in Berkshire on New- Year's Day 1767. She was a daughter of the first marriage of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, of Edgeworth's-town, in the county of Longford; but she never was in Ireland, unless for a few months in childhood, till 1782. In that year her father, succeeding to the family estate, took up his residence on it : and there his daughter's file was chiefly spent. Indeed, the only exceptions were short visits to England, France, and Scot- land, and two years passed at Clifton, on account of the delicate health of members of the family. The history both of Miss Edgeworth's authorship, and of her life, was closely dependent on her affec- tionate and respectful association with her father. He was a man of much miscellaneous knowledge, sanguine and speculative, who possessed great mechanical ingenuity and originality, and exhibited in other pursuits a singular mixture of benevolence, self-esteem, and eccentricity. He sat in the Irish parliament which was elected in 1798, and advo- cated the views of the party of which Lord Charle- mont was considered as the head. But his favourite occupations, besides mechanical contrivances and experiments, were the improvement of his estate and of the condition of his tenantry, and the edu- cation of the many children who gathered round him in the course of four marriages. Mr. Edge- worth's experience, as a landlord and magistrate, placed at the disposal of his daughter that large stock of incidents and characters which she used in her novels with so much shrewdness, humour, and kindly feeling ; and though these works were written exclusively by herself, they were always submitted to his revisal. His zeal in the training of his children, and his constant desire for improv- ing the current methods of education, made the father and daughter joint authors in works intended for the use of youth. — The most ambitious of those joint productions is the series of essays entitled ' Practical Education,' first published in 1798, and afterwards reprinted and altered more than once. The series of story-books, however, is really more valuable as well as better known. It had been 216 EDG begun in 1778, "with the first part of ' Harry and Lucy,' written by Mr. Edgeworth and his second •wife' Honora Sneyd ; but this story was not pub- lished for many years ; while, in the meantime, it suggested ' Sandford and Merton' to Mr. Edge- worth's friend Mr. Day. It was at length inserted [Edgeworth's-Town.] in Miss Edgeworth's ' Early Lessons,' which after- wards received a continuation from her father; while her ' Parent's Assistant,' like all other parts of the series that came from her pen, showed a striking superiority in all respects over the portions that were not hers. Another joint work was the • Essay on Irish Bulls,' published in 1803 ; and, Mr. Edgeworth having died in 1817, there ap- peared, in 1820, his ' Memoirs,' of which the first volume was written by himself, and the second by his daughter. — The series of Miss Edgeworth's novels began in 1801 with ' Castle Rackrent;' which was followed by the ' Moral Tales,' ' Belinda,' 'Leonora,' 'The Modern Griselda,' 'Popular Tales,' the ' Tales of Fashionable Life,' and ' Patronage ;' and ' Harrington and Ormond' appeared in 1817. The venerable authoress reappeared with ' Helen ' | in 1834, and closed her labours more recently with ' the child's story of ' Orlandino.' She died at I Edgeworth's-town in May 1849. [W.S.] i EDGEWORTH, Richard Lovell, an Irish I EDW EDMUND DE LANGLEY, earl of Cambridge and duke of York, fourth son of Edward III., guardian of the kingdom during the absence of Richard II., 1399, which he betrayed to the duke of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., died 1402. EDMUND PLANTAGENET, earl of Kent, brother of Edward II., executed through the craft of Mortimer 1330. EDMUND, St., abp. of Canterbury, died 1242. EDRED, a Saxon king of England, 946-955. EDRIDGE, H., an English painter, 1768-1821. EDRIS, founder of a Mahommedan dynasty, poisoned by a slave of Haroun-al-Raschid 793. EDRIS II., son and sue. of the preced., 793-828. EDRIGSI, Mohammed, a descendant of the foregoing, dist. in Sicily as a geographer, 12th ct. EDWARD. The Saxon kings of England of this name are — Edward the Elder, son and suc- cessor of Alfred the Great, reigned 901-925. Ed- ward the Martyr, son and sue. of Edgar, at the age of fifteen, 975 ; mur. 978. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and sue. of Hardi- canute, 1041, died 1066. In the Norman fine they are — Edward I., whose son was the first prince of Wales, 1272-1307. Edward II., his son and successor, deposed 1327, mur. by the con- nivance of his queen and Mortimer 1328. Ed- ward III., son and successor of the preceding, dist. for his heroism and successes against the Scots and French, died 1377. Edward IV., son of the duke of York, descended from the daughter of the duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III., reigned 1461-1482. Edward V., son of the preceding, mur. by the duke of Gloucester 1483. Edward VI., son of Henry VIII. and Queen Jane Seymour, reigned 1547-1553. The English princes of this name are — Edward the Black Prince, a fa- [Tomb of Edward at Canterbury.] gentleman, eel. as an essayist, and for several in- ■ mous name in the French wars. He was the eldest son of Edward III., and was born in 1330. In 1345 he accompanied his father in his expedi- tion to France, and displayed unusual heroism at the battle of Crecy. In 1356 he gained the battle of Poictiers, and brought the French king and his son prisoners to England. He died before his father, in 1376, leaving two sons, the elder of whom, Richard, was the successor of Edward III. His wife was Jane, daughter of Edmund, earl of Kent, a princess of such beauty, that she was called ' La Belle.' Edward Plantagenet, the last descendant of the house of York, beheaded after a long imprisonment in the Tower, 1445-1499. Edward of Lancaster, prince of Wales, son of Henry VI. and Margaret of Anjou, m. after the battle of Tewkesbury, 1453-1471. EDWARD, king of Portugal, 1433-1438. EDWARD of Braganza, inf. of Por., d. 1649. EDWARDS, Bryan, author of a civil and com- mercial history of the West Indies, 1743-1800. EDWARDS, Edward, a mathem., 1738-1806. gemous inventions. Among the latter is his claim to the telegraph. His ' Memoirs ' were begun by himself and continued by his daughter, 1744-1817. EDGEWORTH, Roger, a learned div., 16th c. EDGEWORTH-DE-FIRMONT, Henry Es- sex, a Fr. abbe* of Irish descent, confessor to Louis XVI. at the period of his execution, 1745-1807. EDITH, St., a natural daughter of Edgar, k. of England, embraced the relig. life and died 984. EDMONDES, Sir T., a minister of state in the administr. of Sir Francis Walsingham, 1563-1639. His son, Sir Clement, a class, scholar, 1566-1622. EDMONDSON, H., an Engl, gram., 1607-1659. EDMONDSON, J., a wr. on heraldry, d. 1786. EDMONDSTONE, a Scot, painter, 1795-1853. EDMUND THE MARTYR, from whom Bury St. Edmund's is named, king of the East Angles, 855, put to death by the Danes 870. E I ) M UND I., sue. as k. of Engl. 941, killed 947. KDMUND II., surnamed 'Ironside,' succeed. 1016, shared the crown with Canute, and m. 1037. 217 EDW EDWARDS, George, an Engl, nat., 1G93-1773. EDWARDS, Jon., an Engl, divine, 1629-1712. EDWARDS, Rev. Jonathan, President of New Jersey College, was born 5th October, 1703, at Windsor, Connecticut. His extraordinary acute- ness of intellect, which developed itself in his early boyhood, was applied in his mature age chiefly to the prosecution of moral and theological researches. He became greatly distinguished as" a metaphysical and speculative divine. At the same time he pre- pared himself with diligence for the active duties of the ministry, in which, after a few temporary engagements elsewhere, he was permanently em- ployed at Northampton, Massachusets, having been ordained colleague and successor to his grand- father, Mr. Stoddart, 15th February, 1727. His ministerial labours in that place were followed by remarkable results. A religious excitement, cele- brated in the annals of American revivals, took place in 1735 among Ins people. Multitudes were deeply impressed, and evinced their cordial recep- tion of the truth by its sanctifying eft'ects on their characters and lives. His church was greatly en- larged, and his stated congregation immense. But it happened in this case, as in all great and sud- den movements, whether in the religious or politi- cal world, that numbers who had joined him were influenced by momentary feeling, rather than by deep and lasting conviction; and accordingly, while not a few were devotedly attached to him as their spiritual father, and an eminent servant of Christ, others became disgusted with his high- toned purity of principles, and his impartial exer- cise of discipline. So strongly did the current of discontent set in, that this faithful minister seeing little prospect of doing further good in the place, contemplated resignation ; but he was anticipated in this step by a few leaders of intemperate zeal and exasperated passions, who convened the con- gregation, and having secured the appointment of a council obsequious to their views, determined to vent their revenge on their faithfid pastor by giv- ing him a summary dismissal. This disgraceful proceeding was earned into effect 22d June, 1750. Mr. Edwards bore the trial with admirable equani- mity, and evinced his Christian temper by agree- ing more than once to supply the vacant pulpit before his successor was appointed. This generous conduct, instead of mollifying the popular feeling, was requited by a vote of the inhabitants prohibit- ing his return. But he was amply compensated for this bitter hostility of a proud and worldly community, by the expressions of Christian sym- pathy that came from various parts of the church, and the liberal contributions that were sent from Britain, and particularly from Scotland, to re- lieve his destitution. Mr. Edwards now directed his energies into other channels, and afterwards laboured for six years as missionary to the Hou- satonic Indians at Stockbridge in Berkshire county, where he employed his summers during the absence of the tribes on their hunting excursions in the composition of theological works, which spread his fame throughout the world. In January 1758 he was reluctantly prevailed on to accept the presi- dency of the college of New Jersey ; but before he had fully commenced his duties he was, owing to the prevalence of the small-pox in that place, ad- vised to undergo inoculation; the experiment, how- EGR ever, at his age, being in his fifty-fourth year, proved too violent for his constitution ; the remedy superinduced a most malignant form of the dis- ease, and he was cut off on 22d March, 1758. He was a voluminous writer, his works comprising eight volumes. His essay on the 'Freedom of the Will,' his treatises on ' Original Sin' and on the 'Affections,' and his 'History of Redemption,' are generally known and highly valued. [R.J.] EDWARDS, R., a British dramatist, 1523-1578. EDWARDS, Thomas, a presbyterian divine, author of a fierce attack on the ' sectaries' under the title of ' Gangrsena,' died 1647. His son John, a deacon in the Church of England, author of an answer to Locke, 1637-1716. EDWARDS, Thos., au. of a pungent criticism on Warburton's edition of Shakspeare, 1699-1757. EDWARDS, Wm, a Welch mason, disfin. for his remarkable skill in bridge-building, 1719-1789. EDWARDS, W. F., a nat. of Jamaica, principal fhdr. of the ethnological society, &c, 1777-1812. EDWIN, a k. of Northumberland, reig. 616-653. EDWIN, John, an Engl, comedian, 1749-1794. EDWY, a king of England, 955-959. EGBERT, a Saxon king of Kent, 664-673. EGBERT, king of Wessex, renowned for uniting the heptarchy into one kingdom 827, died 838. EGBERT, an Eng. ecclesiastical writer, d. 767. EGEDE, Hans, founder of the Danish missions in Greenland, and au. of the nat. his. of that coun- try, 1686-1758. Paul, his son, and fellow-labourer, author of a Greenland dictionary, &c, 1708-1789. EGERTON, Daniel, an Eng. actor, 1772-1835. EGERTON, Fran., earl of Bridgewater, dis. as a Gr. scho., au. of the life of T. Egerton, 1756-1829. EGERTON, John, bp. of Durham, 1721-1787. EGERTON, Thomas, baron of Ellesmere and Viscount Brackley, chancellor of England before Lord Bacon, dist. as an upright lawyer, 1540-1617. EGG, John Gaspar, a Swiss agriculturist, founder of several industrial colonies on principles similar to those of Robert Owen, born 1738. EGGS, the name of several Germans all of Rhinfeld. John Ignatius, an Asiatic missionary, 1618-1702. Richard, a Jesuit and Latin poet, whose life was written by his father, P. L. Eggs, 1621-1659. Leonce, a Jesuit, Latin poet, and moralist, 1666-1717. George Joseph, a learned writer, 1670-1750. EGIL, or EIGIL, a bard of Iceland, 10th cent. EGINTON, Fr., an Eng. pain, on glass, d. 1805. EGIZA, a k. of the Spanish Visigoths, 687-700. EGIZIO, M., a Neapol. archaeologist, 1G74-1745. EGLANTINE. See Fabre-D'-Eglaxtine. EGLOFF, Louise, a Gcr. poetess, 1803-1834. EGLY, C. P. Monthenault D', a French hist. and mem. of the Acad, of Inscriptions, 1696-1749. EGMONT, a noble family of the low countries, of whom the most distinguished are — Charles, duke of Gueldres, 1467-1538. Lamoral, count of Egmont and prince of Garre, a dis. soldier and pa- triot, beheaded by Alva, 1522-1568. His son Philip, killed at the battle of Ivry, 1590 ; and his younger son Charles, an adherent of the house of Orange, died 1620. EGNAZIO, Battista, a lear. Ital., 1478-1553. EGREMONT, George O'Brien Wyndiiam, earl of, distinguished for his general munificence and patronage of aits and letters, 1751-1837. 218 EHL EHLERS, M., a Ger. philosopher, 1732-1800. EHRENHEIM, F. G., a Swed. baron and states- man, au. of works in nat. philosophy, 1753-1828. EHRENMALIN, Arvid, a Swed. savant, last c. EHRENPREUS, The Count, a Swed. senator, sec. to Charles XII., and after his death one of the principal organizers of lear. institutions, 1692-1760. EHRENSCHILD, C. B., a Danish statesman, time of Frederick III. and Christian V., 1629-1698. EHRENSCH(ELD, N., a Swe. adm., 1674-1728. EHRENSTEN, E., an ambas., sec. of state, and chancel, of Swed. under Chas. Gustavus, 1620-1686. EHRENSTRAHLE, D., a Swed. jur., 1693-1769. EHRENSTRAL, D. C, a Swe. pain., 1629-1698. EHRENSWCERD, Augustus, count of, field- marshal of Sweden, distin. for his part in many Heat works of defence, died 1773. His son Chas. Frederic, born 1770, implicated in the conspi- racy of Anckarstrcem and exiled, died 1826. EHRET, G. D., a German painter, 1710-1770. EHRHART, B., a German botanist, died 1756. EICHHORN, J. G. C, a German entomologist, and evangelical minister, 1718-1790. EICHHORN, John Godfrey, a Ger. theolog., historian, and Oriental scholar, dis. for his works in biblical criticism, prof, at Gottingen, 1752-1827. EKEBERG, G., a Swed. navigator, 1716-1784. EKEBLAD, Claude, count of, a Swed. ambas., minister of foreign affairs, mem. of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, andchan. ot Abo, 1700-1771. EKSTRCEM, Daniel, a Swed. mechan., distin. for his improvement of mathem. inst., 1711-1755. ELBEE, N. G. D., gen. in La Vendue, 1752-1793. ELDON, John Scott, earl of, a distinguished judge, was born at Newcastle in 1751. He was the eleventh of fifteen children. His father, who was a coal-fitter, and who possessed some of the careful qualities of his distinguished son, gradually amassed a considerable fortune, which enabled him to bring up and educate his large family respectably. [Grammar School at Newcastle.] John became a remarkable instance of the high suc- cess which may be obtained in England by the hon- est devotion of talents, though not brilliant, to one absorbing occupation ; for though he received an Oxford education, he was totally destitute of literary taste, and never could compose a good English sen- tence — a peculiarity in which he differed much from his accomplished brother, Lord Stowell. Sir Samuel Romilly mentions how painful he felt it to 219 ELI be obliged to confess to the Lord Chancellor his total inability to understand the meaning of some clauses of a bill drawn by his Lordship, on which his opinion was desired. On the 18th of Novem- ber, 1772, he committed the sole rash act of his life in eloping with Elizabeth, the daughter of Mr. Aubone Surtees, the banker ; and the young lady, contrary to the usual experience of such matches, found in him a constant, kind, and affec- tionate husband. He was called to the bar on 19th February, 1776. Some years elapsed before he had an opportunity of showing his abilities. It is a frequent anecdote about great barristers that they have owed their success to suddenly under- taking a case in which the originally retained counsel is taken ill or breaks his engagement, and such an incident in 1780 really was the foundation of Scott's business. In June, 1788, he was made solicitor-general, and in February, 1793 r attorney- general. He was subject to much unpopularity as the adviser and conductor of the ineffective pro- secutions for treason at that exciting juncture. In 1799 he was made chief justice of the Common Pleas, and became all the more admirable a common law judge that he could not give way to the doubt- ing propensity which beset him on the woolsack. In 1801 he became lord chancellor, and with the short interval of the Fox and Grenville adminis- tration, in 1806-7, he held that office until the accession of Lord Lyndhurst in 1827. His hesi- tation and procrastination became proverbial ; but it must ever be admitted that it arose from a con- scientious desire never to leave the slightest par- ticular of any of the complex cases before him unexamined and un weighed. He was a bigotted admirer of the law, of which he was so consum- mate a master. Projects of law reform cut him to the soul, and he has been represented as shedding tears on the abolition of the punishment of death for stealing five shillings in a dwelling-house. He died on 13th January, 1838. [J.H.B.] ELEANOR of Austria, sister of Charles V., q. of Portugal 1519, q. of France 1530, d. 1558. ELEANOR of Castile, queen of Navarre, as wife of Charles III., 1375-1416. ELEANOR of Guienne, q. of Louis VII., 1137-1154, and afterwards of Henry II. of England, by whom she became the mo. of Richard I., d. 1204. ELEANOR of Provence, daughter of Rai- mond Berenger V., and queen of Henry III. of England, called Saint Eleanor, died 1292. ELEANOR-TELLEZ, queen of Por., 1371-1405. ELEAZAR, a German rabbin, 13th century. ELGIN, Thomas Bruce, earl of Elgin and Kincardine, eel. for his collection of Grecian anti- quities, born 1771, Turkish ambas: 1789, d. 1840. ELI, judge and high priest of Israel, 12th c. b.o. ELIAS, or ELIJAH, the most remarkable of the Jewish prophets, distin. above all the others as the forerunner of the Saviour, 10th to 9th ct. b.c. ELIAS, Elvita, a Jewish critic, 1472-1549. ELIAS, M., a Flemish painter, 1658-1741. ELIO, Fr.-Xavier, a Spanish general, ex. 1822. ELIOT, John, an Indian missionary, 1604-1689. ELIOT, Thomas, a scholar of Cambridge, au- thor of a Latin and English dictionary, died 1546. ELIOTT, Geo. Augustus, Lord Heathfield, distinguished in the late war by his gallant de- fence of Gibraltar, 1718-1790. ELI ELTSE, an Armenian historian, died 480. ELI SEE, J. F. Copel, called 'le pere Elisde,' or Father Elishah, a eel. Fr. preacher, 1726-1783. ELISEE, M. V. Talachax, generally called Father Elisee, surg. of Louis XVIIL, 1753-1817. ELISHA, successor of Elijah in the prophetic ministry, 9th century B.C. ; (2 Kings ii. 13). ELIZABETH, ihefirst of the name, queen con- sort of England, daughter of Sir R. Woodville and widow of Sir John Gray, mar. to Edward IV. 1464, died 1488 ; the second of the name, daughter of the preceding, wife of Henry VIL, and mother of Henry VIII., 1466-1502 ; the third of the name,— ELIZABETH, queen of England, was born at Greenwich on 7th September, 1533. She was the daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn, and her position in reference to the descent of the throne was peculiar, since the accession of her sister, Mary, conveying the inference that Henry's mar- riage to Catharine of Arragon was valid, rendered the issue of the second marriage illegitimate. An act had, however, been passed in Henry's reign, which, fortunately perhaps, cut the knot by set- tling the crown on the two princesses successively. During the reign of her brother, King Edward, she spent a very happy life, following her natural dis- position for hard study, and not only acquiring many accomplishments, but practically applying them to the acquisition of a profound knowledge of mankind. During the reign of her sister the 6cene changed, and she underwent five uneasy years of difficulty and danger. Her conduct was marked by extreme sagacity, courage, and caution. She proved that her adherence to the principles of the reformation was not so much in her mind a matter of essential belief as of preference between a good system and a bad system, for she submitted in some measure to the ritual of Rome. On the other hand, when we know the extreme rigidness of Mary's bigotry, it is necessary to believe that nothing but a considerable amount of sisterly affec- tion could have prevented her from sacrificing one who was likely so far to undo all that she had her- self done at the sacrifice of so many lives. Queen Elizabeth's accession to the throne dates from 17th November, 1558. Her glorious reign is matter of history. A contrast to that which followed, it was marked alike by prudence and decision. The ecclesiastical revolution, which every one saw must follow her accession, went on so gradually, and at the same time so distinctly, that the Romish hier- archy had abandoned their cause before it was finally decided against them. A main character of her reign is, that from the first she chose wise advisers, and through all her personal caprices kept them to the end. Another eminent feature of her policy was to watch the growth of discon- tents, and appease them ere they became dan- gerous. Thus, when such complaints as shook the throne in the next reign, and overturned it in that of Charles, began faintly to appear, she stepped forward and redressed the grievances as from her own princely beneficence to her suppliant people, and hence she preserved her prerogative untar- nished, while she appeased discontent. How far sovereigns of such ability are advantageous to a free country may be questioned. England cer- tainly never came so near arbitrary power as in her reign. With all her political capacity, her per- ELI sonal failings were signally preposterous. Her desire to be considered lovely and to be loved ap- proached a monomania. She appears to have had a singularly unpleasing aspect for a woman — harsh features, a rough yellow skin, dim eyes, an iras- cible indented mouth, and sandy hair — yet no one could too grossly flatter her beauty, and it was impossible to make a portrait with the slightest degree of truth which she could tolerate. Sir Walter Raleigh speaks of ' the pictures of Queen Elizabeth, made by unskilful and common pain- ters, which, by her own commandment, were knocked in pieces and cast into the fire.' On more than one occasion she was allowed, and al- lowed herself, to exult in the notion that she was the object of the despairing love of her servants — but she never permitted either vanity or affection to disturb the policy of her reign. To the jealousy arising out of her peculiar weakness we may at- tribute the great blot on her name — her harshness to Mary of Scotland. It has now been proved that she distinctly indicated how good a sen-ice she would count it secretly to put the captive out of the way; and it is creditable to the English public men of the day that none of them would take her hint as a warrant ' to break into the bloody house of fife.' Elizabeth died on 24th March, 1603. [J.H.B.] 220 [Tomb of Elizabeth.] ELIZABETH, Christina, empress of Germ., and grandmother of Marie Antoinette, born 1691 ; married to the archduke Charles 1708 ; died 1750. ELIZABETH of Hungary, daughter of An- drew II., and wife of Louis IV., landgrave of Thuringia, known as St. Elizabeth, 1207-1231. ELIZABETH, queen of Hungary, married to Charobert 1319 ; regent of Poland for her son 1370-1380; died 1381. Anotlur of the name, wife of Louis, and regent after his death, 1382 ; murdered 1386. ELIZABETH-PETROWNA, emp. of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great, born 1709, succeeded 1741, died 1761. Another princess of the name, known as Elizabeth-Ai.k.\ii;una, of the house of Baden, was the wife of the emperor Alexander, b. 1779, married to the grand duke 1793, d. 1826. ELI ELIZABETH, Philippine Marie Helene, commonly called Madame Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., the faithful friend and companion of the royal family in their flight to Varennes, and during their imprisonment, born 1764 ; executed, on the pretence of corresponding with her other brothers, afterwards Louis XVIII. and Charles X., by the revolutionists, 10th May, 1794. ELIZABETH, Princess Palatine, daughter of Frederick V., and pupil of Des Cartes, 1618-1680. ELIZABETH, queen of Portugal, daughter of Peter III. of Arragon, known as St. Elizabeth, died 1336. ELIZABETH, queen of Spain: the first, Elizabeth of Valois, daughter of Henry II. and Catherine de Medici, born 1545, married to Philip II. 1559, died 1568. The second, Eliza- beth of France, daughter of Henry IV. and Marie de Medici, born 1602, married to Philip IV. 1615, died 1644. The third, Elizabeth Far- nese, daughter of Edward II., prince of Parma, bom 1692, married to Philip V. 1714, died 1766. ELLA, a Saxon chief who made a descent upon Britain, and became king of Sussex 491, died 514. ELLA, a king of Deira, Northumb., 559-588. ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, Lord, an eminent English lawyer and judge, was born at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, about the year 1748. As the son of the celebrated bishop of Carlisle, he began life with favourable prospects. He had not become conspicuously known to the public until the trial of Wan-en Hastings, in 1785, opened up for him a very great arena of exertion. His function of leading counsel for the accused in a matter involving so much variety and extent of new and perplexing matter was one which no man could perform in a satisfactory manner with- out great ability, and Law received for himself the high confidence of the public and his profes- sion. He was made attorney-general in 1801, and lord chief justice of the King's Bench in 1802. He held the office for sixteen years, which covered a very trying period ; and though he was a man of hasty temper, and sometimes deemed arbitrary, he obtained a character for fairness and indepen- dence. The last important business in which he was engaged was the trial of William Hone, charged with libel. The proceedings assumed an almost controversial character between the accused and the judge, and it was said that the mortifica- tion of the latter in being defeated by the verdict of a jury hastened his end. He died in December, 1818. [_J.H.B.] ELLERS, J., a Swedish miscel. wr., died 1790. ELLEY, Lieutenant-General Sir John, a brave horse soldier and officer, distinguished in the last war, died 1839. ELLIOT, J., an Eng. phy. and chem., 1747-87. ELLIOT, W., a designer and engrav., 1717-66. ELLIOTT, Ebenezer, the celebrated 'Corn Law Rhymer,' was born at Masborough, near Rotherham, 1781, of humble parentage, and died at his residence near Barnsley, 1849. He was possessed of an athletic genius, and of that love of nature which marks the genuine poet. It is well known that his ' Corn Law Rhymes ' assisted in exciting that revolt of the manufac- turing population against a shameful impost, which produced our recent commercial changes; ELM but the name of Elliott will be remembered as the teacher and friend of the poor long after these circumstances have become matter of dry his- tory. His 'Village Patriarch,' 'Ribbledin,' and other outpourings of his muse must always occupy a distinguished place in the popular poetry of England. Elliott possessed the happy talent of combining business with literature, and realized a competency in the iron trade ELLIS, Clement, an Engl, divine, 1630-1700. ELLIS, Geo., a miscellaneous auth., 1745-1815. ELLIS, G. J. W. Agar, Baron Dover, celeb. for his investigations in histor. subjects, 1797-1833. ELLIS, H., an English navigator, died 1806. ELLIS, John, celebrated as a naturalist, was born in London about the year 1710. He died in 1776. Ellis was a merchant in London, but it appears he was not successful in business. The study of natural history, which had been an amuse- ment in his earlier years, became in his distresses a consolation to him, and a serious occupation ; while a situation under government rendered him in the latter period of his life comfortable and indepen- dent. He is the author of several valuable papers on subjects connected with natural history, both botanical and zoological; but his chief claim to the great reputation he enjoys rests upon his works on corallines. A little previous to his time Peyssonell had made known to the French Aca- demy his discovery of the animal origin of corals and madrepore, while Bernard de Jussieu had de- monstrated the animal nature of several corallines. Ellis, perhaps without knowing these discoveries, had his attention directed to the same subject, and succeeded in demonstrating clearly and satisfac- torily the animality of an immense number of zoophytes, which, till his time, had been always classed amongst plants. His opinions were disputed, and the controversies arising therefrom gave Ellis further opportunities of more decidedly proving the truth of his discoveries. He is thus justly entitled to the credit of at least substantiating the fact that corallines are animals. His ' Essay Towards a Natural History of Corallines' was translated almost immediately into French and German, and procured for him the friendship and correspondence of Linnaeus, who dedicated to him a genus of plants by the name of Ellisia. [W.B.] ELLIS, John, a fugitive wr. and versifier, an intimate acquaintance of Dr. Johnson, 1698-1791. ELLIS, W., a writer on agriculture, 17th cent. ELLISTON, Robert William, one of the most versatile of British actors, was bom in Lon- don, 1774, and was educated for the church, but disappointed his friends, and appeared on the stage in 1796. In 1803 he was appointed acting manager at the Haymarket, and his popularity was so great, that the performance was removed to the Opera House. His subsequent career as lessee and manager of various theatres, was marked by utter recklessness, not to say insanity on some occasions. His greatest character was that of Duke Aranza in ' The Honeymoon.' Died on the 7th July, 1831. ELLROD, G. A., a Bohemian philol., 1709-60. ELL WOOD, Thos., a religious writer and con- troversialist of the Quaker persuasion, 1639-1713. ELLYS, Anth., an English divine, 1693-1761. ELLYS, Sir R., a biblical scholar, died 1742. ELMAKYN, G., an Arab, historian, 1223-1273. 221 ELM ELMSLEY, Pet., D.D., a dist. classical BcfcoL and philolosjist, contrib. to the reviews, 1778-1825. ELOY, N. F. J., a Fr. medical hist., 1714-88. ELPHINSTON, a Scotch naval com. in the ser- vice of Russia, dist. against the Turks, 1720-1775. ELPHINSTON, Arthur, Lord Balmerino, a partizan of the Pretender, executed after the defeat of Culloden, 1688-1746. ELPHINSTON, J., a native of Edinburgh, in- ventor of a new orthography, 1721-1809. ELPHINSTON,W., a Scotch prelate, 1431-1514. ELPHINSTONE, George Keith, Viscount Keith, a naval commander, distinguished in the American war, at the siege of Toulon, and the Cape of Good Hope, 1747-1828. ELPHINSTONE, Major-Gen. George Wil- liam Keith, a Waterloo officer, commander-in- chief of the Bengal army during the disasters of Afghanistan, 1782-1842. ELRINGTON, Th., an Irish mathem., d. 1835. ELSHOLTZ, J. S., aPruss. botanist, 1623-1688. ELSNER, Ch. J. H., a Pruss. phys., 1777-1834. ELSNER, J., a Prussian theolog., 1692-1750. ELSNER, J. Th., a Polish theolog., 1717-1782. ELSTOB, W., an English antiquarian, 1673- 1714. His sister, Elizabeth, author of a Saxon grammar, &c, 1683-1756. ELSYNGE, H., a parliament, hist., 1598-1654. ELVIUS, P., a Swed. astronomer, 1710-1749. ELWES, John, a notorious miser, 1714-1789. ELYOT, Sir Th., an English moralist, d. 1546. ELZEVIR, a distinguished name in the history of literature, borne by a family of printers, re- markable for the choice and beautiful execution of their works. Louis, the first of the family known to biographers, was a bookseller of Leyden, close of the 16th cent. Matthew, his son, born 1565, was a bookseller at Leyden 1618. Isaac, eldest son of Matthew, and first printer of the family, Leyden, 1617-1628. Bonaventure and Abraham, brothers of the preceding, and the most famous of the family, partners at Leyden, 1626-1652. John, son of Abraham, born 1622, in partnership with his cousin Daniel, 1652-1654, died 1661. Daniel, the last printer of the family, son of Bonaventure, born 1617, after the death of John associated with his cousin Louis, who had long flourished at Amsterdam, died 1680. The Elzevir edition of the classics, and other works, are still held in high esteem for their correctness and beauty. ELZHEIMEB, A., a Ger. painter, 1574-1620. E.MADI, a famous Persian poet, d. 1275. EMANUEL, a Heb. poet and gram., 13th cent. EMANUEL, surnamed the ' Great,' king of Por- tugal, born 1469, succeeded 1495, died 1521. EMANUEL, duke of Savoy. See Philibert. EMEBIC, or HENBY, k. of Hungary, 1196-1204. EMEKUON, B. M., a Fr. jurist, 1725-1785. EMERY, Ja. A., a Fr. theologian, 1732-1811. EMERY, John, an English actor, 1777-1822. EMERY, M. Pahticelli D', a French financier under Mazarin, historian of Mantua, died 1650. EMlLIANUS,procl.emp.ofRomeandmurd.253. EMILIUS. See JEmimus. EMLYN, Henry, an Eng. architect, 1729-1815. EMLYN, THOMAS, anonconf. theo., 1663-1743. EMMERY, J. Z. Cl., Count De Grozyeulx, a Fr. statesman, dep. to the states-gen., 1752-1823. 222 ENG EMMETT. Robert Emmf.tt, the son of a physician at Cork, was born in 1780. While quite a lad he took an active part in the efforts made by the association called the United Irishmen, to separate Ireland from Great Britain, and establish her as an independent republic in 1798. When these attempts failed, Robert Emmett escaped to France, where he remained till the winter of 1802. He then returned to Dublin, and strove to reor- ganize the Irish malcontents, and renew the rebel- lion. On the 23d of July, 1803, a rising in Dub- lin took place at Emmett's directions ; but the in- surgent mob of the Irish capital proved as cowardly as they were furious ; and Emmett, in disgust at the outrages which they committed, and finding himself utterly unable to rule the storm that he had raised, escaped from the rabble rout and the troops, who, after some strange delay, appeared, and more easily put them down. Emmett re- mained for a short time concealed among the Wicklow mountains; but, returning to Dublin, was tracked, apprehended, tried, and convicted of high treason. He was executed on the 20th Sep- tember, 1803. He met his fate with manly cour- age and Christian resignation ; and his" whole demeanour, both at his trial and on the scaffold, gained for him the pitying admiration of many, who, while they condemned his erroneous theories, and his mischievously rash enthusiasm, felt com- pelled to pay homage to the purity of his motives, the fervour of his eloquence, and the excellence of his general character. His fate, and that of Miss Curran, the lady to whom he was engaged, form the subjects of two of the finest and most popular of Moore's Irish melodies. [E.S.C/j EMMETT, Th. Addis, a barrister, elder brother of the Irish patriot, escaped to Amer. and d. 1827. EMMIUS, Abbo, a German divine, 1547-1826. EMO, Angelo, a Venetian statesman, 1731-92. EMPECINADO, the surname of Don J. M. Diez, a Spanish warrior and patriot, exec. 1825. EMPEDOCLES, a Greek philosopher of the school of Pythagoras, the first who added to the doctrine of metempsychosis the transmigration of souls into vegetables, the first also to distinguish love and hate as moving forces, and to describe the four elements as fundamental differences of matter. He was a man of distinguished patriot- ism, and some curious traditions are related of him. Lived about the middle of the 5th ct. b.c. EMPSON, Wm., F.R.S.L., prof, of law at Hayle- bury college ; an able critic and scholar, d. 1852. EMSER, Jerome, a German catholic theolo- gian, dist. as an opponent of Luther, 1477-1527. ENDEL, Manoah, a Polish rabbi, died 1585. ENFIELD, Dr. William, author of 'The Speaker,' and other works, a dissenting minister, and teacher of the Belles Lettres at Warrington Academv, 1741-1797. ENGEL, John James, a German philosopher, dramatic writer, and literary sarant, professor of morals and liter, at Berlin, 1741-1802. His brother, Ch. Christian, a man of letters, 1752-1801. ENGEL, Sam., a Swiss geographer, 1702-84. ENGELBEBT, a theologian of Styria, d. 1331. ENGELBRECHT, John, a German visionary, was born at Brunswick 1599, and died in his na- tive place, after wandering from city to city, in 1642. His father was a tailor, and John was ap- ENG prenticed to tlie same business, but his health failed him, his malady being augmented by the severity of his religious practices, and he assumed the character of a prophet as early as 1622. There can be no doubt about the reality of his trances, and also that he possessed the extraordinary faculty of going without food or drink for many days together, and of sleeping for ahnost incredible periods. The 'Works, and Divine Visions, and Revelations, of John Engelbrecht.' were first pub- lished in German in 1625. The 'Visions' were translated into English by the learned Francis Okeley in 1780. The most striking of these is a vision of the three states, the ecclesiastical, the civil, and the economical: besides which he de- scribes a 'Vision of Heaven and Hell,' a 'Vision of the New Heaven and the New Earth,' and ' Of the Mountain of Salvation.' The vision of the 4 Three States ' is evidently symbolic, and more in- dependent of Engelbrecht's idiosyncracy than the others, which take their colour from his precon- ceived notions. His appeals to the moral and re- ligious sense of his readers are energetic, and carry along with them the fullest evidence of their sincerity. His grand mistake is that into which Quakers and enthusiasts of all classes have be- trayed themselves — the supposition that their glimpses of spiritual things are necessarily an in- spiration of the Holy Spirit. Okeley's edition of Engelbrecht contains a notice of John William Francis Petersen, and his wife Joanna Eleanora de Merlan, both famous visionaries, and a specifi- cation of Engelbrecht's works in the complete German edition of 1761. [E.R.] ENGELBRECHT - ENGELBRECHTSON, a leader of the Dalecarlians, in whose quarrel he marched upon Stockholm, defeated Eric XIII., and was named administrator of Sweden, together with Canuteson, whom he assassinated, 1436. ENGELGRAVE, H., a Flem. ascetic, 1610-70. ENGELHARDT, C. A., a Ger. jurist, 1768-1834. ENGESTROEM, J., a Swedish Orientalist, 1699-1777. His son Eustace, a mineralogist, 1738-1813. Laurence, another son, an am- bassador and statesman, 1751-1826. ENGHIEN. See Conde, Louis Ant. Henry. ENNIUS, Quintus, a Latin poet, 239-169 B.C. ENNODIUS, Magnus Felix, a divine of the Roman church, by descent a Gaul, 473-521. ENOCH, in Scripture a son of Cain (Gen. iv. 17), and a son of Jared (Gen. v. 18). ENT, George, an English physician, noted for his defence of the discov. of Harvey, 1604-1689. ENTICK, or ENTINCK, John, a miscellane- ous writer, author of a spelling dictionary, a hist, of London, a Latin and Eng. diet., &c, 1713-1773. ENTINOPUS, the first architect and founder of Venice, b. in Candia about the end of the 3d ct. ENTRECASTEAUX, Jo. Ant. Brune, D', admiral of the French fleets in the East Indies, was born at Aix, in Provence, 1740. In 1791 he was sent out by France in search of La Perouse ; and, the nature of the inquiry leading him to keep near shore, he ascertained with great exactness the out- lines of many coasts. New Holland, W. and S.W. coasts, Tasmania, New Caledonia, &c, have been accurately delineated by him. He failed in de- EPA 1793. Rossel, who succeeded him in command, has written an account of the voyage, 2 vols. 4to, 1808. h [j.B.j ENZINA, a poet of Old Castile, 15th century. ENZINAS, F. De, an Andalusian Jesuit, and missionary to the Philippine Islands, 1570-1632. EOBANUS, Helius, a German poet and pro- fessor of eloquence, born in Hesse 1488, died 1540. EOGAN, EOGHAINN, EOGHANN, or EOAN, names which figure in the old Irish annals as the half-fabulous stock of the houses of O'Brien, MacCarthy, O'Neil, and O'Dcnnel, reaching as far back as the 3d century B.C. The chiefs of the last two were created peers of Ireland in the reign of James I., the first with the title of earl of Ty- rone, the second as earl of Tyrconnel. EON, a French visionary of the 12th century, who believed himself to be meant by the accusa- tive in the liturgical phrase Per eum qui venturus est judicare, &c, and professed to have visions and perform miracles in proof of his mission. He gained many proselytes, and. gave them new names, such as ' Wisdom,' ' Terror,' ' Judgment,' and others equally striking. Eon died in prison about 1148, and his followers were consigned to the flames. EON DE BEAUMONT. See D'Eon. EPAMINONDAS, the Theban statesman and general, was of noble descent, but was born and reared in poverty. Of his early life little is known beyond the fact that he was educated in, and adopted the doctrines of Pythagoras ; his public life extends from the restoration of democracy by Pelopidas and the other Theban exiles in B.C. 379, to the battle of Mantineia in B.C. 362. In the conspiracy which restored the independence of his native city he took no part, refusing to stain his hands with the blood of his countrymen ; but no sooner were the usurpers expelled than he became the prime mover in the Theban state, and claimed for Thebes the right of controlling the other cities of Bceotia. Impressed with these opinions he went to Sparta as ambassador in B.C. 371, to negotiate peace ; and his claim being rejected by the Spartans, Cleombrotus was sent to invade Bceotia. The contending parties met at Leuctra, b.c. 371, when the total defeat of the Spartans not only established the supremacy of the Thebans, but put an end to the superiority in arms which had been conceded to their opponents. Having thus succeeded in the first object of his ambition, he next conceived the design of substituting Thebes for Sparta as the ruling democratical state in Greece, and for this purpose marched an army into the Peloponnesus in the winter of B.C. 369, when he inflicted a serious blow on the power of Sparta. A second expedition into the Pelopon- nesus in b.c. 368 proving unsuccessful, Epamin- ondas was disgraced ; and for some time his name does not appear in connection with any public measure. In a third expedition which he con- ducted in b.c. 366, he greatly extended the in- fluence of Thebes, gaining over to her interests, without bloodshed, the whole democratic confedera- tion in the Peloponnesus. Our limits prevent us from entering into the reasons which led to the downfall of the Theban influence. Achaia, El is, tecting any trace of the celebrated navigator, and and great part of Arcadia, returned to the alliance died before returning home, in the vicinity of Java, | with Sparta ; and it was to check this defection 223 EPA that Epaminondas invaded the Peloponnesus for the fourth and last time in B.C. 362. The Spar- tans, along with the disaffected states, and aided by the Athenians, were prepared for the contest. The two armies met near Mantineia, a city of Ar- cadia; and in the battle which ensued, Epaminon- das displayed with consummate skill the peculiar tactics to which he owed his celebrity ; but when in the full career of victory, he received a mortal wound, and was carried from the field. His army was thereby paralyzed, and no further attempt was made to follow up the victory. His private life was free from reproach ; and his public con- duct was regulated by a sincere love of his country. Before Epaminondas was bora, says Nepos, and after his death, Thebes was always subject to some foreign power; on the contrary, while he presided over her councils, she was at the head of EPI lative problem whether the human mind is capable of apprehending the Absolute and Imperative, or whether knowledge is simply empirical : neverthe- less among empirical systems there is also a great variety. Granting that pleasure is the aim of ac- tion, it remains to determine wherein man's true pleasure consists? The actual scheme of Epi- curus is certainly not the lowest of which we have record; but it would be wrong to pretend that it is a very elevated one. His maxims may be thus rendered : — Accept and aim at any pleasure which will not be followed by any pain. Avoid pain that brings no pleasure. Avoid every plea- sure that would depnve you of a greater pleasure, or cause a pain greater than the pleasure. Accept any pain that might free you from a greater pain, or that must be followed by a pleasure more in- tense than the pain. The ' virtue ' par excellence Greece. [G.F.] I in such a system is prudence ; but it admits of EPARCHUS, Anth., a Greek poet, 16th cent, others ; and Epicurus inculcated temperance, cour- EPEE, Chas. Michel De L', a French abbd distinguished for his benevolence as a teacher of the deaf and dumb, fndr. of an asylum, 1712-1789. EPHORUS, a Gr. orator and hist., 363-300 B.C. EPHRAIM, the second son born to Joseph in Egypt by Asenath, the daughter of Poti-pherah. EPHRAIM, St., a Christian writer, 4th cent. EPHRAIM, an Armenian patriarch, 1734-84. EPICHARMUS, a Pythagorean philosopher and poet, an. of treatises on philosophy and medicine, and the supposed inventor of comedy, 5th ct. B.C. EPICTETUS, lived about 90 years after Christ. He is essentially the moralist of Rome — a Stoic ; for Stoicism is simply the Roman character and genius represented in theory. The original monu- ments of nis doctrine have mostly perished. EPICURUS, born at Athens 341 B.C.: he flourished after the decline of Speculative Philo- sophy, and when the irretrievable disruption of national affairs in Greece had repressed the Heroic in Action. At such a time, he taught with accep- tance that pleasure is the sole good, and that other aims are only the disturbances of humanity. The theoretical opinions of Epicurus were identical with those of all modern sensational Schools. We do not refer to his physical or cosmogonic specula- tions, which in the main he borrowed from Demo- critus; but to his conception of the origin and ground of human knowledge and thought. Hu- man knowledge, he said, flows from our sensations, which alone do not deceive : beyond the im- mediate results of sensation, we are conscious of what he termed ' anticipations,' meaning thereby simple, generalizations, or classifications of our sensible experience : — to such, add our ' passions,' or desire of pleasure and aversion from pain ; and the contents of the human mind are summed up. From a philosophy of this character, no other sys- tem of practical morals than that inculcated by Epicurus ever can arise. If the existence of uni- versal and necessary Ideas be ignored, an impera- tive in morals cannot be conceived of, nor will the name Duty have any meaning. Right denied, as an independent reality or a Law by itself, there is nothing for it as a rule of action, save the estimate of consequences; and the only criterion by which we can value or measure consequences is their ten- dency to produce pleasure or pain. The fundamental problem in Morals thus corresponds with the specu- age, energy to resist superstition and imaginary terrors, and justice — on the ground that honesty is the best policy. He was himself temperate and benevolent; disinterestedness seemed one of his necessities; he lived on water and crust, and in the midst of a fearful famine, he divided with his disciples his mite. He renounced what is ordi- narily called pleasure, because its enjoyments could not last ; not like Zeno, who repudiated it as evil, and incompatible with the freedom of the sage. We have only a few fragments of the writings of Epicurus ; but his system is explained by Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch, and many others: Diogenes Laertius discourses concerning it very copiously. Like Democritus, Epicurus owes much to the im- mortal song of Lucretius. [J.P.N.] EPIMENIDES, a philosopher and poet of the 6th century B.C., supposed to be the first who in- troduced the consecration of temples, the purifica- tion of countries, cities, and private houses, into Greece, where he was held for an infallible prophet. EPINAY, Madame De La Live D', or by her maiden name, Louise Florence Petronille, a French lady, celebrated for her attachment to Rousseau, and as the authoress of ' Les Conversa- tions d' Emilie,' &c, 1725-1783. EPIPHANIUS, one of the Greek fathers, d. 403. EPIPHANIUS, surnamed 'The Scholastic,' Latin translator of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theo- doret, 6th century. EPISCOPIUS, Simon, whose surname in his own tongue was Bisschop, was born at Amster- dam in 1583. Sent to the university of Leyden in 1600, his inquisitive and ardent mind soon in- volved him in the raging controversies of the time. Ordained a pastor at Bleswyck in 1610, he was in a very short time chosen to be the advocate of the Arminian party, at a conference which was held at the Hague, and was at length raised to the chair of theology at Leyden, on the deposition of Vorstius. At the svnod of Dort he was the accredited cham- pion of the Remonstrants, or Arminians. The vic- torious Calvinist, or Gomarist party, disgraced their cause by inflicting civil pains and penalties on their opponents. Episcopius was deposed and banished. The exile spent a short time in France, then returning to Holland he became pastor of the church of the Remonstrants at Rotterdam, and re- moved finally to the rectorship of the Arminian 224 EPO gymnasium at Amsterdam, where he died in 1643. Episcopius was the divine of the Arminian party ; reducing to a system the scattered views and "unadjusted conceptions of his master Armi- nius. His writings display no common shrewdness, versatility, and eloquence ; the product of an ad- venturous and active spirit, that had a special relish in questioning ancient dogmas and unset- tling common belief. His power lay, however, more in assault than defence ; he could sap and mine with fully more dexterity than he could erect a new and symmetrical edifice. His life was writ- ten by Limborch, a relative, and his theological works were collected by Curcellaeus and Poellen- berg, in two folios, and published at Amsterdam 1650-65, and reprinted at London 1678. [J.E.] EPO, Bcetius, a lawyer of Friesland, 1529-99. EPONTNA, the wife of Julius Sabinus, a noble- man of Gaul, defeated in a revolt against Ves- pasian, celebrated for her constancy and devotion, and executed with her husband 78. EPREMESNIL. See Espre.mexil. EQUICOLA, Mario, an Ital. hist., 1460-1541. ERACLIUS, a Rom. artist and art-wr., 11th c. ERARD, Sebastian, a native of Strasburg, celebrated for his pianos and liarps, 1752-1831. ERASISTRATUS, a Gr. physician, 4th c. b. c. ERASMUS, an illegitimate son of Gerard, a citizen of Tergou, was born at Rotterdam 28th Oct., 1467. His paternal name he changed into Desire, • amiable? and afterwards prolonged into Desi- derius Erasmus — the first a Latin, and the second a Greek appellation, both with the same meaning as the Dutch Gerard. He usually signed himself Erasmus Roterodamus. He received his first edu- cation at Daventer, where the future Pope Adrian VI. was his schoolfellow. But Erasmus was only thirteen years of age when both his parents died, and the three guardians to whose care the orphan was left, squandered his property, and to gain the whole of his patrimony, as well as to conceal their villany, forced him into a monastery at Balduc, in Brabant. Thence he was taken to another religious house near Delft, and he assumed the vows at Stein in 1486, having entered among the regular canons. Luckily for the young scholar he was not buried in a convent, as his Latin scholarship gained him the notice of Henry a Bergues, bishop of Cambray, who kept him for a time as his private secretary, and then sent him to Paris to prosecute his studies. In the French capital the young literary Dutchman was in abject poverty, teaching a few pupils for hire, nay for years he wandered about the conti- nent and in England, subsisting on the precari- ous bounty of admirers. He visited this country for the first time in 1497, at the invitation of Lord Mountj oy, and won the esteem of its most illus- trious men, such as Sir Thomas More, Dean Colet, Linacre, Grocyn, and others, and published his Morim Encomium, — Praise of folly. In 1506 he travelled into Italy, took a doctor's degree at Turin, obtained from Pope Julian II. a final release from his monastic vows, and joyfully put on the black tunic of the seculars. He spent some time in Bologna, and resided for a short season at Venice with the renowned printer Aldus Manutius,and pub- lished his A dagia. At the invitation of Henry VIII., in 1510, he revisited England, and taught in Cam- bridge as a lecturer on Greek, and as Lady Mar- ERA garet professor of theology. But his itinerations Were not over, for in 1514 he returned to the con- tinent ; and at the archducal request of him who was afterwards Charles V., he repaired as counsellor to Brabant. After several changes he removed to Basel in 1521, the scene of his highest literary labours, in conjunction with the printer Froben. In 1529, when the reformation triumphed in Basel, the timid satirist of monks and popish cere- monies took refuge in Freiburg; but in 1535 he returned. His health was now declining; gout and gravel had for some years severely tormented him ; his feeble frame was seized with dysenterv. and he died at Basel on the 12th of July, 1536.— The literary toils of Erasmus Avere incessant. Besides his invaluble labours in connection with the revival of learning, his most popular efforts were his satiri- cal assaults on the monastic orders, in his famous ' Colloquies,' and other productions. But his great work was the publication of the Greek Testament, out of various manuscripts, in 1516, folio, accom- panied with a new Latin translation. The Tes- tament was reprinted in 1519, 1522, 1527, andlo35. In the first year mentioned he also published the works of Jerome. He composed likewise a series of paraphrases on the New Testament, many of which display an admirable talent for exegesis. In his various prefaces and dedications, he nobly, eloquently, and repeatedly vindicated the open circulation of the inspired volume in the vernacu- lar languages of Europe. These publications raised up hosts of enemies to him, who called him heresiarch and forger, and he shrunk from suffering on account of protestant truth and freedom. With Luther, whom he at first eulogized, he maintained a bitter and protracted controversy about the ' Free- dom of the Will.' That his writings largely contri- buted to the success of the reformation there is not a doubt, though himself wanted the faith and courage to be a thorough reformer. His scholarship was extensive and elegant, his industry was unceas- ing, his Latinity is generally pure, his wit was ever sparkling in pleasant variety, his company was a scene of refined enjoyment, his fund of anecdote was inexhaustible, and the love of literature was the passion of his nature. Latin was more fami- liar to him than his mother tongue. Among his works, not already referred to, are his learned disser- tation, Be recta Latini Grazcique Sermonis pronun- tiatione, his ' Letters,' full of interesting informa- tion ; his treatise, De Copia Verborum et Rerum, in which he insists on diversity of illustration and style ; his Ciceronianus, in which he heartily ridi- cules such pedants as would not use a Latin term unless it had the sanction of the great Roman orator; his Christian Soldier's Manual; and his Ecclesiastes, or the Art of Preaching, published not long before his death. The best edition of his col- lected works is in 11 volumes folio, Leyden, 1703-6. The first edition, in 9 volumes, Basel, 1540, was condemned to the flames by Pope Paul IV. [J. L\] ERASTUS, Thomas, a physician of Baden, better kpown in ecclesiastical history for his opin- ions in theology and church government, the fun- damental principle of which is, that the church should exercise no coercive power except through the arm of the civil magistrate. The Erastians iii the Long Parliament were opposed to the presby- terians ; and in the Church of England, Bishop 225 ERA Parker may be considered the chief of this school. Erastus was born in 1524, and d. in Basle, 1583. ERATH, A. U. D., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1709-73. ERATOSTHENES, an astronomer of Alexan- dria ; died 194 b.c. He is distinguished in history for having first conceived the plan of measuring the earth. The means employed were the shadow of a style at Alexandria, and the distance of Alexandria from Syene, where the sun is vertical at solstice. His result was surprisingly near the truth, making a degree to be about 80 English miles : it is about G9. ERBACH, Chr., a Ger. composer, 16th cent. ERCHEMBERT, a Lombard historian, 9th c. ERCILLA-Y-ZUNIGA, Don Alonso De, a gallant soldier in the service of Philip II., distin- guished in the wars of Spanish America, where his experience furnished the materials for the earliest epic poem of his native country, entitled ' La Araucana,' by which he is best known in France and England ; born 1525, died 1595. ERDESWICKE, T., an Engl, antiqu., d 1603. EREM1TA, D., a Flemish savant, 1584-1613. ERIC. The Swedish kings of this name of whom anything is known are — Eric Edmund- son, Upsala king, died 885. Eric the Victo- rious, son of the preceding, and joint successor with his brother Olave ; celebrated for his victory over Styrbiom, son of the latter, who claimed the inheritance on his father's death; died 993, or soon after. Two kings, both bearing the name of Eric, contended for the throne in the civil war which broke out about 1066, and in this war both the kings and all the chief Swedes are said to have fallen. Besides these, four other Erics must have been known traditionally — St. Eric, who reigned 1155-1160, being called Eric IX. After him comes Eric Canuteson, or Eric X., grandson of the preceding, called the good-harvest king, reigned 1210-1216. Eric Ericson, or Eric XL, a grave and righteous prince, in whom the race of St. Eric expired, reigned 1222-1250. Eric XII., of the house of the Folkungers, who rose to power during the reign of the preceding : king during the life- time of his father, Magnus Ladislas, and at length poisoned by his mother, Blanche of Namur, 1350- 1359. Eric XIII. of Sweden, and VII. of Den- mark, before his election, duke of Pomerania, chosen in Sweden 1396 ; co-regent with Margaret of Waldemar to his dethronement by Engelbrecht- Engelbrechtson in 1434, and after that, having been again acknowledged, dethroned in all the three kingdoms of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, at the death of that princess, 1439. Eric XIV., son of Gustavus Vasa, born 1533, succeeded 1560, compelled to abdicate by his brothers 1569, poi- soned in prison 1577. ERIC. The kings of Denmark of this name are nine in number — two unknown in the 9th centuiy, and then Eric L, called 'the Good,' reigned 109o- 1105. Eric II., reigned 1134-1137. Eric IIL, called ' the Lamb,' succeeded the preceding, and ab- dicated 1147. Eric IV., appointed by his brother, Abel, reigned 1242-1250. Eric v., succeeded 1259, assassinated 1286. Eric VL, reigned 1286- 1319. Eric VII., same as Eric XIII. of Sweden ERIC AXELSON, adminis. of Sweden,14G6-7. ERICEIRA, Ferdinand Db Menezes, Count De, a soldier, statesman, and historian of Portu- gal, 1614-1699. His grandson, Francis Xavier, ERN distinguished by his military talents and his learn- ing, author of ' The Henriqueida,' a poem, 1673- 1743. The mother of the preceding, Jane Jose- phine De Menezes, distinguished for her liter- ary works, died 1709. ERIGENA, John Scotus, who seems from his surname to have been a native of Ireland and not of Scotland, was born about the beginning of the ninth century. He is often confounded with a Saxon monk whom King Alfred invited to England, and placed over his college at Oxford. Erigena spent the most of his time in France, and at the court of Charles the Bold. About the year 850 he wrote against Gottschalk on predestination; and he also published a work on the Lord's Supper, de Corpore et Sanguine Domini, in which he com- bated the doctrine of transubstantiation. His theological writings were condemned by the coun- cil of Valence in 855, and that of Tangres in 859. But the great work of this schoolman is that named de Divisione Naturae, &c, printed at Ox- ford by Thomas Gale in 1681. It is divided into five books, and is composed in the form of a dia- logue. This vast and amazing essay treats of a great variety of subjects — of God, and the know- ledge of God — of being, and its kinds and modes — of the world, of sin and its nature, &c. — in which abstruse and subtle discussions, a species of mys- tical pantheism, may be easily discovered. Erigena was well versed in Greek, and was deeply imbued with Neo-platonism, — with those ideas and modes of thought which are associated with the names of Plotinus and Proclus. Hebrew and Arabic he had also acquired in his travels. Few, if any of his contemporaries, could match this remarkable man either in genius or acquirements, in dialectics or sentiment, in intellectual acumen or in stores of erudition. His popularity was greater two centuries after his death, than during his life. The pseudo- Dionysian writings were translated by him, and these contributed also to mould the literature of these mediaeval times. Various portions of his works have been discovered and published at dif- ferent times by Ducange, Mabillon, Angelo Mai, and MM. Ravaison and Cousin. The influence which ' this meteor of the 9th century ' exercised on his own and succeeding ages by his profound and daring speculations in philosophy and theo- logy was immense. He is supposed to have died in France about the year 875. [J.E/J ERINNA, a Greek poetess, date unknown. ERIZZO, Sebastiano, a Venetian senator and antiq., author of a work on numismatics, 1525-61. ERMENGARDE, daughter of Louis II., kg. of Italy, wife of Boson I. 877, regent of Aries from 888. ERMERIC, or HERMENRIC, k. of the Swedes in Spain in the reign of Honorius, 409, died 440. ERNEST, duke of Saxe-Gotha, distinguished for his zeal in astronomy, and for his practical knowledge of that science, 1741-1804. ERNESTI, John Augustus, a celebrated Ger- man critic, professor of literature and theology at Leipzig, author of a great number of philological, critical, and theological writings, editor of Homer and other classics, &c, 1707-1781. Augustus WnxiAK, his nephew, also a distinguished savant, 1733-1801. John Christopher Theophilus, another nephew, brother of the preceding, prof, of philosophy, editor of Greek classics, &c, 1756-1802. ERN ERNST, H., a German savant, 1603-1665. ERNSTING, C, a Germ, botanist, 1709-1768. EROSTRATUS, the celebrated incendiary who fired the temple of Diana at Ephesus, 356 n.c. ERSCH, John S., a German bibl., 1766-1828. ERSKINE, David, Lord Dun, an eminent Scottish lawyer, and mem. of parlia., 1670-1755. ERSKINE, Henry, a presbyterian divine, suf- fered imprisonment under the Act of Uniformity, and finally minister of Chumside in Berwick, 1624-1696. Ebenkzer, his son, founder of the Secession Church of Scotland, 1680-1754. Ralph, another son, and seceder along with his brother, author of Sermons, &c, 1685-1752. ERSKINE, John, a Scottish theol., 1721-1803. ERSKINE, John, baron of Dun, a descendant of tbe earls of Mar, dist. as a reformer, 1508-91. ERSKINE, Thomas, Baron, a lawyer and dis- tinguished orator, the youngest son of David, earl of Buchan, was born "about the year 1748. He belonged to a family of which some members were remarkable for their genius, others for their folly, and he seemed in himself to be a union of these qualities. He studied at the High School of Edin- burgh, and the University of St. Andrew's, enter- ing successively the navy and army, before, from some influence not explained, he began to study law. In his earlier years he acquired a meteoric reputation as a brilliant and fascinating master of convivial conversation. He was called to the bar in 1778. One of his earliest cases involved an ex- posure in that fertile field of political abuses, tbe admiralty, when it was shown that landsmen were rated to seamen's pensions for electioneering purposes. He at once rushed into full practice, and was employed in every case where a brilliant denunciatory oratory — of which he was an unri- valled master — was desired. In 1783 he entered the House of Commons in Fox's interest, but the florid style of his oratory — so captivating to a jury or on the hustings — failed to please that fas- tidious audience. He was counsel in many his- torical cases, and performed heroically that duty of the advocate which prompts him to shrink from nothing, which, however much it may compromise his own taste, interest, or safety, appears likely to benefit the cause intrusted to him. His eminence as an advocate made it necessary that he should be appointed Lord Chancellor in the short accession in 1806 of the Fox and Grenville ministry. The prudence of the selection was much doubted ; and it was not fortunate for its object, since he had ac- cumulated no wealth to support his position as a peer. The strange eccentricities of his latter years, entering deeply into his domestic affairs, and mak- ing them matter of unpleasant notoriety, would have rendered his claims embarrassing had he seen his friends again in power. He died on the 17th of November, 1823. [J.H.B.] ERXLEBEN, Dorothy Christina Leporin, Madame, a lady who took a doctor's degree at the university of Halle, author of a work on the culti- vation of the sciences by women, 1715-1762. Her son, John Christian Polycarp Erxleben, disting. as a philosopher and naturalist, 1744-77. ES, J. Van, a Flemish painter, 16th century. ESAR-HADDON, or SARGON, a king of Assyria (Isaiah xx). ESAU, the eldest of Isaac, sup. date 1836 b.c. EST ESCHENBACH, A. C, a German philologist, professor and deacon at Nuremburg, 1663-1722. ESCHENBACH, W. D', a Ger. poet, 13th cent. ESCHENMAYER, C. A., professor of philoso- phy at Tubingen, a disciple of Schelling, and after- wards the founder of a mystic doctrine, of which philosophy forms an elementary part. His works are, • Philosophy in its State of Transition to No- philosophy,' 1803; 'Psychology,' 1822; 'The Philosophy of Religion,' in three parts ; ' Rational- ism,' 1818 ; ' Mysticism,' 1822 ; and ' Superna- turalism,' 1824. Eschenmayer died in 1822. ESCOIQUIZ, Don Juan, a Spanish author and diplomatist, 1762-1820. ESDRAS, a eel. Jewish doctor, 5th cent. B.C. ESDRAS, a patriarch of Armenia, died 639. ESMENARD, J. A., aFr. miscel. wr., 1770-1811. ESPER, J. F., a German naturalist and astro- nomer, 1732-1781. His brother, Eugene, a natu- ralist, au. of ' European Butterflies,' &c, 1742-1801. ESPERIENTE, P. C, an Ital. hist, 1437-96. ESPERNON, J. L. De Nogaret De La Va- lette, Due D', originally known as Caumont when he attached himself to Henry of Navarre, was one of the most important persons in the reigns of Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. His intrigues at court were opposed to those of the Due de Guise, and afterwards of Richelieu, and he was the chief instrument in investing Marie de Medicis with the regency ; born 1554, died 1642. ESPREMENIL, Jean Jacques Duval D', councillor of the parliament of Paris, and one of the first movers of the revolution by his opposi- tion to the edicts of Lomenie Brienne; born at Pondicherry, in the East Indies, 1746, guillotined 1794. ESSEX. See Devereux. ESSEX, Jas., an English architect, 1723-1784. ESTAING, Ch. Hector, Count D', a French officer dist. in India and in the American war agt. the English, exe. as a counter-revolutionist, 1794. ESTAMPES, Anne De Pisselue, Duchess D', a celebrated court intriguante, mistress of Francis I., 1508-1576. ESTE, an illustrious house of Italy, from which the house of Brunswick is derived, and which owes its origin to the Carlovingian era, at the beginning of the 9th century. The most celebrated names are — Albert Azzo D'Este, the first who possessed the city of that name, 1020-1117. Obizzo, first marquis of Este, lord of Padua in 1182, and afterwards marquis of Milan and Genoa. His son, Azzo V., who by his marriage acquired the sove- reignty of Ferrara, and became chief of the Guelfs of Venice, died 1192. Azzo VI., son of the pre- ceding, lord of Ferrara and Verona, died 1264. Hercules I., lord of Ferrara and Modena, whose court was graced by Ariosto, Bo'iardo, the Strozzi, &c, 1471-1505. His son, Alphonso, married to Lucretia Borgia 1502, a party to the league of Cambrai, reigned 1505-1534. Hippolytus, brother of Alphonso, and cardinal of Este, a patron of letters, partizan of Louis XII., and historian of the war of the French against the Venetians, 1479-1520. Alphonso II., grandson of the first of that name, duke of Ferrara and Modena, dis- tinguished as a patron of arts and letters, 1533- 1597. Caesar, an illegitimate descendant of Alphonso I., reigned at Modena 1597-1628. 227 EST Pk.xat-d, a partizan of Austria in the war of succession, and duke of Modena, 1655-1737. Hercules III., grandson of Renaud, and, like him, duke of Modena, was the last of this house in Italy, and his estates passed to Austria, by the marriage of his daughter with the archduke' Fer- dinand, 1727-1797. ESTERHAZY, a nohle family of Hungary, the best known of whom are — Paul IV., Esterhazy De Galantha, a general and literary savant, 1G35-1713. His grandson, Nicholas Joseph, a great patron of arts and music, founder of the school in which Haydn and Pleyel, among others, were formed, 1714-1790. Nicholas, Prince D'Esterhazy De Galantha, dist. as a field- marshal and foreign ambassador, 1765-1833. ESTHER, queen of Persia, 6th century B.C. ESTIUS, W., a Dutch theologian, 1542-1613. ESTREES, an ancient and noble house of France, the best known of which are — Jean D'Estrees, an artillery officer distinguished at the taking of Calais, 1480-1571. His son, Anthony, the defender of Noyon, and governor of the Isle of France, 1593. Gabrielle, the daughter of Anthony, duchess of Beaufort, and mistress of Henry IV., supposed to have been poisoned, 1571- 1599. Her brother, F. Annibal, duke and mar- shal, author of the ' Memoirs of the Regency of Marie De Medicis,' 1573-1670. His son, Jean, vice-admiral and Comte D'Estrees, appointed viceroy of America. 1624-1707. Caesar, brother of Jean, a cardinal and negotiator, 1628-1714. Jean, nephew of the preceding, foreign ambassa- dor, 1666-1718. Victor Marie, Due D'Estrees, son of the vice-admiral Jean, a distinguished naval commander, 1660-1737. Louis Caesar Letellier, Comte D'Estrees, a commander of the German army, when he defeated Cumberland, and marshal of France, 1695-1771. ETH, a king of Scotland, deposed 875. ETHELBALD, a k. of Mercia, reigned 716-55. ETHELBALD, the third Saxon k. of England, has the character of a profligate prince, 857-860. ETHELBERT, a k. of Kent, reigned 560-616. ETHELBERT, the fourth Saxon k. of England, son of Ethelwolf and brother of Ethelbald, 860-866. ETHELFLEDA, or ELFLEDA, daughter of Alfred the Great, and wife of Ethelred, count of Mercia, died 922. ETHELFRID, or ADELFRID, king of Nor- thumberland, killed in battle, 593-617. ETHELRED I., fifth Saxon king of England, predecessor of Alfred the Great, 866-871. ETHELRED II., son of Edgar and Elfrida, sue. Edward the Martyr as k. of England, 978, d. 1016. ETHELWOLF, the second Saxon king of Eng- land, son of Egbert, whom he succeeded in 838, and father of Ethelbald, died 857. ETHEREDGE, Sir Gfopok, an English dramatist and song- writer, 17th mitury. ETOILE, Pikrre De L', a French chancery officer, whose journal has supplied much curious matter to the historian, under the reigns of Henry III. and Henry IV., 1540-1611. His son, Claude, a dramatic writer, 1597-1652. ETTMULLER, Mich., a Ger. phys., 1644-83. ETTMULLER, M. Eknest, son of the preced- ing, author of various memoirs, and editor of his father's writings, 1673-1732. EUD ETTY, William, R.A., was born at York, March 10, 1787. His father was a miller. In 1798 he was apprenticed to a letterpress printer at Hull, but naving served his time, forsook the mechanical art of printing for the more exciting firofession of a painter. Etty commenced this lazardous enterprise in London, in 1805, when he entered as a student of the Royal Academy, and became also, through the liberality of an uncle, a private pupil of Sir Thomas Lawrence's for twelve months, but received very little attention from him. For long his pictures were rejected both at the Royal Academy and the British Gallery, but after about fifteen years' toil his for- tunes changed, he received gradually more of the fublic attention, and in 1822 was enabled to visit taly, where he found in Venice the chief attrac- tions ; he returned with many studies to London in 1824, and exhibited his picture of Pandora in 1825, for which he was chosen an associate of the academy, and he was elected an academician in 1827. Etty died at his native place, November 13, 1849, in his sixty-third year, leaving a con- siderable fortune. He was in every respect one of the most distinguished painters of the English school, but especially excellent as a colourist ; some of his pictures rival Titian's, or any of the great Venetians, as gorgeous displays of colour. His great powers were well displayed in the com- prehensive exhibition of his works at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, in 1849, the summer only before his death. In this exhibition were many ad- mirable pictures, including the nine great works, the triumph of Etty's life and ambition, as ad- mitted by himself in his autobiography, published in the ' Art Journal ' of 1849. He explains these pictures as follows : — ' My aim in all my great pic- tures has been to paint some great moral on the heart.' 'The Combat,' the beauty of mercy; the three ' Judith ' pictures, patriotism, and self- devotion to country, people, and God ; • Benaiah, David's chief captain,' valour ; ' Ulysses and the Syrens,' the importance of resisting sensual delights — or an Homeric paraphrase on ' The Wages of Sin is Death;' the three pictures of 'Joan of Arc,' religion, loyalty, and patriotism, like the modern Judith. In all nine great pictures, ' As it was my desire to paint three times three.' [R.N.W.] EUBULIDES, a philosopher of Miletus, best known for the captious arguments and insoluble questions with which he endeavoured to embarrass the empirics, but especially Aristotle ; he was the disciple and successor of Euclid, and is said to have instructed Demosthenes; born about 360 B.C. EUBULUS, a Greek comic poet, 370 b.c. EUCLID, a mathemat. of Alexandria, who flour- ished 300 B.C. No name of antiquity is better known. His digest of geometrical propositions is a schoolbook still. His works have been often edited and repub- lished. Barrow's edition is very valuable; but the best known in this country is that by Robert Simson. EUCLIDES, the first archon of Athens, B.C. 403. EUCLIDES, a disciple of Socrates, and founder of the philosophic sect of Megara, by which the art of dialectic was carried to high perfection, was living about 390 B.C. EUD^MON, J. A., a learned Greek, d. 1625. EUDES, duke of Aquitaine, reigned 688-735. EUDES, duke of Burgundy; the first of the 228 EUD name reigned 1078-1103 ; the second, 1142-1162 ; the third, 1192-1218 ; the fiburth, 1315-1349. EUDES, or ODON, king of France, 887-898. EUDES, John, a mystic writer, born 1601. EUDOCIA, the name adopted on her conver- sion to Christianity by Athenais, the daughter of Leontius, a philosopher of Athens, and wife of the emperor Theodosius the younger; she was celeb, for her learning and magnificence, and was divorced in consequence of aspiring to the government ; died in religious retirement at Jerusalem about 460. EUDOXIA, daughter of the preceding, and wife of the emperor Valentinian III., and of Maximus. EUDOXIUS, an heretical writer of the 4th ct. EUDOXUS, a Gr. astrono. lived abt. 370 B.C. EUGENE, Francis, of Savoy-Carignan, com- monly called Prince Eugene, grandson of Ch. Emmanuel I., duke of Savoy, and son of Eugene Maurice, count of Soissons, distinguished as generalissimo of the imperial armies, and as a com- panion-in-arms of Marlborough, 1663-1736. EUGENIUS, a Rom. emp., elect, and slain 394. EUGENIUS, St., abp. of Carthage, 481, d. 505. EUGENIUS, the first of the name pope of Rome 654-657 ; the second, 824-827 ; the third, 1145- 1153; the/our^, 1431-1447. EUGENIUS, the first of the name king of Scot- land, date unknown; the second, 427-449; the third, reigned 535-557 ; the fourth, 605-620 ; the fifth, died 692; the sixth, reigned 692-694; the seventh, 704-721 ; the eighth, 761-764. EUGENIUS, an astronomer and bishop of Toledo, died 636 ; another of the same name, dis- tinguished as 'the younger,' known as a theologi- cal writer and poet, and bp. of Toledo, died 660. EUGENIUS BULGARIS, a Greek prelate, dist, for his philos. and math, writings, 1716-1806. EULER, Leonard, born at Bale 1707, died at St. Petersburg 1783 : one of the greatest analysts of last century, — not indeed ranking with Des Car- tes, Newton, or Leibnitz, but by the unbroken accord of the world of science, claiming equality beside Daniel Bernouilli and D'Alembert. A bare catalogue of the immense labours and voluminous writings of this illustrious person would occupy all our space: it may, indeed, be said of him, nihil tetigit guodnon ornavit; and his eager genius, surpassing industry, and exhaustless resources, led him through all the sphere of mathematical and physical science. Living immediately after the discovery of the infinitesimal calculus, no man did so much to unfold its powers and simplify its methods ; his great works on that subject are still models of composition : and amid what sprung from his abundant, his amazing fertility, the germs are found of the most important of subse- quent advances : his work on • Isoperimeters,' may be said to have provoked the calculus of Variations of Lagrange. With Bernouilli, Euler divided several prizes ; these two great men ran a strikingly corresponding race. The work by which he is popularly known is his ' Letters to a German Princess,' a work instinct with acutcness, and evincing marvellous powers of exposition, but on the whole, perhaps, his only failure. He hopelessly tries in it to break a lance with Leibnitz —offering a refutation of the scheme of monads, lie betrays, however, no sufficient comprehension of the meaning of this chief of German thinkers ; EUR nor in the case of Euler did destiny add to his ability as an analyst, the powers which constitute the metaphysician. [J.P.N.] EUMENES, one of Alexander's lieutenants, a sharer in the divided empire after his death, con- quered and put to death by Antigonus, B.C. 316. EUMENES, theirs* of the name king of Per- gamos, 263-241 b.c. ; the second, 198-157 B.C. ; the third, an infant son of the preceding, d. 158. EUMENES, a rhetorician of Gaul, 261-311. EUNAPIUS, a celebrated sophist, historian, and physician of Sardis, in the 4th cent., au. of • Lives of "the Sophists,' and a history of his own times. EUPHORION, a Gr. poet and hist., 3d c. b.c. EUPHRANOR a Greek painter and sculptor, 4th century, B.C. EUPHRATES, a Stoic philosopher, 2d cent. EUPHRATES, founder of the Ophites, 2d cent. EUPOLIO, an Athenian poet, kn. abt. 435 b.c. EURIC or EVRIC, k. of the Visigoths, 466-84. EURIPIDES, the last of the three great Greek tragedians, was the son of Mnesarchus and Clito, and was born in Salamis, whither his parents had retired during the occupation of Attica by Xerxes, on the very day of the glorious victory near that island, B.C. 480. That his father was a man of property is proved by the expensive education which Euripides received ; but it appears from the sarcastic insinuations of Aristophanes that his mother was of humble descent. Euripides listened to the lectures of the first philosophers of the day, studying physics under Anaxagoras, and rhetoric under Prodicus; and having on both occasions Pericles as his fellow-disciple. With Socrates he was on terms of the closest intimacy. Nor were the ornamental parts of his education neglected ; he was so well versed in gymnastic exercises that he gained two victories in the Eleusinian and Thesean athletic games when only seventeen years old ; and seems also to have cultivated a natural taste for painting. Some specimens of his skill in the latter art were preserved for many years at Megara. He is said to have attempted dramatic composition at an early age, and brought out his first tragedy in B.C. 455, when he was in his twenty-fifth year. On this occasion he gained the third prize ; but fourteen years after, in B.C. 441, he gained the first prize, and also in B.C. 428. According to Suidas he gained five victories, one of which was with a posthumous play. His reputa- tion now spread far and wide ; and if the narrative of Plutarch is to be trusted, some of the Athenian soldiers who survived the disastrous termination of the expedition against Syracuse, were treated with kindness, and even set at liberty, for reciting such passages from his works as they happened to recollect, B.C. 413. Euripides continued to exhibit plays till b.c. 408, soon after which he retired into Magnesia, and thence into Macedonia, to the court of Archelaus, by whom he was received with distinguished honours. As in the case of jEschy- lus, the reasons for this self-imposed exile are obseure and uncertain. Report alleges that he was unhappy in his own family ; and the envy and jealousy excited by his literary reputation drew upon him the taunts and sarcasms of his political enemy Aristophanes. His intimacy with Socrates and Alcibiades likewise contributed to- wards rendering him unpopular; and it may 29 EUS therefore be inferred that prudence dictated his withdrawal from a country where his avowed sen- timents exposed him to danger. In Macedonia he continued to write some plays, one of which he inscribed with the name of his patron. Euripides died B.C. 406, at the age of seventy-five, and was buried at Pella. His countrymen in ytiin en- treated Archelaus to send his remains to Athens, where, however, they erected a cenotaph to his memory. In the estimation of the ancients, Euripides held a rank much inferior to jEschylus and Sophocles. With him the dignified simplicity of the ancient tragedy disappears, and its place is supplied by rhetorical declamations, subtle dispu- tations, and appeals to the sympathetic feelings. His works were held in especial favour during the middle ages ; and hence his remaining plays more than outnumber the extant dramas of both ^Eschy- lus and Sophocles. According to some authorities, Euripides wrote 92 tragedies, according to others 75. Of these 19 are extant, besides numerous fragments of the plays which have been lost. [G.F.] EUSDEN, Laurence, an obscure poetical wr. who in 1718 obtained the laureateship, d. 1730. EUSEBIUS, a pope, elected and died 310. EUSEBIUS, bishop of Dorylseum in Phrygia, celebrated for his opposition to the Eutycliian heresy, 5th century. EUSEBIUS of Nicomedia, an Arian prelate, and determined enemy of Athanasius, died 342. EUSEBIUS, Pamphili (that is, the friend of Pamphilus), was born at Cesarea, about the year 270. Pamphilus was his earliest friend in Cesarea, and gave the young student access to the large library which he had collected. Pamphilus was at length imprisoned, and Eusebius remained his attached and inseparable companion. And when the pri- soner suffered martyrdom under Galerius, in 309, Eusebius fled first "to Tyre, and then to Egypt. On his return, about 314, he was made bishop of his native city, and continued in that diocese till his death. In the year 325 he attended the coun- cil of Nice, and delivered a formal address to the emperor. The Nicene creed which condemned Arianism was in its earliest draught composed by him ; but he scrupled at length to subscribe it, after several important verbal alterations had been made upon it. His caution and moderation afterwards subjected him to the charge of that very heresy which the Xicene council had been summoned to confute. His views on the Trinity approached those of Ori- gen, and he seems to have held a species of subor- dination among the persons of the Godhead, which was incompatible with a consistent belief in the supreme deity of the Son. At the council of Tyre, in 335, he joined in deposing Athanasius on a charge of contumacy. Prior to this period, in 330, he was offered the patriarchate of Antioch, but re- fused it ; and he died about the year 340. Euse- bius was a divine of great learning, accomplishments, and industry. Not a few of his numerous works have been preserved, which have been of great ser- vice to theology, especially to church history. His Prccparatio Evaw/elica, in fifteen books, was, as its title implies, intended to prepare the pagan mind for the reception of Christianity, by showing the vast inferiority of other religions ; and his De- tnonstratio Evartf/elico, in twenty books, of which ten have been preserved, was meant for the Jewish EVA mind, and as a positive evidence for Christianity, especially in its connection with the oracles and prophecies of the Old Testament. His Historia Ecc/esiastica, in ten books, reaches from the birth of Christ to the defeat of Licinius in 324, and is an important and valuable record. Besides his Life of Constanline, his Oration in praise of the same emperor, his Onomasticon, his tract against Hierocles, and his Eloge on the martyrs, we have his Chronicon, a Latin version of the second part of which by Jerome, has been long known. But an Armenian version of the whole work was found some years ago, and published at Venice, in 1818; other discoveries have been made by the famous Angelo Mai. The TheopJiania, another treatise of Eusebius, was discovered in a Syrian version, by Mr. Tattam in an Egyptian monastery, and has been translated into English, and published by the late learned Professor Lee of Cambridge. [J.E.] EUSEBIUS of Samosata, a recusant from the party of Arius, kd. by a woman of the Arians, 379. EUSEBIUS of Vercelli, a partizan of Athan- asius, and determined enemy of the Arians, d. 372. EUSTACHIUS, Bartholomew, a distin- guished Italian anatomist who flourished in the sixteenth century, but of whose personal history very little is known. Neither the date nor the place of his birth have been accurately ascertained, but it is generally believed that he died in 1570, perhaps at Rome. He was the most eminent anatomist of his time, and Haller says of him that he enriched the science with more discoveries than any other person whom he knew. His anatomical plates, thirty-nine in number, were unpublished at his death, and were supposed to be lost, but they were discovered at Urbino in 1712, and were published in 1714, by Lancisi, physician to Pope Clement XL, and are still much esteemed. His name is preserved in that of the Eustachian tube which he discovered, and which runs between the inner ear and the upper part of the throat ; and the Eustachian valve of the heart, which sepy rates the right auricle from the inferior vena cava. [J.M'C] ^EUSTATHIUS, a native of Constantinople, distinguished for his commentaries on Homer, archbishop of Thessalonica, 12th century. EUSTATHIUS, St., a bishop of Berea, distin- guished for his eloquence at the council of Nice, as the enemy of Arius, deposed about 331. EUTOCIUS, a Greek mathematician, 6th cent. EUTROPIUS, a Lathi historian, 4th century. EUTYCHES, a celebrated Greek heresiarch of the 5th century, who maintained that only one nature, that of the Incarnate Word, existed in Christ ; condemned at the council of Chalcedon, 451. EUTYCHIUS, the name assumed by Said Ben Battrie, a learned Arabian Christian, on becoming patriarch of Alexandria ; distinguished as a phy- sician, theologian, and historian, 876-950. EUTYCHUS, a Latin grammarian, 6th cent. EVAGORAS, a king of Salamis, killed B.C. 374. EVAGRIUS, an ecclesiastical historian, 6th ct. EVAGRIUS, a monk and theolog. wr., 4th ct. EVANGELI, Antonio, an Ital. au., 1742-1805. EVANS, Abel, an Oxford schol. and wit, last o. EVANS, C, a baptist minister, 1737-1791. EVANS, Evan, a Welch divine, au. of works on the poetry and litera. of his country, 1730-1790. EVANS, Jno., anonconf. preacher, 1680-17 JO. EVA EVANS, John, author of a « Sketch of Chris- tian Denominations,' &c, a baptist minister and schoolmaster of London, died 1827. EVANS, 0., an American mechan., 1755-1811. EVANS, Rice or Arise, a famous astrologer, tutor of Lilly in the occult sciences, 17th century, EVANS, Thomas, a liter, bookseller, 1742-84. EVANSON, Edward, a Church of England divine, afterwards a unitarian writer, 1731-1805. EVEILLON, Jas., a French ecclesiastical writer, dist. for his learning and benevolence, 1572-1651. EVELYN, John, one of the finest examples that our history presents of the accomplished and well-principled" English gentleman, was born in 1(320, at his father's seat of Wotton in Surrey. After having been educated at Oxford, he served as a volunteer in the Low Countries ; and during the period of the civil wars he remained abroad, studying men and manners, statistics and science, the fine arts and polite literature. In 1652 he re- turned to England, and took up his residence at Sayes Court beside Deptford, which had recently come into his possession by marriage. His royalist opinions kept nim in retirement till the restora- tion ; after which he took an honourable but not conspicuous part in public business, returning always to those quiet pursuits and speculations in which his happiness consisted. He died in 1706, a few years after having become owner of his paternal estate by the death of his elder brother. He was one of the original members of the Royal Society, and a frequent contributor to its transac- tions. He wrote separate treatises on engraving, architecture, and numismatics; but the most valuable work he published was his ' Sylva, or a Discourse on Forest Trees,' in which, and in smaller pieces, there is given, in an agreeable and lively style, much of curious information and of ingenious theory in regard to the writer's favour- ite pursuits, planting and gardening. His ' Diary,' which was not published till 1818, is both interest- ing as a literary performance, and exceedingly use- ful for the knowledge it conveys of the times in which Evelyn lived. [W.S.] [Wotton Church, the burial place of Evelyn.] EVEEARD, Angelo, aFlem. painter, 1647-78. EVERARD, Nicolas, a Dutch lawyer and magistrate, president of the Supreme Council, 1162-1532. Three of his sons are also celebrated, — NICHOLAS Grudius, a Latin poet, councillor to EXM Charles V. and Philip II., died 1517. Adrian Marius, a Jesuit and poet, chancellor of Guelder- land, died 1568. Johannes Secundus, an ele- gant scholar and poet of licentious principles, Latin secretary to the cardinal archbishop of Toledo, and Charles V., 1511-1536. EVERDINGEN, Aldest Van, aFlem. painter, excelled in romantic landscapes, &c, 1621-1675. EVERDINGEN, Cesar Van, a Flemish painter and architect, 1606-1679. EVIL-MERODACH, k. of Babyl., 562-560 b.c. EVREMOND, S. Charles, an amusing French satirical writer, died in England 1703. EWALD, Ben.t. t a German med. wr., 1674-10. EWALD, John, a Danish dramatist, 1743-81. EWING, Greville, a Scottish dissenting min- ister, known as a biblical critic, &c, 1767-1841. EWING, John, a presbyterian divine, mathe- matician, and nat. philos. of America, 1732-1802. EXELMANS, Henry Joseph Isidore, a cele- brated French marshal, born at Bar le Due, in 1775 T was engaged in most of the campaigns of Napoleon, and died in 1852. EXIMENS, Anth., a Span. Jesuit, 1729-1808. EXMOUTH. Edward Pellew, afterwards Lord Exmouth, was born 19th April, 1757, at Dover. His father was captain of the Post Office Packet on that station, and died early, leaving young Edward and five other children almost without friends or support. Edward Pellew en- tered the royal navy, and soon attracted notice by his extraordinary activity and courage. He served on board the Blonde off the American coast in 1776 and 1777, and in the last mentioned year he was with a party of seamen attached to- Burgoyne's expedition from Lake Champlain to Saratoga. Young Pellew distinguished himself amid the dis- asters of this campaign by his indomitable spirit and alacrity. He was promoted on his return to England ; and when the war of the French revolu- tion began, Captain Pellew was appointed to the Nymphe frigate. In command of this vessel he captured the French frigate Cleopatra r after one of the best fought actions of the war. He com- manded next the Arethusa, and in her he captured another French frigate, La Pomone, in 1794. He continued to do good service and to rise in rank during the war ; and he frequently signalized his remarkable personal strength and activity in sav- ing the lives of others at sea and in shipwreck. In 1816 he was an admiral in command of our Mediterranean squadron, and a peer by the title of Lord Exmouth. In the spring of this year he was ordered to repress the piracies of the Barbary states of the Mediterranean, to obtain the release of the numerous Christian slaves who were sold in cap- tivity at Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, and to bind these powers by express treaty to discontinue for the future their practice of carrying off Christians into slavery. The deys of Tunis and Tripoli con- sented; but the Algennes, confident in the strength of their fortification, and proud of their old piratical renown, refused. Exmouth gave them a speedy repetition of the lesson which Blake had given to their ancestors; and it was this time still more sternly taught. On the 27th of August, 1816, the English fleet of five sail of the line, five frigates, four bomb vessels, and five gun brigs, anchored off Algiers: aided by a Dutch squadron of five frigates 231 EXP and a corvette under Admiral Von Capclbar, which joined Lord Exmouth in the common erase of civilization and humanity against barbarian vio- lence and cruelty. Terms "Mere offered to the Algerines, hut haughtily rejected. At half-past two the Christian fleet took its station close to the fort ifi cation; the batteries of the Mahometans then commenced their tire, which was promptly answered by the British broadsides. For upwards of six hours a cannonade raged from sea.to shore, and from shore to sea, which for obstinacy and destructiveness can hardly be paralleled in naval warfare. Nearly 1,000 officers and men were killed and wounded on board the English and Dutch ships, and at least 7,000 of the Algerines were computed to have fallen. The sea-ward batteries of the town, the mole, and the harbour walls, and the arsenals, were laid in ruins. Great numbers of the houses were destroyed ; and nine Algerine frigates, and a whole flotilla of smaller piratical vessels, were burnt or sunk. On the morrow Lord Exmouth prepared to renew the attack, but the dey now accepted the terms which he had previously scoffed at; and peace was granted to Algiers on condition of her abolishing for ever the enslaving of Christians, the instant delivery of the slaves of all Christian nations, and ample reparation and apology for the outrages and insults which the dey had offered to British sub- jects and the British flag. In pursuance of this treaty Lord Exmouth had the truly noble happi- ness of receiving on board of his fleet, three days after the battle, 1,083 fellow-Christians who had been groaning in slavery under Algerine masters. They were safely conveyed by the British fleet to their respective homes, and diffused through Chris- tendom the just renown of England and her vic- torious admiral. — Lord Exmouth died on 23d January, 1832. He was a good as well as a great man ; and he gave on a deathbed of painful and lingering illness, even a brighter example of Chris- tian heroism than he had displayed on the quar- ter-deck in the hour of his brightest earthly glorv. [E.S.C.] EXPILLY, Claude, a Fr. lawver, 1564-1636. EXPILLY, J. J., a Fr. statistician, 1719-1793. EYCK, Hubert and John Van, two cele- brated painters of Bruges of great importance in the history of art in Europe, owing to their substi- tution of varnish painting with oil, in the place of the old ordinary tempera painting with water. — Hubert Van Evck, so called, it has been sup- posed, from Eyck (or Alden Eyck) the place of his birth on the Maas, was born in 1366, and ap- pears to have been the real inventor of the new process of painting, which was discovered about FAB 1410, when his brother John Van Eyck may have been about fifteen or twenty years of age only; they were then settled at Bruges, and they formed a great school there. — The masterpiece of the Van Eycks is the altar-piece of the 'Adoration of the Lamb' in the church of St. Bavon, Ghent; this celebrated picture was finished by John in 1432, Hubert, who had executed the large figures of the upper part, had died at Ghent six years before, on 18th September, 1426. On the inscription on the picture the chief merit is properly given to Hubert, 'the greatest in art;' Jonn is "merely mentioned as the completer of his brother's work: some por- tions of the picture are in the gallery at Berlin. — John Van Eyck was born about 1390-5, and died at Bruges in July 1411, as recently ascer- tained from documents by the Abbe Carton (Af» trois Freres Van Eyck, &c, Bruges, 1848). 1 120 is the earliest date of any of his known ] ict tires, and all the historic facts seem to show that John, so far from being the founder of the school of Bruges, was the pupil of his brother in common with several other early Flemish masters, though John's services to art were so great in many re- spects that he may well be considered as the head of the school. — The invention of the Van Eycks is commonly called oil painting, but colours were mixed with oil long before this time, though pic- tures were not painted in this manner, but Yasari expressly explains that the Van Eyck method was varnish painting-oil with other mixtures, and it arose in the search for a good varnish for tempera pictures. — This method was carried into Italy by Antonello of* Messina, who having seen a picture by John Van Eyck in the collection of Alphonso, king of Naples, about the year 1443, set off for Bruges in order to leam the new method ; though he arrived some time after the death of Van Eyck, he contrived to acquire the method from some of his pupils, or the third brother, Lambert Van Eyck, and was thus the cause of oil painting gradually superseding fresco painting some years afterwards in Italy, first in Venice, then in Florence. — Margaret Van Eyck, the sister of these three brothers, likewise painted. There are two pic- tures by John Van Eyck in the National Gal- lery. [R.N.W.] EYKENS, Peter, a Flemish painter, 16th cent. EYNDEN, R. Van, a Dutch art-wr., 1748-1819. EYRE, Francis, a Roman Cath. wr., d. 1804, EYSEL, J. P., a Ger. medical wr., 1652-1717. EZEKIEL, a prophet of the Jews, 6th ct. B.C. EZEKIEL, a Jewish dramatist, 1st century. EZEKIEL, an Armenian astronomer, 673-727. EZQUERRA, a Spanish poet, 1568-1641. EZZ-EDDIN, an Arabian poet, 13th century. F FABBRIZI, L. C. De, a Venet. savant, 15th c. FA BELL, Peter, an Engl, alchymist, 15th ct. FABER, Basil, a Ger. lexicographer, d. 1576. FABER, F., a Swiss ecclesiastic of the Domini- cans, author of ' Travels to Jerusalem,' 1441-1502. FABER, F. E., a German Hebraist, 1745-1774. FABER, John, a Roman Catholic divine, sur- named, ' The Hammer of Heretics,' from the title of one of his works, a native of Suabia, died 1541. FABER, J., a German naturalist, 1570-1610. FABER, John, a Dutch painter, died 1721. FABER, SAMUEL, a German hist., 1657-1716. FABRE, or LEFEVRE, J., a jurist, died 1340. FABERT, Abraham, a Fr. marshal, one of the most eel. gen. of the age of Louis XIV., 1599-1662. FABIAN, Robert, an Engl, annalist, 15th ct. FABIAN, St., a pope of Rome, martyred 250. FABIUS, the name of an illustrious Roman fa- 232 FAB mily divided into many branches, the common stock of Which was — QuiNTUB Fabius VlBULANUS, who escaped alone from the massacre of his family at Cremera, 478 B.C., and made one of the decem- virate. After him are mentioned Fabius Am- BOBTU8, dictator B.C. 350. Fabius RuLLIANUS, to whose name Maximus was added, twice dicta- tor, conqueror of the Samnites and Etruscans, 823- 280 b.c. Fabius Gurges, son of the preceding, consul of Rome. Fabius Pictor, the first writer of Roman history, 3d century b.c. Fabius Maxi- mus Verrucosus, considered the greatest of his family, surnamed 'Cunctator' the temporizer, from his system of warfare, successfully exempli- fied in the conflict which he sustained with Han- nibal, died 205 b.c. Fabius Maximus Quintus, son and next in office to the preceding, afterwards consul. Fabius Maximus £milianus, dis- tinguished in the war of Persia and in Spain, consul 147 B.c. Fabius Maximus Servilianus, pro- consul for Spain, censor 126 b.c. Fabius Maxi- mus Allobrogicus, consul 122 B.C. FABIUS, Marcellinus, a writer of the 3d ct. FABIUS, Rusticus, a Roman historian, 1st ct. FABIUS, W., a Flemish Greek scholar, 16th ct. FABRE, F. Xavier, a Fr. painter, 1766-1837. FABRE, J., a Fr. poet and ecclesiastic, 18th ct. FABRE, John, the son of a French protestant, who in 1756-1762 voluntarily suffered six years' slavery in the galleys in place of his father, who was condemned for preaching, 1729-1797. FABRE, J. C., a Fr. ecclesiast. his., 1668-1753. FABRE, L., a French catalogue wr., 1710-1788. FABRE, M. J. V., a French poet, 1785-1831. FABRE, P., a French surgeon, 1716-1793. FABRE D'EGLANTINE, Philippe Fran- cois Nazaire, the son of a burgess, bora at Limoux, 1759, was a dramatic author and pam- phleteer, and acquired a celebrated name in the course of the French revolution as a confederate of the Jacobins. With the advantage of fine talents, and a literary education received in the college of the doctrinaires, he united all the vices of a young man upon town, his conversational and musical abilities rendering him a highly agreeable if not a very edifying companion. His short political history is soon written. On the 10th August, 1792, his notoriety as a pamphleteer favoured his nomination as a member of the pro- visional commune at Paris, and he was afterwards appointed secretary-general in the ministry of jus- tice under Danton. He was one of the members for Paris in the national convention, where he voted for the king's death and other extreme measures, though he had the honour at last of suffering for his moderation under the ascendancy of Robes- pierre. He was arrested by the decree of St. Just, which included Camille Desmoulins, Herault,_ Danton, Philippeaux, and Lacroix, on a charge of complicity with D'Orleans and Dumouriez, to restore the monarchy, and was executed with Ghftbot and Bazire, oth April, 1794. His real crime, like that of his companions in misfortune, was the desire to return to moderate counsels, for though he was weak, inconstant, and ambitious, he was neither treacherous nor cruel. Fabre D'Eglantine was accomplished in nearly all the fine arts, but only cultivated them for the sake of shining in society. He furnished the poetical FAB nomenclature of the republican calendar, the mathematical portion of which was contrived bv Romme. [E.R.'l FABRE DE L'AUDE, Jean Pierre, born 1755, and distinguished as an economist, was acting as advocate to the parliament of Toulouse when the French revolution broke out, the prin- ciples of which he adopted, so far as to secure his continuance in various government employs, until proscribed by the reign of terror. After the fall of Robespierre he was returned to the council of 500 (1796), and was successively a member of the tribunate (1801), president of the commission of finances (1804), senator (1807), and afterwards a count of the empire. His political alliances were purely circumstantial, for though he voted against the return of Napoleon to power in 1814, he appeared in the chamber of peers during the hun- dred days of the year following, and at length served the state under the Bourbons. He is the author of some works of temporary interest, upon imposts and political questions. [E.R.] FABRE DE L'HERAULT, Denis, first an advocate of Montpellier, and afterwards a mem- ber of the French national convention, where he was rather useful than eloquent, has acquired a name in the history of the period by his career in the war of the republic against Spain. He was sent to the army of the eastern Pyrenees as com- missary after the fall of the Girondins, and dis- played great courage, but so little prudential conduct that the French forces were routed in action, and their discipline reduced to anarchy. Fabre de L'Herault was killed in an attempt to rally the troops at Port Vendres, 20th December, 1793, and had a place decreed to him in the pan- theon of French worthies, while the generals Daoust and Delatre, of the same force, were exe- cuted on the imputation of treason in the same series of events. [E.R.] FABRE D'OLIVET, Ant., a Hebrew scholar, au. of ' Langue Hebraique Restituee,' 17G8-1825. FABRETTI, Raphael, an It. antiq., 1620-1700. FABRI, Alexander, an Ital. author, d. 1708. FABRI, Dominicino, an Italian Jesuit and professor of Belles Leftres, 1710-1761. FABRI, Gab., an Ital. theologian, 1666-1711. FABRI, Honorius, a Jesuit)" distinguished as a naturalist and physiologist, professor of philoso- phy at Lyons, said to have anticipated the dis- covery of Harvey, 1607- 1688. FABRI, J., a polit. negotiator and annal., 14th c. FABRI, J. R., a jurisconsult of Geneva, 17th ct. FABRICIUS, Caius, a Roman general, sur- named Luscinus, disting. for his victories over the Samnites and Lucanians, twice consul, d. 250 B.C. FABRICIUS, Carretto, grand master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, fortified Rhodes, and made a treaty of alliance with the Persians against the Turks, died 1521. FABRICIUS, David, a Dutch minister and astronomer, a disciple of Tycho Brahe, died 1617. His son John, the first to discover the sun's spots, on which he wrote a work, ' De-Maculis in Sole Observatis,' published 1611, died about 1625. FABRICIUS, F., a German savant, 1524-1573. FABRICIUS, G., a German historian and poet, auth. of ' De Veteris Romae Situ,' &c, 1516-1571. FABRICIUS, J., a Gcr. philologist, 1644-1729. 233 FAB FABRICIUS, J. Alb., a Ger. critic, 1C68-1738. FABRIC [US, Jean Chretien, a celebrated entomologist, was born at Tnndern, in the duchy of Sleswick, in 1742. He died in 1807. He was sent to the university of Upsal, where he studied under Linnaeus, and became one of his most at- tached and eminent pupils. Under such a teacher he obtained a very considerable knowledge in bo- tany and most of the other branches of natural history. Having one day dissected the organs of the mouth of a cockchafer, he conceived the idea of using the organs of mastication as the means of producing a classification of insects. He was ap- pointed soon after this professor of natural history at the university of Kiel, and from that time he devoted himself almost entirely to the study of entomology. In 1775 he published his ' Systema Entomologia?,' in which he laid before the world his new mode of arrangement; and for the re- mainder of his life he continued in successive publications to evolve his system with much ability. His svstematic arrangement has been followed by few, but his mode of distinguishing the genera is still retained by entomologists. Fabricius possessed a great knowledge of languages ; and he travelled over most of the countries ot Europe in search of new insects, and for the purpose of examining the museums of the different towns he visited. He made frequent journeys to England, where he made the acquaintance and friendship of Banks, John Hunter, Francillon, and most of the naturalists of repute living at that time. He was much esteemed for his amiability of disposition ; and it is said, when he heard of the bombardment of Copenhagen by the English fleet a profound melancholy seized him, from which he never recovered. [W.B.] FABRICIUS, Jer., an Ital. phys., 1537-1619. FABRICIUS, L., a Ger. Hebraist, 1555-1629. FABRICIUS, Th., a fol. of Luther, 1501-1559. FABRICIUS DE HILDEN, W., a German sur- geon, auth. of a ( Manual of Medicine,' 1560-1634. FA H RICY, Gab., a Fr. archaeologist, 1725-1800. FABRIS, N., an Ital. mechanician, 1739-1801. FABRONI, Angiolo, an Italian savant and journalist, distinguished for his biographies of Italian literati, of the Medici, &c, 1732-1803. FABRONI, Giovanni V. M., a natural philos. and wr. on agriculture, economy, &c, 1752-1822. FABROT,"C. A., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1580-1659. FABRY, Jean Bartiste Germain, author of numerous works on history, politics, and religion, beginning with the ' Spectateur Francais,' in 1805, and all published anonymously ; secretary to Fouche in the interest of Buonaparte, and after- wards a partizan of the restoration, 1780-1821. FACCIARDI, C, an Italian ascetic, 16th cent. FACCIOLATI, James, a celebrated Italian lexicographer, author of a great Latin dictionary, reprinted in 4 volumes folio' 1839, 1682-1769. PACINI, Peter, an Ital. painter, 1566-1602. FACUNDUS, an African bishop, 6th century. FADLALLA, an Oriental historian, 13th cent. FAES, P. Van Dkr, aFlem. paint., 1618-1680. FAGAN, B. C, a Fr. dramatic wr , 1702-1755. FAGEL, the name of a Dutch family, dist. as partizans of the Stadtholder system. The principal members are — Gaspar, an active party to the peace of Nimeguen, 1678, and to the policy which placed William III. on the throne of England, FAI 1629-1718; Francis Nicholas, his nephew, a dist. general, d. 1718; Henry, a statesman, dis- tinguished by the treaty of peace concluded between England and the Netherlands in 1814. FAGGIUOLA, U., a Ghibelline chief, kid. 1319. FAGIUOLI, J. B., an Italian poet, 1660-1742. FAGIUS, P., a Ger. prot. theologian and Heb. scholar, dist. at the revival of learning, 1504-1549. FAGON, W. C, a French botanist, 1638-1718. FAHRENHEIT, Gabriel Daniel, a physician and philosopher of Dantzic, inv. of the thermome- ter and barometer which bear his name, 1686-1736. FAINI, Diamante, an Italian poetess, d. 1770. FAIPOULT, a French statesman, 1752-1817. FAIRFAX, Edward, an English poet and translator of Tasso, son of Sir Thomas Fairfax of Denton in Yorkshire, and brother of Lord Fairfax, the subject of the following notice, whom he assist- ed in the management of his affairs. Besides his 1 Tasso' and his own poems, which consist of twelve eclogues, he is the author of a prose treatise on witchcraft, and a history of the Black Prince, but the latter perished in MS. at the fire of Whitehall. He died in 1632, with the reputation of a gentle- man and a scholar. His son William is known for his translation of ' The Lives and Opinions of the most Celebrated Philosophers,' from the Greek of Diogenes Laertius. [E.R.] FAIRFAX, Ferdinand, Lord, father of the celebrated general by Mary his wife, daughter of the earl of Musgrave, and himself a general in the parliamentary army, is memorable for his total rout by the earl of Newcastle, 30th June, 1643, and his subsequent successes in Yorkshire. His military history is closely connected with that of his son, who was for six years his companion-in- arms, and who succeeded to the title and estates, by the death of his father, in 1648. Lord Ferdi- nand Fairfax had received his commission as ge- neral of the parliamentary forces in the north, at the commencement of the civil war in 1642, when he found himself opposed to a confederacy of the neighbouring counties, united in a league for the king by the politic earl of Newcastle. ^ This cir- cumstance must account for his early reverses, for though he never acquired the same importance as his son, he was a general of great valour. [E.R.] FAIRFAX, Sir Thomas, afterwards Lord Fairfax, born at Denton, near Leeds, in 1608, was the son of Ferdinand Lord Fairfax. lie was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, and served while a very young man under Lord Vere in the English auxiliary army in the Low Countries. On his return to England he married, and lived for some years in the country, a silent but stem observer of the follies and oppressions of King Charles's government. The Fairfaxes were zeal- ous presbyterians ; and, when the troubles of the nation broke out into civil war, they were active in arming their tenantry and maintaining the cause of the parliament against the royalists in Yorkshire and the neighbouring counties. Lord Ferdinand Fairfax was made general of the par- liamentary armies in the north, and Sir Thomas was general of the horse under him. The Fair- faxes sustained several reveres in the beginning of the war ; but Sir Thomas kept the field with in- domitable spirit, and gradually raised the discipline and courage, as well as the numbers of his troops. 234 FAI In 1644 he was one of the commanders on the par- liamentary side in the great battle of Marston Moor, which destroyed the royalist force in the north of England. When the parliamentary army was new- modelled, Fairfax was appointed generalissimo, with Cromwell for his lieutenant-general. On the 14th of June, 1645, they fought and won the de- cisive battle of Naseby. Fairfax then conquered the king's strongholds in the west of England, and before the close of 1646 the war was ended. — In the strange series of intrigues and covp-de-mains which now ensued, and which led to the trial and execution of the king, and the elevation of Cromwell to supreme power, Fairfax was a mere instalment in the hands of more subtle and reso- lute men. He was only fit for the field ; and the readiness and steadiness for which he was pre- eminent as a soldier, utterly deserted him when he was required to act as a statesman. Clarendon says truly of him, — ' Fairfax wished for nothing that Cromwell did, and yet contributed to bring it all to pass.' After the king's death Fairfax re- signed his commission, and lived in retirement during the whole period of the commonwealth. He had inherited the family property and title on his father's death in 1647, and the management of his estates now became the whole employment of the late renowned generalissimo of the parliament's victorious armies. Cromwell treated him with contempt. After the great protector's death in 1658, it became speedily manifest how unequal Richard Cromwell was to the government which had been bequeathed to him; and men of all parties, except some of the more enthusiastic re- publicans, and a few of the army chiefs, looked to the recall of the old race of kings as the only means of securing peace and order. Fairfax toot an important part in bringing about the restoration. While Monk was still in Scotland, Lord Fairfax collected forces in Yorkshire, and declared himself for a free parliament and the restoration of the monarchy. He refused, however, to take the chief command of the enterprise out of Monk's hands, and sought neither rank nor wealth for himself in doing what he believed to be his duty. He was one of the commissioners sent 18th May, 1660, to wait upon Charles II. at Breda, and he accom- panied the restored sovereign at the ceremony of Lis coronation. He then retired again to his York- shire estates. Lord Fairfax died on the 2d Novem- ber, 1671. [E.S.C.] FAISTENBERGER, A., a painter of Tyrol, disk for his landscapes after Poussin, 1678-1722. FAITHORNE, W., an Eng engrav., 1616-1671. FAKHR-ED-DEEN, a prince of the Druzes, vanquished and strangled by Amurath IV., 1635. FAKHR-ED-DEEN-RAZZY, a Mussulman historian, quoted by De Sacy and Reinaud, 13th c. FALCK, J. P., a Swedish naturalist, 18th cent. FALCONBERG, the name of an ancient Eng- lish baronetage, one possessor of which distinguished himself as a Yorkist at the defeat of Clifford, and the succeeding battle of Touton, 1461. FALCONBERG, Mary, countess of, third daughter of Oliver Cromwell, a woman of remark- able beauty and spirit, and distinguished for her political talents, aided the restoration and d. 1712. FALCONE, A., a Neapolitan paint., 1600-1(365. FALCONER, T., an Eng. chronolog., 1788-1702. FAN FALCONER, W., an English physician and chemist, distinguished as the discoverer of the pro- perties of carbonic acid gas, 1743-1824. FALCONER, William, a popular English poet and naval writer, author of 'Ihe Shipwreck,' born 1730, lost at sea with the Aurora frigate, 1769. FALCONET, A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1611-1691. His son Camille, a literary savant, 1671-1762. FALCONET, S. M., a Fr. sculptor, 1716-1791. FALCONETTO, Giovanni Maria, an Italian architect, born at Verona 1458, died 1534. FALCONIERI, O., an Ital. antiq., 1646-1676. FALEDRO, Vital, a Venet. dose, 1102-1117. FALENS, C. Van, a Flem. painter, 1682-1733. FALETTI, J., an Italian poet, 16th century. FALIERI, Marino, successor of Andrea Dan- dolo as doge of Venice in 1354, attempted to re- volutionize" the state in 1375, when he was be- headed, and four hundred of his accomplices hanged. He is the hero of Lord Bvron. FALK, J. D., a Ger. satiric poet, 1770-1826. FALKENSTEIN, J. H., a German antiquary, and compiler of historical documents, 1682-1760. FALKLAND, Henry Cary, Jirst Viscount, was the son of Sir Edward Cary, and distin- guished himself as a statesman in the reign of James I., d. 1633. Lucius Cary, second Viscount Falkland, son of the preceding, well known to readers of history as one of the most perfect characters of his age, was born about 1610, and died of a wound which he received at the battle of Newbery, where he fought in the interest of the king, 1643. He was not only a gentleman, a scholar, and a soldier, but a sincere patriot. Henry Lucius Cary, third Viscount Falkland, son of the preceding, died young, 1663. FALKNER, Thomas, an English Jesuit and missionary, an. of a 'Descrip. of Patagonia,' d. 1780. FALLfi, Philip, a divine of Jersey, 1655-1742. FALLETTI, Jerome, an Italian poet, ambas- sador for the princes of Este into the chief states of Europe, au. of 'The Germ. War,' &c, 1518-1564. FALLOPIUS, Gabriel, a famous Italian ana- tomist, the first to give exact descriptions of the organ of hearing, of the organization of the foetus, and of the tubes of the uterus, since called by his name, professor at Pisa and Modena, 1523-1562. FALLOWS, F., an Engl, astrono., 1789-1831. FALSTAFT, J., an English captain, died 1469. FANCOURT, Samuel, a dissenting minis- ter and author, first projector of circulating libraries, which he began about 1740, died 1768. FANSHAWE, Sir Richard, an English poet and diplomatist in the interest of the crown at the period of the civil wars. He was a remarkable linguist, and was distinguished for his sincerity, both as a man and statesman ; he negotiated the peace between Spain and Portugal in 1665, and is the au. of ' Letters ' during his embassy, 1607-1666. FANTIN-DESODOARTS, Antoine Etienne Nicolas, a voluminous author of history and jurisprudence, born in Dauphine* 1738, died in Paris 1820. M. Desodoarts made his debnt as a Jesuit, and bore the title of Vicar-General of Em- brun, but appears not to have exercised its func- tions. He became known at the dawn of the re- volution as an advocate of the Jacobins, and has given his principles to the world, more especially, in his work entitled ' Histoire Philosophique de la 235 FAN Resolution de France depuis la Convocation des Notables jusque' a la Separation de la Convention.' The critical account of nis works in the 'Biogra- phie des Contemporains,' would lead to the conclu- sion that he was an ardent imaginative writer, clear and elegant in the style of his narrative, but wanting in virtuous principle, and not reliable as an authority for the facts of contemporary history. He is one of numerous examples supplied by the period, demonstrating that the education of the church and the bar at that time, was sufficient to pervert the noblest talents, and prepare men to accept the vilest expedients in politics and morals in place of principle. [E.R.] FANTONI, an Italian historian of the last cent. FANTONI, J., an Ital. anatomist, 1675-1758. FANTONI, J., an Italian lyric, 1755-1807. FANUCCI, J. B., an Ital. historian, 1756-1834. FARDELLA, M. A., a Sicil. philos., 1650-1718. FAREL, William, a native of the French Alps, and one of the earliest converts of the re- formed doctrines in Paris, is known as the pioneer of the reformation in Dauphine" and Switzerland. He was one of the most intrepid assailants of the Roman Catholic Church, and distinguished as a preacher rather than a writer. When addressing the agitated multitudes who listened to him, neither the clash of arms, the ringing of bells, nor the threats of his enemies, could stem the torrent of his eloquence. He was subject to much perse- cution, and escaped many dangers, dying in the seventy-sixth year of his age, in 1565. FARIA, Anth. De, a Portuguese adventurer, dis. himself against the Indian corsairs, 1505-1550. FARIA, M. De, a Portug. antiq., 1581-1655. FARIA-Y-SOUSA, Manuel De, a Portuguese historian, poet, and literary critic, secretary to the Roman ambassador, died 1647. FARIN, N., a Fr. miscellaneous writer, d. 1675. FARINACCI, P., an Italian jurist, 1554-1618. FARINATO, P., an Italian painter, 1525-1606. FARINELLI, named CARLO BROSCHI, one of the most extraordinary singers that ever lived, was born at Naples in 1705. In 1722 he was en- gaged at the Alberto Theatre of Rome, and while there contended with and overcame a famous per- former on the trumpet. From Rome he went to Bologna, thence to Venice and Vienna, at which latter place he was received with especial honour by the emperor Charles VI. He came to England in 1734, and the effect of his singing is described as being something like enchantment. In 1737 he went to Spain, where he remained for twenty years, enjoying the friendship and confidence or two monarch*, Philip V. and Ferdinand VI., and hav- ing power almost equal to a prime minister. Dur- ing his residence in Spain he had a pension for life settled upon him amounting to upwards of £2,000. There are many beautiful stories told of the good- ness of heart and disinterestedness of Farinelli which it is impossible to introduce into this brief memoir. In 1759 Farinelli returned to Italy, and took up his final residence at Bologna. One of his biographers says, ' this extraordinary musician and blameless man died in the eightieth year of his aire.' [J.M.] FARISSOL. Abraham, a rabbin, 15th cent. FARMER, Hugh, an English dissenting min- ister and theologian, author of tracts on the mir- FAU acles, on demoniacs, on the worship of human spirits by the heathen, &c, 1714-1787. FARMER, Richard, a distinguished scholar and critic, author of an ' Essay on the Learning of Shakspeare,' 1735-1797. FARNABY, T., a wr. of school classics, d. 1647. FARNESE. The Italian house of this name has furnished history with many illustrious names, the principal of which are — Peter, general of the Florentines, d. 1363. Peter Louis, son of Paul III., invested with the duchies of Parma and Pla- centia, killed in a revolt, 1547. Octavius, son of the preceding, and son-in-law of Charles V., d. 1585. Alexander, the elder brother of Octavius, a distinguished negotiator and ecclesiastic, 1520- 1589. Alexander, son of Octavius and Mar- garet of Austria, known in history as duke of Parma, and distinguished as a general in the in- terest of Philip of Spain, d. 1592. The last of the Farnese, except Elizabeth, wife of Philip V. of Spain, died in 1731, when the duchy reverted to her son Don Filippo, in whose possession it was confirmed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. FARNEWORTH, Ellis, rector of Carsington, in Derbyshire, known as a translator, died 1763. FAROALD, the first of the name duke of Spo- leto 570-601 ; the second, afterw. a monk, 703-724. FARQUHAR, G., an Irish comedian and dra- matic writer, author of 'The Constant Couple,' ' The Beaux's Stratagem,' &c, 1678-1707. FARRANT, Rich., an Eng. composer, d. 1585. FARREN, Eliza, a celebrated actress, after- wards countess of Derby, born in Cork, 1759, married to the earl of Derby 1797, died 1829. FARRILL, Don Gonzalo, a Spanish general and statesman, minister of war in 1808, under Ferd. VII., whose abdica. he opposed, 1757-1831. FASOLO, J. A., an Italian painter, 1528-1572. FASSINO, The Chev. N. H. J. De, a French painter, director of the Acad, at Liege, 1728-1811. FASSOLA-DA-PAVIA, Bernard, an Italian painter of the Milanese school, 16th century. FASTOLFF, Sir John, a brave English general, distinguished in the French wars of the 15th century, absurdly supposed to be the original of Shakspeare's Sir John Falstaffj died 1469. FATAH, Abou-Nasr, an Arab, wr., 6th cent. FATIO DE DUILLER, N, a French mathe- matician and mechanical artist, residing in Lon- don, inventor of the jewelling of watches, and a great contributor to astrono. science, 1664-1753. FAU, J. N., a Latin poet of Naples, died 1065. FAUCCI, C, a Florentine engraver, last cent. FAUCHE-BOREL, L., a Swiss adventurer, employed as a spy by the Bourbons, 1762-1829. FAUCHER, Cesar and Constantine, twin brothers and soldiers, distinguished in the wars of the French revolution, born 1760, both shot 1814. FAUCHET, Cl., a French hist, 1529-1621. FAUCHET, Claude, a French priest, alike remarkable for his physical courage, and moral and intellectual intrepidity, was born at Dome, in the department of the Nievre, 1744, and was suc- cessively grand vicar of the archbishop of Bourses, preacher to the king, and 'abbe* commandatairc' of Montfort, before the revolution, and afterwards constitutional bishop of Calvados. He began bis political career as a chief of the Illuminati, and a reformer of the church, on the principles of philo- 236 FAU sophy and national independence advocated in his work ' De la Religion Rationale,' published 1789. Rendered famous by his eloquence and his writings, he headed the deputation to De Launay, when the Bastile was besieged, and advanced sword in hand in front of the combatants, whom, it is said, he rallied three times to the assault. It was Fauchet also who gave the sanction of a religious blessing to the national tricolor when first used, and advised the consolidation of the national guard under the command of Lafayette. As the revolution proceeded, he established a kind of political reunion in the vicinity of the Palais Royal, and had Condorcet for one of* his coadjutors, and a board of correspondence devoted to the propagation of the natural rights and duties of French citizens. As a member of the first parlia- ment he opened the debate on religion by a bitter speech against the priesthood, and publicly stripped off" the insignia of his order. Notwithstanding his share in scenes that were worthier of the Parisian demagogue than the minister of religion, he bitterly lamented the king's death ; and as an ally, both on the score of humanity, and on philosophical principles, with the Girondins, he shared their fate, feeing guillotined with the twenty-two on the 31st of October, 1793. The particular accusation against the Abbe" Fauchet was his complicity with Charlotte Corday, he having introduced her to the sitting of the convention, on the day of her arrival in Paris, but this was only a pretence to disguise the hatred of the terrorists. He is the author of numerous orations published between 1771 and 1792, the most remarkable of which is his ' Ser- mon sur l'accord de la Religion et de la Liberie,' 1791. [E.R.] FAUJAS DE ST. FOND, Bartholomew, a French naturalist, regarded as one of the founders of geological science, 1750-1819. FAUST, John, a German theologian, known as Dr. Faustus, and regarded as a magician from his being addicted to chemistry and astrology, &c. The legend of his compact with the devil, is the subject of Goethe's magnificent drama, and of a poem by Lessing, and other compositions of genius m the German language. Dr. Faustus lived at the beginning of the loth century. FAUST, or FUST, John, a goldsmith of May- ence, to whom the invention of printing has been ascribed, now allowed to Guttemberg, died 1466. FAUSTINA, the name of two Roman ladies, mother and daughter, both remarkable for their 5>rofligacy. The elder was married to Antoninus >ius, and died in the third year of his reign, 141 ; the younger was the wife of Marcus Aurelius. FAUSTUS, an Arminian prelate and hist., 4th c. FAVART, C. S., a Fr. comic au., 1710-1792. FAVIER, , secretary-general of the states of Languedoc, author of ' Politique de tous les Cabinets de 1' Europe pendant les R6gnes de Louis XV., et de Louis XVI.,' 1720-1784. FAVIER, N., councillor of the parliament of Paris, au. of histor. memoirs, published 1572, 1579. FAVILA, king of Asturias and Leon, 737-739. FAVORINUS, a Platonic philosopher and rhetorician, a native of Aries in Gaul. He was the author of some historical and philosophical works, only fragments of which have been handed down in the citations of Diogenes Laertius, died 135. FEL FAVORINUS, V., an Ital. scholar, died 1527. FAVORITI, one of seven illustrious Latin poets who flourished in Italy in the 17th cent., 1624-82. FAVRAT, F. A., a Russian general, author of historical memoirs of the Polish war in 1794-96. FAVRAY, Anthony, a Fr. painter, last cent. FAVRE, A., a French jurisconsult, 1557-1624. FAVRE, P., a disciple of Lovola, 1506-1546. FAWCETT, Benj., a dissenting minister, last c. FAWCETT, John, an English actor, 1769-1837. FAWCETT, Sir W., an English officer, distin. in Germanv, au. of some milit. treatises, 1728-1804. FAWKES, F., a poet andmiscel. wr., 1721-1777. FAWKES, Guido, or Guy, a native of York, a soldier in the Spanish army serving in Flanders, executed with seven others in January 1606, for the gunpowder plot of the preceding 5th of Nov. FAYE, Ch., Fr. ambass. to Holland, 1577-1638. FAYETTE. See La Fayette. FAYEZ-BEN-NASRILLAH, tenth Fatimite caliph of Damascus, reigned 1155-1160 FEARNE, C, an Eng. metaphysic, 1749-1794. FEATLEY, Dan., a controv. divine, 1582-1644. FECHT, John, a German divine, 1636-1716. FECKENHAM, John De, properly John Howman, of Feckenham, the last mitred abbot who sat in the House of Lords, di sting, for his ac- tivity, and for his writings against the reformation ; last abbot of Westminster, which appointment he received on the accession of Queen Mary, d. 1585. FEDER, J. G. H., a Germ, philos., 1740-1821. FEDOR-IVANOVITCH, czar of Rus., 1557-98. FEDOR-ALEXIEVITCH, or Fedor II., czar of Russia, reigned 1657-1676. FEITAMA, Sibrand, a Dutch poet, 1694-1758. FEITH, Everhard, a Dutch archaeol., 16th c. FEITH, R., a Dutch dramatic wr., 1753-1824. FELIBIEN, Andrew, a French art-writer, friend of Nicholas Poussin, 1619-1695. His son J. Francois, author of ' The Lives and Works of Celebrated Architects,' 1657-1733. Another son, Dominique Michel, an ecclesiastical historian, 1666-1719. His third son James, a Roman Catholic divine, 1636-1716. FELICE, F. B. De, an Ital. critic, 1723-1789. FELICIANI, Por., an Ital. prelate, 1562-1632. FELICIANO, G. B., a Venetian schol., 16th c. FELIX. There are two saints of this name — Felix, bishop of Dunwich, a founder of churches, monasteries, and schools, died 646; and Felix De Valois, a French ecclesiastic, founder of the order of the Redemption, 1127-1212. FELIX, the Jirst of the name pope of Rome, 269-274; the second, an anti-pope elected under the patronage of the emperor Constance, 355-358 ; the third, 483-487 ; the fourth, elected under the patronage of Theodoric, king of the Goths, 526- 530 ; the fifth, formerly Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, reigned as pope 1439-1419, abdicated in the last named year, and died at Genoa, 1451. FELIX DE BEAUJOUR, L., a Fr. economist, au. of ' Theorie des Gouvemements,' &c, 1765-lK.'i('. FELIX DE TASSY, C. F., a Fr. surg., d. 1708. FELL, John, a dissenting minister, disting. as a religious and miscellaneous writer, 1735-1797. FELL, Dr. John, bishop of Oxford, and son of Samuel Fell, distinguished for his learning and munificence to the university, author of some +, -nnslations from the Latin, 1625-1686. 237 FEL FELL, Samuel, dean of Christchurch, and vice-chancellor of the university of Oxford, distin- guished, like his son Dr. John Fell, as a royalist. He is said to have died of a broken heart ou hear- ing of the execution of Charles, 1594-1649. FELLENBERG, Philippe Emanuel De, a descendant, on his mother's side, from the fa- mous Dutch admiral Van Tromp, was born at Berne, in Switzerland, 1771, and is celebrated as an agriculturist, and founder of an institute at Hoffwill for the theory and practice of agriculture, including manufactories of the instruments and machines, and a school of industry for the poor, on the general principles of Pestalozzi. M. de Fellenberg, like every other practical benefactor of his fellow-creatures, had much envious and ignorant opposition to overcome before he was allowed to pursue his benevolent plans without molestation: a government commission was named to inquire into the working of his institute, the result of which was his recognition as a man of the highest talents and public virtue. He is the author of several works on agriculture, and of memoirs on the institution at Hoffwill, published at the beginning of the present century. [E.R.] FELLER, Francis Xavier, a Flemish Jesuit, auth. of an ' Historical Dictionary,' &c, 1735-1802. FELLER, Joachim, a German poet, professor at Leipzig, killed by falling from a window in a state of somnambulism, 1628-1691. His son, Joachim Frederic, secretary to the duke of Weimar, au. of ' Monumenta Inedita,' 1673-1726. FELLON, T. B., a Fr. Latin poet, 1672-1759. FELLOWES, R., LL.D., a misc. wr., 1770-1847. FELTHAM, Owex, an Engl, moralist, 17th ct. FELTON, H., a learned Engl, div., 1679-1740. FELTON, Nicholas, bp. of Bristol, d. 1626. FELTON, T. B., a French Jesuit, 1672-1759. FENELON, Francis De Salignac De La Motte, an eminent and pious Frenchman, was bora in 1651 at the castle of Fenelon in Perigord. His studies were pursued successively at the univer- sities of Cahors and Paris, and having directed his views steadily to ward the church, he became qualified to obtain orders at the age of twenty-four. His first appointment was Superior of the newly con- verted female catholics, and the extraordinary success with which he discharged the duties of this station brought him under the notice of Louis XIV., who employed him on a special mission to convert the protestants of Poitou. Fenelon stipu- lated that no means of conversion were to be used but those of persuasion, and having obtained the royal sanction to this express condition, he ac- cepted the embassy. In 1689 he was intrusted with a still more delicate and responsible office, that of undertaking the education of the duke of Burgundy and his younger brothers. It was for the benefit of his royal pupils that he wrote his Telema- chus, and to reward the assiduity and faithfulness with which he discharged his duties as preceptor to. the royal children, he was elevated to the arch- bishoprics of Cambray. He had not been long, however, installed in that see, when espousing the cause of Madame Guyon, the famous pietist, whose principles were embodied in her book, the ' Maxims of the Saints,' he was rancorously at- tacked by Bossuet, his defence placed by the pope in the fist of prohibited books, and he himself FER summoned on pain of excommunication to re- nounce the heresy. He read his recantation in the pulpit of his own cathedral. But this was not the end of his trials. Bossuet, who had become his bit- ter enemy, incensed the mind of Louis XIV. against him, by alleging that ' Telemachus,' which had been published through the perfidy of a secretary who had been employed in transcribing it, was a covert attack on the character of his government, his per- sonal ambition, his love of glory, and his passionate pursuit of war. Fenelon was in consequence banished from the court. But a high tribute was paid to his talents and worth by the foreign invaders, who by the express commands of the duke of Marlborough, exempted his lands from pillage, while that general himself, and his allies, showed him every mark of courtesy. Fenelon, though he continued within the pale of the popish church, saw through its corruptions • and gross superstitions. He was a very pious man, and his grand habitual aim was to form his own character in conformity with the mind of Jesus Christ. He was temperate almost to abstemiousness, ate little, slept little, took no recreation except a few hours daily in the exercises of walking or riding, while all the rest of his time was devoted to the discharge of his duties in social intercourse with his friends, injvkiting the poor, in admonishing, reproving, or comforting his flock as circumstances demanded. The most of his re- venues were devoted to benevolent purposes, to. help in the education of poor clergymen, to assist indigent old gentlemen, and to extend the means of usefulness to the public hospitals. His death, which took place in the thirty-thud year of his age, showed, by the universal regret it produced, how strong a hold he had taken of the hearts of his countrymen, while his literary works have erected a monument which will transmit his name with honour to a distant posterity. [R.J.] FENN, John, an Engl, catholic div., d. 1615. FENN, Sir J., an English antiq., 1739-1794. FENNER, W., a puritan divine, 1560-1640. FENTON, Edw., an Engl, navigator, d. 1603. FENTON, Elijah, a poet and dramatic writer, chiefly celebrated for his share in Pope's transla- tion of the Odyssey, 1683-1730. FENTON, Sir G., an English transl., d. 1608. FER, N. De, a French geographer, 1646-1720. FERAND, J. F., a Fr. grammarian, 1725-1807. FERBER, John Jas., a Swedish mineralogist, auth. of ' Mineralogy of Bohemia,' &c, 1743-1790. FERDINAND, Cil, a French poet, died 1494. FERDINAND^ohn, a Sp. Jesuit, died 1595. FERDINAND X, emperor of Germany, brother and successor of Charles V., born 1503, king of Hungary and Bohemia 1527, king of the Romans 1531, emperor 1538 to his death 1564; in his reign the empire was separated from all depen- dence on the papacy. Ferdinand II., grandson, of the preceding, born 1578, king of Bohemia 1617, king ot Hungary 1618, emperor 1619 to his death 1637. The principal events of his reign were the revolt of Bohemia, subdued by the battle of Prague, and the progress of the thirty years' war. Fer- dinand III., son and successor of the preceding, born 1608, king of Hungary 1625, king of Bohemia 1627, king of the Romans 1636, emperor 1637 to his death in 1657. The great event of his reign was the peace of Westphalia. FER FERDINAND, king of Bohemia, the first three same as the preceding ; the fourth of the name, son of Ferdinand III., born 1634, crowned king of Bohemia 1646, king of Hungary 1647, died 1654. FERDINAND, king of Portugal, bora 1340, succeeded his father Peter I., 13G7, died 1383. FERDINANDS, The, of Spain, are— Ferdi- nand I., king of Castile and Leon, reigned 1037- 1065. Ferdinand II., king of Leon, and regent of Castile during the minority of Alfonso IX., reigned 1157-1187. Ferdinand III., bora 1200, king of Castile 1217, king of Leon 1230, died 1252. Ferdinand IV., born 1279, king of Castile 1285, died 1312. Ferdinand V., bora 1452, married Isabella of Castile 1469, became king of Castile 1474, succeeded his father as king of Arragon 1479, died, after a glorious reign, signalized by the union of the Spanish kingdoms, the subjugation of the Moors, and the discovery of America, &c, 1516. Ferdinand VI., born 1713, succeeded 1746, died 1759. Ferdinand VIL, bora 1784, named king by his father, who abdicated 1808, detained at Valencay by Napoleon, who placed his brother Joseph on the throne till 1813, after which his states revolutionized, 1819-20, and he died 1833. FERDINANDS, The, of Arragon, are— Ferdi- nand I., called 'The Just,' succeeded 1412, died 1416 ; and Ferdinand II., the latter being the same as Ferdinand V. of Spain . FERDINANDS, The, of Naples and Sicily, are— Ferdinand I., notorious for his debaucheries and cruelties, reigned 1458-1494. Ferdinand II., reigned 1495-1496. Ferdinand III., same as Ferdinand V. of Spain, who conquered a part of the kingdom, and obtained its investiture from the pope in 1510. Ferdinand IV., commonly called Ferdinand I., king of the two Sicilies, third son of Charles III., king of Spain, born 1751, suc- ceeded under the regency of Tanucci 1759, died after a troubled reign, interrupted by the usurpa- tions of the Napoleon kings, and the insurrections of his people, 1825. FERDINANDS, The, grand dukes of Tuscany, are — Ferdinand I., bora 1549, cardinal (de Medici) 1563, duke 1574, died 1609. Ferdi- nand II., born 1610, succeeded 1621, died 1670. Ferdinand III., bom 1769, succeeded 1790, war with France 1798, acceded to the confederation of the Rhine, and created prince of Wurtsbourg by Napoleon 1806, rest, to his duchy 1814, d. 1824. FERDOUCY, FERDOUSI, or FERDUSI, Aboul-Cassim-Mansour, a celebrated Persian poet, author of a history in verse, 916-1020. FERG, P. F., an Austrian painter, 1G89-1740. FERGOLA, N., a geomet. of Naples, 1753-1824. FERGUS, the first of the name, founder of the Scottish monarchy, 4th centurv; the second, reigned 411-429 ; the third, died 767. FERGUSON, Adam, a Scotch philosopher, predecessor of Dugald Stewart in the chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh, author of ' Insti- tutes of Moral Philosophy,' ' Principles of Moral and Political Science,' &c. The former of these has been often reprinted, and translated, and adopted as a text-book in some foreign universities : its principle is the admission of a moral sense, 1724-1816. FERGUSON, James, a self-taught experimen- tal philosopher, mechanician, and astronomer of Scotland, 1724-1816. FER FERGUSON, Robt., an Engl, divine, d. 1714. FERGUSON, Wm., a Scotch painter, d. 1690. FERGUSON, Robert, a Scotch poet, whose compositions in the lowland Scotch dialect entitle him to rank with Burns in descriptive power, though nothing that he has written can be com- pared with the lyrics of the bard of Ayr for ten- derness, and intense love of nature, was born at Edinburgh, where his father was accountant to the British Linen Company, 17th October, 1750. His parents intended him for the ministry, but he wanted the power of steady application to the necessary studies, and his father dying when he was seventeen years of age, he went to reside with an uncle near Aberdeen, who was at length tired of his poor relative, and allowed him to take the situation of copying-clerk at the office of the com- missary-clerk, and afterwards in that of the sheriff's clerk, in his native city. His love of poetry, and his conversational powers, not only unfitted him for this drudgery, but the latter, by a natural reaction against "his daily toils, involved him in habits of dissipation, which predisposed him to disease ; and it is melancholy to relate that the last penalty which the violated laws of nature exacted from him was nothing less than his mental derangement. In 1774, when in the twenty-fourth year of his age, he was sent to a poor asylum for lunatics, where he was subject to rales which in all human probability hastened his death, which took place in about two months afterwards, on the 16th of October. Burns always acknowledged with affecting tenderness his obli- gations to Ferguson, whom he styles his 'elder brother in misfortune,' and to whose memory, in the year 1789, he erected a handsome monument in the Canongate churchyard, the place of his interment. It is impossible to read the Scottish poems of Ferguson without acknowledging how closely Burns has followed his model in some of his most admired descriptive pieces. We may instance in particular, ' The Daft Days,' ' The Rising of the Session,' ' Leith Races,' ' Elegy on John Hogg,' and ' Cauler Oysters,' in which the most striking parallels may be traced. Ferguson could sing his native melodies with effect, and was a little too fond perhaps of practical jests. It is said that he never made an enemy, but it is only too likely that he lost a friend in his rich uncle for lack of that ordinary ' prudence ' which men of genius too often pride themselves in holding cheap. [E.R.] FERHAD-PACHA, grand vizier and minister of war to Amurath III., died in disgrace, 1594. FERISHTAH, Moh.-Cassim, a^Pers. hist., au. of a ' Hist, of India under the Mussulmans,' 17th c. FERMAT, Pierre, an eminent French mathe- matician, born at Toulouse in 1595, died in 1667. Fermat was famed in his time as one of the most remarkable analysts in Europe ; neither will any historian deny his genius, or his success ; he is the author of much ingenious speculation; he dis- covered curious and recondite theorems regarding numbers ; and invented a remarkable method for the solution of problems in maxima and minima. But a factitious interest has recently attached to him because of the singular claim instituted by La Place that Fermat be considered the true au- thor of the Differential Calculus. It is not easy to conceive a stronger illustration of the sway of FER notional vainglory over the judgments even of great Frenchmen. The Differential Calculus, like most other new principles, especially demanded by the necessities of Science, was heralded by many partial and imperfect anticipations : an- ticipations always marked by one character- istic, — they effected the solution of particular problems by methods akin to those of the Differ- ential Calculus ; but of the generality, the true method of that remarkable branch of Analysis, they partook nothing. Fermat merely hit upon one such anticipation in his treatment of maxima and minima. The claim urged by La Place has led to a narrow scrutiny of the powers of thU Geometrician, and they have not risen thereby in estimation. Many of his theorems regarding numbers seem lucky guesses on curious points, sought for systematically as such, rather than de- ductions by scientific procedures. [J.P.N.] FERMIN, Ph., a French naturalist, 1720-1790. FERMOR, Count Von, a Rus. gen., 1704-1771. FERNANDEZ, Alp., a Sp. monk, 1572-1640. FERNANDEZ, Alv., a Portug. navig., 16th c. FERNANDEZ, Ant., a Port. Jesuit, 1558-1628. FERNANDEZ, B., a Portug. Jesuit, died 1630. FERNANDEZ, Den., a Portug. navig., loth c. FERNANDEZ, Diego, a Sp. historian, 16th c. FERNANDEZ, John, a Portuguese navi- gator, 15th century. FERNANDEZ, Juan, a Sp. navigat., d. 1576. FERNANDEZ, L., a Spanish paint., 1594-1654. FERNANDEZ, L., a Spanish paint., 1605-1646. FERNE, H., an Engl, controv. divine, 1602-61. FERNEL, J., a Fr. medical writer, 1497-1558. FERRACINO, B., an Ital. mechanic, 1692-1777. FERRAJUOLI, N., a Neapolit. painter, 17th c. FERRAND, Anth., a French poet, died 1719. FERRAND, Anth. F. Cl., Count, a French statesman, histor., and literary savant, 1751-1825. FERRAND, J. P., a French paint., 1653-1732. FERRAND, L., a French Hebraist, 1645-1699. FERRAND, M. L., a Fr. general, 1753-1808. FERRANDO, G., a Spanish navigator, 15th c. FERRANTINI, G., an Italian painter, 16th c. FERRAR, Nich., a pious enthusiast, founder of a religious house in Huntingdonshire, 1592-1637. FERRAR, Rob., bp. of St. David's, burnt 1555. FERRARA, Hippolytus of Este, cardinal of, governor of the duchy of Parma for France for the two years 1552-1554, lived 1509-1572. FERRARA, Anne of, daughter of Hercules II., and wife of the due de Guise, known as a political intriguante at the Fr. court, 1531-1607. FERRARI, a Provencal troubadour, 13th cent. FERRARI, And., a Genoese paint., 1599-1669. FERRARI, Ant., a Neapol. geogr., 1444-1517. FERRARI, B., founder of a religious order, Milan, 1497-1544. FERRARI, Gaudenzio, an Italian painter, assistant of Raffaelle in the Vatican, 1484-1550. FERRARI, Giov. And., an Italian painter, pupil of Bernard Strozzi, 1599-1669. FERRARI, Greg., an Ital. painter, 1644-1726. His son Lorenzo, also a painter, died 1744. FERRARI, J. B., an Italian Jesuit, 1580-1665. FERRARI, L., an Italian mathematician, in- ventor of a method for solving equations to the fonrth degree, 1522-1566. FERRARI, Octavian, an Italian philosopher, FEV professor of politics and morals, 1518-1 586. Fran- cisco Bernardino, of the same family, an ec- clesiastical wr. of vast erudition, 1576-1669. Oc- tavio, nephew of the last named, a literary savant, antiquar., and historiographer of Milan, 1607-1682. FERRARI, P., an Italian architect, 1758-1828, FERRARI, W., an Italian historian, 1717-1791. FERRARINI, M. F., an Italian antiq., d. 1192. F'ERRARIS, Joseph, Count De, an Austrian gen. of artillery, dist. as a geographer, 1726-1814. FERRARS, Edw., an Eng. playwright, d. 1564. FERRARS, George, an English lawyer and poet, whose arrest for debt when member of the House of Commons, his release on their demand, and the punishment of the prosecutors, establishes the privilege of mem. at that early period, 1512-79. FERRARS, H., an English herald, 1549-1633. FERRATA, Hercules, an Ital. sculpt., 17th c. FERRAUD, Nicholas, born 1764, deputy from the department of the Hautes-Pyrcm^es to the national convention of France, 1792, massacred by the populace, 20th May, 1795, when nobly resisting the invasion of the hall, and protecting the president Boissy D'Anglas from their violence FERREIRA, Al., a Portug. jurist, 1644-1737. FERREIRA, Ant., a Portug. poet, 1528-1569. FERREIRA, A. F., a Portug. navig., 1600-58. FERRELO, B., a Spanish navigator, 16th cent. FERRERAS, John De, an ecclesiastic histor., theologian, and literary savant of Spain, 1652-1735. FERRERI, Z., an Italian poet, 1479-1525. FERRET, Emile, a French jurist, 1489-1552. FERRI, the first of the name, duke of Lorraine, 1205-1207 ; the second, died 1213 ; the third, reigned 1251-1303 ; the fourth, born 1282, suc- ceeded 1312, killed at the battle of Cassel, 1328. FERRI, Alph., an Ital. surgical writer, d. 1575. FERRI, Ciro, an Italian architect, 1634-1689. FERRI-DE-ST.-CONSTANT, J. L., an Italian writer, au. of ' London and the English,' 1755-1830. FERRIER, Arn. Du, a Fr. lawyer and diplo- matist, chancellor of the kg. of Navarre, 1508-85. FERRIER, St. Vincent, an Ital. preacher and theol., opponent of pope Benedict XIII., 1357-1415. FERRIERE, Cl. De, a Fr. jurist, 1639-1734. FERRIERFS, C. Elie, Marquis De,memb. and historian of the Fr. constit. assembly, 1741-1804. FERRON, Arnoul Du, a Fr. hist., 1515-1563. FERSEN, Axel, Count De, a field-marshal of Sweden, president of the diet of nobles, disting. by his share in the condemnation of Count Brahe, 1756. His son, Axel, chancellor of the university of Upsala, born 1750, killed in an emeute, 1810. FF1SCH, Joseph, cardinal archbishop of Lyons, and brother of La?titia Ramolini, mother of Na- poleon, disgraced in 1810 for his opposition to the emperor in favour of the pope, 1763-1839. FESCH, Seb., a French antiquarian, 1647-1712. FESTUS, Portius, Rom. gov. of Judaea, 60-62. FESTUS, Sex. Pompkius, a Latin gram., 3dc. FETH-ALI-SHAH, king of Persia, 1762-1834. FETI, Dominico, an Ital. painter, 1589-1624. FEUERBACH, P. J. Anselme De, a German philosopher, distinguished for his adaptation of the code of Napoleon to his native country, 1775-1 *.'>.'} FEUILLEE, Louis, a Fr. naturalist, d. 1782. FEVRE, Anthony Le, De La Boderik, a man of letters, ambassador from Henry IV. to Brussels and London, 1555-1615. His brother, 240 FEV Gut Lefevre Sieur De La Boderie Oriental scholar and poet, 1541-1598. FEVRE, Cl. Le, a French painter, 1633-1675. FEVRE, Jas. Le, a Fr. catholic divine, d. 1716. FEVRE, James Le, a Fr. ecclesiastic of great learning, distinguished by the friendship of Mar- garet of Navarre, and the celebrated Erasmus, author of ' Commentaries,' &c, 1440-1537. FEVRE, J. B. Le, a French scholar, 1732-1809. FEVRE, N. Le, a French savant, 1544-1611. FEVRE, Tannegui Le, or Tanaquil Faber, a Fr. scholar, professor of the classics, 1615-1672. FEVRE, V. Le, a Flemish engraver, 17th cent. FEYNES, H. De, a French traveller, 17th ct. FICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, born in Upper Lusatia, 19th May, 1762 ; died on 21st January, 1814. One of the most remarkable names in Philo- sophy since the death of Kant. The character- istics of his speculations are. nearly the following. Recognizing that Kant had given a full critique of the action of the Mind, on the substance of its thoughts, Fichte demanded a critique of the act of thinking itself. What, he asked, is the content of the act of consciousness ? It reveals some- thing that is Me, and something which I call Not Me : — how are these related, — what is this thing or feeling which I call Not Me t It is a, feeling, and can be nothing but & feeling : there is nothing of which we can be conscious except the Me, — the thinking principle and its modifications. What, then, is the Not Me ? Why is it thrown by us into the form of an external or independent existence ? The Mind alone, indeed, is the sphere of the mind's operations ; but to its activity there are limitations ; — it proceeds in the work of self-development by effort ; we are finite, and struggle towards the in- finite by steps or degrees. Now the consciousness of this effort, the feeling of limitation, seems like the presence of an external obstacle ; at least we objectify it, and term it the Not Me. — Adequate space is not here allowed for criticism on this system ; nevertheless, two characteristics of it must be remarked. (See articles Hamilton, Hegel, Schelling.) First, as a scheme of pure idealism it resembles Berkeley's ; but the architecture of it is different. Berkeley supposed that the ideas we mistake for the external world, are visions of something Not Us — glimpses of the Divine Intel- ligence : Fichte, that they are nothing save the Mind's own efforts. Hence he spoke of our con- ceptions as creations; he deduced everything from the Mind's activity. Secondly, the assertion of the Mind's Freedom and independent Energy, is the corner-stone of Fichte's whole system. However false his speculative philosophy, the tenacity with which he clung to this prime element of Humanity, led to the best results in morals and politics. No man ever wrote whose pages burn more with what- ever can stir up the highest in all of us. He was a very apostle of the Heroic : his morals are the pur- est Stoicism modified according to the acquisitions, the culture, and necessities of this Age. And he lived ashe preached. His theoretic philosophy hasalready departed ; but the Man Fichte, will ever be cher- ished as one of the noblest of his race. [J.P.N.] FICHTEL, J. E., a Hungarian natur., 1732-95. FICIN, M., an Italian Platonist, 1433-1491. FIDDES, R., an English divine, 1671-1725. FIDELIS, C, a learned Ital. lady, 1465-1558. FIE an FIELD, R., an English divine, 1561-1616, [Birth-place of Fielding.] FIELDING, Henry, born in 1707, was the third son of General Fielding, and great-grandson of an earl of Denbigh. His classical education was received at Eton ; and he afterwards studied law at Leyden, which, however, he was obliged to leave in his twentieth year, on fading to receive supplies from home. His father had a large family, and appears to have been neither rich nor frugal. The son was fairly left to shift for him- self; and, seeking his fortune in London, he found, as he says himself, that his choice lay between being a hackney writer and a hackney coachman. Composition for the stage was his first pursuit, by which he contrived to lead the life of a gay young man for about nine years, from 1727 to 1736. During this time he wrote eighteen plays of one sort or another, which, though admitted to be dramatic failures, show, in passages innumer- able, the same vigorous sense and shrewdness, the same keenness of wit, and the same acuteness of critical discernment, which afterwards character- ized his novels. His translated farce of 'The Miser,' and his ' Mock Doctor,' are now oftenest remembered; but neither these, nor his other comedies and farces, possess nearly so much originality or spirit as his burlesque parodies on the tragic drama, among which ' Tom Thumb ' may be noted as being still by far the best thing of the kind in the English language. The audacity with which in his farces he satirized public characters, is said to have been the main provocation which led the government to establish a censorship of acted plays. In 1736 he married an amiable young lady, with whom he received about £1,500, succeeding, about the same time, to an estate of £200 a-year, in Derbyshire. He now retired to the country, where he lived with hospitable and careless extrava- gance, and found himself penniless in the course of three years. — He returned to London, resumed his law studies, and was called to the bar. But he had no success in the practice of his profession, for which, besides other causes, he was now dis- qualified by frequent attacks of gout. To the anxieties and distresses of a precarious and scanty livelihood, was soon added the deep grief caused by the death of his wife, to whom, and to his chil- dren, the good-hearted and improvident man of pleasure was warmly attached. For ten years ho 211 R FIE subsisted by miscellaneous literary drudgery. He made new attempts at dramatic writing; he pub- lished many fugitive essays and tracts, engaged in political controversy as an active Whig partisan, and was the conductor and chief writer of three successive periodical papers aimed at the Jaco- bites and their principles. About 1742 he wrote 'Joseph Andrews,' the first of those novels on which his fame depends. Notwithstanding its frequent seriousness, this piece was intended to be, and in many points really is, a parody on the sen- tiinentalism of Richardson's 'Pamela.' It was followed by ' Jonathan Wild,' a singular specimen of very vigorous but overdrawn irony. — In 1749 he received from the government a small pension, and an appointment as a justice of peace for Middlesex and Westminster. The office, as then regarded and administered, was decidedly one which a gentleman would not have accepted un- less through necessity ; and it undoubtedly helped to degrade both Fielding's character and his feelings. Its duties, however, were discharged not only zeal- ously, but with an honourable integrity and disin- terestedness altogether new in the occupants of such places. He published an ' Inquiry into the In- crease of Thieves and Robbers,' besides other trea- tises bearing on law ; he was a remarkably effi- cient police magistrate ; and one of his last achieve- ments was the extirpating of several gangs of ruf- fians by whom London was infested. — ' The His- tory of Tom Jones, a Foundling,' was written very soon after Fielding had been forced to embark in these ungenial and harassing employments ; when his health was already quite broken ; and when, by his own public acknowledgment, the honesty with which he filled his office left him so poor that the benevolence of wealthy friends had been re- quired for enabling him to subsist. It is not easy to understand the grounds on which ' Tom Jones ' has been defended against the charge of immor- ality; but in point both of genius, and of skill in art, it is the best novel ever written. It was fol- lowed in 1751 by ' Amelia,' which is very much inferior. The heroine is said to have been de- signed as a portrait of the author's second wife. In 1752 he attempted a new periodical, which drew him into quarrels with Smollett and other men of letters. His life was fast ebbing away: dropsy had been followed by jaundice and asthma. Ordered by physicians to a southern climate, he sailed for Lisbon, and died there in October, 1754, in the forty-eighth year of his age. He left behind him, besides other works, a spiritedly written ac- count of his ' Journey to Lisbon.' [W.S.] FIENNES, William, Lord Say and Sele, 'a grand rebel for twenty years' under Cromwell, afterwards lord privy seal and lord chancellor to Charles II., 1582-1662. His son, Nathaniel, one of Cromwell's privy council, 1608-1669. FIENNES, J. B. De, a French Orientalist and negotiator, 1669-1744. His son, J. B. Helin, an Orient, schol. and interpreter to the king, 1710-67. F1ESCHI, Jos. Marie, the contriver of the in- fernal machine, exec, with his accomplices, 1836. FIESCO, J. L., count of Lavagna, eel. for head- ing the conspiracy against Andrew Doria in 1547. FIESOLE, Fra Giovanni Da, commonly called Fra Angelico, his family name was Guido, was born at Mugello in 1387 ; his surname FTR of Fieeole he acquired from the order of predicants at that place, whom he joined in 1409. He died in 1456. — Era Angelico was distinguished for his pious life, and the same sentiment pervaded all his works : he was remarkably methodic in his habits, he commenced every picture with prayer, and in- variably carried out the first impression, looking upon it as a species of inspiration. His principal works are some frescoes in the convent of San Marco at Florence, and others in the chapel of San Lorenzo in the Vatican. Some accurate en- gravings from these works are in course of publi- cation by the Arundel Society ; their chief merit is their refined sentiment and high order of ex- pression, in which qualities Fra Giovanni was as it were, the type of his successors, the model of the quattrocento school of painters ; a school in some respects supposed to be revived in the recent mis- called preraphaelite innovation in our own school, but minute finish was an extremely rare character- istic of the genuine quattrocento masters of Italy. — (Vasari, Vite rfe' Piltori, &c.) [R.N.W.] FIGUEIRA, L., a Portuguese Jesuit and mis- sionary to Brazil in 1606, murdered 1643. FIGUEIRA, Wm., a French troubadour, 13th c FILMER, Sir R., a wr. on governm., d. 1647. FINCH, Anne, an English poetess, died 1720. FINCH, Heneage, first earl of Nottingham, solicitor-general in the time of Charles II., 1621- 1682. His son, Daniel, second earl of Notting- ham, distinguished as a statesman, 1647-1730. Edward Finch, brother of the first earl, was a clergyman, and died 1642. FINCH, R., an English antiquarian, 1783-1830. FINCK, Jasper, a German Lutheran, b. 1578. FINDEN, Wm., a eel. Eng. engrav., 1787-1852. FINGAL, a chief of Morven, celebrated in the poem of Ossian, disting. against the Romans, 3d c. FINIQUERRA, Tommaso, a goldsmith of Florence, where he was born 1426, who by an accident became the inventor of metal plate print- ing. He was a niello engraver, and was in the habit of, says Vasari, taking sulphur impressions from his engravings, and printing with them on damp paper to see the effect of the desing, when he discovered that though engraved he could take the same impressions from the metal itself. There is in the library at Paris a print representing the coronation of the Virgin, with the date 1452, or 1450 according to Gaye, from a silver Pax by Maso Finiquerra, still preserved in the collection of the grand duke of Tuscany. This is supposed to be the oldest metal plate print extant : there are wood block prints much older. Finiquerra was already dead in 1464. — (Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, &c; Bartsch, Peintre Graveur; Gaye, Carteggio Inedito d 1 Artista.) [R.N.W.] FINKE, Thos., a Danish mathemat., 1561-1656. FINLAY, John, a Scotch poet, 1782-1810. FIORAVANTI, Leo, an Ital. alchemist, d. 1510. FIRENZUOLA, Ang., an Ital. poet, 1493-1545. FIRMIAN, Charles, Count De, administrator of the Austrian govern, of Lombardy, 1718-1782. FIRMICUS, Maternus, a Christian wr., 4th c FIRMILIAN, bishop of Caesarea, 3d century. FIRMIN, G., a nonconformist div., 1617-1697. FIRM IN, St., bp. of Amiens, martyred 287. FIRMIN, Til, an Eng. philanthropist, 1630-97. FIRM US, lord of Mauritania, killed 372. 242 FIR FIRMUS, Marcus, a Roman general, pro- claimed emperor in Egypt, and killed 273. FISCHER, C. A., a German savant, 1771-1829. FISCHER, G. A., a Germ, mathem., 1763-1832. FISCHER, J. A, a Germ, physic, 1667-1729. FISCHER, J. B., a Germ, natural., 1730-1793. FISCHER, J. B., a Germ, architect, 1650-1724. FISCHER, J. C, a Germ, mathem., 1760-1833. FISCHER, J. C, a Germ, philologist, 1712-93. FISCHER, J. E., a Germ, historian, 1697-1771. FISCHER, J. F., a Germ, philologist, 1726-99. FISHER, Edw., an English Calvmist, 17th c. FISHER, John, hishop of Rochester, dis- tinguished for his opposition to the reformation under Henry VIII., and beheaded 1535. FISHER, John, bishop of Salisbury, tutor of the duke of Kent and Princess Charlotte, 1748-1825. FISHER, Payne, an English poet and herald, poet-laureate under Cromwell, died 1693. FISHER, Th., a periodical writer, 1772-1836. FITZ-GEFFREY,C.,adiv.andpoet, 1575-1636. FITZGERALD, Edw., Lord, son of the duke of Leinster, a political partizan and rebel of Ire- land, born 1763, shot in the struggle for his arrest 1798. His wife, Lady Edward Fitzgerald, commonly called Pamela, was supposed to be the daughter of Madame de Genlis, by Philip Egalite, father of the late king of the French, with whom she was educated at the Palais Royal. She died in indigent circumstances at Paris, 1831. FITZGIBBON, John, a disting. lawyer, earl of Clare, and lord chancellor of Ireland, 1749-1802. FITZHERBERT, Sir A., a learned judge and writer on law, author of a 'Collection of Law Cases,' &c, died 1538. His grandson, Nicholas, supposed author of the ' Antiquity and Duration of the Roman Catholic Religion in England,' ac- cidentally drowned 1612. Sir W. Fitzher- bert, a descendant of the same family, appointed gentleman-usher to the king, 1748-1791. FITZHERBERT, Maria Anne, formerly Miss Smythe, married to George IV. 1787, died 1837. FITZJAMES, James, duke of Berwick, son of James II. and Arabella Churchill, sister to the duke of Marlborough, a distinguished commander in the French army, born 1670, killed at the siege of Philipsburgh 1734. His second son, grand almoner of Louis XV., and bishop of Sois- sons, 1709-1764. His son, Charles, a peer and marshal of France, 1712-1787. His great grand- son, Edward, duke of Fitzjames, an adherent of the French court, died 1839. FITZSIMONS, H., an Irish Jesuit, 1569-1644. FITZSTEPHEN, W., an Eng. historian, 12th c. FITZWILLIAM, Wm., earl of Southampton, a naval commander, dist. against France, d. 1542. FITZWILLIAM, the Right Hon. Wm.Went- worth Fitzwilliam, fourth earl, a Whig states- man of the period of the French revolution, afterw. associated with the duke of Portland and Pitt, and after the death of the latter in 1806 president of the council in the Grenville ministry, 1748-1833. FIXMILNER, P., an Aust. astron., 1721-1791. FLACCILLA, jElia, wife of Theod. the Great, and mother of Arcadius and Honorius, died 385. FLACCUS, Caius V, a Roman poet, 1st cent. FLACIUS, M., a Ger. protes. theol, 1520-1575. FLAHERTY, R. O', an Irish histor., 1630-1718. FLAMINIO, Giov. Ant., an Italian teacher of FLA the Belles Leitres, 1464-1536. His son, Marc Antonio, a Latin poet, 1498-1550. FLAMINIUS, Nepos, Roman consul, 222 b.c. FLAMINIUS, Titus, Roman consul, 197 B.C. FLAMSTEED, John, born at Denby, near Derby, August 19, 1646, died in 1719. A most laborious and admirable observer, the founder of practical Astronomy in England : he was the first Astronomer Royal. Previous to his public appoint- ments, Flamsteed had shown great zeal and talent; but his repute rests on the work he achieved after the establishment of the Observatory. Like his great predecessor Tycho Brahe, the instruments as well as the work were mainly his own ; drawn however, out of the scanty funds of a poor clergy- man instead of the coffers of a noble : nor was the illustrious Dane ever more conscientious, or more laborious ; few have excelled him in sagacity, or that theoretic faculty which is one pillar of strength to every first-class observer — the power to know what to observe — to make all work available for some permanent and important pur- pose. The Historia Celestis Britannica contains our first trustworthy catalogue of the fixed stars — the first at least which is available for modern objects ; and the mass of lunar observations made by Flamsteed, furnished Newton the means of carrying out and verifying his immortal discovery of Gravitation. The life of Flamsteed contains only one thing, which in one who contemplates it can give rise to pain. The revelations lately made by Mr. Baily, place beyond doubt the fact of the very unworthy treatment of this excellent observer by Newton and Halley. They outraged his feel- ings and sported with his rights ; nor can the nature of the aim before them be at all accepted as their apology. [J.P.N.] FLATMAN, Th., an English poet, 1633-1688. FLAVEL, J., an Eng. Calvinist. divine, d. 1691. FLAVIEN, patriarch of Antioch, 381-404. FLAVIEN, patriarch of Constanple., 447-449. FLAVIUS, Caius, a Roman sedile, 305 b.c. FLAXMAN, John. This celebrated English sculptor was born at York, 6th July, 1755, but he settled early in London with his father, who sold plaster casts, &c. The occupation of the father gave Flaxman many opportunities which he might otherwise not have had, and as early as his twelfth year he gained the silver pallet of the Society of Arts for a model. Among his earlier efforts were the various designs which ne made for Wedgwood, which had a great share in elevating the general taste of the country, and which now promise a second time to exercise a beneficial influence upon it. In 1782 Flaxman married, and in 1787 took his wife with him to Italy, where he remained at Rome for seven years. During this time he exe- cuted his admirable designs in outline from Homer, jEschylus, and Dante, and his great group in marble, for Lord Bristol, of ' The Fury of Atha- mas;' and ' Cephalus and Aurora' for Mr. Hope. — He returned to London in 1794, where his first work was the monument to Lord Mansfield in Westminster Abbey ; this was followed by several others there and in St. Paul's, as that to Lord Nel- son, the figure of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others. He executed also many private monuments, of which that to the family of Sir Francis Baring in Micheldever church is one of the most celebrated. 243 FLE lie produced also some works of a more purely poetic character, as the colossal group of Satan and the archangel Michael for Lord Egremont, the original model of which, with a great number of others, is now placed in a permanent gallery beneath the dome of University College, London, the munificent gift of Miss Demnan, the sculptor's sister-in-law. The • Shield of Achilles,' modelled for Messrs. Rundell and Bridge, is a remarkable work of another class, and completing the whole category of art to which sculpture is applicable : — showing Flaxman working for the social refinement of the potter and the silversmith, for national glory, and domestic piety and affection, for the classic taste of the scholar, and the exquisite sentiment of the poet ; in all skilful and great. — He was elected an aca- demician in 1800, and professor of sculpture in 1810 : he died 7th December, 1826, in his seventy- second year. His 'Lectures on Sculpture' are published in one volume, octavo, with fifty-two plates, second edition, Bohn, 1838 ; they are — 1. English Sculpture; 2. Egyptian Sculpture; 3. Grecian Sculpture; 4. Science; 5. Beauty; 6. Composition; 7. Style; 8. Drapery; 9. Ancient Art; and 10. Modern Art. These lectures, though his remarks on ancient art want the exact- ness and precision of modern scholarship, are com- positions of great interest, and much practical in- struction. [R.N.W.] FLECHIER, Esprit, one of the most cele- brated orators of the French church, born 1632, d. shortly after his promotion to the see of Nismes, 1710 ; auth. of a ' History of Theodosius the Great.' FLECK, J. F. F., a Prussian actor, 1757-1801. FLECKNOE, R., an English poet, died 1678. FLEETWOOD, Ch., a general in the interest of theparliament during the civil wars, dates unknown. FLEETWOOD, Wm., a writer on law, d. 1593. FLEETWOOD, Wm., bishop of St. Asaph, au. of ' A Plain Method of Christ. Devotion,' 1656-1723. FLEISCHMANN, J. M., a German agricul- turist, gardener to the court of Dresden, 1747-1831. FLEMING, Abr., a miscellaneous wr., 16th ct. FLEMING, Cal., a Socinian minis., 1698-1779. FLEMING, Cl., constable of Sweden, d. 1597. FLEMING, Pat., a Roman Cath. div., b. 1599. FLEMING, Robert, son of a Scottish divine of the same name, who lived 1630-1694, is the author of a remarkable ' Discourse on the Rise and Fall of the Papacy,' the predictions of which have received a singular fulfilment. In this sermon, published 1701, Fleming ventures his opinion that the French monarchy would be humbled in 1794, that the period of the fifth vial extended from 1794 to 1848, and that in the last mentioned year the papacy would receive its most signal blow, and that it would be followed by the obstruction of the Turk. — ' An Attempt to Prove the Calcu- lations of Fleming Incorrect,' was published soon after the recent flight of the pope, the writer arguing that the papacy had then irre- trievably fallen, while Fleming had expressly stated that it would continue longer! The date of Fleming's birth is unknown, but he died in 1716. [E.R.] FLKMMING, Heixo II., Count De, a Prus- sian field-marshal and gov. of Berlin, 1632-1706. FLKMMING, or FLEMMYXGE, Richard, an Engl, prelate, fndr. of Lincoln college, d. 1430. FLE FLETCHER, A., a Scotch political writer, son of Sir R. Fletcher, of Saltoun, 1653-1716. FLETCHER, James, an hist, wr., 1811-1832. FLETCHER, John, and Francis Beaumont, formed one of those partnerships which, though rare in all sections of literature except the drama, have in it been very common, both in England and elsewhere. — Beaumont, the younger son of a Judge, was born at his father's seat of Gracedieu, in Leicestershire, about the year 1585. By him poetry seems to have been prosecuted for its own sake. Fletcher, whose father died bishop of London, had been born in 1579 at Rye, where his father was then clergyman; and, left an orphan and penniless when he was a mere youth, he had to fight his way for him- self, and earned his bread by writing. Both of the poets were academically educated, Beau- mont at Oxford, Fletcher at Cambridge. Sir John Beaumont, author of the poem of ' Bosworth Field,' was the elder brother of the one; the reli- gious poets, Giles and Phineas Fletcher, were cou- sins of the other. — About the beginning of the seventeenth century, the drama was by far the most flourishing department in the literature which then adorned England. All the poetical minds of the nation turned to play-writing ; not a few men of genius, who are now remembered only for their works of other kinds, Drayton and Daniel being instances, owed their contemporary fame in a nest degree to their plays ; and several, such as Ford, whom we know only as dramatists, would pro- bably have gained higher success had they culti- vated other walks of poetry. — The names of Beau- mont and Fletcher appear together for the first time in 1607, when the latter was in his twenty- eighth year, and the former in his twenty-second. Beaumont had already published some miscellaneous poems : Fletcher's previous training in authorship cannot be traced. The English drama, which soon after 1590 had risen to its greatest glory under Shakspeare, was now not far from the end of its brightest period. The labours of its most illustrious master were about to close ; and most of those which were afterwards performed by Ben Jonson were fallings off from the vigour of his prime. The two new poets stood, both in time and m spirit, between the era which was made glorious by Shakspeare, and that which terminated, in the middle of the century, the history of the Old Eng- lish Drama. — The two are said to have lived in the same house in London till 1613, when Beaumont married. They continued to write, sometimes separately but oftener together, till 1616, when Beaumont died, in his thirty-first year or earlier. Fletcher survived him for nine years, writing ac- tively the whole time ; and he ched in London, of the plague, in 1625. Fifty-three plays are in- cluded in the collection of works which we pos- sess as the fruits of those nineteen years. The beautiful pastoral of ' The Faithful Shepherdess ' is known to have been Fletcher's; and seventeen other plays of the series were written after Beau- mont's death; other writers, however, such as Massinger and Middleton, having perhaps assisted Fletcher in s other thirty- tively, that f Fletcher 214 FLE no authentic information in regard to the circum- stances in which any of these were produced ; nor can we trace anywhere internal dissimilarities, sufficient to prove even plausible conjectures as to the several shares of the two dramatists. We dis- cover, it is true, in the later works of Fletcher, evi- dence both of careless taste and of increasing moral depravation ; but the ethical faults had be- gun to show themselves in the very earliest pieces of the joint series. — In virtue of the works thus uncertainly apportioned, Beaumont and Fletcher are acknowledged, all but universally, to stand, among our old dramatists, second to none but Shakspeare. If their title to this honour is at all disputed, it can be in favour of Ben Jonson only. Then- dramas are more truly and finely poetical than any others which their brilliant age produced, except only the noblest masterpieces of the great master ; in the pathetic and romantic they often vie with almost everything that even he imagined ; and they abound in scattered passages of the most beautiful and touching poetry. They wanted, however, not only Shakspeare's unrivalled success in conceiving a drama as a whole, but also such skill and care in construction as that which is so admirable in Jonson. — Those who would easily apprehend both the strength and the weakness of these exquisite poets, may learn both from a very few of the dramas which belong to the earliest years of their career. Such are Fletcher's pas- toral already named; the romantically beautiful play of 'Philaster;' the harrowing but deeply moving 'Maid's Tragedy;' the spirited though re- pulsive ' King and No King ;' and the lively bur- lesque, ' The Knight of the Burning Pestle,' which parodies at once the chivalrous romances, and the popular plays founded on them by Heywood and others. Mo^e poetical, perhaps, than any of these, is ' The Two Noble Kinsmen,' the authorship of which is the most desperate of the unsolved riddles arising out of these works : Fletcher is allowed to have written part of it, and many are convinced that Shakspeare wrote the rest. Among the later plays, belonging to Fletcher alone, were several Comedies of Intrigue, which, partly by reason of their theatrical liveliness, partly, no doubt, because of their moral grossness, were the greatest favour- ites on the corrupt stage after the Restoration. One of these, ' Rule a Wife, and Have a Wife,' still keeps its place with a few necessary mutila- tions. [W.S.] FLETCHER, Richard, bishop of London, and father of the celebrated dramatic writer, died 1596. Giles, brother of bishop Fletcher, a poet and ambassador to Russia, died 1610. His son, of the same name, author of a fine religious poem, 1588-1623. Phineas, brother of the last named, author of an allegorical poem, &c, d. 1650. FLEURANGES, R. De Lamark, Lord of, a Fr. marshal, dist- in the Italian wars, 1490-1557. FLEUREAU, Basil, a French hist., 1G20-80. FLEURIEU, C. P., Claret, Count De, a French officer and hydrographer, minister of marine under Louis XVI., and distinguished as the inventor of the sea chronometer, 1738-1810. FLEURY, A. H. De, a Fr. cardnl., 1653-1743. FLEURY, Cl., a French historian, author of an 'Ecclesiastical History,' in 20 volumes 4to, 4 Manners of the Israelites,"' &c, 1640-1723. FLO FLEURY, W. F., Joly De, attorney-general to the parliament of Paris, distinguished for his col- lections of the parliament registers, &c, 1675-1756. FLINDERS, Matthew, was born at Donins;- ton in Lincolnshire, about the year 1760. He was early sent to sea in the merchant service, but joined the royal navy afterwards ; and in 1795 went to New Holland as midshipman in the same vessel in which George Bass was surgeon. His adventurous voyages with Bass have been noticed already. On returning to England he was pro- moted ; and in 1801, as captain of the Investi- gator, 334 tons, sailed from England with a crew of 88 men, circumnavigated New Holland, and made accurate surveys in almost every part, contributing more than any other discoverer to our knowledge of this and the adjoining islands. He was accompanied by Mr. Robert Brown, one of the most distinguished naturalists of modern times, an astronomer, two painters, and a miner. His own ship being condemned, he left for England as passen- ger in a store ship, the Porpoise, and was wrecked on the N.E. coast, August 17, 1803. The Bridgewater, Capt. Palmer, and Cato of London, were in company, the latter also struck on the reef; but the former got over safely, and her captain pursued his course without rendering any assistance to the other ships' companies. Flinders, by his admirable ar- rangements, got the men landed upon a sandbank, a little raised above high tide. On the 26th, he left for Port Jackson, a distance of 750 miles, in a small open boat; reached in safety September 6th ; and returned October 7th to the rescue of the crews, with a schooner of 29 tons, which was in very bad condition, but the only vessel he could procure. Two other vessels came with him, one for China, the other to return to Port Jackson. A part of the men sailed for England with Flinders in the small vessel, which reached Mauritius in safety, but was so ill conditioned as to be able to proceed no far- ther. Here the French authorities seized him, and detained him for six years, treating him with cruel severity. His health was so much undermined when he reached England in 1810, that he only survived four years ; having succeeded, however, in complet- ing an account of his voyages, in 2 vols, with maps. He died July, 1814, on the same day on which his work made its appearance. During his captivity, a French expedition, under Baudin, with whom he had before fallen in, had been sent out to survey the coast of New Holland, and it was generally believed that Flinders was kept a prisoner in or- der to enable Baudin to publish before him. This at least he did, and re-named all the points before named by Flinders and others — preceding observers were ignored, and the whole put forth as of Bau- din's finding, though he discovered only about 50 leagues instead of nearly 1,000 ; — an instance of dishonest meanness happily of rare occurrence in any nation. [J.B.J FLIPART, J. J., a French engraver, 1723-1782. FLODOARD, a French annalist, 894-966. FLOGEL, C. Fred., a German au., 1729-88. FLOOD, Hy., an Irish orator, died 1791. FLOREZ, H., a Spanish historian, 1701-1773. FLORIAN, J. P. Claris De, a French fabu- list and miscell. wr. of considerable note, 1755-1794. FLORIDA - BLANCA, Fr. Ant. Moxina, Count De, a Spanish statesman, 1730-1808. 215 FLO FLORIO, J., an Italian grammarian, died 1625. FLORIS, F., a Flemish painter, 1520-1590. FLORUS, Roman governor of Juda>a, 54-67. FLORUS, D., a Latin poet and theol., 9th cent. FLORUS, Lucius, a Latin historian, 1st cent. FLOTWELL, C. Chr., a Germ, theol., d. 1759. FLOWER, Benj., an Engl, politician, d. 1829. FLOYER, Sir J., an English medical writer, au. of ' The Touchstone of Medicines,' 1649-1734. FLUDD, Robert, an English physician and Rosicrucian philosopher, was the son of Sir Thomas Fludd, treasurer of war to Queen Elizabeth in France and the Low Countries, and lived 1574- 1637. It is usual with biographers to style his works a farrago of nonsense, without considering that natural philosophy, as cultivated at the present day, had no existence in his time Kepler and Gassendi, however, thought it worth while to write against him, and, what is curious, the former con- demns the ' chemists, Hermetics, and Paracelsites,' in one breath, complaining that they speak in enigmas, and receive for philosophy the fables of poets, while it is the endeavour of the mathema- tician to bring things to light. It is amusing to read in Fludd's ' Monochordium Mundi Symphoni- acum,' or reply to Kepler, how he turns the tables by proving that mathematics themselves come from the soul, and are concealed under fables with all the wisdom of antiquity. Fludd was a genuine brother of the Rosy Cross, and a man of enthusi- astic piety. The principle of his system is the re- cognition of two worlds in the universe, and the comprehension of all things in a grand harmony like that of the soul in the body. His works in- deed are not likely to be read with patience by the scientific inquirers of the present day, but they will always be interesting as a study in the history of speculative philosophy. It is to be noted also that the Theosophists kept alive the spirit of free inquiry when the church and the metaphysical schools were alike intolerant of it. [E.R.] FLURY, L. Noel, a Fr. economist, 1771-1836. FOGGINI, P. F., an Italian scholar, 1713-83. FOGLIETTI, U., an Ital. historian, 1518-1581. FO-HI, the first emperor of China, date unkn. FOINARD, Fr. M., a Fr. biblical wr., d. 1743. FOIX. The counts of Foix date from the be- ginning of the 11th century; the most celebrated are — Raimond Roger, distinguished in the wars of Simon Montfort, died 1223. Gaston III., one of the heroes of Froissart, distinguished in the English wars, died 1391. Gaston IV., b. 1423, and declared successor to the kingdom of Ar- ragon in 1455, died 1472. After him the counts of Foix are confounded with the kings of Navarre. FOIX, F. De, a French prelate, 1504-1594. FOIX, Gaston De, nepnew of Louis XII., by his sister Marie, and commander of the French armies in Italy, b. 1489, killed at Ravenna 1512. FOIX, Louis De, a French architect, 16th ct. FOIX, M. A. De, a French Jesuit, 1627-1687. FOIX, Odel De, a French general, died 1528. FOIX, P. De, archbishop of Toulouse, ambass. to Scotl., Venice, England, and Rome, 1528-1584. FOIX, P. De, cardinal abp. of Aries, 1386-1464. FOLARD, J. C, a Fr. mil. tactician, 1669-1752. FOLCZ, John, a German poet, 15th century. FOLENGO, G. B., an Italian commentator, and reformer of church discipline, 1499-1559. FON FOLENGO, Theofilo, a burlesque poet of Italy, bom 1491, d. in a monastery of Padua 1544. FOLEY, Sir Thomas, an English vice-admifftl. distinguished at Cape St. Vincent, the battle of the Nile (where he led the British fleet into ac- tion), at Copenhagen, and late commander-in- chief at Portsmouth, 1757-1833. FOLIGNO, F. Frezzi Du, an It. poet, d. 141G. FOLKES, Martin, an English antiquary and philosopher, born 1690, successor of Sir Hans Sloane as president of the Royal Society 1711, vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries 1750, contributor to the Philosophical Transactions, and author of numismatic tables, died 1754. FOLLETT, Sir William Webb, an eminent lawyer, was born at Thopsam, near Exeter, on 2d December, 1798. He exhibited an early feebleness of constitution so extreme, that it is said his friends could hardly anticipate the feasibility of his achiev- ing eminence in any pursuit. As he grew up, however, he showed how vigorously the intellectual capacities may rise and flourish in association with physical weakness. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of M.A. in 1821. In the same year he commenced practice as a special pleader, and he was called to the bar in 1824, attaching himself to the western circuit. Severe attacks of illness rendered neces- sary a careful economy of his strength, and a nice adjustment of the sedentary and active employ- ments of the profession. His innate capacity, however, and careful husbanding of his resources, led him by gradual and sure steps to professional leadership. He attached himself to the Conserva- tive party, as represented by Sir Robert Peel, and entered parliament as member for Exeter in 1835. He seldom spoke except in matters in which he was carefully prepared ; and it has be«n rare for a Practising lawyer so readily to obtain the ear of the ouse. When Sir Robert Peel took office in 1841, he became solicitor-general, and in 1844 he suc- ceeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. The consumptive symptoms, to which he had long been liable, alarmingly increasing, he died on 28th June, 1845. [J.H.B.] FONBLANQUE, John, an eminent lawyer and advocate of the Whigs, author of a ' Treatise on Equity,' originally published in 1793, 1759-1837. FONSECA, Ant. De, a Port, theol., 1517-88. FONSECA, Eleanora, Marchioness De, a lady of Naples, distinguished for her beauty and rare mental endowments, born 1768, executed for having espoused the republican cause, 1799. FONSECA, J. R. De, a Sp. prelate, 1452-1530. FONSECA, Peter De, a Portuguese Jesuit, professor of philosophy at Coimbra, and after- wards professor of theology at Evora, au. of ' Com. upon tne Metaphysic of Aristotle,' &c, 1528-1599. FONTAINE, C, a French poet, 1515-1589. FONTAINE, Jean De La, one of the classics of French literature, was born in 1621, at Cha- teau-Thierry in Champagne, where his father was superintendent of the royal forests. His charac- teristic indolence showed itself from childhood; and his education was very imperfect. He was about twenty-two years old when his literary am- bition was awakened by the odes of Malherbe, from whose seriousness and dignity, however, he was soon diverted by the more congenial writings 246 TON of such men as Rabelais. Succeeding to his father's office, he married, neglected his wife and child, and allowed his property to waste away be- fore his eyes. One of Cardinal Mazarin's nieces, being banished to Chateau-Thierry, admired his verses, and carried him to Paris; and there, speedily welcomed into the best literary and aris- tocratic circles, he spent the last thirty-five years of his life. The first volume of his ' Contes ap- peared in 1664; a second was added in 1671. These tales, though full of the fine touches of his genius, are grossly and unpardonably indecent. The twelve books of his ' Fables ' were published in equal halves in 1668 and 1678. It is through them that La Fontaine is universally known. — With no originality of invention, very little depth of reflection, and a total incapacity of consecutive thinking, he is yet one of the most interesting and attractive of writers. He is an inimitable teller of small stories. His short flights of fancy, his minute strokes of observation, his transitions from brief moods of pathetic seriousness to flashes of the gayest wit, are all set off by a diction the most gracefully and delicately refined, and breaking out incessantly into felicitous turns of novel expression. — La Fontaine's personal character made him at once the pet and the laughing-stock of his friends and patrons. To him might be applied, with little injustice, the epithet wrongly thrown on Goldsmith, of 'an inspired idiot.' He was not only absent in mind, indolent to excess, and igno- rant alike of the world and of the most ordinary business : he displayed a want of interest in im- portant things, and a dreamy absorption in trifles, which are hardly to be understood or excused, un- less they are accepted as tokens of strange intellec- tual weakness. Even from literature, the only thing of which he had any knowledge, he caught no ideas but such as lay within his own narrow sphere. Reading Plato in translations, and hearing passages of the philosopher read by Racine, he ad- mired him enthusiastically as the most amusing of all writers ; and once, while dozing in the midst of an animated theological discussion, he awoke up to ask the company whether they thought Saint Augustine had as much wit as Rabelais. After it had become clear that he was unfit to take charge of himself or his affairs, he was re- ceived as an inmate, and treated like an indulged child, in the house of Madame De La Sabliere, a lady of rank. His patroness spoke of her three animals, the dog, the cat, and La Fontaine. After this lady's death another friend cared for him in a similar fashion. In 1692, during a dangerous ill- ness, his confessor prevailed on him to make a }>ublic declaration of repentance for having pub- ished the 'Contes;' and he was also induced, though not till after long resistance, to burn a comedy which he had written, and as to which we do not know whether it was or was not morally bad. After this his chief literary employment was the versifying of the Latin hymns ot the church. He died in 1695. [W.S.] FONTAINE, N., a French historian, 1625-1709. FONTANA, A., an Ital. gem engraver, d. 1587. FONTANA, Aug., an Italian jurist, 17th cent. FONTANA, C, an Italian architect, 1634-1714. FONTANA, DoMixico, an Italian architect and engineer, 1543-1607. His two sons, Julius FOO and John, also dist. as architects, the latter more particularly for hydraulic engineering, 1540-1614. FONTANA, Felix, an Italian naturalist and experimental philosopher, celebrated for his ana- tomical figures executed in wax, &c, 1730-1805. His brother, Gregory, a mathem. wr., 1735-1803. FONTANA, Fr., a Neapol. astrono., d. 1656. FONTANA, F. L., an It. cardinal, 1750-1822. FONTANA, G., an Ital. astrono., 1645-1719. FONTANA, M., an Ital. mathema., 1746-1808. FONTANELLA, F., a Ven. Hebraist, 1768-1827. FONTANELLE, J. G. D., aFr. an., 1737-1812. FONTANELLI, A. V. De, an Italian states- man and man of letters, member of the Junta of Modena, and distinguished for his practical abilities in the administration, 1706-1777. FONTANES, L. M. De, a French orator, poet, and political writer, senator under Buonaparte, and privy council, under Louis XVIIL, 1761-1821. FONTANEY, J. De, a French miss., last cent. FONTENAI, P. Cl., a French Jesuit, au. of the 9th, 10th, and llth volumes of the ' History of the Gallican Church,' begun by Longueval, 1683-1742. FONTENAY, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1654-1715. FONTENAY, L. A., De Bonafons, a French Jesuit, auth. of a Diet, of Artists, &c, 1737-1806. FONTENELLE, Bernard Le Boivier De, a distinguished literary savant and mathematician, called by Voltaire the most universal genius of the age of Louis XIV., was born at Rouen 1657, and died in 1757, on the eve of completing his centenary. He is best known in this country by his ' Conversations on a Plurality of Worlds,' and his ' Dialogues of the Dead ; ' while in France, his ' History of the Academy of Sciences ' is regarded as a masterpiece. His works form 5 vols, in 8vo, published 1825. The mother of Fontenelle was sister of the celebrated Comeille. FONTENU, L. F. De, a French archaeologist, auth. of memoirs on numismatics, &c, 1667-1759. FONTI, B., an Italian philologist, 1445-1513. FOOT, Jesse, an English surgeon, author of the 'Life of John Hunter,"' &c, 1744-1827. FOOTE, Sir E. J., a naval officer, 1767-1833. FOOTE, Samuel, born about 1721 at Truro in Cornwall of an ancient family, was educated at Worcester College, Oxford. His father was mem- ber for Tiverton, Devonshire; his mother heiress of the Dinely and Goodere families. Young Foote was designed for the law, and had chambers in the Temple, but soon relinquished the study ; married, entered fashionable life, and lost his fortune by gambling. Driven by necessity to the stage, he ventured upon the characters of ' Othello ' and ' Fondlewife,' in the latter gaining some reputa- tion. In 1747 he became manager of the Hay- market theatre, performing there ttie joint part of actor and author. The first piece he produced was called ' Diversions of the Morning,' and ex- hibited well-known characters in real life, of whose peculiarities he proved himself to be an admirable mimic. Notwithstanding legal objections to this kind of stage caricature, Foote contrived to con- tinue his performances for many years, and even obtained, through the duke of York, a patent of the theatre for life, running from the 15th May to the 15th September in every year. On a party of pleasure with the duke and his friends he had previously the misfortune to break his leg, an acci- 247 FOP dont which necessitated its amputation. On the decline of his health, he disposed of his patent to Mr. Colman, on the understanding that he was to receive £1,600 per annum, and a stipulated sum whenever he chose to perform. A paralytic stroke prevented him from availing himself of this privilege more than two or three times. He after- wards resided at Brighton, and died at Dover, with an attack of palsy, 21st October, 1777. He wrote, besides his various mimetic entertainments, twenty dramas of small literary merit, but full of vivid sketches of character. His stvle he seems to have borrowed from Moliere ; but bis humour was un- doubtedly original, and indeed peculiar. [J.A.H.] FOPPA, W., an Italian painter,, died 1492. FOPPENS, J. F., a Flemish critic, 1689-1761. FORBES, Alexander, Lord Forbes of Pit- sligo, the supposed prototype of Scott's baron of Bradwardinein Waverley, commander of a troop of horse in the rebellion of 1745, and author of 1 Moral and Philosophical Essays,' died 1762. FORBES, Sir C, a Scottish Indian merchant and M.P., disting. for his advocacy of ' Justice to India,' and for his private benevolence, 1773-1849. FORBES, Duncan, a Scottish judge, distin- guished at the time of the rebellion, 1685-1747. FORBES, James, an. of 'Oriental Memoirs,' and fellow of the Royal and Antiq. Societies, 1749-1813. FORBES, Patrick, bishop of Aberdeen, au- thor of a ' Commentary on the Apocalypse,' 1564- 1613. John, his son, professor of divinity and ecclesiastical history in King's College, 1593-1648. FORBES, R,, a burlesque poet, d. about 1783. FORBES, Wm, first bp. of Edinb., 1585-1634. FORBES, Sir W., author of 'The Life and Writings of Dr. Beattie,' founder, in conjunction with Sir J. H. Blair, of the first bank in Edin- burgh, and a member of the literary club attended by Johnson, Reynolds, Burke, and Garrick, born at Pitsligo, 1739, died 1806. FORCELLINI, jEgidio, an Italian lexicogra- pher, the pupil and fellow-labourer of Facciolati in the great Latin dictionary, 1688-1768. FORD, John, one of the best of our old Eng- lish dramatists, was a contemporary of Beaumont and Fletcher, having been born in 1586. He was the second son of a country gentleman in Devon- shire, and became nominally a barrister. In re- gard to the details of his life hardly anything cer- tain has been discovered ; and as to the date of his death it is only conjectured that it did not happen before 1640. Ford is an exquisite master of rhythmic melody, and abounds in touches of sweet description. While, likewise, he has an in- satiable fondness for representing incidents pro- foundly terrible, his success in the filling up lies, not in the strength which was required for fitly embodying such scenes, but in a melancholy and wailing pathos, in which he is more effective" than any other play- writer of his age. His genius, truly poetical, is lyric rather than dramatic. His earliest piece, acted in 1629, was* the romantic play ' The Lover's Melancholy,' which contains his famous description of the nightingale. His manner, both of feeling and of expression, may be well gathered from that work and nis ' Broken Heart ;' and some of the mo^t touching passages in our poetry may be read in his revolting play, ' 'Tis Pity She's a Whore.' [W.S. ' FOS FOP.D, Sir J., an hydraulic engineer, lfiOo-70. FORD. Simon, a divine and poet, 1619-1699. FORDUN, J. De, a Scotch historian, 14th cent. FORDYCE, David, a Scotch writer on educa- tion and morals, 1711-1751. His brother, James, a minister, and author of poems and sermons, &c, 1720-1796. His second brother, William, a physician, 1724-1792. George, son of the latter, also a physician, and writer on physiology and medicine, 1736-1802. FOREST, John, a French painter, 1636-1712. FOREST, P. De La, archbp. of Rouen, 1314-61. FOREST, P. Van, a Dutch med.wr., 1522-97. FORESTI, J. P., an Ital. annalist, 1434-1520. FORESTI, Ant., an Ital. historian, died 1699. FORESTIER, Ant., a French poet, 15th cent. FORESTIER, H., gen. of La Vendue, 1775-1809. FORGEOT, N. J., a French dram., 1758-1798. FORKEL, J. N., a German writer on the His- tory and Theory of Music, 1749-1818. FORMAGE, J. C. Cesar, a French fabulist, and Latin poet, 1749-1808. FORNARIS, Fabricius De, a Neapolitan dra- matic writer and actor, 1560-1637. FORREST, Th., an English navigator, d. 1803. FORSKAL, Peter, a Swed. natural., 1736-63. FORSTER, F., a German savant, 1709-1796. FORSTER, George, an Eastern traveller m the service of the East India Company, died 1792. FORSTER, John, a Germ, comment., d. 1613. FORSTER, John, a Germ, divine, 1495-1566. FORSTER, John Reinhold, an eminent na- turalist, geographer, and philologist, born at Dirs- chau in Polish Prussia, accompanied Captain Cook as naturalist in his second voyage, author of a 'History of Voyages and Discoveries in the North,' &c; he was a distinguished linguist and literary savant, 1729-1798. His son, John George Adam, of a similar genius, and author of ' A Voyage Round the World,' &c, 1754-1794. FORSTER, N., an English divine, author of ' Reflections on the Antiquity, Government, Arts, and Sciences in Egypt,' &c, 1717-1757. FORSTER, V., a German law-writer, 16th ct. FORSTNER, Chr., a Bav. jurist, 1598-1667. FORSYTH, Alexander John, A.M., LL.D., a Scottish clergyman and experimenter in chemistry, especially in fulminating powders, which led to his discovery of the percussion lock, 1769-1843. FORSYTH, Wm., a Scot, horticul., 1757-1804. FORT, Francis Le, a native of Geneva, who rose to be prime minister of Peter the Great, and commander of the Russian forces, died 1699. FORTESCUE, Sir John. See Aland. FORTESQUE, William, master of the rolls In 1741, an intimate friend of Pope, and the other writers of that day. FORTUNATUS, a French prelate, died 609. FOSBROOKE, Rev. Th. Dudley, F.S.A., a distinguished antiquarian writer and Saxon scho- lar, author of ' The Eeonomy of Monastic Life,' a poem, 1796, ' British Monachism,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1799, ' History of Gloucestershire,' ' Histoiy of the City of Gloucester,' ' the Wye Tour,' ' Encyclopae- dia of Antiquities,' &c, 1770-1842. FOSCARI, Francis, doge of Venice, accused of treason and deposed 1423. A Venetian senator and statesman of the same name and family, dis- tinguished for his patronage of the arts, 1704-90. 248 POS FOSCARINI, M., a Ven. historian, 1632-1692. FOSCARINI, Mark, of the same family as the preceding, a savant and doge of Venice, 1695-1762. FOSCARINI, P. A., a Venetian mathemati- cian, author of a ' Letter upon the System of Co- pernicus,' the publication of which gave the signal for the persecution of Galilei, 1580-1616. FOSCOLO, Ugo, an Italian poet, dramatic writer, and literary savant, in the latter years of bis life resident in England as a political exile, where he became a contributor to the Reviews, 1776-1827. FOSSATI, Dav. Ant., an Italian painter, born 1708. His brother, George, an architect, and writer on professional subjects, born 1710. FOSSATI, J. F., an Italian historian, d. 1653. FOSSE, Charles De La, a French painter, 1640-1716. His nephew, Anthony, a tragic writer, 1653-1708. FOSSE, P. Th. Du, a French histor., 1634-98. FOSTER, H., an English navigator, 1797-1831. FOSTER, James, D.D., a minister of the inde- pendents, celebrated for his eloquence and popu- larity as a preacher, and for his theological and re- ligious writings, especially his ' Defence of Revela- tion ' in answer to Tindal, 1697-1753. FOSTER, John, a distinguished classical scholar and churchman, author of an ' Essay on the Nature of Accents and Quantity,' 1731-1773. FOSTER, John, was born 17th September, 1770, in the parish of Halifax, England. His father, who rented a small farm, endeavoured to add to his scanty means by employing the intervals of agri- cultural labour in weaving. John was early trained to the same employment, and till the age of four- teen he was occupied in spinning wool to a thread bv the hand wheel. At that period he entered into tfie regular service of a master manufacturer, but he always entertained a strong distaste to manual labour. An inveterate habit of mental abstraction led him constantly to live in an ideal world of his own ; and as his weaving, in consequence of his mind being engrossed with a different train of thoughts, was too often executed in a slovenly and unworkman-like style, his employer was dissatis- fied, and discharged him from the service. His friends, who knew the piety, the great intellectual endowments, and literary taste of the youth, urged him to direct his views towards the ministry. His parents, who were a very religious couple, and con- nected with a small baptist church at Wainsgate, had instructed him carefully in the fundamental principles of the gospel as well as in the denomi- national peculiarities of their own sect, and he had, in accordance with his own ardent wish, been ad- mitted a member of the baptist church at the age of seventeen. In resolving now to devote his life to ministerial work, he of course contemplated ex- ercising his gifts within the pale of the baptist communion, and accordingly finished his course of preparatory study at the Baptist College, Bristol. During the whole of his college curriculum he ex- hibited the same mental qualities by which he was 80 much distinguished in after life — an irrepres- sible curiosity to examine everything, great decision of character, an ambition of intellectual superiority, and a morbid desire to impart an air of novelty and freshness to old and familiar subjects, by striking out into original paths of illustration, or clothing them in the garb of an unwonted phraseology. He 249 FOU commenced his career as a preacher at Newcastle- upon-Tyne on 5th August, 1792, whence, after a brief engagement of three months, he went on in- vitation to undertake the pastorate of a baptist meeting in Swift's Alley, Dublin. In that pla^e he continued to minister for three years, and at the expiry of that term he returned to England, being elected minister of the general baptist church of Chichester. But, unfortunately, his style of preaching, though powerful, and to an intellectual audience a great treat, was little fitted to make an impression on the popular mind. The congregation, small at the first, gradually diminished under his superintendence, and at length became extinct Through the kindly offices of his friend Mr. Hughes, secretary to the%ritish and Foreign Bible Society, Foster was employed for a while on a local mission, and at length was intrusted with the board and education of twenty Africans who had been brought to this country to be trained as future missionaries in preaching the gospel in their own benighted country. This engagement having terminated, Mr. Foster resumed his pastoral duties by settling m 1800 at Downend, a country village in the neigh- bourhood of Bristol, where there was a small bap- tist community, and. where he was introduced to Miss Maria Snooke, the ' friend ' to whom he ad- dressed his ' Essays,' and who at a subsequent period became his wife. At the end of five years he ac- cepted an invitation from a congregation in Frome, Somersetshire, the members of which, though few, were for the most part educated persons, and pre- pared to appreciate the talented and philosophical discourses or Foster, although many of them through the influence of their former pastor, had become unfortunately tinged with Arian principles. It was during his ministry in this place that Foster pub- lished his celebrated 'Essays,' and became the prin- cipal contributor to the Eclectic Review, the articles for which formed his staple or rather exclusive composition for thirteen years. A glandular affec- tion of the neck, which increased to an enormons size, obliged him to discontinue his public labours in the pulpit. He thenceforth employed himself chiefly in preparing works for the press, the chief of which were his ' Discourse on Missions,' and his 'Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance,' Mr. Foster, having greatly improved in his health, acceded in 1822 to the pressing invita- tion of some friends to deliver a fortnightly lecture at Broadmeadow chapel, Bristol, and this office he performed till Mr. Hall's settlement in town led to its cessation. Mr. Foster was a man of rather extreme views both in civil and religious politics. But he was eminently a man of God, and died on the 14th October, 1839, in the peace and joy of believing. [R.J.] FOSTER, Sir M., an Engl, judge, 1689-1763. FOSTER, Mark, a wr. on trigonometry, 17th c FOSTER, Sam., an English mathem., d. 1652. FOSTER, Wm., a witer on proportion, 17th c*. FOTHERBY, M., an Engl, divine, 1559-1619. FOTHERGILL, Geo., au. of sermons, 1705-60, FOTHERGILL, John, a med. au., 1712-1780. FO-THOU-TCHING, a celeb. Buddhist, d. 349. FOUCHE, Joseph. See Otranto. FOUCHER, P., a French archaeologist, auth. of ' Researches in the Persian Religion,' 1704-1778. FOUCH1ER, Bert., a Dutch paint., 1609-74. FOU FOUGEROUX DE BONDAROY, A. D., a French archaeologist and naturalist, 1732-1798. FOULIS, R. and A., Scotch printers, celeb, for the beautv of their classics, died 1774 and 1776. FOULON, J. F., one of the first victims of the French revolution ; he was named minister of finance in place of Necker, 12th July, 1789, and having fled on the taking of the Bastile, he was captured and hung by the people a few days after. FOUNTAINS, A., an Eng. numismat., d. 1753. FOUQUET, H., a French physician, 1727-1806. FOUQUET, J. F., a Fr. missionary, 1690-1720. FOUQUET, N., finance minister to Louis XIV., died after nineteen vears' captivity, 1615-1680. FOUQUIER-TlNVILLE, Ant^uentin, the public accuser of the revolutionary tribunal of Paris, remarkable for the atrocious cruelty with which he exercised the terrible power confided to him against all parties, born m Picardy 1747, executed after the fall of Robespierre, 1794. FOUQUIERES, J., a Flem. painter, 1580-1659. FOURCROY, Antoine Francois De, born at Paris 1755, died 1809. The descendant of a once wealthy family, Fourcroy was the son of a poor apothecary, and after many vicissitudes was enabled to engage in the study of the medical pro- fession under the auspices of the distinguished anatomist Vic. d'Azyr. Under Bucquet he studied chemistry, and ultimately succeeded Macquer in the chair of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi, which he held for twenty-five years with increasing })opularity. During the heat of the French revo- ution, Fourcroy possessed considerable power, which he exercised in promoting improvements in the systems of scientific education. He took an active part in the institution of the polytechnic and normal schools, the museum of natural his- tory, the central schools, and in the re-establish- ment of the universities and colleges, which had been destroyed by the convention. His most celebrated work was his System of Chemistry, which at one time had a great reputation, and was translated into English. In most of his experi- ments he had associated with him his pupil Vauque- lin, whom he had the merit of training and patronising. He was twice married, and left a son and daughter ; but he left no fortune, and his two sisters were afterwards supported by the faith- ful Vauquelin. [R.D.T.] FOURCROY- DE - RAMECOURT, Charles Rene De, a Fr. officer and engineer, 1718-1791. _ FOURIER, Charles, born at Besancon in 1772, died in Paris 1837. In recent times a new order of political speculations has obtained a hearing, and been confessed important, — speculations affect- ing the fundamental principles on which modern societies are constructed. Struck by the evil in- herent in the fact that the multitudes are mere ' hewers of wood and drawers of water,' St. Simon, Robert Owen, and others, have sought for new organizations, and declared war against the prin- ciple of competition, or ' selfishness,' as the oasis of a right social fabric. Of these remarkable in- quirers, Charles Fourier is the most original and profound : practical by nature, and eminently sagacious, he took a more complete view of our human springs of action ; and proposed a scheme that might be tried and corrected by experi- ments on a scale of sufficient moderation to FOX carry no menace of revolution. We cannot describe here either the arrangements or the philosophy of the Phalange ; but justice demands the avowal that Fourier's theoretic views are not in conflict with our highest conceptions concern- ing the order of the Moral Universe. The Pha- lanx has been put partially to proof — chiefly in America. The experiment has never succeeded in the fullest sense; nevertheless, its projectors have read the lesson involved in the failure, and resolved to try again. The Fourierisis were one of the schools in France, because of whose existence the cry of Socialism was recently raised, with the aim to'overthrow the Republic : very unwarrantably in so far as they were concerned, for they neither desired nor threatened confusion. [J.P.N. ] FOURIER, J. B. G., a French mathematician and physician, distinguished for his scientific me- moirs and historical preface, contributed to the famous ' Description of Egypt,' where he accom- panied the expedition of Napoleon, 1768-1830. FOURIER, P., a religious reformer, 1565-1640. FOURNEL, J. F., a French jurist, 1745-1820. FOWLER, Chr., an Engl, puritan, 1611-1676. FOWLER, Edw., bp. of Gloucester, 1632-1714. FOWLER, John, an English printer, d. 1578. FOWLER, Th., a medical author, 1736-1801. FOX, Charles, an English artist, 1749-1809. FOX, Charles James, was born at No. 9, Conduit-Street, London, on 24th January, 1749. He was the third son of the Right Hon. Henry Fox, created Lord Holland in 1763. Charles was a frank, lively, popular child, became a family oracle in his infancy, and was supremely in- dulged. He obtained the rudiments of his edu- cation at a preparatory school at Wandsworth, kept by a Frenchman, which he entered in 1756, passing to Eton two years afterwards. In 1763, when he was but fourteen years old, his father indulged him with a gay tour on the conti- nent, which not only interrupted his education, but is said to have fostered the dissipated habits which stained his early career. On his return, he studied at Hertford College, Oxford. Again he travelled abroad ; and on his return, in 1768, when not twenty years old, he found himself member of parliament for Medhurst. In 1770 he became a junior lord of the admiralty, under Lord North. He remained, with an interval of two years, in connection with the North ministry until 1773, when he was removed somewhat contemptuously, and the ground of his dismissal has been attributed to rash and presumptuous ministerial acts, com- mitting his colleagues to a policy the reverse of what he himself afterwards held. Of course it was a political necessity that he should join the opposi- tion, and in the prosecution of the measures lead- ing to the American war, he found a ground of hostility congenial to the sentiments then ripening in his mind. Following out these principles lie joined the Rockingham administration, but re- signed when the death of its leader made way for Lord Shelburne. Lord North and he finding each other side by side in opposition, thought they might work together in office, and in 1783 that coalition was made which has given just occasion for so much censure; not because it was a coali- tion, but because instead of uniting together those who were near each other in sentiment by the 250 FOX bond of a common harmony of purpose, it was an attempt to unite those who were opposite by the tie of common hostility to the defeated party. Fox's connection with the ministry, nominally under the duke of Portland, and the defeat of his India bill, suggested by the growing jealousy of the prerogative of the crown, with the triumph of Fox's rival, young Pitt, are conspicuous and well- known historical events, which can only receive a passing reference. In the regency question he was evidently led by personal predilections to maintain that the office belonged to the heir apparent, and was not at the disposal of parliament. Since the commencement of the French revolution, we must date a great change in Fox's nature, arising from the seri*us reflections produced by events so momentous. He had been leading such a life of thoughtless dis- sipation as generally deadens the moral qualities as well as the intellectual perceptions. But he was one among the few who could preserve through such orgies ' the whiteness of nis soul.' His mind was justly characterized by Grattan's reference to its ' careless grandeur, and there never lived a statesman whose character is so free of sordid motives, narrow views, or paltry objects. His hearty rebuff of Napoleon's insinuation that his rival had countenanced assassinative plots, was characteristic of his candid, honest nature. It is strange that of one who was so much revered by his party and his personal friends, there should be no good biography, for the collection lately edited by Lord John Russell, though it passed through the competent hands both of Lord Holland and Mr. Allen, professes only to afford materials for a life of the great leader. The reason may, perhaps, be, because while we know Fox to have foreseen that the general good of the community, and not personal aggrandizement, or the triumph of a party, should be the object of a minister, yet nis own place in history is that of the champion of a party rather than of a policy. In 1797 he formally seceded from parliamentary action, and lived a life of literary retirement, in which he wrote his historical fragment on tbe reign of James II. He returned to public life in 1801. In 1806 he formed the real leader of that Whig ministry nominally headed by Lord Grenville; but the ministerial career, of which so many high hopes were formed, was doomed to be brief, and he died on the 13th of September, 1806. [J.H.B.] FOX, Edward, a diplomatist in the service of Cardinal Wolsey, made bp. of Hereford, d. 1536. FOX, Francis, an English divine, died 1738. FOX, George, founder of the Society of Friends, first saw the fight at Drayton, Leicester- shire, in the year 1624. His father was a weaver, who bestowed the greatest pains to instruct his son in the principles of revealed truth, and to im- bue his youthful mind with impressions of piety. Having entered the service of a grazier, young Fox was for several years employed in tending sheep, an occupation which both gratified his na- tural love of solitude and nursed his contemplative enthusiastic turn of mind. When sixteen years of age he conceived that he was honoured with a special commission from heaven ; and accordingly, in preparing for the work to which he was thus miraculously called, he abandoned business for five years, lived entirely in the woods on such wild FOX plants and vegetables as he found there, but prac- tising long and frequent fastings, with many other austerities ; his days devoted to religious medita- tion and his nights passed in sleepless excitement. In 1648 Fox emerged from this wild and solitary life to enter on the active discharge of his mission. His first appearances were made in Manchester, where taking his station in the public streets, he at- tracted vast crowds of the people around him, and was several times imprisoned as a disturber of the public peace. Most of the large towns of Eng- land he visited to propagate his doctrines. Great patience, self-denial, and at the same time confi- dence in the truth of his principles, distinguished him, — for evenuvhere he was exposed to the rude and boisterous Ttssaults of the populace ; and in London he was arrested and carried into the pre- sence of Cromwell, who, however, on due exami- nation dismissed him, being fully satisfied of the harmless tendency of his principles and conduct. Nay, the Protector frequently interposed to rescue him from the county magistrates. In the course of his itinerant ministry through England, he was successful in gaining numbers of proselytes, par- ticularly at Derby, where his followers first re- ceived the name of Quakers, from the tremulous tones in which they loved to speak, and from their calling on all to 'tremble at the name of the Lord.' After marrying the widow of Judge Fell, who had hospitably entertained him during his journey through Wales, Fox meditated a voyage of proselytizing in America and the West Indies. After two years' absence he returned to England, where he was subjected to renewed trials, was im- prisoned, tried by jury, and condemned for refus- ing the oaths of supremacy and abjuration. His sentence was indefinite imprisonment. But after a year's confinement he was released by the una- nimous decision of the King's Bench. On recover- ing his liberty he travelled through Holland and various parts of Europe, diffusing his principles, and at length worn out by a life of incessant toil and austerities, he returned to England to spend the remainder of his days in retirement. With all his peculiarities he was a pious man, well versed in the Scriptures, and had an extraordinary gift in prayer. He died in 1690. [R. J.] FOX, Hen., the first Lord Holland, and father of the celebrated statesman, born 1705 ; member of parliament for Hendon, 1735 ; secretary at war, 1746-1756; raised to the peerage 1763, d. 1774. FOX, John, author of the ' Martyrology,' was a native of Boston, Lincolnshire, where he was born 1517. Early distinguished by his classical acquirements, he was elected fellow of Magdalene College, and directed his studies for entering the church. But having evinced a predilection for the reformed opinions, he was on a charge of heresy being preferred against him, expelled from the university, and deprived of his fellowship. His character for learning, however, procured him the patronage of several noble families, and amongst others the duchess of Richmond engaged him as tutor to the children of her brother, the earl of Surrey, then a state prisoner in the Tower. Edward VI. also befriended him, and restored him to his fellowship. On the accession of Mary, Fox, like a number of other reformers, sought an asylum on the continent, and after many wander- 251 FOX ings he settled at Basle, as corrector of the press in an extensive printing oihce in that city. When Elizabeth ascended the throne, Fox hastened to return to his own country, and through the power- ful influence of Cecil, who was his friend, he was appointed to a prebend in the cathedral of Salis- bury, and might have obtained preferment, but for his conscientious scruples about some matters of ceremony. His celebrated 'Book of Martyrs' attests his hatred of popery, and his intense ad- miration of the principles of the reformation. He died in 1587, at the age of sixty-nine, leaving be- hind him a high reputation for piety and learn- ing. [R.J.] FOX, Luke, an English naviga^pr, 17th cent. FOX, Murillo, a Spanish savant, 16th cent. FOX, Richard, a statesman and favourite of Henry VII., successively bishop of Exeter, Bath and Wells, Durham and Winchester, distinguished in the latter years of his life as a patron of learn- ing, born about 1466, died 1528. FOX, Stephen, a minister of state after the restoration, first projector of Chelsea Hospital as a home for retired soldiers, 1627-1716. FOY, L. S. De, a learned Fr. ecclesias., d. 1788. FOY, Maximilian Sebastian, a French statesman and soldier, one of the most celebrated orators of the opposition under the restoration; author of MSS. from which a 'History of the Peninsular War ' has been compiled, 1775-1825. FRA-BARTOLOMEO, an It. paint., 1469-1517. FR ACASTOR, J., an Ital. astronom., 1483-1553. FRA-DIAVOLO, the pseudonym of Michael Pozzo, a leader of outlaws in Calabria, exec. 1806. FRA-GIOVANNI, an Ital. painter, 1387-1455. FRAMERY, Nich. Steph., a French comp. of the operas-comiques, and dram, wr., 1746-1810. FRANC, M. L., a French poet, died 1460. FRANCES, St., fndr. of the Collatines, d. 1440. ITIANCESCA, P. Della, an Italian painter, the supposed teacher of Bramante, 1397-1484. FRANCHI, J., an Italian sculptor, 1730-1806. FRANCIA. Francesco Raibollni, commonly called Francia, from the name^of his master, was born at Bologna, about 1450. He was brought up a goldsmith, and did not take up painting until he was nearly forty years of age, but at this time he executed some important works. He carried on both professions, and made a species of parade of his accomplishments by signing him- self A urifex, jeweller, on his pictures, and Pictor, painter, on his jewellery. — brancia was a great painter, indeed a consummate master in the style of art prevailing in his own day ; in that exact and rigid manner in which nature is scrupulously copied without any license of generalization : he is perhaps the highest representative in a technical view of the quattrocento school, that properly sig- nified by the modern misnomer preraphaelite. Francia's large picture in the National Gallery is a capital example of this early style, the second or Florentine manner of Raphael himself, which Fran- cia had some share in forming. He died at Bologna, 6th January, 1518. — (Vasari, Vite dei Pittori, &c.; Calvi, Memorie delta Vita de di Francescoa Raibolini, &c. Bologna, 1812.) [R.N.W.] FRANCIA, Don Gaspar Rodriguez De, commonly called Dr. Francia, and known as the dictator of Paraguay, was bom at Assomcion, in j Austerlitz 1805 ; compelled by Napoleon to aban- 252 FKA that province, 1757, and began his career as a barrister. — In 1810, when the Spanish provinces of the River Plate rebelled against the authority of the viceroy, Francia was already known tor his inflexible honesty and rare talents, in a country where the judges themselves were openly corrupt, and the policy of the Spanish government had kept the people in the grossest barbarism and political ignorance. The Buenos Ayreans having erected a new central government (which only declared its independence of the Spanish crown in 1816), made an attack on Paraguay, and tire latter, repelling its invaders, proceeded to debate the question of allegiance to Spain in any form whatever. The influence of Francia prevailing, the province declared its absolute independence, and appointed him secretary of a triumvirate; from which post, by the year 1815, he had risen to the sole dictatorship, which he retained till his death in 1840. His marked policy in refusing all intercourse with his neighbours during this period, and the complication of circumstances m the River Plate, has given his name as much notoriety in Europe, as the heartless tyranny which he is accused of having exercised in domestic affairs. In regard to the former, it would be easy to show that his views were dictated by sound statesman- ship ; for by all evidence, down to the fall of Rosas, a more fickle and profligate class of people does not exist than those ambitious of dominion in the province of Buenos Ayres; and the dream of Francia's life, a political and commercial treaty with England, as the preliminary of any intercourse with the neighbouring states, was the only means of saving his people from the same anarchy. As to the latter of these charges, Sir Woodbine Parish, who accuses Francia of 'systematic selfishness,' and declares his belief that ' a more bloody and unscrupulous tyrant never existed,' himself writes : — ' It had been supposed that when Francia died, Paraguay would have again joined the confedera- tion of the provinces of the Rio de la Plata, but as yet (1852), that is not the case; and it would appear that there is a party there not only ambi- tious of maintaining their independence, but, whafc is still more extraordinary, disposed to continue a system of isolation and tyranny little short of that established by Francia.' The fact is, with all their ignorance, the Paraguayans understand results, and there are circumstances in which mercy itself must seem cruel. Francia with his own head and hands preserved order in Paraguay for twenty-five years, in which period the neigh- bouring state of Buenos Ayres had changed its government, amid scenes of turbulence and blood- shed, nearly forty times ! [E.R.J FRANCIS I., emperor of Germany, born 1708; exchanged his own duchy of Lorraine against that of Tuscany 1735; married Maria Theresa 1736; emperor of Germany, after a struggle of five years with the elector of Bavaria, 1747 ; died 1765. He had six children : among these were Joseph, who succeeded him as Joseph II. % and Marie Antoinette, Francis II., born 1768; succeeded his father, Leopold II., 1792; signed the treaty of Campo Formio in the war of the French revolution 1797; recommenced hostilities 1799 ; treaty of Luneville 1802 ; coalition against France and battle of PRA don the imperial dignity of Germany, and took the title of Francis I., emp. of Austria,*1806 ; d. 1885. FRANCIS I., king of France, born 1494, suc- ceeded Louis XII. after having married his daughter 1515 ; won the battle of Marignano 1515, signed a treaty of peace in regard to Italy 1516 ; advanced his pretensions to the empire at the death of Maximilian 1519; met Henry the VIII. at the Field of the Cloth of Gold 1520 ; commence- ment of hostilities with Charles V. 1521, and with Henry VIII. 1522 ; lost the battle of Pavia, and taken prisoner 1525 ; restored to liberty by the treaty of Madrid 1526 ; alliance with Henry VIII., and their joint declaration of war against the emperor 1527-28 ; signed the peace of Cam- brai 1529 ; persecution of the Vaudois commenced 1544 ; died 1547. Francis II., born 1544, suc- ceeded his father Henry II. 1559, died 1560. FRANCIS I., duke of Lorraine, b. 1517, sue. 1544, d. 1545. For Francis II., see Francis II. of Ger. FRANCIS, k. of the two Sicilies, rgnd. 1825-30. FRANCIS, duke of Brittany, the first of the name reigned 1442-1450 ; the second, 1458-1488. FRANCIS, duke of Modena, thejlrst 1610-1658 ; the second 1660-1694 ; the third 1698-1749. FRANCIS, Anne, a learned Eng. lady, d. 1800. FRANCIS, C. J., a Fr. engraver, 1717-1769. FRANCIS, J., a French savant, 1722-1791. FRANCIS, Philip, a classical translator, tragedian, and political writer ; rector of Barrow, and chaplain of Chelsea College, died 1773. His son Sir Philip Francis, a political writer, dis- tinguished by his opposition to Warren Hastings, and his Whig principles, also as one of the reputed authors of the Letters of Junius, 1740-1818. FRANCIS, Phcebus, kg. of Navarre, 1479-83. FRANCIS, Romain, a Flem. architect, d. 1735. FRANCIS, Saint. The Roman Calendar con- tains five saints of this name. — 1. Jean Bernar- don, commonly called Francis of Assise, founder of the order of mendicant friars named after him, was born 1182, and relinquishing the commercial pursuits to which he was brought up, devoted himself to poverty and self-mortification, and to the preaching of the gospel. His reputa- [Franciscan Friar ] FRA tion for sanctity drew a great number of disciples around him, to whom he gave the first rules of their order in 1209, engaging them to vows of poverty and submission. Between this period and his death, which took place at Assise, in 1226, he founded many monasteries on the continent, and even travelled into Egypt to convert the Sultan Meleddin. In consequence of his habits of abstrac- tion, he had several visions of spiritual symbols. He was canonized by Gregory IX. in 1230. — 2. The next in order of time is an illiterate ascetic named Francis of Paulo, founder of the Minims, or lowest religious order, born in Calabria, 1416, died at the convent of Plessis-du-Parc, 1507. Little is related, of him except his solitary life and abstinence, and if he rivalled Francis of Assise in austerity, he was certainly far below him in use- fulness. — 3. Francis of Borgia, a Spanish nobleman and courtier of the reign of Charles V., turned to a religious life by the solemn circum- stances attending the funeral of the Empress Isabella, after which he became a disciple of Ignatius Loyola, and was appointed by him to preach the gospel in Spain and Portugal, and finally succeeded him as chief of the Order. He is the author of many ascetic writings, and con- tributed much to the perfection of the organization of the Jesuits. Francis of Borgia died at Rome in 1572, and was canonized by Clement IX. in 1671. — 4. Francis of Sales, born of a noble family in the neighbourhood of Geneva, 1567, and first distinguished by the reclamation of the protestants in the neighbouring valleys. On the death of the bishop of Geneva, Francis of Sales succeeded him, and redoubled his zeal for the reform of the diocese and the monasteries. To further his benevolent designs, he instituted, in connection with Madam de Chantal, the Order of the Visitation at Annecy, in 1610. He died in 1622, after a life devoted to works of charity, and was canonized 1665. His religious works are highly esteemed, especially his 'Treatise on the Love of God,' and ' Introduction to a Devout Life.' ■ — 5. Francis Xavier, surnamed the 'Apostle of the Indies,' born at the castle of Xavier, in Navarre, 1506, began his mission at Goa, 1542, and died in one of the Chinese islands, 1552. He was the intimate friend and disciple of Loyola, and was for some time professor of philosophy at the college of Beauvais. He was canonized 1622, and his 'Letters ' published at Paris in 1631. — Each of these ' Saints exhibits the spirit of enthusiasm in a different form, and the most pleasing to contem- plate is that of Francis of Sales. In Francis of Assise it affected a species of insanity, and aimed at dominion. The friars of his order were at last a voluptuous and lazy body. In the disciples of Loyola there was more of the spirit of worldly wisdom, and the greatest of them, St. Francis Xa- vier, was characterized bv extreme subtlety. [E.R.] FRANCK, J. M., a German writer, 1717-1775. FRANCE, Simon, a Latin poet, 1741-1772. FRANCK, Sol., a German numismatist, 17th c. FRANCKE, J. C, a German jurist, 17th cent. FRANCKE, J. V., a Danish philos., d. 1830. FRANCKLIN, Dr. Thomas, a classical trans- lator and divine, author of the ' Earl of Warwick,' and other dramas, a 'Dissertation on Ancient Tragedy,' and some miscel. writings, 1721-17S4. 258 FBA FRANCCEUR, F., a Fr. composer, 1698-1787. FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, N. L., a French statesman and man of letters, member of the directory in 1797, and for two years president of the senate under Napoleon, 1750-1828. FRANCOLIN, J. De, a French herald, 16th c. FRANK, G., a German physician, 1643-1704. His son, G. F. Frank, a physician and au., d. 1732. FRANK, J. P., a German physician, author of 'Systeme de Police Medicale,' 1745-1821. FRANKE, A. H., a Ger. philanth., 1663-1727. FRANKLAND, Th., an Eng. hist., 1633-1690. FRANKLIN, Benjamin, born in Boston, Mas- sachusets, 6th January, 1706; died on 17th April, 1790. The name of Dr. Franklin has long been an household word in America, — he was her moralist, statesman, and philosopher: his disco- veries in Electricity have given him a permanent place in scientific history : and he deserves highest honour from all mankind, because of his services to the cause of rational Liberty and the indepen- dence of Nations. — We must omit all details con- cerning Franklin's early life : however, if any one would sustain hope amid unpromising labour — discern the inestimable value of small portions of time economized and put scrupulously to uses — or learn how cheerfulness, patience, and fortitude, guided by good sense and integrity, must ever command success, — he will find nowhere better instruction than in that graphic narrative of the events and struggles of his opening manhood, by which Franklin has let us into the innermost being of the journeyman printer of Philadelphia. Distinguished no less by practical benevolence, than by an almost intuitive appreciation of the wants and character of early American society, Franklin could not fail to rise into authority among his countrymen: accordingly we find him their favourite counsellor in most of the grave difficul- ties belonging to that epoch of American his- tory. Commencing public life in the struggle between the assembly of Pennsylvania and the old proprietary Governors, — we agam meet him propos- ing to the different States a project of union, which afterwards became the basis of the confederacy : then, on a mission to England regarding the American Stamp Act: afterwards — driven from his loyalty — Ambassador to France on the part of his countrymen ; the observed of all observers in Paris, soliciting aid in arms from the court of Versailles: finally Minister to England, signing the treaty by which the mother country, in due humiliation, bowed her head before the independence of her former Colonies. — It has been said that Franklin represented the practical genius, the moral and political spirit of the eigh- teenth century, as Voltaire represented its meta- physical and religious scepticism : this, at least, is certain, — no man saw more clearly, or felt more profoundly in his own person, the political and moral ideas which necessarily bear sway in a strictly industrial community like the one emerging from infancy in the New World. Unconnected with England by birth or close association, he looked only with astonishment on those pretensions to prerogative, which certainly could find no natural soil, where all men were socially equal: and his system of morals in- cluded every sanction and precept, likely to re- FRE commend themselves to a people, who could npvor reach prosperity unless through patient industry, and the exercise of the prudential virtues. His code was ' The Way to Wealth :' and the wis- dom of 'Poor Richard,' instructed every man, how by the strength of his arm, and dominion over his gassions, wealth might be attained and made secure, ince Franklin's time a new element has arisen in America; powerful tendencies are developing with higher aims than mere wealth, and which demand a larger code than the utilitarian. Frank- lin did not recognize, or rather had not foreseen, the necessary advent of that speculative habit now very rapidly becoming dominant over American thought: but in his treatment of the equally powerful tendency of which he saw the influence, and whereof he himself so largely par- took, his ' Poor Richard ' is complete : — he threw off* all prerogative and tradition, and looked at things as they are. Temperance, Silence, Order, Resolution, Frugality, Activity, Sincerity, Justice, Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquillity, Chastity, Humility, — these are his virtues; and Franklin teaches how to acquire them, by precepts, which in earlier times, would have ranked as golden verses ; they are as valuable as anything that has descended from Pythagoras. — It is rare that a single mind establishes claims so various as those of Franklin : — he ranks also among the foremost as a Physical Inquirer and Discoverer. Attracted by the opening subject of Electricity, he was the first who reduced it to order : and that grand step is owing to him which identified the attrac- tion and repulsion of rubbed glass and amber, with the energy that produces lightning, and causes the most imposing of meteorological pheno- mena. His memoirs on Electricity and other phy- sical subjects, still astonish one by their clearness and chastity, and the precision and elegance of their method ; their style and manner are as worthy of admiration as their doctrines. They gained for the author immediate admission to the highest scientific societies in Europe. — In his per- sonal bearing Franklin was sedate and weighty. He had no striking eloquence ; he spoke sententi- ously ; but men instinctively felt his worth, and submitted themselves to his wisdom. Except Washington, whom in many qualities he much resembled, the New World yet ranks among her dead, nowhere so great a Man. An edition of his works in ten volumes has recently been published by Jared Sparks, the excellent Editor of the writings of Wasnington. [J.P. ti.l FRANKLIN, Eleanor Anne, an English poetess, best known by her maiden name of Por- den, wife of Captain Franklin, the well-known Arctic adventurer, 1795-1825. FRANTZ, a French painter, 16th century. FRANTZ,Wolfgang, a Ger. divine, 1564-1628. FRANTZKE, G., a German jurist, 1594-1659. FRANZ, J. G. F., a German savant, 1737-89. FRANZ, J. M., a German geographer, 1700-61. FRA-PAOLO. See Sarpi. FRASSEN, C, a learned Frchman., 1620-1711. FRAUENHOFER, Jos. Von, a dist. optician and natural philosopher of Bavaria, 1787-1826. FRAUNCE, Abr., an English poet, 16th cent FREDEGARIUS, a French annalist, died 660. FREDEGISUS, an English poet, 9th century. 254 FEE FREDEGONDA, queen of France, 543-597. FREDERICK L, emperor of Germany, sur- named Babarossa, born in the duchy of Suabia, 1121 ; accompanied his uncle, Conrad III., to the Holy Land 1147 ; succeeded him as emperor 1152 ; crowned at Rome 1155 ; crowned kino; of Aries 1178 ; undertook a new crusade 1188 ; drowned in Syria 1190. Frederick II., born 1194, master of the empire after a long struggle 1208 ; engaged in a crusade 1227-1229 ; excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. 1239 ; died 1250. Frederick III., born 1415, crowned emperor 1452 ; erected his duchy of Austria into an arch-duchy 1453 ; suf- fered many reverses, lost his throne, and was re- stored, between 1482 and 1490 ; died 1495. FREDERICK I., king of Denmark and Nor- way, born 1471 ; succeeded 1523; d. 1533. Fred- erick II., born 1524; succeeded 1558; died 1588. Frederick III., born 1609 ; succeeded his father 1648; war with Sweden 1658-1660; died, after the crown had been made hereditary in his family, 1670. Frederick IV., born 1671; succeeded 1699; war with Sweden 1699-1720; died 1730. Fred- erick V., born 1723 ; succeeded 1746 ; died 1766. Frederick VI., born 1768; succeeded his father after governing as regent 1808; war of alliance with France against Russia and Prussia 1813 ; lost Norway 1814 ; died 1839. FREDERICK I., king of Sweden, born 1676, associated with his wife, Ulrica Eleonora, sister of Charles XII., as king 1720, died 1745. FREDERICK I., king of Prussia, called, as elector of Brandenburg, Frederick III., born 1657, succeeded to the electorate 1688, crowned king 1701, died 1713. Frederick William I., born 1668, succeeded 1713, died 1740. Frederick II., his son, called ' The Great,' (see next article). Frederick William II., nephew of Frederick the Great, born 1744, succeeded 1786, united with Austria and Russia in the division of Poland, and died the same year, 1797. Frederick William III., son of the preceding, born 1770 ; succeeded 1797 ; died, and succeeded by his son Frederick William IV, 1840. FREDERICK II., king of Prussia, commonly called Frederick the Great, was born 24th January, 1712, and began to reign in 1740. He found him- self in possession of a full treasury and a powerful army, which he soon employed in attacking Aus- tria, and conquering from her the province of Silesia (1740-1742). In 1744 he engaged in a second war with Austria, which was terminated in 1745, and left him in possession of Silesia, but with no augmentation of power, though his mili- tary renown was raised through Europe. The great struggle of the seven years' war began in 1756. Prussia was now attacked by the Austrians,the Rus- sians, the French, the Saxons, and the Swedes, and her destruction and dismemberment seemed inevit- able. England was her only ally. Prussia went through the struggle, and came out triumphant. When the peace of Hubertsburg was concluded in 1763, Prussia did not cede an inch of land, or pay a dollar of money ; and from that time forth she was recognized as one of the five great powers of Europe. For this glorious result she was indebted to her king. It is not merely the military genius of Frederick, as displayed during the sanguinary campaigns of the seven years' war, that demands FRE our attention, but we cannot help admiring also his moral courage and his indomitable energy "under reverses which would have crushed almost any other spirit. Though victorious at Prague, at Rossbach, and Lissa (1757), at Zorndorf (1758), at Leig- nitz and Torgau (1760), he suffered heavy defeats at Collin (1757), at Hochkirk (1758), at KunersdorfF (1759) ; and his lieutenants, with the exception of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, were generally unsuccessful. But Frederick's firmness never failed him, even when all hope seemed lost. In a period of extreme danger, ne wrote to Voltaire (who had advised him to beg mercy from his ene- mies), 'lama man, and therefore born to suffer. To the rigour of destiny I oppose my own constancy. Menaced with shipwreck, I will bear the storm ; I will be a king in spirit; and I will die, as I have lived, a king.' — After the conclusion of the war, Frederick exerted himself earnestly in reliev- ing the sufferings which so many years of carnage and devastation had brought upon Prussia. In 1772 he deeply disgraced himself, and permanently injured the cause of Order as well as the cause of Freedom throughout the world, by promoting and participating in the first dismemberment of Po- land. Frederick died 17th August, 1786. He was fond of the society of literary men, and was himself an author of many works of considerable merit. During his struggles against Austria and France, Frederick was regarded in England and America as the champion of protestantism, and he was called a second Gustavus Adolphus. He ill deserved the title. He had no religious faith whatever; and there are few princes of whom so many mean and selfish traits in private life are recorded as of the celebrated king of Prussia. [E.S.C.] FREDERICK I., king of Sicily, was the same who became Frederick II., emperor of Germany. Frederick II. of Sicily reigned 1296-1337. Frederick III., reigned 1355-1377. Frederick IV., 1496-1504. The last three were of the house of Arragon, and Frederick IV. was before count of Altomaia, and d. in France after losing his crown. FREDERICK I., elector of Saxony, reigned 1423-1428. Frederick II., 1428-1464. Fre- derick III., 1486-1525. Frederick Augus- tus, the first of the name as king, 1768-1827. FREDERICK L, as king of Wurtemburg, or Frederick II. as duke, reigned 1797-1816. FREDERICK, son of Theodore, king of Corsica, colonel in the army of the king of Wurtemburg, and his polit. agent in England, au. of 'Historical Me- moirs concerning Corsica,' committed suicide 1796. FREE, J., an English divine and miscellaneous writer, au. of « History of Eng. Poetry,' 1711-1791. FREEKE, Wm., an English Socinian, b. 1663. FREELING, Sir Francis, secretary of the General Post Office for nearly fifty years, 1764-1836. FREEMAN, Wm. Peere Williams, an Engl, admiral disting. in the American war, 1742-1832. FREEMANTLE, Sir Thomas, a celebrated English admiral, 1765-1820. FREGOSO, the name of a Genoese family, of whom the following were doges of Genoa : — Do- minique, reigned 1370-1378. Joseph, his son, elected 1390, and deposed the year following. Thomas, son of Joseph, reigned 1415-1421, re- elected 1436, and deposed 1443. James, brother of 255 FRE Thomas, reigned about a year, 1447-1448. Pierre, elected 1450, yielded his seigniory to France 1458, and was killed in an endeavour to reconquer it, 1459. An archbishop, P. Fregoso, was many times doge between 1462 and 1488, and died in retirement 1498. Battista, his nephew, born 1440, elected 1479, deposed 1483. Octavian, elected 1513, yielded the sovereignty of Genoa to Francis L, king of France, 1515, and was con- tinued in command as governor till 1522. FREIND, John, an Engl, physician and wr. on med. science, an. of a ' Hist, of Physic,' 1675-1728. FRELNSHEM, John, a German scholar, lib- rarian to Queen Christina of Sweden, and professor of rhetoric at the university of Upsala, 1608-1660. FREMIN, R., a French sculptor, 1673-1743. FREMINET, M., a French painter, 1567-1619. FRERE, G., a French officer, 1764-1826. FRE RE, Right Hon. John Hookham, a scho- lar and fugitive wr., successor of his friend Canning as under secretary of state for foreign affairs, and disting. in several diplomatic missions, 1769-1846. FRERES, Theod., a Dutch paint., 1643-1693. FRERET, Nich., a French savant, 1688-1749. FRERON, Elie Catherine, a distinguished French critic and original writer, 1719-1776. His son, Louis Stanislaus, a member of the French convention, and founder of a violent journal en- titled ' L'Orateur du Peuple,' 1757-1802. FRESCOBALDI, G., an Ital. composer, 17th c. FRESNEL, Augustin John, an experimental philosopher, and member of the Academy of Sciences of France, distinguished as the discoverer of the polarization of light, &c, 1788-1827. FREYBERG, C. A., a German hist., 1684-1743. FREYE, Ch., a German miscel. wr., 1759-1800. FREYLINGHAWSEN, J. A., a Lutheran theologian and mystic of the Pietists, 1670-1738. FRICK, Jean, a German theologian and philo- sopher, 1670-1739. Elie, his brother, a theolo- gian, 1673-1711. Georges, son of Jean, author of a 'Dissertation upon the Salic Law,' &c, 1703- 1739. Albert, younger brother of Georges, dis- tinguished as a savant, 1711-1776. FRIES, J., a Swiss savant, 1505-1565. Mi- chel, his nephew, a wr. on natural history, d. 1611. FRIES, J. C, a Swiss painter, 1623-1693. FRIESE, Chr. Theo., a Polish hist., 1717-95. FRIESE, Martin, a Luther, theol., 1688-1750. FRIESS, J. De, an Aust. financier, 1722-1793. FRISCH, John Leonard, a German minister, author of works on natural history, ethnology, and language, 1666-1743. His son, Joseph Leon- ard, a minister and naturalist, 1714-1787. FRISCHE, J. Du, a French classic, 1640-1693. FRISCHLIN, N., a German savant, 1547-90. FRISI, Paolo, an Italian philosopher, 1728-84. FRISIUS, John, a Swiss divine and Orientalist, died 1565. His son, John James, author of many works on theology, philosophy, and philo- logy, dates unknown. Another son, John, suc- cessor of his father, as professor at Zurich, died 1611. Henry Frisius, a descendant of the pre- ceding, a theological and philosophical wr., d. 1718. FRISIUS, Simon, a Dutch engraver, 14th cent. FRITH, John, an Engl, reformer, burnt 1533. FRITSCH, A., a German savant, 1629-1701. FRITZ, Samuel, a Ger. missionary, 1653-1728. FRITZE, J. T., a German med. au., 1740-1793. FRY FROBENIUS, John, a Ger. print., 1460-1527. FROBISHER, Sir Martin, was born of humble parents at Doncaster, but the precise date is un- certain. He became early convinced of the possi- bility of a north-west passage to China ; and in the hope of gaining undying fame by its discover)', continued for fifteen years urging in various quar- ters the equipment of an expedition. Dudley, earl of Warwick, at length patronised him in 1576. He left 8th June with three small vessels, and returned 2d October, having reached no farther than Labrador and the coast of Greenland. Indi- cations of gold were discovered, which led to the despatch of a larger squadron the following year ; and the quality of the ore brought home being more favourably reported upon, an important expe- dition, with miners, soldiers, &c, was sent out, 31st May, 1578; but the fleet was scattered by storms on the coast of Greenland, and obliged to return home early in winter without effecting any settle- ment. Frobisher afterwards went to the West Indies with Drake, and on the defeat of the Span- ish Armada received the honour of knighthood, in acknowledgment of his services in the action. He died in the end of the year 1594, from the effects of a carelessly dressed wound received in an attack upon Brest. [J.B.] FROILA, the name of three Spanish kings — the first, king of Oviedo, reigned 757-768 ; the second, king of Oviedo, and count of Gallicia. a short time in 875 ; the third, k. of Leon, 923-924. FROISSART, John, a celebrated French poet and historian, whose Chronicles of France, Eng- land, Scotland, Spain, and Brittany, constitute one of the most precious monuments of the middle ages. He was attached to the court of Philippe of Hainault, queen of Edward III., and mother of the Black Prince, and after her death to several con- tinental sovereigns. He is supposed to have lived from 1326 to 1400. The best edition of his Chronicles is that of M. Buchoz, 15 vols. 8vo, 1824. There have been several English translations. FRONTEAN, John, a Fr. controver., 1614-62. FRONTIN, Claude, a French poet, 16th cent. FRONTINUS, Sextus Julius, a Roman statesman and soldier, commander of the armies in Britain, author of a work on tactics, &c, 40-106. FRONTO, Marcus Cornelius, a celebrated Roman orator and teacher of elocution, instructor ■of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, consul 161. FROWDE, Philip, an English poet, died 1738. FRUGONI, C. J., an Italian poet, 1692-1768. FRUITIERS, Ph., a Flemish painter, 17th ct. FRUMENTIUS, St., the apostle of Ethiopia, consecrated a bishop by Athanasius 331, d. 360. FRY, Mrs. Elizabeth, whose maiden name was Gurney, was born in 1780 at Earlham, Nor- folk, an extensive estate which had been in the possession of her paternal ancestry for many cen- turies. The benevolence of her disposition displayed itself by her habit, while yet a girl, of visiting the poor on her father's property, and forming a school for the education of their children. With this natural benevolence, however, she united an ardent fondness for the gaieties and frivolities of fashionable life ; till through the powerful ministrations of William Savery, an American Friend, she was brought to the knowledge and love of the truth as it is in Jesus. Her character from that day was entirely 256 FRY changed, and she hecame a genuine and consistent Christian. In 1800 she was married to Joseph Fry, Esq., of London, and consequently settled in the metropolis. There she resumed her early habit of visiting the poor ; and although she be- came the mother of a large family, who were most tenderly loved and assiduously trained, she yet found leisure, by a rigid economy of time, and ar- rangement of domestic duties, to render her bene- ficent offices to her poor and suffering fellow-crea- tures. Every day was she found visiting charity schools, in the houses and lanes of the poor, and in the wards of sick hospitals, till at length by a provi- dential train of circumstances, she was led to ex- tend her benevolent attentions to the inmates of a prison and a lunatic asylum. The accents of Christian love found entrance into the hearts of those wretched outcasts, and she became the hon- oured instrument of remodelling the discipline and improving the state of our national prisons. At the commencement of her career there was no classification of any sort, no separation between male and female prisoners ; all criminals, parents and children, men and women, those who were comparatively innocent with the inveterately de- praved, were indiscriminately huddled together, and m these circumstances many left the prison far more familiar with crime than when they entered it. It required no small resolution and faith to enter such a den of iniquity as a British jail at that period was ; but Mrs. Fry attempted it and was successful. Her dignity, and at the same time her feminine gentleness, subdued their ferocity and won their attention ; she told them that vice was the cause of all their misery, that if they would return to virtuous habits, they might again be happy, and she proposed rules for their obser- vance, of which they unanimously expressed their approval. Repeating her visit after a brief inter- val, and finding them equally tractable and sub- missive, she proceeded with her contemplated measures. She appointed a teacher to those chil- dren who had been committed for petty offences, and many of whom were under seven years of age. Even their profligate mothers took an interest in this infant school. Mrs. Fry next devised some employment for the women, by teaching them to sew, and supplying them with work. For the ac- complishment of this arduous undertaking she formed a ladies' committee, some of whom made it a sacred duty to attend in the prison daily, so that there was not a moment when the females were not under the superintendence of some proper and efficient guide. A matron was at length appointed to live in the prison, and take the over- sight of the female prisoners. But the ladies' com- mittee still continued their attendance, one giving instruction in needlework, another in knitting, while a third read some good religious book, and spoke to them about the guilt and the wages of sin, the duty and superior happiness of a sober, chaste, and religious life. In a few weeks the most astonishing moral revolution was effected within the walls of the prison : not only the language of blasphemy, obscenity, and fiendish discord entirely disappeared, but women of the most abandoned characters were reclaimed to established habits of sobriety, industry, and piety. The public interest was greatly excited by the intelligence. Visitors FUL of the highest official station and noble rank visited the schools, and the most undoubted testi- monies were borne to the excellent principles and efficient working of these benevolent schemes. Mrs. Fry, while she continued her inspection of the prisons, extended her benevolent regards to other classes, such as making provision for female convicts, both during their voyage out, and at their allotted stations. She also visited all the principal jails in Scotland and Ireland, France, Holland, Denmark, and Prussia, and her last scheme of philanthropy was begun with a view to benefit British seamen, particularly to alleviate the miserable state of the coast guard; forming libraries and adopting means for circulating books and tracts in men-of-war ships. These anxious and multifarious labours made serious inroads on the health of this excellent lady. After trying the waters of Bath in the spring of 1844, she returned home no way improved, and gradually sank till she expired at Ramsgate, 11th October. Her death was lamented throughout Europe as a loss to humanity. She was, as she has often been called, ' the female Howard,' and like her proto- type, her benevolent exertions were the fruit of a lively and established faith in the gospel of Christ. [R.J.] FRYE, Thomas, an Irish artist, 1710-1762. FUCA, Juan De, a Germ, navigator, d. 1632. FUCHS, G. F., a German composer, died 1821. FUCHS, J. C, a German author, 1726-1795. FUCHS, Theophilus, a Ger. poet, 1720-1810. FUCHS, or FUCHSIUS, Leonard, a Bava- rian physician and botanist, author of ' Historia Plantarum,' 1501-1566. FUCHS, or FUSCH, R., aFr. natural., d. 1587. FUENTE, J. L., a Spanish painter, 1600-1654. FUENTES, Count De, a Sp. gen., 1560-1643. FUENTES, or FONTE, Bartholemew De, a Spanish or Portuguese navigator, 17th centurv. FUESSLI, Hans H., a Swiss hist., 1752-1832. FUESSLI, J., a Swiss annalist, born 1477. His son, Peter, historian of the Swiss wars, d. 1548. FUESSLI, J. C, a German historian, 1704-75. FUESSLI, J. M., a Swiss engraver, 1677-1736. FUESSLI, M., a Swiss painter and engraver, 1598-1664. John Gaspard Fuessli, his de- scendant, a distinguished artist and correspondent of the German savants, 1706-1782. His son, of the same name, distinguished as a naturalist, and for his drawings of insects, 1745-1786. His son, J. Rodolph, a designer, engraver, and painter, 1737-1806. His son, Henry, the distinguished painter known by the name of Fuseli, which see. FUGA, Ferd., an Italian architect, 1699-1788. FUGER, Fred. Henry, a Flemish painter of portraits, miniatures, and hist, pieces, 1751-1818. FUGERES, A. C, a French savant, 1731-1758. FUGGER, the name of a rich family of Augs- burgh, ennobled by the emperor Maximilian, the most remarkable of whom are — Ulrich, a great benefactor of literature, 1528-1584. Anthony and Raymond, founders of two hospitals, a public garden, a picture gallery, a museum of antiquities, &c, in the 16th century. And Otho Henry, count of Kirschberg and Weissenhorn, 1592-1644. FULBECK, Wm., an English law wr., b. 1560. FULBERT, an Ital. ecclesiastic, 10th century. FULKE, Wm., an English divine, 16th century. 257 6 FUL FULLER, And., a baptist theolog., 1754-1815. FULLER, Isaac, an English painter, d. 1672. FULLER, Margaret. See Ossoli. FULLER, Nich., a learned divine, 1557-1622. FULLER, Dr. Thomas, an English historian and divine, author of the ' Worthies of England,' a ' History of the Holy War,' and many other popular and learned works, 1608-1660. FULMAN, Wm., an English antiq., 1632-1688. FULTON, Robert, an American engineer, of Irish parentage. His highest distinction is that of having been the earliest to establish practically the propelling of vessels by steam. Millar's ex- periments, which proved the practicability of the principle, were made in 1787 in Scotland, but Fulton's boat, which began to navigate the Hud- son in 1807, was certainly the first practical de- monstration of this application of steam, being five years prior to the success of Henry Bell on the Clyde, and nearly ten years prior to the first at- tempts on the Thames under Brunei's direction. Fulton was born 1765 in Pennsylvania, He com- menced life as a portrait painter in Philadelphia in 17S3, but in 1786 he embarked for England, where he worked under his distinguished country- man West, the historical painter, for several years. The fine arts were destined, however, with Fulton to give place to the mechanical, for in 1794 he had been engaged by the duke of Bridgewater in canal projects, nad adopted and patented the sys- tem of inclined planes as a substitute for locks, had written a treatise on canals, and styled him- self civil engineer. He also invented a mill for sawing marble, and patented methods of spinning flax and making ropes. — He had little success as a civil engineer in Britain. In 1796 he went to Paris at the invitation of Mr. Barlow, United States minister, in whose house he resided during seven years. His attention was here chiefly turned to submarine boats as warlike instruments of de- struction. The experiments, made first at the ex- pense of the French government, and afterwards for the English government, proved failures. In the course of these experiments, in the year 1803. an experimental steam-boat was built and tried on the Seine. The success was indifferent. But perse- verance overcomes all difficulties. Mr. Livingston, the American ambassador in Paris in 1806, sup- plied Fulton with funds, who returned to America, and in New York launched a steam-boat, which be- gan to navigate the Hudson in 1807. He after- wards built other steam-boats, one of them a frigate, which ^I'ore his name. His reputation be- came established, and his fortune was rapidly in- creasing, when his patent for steam vessels was disputed, and his opponents were in a considerable degree successful. Though an amiable, social, and liberal man, the anxiety and fretfulness occa- sioned by the lawsuits about his patent rights, together with his enthusiasm, which led him to ex- pose himself too much while directing his work- men, impaired his constitution, and he died at the early age of forty-nine in 1815. His death occa- sioned extraordinary demonstrations of national mourning; in the United Stabs. [L.D.1U .. ] FULVIUS, Marcus, a famous Roman, acdile 197 is.c, disting. in Spanish warfare as praetor 194, consul 11)0, censor with £miHttt Lepidus 180. FL'LVIUS, And., an Ital. antiquarian, 15th ct. FYR FUNCK, C. G. Ferdinand De, a lieutenant- general and historian of Brunswick, 1761-1828. FUNCK, Chr. L., a Ger. theolog., 1751-1834. FUNCK, J., a German chronologist, 1518-66. FUNCK, J. G., a German theolog., 1680-1721). FUNCK, J. H., a German savant, 1693-1777. FURETIERES, A., a French lawyer, 1628-88. FURGOLE, G. R., a Fr. wr. on law, 1690-1761. FURIETTI, J. A., an It. cardinal, 1685-17C4. FURIUS, a Latin poet and annalist, 1st c. B.C. FURIUS, Frederic, a learned Span., d. 1592. FURLONG, Th., an Irish poet, 1797-1827. FURNEAUX, Ph., a nonconf. div., 1726-1783. FURST, Walter, a Swiss patriot, coadjutor of William Tell and Arnold, 14th century. FURSTENAU, J. H., a German physician and medical author, 1688-1756. His son, J. Fred- eric, same profession, 1724-1751. FUSELI, Henry, R.A., was born at Zurich, 7th February, 1741, and was originally brought up for the church, and entered into holy orders ; but for some municipal interference his family thought it necessary for him to leave Zurich for a time, and he visited this country in company with Sir Andrew Mitchel in 1763. He here maintained himself by literature, and finally, by the advice of Sir Joshua Reynolds, adopted the profession of a painter, and in 1770 set out for Italy : he returned to London in 1779, after an absence of eight years. He first attracted the public attention by his pic- ture of the ' Night-mare,' painted in 1781. This was a fair indication of the unusual bent of Fuseli's fancy, thoroughly developed in his great Milton gallery. He was elected an associate of the Academy in 1788, and an academician in 1790. In 1799 he finished his great Milton gallery of forty-seven large pictures, which had occupied him only nine years ; of these remarkable composi- tions, the Lazar House ; Satan Starting from the Touch of Ithuriel's Spear; Satan Calling up his Legions; the Lubbar Fiend; the Vision of the Deluge ; Eve Newly Created, Led to Adam ; and Sin Pursued by Death ; were striking and original works, of great power of conception and treatment, though deficient in all minor technicalities of exe- cution. Fuseli was chosen professor of painting in 1801, but resigned on being appointed to the keepership in 1805; he was, however, re-elected in 1810, and held that office, together with the keepership, until his death, 16th April, 1825. He delivered in all twelve lectures in the Academy, winch are among the most valuable contributions to English art literature. — (Knowles, Life and Writings of Fuseli, 3 vols. 8vo, 1831 ; Wornum, Lectures by the Royal Academicians, &c. Bohn, 1848.) [R.N.W.] FUSS, Nicholas Von, a mathematician and natural philoso., pupil of Bernouilli, 1755-1826. FUST, Sir H. S., a disting. lawyer, 1778-1851. FUZELIER, Louis, a Fr. drama., 1672-1752. FYAZ-ALI, a Mahommedan savant, d. 1781. FYOT-DE-LA-MARCHE, Claude, Count de Bosjam, a Fr. ecclesiastic and histor., 1630-1721. F YROUZ, the first of the name king of Persia, 83-107 ; the second, from about 457 to 488. FYROUZ-SHAH, the first of the Mussulman rulers of India bearing this name reigned a short time in 1236 ; the second 1289-1296 ; the third, sue. 1351, abdic in favour of his son 1387, d. 1388. 258 GAA G GAL GAAL, Bernaert, a Dutch paint., died 1671. GABBIANI, A. D., an Ital. paint,, 1652-1726. GABELCHOVER, Oswald, a German phy- sician and historian, Tubingen, 1538-1616. GABIA, J. B., an Ital. Orientalist, 16th cent. GABINIUS, Aulus, a partizan of Pompey, tribune 69 B.C., consul 58, afterw. gov. of Syria. GABINIUS, Quintus, tribune, 140 B.C. GABRIEL, Severus, a Greek bishop, 16th ct. GABRIEL of Sion, a Irnd. Maronite, d. 1648. GABRIELLI, Julio, an Ital. card., 1748-1822. GABRINI, Th. M., an It. mathem., 1726-1807. GACON, Fr., a French satiric, poet, 1667-1725. GADBURY, John, an Engl, astrologer, 17th ct. GADDESDEN, John of, an English ecclesi- astic and medical author, 14th century. GADEBUSCH, F. C., a Ger. savant, 1719-88. GAELEN, Alex. Van, a Dutch painter, pupil of John Van Huchtenberg, 1670-1728. GiERTNER, C. Chr., a Ger. transl., 1712-91. GAERTNER, Joseph, an eminent botanist, was born at Calu in the duchy of Wirtemberg in 1732. He died in 1791. — Gaertner studied medi- cine at the university of Gottingen, and attended the lectures of the celebrated Haller. He was much devoted to the pursuit of natural history, and the lessons of his illustrious teacher there, and afterwards of the able botanist Adrian Van Rogen at Leyden, confirmed him in his choice. After taking his degree, he travelled into Italy, France, Holland, and England, and published several me- moirs upon various subjects connected with marine zoology and botany. In 1768 he was instituted professor of botany and natural history at the university of St. Petersburg, where he formed the plan of his great work, upon which his eminent reputation depends. His health obliged him to resign his professorship at the end of two years, and return to his native land. There for eight years he steadily pursued his arduous undertaking. He then revisited England and Holland, where Sir Joseph Banks, and the equally celebrated Thunberg opened to him the collections which they had made, the one in the South Seas, the other in Japan. At length his excellent work was given to the world, and it will remain a monu- ment to his fame as long as the science of botany continues to be studied. Its object is to illustrate the fruits and seeds of plants, and contains the essential generic characters and particular descrip- tions of the fruits of 1,000 genera, illustrated by excellent figures drawn by himself. In the defi- nition and anatomical elucidation of the parts of seeds, Gaertner excels, and his work has rendered most essential service to the science of botany. Schreber has named a genus of plants after him, Gaertnera. [W.B.] . GAFFAREL, James, a French Orientalist, dis- tinguished for his rabbinical learning, 1601-1681. GAITARELLI, an Italian singer, 1703-1783. GAFURIO, F., an Italian composer, 1451-1520. GAGE, Thomas, an Irish missionary, d. 1655. GAGE, Thomas, com. of the British troops in North America, and gov. of Massachusets, d 1787. GAGE, Thomas, an English divine, 17th cent. GAGER, Wm., an English dramatist, 16th ct. GAGINI, Ant., a Sicilian sculptor, 1480-1571. GAGLIARDI, P., an Ital. savant, 1695-1742. GAGNIER, J., a French Orientalist, d. 1740. GAGUIN, R., a French historian, died 1501. GAILLARD, Ant., a French poet, 17th cent. GAILLARD, Augier, a burlesque poet, 16th c GAILLARD-DE-LONJUMEAU, J., a Proven- cal bishop, first projector of a Universal Histori- cal Dictionary, for which he collected materials afterwards used by Moreri, 1634-1695. GAILLARD, G. H., a French hist., 1726-1806. GAILLARD, John Ernest, the son of a peruke maker, was bom at Zell about the year 1666, and was instructed in the science and prac- tice of music by Marichal, by Farinelli, and by Steffani. At the termination of his studies he was taken into the service of George, prince of Denmark, and after the marriage of that prince Gaillard came to England, where he remained till his death, which occurred in the beginning of the year 1749. He was generally esteemed as an elegant and tasteful composer. His principal em- ployment for several years of his fife in London, was composing for the stage. [J-M-3 GAINAS, a Gothic general, killed 400. GAINSBOROUGH, Thos., R.A., was born at Sudbuiy in Suffolk in 1727. He was the pupil of Hayman, but settled in 1758 in Bath, where he practised both portrait painting and landscape with such success, that he was induced to try his fortune in London, whither he removed in 1774 ; and he was soon accounted both the rival of Sir Joshua Reynolds and Wilson : Sir Joshua himself said of him in his • Character of Gainsborough,'— 'Whether he most excelled in portraits, landscapes, or fancy pictures, it is difficult to determine.' He was one of the original members of the Royal Academy, founded in 1768 : he died in London, 2d August, 1788, and was buried in Kew churchyard. — (Edwards, Anecdotes of I'ainters, &c.) [R.N.W.] GAIUS, or CAIUS, a Roman lawyer, 2d cent. GALAS, Matthew, a Ger. general, 1589-1647. GALATEO, Ant., an It. geograp., 1444-1516. GALBA, Seiivius Sulpicius, a Roman em- peror, proclaimed in Spain 68, assassinated 69. GALBA, Sergius, a Roman consul, 144 b.c. GALE, John, a baptist divine, 1680-1721. GALE, Theophilus, a popular dissenting min- ister, and theological author, 1628-1678. GALE, Thomas, a divine of the Church of England, celebrated as a scholar and antiquary, 1636-1702. His son, Roger, a numismatist. 1672-1744. His son, Samuel, an archaeological writer, bistor. of Winchester cathedral, 1682-1754. GALEANO, Joseph, an It, savant, 1605-1675. GALEN, Chr. Bernard Van, prince-bishop of Munster, born about 1607, died after a reign of twenty-eight years occupied in warfare, 1678. GALEN, J. Van, a Dutch mariner, died 1653. GALENUS, Claudius, usually called Galen, a celebrated Greek physician, who flourished in tha second century of our era, and whose authority 259 GAL in tho schools of medicine long continued to be equal to that of Aristotle in the schools of philo- sophy. He was the son of Nicon, an architect and geometrician, who had also cultivated with success various branches of knowledge, including astro- nomy, arithmetic, and grammar, and was born at Pergamus, a city of Mysia in Asia Minor, in, as is generally believed, a.d.130, the fifteenth year of the reign of the Roman emperor Adrian. His mother's name is unknown, but she is described as a woman of violent passions and of an ungovernable temper, who, according to the testimony of her son, tor- mented her husband 'more than Xantippe did Socrates.' He received his medical education in his native city, but upon the death of his father, which happened in the twenty-second year of his age, he visited the medical schools of Smyrna, Corinth, and Alexandria, the latter of which en- joyed at that time a high reputation ; and subse- quently repaired to Cihcia, Phoenicia, Palestine, Scyros, and Crete. Having spent nine years in these travels, he returned to Pergamus, where he began the practice of his art; and having been appointed by the high priest medical superinten- dent of the gladiators, it is supposed that in this melancholy occupation he acquired some know- ledge of the nature and cure of wounds. His sub- sequent history is very imperfectly known, but it seems tolerably certain that he visited Rome twice in the course of his life, where he acquired a high GAL GALGACUS, chief of the Caledonians, 1st ct. GALHEGOS, M. De, a poet and dramatic wri- ter of Portugal, 1597-1665. GALILEO, Galilei, a distinguished astrono- mer, was born at Pisa on the 15th of July, 1564. His father, who was himself a philosopher, had a family of three sons and three daughters, of which Galileo was the eldest. He was distinguished as a child by his skill in constructing toys and pieces of machinery. To these mechanical accomplishments he added a taste for music, drawing,and painting, and so great was his passion for pictures, that he was desirous of following painting as a profession. His father, however, having observed very decided indications of early gemus, resolved to send him to the university to study medicine. He accord- ingly went to Pisa, on the 9th November, 1581, and was placed under the celebrated botanist Caesalpinus, who then filled the chair of medicine. In studying music and drawing, he found it neces- sary to acquire some knowledge of geometry, but no sooner had he entered upon Euclid than he conceived a violent passion for mathematics, and devoted himself wholly to its study. While pon- dering over the treatise of Archimedes De insiden- tibus in Jtuido, he wrote an essay on the hydros- tatic balance, which was the means, through Guido Ubaldi, of obtaining for him the appointment of lecturer on mathematics in the university of Pisa, with a salary of only sixty crowns. Galileo had 4 the Roman physicians, he formed intimate friend- ships with many of the leading men of the state, including the emperor Marcus Aurelius, who in- trusted to his care his son Commodus, then a child of nine years of age, and in a tender state of health. The place and the time of his death are equally un- known. Some respectable authorities, following Suidas, a Byzantine lexicographer, say that he remained at Rome after his second visit, and died there, a.d. 200, in the seventieth year of his age, and in the reign of the emperor Severus ; but one of his Arabian commentators has preserved a tradi- tion that he died in the island of Sicily, at the age of character for skill, and where, though bitterly op- I even in his eighteenth year exhibited a great and, as some think, even persecuted by antipathy to the philosophy of Aristotle ; but in the discharge of his new functions at Pisa, he did not scruple to denounce his mechanical doctrines, and expose their errors in the lan- guage even of asperity and triumph. On the sub- ject of falling bodies he disproved his doctrine by actual experiments made from the leaning tower of Pisa, and so great was the prejudice which was then roused against him, that he quitted Pisa in 1592, and accepted of the professorship of mathematics in the university of Padua. Galileo was converted to the doctrines of Copernicus by the lectures of Christian Vurstisius, but even after his conversion he taught the Ptolemaic system in eighty-eight, which, as he was born in 130, would j compliance with popular feeling. — The reputation give the year 218 as the year of his death. — Galen was a man of great talents and extensive erudition, and a very voluminous writer. His native tongue was Greek, and in that language he wrote, but he understood the Latin, the Ethiopic, and the Persic of Galileo was now widely extended. Cosmo, grand duke of Tuscany, invited him, in 1609, to resume his original situation at Pisa. Galileo accepted of the invitation on condition that he should receive the title of Philosopher to his Highness, as well as languages. His works are wntten for the most \ that of mathematician ; and while this negotiation part in the Attic dialect, but his style, though eloquent, is diffuse and prolix. Suidas, who is our chief authority on this subject, says that he wrote no less than five hundred books on medicine, and two hundred and fifty on other subjects. Of these the greater part are lost. Of the former not above a half remain, and of the latter only a few fragments; while of his medical treatises forty-five are deemed spurious, and many are con- sidered of doubtful authenticity; yet notwith- standing of these defections, the received works of Galen, with the Latin translations, fill thirteen folio volumes. The best, or at least the most commodious, edition is that of Kiihn, in twenty 8vo volumes, begun in 1818, and finished in 1833. [J.M'C] GALERIUS, a Roman emp., reigned 305-311. was going on he went to pay a visit to a friend in Venice. There he learned, by common report, that a Dutchman had given Prince Maurice an op- tical instrument which made distant objects appear near the observer. Anxious to know what this instrument was, he discovered the principle of it on his return to Padua, and having placed at the ends of a leaden tube two spectacle-glasses, the one a plano-convex, and the otner a plano-concave, the latter being nearest the eye, ne obtained a telescope exactly the same as a modern opera- glass. This little instrument, which had a mag- nifying power of only three times, he exhibited at Venice to crowds of the principal citizens, and he presented one of them to the senate, who in return gave him his professorship at Padua for life, and raised his salary from 520 to 1000 florins. — After 260 GAL having made other two telescopes, one magnifying eight, and the other thirty times, Galileo applied them to the heavens. With them he discovered the mountains and cavities in the moon, the round discs of the planets, and the four satellites of Jupiter. He counted forty stars in the Pleiades, and found that many of the nebulas were clusters of small stars. The satellites of Jupiter were discovered on the 7th January, 1610, and they were afterwards found by our celebrated country- man, Thomas Harriot, on the 17th October of the same year. In directing his telescope towards Saturn, Galileo observed it to be like three o's, namely, oOo, the middle one being the largest, thus approximating to the discovery of Saturn's ring, afterwards made by Huygens. About the same time he discovered the crescent of Venus, and the spots on the sun, which were seen about six months later by Harriot in England. — In the early part of 1611, Galileo went to Rome, and took with him his best telescope. Here, princes, cardinals, and prelates, hastened to do him honour, and had the gratification of seeing the spots on the sun in the Quirinal gardens. — The discoveries of Galileo were ill received by the followers of Aris- totle. Prejudice and ignorance were thus combined against him, and in the controversies into which he was led, he treated his opponents and their opinions with undue ridicule and sarcasm. The philosophers and freethinkers of the day, many of whom had been Galileo's pupils, marshalled them- selves on his side, while the Aristotelian sages were supported with all the influence of the church. While these parties were resting on the defensive, Galileo, in 1613, addressed a letter to his friend, the Abbe Castelli, to prove that the Scriptures were not intended to teach us science and philosophy, and that it was equally difficult to reconcile the Ptolemaic and the Copernican system with expressions in the Bible. In replying to this letter, Caccini, a Dominican monk, made a personal attack upon Galileo from the pulpit, ridi- culing the astronomer and his followers. Boused by this attack, Galileo published a long letter defending his former views, which he dedicated to the grand duchess of Tuscany. Its reasoning was conclusive, and its influence powerful. It was felt to be hopeless to meet his arguments by any other weapons than those of the civil power, and with the resolution to crush the dangerous innovation, his enemies determined upon appealing to the inquisition. A Dominican monk had paved the way for such a process by denouncing to that body Galileo's letter to Castelli, and Caccini was induced to settle at Rome, in order to embody the evidence against his opponent. — In the year 1617, Galileo went to Rome, cited probably by the inquisition, and was lodged in the palace of the grand duke's ambas- sador. When summoned before that body for his heretical doctrine, he was charged with maintain- ing the stability of the sun, and the motion of the earth, and of trying to reconcile this doctrine to Scripture; and after inquiring into the truth of these charges on the 25th February, 1615, it was decreed that Galileo should be enjoined by Cardinal Bellarmine to renounce the obnoxious tenets, and to pledge himself, under the pain of imprison- ment, neither to teach nor publish them in future. He accordingly appeared before the cardinal, and GAL having renounced his opinions, and declared that he would neither teach nor defend them, he was dismissed from the bar of the inquisition. Thus successful in their first attempt to put down the truths of science, they conceived the bold plan of condemning the whole system of Copernicus as heretical. In order to frustrate this plan, Galileo remained at Rome, and there is reason to believe that he thus injured his cause. His letter to Cas- telli, Copernicus's work ' On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies,' and ' Kepler's Epitome of the Copernican System,' were all inserted among the prohibited books. Notwithstanding these acts of hostility, Galileo was graciously received by Pope Paul v., in March, 1616, and even assured that while he occupied the pope's chair, he would pro- tect him against the calumnies of his enemies. — About this time Galileo proposed a method of finding the longitude at sea by the eclipse of Jupiter's satellites, and expected that Philip III. of Spain would employ him to devote his time to the perfection of a method so useful to commerce. He failed, however, in this attempt. But the mortification which it gave him was compen- sated by the elevation of his friend Urban VIII. to the pontificate. In October, 1623, Galileo went to Rome to offer his congratula- tions to his holiness. The pope loaded him with presents, promised him a pension for his son, and on the death of Cosmo, recommended him in a special letter to the new grand duke of Tuscany. The cardinals even were propitiated, and in the same spirit his friend Castelli was made mathematician to the pope. Notwithstanding these acts of kindness, however, Galileo cher- ished the deepest hostility against the church, and his resolution to propagate his opinions seems to have been coeval with the vow by which he renounced them. He resolved to write a work in which the Copernican system should be demon- strated. This work, entitled ' The System of the World, by Galileo Galilei,' was published in 1662, and consists of four dialogues, in which he dis- cusses the Ptolemaic and the Copernican systems. The work is dedicated to Ferdinand, grand duke of Tuscany, and contains an ironical and insulting attack upon the decree of the inquisition. The doctrines which it defended were so widely dis- seminated, and so eagerly received, that the Church of Rome felt the blow which was thus given to its intellectual supremacy. Under these circumstances the pope did not hesitate in his resolution to punish its author. Galileo was accordingly summoned before the inquisition. Worn out with age and infirmities, he arrived in Rome on the 14th February, 1633, and on the advice of his friends he remained in strict seclu- sion in the house of the Tuscan ambassador. Early in April, when his examination in person took place, he was removed to the holy office, and lodged in the house of the fiscal of the inquisition, his table being provided by the Tuscan ambas- sador. It is stated by M. Libri, and generally believed, that in his examination he was put to the torture, and after this had taken place, he was allowed a reasonable time for his de- fence. Having duly considered his confession and excuses, he was again summoned to the holy office. On the 22d of June he was con- 261 GAL ducted in a penitential dress to the convent of Minerva, sentence of imprisonment during the pleasure of the inquisition was pronounced upon him, and he was ordered to abjure and curse the heresies he had cherished. — * The account of the trial and sentence of Galileo,' says Sir David Brewster, 'is pregnant with the deepest interest and instruction. Human nature is here drawn in its darkest colouring ; and in sur- veying the melancholy picture, it is difficult to de- cide whether religion or philosophy has been most degraded. While we witness the presumptuous priest pronouncing infallible the decrees of his own erring judgment, we see the high-minded philosopher abjuring the eternal and immutable truths which he had himself the glory of estab- lishing. In the ignorance and prejudices of the age; in a too literal interpretation of the lan- guage of Scripture ; in a mistaken respect for errors that have been venerable from their antiquity, and in the peculiar position which Galileo had taken among the avowed enemies of the church, we may find a shadow of an apology, evanescent though it be, for the conduct of the inquisition. But what excuse can we devise for the humiliating abjuration of Galileo ? Why did this master spirit of the age — this high priest of the stars — this re- presentative of science — this hoary sage, whose career of glory was near its consummation — why did he reject the crown of martyrdom which he had himself created, and which, plaited with im- mortal laurels, was about to descend upon his head ? If instead of disavowing the laws of na- ture, and surrendering in his own person the in- tellectual dignity of his species, he had boldly as- serted the truth of his opinions, and confided his character to posterity, and his cause to an all-rul- ing Providence, he would have strung up the hair- suspended sabre, and disarmed for ever the hos- tility which threatened to overwhelm him. The philosopher, however, was supported only by philo- sophy, and in the love of truth he found a miser- able substitute for the hopes of the martyr. Ga- lileo cowered under the fear of man, and his sub- mission was the salvation of the church. The sword of the inquisition descended on his prostrate neck, and though its stroke was not physical, yet it fell with a moral influence, fatal to the character of its victim, and to the dignity of sci- ence.' — From the prison of the inquisition, where he remained only lour days, Galileo was allowed to go to the house of the Tuscan ambassador, and after six months' residence there, to pass his term of imprisonment in his own house at Arcetri. The happiness of rejoining his family, however, was of short duration. His favourite daughter was seized with an illness of which ahe died; and having himself fallen into a state of ill health, he was permitted to go to Florence for its recovery in 1638. Here he was debarred from all intercourse with society, and it was only in the presence of an officer of the inquisition that his friend Castelli was permitted to visit him. During his five years' confinement he composed his ' Dialogues on Local Motion,' and in 1636 he discovered the interesting phenomena of the moon's libration. About this time he lost the use of both his eyes, when he was negotiating with the Dutch government respecting GAL his method of finding the longitude. At a some- what later period almost total deafness supervened, and having been attacked with fever and palpita- tion of the heart, he died on the 8th January, 1642, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. He was buried in the church of Sta Croce in Florence, and a splendid monument erected to his memory in 1737. For further information respecting Ga- lileo see an admirable life of him in the ' Library of Useful Knowledge ' by the late Mr. Drinkwater Bethum, and another of a more popular kind in Sir David Brewster's ' Martyrs of Science.' A complete edition of his works was published at Milan in 1811, in 11 volumes, under the title of 'Opere di Galileo Galilei Nobile Fiorensino.' [D.B.] GALILEO, Vincent, an Ital. mathe., 16th c. GALITZIN, a Russian statesman, 1633-1713. GALL, Fkancis Joseph, the founder of that celebrated intellectual or cerebral physiology known as Phrenology : born at Tiefenbrunn, in the duchy of Baden, 9th March, 1758 ; died in Paris in 1828. The incidents of Gall's life were not numerous, and resemble those of many other pro- pounders of new moral and intellectual doctrines m Germany; silenced by one government, har- boured for a time by another, he became through compulsion a peripatetic. His longest residence was in Paris, where, in conjunction with his dis- ciple Spurzheim, he published his chief works. — Gall's fundamental maxims are as follows: — 1. Moral qualities and intellectual faculties are in- nate. 2. The exercise or manifestation of these faculties and qualities depends on our organization. 3. The brain is the organ of all our appetites, sen- timents, and faculties. 4. The brain is composed of as many special organs as there are original and independent appetites, sentiments, and faculties in human nature. 5. The form of the head or skull, which in the main corresponds with the shape of the brain, suggests the means of discovering by observation what are any one's primary faculties and qualities. — Of these maxims the last two alone are peculiar to Gall : they contain the germs of his new philosophy, and suggested his method of ob- servation. The philosophy, as distinguished from all previous physiologies, represents the brain not as an organ, but an apparatus; to each convolution or independent part of which, a distinct mental function belongs : and the task of allocating our various functions is reduced to that of eliminating by aid of multitudes of instances, that special cra- nial organ, which always coexists and varies with one special intellectual power or tendency. In conduct- ing Observation Gall rightly resorted to the me- thod of extreme instances, — seeking the meaning of an organ from the mental accompaniments of its great excess or signal defect. It is impossible in this place to criticise phrenology: its subdivision of the skull however, into a region of the appetites and sentiments, a region of the emotions and moral powers, and a region of the intellectual faculties — these last subdivided into powers of observation and powers of combination, — is in striking consistency with all the dynamic pheno- mena of the human mind as manifested through his- tory. Gall had and still has, many followers and expositors : in Scotland the place of honour is un- questionably occupied by Mr. Combe of Edin- burgh. [J.P.N.] 202 GAL GALL, St., bishop of Clermont, died 554. GALLA, a doge of Venice, killed 755. GALLACCINI, T., an Ital. savant, 1564-1641. GALLAIS, J. P., a Fr. journalist, 1756-1820. GALLAND, A., a Fr. Orientalist, 1646-1715. GALLAND, A., a French historian, 16th cent. GALLAND, And., a Venetian savant, d. 1779. GALLETTI, J. G. A., a Ger. hist., 1750-1828. GALLETTI, P. L., an Ital. savant, 1724-1790. GALLI, J. A., an Ital. philosopher, 1708-1784. GALLIANI, Ferdinand, an Italian ecclesi- astic, economist, and political writer, 1728-1787. GALLIENUS, emperor of Rome, 260-268. GALLIMARD, J. E., a Fr. mathem., d. 1771. GALLO, A., an Ital. agriculturist, 1499-1570. GALLO, And., an Ital. mathem., 1732-1814. GALLOIS, John, a French savant, 1632-1707. GALLOIS, Julian J. C. Le, a Fr. physiologist, •auth. of ' Exper. on the Principle of Life,' d. 1818. GALLONIO, Ant., an It. ecclesiastic, d. 1605. GALLUS, jElius, a Roman general, 1st c. B.C. GALLUS, jElius, a Roman jurisconsult, 1st c. GALLUS, Caius, a Roman astronomer, said to have predicted or explained an eclipse, 2d c. B.C. GALLUS, Caius Vibius Trebonianus, em- peror of Rome, proclaimed 251, assassinated 253. GALLUS, Cneus, or PUBLIUS CORNE- LIUS, a Roman poet and general, governor of Egypt, killed himself, when disgraced 69-26 B.C. GALLUS, Flavius Constantinus, nephew of Constantine and brother of Julian, intrusted as Capsar with the gov. of the East 315, beheaded 354. GALLUZZI, R., an Italian historian, d. 1801. GALT, John, a Scotch miscel. wr., 1779-1839. GALUPPI, B., an Ital. composer, 1703-1785. GALVANI, Luigi, born at Bologna 1737, died 1798. A distinguished physician and physiologist. The name of Galvani has become a household word. His great discovery of galvanism appears to have been made about 1790 The story as told is as follows : — The physician had been preparing some frog-soup for his sick wife, and some of these ani- mals were lying stripped of their skins. An assis- tant had accidentally touched the crural nerves of one of the animals with the point of a scalpel in the neighbourhood of the conductor of an electrical machine, which stood on the table, when the limbs were immediately thrown into convulsions. Gal- vani soon satisfied himself that this same pheno- menon occurred with all animals' muscles, and thus laid the basis of the great science which has been since erected. Galvani fell into a melancholy from the death of his wife, and the loss of his offices from the occupation of Italy by the French, preyed on his mind, although he was ultimately restored to his position a short period before his death in 1798. The account of his discovery of galvanism is con- tained in his treatise ' De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius, 1791.' [R.D.T.] GALVER, L., a Spanish poet, 1549-1610. GAMA, Anthony De Leon Y., a Mexican geographer and astronomer, end of 18th century. GAMA, J. De, a Portuguese mariner, 17th ct. GAMA, Jeanne, a Portug. poetess, 1515-86. GAMA, Ph. J., a Portuguese poet, 1713-1742. GAMA, Vasco De, a Portuguese gentleman belonging to the household of Emanuel, king of Portugal, was a native of the small seaport town of Sines in that country; the date of his GAR birth is uncertain, and little is known of the events of his life till he was sent out on a voy- age to India, in 1497, ten years after the prac- ticability of the passage by this noted promon- tory had been established by Diaz. He sailed July 8, with three small vessels, carrying sixty men; and, after encountering tremendous gales in the neighbourhood of the Cape, which so dis- couraged his men, that he had the utmost difficulty in prevailing on them to persevere, he succeeded in doubling this dreaded headland Nov. 19th, and steered E. and then N.E. along the African coast till he reached Melinda, in lat. 2£° S. Here he found Christian merchants from India ; guided by one of whom he crossed the Indian ocean to Calicut between May 5th and 28th, 1498, being the first European who navigated these seas. Returning to Lisbon, September, 1499, he was received with distinguished honour by his sove- reign, who conferred upon him the title of admiral of the Indian, Persian, and Arabian seas. The expedition of Cabral followed ; and in 1502 De Gama was again sent out with a powerful fleet. He returned in the end of the following year laden with rich treasures, and was created count of Vi- dequeyra. For twenty years discovery and con- quest in the east had been prosecuted by others, when De Gama, appointed governor of Portuguese India, sailed for Cochin. He died, however, soon after his arrival, December, 1525. 'Married to immortal verse,' the exploits of De Gama have gained a greater celebrity than sober history war- rants. Diaz had already robbed the formidable Cape of its terrors — had determined its place with accuracy ; and led the way into seas before un- known. Beyond lay the richest countries of the world ; their treasures were unfolded by De Gama after a voyage exhibiting great skill and noble daring; and the results of which are only second in impor- tance to the grand discovery of Columbus. [J.B.] GAMBA, J. F., a French voyager, 1763-1833. GAMBARA, L., an Italian painter, 1541-1574. GAMBARA, V., an Italian poetess, 1485-1650. GAMBIER, Lord J., an English admiral, commander at the siege of Copenhagen, 1756-1833. GAMBOLD, John, a scholar and religious writer of the sect of Moravian Brethren, d. 1771. GAMELIN, J., a French painter, 1739-1803. GAMURRINI, E., an Ital. historian, 17th cent. GANDON, Jas., an Engl, architect, 1760-1824. GANDY, James, an English painter, 1619-89. GANILLE, C, a Germ, economist, 1758-1836. GARAMOND, Claude, a French engraver and letter-founder, eel. for his Greek type, d. 1561. GARAMPI, J., an Italian antiquary, 1725-92. GARASSE, Francis, a Fr. Jesuit, 1585-1631. GARAT, Dominic Joseph, a French states- man and metaphysician, ennobled by Buonaparte, 1749-1833. His nephew, Peter John Garat, a celebrated professor of music, 1764-1823. GARAY, John De, a Spanish officer and tra- veller in South America, born 1541, killed 1592. GARAY, Martin De, a Sp. statesm., d. 1822. GARCIA, Manuel, a Sp. comp., 1779-1832. GARCIA-DE-MASCARENHAS, Blaise, an epic poet and general of Portugal, 1596-1656. GARCIA -DE-PAREDES, Don Diego, a famous Sp. commander in Italy, &c, 1466-1530. GARCIA-SUELTO, a Sp. savant, 1778-1816. 2C3 GAR GARCILASO-DE-LA-VEGA. See Garcias. GARCIAS, G., a Span, missionary, 1554-1627. GARCIAS-LASSO, or GARCILASO-DE-LA- VEGA, a Spanish general and poet, distinguished in the wars of Charles V., 1503-1536. The same name was borne by a descendant of the sovereigns of Peru, called, on that account, « The Inca,' and distinguished as a writer on the history and an- tiquities of his country, 1530-1616. GARCIAS-Y-MATAMOROS, Alphonso, a Spanish savant and biographical writer, 16th cent. GARDEN, Alex., a Scotch botanist, 1730-91. GARDEN, Francis, Lord Gardenstone, a Scotch lawyer and miscellaneous wr., 1721-1793. GARDIE, The Counts De La, distinguished in Swedish history, trace their origin to Pontus de la Gardie, a French adventurer, who entered the service of the king of Sweden, and married his natural daughter, and was accidentally drowned, 1585. The most distinguished is Mag- nus Gabriel, Count de la Gardie, grand chan- cellor and seneschal of Sweden, and a great pa- tron of arts and letters, 1622-1686. GARDINER, James, a British officer, remark- able for the incidents of his conversion to a reli- fious life, as related by Dr. Doddridge, born 1688, illed at the battle of Prestonpans, 1745. GARDINER, R., an English divine, 1591-1670. GARDINER, Stephen, bishop of Winchester, distinguished for his learning, his craft as a states- man, and his cruelty to the jprotestants, but especially as the tool of Henry VIII. in the pro- ceedings against Queen Catherine, 1483-1555. GARDINER, W., an Irish engraver, 1766-1814. GARDNER, Alan, Lord, a British admiral, distinguished at the close of the last cent., d. 1809. GARIBALDI, a Lombard king, reigned 671. GARISSOLES, A, a Fr. protes. wr., 1587-1650. GARNERIN, A. J., a Fr. aeronaut, 1770-1823. GARNET, Henry, an English Jesuit, born 1555, author of a work on 'Christian Renovation,' hanged for his part in the gunpowder plot, 1606. GARNETT, Th., an English physician, au. of works on medicine and natural history, 1766-1802. GARNIER, Count Germain, a French econo- mist, translator of ' Smith's Wealth of Nations,' author of ' Histoire de la Monnaie,' 1754-1821. GARNIER, J., a French theolog., 1612-1681. GARNIER, J. J., a Fr. historian, 1729-1805. GARNIER, Julius, a French savant, d. 1725. GARNIER, R., a Fr. dramatist, 1545-1601. GARNIER, Sebastian, a French poet, 16th c. GARNIER-DESCHENES, E. H., a French agriculturist, geographer, and mathe., 1727-1812. GAROFALO, B., an Ital. artist, 1481-1559. GAROFALO, B., an Ital. antiqu., 1677-1762. GARRICK, David, the most respected actor that ever trod the English boards, was born at Hereford, and was baptized in the church of All- Saints, in that city, 28th February, 1716. His father, Captain Peter Garrick, generally resided at Lichfield, but was about that time on a recruiting 5 arty; his mother's maiden name was Clough, aughter to one of the vicars in Lichfield cathe- dral. David at ten years of age was entered of the grammar school at Lichfield. At eleven he formed the project of getting a play acted by young gentlemen and ladies. The trial wtis made with ' The Recruiting Officer.' One of his 264 GAR sisters played the part of the chambermaid ; ho himself undertook Serjeant Kite. The after celebrated Doctor, Samuel Johnson, his boy-friend, was applied to for the prologue, which, however, he neglected to write. Not long after Garrick went to Lisbon, at the request of an uncle, a wine merchant there, and was acquainted with the un- fortunate Duke d' Aveixo. On his return to Eng- land he, in 1736, became one of Johnson's scholars at Lichfield ; but the latter growing tired of teach- ing the classics to two or three pupils, resolved on trying his fortune in London, and thither Garrick accompanied him. Here the latter lost no time in getting introduced to theatrical managers, and in 1741 obtaining an engagement at Ipswich, met with much success, under the assumed name of Lyddal. His first effort was in the pathetic char- acter of Aboan, in ' Oroonoko ;' but he matricu- lated in all kinds of stage business, condescending even to harlequin. In the winter of the same year Garrick ventured on the London stage. On the 19th October, 1741, he made his debut in Richard the Third at the playhouse in Goodman's Fields, and with his novel and natural style, startled the critics and the reigning actors. Quin, in particular, was much annoyed, saying — ' If the young fellow was right, he and the rest of the players had been all wrong.' Being told that Goodman's Fields theatre was crowded every night to see the new actor, he said — ' That Gar- rick was a new religion ; Whitfield was followed for a time ; but they would all come to church again.' Whereupon Garrick wrote this epigram: — ' Pope Quin, who damns all churches but his own, Complains that heresy infects the town, That Whitfield-Garrick has misled the age, And taints the sound religion of the stage: Schism, he cries, has turn'd the nation's brain; But eyes will open, and to church again ! Thou great infallible, forbear to roar, Thy bulls and errors are revered no more ; When doctrines meet with gen'ral approbation, It is not heresy, but reformation.' After a visit to Dublin, Garrick returned to Lon- don, and acted at Drury, having entered into an engagement with Fleetwood, the manager, for five hundred pounds a-year. At this theatre he proved equally great in Abel Drugger and Hamlet. He was also wonderful in Lear. But in consequence of Fleetwood's farming the theatre to his trea- surer, he soon seceded from the establishment. On his return to the stage he was involved in a controversy with Macklin ; and soon after was en- gaged for Covent Garden. Ultimately he was solicited to purchase the moiety of Drury Lane patent, which he did for eight thousand pounds. When Garrick retired from the stage in 1776, this same patent he sold for thirty-five thousand pounds ; a fact which of itself is sufficient warrant of his excellent management. One merit claimed for him is the restoration of ' Macbeth,' and other Shaksperian dramas, with a closer adherence to the text than was then usual. The chief com- plaint against him was his conduct towards living authors; and it must be confessed, that in him was confirmed that usurpation of the poet's rights by the actor from which the stage is hardly yet emerging. Davies, his biographer, observes on this point that, — 'The time bestowed in rehears- ing the piece, and the expense of new scenes, GAR dresses, music, and other decorations, make it often very ineligible to a director of a theatre to accept a new play ; especially when it is considered that the revival of a good old play will answer his end of profit, and reputation too, perhaps as well.' The actor-manager, as the representative and in- heritor of the wealth of all dead poets, proves too powerful a competitor for the living dramatist. In this way tragic actors find Shakspeare a tower of strength, and are by his means enabled to sup- press the proofs of living genius. Garrick had strong reasons for the Stratford jubilee in 1769, by which he gained increased celebrity and power. This pageant he afterwards transferred to the stage, where it ran for one hundred nights. Mr. Gar- rick was also the founder of the Drury Lane Fund for decayed performers. A thoroughly successful man in life, he was equally prudent and benevo- lent. He lived generously, kept the best society, made lavish gifts to his friends and neighbours, and basked, till his death, in the sun of popular favour. He died 20th January, 1779, and was magnificently interred in Westminster Abbey, being attended to his grave by persons illustrious for their genius and rank. In the opinion of his admirers he was the greatest actor that ever graced the stage. He was certainly the most ex- emplary as a man and moralist; and preserved, if he did not originate, the dignity of his profes- sion. He was also the author of several dramatic pieces, some of which display considerable humour, and of many brief poems, prologues, and epilogues, abounding in wit, and in allusions to the measures of his time. [J.A.H.] GARRICK, Eva Maria, wife of the celebrated actor, originally an opera dancer, 1725-1822. GARROS, P. De, a Saxon poet, 15th century. GARROS, P. A., a French mechanic, d. 1823. GARTH, Sir Samuel, an English physician and poet, author of ' The Dispensary,' a burlesque poem, ' Claremont,' an edition of ' Ovid's Meta- morphoses,' and some fugitive pieces, 1671-1718. GARTH, Thomas, an Engl, general, 1744-1829. GARTHSHORE, M., an English physician, fel- low of the Royal and Antiq. Societies, 1732-1812. GARVE, Chr., a Ger. metaphysician, 1742-98. GARZI, Louis, an Italian painter, 1638-1721. GARZONI, J., an Italian savant, 1419-1506. GARZONI, P., a Venetian hist., d. abt. 1719. GARZONI, Th., an Italian author, 1549-1589. GASCOIGNE, G., an English poet, died 1577. GASCOIGNE, W., a nat. philosopher, 1621-44. GASCOIGNE, Sir Wm., chief justice of Eng- land in the reign of Henry IV., celebrated for the firmness, independence, and dignity with which he maintained his office, lived 1350-1413. He was ancestor of the earl of Strafford, who was executed in the reign of Charles I. GASMANN, F. L., a Germ, composer, 1729-74. GASPARIN, T. A., a French republican, mem. of the convention and Com. of Pub. Safety, d. 1793. GASPARINI, F., an Ital. composer, 1650-1724. GASPARINO, B., an Ital. scholar, 1370-1459. GASSENDI, Pierre, born 22d January, 1592, near Digne; died in Paris 24th October, 1655: in the words of Tennemann, the most learned among the philosophers, and the ablest philosopher among the learned, of the seventeenth century. In speculative thinking, Gassendi represented the GAS Sensational School, of which he may be considered the Founder in modern times: as such, he made stand against the Meditations of Des Cartes. In the eager polemic between these remarkable men, the critical question of Sensationalism, al- most in the form m which it still presents itself, was fairly raised : it must be conceded that the temper and moderation lay with Gassendi, al- though, in the estimation of the writer of this notice, the weight of argument belonged to his illustrious opponent. During the disputation, Gas- sendi had the merit of insisting that every mental conception of Principle, is necessarily preceded by the fact of an Experience; an assertion by no means sufficient to establish his philosophy, but remark- able as having first given expression to a maxim now held alike by Sensationalists and Ideal- ists, — that in Sensation is the beginning or the occasion of all knowledge ; a maxim of which Des Cartes himself, perhaps, saw enough to render un- justifiable Locke's subsequent singular misrepre- sentation of the doctrine of innate ideas. This proposition granted, however, it in nowise fol- lows, as Gassendi contended, that the content of sensation is the measure of human know- ledge ; or that an Absolute and Necessary Truth is a mere generalization. Rational Psychology, ac- cording to Des Cartes, contradicts this : the attri- butes of universality and necessity cannot attach to simple generalizations; and these attributes belong to many of our ideas. It is hardly requisite to say that the dispute thus raised, exists still : nay, the student desirous to master it, will scarcely find better instructors than Des Cartes and Gassendi. — Gassendi was one of our most distinguished reformers, at a period when many great minds pushed forward the work of reform, — claiming independence for thought. It may- be forgiven, perhaps, that in his early work against the authority of Aristotle, he was not careful to separate the true doctrines of the im- mortal Stagyrite, from wretched and sapless formulae deduced from him by the Schoolmen ; or that in his youthful zeal, he failed to approach with rightful respect, that great Shade to which so many ages have done willing reverence. His attack on Aristotle is the weakest of his writings, and cannot be acquitted of rashness : nevertheless, he was not wanting in respect for antiquity, — witness his treatment of Epicurus. His life of this philosopher is one of the best and most appreciatory memoirs, among the many that have been given of him: he wrote con amove. The Atomic Philosophy suited Gassendi's predilec- tions; and one respects the just ardour with which he vindicates the character of his master, and clears his doctrines from vulgar misap- prehension. Gassendi's attachment to physical inquiries was strong: although not an original discoverer, the labours of no man of that day con- tributed more to diffuse right principles regarding the method of physical inquiry. In this depart- ment, his superiority to the Cartesians cannot be questioned : Des Cartes himself knew too little of that sphere of pure Induction, within which what we term Law or general Truths, can be nothing other than generalizations. As might have been ex- pected he adopted the Copemican system of the Universe, cautiously but intelligently; and greatly 265 GAS contributed to bring about a right understanding of its significance. His life of Copernicus is a composition of much interest ; although probably inferior to his life of Tycho. He was a friend and correspondent of Galileo; he avowed himself the disciple of Bacon; and unquestionably his writ- ings prepared the way for those of Locke. — Gas- sendi's personal character was of the highest order; gentle, serene, and dignified; modest, notwith- standing his wide repute; impartial and for- bearing. As a pious and faithful ecclesiastic he achieved a place in the hearts of the mountaineers amidst whom he lived, which long after years did not efface : they raised a statue to his memory. — The works of this industrious thinker and voluminous writer have appeared in various forms. The Sieur de Montmort, to whom he bequeathed the dutv, published a complete edition of them at Lyons, in 6 vols, folio, in 1658 : another edition appeared at Florence in 1727, edited by Averanius. [J.P.N.] GASSICOURT, Ch. Louis Cadet De, a French writer on natural philosophy, &c, d. 1823. GASSIES, J., a French painter, 1786-1832. GASSION, J. De, a Fr. marshal, 1609-1647. GAST, John, an Irish historian, 1715-1788. GASTON DE FOIX. See Foix. GASTRELL, Fr., bishop of Chester time of Queen Anne, a wr. on the Trinity, &c, 1662-1725. GASULL, A., a Spanish painter, 17th century. GATAKER, Thomas, an English theologian and biblical critic, 1574-1654. His son, Charles, was distinguished as a controversial divine. GATTEAUX, N. M., a Fr. medal., 1751-1832. GATTERER, J. C, a Ger. savant, 1727-1789. GATTI, Bernard, an Ital. painter, 16th cent. GATTI, Oliver, an Italian painter, 16th cent. GAUBIL, Anth., a Sp. Jesuit and philosopher, celeb, as a missionary to the Chinese, 1689-1759. GAUBIUS, J. D.; a Ger. medical wr., 1705-80. GAUCHER, C. S., a Fr. engraver, 1740-1804. GAUDEN, John, an English divine, 1605-62. GAUDENTIO, an Italian painter, 15th cent. GAUDENTIUS, St., bishop of Brescia, au. of a life of his predecessor Philaster, died about 427. GAUDENZI, P., an Italian poet, 1749-1784. GAUDENZIO, P., an Ital. savant, 1596-1648. GAUDIN, L. P., a Span, painter, 1556-1621. GAUFFIER, L., a French painter, 1761-1801. GAUFRIDI, J. Fr. De, a Fr. hist., 1622-89. GAUGAIN, Til, a Fr. engraver, last century. GAUGHER, N., aFr. natur. philos., 1680-1730. GAULLI, G. B., an Italian painter, 1639-1709. GAULMIN, G., a Fr. miscel. au., 1585-1665. GAULT, Eustace, a French hist., 1591-1640. GAULTHIER, W., a French jurist, died 892. GAULTIER, Aloisius Edward Camille, a French ecclesiastic of distinguished benevolence, founder of schools for the poor, &c, 1745-1818. GAULTIER of CoUTANCES, archbishop of Rouen, disting. as a political negotiator, died 1207. GAULTIER of Terouane, a Fr. hist., 12th c. GAUPP, John, a German mathema., d. 1738. GAURI, a Mameluke sultan, died 1517. GAUSSIN, J. C, a French actress, 1711-1767. GAUTHEROT, Ch., a Fr. painter, 1769-1825. GAUTHEROT, N., a French natural philoso- pher, au. of ' Researches in Electricity,' 1763- 1 803. GAUTHEY, E. M., a Fr. engineer. L732-1806. GAVARD, H., a French anatomist, 1753-1802. GEB GAVEAUX, P., a Fr. composer, 176MS25. GAVESTON, PiEits, a Gascon gentleman, eel. as the favourite of Edward II., beheaded 1312. GAVIROL, Soliman Ben, a Spanish rabbi, grammarian, philosopher, astronom., &c, d. L070. GAY, John, who was born in 1688, and died in 1732, was first a silk-weaver's shopman, but became an author, and the easy dependent of gay and great people. He had much note in his own day as a pastoral and mock-heroic poet ; and his name is still preserved by his notorious 'Beggars' Opera,' and his fluent and agreeable ' Fables.' Per- haps he deserves remembrance better for his bal- lads, ' Black-Eyed Susan,' and ' 'Twas when the Seas were Roaring.' [W.SJ GAY, J. J. Pascal, a Fr. architect, 1775-1832. GAY LUSSAC, N. F., one of the most disting. chemists of modern times, is described by all his associates as equally characterized by the amia- bility of his disposition, his kindness to the stu- dent, and his disinterested and generous nature. Brought up in the laboratory of Berthollet, he subsequently showed that he had eminently bene- fitted by the instructions of such a master in the science. His first important discovery was that in 1808 of the union of gases by volume, forming an additional argument in favour of the atomic theory of Dalton in 1804, of the union of bodies by definite weights in the formation of chemical compounds. He took an active part in the investigation of iodine in 1813, and in 1815 he made the important discovery of cyanogen, which although a compound gas performs all the functions of a simple body. Gay Lussac was ] lossessed of great powers of practical application ; it is only neces- sary to refer to his alcolometer, to his process of chlorimetry, and to his veiy convenient method of assay of silver by the wet way, which has been familiar for above twenty years to those who were fortunate enough to visit the Parisian mint, so ably conducted under the auspices of the subject of our notice. His long and useful life terminated on the 9th May, 1850, after several months' illness, having been a member of the Academy from 1806. [R.D.T.] GAY VERNON, J., a French marshal, distin- guished for his gallantry as an officer, and for his talents as a mathematical writer, 1760-1822. GAY VERNON, Leonard, a French republi- can and ecclesiastic, constitutional bishop of Vienne, 1748-1822. His brother, JOSEPH, au officer and wr. on the art of fortiiica., 1760-1822. GAYOT-DE-PITAVAL, Fn., a French writer, author of « Causes Celebres,' &c, 1673-17 1:5. GAYTON, E., an Engl, humourist, 1609-1666. GAYWOOD, R., an Engl, engraver, 17th i GAZA, or GAZIS, Theodore, a Greek scho- lar and grammarian, celebrated as one of the chief revivers of Grk. learn, in Europe, 1398-1478. GAZALI, a Mahommedan savant, 1058-1112. GAZ.EUS, an ecclesiastical hist., 1564-1612. GAZI-HASSAN, a Turkish statesman, d. 1790. GAZZANIZA, .1., an It. composer, 1748-1810. GEBELIN. See Coukt-De-Geheein. GEBEB, John, an Arabian alchemist and philosopher of the 9th century. GEBBABD. J., a Grk. philologist, 1092-1732. GEBHARDI, .1. L. Fevjn, a German historian, au of ' Hist, and Genealogical Memoirs,' 1699-1764. 2GG GEB GEBHARDI, L. A., a Ger. historian, d. 1802. GEBLER, T. P., Baron De, a German diplo- matist, statesman, and savant, 1726-1786. GED, William, a Scotch goldsmith, inventor of the art of stereotyping, died 1749. GEDDES, Dr. * Alex., a Scottish Roman Catholic divine, dist. as a learned wr., 1737-1802. GEDDES, James, a Scotch advocate, 1710-49. GEDDES, Michael, an ecclesiastical his- torian, chaplain at Lisbon, died 1714. GEDIKE, F., a Prussian writer on education, translator of the classics, &c, 1754-1803. GEDOYN, N., a French savant, 1667-1744. GEDYMIN, duke of Lithuania, reigned 1315-41. GEER, L., a Dutch statesman, settled in Sweden by Gustavus Adolphus. Charles De Geer, his descendant, a dist. Swedish naturalist, 1720-1778. GEHEMA, J. A., a Polish medical wr., 17th c. GEHLEN, A. F., a German chemist, d. 1815. GEHLER, J. C, a German naturalist, 1732-96. GEHLER, J. S. Traugott, a German jurist, chemist, physician, and mathematician, 1751-1795. GEHLER, W., a German savant, 1696-1765. GEHREN, C. Chr., a Ger. theol., 1763-1832. GEIER, Martin, a Germ. Lutheran, 1614-81. GEILER, John, a Swiss divine, 1445-1510. GEILHOVEN, A., a Dutch theologian, 15th ct. GEINOZ, F., a French antiquarian, died 1752. GEISA, the^rs^ of the name, king of Hungary, reigned 1075-1077 ; the second, 1141-1161. GELADAS, a Greek sculptor, 5th century B.C. GELASIUS, the name of two bishops of Ca:sa- rea, the earliest of whom, called ' The Elder,' au- thor of some theological fragments, died 394; the second, called Gelasius of Cyzicus, au. of a history of the Council of Nice, lived about 476. GELASIUS, bishop of Rome, 492-496 ; Gela- sius, pope of Rome, 1118-1119. GELDENHAUR, G., a German savant, com- monly called ' Gerard of Nimeguen,' 1482-1542. GELDER, A. De, a Dutch painter, 1645-1727. GELEE. See Claude. GELENIUS, S., a German savant, 1498-1555. GELL, Sir William, a celebrated English antiquarian and classical scholar, 1777-1836. GELLERT, Christian Furchtegott, a po- pular German poet and moralist, 1715-1769. GELLERT, Christlieb Ehregott, elder br. of the preced., celeb, as a metallurgist, 1713-1795. GELLI, J. B.. an Italian author, 1498-1563. GELLIBRAND, H., an English astronomer, author of many practical works, 1597-1636. GELLIUS, Aulus, a Roman lawyer and lite- rary savant, nourished at the beginning of the 2d century, author of the ' Attic Nights,' one of the most curious and valuable works of antiquity. GELON, a k. of Syracuse, reigned 491-478 B.C. (iK.MBICIUS, J., a Polish theolog., 1569-1633. GEMIGNANO, an Italian painter, 1490-1530. GEMINIANI, Francesco, one of the greatest violinists of his age, was born at Lucca about the year 1666. He received his first lessons on the instrument from Carlo Ambrogio Lonati of Milan, and the foundation of his musical knowledge was laid by Alessandro Scarlatti. His last master on the violin was Corelli. Geminiani composed three sets of concertos, a work on Harmony, two trea- tises on the Art of Playing the Violin, and several pieces for the harpsichord. In the year 1714 he GEN came to London, and soon established his reputa- tion as a great artist. Geminiani seldom played in public, and the money he received for his com- positions, the fees from pupils, and the presents he received from the noble and the wealthy when he could be prevailed upon to play at their houses, were the chief means from which he derived his living. Even with such sources of emoluments he might have made a fortune, but he was improvi- dent. Geminiani died at Dublin in 1762. [J.M.] GEMINUS, Th., an English painter, 16th ct. GEMISTUS, George, surnamed 'Pletho,' a Greek philosopher, and writer on the wisdom of antiquity, 1390-1491. GEMMA, R., a Dutch physician, 1508-1577. GENEBRAND, G., a Fr. Hebraist, died 1597. GENEST, Ch. Cl., a French poet, 1639-1719. GENET, Francis, a Fr. casuist, 1640-1702. < GENEVIEVE, the patron saint of Paris, be- lieved to have contributed to the conversion of Clovis, born at Nanterre about 423, d. about 512. GENGHIS KHAN, the founder of the great Mogul empire, and of the dynasty now tottering on the throne of China, was the son of a simple chief, and was born in Tartary in 1164. He suc- ceeded to his father's authority when only fourteen years of age, and soon afterwards, being compelled to take up arms in self-defence, struck terror into his opponents by his military talents and ferocious disposition. In 1205 he was crowned grand khan of all the Moguls and Tartars in a ceremony ot great state, in the course of which he was hailed lord of the four quarters of the world, in a maimer well calculated to excite the enthusiasm of his followers. In 1213 he was master of Pekin and all Northern China, and a few years subsequently had subjugated Persia and the most fertile regions of Asia, dying in the heat of his conquests 1227. His grandson, in 1255, seized on Bagdad, and completed the extirpation of Mohammedanism began by his ancestor. [E.R.] GENLIS, Stephanie, Countess De, was a na- tive of Burgundy, and born in 1746. Becoming well known in society after her marriage had given her aristocratic rank, she was chosen as gouvernante to the children of the notorious Duke of Orleans ; and by him she had a daughter, who was married, in 1792, to the unfortunate Lord Edward Fitz- gerald. She died, after a wandering life, in 1830, when her pupil, Louis Philippe, had just become king of the French. Her writings were numerous and miscellaneous ; the principal of them being novels, which possess little merit either of style or of matter, while they teach, with an affectation of fine sentiment, a morality very slippery and accom- modating. Her best and least exceptionable works are her stories and dramas for youth; such as ' Adele and Theodore,' ' The Tales of the Castle,' and « The Theatre of Education.' [W.S.] GENNADIUS, the name of two patriarchs of Constantinople, the^rs^ of whom ruled the church, 458-471, and the second after the capture of the city by the Turks, 1453-1460. The latter is author of several theological works. GENNADIUS, presb. of Marseilles, 5th cent. GENNARI, Benedetto, an Italian painter, one of the masters of Guercino, flourished 1633- 1715. His son, Barthelemi, a painter, born 1594. His second son, Hercules, pupil of Guer- 2G7 GEN cino, 1597-1658. The eldest son of Hercules, called Benedetto the Younger, a pupil of Guercino, and painter to Charles II. and James II. of England, 1633-1715. Cesar, the son of the latter, continued the school of Guercino at Bo- logna, and died there 1688. GENNARO, Joseph Aurelius De, a Neapoli- tan magistrate and jurisconsult, 1701-1762. GENCELS, A., a Flemish painter, born 1640. _ GENOVESI, Antonio, an Italian metaphysi- cian and political economist, 1712-1769. GENSERIC, king of the Vandals in Spain, b. at Seville 406, succeeded his broth. 428, d- 477. GENSONNE, Armand, a distinguished mem- ber of the Girondist party of the Fr. revolution, guillotined after the events of the 31st Oct., 1793. GENSSANE, a French naturalist, died 1780. GENT, Thomas, an English antiq., 1691-1778. GENTIEN, B., a French historian, 15th cent. GENTILE, L. G., a Flem. painter, 1606-1670. GENTILIS, Alberico, an Italian jurist, 1551- 1611. His son, Robert, a doctor of the civil law, translator, &c, born 1590. His brother, Scipio, also a writer on public law, 1563-1616. GENTILIS, J. V., a Socinian of Naples, be- headed in Switzerland for heresy, 1566. GENTIUS, G., a German Orientalist, 1618-87. GENTLEMAN, F., an Irish dramatist, 1728-84. GENTZ, Fred. Von, a Prussian statesman and antagonist of the French revolution, author of 'The State of Europe at the End of the 18th Century,' &c, 1760-1832. GEOFFREY of Monmouth, author of a fam- ous chronicle or history of the first British kings, often quoted by men of letters, and remarkable for its curious legends. Geoffrey was successively archdeacon of Monmouth, bishop of St. Asaph, and abbot of Abingdon, where he died 1154. GEOFFREY I., duke of Brittany, succeeded his father 992, slain on returning from a pilgrimage to Rome 1008. Geoffrey II., third son of Henry II., king of England, succeeded to the dukedom by marriage 1175, died 1186. GEOFFREY I., count of Anjou, reigned 958- 988. Geoffrey II., reigned 1039-1060. Geof- frey III., reigned conjointly with his brother until the latter despoiled him of the government 1060-1067. Another Geoffrey, called ' Planta- genet,' was duke of Normandy, and count of An- jou and Maine towards the middle of the 12th ct. GEOFFROI of Auxerre, a disciple of Abelard, author of several theological works, d. after 1180. GEOFFROI of Pr uilly, a French knight, distinguished as the stock of the counts of Ven- dome, and the legislator of tournaments, d. 1068. GEOFFROY, Louis Julian, a French critic, celeb, for his censures on the drama, 1743-1814. GEOFFROY, Stephen Francis, a celebrated French physician and chemist, member of the Academy of Sciences, professor of chemistry to the Garden of Plants, and of medicine and phar- macy to the College of France, 1672-1731. His brother, Claude Joseph, a naturalist and physi- ological author, 1 685-1752. Stephen Louis, son of Stephen Francis, a disk naturalist, 1725-1810. GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE, Etienne, a cele- brated zoologist, was born at Etampes in 1772. He died in 1844.— He was a pupil of the great mineralogist Haiiy, and was appointed through 2o8 GEO his recommendation assistant-keeper and demon- strator of the museum of natural history at the Garden of Plants. A few months afterwards he became professor of zoology there, and from that time forwards he devoted himself with great zeal to that particular branch of natural history. In 1798 he was appointed one of the scientific com- mission which accompanied the French army to Egypt, and it is to his firmness France owes the possession of the papers and drawings made in that country by himself and colleagues. Upon his return from Egypt he resumed his situation at the Garden of Plants ; but in 1810 he was again de- spatched by government on a mission to Portugal. Here he collected a vast quantity of minerals and animals from the museums of that country, and succeeded in transporting them to Paris. Geof- froy is the author of many important memoirs and valuable works upon zoology. The most impor- tant, perhaps, of all is his 'Philosophic Ana- tomique,' the chief object of which is to demon- strate throughout the animal kingdom a uniform plan of organization, recognizable by the existence, not of the same organs, but of the materials of the same organs in all. In connection with Cuvier, Geoffroy has contributed much to the progress of zoology in Europe. They created a school in which the study assumed a truly scientific charac- ter, and one which will long continue to exercise a salutary influence over the labours of succeeding generations. [W.B.j [Tomb of Geoffroy St. Hilaire ] GEORGE. The kings of England of this name are — George (Lewis) I., son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Fred- eric, elector palatine, and grand-daughter of James I., born at Osnabruck 1660 ; created duke of Cam- bridge 1706; succeeded Queen Anne, and thus commenced the house of Hanover 1714 ; d. 1727. George (Augustus) II., only son of the pre- ceding and the Princess Sophia, daughter of the duke of Zell, born 1683 ; married to the Princess Caroline of Brandenburgh-Anspach 1705 ; regent 1716; succeeded 1727; died after a victorious career in the Spanish and German wars, and the total subjugation of the Stuarts, 1760. George GEO (William Frederic) III., grandson of the pre- ceding, and son of Frederic Louis, prince of Wales, bom 1738 ; duke of Gloucester and prince of Wales on the death of his father 1751 ; succeeded to the throne 25th October, 1760 ; married to the Princess Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklenburgh Strelitz 1761 ; died, after nine years of mental aberration, 1820. George (Augustus Frederic) IV., eldest son of George III. and Queen Charlotte, born 1762 ; created prince of Wales and earl of Chester the same month ; married to Mrs. Fitzherbert 1784 ; married to his cousin, Caroline Amelia Eliza- beth, second daughter of the duke of Brunswick, 1795 ; separated from his wife, Caroline, shortly after the birth of the Princess Charlotte 1796; appointed regent in consequence of his father's mental incapacity 1811 ; crowned king 1820 ; died 26th June, 1830. GEORGE I., king of Georgia, reigned 1015- 1027. George II., 1072-1089. George III., 1156-1180. George IV., sumamed 'Lascha,' from about 1198-1223. George V., 1304-1306. George VL, 1306-1336. George VII., 1394- 1407. George VIII., 1524-1534. George IX., 1600-1603. George X., 1676-1709. George XI., who was the last king of Georgia, his son, David, having ceded his hereditary states to Alexander, emperor of Russia, succeeded his father Demetrius II. 1798, died 1800. GEORGE, or JOURI I., grand duke of Russia, and founder of Moscow, reigned 1149-1156. George II., succeeded 1212, dethroned by his brother Constantine 1217, killed in battle 1257. George III., succeeded 1302, killed 1320. GEORGE, prince of Denmark, son of Frederic III., and brother of Christian V., born 1653, mar- ried to the Princess Anne, daughter of James II., and subsequently queen of England, 1683, ap- pointed grand admiral of England on her acces- sion 1702, died 1708. GEORGE, patriarch of Alexandria, 620-630. GEORGE II., patriarch of Armenia, 876-897. GEORGE III., patriarch of Armenia, 1071-73. GEORGE, sumamed 'Amira,' an Oriental scbolar, and patriarch of the Maronites, d. 1641. GEORGE CADOUDAL. See Cadoudal. GEORGE-LE-FOULON, 'The Cappadocian,' bp. of Alexandria 356, deposed by the Arians 362. GEORGE, Pisides, a Greek poet, 7th cent. GEORGE, Saint, the patron of England and Genoa, a supposed prince of Cappadocia, martyred in the persecution under Diocletian, 3d century. GEORGE op Trebizond, a Greek gram- marian, professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Vienna, and secretary to Nicholas V., died 1484. GEORGEL, J. F., a French Jesuit, 1731-1813. GEORGES, Chevalier De St., a French violinist, musical comp., and swordsman, d. 1801. GEORGET, James, a French artist, celebrated as a painter on Sevres porcelain, 1760-1823. GEORGI, C. S., a German philologist, 1702-71. GEORGI, J. G., a German naturalist and wr. on the geography and ethnology of Russia, d. 1802. GEORGIADES, a Greek author, last century. GEORGIEWITZ, B., a Hungarian gentleman, long time captive among the Turks, and author of a work on Turkish manners, died 1560. GEORGII, E. F. De, a Ger. jurist, 1757-1830. GERALDINI, A., an ItaL prelate, 1455-1525. GER GERAMB, Baron Ferd., a military adven., de- scended from a noble Hung, family, and employed in the military service of Austria and Spam, au- thor of ' Letters to Earl Moira,' born 1770. GERANDO, Marie Joseph De, born 1772, died in 1842 : a French metaphysician of consider- able note. He possessed a mind of much lucidity, and his industry was great. He improved on the system of Condillac — rather returning to that of Locke. He may be called a logical preacher of the Scotch school. His chief work is the ' His- toire Comparee des Systemes de Philosophic;' but he wrote much besides on education and philanthropic institutions. His other important work is entitled ' De la Bienfaisan Publique.' GERARD, an Arabian scholar, 1114-1187. GERARD, count of Auvergne, 839-841. GERARD, duke of Lorraine, 1047-1070. GERARD, a Hungarian missionary, killed 1047. GERARD, Alexander, an eminent divine of the Church of Scotland, professor of moral philo- sophy and logic at Marischal College, author of 'An Essay on Taste,' 'An Essay on Genius,' 'Dissertations on the Genius and Evidences of Christianity,' &c, 1728-1795. His son, Gilbert, a theologian and biblical critic, died 1815. GERARD, Balthasar, a Roman Catholicfana- tic, assassin of William I., prince of Orange, 1584. GERARD, Francois, a Fr. paint., 1770-1837. GERARD, G. J., a Flemish antiqu., 1734-1814. GERARD, James, an English surgeon and traveller in the Himalaya mountains, died 1835. GERARD, Louis, a Fr. botanist, 1733-1819. GERARD, L. P., a French moralist, 1737-1813. GERARD, Maurice Stephen, Count, a dis- tinguished French marshal, 1773-1851. GERARD of Vercel, a Fr. philol.,1480-1544. GERARD-DE-RAYNEVAL, J. M., a French diploma., and writer on public affairs, 1736-1812. GERARD-GROOT, or The Great, a Dutch theologian, and founder of a community of savants, kn. as the canons regular of Windeshem, 1340-84. GERARD-THOM, or TENQUE, the founder and first grand master of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, 1040-1121. GERARDE, J., an Engl, herbalist, 1545-1607. GERARDIN, S., a French natural., 1751-1816. GERARDS, Mark, a Flem. paint., 1561-1635. GERBAIN, J., a French savant, 1629-1699. GERBER, Sir Balthasar, a Flemish painter, knighted by Charles I., 1592-1667. GERBERON, G., a French ecclesiastic, author of a 'History of Jansenism,' 1628-1711. GERBERT, M., a German savant, 1720-1793. GERBIER, P. J. B., a French lawyer, 1725-88. GERBILLON, J. F., a Fr. mission., 1654-1707. GERCKER, P. G., a Prussian writer on the ancient diplomacy of Brandenbourg, &c, 1722-91. GERDES, D., a German theologian, 1698-1765. GERDIL, Hyacinth Sigismond, an Italian cardinal, theologian, and philosopher, 1718-1802. GERHARD, E., a Germ, philoso., 1682-1718. GERHARD, John, a German Lutheran theo- logian, 1582-1637. His son, J. E. Gerhard, a theologian and Oriental scholar, 1623-1668. GERICAULT, Jean Louis Theodore An- dre, was bom at Rouen in 1790. He was the jaupil of Guerin, and became a great historical painter, and not less so for treating his subjects in a 2G9 GER familiar manner ; he was also a genre painter of high class. His peculiar powers are well illus- trated in the great and magnificent picture of the 'Shipwreck of the Medusa,' painted in 1819, and now m the Louvre at Paris : there is a very beauti- ful mezzotint of this picture by S. W. Reynolds. Gericault died almost at the threshold of his pro- mised great career in 1824.— (Gabet, Diclionnaire des Artistes, &c.) [R.N.W.] GERING, Ulric, a Swiss painter, died 1510. GERLAC, P., a Dutch ascetic, 1378-1411. GERLACH, B. T., a Germ, savant, 1698-1756. GERLACH, Stephen, a German theologian, preacher and traveller, 1546-1612. GERMAIN, M., a Fr. antiquarian. 1645-1694. GERMAIN, Peter, a French artist in gold and silver, 1647-1682. His son, Thomas, dist. as a goldsmith, sculptor, and architect, 1673-1748. GERMAIN, Saint, bp. of Auxerre, died 448. GERMAIN, Saint, bishop of Paris, died 576. GERMAIN of Silesia, a German monk, au- thor of an Arabain and Italian dictionary, 17th ct. GERMAIN, Sophia, a French lady, eel. as a wr. on natural philosophy and mathematics, 1776-1821. GERMANICUS, Tiberius Drusus Cesar, son of Claudius Drusus Nero and the younger An- tonia, a niece of Augustus, was commander of the Roman legions in Germany when Augustus died in the year 14, and refused at the hands of his soldiers the offer of the Roman empire. He was a great and successful general, and was recalled to Rome by Tiberius, of whom he was the nephew and adopted heir, to enjoy the honours of a triumph, from which he was sent to a command in the East. He d. at Antioch, at the age of thirty-four, a.d. 19. GERMANUS, thejirst of the name, patriarch of Constantinople, 715-740 ; the second, from 1222 to 1240, and again during the last year of his life, 1254-1255 ; the third, a few months in 1267. GERMON, B., a French Jesuit, author of ' De Veteribus Regium Fr. Diplomatibus,' 1663-1718. GERRARD of Haerlem, a Dutch painter, one of the first to practise in oil, 1460-1488. GERRARDS, G. P. Van, a Dutch painter, the friend and imitator of Vandyck, 1607-1667. GERSON, Chr., a German Talmudist, d. 1627. GERSON, G. C. De, a Fr. divine, 1363-1421. GERSTEN, C. L., a Germ, mathem., 1701-62. GERSTENBERG, H. W. De, a German philo- sopher, dram, author, poet, and critic, 1737-1823. GERTRUDE, the name of three Roman Catho- lic saints, the first, abbess of Nivelle, 626-659 ; the second, an abbess of the order of St. Benedict, and author of ' Revelations,' died 1034; the third, a daughter of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, d. 1297. GERVAIS, an English ecclesiastic of the middle ages, author of ' Letters,' died 1228. GERVAISE, Nicholas, a French missionary, author of descriptions of Siarn and Macassar, killed by the Caribs, 1662-1729. Armand Fran- cis, his brother, a biographical writer, died 1751. GERVAISE of Tilbury, an English poet and historian, both in the Latin tongue, died 1218. GESENIUS, Fbjomsric Henry William, an eminent German philologist and Oriental scholar, professor of Hebrew at the university of Halle, au. of a well-known Hebrew Lexicon, &c, 1786-1842. GESENIUS, W., a German phys., 1760-1801. GESNER, Conrad, a native of Zurich, distin- 27i GHE guished as an indefatigable scholar, philosopher, and naturalist, 1516-1561. GESNER, J. J., a missionary of Zurich, author of 'Numismata Antiqua Populorum et Urbram,' &c, 1707-1787. His brother, John, a physician and naturalist, 1709-1787. GESNER, J. M., a philologist and classical scholar, born near Anspacn, 1691-1761. His bro- ther, Andrew Samuel, a distinguished savant, 1690-1778. J. Albert, his younger brother, distinguished as a naturalist, 1694-1760. GESNER, Sol., a German divine 1559-1605. ,:-& [Tomb of Gesncr.] GESNER, or GESSNER, Solomon, a painter of Zurich, better known as a poet, 1730-1788. His son, Conrad, distinguished as a painter of horses and battle-pieces, died 1826. GESTRIN, J., a Swedish mathema., 17th cent. GETA, Publius Septimius, second son of the emperor Severus, brother and associate of Cara- calla, by whose orders he was murdered 210. GETHIN, Lady Grace, an English lady, dis- tinguished for her literary abilities, 1676-1697. GEULINX, A., a Flem. philosopher, 1625-69. GEYSER, C. T., a Genu, engraver, 1742-1803. GEYSER, S. W., a German author, 1740-1808. GEZELIUS, J., a Swedish theologian and Gr. scholar, bishop of Abo, an. of a Greek grammar, a Hebrew grammar, &c, 1615-1690. His son, John, a theologian, part author of a commentary on the Bible, commenced by his father, 1647-1718. GEZELIUS, George, a Swedish divine, auth. of a biog. diet, of illustrious Swedes, 1732-1789. GHAZAN-KHAN, sultan of Persia, died 1304. GHEDINI, F. A., an Italian poet, 1684-1767. GHERARDESEA, U., a noblem. of Tuscany who endeavoured to usurp the sov. power of Pisa, and was vanquished and starved in prison, together with three of his sons and one of his grandsons, 1288. GHERARDI, A., an Ital. painter, 1664-1702. GHEYN, or GHEIN, James Du, called 'The Elder,' a Flemish painter and engraver, 1565- 1615. 'The Younger,' of the same name, a de- signer and engraver, born about 1610. GHEYN, Guido, a Flemish engraver, 17th ct. GHEZZI, N., an Italian naturalist, 1685-1766. GHEZZI, Sebastiano, a scholar of Guercino, distinguished as an architect, painter, and sculp-- 5 GHT tor, died about 1650. His son, Joseph, a painter, 1634-1720. The son of the latter, Peter Leo, a painter and engraver, 1674-1755. GHIBERTI, Lorenzo, a celebrated Florentine sculptor and goldsmith, was born in 1381. In 1400 he left Florence for fear of the plague, but returned shortly afterwards, when he received notice of the great competition that was to take place on the occasion of completing the bronze gates of the Baptistery of St. John. The centre fates opposite to the west end of the cathedral ad been already put up by Andrea Pisano, the new gates were for the two sides. — The commis- sion for these two new gates was obtained by Lorenzo Ghiberti, then a young man only twenty- two years of age : the contract was given to Ghi- berti and his father, and other assistants, on the 23d November, 1403, and the first gates, represent- ing the life of Christ, were put up in the place of those by Andrea Pisano, in April, 1424; and the third gates, commenced on 2d January, 1425, with the histories from the Old Testament, were not completed until 16th June, 1452, when they were gilded and put up in the place of Ghiberti's first gates, which were removed to the other side, opposite to those of Andrea Pisano. These great works, of the last of which entire casts may be seen at Marlborough House, caused a new epoch in ornamental art, being remarkable for their bold and accurate imitation m the detail, for their skil- ful modelling of the figure, and masterly sym- metrical grouping of the whole ; on a scale of magnificence, and technical completeness, alto- gether unprecedented in modern art. During the nine and forty years that Ghiberti and his assis- tants, of whom his own son Vittorio was one of the principal, were occupied on these complicated works, he executed also many others, monumen- tal and ecclesiastical, which must explain the ap- parently long delay in the completion of the gates. Ghiberti died at Florence in 1455. — (Vasari, Vite efe' Pittori, &c, Florence 1848 ; Patch, La Porta Principale del Battistero di San Giovanni, &c, Florence, 17730 [B.N.W.] GHILINI, G., an Italian historian, 1589-1670. GHINI, Luke, an Italian botanist, 1500-1556. GHIRLANDAJO, Domentco, an Italian pain- ter and goldsmith, teacher of Michelangelo, 1449-1493. His son, Ridolfo, also a painter, scholar of his uncle David Curadi, 1485-1560. GIACOBI, J., an Italian composer, 1575-1650. GIAFAR, a Mahoramedan savant, died 764. GIAHEDH, a Mahommedan savant, died 840. GIAMBERTI, F., an Ital. architect, 15th cent. GIANNONE, P., a Neapolitan hist., 1676-1748. GIANNOTTI, D., a Venetian au., 1494-1563. GIARDINI, Felice, who has been called the reformer, if not the founder, of the violin school in England, was born at Turin in 1716, and was en- tered a chorister at the Duomo in Milan, where he studied singing, the harpsichord, and composition, tinder Paladini. He afterwards adopted the violin, and studied under Lorenzo Somis, one of Corelli's most famous followers. After having visited the principal cities of Italy, he travelled over Germany, and at length reached London in the year 1750, where he soon reached the top of his profession, and where he filled the highest professional posts then open to the musical artist. It is said that GIB when he first appeared at the Haymarket theatre, and played a solo on the violin, ' the applause was long, loud, and furious, and such as nothing but that which Garrick called forth had ever equalled.' In the year 1756, he in company with Mignotti, be- came the manager of the Italian Opera, and though he composed several operas, and acquired much fame, his undertaking was very unsuccessful. Giardini in the year 1763 retired from the manage- ment, after having lost a large sum of money. In 1784 Giardini went to Italy, where he remained five years. In 1789 he came back to England, but was not so successful as during his first resi- dence. In 1793 he went to Russia. His public performances at Moscow and St. Petersburg failed to produce the effect of his earlier efforts. He died in the latter city in poverty in the vear 1796. [J.M.l GIATTINI, J. B., an Italian poet, 1600-1672. GIB, Adam, a Scotch divine, 1713-1788. GIBBES, J. A., a French physician, 1616-77. GIBBON, Edward, was born at Putney in Surrey, in 1737. He was the only child who sur- vived infancy, of a gentleman well connected and tolerably wealthy. Feeble health made his school days to be profitable in nothing but the acquisition of miscellaneous and undigested knowledge ; and, being sent to Oxford too young and quite unpre- pared, he spent fourteen months there in alterna- tions of irregular study and extreme idleness. At the end of this time, being a little more than six- teen years old, he embraced the Roman Catholic faith, and formally announced his conversion to his father. He was immediately placed under the care of a Calvinist minister at Lausanne, whose instructions led him in a few months back to pro- testantism. The five years he spent at Lausanne, closing in 1758, when he was just of age, formed the real commencement of his education ; and, at their close, he was not only a ripe scholar in French and Latin, but possessed of an extraordinary amount of historical and other information. He found leisure, however, for falling in love, unsuc- cessfully, with a young lady, who afterwards be- came the wife of M. Necker and the mother of Madame De Stael. — For several years after Gib- bon's return to England, he lived chiefly at his father's house in Hampshire ; and, failing in at- tempts to obtain diplomatic employment, he accepted a militia commission, attended zealously to his duties, and rose to be lieutenant-colonel. But the studious habits and literary ambition which he had acquired, never flagged. In 1761, he published, in French, a short essay ' On the Study of Literature.' He extended his acquain- tance with English authors, and, beginning to learn Greek thoroughly, pursued the study zeal- ously, when, in 1763, he was allowed again to visit the continent. In Rome, next year, he conceived the design of his great historical work. Returning home in 1765, he passed some years unsatisfac- torily to himself, but not without much improve- ment both in knowledge and in skill of writing. In 1774, he entered the House of Commons, in which he sat for eight sessions ; and he was rewarded for his silent votes in favour of Lord North's adminis- tration, by holding for three years a seat at the board of trade. In 1770, he published, in answer to Warburton, his spirited Dissertation on the 271 GIB Sixth Book of the ^Ineid. In the same year, the death of his father placed him in possession of a fortune, which, though embarrassed, he was able to extricate so far that it afforded a handsome com- petence, and enabled him to devote himself exclu- sively to study and composition. — In 1776, he published the first volume of ' The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' the first edition of which was sold in a few days, and was rapidly followed by others. The second and third volumes, appearing in 1781, brought down the narrative to the Fall of the Western Empire ; and for a while the author hesitated whether he should not here allow the work to drop. He resumed the design, however, in 1783, when ne fixed his abode at Lausanne. He has recorded, in an eloquent passage of his Memoirs, the mixed emotions with which, in a moonlight night of June, 1787, in a summer- house in his garden, he completed his great under- taking. Its last three volumes were published next year, the author visiting London to superintend the press, but returning in a few months to Lau- sanne. There he remained till, in 1793, he was called to England to console his friend Lord Shef- field on the death of his wife. His health was now very infirm ; and he laboured under dropsy. He died in London in January, 1794. — The volumes called his ' Miscellaneous Works,' contain, besides reprints of his minor writings, and several essays not previously printed, an interesting collection of his letters, and an instructive autobiography. Some of these pieces show all that various erudi- tion, and that command of apt and powerful lan- guage, of which his chief work is so remarkable a monument. His exotic diction, and the pompous structure of his style, are open to strong excep- tions ; yet he is one of the most strikingly eloquent writers in our language. The historical value of his 'Decline and "Fall' is very great; and the extraordinary union of excellencies, of vast variety with general correctness of learning, of good judgment with vigour of narrative and description, deepens the regret with which we contemplate the sceptical taint that is diffused so steadily through the whole. [W.S.] GIBBON, John, an ancestor of the celebrated historian, known as a writer on heraldry, born 1629, died about 1700. GIBBONS, Grinling, a celebrated carver in wood, was born at Rotterdam, 4th April, 1648, and appears to have visited this country in 1667, the year after the great fire. Evelyn, who calls him the incomparable Gibbons, introduced him to King Charles II., and also to Sir Christopher Wren, who employed him extensively in the de- corations of St. Paul's. Gibbons received a place in the Board of Works, and was much employed at Windsor. In 1714 he was appointed master carver in wood to George I., with a salary of eigh- teenpence a-day. He died in London, 3d August, 1721. — There are many fine specimens of Gibbons's carvings at Hampton Court, and at Petworth, the state room there being considered by some his masterpiece : also at Houghton; and there are some specimens still in St. James's Church, Lon- don. His works are in very high relief, and the details, fruit, flowers, game, &c, generally grouped in great clusters or festoons, and though from the proper distance they appear to be of extreme deli- 272 GIF cacy, are of a solid character, and very judiciously disposed. He made a taste for carvings of this class fashionable, and had several skilful scholars and imitators, as Selden, Watson, Dievot, and Laurens; much work attributed to Gibbons was doubtless executed by some one of these men. — (Walpole, Anecdotes of Painters, &c, ed. Womum. Bohn, 1849.) [R.N.W.] GIBBONS, Orlando, Mus. Doc., who is regarded as one of the greatest English musicians, was born at Cambridge, in 1583. He was only twenty-one years of age when he was appointed organist to the chapel royal, and in 1622, on the recommendation of the learned antiquary Camden, who was his personal friend, the University of Oxford conferred upon him their degree of Doctor of Music. Some years afterwards, while he was at Canterbury for the purpose of conducting the musical performances at the marriage of Charles I., he fell ill of small-pox and died He was buried in the cathedral of Canteitoury, where his wife caused a simple and elegant marble monument to be erected to his memory. His first publications were madrigals in four parts for voices and viols, but the best of his works are his church services and anthems, many of which are still extant. ' The compositions of Gibbons are for the most part,' says one of his biographers, ' truly excellent, and the study of them cannot be too strongly re- commended. The characteristics of his music are fine harmony, unaffected simplicity, and an almost unexampled grandeur.' Another writer says, ' after a lapse of upwards of two hundred years, his com- positions seem to have lost none of their freshness, and are still, and likely to continue, the admiration of all real judges of what is excellent in music' He left a son, Christopher, who was also a musician, but who inherited only a very meagre share of his father's genius. Orlando Gibbons was survived by two brothers, Edward, who was organist of Bris- tol, and master of the celebrated Matthew Locke, and Ellis, organist of Salisbury. [J.M.] GIBBONS, Richard, an English Jesuit, pro- fessor of philosophy and divinity ,1549-1632. GIBBONS, Thos., an Engl. Calvinist, 1720-85. GIBBS, James, a Scotch architect, designer of the Radcliffe Library at Oxford, the church of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, &c, 1680-1754. GIBBS, Sir V., an English judge, 1752-1820. GIBERT, J. P., one of the most learned of French authors on the canon law, 1660-1736. Balthasar Gibert, of the same family, a wri- ter on rhetoric, 1662-1741. John Balthasar, a learned historian and chronological wr., 1711-1770. GIBSON, Edmund, successively bishop of Lin- coln and London, distinguished as a writer on ecclesiastical antiquities, and as a classical editor and translator, 1669-1748. GIBSON, Richard, a celebrated dwarf, and portrait painter, time of Cromwell, 1615-1690. GIBSON, Th., a wr. of the reformation, d. 1562. GIBSON, Wm., a mathemat. teacher, 1720-91. GIFFEN, H., a Dutch critic, 1534-1604. GIFFORD, Andrew, a Calvinistic and anti- quarian wr., especially on numismatics, 1700-84. GIFFORD, John, a political and historical wri- ter, whose real name was J. R. Green, 1758-1818. GIFFORD, R., an English divine, 1725-1807. GIFFORD, William, the son of a poor and dis- GIL sipated tradesman, was born in Devonshire in 1756. Becoming in childhood a destitute orphan, he was successively a cabin-boy and a shoemaker's ap- prentice: but a benevolent patron put him to school ; and, finding his way to Oxford, he there gained aristocratic patronage, and, attaching him- self to the Tory party, proved one of its most effec- tive literary advocates. In 1798, he became editor of the Antijacobin ; and for about sixteen years from 1809, he edited the Quarterly Review. He was eminently qualified for such offices, both by his aptness and force of writing, his variety of in- formation, and his readiness and unhesitating vehemence of satire. Not far from the close of the century appeared his two satirical poems, 'The Baviad' and 'The Mseviad;' and his vigorous and spirited translation of Juvenal was published in 1802. His best services to letters were his editions of Old English Dramatists. His ' Massinger ' ap- peared in 1808 ; his ' Ben Jonson,' the most valuable of the series, in 1816 : and his editions of Ford and Shirley, completed by other hands, were published in 1827 and 1833. He died in the end of 1826, bequeathing the bulk of his property to the son of his early benefactor. [W.S.I GIL, Father, a Spanish patriot, dist. in 1808. GILBERT, Davies, born at St. Erth in Cora- wall 1767, known as an antiquarian, and successor of Sir Humphry Davy as president of the Royal Society, author of ' A Plain Statement of the Bul- lion Question,' and many scientific papers. Gil- bert was M.P. for Bodmin from 1806-32, d. 1840. GILBERT, F. H., a Fr. veterinarian, 1755-1800. GILBERT, Gab., a French poet, died 1680. GILBERT, Sir Humphrey, half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, was a man of ardent tempera- ment and chivalrous character, who engaged in geo- graphical discovery from the love of fame and adventure. Under patent from Queen Elizabeth, he sailed, in 1583, with five vessels and 260 men, to take possession of the northern parts of America. In Newfoundland, whose fisheries were already much frequented by French, Spanish, and Portu- guese ships, he succeeded in establishing a colony, and thus secured the influence of England in those parts, the title being founded upon the first discovery by Sebastian Cabot. He ventured across the Atlantic, on his homeward voyage, in a vessel of only ten tons; but after passing the Azores he perished during the night in a storm, with all on board his little barque. He was seen on the evening before, struggling with the waves, by those in the Golden Hind (see Drake), which had accompanied him from the coast of Virginia, and in which he had been urged to take his passage home. He has been called 'the father of western colonization.' [J.B.] GILBERT, J., an English author, 1674-1726. GILBERT, L. T., a Fr. author, 1780-1827. GILBERT, L. W., a Fr. med. au., 1769-1824. GILBERT, N. A., a French theolo., 1762-1821. GILBERT, N. J. L., a French poet, 1751-1780. GILBERT, N. P., a Fr. med. au., 1751-1814. GILBERT, Saint, a French monk, died 1162. GILBERT, Wm., an English divine, 1613-94. GILBERT, or GILBERD, William, an Eng- lish physician, distinguished as an experimental philosopher, and especially for his researches into the properties of the loadstone, and for his attempt 2; GIO to found a philosophical theory of the earth's magnetism upon experiment. His work, entitled 'De Magnete,' published 1600, is understood to be the foundation of all modern improvement in that branch of philosophy ; bora at Colchester, where his father was recorder, 1540, died 1603. GILBERT-DE-LA-POREE, a celebrated Fr. theologian and philoso. of the Realists, 1070-1154. GILBERT DE SEMPRINGHAM, an English priest, founder of a religious order, died 1180. GILBERT DES VOISINS, a French magis- trate and writer on protestant liberty, 1684-1769. GILCHRIST, E., a Scotch med. au., 1707-74. GILCHRIST, J. B., a Sc. Oriental., 1759-1841. GILCHRIST, Oct., a dram, critic, 1779-1 823. GILDAS, Saint, a British ecclesiastic, 6th ct. GILDAS, Saint, a celebrated English historian and theologian, of royal extraction, died 512. GILDAS, The Wise, a British monk, the most ancient author of this country, 511-570. GILDON, Roman governor of Africa, k. 398. GILDON, Ch., an Engl, dramatist, 1665-1723. GILIANEZ, a Portuguese admiral who contri- buted to the African discoveries, 1443-1446. GILII, P. L., an Ital. astronomer, 1756-1821. GILL, Alex., an English theologian, master of St. Paul's school, and teacher of Milton, 1564- 1635. His son and successor, of the same name, distinguished also as a Latin poet, 1597-1642. GILL, John, a baptist divine, 1697-1771. GILLES, John, a French musician, died 1705. GILLES, Peter, a classical trans., 1490-1555. GILLES, Peter, a Swiss protest, div., 17th ct. GILLESPIE, Geo., a Scotch divine, died 1648. GILLIES, John, an eminent Greek scholar and historian of Scotland, author of a ' History of Ancient Greece,' &c, 1747-1836. GILON, an Italian card, and author, died 1142. GILPIN, Bernard, a celebrated English re- former, called, on account of his pious and un- wearied exertions in Durham, the Apostle of the North and the Father of the Poor ; he was bom in 1517, escaped the stake by the opportune death of Queen Mary, and died 1583. His life has been written by Bishop Carleton, and by his descendant William Gilpin. The latter, who is the well known writer on forest scenery, on the picturesque, &c, was a minister of the Church of England, and brother of Sawrey Gilpin the painter, 1724-1804. GILPIN, Richard, a nonconf divine, d. 1657. GILPIN, Sawrey, an Engl, paint., 1733-1807. GIL-POLO, G., a Spanish poet, 1516-1572. GILRAY, Jas., an Engl, caricaturist, d. 1815. GIL-VICENTE, a celebrated dramatic author, called the Plautus of Portugal, 1485-1557. GIMMA, H., an Italian naturalist, 1668-1735. GIN, P. L. C, a Fr. miscel. wr., 1726-1807. GINANI, G., an Italian poet, died after 1634. GINANI, Joseph, Count, an Italian naturalist, 1692-1753. Francis, his nephew, a naturalist and agriculturist, 1716-1766. PAUL^of the same family, a learned ecclesiastic, 1698-1774. GINGUENE, P. L., a Fr. historian, 1748-1815. GIOBERT, J. A., an Ital. chemist, 1761-1834. GIOCONDO, Fra. Giovanni, in Latin Jucundus, an Italian antiquarian and architect, editor of several classics, about 1435-1514. GIOFFREDO, P., an Italian hibt., 1629-1692. GIOIA, Flavio, an Italian navigator, 14th ct. 3 T GIO GIOJA, M., an Italian economist, 1767-1829. GIORDANI, Guiseppe, sometimes called Giordanello, whose songs at one time enjoyed the highest popularity in Britain, was horn in Italy about the year 1750. He came to England very young, and soon had all his time filled up in giving lessons in music. In 1779 he entered into partnership with Leoni the singer, and they jointly became lessees of a theatre in Dublin, Giordani as composer, and his partner as singer. This specu- lation proved a complete failure, and in four years they were bankrupt. Giordani after this continued to reside in Dublin, where he had several pupils of distinction, and where he married the daughter of Tate Wilkinson. He composed two operas, ' An- tigone ' and ' Artaserse,' for the Italian Opera in England, and one for the English stage. He died in Dublin in 1789. [J.M.] GIORDANI, V., an Italian mathe., 1633-1711. GIORDANO, L., a Neapol. paint., 1632-1705. GIORDANO, S., an Ital. painter, 1779-1829. GIORGAKI, a Grk. naval commander, d. 1821. GIORGI, A., a Venetian Jesuit, 1747-1779. GIORGI, Ant. A., an Italian theolo., 1711-97. GIORGI, D., an Ital. antiquarian, 1690-1747. GIORGI, Maria, an Italian painter, 1780-1810. GIORGI, Marino, a Venetian doge, succeeded and died 1311. GIORGIONE, the name by which Giorgio Bar- barelli is commonly known. He was born near Castelfranco in 1477, and was the fellow-pupil of Titian with Giovanni Bellini at Venice. He became a great colourist, and his pictures are further dis- tinguished for objective truth of representation and effective light and shade. His pictures are very scarce : they consist chiefly of portraits. He died at Venice in 1511, at the early age of thirty- three.— (Vasari, Vite de' Pitiori, &c; Ridolfi, Ma- raviqlie delf Arte, &c.) [R.N.W.] GIOSEPPINO, an Italian painter, died 1640. GIOTTINO, Th., an Ital. painter, 1324-1356. GIOTTO DI BONDONE was born at Vespig- nano in 1276 ; he was the pupil of Cimabue, and appears to have owed the development of his ex- traordinary faculties almost wholly to that painter, who in one of his walks near Florence, saw Giotto, then a shepherd boy, sketching one of his flock on the ground, and perceived so much native talent in the attempt, that he persuaded the boy's parents to let him take him with him to Florence, and make a painter of him. Florence dates its preponderance in the history of Tuscan painting from the time of Giotto ; his works mark the era of the first great epoch of the art in modern times : the rigid traditional forms of the Byzantine school were finally laid aside for nature; the beautiful now supplanting the hideous as the fundamental element of the canons of art. — Giotto was painter, sculptor, architect, and mosaic worker; he en- riched many cities in Italy with his works, (chiefly in fresco,) especially Florence, Rome, Naples, Padua, and Assisi ; and by his introduction of in- dividuality of treatment through the careful study of nature, established legitimate portrait. The frescoes of the Arena chapel, Padua, are in course of publication by the Arundel Society. Giotto was in Pome in 1298, he was at Avignon for some years afterwards, between 1305 and 1314; in 1316 he returned to Florence, in 1327 he visited GLA j Naples, and he died at Florence in 1336. — (VasarL ; 1 r Ue f/e' Pittori, &c, ed. Florence, 1846.) [R.N. W.] GIOVANETTI, F., an Italian jurist, died 1586. GIOVENAZZI, V. M., an It. savant, 1727-1805. GIOVENE, J. M., an Italian natu., 1753-1837. GIOVINAZZO, V., an Italian poet, died 1805. GIOVIO, B., an Italian savant and Latin poet, 1471-1544. Paul, his brother, bishop of Noceraj a celebrated historian, 1483-1552. Paul, the Younger, also a literarv savant, 1530-1585. GIOVIO, J. B., Count, a poet, 1738-1814. GIRALDI, Lino Gregorio, better known an Gyraldus, a learned Italian poet, author of a history of the heathen deities, &c, 1479-1552. Giovanni Battiste Giraldi Cintio, of the same family, author of the ' Gli Hecatomiti,' or ' Hundred Novels,' &c, 1504-1573. GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS. See Barry. GIRARD, A., a Dutch wr. on algebra, d. 1634. GIRARD, G., a Fr. gramma, wr., 1677-1748. GIRARD, J., a French theologian, 1570-1634. GIRARD, J., a French jurisconsult, died 1583. GIRARD, P. S.. a Fr. engineer, 1765-1835. GIRARD, W., a French writer, died 1663. GIRARDET, A., a Swiss engraver, 1764-1823. GIRARDET, P. A., a French mythol., 1733-89. GIRARDON, F., a French sculpt., 1630-1715. GIRDLESTONE, Th., a physician and medical writer, author of ' Essays on the Hepatitics and Spasmodic Affections in India,' &c, 1758-1822. GIREY-DUPRE, J. M., a French republican, kn. as a journalist and poet, b. 1769, exec. 1793. GIRODET-TRIOSON, Anne Louis, a French painter, considered one of the greatest of the modern school, instructed by David, 1735-1824. GIROUST, F., a French composer, 1730-1799. GIROUST, J., a French preacher, 1624-1689. GIRTIN, Th., an English painter, 1773-1802. GISBERT, Blaise, a French Jesuit and rhe- torician, author of various religious, critical, and philosophical writings, 1657-1731. GISBERT, J., a Fr. theologian, 1639-1711. GISBORNE, Rev. Thomas, a divine of the Church of England, eminent as a moralist and miscellaneous writer, author of 'Principles of Mora] Philosophy Investigated,' ' An Inquirv into the Duties of the Female Sex,' &c, 1758-1840. GISMONDI, C. J., an Italian mineralogist and mathematician, 1762-1824. GIULIO-ROMANO. See Romano. GIUNTINI, F., an Ital. theologian, 1522-1590. GIUSTINIANI. See Justlnian. GJOERANSON, John, a Swedish divine, known as a writer on the antiquity of the North, middle of last century. GJOERWEL, Ch. C, a Swed. wr., 1731-1811. GLABER, P., a French chronicler, 11th cent. GLADBACH, C. J., a Ger. naturalist, 1736-96. GLANVIL, B., a philosophical writer, 14th ct. GLANVIL, Sir John, a learned English law- yer rnd royalist, speaker of the House of Com- mons in the reign of Charles I., died 1661. His grandson, of the same name, a lawyer and poet, trans, of ' Fontenelle's Plurality of Worlds,' d. 1735. GLANVIL, GLANVILL, or GLANVILLE, Ranulph De, an English judge and crusader, accomp. Richard I., and fell at siege of Acre, 1190. GLANVILL, JOSEPH, an English divine, au- thor of many philosophical and learned writings, 274 GLA amongst the more famous of which are his ' Van- ity oi' Dogmatizing,' 'Some Philosophical Con- siderations Touching the Being of Witches and Witchcraft,' ' An Inquiry into the Opinion of the Eastern Sages Concerning the Pre-existence of Souls,' 'Scepsis Scientifica, or Confessed Igno- rance the Way to Science,' and ' Plus Ultra, or the Progress and Advancement of Science since the Days of Aristotle.' He was one of the new school of philosophical divines of which Cudworth may be regarded as the most illustrious example ; born at Plymouth 1686, d. in his rectory at Bath 1680. GLASER, J. F., a German chemist, 1707-1781. GLASS, John, a Scottish divine, founder of the Glassites, since called Sandemanians, 1698- 1773. His son, of the same name, a marine sur- geon, au. of a 'Description of Teneriffe,' 1725-1765. GLASSE, G. H., an English scholar, died 1809. GLASSIUS, S., a Dutch critic, 1593-1656. GLAUBER, John, a Dutch painter, 1646-1726. GLAUBER, John Rodolph, a German chemist, and experimenter in alchymy, the dis- cov. of the sulphate of soda kn. by his name, 16th c. GLEDITSCH, J. T., a Ger. natural., 1714-86. GLEICHEN, C. H., a Ger. metaph., 1733-1807. GLEICHEN, F. W., a nat. philos., 1717-1783. GLEICHMANU, J. Z., a Ger. savant, d. 1758. GLEIM, J. W. L., a German poet, 1719-1803. GLEN, John De, a French engraver, 16th cent. GLENDOWER, or GLEKDWE, Owen, a Welch chief, descended from Llewellyn, the last prince of Wales, and distinguished for the long contest which he maintained with Henry IV., born 1349, crowned by his adherents 1402, died 1415. GLENIE, J., an Irish mathema., 1750-1817. GLEY, G., a French lexicographer, 1761-1830. GLIEMANN, J. G. T., a Danish geographer, au. of maps of the Northern Countries, 1793-1828. GLISCENTI, F., an Italian moralist, died 1620. GLISSON, Francis, a learned English phy- sician, a native of Dorsetshire, was born 1597, and died in 1677. He was for forty years profes- sor of medicine in the university of Cambridge, and became a member of the College of Physicians of London in 1634. On the breaking out of the civil war he retired to Colchester, but subsequently settled in London, and was one of the original members of the Royal Society. He enjoyed a con- siderable reputation in his lifetime, and wrote several treatises on anatomical and medical sub- jects, which are respectfully spoken of by Haller, but which are now neglected. fj.M'C] GLOSKOUSKI, M., a Polish poet, 17th cent. GLOUCESTER, Robert of, an old English rhyme chronicler, about the time of King John. GLOUCESTER, William Frederic, duke of, son of Prince William Henry, third son of Frederic prince of Wales, and brother of George III., bora at Rome 1776, married to his first cousin, the Princess Mary, fourth daughter of George III., 1816, died 1834. GLOVER, Mrs., an English actress, 1780-1850. GLOVER, Richard, a distinguished Greek scholar and poet, popularly known as the author of ' Leonidas, ' Hosier's Ghost,' &c, 1712-1785. GLOVER, Thos., a wr. on heraldry, 1543-88. GLUCK, Christoph, was born in Weiden- wagen in the upper Palatinate, in the year 1714, where his father held the situation of forester to GLU the Prince Lobkowitz. Early in childhood ho went with his family to Bohemia, where his father died and left him without education, and in cir- cumstances little removed from absolute penury. Gluck was, however, gifted with a mind of no ordi- nary power, and he soon made his proficiency in music the means of placing himselfabove want. He went from town to town as an itinerant musi- cian until he arrived at Vienna, where he met with a nobleman who became his patron, and in whose suite the young Gluck went to Italy, and became the pupil of the renowned Padre Martini. Here he was put upon the establishment of Prince Melzi as composer, and before he returned to Germany he produced several successful operas. His fame had now spread so far beyond the city of Milan, that in 1745 he was invited by the directors of the king's theatre to come to London, where he was to hold the situation of composer to that establishment. His success in London was not very decided. While in this situation he produced his 'La Caduta dei Giganti,' and 'Artamene' operas, and ' Piramo e Tisbe ' a pasticchio con- sisting of selections from all his previous works. After this Gluck went for a short time to Copen- hagen, from whence he was invited to return to Italy, where he produced his ' Clemenza di Tito,' ' Antigonus,' ' Clelia,' ' Baucis e Philemon,' and ' Aristideo,' with varied success. He then went to Vienna, where in connection with Signor Calzabigi, an ingenious poet, he projected a new style of operatic composition, and in 1764 produced his ' Orfeo ' with the most complete success, ' Helen of Paris,' and ' Alcesti,' speedily following. Gluck now visited the principal cities of Italy, and when at Naples was engaged to compose two operas. On his return to Vienna he composed and produced his ' Iphigenia in Aulide,' the libretto of which was an adaptation of the text of Racine's Iphigenia. The fame of this piece reached Paris, whither Gluck was invited by the Academie Royale. On his ar- rival at Paris, Marie Antoinette immediately be- came his pupil and patron, and at her bidding the Iphigenia was produced on the 19th of April, 1776, under his own direction, and with the most trium- {>hant success, notwithstanding the prejudice which lad been fostered against it before its performance. Immediately after this Paris was divided into two bodies, Gluckistes and Piccinistes, the latter party being the devoted admirers of Piccini the Italian composer, who was then rising into eminence ; but though the musical war raged for a long time, nevertheless, when the termination of hostilities arrived the triumph of Gluck was complete. Having composed two more operas, Gluck returned to Vienna in 1779, and never after quitted that city. In 1784 he was attacked by paralysis, under which he suffered until 1787, when ne died, leaving a fortune of £30,000, the fruits of his talents and industry. The writer of the sketch of his life in the Musical Library says — ' The Chevalier Gluck — for he had received an order of knighthood — was a man of powerful mind, by means of which he supplied the deficiencies of early education. He read much, associated with literary and scientific Sersons, and reflected deeply; hence, all his works isplay an intellectuality not often found in the productions of the lyric stage, which have preserved them, and will continue to preserve them, while 275 GLY nearly all the compositions of his contemporaries and rivals have sunk into oblivion.' [J.M. ] GLYCAS, Michael, a Greek historian, 12th or 18th century, author of a universal historv. GLYNN, Robert, an English poet, died"l800. GMELIN, J. F., a German chemist, 1748-1804. GMELIN, J. G., a German botanist, 1709-55. GMELIN, S. T., nephew of the preceding, au- thor of ' Travels through Russia,' &C, 1715-1774. GMELIN, W. F., a Ger. engraver, 1745-1831. GNEDITSCH, N., a Russian poet, 1784-1833. GNEISENAU, Augustus, Count Neidhard De, a Prussian officer, dist. at Waterloo, 1760-1832. GOAD, John, a classical author, 1615-1689. GOADBY, R., a miscellaneous writer, d. 1778. GOAR, James, a learned Fr. monk, 1601-53. GOBBO, Andrea, an Ital. painter, died 1527. GOBBO, Pietro Paolo Bonzi, called II- Gobbo, or Gobbo De Caracci, an Italian painter, famous for his repres. of fruits, 1580-1640. GO BEL, Jean Baptiste Joseph, a French ecclesiastic, bom 1727, deputy to the estates general 1789, constitutional bishop of Paris, 1793, executed with Anacharsis Cloots, Hebert, and others, for his shameful endeavours to found the social order of the republic upon atheism, 1794. GOBELIN, Giles, an ingenious Frenchman, famous as a dyer of scarlet in the reign of Francis I., founder of the works where the admired Gobe- lin tapestry has been produced, 17th century. GOBERT, Napol., a French general, 1807-33. GOBET, N., a Fr. historian, died about 1781. GOCLENIUS, C., a Gei-man philol., 1485-1539. GOCLENIUS, Rodolph, a German logician and literary savant, 1547-1628. His son, of tbe same name, a naturalist and writer on animai magnetism, 1572-1621. GODARD, J., a French poet, 1564-1625. GODARD, J. B., a Fr. naturalist, 1775-1825. GODDARD, Jon., an Eng. chemist, 1617-1674. GODDARD, Rev.W. S., formerly master of Win- chester school, of which he became a benefactor, and late prebend, of St. Paul's and Salisb., 1757-1845. GODEAU, A., a Fr. ecclesias. hist., 1605-1672. GODEAU, M., a French religious au., d. 1736. GODEBERT, a king of the Lombards, 661-662. GODESCHALCUS, or GOTTESCHALCUS, was by birth a Saxon, and was educated in a monastery at Fulda. On arriving at manhood, he struggled hard against a monastic life, but Rabanus Maurus his future persecutor interfered, the influ- ence of Louis the emperor was invoked against him, and his early and unconscious consecration as a monk by his father, was held to be an inviol- able bond. On his subsequent removal to Orbais in the diocese of Soissons he was ordained a pres- byter, and we find him soon after travelling in Italy and Dalmatia, He had already in retire- ment drunk deep into the spirit of Augustine, and he reproduced in a prominent form his views on grace and predestination, especially in a discussion before Notting, bishop of Verona. But violent opposition was stirred up against him, and his tenets were condemned by the Synod of Mentz in A.T>. 847. His fierce antagonist Rabanus Maurus then sent him to Hincmar archbishop of Rheims, to whose see the so-called heretic belonged. Hinc- mar immediately arraigned him before the Synod of Chiersey in 849, degraded hiin, scourged him 2 GOD severely, and incarcerated him in the monastery of Hautevilliers in the diocese of Rheims, where after twenty-one years of confinement the noble confes- sor died. In his last illness the communion was refused him, and his corpse was denied Christian burial. The controversy raised by Gotteschalcus agitated the Romish Church for many years. Prior to his polemical appearances, Gotteschalcus, for the brilliancy of his scholarship, had been named Fulgentius. That his enemies caricatured his opinions is plain, but it is no less true that his naked and extreme statements were liable to mis- conception, and unnecessarily stirred up prejudice. His long and shameful imprisonment never shook in the least his sincere attachment to the Augus- tinian theology. [J.E.] [Armour of Godfrey of Bouillon.] GODFREY of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine and first Christian king of Jerusalem, was bom at Bezy, near Nivelle. He served while young with high distinction in the armies of the emperor Henry the IV. ; and, when near the close of the eleventh century all western Europe was roused to the rescue of the Holy Land from the infidels, the fame of Godfrey was liigh throughout Christendom for piety and moral excellence, as well as for knightly prowess. He entered fervently into the great movement of his age, and was confessedly the first in rank and worth among the chiefs of the first crusade. He not only signalized himself by valour among the valorous, and by enthusiasm among the enthusiastic, but he showed also disinterestedness, probity, skill, and prudence, which were of a higher and rarer order. He maintained the most com- plete discipline among his division of the Christian army, which he brought safely to the appointed muster-place beneath the walls of Constantinople, in the winter of 1096. By his sagacity and firm- ness, he prevented hostilities breaking out between the host of the crusaders and the Greek emperor, Alexius Comnenus ; and, in the spring of 1097, Godfrey led the Frankish nations into Asia Minor, to the siege of the capital of the Turkish sultan of Nice. This city was captured after a siege, in which the personal valour of Godfrey, as well as his generalship, was frequently displayed. He 6 GOD •was tall, well-proportioned, and of such remarkable strength and dexterity in the use of his weapons, that he is said in more than one encounter to have cloven his foe by a single sword-stroke from skull to centre. After Nice was captured, the crusaders inarched forward, and defeated a Turkish army in the great battle of Doryloeum. They reached Antioch, in Syria, late in the winter of 1097. The city was captured after an obstinate resistance ; and the weakened army of the victors was in turn besieged in its walls by an innumerable host of the Mahommedans. After enduring much suffering and loss, Godfrey led the crusaders in a sudden sortie upon their enemies, which was com- pletely victorious. The enthusiasm caused amongthe Christian army by the supposed discovery of the relic of the Holy Lance, was one great cause of this suc- cess. It was not till 1099 that the crusaders reached Jerusalem ; and their numbers were then reduced by the sword and by disease to only 1,500 horse and 20,000 foot fit for service. The Mahommedan garri- son was far more numerous, and the city wa s formid- ably strong. But the zeal of the crusaders was indomitable. After a siege of forty days, a suc- cessful assault was made, and ' on a Friday, at three in the afternoon, the day and hour of the Passion, Godfrey of Bouillon stood victorious on the walls of Jerusalem ' (Gibbon). — When the crusaders were sated with carnage and pillage, they deliberated on the important subject of choosing a ruler of their conquest; and, with the universal consent of the as- sembly, Godfrey was hailed king of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem. He showed his humility and piety by refusing to wear a golden diadem in the city where his Saviour had been crowned with thorns, and he desired to be called only Defender and Baron of the Holy Sepulchre. During his short reign he gained several military advantages in the field against the Mahommedans, especially at As- calon, where he completely routed a large army which the sultan of Egypt had sent to reconquer Jerusalem. Godfrey deserved still higher honour for his exertions in establishing order and justice in his dominions, and in compiling a code of laws for his subjects. Unhappily for the infant kingdom, he died within a year from his accession. [E.S.C.] GODFREY, Sir Edmundury, an English magistrate who exerted himself in the discovery of the Popish Plot, and is supposed to have been murdered, being found dead 17th October, 1768. GODFREY, Thomas, an American mathe- matician, died 1749. His son, of the same name, the earliest dramatic poet of America, 1736-1763. GODFREY of Viterbo, an Italian ecclesi- astic, author of annals entitled ' Pantheon,' 12th c. GOD1N, Louis, a Fr. astronomer, 1704-1760. GODINOT, J., a French theologian, 1661-1749. GODIVA, an English lady, wife of Leofric, earl of Leicester, in the reign of Edward the Confessor, celeb, in the legends of Coventry for riding naked through the streets to deliver the citizens from a tax. GODOLPHIN, J., an English civilian, 17th ct. GODOLPHIN, Sidney, earl of, lord high treasurer of England under Queen Anne, d. 1712. GODOLPHIN, Sydney, an Eng. poet, 1610-43. GODONIN, J., a French Hebraist, died 1700. GODOONOFF, Boris, czar of Moscow after the murder of Demetrius, 1599, died 1605. GODOY, Don Manuel, the celebrated « Prince GOD of Peace,' originally a private soldier, rose to be prime minister of Spain, 1764-1851. GODWIN, earl of Kent, a powerful English baron in the Saxon period, celebrated for his tur- bulence and political intrigues, died 1053. GODWIN, Mrs. See Wolstoncroft. GODWIN, Thomas, an English prelate, suc- cessively dean of Christ Church, dean of Canter- bury, and bishop of Bath and Wells in the reign of Elizabeth, 1517-1590. His son, Francis, suc- cessively bishop of Llandaff and Hereford, and an.- of historical and antiquarian works, 1561-1633. Morgan, son of the latter, also a churchman, deprived as arovalist during the civil war. d. 1645. GODWIN, Tk., an English divine, 1587-1643. GODWIN, William, was born in 1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His father was a dissenting minister ; and he himself, after having completed his education in the college at Hoxton, embraced the same profession, and preached for some years to a congregation near London. About 1782 he abandoned the pulpit, his opinions having undergone serious changes; and thenceforth he strove to make a livelihood by authorship. In 1793 he became famous, or notorious, by the pub- lication of his ' Inquiry concerning Political Jus- tice.' This celebrated work, founded on the dream of human perfectibility, is remarkable for that combination of vigour with want of comprehen- siveness and real profundity, which marked all its author's writings. His crusade against the exist- ing system of things in all its parts was next pro- secuted in a more popular shape, and with singu- lar force of passionate and descriptive eloquence, in his novel of ' Caleb Williams.' Strongly demo- cratic in political opinions, but gentle as well as brave, he always protested against the bringing about of social changes by force ; but, though he kept sedulously aloof from the plots which, in 1794, exposed Home Tooke and others of his friends to prosecution for treason, he did them good service by his pen. In 1797, he published essays, moral and literary, under the title of ' The Inquirer.' The same year he married Mary Wol- ston croft, in deference to the opinion of the world, after having lived with her for some time in obedi- ence to the opinion which he himself held in regard to marriage, and which she had advocated in her ' Vindication of the Rights of Women.' His wife died in giving birth to a daughter, who became Mrs. Shelley. By a subsequent marriage he had a son, a young man of great promise, who died of cholera in 1833. In 1799, Godwin published the picturesque novel of ' Saint Leon,' his last work of this kind that was worthy of his genius. • Fleet- wood,' published in 1804, and ' Mandeville,'_in 1816, are much inferior ; and ' Cloudesley,' which appeared in 1830, showed that the vein of self- scrutiny on which his strength depended, had been quite worked out. But, in 1803, he had entered a new path in his ' Life of Chaucer,' which, though wanting in unity and consecutive interest, is very instructive. For some time after this he attempted business as a bookseller, and wrote a good many school-books under the name of Baldwin. In 1815, he published his ' Lives of John and Edward Phillips,' the nephews of Milton; in 1820, he at- tacked Malthus in his ' Treatise on Population ; ' in 1828, he published the last of the four volumes 277 GOE of his heavy but valuable ' History of the Com- monwealth ; ' in 1830, appeared his essays called 1 Thoughts on Man ; ' and in 1834, his 'Lives of the Necromancers.' The poverty of his old age •was alleviated by an appointment from the minis- try of Earl Grev. He died in 1836. [W.S.] "GOEBEL, G. W., a German jurist, 1683-1745. GOEBEL, H. D., a Bavarian historian, 1717-71. GOEBEL, J. H. E., a Prussian savarU, 1732-95. GOEBLER, J., a German historian, died 1567. GOECKINGK, Leop. Fred. Gunther Von, a Prus. poet of the school of Wieland, 1745-1828. GOELIKE, A. 0., a Ger. med. hist., 1671-1744. GOEREE, H. G., a Dutch theologian and phy- sician, died about 1643. His son, William, au- thor of a ' History of the Jewish Church,' an ' In- troduction to the Art of Painting,' &c, 1635-1711. John, the son of the latter, a distinguished pain- ter, engraver, and poet, 1670-1711. GOERTZ, Geokge Henry, Baron, a German statesman, minister of finance to Charles XII., executed immediately after the king's death, 1719. GOERTZ, John Eustace, Count De, a Prus- sian diplomatist and political writer, 1737-1821. GOES, H. Van Der, a Flemish painter, loth c. GOES, W. Van Der, a Dutch savant, 1611-86. GOESCKEN, H., a Ger. philosopher, 1612-81. GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang Von, is one of the most celebrated names in European litera- ture. It is the name of a poet who united, in an extraordinary degree, power of imagination and power of expression ; and who, not less remarkable for versatility than for vigour, produced, by the exertions of sixty years, works which exemplify, in one shape or another, every possible form and kind of poetry. Gothe holds, likewise, in the in- tellectual history of Germany, the position of a founder and inventor. His poems were almost the earliest in the language that deserved wide cele- brity ; they were, without exception, the first that were fortunate enough to attain it. Nor have they been more admired than imitated. To say nothing of the influence they have exerted among ourselves and elsewhere, nine-tenths of the poetry that has been heard in Germany during the last seventy or eighty years, have been little more than echoes thrown back from that of Gothe. The fact is a decisive testimony to the strength of his genius ; yet it could not have occurred but for that close- ness of sympathy with the spirit of his time, which the poet felt in every stage of his progress. Each of the most powerful impulses by which, in turn, the social and intellectual life of Germany was governed, found in him its earliest and also its most striking representative ; and, while he inter- preted the tendencies of the age with felicitous in- tuition, and prefigured their results with wonder- ful richness of imagination, he gained a firm hold on popular feeling through that very coldness and 1>racticality of moral sentiment, which always kept dm, in an ethical point of view, on a level with the world around him. He aimed sedulously at purifying and elevating poetical art ; he never aimed at making poetry the teacher of goodness. If the noble-minded and impassioned Schiller often embodied his lofty aspirations after truth and vir- tue in a form too anxiously and openly didactic, and if, even when he did not thus err, he imprinted on his pictures a character of austere melancholy GOE which repels the worldly and the careless ; yet, on the other hand, Gothe assuredly violated higher laws of his art, when he studiously avoided that indirect and suggestive teaching of goodness which is the most sublime prerogative of poetry, and when he intrenched himself in a seeming tolerance which is really little else than sceptical indifference. — Gothe's father, a man in easy circumstances, was a citizen of Frankfort-on-the-Maine; and there the poet was born, on the 28th of August, 1749. His hoyhood and youth thus fell into the period when Germany was excited by the seven years' war ; and when, in literature, the clear and ener- getic Lessing was laying the foundations of philo- sophical criticism, inculcating intelligent respect and affection for the arts of design, and protesting against that slavish subservience to French taste which had long prevailed among German men of letters. Sickness in childhood cherished Gothe's native precocity; and his mind was developed with remarkable rapidity. Besides the common branches of education, he busied himself with drawing, music, and natural history ; and a boyish poem on the scriptural history of Joseph, indicated at once his poetical inclinations, and the serious direction which his thoughts then took. After the breaking off of a youthfid love affair, which gave a name to the heroine of ' Faust,' and some features to ' Wilhelm Meister,' he was sent to the university of Leipzig to prepare himself for the legal profession. Law, however, was little attended to ; and for speculative philosophy the young poet contracted a disgust, which he did not seek to overcome in mature life, when Kant had become the guide of almost all the finer minds of his coun- try. To classical studies, under the teaching of the correct and tasteful Ernesti, he paid more at- tention. To his early French reading was now added some acquaintance with English literature. The discrepancies, however, between the different poetical schools, which he was unable to reconcile by any critical theory that had yet been presented to him, almost gave him a distaste even for poetry. His inquisitive and doubting temper found not less food in the contemplation of the relations of so- ciety, presented to him in no clearer light than that which he derived from the French Encyclo- pedists ; and his mind had already taken its ear- liest steps in that course of thought and feeling, which, breaking out at first in rebellion against all existing systems, led him by degrees to care little as to the truth or falsehood of any. Attempts were made at play-writing ; and the uneasy state of mind, which he thus endeavoured to remove by giving vent to it, was allayed more effectually by the diversion of his thoughts to the study of the fine arts, in the works of Winckehnann and other philosophical antiquaries. In 1768, he left Leipzig, and resided for a while in the country, where he studied alchymy and chemistry, Paracelsus and Boerhaave, and sketched for himself a new reli- gion, resting on a basis of mysticism or New-Pla- tonism. In Strasburg he nominally completed his professional studies, taking his degree of doctor m laws in 1771. The intimacy which he there formed with Herder, worked beneficially both on his literary opinions and taste, and on his views of life. — In 1773, he published ' Gotz of Beriichin- gen with the Iron Hand,' a romantic play, written 278 GOE in prose, and cast in the flexible and irregular mould of Shakspeare's dramatic histories. The novelty of the undertaking was as attractive as the force of imagination with which it was performed; and, while every one was moved by the character and fate of the true-hearted Gotz, there was for reflective minds a deep significance in the picture which was presented, (under the symbolic forms of feudalism,) of the destruction of the reign of force, and the rise of a new world ruled by reason and established order. Here, too, the poet, in the tumultuous excitement of youth, poured forth his emotions with an unrepressed and infectious en- thusiasm. Still more unreserved was the expres- sion of despondent and rebellious feelings, in his second work, ' The Sufferings of the Young Wer- ter,' which appeared in 1774. In its design nothing more than a sentimental novel, and thus bidding for a popularity much wider than ' Gotz,' ' Werter ' displayed domestic scenes so interesting, and described these with a pathos so profound and an eloquence so flowing, that the hollowness of the morality was overlooked, and the real insignificance of the "events forgotten. The German language possessed as yet nothing comparable to either of the two works; their author himself never sur- passed the ' Gotz ; ' and, after the appearance of 'Werter,' Gothe was not only the most popular writer of his day, but also the writer from whom competent judges most confidently expected great performance in his maturity. His fame imme- diately gained for him a position which enabled him to devote his energies, without interruption or anxiety, to literary study and invention. The opportunities were used with zealous industry throughout the whole remainder of his long life ; aud his skill of art was developed with a success atoning in some degree for that narrowing of his sympathies, which was caused by the artificial atmosphere of a petty court. — The duchess of Saxe- Weimar, left a widow in the infancy of her son, the duke Karl-August, not only administered wisely the civil affairs of her little sovereignty, but conceived the idea of making her miniature capital the intellectual centre of Germany. In 1774, in the course of his travels, the young duke made the acquaintance of Gothe; and, on Ins assuming the government in 1775, the poet accepted the in- vitation he received to attach himself to the court of Weimar. Wieland, whose mental history was in some points not unlike that of Gothe, was al- ready there, having been the prince's tutor; Herder was added to the band in 1776; Schiller was after- wards one of its members for a few years ; and other poets, and critics, and novelists, were gathered round these chiefs. Gothe was the leading spirit of the group, even during the last quarter of the eighteenth century, when these men and others were constructing and guiding the literature of all Germany ; and his supremacy be- came yet more absolute afterwards, when, for another generation, he stood alone, the last survivor of a race greater than the greatest of their suc- cessors. — He was ennobled, received honorary councillorships and other appointments, and had even some share in the real business of the small state. But, in the most active period of his life, his most important office was that of theatrical director. Journeying to Italy in 1786, he spent GOE two years in that country, which had much effect on his opinions and sentiments. In 1792 he ac- companied the duke on the campaign in France. In 1806 he married. Not long afterwards he re- tired from all active business; but in 1815 he was obliged to take office as prime minister, which he held till the death of his friend and patron the grand duke in 1828. He died at Weimar on the 22d of March, 1833, energetic to the last, both in body and in mind. — For a dozen years after his settlement at Weimar, he seemed to be reposing on his quickly-won laurels. But he was very far from being idle ; nor, in that later period in which his most distinguished works successively ap- f)eared, were these by any means the only fruits of his abour. He wrote accounts of his travels in Swit- zerland and Italy, and many critical and other essays ; and, amidst an unceasing stream of small poems — few of them possessing much merit — were some exquisite ballads and other pieces of a lyrical or reflective cast. For the stage of Weimar, like- wise, he furnished many plays ; among which, as having importance literary as well as theatrical, may be named his prose tragedies of ' Egmont ' and ' Clavigo.' — There still remain to be briefly noticed the works on which Iris celebrity mainly rests. The earliest of these were two dramas, which ap- peared in 1787, and flowed from the twofold inspira- tion of his residence in Italy. The ' Iphigema in Tauris' is a modem echo, finely and originally modulated, of the classical antique; the ' lasso' is a realization of the fluttering spirit of romance which lingered in the courts and society of Italy when the realities of the middle ages had passed away. None of Gothe's works are so admirable as these two for skill of art ; none are more exqui- site in ideal beauty of imagery ; none are so cha- racteristically illustrative of the desire he always felt to attain, though it were by the sacrifice of sternly solemn truths, a placid and meditative har- mony of feeling. In 1795 appeared the first part (' The Apprentice-Years ') of his novel ' Wilhehn Meister.' It is one of the most poetical, and the Germans hold it to be also the most philosophical, of all prose romances. Its philosophy, like its slippery morality, must here be left untouched. Its introduction of criticisms on literature and art was eagerly emulated, giving birth to those 'Art Novels,' the breed ot which has been propagated to our own day. The poet's fame rose to its zenith in 1798, on the publication of his world-renowned ' Faust.' It is easy to feel, or rather it is impos- sible not to feel, the singular poetic beauty of this wonderful poem, its unsurpassed felicities of imagery and diction, and the impressiveness of the despondent melancholy which is the ruling temper of the whole. Philosophically considered, the ' Faust ' is a propounding of the enigma of human life, with a refusal to accept, from religion, its only possible solution. In the same year, in ' Hermann and Dorothea,' Gothe attempted, as others had before him, at once to naturalize the classical hex- ameter in his native tongue, and to give epic form to a narrative of familiar fife.— At this point the series of the poet's great works may be said to close. There next occurred a long interval, marked by nothing of distinguished note. The appearance, in 1810, of the notorious novel of the ' Wahlver- waudschaften ' (Elective Affinities), while as- 279 GOE Buredly it denoted a falling off in creative genius, betrayed as clearly a settled declension of moral sentiment. The epicureanism in which the poet now found repose, was worse than the sceptical spirit of resistance which had disturbed his aspiring youth. In 1811 he published his interesting autobiography called ' Poetry and Truth,' (Dich- tong una Wahrheit). His countrymen place much value on the collection of lyrics entitled the' West- ostlicher Divan,' which appeared in 1819, but seems to have been written much earlier. In 1821 'Wilhehn Meister' was completed by the second part, the ' Years of Wandering' (Wanderjahre). — After this, Gothe's only sustained effort in poetry was the second part of ' Faust,' which was under Iris hands till the close of his life. None but his most bigotted disciples have ventured to pronounce it in any respect worthy of a great poet. During the last few years of his old age, his favourite employ- ments were some of the physical sciences . both in vegetable physiology, and in optics, he published speculations which scientific men have thought worthy of notice. [W.S.] GOETTLING, J. F., a Ger. chemist, 1755-1809. GOETZ or GOEZ, Andrew, a German philo- logist, author of 'Introduction to Ancient Geo- graphy," Index of the Lat. tongue,' &c, 1698-1780. GOETZ or GOEZ, Zacharie, a German theologico-philosopher, author of 'Disputatio de Hierarchiis Angelorum,' 1662-1705. GOETZ, J. N., a German poet, 1721-1781. GOETZE, G. H., a Ger. theologian, 1668-1728. GOETZE, John Augustus Ephraim, a cele- brated German naturalist and theologian, 1731- 1793. His brother, John Melohior, a protes- tant controversialist, 1717-1786. GOETZE, J. Ch., a Ger. bibliopole, 1692-1749. GOEZ, Damien De, a Portug. wr., 1501-1560. GOFF, Thos., au. of Sermons, &c, d. 1629. GOGUET, Anthony Yves, a learned French writer, author of a work in high repute on the origin and progress of knowledge, 1716-1758. GOHORRY, J., a French agriculturist, d. 1576. GOIFFON, J. B., a French botanist, 1658-1730. GOIFFON, J., a French astronomer, d. 1751. GOLDING, Arthur, an English poet and classical translator, 16th century. GOLDMAYER, A., a Ger. astronom., 1603-64. GOLDONI, Carlo, a dramatic writer and reformer of the Italian stage, 1707-1792. GOLDSMITH, F., a Latin translator, 17th ct. GOLDSMITH, Lewis, an English Jew, author of the ' Crimes of Cabinets,' and afterwards a hire- ling writer against Buonaparte, born 1763. GOLDSMITH, Oliver, the son of an Irish curate, was born in the county of Longford in 1728. Lissoy, in his native parish of Formey, is said to have been the original of his ' Sweet Au- burn.' The assistance of an uncle enabled him in 1744 to enter at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was idle and extravagant, and probably ill-used. He is said to have applied unsuccessfully for ordi- nation, and to have been for some time a family tu- tor. He threw away in a gaming-house the money which his uncle had given him to aid in his study of law ; but the same kind 'dative enabled him to become a student of medicine in Edinburgh, where he spent two years from the close of 1752, after- wards passing a year at Leyden. He next took a GOL pedestrian tour of twelve months on the con- tinent, travelling as far as the north of Italy; and before or after this he was an usher in a school. Both of these experiences he has described in his [Goldsmith's House at Lissoy.] famous novel. — In 1756 he came to London. He attempted medical practice in a humble way, with small knowledge and no success ; and, on submit- ting to examination at the College of Surgeons, to qualify him for an appointment abroad, he was rejected as insufficiently informed. He had al- ready been writing for the booksellers; and au- thorship now became perforce his only means of livelihood. He drudged for the Monthly and Critical Reviews, and for other periodicals; and compiled his well-written ' Histories of Greece and Rome,' and his ' History of the Earth and Ani- mated Nature.' — It was in the intervals of such toils that he produced those original works, which made him both in prose and verse, one of the classics of English literature. In 1761 he wrote, while in confinement for debt, his inimitable 'Vicar of Wakefield;' and soon afterwards ap- peared 'The Citizen of the World.' 'The Tra- veller,' which had been partly written abroad, and the beautiful ballad of 'The Hermit,' were published in 1765. The former of these poems gave him great and deserved fame as a descriptive poet, which was increased in 1769 by the publica- tion of ' The Deserted Village.' He became yet more popular as a play-wnter. His comedy of 'The Good-Natured Man,' which was acted in 1768, did not succeed greatly on the stage, but was highly esteemed by Johnson and other critics ; and ' She Stoops to Conquer,' appearing in 1773, was received with universal applause. — The au- thor survived this brilliant success but a short time, and profited very little by the wealth which was now accruing to him. Industrious through ne- cessity, he was indolent by temperament : he was careless and improvident in money matters, equally ready to squander his painfully-earned gains at the gaming-table, or to spend them in charity. Gentle, amiable, and good-hearted, he was also irresolute, vain, and capricious ; and, while Johnson and his other literary friends did not estimate highly enough his tine genius, his conduct gave them much excuse for treating him, as they did, like a favourite and petted child. He died 1774. [W.S.] GOLIKOFF, Iwan, a Rus. histor., 1735-1802. GOL GOLIUS, Jambs, a Dutch Orientalist, author j of an Arabic lexicon, a Persian dictionary, a his- tory of the Saracens, &c, 1596-1667. His brother, Peter, an Oriental scholar and missionary, d. 1673. GOLIUS, Theophilus, a Gr. scholar, d. 1600. GOLTZ, Henry, a German painter, 1558-1617. GOLTZIUS, Hub., a Dutch antiq., 1526-1533. GOMAR, Francis, a protestant divine of Hol- land, chief of the sect of Goraarites, or anti-remon- btrants, who were opposed to Arminius, 1563-1609. GOMARA, F. L. De, a Sp. eccles. hist., 16th c. GOMERSALL, R., an English dram., 1600-46. GONDEBAND, king of Burgundy, 491-516. GONDEBAND, king of Austrasia, 584. GONDEMAR, king of Burgundy, 528-532. GONDEMAR, king of the Visigoths, 610-612. GONDERIC, king of the Vandals, 411-428. GONET, J. B., a French theologian, 1616-1681. GONGORA-Y-ARGOTE, Luis, a Spanish ecclesiastic and poet, whose works were imitated in the earliest German romances, 1561-1627. GONSALVO, Fernando, hereditary count of Castile, and a disting. warrior, flourished 924-960. GONSALVO, M., a Span, heretic, burnt 1374. GONSALVO of Cordova, or GONZALO- HERNANDEZ-Y-AGUILAR, a Spanish warrior, disting. against the Moors in Spain and the Fr. in Naples, and called the great captain, 1443-1515. GONTHAN, a king of Burgundy, 561-593. GONTHIER, a German poet, loth century. GONTHIER, J., a Ger. anatomist, 1487-1574. GOOCH, B., an English wr. on surgery, last ct. GOOD, John Mason, an English physician nnd author, distinguished for Ids skill in the an- cient, Oriental, and European languages, for his translations and original works, and his numerous contributions to magazine literature, 1764-1827. GOODAL, W., a Scotch antiquary, 1706-1766. GOODMAN, Christopher, a Scottish refor- mer and coadjutor of John Knox, abt. 1520-1602. GOODMAN, G., an English prelate and theol., noted as a convert to the Romish Church, 1583-1655. GOODRICH, Thomas, bishop of Ely, distin- guished as a statesman and zealous promoter of the reformation, died 1554. GOODWIN, Fr., an English architect, d. 1835. GOODWIN, John, an English republican and preacher, au. of ' Redemption Redeemed,' 1633-65. GOODWIN, Th., a Calvinist divine, 1600-1679. GOOGE, B., an Eng. poet and translator, 16th c. GOOL, John Van, a Dutch paint., 1685-1757. GORAN, a king of Scotland, reigned 501-535. GORDIAN, or GORDIANUS, the name of three Roman emperors, the jirst, or elder, Marcus Antonius Africanus, descended from Trajan, E reclaimed while proconsul in Africa, along with is son, who, being of the same name, is known as Gordian the Younger. The latter was killed in action, upon hearing of which Gordianus the Elder strangled himself. The third of the name, Marcus Antoninus Pius Gordianus, was a grandson of the preceding, and was procl. emp. after their death, and murdered after a reign of six years, in the twentieth year of his age, 244. (J< if: DON, Alex., a Scotch antiquarian, d. 1750. GORDON, And., a Scottish exper. philosopher, known for his discoveries in electricity, 1712-1751. GORDON, Benj., a Fr. medical author, 13th c. GORDON, Lord George, son of Cosmo GOU George, duke of Gordon, distinguished as a poli- tical character towards the close of the last cen- tury, and noted for his arrest on a charge of high treason, in consequence of the riots provoked by his assemblies of the people to oppose the catholic relief bill, born 1750, died in prison, 1793. GORDON, James, a Scotch Jesuit and theo- logian, distinguished for his zeal in making con- verts, 1543-1620. Another of the same name, au. of biblical commentaries and hist, works, 1553-1641. GORDON, R., a Scotch geographer, died 1650. GORDON, Th., a Scotch pamphleteer, d. 1750. GORDON, W., an independent minister settled in America, and a promoter of its independence, of which he became the historian, 1729-1807. GORDON, W., an English physician and phil- anthropist, distinguished as an advocate of free trade, and other popular movements, 1801-1849. GORE, Christoph., an American diplomatist, governor of the state of Massachusets, 1758-1827. GORE, Sir J., a naval officer, died 1836. GORE, Th., a writer on heraldry, 1631-1684. GORGIAS, a Greek sophist, 5th century b.c. GORI, G. A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1691-1757. GORLiEUS, A., a Flem. numismatist,1549-1609. GORSAS, A. J., a Fr. political wr. and member of the convention, exec, with the Girondins, 1793. GOSELINI, J., an Italian historian, 1525-1587. GOSSEC, Fr., a French composer, 1734-1829. GOSSELIN, Anth., a Fr. historian, 1580-1645. GOSSELIN, J., a French astronomer, d. 1604. GOSSELIN, P., a French mathematician, 16th c. GOSSELIN, Pascal Fr. Joseph, a French geographer, archaeologist, and statesm., 1751-1830. GOSSELIN, W., a French arithmetician, d. 1590. GOSSIN, P. F., a French republican, exec. 1794. GOSSON, Stephen, a minister of the Church of England, author of several dramas, 1554-1623. GOSTLING, W., an Eng. antiquarian, 1705-77. GOTH, Stephen, archbishop of Upsala, author of a new liturgy designed to Romanize the Lu- theran church ot Sweden, published 1576. GOTHOFRED, Denis, a French Huguenot and jurisconsult, author of 'Corpus Juris Civilis,' 1549-1622. His son, Theodore, historiographer royal, author of an ' Account of the Ceremonial of the Kings of France,' 1580-1649. Denis, son of the latter, and his successor in office, author of 'Memoirs of Philip de Commines,' &c.,' 1615-81. GOTTSCHED, J., a Ger. philosoph., 1668-1704. GOTTSCHED, John Christopher, a Ger-' man dramatist and literary savant, professor of logic, philosophy, and metaphysics, at Leipzig, 1700-1766. His wife, Louisa Maria, distin- guished by her splendid literary talents, d. 1762. GOTTWALD, Ch., a Ger. naturalist, 1636-1713. GOUAN, Ant., a French botanist, 1733-1821. GOUFFIER, L., a Fr. naval com., 1648-1734. GOUFFIER, Marie Gabriel Auguste Lau- rent, Count De Choiseul, a French ambassador, and author of Travels in Greece, distinguished for his cultivation of the fine arts, 1752-1817. GOUGE, F. S., a French poet, born 1724. GOUGE, J., an adventurer, who was proclaimed king of France by the armed bands which he com- manded on the banks of the Rhone, 1361. GOUGE, William, an Eng. puritan, and au. of biblical commentaries, 1575-1653. His son, Tho- mas, also a clergyman and religious wr., 1605-81. 281 GOV GOUGES, Marie Olympe De, a French lady, authoress of some dramatic pieces, executed for her attacks on Marat and Robespierre 1794. GOUGH, Richard, an eminent antiquarian, au. of ' The Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain,' 'Hist, of the Soc. of Antiquaries,' &c, 1735-1809. GOUJET, Cl. P., a French savant, 1697-1767. GOUJON, J., a French sculptor and architect, killed at the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572. GOUJON, J. M. C. A., a Fr. repub., 1766-1795. GOULART, S., a French historian, 1543-1628. GOULSTON, GOULSON, or GULSON, Th., an Eng. physic, and au. of learned works, d. 1632. GOURGAND, Gaspard, a eel. French general, disting. for his devotion to Napoleon, 1783-1852. GOUSSET, J., a French Hebraist, 1635-1704. GOUVEA, A. De, a learned Portuguese, 14th c. GOUVION-ST.-CYR, Laurence, a general and marshal of France, distinguished in the cam- Jaign on the Rhine 1795 ; and under Moreau and oubert, in the campaign of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon he was made a peer of France, and served as minister of war. The latter years of his life were occupied in the composition of his several memoirs; died 1830. GOW, Neil, was born in Strathband, Perth- shire, of humble but honest parents, in the year 1727. His taste for music was early decided. At the age of nine he began to play, and was, it is said, self-taught, till about his thirteenth year, when he received some instruction from John Cameron, an attendant on Sir George Stewart of Grandtully. A trial of skill having been proposed, Neil was persuaded to enter the lists, and one of the minstrels, who was blind, being made the umpire, the prize was adjudged to Neil Gow, by a sentence in the justice of which the other competitors cheerfully acqui- esced. Having now attained the summit of his profession at home, the distinguished patronage, first of the Athole family, and afterwards of the duchess of Gordon, soon introduced him to the no- tice and admiration of the fashionable world. From this period, Gow was unrivalled in his department of Scotch national music. The different publications which have appeared under the name of Neil Gow, and which contain not only his sets of the older tunes, but various occasional airs of his own composition, are striking specimens of feeling and power of em- bellishment. These were set and prepared for pub- lication by his son Nathaniel, whose respectable character and propriety of conduct secured for him the esteem and favour of the public. In private life, Neil Gow was distinguished by a sound vigor- ous understanding, by a singularly acute penetra- tion into the character of those, both in the higher and lower spheres of society, with whom he had intercourse, and by the conciliating and appropriate accommodation ot his remarks and replies, to the peculiarities of their station and temper. Though lie had raised himself to independent and affluent circumstances in his old age, he continued free from every appearance of vanity and ostentation. He maintained to the last the same plain unassuming simplicity in his carriage, his dress, and his manners which he had observed in his early and more ob- scure years. He died at Inver, near Dunkeld, in 1807. Besides his son Nathaniel, he left another (John), who long resided in London, and who in- GRA herited much of his father's musical taste and power of execution. Two other sons of equal eminent musical talent (William and Andrew), died a few years before their father, but not till they had established their reputation as true de- scendants of famous Nell. \ J.M.] GOWER, John, an English poet, died 1402. GOWER, R. H., a eel. ship-builder, died 1833. GOYEN, J. Van, a Dutch painter, 1696-166& GOZZI, Gaspar, an Italian poet, 1713-1786. His brother, Charles, a dramatic wr., 17U2-1. so*;. GRABE, J. E., a Germ, theologian, 1666-1711. GRABERG, Olave, a protestant theologian of Sweden, au. of 'Thoughts on the Bible,' 1716-69. GRACCHI. The Gracchi, so often mentioned in Roman history, were the two sons of Tib. Scm- pronius Gracchus and Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus, the elder. Gracchus, who had been twice consul, and had obtained two triumphs, died while his sons were yet young, and Cornelia devoted herself exclusively to the charge and edu- cation of her children. Under her maternal guid- ance, aided by the best Greek masters, they soon surpassed in accomplishments all the Roman youths of the time. — 1. Tib. Sempronius Grac- chus, the elder of the two, was born B.C. 164. Scipio Africanus the younger had married his only sister ; and when he entered upon the command of the army against Carthage, Tiberius accom- panied him, and was present at the destruction of that renowned city. Nine years after he ac- companied the consul Mancinus as quaestor to Spain, where, by his integrity and disinterested- ness, he gained the esteem of the enemy as well as the affections of the Roman soldiers. When the Roman army under Mancinus was defeated by the Numantines (b.c. 137), Tiberius succeeded in effect- ing a treaty on reasonable terms, which, however, the senate refused to ratify. Tiberius, notwith- standing, reaped the glory of having saved 20,000 men from destruction, and the people rewarded his services with affection and gratitude. During the long wars in which the Romans had been en- gaged, many encroachments had been made on the public domains ; the nobles had obtained pos- session of extensive tracts, which were cultivated by foreign slaves ; and the poorer classes of Ro- man citizens, being thus thrown out of employment, were reduced to a state of pauperism. Tiberius, sympathizing with the privations of the poor, re- solved to revive the Licinian law, which denned the extent of public land tenable by any citizen. With this view he was elected tribune of the people in B.C. 133, and, in the face of unscrupulous oppo- sition on the part of the nobility, carried a law similar to that of Licinius. Tiberius himself, his brother Caius, and his father-in-law, Appius Claudius, were appointed commissioners for mea- suring and distributing the land. At this crisis of affairs, Attains, king of Pergamus, died, bequeath- ing his kingdom and treasure to the Roman people, and Tiberius proposed to divide the treasure among the recipients of the land under the new law, to enable them to stock their farms. This proposal raised the indignation of the nobles to a still higher pitch. To prevent his law from being abo- lished, and also to secure his person against immi- nent danger, he resolved to offer himself a candidate for the tribuneship of the following year. On the 282 GRA day of election, his opponents demurred to his eli- gibility, and night intervened before the question wm decided. Next morning both parties presented themselves at the capitol in readiness for acts of violence; the senators were resolved to kill Tibe- rius, and his own partizans were prepared to de- fend him. Hereupon Scipio Nasica, after in vain calling upon the consul to defend the state, rushed from the temple of Faith, where the senate had assembled, followed by the nobility, overawed the mob, seized their weapons, and killed about three hundred, of whom Tiberius Gracchus was one, B.C. 133. Thus perished one of the truest Roman patriots, whose memory has only in recent times teen freed from the odium which centuries of mis- representation had heaped upon it. — 2. Caius Sempronius Gracchus was nine years younger than Tiberius; and at the time of his brother's death was in the army of Scipio Africanus in Spain. The fate of his brother seems to have deterred him from acting as a commissioner under the agrarian law, or from taking any prominent part in public affairs, till B.C. 123. Returning then from Sar- dinia, where he had served two years as quaestor, he was elected tribune of the people, and com- menced a career which speedily led to a fatal conclusion. The measures which he proposed were partly vindictive and partly intended to establish his own popularity ; of the latter class was a poor- law authorizing a monthly distribution of corn to the people at a merely nominal price ; the effect of which was to make the population of Rome paupers, and to attract the poor and indolent from all parts of Italy. Caius next directed his efforts against the power of the senate, deprived them of the right of electing the judges from their own number, transferring it to the equites, and passed a law enacting that the provinces of the consuls and praetors should be fixed before the election of these magistrates. Being re-elected to the tribune- ship of the following year, he was chiefly employed in passing laws respecting the colonies, and himself established a colony on the ruins of Carthage. But his popularity was now on the wane ; he was outbid in popular favour by his colleague, Livius Drusus, the tool of the senate; and the fickle mob, whose idol he had lately been, now forsook him. After the expiry of his period of office, he united with the tribune Fulvius in inciting the populace to acts of violence, which led the senate to arm the consul Opimius with absolute power. The consul summoned Gracchus and Fulvius be- fore him to answer for their conduct ; and, after some attempts at negotiation, attacked and dis- persed the popular party. Gracchus, who had taken no part m the struggle, fled across the Tiber, and entering a grove sacred to the Furies, ordered his slave to kill him. He thus perished, B.C. 121, at the age of thirty-three. The praise of disinter- ested patriotism cannot be extended to Caius. Though a man of greater talent than his brother, he was less sincere; and some of the measures which he advocated were positively pernicious. [G.F.] GRACIAN, B., a Spanish author, 1584-1658. GRACIAN, J., a Flemish theolog., 1545-1614. GRADENIJO, the Jirst of the name doge of Ve- nice 1289-1311 ; the second, 1339-43 ; the third, who terminated the war with Genoa, 1355-1356. GRADENIJO, J. A., a Venet. prelate, 1744-74. GRA GRADENIJO, J. J., a Ven. prelate, 1708-86. GRADI, J., a learned writer, 16th century. GRADI, Stephen, an Ital. philologist, d. 1683. GR^ME, John, a Scotch poet, 1748-1772. GRiETER, F. D., a Pruss. savant, 1768-1830. GRjEVIUS, J. G., a German critic, 1632-1703. GRAFTON, Augustus Henry Fitzroy, duke of, prime minister from 1765-1770, disting. also as a theolog. wr. on Socinian principles, 1736-1811. GRAFTON, R., an English annalist, 16th cent. GRAFUNDER, D., a Pruss. Oriental., d. 1680. GRAHAM, George, an ingenious watchmaker and mechanician, celebrated for the accuracy of his astronomical instruments, 1675-1751. GRAHAM, John, better known as Claverhouse, com. of the cavalry serving in Scotland against the covenanters, killed at Killiecrankie 1689. GRAHAM, Sir John, the comp.-in-arms of Sir William Wallace, k. at the battle of Falkirk 1298. GRAHAM, Sir Rich., Lord Viscount Preston, ambass. from Charles II. to Louis XIV., 1648-95. GRAHAME, James, a religious poet of Scot- land, author of ' The Sabbath,' &c, 1765-1811. GRAINGER, James, a Scotch physician set- tled in London, known as a poet, 1723-1767. GRAMAYE, J. B., a Flem. historian, d. 1635. GRAMBERG, A., a German poet, 1772-1816. GRAMBERG, C. P. W., a German Oriental scholar and literary savant, 1797-1822. GRAMM, John, a Danish antiqu., 1685-1748. GRAMMONT, A. P. De, a French officer, dis- tinguished at the battle of Malplaquet 1709, and after that archbishop of Besancon, 1685-1754. GRAMMONT, F.J. De, abp. of Besancon,d.l715. GRAMMONT, N. De, a Fr. gen., exec. 1794. GRAMMONT, or GRAMOND, Gabriel De Barthelemy, Seigneur De, a Fr. hist., d. 1654. GRAMONT, the name of an illustrious French family, the best known of whom are — Gabriel, a cardinal and diplomatist, time of Louis XII. and Francis I., died 1534. Anthony, duke of Gramont, marshal of France and viceroy of Na- varre, author of ' Memoirs,' died 1678. Ar- mand, son of the latter, and Count de Guiche, whose • Memoirs ' also exist, 1638-1674. Phili- bert, count de Gramont, son of Anthony, knows by his memoirs, written by his brother-in-law, Anthony, Count Hamilton, died 1720. Anthony, duke de Gramont, a French marshal and ambas- sador, known as count de Guiche, 1671-1725. Louis, duke de Gramont, lost the battle of Det- tingen, and was killed at Fontenoi 1745. The last duke of Gramont, father of the duke of Guiche and the countesses of Tankerville and Sebastiani, died 1836. GRAMONT, S. De, a Provencal poet, d. 1638. GRAN, Olave S., a Swed. missionary, 17th c. GRANBY, John Manners, marquis of, an English general, eldest son of the duke of Rutland, distinguished in the seven years' war, 1720-1770. GRANCOLAS, J., a French savant, author of many works on eccl. rites, ceremonies, and general history, and a controversial wr. on Quietism, d. 1732. GRANDET, J., a Fr. biographer, 1646-1724. GRANDI, G., an Ital. mathemat., 1671-1742. GRANDIDIER, P. A., a Fr. historian, 1732-87. GRANET, Fr., a French critic, 1692-1741. GRANGE, Joseph De Chancel De La, a French dramatic wr. and miscel. poet, 1675-1758. GRA GRANGENEUVE, J. A., a French republican of the Girondin party, horn 1750, executed 17:'.'!. GRANGER, J., an Engl, biographi. wr., 177(5. GRANGIER, 15., a French poet, 16th century. GRANGIER, J., a French savant, died 1648. GRANT, Anne, formerly Miss M'Vicar, and commonly called Mrs. Grant of Laggan, from a farm she cultivated in that neighbourhood, dis- tinguished as a miscellaneous writer, authoress of ' Memoirs of an American Lady,' ' Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlands,' &c, 175o-1838. GRANT, Charles, a proprietor and director of the East India Company, author of ' Observa- tions on the State of Societv among the Asiatic Subjects of Great Britain,' 1746-1822. GRANT, Sir C, a British officer, died 1835. GRANT, Edward, an English writer, d. 1601. GRANT, Francis, Lord Cullen, an eminent Scottish lawyer and judge, 1660-1726. GRANT, J., a Scot, barrister, au. of ' Thoughts on the Origin of the Gael,' &c, 1743-1835. GRANT; Patrick, a Scot, judge, 1698-1764. GRANT, Sir Wm., an eminent equity judge, master of the rolls from 1801 to 1817, 1754-1832. GRANUELLE, Anthony Perrenot, Cardi- nal De, a distinguished French statesman, and vicerov of Naples, 1517-1586. GRANVILLE, G KEEN VILE, or GREN- VILLE, Sir Richard, a military and naval ad- venturer, killed in action under Sir Thomas Howard, 1591. Sir Bevil, his grandson, a royalist, and commander of a troop of horse raised at his own expense, killed at the battle of Lans- downe, 1596-1643. George, Lord Lansdowne, grandson of the latter, a poet and courtier, 1667- 1735. See Carteret, Grenville. GRAPALDI, F. M., an Italian poet, 15th cent. GRATIAN, a canonist of the 12th century. GRATIANUS, an emperor of Rome, born 359, associated in the empire with his younger brother, Valentinian II., 375, assassinated 383. A private soldier of this name was proclaimed emperor in Britain, and put to death four months aftwd., in 407. GRATIUS, a Roman poet, 1st century B.C. GRATIUS, O., a controversial writer, 16th ct. GRATTAN. Henry, an Irish statesman and lawyer, was born in Dublin about the year 1750. He was called to the Irish bar in 1772 ; and hav- ing attached himself to Lord Charlemont, he ob- tained, by the powerful influence of that aristo- cratic national leader, a seat in the Irish parliament in 1775. His fiery eloquence, essentially Irish in its impetuosity, which yet was guided by good taste and strong judgment, gave him an immediate influence both with parliament and the public, and his bold spirit speedily grasped at projects far beyond the more hesitating policy of his leader. His great object was to have a recorded declaration of the legislative independence of Ireland, and by obtain- ing it as he did, there is no doubt that he prepared his country to receive juster terms and a higher position in a legislative union with Britain than she might have otherwise obtained. Besides the old assertion of the supremacy of the English crown in Poyning's Act, there stood, in the British statute book, so lately as the reus of George I., an offensive declaration of the legislative authority of the British parliament over Ireland. On the 16th of March, 1782, the Irish Commons, as the GRA result of Grattan's exertions, carried a declaration of rights condemning this legislative assumption, and by the cordial aid of Fox, then fortunately in power, the offensive act was repealed by the British parliament. The Irish legislature resolved to show their gratitude by a vote of money to Grattan, which, at his own desire, was reduced from the £100,000 originally suggested to £50,000. His popularity was subsequently occasionally shaken by the hostility of his great rival Flood. Unlike many of his coadjutors in the straggle for Irish nationality, he Avas a warm friend of catholic emancipation. He strongly opposed the union, and was for some time a member, but not a re- markable one, of the united parliament. He died on 14th May, 1820. [J.H.B.] GRATUS, Roman gov. of Judoa, about 16-27. GRAUMANN, J. P., a Prussian financier, re- former of the monetary system of Germ., 1710-62. GRAUN, Carl Heinrich, a German musical composer, chapel-master to Fr. the Gr., 1701-1759. GRAUNT, Edw., an English clergyman, au. of ' Grnecum Linguaa Spicilogium,' &c, died 1601. GRAUNT, John, a London draper, author of 'Observations on the Bills of Mortality,' 1670-74. GRAVANDER, L. F., a Swed. poet,' 1778-1815. GRAVELOT, H., a Fr. engraver, 1699-1773. GRAVES, Rich., an Engl, clergyman and misc. wr., auth. of 'The Spiritual Quixote,' 1715-1804. GRAVESANDE, William James, an eminent Dutch mathematician and astronomer, 1648-1742. GRAVINA, Carlo Duke De, a Sp. admiral, died of a wound received at Trafalgar, 1747-1806. GRAVINA, Dominico Da, an Italian historian, author of a history of Naples, &c, 14th century. GRAVINA, Gian Vincenzo, a celebrated Neapolitan jurist and man of letters, 1664-1718. GRAVINA, Pietro, a Neapolitan poet, 15th c. GRAVIUS, an annalist of Friesland, 16th cent. GRAY, E. W., an eminent naturalist, d. 1807. GRAY, Stephen, an English gentleman, dis- tinguished as an experimt. philosopher, d. 1736. GRAY, Robert, bishop of Bristol, author of a ' Theory of Dreams,' ' Connection between the Sacred Writings and the Literature of Jewish and Heathen Authors,' &c, 1762-1834. GRAY, Thomas, the son of a scrivener in Lon- don, was born there in 1716. From Eton school he passed to Cambridge, where he busied himself with languages and poetry, and neglected mathematics and philosophy, as indeed he did ever afterwards. Leaving the university in 1738, without talcing a degree in arts, he intended to study law, but in the meantime entered on a continental tour with Horace Walpole. The two indifferently assorted companions travelled through France and Italy; but a misunderstanding taking place, Gray re- turned to England in 1741. — His father being now dead, he seems to have been in possession of means enabling a person of moderate wishes and indolent habits to dispense with the labour of a profes- sion. He settled himself at Carribridge tor the remainder of his days, hardly ever leaving the fdace, unless when he made tours to Wales, Scot- and, and the lakes of Westmoreland, and when he passed three years in London, for access to the library of the British Museum. His life thenceforth was purely that of a scholar; and it was spent in reading and desultory thinking, 284 GRA rather than in authorship. His knowledge was multifarious and exact. — That he was intellectu- ally active, in his own lazy and miscellaneous fashion, is shown by his ' Letters,' published after his death. These are admirable specimens of English style ; they contain some of the most pic- turesque pieces of descriptive writing in the lan- guage; they are full of acute, though fastidious criticism ; and they have innumerable touches of quiet humour. He planned editions of classical authors, and made collections for the purpose. But he completed nothing except those little poems, which, flowing from an intense though not- fertile imagination, inspired by the most delicate poetic feeling, and elaborated into exquisite terse- ness of diction, are among the most splendid orna- ments of English literature. — His ' Ode to Eton College,' published in 1747, attracted little notice ; the ' Elegy in a Country Churchyard,' appearing in 1749, became at once, as it has always continued to be, one of the most popular of all poems. Most of his other odes were written in the course of the three years following 1753 ; and the publication of the collection in 1757 established his poetical re- putation with all who were competent to appreciate the most refined beauties of poetry. In 1768, after having been disappointed of the place when it was last vacant, he oecame professor of modern history at Cambridge. He had long been distressed by attacks of gout ; and one of these killed him in 1771. [W.S.] [Gray's House at Stoke.] GRAZIANI, A. M., an Ital. writer, dist. for his learning and the eloquence of his style, 1537-1611. GRAZIANI, G., an Italian poet, 1604-1675. GRAZIANI, J., an Ital. hist., abt. 1670-1730. GRAZIANI, J. B., a Florentine sculptor, whose real name was Ballanti, 1762-1835. GRAZZINI, A. F., an Italian poet, 1503-1583. GREATOREX, Thomas, an eminent musical performer and composer, dist. also for his studies in mathematics, chemistry, and botany, 1758-1831. GREATRAKES, Valentine, an Irish gentle- man who became famous about the period of the reformation for the cure of all kinds of diseases merely by the touch. He was born in Waterford 1628, and having come to England, served in the parliamentary army from 1649 to 1656, and was afterwards a magistrate in the county of Cork. The date of his death is not known. GRE GREAVES, James Pierrepoint, a writer of much original value on education, 1777-1842. GREAVES, Richard, an Oriental scholar, anti- quarian writer, and mathematician, 1602-1652. His brother, Thomas, an Arabian scholar, author of annotations on the Bible, &c, died 1676. His br., Edward, a physic, and medical wr., d. 1680. GREBAN, S., a French poet, 15th century. GREBNER, P., a German visionary, 16th cent. GRECOURT, Jean Baptiste Joseph Wil- lart De, a French poet, born of a Scotch family, author of ' Philotanus,' a satirical history of tiie famous bull Unigenitus, 1684-1743. GREDING, J. E., a Germ, physician, 1718-75. GREEN, Edward Burnaby, a poet and classical translator, died 1788. GREEN, John, an English prelate, 1706-1779. GREEN, Matthew, author of 'The Spleen,' a poem in considerable repute when first published for its originality and wit, b. about 1677, d. 1737. GREEN, Th., a miscellaneous wr., 1770-1825. GREEN, Val., an Engl, engraver, 1739-1813. GREEN, W., an English divine, died 1794. GREENE, Maurice, a musical composer and organist, author of some much esteemed anthems, &c, named Doctor of Music by the university of Cambridge in 1730, and afterw. professor, d. 1755. GREENE, Robert, an English dramatist, miscel. wr., and poet, time of Elizabeth, d. 1592. GREENE, Thomas, successively bishop of Nor- wich and Ely, and rice-chancellor of Cambridge, author of discourses on Death, Judgment, Heaven, and Hell, &c, 1658-1738. GREENFIELD, William, an Oriental scholar, editor of the ' Comprehensive Bible,' &c, d. 1832. GREENHAM, R., a puritan divine, died 1591. GREENHILL, J., an English painter, 1649-76. GREENVILLE. See Granville. GREEVE, E. J., a Dutch Hebraist, author of a ' Dissertation on the Hebrew Rhythm,' 1754-1811. GREGOIRE, Henry Count, a member of the French constitutent assembly and the convention, and constitutional bishop of Blois, distinguished as an advocate of popular rights, for his faithful- ness to the Christian religion, and for his writings in fav. of the abolition of slavery, &c, 1750-1831. GREGORAS, a Byzantine hist., abt. 1295-1360. GREGORII, J. G., a Germ, geographer, last ct. GRBGORIO, C, an Italian designer and engra- ver, 1719-1759. His son, Ferdinand, an engra- ver, born about 1740. GREGORIO, Maurice De, a learned theolo- g'an of Sicily, author of 'Anatomia Totius ibliae,' published 1614, died 1651. GREGORIO, R., an Ital. antiquar., 1753-1809. GREGORIUS, J. F., a Ger. savant, 1697-1761. GREGORIUS, Publius, a native of Tipher- num, distinguished at Venice as professor of an- cient literature, died about 1469. Emmanuel Frederic, his son, a theologian and philologist, author of numerous works in German and in Latin, 1730-1800. GREGORY. The saints of this name are— Gre- gory Thuamaturgus, a convert of Origen, dis- tinguished by his writings and marvellous power in the conversion of the neathen, died about 270. Gregory Nazianzen, for whose history see far- ther on. Gregory of Nyssa, another of the Greek fathers, the biographer of Giegory Thuauia- 285 GRE bum and himself a philosophical divine of the highest talents, born about 330, died 400. Gre- gory of Tours, author of a ' History of France,' and ' The Miracles of the Saints,' &c, 559-595. Gregory Lousavorisch, 'The Illuminator,' the apostle and first patriarch of Armenia, died about 336. Gregory, bishop of Agrigentum, author of Greek commentaries, died early in the 7th century. And the first two popes of the name. GREGORY. The popes of this name are — Gre- gory I., surnamed ' The Great,' and a saint in the Romish calendar, author of works which have often been reprinted, born about 544, raised to the pontificate 590, died 604. Gregory II., also a saint of Rome, succeeded 715, died 731. Gre- gory III., reigned about ten years, and died 741. Gregory IV., 827-844. Gregory V., born 972, died, after a pontificate of two years and nine months, 999. Gregory VI., elected pope 1045, deposed 1046. Gregory VII., elected 1073, died 1085. Gregory VIII., pope two months only, elected and died 1187. Gregory IX., reigned 1227-1241. Gregory X., 1271-1276. Gre- gory XI., b. 1331, reigned 1370-1378. Gregory XII., born 1325, reigned 1406-1417. Gregory XIII., distinguished by the reformation of the calendar, and one of the ablest civilians of his age, born 1502, reigned 1572-1585. Gregory XIV., born 1534, succeeded 1590, died 1591. Gregory XV., born 1554, succeeded 1621, distinguished as the founder of the College of the Propaganda, died 1623. Gregory XVI., born 1765, succeeded Pius VIII. 1831, died 1846. GREGORY. The patriarchs of Constantinople of this name are — Gregorius, or Gregorius Cyprius, died 1290 ; Gregory of Rimini, a celebrated scholar, died 1357 ; and a third of the name who played an important part in the divi- sions which agitated the Turkish empire, and was hung bv the populace of Constantinople 1821. GREGORY. The princes and patriarchs of Ar- menia of this name, besides G. Lousavoritch in the list of saints, are — Gregory, the last prince of the race of the Mamigoneans, acknowledged by the caliph under the title of patriarch 659, killed in battle with the Chazars 683. Gregory Magis- dros, a prince of the royal race of the Arsacides of Persia, distinguished as a poet and man of let- ters, author of an Armenian grammar, &c^ com- menced his political career in the time of John, king of Armenia 1030, and died 1058. Gregory II., the son and successor of the preceding, go- verned the patriarchate 1058-1105. Gregory III., nephew ot Gregory II., succeeded Basil 1113, died 1166. Gregory IV., nephew of the preced- ing, reigned 1173-1193. Gregory V., nephew and successor of Gregory IV., imprisoned by the lords and clergy of Armenia on account of his de- baucheries, and perished in attempting to escape, 1193-1194. Gregory VI., father of Gregory V., and his successor in 1193, died 1198. Gregory VII., successor of Constantine I., 1294, died 1306. Gregory VIII., maintained a long struggle for the royal authority, and was at length killed, 1411-1418. Gregory IX., elected by certain of the clergy 1440, and not being recognized by the Eastern Armenians, submitted to Vartabied, chosen by them in 1441, and confined his own au- thority to Cilicia, died 1447. Gregory X., GRE reigned 1443-1461. Gregory XL, 153n-ir.il. Gregory XII., 1569-1573. Gregory MIL, known at first under the name of Serapion, elected after the flight of David V. and Melchisedech 1603, fell into the hands of the dispossessed patri- archs, aided by the Persians, and was cruelly tor- tured 1605, died, probably in consequence, 1606. GREGORY : an illustrious Scottish family name, recalling the continuous splendours of the Bernouillis or Cassinis : we shall give the names and little more of its most remarkable scions. — 1. Earliest and perhaps loftiest, stands James Gre- gory, born in 1639 ; son of the progenitor of the family, the minister of Drumoack in Aberdeenshire. At the age of twenty-nine he became professor of mathematics in St. Andrews ; from which he was transferred to the same chair in Edinburgh, 1674. He died at the early age of thirty-six, having given the most brilliant promise as well as great perf'or- mance. We owe him one form of the reflecting teles- cope ; and in analytic power he sometimes rivalled Newton. His memoirs are very numerous, all bespeaking talents and originality of the first order. — 2. David Gregory, nephew of James, born at Aberdeen in 1661 ; at the age of twenty-three he succeeded his uncle in the metropolitan chair. David was an elegant mathematician and a good astronomer. He became Savilian professor at Ox- ford ; and was one of the first who comprehended and taught the philosophy of Newton. He died in 1708. — 3. James and Charles, brothers of the preceding, were also able mathematicians : James succeeded David in Edinburgh, and Charles held the chair in St. Andrews, which he transmitted to another mathematician, his son, David. — 4. Next the Medical branch of this singular family. It origi- nated in James, son of the great James Gregory, and professor of medicine in King's College, Aber- deen. He bequeathed his abilities and chair to his son, Dr. James Gregory, a man of repute : but his celebrated son was, — 6. John Gregory, M.D., born at Aberdeen in 1724. Few men have more de- served a high fame, than this eminent and excellent person. Thoroughly educated as a physician, he united to that culture, great sagacity and moral excellence, as well as refined tastes that led him into intimacy with all the eminent men of the brightest era of Scottish literature. From the year 1766 he held the chair of Practice of Physic in the university of Edinburgh ; and continued until his death in 1792 an acknowledged ornament, of the metropolis. John Gregory is the author of the ' Father's Legacy to his Daughters,' and he will long be remembered professionally by his ' Elements of the Practice of Physic' There is a life of him by the naturalist Smellie. — 7. Dr. James Gregory, son of the preceding, suc- ceeded to his chair, and sustained his place as a leading member of the Edinburgh Medical School. The kind of genius which most distin- guished this great family was not extinct; its mathematical powers again broke forth. Son of Dr. James, was — 8. The late D. F. Gregory, of Trinity College, Cambridge, an analyst reft from Science at the earliest age : he would have rivalled his greatest predecessor. — It is stated that of this family no less than sixteen members have held British professorships. [J.P.N.] GREGORY, archbishop of Corinth, 12th cent. 286 GEE GREGORY, a king of Scotland, rei GRIERSON, Constantia, an Irish lady, dis- tinguished for her self-acquired classical and philo- sophical attainments, and as a poetess, 1706-1733. GRIESBACH, John James, an eminent Ger- man critic, distinguished for his attainments in theological, biblical, and ecclesiastical literature, especially for his edition of the Greek gospels, with a critical history of the printed text, and ex- amination of various readings, born in Hesse Darmstadt 1745, died professor of divinity at the university of Jena, 1812. GRIFFET, H., a French historian, 1698-1771. GRIFFIER, John, known as « Old Griffier,' a Flemish painter, 1658-1718. His son, Robert, called ' the Younger,' a landscape pain., b. abt. 1688. GRIFFIN, the last king of Wales, died 1050. GRIFFITH, Eliz., a Welch novelist, d. 1793. GRIFFITH, M., an ecclesiast. au., 1587-1652. GRIFFITHS, R., a Welch reviewer, 1749-1803. GRIFFONI, M., an Ital. historian, 1351-1426. GRIGNAN, Frances Margaret De Sevig- ne, Countess De, an accomplished Fr. lady, daugh- ter of the celeb. Madame de Sevigne, and au. of a * Resume ' of the system of Fenelon, 1648-1705. GRILL, C., a Swedish economist, 1705-1767. GRIMALDI, the name of an illustrious family of Genoa, distinguished as partizans of the Guelphs, the principal members of which are — Ranieri Grimaldi, a naval commander, served as admiral of France in 1314. Antonio Grimaldi, also a naval commander and admiral, at length defeated by the combined fleets of Catalonia and Venice, under Pisani, in 1353. Giovanni Grimaldi, renowned for a great victory over the Venetian admiral, Nicolo Trevisani, in May, 1431. Do- menico Grimaldi, cardinal-archbishop and vice- legate of Avignon, distinguished at the battle of Lepanto 1571, d. 1592 Geronimo Grimaldi, papal nuncio to Germany and France, and a distinguished philanthropist, 1597-1685. GRIMALDI, F., a Neap, architect, 16th cent. GRIMALDI, F. M., an Italian math., 1613-63. GRIMALDI, G. F., an Ital. painter. 1606-80. GRIMALDI, J., an Italian savant, died 1623. GRIMALDI, Jos., a celeb, clown, 1779-1837. GRIMALDI, Marquis, auth. of a 4 Project for Reforming the Pub. Economy of Nap.,' 1735-1805. GRIMALDI, Wm., Marquis Grimaldi of Genoa, an employe of the East India Co., 1785-1828. GRO . GRIMAIN, Anth., doge of Venice, 1521-1523. GRIMAIN, Domenico, son of the preceding, a learned cardinal and patron of letters, 1460-1523. GRIMAIN, H., a Dutch painter, 1599-1629. GRIMAIN, Marl, doge of Venice, 1595-1605. GRIMAUD, J. C. W. De, a French physi- ologist and medical writer, 1750-1789. GRIM BALD, St., a Flemish ecclesiast., 9th ct. GRIMBOLD, GRIMBALD, or GRIMVALD, Nicholas, an Engl, poet and translator, 16th ct. GRIMM, Frederic Melchior, Baron De, joint author with Diderot of a posthumous work in 16 volumes, entitled ' Correspondance Litteraire Philosophique et Critique,' containing the history of French literature from 1753 to 1790. Baron Grimm is also the author of some smaller works published in his lifetime, and was in several political emplovs as minister and secretary. Born at Ratisbon 1723, died 1807. GRIMM, J. F. C, a Ger. physician, 1737-1821. GRIMOARD, Count Philip De, a French general, diplomatist, and man of letters, died 1815. GRIMOUD, Alexis, a Fr. painter, 1688-1740. GRIMSTON, Sir H., an Engl, lawyer, d. 1683. GRINDAL, Edmund, abp. of Canterbury, con- tributor to Fox's ' Acts and Monuments,' 1519-83. GRIOLET, J. M. A., a Fr. natural., 1763-1806. GRISAUNT, Wm., an English physician and astronomer, and a supposed magician, 14th cent. GRISCHOW, A., a German savant, 1683-1749. GRISEL, Joseph, a Fr. ecclesiastic and mystic wr., auth. of ' Chemin de l'Amour Divin,' 1703-87. GRITTI, Andrea, doge of Venice, 1523-1538. GROCYN, W., a learned Englishm., 1442-1519. GROENING, a German historian, 17th century. GROGNIER, L. F., a Fr. natural., 1775-1837. GROHMANN, John Godfrey, a laborious translator and compiler, professor of philosophy at Leipzig, au. of a ' Diet, of the Arts,' 1763-1805. GRONOV, or GRONOVIUS, the name of a celebrated Dutch family of savants, the principal of whom are — John Frederic, professor of the Belles Lettres, and editor of many classics, 1611- 1671. James, his son, a critical and philological writer, 1645-1716. Laurence Theophilus, brother of James, an antiquarian and philologist, dates unknown. Abraham, eldest son of James, a physician and geographical author, dates un- known. John Frederic, and Laurence The- odore, brothers of Abraham, distinguished as naturalists, the former d. 1760, the latter 1778. GROPP, Ignatius, a Ger. histor., 1695-1758. GROPPER, J., a German polemic, died 1559. GROS, Antoine Jean, Baron, a celebrated French painter, a pupil of David, 1771-1835. GROS, Nich. Le, a Fr. theologian, 1675-1751. GROS, Peter Des, a French moralist, 15th c. GROS, Peter Le, a Fr. sculptor, 1666-1719. GROSE, Francis, an eminent English anti- quary and heraldist, au. of ' Antiquities of Eng- land and Wales,' ' A Treatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons,' ' Military Antiquities,' ' A Collec- tion of Proverbs,' 'A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue,' 'A Provincial Glossary,' 1731-91. GROSLEY, P. J., a French essayist, 1718-85. GROSS, J. G., a Germ, naturalist, 1581-1680. GROSS, J. G., a Bavarian author, 1703-1768. GROSS, David Gabriel Albert De, a Ger- man writer on military tactics, 1756-1809. D U GEO GROSSER, S., a German philologist, 1664-1736. GROSSETESTE, GROSTETE, or GROST- HEAD, Rop.t., a lrnd. bp. of Lincoln, 1175-1253. GROSSMANN, Gustav. Fred. Wm, a celeb. German actor and dramatic writer, 1746-1796. GROSSON, J. B. B., a Fr. archteol., 1733-1800. GROSVENOR, B., an Eng. dissent., 1675-1758. GROTIUS, or GROOT, Hugo, a jurist, divine, historian, and general scholar, was born at Delft, in Holland, on 10th April, 1583. "When eleven years old, he was sent to the newly-established protestant university at Leyden, where he had the fortune to study under Joseph Scaliger. He was so precocious, not only in the acquisition of know- ledge, but in the capacity of imparting his acquire- ments by literature, that at the age of fifteen he might be said to have a European reputation, and he was then received with distinction at the court of Henry the Great. Nor did his boyish attain- ments indicate a premature exhaustion of his powers ; on the contrary, his mind seems to have grown with every year added to his age, and he was ever accumulating new intellectual riches and enlarging his capacities. In 1613 he obtained the important office of pensionary of Rotterdam. But it was unfortunate that one whose conquests in important studies were so valuable, should have had his time occupied, and his mind distracted by the wretched polemical conflict which then shook the Netherlands. He became one of the illustrious victims whose sufferings are a scandal to the other- wise magnanimous history of the Dutch during that period. He involved himself with his friend, the great pensionary Barneveldt, in the Arminian controversy, and in 1619 was condemned to per- petual imprisonment by the triumphant party. He was one of those whose prison hours have en- riched the world, and the quantity of books which he kept passing to and fro in the end furnished the means of his escape. It was accomplished by his wife, Mary Reygensberg, a daughter of one of the great Dutch aristocratic families, who managed to ave him removed from the prison in one of the book trunks. The works which he had hitherto published, scientific, critical, and poetical, are now comparatively obscure, but in prison he prepared his little treatise, De Veritate Religionis Chris- tianae, which has been perhaps the most popular ' Evidences of Christianity ' ever published, and has been translated into every civilized tongue. But it was when subsequently living in retirement in France that he published his De Jure Belli et Pacts, the foundation of the international law and European diplomacy of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Though it consisted pro- perly of speculations derived from the principles of Roman jurisprudence, it was accepted as if it were the authoritative enunciation of the law of nations. After having, in his advanced years, visited various countries, he died on the 28th of August, 1645. [J.H.B.] GROTTO, Luigi, an Italian poet, 1541-1583. GROUCHY, Emanuel, Count, a marshal of the French empire, born at Paris 1766, and known as a brave and successful soldier in the wars of Napoleon, is chiefly memorable for the fatuity which seemed to rule his conduct at the battle of Waterloo. With thirty -five thousand men, and eight hundred pieces of cannon under his orders, GUE he remained immoveable, either by the prayers or threats of the other generals, in a position "which could only be justified by the strict letter of hip instructions. It is not certain that he intended to betray the cause of Napoleon, but his culpable indecision certainly contributed to the disaster which befell the French arms. He was twice aft er- wards summoned before a council of war, but each time escaped judgment in consequence of the court's declaring itself incompetent. Grouchy was included in the special amnesty of 1819, and restored to his military rank on the accession of Louis Philippe. He died in 1847. [E.R.] GROUCHY, N. De, a French savant, d. 1572. GROUCHY, Sophia, sister of Marshal Grouchy, and widow of Condorcet, known as the translat. of Adam Smith's ' Theory of the Moral Sentiments,' and auth. of ' Letters upon Sympathy,' died 1822. GROULART, Cl., a French jurist, 1551-1607. GROVE, Hen., a dissent, minister, au. of ' An ssay on the Soul's Immortality,' &c, 1683-1738. GROVE, Joseph, an English writer, d. 1764. GRUBER, G. M., a German savant, 1739-99. GRUBER, G. W., a Germ, composer, 1729-1796. His son, J. Sigismund, a savant, 1759-1805. GRUBER, J. D., a Flemish historian, 1709-48. GRUEBER, J., an Italian missionary, 1630-65. GRUNJEUS, S., a Germ, historian, 1564-1628. GRUNET, T. S., a Swiss naturalist, died 1778. GRUPERS, Ch. U., a Greek hist, 1692-1767. GRUTER, or GRYTERE, John, a dist. philol. and antiquarian of the Netherlands, 1560-1627. GRYNiEUS, Simon, a German philosopher, classical scholar, and theologian, 1493-1541. John James, his grandnephew, also a theologian and biblical commentator, 1540-1618. GRYPHIUS, And., a German dramatist, 1616- 1664. His son Christian, a lrnd. wr., 1649-1706. GRYPHIUS, S., a German printer, 1493-1556. GUA-DE-MALVES, Jean Paul, a French geometrician and economist, disting. in France as the planner of the Encyclopedic, 1712-1786. GUADET, M. E., a French republican of the Girondist party, executed at Bourdeaux, 1794. GUALANDI, J. B., an Italian transl., d. 1570. GUALDO-PRIORATO, Galeazzo, an Italian hist., au. of ' A Hist, of the Wars of Ferdinand II. and Ferdinand III.,' ' Hist, of Leopold,' 1606-78. GUALTERUS, or GWALTHER, Rodolph, a Swiss reformer, son-in-law of Zuinglius, 1519-86. GUALTIERI, N., an Ital. naturalist, d. 1747. GUARIN, P., a French Orientalist, 1678-172<>. GUARINI, C. G., an Ital. architect, 1624-83. GUARINI, G., an Italian poet, 1537-1612. GUARINI, or GUARINO, a Latin and Greek scholar, dist. at the revival of learning, died 1460. GUATIMOZIN, or QUAUTEMOTZIN, the last king of Mexico, murdered by Cortez 1522. GUAY-TROUIN. See Duguay-Trouin. GUAZZESI, L., an Italian savant, 1708-1764. GUAZZO, Mark, an Italian historian, d. 1556. GUAZZO, S., an Italian author, 1530-1593. GUELDRE, Edward, first duke of the name, son of Renaud II., count of Nassau, 1336-1371. GUELF, or GUELPH, the name of a great historical party or faction of the middle ages, derived from the name of a family connected witli the Saxon princes, and from which the house of Brunswick is descended. The first of the name, 290 GUE duke of Bavaria, reigned 1071-1108. The second, who was his son and successor, died 1120. The parties which divided Europe for so many ages took the name of Guelphs and Ghibellines, after the battle of Weinberg m 1140, when the Saxon army was commanded by Welfon, or Guelph, bro- ther of duke Henry. The Guelphs may be regarded in history as the party of freedom and progress. GUENCE, Anth., a French author, 1717-1803. GUER, J. A., a miscel. French wr., 1713-1764. GUERCHOIS, Mad., a relig. wr., 1679-1840. GUERCINO. Giovanni Francesco Bar- bieri, commonly called Guercino from a cast in his eye, was bom at Cento, near Bologna, in 1590 : he was self-taught. He spent some time at Rome, but lived chiefly at Cento, until the death of Guido in 1642, when he settled in Bologna, where he died rich in 1666. Guercino was an imitator of Caravaggio, and is one of the principal so-called Tenebrosi masters, from the great depth and blackness of their shadows, but upon his settle- ment in Bologna he modified his manner, endea- vouring to bring it nearer to that of Guido. — (Passeri, Vite de 1 Pittori, &c; Malvasia, Ftlsina Pittrice.) [R.N.W.] GUERICKE, Otto Von, a German expen. philos., inventor of the air pump, &c, 1602-1686. GUERRA, J., an Italian architect, 1544-1618. GUERRERO, Vicente, one of the insurgent chiefs of Spanish America, president of the Mexi- can republic in 1829, vanquished and shot by Bustamenti in February, 1831. GUERRINO, T., an Italian mathemat,, 17th c. GUETTARD, J. S., a Fr. naturalist, 1715-86. GUEVARA, Anth., a Spanish prelate, cele- brated as an eloquent preacher, died 1544. His nephew, of the same name, a biblical commentator. GUEVARA, J. N. De, a Sp. painter, 1631-98. GUEVARA, Louis Velez De Las Duenas Y, a Sp. novelist and dramatic author, 1574-1646. GUEVARA, Don Philip, a Spanish painter and writer on art, died 1563. His son Diego, a distinguished mathematician, died 1566. GUEVARA, S., a Spanish poet, 1558-1610. GUIBERT, a French historian, 1053-1124. GUIBERT, an anti-pope, elected 1080, d. 1110. GUIBERT, C. B., Count De, a French military officer, 1715-1786. His son, James Anthony Hippolytus, a writer on tactics, 1743-1789. GUICCIARDINI, Francesco, an eminent Italian historian and diplomatist, 1482-1540. GUICCIARDINI,Luigi, a nephew of the illus- trious historian, au. of political works, 1521-1589. GUICHE, Armand, Count. See Gramont. GUICHE, Cl. De La, a Fr. prelate, d. 1555. GUICHE, J. F. De La, honourably known in Fr. hist, as the marshal de St. Geran, 1569-1632. GUICHE, P. De La, a diplomatist, 1464-1544. GUICHE, Philibert De La, a distinguished French soldier, commander of the artillery at the battle of Ivry, 1540-1598. GUIDI, C. A., an Italian lyric poet, 1650-1712. GUIDI, L., a French theologian, 1710-1780. GUIDO, DArezzo, an Ital. musician, 10th ct. GUIDO RENI, was born at Bologna in 1575, and became one of the most distinguished pupils of the Carracci : he lived long in Rome, but settled finally, and died in his native place, 18th August, GUI was somewhat in the forcible manner of Caravag- gio, he afterwards cultivated the ideal, and adopted a rather silvery tone of colour. Guido, though in the receipt of a princely income, from the enor- mous and constant demand for his pictures, died in debt : he was so embarrassed by his extravagant habits that he used to sell his time at so much per hour to the dealers, who on some occasions, it seems, were so exacting as to stand by him, watch in hand, to see that he performed the stipulated amount of labour. There are eight pictures by Guido in the National Gallery. He formed a con- siderable school; the most celebrated of his scholars was Simone Cantarini, called il Pesarese, by whom there is a remarkable portrait of Guido in the Gallery of Bologna. — (Passeri, Vita de' J 'it- tori, &c; Malvasia, FelsinaP'tttrice, &c.) [R.N.W.] GUIDOTTI, Paolo, an Ital. paint., 1569-1629. GUIENNE, Charles of France, duke of, br. of Louis XL, and formerly due de Berri, 1446-72. GUIENNE, William, count of Poitiers, and duke of, one of the earliest troubadours, 1071-1126. GUIGNES, Joseph De, a Fr. Oriental scholar, and historian of the Huns, Turks, &c, 1721-1800. GUILD, William, a Scotch divine, 1586-1657. GUILLAIN, S., a French sculptor, 1581-1658. GUILLARD, N. F., a Fr. dramat., 1752-1814. GUILLAMET, Ch. Axel, an archit. and man of lett., b. at Stockholm of Fr. parents, 1730-1807. GUILLAUMET, F., a surgical writer, 17th ct. GUILLEMAIN, C. J., a Fr. dramat., 1750-99. GUILLEMEAN, James, a celebrated French writer on surgery, a pupil of Riolan, 1550-1613. His son, Charles, a physician, 1588-1656. GUILLEMINE, GUILLEMETTE, or GUIL- LELMA, a female visionary, fhdr. of a sect, 13th c. GUILLEMINOT, Anne Charles, Count, a native of Belgium, employed by Napoleon as am- bassador, and \y the due d'Angouleme, 1774-1840. GUILLIAND, C, a French divine, 16th cent. GUILLIM, John, an English writer on her- aldry, whose great work, ' The Display of Heraldry,' was really founded on a MS. presented to him by Dr. Barcham, the author. Guillim was born about 1565, was appointed rouge-croix pursuivant of arms 1617, and died 1621. GUILLIMARM, F., a German historian and savant, au. of ' De Rebus Helvetiorum,' &c, 16th c. GUILLORE, G., a Fr. religious writer, d. 1684. GUILLOTIN, Joseph Ignatius, a French physician and deputy to the states-general, whose name has been given to the instrument of death which he caused to be brought into use from hu- mane motives in the course of the French revolu- tion, born at Saintes 1738, died 1814. GUINET, F., a French jurisconsult, 1604-81. GUIRAND, Cl., a French philosopher, d. 1657. GUIRAND, G., a French antiquarian, 1600-80. GUISARD, P., a Fr. surgical writer, 1700-46. GUISCARD, Robert, first Norman duke of Apulia and Calabria, died in Cephalonia 1085. GUISCHARD, Ch. Gottlieb, a German preacher, afterwards aid-de-camp to Frederick the Great, and au. of works on milit. tactics, 1724-75. GUISE, the name of an illustrious French family, the founder of which was Claude, son of Rene IL, duke of Lorraine, who obtained letters of naturalization from Louis XII., in 1506, distin- 1642. He painted in various styles, his earlier | guished himself at the battle of Marignano 1515, 291 GUI was created duke of Guise in Picardy by Francis I. in 1527, and died in 1550. The duke of Guise having married into the royal familv, one of his daughters espoused James V. of Scotland, and be- came the mother of Mary Stuart. His eldest son, Francis, who succeeded to the dukedom, was one of the most remarkable men of the age, and was king of France in all but the name. He was the chief of the catholic 'League,' opposed to Conde and the Huguenots, and was assassinated 1563. The son and successor of the latter, Henry Duke of Guise, bora 1550, inherited the power and ambition of his father, and was one of the chief actors in the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew. He was assassinated by order of the king 1588. The brother of Francis, and uncle of Henry duke of Guise, generally known as the Cardinal of Lorraine, was the minister of Francis II. and Charles IX., and like the other members of his family, a cruel bigot and persecutor of the pro- testants, flourished 1525-1574. Charles, the part of his reign, the Poles and Russians attacked fourth duke of Guise, eldest son of Henry the ! Sweden ; but the young king, putting himself at third duke, and Catherine of Cleves, became one of j the head of the Swedish army, made a noble the chiefs of the League three years after the death resistance, and ultimately forced his enemies to of his father, and was gov. of Provence, 1571-1640. | accede to a peace (1629), by which Sweden gained Henry of Lorraine, the fifth duke, who became important extension of her territory. At this time generalissimo of the Neapolitan insurgents in the the emperor Ferdinand II. was engaged in a war revolt against Spain, and afterwards grand chain- ] of persecution against the protestants and the free berlain of France, was born 1614, and died 1664. states of Germany. Sweden was an intensely The sixth duke of Guise, known also as Louis protestant country, and could not behold with in- Joseph of Lorraine, and prince de Joinville, j difference the rapid strides which the Roman GUS name are — Gustavus (Vasa) I., born 1490, elected king by the states after defeating Chris- tian of Denmark 1523, abolished the Roman Catholic religion 1529, demanded and obtained the succession in his family after subduing the revolt of the Dalecarlians 15o5, died 1560. Gustavus (Adolphus) II. See next article. Gustavus III., born 1746, succeeded 1771, shot by Ankars- troem while preparing to march against the French republic 1792. Gustavus (Adolphus) IV., son and successor of the latter, and like him, remark- able for his chivalrous spirit and obstinate enmity against the French; deposed and banished the country 1809, died in Switzerland, after wander- ing through the greater part of Europe under vari- ous names, and in the most straitened circum- stances, 1837. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, bora December 9, 1594, succeeded his father, Charles IX., on the throne of Sweden, October 30, 1611. In the early a military officer under Louis XIV., flourished 1650-1671. The last of this house was a posthu- mous son of the latter, who d. abt. four years aftw. GUISE, Claude, a violent partizan of the league, nat. son of Claude the first duke, d. 1612. GUISE, William, an English divine, 1653-84, GUITON, John, a patriot of Rochelle, 1626. GUITTONE, an Italian poet, 13th century. GUIZOT, Elizabeth Charlotte Pauline de Meulan, Madame, wife of the distinguished statesman, author of novels and works for youth, 1773-1827. Margaret Eliza Dilson, niece of the preceding, and second wife of M. Guizot, also an authoress, 1804-1833. GULDENSTAEDT, John Anthony, a fam- ous Russian traveller and naturalist, 1745-1781. GULDINUS, P., a Germ, mathema., 1577-1643. GUMILLA, P. J., a Span, missionary, last ct. GUNDLING, J. P., a Ger. statesm., 1673-1731. GUNDLING, N. J., a Ger. philoso., 1671-1729. GUNDULF, a Norman ecclesiastic and archi- tect, time of William the Conqueror, builder of the Tower of London and Rochester castle, died 1108. GUNNER, John Ernest, bishop of Dron- theim in Nonvay, disting. as a botanist, 1718-73. GUNNING, P., an English prelate, 1613-1684. GUNST, P. Van, a Dutch engraver, last cent. GUNTER, Edmund, an English mathematician and astronomer, inventor of a famous rule of pro- portion known as Gunter's scale, 1581-1626. GUNTHER, J. C, a German poet, 1695-1723. GUNTHER, J. C, a Ger. natural., 1769-1833. GUNZ, J. G., a German anatomist, 1714-1754. GURTLER, N., a Swiss protest, wr., 1654-1711. GURWOOD, Colonel John, sec. to the duke of Wellington, and editor of his despatches, d. 1845. GUSMAN, Lewis, a Span, missionary, d. 1605. GUSTAVUS. The kings of Sweden of this Catholic despot of Austria, aided by the pope and the king of Spain, was making towards tne extir- pation of European civil and religious liberty. Austria had given special provocation to Gustavus by aiding his enemies against him during the Polish war, and he resolved to come forward as the cham- pion of the protestant cause against her. — Gustavus Adolphus landed in Pomerania on 24th June, 1630, with only 8,000 men. He was reinforced by six English and Scottish regiments, under the duke of Hamilton ; and, at the head of this little force, he essayed to rescue the German protestants from the powerful and long-victorious armies of Tilly, and the other imperialist generals. Gustavus ad- vanced, and was splendidly successful, though he met death in less than three years from his first planting his foot on German ground. Napoleon has well said of him, that ' notwithstanding the shortness of his career, it is one of great recollec- tions, in consequence of the boldness and rapidity of his movements, and the discipline and intrepi- dity of his troops. Gustavus Adolphus was ani- mated by the principles of Alexander, Hannibal, and Cassar.' Such is his praise, merely in a mili- tary point of view — his moral glory is still higher. — Gustavus, m 1630, conquered Rugen and Pomera- nia. In the following year he formed an alliance with the Saxons, and completely defeated the main Austrian army under Tilly at Leipzig. He gave them a second overthrow nearthe river Lech, in which Tilly was slain ; and all Germany was now opened to the Swedish arms. The Austrian emperor now retailed his celebrated general Wallenstein to head the Roman Catholic troops ; and the Swedish king fought his third great battle against the imperial- ists under Walleustein's command at Lutzen, 1st November, 1632. Gustavus gave out Luther's hymn to his army before engaging; he led the 292 GUT words himself; and then he led his cavalry into the critical part of the fight. He was shot dead early in the battle, but his army gained a complete victory. — Gustavus Adolphus was simple in his habits, pure and just in all his dealings, and un- feignedly earnest in his religion. He was inade- quately praised when he was named ' one of the best men that ever wore a crown.' [E.S.C.] GUTBIEN, Giles, a German Orient., 1617-67. GUTCH, John, an Engl, antiquar., 1745-1831. GUTHRIE, W., a Scotch miscel. wr., 1708-70. GUTLER, N., a German savant, 1654-1711. GUTTEMBERG, C., a Ger. engrav., 1741-90. [Statue of Guttenberg at Mayence.] GUTTENBERG, or GUTENBERG, John, a native of Sulgeloch, near Mentz in Germany, was born in 1400, and died on the 24th of February 1468. He is supposed to have made his first ex- periments in the art of printing with moveable types between 1434 and 1439, but it was in 1443 that he turned his invention to account, and brought upon himself the persecution of the priests and writers. There are some points not cleared up in the history of this invention, but it is now gener- ally agreed that the honour belongs to John Gut- tenberg, and a society named after him meets yearly in his native city, where, also, a beautiful statue by Thorwalsden has been erected to his memory. GUTZIKOW, a Russian musician, 1806-1837. GUY, Thomas, the founder of the hospital of that name, which he built and endowed at an ex- pense of nearly a quarter of a million sterling, was born 1644, and accumulated his immense fortune, GUY GUYET, Fr., a French critic, 1575-1655. GUYETANT, J. F., a French surgeon, known as a topographical and medical writer, 1742-1816. GUI ON, Claude Marie, a French historian, author of a ' History of Empires and Republics,' &c, 1699-1771. GUYON. Madame Jeanne Marie Rouviers De La Mothe Guion, or Guyon, was a French lady of good family, born at Montargis 1642, where also she was married at the age of fifteen, and in thirteen years afterwards left a widow with three children. Her marriage was not a happy one, in consequence of the tyranny of her husband and mother-in-law, who, acting under the advice of her confessors, endeavoured to withdraw her from the inward prayer and retirement to which, at the age of twenty, she began to addict herself. On the death of her husband she sequestered the greater part of her fortune as a provision for the education of her children, and completely aban- doned herself to the life of mystic piety, or ' per- fect contemplation,' generally known as Quietism, and of which we shall give an account in the ar- ticle Molinos. Her experiences are related with extraordinary candour and graphic simplicity in her ' Autobiography,' and are further illustrated in the 'Torrents,' written at Annecy, and contained in the 2 volumes of her • Opuscules.' She was at Grenoble, on her way to Paris, when she found herself ' sud- denly invested,' as she expresses herself, ' with the apostolic state,' and able to discern the condition of those that spake with her, so that, one sending another, she was occupied from six in the morning till eight at night speaking of divine things. 1 There came,' she says, ' great numbers from all parts, far and near, friars, priests, men of all sorts, young women, married women, and widows ; they all came one after the other, and God gave me that which satisfied them in a wonderful manner, without my thinking or caring at all about it. Nothing was hidden from me of their inward state and condition. .... I perceived and felt that what I spake came from the fountain-head, and that I was only the instrument of Him who made me speak.' On reaching Paris she was thrown into prison, loaded with the vilest calumnies, by the connivance of her friends the priests, and endured altogether not less than twenty years of persecution, confinement, and exile. The great enemy of Madame Guyon and the system of Quietism was Bossuet, while for her champion she had the noble-*hearted, eloquent, and illustrious Fenelon. She was liberated from her last confinement, in the Bastile, in 1702, and passed the remainder of her life at Blois, where she died 1717. Her complete works were published^ by Poiret in 39 vols. 8vo, and they comprise, besides those mentioned above, ' The Song of Songs, Inter- preted According to its Mystical Sense,' and several volumes of hymns remarkable for their graceful composition, and exquisite sensibility. Some of these were translated by Cowper.— The life of ly a religious study, but a of nearly twice that amount, by stock-jobbing and the purchase of seamen's tickets. He was also the founder of alms-houses and a library at Tarn worth, and a great benefactor of Christ's Hospital, and j left a sum of £80,000 to be divided amongst his Madame Guyon is not on relations. He died in 1724. GUYARD, Adelaide, a Fr. pain., 1749-1803. GUYARD, Anth., a French monk, 1692-1770. GUYARD, B., a French theologian, 1601-1674. GUYARD, J., a Fr. historian, died about 1600 GUYARD, L., a French sculptor, 1723-1788. GUYET, Ch., a learned Jesuit, 1601-1664. psychological one of very considerable interest. It is the history of a soul, humbled and polluted in its own sight, journeying through the gates of the mystic death, hating its own freedom and its own intelligence, struggling through the unclean places through which it is forced to pass, and at last arriv- ing in the presence of its Divine lover— stripped of 293 GUY all, even its virtues — as serene, ns motionless as the eye of eternity. _ Though the system of Quietism is a protest against visions, revelations, ecstaeies, and transports of all kinds, whether sensual or spiritual, yet the experiences of Madame Guyon are really a love story, and one which she pursues in her writings with a fearlessness as remarkable in such a woman as the purity of her imagina- tion. [E.R.] GUYON, L., a Fr. medical writer, died 1630. GUYON, S., an ecclesiastical hist., 1595-1657. GUYS, J. B., a French antiquarian, 1611-1693. GUYS, Peter Augustine, a French merchant, author of a ' Literary Journey into Greece,' &c, 1721-1799. His son, Peter Alphonso, a dip- lomatist and political writer, 1755-1812. GUYSE, James De, a French annalist and antiquarian writer, died 1399. GUYSE, John, an English Calvin., 1680-1761. GUYTON DE MORVEAU, Louis Bernard, a learned French chemist, and republican deputy to the legislative assembly and the convention, member of the Committee of Public Safety and the council of 500, and in the time of Napoleon one of the administrators-general of the mint, and direc- tor of the Polytechnic School. He is the discov. of the means of destroying infection by acid vapours, and auth. of various chemical writings, 1736-1816. GUZMAN, Alfonso Perez De, a celebrated Spanish captain, ancestor of the house of Medina Sidona, 1258-1320. Others of the same house are HAG distinguished in Spanish history, the chief ol whom are — Henry, known in the war of Grenada, 1494. His son, of the same name, distinguished in Africa 1497, lost Gibraltar, rebelled and died in disgrace 1508. And the son of the latter, also of the^ same name, and successor of his command in the revolt, reconciled to Ferdinand II., king of Arragon, after ravaging Andalusia, 1514. GUZMAN, Louise De, regent of Portugal after the death of her husband, King John, 1656-1666. GWILYM, David Ap, a W. bard, 1340-1400. GWINNE, Matthew, author of 'Letters on Chemical and Magical Secrets,' died 1627. GYGES, a king of Lydia, 718-680 B.C. GYLIPPUS, a Greek commander, 414 b.c. GYLLENBORG, Charles, Count, a Swedish senator and man of letters, ambassador in London when Charles XII. projected the invasion of Scot- land, high chancellor of Sweden in 1719, and foreign minister in 1739, died 1746. His brothers, John, Otho, and Frederic, are also celebrated, iliejlrst as a military officer under Charles XII., the second as a literary savant and poet, and the third for his zealous promotion of useful know- ledge. It was in the house of Frederic Gyllenborg that the first sittings of the Academy of Sciences, founded in Stockholm in 1740, were held. GYLLENHIELM, Charles, Baron De, a na- tural son of Charles IX., and grand admiral of Sweden, 1574-1650. GYZEN, Peter, a Flemish painter, born 1636. H HAAFNER, M., a Dutch writer, author of tra- vels in India and the Island of Ceylon, died 1809. HAAK, Theodore, a Germ, savant, 1605-90. HAAREN, W. Van., a Dutch poet and diplo- matist, 1700-1763. A member of the same family, named Onno Zwier Van Haaren, also a poet, and author of ' Christianity in Japan,' 1713-1779. HAAS, J. M., a Ger. geographi. wr., 1684-1742. HAAS, William, a letter-founder and printer of Basle, (listing, for his improvements, 1741-1800. HABAKKUK, a Jewish prophet, 600 B.C. HABERKORN, P., a Ger. divine, 1604-1676. HABERLIN, F. D., a German historian, 1720- 1787. His son, Ch. Frederic, a jurist, d. 1808. HABERT, Francis, a French poet, 16th cent. HABERT, Isaac, a Fr. controver., died 1668. HABERT, Louis, a Jansenist wr.,' 1635-1718. HABERT, Philip, a French artillery officer and man of letters, 1605-1637. His brother, Ger- main, an ecclesiastic and poet, 1610-1655. HABICOT, Nich., a Fr. anatomist, 1550-1624. HABINGTON, Thomas, a political character, implicated in the conspiracy of Babington, known in literature as the collector of materials for Nash's history of Worcestershire, died 1647. HABINGTON, W., an English poet, 1605-45. HACAN, fifth caliph of Bagdad, 660-669. HACAN, a prince of Mauritania, regn., 954-985. HACAX-BKX-AL-HACAN. See Alhazan. HACAX-BEN-SABBAH, the founder of a poli- tical and relig. sect of Persia, whose successors are kn. as the 'Old Men of the Mountain,' 1050-1124. HACAN-BURZUK, caliph of Bagdad, d. 1356. HACHETTE, Jane, a French heroine of 1472. HACHETTE, J. N. P., a French mathema- tician, au. of ' Descriptive Geometry,' 1769-1834. HACKAERT, J., a Dutch painter, died 1699. HACKERT, J. P., a German painter, 1734-94. HACKET, John, bishop of Lichfield, author of 'A Centurv of Sermons,' 'Loyola,' &c, 1592-1670. HACQUET, B., a French natural., 1740-1815. HADDOCK, Sir R., a British admiral, d. 1714. HADDON, Walter, an English lawyer, au- thor of several Latin poems, &c, 1516-1572. HADJI-KHALFA, a Turkish savant, 1600-58. HADLEY, John, inv. of the quadrant, d. 1744. HADORPH, J., a Swed. antiquary, 1630-1693. HAEBERLIN, F. D., a Germ, histor., 1720-87. HAEN, Anth. Van, a Dutch phvsic, 1704-76. HAENDEL, G. F., a Ger. composer, 1684-1759. HAFFNER, H., an Italian painter, 1640-1702. His son, Anthony, a painter, 1654-1732. HAFIZ, Mohammed Shems - Ed - Deen, a celebrated Persian poet, born at Shiraz at the be- ginning of the 14th century. His odes and lyrical compositions have been translated by Sir W. Jones, Richardson, and others, and are universally ad- mired. He is supposed to have died about 1389. HAGEDORN, Frederic Von, a celebrated German poet, author of songs, fables, tales, and moral poems, 1708-1754. His brother. Chris- tian Louis, a writer on art, 1712-1780. HAGEN, John Van, a Dutch painter, 17th c. HAGEN, J. G., a German savant, 1710-1777. HAGENBACH, J. G., a Swiss antiq., 1700-63. HAGER, J. Von, an Ital. Oriental, 1750-1819. HAGUE, Dr. Charles, an eminent English composer, and professor at Cambridge, 1769-1821. 294 HAH HAHN, L. P., a German tragedian, 1746-1787. HAHN, P. M., a Ger. mechanician, 1739-1790. HAHN, S. F., a German historian, 1692-1729. HAHNEMANN, Samuel, the founder of hom- oeopathy, was born of poor parents at Meissen, in Saxony, 1755, and received his diploma as doctor in physic at Heidelberg, in 1781. The same year he was appointed district physician at Gomehn, near Magdeburg, and continued his studies in chemistry and mineralogy with all the ardour of an enthusiast. In 1784, he removed to Dresden, and soon afterwards abandoned the practice of physic in disgust, and confined himself to his private researches in chemistry and literature. These studies began to acquire a fixed direction in 1790, and in 1796 he commenced the record of their results in the journal of his friend Hufeland, in an article entitled ' Essay on a New Principle, &c.' In 1805 he published his 'Medicine of Experience,' and in 1810 his ' Organon of Rational Medicine,' in which the new doctrine was reduced to a system, and methodically illustrated. In a second edition, published 1819, the title of this work was abbreviated, and became the ' Organon of Medicine.' A third edition appeared in 1824, and was translated into English nine years after- wards. It was followed by a fourth edition in 1829, and a fifth in 1833 (translated by Dr. Dudgeon), each of which embodied fresh results, and enlarged the field which this indefatigable experimentalist had undertaken to cultivate. While this and the other works of the author mentioned below were making their way silently over Europe, Hahnemann himself was experiencing the usual fate of the world's benefactor. In 1813 he had removed from Dresden to Leipzig, where he was persecuted by the apothecaries as an empiric, and this had risen to such a height by 1820, that he was glad to avail himself of the protection offered to him by the duke of Anhalt Cothen. In the same year he published his ' Pure Medicine ' in 6 vols. 8vo, and in 1829 his ' Theory of Chronic Maladies, and the Proper Medicines for them,' in 4 vols., which were enlarged to 6 vols, in a second edition, 1840. In the meantime, his domestic circumstances were changed for the better by his marriage in 1835 with a French lady, in whose company he removed from Cothen to Paris, at the age of eighty. Hahnemann remained in Paris till his death in 1843, and had the satisfaction to hear that homoeopathy was about to have a chair at the university of Vienna, and that hospitals were proposed in London, in Berlin, and in many cities of Austria. The principles of his therapeutic reform — for such it undoubtedly is — may be de- scribed as a recognition of derangements in the vital or spiritual force of the body, whether occasioned or not by material influences, as the primary causes of disease ; the cure of which is by the reaction of the vital force against the remedy. The application of this theory consists — 1st, in the discovery ; and 2d, in the preparation of specific remedies corresponding to every species of abnormal action, and such remedies are found both in theory and practice to be the assimulates of the disease — or medicines by which precisely the same symptoms would be produced. The reason of the cure is difficult to express in few words, and illustrations far below the refined HAL philosophy on which it depends have been used by professional writers. According to the terms of the theory, the medicines may be considered as diffusing themselves with a gentle but irresistible force, like that of light, between the mortal cor- ruption and the vital spirit in combat with it, and being more subtle than the disease, and yet like it, they engage the vital force in a quicker and more decisive conflict, and then gradually yielding before it, as their own virtue expires, the vital force is liberated, and, as a matter of course, re- sumes its normal action. This explanation, how- ever, is only half the truth, for it is well known that fluids in effervescence are reduced to rest by the satisfaction of what may be called the hunger of one body for another, and something of this kind may take place when the assimulate is introduced to the disease. Be the explanation what it may, the discovery of the facts by years of Satient and often painful experience, is the title of [ahnemann to .the gratitude of society. He proved the virtue of an immense number of assimulates by testing their effects on himself and friends, and displayed equal art in the method of their refinement. 'His ' Organon of Medicine ' not only raises the art of healing to the rank of an exact science, but renders it an elegant and philo- sophical study ; while the facilities of its practical application have been carried to such perfection, especially by his followers in this country, that many mothers of families have become expert homoeopathic physicians, and rarely require the aid of a practitioner. Besides the works mentioned, Hahnemann is the author of some two hundred treatises on medical and physical science. [E.R.] HAI-GAOU, an Egyptian rabbin, died 1038. HAILLAN, Bernard De Girard, Seigneur Du, a Fr. histor., time of Charles IX., 1535-1610. HAINES, J., an English comedian, last cent. HAKEM-BAMRILLAH, a Fatimite caliph of Egypt, noted for his despotism, reigned 996-1021. HAKEWILL, G., a learned divine, 1579-1649. HAKEWILL, H. J., an Engl, sculpt., 1813-33. HAKLUYT, R., an Eng. naval hist., 1553-1616. HALDANE, Robert, Esq., was the eldest son of James Haldane Esq., of Airthrey in Stirling, and Catherine Duncan, sister of the hero of Camper- down. He was born in London, 28th February, 1764. Both of his parents having died at an early period, he and his brotherwere placed underthe guardianship of their maternal uncles at Lundie. Thence they were removed to the High School, and subsequently studied for a few sessions at the university of Edin- burgh. Although heir to a large property, Robert's active and enterprising mind pointed to the naval profession, and so passionate a desire had he con- ceived for a seafaring life, that his friends at length gave their consent, and he entered the Monarch as a midshipman under the command of his uncle. Subsequently he was connected with Sir John Jervis as an officer on board the Foudroyant, and both from his energy of character, and his familiar knowledge of the French language, was intrusted with many difficult and delicate commissions during the war. On the re-establishment of peace in 1783, Mr. Haldane transferred his services for a time to a commercial company, for whom he per- formed a voyage to Newfoundland, and a second to Lisbon ; returning to Scotland, he relinquished 295 HAL the naval profession, and established himself at Airthrey, where for a period of ten years, he fol- lowed the pursuits of a country gentleman, his whole time being occupied in the improvement of his estate, or in the management of county and parochial affairs. Like many persons of an ardent temperament, he welcomed with enthusiasm the outbreak of the great French revolution, and in the excitement produced throughout this country by that political convulsion, roused against himself, by the too open avowal of his opinions, the jealousy and suspicion of the ruling party. A subject of infinitely higher moment than politics, however, now began to engross his attention. Led to the serious study of religion, he conducted his inquiries with characteristic ardour and perseverance, till having at length attained to enlightened and ma- ture views of Scriptural truth, he appeared before the world an evangelical Christian. His pursuits as well as his character were entirely changed, and he resolved on dedicating his future life to diffuse, as a missionary in foreign lands, the gospel which had imparted so much peace and joy to himself. India was the chosen field of labour, and having secured the promised co-operation of Messrs. Innes, Ewing, and Bogue of Gosport, to whom he guaran- teed adequate stipends while abroad, and the sum of £3,500 if compelled by bad health or other causes to return, he applied to the Indian govern- ment to sanction his enterprise. Missions being at that time scarcely known in the country, it was suspected that some sinister object was con- cealed under the name, and the court of the East India Company Directors, after much deliberation, resolved that the superstitions of Hindostan should not be disturbed. Disappointed in this bold and original scheme of Christian benevolence, Mr. Hal- dane determined to employ his resources in spread- ing the gospel at home, and in conjunction with Rowland Hill, Mr. Simeon of Cambridge, and others, he produced an extraordinary revival of religion throughout Scotland. Mr. Haldane now seceded from the Established Church, and at his own expense, erected places of worship under the name of Tabernacles m all the large towns, and educated 300 young men under Dr. Bogue and Mr. Ewing, as preachers to officiate in these meeting- houses. Another scheme which originated with him had for its object the evangelization of Africa. T^ commence this undertaking, he procured thirty young children to be brought from Sierra Leone to receive a Christian education at his expense, and gave a bond for £7,000 for their board and educa- tion, which, however, the friends of emancipation in London undertook to defray. Many other plans of Christian usefulness both at home and on the continent are traceable to the untiring zeal of this pious gentleman. His personal labours in awaken- ing a religious spirit in the south of France, were successful beyond his own most sanguine expecta- tions; and both at Geneva and Montauban, he sowed the seeds of truth which are bearing good fruit to this day in the protestant churches of France. Mr. Haldane took a prominent part in the management of the Continental Society and the Bible Society of Edinburgh ; and in the painful controversy relative to the circulation of the Apo crypha by the British and Foreign Bible Society, which led t to the establishment of the latter. He was HAL the author of 'The Evidences of Christianity,' ' An Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans,' and vanous other religious works of minor importance. His character was highly esteemed during life, and his name will be transmitted to posterity in connection with the revival of evangelical religion in Scotland at the beginning of the present cen- tury, lie died 12th December, 1842. [R.J.] HALDANE, James Alexander, Esq., was brother of the preceding. He was born at Dun- dee, 14th July, 1768. Having imbibed the family passion for the sea, he was entered in his seven- teenth year a midshipman in the Duke of Mon- trose, bound on a voyage to Bombay and China. He had made three other voyages to the same countries, when having proved his possession of the requisite qualifications, he was appointed captain of the Melville Castle. The vessel, how- ever, did not sail for four months; and during that interval, a great change took place in Captain Haldane's character. He became serious and thoughtful on the subject of religion ; and having determined to follow the example of his brother, who had already relinquished the seafaring life, he disposed of his command for £9,000, and his share in the property of the ship and stores for £6,000 more. With this fortune of £15,000 he retired with his wife to Scotland in 1794, and gave him- self up to those religious inquiries which now en- frossed his chief concern. Several years elapsed efore his views were established. But at length he attained to a knowledge of the truth as well as peace in believing; and the cases of both the brothers Haldane, whose minds retained a deep impression of their mother's piety and prayers, must be added to the long list of testimonies "that might be adduced to show the advantages of an early religious education. Mr. James Haldane, having plenty of time at command, occupied him- self with many plans of Christian usefulness; amongst which, the opening of Sabbath schools, and itinerant preaching, at first in the villages around Edinburgh, and afterwards in the other large towns of Scotland, were the chief. His principal coadjutor in these labours of love was John Campbell, the African traveller. In com- pany with that zealous Christian, Mr. Haldane made successive tours throughout all Scotland as far as Orkney ; and those who were awakened by their preaching, were, through the liberality of Mr. Robert Haldane, accommodated with suitable places of worship. Mr. James eventually accepted the office of stated pastor in the Tabernacle, Leith Walk, Edinburgh ; and in that capacity he exer- cised, without any emolument, all the public and private duties of a minister with unbroken fidelity and zeal for a period of fifty years. Although he vacillated on some points of church government, he and his brother remained steadfast in their ad- herence to the general principles of the Scotch baptists. He was the author of various fugitive pieces on the religious controversies of the time. But the memory of his name in the world, will be preserved chiefly by the 'living epistles,' which were the fruits of his evangelical labours. He died in Edinburgh, 8th February, 1851. [R.J.] HALDE, John Baptist Du. See Duhalde. HALE, Snt Matthew, a judge and constitu- tional lawyer, was born in Gloucestershire on 1st 296 HAL November, 1609. Brought up among the puritans, while receiving an Oxford education, his early life seems to have vibrated between rigidity and ex- cess. It was through the auspices of Serjeant Glyun that his attention was turned to the bar, and he entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1629. In the stormy times which followed, he held a more con- spicuous place than one of his neutral and studi- ous character generally obtains amid political con- vulsions. He was a hard student, and a thorough lawyer, both in the constitutional department and that of private rights and obligations. In 1653 he was made one of the judges of the Common Bench, as it was termed under the Commonwealth. His sound excuse for accepting this appointment, that the administration of justice is an honourable and useful occupation, whether the ruling power for the time be valid or not, has been often cited. His friends said less for his candour and honesty when they defended him, on the ground that he had evaded any formal announcement of allegiance to the Protectorate. He seemed to have misgiv- ings of his own, for he at one time refused to act as a criminal judge while performing his civil functions, and he would not hold office under Richard Cromwell. Indeed, with all his capacity and his incorruptible honesty, a rare quality on the bench in his day, it is shown by his supersti- tious cruelty on a celebrated witchcraft trial, and by other incidents, that his mind was subject to way- ward caprices. He was made chief baron of the exchequer at the Restoration, and chief justice of the King's Bench in 1671. He d. in 1676. [J.H.B.] HALEM, G. A., a Germ, publicist, 1752-1819. HALES, Alexander, an English friar, dist. as a scholastic divine and philosopher, 13th cent. HALES, John, an able scholar and divine of the Church of England, remarkable for the free- dom of his opinions, and for that reason classed among the latitudinarians. He was born at Bath in 1584, and educated at Oxford, where he became professor of Greek, and assisted Sir Henry Savile m editing his edition of the works of Chrysostom. After a life of considerable hardship, partly occa- sioned by the civil wars, and partly by his inde- pendence of thought, he died at Eton, in poor cir- cumstances, 1656. The writings by which he is known were published after his decease, and en- titled 'Golden Remains of the Ever Memorable Mr. John Hales of Eton College.' Among these papers is an interesting account of the Synod of Dort, at which Mr. Hales was present as an ob- server. At this synod the representatives of the English Church advocated the universality of the Redemption, and their arguments had the effect of turning Hales from his previously rigid Calvinism. There is a quaintness and vigour in his style of writing which gives a somewhat flavourish quality to his ' Golden Remains,' and though he has been called a trimmer, he is often severe enough upon the formalists of his dav. [E.R.] HALES, or HAYLES, John, a classical scho- lar, translator, and government employe, d. 1572. HALES, Steph., an Eng. nat. phil., 1677-1761. HALFORD, Sir Hen., Baronet, an eminent phy- sician, whose paternal name was Vaughan, au. of HAL HALI-BEIGH, a Polish captain, educated in Turkey, and distinguished as a linguist, died 1675. HALIFAX, George Saville, marquis of, a celebrated English statesman, promoter of the restoration, president of the council in the time of James II., and lord privy seal under William and Mary. He is the author of various small works, 'The Character of a Trimmer,' 'Advice to a Daughter,' ' The Anatomy of an Equivalent,' &c. Lord Halifax was also the author of 'Memoirs,' which were destroyed in MS., 1630-1695. HALKET, Lady Anne, an English lady, re- markable for her studies in theology and medicine, author of ' The Mother's Will,' &c, 1622-1699. HALL, Anthony, a learned divine, 1679-1723. HALL, Captain Basil, a well-known writer of voyages and travels, descriptive of his adven- tures and the places visited, chiefly in the Indian seas, and the southern coasts of America. Born at Edinburgh 1788, died in confinement on account of insanity, 1844. HALL, Edward, an English annalist, d. 1547. HALL, George, son of Joseph Hall, and bishop of Chester, author of sermons, &c., 1612-1668. HALL, Henry, a learned divine, 1716-1763. HALL, Sir James, baronet of Dunglass, au. of an ' Essay on Gothic Architecture,' &c, 1760-1832. HALL, John, an English poet, 1627-1656. HALL, Joseph, D.D., the pious bishop of Norwich, was born at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in the county of Leicester. Directing his views towards the Church of England, he was entered a student of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, _ and in the course of time obtained a fellowship. It was during his residence in that seat of learning, be published his satires and many other poetic. 1 pieces, which spread his fame far and wide. But he abandoned the muses, having resolved to deyot l his chief attention to divinity, and in due time being licensed to preach, was appointed rector of Halsted in Suffolk. In that rural retreat he com- posed his ' Contemplations,' which procured him the patronage of Prince Henry, and the rectory of Waltham. He was ere long called to mourn over the untimely death of that excellent prince and to preach his funeral sermon, which has been pre- served in the collection of his published writings, and abounds with passages of touching pathos and fervent piety. Mr. Hall was a man of very devo- tional habits, to fortify which he made a most rigid distribution of his time, having set hours for prayer, for reading divinity, for general literature and composition ; and so intense was his ardour in the pursuit of intellectual and spiritual improve- ment, that for a time he observed the strictest abstemiousness, taking for a while only one meal a-day— In 1616, he went to Paris as chaplain to the English ambassador. On his return he was appointed by King James to the deanery of Wor- cester, and in the following year he accompanied his royal master into Scotland, when that monarch made a progress into the northern part ot his king- dom to prosecute his imprudent scheme of erecting episcopacy on the ruins of prcsbyterianism. .None of the unpopularity, however, of that measure fell upon Hall, whose pious character and temperate numerous prnt'csMonal worksand essays, 1766-1844. i principles secured Vim the esteem and respect of HALHED, Nathanikl P.kassey, an Oriental the most eminent Scotchmen of the day. *rom scholar, au. of a ' Bengalee Grammar,' 1751-1830. | leaving Scotland, he was commanded to go over 297 HAL into Holland to attend the Synod of Dort, which was held in 1618. But the protracted meetings of that famous convocation made a sad inroad on his health, and after an assiduous attendance of two months, he returned with an impaired consti- tution to England. The prominent part he had taken in the councils of that body, may be judged of by the fact that a medal commemorative of the assembly, was by the unanimous vote of the mem- bers, awarded and sent to him. He had no small share in achieving by his arguments and eloquence the signal discomfiture of the Arminians, and the condemnation of their doctrines in that Synod. — Dr. Hall, for he had obtained the degree of D.D., being now a' leading man in the Church of Eng- land, was marked out for promotion, and accord- ingly he was raised first to the see of Exeter, and afterwards, without any solicitation, to that of Norwich. Amid all the ecclesiastical tyranny of Laud, Bishop Hall preserved his moderation, and the clergy of his diocese were kept from the odium as well as the penalties of the Book of Sports. The bishop, however, had his season of trial. When the popular outcry ' No Bishops ' was raised, and an armed mob marched against the House of Lords, Hall with eleven of the lords spiritual joined in protesting against the measures which were passed in their absence ; and this document having been made a ground of impeachment, he with his pro- testing brethren were consigned to the Tower. On his liberation, he continued for a year to exercise his episcopal functions in Norwich ; but the popu- lar tide again set in strongly against his order, his house was attacked, his property sequestrated, himself insulted, and in meek resignation he re- tired into a small lonely place in Norfolk, where he i nt the remainder of his days in acts of piety and charity, and at length died 1656, in the eighty-second year of his age. [R.J.] HALL, Richard, a Roman Cath. wr., d. 1604. HALL, Robert, a medical author, 1763-1824. HALL, Rev. Robert, the most eloquent beadier of modern times, was born at Arnsby, a village in the neighbourhood of Leicester, in 1764. His father was a baptist clergyman, and both his parents were distinguished for talents, prudence, and piety. Robert, the youngest of fourteen chil- dren, was of so feeble a constitution, that he could neither speak nor walk till near -three years old. He learned to read by the inscriptions on the grave-stones ; and he showed at a very early age a passionate fondness for reading, and used to re- cline for hours with a book on the grass ; a habit which is thought to have produced that excruci- ating pain in the back to which he was subject during life. Even while yet a boy, Edwards on the Will and Butler's Analogy were his favourite books; and he would analyze as well as discuss them with great intelligence at the age of nine. His classical master dismissed him from school at eleven as already beyond the range of his own ac- quirements. He was in fact a young prodigy of genius and knowledge, and these precocious talents were combined with such genuine piety, that he was placed under the care of the Rev. John Ryland, tutor of the Baptist Academy, and at the age of sixteen, he was ' set apart ' to the office of the ministry by his father in presence of the congre- gation at Arnsby. In pursuance of his ministerial HAL views, he went to study at the university of Aber- deen, where he enjoyed the prelections of Bcattie, Campbell, and Gerard, and where he made the private friendship of Mr. afterwards Sir James Mackintosh. He was noted among his fellow- students as much for his habitual piety as for his pre-eminent talents. On the completion of his college studies, Mr. Hall engaged himself as classi- cal tutor in the Baptist Academy at Bristol, and at the same time acted as assistant to Dr. Evans in Broadmeadow chapel. At the end of five years he removed to Cambridge, where he became assis- tant^ and afterwards successor to the Rev. Mr. Robinson in the baptist church in that city. It was by his eloquent and elaborate discourses prepared for the meridian of that seat of learning, he rose to the foremost rank of British preachers. His pub- lic and occasional sermons were attended by crowds of the professors and young men, many of whom sought and valued his friendship, dissenter though he was, amongst whom was the celebrated Dr. Parr. In Cambridge some of his greatest works were composed and published. His ' Christianity Consistent with the Love of Freedom' in 1791, his ' Apology for the Freedom of the Press ' in 1793, his far-famed sermon on ' Modern Infidelity ' in 1799, his 'Reflections on War' in 1802, and his ' Sentiments Suitable to the Present Crisis ' in the year following. These were politico-religious dis- courses, occasioned by the critical circumstances of the country at the beginning of this century, and they touched a chord in every patriotic heart. But while they evince the great powers of argument and eloquence that so greatly distinguished Mr. Hall, they must not be considered samples of the food with which he fed his people. _ His ordinary discourses, though always replete with genius and eloquence, were evangelical, calculated to edify his people both by enlarging their Scriptural know- ledge, and stimulating their faith and piety. — In 1804, when he was at the very height of his repu- tation, the mind of this extraordinary man suffered a sad eclipse, and yet at intervals during the pro- gress of his distressing malady, his genius shone forth by sparks of surpassing power and brilliancy. His congregation showed their strong attachment and sympathy by raising an amount of £100, and another of equal amount to be given to his family in the event of his death. Although he recovered, yet partial symptoms of the disorder discovering themselves, his connection with the congregation in Cambridge was dissolved, and he was placed by his friends in the private establishment of Dr. Arnold of Leicester, by whose skilful and judicious treatment, his health was soon re-established, and he resumed his preaching by itinerating through the villages around Leicester. He became settled pastor of a church in Leicester, the same chapel in which the celebrated Dr. Carey had once officiated, and there by the splendour of his public ministra- tions, his fame as a public orator was extended more widely than ever. — But Mr. Hall w r as not allowed to continue in that comparatively limited sphere. On the death of Dr. Ryland, he was urged to undertake the pastorate of the large and flourishing baptist congregation in Bristol, and to that city he accordingly removed, all classes hail- ing his arrival with enthusiastic joy. After labour- ing five years in that important sphere with un- HAL rivalled success, his health gave way. Aspasmodic affection in the chest, added to his old constitutional complaint in the back, rendered him unfit for pub- lic duty. The unfavourable symptoms continued to increase in spite of all the medical skill that was enlisted in his behalf, and after a brief illness of ten days, this splendid orator and eminent ser- vant of Christ, died in February, 1831, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. [R. J.] HALL, Thomas, a learned noncf., 1610-1665. HALLE, Claude Guy, a French painter and director of the Academy, 1652-1736. His son, Noel, a painter and superintendent of the Gobe- lins, 1711-1781. The son of the latter, John Noel, a physician and medical writer, 1754-1822. HALLE, Peter, a French savant, 1611-1689. HALLENBERG, Jonas, a Swedish historian and naturalist, au. of a hist, of Swed., 1748-1834. HALLER, Albert, M.D., a learned and eminent anatomist and physiologist of last century, was born at Beme, in Switzerland on the 18th October, 1708. He was the son of Nicholas de Haller, an advocate, and chancellor of the county of Baden, and exhibited in early life very precocious powers, particularly in the acquisition of languages ; hav- ing at the age of nine composed for his own use a Chaldaic Grammar, a Hebrew and Greek Lexicon, and an Historical Dictionary containing upwards of 2,000 articles. He was originally destined for the church, but subsequently turned his attention to medicine, which he studied under Camerarius and Duverney at Tubingen, and afterwards at Leyden under Boerhaave, where he was the asso- ciate of Albinus and Ruysch, and where also he graduated as a doctor. After visiting England and France, he returned to Berne in 1730, and in 1734 was appointed teacher of anatomy in that city ; but his reputation having greatly extended, he was nominated Professor of Anatomy, Surgery, and Botany, in the university of Gottingen by George II. of England in 1736. Here he remained for seventeen years, and here his great work, ' Disputationes Anatomicse Selectse,' by which he is chiefly known, was composed. He refused the chair of botany in Oxford, and he declined solicitations from the king of Prussia, the states of Holland, and the empress of Russia. George II., in consideration of his great merits, obtained for him a brevet as a noble of the empire, and he is often spoken of as Baron Haller ; but he never used this title in his native country. He left Gottingen for Berne in the year 1753, and spent the rest of his life in honourable but active re- tirement in Switzerland. He died at Berne on the 12th of December, 1777, in his seventieth year. [J.M'C] HALLET, Jos., a learned dissenting minister, auth. of ' Discourses on the Miracles,' 1692-1744. HALLEY, Edmund, a celebrated astronomer, was born in London on the 8th November, 1656. His father, who was a soap-boiler, sent him to St. Paul's school, where he acquired such a taste for astronomy that before he left school he made observations on the variation of the needle. In 1673 he entered Queen's College, Oxford, and while there devoted himself almost ex- clusively to mathematics and astronomy. In 1676 he published his first paper in the Philoso- phical Transactions on the orbits of the primarv HAL planets, and such was the reputation it acquired nim, that he was soon after sent by Charles II. to St. Helena to make a catalogue of the stars of the southern hemisphere. In the course of two years he completed this arduous task, and in 1679 he published his ' Catalogue of the Southern Stars.' In 1678 Halley was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in the following year he went to Dantzic to settle the controversy between Hooke and Hevelius respecting the use of telescopic sights in astronomical observations. After per- forming the tour of Europe in 1686 with his friend Mr. Nelson, the author of ' Fasts and Fes- tivals,' during which he made observations on the great comet in the observatory of Paris with Cassini, he returned to England, and married the daughter of Mr. Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, with whom he lived happily for fifty-five years. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1683 he published his 'Theory of the Variation of the Magnetical Compass,' in which he considers our terrestrial globe as one great magnet, with four magnetic poles near the north and south poles of the earth, the needle being always governed by the nearest of these poles. — In consequence of the bankruptcy of his father, our author's pursuits were for some time interrupted ; but he soon returned to his studies, and was led in 1684 to examine Kepler's laws of the planetary motions, from which he drew the inference that the centripetal force must vary inversely as the square of the distance. Being un- able to prove this geometrically, he applied to Dr. Hooke and Sir Christopher Wren for assistance ; but having failed to obtain it, he set out for Cam- bridge in August, 1683, to consult Mr. Newton, who had by this time made great progress in establishing the doctrines of the Principia. Hal- ley was delighted with his reception, and the good news that Newton had brought the demonstration of the laws of the celestial motions to perfection. Newton, however, could not lay his hands upon the papers, but wrought them over again, and sent them in November to Halley by Mr. Paget, in the form of four theorems and seven problems. Upon receiving them Halley took another journey to Cambridge in order to confer with their author on the subject, and we find him on the 10th Decem- ber giving an account to the Royal Society of the curious treatise 'De Motu,' which Newton had shown him, to be entered upon their register. At a later period Halley prevailed upon Newton to complete his ' Principia,' the first book of which was exhibited to the Royal Society on the 20th April, 1686. It was put into the hands of Halley, then clerk to the Society, to report upon it ; and at a subsequent meeting on the 2d of June, Halley undertook the task of correcting the press, and of printing it at his own expense. — In 1686 our au- thor published an account of the trade winds and monsoons on the seas near and between the tro- pics, which was followed by several other chemico- meteorological papers, in one of which, ' On the Circulation of the Watery Vapours of the Sea, and the Origin of Springs,' published in 1691, he first pointed out that beautiful provision, in conse- quence of which, a constant circulation of water is kept up between the atmosphere and the ocean. — In 1691 he published a paper on the conjunction of the superior planets, in which he showed, as 299 HAL James Gregory had done long before, the utility of observing these conjunctions in order to determine the sun's parallax and distance from the earth. — In the year 1691 Halley became a candidate for the Savilian chair of astronomy at Oxford, and ■was opposed by David Gregory, who was the suc- cessful competitor. His failure on this occasion arose, according to Winston, from his maintaining infidel opinions, and being generally regarded as a sceptic and a ' banterer of religion.' The same charge was prefered against him by Flamsteed, and Newton is said to have often reproved him for his infidelity. There is reason, however, to be- lieve that the charge of infidelity was founded on his having persisted in maintaining, as every philo- sopher and intelligent divine does now, that there was a pre-adamite earth, out of the ruins of which the present earth was made; and that he only laboured under imputations which have been often made since his day upon every distinguished indi- vidual who maintains great truths that appear to be inconsistent with the literal interpretation of Scripture. — In 1692 Halley published his Hypo- thesis Relative to the Change in the Variation of the Needle, in which he supposes an interior globe with magnetic poles to move within our earth, and to produce the variation by the change in the re- lative position of the external and internal poles. — In order to put this theory to the test of ob- servation, he conceived the design of obtaining measures of the variation of the needle in different parts of the world. For this purpose King William appointed him captain of the Paramour Pink, in which he set sail on the 20th October, 1698, but after sailing along the coasts of Africa and America, a spirit of mutiny arose among his officers, and he returned to England in July, 1699. Having resumed his voyage, and finished his ex- periments, he returned on the 7th September, 1700, and was rewarded with the title of captain of the navy, and with half-pay during life. — On the recommendation of Queen Anne, the emperor of Germany consulted him on the formation of a harbour on the coast of Dalmatia, and he went twice to the Adriatic on that errand. The em- peror when he saw him at Vienna presented him with a rich diamond ring, taken from his finger, and wrote a letter in his own hand recommending him to Queen Anne. — On the death of Dr. Wallis in 1703, Halley was appointed Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and forgetting, or rather perhaps having discovered the falsehood of the charge of infidelity which had formerly been made against him, the university conferred upon him the honorary title of Doctor of Laws. In furtherance of the plan recommended by Sir Henry Saville, he began, in conjunction with Dr. Gregory, to publish the works of the ancient geometers, and several of the writings of Apollonius and Serenus, translated and edited by them, appeared in 1706 and 1710. — Upon the death of Sir Hans Sloane in 1713, he was elected secretary of the Royal Society, and while he held this office he made a number of interesting experiments on the diving bell at great depths in the sea, which were described in the Phil. Trams, for 1716, under the quaint title of ' The Art of Living under Water.' When the important office of astronomer royal became vacant in 1719, by the death of Flamsteed, Halley was appointed HAM his successor, and though he had now reached the sixty-fourth year of his age he continued for twenty years without the aid of an assistant to carry on the operations of the observatory with the most unre- mitting assiduity. In 1731 he published his ' Pro- posal for Finding the Longitude at Sea within a Degree,' a method which he had suggested so early as 1683, in an appendix to the second edition of Street's ' Caroline Tables.' In 1725 he drew up his tables for computing the places of the planets, but he delayed their publication till he was enabled by new observations to make them more perfect. They did not, however, appear till 1749, after his death ; but they were long regarded as the most complete and accurate till they were superseded by others founded on newer and more accurate ob- servations. In 1729 Halley was elected a foreign member of the Academy of Science in Paris. In 1737, when he was eighty-one years of age, he was struck with paralysis in his right hand, but he still continued to attend the Royal Society Club at its weekly meetings. The disease now gained ground upon him, and he gradually lost his strength. He was sustained chiefly by the cordials given him by Dr. Meed, and one day being tired of taking them, he asked for a glass of wine, and as soon as he had drank it he expired in his chair without a groan, on the 14th January, 1742, in the eighty-sixth year of his age. He was buried in the churchyard of Lee, and as he had himself requested, in the same spot with his wife, whom he had lost a few years before. His eldest daughter was buried in the same place in 1743. Besides this daughter he had other two, and several children who died in infancy. One of his sons, who lived to manhood, died long before his father. His two surviving daughters erected over his remains a handsome tomb of Portland 6tone. M. Mairan, who wrote the eloge upon Halley, which was read to the Academy of Sciences in 1742, concluded with the following just appre- ciation of the universality of his acquirements : — 'While we thought the eulogium of an astronomer, a naturalist, a scholar, and a philosopher, compre- hended our whole subject, we have been insensibly surprised with the history of an excellent mariner, an illustrious traveller, an able engineer, and almost a statesman.' Notwithstanding the copious details regarding the life of Halley given in the 1 Biographia Britannica,' a good life of that distin- guished individual is greatly to be desiied, and we trust that the Rev. M. Rigaud of Ipswich will find leisure to fulfil the intentions which his distin- guished father had so much at heart. [D.B.] HALLIDAY, Sir Andrew, a physician and traveller, celeb, as a miscellaneous writer, d. 1840. HALLIER, F., a Fr. controver. wr., 1595-1659. HALLIFAX, S., a learned prelate, 1733-1790. HALLOIX, P.. a French savant, 1572-1656. HALLORAN, Sylvester O', an Irish anti- quarian, au. of a 'Hist, of Ireland,' &c, 1728-1807. HALMA, F., a Flemish lexicographer, last cent. HALMA, N., a Fr. archaeologist, 1755-1828. HALTAUS, C. T., a German hist, 1702-1758. HALYBURTON, Thomas, a Scotch divine, au- thor of ' Natural Religion Insufficient,' 1674-1712. HAMAD, fndr. of a dynasty in Algeria, d. 1027. HAMADANI, an Arabian savant, 968-1007. HAMAKER, H. A., a Dutch Orient., 1789-1835. HAMANN, J. G., a German philoso., 1730-88. 300 HAM I1AMAZASB, an Armenian prince, died 658. HAMEL, John Baptist Du. See Duhamel. HAMILCAR, a general of Carthage, k. b.c. 229. HAMILTON, a distinguished Scotch family, the principal members of which are — James/ first earl of Arran, d. 1519. James, the second earl of Arran, duke of Chatelherault and regent of Scot- land, died 1576. Patrick, the first reformer, burnt alive by the bishop of St. Andrews, 1503- 1527. J amus, first duke of Hamilton, beheaded as a royalist after the battle of Preston 1649. William, duke of Hamilton, died after the battle of Worcester 1652. Anthony, Count Hamilton, author of poetry and fairy tales, &c, 1646-1720. HAMILTON, Alex., succes. of Washington in the chief command, b. 1757, killed in a duel 1804. HAMILTON, Charles, an East Indian officer and writer on Oriental subjects, died 1792. HAMILTON, Elizabeth, an Irish lady of con- siderable note as an essayist, 1758-1816. HAMILTON, Gavin, a Scotch painter, d. 1796. HAMILTON, Geo., earl of Orkney, dist. at the battle of the Boyne, and in subsequent actions under William III. and the duke of Marlborough, d. 1737. HAMILTON, Hugh, an Irish prelate, mathe- matical writer, and prof, of nat. phil., 1729-1805. HAMILTON, Sir John, a British officer, dist. in the East Indies and the peninsula, 1755-1835. HAMILTON, R., a medical writer, 1729-1793. HAMILTON, R., a Scotch mathematician and writer on public questions, 1742-1829. HAMILTON, Capt. Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, author of ' Cyril Thornton,' &c, d. 1842. HAMILTON, W., of Bangour,a Sc. poet, 1704-54. HAMILTON, W., a Scotch artist, 1751-1801. HAMILTON, Sir William, Bart., the present Professor of Logic in the university of Edinburgh. It is not without feeling that an apology is there- fore due to the distinguished person who is the subject of this article, that we introduce notice of him into a list which, with one other exception, is made up of the names of men whose lives have closed, and whose deeds may be summed. But notwithstanding that Sir William survives, and that the scientific world would be loath to accept what he has accomplished, as the whole riches he will bequeath, he yet seems to occupy so large a place in the domain of Scottish thought, and his labours have a bearing so peculiar on the existing attitude of Metaphysical Inquiry in Europe, that we have ventured to include a brief appreciation of his remarkable powers among these rapid sketches. It is now long years since Hamilton had achieved a name for Encyclo- pajdiacal Learning in everything related, however remotely, to the history and condition of Men- tal Science; and certainly no other, in modern times, could readily be specified, with attainments of this description at all equivalent to his : never- theless — at least until recently — it was known only by the few, that to acquisitions so various and vast, our countryman adds the power to marshal and comuiiind them all; and that his learning, however immense, is used by Lim simply as an instrument whereby to rear and consolidate a great and symmetrical body of Thought. Rarely indeed has the thirst unquench- able for what in common speech is termed a posteriori knowledge, been combined with so sig- HAM nal a development of a priori power: it seems the pre-eminent charactensticof our philosopher's mind, that these two factors of all Science, exist in it together — in full and symmetric integrity. No J)roblem is resolved in his view, or even rightly aid for explication, until, in the first place, a complete scheme has been constructed of all its possible solutions, and the contributions of every former thinker arranged under due heads, and made to bring out their partial light : a step, preliminary indeed, but which can never be accomplished until the problem has passed through the mind, un- der the chief forms in which History presents it, and its fundamental conditions in all their purity and breadth been discerned. Few exercises are more pleasing than to follow Hamilton, as with eager and scrupulous conscientiousness he gathers to- gether the scattered hints of his predecessors, assigns them their place, and marks them with their value : his intense Love of Truth rises into the form of Justice : great popular names never pass with him as badges of desert ; nor is any one so obscure — to whom a fragment of truth has in any form ever appeared — that he may not be sur- rounded with his regard. A character so thorough, and, in the highest sense, veracious, must have at its root — assuredly as its concomitant — a clear and energetic moral nature; nevertheless, the source of its strength, in this instance, is mani- festly what we have stated — an earnest and un- faltering love of truth, and faculties harmonized to discern it. Regarding Philosophy as man's highest intellectual attainment, must not all true workers appear as one brotherhood? Believing the conquest of august problems concerning Knowledge and Being, to be the Olympic prize of our Human Reason, shall the Runner not welcome every aid to his strength, or shall he expect that anything but strength can help towards the goal ? Fortunate, if at a tune when languor and dissolu- tion threaten Philosophy once more, and reputations are sought and won through picking up and vending its merefiotsam and jetsam — our Youth might haply attain skill in Method, increase in Sincerity, and learn the dignity of intellectual toil, through the example of Hamilton ! — Let us briefly glance at the leading provinces occupied by our Philoso- pher. 1. It is not unknown now important a share of modern speculation has been devoted to the subject of Perception, since the times of Reid. Not in this country alone — not even especially in this country; for some critique of the Act of Know- ing, is at the basis of all recent German Systems. As customary with him, not confining his regard to modern times, but surveying philosophical history from Plato downwards, Sir William, in his remarkable papers on Presentation and Repre- sentation, appears for the first time to have laid or constructed the full problem, and to have resolved it. The solution was, amongst ourselves, peculiarly opportune, arriving to discredit and destroy the confusion threatened by the rash but imposing ignorance of Brown; nor was it less opportune abroad, inasmuch as it once more restored ' Natural Dualism' to its sovereignty in Thought, and revealed the form of the gratuitous hypothesis that from earliest times had impelled men in vain search of schemes of Unity and the Absolute. Despotically, as the maxim of the im- 301 HAM mobility of the earth ruled in Astronomy until the time of Copernicus, and equally unquestioned — the maxim that ' like only can know like? seems to have governed all theories of perception ; exerting more extensive influence than any other principle in the History of Philosophy. Under its sway the problem of perception became this — how do Mind and Matter seem to meet? Meet they cannot, being unlike : is then Mind an illusion, or Matter an illusion ; or is there a certain medium partaking of both, through which they come together ? The maxim repudiated, and replaced by the simple assertion of consciousness, this immense fabric of speculation fell prone and helpless : and Hamilton's will ever be recognized as the hand that dealt the irrecoverable blow. Vindicating it, in name of Consciousness, as an undeniable fact, that the Ego and Non-Ego, as two distinct objects, are at the same moment, and with equal verity, present to the mind, he protested against all Unitarian Schemes, as insurrections, defying a primal Law ; and it is not too much to say that the energy and directness of his protest, upheld by his searching dissection of all untrue or par- tially true opposing systems, ancient and modern, marks the beginning of a sounder period in Men- tal Science. — 2. It is needless to recall to a British, or indeed to any reader, the amount of attention given by our distinguished countryman to the subject of Logic, or the fame that has hence accrued to him. The grounds of Knowledge ascertained, and the veracity of Perception vindi- cated, next in order stands the Inquiry, what are the primary laws of thinking, or according to what forms does the mind operate on the matter of its thoughts? A large, although purely notional Science ; its foundation laid by Aristotle, and its domain surveyed ; portions of it minutely explored by Lord Bacon ; but in imminence of being all lost sight of, as a Science, in this country, or absorbed by its lowest and empirical part. Thoroughly has Hamilton revived the Stagyrite, and interpreted him to our compeers. Acknowledging to the full the merits of Lord Bacon, he has passed beyond him to the higher position of the Greek; and presented logic again, as it appeared to that pene- trating and all-grasping intellect. Few will miss remarking that the fulness of his sympathy with Aristotle has its root in a corresponding univer- sality of character : no form or mode of speculation is foreign to Hamilton, as none were so to his predecessor. Of special contributions to the doc- trine of the syllogism we can say nothing here. — 3. Logic we have termed a notional science, as it exclusively is. But it is conversant with laws obeyed by the Mind in thinking, and with primary notions that control, and are involved in these. What are these primary notions ? Our notion of Causality, for instance, is it a mere notion, or does it belong to Existence also? Space and Time are forms, apart from which we can perceive nothing, — are they likewise external realities, or i83uings from external realities ? Questions these peopling the vast and difficult heights of Meta- physics ; occupying intensely the greatest Inquirers of former times, and all Teutonic thinkers in our own ; but, until Hamilton spoke, wholly neglected in this country, where we rested content amid the low levels of elementary Psychology. No more HAM startling proof could be given of our inertness ns to metaphysical research properly so called, than the criticisms on Kant, &c, one finds in Mr. Stewart's dissertations — dissertations, notwith- standing that Hamilton has written, still presented as an adequate account of Philosophy! Witfl corresponding knowledge and power, our distin- guished Thinker has passed into this held : and his speculations concerning the ' Law of the Condi- tioned' — concerning the principle of Causality — his adventures into the still more rugged sphere of Ontology, establish before every one who can think or judge — whatever the fate of his special conclusions — that an Inquirer is amongst us, who need bow his head before no Greek or Teuton of them all. — May health empower him to carry out his announced and cherished designs! Events indeed, are not in the hands of man; but the ' Edition of Reid,' and the ' Discussions of Philo- sophy,' are possessions ; and with gratitude the long Future will receive them. — What, then, is the probable issue of a life and labours like these ? Shall Hamilton succeed in reviving a taste for Metaphysics ? Is it likely that many who profess to admire him will imitate his independence? Shall he be the founder of a new and purified, a profound and fearless Scottish School ? If such a result were possible, Hamilton's achievements and example would secure it : but for two reasons, its advent seems, to the writer of this notice, more than doubtful. First, There are abroad many indications, that when a new School in Philosophy shall be formed, its Methods must take greater account than has yet been done, of the issues of physiological research, and of the position of Hu- manity in the great Hierarchy of Organization. It is most true, as laid down by Des Cartes, that the reality of mental phenomena needs no attesta- tion beyond consciousness ; but although physiology must not absorb psychology, the two ought not, and ultimately will not stand apart : the methods and science of the latter will assuredly be found to repose upon the former. But another cause ad- verse to the immediate reconstruction of any worthy and upright Mental Science, has sprung out of circumstances whose unravelling is probably still more remote. Changes in the social ana political relations of the different classes in this country — however fertile otherwise of good fruits — have recently elevated into preponderance and power, those unsystematic views on mind and speculative subjects, which alone can be expected among busy multitudes ; a condition not favour- able, now nor at any period, to the existence of an independent philosophic class. In a country like ours, so practical, and where men are so fond of political station, the tendency natural to such an epoch will unquestionably be, rather to desire and furnish support — logical merely in form — to sys- tems in vogue and popular, than daringly, and with single eye, to follow out Truth. For a season, therefore, Philosophy may descend into subser- vience. It remains to be ascertained by what instrumentality, in the course of Providence, suffi- cient esteem and freedom shall become assured to the Truth-Seeker ; the Multitudes discerning, that in Truth alone, the prize of sternest quest, and not in heaps of Opinion, rudis indigestaque moles — abide Safety and Honour. 302 HAM HAMILTON, Sir William, the friend of Nel- son, known as a diplomatist and connoisseur in the arts, and in natural history, 1730-1803. His second wife, Emma, Lady Hamilton, married to him, after a long course of licentiousness, in 1791, was a woman of extraordinary beauty, and still more remarkable for her powers of fascination. She became the mistress of Nelson, and his politi- cal agent at the court of Naples, and died at Calais in the most abject distress 1816. HAMILTON, William Gerard, a Scotch lawyer and statesman, remarkable for the elo- quence of the only two speeches he was known to make in the House of Commons, 1729-1796. HAMMOND, A., a miscel. writer, 1668-1738. HAMMOND, H., a learned divine, 1605-1660. HAMMOND, J., au. of 'Love Elegies,' 1710-41. HAMON, John, a French Jansenist, 1618-87. HAMPDEN, John, was born at London in 1594. There is little to be commemorated of his life save what belongs to the history of the period, and all his connection with it is on the surface, for his acts were open and public, and whatever his coadjutors may nave been, he was ever free of secret machinations to serve private ends. He belonged, like nearly all the leaders of the parlia- mentary party, to one of the worshipful and ancient country families. His was widely ramified among the English gentry, and he counted Cromwell, with other opponents of the court, among his con- nections. In 1619 becoming married to Elizabeth Symeon, to whom he was tenderly attached, he led the life of a country squire, amid a numerous offspring. He represented Grampound, and after- wards Wendover, in the earlier parliaments of Charles I.'s reign, but he took little concern in public business until the long parliament, when he had gradually prepared himself to suffer or to strike, as occasion might require, in support of what he deemed the fundamental principles of the constitution. He was imprisoned in the gate- house for refusing to participate in one of the ex- [Oreat Hampden Church, the burial place of ITampden.] acted loans, but this effort at coercion was aban- doned. His resistance to the imposition of a tax without authority of parliament, under the obso- lete name of ship-money, came to its conclu- sion in 1637, when the question was solemnly tried in the Exchequer Chamber. The decision was against him, and satisfied him that armed HAN resistance to the prerogative was necessary. He threw himself with entire devotion into the busi- ness of the Long Parliament, and much of the suc- cessful dexterity with which it was conducted was due to his skill and courage. He commanded a troop in the parliamentary army. He was mor- tally wounded in an affair with Prince Rupert on 18th June, 1643, and thus left the struggle while yet it seemed on the side of the parliament one of fair defence and self-protection, and before long- sustained animosity or projects of aggrandizement had mixed themselves with the views and conduct of the parliamentary leaders. [J.H.B.] HAMPER, W., a miscellaneous writer, d. 1831. HAMPTON, J., a classical translator, d. 1778. HAMZA, the first prophet or high priest of the Druses, author of 'The Book of Testimonies to the Mysteries of the Unity,' 11th century. HAMZEH, a shah of Persia, killed 1585. HANBAL, a Mussulman sectarian, 786-855. HANCKINS, M., a Ger. philologist, 1633-1709. HANDEL, George Frederick, the son of an eminent surgeon and physician, was born at Halle in Saxony, on the 24th of Februarv, 1684. His father had designed that he should follow the pro- fession of the civil law, but his lovefor, and early progress in music, soon proved, as in many other instances, that the parental plans had to be given up. He was then placed under the tuition of Frederick Zachau, organist of the cathedral of Halle, where he made such rapid progress, that at nine years old he was able to officiate on the organ for his master, and had begun the study of composition. When only nineteen he went to Hamburgh, where he became director of the operas, and such was his ability and talent, that it excited the jealousy of a rival musician, John Matheson. These professors had been on terms of the closest intimacy and friendship for nearly six years, when a quarrel arose upon a point of professional etiquette which ended in a duel. They fought with swords, but luckily the point of Ma- theson's sword broke against a metal button on Handel's coat, which put an end to the combat. This encounter took place on the 5th of December, 1704. Matheson and Handel soon again became good friends, for we are informed by Matheson, that on the 30th of the same month he accompanied the young composer Handel to the rehearsal of his first opera ' Almeria,' and at the theatre performed the principal character in it. Next year Handel brought out his ' Florinda,' and in the year following 'Ne- rone,' both of which were favourably received. In 1708, he composed his ' Dafne,' up" to which time he had written harpsichord pieces, songs, and can- tatas innumerable. Having become possessed of some wealth, he went to Italy, and he composed in Florence the opera ' Rodrigo.' From Florence he went to Venice, where in 1709 he produced his ' Agrippina ' which was received with acclamation, and in which horns and other wind instruments were first used to accompany the voice in Italy. Here Handel met with Dominico, Scarlatti, Gas- parini, Lotti, and other great masters of musical art. He next went to Rome, where he met Ales- sandro Scarlatti, and had an opportunity of hearing music of the highest class. Here he composed 1 II Trionpho del Tempo ' and gained the friendship of Cardinals Ottobeni and Pamfili, the latter of 303 HAN whom wrote the libretto, for a sacred work named • La Resurrezione.' After visiting Naples he re- turned to Germany in 1710, where he received the situation of Maestro di Capella to the elector of Hanover, afterwards George I. of England. Hav- ing obtained permission, he came to England in the latter end of the year 1710, between which year and 1720, he composed his opera of ' Rinaldi,' his 'Te Deum,' and 'Jubilate;' the 'Water Music,' his operas ' Amadis,' 'Fesco,' and 'II Pastor Fido,' his ' Acis and Galatea,' ' Esther,' and other minor works. While he was in England, Queen Anne awarded him a pension of £200 per annum, and when the elector became king of England this allowance was doubled. Not many years after this, Handel having been appointed to teach the princess royal, an additional pension of £200 was added to the former grants by Queen Caro- line. The busiest, but not the most fortunate period of Handel's life had now arrived, and that which forms the most splendid era in the musical annals of Britain. It was resolved that the king's theatre should be converted into an academy of music, and Handel was engaged as manager. During his management he produced fifteen new operas, but his troubles were so great that in 1726 he retired from his managerial duties with a loss of £10,000, and a constitution much damaged by incessant labour and turmoil. He then made an attempt to give operas at Covent Garden Theatre, but was equally unsuccessful. He next com- menced giving oratorios, which he continued to nearly the last day of his life, and deriving con- siderable pecuniary advantage from them. It is an historical fact that the ' Messiah ' was, during a long period, annually performed at the Foundling Hospital, and alone added £10,300 to the funds of that institution. Late in life, Handel lost his eye- sight, but this affliction could not burthen or ob- scure his fine intellect, for he continued to play concertos and voluntaries between the parts of his oratorios, in the same masterly style which had distinguished his touch in the prime of his life. He died on the 13th of April, 1759, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument by Roubillac is erected to his memory. In 1784, a Sand musical festival, the Commemoration of an del (being the centenary of his birth), was held in Westminster Abbey, when nearly £13,000 was re- ceived for five days' performances. — In the Queen's Library are the original MSS. of nearly all Han- del's works, filling 82 large folio volumes. These include 32 Italian operas, 23 oratorios, 8 volumes of anthems, 4 of cantatas, 3 of Te Deums and a Jubilate, together with concertos, sonatas, &c. Not in the royal collection are, 11 volumes consist- ing of operas, harpsichord lessons, fugues, organ concertos, water-music, &c. Of the oratorios, 'Esther' was first performed in 1732; 'Deborah and Athalia' in 1733 ; ' Acis and Galatea ' in 1735 ; ' Ode, St. Cecilia's Day ' in 1736 ; ' Israel in Egypt ' in 1738; 'L' Allegro ed il Penseroso,' 1739 ; 'Saul,' 1740; 'Messiah,' 1741; 'Samson,' 1742; 'Semele,' •Belshazzar,' and * Susanna' 1743 ; ' Hercules,' 1744 ; 'Choice of Hercules,' and 'Occasional Oratorio' in 1745 ; 'Joseph ' and ' Judas Maccabaeus' in 1746 ; 'Alexander Balus and Joshua' in 1747; ' Solo- mon 'in 1749; 'Theodora' in 1750; 'Jephthah,' and 'Time and Truth' iu 1551. — Handel was great HAN * in every style of music. In sacred music ; espe- cially of the choral kind, he not only throws at an immeasurable distance all who preceded and followed Mm, but reached that sublimity to which the art is so capable of attaining. In manners, Handel was impetuous yet dignified and bene- volent. In person he was large and bulky, but with pleasing and regular features. f.l.M. ] HANMER, J., a nonconform, divine, died 1687. HANMER, Meredith, an English clergyman and ecclesiastical author, committed suicide 1604. HANMER, Sir Thos., a member of parliament, and editor of an edition of Shakspeare, 1676-1746. HANNEMAN, A., a Dutch painter, 1611-80. HANNIBAL, one of the most illustrious gene- rals of antiquity, was born B.C. 247, the same year in which his father Hamilcar was appointed to the command of the Carthaginian army in Spain. At the age of nine he accompanied his father to the scene of war, having, before leaving Carthage, taken a solemn oath at the altar, in presence of his father, pledging himself to eternal hostility to Rome — a pledge to the fulfilment of which his whole future life was devoted. He was present in the battle in which his father perished, b.c. 229 ; and though only eighteen years old, his bravery and genius for war were already so conspicuous, that Hasdrubal, his father's successor, intrusted to him the chief command of nearly all the mili- tary enterprises which he planned. On the assas- sination of TIasdrubal, B.C. 221, the soldiers unanimously proclaimed him commander-in-chief, a choice whicn was speedily ratified by the govern- ment at Carthage. Being now invested with the entire conduct of the war, he quickly reduced to subjection the Spanish tribes which had not been conquered by Hasdrubal. In the spring of B.C. 219, he laid siege to Saguntum, a city in alliance with the Romans, though warned that an attack upon it would be held as a declaration of war, and took it after a blockade of eight months, thus setting at defiance the mighty power of Rome. Such was the commencement of the second Punic war. Af- ter passing the winter in making the necessary preparations for the invasion of Italy, he crossed the Ebro in the following spring, passed the Py- renees with an army of 50,000 foot and 9,000 horse, and, marching through Gaul, reached the Rhone without interruption. Crossing the Rhone he ascended the left bank of that river till its con- fluence with the Isere, then struck off to the right, and surmounting the many and most formidable difficulties which obstructed his passage, reached the summit of the Alps, on the ninth day after leaving the plains of Dauphine\ When he reached the plains of northern Italy, his army was reduced to 20,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry, so that his march must have cost him 33,000 men. After re- cruiting the strength of his troops, he entered upon a career of unexampled success. He attacked and defeated the consul P. Scipio on the banks of the Ticinus, B.C. 218, and Tib. Sempronius at the Trebia, b.c 218, thus making himself master of the whole of northern Italy ; and, proceeding still southward, gained a signal victory over the consul Flaminius at the Trasimene lake, B.C. 217. The Romans now collected a fresh army, which was placed under the command of Fabius Maximus as dictator; and a defensive system of warfare 304 HAN was adopted till the end of the year. In the spring of B.C. 216, the Romans raised an army of nearly 90,000 men, which, led by the consuls L. jEmilius Paulas and C. Terentius Varro, advanced to Cannae, in Apulia, where the Carthaginian army was en- camped. In the battle which ensued, the Roman army was annihilated, and the consul iEmilius Paulus slain. The whole of lower Italy was thereby placed in the power of Hannibal, and the fidelity of some of the Roman allies, who had hitherto been steadfast, began to give way. But the daunt- less spirit of the Romans remained unshaken, al- though Hannibal was not the only enemy with whom they had to contend. They now adopted strictly the defensive system, counteracted the enemy's movements in every direction, and ren- dered it impossible for him to prosecute extensively a system of active aggression. Hannibal, notwith- standing, maintained his army in Italy for the next twelve years, having, in B.C. 207, sustained an irreparable loss by the destruction of the army under his brother Hasdrubal, who was marching to his assistance. In B.C. 204, P. Cornelius Scipio, who had completed the conquest of Spain, passed over into Africa, and, with the assistance of Masi- nissa, a Numidian prince, gained two victories over the Carthaginians. The war being- thus carried into the enemy's country, Hannibal was recalled from Italy, and, landing at Leptis, advanced to Zama, a city five days' journey west from Car- thage. Here he was entirely defeated by Scipio, B.C. 202, and the Carthaginians were obliged to sue for peace. Here ended the second Punic war, B.C. 201. After the conclusion of the war, Han- nibal applied himself to the correction of the abuses which existed in the Carthaginian government ; but was interrupted in his course by an embassy sent from Rome to demand his punishment as a disturber of the public peace. Making his escape from Car- thage, he fled to the court of Antiochus at Ephesus, and assisted in fixing his determination to make war against the Romans. When peace was con- cluded between Antiochus and the Romans, Han- nibal took refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia, with whom he remained about five years. But the Romans could not rest so long as their once formidable enemy was alive, and Prusias agreed to put him into their hands. Hannibal, finding that escape was now impossible, destroyed himself by poison at Nicomedia, in Bithynia, B.C. 183, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. [G.F.] HANNO, the name of several disting. Carthagi- nians; the^rs^, an African explorer, author of the 1 Periplus of Hanno,' 6th cent. B.C. ; the second, an admiral, defeated by the consul Lutatius, 243 B.C. ; the third, a general, and rival of Hamilcar and Hannibal, died 204 B.C. HANSARD, Luke, an em. printer, 1752-1828. HANSCH, M. G., a Germ, philos., 1683-1752. HANS-SACHSE, a German poet, 1494-1576. HANVILL, John, a Latin poet, 12th century. HANWAY, Jonas, an English merchant and historical writer, best known as a philanthropist and friend of the lower classes. He was the principal founder of the Marine Society and the Magdalen Hospital, and a great promoter of Sun- day schools, 1712-178(5. HAQUIN, king of Norway, the first of the name, born 915, reigned 931-963; the second, HAR reigned 978-995 ; the third, 1101-1162 ; the fourth, 1202-1204 ; the fifth, 1217-1263 ; the sixth, 1297- 1319; the seventh, born 1338, governed Norway after 1345, under the name of his fathei, who was king of Norway and Sweden ; married Margaret of Denmark, 1360; deposed his father and usurped the throne 1361 ; died 1380. HARALD, king of Norway, the first of the name, died 933 ; the second, succeeded 963, and was killed 978; the third, bom 1017, reigned over half Norway 1047, and was killed 1066 ; the third, a pretended son of Magnus, III., began his career about 1130, usurped the throne, and was van- quished by another pretender 1136. HARALD, king of Denmark, the first of the name known to historians, called the seventh, reigned 930-980; the eighth, succeeded 1014, and died in England 1017 ; the ninth, reigned 1076-80. HARALD, a king of Jutland, 9th century. HARCOURT, Count Henki De Lorraine, a French military commander, died 1666. HARCOURT, William, earl of, a British officer, disting. in the American war, 1743-1830. HARDEBY, G, an English monk, died 1360. HARDENBERG, Chae. Augustus, Prince Von, a Prussian minister of state, and a principal actor in the political transactions connected with the recent war, 1750-1822. HARDENBERG, Fred. Von. See Novalis. HARDT, Alex., a Fr. dramatist, died 1630. HARDICANUTE. See Canute. HARDING, J., an Eng. annalist, 1378-1466. HARDING, Th., a Rom. Cath. div., 1512-1572. HARDINGE, Nicholas, an English scholar and poet, 1700-1758. His son, George, a juris- consult and man of letters, 1744-1816. HARDION, Jas., a Fr. historian, 1686-1766. HARDOUIN, H, a Fr. musician, 1724-1808. HARDOUIN, John, a French Jesuit of great learning, remarkable for his opinions on the lite- rary history of antiquity, 1646-1729. HARDOUIN, J. S., a Fr. writer, 1735-1817. HARDT, Hermann Van Der, a German philologist and hist, of the reformation, 1660-1745. HARDT, Ignatius, a Ger. biblio., 1749-1811. HARDWICKE, the earls of. See Yorke. HARDY, A., a French dramatist, 1560-1631. HARDY, Sir C, an English admiral, d. 1779. HARDY, Vice-Admiral Sir Thomas Mas- terman, captain of the Victory in the battle of Trafalgar, b. 1769, d. gover. of Green. Hosp. 1830. HARE, Dr. Francis, bp. of Chichester, dist. as a learned writer and controversialist, died 1740. HARE, Henry, Lord Coleraine, a dist. scholar and collector of antiquarian subjects, 1693-1749. HARENBERG, J. C, a Ger. hist., 1694-1774. HARETH-BEN-HILIZA, an Arab, poet, 6th c. HARGRAVE, F., an English jurist, 1741-1821. HARIOT, Th., an Engl, algebraist, 1560-1621. HARIRI, Aben-Moh., an Arab, au., 1054-1121. HARLES, T. Chr., a Ger. savant, 1738-1814. HARLEY, Robert, earl of Oxford and Morti- mer, disting. as a statesman in the reign of Queen Anne, and in conjunction with the celeb. Bolin<;- broke, was born 1661. He became speaker of the House of Commons in 1700, privy councillor and secretary of state 1704, chancellor 1710, and lord high treasurer, after his elevation to the peerage, from 1711 to 1715, when he received his dismissal X HAR The principal event of liis administration was tlie peace of Utrecht concluded 1713, and he took no share in public business after his retirement. He was a great patron of literature, and author of some political pamphlets, but deficient in nearly- all the qualities of statesmanship. From 1716 to 1717 he was confined in the Tower with an im- peachment over his head, but was finally acquitted. He died in 1724. [E.R.I HARLOW, G. H., an Eng. painter, 1787-1819: HARMAR, John, a class, trans., 1594-1670. HARMENOPULUS, Constantine, a Germ, jurisconsult, grand chancellor of Constantinople in the reign of John Pala?ologus, 1320-1383. HARMER, Thomas, a dissenting minister, au. of ' Observations on the Scriptures,' 1715-1788. HARO, Don Luis De, a Spanish statesman, the minister and favourite of Philip IV., 1598-1661. HAROLD, the first of the name king of Eng- land, succeeded his father Canute the Great 1035, died 1039; the second of the name, son of Godwin, earl of Kent, usurped the throne 1066, and was vanquished the same year by William the Con- queror, and killed at the battle of Hastings. HAROUN-AL-RASCHID, in English 'Aaron the Just,' a renowned caliph of Bagdad, contem- porary with Charlemagne and the empress Irene, was born in Media 765, and succeeded his elder brother as fifth caliph of the Abasside dynasty in 786. He had already acquired immense popu- larity by his victories over the Greeks, and had made Irene a tributary of the caliphate. He now raised the empire of the Arabs to its highest pitch of grandeur, uniting the talents of a philosopher to those of a conqueror, and, like Charlemagne in the West, making his court the centre of arts and letters, and the refuge of men of learning from all parts of the Eastern empire. The Arabs never tire of their eulogisms upon the magnificence, generosity, and wisdom of this prince, as all the world has read in the ' Arabian Nights' Entertain- ments.' His reign was the Augustan era of the Arabian dominion, and his imaginative subjects have celebrated it as the age of enchantment and miracle. After the death of Irene, Haroun-Al- Raschid humbled her successor, the Emperor Nice- phorus, still more deeply, made immense conquests among the Turks and other tribes of Asia, and subjugated the sect of Ali in his hereditary domin- ions. He died in 809, leaving his vast possessions divided under his three sons, which prepared the way for endless jealousies, and produced many civil commotions in after years. Haroun not only promoted learning and the arts in his dominions, but he was himself a poet, and was easily moved to tears by the recital of poetry. Yet he was often cruel, because, like a true child of the East, he was impulsive, and severe because politic. [E.R. - ] HARPALUS, a Greek astronomer, 5th ct. B.C. HARPALUS, the Greek governor of Babylon, appointed by Alexander the Great, killed 325 b.g. HARPE, John Fr. De La. See Laharpe. HARPHIUS, H., a Flemish mvstic, died 1478. HARPSFELD, John, an English prelate and religious wr., died 1578. His brother, Nicholas, a Greek scholar and ecclesiast. historian, d. 1583. HARRIMAN, J., an Engl, botanist, 1760-1831. HARRINGTON, H., a phv. and poet, 1729-1816. HARRINGTON, J., a political wr., 1611-1677. IIAR HARRINGTON, J., a lawyer and scholar, au- thor of the life of Dr. Stradling, 1664-1693. HARRINGTON, Sir J., an English poet, author of ' Epigrams and Letters,' 1561-1612. HARRINGTON, John, Lord, guardian of Elizabeth, daugh. of James I., and the friend and correspondent of Henry prince of Wales, 1591-1613. HARRIOT, Th., an astronomer, 1560-1621. HARRIS, G., a philological writer, died 1796. HARRIS, General Lord George, a British officer, dist. in the Amer. war and India, 1759-1829. HARRIS, J., a Gr. scholar and philos., known as a writer on art and the philosophy of language, 1709-1780.. His son, of the same name, first earl of Malmesbury, a diplomat, and hist, wr., 1746-1820. HARRIS, John, a divine and mathematician, well kn. as the first projector and editor of a cyclo- paedia or dictionary of the sciences, died 1719. HARRIS, Walter, a medical writer, b. 1647. HARRIS, W., author of sermons, died 1740. HARRIS, W., a biographical writer, died 1770. HARRISON, J., inventor of the sea chrono- meter, for which he received a government pre- mium of £20,000, 1693-1776. HARRISON, John, a general of the parliamen- tary army, executed after the restoration, 1670. HARRISON, T., a dist. architect, 1744-1829. HARRISON, William Henry, president of the United States, 1773-1844. HART, G. V., a British officer, 1752-1832. HARTE, Walter, a poet and essayist, author of a history of Gustavus Adolphus, died 1773. HARTLEY, David, an English metaphysician of some note; born 1705 at Armley in Yorkshire; died in Bath 1757. Hartley's well-known, or rather, much-heard-of, work, entitled 'Observa- tions on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations,' occupies 3 volumes 8vo. It consists of three distinct parts. Adopting the sensational theory of the origin of human know- ledge to its fullest extent — resolving Mr. Locke's ' Reflection ' into a modification of sensation, — he endeavours first to explain all sensations and ideas, by material agency, viz., hypothetical vibrations of a hypothetical fluid, connected with the nervous system. It is not improbable that Hartley esteemed this theory of vibrations, his most important speculation : happily for the permanence of his repute he contributed to Psychology something much more valuable than one of those countless fancies, bubbling up in every age, but which attain no place in the History of Science. It is probably indisputable that since Aristotle's time the Law of Association, and its sway over the succession of mental phenomena, had not been so thoroughly studied or fully exposed as in the second division of Hartley's treatise. Hobbes and Locke had done little more than assert this great Law ; but Hartley unfolded it with a clearness which left little to be desired. The last portion of the ' Observations' is occupied with discourses on human duty and virtue, on our relation to God, and hopes of a future life. Carried out logically, the materialistic views of the writer, on the funda- mental problem as to the origin of Ideas, can never fail to issue in a scheme of simple negations on all these momentous theories: fortunately, however, Hartley's ' instincts' prevailed over his logic, and he has bequeathed much that is excellent and true. It 306 EAR cannot be denied however, that his book as a whole is rather a set of dissertations, than a compact treatise : its scientific value being confined to its illus- tration of the Law already referred to. — Hartley's life and character were beyond reproach. He was cheerful, placid, and actively benevolent. The Heart is often a trusty safeguard of the Head, amid the perils of Speculation. [J.P.N.] HARTLEY, David, son of the celebrated philo- sopher, dist. as apracti. man of science, 1729-1818. HARTLEY, Thomas, rector of Winwick in Northamptonshire, known as a pious and learned divine, author of 'A Discourse on the Kinds of Enthusiasm and Religious Experiences,' ' An Ac- count of the Mystic Writers.' ' Paradise Regained,' 4 Sermons,' &c. In the latter part of his life he became the -personal friend of Swedenborg, and the first translator of many of his works, 1707-1784. HARTSOEKER, Nicholas, a Dutch physi- cian and experimental philosopher, 1656-1725. HARTUNGUS, John, a Germ, transl., d. 1579. HARTZHEIM, Jos., a Ger. savant, 1694-1763. HARVARD, John, a nonconformist divine, and founder of a college in North America, died 1688. HARVEST, G., author of sermons, died 1776. HARVEY, Sir Eliab, a British admiral, de- scended from the illustrious Wm. Harvey, d. 1830. HARVEY, Gabriel, a lawyer and poet, about 1545-1630. His brothers, John and Richard, known as writers on judicial astrology, &c. HARVEY, Gideon, a physician, died 1700. HARVEY, William, M.D., the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was born at Folkstone, Kent, a.d. 1578, and died in London, a.d. 1657, aged seventy-nine years. — This remarkable man, whose name is indissolubly associated with one of the most important discoveries ever made in phy- siological science, was educated first at the gram- mar school of Canterbury, and subsequently at Caius College, Cambridge, where he spent five years. He afterwards travelled through Germany and France, and proceeding thence to Italy, he fixed himself at Padua, the medical school of which city had at that time a high reputation, and there he became the pupil of Fabricius ab Aqua- pendente, the most distinguished anatomist of his age, from whom he acquired a knowledge of the valvular structure of the veins, which laid the foundation of his future fame. In 1602 he re- turned to England and began to practise as a physician in London; and in 1615 he was appointed professor of anatomy and surgery to the Royal College of Physicians. There can be no doubt that his particular opinions on the mechanism of the circulation were formed long before, but they were first publicly announced from the chair of the college to which he was now attached in the year 1616. We cannot enter into anatomical and physiological details in this place, and it must suffice to say, that Harvey for the first time de- monstrated the double function of the heart in sending out blood from the left side, through the arteries, over the whole body, and in receiving it back by the veins to the right side, whence it is propelled into the lungs, where it loses its impuri- ties, and is again rendered fit for use. This ele- mentary truth, which is so familiar to us, was new in those days, and as it was opposed to the pre- vailing ideas upon the subject, it was regarded by HAR his contemporaries as an audacious novelty ; and for upwards of twenty years the propounder of this doctrine was assailed by every species of detrac- tion and calumny. He had the good fortune, however, to survive these attacks, and to see his views universally adopted before his death; nor would it be easy to find a better instance of the application of the principles of the inductive philo- sophy to the investigation of natural phenomena than that supplied by the use which Harvey made of his knowledge of the internal structure of the veins, which, even in the hands of his master Fab- ricius, had been wholly unproductive. The veins have a feeble and imperceptible contractile power, if they have any at all, and Harvey at once saw that the valves were placed in these vessels to pre- vent the reflux of the blood in its progress back to the heart, and out of this conclusion "mainly arose the discovery of the true theory of the circula- tion, with all its important consequences. Of this there can be no doubt, for there still exists in the museum of the College of Physicians six tabular views, as large as fife, showing this pecu- liar structure of the veins, which were executed by him or to his order, and which were presented to that learned body by his collateral descendant, the earl of Winchelsea. — His right to the merit of this great discovery is incontestible, yet there have been those in modern times who have disputed it, and who have asserted that he was anticipated in his conclusions by several of the anatomists of the an- cient world, and by some of his more immediate predecessors. The passages collected from the writings of antiquity by the diligence of such authors as Dutens go for nothing in an inquiry into the existence of a great physical fact, and touch Har- vey's claims to the smallest possible extent ; but one name deserves to be mentioned in connection with this subject, to wit, that of the celebrated and unfor- tunate Michael Servetus, the Spanish physician, whom Calvin and his consistory burned for heresy at Geneva. In the year 1553, a quarter of a century before Harvey was born, Servetus published a theological treatise, in which some singular pas- sages occur on the functions of the heart and lungs, which, though vague, would seem to indicate that he had an obscure idea of the pulmonic circulation and its uses ; but such loose speculations as Ser- vetus indulged in cannot for a moment be com- pared to the severe methods and rigid deductions of Harvey, who took nothing for granted that could be experimentally proved. One of his rules was, that • Nature herself is the most faithful in- terpreter of her own secrets ' (De Generation© Ammalium). He consulted her oracles and disco- vered the truth. — Harvey was physician successively to James I. and to his son, Charles I. In the train of the latter he visited Scotland in 1633, and he has left an account of an excursion which he made on that occasion to the Bass Rock, in the Frith of Forth ; and having adhered to the fortunes of his patron, he was present, though not as a combatant, but as the guardian of the two young princes, Charles and James, at the battle of Edgehill, in 1642. During the fight he employed himself by reading a book under a hedge, but a large cannon ball grazing the ground close to him while he was so occupied, he removed with his charge to a dis- tance from the scene of action. In 1651 his 307 HAR resilience at Whitehall was plundered, and his manuscripts destroyed, a loss which he ever alter deplored, as thev contained the results of the ex- periments of a life. His works are not numerous, but they are valuable ; and his treatise on the Generation of Animals is still a standard book. He died worth £20,000, which he bequeathed to his brother, Mr. Eliab Harvev, with the exception of a yearly sum of £56 for the annual delivery of an oration at the College of Physicians, which is still known as the Harveian oration. He was diminutive in stature, with a small, round, but expressive black eye. His temper was naturally choleric, and was rendered perhaps more so by severe attacks of the gout ; and in his philosophi- cal sentiments he is believed to have inclined to the opinions of his friend Hobbes, to whom he left a legacy of £10. There is a tradition that he destroyed himself by an over-dose of opium, to avoid the pain of a fit of his habitual malady ; but this story is now discredited, as it has been ascer- tained that he died of a slight shock of paralysis, which his aged and feeble frame could not with- stand. [J.M'C] HARWOOD, Sir Baswick, an English physi- cian and writer on anatomy and physiology, d. 1814. HARWOOD, E., a disting. divine, 1729-1794. HASDRUBAL. See Asdrubal. HASE, Theodore, a German theologian and biblical commentator, 1689-1731. His son, James, a classical writer, died 1723. HASENMULLER, Daniel, a Ger. Orientalist, author of ' Janua Hebraismi Aperta,' 1651-1691. HASLEWOOD, Joseph, one of the founders and editors of the Roxburgh Club, and the collec- tor of a large library of black letter lore and Elizabethan poetry, 1769-1833. HASSAN, a grandson of Mahomet, born 625, caliph after the murder of Ali, 660, died 661. HASSAN-PACHA, grand vizier of the Otto- man emp., and a dist. military command., d. 1790. HASSE, J. A., a Germ, composer, 1705-1783. HASSEL, J. G. H., a Ger. geogra., 1770-1829. HASSELQUIST, Frederic, a Swedish botan- ist, au. of a ' Journey to the Holy Land,' 1722-52. HASTED, Edw., historian of* Kent, 1732-1812. HASTING, a Danish adventurer, died 890. HASTINGS, Lady Eliza., dau. of the earl of Huntingdon, founder of schools, &c, 1682-1739. HASTINGS, Francis Rawdon, son of the earl of Moira, born 1754, distinguished as a Brit- ish officer in the American war, in Holland, and the East Indies, and governor-general of India from 1812 to 1822, governor of Malta 1824, died marquis of Hastings 1826. HASTINGS, Warren, was bom in 1733. He was the son of obscure parents, but he claimed an ancient and renowned descent, and from his early childhood it was his ambition to win back the domains of his ancestors. He was educated at Westminster School, and in 1750 was appointed a writer in the service of the East India Company. In the emergency through which the ability and valour of Clive saved the British possessions, his capacity was seen while the obscure clerk carried a inusket as a volunteer, and he was chosen diplo- matic agent at the Durbar. After having re- mained fourteen years in India he returned to Britain, still comparatively obscure ; but his talents 308 HAU were remembered, and after being named second in council in Madras, he was, in 1774, appointed to the newly-created dignity of governor-general of Bengal. The bold measures which he took to defend the British interests from Hyder Ally is one of the great epochs in the history o'f the British Eastern Empire. By its audacious and somewhat unscrupulous character, his career startled and alarmed British statesmen on the morality of the policy which guided the British system in the Eastern Peninsula, and he was recalled to meet the celebrated impeachment moved by Burke on 4th April, 1786. The trial was begun on 13th February. 1788, when, according to Mr. Macaulay, ' The high court of Parliament was to sit accord- ing to forms handed down from the days of the Plantagenets, on an Englishman accused of exer- cising tyranny over the lord of the holy city of Benares, and the ladies of the princely house of Oude.' Political events turned public attention into other channels during the impeachment, and when it had been almost forgotten it ended in an acquittal in April, 1795. He spent his old age in retirement ; the injury which his fortunes received by the expense of his defence being but partially remedied by the gratitude of the East Indian Company. He had a taste for letters, and wrote some secondary works now forgotten. He died on 22d August, 1818. [J.H.B.] HATCHER, Thomas, an editor of the 16th ct. HATFIELD, Thomas, bp. of Durham, secre- tary of Edward III., and companion-in-arms of Percy and Ralph Nevill, died 1381. HATSELL, John, chief clerk of the House of Commons, and a writer on parliamentary sub- jects, 1733-1820. HATTO, or ATTO-VERCELLENSIS, an Ital. prelate, known as an ecclesiastical writer, 10th ct. HATTON, Sir Christopher, a courtier and dramatic writer, chancellor in 1587, died 1591. HAUBER, E. D., a German historian, 1715-65. HAUBOLD, C. C, a Germ, jurist, 1766-1824. HAUFF, Wilhelm, a German prose writer, author of ' The Man in the Moon,' ' Extracts from the Memoirs of the Devil,' &c, 1802-1827. HAUG, J. C. F., a German poet, 1761-1829. HAUGWITZ, Chr. Henry Charles, count of, the Prussian statesman who signed the treaty of Pilnitz, born 1758, retired 1806, died 1832. HAUKSBEE, Francis, an English philosopher, known for his experiments in electricity, last cent. HAULTIN, J. B., a Fr. numismatist, 1580-1640. HAUSER, Gaspard, a mysterious being found in Nuremberg 1828, assassinated 1832. HAUTEFEUILLE, John De, a Fr. physician and mechanic, au. of curious treatises, 1647-1724. HAUTERIVE, Maurice, Count De, a French diplomatist and political writer, 1754-1830. 1IAUTEROCHE, Noel Le Breton De, a French dramatic poet and actor, 1617-1707. HAUY, Rene Just, a celebrated mineralogist, was born at Saint Just in 1743. He died in 1822. — Sprung from poor parents, who were not able to give him an education, his excellent behaviour while a child, attracted the notice of some benevo- lent individuals in his native town, who induced his mother to take him to Paris. After some little time his kind friends obtained him a bursary at the College of Navarre. When he had completed his HAU education there lie became a teacher in the estab- lishment, and continued in that humble capacity for several years. Affection for a friend induced him to study botany ; and accident led him to the lecture-room of M. Daubenton, at that time pro- fessor of mineralogy. He was charmed with the lecture, and found the study of minerals more suited to his taste than that of plants. He was now thirty-eight years of age. For some time his mind had been occupied with ideas relative to the contrast between the forms of the vegetable and mineral kingdoms, when one day examining a fine specimen of calcareous spar crystallized in prisms, he accidentally let it fall. Upon examin- ing one of the broken prisms, he found that the fracture showed as smooth a face as the original, but that the form of the crystal was changed into that of a rhomb. He repeated the experiment upon many other minerals, and always found the same result ; the component parts of each mineral were found to have the same geometrical figure, and a nucleus always similar to itself; while the variety of external forms which the masses assume arose from the manner in which the smaller crys- tals composing it are arranged. Continuing his researches and experiments, he soon succeeded in establishing the true law of crystallization. This he has explained at full length in his ' Traite de Mineralogie,' a work which has procured for him an immense reputation. In 1792 M. Haiiy was imprisoned along with many other ecclesiastics. By the assistance of his pupil Geoffroy St. Hilaire, he was, however, soon after released, and remained for the future untouched and unmolested. In 1802 he was elected professor of mineralogy at the Gar- den of Plants. Napoleon treated him with much respect; made him a canon of Notre Dame, and an officer of the Legion of Honour; but at the restoration he was treated with cruel neglect by the government, and died in comparative poverty. [W.B.] HAUY, Valentine, brother of the mineralo- gist, fndr. of an institut. for the blind, 1746-1822. HAVERCAMP, S., a Germ, critic, 1683-1742. HAVERS, C., an English anatomist, last cent HAVET, A. E. M., a Fr. naturalist, 1795-1820. HAWEIS, T., a religious writer, 1734-1820. HAWES, Stephen, an English poet, 15th c. HAWES, William, a physician of London, founder of the Humane Society, and author of miscellaneous writings, 1736-1808. HAWKE, Edward, Vice-Admiral Lord, cele- brated for his victories over the French in the middle of last century, died 1781. HAWKER, Dr. Robert, a well-known evan- gelical div., au. of 4 Commentaries,' &c, 1753-1827. HAWKESWORTH, John, LL.D., an essayist and miscellaneous writer of the age of Johnson, editor of 4 The Adventurer,' 1715-1773. HAWKINS, Sir John, a London magistrate, known as a miscellaneous writer, 1719-1789. HAWKINS, Sir John, a British admiral, dis- tinguished against the Spaniards in the reign of Elizabeth, the first to begin the slave trade, 1520- 1595. His son, Sir Richard, a naval com- mander and writer, 1582-1622. HAWKSMOOR, Nicholas, the pupil and suc- cessor of Sir Christopher Wren, as surveyor and archit. of the new churches in London, 1666-1736. HAY HAWKWOOD, Sir John, an English genernl, distinguished in the wars of Edward III., d. 1898. HAWLES, John, a writer on law, 1645-1716. HAWLEY, Joseph, one of the ablest advocates of independence in the American legis., 1724-88. HAWORTH, A. H., an Eng. naturalist, d. 1833. HAXO, F. B., Baron, a Fr. officer, 1774-1838. HAY, James, the first Scotchman raised to the English peerage, created by James I. Lord Hay, Viscount Doncaster, and Earl Carlisle, died 1636. HAY, William, an English essayist, d. 1755. HAYDN, Francis Joseph, was born at Rohrau, a small town about fifteen leagues from Vienna, in March, 1732, of very humble parents, his father being a wheelwright and parish sexton, and his mother, before her marriage, having been cook at the chateau of a neighbouring noble- man. Haydn seems to have inherited a taste for music from his father, who had a fine tenor voice, and had made some progress as a performer upon the organ, and could accompany himself and his wife upon the harp. While yet quite a child he showed an early predilection for music, and a cousin of his father who was schoolmaster at Heim- burgh, taught him to perform upon the violin and sing with taste. This relation also taught him Latin, which qualified him to sing in the choir of St. Stephen's at Vienna, and where he soon attracted the attention of Renter the chapel mas- ter. Haydn pursued his musical studies with great earnestness, and under circumstances of great privation. Such was his industry, however, that while he was under Reuter, no single day passed without his having devoted sixteen and sometimes eighteen hours to his music lessons. Having commenced to study composition, he at thir- teen years old, began to write a mass. He gained his livelihood from singing till the age of seventeen, when his soprano voice left him. After this period, being unable to pay for lessons in counterpoint and harmony, he procured an old work on the art, and in spite of the pedantic rules of the old book he had to study from, he soon became well informed in the science of music. About this time he became acquainted with Por- {>ora and Metastasio, with whom he spent some of lis time very agreeably, but nothing of importance occurred in his life up till the year 1771, with the exception of an unhappy marriage, which he con- tracted with Anne Kellar, a prudish damsel, who, in addition to a tiresome parade of virtue, had, as his biographer informs us, a 4 mania for priests and monks.' In the year named above, he was appointed chapel master to Prince Esterhazy, which appointment put an end for ever to bis pecuniary embarrassments. In the service of this prince in the palace at Eisenstadt, Haydn pro- duced many of his great works, and under advan- tages which few composers ever possessed — he had a full and excellent band, living under the same roof with him, at his command every hour of the day. Thus passed the life of Haydn till the year 1791, when he arrived in England to fulfil an en- gagement with M. Salomons, who was then giving concerts in the Hanover Square Rooms. During this engagement he produced six of his ' Twelve Grand Symphonies, and also published many canzonets, quartetts, sonatas, &c. In 1794, ho again visited London under an engagement to 309 IIAY Gallini, then manager of the King's theatre, ITay- market, and at which period he produced the re- maining six of his • Grand Symphonies.' While ill London, the greatness of his genius, and the amiability of his manners, brought him many friends, and rendered his success quite triumphant. At the close of this engagement Haydn returned to Vienna, and never afterwards left it. In 1795, Haydn commenced the composition of his ' Crea- tion,' and was two whole years employed upon it. On one occasion, when asked why the Oratorio was not finished, Haydn answered with the utmost tranquillity ' I am long about it, because I wish it to last long.' This wish was a prophecy, his ' Crea- tion ' will last for ever. Ihe 'Creation' was brought out in 1798, and two years afterwards he gave to the world his • Seasons.' The last great work upon which his genius exerted himself, was two sets of quartetts. In his latter years he em- ployed himself in setting accompaniments to some Scotch airs for the late Mr. George Thomson of Edinburgh. In 1805, he, by the advice of his physician, gave up all study, and from this time he never left his villa at Gumpendorff. The closing scene of this great composer's life was not less re- markable than his career was illustrious. The last time he appeared in public was at the per- formance of the ' Creation,' which was honoured by the presence of more than 1,500 people, amongst whom were many of the nobles and princes of Aus- tria. ' SuiTounded by the nobility of Vienna and his friends, by artists, by lovely women, whose eyes were fixed upon him, listening to the praises of God, which he himself had imagined, Haydn bid a glorious adieu to the world.' Soon after this, war broke out between France and Austria; this intelligence vexed him and exhausted the last re- mains of his strength. ' The French armies ad- vanced rapidly, and on the 10th of May, 1809, having reached Schonbrunn about half a league distant from Haydn's villa, they fired next morning hundreds of cannon shot upon Vienna, that city so much beloved by him. Four bombs having fallen close to his house, his two servants, with teiTor depicted in their countenances, ran to him ; the old man, by an effort, rose from his arm-chair, and with a dignified air, cried, 'Why such alarm! know that, where Haydn is, no evil can happen.' But this exertion was beyond his strength ; a con- vulsive shivering prevented him adding more, and he was immediately conveyed to bed. On the 26th of May, he was almost completely exhausted ; notwithstanding, he had his piano moved towards him, and sung three times with a voice as loud as he could, ' God save the Emperor.' These were his last words. At his piano he became insensible, and he expired on the morning of the 31st. Haydn was very religious. The commencement of all his scores are inscribed with one of the fol- lowing mottoes '/« Nomine Domini,' or i Soli Deo Gloria,' and at the end of them all ' Lous Deo.' 1 His works are exceedingly numerous in all classes. Among them are 116 symphonies, 83 violin quar- tetts, 60 pianoforte sonatas, 15 masses, 4 oratorios, a grand ' Te Deum,' a ' Stabat Mater,' 14 Italian and German operas, 42 duets and canzonets, and 2(J0 divertimentos for particular instru- ments. [J.M.] HAYDON, Benjamin Robert, was bora at HAY Plymouth, 23d January, 1786 ; his father tu a bookseller, and he was educated in early youth at Plympton Grammar School, where Sir Joshua Reynolds had been brought up. Haydon deter- mined upon becoming a painter, contrary to the wishes of his parents. His father, however, assisted him for several years in the metropolis : he visited London in 1804, and became a pupil of the Royal Academy in 1805. He had the advantage of the acquaintance of Northcote, Opie, andFuseli, as ad- visers, and of Jackson and Wilkie as fellow-pupils. His ambitious views of art were early developed : in 1807 he exhibited a picture of the ' Flight into Egypt,' purchased by Mr. Hope, which procured him a commission from Lord Mul grave for ' Dcn- tatus,' a picture which, from the dissatisfaction he felt at its being placed in the ante-room in the Royal Academy Exhibition of 1809, appears to have been the first" cause of most of his subsequent trouble, for not imagining that others might not think so highly of the picture as he did himself, he made the supposed injustice a cause of quarrel with the Academy, and the notion of injustice, or rather owing to his inordinate vanity, a conspiracy to suppress him, developed itself into a monomania, and possessed his mind the whole of his life. Den- tatus has been admirably engraved in wood by his pupil Harvey. — The encouragement, however, which Haydon got from Lord Mulgrave, both social and professional, gave a great impulse to his exertions, and Dentatus was succeeded by a con- siderable series of great works. He now, to make up some deficiencies of execution, devoted himself for half a year to the practice of portrait painting at Plymouth, and after his return to London he became an enthusiastic student of the Elgin Mar- bles, then recently brought from Greece; the excel- lence of which he professes to have been the first to point out to the British public, rather naively overlooking the claims of Lord Elgin himself, who had spent £52,000 in securing them and bringing them to England. — The following are Haydon's principal works in the order of their production : — In 1812 ' Macbeth,' for Sir George Beaumont ; in 1814 the 'Judgment of Solomon,' for which he was voted the freedom of his native town, and in this year he visited Paris; in 1820 'Christ's Entry into Jerusalem,' (now in America,) which pro- duced him nearly £3,000 by its exhibition alone, in London, Edinburgh, and Glasgow; in 1821 'Christ's Agony in the Garden,' (in this year he was married) ; in 1823 ' The Raising of Lazarus,' (now at the Pantheon,) in this year he was ar- rested for debt, and passed through the Insolvent Court; in 1826 'Pharaoh Dismissing the Israelites,' and 'Venus and Anchises; in 1827 'Alexander and Bucephalus,' for Lord Egremont, and 'Eucles;' in 1828 ' The Mock Election in the King's Bench,' purchased by George IV.; in 1830 'Napoleon at St. Helena,' for Sir Robert Peel, a picture he after- wards repeated in small nearly thirty times; in 1832 ' Xenophon's First Sight of the Sea,' in the retreat with the 10,000; in 1834 'The Reform Banquet,' for Lord Grey, ' Cassandra,' and ' Wait- ing for the Times ;' in 1835 ' Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes Discovering his Sex ;' in 1836 ' Sam- son and Delilah,' (this year he passed a second time through the Insolvent Court;) in 1838 'Christ Blessing Little Children,' for Liverpool ; in 1839 310 HAY 'The Duke at Waterloo,' also for Liverpool; in 1840 he lectured (gratis) at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and henceforth his time was divided be- tween lecturing and painting ; he found the former the more profitable pursuit, his lectures are pub- lished: in 18-11 'The Anti-Shiverv Convention,' HEB gross to have proceeded from himself, while per- haps no individual artist ever had less influence on the taste of his time, or even that of his own pupils, who do not retain a single trace of his style j indeed, Sir Charles Eastlake, Sir Edwin Land- seer, and Lance, the fruit painter, Haydon's prin- and • The Maid of Saragossa ;' in "1842 ' Curtius cipal scholars, illustrate three as opposed paths, as Leaping into the Gulf ;' in 1843 the cartoon of the 4 Entry of the Black Prince into London,' with King John of France prisoner ; this was in com- petition for Westminster Hall, in which Haydon failed, a failure which some of his friends supp'osed to have been fatal to him ; in 1844 ' Alexander Killing the Lion,' and a large repetition of • Napo- leon at St. Helena,' which was purchased by the king of Hanover ; in 1845 ' Uriel and Satan ;' and lastly, in 1846 the ' Banishment of Aristides,' and 4 Nero Watching the Burning of Rome,' represent- ing the evils both of democracy and of despotism : these last were two of a series of six which he had designed years ago, for the illustration of the old House of Lords. — These pictures Haydon exhibited as usual, but he was unusually unsuccessful with them. He had often lost by his exhibitions, but sometimes had gained large sums, as in the case of ' Christ's Entry into Jerusalem ;' in this last exhibition he lost £111 lis. 5d., and this loss at a time when he was penniless, added to his deep disappointment at not being employed in the de- coration of the Houses, at last overcame his all but indomitable energy, and he destroyed himself on the 22d of June of this year, 1846. One of the latest entries in his diary is : — ' Tom Thumb had 12,000 people last week, B. R. Haydon, 133.^ (the \ a little girl). Exquisite taste of the English people.' — It may be supposed by some that Hay- don was a martyr to his love of what is termed High Art: the facts of his life show anything but this. He began his career with almost unexampled encouragement, and appears even at all times to have found friends, who gave and lent him consider- able sums of money, from £50 to £1,000, and his professional receipts were by no means small; from the years 1831 to 1836 inclusive, he received from this source alone £4,617 2s. 3d., an average of £750 per annum ; yet he was always in diffi- culties sufficient to have harassed most men to death in as many months as Haydon endured them years : his debts amounted to about £3,000 at his death. The cause of common justice renders these details imperative, both from the extraordinary circumstances of Haydon's death, and his habitual accusations against the Academy for its jealous tyranny, and the people for their hopeless want of taste. Haydon had no other enemy than himself; he appears to have been wholly wanting in com- mon sense ; his ambition was so excessive that it destroyed his judgment, and his extraordinary energy wanted that counterbalancing ability to insure a real artistic success : he was impulsive and desultory, mistook the will for the deed, and neglected the commonest elements of excellence in execution ; he was extremely mannered ; with the exception of a large style of design (indicated, not executed), and a warm and powerful colouring, we miss every other requisite of a fine picture: yet such was his extraordinary vanity, that he identified the fate of the art of his country with that of his own efforts, and assumed all pro- the whole province of painting could possibly dis- play.— (See Memoirs of B. R. Haydon from his Journals. Longman, 1853.) [R.N.W.l HAYER, J. N. H., a Fr. relig. writer, 1718-80. HAYES, Ch., an Eng. mathema., 1678-1760. HAYES, W., a musical composer, 1708-1777. HAYGARTH, J., a medical author, d. 1813. HAYLEY, W., a poet and mis. wr., 1745-1820. HAYM, N. F., an Ital. numismatist, 1670-1730. HAYMAN, F., an English painter, 1708-1770. HAYMO, a German commentator, died 853. HAYNAU, Jules De, an Austrian general noted for his cruelty to the Hungarians in 1849, 1786-1853. HAYNE, F. G., a Germ, botanist, 1763-1832. HAYNE, Isaac, a colonel in the American army, executed by the English as a traitor 1781. HAYNE, Th., a learned divine, 16th century. HAYTON, the^rs^ of the name, k. of Armenia, 1224-1268 ; the second, 1289-1308. HAYTON, an Armenian historian, died 1310. HAYWARD, Sir J., an Eng. historian, d. 1627. HAYWOOD. Elizabeth, a miscel. writer, au- thor of ' The Female Spectator,' &c, 1693-1756. HAZAEL, a king of Syria, 9th century B.C. HAZLITT, William, a well-known essayist and critic of art and poetry, was the son of a uni- tarian minister, and was born at Maidstone 1778. He was in early life an artist, but not satisfied with his attainments in this profession, he came to London and commenced the career of an author in 1803, from which time till his death in 1830, he was constantly before the public as a journalist and miscellaneous writer. His largest work is the ' Life of Napoleon,' in 4 vols., but he is most esteemed for the philosophical spirit of his criticisms. His literary remains, with a biographical memoir, were published by his son shortly after his death. HEADLEY, H., an English poet, 1766-1788. HEAPY, T., a water-colour painter, 1775-1830. HEARNE, S., an English navigator, 1735-92. HEARNE, T., an Eng. antiquar., 1680-1735. HEARNE, T., an arcliit. engraver, 1744-1817. HEATH, Benj., a learned writer, last century. HEATH, James, an historical writer, 1629-64. HEATH, Jas., a dist. engraver, 1756-1834. His son, Charles, also an em. engraver, 1784-1848. HEATH, Nicholas, archbishop of York and chancel, of Engld. in the reign of Q. Mary, d. 1560. HEATHCOTE, R., a miscel. writer, 1721-1795. HEBEL, J. P., a German poet, 1760-1818. HEBER, or EBER, a patriarch of Syria, from whom it is supposed the Hebrews derive their name (Genesis x. 24). HEBER, Reginald, a learned clergyman of the Church of England, 1728-1804. His son, of the same name, the well-known bishop of Calcutta, distinguished as a poet and essayist, 1783-1826. Richard, half-brother of Bishop Heber, known as a learned editor, 1773-1833. HEBERDEN, William, M.D.,F.B.S., a learned and distinguished English physician, was born at 311 HEB London in 1710. After the usual preliminary edu- cation at the Grammar School of St. Saviour, which he entered at the early age of seven, and where he remained till 1724, he was transferred to St. John's College, Cambridge. Here he graduated as B.A. in 1728, and as A.M. in 1732 ; and having resolved to follow medicine as a profession, he obtained his degree as M.D. in that university in 1739. He practised as a physician at Cambridge, giving lectures on materia medica at the nine time in the university till the year 1746, when he removed to London, where he speedily attained to great eminence, and where he continued to reside ever afterwards. _ He died in Pall Mall on the 17th of May, 1801, in the ninety-first year of his age. Dr. Heberden was one of the best classical scholars of liis time, and one of the most perfectly instructed medical men England has ever possessed. It was to a suggestion of his that the ' Medical Transac- tions' owe their origin, and he contributed to the first three volumes of that valuable publication many important papers ; he is best known, how- ever, by his ' Commentaries on the History and Cure of Disease,' a posthumous work, published bv his son in 1802. [J.M'C] "HE BERT, a French writer, 13th century. HE BERT, James Rene, one of the Jacobin leaders of the French revolution, commonly called 4 Pere Duchesne,' from the name of his journal, was born at Alencon towards 1755, and executed with his accomplices Chaumette, Anacharsis Cloots, and others, on the 24th of March, 1794. He was the most brutal journalist of the period, and played a leading part in every conspiracy against the establishment of law and order, and in the detestable massacres of September, 1792. On the 10th of August preceding he had been installed among the magistrates of the people at the Hotel de Ville, and from this period he laboured to exalt the municipal authority above that of the conven- tion. The Girondins were sacrificed in the struggle which ensued, but Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety only awaited a proper opportunity, and arrested the party of Hebert, at the very moment they were threatening a new insurrection. The followers of Hebert and Chaumette, generally called ' Hebertists,' were atheists, and their leaders were as obscene and cruel in outward conduct as they were irreligious in heart. The charge on which they were executed was that of endeavour- ing to destroy the republic by immorality. [E.R.] HECART, G. A. J., a Fr. philologist, 1755-1838. HECHT, Christian, a Ger. divine, 1696-1748. HECHT, Godfrey, a learned writer, d. 1721. HECKEL, J. F., a Ger. philologist, d. 1715. HECQUET, P., aFr. med. author, 1661-1737. HEDERIC, Benjamin, a German philologist, au. of a well-known Greek Lexicon, 1675-1748. HEDIN, Sueno Andrew, a Swedish physi- cian, and author of medical works, 1750-1821. HEDGES, Sir Ch., a min. of state, d. 1714. HEDIO, Gaspar, a Ger. reformer, 1495-1552. HE D WIG, John, a Ger. botanist, 1730-1799. HEDWIGA, a queen of Poland, 1371-1399. HEDWIGA, St., a religious founder, d. 1243. HEEM, J. De, a Dutch painter, 1600-1674. HEEMSKIRCK, Martin Van Veen op, a Dutch painter, time of Michelangelo, 1498-1574. HEEN, Chris., a Swiss numismatist, 1715-69. HEG IIEEXE. LuCAi De. a Flem. paint., 1534-84. HEEREN, Arnold Hermann Ludwio, • learned professor and historian of Ger., 1760-1842. HEERKENS, G. N., a Germ, poet, 1728-1801. HEGEL, George William Frederick, born at Stuttgardt 1770, died at Berlin, in the flush of his fame, November 14, 1831. A philosopher whose power and renown remind one of traditions concern- ing a Pythagoras: he created a School, not only numbering in its ranks his most distinguished contemporaries, but exciting a whole people: the influence of Hegel diffused itself through the poli- tics and religion, as well as through all the specu- lation of Germany. The principles on which this remarkable thinker constructed his system are two- fold. First, his discovery, or alleged discovery, of a universal law accordingto which Thought unfolds itself— the fundamental and sole law of Dialectics. Every thing or notion, says Hegel, exists to the mind, because it has, or is seen to have, a contra- dictory : in other words, there is some other thing or notion standing out right against it, and by opposition marking it off, or defining it. A no- tion and its opposite, or contradictory, are two elements essential to every act of thinking ; and as soon as these are realized, a third act or movement supervenes — viz., the effort to reconcile the two con- tradictories, or to find some third, and of course higher notion, in which they unite or blend. Three elements, therefore, — a notion, its contra- dictory, and the solution of the contradiction, — a thesis, its anti-thesis, and the syn-thesis of the two — represent a complete act of logic, or one move- ment of dialectic ; and on the type of this movement Hegel undertook to explain the entire course and action of Thought in its efforts to comprehend the Universe. It were not easy to over-estimate the surprising skill with which a task so novel and ar- duous has been executed : in this respect indeed the ' Encyclopcedia of Philosophical Sciences 1 will ever be a marvel. Thought is presented to the aston- ished reader, rising up from its barest expression through a gigantic scheme of ascending triplets, until, having comprehended every form and sphere of possible knowledge, it reaches the Absolute and the Infinite. The attempt has indeed failed : its failure was as necessary and has been as signal as that of Babel ; nevertheless, in making it, Hegel had successes that might have achieved station for many minds instead of one : he has thrown light on the methods and relationships of several depart- ments of knowledge, that will abide connected with his name, as a rare and beneficent contribution to philosophy. Secondly, Hegel's next principle, — yet more distinctive, is also more unusual. Schelling before him had spoken of the Absolute as the necessarily existing Unity — blending together the whole variety of thought and things ; but this Ab- solute he deemed an Essence, not irreconcileable with the notion of God. Hegel resolved that nothing unintelligible — no obscure residuum — should remain in philosophy. What, he asked, is Reality ? What is the thing truly known, in the Cogito of Dcs Cartes ? Is it other than Thought ? I know my- self or my existence, because I think mvself. As to the external world, as men term it, Fichte de- monstrated it a mere modification of the thinking principle; — what is it too, then, save a modification of Thought f What need in such a case of Essences 812 HEG and Sahsfanct* ? Thought is at once Knowledge and Existence ; the Ideal is the true and only Real. And so disappear for ever, unknown quantities or substances from philosophy ; and science at last is adequate! Singular as this principle, taken by itself, must look to the English reader, the conse- quences of its union with Hegel's first assumption, are still more astounding. If the knowledge of Things can be expressed or referred to one universal movement of dialectic, are not Things themselves — all the reality we can reach — simply the evolution of Thought, according to this movement ? In other words, does not Dialectic represent, nay create by its movements, all that we call the Universe V At this point Hegel starts farthest away from Schel- ling. Schelling's Absolute was primary, the great first and ultimate principle necessary to harmonize the variety of existence : according to Hegel the Absolute is evolved— created as well as risen to, by Thought ; — God, in short, is not the discovery, but the issue of dialectic ; and exists nowhere nor in any manner, apart from our human consciousness ! It is needful in candour to warn the student, that he must not judge of the verisimilitude of a scheme so extraordinary, by this barest outline. No re- markable system of thought, can fairly be separated from its details, inasmuch as these are the bridge by which alone we can pass over from ordinary modes of contemplation ; and it will not be con- cluded that the high genius of Hegel failed to provide the strong semblance of such a bridge, seeing that multitudes of the keenest thinkers in Germany not only became passionate adherents of his doctrine, but put their sincerity to the test, by accepting all its practical conclusions. It were evidently out of the question to attempt here a formal criticism of Hegelianism : nevertheless there are a few general remarks on the whole set of these * Philosophies of the Absolute,' which, from our British point of view, it may not be unfitting to venture, as the conclusion of this article. (See art. Schelling.) 1. There is one meaning and applica- tion of the term Absolute, legitimized and accepted in this country, which must be carefully distin- guished from the common significance of the same term in Germany. Truths fundamental to, and inseparable from our human nature, are in our English phraseology, absolute, to that Nature : in other words, we must accept these as ultimate and inevitable conditions of human thought — expressive, so to speak, of the structure of that physical and psychical fabric, which is the composite being, Man. A transcendental philosophy of the Absolute, on the other hand, is not a philosophy aspiring to dis- cern and rest on truths of the nature of the foregoing; but one which aims at grasping, defining, and un- folding the absolute principle of the whole universe : not a reverential philosophy aspiring to discern the existence of a Primal Cause, a substratum and providence ; but to apprehend the whole structure of that prime efficiency, to formalize it, and deduce from it the necessity of all that has been, that is, and that shall unfold. To Man, such a philosophy is simply unattainable. On the vexed question, whether it is possible to effect the transition from Metaphysics to Ontology — to infer from the exist- ence of necessary truths, the existence of corres- ponding realities — one may hold by the affirmative with all tenacity, and yet repeat the assertion that HEI a philosophy with such aims is utterly unattain- able. From the intellectual and moral constitution of Humanity it may be legitimate to conclude some- thing concerning the attributes of the Primal Cause : but to fathom the nature of the Cause, is beyond reach of all those faculties that belong to us. Hu- manity is but one force among myriads — one soli- tary though rich and potent Monad — and it cannot encircle or comprehend the Infinite. Nay, this is manifested, by the very progrcssiveness of our own nature. What is absolute to us, we reach by Intui- tion ; and there is no part of humanity so educable as the Intuitive faculty. In the growth of this power lies the secret of the growth of civilization : and evidence abounds, that what we now discern of absolute or intuitive truth, is far from the measure of what may one day be accessible, without any transcendence of the sphere of Humanity. How vain then, how vainly audacious the attempt, through our present or realized insight, to reach the ultimate depths of Being ! 2. To whatever extent we can discern the Absolute or Infinite, it clearly must be through reliance in the first place on those ultimate elements or constituents of human thought: and as well in logic, as in masonry, it were fatal to remove the foundation scaffolding, simply because we have ascended several stages above it. But, these philosophies of the absolute, destroy the foundation on which alone they can rest : the logi- cal scheme of Hegel obliterates as entirely, human liberty, human personality, human morality in every one of its directest consequences, as the lowest materialistic systems. It is thus a practical paralogism, and issues in a defiance of that very Cogito of Des Cartes, to which at the outset it pro- fesses unquestioning allegiance. These irremediable defects inhere in most of our recent transcendental systems ; which are liable, besides, to equally fatal specific objections. It is gratifying to know, that in Germany itself, they seem to have run their course; and that modern thinkers, with aspira- tions humbler but more real, are now working out the various invaluable hints which their founders have thrown, on themes sufficiently promising, such as the Philosophy of History. Hegel's works have been collected and published in a great many volumes by the most eminent of his disciples. [J.P.N.] HEGESIPPUS, an ecclesiasti. historian, 2d ct. HEGEWISCH, T., a Germ, histor., 1760-1815. HEIDEGGER, J. H., a Swiss theologian and historian, au. of ' Historia Papatus,' &c, 1633-98. HEIM, Ernest, L., a German medical writer, 1747-1834. His brother, J. L. Heim, a min- eralogist, and writer on Thuringia, 1741-1819. HE IN, Peter, a Dutch captain. 17th century. HEINE, H., a German author, 1797-1847. HEINECCIUS, John Gotlieb, i> German lawyer, and antiquarian writer, 1681-1741. His brother, John Michael, an antiquar., 1674-1722. HEINSE, J. J. G., a Ger. novelist, 1746-1803. HEINSIUS, Daniel, a Dutch philologist, his- torian, and Latin poet, 1580-166o. Nicholas, his son, a poet and classical editor, 1620-1681. Anthony, a member of the _same family, grand pensionary of Holland, 1641-1720. HEINZ, J., a Swiss painter, 16th century. HEISS, J. De, a German historian, died 1688. HEISTER, Lawrence, a celebrated German 313 HEL physician and surgeon of the last century, was horn at Frankfort on the 21st of September, 1683, and died at Hehnstadt on the 18th of April, 1758. He was much distinguished in his day both as a physician and a surgeon, particularly as the latter, having acquired a practical knowledge of the art of surgery as a surgeon of the allied army in the low countries. He was successively professor of anatomy and surgery at Altorf and Hehnstadt. His works are numerous, and embrace treatises on anatomy, surgery, and medicine, but they are now little consulted. fJ-M'C.] HELE, Thos., an English dramatist, d. 1780. HELENA, St., mother of Constantine the Great, and founder of a church on Calvarv, 247-328. HELIODORUS, a Greek mathematician, 2d ct. HELIODORUS, a Gr. bishop and au., 4th ct. HELIOGABALUS, a Roman emp., 218-222. HELL, Maximilian, a Hungarian astronomer and writer on the magnet, &c, 1720-1792. HELLOT, J., a French chemist, 1685-17G6. HELM AN, J. S., a Fr. engraver, 1743-1797. HELMERS, J. F., a Dutch poet, 1767-1813. HELMICH, W., a Dutch theolog., 1551-1608. HELMONT, Jean Baptist Van, generally numbered among the alchymists, was a native of Brussels, and was bom 1577. He was a public lecturer on medicine when only seventeen years of age, and at twenty-two received his diploma as a physician. Being rendered independent by his marriage with a lady of property in 1609, he dis- played his benevolence by practising his profession gratuitously, and devoted his leisure to the studies of which his name has become such a famous re- presentative. It is admitted that he was a great pioneer in chemical discovery, but there is also a fund of valuable truth under the obscure terms which are generally regarded as the mere conceits of his imagination. The archeus, for example, which makes a conspicuous figure in his works, is the mover of all the functions m the animal econo- my, and may be regarded as the vital aura which is "the subject of so much popular curiosity, and the ridicule of so many learned professors, at the present day. It was from the archeus that Bar- thez derived his idea of a vital principle, and oper- ated a revolution in physiology. The same ele- ment, or spiritual essence of life, is recognized by nearly all the old philosophers under different names, and there is now every prospect of its coming within the pale of experimental philoso- phy. Of course, it is not pretended to deny that Helmont's works abound in crude notions, and wild fantastic theories, but even in these cases the imaginative may often find the road to some true, and now forgotten principle, from which the au- thor wandered away in the fire-mists with which he surrounded himself. Apart from all this, he was a perfect master of his art, and there is evi- dence of the astonishing cures he performed as a f)hvsician. He died in 1644, and in 1648 his col- ected works were published, according to his dy- ing request, by his son, Francis Mercury Van Helmont, who was also a speculative writer, and lived 1618-1699. [E.R.] HELMONT, M. Van, a Dutch paint., d. 1726. HELSHAM, R., a natural philosopher, d. 1738. HELST, B. Van Der, a Dutch pain., 1613-70. HELTAI, G., a prot. wr. of Hungary, 16th ct. HEL HELVETIUS. The physicians and philosophers of this name are sprung from a family of the Pal** tinate, the first founders of which lied to Holland to avoid persecution at the period of the reforma- tion. — 1. Jean Frederic, (Schwkizer), who bears the reputation of an alchymist, was first physician to the armies of the republic, and had several medals struck in honour of the services rendered by him, flourished 1625-170:). — 2. Jean Adrian, who earned the family name to Paris, by going there in his youth, was the son of the preceding, and was known in the city of his adop- tion as the Dutch physician. He was ennobled by Louis XIV. for Ins services, having been succes- sively equerry, counsellor of the king, and inspec- tor-general of hospitals. He is the author of several medical works, especially on fevers, on the plague, and on the extirpation of cancer, and is the discoverer of the curative virtues of ipecacuhana. Some of his works went through several editions during his lifetime and afterwards; lived 1661- 1727. — One of his sons, 3. Jean Claude Ad- rian, became councillor of state and first physi- cian to the queen, and was a member of most of the learned societies of Europe. His works are, ' Idee Generale de l'Economie Animale, et Obser- vations sur la Petite Verole,' and 'Principia Physica-Medica,' in which he attributes all diseases to thefermentation of the blood, and its irruption into the lymphatic vessels. Like the other members of his family, he was of an original and speculative turn, and his hypotheses generally provoked con- troversy. His son, the fourth and most famous of the name, is the subject of the following notice. [E.R.] HELVETIUS, Claude Adrian, born in Paris 1715, died December, 1771. The celebrity at one time enjoyed by Helvetius, rests on his work De V Esprit — a treatise on theoretical and practical morality. Starting from the ground that man is a being simply and purely sensible, he rapidly in- fers that morality signifies the search after pleasure and effort to avoid pain. Nevertheless, as remarked in the article Epicurus, granting the postulate, the inquiry remains, how can one best attain plea- sure and avoid pain? And Helvetius desired to raise men to the pursuit of large objects. He contrasts with this view, the mean morality of the purely self-seeking and vulgar-minded, with the higher but still narrow morality of sects and cote- ries, and this last with the generous and unfettered action and serene enjoyments of the man whose sympathies are coextensive with his race. It has to be said, in justice to one whose merits as a thinker are not great, but often unduly abused and depreciated, that action according to his pre- cepts, would, by no means frequently, be found in jar with the results of a better system. Helvetius was a good and keen observer : hence the saying of Madame du Defiand, ' C est un homme qui a dit le secret de tout le monde.' — Besides his Esprit, he wrote a treatise De V Homme. They are loose and wearisome in the main : and before recom- mending their perusal even to a student with fullest leisure, it would be fair to say that every- thing good in them may be obtained at a much cheaper rate. [J.P.N.] HELVETIUS, J., a Dutch poet, last century. HELVICUS, C, a German savant, 1581-1017. 314 HEL HELWIG, Amelia Vox, a German lady, dist. as a poetess and for her great learning, 1776-1832. HELWIG, G. A., a Prussian nat,,' 1666-1748. HELWIG, John Otto, a German medical ■writer and collector of natural curiosities, 1654-98. His brother, Christopher, a botan., 1663-1721. HELYOT, Peter, a French ecclesiastic of r>ritish extraction, author of a ' History of Monas- tic Orders, Religious and Military,' 1660-1716. HEMANS, Felicia, the daughter of a Liver- pool merchant, was born in that town in 1794. Miss Browne wrote verses from her childhood, and published a poetical volume in her fourteenth year. Her second volume, containing poems on 'The Domestic Affections,' which appeared in 1812, marked her as already successful in the school of Campbell. In the same year she married Captain Hemans, who, after some years, went to reside on the continent, Mrs. Hemans remaining at home, with her five sons. Always devoted to study and composition, she now became more so than ever ; but it was matter of much regret, to the poetess as well as to the admirers of her verses, that she felt herself compelled, by the expenses attending the education of her children, to spend her powers in an almost uninterrupted succession of small pieces, which usually made their first appearance in the periodicals of the day. It is hardly, indeed, to be believed, that, even with more favourable oppor- tunities, she would have succeeded much better than she did in narrative or dramatic poetry. The character of her genius was decidedly lyrical and reflective. But leisurely composition would doubt- less have checked the verbosity and mannerism which are the besetting faults even of her latest and best poems. As it is, there are not a few of her small pieces which are alike fine in feeling and in diction; and the very marked manner which she gradually formed for herself has found a host of imitators. Her poems are admirable for purity of sentiment and gentle pathos ; and her personal character was amiable, modest, and exemplary. After several changes of residence, she died m Dublin in 1835. [W.S.] HEMELAR, J., a Dutch antiquarian, d. 1640. HEMMELINCK, or HEMMLING, J., a painter of Bruges, considered one of the first masters of the Flemish school, born 1450. HEMMSEN, J., a Flemish painter, 16th cent. HEMSKERCK, E., a Dutch painter, 1645-1704. HEMSKERK. See Heemskirck. HEMSTERHUYS, or HEMSTERHUSIUS, Tiberius, a learned Dutch critic and Orientalist, 1685-1756. His son, Francis, a writer on arts and philosophy, and an able statesman, d. 1790. HEN AS, G. De, a Spanish theolog., 1611-1704. HENAULT, Charles John Francis, a cele- brated Fr. historian and dramatic poet, 1685-1770. HENAULT, John D', a French poet, 17th ct. HENCKEL, J., a Ger. mineralogist, 1679-1744. HENDERSON, A., a Scotch divine, 17th cent. HENDERSON, John, an Oxford scholar and master of the occult sciences, 1757-1788. HENDERSON, John, an actor who acquired a great reputation in Falstaff, in which character he is said never to have been equalled, was born in London 1747, and was apprenticed to a silver- smith. He made his debut as a performer at Bath ; after which he appeared in JSnyloch at the HEN Haymarket theatre. He died suddenly of a brain fever in 1785. [J.A.H.] HENGIST, the first Saxon chief who established himself in England, king of Kent, 458-488. HENICHIUS, J., a German divine, 1616-1671. HENISCH, G., a Hungarian savant, 1549-1618. HENKE, Henry Philip Conrao, a Ger. prof, of theology, au.ofan 'Ecclesias. Hist.,' 1752-1809. HENKEL, J. F., a Ger. chemist, 1679-1744. HENKEL, J. F., a Ger. surgical wr., 1712-1779. HENLEY, Anthony, a fugitive writer and member of parliament, died 1711. His second son, Robert, born 1708, created Lord Northington 1760, chancellor 1757-1766, died 1772. HENLEY, John, a celebrated lecturer, gene- rally known as ' Orator Henley,' au. of ' Esther,' a poem, and editor of ' The Hyp Doctor,' 1692-1756. HENLEY, Samuel, a divine of the Church of England, known as a classical writer, died 1813. HENNET, A. J. U., a Fr. econ., 1758-1821. HENOUL, J. B., a Fr. historian, 1755-1821. HENRIET, Israel, a Fr. engraver, 1608-1661. HENRIETTA ANNE, daughter of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, 1644, married to the duke of Orleans, died 1660. HENRIETTA MARIA, daughter of Henry IV. and Marie de Medicis, born 1609, married to Charles I. of England, 1625, escaped with her infant to France, 1644, died 1669. HENRION, D., a Fr. mathematician, d. 1640. HENRION, F., a Fr. antiquarian, 1663-1720. HENRIOT, Francois. This audacious and bad man, who rose to be military commander of Paris during the reign of terror, was born in the precincts of the capital in 1761, and was released from prison, where he had been confined for theft, in the midst of the anarchy of 1792. He was a principal in the terrible scenes of August and September in that year, and headed the anned force of the sansculottes, or sections of Paris, in the insurrection of May in the year following, when the Girondins were overthrown. The triumph of Marat raised Henriot from this position to that of generalissimo of the national guard, yet he was utterly destitute of the talents necessary for command, as shown by his conduct on the 9 th Thermidor, when Robespierre and his party were arrested by Barras. On this occasion he set the example of a retreat, and returning to the Hotel de Ville, in a half-drunken condition, he was hurled from a window, with imprecations, by one of his colleagues. The fall, however, did not kill him, and he was executed with Robespierre and the others on the day following, 28th July, 1794. [E.R.] HENRIQUE Z, H., a Portug. miss., 1520-1600. HENRY. The kings of England of this name are— Henry I., third son of William the Conqueror, born 1068, usurped the throne on the death of William Rufus, 1100, died 1135. Henry II., son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, by the empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I., born 1133; earl of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine 1151; married Eleanor, the queen widow of France, and countess in her own right of Poitou and Aquitane, 1152; succeeded Stephen as king of England, 1153; died 1189. Henry III., eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angouleme, born 1206, succeeded 1216, died 1272. Henry 315 HEN IV., eldest son of Jolin of Gaunt, duke of Lan- caster, fourth son of Edward III., and the Lady Blanche, born 1366, usurped the throne 1399, died 1413. Henry V., son of the preceding, and Mary de Bohun, daughter of the earl of Hereford, horn 1388, succeeded 1413, invaded France and fought the battle of Agincourt 1415, died 1422. Henry VI., son and successor of the preceding, when only ten months old, 1422, crowned at Paris 1430, imprisoned by the faction of York, and killed in the Tower, 1471. Henry VIL, son of Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, and Margaret, a de- scendant of John of Gaunt, born 1456, defeated Richard III., and proclaimed king 1485, manned to Elizabeth the heiress of the house of York, 148G, died 1509. Henry VIIL, second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth, born 1491 ; succeeded bis father, and married to Catherine of Arragon 1509 ; defeated the French army at the battle of Spurs, and the Scotch at Flodden, 1513 ; interview with Francis I. on the field of the cloth of gold, 1520 ; war with France 1522 ; treaty of peace 1526 ; married to Anne Boleyn 1533 ; to Jane Seymour after the execution of Anne 1536; to Anne of Cleves after the death of Jane Seymour, and to Catherine Howard after the divorce of the latter, 1540 ; to Catherine Parr 1543 ; invasion of France 1544 ; peace with Fr. and Scotland 1546 ; d. 1547. HENRY. The emperors of Germany of this name ai-e — Henry I., son of Otho, duke of Saxony and Thuringia, bom 876, reigned 919-936. Henry II., great grandson of the preceding, born 972, king of Bavaria 995, succeeded Otho III. on the throne of Germany 1002, crowned emperor at Rome 1014, died 1024. Henry III., brother and successor of Conrad II., reigned 1039-1056. Henry IV., son of Henry III., born 1050, suc- ceeded bis father 1056, commenced the great war of investiture 1077, deposed by the diet of Mayence and died miserably 1106. Henry V., son of the preceding, born 1081, reigned 1111-1125. Henry VI., born 1165, succeeded his father, Frederic Barbarossa, 1190, died of poison 1197. Henry VIL, duke of Luxemberg, elected 1308, died 1313. Another Henry, landgrave of Thuringia, was pro- claimed emperor on the deposition of Frederick II. 1246, and died the following year. HENRY, em. of Constantinople, reig. 1174-1216. HENRY. The kings of France of this name are — Henry I., bom 1005, succeeded his father Robert, 1031, died 1060. Henry II., bom 1518, married to Catherine de Medicis 1533, succeeded his father Francis I. 1547, died of a wound re- ceived at a tournament 1559. Henry III., third son of Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, bom 1551, elected king of Poland 1573, succeeded his brother Charles IX. 1574, assassinated 1589. For Henry IV., called ' the Great,' see Navarre. HENRY. The kings of Castile oi this name are— Henry I., bom 1205, reigned 1214-1217. Henry II., count de Transtamare, bom 1333, maintained a contest for the throne, which he obtained 1366-1368, died 1379. Henry III., reigned 1390-1406. Henry IV, bom 1423, suc- ceeded his father John II. 1454, died, and was succeeded by his sister, Isabella of Castile, 1474. HENRY, count of Portugal, killed 1112. HENRY, king of Portugal, reigned 1578-1580. HENRY, fourth eon of John 1. of Portugal and HEN Philippine, sister of Henry IV. of England, known as Henry of Portugal, or the duke of Viseu, and disting. as a promoter of discovery, 1394-1463. HENRY, king of Jerusalem, reigned 1150-97. HENRY, the first of the name king of Cyprus, reigned 1218-1253; the second, 1285-1324. HENRY, prince of Prussia, third son of Fre- deric William I., distinguished in the seven years' war, and as a diplomatist, 1726-1802. HENRY of Blois, bp. of Winchester, nephew of William Ruf'us, and brother of king Stephen., founder of the Hospital of St. Cross, died 1171. HENRY of Ghent, a scholastic phil., d. 1293. HENRY of Hesse, a German phil., d. 1397. HENRY of Huntingdon, an ancient ehron., au. of a ' History of Engld. to a.d. 1154,' d. 1168. HENRY, Chas., M.D., a chemist, 1775-1836. HENRY, David, a Scotch printer, 1710-1792. HENRY, F., a French mathematician, 1615-85. HENRY, Matthew, the celebrated commen- tator on the Bible, was a native of Flintshire, where he was born at the farm-house of Broad Oak, the dwelling of bis maternal grandfather, in 1662. His parents had retired to that place in consequence of his father, Rev. Philip Henry, hav- ing been ejected from his parish in the neighbour- hood by the tyrannical act of uniformity. He was of a very weakly and delicate constitution in his childhood. But his mental faculties were re- markable for their precocious development and vigour; and as an evidence of this, it is said that he could read the Bible distinctly in his third year, and the Greek New Testament in his ninth. At a very early age he received deep and lasting im- pressions of religion ; insomuch that when he re- moved to a public academy at Islington, he was distinguished amongst his school-fellows not more by the superiority of his classical and general learning, than by his settled piety. In 1685, he entered Gray's Inn as a student of law, not with any view to the legal profession, but according to the fashion of the time, which considered law a branch of liberal education, and an excellent dis- cipline for the youthful mind. But the bent of Henry's inclinations had been all along towards the ministry, and by a prudent economy of his time, he pursued his theological studies, while resident at that school of law. He began to preach at first in a room which his father had fitted up for public worship, and to which the people in the neighbourhood were in the habit of repairing. After a few of these private trials, he went on a visit to a friend at Nantwich, where he preached with great acceptance ; and the fame of his discourses having spread, he was invited to Chester, where he preached in the house of a merchant to a small audience which formed the nucleus of his future con- gregation. Such privacy was necessary at a period when the law imposed great restriction on the free- dom of preaching. But in 1687, prudence or ne- cessity led the government to adopt a more liberal policy, and license was granted to dissenters to preach. Mr. Henry having accepted a call to un- dertake the functions of the ministerial ofiice in Chester, he was privately ordained, for the dissen- ters wisely avoided in those days all ostentatious display ; and he had not been long settled in that town, when he drew around him a large and flourishing congregation. The duties of a minister 316 HEN were much move onerous then than they are now ; and yet Mr. Henry found no difficulty in accom- plishing all that was required : two long services on Sabbath, a discourse in the neighbouring villa- ges almost every evening in the week, besides visits to the sick of his congregation, as well as to the poor prisoners in Chester jail. He continued twenty-five years pastor of that place, and during this period, he went through the Bible more than once in the course of expository lectures. — In 1712, he was translated to Hackney, London, and in that new sphere of ministerial labour, he deter- mined to pursue the same course of exposition he had adopted in Chester. At the commencement of his ministry, therefore, he began with the first chapter of Genesis in the forenoon, and the first chapter of Matthew in the afternoon. Thus gra- dually and steadily grew his ' Exposition ' of the Bible. A large portion of it consists of his public lectures, while many of the quaint sayings and pithy remarks with which it abounds, and which give so great a charm of raciness to its pages, were the familial- extempore observations of his father at family worship, and noted down by Matthew in his boyhood. — Worn out by his excessive labours both in the pulpit and the study, the constitution of Henry began to give way. On returning from a visit to his friends at Chester, the fatigue of tra- velling, increased by his corpulency, brought on an attack of paralysis, which laid him up at Nant- wich, and in the triumphant exercise of faith and hope, this great and good man was removed from tb« world and the church below on 22d June, 171 1, in the fifty-second year of his age. [R-J.] HENRY, N., a French Hebraist, 1692-1752. HENRY, P. F., a Fr. historian, 1795-1833. HENRY, P., a nonconformist divine, 1631-96. HENRY, R., a Scotch historian, 1718-1790. HENRY, S. E., a Fr. pharmacop., 1769-1832. HENRY, W., an English chemist, 1775-1836. HENRYS, Cl., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1615-1662. HENRYSON, R,, a Scottish poet, 16th cent. HENSLEN, P. G., a Ger. med. wr., 1733-1805. HENZI, Samuel, a Swiss poet, and hero of one of Lessing's tragedies, executed for conspiracy, 1769. His son, Rodolph, an author, 1731-1803. HEPBURN, J. B., an Eng. linguist, 1573-1624. HEPBURN, R., a miscelL writer, 1690-1712. HERACLEON, a heretic of the 2d century. HERACLIDES, a Grk. philosopher, 4th ct. B.C. HERACLITUS, a celebrated Greek philosopher of Ephesus, lived in the 69th Olympiad, about 500 B.C. The principle of his theory is the recognition of the fire of life, and the ethereal element of wis- dom, as the ground of all visible existences. Only fragments of his works have been preserved, which are written in the symbolic or transcendental man- ner of the Pythagoreans. [E.R.] HERACLIUS, the first of the name emperor of the East, reigned 610-641 ; the second, Her- aclius-Constantine, son of the preceding, sur- vived him only three months. HERACLIUS, or EREKLI, king of Georgia, succeeded by right when an infant, on the death of his father, 1648, obtained the government about thirty years subsequently ; died 1708. Heraclius II., his grandson, h. about 1720, began his political career 1747, and died after a long reign 1798. HERAULD, Didier, a Fr. scholar, 1579-1649. HER HERAULT-DE-SECHELLES, Marie Jeax, the friend of Danton, was born at Paris, of a noble family, in 1760, and when the revolution broke out had arrived at the post of advocate-general in the parliament of the capital. Notwithstand- ing the favour he enjoyed at court, Herault de Sechelles did not hesitate to join the popular party in the debates preceding 1789, and was present at the taking of the Bastile. In Septem- ber, 1791, he was returned to the legislative assembly (the first biennial parliament) by the electors of Paris, and the year following repre- sented the department of the Seine and Oise in the national convention. In each of these bodies he exercised great influence upon the direction of affairs, and when the constitution was accepted, he was made president of the national fete. For this post he was equally fitted by his eloquence as an orator, and the elegance of his person, for he was considered the handsomest man in France, but it was also the well-earned reward of his political honesty and patriotism. As events proceeded, the Committee of Public Safety was erected, and Herault became a member of it, in which capacity he received a letter from Lavater, who had been acquainted with him, expressing the surprise of the philosopher ' That a man placed so high by his birth, his education, his talents, the goodness of his character, and the sweetness of his manners, should become the accomplice of scoundrels, so gross, so ignorant, and so stupid as his colleagues.' Herault de Sechelles received this letter in com- mittee, and smiling as he read it, observed to one of his companions, ' These people do not under- stand our situation ! ' On the division of parties, Herault sided with his friend Danton, with whom he was guillotined, 5th April, 1794 ; his affianced bride, a young lady of high birth, and remarkable for her beauty, vainly endeavouring to move the heart of Robespierre. On the scaffold, Herault de Sechelles stept forward to embrace Danton, but the executioner prevented him, which gave occasion to the last words uttered by the great chief: 'Miserable! tu n'empecheras pas nos tetes de se baisir dans le panier ' (wretch ! you cannot hinder our heads from kissing in the basket). Herault de Sechelles is the author of several works, among others, of the * Theory of Ambition,' published after his death, and of a work entitled ' Thoughts and Anecdotes.' [E.R.I HERBART, J. F., a Ger. philosopher, h. 1776. HERBELOW, Bartholomew D', professor of Syriac in the College of France, and author of ' Bib- liotheque Orientale,' 4 vols. 4to, 1625-1695. HERBERT, Edward, Lord Herbert of Cher- bury, a distinguished writer on natural religion, and the last of his age to embody the principle of deism in the language of a refined philosophy, was born of an ancient family at Montgomery castle in Wales 1581, and died in London 1648. He was one of the most accomplished gentlemen at the court of James I., and distinguished himself by his romantic bravery in the service of the prince of Orange, and at a later period in the parliamentary army. His greatest work, 'De Veritate,' was published at Paris, where he was resident ambas- sador, 1624, and for a time he hesitated whether to give it to the world. ' Being thus doubtful in my chamber,' he writes in his ' Memoirs,' ' one fair 317 HER day in summer, my casement being opened to the south, the sun shining clear, and no wind stirring, I took my book, De Veritale, in my hand, and kneeling on my knees, devoutly said these words : — thou Eternal God, author of the light which now shines upon me, and giver of all inward illu- minations, I do beseech thee, of thy infinite good- ness, to pardon a greater request than a sinner ought to make, I am not satisfied enough whether I shall publish this book De Veritate. If it be for thy glory, I beseech thee give me some sign from heaven ; if not, I shall suppress it. I had no sooner spoken these words, but a loud, though yet gentle noise came from the heavens (for it was like nothing on earth), which did so comfort and cheer me, that I took my petition as granted, and that I had the sign I demanded, whereupon also I resolved to print my book.' ' This,' he adds, ' how strange soever it may seem, I protest, before the Eternal God, is true ; neither am I in any w r ay superstitiously deceived herein, since I did not only clearly hear the noise, but in the serenest sky that ever 1 saw, being all without cloud, did, to my thinking, see the place from whence it came.' Some writers have accused Lord Herbert of hypocrisy, and others of vanity and self-delusion on this point, but, however extraordinary in a writer whose work was directed against belief in a revelation to a part of the world only, it is, to our mind, the highest proof of his sincerity. Besides this work, which was replied to by Gassendi, Lord Herbert is the author of Latin poems of great beauty, and of an Inquiry into the Errors of Paganism — 'De Religione Gen- tilium, &c.' He was a general favourite, both at the English and Erench courts, and perhaps in- dulged in an execusable vanity on that account, but his frankness, generosity, and bravery, besides his great literary abilities, are acknowledged bv all parties. ' [E*.R.] HERBERT, George, a younger brother of the preceding, is remarkable for the contrast exhibited by his life and character when compared with that of Lord Edward, in whose refinement of nature he shared most liberally. The tastes of George in- clined him to the public life of a courtier, but he was educated for the church, and became rector of Bemerton, near Salisbury, where he settled down with a firm resolve to consecrate all his learning and all his abilities to advance the flory of that God which gave them ; ' knowing,' e said, 'that I can never do too much for him that hath done so much for me as to male me a Christian.'* George Herbert is remembered for the singular purity and beneficence of his secluded ex- istence, and chiefly as the author of poems, often quoted for their earnest delineations of the soul's experience, and for the spirit of love and gentleness breathed into them. These simple, yet beauti- ful compositions are contained in his 'Remains,' together with ' The Country Parson's Character,' which exhibits his own rule of life, and is a pic- ture of continued benevolence, and unwearied de- votion to the service of others. He was bom in 1593, and died of consumption in 1632. [E.R.] HERBERT, William, earl of Pembroke, a great patron of letters, and himself a poet, 1580- 1630. Sir Thomas Herbert, of the same family, author of travels, and assistant of Dugdale | L. Theodore, a diplomatist and historian, 1743 318 HER in his antiquarian labours, born about 1606, died 1622. Mary Hkkiiekt. See Sidney. HERBIN, A. E. J., a Fr. Orientalist, 1783-1806. HERBST, J. A., a German musician, d. 1660. HERBST, J. F. A., a Ger. naturalist, 1743-1807. HERBURT, J., a Polish historian, 16th cent, HERDER, Johanx Gottfried Vox, was born in 1744, in East Prussia. Younger than Lessing, and older than Gothe and Schiller, he became in- timately connected with all of these distinguished men; and he shares with them the honour of having created the literature of Germany. Herder is one of the most eloquent writers of modern Europe ; his works have the fervour of oratory, with a brilliancy of fancy which almost becomes poetical ; and he is one of the few men who have united impressiveness and skill of composition, various and exact erudition, and originality and comprehensiveness of philosophic thought. His father, a schoolmaster, was both too poor and too ignorant to give facilities for the development of his son's genius: his early studies were prosecuted by stealth. The kindness of a Russian surgeon carried him to Konigsberg, where he studied under Kant and others, and was able to obtain a subor- dinate appointment as a teacher. Abandoning his study of medicine, he entered the church ; and in 1764, at Riga, holding an appointment as a preacher, along with a mastership in the cathedral school, he gamed celebrity by the dignity and earnestness of his pulpit oratory. He soon became an author, and published some of the best of his critical treatises on literature and art. After making one or two changes of place, he spent four or five years as court-preacher at Biiekeburg in the principality of Schaumburg-Lippe. This period produced several of his principal theological works. In 1775, he was appointed to a theological profes- sorship at Gottingen ; but the government, before confirming the nomination, insisted on investiga- tion as to the professor's orthodoxy, to which he hesitated to submit. The difficulty was removed by the duke of Saxe-Weimar, who, less scrupu- lous in his theology than George, king of England, and aiming at gathering about him all the finer spirits of his country, nominated him his court- preacher and general superintendent of the eccle- siastical consistory. In 1776, Herder came to Weimar; and in that little capital, then celebrated as the Athens of Germany, he spent the remainder of his life, respected as a preacher, and as an active promoter of education and other public improve- ments, and labouring unweariedly in his multi- farious literary pursuits. He died in 1803. His voluminous works fall into three sections : theo- logy ; philosophy and history ; and literature and the fine arts. The third section is that in which he displays most decisively his felicitous combina- tion or dissimilar powers. Notice is especially due to his ' Spirit of Hebrew Poetry ; ' to the ' Kritis- che Walder,' which is a treatise on the beautiful as exhibited in art ; and to those ballads, founded on the Spanish romances of 'The Cid,' which showed how very little was wanting to make Her- der an illustrious poet. [ W.S.] HERIOT. John, a miscel. writer, 1760-1833. HERISSANT, Louis Anth, Prosper, a Fr. geologist and naturalist, 1745-1769. His brother, HER 1811. J. T. Hkrtssant Des Carrteres, of the same family, a grammarian, 1742-1820. HERITIER, Chart.es Louis de Brusetxe L', an eminent French botanist, au. of ' Flore de la Place Vendome,' b. 1745, found murdered 1801. HERITIER, Nicholas L\ a French translator and dramatic wri., d. 1680. His daughter, Marie Jeanne De Vielandon, a novelist, 1664-1734. HERLICIUS, D., a Ger. astrologer, 1557-1636. HERMANN, J., a Ger. mathemat,. 1678-1733. HERMANN, J., a Ger. naturalist, 1738-1800. HERMANN, Paue, a Ger. botanist, 1646-95. HERMANT, J., a French historian, 1650-1725. HERMAS, St., author of a book entitled 'The Pastor,' and supposed to be the same mentioned in Rom. xvi. 14. The ' Pastor' of Hermas was highly esteemed by many of the early fathers, and Origen expresses his belief that it was divinely inspired. It contains an account of the visions of Hermas, really seen by him in a state of ecstacy, and to be understood in a symbolic sense : to which are added some excellent precepts of morality and piety, and ten • Similitudes' or figures of truth. In the ninth of these similitudes an ancient white stone of im- mense magnitude is described, which had a new gate opened in it ; and in the ' visions' Hermas re- lates that he saw six young men or angels building a tower of square white stones, symbolic of the Christian Church. This book is further interesting as affording evidence that the early Christians believed in the ministration of angels around men. [E.R.] HERMBSTjEDT, Sigismund Frederic, a German writer on practical chemistry, 1760-1833. HERMELIN, Samuel Gustavus, Baron, a Swedish mineralogist and statistician, 1744-1820. HERMENGILDE, pr. of the Visigoths, k. 586. HERMES, or MERCURIUS, Trismegistus, a supposed priest and philosopher of Egypt, who is mentioned by Sanconiatho as the secretary and adviser of Cronus, and as the original author of his 'Cosmogony.' Although it creates some inconsistencies, he is supposed to be the same as Athothis, the second king of Egypt, who, Mane- tho says, ' Built the palaces at Memphis, and left the anatomical books, for he was a physician.' This supposition is founded on a passage in San- coniatho's 'Generations,' where we read, 'From Misor (Mizrain) descended Taatus (or Athothis), who invented the writing of the first letters ; him the Egyptians call Thoor, the Alexandrians Thoyth, and the Greeks Hermes.' These points may be examined in the fragments of Cory. The works extant under the name of Hermes are, ' Poemander, or the Power and Wisdom of God ; ' 1 Asclepius, a Dialogue on the Deity, Mankind, and the World,' and some others supposed to be of less antiquity than these, and all alike regarded as supposititious. Their value, however, will be found very great in any attempt to determine the history of philosophy. In all likelihood the name belongs to two distinct persons, the later of whom was an Egyptian philosopher and legislator, and the earlier a deification of all the ancient philosophy and instruction of that mysterious countrv. [E.R.] HERMES, G., a Prussian theolog., 1775-1831. HERMES, J. A., a Ger. theologian, 1736-1821. HEKMIAS, a Christian philosopher, 2d cent. HERMIAS of Alexakdkia, a neo-plat, 5th c. HER HERMILLY, V. D., a Fr. historian, 1707-78. HERMODORUS, a Gr. philoso., 5th cent. b.c. HERMOGENES, a Greek rhetorician, 2d cent. HERMOGENES, a Latin jurist, 4th century. HERNANDEZ, F., a Sp. naturalist, 17th cent. HERO, a eel. mathematician and machinist of Alexandria, 3d cent. b.c. Another of the name distinguished as a military engineer about 6th ct. HEROART, J., a Fr. medical author, d. 1627. HEROD, surnamed ' the Great,' k. of the Jews, b. B.C. 71, named king by the Roman senate b.c. 40, married to Mariamne 38, gained possession of his kingdom 37, occupied in rebuilding the Temple B.C. 17-19, died in the seventieth year of his age. HEROD, Agrippa. See Agrippa. HEROD, Antipas, son of the preceding, te- trarch of Galilee and Peraea, executed John the Baptist about a.d. 26, deposed by Caligula 39. HERODES. See Atticus. HERODIAN, a Greek historian, 3d century. HERODOTUS. Very few facts connected with the biography of the ' Father of History ' have come down to us. With the exception of the few data inci- dentally and indirectly supplied by himself, the no- tices of his life rest on comparatively recent or ques- tionable authority. Herodotus was a native of Hali- carnassus, a Dorian city in Asia Minor, was born b.c 484, and was perhaps alive in the beginning of the following century. According to Suidas, his father was called Lyxas, and his mother Dryo, both de- scended from noble Halicarnassian families. Dis- gusted with the government of Lygdamis, the grandson of Artemisia, who was tyrant of his native city, he retired for a time to the island of Samos, whence he acquired the Ionic dialect, in which he afterwards composed his history. To collect the necessary materials for his great work, he entered, in early manhood, upon that course of patient and observant travel which was destined to render his name illustrious in all future ages. During his wanderings he visited almost every part of Greece and its dependencies, and many other countries, the affairs of which are treated in his work; investigating minutely the history, manners, and customs of the people. The shores of the Hellespont, Scythia, and the Euxine Sea ; Syria, Palestine, Colchis, the northern parts of Africa, Ecbatana, and even Babylon, were the ob- jects of his unwearied search. On his return from his travels he took a prominent part in de- livering his country from the tyranny of Lygdamis. But the expulsion of the tyrant did not bring tranquillity to Halicarnassus ; and Herodotus having himself become an object of dislike, again quitted his native city, and settled along with a colony from Athens, at Thurii, in the south of Italy, B.C. 443. Here he spent the remainder of his life, and here he wrote the work which has immortalized his name. The time and place of his death are matters of dispute. According to some he died at Thurii, and was buried in the market-place ; while others assert that he died at Pella, in Macedonia. His history consists of nine books, which bear the names of the nine Muses. 'Next to the Iliad and Odyssey,' says Colonel Mure, ' the history of Herodotus is the greatest effort of Greek literary genius. The one is the perfection of epic poetry, the other the perfection of epic prose. Were it not for the influence which 319 HER the prior existence of so noble a model, even in a different branch of composition, has evidently exercised on the historian, his title to the palm of original invention might rival that of his poetical predecessor. In the complexity of the plan (of liis history), as compared with the simplicity of its execution ; in the multiplicity and heterogene- ous nature of its materials, and m the harmony of their combination ; in the grandeur of its historical masses, and the minuteness, often triviality, of its illustrative details; it remains not only without equal, but without rival or parallel in the litera- ture of Greece or of Europe.' [G.F.] HEROLD, J. B., a Bavarian historian, 1511-81. HEROLD, L. J. F., a Ger. comp., 1791-1833. HERON, Robert, a miscel. writer, died 1807. HEROPHILUS, a Grk. physician, 4th ct. B.C. HERRERA, Fr. De, a Span, lyric, 16th cent. HERRERA, Francesco De, called 'The Elder,' a Span, painter, 1576-1656. The younger of the same name, a paint, and architect, 1622-85. HERRERA, G. A., a Spanish agricult, 16th ct. HERRERA-TORDESILLAS, Antonio De, a Span, hist., au. of a ' History of India,' 1565-1625. HERRGOTT, M., a Ger. antiquar., 1694-1762. HERRICK, HEARICK, or HIRECK, Robert, an English clergyman and poet, descended from Eric, a Danish chief subdued by Alfred the Great, and settled with his people in East Anglia, and intermediately from a well-known family in Leices- tershire, was bom 24th August, 1591. His uncle, Sir W. Heyrick, undertook the charge of his education at Cambridge, and having friends at court, he was presented to the living of Dean Prior in Devonshire, 1629. In 1648, he was deprived by Cromwell, and coming to London, assumed the lay habit, and in the course of the same year published his poems under the title of ' Hespendes, or the works, both Humane and Divine, of Robert Herrick, Esq.,' another collection in the same volume being styled ' His Noble Numbers, or his pious pieces, wherein (amongst other things), he sings the Birth of his Christ ; and Sighes for his Saviour's Suffering on the Crosse.' The poems of Herrick were well received at the time, but were almost forgotten again till the time of Dr. Drake. They are now recognized as genuine effusions of the English muse, and the best of them are unsurpassed in melody, sweetness, and variety of rhythm, by any similar compositions in the English language. " They afford admirable illustrations of old English manners, English feel- ings, and English scenery, and a noble strain of piety breathes through the whole volume, notwith- standing its frequent licentiousness. Herrick himself was painfully conscious of these blemishes, but the poor royalist, wanting his 'fifths,' and cast upon the streets of London, should not be too harshly censured for a fault to which Shakspeare himself was not superior. Being a bachelor, he had no home in the metropolis, and his best hours were given to the wits and courtiers of the period. Selden, Ben Jonson, Denham, Cotton, and Endy- men Porter were among his friends. The date of his death is not known, but it was probably soon after 1660, when he was restored to his living by Charles II. 'A Genealogical Register of the name and family of Herrick,' was published by Jedediah Herrick, at Bangor, U.S., in 1846. HER and is a curious example of the pride of birth, and of their English ancestry remaining with the repub- lican descendants of this ancient family. [E.R.I HERRMANN, F. A., a Fr. diploma., 1758-1837. HERSCHEL, William, a distinguished astro- nomer, was born at Hanover on the 15th Novem- ber, 1738. He was the second of five sons, who were all educated as musicians, following the same profession as their father. At the early age of fourteen William was placed in the band of the Hanoverian foot guards; but seeing that there was little prospect of promotion in his native country, he resolved to try his fortune in England, where he arrived about the end of 1757. After experi- encing the difficulties to which early genius is fre- quently exposed, he was engaged by the earl of Darlington to instruct a military band which was then forming in the county of Durham. When he had fulfilled this engagement he established him- self as a teacher of music in the vicinity of Leeds, Pontefract, and Doncaster, and conducted the public concerts and oratorios in theseHowns. In 1766 he obtained the situation of organist at Halifax, and soon afterwards a more lucrative appointment in the Octagon chapel in Bath, where he was very successful as a teacher of music, and a director of the public concerts. During his residence at Hali- fax he acquired a considerable knowledge of mathematics, and having studied astronomy in the popular writings of James Ferguson, he was anxi- ous to see with his own eyes the wonderful celes- tial phenomena disclosed'by the telescope. For- tunately for science he was unable to purchase an instrument for this purpose, and he therefore resolved to construct one with his own hands. After surmounting the difficulties which attend the practice of grinding and polishing specula, he completed in 1774 a five feet Newtonian reflector, with which he could see the satellites of Jupiter and the ring of Saturn. Not contented with this instrument he made for himself several two feet, five feet, seven feet, eighteen feet, and twenty feet, Newtonian telescopes, besides Gregorian ones eight inches, one foot, two feet, three feet, and ten feet in focal length, and in order to get a good speculum he ground and polished a large number upon the same tool, and selected the one which happened to have the best figure. In this way he made no fewer than 200 seven feet, 150 ten feet, and about 80 twenty feet telescopes. His mechanical amusements were carried on along with his optical ones, and he invented and executed a number of stands of differ- ent forms for these instruments. — His first regular observations with the telescope were made in 1776, and subsequent years. They were published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1780, and related to the periodical star in the neck of the whale, and the height of the lunar mountains. In 1781 he discovered what he at first thought a comet, but it turned out to be a new planet, which he called the Georgium Sidus, but which has now received the name of Uranus, from its being next to Sa- turn. After this discovery, which extended his reputation over Europe, George III. munificently enabled him, by the grant of a salary, to devote the whole of his time to astronomy. He therefore took up his residence at Datchet, near Windsor, where ne made many discoveries on double and triple stars, on the proper motion of the sun and HER solar system, the spots at the pole of Mars, and the nebulae and cluster of stars observed by Messier and Mechain. On the 11th January, 1787, he discovered a second and fourth satellite of the Georgium Sidus, and in 1790 and 1799, other five satellites, viz., the first, third, fifth, and sixth, all of which move in a retrograde direction, in orbits almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. — Thus successful as an observer, he began in 1781 to construct a thirty feet reflector, but the mirror, which was no less than three feet in diameter, cracked in the cooling, and frustrated his plan. This disappointment induced him to seek for extraneous assistance in carrying out his views ; and on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, George III. ofi'ered to defray the expense of a forty feet telescope, with a mirror four feet in diameter, three and a-half inches thick, and weighing 2118 pounds. With this magnificent instrument he discovered the sixth and seventh satellites of Saturn, and also the spots, belts, and flattening, at the poles of that planet. Till the year 1820 Sir William Herschel communicated almost every year important papers to the Royal Society on nebula?, clusters of stars, the construc- tion of the heavens, the motion of the solar system, on double stars, and on the four new planets be- tween Mars and Jupiter. We owe to him also the discovery of invisible heating rays beyond the red extremity of the spectrum. Sir William Herschel was elected an honorary member of most of the scientific institutions in Europe and America. In 1786 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws, and in 1816 he was presented with the deco- rations of the Guelphic order. In 1820 he was elected the first president of the Astronomical So- ciety, and he published in the 1st volume of its Trans- actions, a paper on 145 new double stars. He had now reached that age when the mind as well as the body requires a cessation from labour. His health had begun to decline, and on the 25th August, 1822, he died in the eighty- fourth year of his age. In the year 1788 Sir William married the widow of John Pitt, Esq., and left behind him only one child, the present Sir John Herschel. [D.B.] [Utfntclicl's Tomb in Uj-ton Cburctuj HEY HERSCHEL, Caroline Lucretia, sister of the great Herschel, distinguished for the arduous assistance she rendered her brother in his astro- nomical pursuits, as well as for her own numerous and important observations, 1750-1848. HERSCHELL, Dr. Solomon, a Jewish rabbi, cele. for his learning and benevolence, 1760-1842. HERSENT, G., a French divine, 1590-1660. HERTIUS, J. N., a Germ, civilian, 1651-1710. HERTSBERG, Ewald Frederic Von, a Prussian statesman, distinguished under Frederic the Great, 1725-1795. HERVAS, L., a Spanish savant, 1735-1809. HERVAY, Noel, a schol. philosopher, d. 1323. HERVET, G., a French savant, 1499-1584. HERVEY, James, a pious clergyman of the Church of England, an. of ' Meditations and Con- templations,' * Theron and Aspasia,' &c, 1714-58. HERVEY, John, Lord Hervey of Ickworth, a poet and political writer, author of ' Memoirs of George II.,' only recently published, 1694-1743. HERY, Thierry De, a med. author, d. 1599. HESHUSIUS, T., a Germ, divine, 1526-1588. HESIOD, an ancient Greek poet of uncertain date, whose works are chiefly valuable so far as they illustrate the Orphic philosophy and the my- thology of the ancients. The ascertained fragments of his writings are the ' Theogony ' or generation of the gods, and the ' Works and Days.' The latter is a kind of rude pastoral or calendar of agriculture, with occasional reflections. The fragment of another poem attributed to him entitled 'The Shield of Hercules,' and containing an account of the most celebrated heroines of antiquity, is considered doubtful. [E.R.] HESNAULT, J., a French poet, 17th century. HESS, J. J., a Swiss theologian, 1761-1828. HEUMAN, Chr. A., aGer.theolog., 1681-1764. HEUSLNGER, J. M., a Ger. critic and philolo- gist, 1690-1751. His nephew, Jas. Frederic, a philologist and classical scholar, 1718-1778. HEVELIUS, John, a celebrated astronomer of Dantzic, author of ' Machina Ccelestis,' 1611-1687. HEVIN, P., a French jurisconsult, 1621-1692. HEYDEN, J. Vander, a Dut. pain., 1637-1712. HEWSON, W., a disting. physiologist, 1739-74. HEYLIN, Peter, an Eng. historian, 1600-62. HEYM, J., a Ger. lexicographer, 1759-1821. HEYNE, Christian Gottlob, was born in 1729, at Chemnitz, in Saxony, where his father was a poor linen-weaver. His education was gained through struggles as severe and protracted as any that have ever been undergone by men of letters ; and it was in the midst of great poverty that he was able, in 1755, to publish his edition of ' Tibullus,' the first work that made him known as a classical scholar. So obscure was his posi- tion long after this, that, when he was appointed to the professorship of eloquence at Gottingen on the recommendation of Ruhnken, it cost some trouble to discover where he was. Enter- ing on his duties at Gottingen in 1763, he passed nearly fifty years in that university, with unwearied industry, distinguished and varied usefulness, and brilliant and increasing reputa- tion. In classical studies, his own peculiar de- partment, he was especially noted for the fine spirit which he breathed into criticism, and for the richness of illustration which ho threw on the 32 1 HEY ancient masterpieces of poetry from history and topography, and from the Masting monuments of the fine arts. His ' Opuscula Academica ' contains many admirable treatises; and there is great value in the critical apparatus embodied in his editions of Virgil, Pindar, Homer, and Apollodorus. Heyne died in 1812. [VV.'S.l HEYWOOD, Eliza, a novelist, 1693-1756. HEYWOOD, John, a dramatic poet of the age of Henry VIII., author of an apologue in verse, en- titled ' The Parable of the Spider and the Fly,' and of some plays and epigrams, died 1565. HEYWOOD, Oliver, anoncf. div., 1629-1702. HEYWOOD, Thomas, an English actor and dramatist, author of ' A Woman Killed with Kind- ness,' and a great number of plays, of which the most part are lost, beginning of the 17th century. HLERNE, Urban^ a Swd. nat. phil.,1641-1724. HIBBERT, George, a merchant of London, distinguished for his public spirit as one of the founders of the West India Docks, and as a public speaker and member of parliament, 1757-1837. HICKERINGILL, E., a military officer, afterw. in holy orders, kn. as a pamphleteer, 1630-1708. HICKES, Dr. George, a Saxon scholar and antiquarian writer, 1642-1715. John, his bro- ther, a nonconf. minister, exec, as a traitor 1685. HICKS, Fr., a classical editor, 1566-1630. HICKS, W., a fifth monarchy man, 1620-1659. HIDALGO, J. G., a Spanish artist, born 1656. HIDALGO Y CASTILLA, Don Miguel, a priest, dist. as a patriot in Mexico, executed 1811. HlEROCLES, an eclectic philosopher, 5th cent. HIEROCLES, a topographical writer, 6th cent. HlEROCLES, a Grk. grammarian, 7th century. HIEROCLES of Bithynia, governor of Alex- andria, a writer against Christianity, and a great persecutor of the Christians in the tune of Diocle- tian, 4th century. HIERON, the first of the name king or tyrant of Syracuse, 478-467 B.C.; the second, 269-215 B.C. HIERONYMUS, grandson and sue. of the pre- ceding, murdered after reign, ten months, 214 b.c. HIERONYMUS, St. See Jerome. HIFFERNAN, P., an Irish author, 1719-1777. HIGDON, Ralph, an Engl, historian, d. 1363. HIGGINS, G., an antiquarian wr., 1771-1833. HIGGINS, J., an editor and divine, 16th cent. HIGGONS, Sir Thomas, an English ambas- sador and man of letters, 1624-1691. His younger son, Bevil, a dramatist and historian, died 1735. HIGGS, G., an English theologian, 1589-1659. HIGHMORE, J., an Eng. painter, 1692-1780. HIGHMORE, Nathaniel, a celebrated En- glish anatomist and physiologist, 1613-1684. HIGUERA, J. R., a Span. Jesuit, 1538-1611. HILARION, St., a monastic founder, 292-372. HILARY, a pope of Rome, sue. 461, d. 467. HILAKY, St., a bishop of Aries, 401-449. HILARY, St., (Hilarius Pictaviensis), was horn at Poitiers in France, and became bishop of his native town about the year 350. Though he had been trained in paganism, and did not em- brace Christianity till he had arrived at manhood, yet his convictions were founded on enlarged in- telligence, and his life was spent in earnest, power- ful, and successful support of Trinitarian ortho- doxy against the innovations of Arianism. At the synod of Bessieres, 356, he so provoked the Arian HIL deputies, that on their application to the emperor, Constantius, he was banisned into Phrygia. Bm he remained in exile about four years, and composed his principal works. But his uncompromising op- position to Asiatic Arianism so enraged his oppon- ents, that they petitioned for his recall, and the champion returned in triumph to Poitiers, where he died in 367. Four years before his death he had impeached Auxentius, bishop of Milan, but the accused unexpectedly proved his orthodoxy face to face with his accuser before the emperor Valentinian, and Hilary was expelled from Milan as an enemy to the peace of the church. His principal works are — Iwelve Books 'De Trinitate,' a ' Tract upon Synods,' and ' Two Addresses to Constantius,' one a petition, and the other a coarse-^ invective. In his commentaries on the gospel of Matthew, and on the Psalms, the chief portion is taken from Origen. Jerome compares his style to the Rhone, not for its copiousness, but for its quickness. But it is rugged, verbose, elabo- rate, and occasionally obscure. The best edition is the Benedictine, improved by Mafiei, Verona, 1730, 2 vols, folio. [J.E.] HILDEBERT, an archp. of Tours, 1057-1134. HILDEBRAND, the proper name of Pope Gregory VII. See Gregory. HILDEBRAND, a Lombard kins, 736-744. HILDEBRAND, G. F., a Ger phv., 1754-181 G. HILDEBRAND, J., a Ger. theol., 1623-1691. HILDEGARDE, Saint, a German visionary, ab. of St. Rupert's Mt., on the Rhine, 1098-1130. HILDERIC, a king of the Vandals, 523-530. HILDERSHAM, a puritan divine, 1563-1631. HILDIBALD, king of the Ostrogoths, 540-42. HILKIAH, a high priest of the Jews, 7th c. B.C. HILL, Aaron, an English poet, 1685-1750. HILL, Abraham, an Eng. scholar, 1633-1721. HILL, George, a Scottish divine, 1748-1820 ; HILL, Sir John, a miscell. writer, 1716-1775. HILL, Joseph, a lexicog. and antiq.,1625-1707. HILL, Sir Richard, Bart., eld. bro. of the eel. Rowland Hill, kn. as a polemical wr., 1733-1808. HILL, Robert, a seli'-taught Oriental scholar and critic, author of' Remarks on Berkeley's Essay on Spirit,' &c, 1699-1777. HILL, Rev. Rowland, A.M., a popular and pious, though eccentric minister, was born at Hawkstone, Shropshire, in the year 1745. He^ was the sixth son of Sir Rowland Hill, Bart., of Hawkstone, in the parish of Hodnet. His views were early directed towards the ministry in con- nection with the Church of England ; not, how- ever, as a profession, but as affording him the best and most influential means of communicating to others those saving truths he felt of such vital interest and importance to his own soul. He was a very pious youth ; and his strong impressions of religion were all the more remarkable that the higher classes generally in England at that time, were either indifferent to religion, or held most false and defective views as to the leading prin- ciples of Christianity. Sir Rowland's family were distinguished for the regard they cherished and exhibited for genuine piety. Richard, the eldest son, in particular, had early received serious im- pressions ; and it was through his influence and correspondence that his younger brother, even while a scholar at Eton, was brought to attend to 322 HIL the one thing needful. From Eton, Rowland re- moved to Cambridge, and the principles which had been sown in his mind at Eton, acquired greater power and vitality during his residence at the university. He was a devoted and successful student, for his intense application to his studies appeared at his examination for his degree of bachelor of arts, and he carried off the palm over all his competitors by his superior acquirements in physical science, particularly in optics, mechanics, and astronomy. But his mind at the same time was ardently bent towards the ministry ; and he began to exercise the sacred functions during his collegiate career, by not only holding meetings with some young friends of congenial views for prayer and mutual improvement, but even forming plans of Christian usefulness beyond the walls of the university. They visited, exhorted, and prayed in various parts of the town of Cambridge, parti- cularly in the hovels of the poor and sick, and with the prisoners in the jail. Conduct, so much at variance with the propriety of established aca- demic rules, drew down upon him and his friends, the indignation of the college authorities. Six of the young preachers, amongst whom were Whit- field and Beveridge, received sentence of expulsion from the university, and Hill was saved from a simi- lar fate only by the weight of his family influence. Rowland loved to itinerate, and he retained the same fondness for open-air preaching after he was ordained. He was appointed to the parish of Kingston, Somersetshire, in 1773, and there in ac- cordance with his favourite habits, he was instant in preaching almost every day in the week. The freshness and originality of his addresses attracted crowds to hear him. Nor was he admired by a vulgar and uneducated class only. Sheridan used to say • I often go to hear Rowland Hill, because his ideas come red-hot from the heart ; ' and Dean Milner, the church historian, was so affected by hearing one of his sermons, that he went to the vestry on the conclusion of the service and said, 'Mr. Hill, I felt to-day — 'tis this s%>dash preach- ing, say what they will, that does all the good.' — Mr. Hill had a country house in Wales, where he erected a chapel, and was constantly engaged preaching throughout the neighbourhood during his summer residence. His wife kept a note of his various engagements ; and when announcing them from the pulpit, he used to look to her on naming every place to see if he was correct. And so much was he accustomed to confide in her accuracy, that he used to say at the breakfast table, 'Where do I preach to-day V Many persons of rank and for- tune having become his stated hearers, Surrey chapel was built for him in 1782, and in that chapel a vast congregation assembled every Sabbath His eccentricities of manner, his quaintness of expres- sion, his anecdotes, and even witticisms in the pulpit, were quite forgotten and overlooked by the regular frequenters of this place of worship in the rich vein ot sterling piety and spiritual instruction that ran through the service. In 1798, Mr. Hill came to Scotland on the invitation of Robert Hal- dane, and preached to crowds in Edinburgh in the Circus and on the Calton Hill, as well as in various parts of the country. In 1824, he made another 'Gospel Tour,' as he called it, in Scotland, and after a brief stay, returned to his labours in Surrey HIL chapel. He was a truly evangelical preacher, and he used to say ' Were I to live my life over again, I would preach just the same.' He closed his life and labours on 11th April, 1833. [R.J.] HILL, Rowland, Lord, a British general distinguished in the late war, particularly in the peninsula, and at the battle of Waterloo, born 1772, appointed commander-in-chief 1828, created a viscount, and died 1842. Lord Hill was the son of Sir John Hill, who succeeded to the title of Sir Richard Hill, Bart., elder brother of him and of the celebrated minister of Surrey chapel. HILL, Sir Th. Noel, a younger broth, of Lord Hill, known as a peninsular officer, 1784-1832. HILLEL, called ' the Elder' to distinguish him from the subject of the following notice, is regarded by Jewish writers as the most eminent among their ancient rabbis. He was born at Babylon, com- mencement of the 1st century B.C., and when about 40 years of age removed to Jerusalem, where he became chief of the Sanhedrim, and lived to the extraordinary age of 120 years. He was the first to classify the oral or traditional laws, subsequently embodied in the Mishna, or first part of the Tal- mud, and the transmission of which is verified in the work itself, at the commencement of the treatise Abotk or 'Ethics of the Fathers.' The other portion of the Talmud, called 'The Gemara,' contains expositions of the Mishna; the latter, therefore, is really the text-book of rabbinical lore, and hence the importance of its arrangement in a comprehensive digest. Hillel is always spoken of with respect for his humanity and patience, as well as his profound wisdom as a moralist. See Shammai. [E.R.] HILLEL, 'the Younger,' lived in the time of Origen, who is said to have been acquainted with him, about the middle of the 3d century. He was a great reformer of the Jewish calendar, his arrangement of which was nearer by far to astronomical exactness than that of Julian, which remained in use among Christians until its reform by Pope Gregory. Hillel has the reputation, also, of reforming the equinoctial and solstitial periods, and leaving oehind him a correct text of the Bible, which he wrote with his own hand, besides contri- buting to the Talmud. He bears the title of Nasi, or prince of the captivity, and there is a tradition that he was privately baptized before his death by the bishop of Tiberias. [E.R.J HILLER, M., a Ger. Orientalist, 1646-1725. HILLIARD, N., an English painter, 1547-1619. HILPART, John, a Ger. divine, born 1627. HILTON, Walter, an English ascetic, 15th c. HILTON, William, R.A., an English historical painter, distinguished for his refined taste in de- sign, and a harmonious and rich style of colouring, was born at Lincoln, 3d June, 1786, and died in London 30th December, 1839. He succeeded Fuseli in 1825 as keeper of the Royal Academy. Owing to the too great quantity, or bad quality of nis vehicle, his pictures are already going to pieces. ' Serena,' and ' The Red Cross Knight,' presented to the National Gallery in 1841, is in too bad a condition to be exhibited. The morbid search after nostrums and glazing media, has been one of the most fatal obstructions to the establishment of a great school of painting in England. — {Art Union Journal, 1840.) [R.N.W.] HIL HILTZ, John, a Gorman architect, loth c. HIMERIUS, a Greek sophist, 4th century. HLMLY, C, a German plivsician, 1772-1837. HIMMEL, F. H., a Ger. musician, 1765-1804. HINCHCLIFFE, John, the son of a stable- keeper, rose to he bishop of Peterborough, 1731-94. HINCKLEY, John, an Engl, theoh, 1617-95. HINCMAR, archbishop of Rheims, known as a controversial and learned writer, 9th ecntury. HINDMARSH, Robert, a minister and con- troversial writer of the 'New Church,' author of * A Seal on the Lips of Unitarians,' &c, died 1835. HIPPARCHUS, a tynt. of Athens, 528-514 b.c. HIPPARCHUS, the greatest Astronomer of Antiquity ; or rather the founder of Astrono- mical Science. The dates of the birth and death of Hipparchus are lost ; Ptolemy speaks of him as alive between 160 and 125 b c: neither do any of his writings remain, excepting the Commentary on Aratus, — a production of his youth. It has often been asserted that he observed at Alexandria ; but the careful criticism of Delambre leaves no ground for such a supposr ; on : he laboured most probably in Bithynia; certainly at Rhodes. It is to Pto- lemy that we owe our knowledge of Hipparchus, who in the fulness of his admiration applies to him the epithet — aiXeroves x*.) <$i\«.\ifi-K (the lover of labour and truth); nor do we think that his successor has ever done him injustice, or sought, as Delambre would insinuate, to absorb a part of his glory into his own. As a pure observer, Hip- Earchus was probably never surpassed. Of course e wrought with rude instruments, affected by large errors ; but all that the Observer himself had to do, was achieved with highest probity and sagacity, and shaped by a rare philosophic spirit. To collect and describe facts exactly, is a service always valuable to Science ; more especially when Inquiry is in its infancy ; but Hipparchus added the loftier faculty of knowing the precise descrip- tion of facts, which ought to be observed — the facts pregnant with laws; and he succeeded, there- fore, in laying the sure foundation of Astronomical Theory. The Ancients, it is well known, imagined the Earth motionless, and that all celestial bodies move uniformly in circles around it ; but, as mo- tions had been detected in the sky which are not uniform, it became the question, how, on the ground of these suppositions, can the observed irre- gularities be explained ? A very fertile idea had been started by Plato and Eudoxus, that a hea- venlv body moving uniformly on a small circle, might b3 carried round the earth by a larger circle ; and that apparent irregularities, would issue from the combination of these uniform motions. (See article Ptolemy). Hipparchus appropriated the idea, and realized it ; i e. he laid down the actual machinery which would account for the precise irregularities observed. In this way he constructed a theory of the Sun and Moon ; and originated that refined scheme which endured until the period of Copernicus. Knowing where to stop as well as how far to adventure, he only collected ma- terials for the Planetary Theonr,— afterwards com- pleted by Ptolemy. We owe besides, to this great Observer the discovery of the Precession of the Equinoxes — a first essential to a knowledge of the motions of the Fixed Stars: he may be said to have invented Trigonometry, plane and spherical ; HIP and to have originated our graphical Geography. — The reign of Induction in Physical Science properly began with Hipparchus. | J.l'.N. J HIPPASUS, a Pythagorean phibs., 5th c. b.c. HIPPIAS, an Athenian prince, killed 490 B.C. HIPPIAS of Elis, a sophist, 5th century n.c HIPPISLEY, Sir J. C, a magistr , 1765-1825. HIPPO, a Pythagorean philoso., 5th cent. B.C. HIPPOCRATES, a Gr. geometrician, 500 b.c. HIPPOCRATES. A name common to at least four physicians of antiquity, but generally reserved for Hippocrates the 2d, who was in many respects the most celebrated physician of ancient or modern times, and to whom the title of ' Father of Medi- cine' has been applied. He was the son of Hera- clides, a physician of Cos, in which island he was born, in the year 460 B.C. His mother's name was Phamarete, by race a Heracleid, while his father belonged to the Asclepiadae, as the descendants of Esculapius were called. His ancestors for genera- tions had resided in Cos, where they all seem to have practised the healing art ; but little is known that can be relied upon of the incidents of his own life, and what we have to say of him must be therefore scanty and unsatisfactory. — Hippocrates received his elementary medical education from his father, and subsequently studied under Herodicus, a physician of Selymbria in Thrace, who was one of the first persons to apply gymnastic exercises to the cure and prevention of diseases ; and his in- structions in general science and philosophy from Gorgias of Leontini, in Sicily, a distinguished so- phist and orator of those times, who would appear to have been the brother of Herodicus. The period at which he lived was also favourable to the de- velopment of his powers, for he was the contem- porary of Socrates, Plato, Pericles, Herodotus, and Thucydides ; and we may perhaps attribute to this circumstance, as well as to the complete general and professional education he had received, the purity and elegance of his style. On the death of his father he left Cos, and travelled for twelve years through Greece and Asia Minor, passing much of his time in Macedonia, Thrace, and Thessaly ; but as dates are wholly wanting, it is impossible to say in what years of his life these travels were per- formed. The same uncertainty attaches itself to all the subsequent movements of his life, nor is it possible to determine whether he lived permanently in Cos, the medical school of which he raised to the highest pitch of eminence, or whether he se- lected some city of extra-Peloponnesian Greece as his fixed place of abode. He died at Larissa, in Thessaly, though in what year is unknown, as his age at the time of his death has been variously stated at eighty-five, ninety, one hundred and four, and one hundred and nine years. He left two sons, Thessalus and Dracon, both of whom were medical men ; and a daughter whose name has not been preserved, but who married Polybus, also a medical man. — An account of the medical system of Hip- pocrates would be unsuited to a work of this kind, but we may state generally that he was a diligent and sagacious observer of nature, and that his practice was regulated very much by the indica- tions which a disease presented; hence he has been considered the founder of the dogmatists, or rationalists, in medicine, a sect of great antiquity, and which is not perhaps wholly extinct at this 324 HIP day. That the humoral pathology, which main- tained its ascendancy in Europe for twenty centu- ries, was originally derived from his theory of the living fluids, which he divided into blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile, is certain ; and there can be no doubt that many of his opinions on cli- mate, diet, individual temperament, and the con- stitution of the atmosphere in the four different seasons of the year, influenced the belief of the medical world down even to the age of Sydenham. He knew little or nothing of anatomy, and was not only unacquainted with the circulation of the blood, but with the distinction between arteries and veins, which he arranges in the same class with nerves and tendons ; but in spite of this his fame was great, and numerous stories were in- vented after his death to illustrate his extraordinary celebrity. Thus he was said to have stayed the plague of Athens, though Thucydides, who has described it, and was himself a sufferer from it, makes no mention of him whatever. It has been also recorded that he was solicited by the inhabi- tants of Abdera to visit their city and to cure Democritus the philosopher of insanity, and there is extant a letter which is urged as a proof of this, though it be a manifest forgery ; and that nothing might be wanting to impress upon posterity a sense of his universal authority, it is related of him that he refused an invitation from Artaxerxes Longim- anus, king of Persia, to visit that country, together with a large sum of money, but that he declined both because Artaxerxes was the enemy of Greece. These and similar stories are now disregarded, and are looked upon as the fictions of a subsequent age. — Hippocrates wrote in the Ionic dialect of the Greek, and is considered by modern scholars a classical authority in that tongue. His works are generally published in two folio volumes with Latin translations ; but there is considerable difference of opinion among critics as to what properly be- longs to him in the Hippocratic collection, and what should be assigned to others, probably mem- bers of his own family. Those treatises which are received as the genuine compositions of Hippocrates are — I. The 1st and 3d Books of the Epidemics ; II. The Prognostics; III. The Aphorisms; IV. The 1st and 2d Books of the Predictions; V. The Treatise on Air, Water, and Places; VI. The Regimen in Acute Diseases; VII. The Treatise on Wounds of the Head. [J.M'C.] HIPPOLYTUS. Our space does not suffice to recount the numerous and contradictory theories which have been formed regarding this remarkable man. Eusebius, Jerome, Gelasius, and Photius, in earlier times, have referred to him, but with an indistinct and inaccurate knowledge of him ; the Benedictine monks could not dispel the obscurity which hung over him, and the hypotheses of Baron- ius, Tillemont, Fabricius, Le Moyne, Basnage, Cave, and others, still left the subject in mist and confusion. A very common opinion prevailed that he was a bishop in the East, and specially in some part of Arabia. It is now ascertained that he was a dis- ciple of Irena;us, was a bishop of Portus Romanus — the harbour of Rome, after the reign of Trajan ; and suffered martyrdom under Maximus about the year 236. His statue was accidentally dug up in 1551, and on its sides were inscribed a list of his works and the Paschal Cycle. All this is confirma- IIOA toiy of the description given of him by the Christian poe't Prudentius. His works, so called, were pub- lished by Fabricius, in 2 vols. folio, and by Gal- landi in the second volume of his Bibliotheca Patrum. Hippolytus, as attested by all antiquity, was a voluminous writer on a vast variety of sub- jects, the majority of which were of a polemical character. A list of his polemical, doctrinal, his- torical, and exegetical works, the greater part of which are lost, will be found in the first volume of ' Bunsen's Hippolytus and his Age.' A MS. was brought from Mount Athos in 1842, which was called a treatise ' On all Heresies,' and was deposited in the royal library in Paris. In 1846, M. Millar having looked into the book, considered it to be a lost work of Origen, and had it printed in 1851 by the Oxford University Press, under the title of ' Origen Philosophumena.' The Chevalier Bunsen eagerly read the publication, and brought to bear upon it the peculiar sageness and tact of his critical erudition. The result is, that he has proved that the treatise belonged not to Origen as its author but to Hippolytus. In the course of his discussions he has thrown great light on the times and creed of Hippolytus, as well as upon the theology and government of the Roman Church in the times of Severus and Commodus._ Hippolytus was more a man of labour than of original thought ; rather an honest and learned compiler than a wri- ter of independent vigour. [J.E.] HIPPONAX, a Greek satirist, 6th century B.C. HIRAM, a king of Tyre, 1025-985 B.C. HIRE, L. De La, a French painter, 1606-1656. His son, Philip, eel. as an astronomer, 1640-1719. Gabriel Philip, son of the latter, and successor in his employments, 1677-1719. HIRSCHING, F. C. G., a Ger. savant, an. of a « Dictionary of Celebrated Men,' &c, 1762-1800. HIRT, Aloys, a Ger. archaeologist, born 1759. HIRT, J. F., a German theologian, 1719-1783. HIRZEL, H., a German author, 1766-1833. HJELM, P. J., a Swed. mineralog., 1746-1813. HOADLEY, Benjamin, a prelate of the En- glish Church, and a chief of the partv whose principles were brought into fashion by the revo- lution of 1688, and the accession of the house of Hanover, was born at Westerham, in Kent, in 1676, and died at his palace in Chelsea, 1761. His ability as a controversialist, and his love of civil and religious liberty, became conspicuous in the strife of parties at the beginning of the last centuiy, when he entered the field against Bishop Atterbury, and the High Church party. His share in this debate, and its intimate connection with the settlement of the new dynasty and the liberties of the country, was recognized by the House of Commons, who addressed the queen in his favour, and thus paved the way for his rapid promotion to the sees of Bangor, Hereford, Salis- bury, and Winchester, which he held in succession. In 1717, while bishop of Bangor, he preached the sermon before the king which gave rise to the famous Bangorian controversy, in which Hoadley was assailed by the chiefs of the non-jurors, and with most effect by William Law, the doughty champion of authority, both in church and state. This controversy was brought to a close about 1720, without conciliating either the high church party, on the one hand, or the dissenters on the 325 HOA other, and without adding much to Hoadley's character for consistency. With a fine intellect, he was constitutionally compliant and easy, and seems to have been wanting in fidelity to his conscientious convictions. In a word, it is most difficult to justify the career of such a man on any other principles than those of a worldly policy, and of that preference for the good and the true which may often be indulged in as a kind of luxury. Besides his numerous controversial pub- lications, Hoadley was author of * An Account of the Life, Writings, and Character of Dr. Samuel Clarke,' prefixed to the posthumous works of the latter, published 1732 : ■ A Plain Account of the Nature and End of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper,' 1735 ; and a ' Letter ' Addressed to Cle- ment Chevalier, in 1756. [E.R.] HOADLEY, Benjamin, eldest son of the pre- ceding, was a physician and philosophical writer. He assisted Hogarth in composing his ' Analysis of Beauty,' and is well known as the auth. of a co- medy entitled 'The Suspicious Husband,' 1706-1757. HOADLEY, John, the youngest son of Bishop Hoadley, was educated for the law, but finally entered the church, and enjoyed several valuable preferments. He is the author of several dramatic works and poems, 1711-1776. HOAI-TSONG, an emperor of China, 1627-44. HOARE, P., F.S.A., a dram, au., 1764-1834. HO ARE, Sir R. C, a county hist., 1758-1838. HOARE, W., an English divine, died 1657. HOARE, W., an ingenious artist, 1707-1792. HOBBEMA, M., a Dutch painter, 1611-1699. HOBBES, Thomas, born at Malmesbury on the 5th April, 1588, died on 4th December, 1679 :— ' a great name in philosophy, on account both of the value of what he taught and the extraordinary impulse which he communicated to the spirit of free inquiry in Europe.' Criticism of Hobbes's speculations is here beyond our reach : the state- ment of a few facts regarding him will enable the student to judge whether the high eulogy just quoted, probably surpasses his deserts. So soon as Hobbes left Magdalen Hall, Oxford, we find those connections beginning which bound him, during a long life, in amity and confidence with the best families of England. Tutor to Lord Caven- dish heir of the princely house of Devonshire, he travelled with him through France and Italy. Death struck the pupil only two years after the de- mise of his father the earl of Devonshire. Hobbes, stung with grief, travelled again; but returned in 1631, at the entreaties of the dowager countess, to teach the young earl, then only thirteen. An inmate of this noble house, which he virtually con- tinued until his own decease, he mingled with all their extensive and distinguished circle ; and lived in intercourse with the most celebrated literary men of his own and other nations. Kennet in his • Memoirs of the Cavendish Family' offers an inter- esting glimpse of the philosopher s daily life. He dedicated the morning to exercise ; the afternoon to study. Having climbed a hill and breakfasted, he went his rounds in the family, waiting also on dis- tinguished strangers, and conversing on the themes which occupied him. At twelve o'clock he dined unceremoniously alone, and then returned to his study, where, with the companionship of his pipe, he devoted the hours to meditation and writing. HOB The subjects occupying him were the most solemn that engage the human mind; and for the first time had they engrossed the thoughts of a great man in England. Loving truth, in the sense of coveting the grounds of it — not in that of accepting without grounds, and averring without under- standing — he sought in an analysis of the human Intellect and Affections, the basis of man's duties, personal, social, and political : in other words, he longed to discern his place in the Universe as a reasonable being, and like a brave and conscientious man to assert it. The enterprise was novel, bold, and hazardous: novel, for in psvchology he had not one predecessor : hazardous, oecause no mind, save one of the first order, would have preserved the necessary freedom, under pressure of the en- throned and inveterate Ignorance amid which he lived, and of influences insidious and therefore more alarming, springing from his social attach- ments. But Hobbes surmounted all dangers. It can be said of him with perfect truth, that neither in his life nor writings, did he fail in integrity ; of effect on him of circumstances we discern not a trace ; he thought as a freeman, irrespective of seductions or frowns; nay, — the chances of life having given him Charles II. as a temporary pupil — he perilled the royal favour, as if he made no sacrifice ; to the honour of Charles be it recorded, that the philosopher's uprightness did not cost him the monarch's regard. It is easy to see that a long life of such a kind, thrown into the midst of those ages, could be no welcome apparition ; nor need Cromwell himself have dreaded a more un- just contemporary appreciation than Hobbes : but it is our grief and shame, that contemporary slan- der has its voices still ; that men in modern times who never read one page of this illustrious thinker, but who desire their criticisms to be palatable, persist in making him a bugbear. Surely something more than evil lay at the root of his extraordinary power. No man ever excited a wider and more lasting commotion. Clarendon, Cudworth, Bramhall, Ten- nison, Harrington, Henry More, — nay, in the words of Warburton — ' every young Churchman Militant, would try his arms in thundering on Hobbes's steel cap.' Now as then, men will repudiate many of his opinions : that searcher for Truth had no helps, and he erred like others. Few thoughts are pure — unaffected by much that will perish ; but beneath all, abides the Thinker, — a veritable force of Na- ture, formidable, incorruptible, fresh still after all these centuries, gnarled it may be like an Eng- lish oak, but also with roots profound — holding by the Earth, while slighter generations fail and disappear. Hobbes's style is a model of the didactic ; clear and deep as the pen of an en- graver. Hallam says truly, that one could no more change a word or expression in it, than in the exactest mathematical formula. It does its duty in distinctly expressing distinct thought ; and duty alone is its aim. No more acceptable present has recently been made to the student of English philosophy and literature, than the superb edition of Hobbes's works in 16 volumes 8vo, which we owe to Sir William Molesworth. [J.P.N. ] HOBE, Charlotte De, a French poetess, dis- ting. for her sweetness and sensibility, 1792-1829. HOBHOUSE, Sir Benjamin, a member of the House of Commons and oi the government in the HOB time of Mr. Addington, distinguished as the adver- sary of Pitt, and especially of his action against the French republic, 1757-1831. HOBLER, Francis, the well-known clerk of the Mansion House, London, 176(3-1844. HOCCLEVE, Thomas, an English poet,15th c. HOCHE. Lazare Hoche was bom in 1768 at Montreuil, near Versailles, where his father was keeper of the royal stag-hounds. Hoche entered the army at the age of sixteen, and studied the military sciences with great diligence. He was a zealous supporter of the republican principles which the French revolution called into activity, and he rose rapidly into distinction in the wars against the allied sovereigns. He behaved with peculiar skill and courage at the siege of Dun- kirk in 1793, and materially aided General Son- ham in defending that city from the English army under the duke of York. He then received the command of the army of the Moselle, and on the 26th and 27th December, 1793, gained an impor- tant victory at Weissenburg. He now fell under the suspicion of Robespierre and St. Just. He was recalled from his command and sent to prison. The overthrow of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, saved Hoche from the guillotine ; and he was placed at the head of one of the armies of the Convention, that acted against the Vendeans in the sanguinary civil war by which the west of France was desolated. Hoche here displayed the qualities of a statesman, as well as those of a general. He reorganized his own army, which had become under his predecessors as disorderly as it was ferocious. He practised, and he made his troops practise, humanity and good faith towards the peasantry. He won the confidence of the Vendean priests; and by these means, and by acting with the greatest skill and energy against such royalist bands as held out against him, Hoche accomplished the pacification ot La Vendee and Brittany; an achievement more difficult, and more truly glorious than the most showy suc- cesses of the other French generals of the revolu- tionary wars. In 1795 Hoche defeated at Quiberon an attempt made by the French emigrants, with the aid of the English, to renew the war in Brit- tany ; and in 1796 he was placed at the head of the expedition by which the French directory de- signed to drive the English from Ireland, and make her a sister republic of France. Hoche sailed on the 15th December, 1796, from Brest with a fleet of forty-three sail, and an army nearly 15,000 strong; but this noble armament was shattered by storms, and the frigate on board of which Hoche himself had embarked, was separated from the rest of the squadron, and with difficulty regained the French coast. In 1797 Hoche re- ceived the command of the army of the Sambre and the Meuse, and prepared to invade Germany, and to strike as deep blows against Austria in her western provinces, as Buonaparte was then deal- ing to her in the south. Hoche defeated the Austrians at Heffendorf, and was on the point of capturing his opponent, General Kray, ana the •whole army of the imperialists, when he was checked in the mid career of success by the news of the pacification which Buonaparte and the Archduke Charles had agreed on at Lroben. — Hoche died in 1797 after a short illness, at the HOF early age of thirty-three. Many attributed his death to poison, but there seems to have been no ground for these suspicions. He was not only one of the bravest soldiers and most skilful generals that the French revolution brought forward, but he was also an accomplished statesman, a sincere patriot, and a man of honour, generosity, and integrity. Napoleon, in speaking of him at St. Helena, truly said, — 'Had Hoche lived, I must have subdued him, or he would have subdued me.' Unfortu- nately for France the chance of her being saved by Hoche from Napoleon's despotism, was taken from her by the premature death of the best of the heroes of the republic. [E.S.C.] HODGES, Nathaniel, amed. au., 1672-1684. HODGES, W., a landscape painter, 1744-1798. HODGSON, James, a mathema. wr., last cent. HODGSON, Dr. R., dean of Carlisle, a nephew and biographer of Bishop Porteus, died 1844. HODIERNA, J. B., a Sicilian astro., 1597-1660. HODY, Humphrey, a learned divine,1659-1706. HOEDT, Gerard, a Dutch paint., 1648-1733. HOEL, the first of the name, duke of Brittany, 509-545 ; the second, killed by his brother, 547 ; tha third, 594-612; the fourth, 953-980 ; the fifth, 1066-1084; the sixth, 1148-1156. HOESCHEL, D., a Ger. Hellenist, 1556-1617. HOEST, G., a Danish navigator, 1734-1792. HOFER, Andrew, was chief of the Tyrolese in their heroic war against the French and Ba- varians in 1809. The Tyrol had been ceded to Bavaria by Austria at the peace of Presburg. But the Bavarians and their French allies had treated with insult and injury the ancient rights and usages of the Tyrolese, which their Austrian sovereign had always respected. Hence the feel- ing of loyalty to the Austrian emperor was fervent in the Tyrol ; and when Austria renewed war with France in 1809, the Tyrolese rose almost to a man in her cause. These brave mountaineers chose Hofer as their generalissimo. Hofer was at this time about forty-two years of age, and kept an inn in the village of Passayer. He showed him- self well worthy of his countrymen's confidence. Under his command the Tyrolese gave the French and Bavarian troops repeated and severe defeats, and for a time expelled them from the whole of the Tyrol. Hofer now acted as viceroy for the Austrian emperor ; and throughout his career he was as eminent for moderation and humanity, as for intelligence and valour. When Austria capitu- lated to Napoleon by the treaty of Schonbrun, in October, 1809, she again ceded the Tyrol to Bavaria ; and the Tyrolese were ordered to submit to their beaten and bitterest enemies as their lawful masters. They resisted gallantly; and it was only after repeated battles that the over- whelming armies of French, Saxons, and Bava- rians, which were now poured into the Tyrol, succeeded in quelling the brave mountaineers. Hofer for some time escaped the pursuit of his enemies, but he was at last captured on the 27th January, 1810. He was immediately sent to Mantua for trial before one of Napoleon's military tribunals. He was condemned to death, and ordered to be shot within twenty-four hours. He met his fate as a good Christian and a brave sol- dier. The spot on the bastion at Mantua, where he fell, is still visited as a holy place by his 327 HOF countrymen, who cherish with just pride the memory of their hero-martyr. [E.S.C] [Monument to Hofer at Inspiuck J k HOFER, J. A., a Tyrolese juriscon., 1765-1820. HOFFBAUER, J. C, a Ger. philo., 1766-1827 HOFFMAN, Daniel, a Germ, divine, d. 1611. HOFFMAN, Frederick, a disting. German physician and writer on pathology, 1663-1742. HOFFMAN, F. B., a Fr. dramatist, long time lit. critic of the 'Journal des Debats,' 1760-1828. HOFFMAN, G., a Ger. medical au., 1572-1649. HOFFMAN, John James, a literary savant of Basle, author of a ' Universal Lexicon,' 1635-1706. John Maurice, his son, a physician and professor, au. of some valuable works on botany, 1653-1727. HOFFMAN, Maurice, a Ger. physician and anatomist, hest kn. as a wr. on botany, 1622-1698. HOFFMANN, C., a Ger. med. author, d. 1648. HOFFMANN, C. G., a Germ, jurist, 1692-1735. HOFFMANN, Chr. Louis, a German physic, and prof., au. of a ' Theory of Disease,' 1721-1807. HOFFMANN, Ernest Theodore William, a Ger. dramatic writer and composer, 1776-1822. HOFLAND, Mrs. This popular authoress was the daughter of Mr. Robert Wreaks, a manufac- turer of Sheffield, where she was born in 1770, and where, at the age of twenty-six, she was married to her first husband, Mr. Hoole. That gentleman dying two years afterwards, left her in embarrassed circumstances, and she published a volume of poems by subscription, with the pro- ceeds of which she opened a school at Harrowgate, where she commenced the series of works which have rendered her name so popular, and effected so much good among young people. In 1808, she was married to Mr. Hofland, an admired landscape painter, and the year following she removed to London with him. In a few years, the fame of Mrs. Hofland was so well established that Queen Charlotte became her unsolicited patroness, and ' The Son of a Genius,' published in 1813, was translated into several of the con- tinental languages. The works of Mrs. Hofland are chiefly in the form of novels, or of contribu- tions to the magazines and annuals, but they are all marked by her desire to promote the improve- HOG ment and elevation of character, and we have the testimony of Mr. and Miss Edge worth, that no other book in their time had eilected so much food in Ireland, as the novel just mentioned. Irs. Hofland died in 1844, as justly esteemed for her domestic virtues, her happy temper, and her conversational powers, as for the talents which have rendered her name familiar to the readers of English literature. [E.K.] HOFLAND, Thomas Christopher, a dis- tinguished landscape painter, famous for his lake scenery and classic subjects, 1777-1843. HOGARTH, William, was born in London 10th December, 1697 ; he was apprenticed at an early age to Gamble, a silversmith, but at the ex- piration of his term in 1718, he took to engraving m copper for the booksellers. In 1730 he married the only daughter of Sir James Thornhill, against her father's consent, and setup as a portrait pain- ter with considerable success. He now commenced his remarkable series of satirical paintings reflect- ing on the social abuses of his time : — The ' Har- [liogarth's House.] lot's Progress' in 1734; the 'Rake's Progress' in 1735 ; and the 'Marriage a la Mode' in 1745, now in the National Gallery. In 1753 he appeared as an author in his 'Analysis of Beauty, written with a View of Fixing the Fluctuating Ideas of Taste.' In 1757 he was appointed serjeant painter to the king: he died in London, 26th October, 1764, and was buried at Chiswick. Ho- garth was a good painter as well as a great satirist. —(Nichols, Biographical Anecdotes, &c, 1781- 1782 ; Ireland. Uoqarth Illustrated, Bovdell, 1791.) [R.N.W.] HOGENDORP, G. C. Von, a Dutch statesman, who greatly promoted the return of the pnnce of Orange by the insurrection which he excited, 1814. His brother, Thierry, a general and minister of war under Louis Buonaparte, 1761-1830. HOGG, James, the Ettrick Shepherd, claimed — erroneously it is said — to have been born on the 25th of January (Bums's birth-day), 1772. He belonged to the vale of Ettrick, in Selkirk- shire, where he followed the pastoral occupation of bis ancestors. His first published song, ' Donald Macdonald,' acquired extensive popularity. After several successful literary efforts, the most con- siderable of which was a volume of ballads called ' The Mountain Minstrel,' Hogg, who had failed in sundry sheep-farming speculations, removed 328 HOH to Edinburgh in 1810, with the view of living by Lis wits. He there published a volume of songs, ' The Forest Minstrel,' and conducted a periodical called ' The Spy,' which existed for about a year. It was not, however, until the appearance of ' The [liirth-place of James Ilogg.] Queen's Wake,' in 1813, that he became greatly distinguished as an author. Besides 'The Pil- grims of the Sun,' 'Queen Hynde,' and other poetical works, Hogg wrote numerous tales and novels, few of which are now much read. He was on terms of friendship with Scott, Wilson, and other literary magnates of Edinburgh, and the manner in which he was made to figure in the celebrated 'Noctes' of Blackwood — although some- times complained of by himself — contributed not a little to his fame. 'With less masculine sense than Burns, and far inferior in tender and pas- sionate earnestness, he yet possessed a higher creative fancy; and many of his pieces, such as 'Bonny Kilmeny,' are marked by a certain wild and dreamy fascination, unlike anything else with which we are acquainted. Hogg spent his later years at Altrive, on the Yarrow, where he died on the 21st November, 1835. [J.H.] HOHENLOE, Alexander Leopold, prince of, and bishop of Sardica, celebrated for the sur- prising cures effected by him, was born in the principality of Hohenloe 1794, and died at Gross- waradin in Hungary 1849. The mother of the young prince was a woman of remarkable piety, and being left a widow when he was only two years of age, she had the entire control of his edu- cation. The religious habits induced upon him at home were confirmed by his attachment to the Jesuits when he went to Rome to complete his studies, and he at length embraced the ecclesiasti- cal profession with the enthusiasm of a saint of the middle ages. He commenced his duties at Bam- berg and Munich 1817, and his preaching, it is said, drew tears from the most insensible, and brought the most hardened to repentance. In 1821 the rumours of his miraculous power of healing began to spread abroad, and it is remarkable that his cures were chiefly effected by prayer, and that many of them are said to have been performed at a distance with as much effect as under his own hand. Space is not afforded us to recite particular instances, but he gave sight to the blind, hearing to the deaf, speech to the dumb, and caused the I Erasmus to Sir Thomas More, who ultimately 329 HOL lame to walk. The derision which marks the recital of these facts by biographers who cannot dispute them, only proves their own want of that living faith and fervid charity which was the secret of the success of Prince Hohenloe. The flippant explanation of such phenomena by the sudden tension of the spirit, the ' force of imagina- tion,' or by other kinds of mental impressions, is mere verbiage, unless it be understood that the spirit is also substance, as implied by Lord Bacon, who writes: 'There is the possibility of an action of one person upon another by the force of the imagination of one of those two persons ; because as one body receives the action of another body, so, one spirit is adapted to receive the action of another spirit;' which agrees with what Dr. Hey- lin declares of touching for the scrofula, that he has ' Seen children brought before the king — some hanging at their mothers' breasts, and others in the arms of their nurses, all touched and cured.' There is every reason to believe that the cures of Prince Hohenloe were magnetic healings, rendered doubly powerful by the religious spirit associated with them ; and that the substantive operation is the same in ordinary magnetism and in the cure of disease by faith, with a distinction which is more clearly traced in the article Mesmer. It is no disparagement of the mere facts in this case, that they were eagerly promulgated, and in some particular instances, perhaps, exaggerated by the Jesuits, whose re-establishment was greatly aided by them. Whether this 'new Xavier' lost his power, or chose to exercise it in private after the attacks that were made upon him by the sceptics is not known, but the fame of his performances had died away many years before his death. Prince Hohenloe is the author of several devo- tional treatises published between 1820-30. [E.R.] HOHENLOE, L. C. F. Leopold, prince of, one of the most ardent enemies of the French re- volution, in whose principality the emigrant nobles were permitted to organize their armies, and who furnished them with two auxiliary regiments, 1731-1799. His son, E. Aloys Joachim, distin- guished in the same line of policy, and a marshal of France under Louis XVIIL, died 1829. HOHENLOE -INGELFINGEN, Frederick Louis, prince of, a distinguished general in the wars of the Fr. rev., and commander of the Prus- sian and Saxon army defeated at Jena, 1746-1818. HOHENLOE-KIRCHBERG, prince of,a general of artillery in the service of Austria, died while commanding the army on the Rhine, 1796. HOLBACH, Paul Thyry, Baron D', a Germ, mineralogist, and wr. on Nat. Religion, 1723-1789. HOLBEIN, Hans, or Johannes, was born at Augsburg in 1498, his father and grandfather of the same name, being also natives of that city: the father, however, when Hans was about seven- teen or eighteen years old only, settled in Basle in Switzerland, apparently in 1519. The celebrated Erasmus is said to have been one of the first to appreciate young Holbein, and an unauthenticated story is told that the earl of Arundel, passing through Basle, recommended him to try his fortune in England. He, however, finally made the visit to this country to escape the ill-temper of his wife: he came to London in 1526, bringing letters from iiol introduced Holbein to Henry VIII., and he became that king's favourite painter, and is not the least glory of his reign. He revisited Basle in 1538, and the municipality of the town awarded him an annuity of fifty florins for two years, with the hope apparently of retaining him there, but he returned to London, where he died in 1554. — Hol- bein's genuine works are doubtless very numerous, but, as Walpole says, ' as always happens to a real genius, he has been complimented with a thousand wretched performances that were unworthy of him.' His style is manly and correct, but hard and formal ; the character, however, and individu- ality of many of his portraits, are evidently exact and masterly. He painted some religious and his- torical pieces; his masterpiece is perhaps the ' Family of the Burgomaster, Meyer, now in the Gallery of Dresden, the father and sons on one side, and the mother and daughters on the other, are kneeling before the Virgin, who holds a dead or sick child in her avms, apparently one of the family. Holbein is also the author of a very celebrated series of designs, known as the 'Triumph of Death,' cut in wood and first published at Lyons in 1538 ; afterwards copied by Hollar and others. — (Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting, &c, ed. Wor- num; Hegner, Hans Holbein der Jungere, Ber- lin, 1827; Passavant, Kunstblatt, 1846, Nos. 45, 46.) [R.N.W.] HOLBERG, Ludwig or Louis, baron of, a dramatist and popular wr. of Denmark, 1684-1754. HOLBOURNE, Sir R., a wr. on law, d. 1647. HOLCROFT, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer and translator, best known for his dramatic works and translations from the French, 1744-1809. HOLDEN, H., a Roman Cath. div., 1596-1662. HOLDER, W., a learned divine of the Church of England, known also as a writer on music, and one of the teachers of Sir Christopher Wren, d. 1697. HOLDERLIN, F., a German poet, 1770-1836. HOLDSWORTH, E., a clas. trans., 1688-1746. HOLDSWORTH, OLDSWORTH, or OLDIS- WORTH, Richard, a learned divine, and adherent of King Charles, whose execution is thought to have hastened his death, 1590-1649. HOLE, Richard, an English poet, 1802. HOLINSHED, or HOLLYNSHED, Raphael, author of the famous Chronicles known by his name, which comprise a history and description of England, Scotland, and Ireland, first published in 1577, and continued after his death by Stowe. Very little is known of his history, but he is sup- posed to have been steward to an English gentle- man. He died about 1580. HOLKAR. Three Mahratta princes of this name have acquired a distinguished place in the history of India. 1. Molhan Raou Holkar, distin- fuished in Portuguese and Affghan warfare, died 765. 2. Takoudjy, or Tuckagek, Holkar, the successor of the preceding, distinguished in many wars with the English, and for the introduc- tion of the European discipline into his army, died 1797. 3. Djeswant Raou, or Jbswuot Rao Holkar, third son of Takoudjy, who main- tained a war with the Marquis Wellesley in 1804, and died, after having been insane three years, in 181 1. The latter was succeeded by his son, Mul- kar Rao, and in 1818 the Mahratta power was finally overthrown. HOL HOLL, Fr. XAviER,a Ger. canon., 1720-1781 HOLLAND, Henry, first Lord. See Fox. HOLLAND, Henry Richard Vassal Fox, Lord, a British statesman, was born on 21st November, 1773. His claim to remembrance depends more on the respect and affection of his party and his personal friends, than on public fame. As the son of an influential statesman, and the nephew of Charles Fox, he had an early opportunity of practically knowing political life, and mingling in public business. A considerable portion of his youth was spent abroad, and acquir- ing a partiality for Spain, he was mainly instru- mental, by translations and other efforts, in excit- ing a taste for Spanish literature in Britain. He took his place in the House of Lords two years be- fore the commencement of the present century. Save for the short period of the ministry of 1806 [nolland House] connected with his uncle's name, he was in opposi- tion until the formation of the reform ministry of 1830. He was a staunch Whig, sometimes stand- ing almost alone, and recording frequent protests against ovenvhelming majorities, — for the great body of his political associates were in the House of Commons. He was as steady in his personal as in his political attachments, and was almost worshipped by a wide social circle of the first men of his age. In his classic mansion of Holland House, his easy and munificent hospitality was of great moment in uniting and strengthening his party. He joined the cabinet of 1830 as chancel- lor of the duchy of Lancaster. He died on 22d October, 1840. [ J H B ] HOLLAND, Sir N., a painter, died 1811. ' HOLLAND, Philemon, a classical translator, 1551-1636. His son, Henry, a bookseller and editor, date unknown. HOLLAR, or HOLLAND, Wenceslaus, a Bohemian engraver, celebrated for his portraits of women and of animals, &c, 1607-1677. HOLLES, Denzil, Lord, an English diploma- tist and member of the Long Parliament, in which he distinguished himself by his opposition to the arbitraiy measures of the government. Ho was one of the five demanded by the king on a charge of high treason in 1641, but was subsequently known as a royalist, and promoted the Restoration. 1597-1680. ' HOLL1S, Thomas, an English gentleman, HOL known for Ins republican principles, author of 'Me- moirs,' printed shortly after his death, 1720-1774. HOLLIS, Th. Pelham, known as a statesman as Baron Pelham and duke of Newcastle, d. 1768. HOLLMANN, S. C, a Ger. philos., 1696-1787. HOLLO WAY, T., a celeb, engraver, 1748-1827. HOLMAN, J. G., a dramatic author, d. 1817. HOLMES, George, an antiquarian, 1662-1749. HOLMES, Nathaniel, a learned div., d. 1678. HOLMES, Robert, D.D., a learned divine and poet, best known for his collated edition of the Septuagint, of which 73 MS. volumes are deposited in the Bodleian library. He was appointed pro- fessor of poetry on the death of Warton, and became dean of Winchester, 1749-1805. HOLMSTIOLD, Theodore De, a Danish phy- sician and botanist, died 1793. HOLMSTEOEM, Israel, a Swedish poet, known also as secretary of Charles XII., d. 1708. HOLOFERNES, a general of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Assyria, killed by Judith, probably in the middle of the 7th century b.c. HOLROYD, John Baker, earl of Sheffield, editor of the post-hum. works of Gibbon, 1741-1821. HOLSTEIN, C, a Dutch painter, 1653-1691. HOLSTEIN, J. L. De, count of Lethraburg, a Danish statesman, one of the founders of the Aca- demy of Sciences at Copenhagen, 1694-1763. HOLSTEIN GOTTORP, Charles Fred- erick, duke of, a nephew of Charles XII., and son-in-law to Peter the Great, 1700-1739. HOLSTENIUS, L., a Ger. savant, 1596-1661 HOLT, Francis Ludlow, a barrister and wr. on law, many years editor of Bell's New Weekly Messenger, author of dramas, died 1844. HOLT, John, a miscellaneous wr., 1742-1801. HOLT, Sir John, a famous English judge, celebrated for his patriotic opposition to the measures of James II., and for his acquaintance •with the constitutional law of England, was born at Thame, in Oxfordshire, 1642; and on the king's accession in 1685, had risen by his professional eminence as an advocate, to the office of Recorder of London. He had occupied this post about a year and a-half, when he was compelled to retire in consequence of his opposition to the court, and though ne was afterwards made serjeant at law, he devoted himself so entirely to the popular cause, that he was rewarded on the accession of King William with the appointment of Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench, and with a place in the privy council. In 1700 he declined the chancellorship which was offered to him on the removal of Lord Somers, and remained in the office of judge, which he graced with his firmness, patience, and impartiality, until his death in 1709. Many anecdotes are related of him, illustrating his vigorous opposition to the least exercise of a power superior to the law. On one occasion he was solicited to support with his officers a party of the military sent to suppress a riot occasioned by the practice of decoying young men for the plantations. ' Suppose,' said the judge to the messenger, 'the populace should not disperse at your appearance, what are you to do then ? ' 'Sir,' replied the officer, 'we have orders to fire on them.' ' Have you, Sir? ' said the judge ; ' then take notice of this, if there be one man killed, and you are tried before me, I will take care that you, HOM and every soldier of your party shall be hanged. Sir,' he added, ' go back to those who sent you, and tell them that no officer of mine shall attend soldiers ; and let them know at the same time that the laws of this kingdom are not to be executed by the sword; these matters belong to the civil power, and you have nothing to do with them.' It is proper to add, that when the officer had retired, Sir John himself repaired to the spot with a party of constables, and dispersed the mob without bloodshed; also, that this incident occurred after the accession of William, which is a still greater proof of Holt's inflexible integrity. His professional remains consist of ' A Report of Divers Cases in Pleas of the Crown in the reign of Charles II.,' published 1708. [E.R.] HOLTE, John, a Latin grammarian, 15th cent. HOLTY, Louis Henry Christopher, a Ger- man poet and translator of English, 1748-1776. HOLWELL, J. Z., an employe" of the East In- dia Company, author of a narrative of his own and his fellow-prisoners' sufferings in the black hole of Calcutta, and of Researches in the History and Mythology of Hindostan, &c, 1711-1798. HOLYDAY, B., a learned divine, 1593-1661. HOLYOAKE, Francis, a country clergyman, kn. as the author of a Latin Dictionary, died 1653. His son, Thomas, a physician, author of a Dic- tionary founded on that by his father, 1616-1675. HOLYOKE, E. A., an American physician, known as a meteorologist and natural philosopher, as well as a professional writer, 1728-1829. HOLYWOOD, John, of Halifax, (in Latin John Sacrobosco,) an eminent mathematician, d. 1256. HOMANN, J. B., a Ger. atlas engr., 1664-1724. HOMBERG, W., a Dutch chemist, 1652-1717. HOME, David, a Scottish divine, 17th cent. HOME, Sir Everard, a Scotch surgeon, au. of ' Lectures on Compar. Anatomy,' &c, 1756-1832. HOME, Henry, a Scotch judge, best known as Lord Kames, and distinguished as a writer of great metaphysical acumen. Besides professional works, elucidating the law of Scotland, he is the author of ' Essays upon British Antiquities,' ' Es- says on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion,' ' Introduction to the Art of Thinking,' ' Elements of Criticism,' ' Sketches of the History of Man,' 'Hints upon Education,' and 'The Gen- tleman Farmer,' a work addressed to the improve- ment of agriculture, 1696-1782. HOME, or HUME, John, a minister of the Scotch Kirk, author of the well-known tragedy of ' Douglas,' and other works, 1724-1808. HOMER. The personal existence, the birth- place, and the era of the ' Father of Song,' have proved fertile subjects of discussion to literary antiquaries. Some of these have maintained that the Iliad and Odyssey are composed of a variety of legendary ballads, commemorative of incidents connected with the siege of Troy, which were the production of different authors, and were revised and skilfully interwoven in the age of Pisistratus ; and that the name Homer was merely the imper- sonation of the genius of epic poetry. Seven cities at least claimed the honour of having given birth to the poet ; and each of them seems to have had some tradition to allege in justification of its claim. The discrepancies of statement respecting the date of his existence are not less remarkable ; 331 noM for of the eight different epochs assigned to him, the oldest differs from the most recent by a period of 460 vears. According to the theory which carries along with it the greatest amount of proba- bility. Homer flourished in the second century after the taking of Troy, from about B.C. 1019 to B.C. 981. or from 165 to 200 years after the Trojan era, having been bom about B.C. 1044. He ap- pears to have been an Asiatic Greek, and a native of Smyrna, an Ionian city on the coast of Asia Minor ; and from the circumstance of having been brought forth on the banks of the Mcles, a river which ran beside the city, is said to have obtained the name Melisigenes. It is impossible, however, to come to any satisfactory conclusion on subjects which history has given us such scanty materials to determine. On one point all traditions agree, that he was afflicted with blindness ; and his de- scriptions of external nature warrant the conclu- sion that this misfortune arose from accident or disease, and not from the operation of nature at his birth. The writers of antiquity unanimously considered the Iliad and Odyssey as the produc- tions of a certain individual called Homer; and there is no evidence that the question of divided authorship was ever entertained by them. The existence of wandering minstrels is recognized in the early literature of Greece ; and it has accord- ingly been inferred that the minute and accurate geographical knowledge which is displayed in his works, was acquired by the poet as he wandered from court to court, delighting his auditors with the ' Tale of Troy Divine.' ' Homer,' says Bent- ley, * wrote a sequel of songs and rhapsodies, to be sung by himself for small earnings and good cheer, at festivals and other days of merriment ; the Iliad he made for the men, and the Odysseis for the other sex.' Such, it is probable, was the state of the Homeric poems till the time of Pisis- tratus, who, aided by certain literary men, made a collection of the poet's works, superior in extent and accuracy to all that had preceded it, and thus preserved to future generations the noblest monu- ments of Greek genius. The poems attributed to Homer are the Iliad and Odyssey, to which some have added the Homeric Hymns. The Iliad stands first as the oldest, and also the most complete specimen of a national heroic poem. Its subject is the revenge taken by Achilles on Agamemnon for depriving him of his mistress, Briseis, during the siege of Troy, and the evils which in conse- quence befell the Greeks. The poem is divided into twenty- four books, which detail the movements of the besiegers during the period of Achilles' wrath, and end with the death and burial of Hector. The Odyssey, which is likewise divided into twenty-four books, contains the adventures of Ulysses when on his return from Troy to his na- tive island Ithaca. The hymns, epigrams, &c, which are ascribed to Homer, are of very doubtful origin. ' In conception and portraiture of charac- ter,' says Colonel Mure, ' and the deeper vein of tragic pathos, Homer may be equalled, if not sur- passed, by Shakspeare; in moral dignity of thought and expression by Milton ; in the grace and delicacy of his lighter pictures by Petrarch and Ariosto; and in the gloomy grandeur of his supernatural imagery by JEschyNU or Dante. But no one of these poets has combined, in a similar HOO degree, those various elements of excellence in each of which they may separately claim to compete with him.' [U.F ] HOMER, H., a classical editor, 1752-1791. HOMILIUS, G. A., a Ger. composer, 1714-86. HOMMEL, C. F., a German jurist, 1722-1781. HONAIN, Ahou-Yezid, an Arabian physician and translator of learned works, 9th century. IIONDEKOETER, Giles, a Dutch landscape painter, born 1583. Gysbrecht, his son and pu- pil, celebrated for the representation of poultry, born 1613. Melchior, son of Gvshrecht, and his superior in the same line of art, 1636-1695. HONDIUS, or DE HONDT, a Flemish family, the first of whom, Jost or Jodicus, is distin- guished as an engraver, especially of maps, 1546- 1611. His son, Henry, called the Elder, for por- traits and landscapes, 1573-1610; the younger Henry for his portraits of the reformers, &c, 1588-1644. William, a son of the preceding, a portrait engraver, born 1601. Abraham, a sup- posed grandson of the first Hondius, distinguished as a painter of hunting pieces, 1638-1695. HONE, N., an Irish enamel painter, d. 1784. HONE, William, a miscellaneous writer and political satirist, whose ' E very-day Book' is a work of acknowledged value ; though prosecuted in the earlier part of his career for a parody on the Litur- gy, he latterly became sub-editor of the Patriot newspaper, 1780-1842. HONORATUS. There are two saints of this name in the Romish calendar ; the first, bishop of Aries and founder of the monastery of Lerius, died 429. The second, bishop of Marseilles, and a religious writer, born about 420 or 425. HONORE - DE - SAINTE - MARIE, Blaise Vanzelle, called the fath., a Fr. theo., 1651-1729. HONORIUS, son of Theodosius the Great, born 384, became emperor of the West, and his brother Arcadius emperor of the East, on the death of Theodosius 395 ; died, after being shamefully sub- jugated by the Goths under Alanc, 423. HONORIUS, the first of the name, pope of Rome, 626-638; the second, 1124-1130; the third, distinguished for his political activity, and for con- firming the order of St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assise, 1216-1227 ; the fourth, 1285-1287. HONORIUS of Autun, professor at that place of theology and metaphysics, died 1140. HONT HEIM, John Nicholas De, a German Catholic theologian, author of works designed to etfect a union among Christians, and opposed to the political system of the Vatican, 1700-1790. HONTHORST, Gerard DE,a Flemish painter, known in Italy as Gerardo della Notte, 1592-1662. His brother William, also a painter, 1604-1683. HOOCH, P. De, a Flemish painter, 1643-1708. HOOD, Robin, a chivalrous outlaw of the reign of Richard I., whose exploits in Sherwood Forest are the subjects of many admired ballads. All the popular legends celebrate his generosity and skill in archery. The principal incidents of his history are to be found in Stowe, and a complete collection of the ancient poems, songs, and ballads relating to liim was published by Ritson in 1795. HOOD, Samuel, Viscount, an English com- mander, distinguished in several actions at the commencement of the last war, particularly at the bombardment of Havre; the defeat of Admiral 332 noo De Grasse under Rodney ; the siege of Toulon ; and the capture of Corsica ; after which he was named Governor of Greenwich Hospital, and pro- moted to the rank of admiral. Born at Farncombe in Devonshire, 1724, died 1816. HOOD, Sir Samuel, a cousin and companion- in- arms of the preceding, died in the chief com- mand of the East Indian fleet, 1814. HOOD, Thomas, the son of a bookseller in London, was born there in 1798. After receiving a miscellaneous education, he was placed, in his fifteenth year, in the counting-house of a Russian merchant ; but, after an interval of repose on ac- count of ill-health, he learned the art ot engraving. In 1821, having already contributed fugitive papers to periodicals, he became sub-editor of the London Magazine ; and for all the rest of his life he was an author by profession, though he also frequently amused himself and his readers by inserting in his works humorous illustrations designed and etched by himself. His career was that of an honourable, kindly, and industrious man, who was never able to raise himself above the necessity of toiling for a livelihood ; and who, long suffering under ill health, continued bravely, even on his deathbed, his efforts to provide for his wife and children. Hood's genius was of an extremely singular cast. It united, in an unusual degree, intensely serious Eassion with strength of comic humour ; and per- aps his chief defect lay in his incapacity of either blending these elements harmoniously, or giving scope to either without the other. As a punster he was inimitable ; yet even here his most humor- ous flights bear with them a burden of thoughtful meaning which is hurtful to their comic effect. His two novels, 'Tylney Hall,' and the uncom- pleted story called ' Our Family,' are the least successful of his attempts. The chief collections of his witticisms are the ' Whims and Oddities,' and ' The Comic Annual.' In a volume contain- ing ' The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies,' and other poems, he indicated the power of rising into a high sphere of poetry. ' Eugene Aram's Dream ' is very striking ; and yet more pathetic is his well- known ' Song of the Shirt.' This wild and vigor- ous piece was written shortly before his death, which took place in 1845. [W.S.] HOOFT, Cornelius Van, an eminent Dutch poet and historian, 1581-1647. HOOGE, P. De, a Dutch painter, died 1708. HOOGE, R. De, a Dutch eng., abt. 1638-1720. HOOGEVEEN, H., a Dut. Hellenist, 1712-91. HOOGSTRAATEN, David Von, a Latin poet, au. of a Dutch and Latin dictionary, 1658-1724. HOOGSTRAATEN, James Van, a Dutch friar, one of the first opponents of the reform., d. 1527. HOOGSTRAATEN, Thierry Van, a lands- cape painter of Antwerp, 1596-1640. His son, Samuel, a painter and poet, 1627-1678. HOOK, James, a composer of operas, melo- dramas and songs, distinguished for his amazing industry, 1746-1827. His son of the same name, dean of Worcester, author of some dramatic writ- ings, but more celebrated as a controversial divine and political pamphleteer, died 1828. HOOK, Theodore Edward, born in London in 1788, was the son of a musical composer. Edu- cated tlimsily, he became, in his teens, a writer of operas and farces (some of them successful); HOO while he was yet more famous for audacious prac- tical jokes. He found his way into gay and aris- tocratic society through his ready wit and inex- haustible fertility of puns, his musical accomplish- ments, and his extraordinary feats of extemporane- ous rhyming. In 1812, the liking which the Prince Regent had formed for him made him trea- surer of the Mauritius, without either knowledge of business or common prudence. In 1818, he was sent home under a guard, being accused of peculation ; and, though the criminal charge was dropped, he was held a debtor of government in a very large amount, which he never made any endeavours to discharge. He attempted, however, not unsuccess- fully, to serve the ministry of the day, by estab- lishing, in 1820, the ' John Bull ' newspaper ; and in it appeared his best witticisms, which indeed do not rise above the level of newspaper jesting. He wrote novels, the earlier of which, particularly ' Sayings and Doings,' were once fashionable. But for not a few years his career was both discredit- able and really unhappy. He was tasking his mind in authorship, while the greater part of his time was engrossed by the gay society in which his wit made him so acceptable ; his affairs were falling into irretrievable disorder through thoughtless ex- travagance; and his health was giving way under increasing habits of intoxication. He died in 1841. [W.S.] HOOKE, Nathaniel, a native of Ireland, known as a zealous catholic and historian of Rome, and as the assistant of Sarah, duchess of Marl- borough, when compiling her memoirs, died 1763. HOOKE, Robert, a mathematician and experi- mental philosopher, dist. for his numerous mechan- ical inventions and discoveries in science, 1635-1703. HOOKER, John, a learned historian and anti- quarian, born about 1524, died 1601. HOOKER, Richard, the famous author of the 'Ecclesiastical Polity,' was born about 1553, at the village of Heavitree, near Exeter. His own parents were in narrow circumstances, but the family had given several mayors to that city, and Richard was nephew of John Hooker, the historian, by whom he was introduced to Bishop Jewel. The latter provided for his education by sending him as clerk to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and settling a pension upon him. In 1577 he was received Master of Arts, and two years later appointed professor of Hebrew. Having taken holy orders in 1584, he was presented to the rectory of Drayton-Beauchamp, in Buckingham- shire, and about a year afterwards became master of the temple in London, where, at that time, Walter Travers, a zealous puritan, was afternoon lecturer. The opposition hetween the doctrines taught by Hooker, a staunch episcopalian, in the- morning, and those of the presbyterian in the afternoon, soon grew to an open controversy. Travers was at length put to silence by the court of High Commission, and published las appeal to the Privy Council, the answer to which by Hooker, was the germ of the work on which his celebrity now rests. The extensive learning and eloquent command of the resources of the English tongue displayed in that work have been the admiration of some of the greatest names in literature. It is hardly necessary to state that its principles are a defence of the English establishment, but it is 333 HOO remarkable at the same time for its anticipation of the political doctrines of the Whigs, deriving all government from the implied consent of the people, or the free choice and judgment of the governed. The ' Ecclesiastical Polity ' is to this day the armoury of the Anglican Church. Its author died in the rectory of Bishopsbourne, Kent, 1600. His life was written by Isaac Walton, and published with the second edition of Hooker's works in 1666, and has since been frequently reprinted with them. LE-R-] HOOKER, Th., an English divine, 1586-1647. HOOLE, Charles, a "schoolmaster, author of several introductory works in Latin, 1610-1666. HOOLE, John, a celebrated dramatic writer, translator of Ariosto and Tasso, &c, 1727-1803. HOOPER, George, bishop of Bath and Wells, distinguished as an Oriental scholar and ecclesias- tical antiquarian, 1640-1727. HOOPER, HOPER, or HOUPER, John, bishop of Gloucester under Edward VL, author of many pious works, burnt in the time of Qu. Mary, 1555. HOORNBEECK, J., a Dutch divine, 1617-66. HOORNE, J. Van, a Dutch physician, 1621-70. HOPE, Charles, a distingd. Scottish lawyer — Lord President of the Court of Session, 1763-1851. HOPE, John, a Scotch botanist, 1725-1786. HOPE, Thomas, celebrated for his works in illustration of art, especially of ancient costume and the life of the Greeks, died 1831. HOPE, Sir Th., a Scotch lawyer, died 1646. HOPITAL, Michael De L', a French states. and diplomatist, eel. for his integrity, died 1573. HOPITAL, Wm. Francis Anthony De L', Marquis De St. Mesme, a Fr. mathem., 1661-1704. HOPKINS, Ezekiel, a learned English prelate, 1633-1690. His son, Charles, a dramatist, 1664-1699. John, brother of the latter, author of 'Amasia,' a collection of poems, born 1675. HOPKINS, Lemuel, an American physician, distinguished as a political writer, 1750-1801. HOPKINS, Samuel, an American sectarian, au. of a ' Treatise on the Millennium,' 1721-1803. HOPKINS, Stephen, an American statesman, dist. as an economist and mathematician, 1707-85. HOPKINS, W., an English divine, 1647-1700. HOPKINS, W., an Arian writer, 1706-1786. HOPKINSON, Francis, a distinguished poli- tical writer of America, and an active promoter of American independence, 1738-1791. HOPPERS, J., a Dutch diplomatist, 1523-76. HOPPNER, J., a portrait painter, 1759-1810. HOPTON, Arthur, a mathemat., 1588-1614. HOPTON, Ralph, Lord, an Engl, general dist. in the Low Countries, and as a royalist, d. 1652. HOPTON, Susanna, a religi. wr., 1627-1709. HORACE. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, was born near Venusia (now Venosa), a town on the confines of Apulia and Lucania, in the south of Italy, on the 8th of December, B.C. 65. The ma- terials for his life are derived almost entirely from his own works. His father, who was a respectable freedman, exercised the profession of a collector of payments at auctions ; and having, by this com- paratively humble calling, realized a competency, which he invested in the purchase of a house and farm in the neighbourhood of Venusia, there set- tled as a small farmer. In this house the poet was born, and here he spent the years of his boyhood. HOB When he was about twelve years of age, his father, not satisfied with the provincial school of Venom, had him removed to Rome, and placed under the care of Orbilius, an old military man, whose aca- demy was for a long period one of the first in Rome. Though by no means rich, he had a ten- der regard for the feelings of his son who was now to mix with boys of the highest class ; and he ac- cordingly provided him with the requisite dress and attendance of slaves, he himself watching over his morals with gentle severity. At the school of Orbilius, Horace was instructed in grammar, and in the Latin and Greek languages ; Livius Andro- nicus being the class-book in the former, and Homer in the latter. Athens was at this time re- garded as the university of the world ; and thither Horace, in accordance with the prevailing practice, repaired in his eighteenth year, b.c. 46, to complete his education by a course of philosophy and science, under Greek masters. The advantages which he derived from his residence there are evinced by his familiarity with the whole range of Greek poe- try, and especially with the terse and pointed lan- guage of the Comedians. But the civil wars which followed the death of Julius Caesar, b.c. 44, in- terrupted him in his studious and peaceful retire- ment. The arrival of Brutus at Athens, roused the patriotic feelings of the youthful Romans, and, along with others, Horace ardently embraced the cause of the Republic. Though entirely inex- perienced in war, he was promoted to the rank of military tribune, with the command of a legion, and in this character shared in the defeat at Philippi, b.c. 42. After the battle, having now forfeited his estate, he returned to Rome, where his poverty perhaps saved him from proscription ; and by acting as a clerk in the quaestor's office, and practising the strictest economy, he contrived to live till he found means of making himself known to the poets Varius and Virgil, by whom his name was first mentioned to Maecenas. The first interview with his future patron and friend seems not to have been satisfactory ; for it was not till after nine months had elapsed that Maecenas requested him to repeat his visit. This apparently unpropitious beginning, however, was soon fol- lowed by a friendship which speedily ripened into intimacy ; and which introduced the poet to the highest and most refined society in Rome. The friend of the prime minister found easy access to the emperor ; Horace was soon on terms of fami- liarity with Augustus, and enjoyed his friendship and patronage during the remainder of his life. But the friendship of Maecenas brought something more substantial to Horace than the mere increase of acquaintance in the higher circles — his patron made him independent for life by the gift of an estate in the Sabine territory, about thirty-four miles from Rome. The estate was not large, but it was prettily situated, and entirely suited to the tastes and wants of the poet. His admiration of the beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood of Tibur (Tivoli), induced him to hire or purchase a cottage in that romantic town ; and all the later years of his life were passed between these two country residences and Rome. Horace died on the 19th of November, B.C. 8, at the age of fifty-seven — a few months after the death of his friend and patron Maecenas. His works consist of two books of 334 HOR Satires, a book of Epodes, four books of Odes, two books of Epistles, and a treatise on the Art of Poetry. W ant of space prevents us from offering a sketch of Horace's character as a man and as a poet. Though living on terms of intimacy with the great, he retained through life his cherished independence, and complimented his powerful pa- trons without the servility of flattery. His works have commanded the admiration of all succeeding ages ; and though deficient, perhaps, in some of the highest elements of poetry, will continue to be read and studied as models of simplicity and cul- tivated taste. [G.F.] HORAPOLLO. See Orus Apollo. HORBERG, M., a learned English divine, au- thor of a ' Treatise on Hell Torments,' 1707-1773. HORBERG, P., a Swedish painter, died 1814. HORDT, Count De, a Swedish officer in the Service of Russia, au. of 'Historic Memoirs,' d. 1785. HORMAN, W., a botanical author, died 1535. HORMISDAS, pope of Rome, reigned 514-523. HORMISDAS, the first of the name, king of Persia, reigned 271-272 ; the second, 303-311 ; the third, usurped the throne, 457-460 ; the fourth, son and successor of the great Chosroes, 579-592. HORN, the name of a distinguished family in Sweden, the best known of whom are Gustave, count Horn, one of the lieutenants of Gustave Adolphe, and field-marshal and constable of Sweden in the reign of Christina, born 1592. Arvid Bernard, Count Horn, of the same family, prin- cipal instigator of the revolution of 1719, and chief of the English party, 1664-1742. Frederick Horn, a general in the service of France, after- wards counsellor to Adolphus Frederick and Gustave III., 1715-1796. The son of the latter, Count Horn, a man of letters, banished for his complicity with AnckaBrstroem, died 1823. HORN, Charles Edward, a ballad and opera composer, author of • Cherry Ripe,' ' I've been Roaming,' and similar songs, 1786-1849. HORN, F. Chr., a German critic, 1781-1837. HORN, G., a Bavarian historian, 1620-1670. HORN, J. Van, a Swedish physician, 1662-1724. HORN, or HORNES, Philip De Montmo- renci-Nivelle, Count, a Spanish general of the Low Countries, executed for conspiring with the house of Orange 1568. His son, Floris De Montmorenci, executed in Spain 1570. HORNE, George, a learned English prelate, well known as the author of • A Commentary on the Book of Psalms,' was born 1730, and was early distinguished as a diligent Hebrew scholar, and a partizan of John Hutchinson. His first publication was an ironical attack on Newton, in 1751, entitled 'The Theology and Philosophy in Cicero's Somnium Scipionis Explained ; or a Brief Attempt to Demonstrate that the Newtonian System is agreeable to the Notions of the Wisest Ancients, and that mathematical principles are the only sure ones.' This was followed by several works of a similar character in the course of the next ten years, including attacks on Dr. Shuck- ford, and Dr. Kennicott, with the latter of whom, the young scholar, at a later period, became intimately acquainted. Home took orders in 1753, was successively president of Magdalen College 1768, chaplain to the king 1771, vice- chancellor of the university of Oxford 1776, dean HOR of Canterbury 1781, and bishop of Norwich 1790. He died in 1792, and was buried at Elham, in Kent. There can be no hesitation in pronouncing that Bishop Home was a great biblical scholar, but too much inclined perhaps to write on subjects of which he had no true understanding. In proof of this it is enough to say, that the same hand which wrote in support of John Hutchinson, wrote against William Law. He is the author of many works besides the ' Commentary,' on which he bestowed nearly twenty years' labour, and the latter must always hold a distinguished place in biblical literature. [E.R.] HORNECK, A., a German divine, 1641-1696. HORNECK, O., a Ger. poet and hist., 1250-1310. HORNEMANN, Frederic Conrad, a celebr. Ger. traveller empld. by the African Soc, 1772-97. HORNER, Fr., a political economist, 1778-1817. HORNIUS, Geo., a Ger. historian, 1620-1670. HORNSBY, Th., an Eng. astronom., 1734-1810. HORNTHORST, Gerard, a distinguished Dutch painter, 1592-1660. HORREBOW, P., a Danish astron., 1697-1764. HORREBOW, V., a Danish navigator, 1712-60. HORROX, Jeremiah, a distinguished disco- verer in astronomy, author of a theory of lunar motion, afterwards verified by Newton, 1619-1641. HORSBURY, J., a Sc. hydrograph., 1762-1836. HORSLEY, John, an antiq. savant, 1685-1731. HORSLEY, Samuel, an English prelate, cele- brated for his numerous works in theology, science, and classical literature, 1733-1806. HORSTIUS, James, a German physician, author of a work on Sleep-walking, 1539-1600. His nephew, Gregory, a physician and medical author, 1578-1636. The son of the latter, of the same name, published his father's works in 1660, and his brother, Daniel John, was a writer on ana- tomy and editor of several medical works. HORSTIUS, J. M., a Germ, editor, 1597-1644. HORT, or HORTE, J., an Engl, div., d. 1751. HORTA, Garcias Ab., a Portu. herbal., 16th c. HORTENSE EUGENIE DE BEAUHAR- NAIS, daughter of Josephine, the consort of Napoleon Buonaparte, and of the Vicomte De Beauharnais, her first husband, was bom at Paris 1783, and married to Louis Buonaparte, the brother of Napoleon, in 1802. The match had been desired by the consul for political reasons, and it proved a most unhappy one. In 1806, Hortense became queen consort of Holland, and about a year afterwards was separated from her husband after giving birth to three sons : — 1. Na- poleon Charles, who died in infancy, and whose intended adoption by Napoleon was refused by Louis. 2. Napoleon Louis, who was baptized by the pope Pius VII., and instead of attaining the high destiny proposed for him, was killed in an insurrection at Romagna 1832 ; and 3. Louis Napoleon, the present emperor of the French. On the divorce of her mother, Josephine, Queen Hortense joined her in her retirement at Malmaison, and after her death in 1814, so soon followed by the fall of Napoleon, became an unprotected and calumniated wanderer, until her residence was fixed at Augsburg by the king of Bavaria. She died October 5th, 1837. Her disposition was modest and retiring : her influence at the court of Napoleon was generously exercised in favour of the 335 HOR distressed, and her affectionate solicitude for the emperor was fully manifested after the disaster of Waterloo. Hortense was duchess of St. Leu in vir- tue of a settlement made by the allies betw. the first fall of Napoleon and the hundred days. [E.R.] HORTENSIUS, a German classic, 1501-1577. HORTENSIUS, Quintus, a celebrated orator and consul of Rome, died b.c. 50. HORTON, Th., a learned divine, died 1673. HORUS APOLLO. See Orus Apollo. HOSEA, a prophet of Samaria, 8th cent. B.C. HOSEA, the last king of Israel, 8th cent. b.c. HOSKINS, John, an Engl, poet, 1566-1638. HOSPINIAN, R., a Swiss controv., 1547-1626. HOSPITAL, Michael De L\ See Hopital. HOSSFIELD, J. W., a Ger. mathe., 1768-1837. HOST, N. Til, a German botanist, 1763-1834. HOSTE, John, a Fr. mathematician, d. 1681. HOSTE, Paul, a French engineer, 1652-1700. HOSTILIAN, a son of the emperor Decius, reigned some months with Gallus, and died 252. HOSTUS, M., a Germ, antiquarian, 1509-1587. HOTHAM, H., the admiral intrusted with the blockade of the western coast of France after the battle of Waterloo, and who received Napoleon on board the Bellerophon, 1776-1833. HOTxMAN, F., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1524-1590. HOTTINGER, John Henry, one of the most learned of the Swiss reformers, especially in the Oriental languages, 1620-1667. John James, his son, also a classical scholar and theologian, author of Theological Dissertations, and an 4 Ec- clesiastical Historv of Switzerland,' 1652-1735. HOTZE, J. C. 'Van, an Austrian gen., k. 1799. HOUARD, D., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1725-1802. HOUBIGANT, Ch. Fr., a learned French priest, au. of a Latin version of the Bible, &c, 1686-1783. HOUCHARD, Jean Nicholas, a general of the French revolution, the successor of Custine in the command of the armies on the Moselle and the Rhine, executed on a charge of treason, 1740-93. HOUDON, J. A., a French sculpt., 1741-1828. HOUDRY, Vincent, a Fr. Jesuit, 1631-1729. HOUEL, J. P. L., a French painter, 1735-1813. HOUGH, John, bishop of Worcester, celebrated for his opposition to James II., 1651-1743. HOUGHTON, Major, an African trav., d. 1791. HOULAGOU, a Mogul prince, died 1205. HOUMAIOUN, the second Mogul sultan of Hindostan, born 1509. Being defeated in 15-11 by Chir-Khan, he reconquered his kingdom in 1555, and died the following year. HOUNG-WOU, a Chinese emperor, 1327-1398. HOUSTON, W., a disting. botanist, died 1733. HOUTEVILLE, C. F., a French ecclesiastic, author of ' La Veritc de la Religion Chretienne, Prouvee par les Faits,' 1688-1742. HOUTMAN, Cornelius, founder of the first Dutch factory in the East Indies, 1550-100S. His brother, Frederic, governor of Amboinc, and author of a Malay dictionary, 1607. HOVEDEN, Roger De, an English historian, of the times succeeding the annals of Bede, namely, from 731 to the third year of King John, 1202. His work is held in the highest esteem by the learned for its faithfulness. IIOW, William, abotanist, 1619-10.^. HOWARD. The Howards are well known as one of the noblest families of England, and many now of them have arrived at distinction. The principal are — Thomas Howard, carl of Surrey, and third duke of Norfolk, an eminent statesman and naval and military commander, distinguished at the battle of Flodden, 1488-1554. Edward, a younger brother of the preceding, and admiral of England, killed in action with the French, 1512. Henry, earl of Surrey, eldest son of Thomas, an accomplished chevalier, and the first polite writer of love verses in the English tongue, beheaded on a trumpery charge of high treason, 1516-1546. Henry, second son of the poet, and earl of North- ampton, known as a trimmer at court and as a man of letters, implicated in the murder of Over- bury, 1539-1614. Charles, known as Lord Effingham and earl of Nottingham, and grandson of the duke of Norfolk, commander of the channel fleet on the invasion of England by the Spanish Armada, 1536-1624. Thomas, earl of Arundel, and earl marshal in the reign of Charles I., known as a diplomatist and antiquarian, died 1646. Henry, his second son, and sixth duke of Norfolk, by whom the Arundelian marbles, collected by his father, were presented to the university of Oxford, about 1668. Charles, eleventh duke of Norfolk, and formerly earl of Surrey, known as a statesman in opposition to Lord North and Pitt, 1746-181 5. HOWARD, Catherine, daughter of Lord Edmund Howard, third son of Thomas duke of Norfolk, married to Henry VIII. on his divorce from Anne of Cleves, 1540, beheaded 1549. HOWARD, Edward, a lieutenant in the royal navy, author of ' Rattlin the Reefer,' ' Jack Ashore,' and other marine novels, died 1842. HOWARD, Frederic, earl of Carlisle, son of Henry the fourth earl, and grandson of William fourth Lord Byron, known as a poet and a partizan of the government, 1748-1825. HOWARD, George Edward, a poet, archi- tect, and political writer, died 1786. HOWARD, H., a miscellaneous writer, author of ' Memorials of the Howard Family,' 1757-1842. [Birth-place of Howard, Clapton, Middlesex J HOWARD, John, the philanthropist, was born at Hackney, London, in 1726. His father left an immense fortune, but in his will, expressly pro- hibited his getting the control of it till he had reached his twenty-fifth year. His guardians bound him an apprentice to a grocer. But having purchased his indentures, he left the business in 336 now disgust, and sot out on a continental tonr. On his return to London, he married his landlady, a widow considerably older than himself, out of pure grati- tude for her attentions to him during a lingering sickness. But she dying soon after, he again re- solved to travel, and went to Portugal with a view to examine the ruins of Lisbon after the earth- quake. The vessel in which he sailed was attacked by a French privateer, and all on board made prisoners. Besides the loss of his liberty, he was subjected to various and severe privations in his place of confinement ; and it was the recollection of his personal sufferings that awakened his sym- pathies for the inmates of prisons. Being released on an exchange of prisoners, he returned, and his first and earnest efforts were made to bring the subject before the public and the parliament of Britain. He now married a second time, but his wife died in a few years after, leaving him with an only child. For a time he resided on his estate at Cardington, Bedford, dividing his attention be- tween the management of his property, and the domestic education of his son. But this son, be- coming the subject of a hopeless derangement, was obliged to be placed in an asylum ; and having no ties at home, he sought occupation in the pursuit of his favourite schemes of benevolence, the ame- lioration of prisons. With this view, he visited, in 1777, every prison in the United Kingdom, and pub- lished, the result of his inquiries. The same course of investigations he resolved to pursue in foreign countries ; and accordingly, in 1778 and the four following years he inspected all the public prisons of France, Switzerland, Germany, and Holland, afcerwards extending his tour into the southern countries of Europe. He now entered on a new and different course of philanthropic pursuits, an inquiry into the causes and cure of the plague. His attention was now directed to those countries most subject to the ravages of that dreaded pesti- lence, the countries of the Levant. On his return to England, he published an account of the chief Lazarettos in Europe, and his object was so far gained by the attention of skilful and scientific men, as well as the general public being power- fully excited by his details. Commencing a second tour of inquiry, he resolved to travel through the eastern part of Europe with Egypt and Asia Minor. Leaving the shores of Britain in 1789, he hurried through Holland and Germany, anxious to reach Petersburgh, Moscow, and the shores of the Black Sea in the proper season. In his pro- gress through the south of Prussia he had reached Kherson, when he was seized with malignant fever, which after a few days' illness, terminated his extraordinary career on 20th January, 1790. He was buried in a spot marked by himself about eight miles from Kherson, and a rude obelisk is erected over his grave, bearing the brief Latin in- scription, ' Vixit proper alios,' — he lived for the good of others. His benevolence was not merely the effect of a warm and feeling heart, which sym- pathized deeply with the sufferings of humanity, it was based on Christian principles, for he lived and died strong in the faith of the gospel. [R. J.] HOWARD, Sir R., an Eng.histor., 162G-1698. HOWARD, S., a composer of ballads, d. 1783. HOWARD, Sik W., a distin. lawyer, 13th cent. HOWDEN, John Francis Caradoc, Baron, HUB a native of Ireland, distinguished hi the army, 1762-1832. HOWE, Charles, a religious wr., 1661-1745. HOWE, John, a nonconf. divine, 1630-1705. HOWE, John, a noted politician of the reign of William III. and Queen Anne, in office under the latter, and succeeded by Walpole on the accession of George L, died 1721. HOWE. Admiral Earl Howe was born in 1725, and was the second son of Lord Viscount Howe. He entered the navy at fourteen, and dis- tinguished himself for courage and seamanship as he rose through the various ranks of the service to that of post-captain. In 1758 he succeeded (by his elder brother's death) to the family estates and honours; but he was true to the sea, and was in constant active employment to the end of the Seven Years' War. When France took part against England in the American war, Lord Howe was admiral of our fleet off the American coast, and gained great credit by successfully keeping the French admiral D'Estaign in check throughout 1778, though Howe's fleet was far inferior to that of his adversary. At the end of that year Howe returned to Europe, and performed the important service of relieving Gibraltar. In 1788 lie was made an earl. At the commencement of the war against France in 1793, Howe took the command of the western channel fleet at the king's earnest and personal request. In the next year he succeeded m bringing the main French republican fleet to action, and gained the great victory of 'The Glorious First of June.' Lord Howe was now seventy years of age, but he lived to do his country more good service ; and it was he who won back, by judicious kindness, many of our seamen to their duty in the alarming mutinies at the Nore and Spithead. Earl Howe died 4th Augur- t, 1799. [E.S.C.] HOWE, Sir William, brother of the famous admiral, and successor of General Gage in the command of the British forces in America, d. 1814. HOWEL, Lawrence, one of the non-juring divines, celebrated for his great learning, died 1720. HOWEL-THE-GOOD, or HYWEL DDA, a famous legislator and king of all Wales, 10th cent. HOWELL, James, an Eng. hist., 1595-1666. HOWELL, W., a celebrated historian, d. 1683. HOWLEY, W., abp. of Canterbury, 1765-1848. HOWSON, John, a learned prelate, 1556-1631. HOYLE, E., a writer on whist, &c, 1672-1769. HUARTE, John, a Spanish philosopher, au. of a curious and valuable work, transl. into English by Carew and Bellamy, and entitled 'The Trial of Wits,' and first publisher of the alleged letter of Lentullus concerning the Saviour, born 1520. HUBER, Francois, an eminent naturalist, was born at Geneva in 1750. He died in 1831. — Very early in life Huber manifested a great love for the pursuit of natural history. A cataract, however, showed itself in his eyes while he was still a youth, and before he arrived at manhood he had become totally blind. Before his eyesight failed he had had his attention drawn to the ex- amination of bees. Having read the works of Reaumur and Bonnet, he believed that many of the statements made by those authors with regard to their history, were at variance with what he | had himself observed ; and to ascertain the cor- 337 Z HUB rectnoss of his opinion became the chief object of his lite. Huber was fortunate in finding an affec- tionate wife and an attached servant, who devoted their lives to him with the greatest tenderness and assiduity. Not being able to see himself, he made use of their eyes ; and under his directions, and as- sisted by the invention of several kinds of glass hives, Madame Huber and the faithful Burnens were en- abled to carry on their observations undisturbed and at leisure. By these means he succeeded in collecting together an immense number of facts with regard to the economy of bees which were be- fore that time unknown. These he published at various times, and his different memoirs were col- lected by him and published in 1814. This ren- dered his name famous throughout Europe; a fame which was increased by the knowledge of the fact, that these accurate observations had been made by a man totally blind from his youth. M. De Candolle has named a genus of plants after him, Huberia. [W.B.] HUBER, J., father of the preceding, au. of ' Ob- servations on the Flight of Birds,' 1722-1750. HUBER, John, a native of Geneva, known as an artist in paper and writer on balloons, 1722-1790. HUBER, John James, a native of Basle, cele. for his works in anatomy and botany, 1707-1778. HUBER, John Rudolph, a distin. painter, called the Tintoret of Switzerland, 1668-1748. HUBER, Mary, a Swiss philos. wr., 1694-1759. HUBER, Michael, a native of Bavaria, trans- lator of Gellert, Gesner, and Winckelmann into French, 1727-1804. Louis Ferdinand, his son, a journalist, 1764-1804. Therese, a daughter of Heyne, and wife of the preceding, distinguished as a novelist, 1764-1829. HUBER, Samuel, a Swiss divine, 16th cent. HUBER, Ulric, a Dutch savant, 1636-1694. His son, Zacharias, also a learned wr., 1669-1732. HUBERT DE L'ESPINE, a French traveller in Tartary, author of l Description des admirables regions de Tartarie,' published at Paris, 1558. HUBERT, F., a French engraver, 1744-1809. HUBERT, M., a Fr. preac. and au., 1640-1717. HUBERT, St., the apos. of Ardennes, 7th cent. HUBNER, John, a German geographer and historian, 1668-1731. His son, of the same name, known as a man of letters, died 1758. J I U BNER, Martin, a Danish publicist, 1725-95. HUUDART, J., a distin. navigator, 1741-1816. HUDDE, John, a Dutch mathem., 1640-1704. HUDDESFORD, G., a burlesque poet, last ct. HUDDESFORD, W., a naturalist of last cent. HUDDLESTONE, Robert, a Scottish anti- quarian, editor of a new edition of ' Toland's His- tory of the Druids,' 1776-1826. HUDSON, Henry, an able English navigator, to whom we owe many important discoveries in the northern regions. Nothing is known respect- ing him till 1607, when he was sent out by a com- pany of London merchants to seek a passage to India directly across the pole, many previous expeditions having failed to discover either a north- east or a north-west passage. Leaving the Thames on the 1st May, in a small vessel, with only ten men and a boy, he sailel for Greenland, which he reached in lat. 70°. Before he was stopped by ice, he had succeeded in advancing along the K. coast beyond the 80th parallel, considerably to the north hug of Spitzbergen, and returned by Nova Zembla and the North Cape. He made several other voy- ages in pursuit of the same object, during one of winch he was in the sendee of the Dutch, and dis- covered the North American river which bears his name. In his last voyage, undertaken April 1610, he discovered the large gulf or inland sea named after him, and which, three years later, was carefully examined by Sir Thomas Button. Hudson was obliged to pass the winter in the southern part of it, so that on the return of sum- mer his provisions were nearly exhausted, and he and his men were exposed to great hardships, be- ing obliged to subsist upon moss and frogs. The men became mutinous, and resolved to turn the master and those faithful to him adrift, that the limited stock of provisions might last the longer. The ringleader was a young man named Green, of respectable connections, who had been benevolently brought out by Hudson in order to separate him from vicious companions, with whom he was leading a profligate life. The conspiracy broke out on the 2 1st of June; the captain was seized and bound, and with eight others, his staunchest friends, most of whom were sick or lame, was turned adrift amid floating ice, in the strait which bears his name. Some meal, and an iron pot, a fowling-piece and ammunition, were the only means allowed them of preserving their lives; and there can be no doubt that they soon perished miserably. Among the fourteen who remained on board were Robert Bylot and Habbaknk Pricket, to the latter of whom we owe the only account there exists of the latter part of Hudson's voyage. The wretch Green was killed soon after in an affray with the natives ; Robert Ivet, the next most guilty after Green, died of starvation. Most of the rest reached the west coast of Ireland, after dreadful suffer- ings. [J.B.] HUDSON, Dr. John, a critical au., 1662-1719. HUDSON, Th., a portrait painter, 1701-1779. HUDSON, W., a distin. botanist, 1730-1793. HUE, Francis, a valet of Louis XVI., author of a narrative of his last years, 1757-1819. HUERTA, Vicente Garcia De La, a Span- ish tragedian, editor of a critical edition of the best Spanish plays, 1729-1797. HUET, Peter Daniel, a French prelate, dist. as a philosopher and biblical scholar, 1630-1721. HUFELAND, C. W., a Ger. phys., 1762-1836. HUFNAGEL, G., a Flemish poet and natural- ist, skilled as a painter of animals, 1545-1600. HUGFORD, Ignazio, a painter, 1703-1778. HUGH, or HUGUES, the name of several princes of the middle ages, the most distinguished of whom are — Hugh the Great, son and succes- sor of Robert as count of Park, and father of Hugh Capet, died 956. Hugh Capet, son of the preceding, and founder of the third dynasty of the kings of France, born 939, crowned at Rheims, 987, died 996. Hugh of Province, king of llahj, died 947. Hugh I., duke of Burgundy. reigned 1075-1078, died 1093. Hugh II., reigned 1102-1142. Hugh III., a distinguished warrior and crusader, succeeded 1162, died in Asia 1193. Hugh IV., a crusader and companion-in-arms of St. Louis, 1218-1272. Hugh V., the last of the dukes of Burgundy of this name, reigned 1308- 1315. Besides these, four kings of Cyprus aw 338 HUG mentioned :— Hugh I., reigned 1205-1218. Hugh II., 1253-1267. Hugh III., called 'The Great,' 1267-1276. Hugh IV., king of Cyprus and Jerusalem, sue. Henry II. 1324, abdicated 1361. HUGH, Saint. The earliest saint of this name is a French prelate who administered the dioceses of Paris and Bayeux, died 730. Next in order of time is Hugh of Cluny, abbot of the monastery of that name, flourished 1023-1109. The third Saint Hugh, a bishop of Grenoble, disting. for having located Bruno and his com- panions in the Grande Chartreuse, lived 1053-1132. HUGH of Amiens, a native of that place, after- wards prior of Cluny, kn. as a theologian, d. 1164. HUGH of Bregi, a bard of the 13th century. HUGH of Flavigny, abbot of that place in 1097, and author of the ' Chronicle of Verdun.' HUGH of Fleury, abbot of that place, and au. of ' De La Puissance Royale,' &c, 11th century. HUGH of Poitiers, a chronicler, 12th cent. HUGH of St. Cher, a learned monk and cardinal, au. of a Bible Concordance, died 1263. HUGH of St. Victor, a theologian, died 1140. HUGHES, John, a poet and miscellaneous writer, translator of Fontenelle's ' Dialogues of the Dead,' &c, 1677-1720. Jabez, his brother, a classical translator, and miscel. writer, 1685-1731. HUGHES, John, a learned editor, 1682-1710. HUGHES, Griffith, a naturalist, last century. HUGO, C. L., a French savant, 1667-1739. HUGO, Herman, a Ger. Jesuit, 1588-1629. HUGONET, W., a Fr. statesman, exec. 1477. HUGTENBURGH, James Van, a Dutch lands- cape painter, born 1639. John, his brother, dis- tinguished as a painter of battle-pieces, 1646-1733. HUGUES, Victor, French governor of Guada- loupe during the first revolution, 1770-1826. HUGUET, M. A., a Fr. prelate, executed 1796. HULDRICH, John, a Swiss divine, 1683-1737. HULL, Thomas, a dramatic writer and actor, founder of the Theatrical Fund, 1728-1808. HULLIN DE BOISCHEVALIER, L. J., a French writer, author of ' Repertoire Historique de la Revolution,' and ' De l'Empire,' 1742-1808. HULLIN, P. A., a French general, 1758-1841. HULLOCK, Sir John, a disting. lawyer and judge, author of the ' Law of Costs,' 1764-1829. 1IULME, Nathaniel, amed. wr., 1732-1807. HULSE, Sir S., an Eng. officer, died 1837. HULSEMANN, J., a Ger. divine, 1602-1661. HULSIUS, Anthony, an Oriental scholar and theologian of Holland, 1615-1685. Henry, his son, a learned divine and professor, 1654-1723. HULST, P. Vander, a Dutch painter, famous for his flowers and insects, 1652-1708. HULSWIT, J., a Dutch painter, 1766-1822. HUM ANN, J. G , a French minister of finance, member of several cabinets, 1780-1842. HUMAYUN-NESIR- ED- DEENY MOHAM- MED, second Mogul emp. of Hindostan, 1508-56. HUMBERT, the first French cardinal, 11th ct. HUMBERT, J. A., a French general, 1767-1823. HUMBOLDT, William Von, the brother of the illustrious author of 'Cosmos,' was bom in Potsdam 1767, when his father was chamberlain to the Princess Elizabeth of Russia. In his youth — like all the young people of Germany at this period— he was influenced by the sentimental en- thusiasm of which Goethe's ' Werter' still remains HUM the literary monument ; and besides entering into friendly alliances with his fellow-students, lie cultivated an intimacy with the most distinguished women of the age. Of the latter amiable sentiment, his ' Letters to a Female Friend' — translations of which have appeared in English — are a pleasing memorial. It is as the philosopher and statesman, however, that the name of William Humboldt has acquired an European reputation. The intimate friend of Schiller and Goethe, his name is imper- ishably associated with the revival of philosophy and letters in Germany; and, as a statesman, with the political history of the court of Berlin. In 1800, two years after publishing his aesthetic essays under the title of ' Hermann and Dorothea,' he was appointed Prussian minister at Rome ; and during the eight years that he resided there, acquired a wide reputation as an archaeologist, and a master of historical philology. On returning home, he was appointed councillor of state, and minister of worship and education, and at once applied himself to the reform of existing institu- tions, and the organization of the university of Berlin, — a task of no slight consequence in the chaos of philosophical speculation with which he found himself surrounded. The wishes of the king being accomplished in this respect, Humboldt re- sumed his diplomatic career as ambassador to Vienna; and from 1810 to the congress of Aix-ln- Chapelle in 1818, his name is associated with every important transaction in the politics of Eu- rope. In 1819 his connection with the court of Prussia was broken off, in consequence of his at- tachment to constitutional principles, and his op- position to the decrees of Carlsbad, which intro- duced the censorship of the press, and certain measures controlling the universities. The agent in these transactions was the chancellor Harden- berg, who had become the tool of Metternich ; and Humboldt having been dismissed from the ministry, henceforth devoted his whole time to literature. The remainder of his days were passed at his seat near Berlin, where he died on the 8th of April 1835, deeply regretted by the whole Ger- man nation. His works, which are of a miscel- laneous character, generally bearing on history, archaeology, and philology, "including the remains of Eastern civilization, have been published at in- tervals since his death by his brother, Alexander von Humboldt, who is still the honoured friend and counsellor of the king of Prussia, and is re- vered as the patriarch of philosophy throughout Europe. William von Humboldt may justly be taken as a pattern of the depth and diversity of the German mind, and as the promise of a richer future for the German nation. He stands like the representative of the change from spirit to life, from idea to reality, in which the German mind is engaged ; for he was one of the first and ablest who took this step. He adhered to the past, ad- vanced boldly forward, and put his trust in hu- manity and his country. — (Lives of the Brother* Humboldt from the German of Klenclce and Schlesier.) [E.R.] HUME, Sir A., a naval officer, 1748-1838. HUME, David, born in Edinburgh, 26th April, 1711; died there on 25th August, 1776: unques- tionably the most remarkable personage of the Augustan era of Scotland. Referring for the ex- 339 nuM ternal details of Hume's life to his charming Autobiography, we shall require more than our usual space to characterize, however succinctly, the Philosopher, the Historian, and the Man.— I. The place and functions of the metaphysical speculations of this great Thinker, are not only peculiar but unique in the History of Modern Philosophy. At the period in question, Mental Science had fallen into the lowest possible state, not in Britain merely, but over Europe — that, viz., of a conscious inconsistency : principles were ac- cepted and conclusions evaded; beliefs timidly relied on, betwixt which, and all grounds of cer- tainty then acknowledged, lay an impassable hiatus. The sensational philosophy — always agreeable to the practical tendencies of the English mind, had jnst reached its culmination under guidance of the genius and earnestness of John Locke ; and we were undergoing its consequences in the dwarfing of systematic morals, and the gradual im- poverishment of religion ; saving ourselves as to the mere form of Faith, by refuge in tradition, or, what is worst of all, willing subjection to gross paralogisms. When Science exists only through paltering with Reason, when it accepts as its function, the office, not of discerning Truth, but of finding excuses for Beliefs, it is Science no longer, but a corruption and hypocrisy ; and how- ever it may come, its destruction is a blessing. Hume appeared as the Destroyer. Gifted with an Intellect clear and fearless, he carried principles remorselessly to their consequences; and proved beyond question, that on the grounds of the exist- ing philosophy, all Belief must disappear. If he reached Universal Scepticism, it may be said that he yet had a faith sounder than any in the Philo- sophy he destroyed ; he trusted in the only ground of human certainty, viz., in our Human "Reason; and had the rare courage to follow where it seemed to lead. It is not easy to conceive the degree of consternation spread through every region of existing speculation, by the ' Essay on the Idea of Necessary Connexion,' the 'Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals,' the ' Natural History of Religion,' and their other companions. Hume had divested himself by this time of the scholastic rudeness of the author of the ' Treatise on Human Nature,' and become one of the most pleasing and accomplished writers of any period. His blows resounded accordingly through all cultivated so- ciety : it was heard everywhere with amazement, that by a Logic apparently invincible, the basis of all certainty respecting Man, Nature, and God had been destroyed, and that doubt irremediable was the sole inheritance of our Race ! It is need- less to say that the resting-place of Humanity was saved ; but not by invalidating the reasoning of the trenchant Scotchman. Hume's triumph ■was complete; only, it was the existing Philosophy that he laid in ruins. His logical demolition of the Idea of Cause, awoke in the spirit of the illus- trious Kant that train of thought which has illumined Germany until now; and Dn. Reid, moved bv the same influence, wrought less sys- tematically, but in a corresponding direction, towards the foundation of the School which has played so wholesome a part in the re-edification of Mental Science. — In something of this light will History regard the Metaphysician Hume. HUM — II. The clearness of Intellect and peculiar sagacity that distinguished Hume, shine out no- where more brightly than in his political and historical writings; although we discern here, Cerhaps more palpably, those defects which fitted im for his task as Destroyer. Eager to generalize, skilful as sagacious, and incapable of being in- fluenced by surrounding opinions, we find him in his political essays steadily surveying and defining most of those great truths regarding commerce which Adam Smith afterwards elaborated in the 1 Wealth of Nations,' and which the civilized world at length accepts as its guide : nor will a time ever come when the general reflections strewn through every page of the ' History of England ' will cease to instruct and elevate the Statesman. The en- during position of the ' History ' indeed, is that of a rich philosophical treatise ; not that of a History in the true significance of that term : nor can anything be imagined more incongruous than its usual connection on the book-shelf, with a set of continuations and chronicles, more or less accurate in dates, but dry in wisdom as in style. When Hume wrote, History as a critical science was not known as it is now ; and unfortunately he had not the industry, accuracy, nor the general impartiality of his compatriot Gibbon. Still worse, he had no sympathy with the most power- ful of the springs of action moving the times he depicts: had he comprehended these, his name would not have been known in Philosophy merely as the name of a Destroyer. His narrative of the reigns of the Stuarts and of the struggles which freed England, is simply fictitious, and should be read as such : try his picture of Cromwell by the documents re- cently brought under light of the sun by Thomas Carlyle. — III. The character of this distinguished person has been misunderstood and misrepresented alike by friends and foes. His nature was a great one, but not developed in some most vital directions. No man of his time had a stronger understanding, larger intellectual capacity, finer tastes, higher courage, or a more rooted love of independence. His temperament, too, was greatly enviable: ha had no violent passions, so that he was tried by few temptations ; he was delicate, and modest ; he had no malignity ; he was candid and kindly. Still, it is impossible to concur with Adam Smith, ' that he approached as nearly to the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of human frailty will permit.' His fatal deficiency has been already adverted to, — he had no svm- pathy with the largest, the profoundest portion of our Human Nature. He treated the Puritans as he did, not through malignity, but because he could not ap- preciate them : he knew nothing of the valueof sacri- fice to the Unseen : the morals he understood were simply calculations of visible consequences. In many respects Hnme was a wise man ; but we must not set down his dislike of Enthusiasm to the repose and tranquillity of Wisdom. The highest wisdom is, indeed, seldom enthusiastic, because it has dis- cerned the meaning of the Law of Limitations — that in this various and complex Universe, no prin- ciple acts singly, or ought to enjoy absolute rule : Hume had not this wisdom; he merely disliked enthusiasm because he had no part or parcel with the principle which sustained those enthusiasts, as with their life-blood they purchased the liberties of 340 HUM Engtancl. — See Mr. Burtoris excellent volumes on Hume. His philosophical works are out of print : the last and best edition, in 4 volumes, was pub- lished by Mr. Black of Edinburgh. [J.P.N.] [Tomb of Hume, Edinburgh ] HUME, David, a nephew of the great historian, and a writer on the Scotch criminal law, 1756-1838. HUME, J. D., adisting. financier, 1774-1842. HUMMEL, J. N., aGer. musician, 1778-1837. HUMMELIUS, J., a Ger. mathem., 1518-1562. HUMPHREY, Laurence, a learned divine, author of a 'Life of Bishop Jewel,' &c, 1527-1590. HUMPHREYS, Jas., an eminent jurist, d. 1830. HUMPHRY, Ozias, a painter, 1743-1810. HUNAULD, F. J., a Fr. anatomist, 1701-1742. HUND, W., a Bavarian historian, 1514-1588. HUNERIC, a king of the Vandals, 477-485. HUNNIADES, John Corvinus, vaivode of Transylvania, and general of the Hungarian armies, distinguished against the Turks, died 1456. HUNNIS, W., a poet, age of Elizabeth. HUNNIUS, Gills, a German divine, 1550-1603. His son, Nicholas, also a dist. theolog., 1585-1643. HUNNOLD, Fit., a German Jesuit, last century. HUNT, HENRY, an active English politician, was born about the year 1773. His name was one of great notoriety during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, but little will probably be remembered of him at its end. Yet he had some qualities of a peculiarly English and sterling char- acter. His name is associated with the mob and vulgarity, but he had considerable ancestral claims, and one of the few of his remembered sayings is his retort on Sir Robert Peel as the first of a family of tradesmen who became a gentleman, while he himself was the first of a race of gentle- men who had become a tradesman. In early life he was a high Tory, but during the greater part of his public career he expressed extreme Radical doc- trines. Whatever he did, whether in selling his incomparable blacking and his roasted corn, in- vented as a substitute for coffee, or offering his services to represent a county, he spread his doings before the world with liberal profuseness, and was pleased with any kind of notoriety, provided it were abundant. In 1830 he succeeded in entering HUN parliament, where he remained for a short time as member for Preston. If not attended to in parliament, he always made himself heard. His voice possessed a peculiar shrillness which made it audible amidst all other ordinary sounds, and it was remarked that over all the shuffling and coughing of an impatient House, his speaking was as clearly heard as the ringing of a factory bell through "the murmurs of a crowd. He died in 1835. _ [J.H.B.] HUNT, Jeremiah, a dissenting divine, au. or 'An Essay towards expl. the History and Revelations of Scripture in their several Periods,' 1678-1744. HUNT, Th., a learned Hebraist, 1696-1774. HUNTER, Alex., a Scotch phys., 1729-1809. HUNTER, Anne, wife of John Hunter the cele- brated anatomist, distinguished as a writer of lyrical poetry, 1742-1821. HUNTER, Chr., an antiquarian, 1675-1757. HUNTER, Henry, a Scotch divine, author of 'Sacred Biography,' a translation of Lavater's Physiognomy, '•Lectures on the Evidences of Chris- tianity? &c, 1741-1802. HUNTER, John, a Scotch classic, 1747-1837. HUNTER, John, a Scotch commander and vice-admiral, distin. under Lord Howe, 1738-1821. HUNTER, William, a distinguished anato- mist, physiologist, and physician, was born at Long Calderwood, in the parish of East Kilbride, in the county of Lanark, Scotland, on the 23d of May, 1718. He was the seventh of ten children, and being destined for the church was sent to the University of Glasgow at the age of fourteen, where he remained for five years. He now resolved to abandon the study of theology and to apply himself to medicine, and with this view became the private pupil of Dr. Cullen at Hamilton, with whom he remained for three years. He then pro- ceeded to Edinburgh with the design of qualifying himself to become the partner of Cullen ; but, in 1741, he repaired to London in search of fame and fortune, and found both. After studying under various masters of acknowledged ability he com- menced as a lecturer on anatomy in 1746. In 1747, he became a member of the corporation of surgeons; in 1750, he graduated as a doctor of medicine at the University of Glasgow; and in 1756, he became a licentiate of the College of Phy- sicians. He was afterwards successively elected physician to the Lying-in-Hospital ; fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies ; professor of ana- tomy to the Royal Academy ; physician extraor- dinary to the queen : and in 1781, president of" the College of Physicians. He died on the 30th of March, 1783, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. In the course of a long and laborious life, devoted to the highest objects of science and humanity, Dr. Hunter had collected a magnificent anatomical museum, a valuable library of rare and curious books, and a considerable number of paintings and coins, all of which he bequeathed to the University of Glasgow, with a sum of £8,000 to support and augment the collection. This fine museum was transferred to Glasgow in 1807, where a very ele- gant building from a design by Stark had been erected for its reception at a cost of £12,000. Dr. Hunter was an active and zealous contributor to the medical literature of his time, and was engaged in some sharp controversies with several of his 341 HUN contemporaries on disputed points in anatomy and physiology ; but the work by which he will lie chiefly remembered is, * The Anatomy of the Human Gravid Uterus,' one of the most splendid publications that ever issued from the press, and in collecting the materials for which he spent thirty years. It consists of thirty-four plates engraved by the most eminent artists of the day, with explanations in English and Latin, and ap- peared in 1775 ; but the treatise illustrative of it lie did not live to publish. That duty was under- taken by his nephew, Dr. Baillie, who published in 1794 ' An Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid Uterus and its Contents,' compiled chiefly from the MSS. of his uncle. [J.M'C.J HUNTER, John, the youngest brother of Wil- liam Hunter, and one of the most remarkable men of his own or any other age. He was born at Caldenvood on the 13th of February, 1728, and lost his father when he was ten years of age. He seems never to have exhibited any aptitude for scholastic learning, and there can be no doubt that his early education was greatly neglected, and that much of the obscurity of his style in after life was attributable to that cause. How he spent the first twenty years of his life is not ascertained, but there is a very general belief, amounting to some- thing like a tradition, that he was apprenticed at the age of seventeen to a Mr. Buchanan, a cabinet- maker in Glasgow, who had married his sister Janet. If so, he must have been engaged in this mechanical occupation for three years, for it was not till the year 1748 that his brother William, now firmly established as a lecturer on anatomy, sent for him to London, and placed him in his anatomical theatre, where he soon became an ex- pert dissector, and a complete anatomist. He studied surgery under the celebrated Cheselden ; in 1751 he became a pupil in St. Bartholomew's ; and in 1756 he was appointed house surgeon to St. George's Hospital. Notwithstanding the defects of his general education he rapidly surmounted all the difficulties that lay in his way, and by his extraordinary genius and great assiduity had ac- quired by the year 1761, a fixed position and an established reputation in the anatomical and sur- gical worlds. But his health began to suffer, and in that year he was appointed to the medical staff of the army, in which capacity he served for three years in France and Portugal, when he returned to London with renovated strength, and began that series of observations and experiments on the in- ferior animals, which laid the foundation of his fame as a comparative anatomist. He died sud- denly on the 16th of October, 1793, in one of the apartments of St. George's Hospital, in the sixty- fifth year of his age. Of John Hunter's contribu- tions'to science during the last twenty years of his life it is impossible to give even an outline in this place, but they were numerous and of the highest value, nor is it too much to say that this remark- able man, by the vigour of his own talents, laid the foundation of all those improvements in sur- fery, physiology, and comparative anatomy, which ave been made since his time. After his death, his museum, which had cost him £70,000, was bought by the government from his widow for £15,000. and by it was presented to the Royal College of Surgeons. John Hunter died childless, HUR and as his brother William never married, the direct race of two men possessed of the highest genius is extinct. [J.M'C] HUNTER, ROBERT] author of the iainou9 Letter on Enthusiasm, which has been attributed both to Swift and Shaftesbury, appointed governor of Jamaica, 1728, and died 17.'! 1. HUNTER, William, a Scotch physician, and wr. on subjects connected with Hindustan, d. 1815. HUNTINGDON, Henry of, author of a General History of England from the Earliest Accounts to the Death of Stephen, 12th century. HUNTINGDON, Selina, countess of, a fa- mous name in the history of Calvinistic methodism, was the second daughter of Washington, earl Ferrers. She was born in 1707, and left a widow by Theophilus Hastings, earl of Huntingdon, in 1746. Previous to her husband's death, she had received deep impressions of religion, and attached herself to the ministry of Whitfield — whom she- appointed. The ample jointure of which she became possessed was almost wholly devoted to the cause of religion in connection with the Metho- dist Christians. She founded the college of Tre- veeka in Wales, in which young ministers were trained — studded destitute localities with new chapels, and maintained a band of itinerant preachers to supply them in rotation, carrying on all the correspondence herself. On the methodist body splitting into two, she espoused the Calvin- istic party under Whitfield. On the lease of Treveeka expiring, she erected a more extensive college at Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. The name of Lady Huntingdon is inseparably identified with the great revival of evangelical religion in this country during the eighteenth century, and it is scarcely possible to estimate her services too highly. For although some of her peculiar opin- ions may be disputed, yet her zeal and piety were unquestionable, and many parts in England to this day are reaping the fruits of her Christian liberality and devotedness to the cause of evan- gelical missions. She died at the advanced age of eighty-four, at her mansion-house in Spafield, and her remains were deposited in the family vault, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire. HUNTINGDON, William, a sectarian preacher of the party of Calvinistic methodists, author of many controversial works, 1744-1813. HUNTLNGFORD, George Isaac, successively bishop of Gloucester and Hereford, distinguished as a Greek scholar and theologian, 1748-1832. HUNTINGTON, R., a learned div., 1636-1701. HUNTON, Philip, a political writer, provost of the new college erected by Cromwell, died 1682. HUPAZOLI, Francis, a native of Sardinia, remarkable for his great age, 1587-1702. HUQUIER, J. G., a Fr. engraver, 1695-1772. HURD, Richard, best known as the author of 'Dialogues Moral and Political,' and of 'Letters on Chivalry and Romance,' which were published in a collected edition of 3 vols. 8vo, 1765, was the son of a farmer, and was born at Congreve, in Staffordshire, 1720. As early as 1742, he ob- tained a fellowship in Emanuel College, and in 1757 was appointed rector of Thnrcaston, in Leicestershire. After this he was successively preacher to the society at Lincoln's Inn, 1765; archdeacon of Gloucester, 1767 ; bishop of Lich- 342 IIUR field and Coventry, 1775 ; preceptor to the prince of Wales and the duke of York, 1776; and bishop of Worcester, 1781. In 1783 he declined the primacy offered to him by George III., and lived contented with the honours already showered upon him till 1808, when he expired in his sleep, after a few days' confinement to his bed. Hurd was a clever satirist, and a great proficient in polite literature. His Dialogues were a covert attack upon the ' big wigs,' and the principles of arbitrary government; but he seems to have outlived the discontented vanity, or the earnestness in the cause of freedom which dictated them, and to have subsided into the man of learned leisure, and the polite scholar. He was the friend and biographer of Bishop Warburton. A complete edition of his works which he had himself prepared for the press, was published in 1810, in 8 vols. 8vo. Much interesting information concerning the life, character, and works of Bishop Hurd will be found in volume VI. of Nichol's Literary Anec- dotes. [E.R.] HURDIS, James, an English poet, 1763-1801. HURE, Charles, a French theologian of the Jansenists, au. of a ' Diet, of the Bible,' 1639-1717. HURET, G., a French engraver, 1610-1670. HUSCUSKE, E. T., a Ger. philoso., 1761-1828. HUSKISSON, William, a British statesman, was born on the 11th of March, 1770. He was the son of a country gentleman, and succeeded to some landed property. In spending a few of his early years in France, he not only saw many of the striking events of the revolution, such as the cap- ture of the Bastile, but had a personal intimacy with several of the actors in them, and joined the body called the ' Societe de 1789.' Though this was one of the clubs of the moderate party, his connection with it brought on Huskisson a taunt of Jacobinism, at a time when French principles, as they were termed, were received with intense horror by the upper and middle classes in Britain. He showed an early soundness of opinion in eco- nomic matters, by offering a warning against the creation of fictitious paper-money by assignats. He returned to England in 1792, and in 1796 en- tered parliament as member for Morpeth. He filled several subordinate ministerial appointments, and made himself valuable by his sagacity and business capacity, He was one of the first practi- cal statesmen, since Pitt had changed his views, whose conduct was influenced by the doctrines of free trade, and though his opinions are far behind those which have prevailed in the legislation of the present generation, he was viewed in his own day as a dangerous man, who had treacherous designs on the interests of his country. In 1821 he showed himself favourable to the modification of the corn laws, and in 1823 he earned the relaxation of the navigation act, which sanctioned reciprocity trea- ties. _ In 1827 he took the office of secretary to the colonies, and continued to hold it under the duke of Wellington. Having, on a point of etiquette, to offer his resignation, it was so readily accepted that the duke evidently desired to be rid of him. At the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway on 15th September, 1830, he stumbled in hastily crossing before a train, which passed over him, and so wounded him that he only survived a few hours. [J.H.B.] HUS HUSS, John, was born about 1370 at Hus- sinatz, a village in Bohemia. Though sprung of humble parents, he was sent to the university of Prague, and on completing his studies was ad- mitted to priest's orders in 1400. The opinions of the English reformer Wycliffe having reached Bo- hemia, Huss, on mature" consideration, was led to adopt them, and as a professor and preacher in Prague, he exposed with vehemence the abuses and vices of the Romish Church and clergy. The patronage of the queen Sophia protected" him for a season, if not from molestation, at least from personal injury. But the archbishop of Prague was terribly provoked, and so were many of the clergy, by the intrepidity of Huss, and by his op- position in the university to Pope Gregory XII. In some fierce discussions which took place as to the balance of elective power among the youth of various nations attending the university, Huss, urged by his Realistic and national partialities, took the part of the Bohemians so effeclively, that the German students, to the number of some thou- sands, withdrew, retired to Leipzig and founded its university in the year 1409. The reforming energy and perseverance of Huss so enraged his ecclesias- tical superiors, that the archbishop of Prague ordered the Bohemian translation of the books of Wycliffe to be burned, and suspended Huss, while Pope John XXIII. solemnly excommunicated him. But the ardent spirit of the reformer did not quail, and both in his native village and at Prague he continued his denunciations of purgatory, indul- gences, and clerical corruptions. Having at length opposed a papal bull which had been fulminated against Ladislaus, king of Naples, he excited such tumults that he was summoned to the famous Council of Constance, and though a 'safe conduct' had been granted him by the emperor Sigismund, he was nevertheless impeached, arrested, and cast into prison, and on his refusal to confess his guilt or retract, he was condemned as a heretic, "and burnt on the 6th of July, 1415. The causes of this severe and unjustifiable treatment of Huss, may be found in his bold and unflinching honesty of pur- pose, in the sacerdotal enmity which his sermons and literary labours had stirred up against him, and especially in his avowed Realism, and his hatred of the German Nominalists, some of whom, such as Gerson, were his principal judges. His labours, history, and martyrdom, were not without abundant fruit in the succeeding cen- tury. [J.E.] HUSSEIN-PACHA, a Turkish admiral, eur- named 'the Little,' fav. of Selim II., 1750-1803. HUSSEIN-PACHA, the last king of Algiers, born 1773, proclaimed dey 1818, dethroned by the French under Marshal Bourmont, 1830. HUSSEY, Giles, an Eng. painter, 1710-1788. HUSSEY, Sir Richard, a British admiral employed in reducing the Ionian isls., 1776-1842. HUTCHESON, Francis, born in Ireland 8th August, 1694, died in Glasgow 1747. To Hutcheson must be awarded the honour of reviv- ing speculative philosophy in Scotland. In 1729 he obtained the chair of Moral Philosophy in the university of Glasgow ; and he certainly started that line of thinking in Psychological questions which Reid afterwards, with so great success, followed out. Besides manuals for the use of his class, he 313 HUT published during his lifetime the ■ Inquiry into tlie Origin of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue,' and an essay ' On the Nature and Conduct of the Pas- sions and Affections.' His ' System of Moral Philo- sophy,' in 2 volumes 4to, appeared after his death. He energetically asserted the existence of Moral Sense, or a power to discern good in itself, and claimed for our Idea of the Beautiful, the character of originality and independence. Hut- cheson's intellect was vigorous, ana he evinced in all his writings singular freedom and freshness. There is an excellent life of him by Principal Leechman. HUTCHINS, John, an Engl, divine, au. of the •Hist, and Antiquities of Dorsetshire,' 1696-1773. HUTCHINS, Thomas, a geographer and general of the United States of America, author of historical and topographical works, 1730-1789. HUTCHINSON, Ann, a religious enthusiast of New England, banished from the colony by an ecclesiastical synod, and killed, with fourteen others of her family, by the Indians, 1643. HUTCHINSON, John, was an English gentleman whose name became famous as a speculative philosopher and interpreter of the Bible in the early part of last century, and is now generally mentioned with disparagement. The publication of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia in 1687, in which the philosopher supposed the planets to move through a vacuum, provoked Mr. Hutchinson, who was a great student of antiquity, and of the Hebrew Scriptures, to pub- lish his work entitled ' Moses 1 Principia,' 1 which appeared in two parts, 1724 and 1727. The de- sign of Mr. Hutchinson was to demonstrate that a celestial matter pervades the whole creation, spiri- tual and natural, whereby Jehovah is master of the material worlds, whereas the theory of Sir Isaac Newton supposed a universe without a God, or a God who acts by arbitrary power. This philosophical doctrine, which is supported by the recent discovery of an interplanetary ether, was, in the work of Hutchinson, a pure deduction from the Scriptures, his principle being that the He- brew language is perfectly formed, so as to convey perfect ideas, without the redundancy or deficiency of letters common to other languages ; hence, that it was perfectly adapted to be the medium of a revelation, and that religion and philosophy were united in the system of Moses. Hutchinson at- tacked Dr. Woodward, author of a ' Natural His- tory of the Earth,' as well as Sir Isaac Newton. He wielded his pen with the hand of a master, and with little respect for the feelings of his op- ponents. Among his adherents were Bishop Home, Jones of Nayland, Julius Bate, Drs. Hod- ges and Wetherall, Parkhurst, Romaine, and Dr. Samuel Clarke. He was born at Springthorn in Yorkshire 1674, and died 1737. [E.R.] HUTCHINSON, John Hely, an Irish lawyer and statesman of distinguished talents, but remark- able selfishness, 1715-1794. His son, of the same naine,a distinguished military officer, and successor of his brother as earl of Donoughmore, 1757-1832. HUTCHINSON, Thomas, the historian of the colony of Massaclmsets, born 1711, chief justice of that province, 1760, lieutenant-governor 1758- 1770, governor to 1774, died 1780. HUTCHINSON, W., a county hist., 1732-1814. HUTTEN, Jacob, the founder of the » Moravian HUT Brethren,' whose successors are supposed to have been the adherents of Zinzendorf, 16th century. HUTTEN, Ulric Von, a German poet and miscellaneous writer, best known as a champion of the reformation, 1488-1523. HUTTER, Eeias, a German divine, author of a Polyglott of the New Testament in twelve lan- guages, and of a version of the Hebrew Bible, dis- tinguished by many peculiarities, in which the cxvii. Psalm is given in thirty languages, 1554-1603. H UTTER, Leonard, a German theologian and polemical writer of the reformation, 1563-1616. HUTTICH, J., a German archaeologist and nu- mismatist, au. of 'Antiq. of Mayence,' 1480-1544. HUTTON, Charles, LL.D., a very laborious cultivator of Mathematical Science, and a deserv- ing writer ; born at Newcastle-on-Tyne 1737, died 1823. We owe to Dr. Hutton many valuable works on elementary mathematics, especially his ' Course designed for Cadets in the Royal Military Academy,' in 3 vols. 8vo; but his important contributions to scientific literature are his l Dic- tionary of Mathematics,' in two large 4to volumes ; and in another direction, his abridgment of the Philosophical Transactions in 18 vols. 4to. Dr. Hutton seems to have been a very successful teacher ; and accordingly he was beloved by his pupils. His manners were simple, his temper equable and mild, and his attachments warm and unalterable. HUTTON, Dr. James, born at Edinburgh 1726, died 1797 : one of those Inquirers of genius who have power to seize the opportunity of effecting a revolution in Science. Hutton's mind was capable of earning distinction in any department of physical research; and we owe him various important hints, — for instance, he was the founder of Psychometry : but it is in Geology that his name stands as the mark of an epoch. During Hutton's early career, geology had not shaken itself free from cosmology; and existing theories regarding the formation of the Earth, were modelled on the ideas of his com- patriot Werner; who, misled by a limited ex- perience, considered all rocks as stratified, or produced by the subsidence of matter first diffused through water. Hutton's important achievement consisted in the discovery, through facts, that a large class of rocks are igneous ; and that the existing forms of the surface of our planet result from two opposing forces constantly in play, and of whose efficiency we know neither the beginning nor the end. The phenomenon that established the truth of these views, was, after anxious research, discovered by Hutton in Glen Tilt — viz.: a fine instance of granite branching out in veins at its junction with the sedimentary rocks ; manifesting thereby indisputable evidence o'f its igneous origin. Hutton's work on the Theory of the Earth, abounds with philosophical views on many points of geological theory of the kind entitled to the name of predict hms : to him, first of all, the significance became apparent of the previously well-known fact of unconformable stratification. On an occasion, which has be- come classical, he took his favourite pupils, Pro- fessor Playfair and Sir James Hall, to the cliffs near St. Abb's Head, where the schists of the Lammer muir are undermined by the sea ; and Playfair has left on record, how, interpreted by 344 HUT his sagacity, the simple, and till then barren visible fact of one rock lying on the edges of nnother, became witness to enormous intervals and successive epocbs, until ' the mind grew giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time,' and the awed listeners became sensible ' how much farther reason may sometimes go than imagination can venture to follow ! ' — Sustained by phenomena at once palpable, numerous, and conclusive, Hutton's important views rapidly made way among men of science : and, notwithstanding their novelty, and the stupendousness of the vista they open into the past, the popular be- lief has now accommodated itself to them, and revolts no more at the notion of the unfathomed Antiquity of the Earth, than at the august thought that the myriads of lustres in the Firmament, are worlds. This consummation came not without a struggle, but thanks to the ' press,' which could not aid Copernicus, the struggle in this case was neither severe nor prolonged. Hutton may be said to have revealed the second of the two dimensions of the Material Universe — the dimension, Time. — The student who has not read the affectionate biography of this philoso- pher by Professor Playfair, has still a rare treat in store. [J.P.N.] HUTTON, M., an English prelate, 1529-1605. HUTTON, William, a self-educated author, chiefly of local histories and antiquities, 1723-1815. HUXHAM, John, a medical writer, died 1768. HUYGHENS, Christian, born at the Hague 14th April, 1629 ; died 8th June, 1695 : a very successtul and celebrated cultivator of the Mathe- matical and Physical Sciences. It requires a long narrative to sum up Huyghen's contributions and discoveries ; to appreciate them in their rela- tion to history and his time, is wholly incompatible with our space. In pure geometry he gave theo- rems for the quadrature of the Hyperbola, the Ellipsis, and the Circle; in Mechanics, he laid down the theory of the Pendulum, and its appli- cation to the Clock ; he discerned the synchronism of the Cycloid, invented the theory of Involutes and Evolutes of Curves, and explored the doctrine of Centres of Oscillation : most important of all he announced the law of the motion of bodies revolv- ing in circles, thereby grazing the law of gravita- tion. In Astronomy, we owe him the memorable discovery of Saturn's ring, at that time a most sagacious solution of very puzzling appearances. In Optics he laid the foundation of the theory of Undulations, explaining by means of it pheno- mena which by the theory of Emanation Newton could not touch. — Few cultivators of Abstract Science had a clearer, or more correct intellect than Huyghens ; he showed this, more especially in his ready appreciation and powerful grasp of the Doctrine of Gravitation : he adopted the new view at the sacrifice of his previous attachment to the Vortices of Des Cartes, and this at a period of life when men have rarely feshness enough to alter their opinions. His works are collected in four 4to volumes. [J.P.N.] HUYGHENS, C, a Latin poet, 1596-1687. HUYGHENS, Gomarus, a Roman Catholic theologian, professor of philosophy at Louvain, and the friend and defender of Quesnel, 1631-1702. HUYOT, J. N., a French architect, 1780-1810. HYR HUYSMANS, HUYSMAN, or HOUSEMAN, Cornelius, a Flem. landscape painter, 1618-1727. HUYSMAN, James, a Flemish painter, exe- cuted the altar piece at St. James's, 1656-1696. HUYSUM, Justus Van, called 'the Elder,' a Dutch landscape painter, 1659-1716. His son, of the same name, known as Young Huysum, a painter of battles, 1681-1706. His son, John, distinguished as a flower painter, 1682-1749. HUZARD, J. B., a Fr. agriculturist, 1755-1839. HVITFIELD, A, a Danish histor., 1549-1609. HYACINTH, Saint, a German friar, celebrated as apostle of Poland and Russia, 1183-1257. HYDE, Edward. See Clarendon. HYDE, Henry, a dramatic writer, died 1753. HYDE, Thos., D.D., a dignitary of the Church of England, kn. as an Oriental scholar and au. of a ' History of the Medes and Persians,' 1636-1703. HYDER-ALI, an Indian prince of Arabian origin, born in Mysore, 1718, took the field with his brother, who was in alliance with France, 1751, and in the interval between that period and 1780, acquired for himself an independent sovereignty, and nearly brought the presidency of Madras to ruin. His death occurred at a critical period in 1782, and he was succeeded by his son, Tippou Saib, who was driven from the Carnatic in 1783. HYGINUS, a pope of Rome, about 138-143. HYGINUS, Caius Julius, a freedman of Augustus, and keeper of the palatine library, au> of an astronomical poem, and a book of fables. HYPATIA, daughter of Theon of Alexan- dria, celebrated for her beauty, illustrious in her genius, and hallowed through all time by her mournful death. She was torn to pieces by the mob of Alexandria, in her earliest prime, in the year 415. Hypatia was a neo-platonist. Charmed by the re- flection therein, of the noblest intellect of Greece, and attracted by its mysticism, she professed that philosophy in public lectures ; and her purity and elevation of soul enhanced the fame accruing from her eloquence. The period of her teaching was that of the first conflicts of Christianity with Pagan- ism : the religion of brotherly love was then too often a symbol of insurrection to the ignorant and the poor, — insurrection against culture as well as false worship, against intelligence as well as aris- tocracy and pride. Cyril, of Alexandria, a man of courage, but not averse from turbulence and tyranny on his own side, was Bishop : and ho did not enough repress passions certainly not ap- proved in his Evangel. He accounted Hypatia his personal foe ; and probably did not regret that with the temples of her deities, a martyr fell. The character of this brilliant victim is traced with genuine sympathy by Mr. Kingsley in his recent romance — one of those fictions which are truer than most histories. [J.P.N.] HYPERIDES, an Athenian orator, and partizan of the Byzantines, killed by Antipater, 322 B.C. HYPERIUS, G. A, a Flemish theolog., 1511-64. HYPSICLES, a Greek mathematician, 2d cent. HYRCANUS, John, or HYRCANUS I., suc- ceeded his father Simon Maccabeus, as high priest and prince of the Jews, B.C. 135, d. B.C. 107. Hyrcanus II., eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus, became sovereign pontiff, B.C. 70, was dethroped by his brother Aristobulus, and restored by the Romans as a tributary prince 63, beheaded by Herod 29. 345 IAC TACAIA, a Turkish adventurer, 17th century. IACOUB-TCHELEBY, a son of Amurath I., strangled by order of Bajazet, 1389. IANAKI, a Greek prince of Moldavia, 1708. IBARRIA, Joachim, a Spanish printer, cele- brated for his improvement of the art, 1725-1785. IBAS, a bishop of Edessa in Mesopotamia, sup- posed to have favoured the doctrines of Nestorius, and deposed on that account by the council of Ephesus, 449. He was reinstated by the council of Chalcedon 451, and died 457. IBBETSON, Agnes, a botanist, 1757-1823. IBBETSON, James, a divine and ecclesiastical historian, 1717-1781. His son, of the same name, learned in Saxon and Norman antiquities, 1755-90. IBBETSON, J. C, a painter, died 1817. IBBOT, Benjamin, a learned div., 1G80-1725. IBEK, an Arabian author, died 1348. IBEK, Az-ed-deen, sultan of Egypt, 1251-57. IBN-AL-ATSYN, surnamed Arr-eddyn, 'the glory of religion,' an Arabian historian, 1160-1233. IBN - AL - ATSYR - ABOULSAADAT - MO - BAREK, an Arabian grammarian and author, lieu- tenant to the king of Moussoul, 1150-1268. _ IBN-AL-ATSYR-NASZ-ALLAH, an Eastern vizier under the son and sue. of Saladin, author of 1 The art of the Writer and the Poet,' 11G2-1239. IBN-AL-COUTHYAH, author of a ' History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arabs,' died 978. IBN-AL-DJOURY, an Arab, historian, d. 1201. IBN-AL-EARADHY, a Spanish Arab, author of a ' Chronicle of Spanish Savants,' died 1012. IBN-AL-FORAT, an Arab, historian, died 1405. IBN-AL-KHET1B, surnamed 'the Tongue of Religion,' au. of a ' History of the Kings of Gren- ada,' and ' Lives of Spanish Writers,' 1313-1374. IBN-AL-MOKAFEA, a Persian writer, d. 757. IBN-AL-OUARDY, a geograp. writer, d. 1350. IBN-AYYAS, an Arabian geographer and his- torian, author of a history of Egypt, &c., 16th cen. IBN-CADHY-CHOBAH, a Mussulman doctor of the sect of Chafei, 1289-1386. IBN-COTAIHAH, an Arabian historian, b. 829. IBX-DJOLDJOL, an Arabian transla., 10th c. IBN-DOREID, a celebrated Arabian philologist and poet, author of many works, 838-933. IBN-EL-A'LAM, an astronomer, died 985. IBN-EL-AWAM, an agriculturist, 12th century. IBN-FAFEDT, a mystic poet, 1181-1235. IBN-KHALDOLN, an Arabian magistrate, celebrated as an historian and jurist, anthor of a 'History of the Arabs and Berbers,' 1332-1406. IBN-KHILCAN, an Arabian historian, 1211-81. IBN-WASIL, an Arabian diplomatist, historian, philosopher, and jurisconsult, 1207-1268. IBN-YOUNIS, an astronomer, 979-1008. IBRAHIM I., governor of Africa under Haroun- al-Raschid, and founder of a dynasty, died 809. Another of the name in the same line of princes called Ibrahim II., died 902. IBRAHIM I., an illustrious sultan of the race of the Ghaznevides, distinguished by the extension of his empire into India, and by the promotion of the arts and sciences in his dominions, reigned IBR 1058-1099. Ibrahim II., or Ibrahim I., em- peror of Hindostan, succeeded 1517, killed 1526. IBRAHIM, brother and successor of Amurath IV., as sultan of Turkey, in 1640, killed 1649. IBRAHIM, a pacha of Egypt, 1585-1590. IBRAHIM, grand vizier under Soliman II., exec, for treasonable correspon. with Austria, 1535. IBRAHIM, caliph of Bagdad, 744-750. IBRAHIM-BEY, a famous Mameluke chief, vanquished by Mehemet AH in 1805, died 1816. IBRAHIM-EFFENDI, a Turkish savant con- verted to Christianity, translator of the Scriptures into the Arabian tongue, 1641-1697. IBRAHIM-EFFENDI, a native of Poland, who became a dignitary of the Ottoman empire, and introduced printing in 1728. IBRAHIM- EL - GAUHARY, a minister of Ibrahim and Mouradbey, sultan of Egypt, distin- guished as a father of the people, died 1791. ' IBRAHIM-EL-HALEPY, an imaun of Con- stantinople, celebrated as a jurisconsult, 1456-1549. IBRAHIM-MANSOUR-EFFENDI, a German adventurer, who embraced Mahommedanism, and introduced the discipline of Europe into the Turk- ish armies; after serving Ali-Pasha as engineer, he wrote a ' Memoir of Greece and Albania' under his government ; he at length shot himself in Paris, on account of destitution, 1826. IBRAHIM-MOLLAH, a T. vizier, stran. 1713. IBRAHIM PASHA, the son and successor of Mehemet Ali in the government of Egypt, was also the chief instrument in establishing his dy- nasty, and deserves to rank with his father among the founders of empires. He was bora at Cavetta in Roumelia 1789, and enjoyed his first military triumph at Cairo in 1819, after subjugating the Wa- habees, and wresting from their hands the holy towns of Mecca and Medina. In 1824 the sultan, as suzerain, demanded the aid of an Egyptian ar- mament to suppress the Greeks, and the glory of Ibrahim, whose name had become famous through- out the East, and who had introduced the European discipline into his armies, pointed him out as the commander of the expedition. For nearly four years he overran the Morea, which became one extended field of ruin and bloodshed, but he was at length compelled to retire by the victory gained at Navarino by the combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, on the 20th of October, 1827. In 1831 he was sent by his father, at the head of 24,000 infantiy, four regiments of cavalry, and forty pieces of artillery, to the conquest of Syria, which he effected so completely as to arrive within one hundred and fifty miles of Constantinople, at which juncture a Russian army marched to inter- cept him, and he concluded a treaty of peace by which several provinces were added to his father's government. In 1839, the Porte endeavoured to recover Syria, and on the 24th of June, Ibrahim gained the battle of Nezib, by which the road was again opened to Constantinople ; but the combined forces of England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, were drawn up between him and his prize, and Acre being reduced by bombardment, the affairs 316 IBR of Egypt and the Porte were settled by their joint masters. After the evacuation of Syria, Ibrahim applied himself to the arts of peace m Egypt, and when Mehemet Ali became incapable of continuing the government, he was made viceroy according to the terms of succession granted in the firman of the sultan in 18-11. He enjoyed this dignity only two months and ten days, and died in No- vember, 1848, when he was succeeded by his nephew, Abbas Pasha. Ibrahim Pasha was a man of debauched habits, but a great soldier and sa- gacious statesman. As may be supposed, in a country like Egypt, just emerging from the bar- barism of ages, and in a family which had fought its way out of obscurity, he was quite unlettered, but nevertheless, well acquainted with the cour- tesies of European societv. [E.R.l IBRAHIM-TCHAOUICHKEKHIE, a bey of Egypt, raised to the throne of the Mamelukes, 1750, poisoned in the attempt to deliver his country from the usurpation of the Turks, 17G0. IBYCUS, an Italian lyric poet, 560 B.C. IBZAN, judge of Israel after Jephthah. IDACIUS, a Spanish chronicler, 4th century. IDES, EverardYsbrantz, a German traveller, au. of a 'Journey from Moscow to China,' 18th ct. IDMAN, N., a Swedish savant, 18th century. IDRIS, Gawr, a Welch astronomer, whose name is borne by one of the highest Welch moun- tains, date unknown. IENICHEN, G. A., a Ger. savant., 1709-1759. IERMAK, a Cossack chieftain, died 1583. IETZELER, C, a Swiss architect, 1734-1791. IEZDEDJERD, the Jirstoi' the name, a Sassan- nide king of Persia, reigned 399-419 ; the second, who endeavoured without success to introduce the worship of Zoroaster into his dominions, reigned 439-457 ; the third, last king of the Sassannide dynasty, succeeded 632, vanquished by the Arabs 636, assassinated in his retreat 650. IFFLAND, A. W., a German actor, 1759-1814. IGNARRA, N., a Neapol. antiqua., 1728-1808. IGNATIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, d. 878. IGNATIUS, foun. of the Jesuits. See Loyola. IGNATIUS, St., surnamed Theophorus, one of the apostolic fathers, or first doctors of the church, bi-hopof Antiochin Syria about 69, suffered martyrdom 107 or 116. He is the author of 1 Letters,' which are translated in Archbishop Wake's compilation. IGOR, the first of the name, grand duke of Russia, 913-915 ; the second, grand prince, 1146-7. HIRE, John, a Swedish philologist, professor of poetry and eloquence at Upsala, 1707-1780. [KEN, Conrad, a Germ. Hebraist, 1689-1753. ILDRFONSE, St., archb. of Toledo, 607-669. ILICINO, B., an Italian poet, 15th century. I LIVE, Jacob, a printer and letter-cutter, re- markable as a controversialist, and author of the alleged hookof Jasher, 1730-1763. ILLYR T CUS, Flacius, the Latinized name of Matthias Flacius, or Francowitz, a German theolo- gian. 1520-1575. 1MAD-EDDALAH, a king of Persia, died 049. IMAD-EDDYN. a Persian histor., 1125-1201. IMBERT, B., a French poet, 1747-1790. IMBERT, J. G., a French painter, 1654-1740. IMBERT, W., a French author, 1743-1808. IM BON ATI, C. J., an Italian Orien., d. 1687. ING IMHOF, G. W., Dutch gov. of India, 1705-50. IMIIOFF, John, or James William, a German historian and genealogist, 1651-1728. IMISON, an English mechanician, died 1788. IMPERATO, F., a Neapolitan painter, died 1565. His son, Jerome, a painter, died 1620. IMPERATO, F., a Neapolit. naturalist, 16th c. IMPERIALE, F., a Genoese poet, 14th century. IMPERIALI, G. B., an Italian physician, author of some admired Latin poetry, 1588-1623. His son, Giovanni, a writer of medical history and biography, 1602-1670. IMPERIALI, Giuseppe Renato, a Genoese noble, cardinal, and governor of Ferrara, disting. for his probitv, talents, and learning, 1651-1737. IMPERTALI, G. V., a Genoese poet, died 1645. IMPERIALI-LERCARI, F. M., doge of Genoa when it was cannonaded by Louis XIV., 1684. INA, king of the West Saxons, 689-726. INCHBALD, Elizabeth, the daughter of a Suffolk farmer, was born in 1753. At the age of sixteen, she eloped from home, with no mora blameable design than the foolish one of seeking her fortune. Miss Simpson very soon became the wife of Mr. Inchbald, a respectable London actor, by whom she was brought on the stage, and played for a good many years. After 1784, she wrote plays, amounting to nineteen, several of which were very successful: her comedy of 'Wives a$ they Were and Maids as they Are ' is still acted. She edited three collections of plays. Her best literary works were her two novels : ' A Simple Story,' 1791 ; and ' Nature and Art,' 1796. She lived" prudently and irreproachably, and accumu- lated several thousand pounds, which she be- queathed chiefly to the Roman Catholic poor. She died at Kensington in 1821. k [W.S.] INCHOFER, Melchior, a Hungarian Jesuit, jurisconsult, historian, and theologian, 1584-1648. INCLEDON, B. C, a eel. vocalist, 1764-1826. INEZ DE CASTRO. See Castro. INGE and HALSTAN, joint k. of Sw. 12th ct INGE, the younger, a k. of Sweden, 12th cen. INGE, two kings of Norway, 12th and 13th ct. INGEBURGE, queen of France, 1193-1236. INGEGNERI, A., a Venetian poet, 16th cent. INGENHOUSZ, John, a Dutch physician and chemist, au. of 'Exp. on Vegetables/ 1730-1799. INGHEW, W. Van, a Dutch pain., 1651-1709. INGHIRAMI, Curzio, an Italian antiquarian, author of ' Etruscan Antiquities,' 1614-1655. INGHIRAMI, Tomaso Fedra, an eminent Italian poet and orator, 1470-1516. INGIALD, a king of Sweden, 7th century. ING LIS, Henry David, a miscellaneous writer, first known under the assumed name of Derwent Conway, born in Scotland 1795, d. 1835. INGLIS, Hester, the writer of some beautiful manuscripts preserved at Oxford, 16th century. INGLIS, Sir James, a Scotch officer and parti- zan of the French, author of the well-known ' Complaint of Scotland,' died 1554. INGLIS, John, D.D., a Scottish divine, author of a ' Defence of Ch. Establishments,' 1796-1834. INGOUF, F. R., a French engraver, 1747-1812. His brother, P. Charles, an eng., about 1746-99. INGRAM, Robert, a theologian, 1727-1804. INGRASSIAS, Giovanni Filippo, a native of Sicily, dist. as a physician and anatomist, 1510-80. 347 ING INGUIMBERT, J. I)., an Italian theologian, founder of an hospital and pub. library, 1683-1757. INGULPHUS, abbot and historian of the monastery of Croyland in the time of William the Conqueror, bom in London about 1030, died 1109. INNES, Louis, a French priest, secretary of James II., and author of his Memoirs, bora 1G50. His brother, Thomas, an antio. wr., 1662-1744. INNOCENT. The popes of Rome of this name are — Innocent I., a saint of the Roman calendar, flourished in the time of Alaric, 402-417. Inno- cent II., pope in the age of Abelard and Arnold, with whose doctrines, as well as with rival popes and kings, he was kept in continual conflict, 1180- 1 143. Innocent III., a pope of extraordinary spirit and political sagacity, who arrived at despotic authority over the kings of Europe, and pursued the most sanguinary measures against the Wal- denses and other heretics, 1198-1216. Innocent IV., pope, 1243-1254. Innocent V., one of the most celebrated theologians of the age, succeeded and died 1276. Innocent VL, reigned 1352- 1362. Innocent VIL, 1404-1406. Innocent VIIL, who laboured to promote a union among the Christian princes, in order to withstand the Turks, predecessor of Alexander VL, 1484-1492. Inno- cent IX., elected and died 1591. Innocent X., a great enemy of the treaty of Westphalia, and the doctrines of Jansenius, 1044-1655. Innocent XL, distinguished for his enmity to Louis XIV., for his extreme austerity, and for having proscribed the teaching of Molinos, 1676-1689. Innocent XII., disting. as a good and enlightened prince, 1G92-1700. Innocent XIIL, reigned 1721-1724. INTERIANO DE AYALA, Juan, a Spanish monk, known as a poet and wr. on art, 1656-1730. IXTIERI, B., an Italian economist, died 1757. INTORCETTA, Prosper, a learned Sicilian Jesuit and missionary to China, 1625-1696. INVEGES, A., a Sicilian historian, 1595-1677. IOUSAF-ABOU-'L-HAXEX, a Moorish king of Grenada, began to reign 1048. IPHICRATES, a famous general of Athens, defeated the Lacedaemonians 392 B.C., and re- lieved Sparta when invaded by Epaminondas 368, died some time after 357 B.C. IPHITUS, king of Elis, celebrated as the founder of the Olympic games, 8th century B.C. IRAILH, A. S., a French historian, 1719-1794. IRBY, Fn. Paul, a naval officer, 1779-1844. IRELAND, John, author of 'The Life of Henderson,' and ' Hogai'th Illustrated,' died 1789. IRELAND, John, dean of Westminster, distin- guished as a theological writer and patron of learn- ing, and as a contributor to the earlier numbers of the Quarterly Review, 1762-1842. IRELAND, SAMUEL, a collector and publisher of literary curiosities, disgraced by the publication of the pretended Shakspeare MSS., which appeared in 1796, and had been forged by his son, of whom he was the unconscious dupe, died 1800. IRENAEUS, St., was a native of Asia Minor, and a disciple of Polycarp. He is supposed, when still a young man, to have come to Gaul along with Pothinus, by whose instrumentality several churches were formed, the most famous of which were those of Lyons and Vienne. On the death of Pothinus, in A.D. 177, he succeeded him as bishop of Lugdunum (Lyons). This high office he continued IRE to hold till his death about the end of the century. His ministry was a series of active, zealous, and devoted personal labours, and he struggled nobly for the purity and the enlargement of the church. The current controversies, such as that about the proper time of keeping Easter, attracted his attention, and in the name of the Gallic churches, he resisted with vigour the incipient encroachments of the bishop of Rome. His great literary work is Ids refutation of the Valentinian form of the Gnostic heresy, and is usually named Adcersvs Uaereses. The original Greek, with the exception of a few fragments preserved by succeeding wri- ters, has been lost, and the remainder of the work is in a barbarous Latin version. He is also sup- posed to have written the graphic and pathetic- account of the persecution endured by the churches of Lyons and Vienne, which is still extant in the form of a letter. The character of Irenaeus was that of an honest, ardent, and amiable Christian pastor — possessed of a well-instructed mind — versant in the various phases of theological error, but often seduced into puerility by the allegorical methods of interpretation then so prevalent and bewitching. The common idea, that Irenaeus was a martyr, rests on no good foundation. None of the writers of his own age, or that immediately after it, ever allude to such an event. The editio princeps of his works was, under the charge of Erasmus, published at Basel, 1526, 8vo — the excellent edition of Grabe appeared at Oxford in 1702, folio, and in Paris in 1710, under the care of Benedictine Massuet. There are also editions by Grynaeus, Basel, 1571 , Gallasius, Paris, 1570 ; and Feuardentius, Cologne, 1596. But the best, and most recent edition, is in 2 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, 1853, edited by Stieren, and supplied with the prefaces of the preceding editions, and with ample notes and prologomena. [J E.] IRENE, empress of the East, like Mary queen of Scots and some of the Medici, is one of those marked characters in whom the reader of history becomes personally interested to a degree far ex- ceeding his sense of justice in the case, and whose powers of fascination not unfrequently charm the pen of the historian at the distance of ages. Born at Athens of a private family about 752, she was raised to the throne of Constantine by her mar- riage with Leo IV.,who succeeded his father six years after the celebration of their nuptials, in 775. In 780, in consequence of the death of Leo, she became re- gent of the empire for her son Constantine, then in the tenth year of his age, and the court of Constan- tinople was soon a perpetual scene of intrigue and counterplot, which led to the most ruthless crimes. In this struggle, the uncles of the young emperor, fired with as much ambition, and endowed with infinitely less personal grace and love of art than the beautiful Athenian, were ranged on one sido with the iconoclasts, and Irene on the other sup- ported the worship of images, and had the address and firmness of purpose to carry her point, which was finally decreed in a council held at Nice, 787. In the meantime, the education of her son, whom she never meant to exercise the supreme power, was totally neglected; and when he arrived at maturity, and was put in forcible possession of his father's authority by the troops, he not only proved incapable, but most unscrupulous and cruel iu the 348 IRE exercise of his authority. With a reckless and ambitious woman like Irene on the watch for her opportunity, and his subjects alienated in disgust, it is not surprising that her emissaries were at last able to seize on the person of the emperor, and having done so, they put out his eyes, and proclaimed Irene — the only person that had shown any capability of sustaining the weight of govern- ment. She had reigned five years sole empress, and was negotiating a marriage with Charlemagne, which would have united the Eastern and Western empires, when Nicephorus, the grand treasurer, became leader of a revolt, and having brought over some of her eunuchs to his party, succeeded in dethroning her. A few months afterwards, she died in exile at the isle of Lesbos, a.d. 803, still in the vigour of her years, and in all likelihood broken-hearted by her fall. We ought to have mentioned that Irene obtained some advantages over the Saracens during her regency, and concluded a treaty of peace with Haroun-al-Raschid. [E.R.] IRETON, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, distinguished as a parliamentary general in the civil war, and lord deputy of Ireland after the establishment of the commonwealth. He was one of those who signed the warrant for the king's death. Eom 1610, died at Limerick 1651. IRGENS, Olans, a Norway savant, last cent. IRlCO, J. Andrew, a learned Italian, disting. as a theologian, philos., and historian, 1704-1782. IRLAND, B., a French jurisconsult, 1551-1612. IRNERIUS,calledalsoWERNERUs,WARNERUs, or Guarnerus, a lawyer of Bologna, regarded as the restorer of the Roman law in the middle ages, born about 1065, died after 1138. IRVING, Rev. Edward, was a native of Dum- friesshire, having been born at Annan on 15th August, 1792, of respectable parentage. His ec- centricities began to display themselves at school, for even in boyhood he was singular in his dress, manner, and phraseology. Of all the branches of education, he excelled in arithmetic and mathe- matics, and his superiority in these departments appeared so decidedly during his curriculum at the college of Edinburgh, that as the foremost of all competitors, he was appointed mathematical teacher in the burgh school of Haddington, and the year following in the school of Kirkaldy. The latter situation he held seven years, when having become a licentiate in the Church of Scotland, and going on a visit to Edinburgh, he happened to preach in St. George's church. One of his hearers on that occasion was Dr. Chalmers, who engaged him to be assistant- minister in the parisli of St. John's, Glasgow. Although he was not esteemed there a popular preacher, his great talents and peculiar eloquence were appreciated by a select, but devoted band of admirers, who sounded his praises far and wide, till his fame reached London. In 1822, Mr. Irving was invited to preach in the church of the Caledonian Asylum in London, then vacant, and soon after elected minister of the chapel, Dr. Chal- mers introducing him to his new charge in August of that year. London is so immense a field, that a preacher even of moderate talents can reckon almost with certainty on obtaining an audience. Much more a preacher like Irving, who, to high and undoubted talent, united great eccentricity in IRV sentiment and manner. An eloquent speaker, he yet indulged in a quaint style formed on the model of the Elizabethan age ; delivered his discourse* with prodigious energy ; and made fearless in- discriminate attacks on everything — civil as well as ecclesiastical — he considered wrong or faulty. Such a preacher was soon surrounded by multi- tudes. It became ' the fashion ' to attend Mr. Irving's church. People of all ranks and charac- ters, literary men, philosophers, statesmen, com- mons, and noblemen of the highest name and in- fluence, flocked to his church. Within a year after his settlement in the metropolis., he published a vol- ume of discourses, which he entitled ' For the Ora- cles of God, four orations ; For Judgment to Come, an argument in nine parts.' So extraordinary was the demand for this volume, that three large editions were sold within six months. — From his great popularity, Mr. Irving was called frequently to plead the cause of many charitable and Chris- tian institutions. In 1824, he preached the annual sermon for the London Missionary Society; and on that occasion, as he had acquired the habit of pro- tracting the services to an unusual length, he ex- hausted himself so much, that he was obliged to pause twice to rest himself. The discourse wai afterwards published under the title: 'For Mis- sionaries after the Apostolic Schools, a series of orations in four parts,' and dedicated to his friend Coleridge. In the following year he preached the annual sermon for the Continental Society, and on that occasion, too, disgusted many even of his friends and admirers by extending the services to more than four hours' duration. He wished to train his own mind to habitual occupation with religious thoughts, and as he thought others should do so too, he refused to abridge his discourses. — Mr. Irving, through the influence of Coleridge, became strongly inclined to mysticism, and, having com- menced the study of unfulfilled prophecy, which he preposterously held out as the key to the right interpretation of the Bible, he gradually plunged into a sea of the grossest absurdities. Attaching himself to what was called ' The Albury School of Prophets,' he not only adopted Millennarian views respecting the personal reign of Christ on the earth, but began to entertain some singular opinions of the model Christian church. These opinions, leading him to conceive that it was want of faith that prevented the miraculous gifts of the primi- tive age from being enjoved by the church in mo- dern times, he with his flock, "being true believers, laid claim to the power of working miracles, and speaking with unknown tongues. These wild ex- travagances, together with the sad errors in doc- trine into which Mr. Irving fell, compelled the courts of the Church of Scotland to interfere. He was at length declared no longer belonging to her communion, and he with his deluded flock, who followed blindly in all his vagaries, withdrew from Regent Square church to a new chapel that was built for his reception. Exhausted by anxiety and incessant labours, Mr. Irving's iron constitution gave way, and, while on a tour through his native country, undertaken for his health, he died in Glasgow, in the Cathedral of which his remains were interred. — The Irvingites still form a con- siderable body, and a scheme is at present being carried out for building churches in all the large 349 IRW towns of the United Kingdom in connection with this sect. Towards the completion of this scheme, it is reported that Henry Drmmnond, Esq., the eminent London banker, has given the munificent donation of £100,000. [R.J.] IRWIN, Eyles, an English poet, 1751-1817. ISAAC, son of Abraham and Sarah, 2266 B.C. ISAAC, a patriarch of Armenia, died 1440. ISAAC, Angelus, emperor of the East, pro- claimed on the day when Andronicus Commenus was killed by the populace 1185, dethroned and deprived of his sight by Alexis, his brother, 1195, reinstated by the crusaders, and put to death the same year by Alexis Dncas, 1204. ISAAC COMMENUS, emperor of the East 1057, abdicated 1059, died in a monastery 1061. ISAAC KARO, a Spanish rabbi, 15th century. ISAAC LEVITA, a rabbin of the 16th century. ISAACSON, H., an Eng. chronolo., 1581-1654. ISABELLA of Austria, daughter of Philip II., king of Spain, and of Elizabeth of France, born 1566, married to Albert, son of the emperor Maximilian, 1598, deprived of the sovereignty of the Low Countries, which she had received after the death of her husband in 1621, died 1633. ISABELLA of Bavaria, daughter of Stephen IL, duke of Bavaria, born 1371, married to Charles VI. of France, 1385, died miserably at Paris, after a reign marked by intrigues and crimes, 1435. ISABELLA of Castile, queen of Spain, daughter of John II. king of Castile, bom 1450, married to Ferdinand V., king of Arragon, 1469, died 1504. The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella is the most glorious in the Spanish annals, and from the year 1492, they bore the title of ' king ' in common. In her rgn. the inquisition was founded. ISABELLA of France, daughter of Philip the Fair, born 1292, married to Edward II. of England 1308, dethroned her husband with the aid of her paramour, Lord Mortimer, 1326, confined in the castle of Risings by her son Edward III., on attaining his majority, 1330, died 1358. IS.EUS, an Athenian orator, 4th century B.C. ISAIAH, a prophet of the Jews, son of Amos, and nephew of Amaziah, k. of Judah, 7th ct. B.C. ISCANUS, Joseph, a Latin poet, died 1224. IS E LIN, Isaac, a Germ, philosopher, 1728-82. ISELIN, J. C, a Germ. Orientalist, 1681-1737. ISEMBERT of Xaintes, a French architect, employed to finish Old London Bridge 1209. ISIASLAV, the first of the name grand duke of Russia, reigned 1054-1078; the second, 1146- 1154; the third, 1157-1161. ISIDORE, archbishop of Thessalonica, 15th ct. ISIDORE of Alexandria, a saint and par- tizan of Athanasius, b. in Egypt abt. 318, d. 404. ISIDORE of Charax, a Gr. geographer, 1st c. ISIDORE of Miletus, a Greek architect, em- ployed by Justinian at Constantinople, 6th cent. ISIDORE of Pelusium, a saint, and disciple of Chrysostom, author of Letters valued for their remarks on Scripture passages, on theological questions, and on church discipline, d. about 440. ISIDORE of Seville, a saint, and ecclesias- tical writer and historian, distinguished for his piety and erudition, bora about 570, died 686. A collection of spurious canons intended to prove that all ecclesiastical authority emanated from the »ee of Rome, was a long time attributed to him, ITU but they have been proved to be the forgeries of an ecclesiastical writer of the 8th century, known as Isidore Mercator, or PECOATOft. ISLA, J. F., a Spanish Jesuit, 1714-1783. ISLEIF, an Icelandic historian, 11th century. ISHMAEL, a son of Abraham and Hngar, and the supposed father of the Arabians, 2280 B.C. ISHMAEL, founder of the dynasty of the Sophies in Persia, 1487-1524. Ismmakl II. , his grandson, succeeded 1576, poisoned 1577. ISOCRATES, a famous Athenian orator and teacher of rhetoric, was bom about 436 B.C., and was a contemporary of Socrates. He is reckoned by Cicero among the first to perfect the melody of Greek prose, and was so warmly attached to his country, that he took no food after the fatal battle of Cheronea, and four days afterwards died of starvation and grief in the ninety-eighth year of his age. There are some discourses and epistles still extant under his name ; and it is recorded that he never, by writing or accusation, injured a single individual. ISRAEL BEN AARON, a Prussian rabbi, au- thor of 'The Light of Israel,' published 1701. ISSELT, M. D\, a German historian, d. 1597. ISTLIVANFIUS, Nicholas, vice-palatine of Hungary, and historian of that country, died 1615. ISTRIA, Vincentello D'., viceroy of Corsica, born 1380, made viceroy 1421, executed 1434. ITALINSKI, A., a Polish diplomatist, d. 1827. ITAND, J. M. G., a Fr. physician, 1775-1838. ITTIGIUS, Th., a Ger. theologian, 1644-1710. ITURBIDE, or YTURBIDE, Don Augustus, a Mexican officer, born of a distinguished family in 1784, is remarkable for his sudden elevation to the supreme power as emperor of Mexico, and for his tragical fate after he had played his part in the drama of Mexican independence. When the yoke of Spain was shaken off by some of the Ame- rican provinces in 1816, Iturbide was in command of the royal army of the north, occupying Guan- axuato and Valladolid, and a false cnarge of dis- loyalty being preferred against him, he retired from active service, in reality, as it appears, to watch events, and to find means in the ruin of the Spaniards for the gratification of his ambition. His plans being matured, and a command offered to him, he declared for the independence of the Mexican people, and having freed his country of the common enemy, he outwitted the republicans, and was proclaimed emperor by a emip d'etat, May 18th, 1822. Unable to maintain his authority in a state of anarchy, which only a real king of men could have controlled, he tendered his abdication in the March following, and being handsomely Provided for, covenanted to reside in Italy. From taly, notwithstanding, in the beginning of 1824, he removed to England, and encouraged by the division of parties in Mexico, addressed a letter to the congress, offering his services as a private officer, to restore order — not waiting an answer, however, but embarking for the seat of empire with a magnificent imperial mantle, proclamations, crosses, uniforms, and insignia of all kinds, with which to caparison and dazzle the poor Mexicans. The message of Iturbide was received and read in congress on the 28th of April, and its writer in- stantly proclaimed an outlaw; who, ignorant of the fact, arrived in person on the 12th of July, 350 IVA only to be sliot on the 19th, and thrown into an unhonoured grave, without coffin or shroud, like a dog. It is evident there was no national feeling in favour of this adventurer, as was indeed hardly possible in such a country and under such circum- stances, yet the event might have been very dif- ferent had he returned earlier. The rich and populous state of Guadalaxara, where the military command was in the hands of Bustamenti, was in favour of Iturbide, and in revolt against the su- preme government, but was subjugated by con- gress about a month before his arrival. One last chance was thrown in his way by La Garza, under colour of making him prisoner, but Iturbide had neither the nerve nor the address to profit by it, and the soldiers he might have commanded, had he been a Napoleon, led him to execution. [E.R.] IVAN, the first of the name prince of Georgia, began to reign 1057 ; the second, grandson of the preceding, distinguished in the war with the Turks in 1123 ; the third, grandson of the latter, reigned about the middle of the 12th century. IVAN, an Armenian prince in the service of the kings of Georgia, died 1231. IVANOFF, a Russian dramatist, 1777-1816. IVAR WIDFAMNE, the founder of a line of Swedish and Danish kings in the 7th century. IVES, Edward, an English traveller, d. 1786. IVES, John, an Engl, antiquarian, 1751-1776. JAC IVETEAUX, N. V., a French poet, 1559-1649. IVO, IVES, or YVES, bishop of Chartres, au. of a collection of decrees, canons, &c, 1035-lil5 IWAN. The Russian sovereigns of this name are — Iwan I., who succeeded his father in the principalities of Vlodomir, Moscow, and Novogorod, 1328, and died 1340. Iwan II., his grandson, reigned 1353-1358. Iwan III., the conqueror of the Tartars under Achmet Khan, the first to adopt the black eagle, and claim the sovereignty of all the Russias, 1438-1505. Iwan IV., grand- son of the preceding, and first czar of Russia, surnamed ' the Terrible ' on account of his cruel- ties, but a great promoter of commerce and civil- ization, 1530-1584. Iwan V., who, being deaf and dumb, was associated with his brother, Peter I., reigned 1682-1696. Iwan VI., poisoned in infancy, 1740, to make way for Elizabeth, daugh- ter of Peter I. IXNARD, M , a French architect, 1723-1795. IXTLILXOCHITL, Ferdinand DAlva, au. of a history of the old Mexican kings, 17th cent. IZAACKE, R., historian of Exeter, died 1700. IZIOCALT, the fourth king of Mexico, and real founder of its government, reigned 1433-1455. IZMAILOV, a Russian journalist, 1780-1832. IZQUIERDO, Don Eugenio, a Spanish diplo- matist, signed the truce of Fontainebleau, d. 1816. IZZEN-CHOLLACH, a French poet, last cent. JAACOB, a learned Talmudist, 10th century. | renown. He had spent many years in the haras- JAAPHAR-EBN-THOPHAIL, an Arabian I sing and inglorious conflicts with the Indians on philosopher, author of ' The Improvement of Hu- j the frontier, when the second war with Britain man Reason, exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yok- j called him to more distinguished services. In 1815 dan,' a philos. romance, transl. by Ockley, d. 1198. ' he signalized himself by the defence of New Or- JABALOT, F. F., an Ital. theol., 1780-1834. I leans. On this occasion he showed that somewhat JABINEAU, H., a Fr. eccles. wr., died 1792. \ haughty disregard of civil rights, which was acon- JABLONOWSKI, C. G., a Ger. nat., 1756-87. spicuous feature of his character; and perhaps it JABLONOWSKI, Joseph, Count, grandfather | was well for the constitution of the United States of Stanislaus, king of Poland, known as a poet I that in the midst of his triumphant popularity he found himself surrounded by legal difficulties and and translator; died commencement of last cen tury. Joseph Alexander, Prince Jablonowski, of the same family, founder of a literary society which bears his name, and author of a biography of the great Polish generals, 1712-1777. JABLONOWSKI, Uladislas, a Polish general in the service of Fr. at St. Domingo, 1769-1802. JABLONSKI, Daniel Ernest, a Hebrew scholar and protestant divine of Germany, 1660- 1741. John Theodore, his brother, a distin- guished lexicographer, 1654-1731. Paul Ernest, son of Daniel, a theolo. and lear. wr., 1693-1757. JACKSON, Andrew, president of the United States, was born in South Carolina, on the 15th of March, 1767. His father, a settler of Scottish descent, died early, leaving him, with two olde: dangers. He was subjected to damages for pro- ceedings affecting private parties consequent on his suspending the constitution, and enforcing martial law at New Orleans. There has been no states- man from whom, had opportunity served him, the constitution of the States was likely to run so much risk. He depended on his military renown and democratic principles for the votes and sup- port of the multitude, and might thus in a less firmly settled government have been a very dan- gerous man. After having served in various pub- lic capacities, he became, in 1824, a candidate for the presidency. Though he had the largest num- ber of votes, no one had a sufficient number to be I elected, and Adams was selected by the representa- brothera, to the care of their widowed mother. He tives, according to the constitution. In 1828 Jack- early showed a hardy self-relying nature, and when i son was elected by a large majority. The older party but a boy he shouldered a musket in the war of viewed this event as the ascendancy of principles independence. With the versatility of employment j fraught with danger to the United States; and peculiar to the progressive character of the new I this feeling was echoed from other countries, when republican empire, he became a lawyer as well as it was seen that his policy was connected with a soldier; and he was at the same time a judge of ■ territorial aggression, and the aggrandizement of the supreme court of Tennessee, and a major-gen- the slave-holding interest. On the renewal of the eral in the army of the United States, this was j charter of the United States Bank, amain instru- the character in wluch he was to reap his great j ment of influence to the federal government, he 351 JAC boldly trusted to popular support, and used his veto against the chambers of congress His pre- sidency lasted until 1837. He died on 8th June, 1845. [J.H.B.] JACKSON, Arthur, a noncf. div., 1593-1666. JACKSON, Cyril, an eminent div., 1746-1819. His brother, William, bishop of Oxford, a clas- sical translator and mathematician, 1750-1815. JACKSON, John, a portrait pain., 1778-1831. JACKSON, John, a famous controver divine, philosophical writer, and chronologist, 1686-1763. JACKSON, Joseph, a letter-founder, 1733-92. JACKSON, Robert, a physician and profes. writer, especially on the fevers of Jamaica and America, and the use of cold water, 1751-1827. JACKSON, Thomas, a learned div., 1579-1640. JACKSON, William, a musical composer and writer : distinguished also as a painter, 1730-1804. JACKSON, William, an Irish protestant clergyman, convicted of a treasonable correspon- dence with France; d. of poison at the bar, 1795. JACOB, the patriarch of the Bible, is supposed to have been born abt, 2206 B.C., and d. abt. 2061. JACOB, a Cistercian monk, and native of Hungary, killed while preaching a crusade, 12th c. JACOB, Al Bardi, or Burad.eus, a bishop and apostle of the Monophysites in the 6th century. JACOB, Ben Hajim, a rabbi of the 16th cent. JACOB, Ben Napthali, a learned Jew to whom, in conjunction with Ben Aser, the invention of the Masoretic points is ascribed, 5th century. JACOB, Edward, an antiquar. wr., d. 1788. JACOB, Giles, a writer of numerous works on legal subjects and in polite literature; among which are his ' Lives and Characters of English Dramatic Poets,' ' Law Dictry.,' &c., 1690-1744. JACOB, Henry, founder of the first congrega- tional or independent church in England, and au- thor of theological treatises by which that reform was promoted, died about 1624. His son, of the same name, a learned writer, 1606-1652. JACOB, Jehudaii Leon, a Spanish Jew. an. of a 'Descrip. of the Temple of Solomon,' 17th ct. JACOB KOLB, G., a Fr. antiq., 1775-1830. JACOBiEUS, Oliger, a Danish antiquarian, naturalist, and literary savant, 1650-1701. His son, James, a learned writer, died 1738. JACOBI, A. K,, a Ger. jurisconsult, 1746-1825. JACOBI, Frederick Henry', born at Dussel- dorf, 25th January, 1743 ; died at Munich, where he was President of the Academy of Sciences, 10th March, 1819. Jacobi, distinguished pre- eminently as a writer— no German in modern times having attained a style of greater lucidity and beauty — led the reaction which followed on the various scepticisms arising in the specu- lations of Kant, and explained in our article on that philosopher. The scepticisms chiefly related to the question — how far are we entitled to infer the existence of an external reality, from the existence of a primary conception? Ja- cobi opposed to them an imperturbable dog- matism, — asserting with unshrinking confidence, the legitimacy and sufficiency of such conclu- sions as the following : — ' I think, or have an idea of the Supreme Being — therefore he exists.' It cannot be doubted that this faith-philosophy, as it was designated, had considerable, and a very salutary influenco hi recalling to logicians the JAC authority of our Intuitions; but Jacobi forgot that a true and philosophic faith is not synonymous with blind confidence in whatever may be found in the mind ; it is confidence justified by reflection, and defensible on grounds capable of being pled and vindicated. He exceeded in this direction even the excesses of the Scottish School; although his expositions are everywhere distinguished by acutcness, and adorned by so remarkable a grace, that his disciples have named him a modern Plato. The correspondence of this celebrated writer is perhaps the most interesting of any recently left us. Goethe declared that it represents and sums up a whole century. Jacobi may be considered the founder of a School ; and to have had no slight influence in moulding the illustrious Schleiermacher. [J.P.N.] JACOBI, John Geo., brother of the preceding, a dist. professor and wr. of polite liter., 1740-1814. JACOBILLI, L., an Italian savant, 1598-1670. JACOBS, F. C. W., a Ger. critic, b. 1764-1847. JACOBS, Jurien, a Swiss painter, 1610-1661. JACOBS, Lucas, a Dutch painter, 1494-1533. JACOBS, P. F., a Flemish painter, 1780-1808. JACOBSEN, M., a Spanish commdr., by whom the Armada was saved from total ruin, d. 1633. JACOBSON, John Ch. Gottfried, au. of a ' Technological Diet, of All the Arts,' &c, 1726-89. JACOPI, J., an Italian anatomist, died 1813. JACOPONE, or JACOPO DA TODI, an It;:!. monk, whose real name was Jacopo de Bene- detti, author of ascetic writings and hymns, which have given him a place among the poets of Italy. The best known of these is the famous ' Stabat Mater Dolorosa ; ' died 1306. JACOTIN, Peter, a Fr. geograph., 1765-1827. JACOTOT, Jean Joseph, celeb, as the au. of a plan of universal education, successively captain of artillery under Napoleon, secretary to the minis- ter of war, member of the chamber of representa- tives 1815, prof, of literature at Louvain, and direc- tor of the military school of Belgium, 1770-1840. JACQUAPiD, or JACQUART, Marie Joseph, celebrated as the inventor of a loom for the weav- ing of damasks, was bom at Lyons 1752, and died 1834. He was the son of a common workman, and first exhibited his machine in 1801, sinca which, it has been adopted in every manufactory of Europe and America, and is admitted to mark an epoch in the weaving art. He was appointed by Napoleon to an employment in the ' Conserva- toire des Arts et des Metiers,' and the city of Lyons has erected a statue to his memory. JACQUELIN, J. A., aFr. poet, 1776-1827. JACQUELINE, countess of Holland, 1400-36. JACQUELOT, Isaac, a prot. div., 1647-1708. JACQUEMARD, S., a Fr. poet, 1772-1830. JACQUEMIN, J. B., a Fr. geomet., 1720-1786. JACQUEMONT, Victor, a celebrated French naturalist and traveller in the East Indies, b. 180L JACQUES, M. J., a Fr. theologian, 1736-1821. JACQUET, Eugene Vincent, a Fr. munis, and au. of works on the East, languages, 1811-38. JACQUET, J. C, a Fr. pamphleteer, last cent. JACQUET, Louis, a French Jesuit, author of a 'Parallel between the Greek and French tragic writers,' 1732-1794. JACQUET, Peter, a Fr. jurisconsult, d. 1766. JACQUIER, P., a learned mathemat., 1711-88. 352 JAC * JACQUIN, A. P., a French author, 1721-1780. JACQUIN, Nicolas Joseph, a Dutch botanist, author of a magnificent work entitled • Florae Aus- triaca?,' with 500 coloured engravings, 1727-1817. JADELOT, N., a Fr. physiologist, 1738-1793. JAECK, C, a German engraver, 1763-1809. JAECK, M., a German jurisconsult, 1783-1833. JAEGER, J. W., a German divine, born 1647. JAGELLON, a duke of Lithuania, born about 1354, united the kingdom of Poland to his own by his marriage with Hedriga, and reigned as IJladislas V., 1386, died 1434. JAGEMANN, C. J., a German savant, d. 1804. JAGO, Richard, an English poet, 1715-1781. JAHN, John, a professor in Vienna, disting. as an Oriental and biblical scholar, died 1817. JAILLOT, Hubert Alexis, a French geo- grapher, born about 1640, died 1712. JAKOB, L. H. Von, a German economist and philosopher of the school of Kant, 1759-1827. JALLABERT, J., a Swiss exp. phil., 1712-68. JAMBLICUS, a Svrian novelist, 2d century. JAMBLICUS, a Platonic philosopher, 4th cent. JAMBLICHUS, or IAMBLICHUS, the fa- mous Neo-platonist and pupil of Porphyry, was born at Chalcis, and died about the year 333. His Platonism was far from pure, for it was adul- terated with many orientalisms, and degraded by numerous superstitions. Yet his contemporaries were lavish in their praises of his genius. His treatise on Pythagoras contains a life of that philosopher, full of ridiculous puerilities and por- tents, and has also several chapters on ethics and geometry. The book ' On the Mysteries,' is an attempt to prove the divine origin and perfection of the Egyptian worship, with its theosophic doc- trines and mystic ceremonies. Many of his other works, such as his Commentaries on some of Plato's Dialogues, are lost. His treatise on the Mysteries was published by Gale, Oxford, 1678, folio. This Jamblichus is often confounded with other two persons of the same name. [J.E.] JAMES. The saints of this name are — 1. The apostle, brother of Saint John, put to death by Herod Agrippa 44. 2. A bishop of Jerusalem, brother of St. Simon and St. Jude, killed by the people, 62. 3. A bishop of Mesopotamia, 4th cen. JAMES. The kings of Scotland of this name are — James I., son of Robert III., born 1394; detained in England by Henry IV. and Henry V., 1405-1423 ; succeeded to the throne 1406 ; mur- dered 1437. James II., son of James I., born 1430 ; succeeded 1437 ; killed at the siege of Rox- burgh 1460. James III., son of James II., born 1453; succeeded 1460; killed near the field of Bannockburn 1488. James IV., born 1472 ; suc- ceeded his father James III. 1488 ; married Mar- garet, daughter of Henry VII. of England, 1503 ; killed at Flodden field 1513. James V., son and successor of the latter at the age of eighteen months, 1513; married Madeleine, daughter of Francis I., 1536 ; died, when his only child, Mary, was eight days old, 1542. James VI., grandson of the preceding by his daughter Mary, who was married to Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, born 1566; crowned at Stirling by the insurgent nobles 1567 ; sue. Elizabeth as king of England 1603 ; d. 1625. JAMES I., king of England, same as James VI. of Scotland. James II., his grandson, suc- JAN ceeded his brother, Charlea TL, 1685; lost Ins throne and took refuge in France 1688 ; landed in Ireland, and lost the battle of the Boyne 1690 ; died 1701. JAMES I., king of Arragon, born 1206, sue. 1213, died 1216. James II., reigned 1285-1327. JAMES I., king of Majorca, son of James I., king of Arragon, flourished 1248-1311. James II., grandson of James I., reigned 1324-1349. JAMES of Bourbon, count of La Marche, and second husband of Jeanne II., queen of Naples, whom he married after the death of Beatrix of Navarre, his first wife, died 1438. JAMES of Majorca, third husband of Jeanne I., queen of Naples, whom he married on being delivered from his three years' imprisonment in an iron cage, 1362 ; died duke of Calabria 1 375. JAMES of Vitri, a French cardinal and his- torian, persecutor of the Albigenses, died 1244. JAMES of Voragine, an Ital. prelate, d. 1298. JAMES, John Thos., D.D., bishop of Calcutta after the death of Bishop Heber, 1786-1829. JAMES, Robert, a physician and professional writer, auth. of a ' Medical Dictionary, and celeb, for the preparation of a fever powder, 1703-1776. JAMES, Thos., auth. of school-books, d. 1804. JAMES, Thomas, a distinguished navigator and discoverer, author of a curious journal, 17th c. JAMES, Thomas, a learned divine and collec- tor of curious MSS., author of a ' Treatise on the Corruption of Scriptures, Councils, and Fathers,' 1571-1632. His nephew, Richard, a distin- guished scholar, 1592-1638. JAMES, William, a land surveyor, distin- guished as the first projector of the Manchester and Liverpool railway, and regarded as the father of the railway system, 1771-1837. JAMES, William, a naval historian, d. 1827. JAMES, Sir W., an E. Indian officer, 1720-83. JAMESON, G., a Scotch painter, 1586-1644. JAMESON, W., an English savant, author of * Spicilegia Antiquitatum jEgyptii,' last century. JAMET, P. C, a French author, born 1701. JAMI, an Oriental poet, 1414-1494. JAMIESON, Rev. John, a Scottish seceding minister, born at Glasgow 1759, ordained at For- far in 1786, translated to Edinburgh 1797, author of many popular professional works, but is best known to the world at large by his 'Historical Ac- count of the Culdees of lona,' his 'Hermes Scythi- cus,' and above all by his 'Etymological Diction, of the Scottish Language.' Died at Edinburgh 1838. JAMIN, N., an ascetic of Brittany, 1730-1782. JAMYN, Amadis, a French poet, 1538-1585. JANE. See Jeanne, Joan. JANEWAY, J., a nonconform, divine, 1636-74. JANI, Ch. D., a German philosopher, 1743-90. JANICON, Francis Michael, a French pro- testant, known as a political writer, 1674-1730. JAN1N, Joseph, a French historian, 1715-94. JANITIUS, C, a Polish historian, 1616-1643. JANNES and JAMBRES, the name by which Paul calls the magicians who resisted Moses in Egypt, and supposed to be the same as Jamne and Jotape mentioned by Pliny, and as the Jo- hanni and Mamre of the Talmud. JANOSKI, J. D., a Polish savant, 1720-1786. JANSEN, H., a French translator, 1741-1812. JANSENIUS, Cornelius, bishop of Ghent, author of a ' Harmony of the Gospel,' 1510-1576. 353 2 A JAN JANSENIUS, James, professor of divinity at Louvain, au. of Scripture Comment., 1547-1625. JANSSEN, Corneille, (Cornelius Jansen- ius), was born in a hamlet called Accoy, close upon Leerdam, in Flanders, in a.d. 1585. In 1602 he went to study at Louvain, but his severe industry brought on a malady which required change of air, and the young student repaired to Paris, where he formed a friendship with Jean du Verger de Hau- ranne, better known as the Abbe St.Cyran in the sub- sequent history of Jansenism. The two friends re- tired to Bayonne, where they spent several years in earnest study and meditation. On returning to Louvain, Janssen was elevated to the principality of the college of St. Pulcheria, became doctor of theology in 1617, and was added to the number of professors in ordinary. Twice was he sent by his college to Spain on business of moment. He was raised to thebishoprick of Ypres in 1 635; a work writ- ten by him against France for forming alliances with protestant states having contributed to secure him such patronage from the court of Spain. He died of the plague in 1638, in the fifty-third year of his age. A large part of his life — at least twenty years of it — had been spent in studying and col- lecting the works of Augustine. The result of his labours — his ' Augustinus,' scarcely finished at his decease — he submitted to the judgment of Pope Urban VIII. His friends published the posthumous volumes at Louvain in 1640. The Jesuits, who were favourers of Pelagianism, were its bitter and truculent opponents. Five propositions were se- lected to be condemned, and after many scenes of strife and papal anathema, the Bull Unigenitus was issued by Pope Clement XL, which put under ban the evangelical doctrines of Quesnel, Janssen, and the whole party. Port-royal, the happy abode of so many of them, had before this time been razed to the ground by Jesuit malice and intrigue. [J.E.] JANSSEN, or JOHNSON, Cornel., a Dutch portrait painter, disting. in England, 1590-1685. JANSSENS, A., a Flemish painter, 1569-1631. JANSSENS, Victor Honorius, a Flemish painter, disting. in historical subjects, 1664-1739. JANTET, A. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1747-1805. JANUARIUS, a bishop and saint of the Romish Church, beheaded in the persecu. under Diocletian. JANVIER, Antide, a French mechanician and writer on the chronometer and orrery, 1751-1835. JANVIER, Dom Rene Ambrolse, a learned French monk and editor of Hebrew, 1614-1682. JAPHETH, the third son of Noah, and the Japetes of profane history, ancestor of the Greeks. JAQUELOT, Isaac, a Fr. divine, 1647-1708. JAQUOT, Blaise, a Fr. jurist, abt. 1580-1632. JARCHI, Solomon Ben. See Raschi. JARD, Francis, a Fr. preacher, 1675-1768. JARDEL, a Fr. archaeologist, died after 1793. JARDIN, N. H., a Fr. architect, 1720-1799. JARDINE, G., a Scotch philosopher, 1743-1827. JARD1NIER, C. D., a French engr., 1726-74. JARDINS, Mary Catherine Des, a French novelist, best kn. as Madame de Villedieu, d. 1683. JARDYN, Karl Du. See Dujardin. JARNOWICK, G. M.. a eel. violinist, 1745-1804. JAROPOL or JAROPOLK, the first of the name, grand duke of Russia, reigned 973-980 ; the second, grandson of the preceding, 1132-1138, 354 .TEB JAROSLAW, or JAROSLAV, George, grand duke of Russia, a great patron of learn., d. 1051. JARRIGE, Peter, a French Jesuit, 1605-60. JARRY, Lawrence Guilhard Du, a French preacher, kn. as a poet and relig. wr., 1658-1730. JARS, Francis DeRocheciiouart, Cheyalr. De, a French officer, disting. in the annals of the Bastile for his singular courage, died 1670. JARS, Gabriel, a Fr. mineralogist, 1732-69. JARVIS, John, an Irish artist^ distinguished as a painter on glass, born about 1749, died 1804. JASON, a tyrant of Thessalia, 4th cent. B.C. JAUCOURT, Louis, Chevalier De, a French med. wr., and contrib. to the Encyclo., 1704-1779. JAUGEON, N., a Fr. archaeologist, died 1725. JAULT, Aug. Fr., a Fr. translator, 1700-1757. JAUREGUI-Y-AGUILAR, JuanDe, a Span- ish painter, poet, and translator, 1566-KJD7. JAUSSAUD, L. De, aFr. Hellenist, 1580-1665. JAUSSIN, L. Arnauo, a Fr. historn., d. 1757. JAY, John Michael Le, an Oriental scholar and advocate of the parliament of Paris, d. 1675. JAY, John, an Ameri. statesman, 1745-1829. JAYADEVA, a eel. Hindu poet, 12th to 15th c. JEACOCKE, Caleb, a tradesman of London, celebrated as a debater ; author of a ' Vindication of the Moral Character of the Apos. Paul,' d. 1786. JEAN EVANGELISTE, Le Pere, was a Capuchin of Louvain, who was known to be living in 1639. He is the author of a work entitled 'De Regno Dei in Anima,' which is the finest introduction to the understanding of mystical sub- jects ever written, and is the only work at all comparable to Boehmen's 'Divine Vision.' In this eulogium we must be understood to include a second part, added to the editions of Frankfort in 1690 and 1692, and entitled 'De Separatione Animae et Spiritus,' or ' The Separation of the Soul and the Spirit, illustrating the inward ascent of the Bride through the degrees of Pure Love.' In support of his thesis concerning the soul's gathering in to herself, of her introversion, and of her drawing near and exalting herself into God, the author cites many famous names of admitted integrity. It is altogether a curious and valuable treatise on the state of ecstacy. [E.R.] JEANES, Henry, an Eng. theolog., 1611-62. JEANNE D'ALBRET. See Albret. JEANNE, queen of Naples. See Joan. JEANNE, Henriquez, queen of Castile and Arragon, wife of John II., died 1468. JEANNE-LA-FOLLE, queen of Castile, daugh- ter of Ferdinand the Catholic, wife of Philip, arch- duke of Austria, and mo. of Chas. V., 1482-1555. JEANNE of Navarre, daughter of Henry I., king of Navarre, and wife of Philip the Fair, king of France, 1272-1305. JEANNE of Valois, or St. Jeanne, daugh. of Louis XL, founder of a relig. order, 1464-1622. JEANNIN, Peter, kn. as President Jeannin, a Fr. financier, minister of Henry IV., 1540-1622. JEANROI, D., a Fr. med. writer, 1750-1816. JEANSON, B., a French architect, died 1828. JEAURAT, E. S., a Fr. mathematician, founder of the observatory at the mil. school, 1724-1803. JEBB, John, an Irish prelate, author of an ' Essay on Sacred Literature,' &c., 1775-1833. JEBB, John, a learned divine and Oriental scholar, who became a physician on professing JED Socinanism, 1736-1786. Samuel, his uncle, a learned editor of the nonjuring party, afterwards a physician, died 1772. Sir Richard Jebb, P,rt., son of Sam., physicn. to Geo. III., 1729-1787. JEDAAIA, H., Rabbi, surnamed Habbedrasci, a Jewish poet and theologian of Spain, 13th cent. JEFFERSON, Thomas, an eminent American statesman, was born in 1743, at Shadwell, in Vir- ginia. He was educated as a lawyer, and combin- ing with his professional training great scholarship, and a capacity of expressing himself with ease and precision, he became of eminent service in drawing the documents connected with the establishment of American independence, and otherwise aiding in the arrangements connected with that great event. He prepared the first draught of the De- claration of Independence, which was revised by Franklin and Adams. In a document relating to the disposal of his estates in his old age, he gave this brief and distinct account of his history : — ' I came of age in 1764, and was soon put into the nomination of justices of the county in which I lived, and at the first election following I became one of its representatives in the legislature ; was thence sent to the old Congress ; then employed two years with Mr. Pendleton and Mr. Wythe on the re- visal and reduction to a single code of the whole body of the British statutes, the acts of our assem- bly, and certain parts of the common law ; then elected governor ; next to the legislature, and to Congress again ; sent to Europe as minister-pleni- potentiary; appointed secretary of state to the new government ; elected vice-president and pre- sident ; and, lastly, a visitor and rector of the uni- versity of Virginia.' His opinions were strongly impressed on the principles of government and the early legislation of the United States He was a thorough republican, and the opponent of the federative party; but it requires to be kept in view that this opposition was derived from the old American school of abstract republicanism, and equality of citizenship, and had little harmony ■with the later anti-federalism, and its appeals to mob influence to accomplish conventional purposes. Thus, while he abolished primogeniture and the church establishment, he also restrained the slave trade, and his sentiments were in favour of the abo- lition of slavery. In 1801 he succeeded the elder Adams as president, by choice of the House of Re- presentatives, who had to decide between him and an opponent, on account of an equality of votes. There is no doubt that this choice was eminently propitious to the stability of the constitution, when it is known that his rival was the unscrupulous and clever Colonel Burr. Jefferson filled the office for eight years, and from the year 1809 he lived in retirement in Virginia, until his death on the 4th of July, 1826, the anniversary of the declara- tion of independence, and the day on which his friend and rival, the elder Adams, died. [J.H.B.] JEFFERY, J., a div. and moralist, 1647-1720. JEFFERY, Th., a nonconfor. divine, last cen. JEFFREY, Francis, one of the most masterly critics and most eloquent writers in the English language, was a very remarkable instance of the combination of different and dissimilar faculties, as well as of indefatigable energy and rapid versati- lity in the employment of mental powers. During the twenty-five years when his literary labours JEF would have seemed to be incessant, he was prac- tising the legal profession with activity and in- creasing success : he was the leading banister in the Scottish courts, while he continued to vindicate his place as the first literary critic of his time ; and in his declining years, when literature had ceased to be for him anything more than an amusement, he gained, by his knowledge and acuteness and industry on the bench, an eminent reputation among the best judges that have administered the law of Scotland. He, too, the good lawyer and celebrated writer, was a singularly eloquent and effective speaker; fluent, refined, and masterly in public oratory, and in private society one of the most brilliant of talkers. In his writings, again, to say nothing of the variety of information in- volved in the "diversified fields over which he ex- Eatiated, there is an admirable union and an armonious balancing of vigorous thought with impressive representation: gay and graceful wit, sometimes luxuriating too keenly to be good-na- tured, alternates with the natural expression of serious feelings which are always refined and not infrequently profound ; and an imagination almost fertile and original enough to have made him a poet, throws over all his writings a wealth of feli- citously illustrative imagery hardly ever employed to garnish so much of active and sagacious think- ing. — Francis Jeffrey was born at Edinburgh in October, 1773. His father, a lawyer by profession, was one of the deputy-clerks or registrars of the Court of Session, the supreme law-court of Scot- land. After having passed six years at the High School of Edinburgh, he studied at the university of Glasgow for two sessions of six months each, and afterwards, in his eighteenth year, resided for a few months at Oxford. His youth was spent in industrious reading, which embraced classics, history, ethics, criticism, and the Belles Lettres: he was indefatigable in practising composition, and in early manhood wrote many verses. At the age of twenty-one, he was admitted to the Scottish bar, where, for not a few years, he was so little employed as to have full leisure for literary pur- suits. The first number of the Edinburgh Review, which contained five papers of Jeffrey's, appeared in October, 1802, when he was just twenty-nine years old ; and he became its editor after the first two or three numbers. The celebrity which the Review at once attained was owing more, in an incalculable degree, to him than to any other of the contribu- tors : the papers which he furnished to it were for many years very numerous, and were those on which its critical authority rested ; and his skill and industry in editing were very valuable. At first considerably open in its politics, the Review soon became decidedly Whiggisn ; and the Quarterly was established as a rival. But, for a good many years- after this, its energy suffered no perceptible dimi- nution ; and the exertions of its editor were unre- laxed, in spite of the claims of a professional prac- tice, which was now becoming very great. In the meantime, in 1802, he had married a relation of his own, whom he soon lost, to the deep grief of a heart keenly awake to the domestic and friendly affections. In 1813 he married a grand-niece of John Wilkes, crossing to the United States to bring her home. In 1815 he became the occupant of the beautiful villa of Craigcrook, near Edin- 355 JEP burgh, which, improved by his fine taste, became a place of meeting for many of the most distin- guished persons in Europe. In 1816 Jeffrey's [Cnigcrook Castle.] eloquence as a public speaker found for the first time an adequate field ; trial by jury, which had hitherto been confined in Scotland to criminal causes, being then extended to civil questions. From this time till he ceased to practise, he was the acknowledged leader of the Scottish bar. In 1820, and again in 1821, he was elected Lord Rec- tor of the university of Glasgow by the students, an honour which has since been cordially accepted by some of our most eminent literary men and statesmen. In 1829 his professional brethren au- thoritatively acknowledged his standing, by ap- pointing him Dean or President of the Faculty of Advocates. He immediately resigned the editor- ship of the Review, which had long been burden- some and undesirable. At this point his literary hie may be said to close. During the twenty- seven years, he had contributed to the Review about two hundred articles. A new stage in his history opened with the accession of the Whigs to political power. In December 1830, he was ap- pointed Lord Advocate, an office which, besides many other duties, involves those of a secretary of state for Scotland. He necessarily entered parlia- ment, but too late for eminent success, being now in his fifty-eighth year, without adequate training for the peculiar arena, and with a voice already broken so far as to deprive him in a great measure of the advantages which had belonged to his powers of oratory. His chief speeches m the House of Commons were made in support of those measures of reform in parliamentary representation and civic government, which it was his official duty to in- troduce. In May, 1834, he was raised to the bench as one of the judges in the Court of Session, assuming, according to the Scottish fashion, the honorary title of Lord Jeffrey. He delighted in his judicial duties ; and no man ever performed them bettor. The remaining years of his life were spent in peace and honour. Never was old age more kindly or more placid ; and, when the last scene arrived, the regrets of a whole community were poured on his grave. In 1841, an attack of broncnitis, the disease which had often distressed JEL lished, with unfeigned reluctance, three volumes containing selections from his ' Contributions to the Edinburgh Review." 1 He died at Edinburgh on the 26th of January, 1850, leaving a widow who survived him but for a very short time, and a daughter, whose husband, Mr. Empson (also since dead), became the third editor of the Edinburgh Review. [W.S.] JEFFREYS, George, Lord, an English law- yer, whose name, though he was a man of consi- derable ability, is better known by the infamy than the capacity of its owner, was bom in the year 1648. He was the sixth son of a moderately wealthy country gentleman, unable to give him more than a good education as a barrister, and he had thus to fight his way in the world — a function to which he brought abilities, perseverance, and an utterly unscrupulous nature. Until he had shat- tered his nerves by dissipation, he was not desti- tute of courage, and he first obtained notice by attending an assize at Kingston during the plague, when other members of the profession were fright- ened away. He became recorder of London, and gradually rose, until, in 1683, he became chief justice of the King's Bench. In this capacity, after Monmouth's rebellion, he lent himself more in the spirit of a savage chief than of an English judge to the exterminating policy of the court, and his judicial condemnations obtained the charac- teristic name of Jeffreys' campaign. He was im- mediately rewarded with the office of lord high chancellor, when he transferred his services to a less sanguinary sphere. His wild recklessness of demeanour, his dissipated life, and his unscrupu- lous perversion of the judicial function in political matters, mixed up with an able discharge of his duty in other questions, make a curious and varied narrative in the memoirs of Jeffreys by Woolrich. Conscious of danger, if not of guilt, at the Revolu- tion, he disguised himself as a sailor, and lurked at Wapping to attempt an escape. A man, whom he had terrified from the judgment-seat, recog- nized his ferocious eyes glaring from a tavern win- dow, and gave the alarm. He was with difficulty rescued from popular vengeance, and removed to the Tower, where he died, on the 19th April, 1689. [J.H.B.] JEFFREYS, Geo., an Eng. poet, 1678-1755. JEFFRIES, John, an Am. physic, 1744-1819. JEGHEN, Chr., a Ger. engraver, 1578-1635. JEHAN-GHIR, Abul Muzaffer Noured- deen Mohammed, emperor of Hindostan, son and successor of Akbar, 1605, died, after a reign dist. by the encouragem. of art and litera., 1627. JEHOAHAZ, king of Judah, about 609 B.C. JEHOAHAZ, king of Israel, 848-832 b.c. JEHOIACHIN, kmg of Judah, about 594 B.C. JEHOIAKIM, king of Judah, 608-597 B.C. JEHORAM, a king of Judah, 888-885 B.C. JEHOSHAPHAT, king of Judah, 913-888 B.C. JEHU, a prophet of Israel, about 932 B.C. JEHU, a king of Israel, reigned 876-848 B.C. JEKYL, or JEKYLL, Sir Joseph, a Whig lawyer and statesman of the reign of George I., 1664-1738. His brother, Thomas, a clergyman and author, dates unknown. Their descendant, Joseph, an eminent barrister, solicitor-general to and at length destroyed him, compelled him to the prince of Wales, 1752-1837. seek repose for some months. In 1843 he pub- ! JELALEDDEENROUMI, a Per. poet, lothc. 356 JEL JELGERHIUS, J., a Dutch paint., 1776-1836. JELLINGER, C, a Germ, theolog., 17th cen. JEXISCH, Bernard, Baron De, a German Orientalist, and historian of Persia, 1734-1807. JENISCHIUS, P., a Flem. savant, 1558-1647. JENISHID, or GIARNSCHID. See Djemchid. JENKIN, R., a learned divine, 1656-1727. JENKIN, W., a nonconfor. divine, 1612-1685. JENKINS, David, a famous judge and royalist, au. of ' Reports and Polit. Tracts,' &c, 1586-1667. JENKINS, Henry, a native of Yorkshire, who died in poverty when 169 years of age, 1670. JENKINS, Sir Leoline, a native of Glamor- ganshire, ambassador at the Hague in the reign of Charles II., and a distinguished civilian, 1623-85. JENKINSON. See Liverpool. JENKINSON, Anthony, an English gentleman who was sent out (1558-1559) to inquire into the commercial resources of Central Asia. He was the first Englishman who crossed the Caspian, and the first person who in modern times has given an account of that sea. He reduced its dimensions in longitude ; and made many other accurate deter- minations of geographical positions. JENKS, Benjamin, a clergyman of the Church of England, author of ' Prayers and Offices of Devotion,' 1646-1724. JENNENS, Charles, a gentleman of fortune, first suggestor of oratorios in England, died 1773. JENNER, Ch., an English poet, 1737-1774. JENNER, Edward, M.D., F.R.S., the dis- coverer of vaccination, was born at Berkeley, in Gloucestershire, on the 17th of May, 1749. He lost his father, who was vicar of Berkeley, early in life, and the direction of his education devolved upon his brother, the Rev. Stephen Jenner. He displayed at an early age a taste for natural his- tory, and being destined for the profession of medi- cine he was apprenticed to Mr. Ludlow of Sod- bury, near Bristol, a respectable provincial prac- titioner ; and subsequently removed to London in 1770, where he became for two years a house pupil of the celebrated John Hunter. On the comple- tion of his education in London he returned to his native place, where he began business as a general practitioner, and soon acquired an extensive and well-deserved reputation. In 1798, he made that discovery with which his name is now per- manently associated, namely, that a pustular eruption on the teats of cows, and supposed to be identical with the disease called the ' Grease ' in the heels of horses, had such a relationship to the matter of small-pox, that if inserted into the human constitution it would be protected against that terrible disease. This great fact was an- nounced publicly by Dr. Jenner in 1798, but it was coldly received, and both the public and the Itrofession were extremely sceptical as to its truth, t is now too firmly established to be shaken, though the amount of protection is not so great as was at one time supposed ; still the saving of hu- man life from this discovery has been immense, and assuredly scientific medicine has never be- stowed upon humanity a more precious gift than the practice of vaccination. It was proposed to reward this distinguished physician by a grant of £20,000, but the House of Commons would only give £10,000, and even that with difficulty. It is melancholy to be obliged to state that Jenner's JER life was embittered by the controversies to which his discovery led, and that an amiable, a virtuous, and an accomplished man, was disturbed by petty squabbles, to which his nature was utterly ab- horrent. He died on the 26th of January, 1823, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried on the 3d of February in the chancel of the parish church of Berkeley. [J.M'C.j JENNINGS, Dr. David, a dissenting minister of great learning, author of ' An Appeal to Reason for the Truth of the Holy Scriptures,' and a pos- thumous work on ' Jewish Antiquities,' 1691-1762. JENNINGS, Henry Constantine, a celebra. collector of antiquities and objects of vertu and natural history, author of works connected with religious and philosophical inquiries, 1731-1819. JENSON, N., a French printer, 1420-1483. JENYNS, Soame, a country gentleman, known in the political world as a member of parliament, and partizan of Sir Robert Walpole, and distin- guished in literature as one of the most elegant and ingenious writers of his age. Besides poems, essays, and political tracts, he is the author of ' A Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil,' published 1757, and ' A View of the Inter- nal Evidence of the Christian Religion,' which be- came the subject of a considerable controversy, born in London 1704, died 1787. JEPHSON, R., an Irish dramatist, 1736-1803. JEPTHAH, a judge of the Hebrews, 1243-37 B.C. JEREMIAH, one of the Jewish prophets, 630b.c. JEREMIAH, patriarch of Constantinople, 1572. JERNINGHAM, Edward, an English poet and dramatist, author of ' The Rise and Fall of Scandinavian Poetry,' &c, 1727-1812. JEROBOAM, thejrst of the name king of Israel, 962-943 B.C. The second, 817-776 b.c. JEROME, or according to his full Latin name, Eusebius Hieronymus Sophronius, was born of Christian parents at Stridon, a town of Dal- matia, about the year 331. After enjoying high educational advantages under his father, he was sent to Rome to prosecute his studies. On being baptized he made a tour into Gaul, and remained for a few years at Treves, carrying out his likings for Christian and ecclesiastical literature. On leaving Gaul, the probability is that he returned to Rome, and at Aquileia, in 370, he composed his earliest theological essay — the first-born of a numerous progeny. Here also he formed his intimacy with Rufinus, a friend whom afterwards he so heartily abused. In 373 he carried himself, his library, and some friends to the East, passed through Thrace and the other provinces on his line of journey, and on his arrival at Antioch one companion died, and himself was visited with an alarming illness. This malady seems to have darkened his spirit, and deepened his resolution to live in cloistered solitude. Soon after he retired to a desert east of Antioch, and spent four years in ascetic torture, hard literary labour, and self- education. His retreat was at length invaded by controversy, for Meletius and Paulinus fought for the pre-eminence in the church at Antioch, and he espoused the interest of the latter. In 379 he returned to Antioch, and was ordained a presbyter. The next year he visited Constan- tinople, where for three years he enjoyed the friendship and patronage of Gregory of Nazianzus. 357 JER Here he translated the Chronicon of Eusebins, and portions of the works of Origen. The contests at Antioch still raged, and Meletius being dead, Pope Damasus summoned Paulinus and his party to Rome, in order to ascertain the bearings ot the quarrel. In the conferences held on the subject, Jerome officiated as secretary, and the pope became so interested in him, that he retained him in the Western capital, and urged him especially to the revisal of the Latin version of the Bible. But his passion for a monastic life led him to describe its virtues and glories in such impressive pictures, that the ladies of Rome were filled with Lis enthusiasm, and so much did the furor spread, that husbands, brothers, and fathers denounced Jerome, and the very populace insulted him. On the death of Damasus, his discretion prompted him to leave Rome, and he returned to the East in 385. There immediately followed him two wealthy devotees, the widow Paula, and her daughter Eustochinm. With these ladies and their female attendants, Jerome travelled through the Holy Land, and having visited Egypt, he finally settled at Bethlehem, in 386, where Paula erected four religious establishments, three for nuns, and one for monks. This latter monastery Jerome go- verned for many years, and spent the remainder of his life in the composition of many religious works. In the great controversies of the period he bore no inactive share. The Pelagians, whom he had so bitterly castigated, were at length tempted to retaliate with secular hostility, and a band of them invaded his retreat, and so endan- gered his life, that he was obliged to spend two years in secrecy and exile. Safety being restored, he returned in 418 to his cell ; but his exhausted nature at length sunk amidst unceasing labours and mortifications, and he died at the age of ninety, on the 30th September, 420.— The life of Jerome was a busy one. He wrote on almost every subject. Biography, history, theology, biblical translations, polemics, and commentaries on a very large portion both of the Old and New Testaments, kept him in incessant toil. His Latin style is pure and terse on the whole. He excelled all his con- temporaries in erudition. He wanted the glowing fancy of Chrysostom, and the serene temper and symmetrical intellect of Augustine, but he was beyond them both in critical skill and taste. His faults lie upon the surface ; a hot and hasty dis- position, wnich so resented every opposition, and magnified trifles, that in his towering passion, he heaped upon opponents opprobrious epithets and coarse invective. Haste, eagerness, and acerbity, appear also in his letters and expositions. His mode of life must have greatly aggravated this touchiness and irascibility, as it deprived him of the mollifying influence of society and friendship. His heart was estranged from human sympathies ; and save when lighted up by the ardours of his indignant passion, it was like his own cell, cold, gloomy, and uninviting. The works of Jerome will afways maintain for him the esteem of Chris- tendom. There is in them a great deal that is baseless, fanciful, and one-sided, but very much that is useful and instructive in exegesis and theo- logy. In the Vulgate, the Old Testament was translated by him directly from the Hebrew, and the New Testament is a revision of previous trans- JOA lations. The first of . those works, great and meritorious as it is, was received with some sus- picions, under which the translator was very im- patient and fretful. The first edition of Jerome's work was that of Erasmus, Basel, 9 vols, folio, 1516. The Benedictine edition appeared in 5 vols, folio, 1693-1706. The best edition is that of Val- larsi, in 11 vols, folio, which originally appeared at Verona, 1736-1742, and was reprinted in quarto at Venice in 1766-72, in 24 parts, usually bound in 11 volumes. [J.E/] JEROME EMILIANI, a Venetian officer in the Austrian service, afterw. arel. founder, 1481-1537. JEROME of Prague, an intimate friend of John Huss, and like him a martyr of the truth, is said to have copied the writings of Wickliffe at Oxford, and to have studied at the universities of Paris, Heidelberg, and Cologne. His career as a reformer dates from 1400 to his death at the stake in 1415, and the scenes of his activity were in Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary. He was a man of great learning and dignity of manner, and en- dured his fate so courageously as to excite the ad- miration of his enemies, who have also testified to the superiority of his character. JEROME of Santa Fe, a Spanish Jew, re- markable for his conversion to Christianity, and his writings against the errors of the Jews, 15th c. JERUSALEM, J. Fr. William, a German divine, author of ' Letters on the Mosaic Religion and Philosophy,' on ' German Literature,' &c, 1709-1789. The suicide of his son, ' Young Jeru- salem,' suggested to Goethe the story of Werter. JERVAS, Charles, an Irish portrait painter, who became fashionable as an artist. He pub- lished a translation of Don Quixote; died 1739. JERVIS, John. See St. Vincent. JESSEY, Henry, an eminent clergyman who suffered imprisonment at the Restoration for his nonconformity. He was a learned Oriental scho- lar, and distinguished for his biblical knowledge. Minister of St. George's, Southwark, during the Commonwealth ; died 1633. JESUA, Levita, a Spanish rabbi, 15th cent. JEUFFROY, R. V., a French gem and medal engraver, 1749^-1826. JEWEL, John, bishop of Salisbury in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, is distinguished as one of tho ablest and most eloquent writers against the Romish Church. His • Apology for the Church of England' is the work by which he is best known ; but he is the author of many controversial treatises equally learned and judicious, and most of them are rendered agreeable reading by the historical and antiquarian notices dispersed through them. The most important of these is the controversy with Dr. Harding, arising out of a sermon preached by Bishop Jewel at St. Paul's Cross, and usually called his ' Challenge Sermon.' The works of this eminent prelate have been recently published bv the Parker Society. [E.R.*] JEZZAR or DJEZZAR, a common Mameluke who rose to be pacha of Acre and Saida. He held the former place, under the direction of Sir Sidney Smith, against the whole force of Napoleon, who was compelled to raise the siege 21st May, 171)9. Jeasar died in 1804. JOAB, the general of King David, d. 1001 n.c. JOACHIM, a rclig. founder of Spain, 1130-1202. 358 JOA JOACHIM, George, a savant of the Tyrol, beat known as an astronomer, 1514.-1596. [ (louse of Joan of Arc ] JOAN of Akc. The proper name of this heroic and pure-hearted woman was Jeanne Darc, and her birth-place the village of Dom- remi, on the borders of Lorraine. Here she first saw the light in 1410, and being the child of poor parents, she was inured to servitude, and acquired that extraordinary skill as an equestrian, which was afterwards so valuable to her, by riding the horses to water. She was piously educated, and when about thirteen years of age — as appears from her own history, which is best collected from the process of her trial at Rouen — she began to have visions, and to be informed of her mission for the deliverance of France. In 1428-9, the eyes of all Europe were turned upon the city of Orleans, the siege of which was closely pressed by the English, in alliance with the Burgundians, while Charles VII., despairing of his throne, had assembled the deputies of the French towns still remaining under his government, at Chinon, to deliberate upon their approaching ruin. This was the critical moment chosen by Jeanne Darc, or always pointed to, as she averred, by her celestial visitants, for the deliverance of her country. She presented herself to Baudricourt, the governor of the neighbouring town of Vaucouleurs, and demanded to be conducted to the French court. Dissuasions, and the extreme danger of the journey were urged in vain, and in due course she arrived at Chinon, inspired the phantom of a king with a share of her own spirit, and was presented to the assembly. The popular enthu- siasm rose to the highest pitch when Joan ap- fjeared at the head of the troops in armour, her ut et the Student be assured that for the first time in History the problem it undertook has been entirely solved : no longer does the region of our Subjective Human Knowledge contain dark, un- visited, or unexplored corners. — III. The opinion now ventured as to the labours of Kant, is not pro- nounced in ignorance of the questionings to which they have given rise. Numerous the modifications proposed on his table of the Categories ; as well as exceptions to other interior peculiarities of his system : but these — whatever their plausibility or weight — little affect the merits of his gigantic and symmetrical scheme. We have said, however, that its tendencies lean unduly towards Idealism ; and it is necessary now, to show in what man- ner the foregoing speculations open and influence the questio vexata of modern thought — the supreme difficulty of existing metaphysics. The Critical Philosophy, has indeed saved all neces- sary Truths by referring them to Laws of the Mind — conditions under which alone the Thinking Organism can operate : but, ivhat is the relation between these Laics subjective, and external or objective Realities ? Space and Time — the a priori elements of the Sensibility — do they not exist for the Universe as well as for Us? Is that representation purely Ideal, by which the marvels of materialism are placed before the mind, sparkling through Infinity and evolving through all Time? The Categories of the Understanding, again — the rela- tion for instance of Cause and Effect — although they are necessitated through the nature of the Un- derstanding itself, are they all purely subjective ? Is there not a world of phenomena, regulated by laws which are their exact counterparts, and,_to bring us into whose presence, our Intellectual Na- ture is the instrument ? So, finally of the Reason ; — the Idea of God is a necessity with it, — is it only a subjective necessity, — does not that neces- sity conduct us towards a Real, ever-living, all- creating, all-sustaining Omniscience ? The reader will not learn without dismay that Kant denied the legitimacy of every attempt to effect a transition to Reality, from the region of the Speculative Reason. By a process that at least is ingenious, and in which he is supported by our own Sir William Hamilton, he did effect a bridge towards the re- alities of Ontology; he assumed the existence of God as a consequence of the Law of Morality: nevertheless, it is his dictum, that the representa- tions of the Sensibility and the verities of the Intellect, authorize our belief in no objective coun- terpart .; and that Existence, as recognized by them, is a mere Noumenon — a thing originating a sensa- tion, but unknown as to its qualities, and unknow- able. Doubtless one is startled by such a conclusion ; but it were folly to underrate the difficulty which checked the advance of Kant. Many and various the efforts to remove it; with what success, this is not the place to declare : with not a few Inquirers, the 372 KAN desire to accomplish the feat seems to have passed for its accomplishment. Nevertheless, on the occur- rence of such difficulties, even when they seem to approach the insuperable, it is something to discern that their existence need not surprise us ; and that even their appalling magnitude is no reason for ultimate despair (article Leibnitz). The question against which Inquiry is here impinging, has to do with the lowest down — the least accessible portion of our human Nature. As we have remarked else- where., the faculty of Intuition, the power to look beneath Sensation into Realities— Intueri — is, although the most educable, the most difficult to apprehend, and the least educated of all the forms of energy appertaining to Mind. It acts, indeed in every mind, but it acts imperfectly ; rarely does it act through reflection, or, as yet, so that we can explain its operations. Let the student turn to Sir William Hamilton's celebrated memoir on Presentation and Representation; he will find there how sadly men have erred, and how toil- somely they have laboured, before that single act of Intuitive Perception could be described ! That act of Intuition, as we now understand it, is simply the act constraining our acceptance of an objective reality, corresponding to Kant's subjec- tive Laws or Forms of the Sensibility : is it not likely then, that a deeper and clearer view, in the two remaining and corresponding directions, shall enable us to assert as authoritatively, concerning the Objectivity of Laws which we apprehend in the meantime, simply as regulating Forms of the Understanding and the Reason? Between these two classes of Forms or constituent elements, and the Forms of Space and Time, there is much in common; especially this vital characteristic — no speculative doubt can destroy our practical belief that they have real correlatives. Nay, it may be alleged even — as Kant rightly asserts with regard to the Practical Reason, or the Law of Morality — that without that belief, or rather that intuition, thefaculties would not operate. Perception indeed involves no conscious voluntary act ; the working of the Understanding and the Reason, on the other hand, do involve one ; and it appears safe to aver that unless for the conviction, that we are con- cerned about a great and real Universe, apart from the Thinking Subject, the Human Will would cease to urge the Understanding to evolve its relations, or the Reason to aspire after that highest Unity which, in obedience to its nature, it struggles to attain. — It were unsuitable to close this imperfect notice of the Philosophy of Kant, without a word concerning the character and aspects of the Philosopher. We have said that he lived in tran- quillity, devoted to meditation. But it were wrong to fancy him the abstracted sage. His benevo- lence and simplicity were great ; he much relished society, minghng with its innocent gaieties ; and he was beloved by the young. He was a man of un- impeachable probity ; and that sincerity which is the right arm of Genius in its contests for Truth, was inseparable from his nature. His ideas in morals have been surpassed in elevation by no writer m History ; he never uttered a word or committed a sentence to the world, derogatory to man's highest nature, or which the sternest virtue would recall. A pure lover of Truth, he proclaimed and vindi- cated liberty of Thought and Speech : Philosophy, KEA with Kant, was no make-believe — neither the for- mula of a School, nor an affectation of the Salon — but an earnest discernment of the rights and duties, the functions privileges and position of Humanity, and therefore a reverential offering by our Human Reason to the august Power that formed it. — There are now excellent editions of Kant's collected works in German, by his pupils ; good French translations of several of them ; an English version of the Critique of the Pure Reason bv 'Mr. Hayvvard, and one of his Ethics bv Mr. Semple. [J.P.N.] KAO-TSOU-OUTI, a Chinese emp., 355-422. KAO-TSOU, the^rs^ of the name, emperor of China, founder of the Tang dynasty, reigned 619- 626, d. 635; the second, founder of the Haou-Tein dynasty, reigned 935-942 ; the third, founder of the Haou-Han dynasty, reigned 947-951. KAO-TSOUNG, the first of the name, emperor of China, reigned 648-684; the second, 1127-1161. KAPNIST, Vasili V., a Bus. poet, 1756-1813. KABAMSIN, Nicholas Mich^elovitch, historiographer-royal of the empire of Bussia, councillor of state in 1826, author of a History of Russia, and works in polite literature, 1765-1826. KARNKOWSKI, S., a Polish hist., died 1603. KAROLI, J., a Hungarian divine, 16th century. KARPIUSKI, F., a Polish dramatist, d. 1823. KARSTEN, W. J. G., a German physician and mathematician, 1732-1787. His brother, F. C. S. Karsten, an agriculturist, 1751-1829. Their nephew, Didier L. Gustave Karsten, a learned mineralogist, 1768-1810. KATE, L. T., a Dutch grammarian, last cent. KATER, H., an Eng. mathematician, 1777-1825. KATONA, S., a Hungarian hist., 1732-1811. KAUFMANN, Mary Anne Angelica Cath- erine, a French lady remarkable for her talents in painting and music, 1741-1807. KAUNITZ-RIETBERG, Wencelaus An- thony, prince of, an Austrian states., 1710-1794. KANTZ, Constan. F., an Aus. hist., 1735-97. KAY, or CAIUS, Thomas, head master of University College, Oxford, author of a work written in vindication of the superior antiquity of Oxford, in a controversy with Dr John Kaye of Cambridge, died 1572. KAY, or KEY, W., a Dutch painter, 1520-1568. KAYE, KEYE, CAY, or CAIUS, John, a learned physician, founder of Caius College, Cam- bridge, of which he was the first master, author of professional works, and a Hist, of Cam., 1510-73. KAYSSLER, A., a Ger. philosopher, d. 1822. KAZWINI, Zachariah Ben Mohammed Ben Mahmoud, an Ar. geogra. and nat., d. 1283. KEACH, Benjamin, a baptist wr., 1640-1704. KEAN, Edmund, one of the greatest tragic actors of which England can boast, and possessed of decided genius for the drama, was, on his mother's side, great-grandson of Harry Carey, re- puted author of ' God save the King.' The date of nis birth is dubious, but he is stated to have been born in Castle-Street, Leicester Square, in Novem- ber, 1787; but to have himself asserted that 17th March, 1790, was his birth-day. He seems to have been placed on the stage when an infant, and to have thus appeared in processions and pageants both at Drury Lane and the Haymarket theatres. At these periods he was remarked for his shyness, 3 KEA but attracted the sympathy of Miss Tidswcll, an if Borne standing, who was able to recom- mend him to a manager in Yorkshire, where he acted under the name of Carey. Hamlet., Lord Hastings, and Cato, were the parts which even then he was capable of filling; and lie showed besides much elocutionary skill in recitations from Milton and Shakspeare, which attracted the at- tention of Dr. Drury, who sent him to Eton school, where he remained "three years, and acquired con- siderable knowledge of "Latin. After this, he played Hamlet and Shylock, first on the Birming- ham stage, and afterwards at Edinburgh, Sheer- ness, Sevenoaks, Tunbridge Wells, and Swansea. At about the age of nineteen, we find him at Waterford, in Ireland, where he acted Douglas, and obtained a wife, remaining there two years, after which he visited Weymouth, Exeter, and Taunton. At Dorchester, he is said to have per- formed, not only in tragedy and comedy, but in :id pantomime. By the intervention of Dr. Drury, he was ultimately recommended to the committee of Drury Lane theatre; at which theatre he made his debut 26th January, 1814, as Shylock, to a meagre house, but the few who ■were present became convinced of his genius ; the critics were in his favour, and on waking the next morning the young actor found himself famous. His Richard the Third, Hamlet, and Othello, con- firmed the favourable impression. His career was thenceforth assured, and his successes were of the most brilliant description. As a contrast to the classical style of the Kemble school, his acting was impulsive, fierv, and startling. After several sea- sons of triumph in England, Scotland, and Ireland, he visited America, being induced to that step by some private circumstances which permit not de- tail. On his return to England, he became man- ager of the Richmond theatre, and died in the house attached thereto, loth May, 1833. His funeral was numerously attended by distinguished persons, and he was interred in the cemetery belonging to the old church at Richmond, near the grave of Thomson and Burbage. A cenotaph has since been placed on the church wall by his son, Mr. Charles Kean, the present manager of the Princess's theatre. Had the father been as prudent as the son has proved, his life would have been happier, and his ultimate triumph more decided. His genial aptitude for acting was indisputable, and the lightning-flashes frequent during his extraordinary performances, astonished the critic as much as the ordinary spectator. We have certainly had no performer whom the conscientious biographer can cite as his superior in tragic effect and passionate elocution. [J.A.H.] KEANE, John, Lord, son of Sir John Keane of' Belmont, dist. as an officer in the peninsular war, and for his capture, in 1839, of Ghuznee ; 1780-1844. KEATE, George, a poet and miscel. writer, au. of an ' Account of the Pelew Islands,' 1729-97. KEATING, G., an Irish historian, d. abt. 1625. KEATS, John, was born in London in 1796. Some years of his boyhood were spent in a school at Enfield. There he received classical impressions which moulded the form of his youthful fancy and . producing a singularly interesting, though anomalous, kind of image*, by their mixture with the romantic ideas which modern poetry afterwards KEL inspired. When he was about fifteen yean old, he was apprenticed to a surgeon in London; but poetry had taken close possession of his mind, and the art was enthusiastically practised. In 1817, he published a volume of poems, which was little noticed. Next year appeared 'Endymion, a Poetic Romance.' This poem displayed a predominance of imagination over judgment, so decided as to prompt a doubt whether even maturer years could have qualified the writer to attain very high ex- cellence; but it has an affluence of imagery, a fine ideality, and an exquisite grace of feeling, which make it to poetical minds one of the most seduc- tive of all poems. It was criticised by Gifford in the Quarterly Review with savage severity. The attack affected the young poet very deeply, and has even been said to have caused or accelerated the consumptive symptoms which soon showed themselves. He published, however, in 1820, a new volume, containing, among other pieces, ' Hyperion,' ' The Eve of Saint Agnes,' ' Lamia,' and ' Isabella.' In a paper on his former volume, which now appeared in the Edinburgh Review, it was justly said by Jeffrey, that, with all its faults both of matter and of diction, no book could be more fitly put into the hands of a reader, as a test to ascertain whether he had ' a native relish for poetry and a genuine sensibility to its intrinsic charm.' The poetry of Shelley, and that of Keats, may be pointed to as the earliest indications of those poetical tendencies which have been further developed by Tennyson and his school. The poet sought renovation of health in Italy, but in vain. He died at Rome in December, 1820, when he had recently completed his twenty-fourth year. [W.S.] KEATS, Sir R. G., a naval officer, 1757-1834. KEBLE, Joseph, an Eng. lawyer, 1632-1710. KEDER, N., a Swedish antiquarian, 1659-1735. KEENE, Edmund, bishop of Ely, 1713-1781. KEILL, John, a Scotch mathematician, 1671- 1721. His brother, James, a physician and medical author, 1673-1719. KEISAR, W. De, a Flem. painter, 1647-1693. KEISER, R., a German musician, 1673-1735. KEITH. See Elphinstone. KEITH, George, a Scotch sectarian, au. of works for and against the Quakers, d. abt. 1715. KEITH, James, youngest son of William Keith) earl marshal of Scotland, distinguished as a field- marshal in the service of Prussia, 1696-1758. KEITH, Thomas, a professional accountant and mathematician, author of ' Introductory Works in Geometry,' &c, 1759-1824. KELAOUN, sultan of Egypt, 1279-1290 KELGREN, H., a Swedish poet, 1751-1795. KELLEHOUN, Moritz, a Ger. pain, and engr., director of the academy at Munich, 1768-1 881. KELLER, J. B., a Swiss statuary, 1638-1702. KELLER, G., a German historian, 1750-1827. KELLER, D. L. Chr., Count, a Prussian diplo- matist, kn. at the congress of Vienna, 1757-1.SJ7. KELLERMANN, Francis Christopher, duke of Valmy, a famous general of the French revolution, was born at Strasburgh 1735, and, em- bracing the military profession when a youth, had risen to the rank of camp-marshal, besides serving in several political missions, before the commence- ment of the revolution. In 1791, he was appointed to a command in the army of the Moselle, and oc- 374 KEL cupied himself in organizing the defence of tlie frontier against the emigrants and the duke of Brunswick. On the 19th of September, 1792, he effected, by forced marches, at the head of twenty- two thousand men, his famous junction with Du- mouriez, and, the following day, intrenched on the heights of Valmy, resisted an attack of forty-five thousand Prussians and twenty thousand Aus- trians. This famous victory was the first in the series of successes which marked the career of the republic and the empire, and was gained by the raw, ill-provided levies of the patriots over ex- perienced troops. On the same day the national convention was assembled in Paris. On the mor- row, the republic was proclaimed, and the news arriving in the camp of Valmy after their victory, was the occasion of great rejoicings, in the midst of which the duke of Brunswick with his army recrossed the frontier. Escaping the denunciations of Custine, who sought his ruin, Kellermann was appointed, in 1795, commander-in-chief of the army of the Alps and Italy, and in a short time found himself auxiliary to Napoleon, whose star rose above him. His position afterwards was that of a senator and peer of France ; and, like many others of his order, he made peace with the Bourbons on the fall of the emperor. He died in 1820. [E.R.] KELLEY, Edward, the seer and companion of Doctor Dee in his alleged intercourse with spirits, was born in Worcester 1555, and is said to have been educated at Oxford, but, leaving the university abruptly, was captured in Lancashire, and for some crime, it is supposed, lost his ears. It must have been soon afterwards that he made the acquain- tance of Dr. Dee, who was at first persuaded that Kelley ' had been brought into unison with him by mediation of the angel Uriel,' for as early as 15S9 they had separated again. The cause of their dis- agreement was Kelley's indulgence in magical prac- tices for the sake of gain, which the Doctor could not tolerate ; and, left to himself, our adventurer not only lived handsomely upon his profits, but obtained the honour of knighthood from the Em- Seror Rodolph. It was the popular belief that Lelley outlived the time of his compact with the devil, and was carried off bodily by infernal spirits in the sight of his wife and children — but accord- ing to unadorned history he was imprisoned for his knaveries, and died of the injuries he received while endeavouring to escape, in 1595. He is the author of poems on chemistry and on the philo- sopher's stone, and was the penman of several discourses, which are printed in Casaubon's ' Rela- tion of What Passed for Many Years Between Dr. Dee and Some Spirits,' published 1639. Some curious particulars concerning him will be found in Weaver's ' Funeral Monuments ; ' and there are some MSS., both of his and Dr. Dee's, in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. [E.R.] KELLISON, M., a catholic divine, died 1641. KELLY, Hugh, an Irish dramatist, 1739-77. KELLY, John, an English clergyman, author of ' A Practical Grammar of the Ancient Gaelic, or Language of the Isle of Man,' 1750-1809. KELLY, Michael, an Irish singer, 1762-1826. KELP, Justus J., a Ger. philologist, 1650-1720. KEMBLE, Geo. Stephen, a popular actor and manager, hr. of the eel. J. P. Kemble, 1758-1822. KEMBLE, John Philip, next to Garrick, the KEM most eminent of English actors, but in style, the contrast of his great predecessor, being as reflec- tive as he was impulsive. His father, Roger Kemble, was theatrical manager at Prescot, in Lancashire, and in that county, John Philip was born, February, 1757. He was educated first at the Roman Catholic Seminary of Sedgeley Park, Staffordshire ; and afterwards at the college of Douay, being intended for one of the learned pro- fessions. His own course, however, had been already determined on, and he commenced active life as an actor at Liverpool, after which he visited York and Edinburgh. At Liverpool he acted in a tragedy of his own composition, called ' Belisarius ;' and soon after published a volume of ' Fugitive Pieces,' which, however, he sought to suppress. His appearance in London took place 30th Sep- tember, 1783, at Drury Lane, when he performed ' Hamlet,' with extraordinary applause ; though it was five years before he became leading tragedian. About that period, too, he succeeded to the man- agement of the theatre, which he conducted till 1801, during which he restored some good old plays, and produced some original pieces, including a musical entertainment of his own, entitled ' Lodoiska.' Next year, he became the manager and the purchaser of a sixth share of Covent Gar- den theatre, but the destruction of the edifice by fire in 1809, caused him much trouble, which, after its rebuilding, was increased, in consequence of the prices being augmented, and the boxes arranged too exclusively for the accommodation of the aris- tocracy. Public disturbances, known by the name of the O. P. Riots, ensued, and continued for several nights. On his retirement from the stage, 23d July, 1807, Mr. Kemble was complimented -with a public dinner, which was attended by persons of rank and talent. He died at Lausanne, in Switzerland, 26th February, 1823, of a paralytic attack. Mr. Kemble's style of acting was emi- nently regulated by art; his performances were premeditated, and as little as possible was left to natural impulse. This style was most suited to the artificial characters of the drama, such as Cato, Ccriolanus, Hamlet, King John, Jaques, and Penruddock. In his different managements, Mr. Kemble brought his learning to bear on the business and decorations of the stage, which is, accordingly, indebted for some of its earliest re- forms to him. But he preferred building his re- putation on the old drama, to risking it in the pro- duction of novelty — the ill consequences of which mode of proceeding, ultimately resulted in the to- tal fall of the two patent theatres, which are now superseded by smaller establishments. [J.A.H.] KEMBLE, Priscilla, widow of the preceding, formerly wife of the actor Brereton, 1755-1845. KEMENI, prince of Transylvania, 1660-1662. KEMP, Joseph, a dist. composer, 1778-1824. KEMP, J. T., a Dutch missionary, 1748-1811. KEMPELLEN, Wolfgang, Baron, a Hunga- rian dramatist and mechanician, inventor of the famous automaton chess-player, 1734-1804. KEMPER, J. M., a Dutch juriscon., 1776-1824. KEMPIS, Thomas A, whose real surname was Hemmerken, or Hammeklein, was born at Kempen near Cologne in 1380, was educated at the school founded by Gerhard Groote at Deventer, to which he was sent at the age of thirteen ; en- 375 KEN tered seven years afterwards the convent of St. Agnes, formally assumed the monastic habit in 1406, and finally became the superior of the same establishment. His was an earnest practical piety, and his writings are deeply embued with his pecu- liar devotional spirit. A tinge of ascetic mystic- ism is very apparent in his so-called works. The work by whicn he is best known in this country is the ' Imitation of Christ,' (De Imitatione Christi,) which is but the title of the first book of a larger treatise, (De Contemptu Mundi). It is, however, suspected not to be of his composition, the pro- bability being that the work was only translated by A Kempis, but in reality composed by the Chan- cellor Gerson of the university of Paris. Thomas A Kempis died in 1471, aged ninety-two ; not one of those Titans who win immortality by intellectual prowess, but one of those humbler saints whose calm and meditative piety surrounds their memory with an undying fragrance. [J.E.] KEN, Th., bp. of Bath and Wells, and one of the seven sent to the Tower by James II., 1637-1711. KENDAL, G., a Calvinistic divine, died 1663. KENDRICK, J., an Amer. navigator, d. 1800. KENICIUS, P., arbp. of Upsala, 1555-1636. KENNAWAY, Sir J., an East Indian officer and diplomatist, time of Tippoo sultan, 1758-1836. KENNEDY, James, a relig. founder of Scot- land, bishop of St. Andrews, and lord chancellor, and one of the regency time of Jas. III., 1405-66. KENNEDY, J., a chronologist, d. about 1770. KENNEDY, J., a Scotch antiquarian, d. 1760. KENNEDY, William, a Scottish lawyer and antiq.. au of the 'Annals of Aberdeen,' 1759-1836. KENNET, White, an English prelate, dist. as a political partizan in the time of Atterbury and Sacheverel, author of historical and antiqua- rian works, 1660-1728. His brother, Basil, a learned divine and antiquarian, 1674-1714. KENNETH, the first of the name, king of Scotland, 604-606; the second, reigned 823-854; the third, succeeded 978, assassinated 994. KENNEY, J., an Irish dramatist, d. 1849. KENNICOTT, Benjamin, an Eng. div., dist. as an Orient, scholar and biblical critic, 1718-83. KEN RICK, W., a miscellaneous wr., d. 1779. KENT, Edward Augustus, duke of, fourth son of George III., and father of Queen Victoria, born 1767, commander of the British forces in North America 1799, governor of Gibraltar 1802, married to Victoria Maria Louisa, widow of the hereditary prince of Leiningen, and youngest daughter'of the d. of Saxe-Coburg, 1818, d. 1820. KENT, James, was born at Winchester, in 1700, where at an early age, he was admitted into the choir of the cathedral under the tuition of Mr. Vaughan Richardson, then organist. He afterwards became one of the children of the Royal Chapel, where, under the care of Dr. Croft, he laid the foundation of his future greatness. The first situation which Kent obtained was organist of the chapel of Trinity College, Cam- bridge; and his next and last was organist of Winch ester chapel and college, where he continued to his death, which occurred in 1776. As a com- poser of sacred music Kent's fame stands on a secure basis, and many of his anthems will take rank amongst the most sublime musical works of any age ore, [«LM.] KEP KENT, William, a Eng. painter, 1685-1718. KENYON, Lloyd, Lord, chief justice of the King's Bench, first distin. as counsel for Lord George Gordon along with Mr. Erskine, 1733-1802. KEPLER, John, a distinguished astronomer, was born at Wiel, in Wirtemberg, on the 21st December, 1571. His father, Henry Kepler, was an officer in the army who had reduced himself to poverty by his extravagance. His mother, Cath- erine Guldemar, gave premature birth to a son, John Kepler, who was a sickly child. After re- covering with difficulty from small-pox, he was sent to school in 1577. Having become bankrupt, his father was obliged to keep a tavern at Elmen- dingen, and his son John was taken from school to perform the functions of a servant in his father's house. When he was in his fifteenth year, he was received into the school at the monasteiy at Maulbron, established at the reforma- tion as preparatory for the university of Tubingen, where he was admitted as Bachelor in 1588 ; and returning to the school to complete the usual course of study, he took his degree of Master in 1591, holding the second place in the examination. While attending the mathematical lectures of Mzestlin, a disciple of Copernicus, he adopted the- opinions of his teacher, and wrote an essay to prove that the primary motion was produced by the rotation of the earth. In 1594 ne was un- willingly made to accept the astronomical class at Gratz, though he knew little of the subject. He was thus forced to study astronomy, and in 1595 he devoted all his leisure time, and all his mental energy to study the size and the motions of the filanets, and their orbits. Finding no regular aw in the planetary distances, he made numerous attempts of the wildest and most speculative character, but though he ventured to publish them in 1596 in his 'Prodromus of Cosmo- graphical Dissertation,' he obtained no true results, and was satisfied with the little reputation which his ingenuity had procured for him. In 1597 he made a foolish marriage with a young widow, and in addition to pecuniary difficulties in which this involved him, he was obliged to retire into Hungary to escape from the persecution of the catholics. Though he was soon recalled to his professorship by the states of Styria, he did not occupy it long. Tycho, whom he visited at Prague in 1600, induced" him to become his assis- tant, but he was not fairly settled in this new- office till he was attacked with a quartan ague and embroiled in a quarrel with Tycho. When Kepler came to Prague in 1601, Tycho presented him to the emperor, who gave him the title of Imperial Mathematician on the condition of assist- ing Tycho in his calculations. Their first joint work was the computation of the Rudolphine Tables, the expense of which was defrayed hy Rudolph. Upon the death of Tycho, in 1601, Kepler suc- ceeded him as principal mathematician to the emperor, with a handsome salary, partly from the imperial treasury, and partly from the States of Silesia. In 1G06, Kepler published a 'Supple- ment to Vitellio,' in which he treats of the optical part of astronomy, and had very nearly stumbled on the law of refraction, afterwards discovered by Snellius. In 1G11, he published his JJioptrics, ' ' ;n " an admirable work, which laid the foundation of 37G KEP the science of optics. In this work he gives the theory of the telescope, — describes the astro- nomical one with two convex lenses, — expounds the spherical aberration of lenses, and the law of total deflexion at the second surfaces of bodies. The work, however, on which his fame rests, is his 'New Astronomy, or Commentaries on the Motions of Mars,' published in 1609. In this work he proves that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit, in one of the foci of which the sun is placed, and that the Radius Vector, or the line joining the planet and the sun describes equal areas in equaltimes. These two great discoveries, the first made in physical astronomy, he extended to all the planets in the solar system, and it was through them that Newton, Hooke, Halley, and Wren, independently arrived at the great law of the diminution of gravity with the square of the distance. In the midst of the studies which led Kepler to these fine discoveries, he was harassed with pecuniary difficulties which were the bane of his existence. His salary was ever in arrears, and the treasury of Rudolph was always empty. Upon the death of the emperor, however, in 1612, Kepler's arrears were paid. Mathias, the brother and successor of Rudolph, re-appointed him im- perial mathematician, and. he was permitted to accept of the professorship of mathematics at Linz, in Austria. He had lost his wife and one of his children by small-pox in 1611, and his family now consisted of a daughter born in 1602, and a son born in 1607. He married a second time in 1615, and added to his family three sons and two daughters, who, along with their mother, survived him. About this time, Kepler was summoned to the diet at Ratisbon, to give his opinion on the reformation of the calendar, a subject upon which he published a short essay. His pension was again in arrears, and in order to support his family he was obliged to compose what he calls 'a vile prophesying almanack,' which, he adds, ! is scarcely more reputable than begging, unless from its saving the emperor's credit, who abandons me entirely, and would suffer me to perish with hunger.' In 1617, there appeared one of the most interesting of his works, entitled ' The Har- monies of the World.' It is dedicated to James I. of England, and is remarkable as containing his celebrated law that the squares of the periodic times of the planets are as the cubes of their dis- tances. This law occurred to him on the 8th March, 1618, but from a blunder in his calcula- tions he rejected it. Having discovered his error on the 15th May, he recognized with transport the absolute truth of a principle which for seven- teen years had been the object of his incessant pursuit. He was almost frantic with joy; 'the die is cast ' he exclaimed, ' the book is written to be read, either now or by posterity, I care not which. It may well wait a century for a reader, as God has waited 6,000 years for an observer.' In the same year Kepler published the three first books of his ' Epitome of the Copernican Astro- nomv,' the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh appear- ing in 1622. In 1620, Sir Henry Wotton, the English ambassador at Venice, visited Kepler while passing through Germany. He urged the astro- nomer to take up his residence in England, assuring him of a welcome and an honourable KER reception ; but neither the welcome nor the recep- tion, which is all the encouragement he would have got, would have released him from his pecuniary difficulties. ' If the imperial mathema- tician, therefore,' as Sir David Brewster (Martyrs < of Science, p. 243) has remarked, 'had no other / assurance of a comfortable home in England than / that of Sir Henry Wotton, he acted a wise part in / distrusting it, and we rejoice that the sacred name/ of Kepler was thus withheld from the long list of distinguished characters whom England has starved and dishonoured.' Notwithstanding his own pecuniary difficulties, the emperor Ferdinand, in 1622, ordered the whole of Kepler's arrears to be paid, including those due by Rudolph and Mathias, and he supplied also the necessary funds for completing the Rudolphine Tables. The wars of the reformation, however, interfered with this and with every peaceful pursuit. Kepler's resi- dence at Linz was blockaded by the catholic peasantry, and his library sealed up by the Jesuits ; and it was not till 1628 that the Rudolphine Tables, founded on the observations of Tycho, and his own laws, appeared at Ulm in a folio volume. The Grand Duke of Tuscany sent him a gold chain in testimony of his approbation of this great work, and Albert Wallenstein, duke of Friedland, munificently invited him to reside at Sagan, in Silesia. With the emperor's permission he accepted this offer, took his family to Sagan in 1629, and by the duke's influence obtained a professorship in the university of Rostock. Find- ing it difficult in this remote locality to obtain payment of his imperial pension, the arrears of which were 8,000 crowns, he went to the imperial assembly at Ratisbon, to obtain them. The vexation which the failure of this attempt occa- sioned, and the fatigue of his journey, threw him into a catarrhal fever, which was accompanied with an imposthume in his brain, the result of excessive study. Medical skill failed, and he died on 5th November, o. s., 1631, in the sixtieth year of his age. His remains were interred in St. Peter's churchyard, at Ratisbon, and on his tomb- stone was placed an inscription written by himself. This monument was destroyed in the wars which desolated Germany, and it was not till 1803 that the prince bishop of Constance erected a handsome monumental temple near the place of his inter- ment, surmounted by a marble bust of Kepler. Between 1594 and 1630, Kepler published 33 separate works, and he left behind him 22 volumes of MSS., four of which contained his correspon- dence. The correspondence was published by Hansch, in 1718, but no part of the other MSS. now in the library of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, have been thought worthy of publication. See Mr. Drinkwater Bethune's Life of Kepler, and his life in Sir David Brewster's Martyrs of Science, second edit. [D.B.] KEPPEL, Augustus, an English admiral, son of William, earl of Albemarle, distinguished in ac- tion with the French off Ushant, 1725-1786. KERALIO, L. Felix Guinkment De, a Fr. savant, historian of the war between Russia and Turkev, 1731-1793. KERCKRING, T., a Dutch anatomist, d. 1693. KERESSTUNG, Aloys J. De, a Hungarian savant, au. of a ' Coinp. of Univ. Hist.,' 1763-1825. 377 KER KERGUETJN-TREMAREC, Yves Joseph De, a French navigator and naval hist., 1745-97. KERI, F B., a Hungarian historian, d. 1769. KERI, J., a Hungarian philosopher, died 1685. KERL, J. C, a German organist, 17th century. KERN, Vinc. De, a Ger. sure, wr., 1760-1829. KERR, Robert, a surgeon oi Edinburgh, dis- tinguished as a naturalist and historian, died 1814. KERRICK, Thomas, an English divine, au. of 4 Observations on Gothic Architecture,' d. 1828. KERSAINT, Arm and Guy Simon, Count De. a French naval officer and public writer, at- tached to the Girondins, executed 1793. KERSEY, John, an Eng. mathemat., 17th ct. KESSEL, John Van, a Flem. pain., 1626-1690. His son, Ferdinand, also a painter, 1660-1696. His nephew, Nicholas, same profes., 1684-1741. KESSEL, T. Van, a Dutch engraver, b. 1620. KESTNER, C. W., a Ger. med. wr., 1694-1747. KETEL, C., a Dutch painter, 1548-1602. KETT, Henry, an English divine, 1761-1825. KETT, William, leader of an insurrection in the reign of Edward VI., defeat, by Warwick, 1549. KETTILMUNDESON, Matts, or Mathias, administrator of Swed. on the flight of Birger, 1817. KETTLEWELL, John, a pious and learned diw, au. of ' Measure of Chr. Obedience,' 1653-95. KEULEN, J. Van, a D. pain., 1580, d. 1656. KEULEN, J. Van, a D. map engr., last cent. KEULEN, L. Van, a D. mathemat., d. 1610. KEYM, Paul, a mystic writer, on the prin- ciples of Jacob Boehmen, one of a numerous class who have treated of mystic subjects scholastically, without the experience of intuition and temptation. He is briefly alluded to by Poiret in his epistle, De Auctoribus Mysticis, § 47. [E.R.I KEYSLER, J. J., a Ger. antiquary, 1689-1743. KEYZER, A. and H. De, D. painters, 17th ct. KHADIJAH, first wife of Mahomet, died 628. KHAIN-BEG, a pacha of Egypt, died 1522. KHAISANG, a Chinese emperor, 1281-1311. KHALED, an Arabian general, surnamed by Mahomet « The Sword of God,' dist. 630-642. KHOSROU, king of Persia. See Chosroes. KICKX, J., a Flem. botanist, 1772-1831. KIDD, Samuel, a divine and Oriental scholar, au. of ' Illustra. of Chinese Symbols,' 1801-1843. KIDDER, R., a learned prelate, died 1703. KIEFFER, J. D., a Fr. Orientalist, 1767-1833. KIEN-LONG, emperor of China in the time of L)rd Macartney's embassy, a poet and patron of literature, born 1710, reigned 1735-1800. KIE RINGS, A., a Dutch painter, 1590-1646. KIERMAN, G., a Swed. statesman, last cent. KIERNANDER, John Zechariah, a Swe- dish missionary to the East Indies, 1711-1799. KIESEWETTEN, Christopher Gottfried, a Or. musician, dist. as a violin player, d. 1827. KIESEWETTER, J. G. C. Christopher, a German philologist and philosopher of the school of Kant, died about the end of last century. KILBYE, R., an English divine, died 1617. KILLIGREW, Catherine, wife of Sir H. Killigrew, an ambassador, dist. for her skill in the learned languages and poetry, abt. 1530-1600. K1LLIGREW, Margaret, second wife of William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle, au. of the life of her husband, and ' Miscellanies,' d. 1673. KILLIGKEW, William, a courtier and dra- KIN matic writer of the reign of Charles II., 1605-93. His brother, Thomas, a famous humourist, and favourite of Charles II., author of several plays, and some time political resident at Vienna, 1 (111 -Wl. Henry, a third brother, also a writer of plays, and chaplain to James, duke of York, born 1612, date of nis death unknown. Anne, wife of the latter, dist. for her beauty, her unblemished virtue, and her skill in hist, painting, au. of poems, d. 16X5. KILMAINE, C. J., a French general, 1754-99. KIMBER, Isaac, a dissenting minister, known as a biographical and historical writer, 1692-1758. His son, Edward, author of a 'History of Eng- land,' and miscellaneous works, died 1769. _ KIMCHI, David, a famous rabbi of Spain, in high repute among all denominations of biblical scholars, as a Scripture commentator and gram- marian, was born at Narbonne, where he passed the greater part of his life, towards the end of the 12th century. His father, Joseph Kimchi, who flourished about 1160, and his brother, Mosks, were eminent Oriental scholars, and expositors of Scripture, to which character the latter added that of a moralist ; but neither of them acquired a re- putation comparable with that of rabbi David. The respect in which he is held by the Jews is greatly enhanced by his defence of Maimonides, as arbitra- tor between the French and Spanish Jews in 1232. His philological works furnished Buxtorf with the materials for his 'Thesaurus' and ' Lexicon ; ' and his commentaries have been largely incorporated with the Bibles of Venice and Basle. For the catalogue raisonne of his writings, which include a Talmudic Dictionary, see the ' Bibliotheca He- braica' of John Ch. Wolf, published at Hamburgh, 1715-1733. Kimchi died in Provence at an ex- ceeding old age, 1240. [E.R.] KING, Edward, a youthful poet, who was drowned on his passage to Ireland in 1637, and whose fate is eel. by Milton in his poem of Lycidas. KING, Edward, a biblical critic and antiquary, author of ' Munimenta Antiqua,' ' Remarks on the Signs of the Times,' • Hymns,' &c, 1724-1807. KING, Gregory, an engraver and heraldic painter, author of ' Natural and Political Obser- vations and Conclusions upon the State and Con- dition of England,' and distinguished for the part he took in state ceremonials, 1648-1712. KING, John, D.D., a controversial divine of the Church of England, 1652-1732. His son, of the same name, a physician, 1696-1738. KING, John, a learned prelate, distinguished as a preacher and speaker in the Star Chamber, about 1559-1621. His son, Henry, chaplain to Charles I., and dean of Rochester, author of Ser- mons and Poems, 1591-1669. John, brother of the latter, a dignitary of the church, and author of Sermons, &c, died 1639. KING, John Glen, an eccles. antiq., d. 1787, KING, Peter, nephew of the illustrious John Locke, distinguished for his ecclesiastical learning, born 1669, lord chancellor 1725, died 1733. KING, Peter, great grandson of the preceding, distinguished for his speeches and writings on subjects of political economy, 1775-1833. KING, Captain Philip Parker, made four voyages (1817-1822) to the coast of Australia; and added greatly to our knowledge of the inter- tropical portions of that continent. 378 KIXG, Richard, a polemical writer, 1749-1810. KING, Sir Rich., a naval officer, 1771-1834. KIXG, Rufus, an Am. statesman, 1755-1827. KIXG, Thomas, a eel. dramatic, \vr. and actor, author of ' Love at First Sight,' &c, 1730-1805. KIXG, William, LL.D., a humorous writer of remarkable fertility in the reign of Queen Anne, famous for his satires on the characters and events of the day, 1663-1712. KIXG, William, an elegant writer, 1685-17G3. KIXG. Dr. William, successively dean of St. Patrick's, bishop of Derry, and archbishop of Dub- lin, was born at Antrim in Ireland, but descended from a Scottish family, in 1650, and commenced his career, as a divine, as chaplain to the archbishop of Tuam in 1676. He died in 1729, and is now chiefly remembered for his treatise, ' De Origine Mali,' on the origin of evil, which produced ani- madversions from Bayle and Leibnitz, which be- longs, in fact, together with his ' Discourse on Pre- destination,' &c, to a widely-extended controversy on the attributes of God, continued through many years at the commencement of last century, and including the names of the most eminent church- men and freethinkers of the day. Archbishop King did not reply to the censures of Bayle in his life-time ; but, after his death, answers were found in MS., and were embodied in the notes upon a new edition of the work, published by Edmund Law, who was opposed to him on his fundamental principle of analogy. The endeavour of the Arch- bishop had been to reconcile the existence of evil with the goodness of God, without supposing a source of evil co-eternal with Deity ; and his me- thod of argument was to represent the divine attri- butes as essentially different from the moral attri- butes of the human mind, which are used as their signs ; while the opposite writers held them to be the same, but infinitely greater. The key to this controversy will be found in Clissold's lectures on the ' Connection between Theology, Psychology, and Physiology.' C^-R.] KIXGSBOROUGH, Edward, Viscount, a fel- low of the Antiquarian Society, au. of a valuable work on ' The Antiquities of Mexico,' 1795-1837. KIXGSMILL, Andrew, a puritan divine and moralist, 1538-1569. His relation, Thomas, pro- fessor of Hebrew at Oxford, from 1569 to 1579. KINGSTON, Elizabeth Chudleigh, duch- ess of, a profligate woman of the court of George III., 1720-1788. KINNAIRD, The Hon. Douglas, known as a friend of Byron, and a patron of letters, 1786-1830. KINSKI, F. J., an Austrian general, 1739-1805. KKEPING, N. M., a Swed. trav., 1630-1667. KIPLING, Thomas, dean of Peterborough, a professor of divinity at Cambridge, author of a pamphlet on the Thirty-nine articles, &c, d. 1822. KIPPING, H., a German philologist, died 1678. KIPPIS, Andrew, D.D., an English Socinian minister, kn. as a biographical and miscellaneous writer, founder of the ' New Annual Register,' and author of a ' History of Knowledge, Learning, and Taste in Great Britain.' The best known of his works is the ' Biographia Britanniea,' 1725-1795. KIRBY, John Joshua, an artist patronised by George III., author of 'The Perspective of Architecture,' and father of the celebrated Mrs. Trimmer, 1716-1774. KIR KIRBY, Rev. William, an eminent entomo- logist, was bora in Suffolk in 1759. He died in 1850. He was educated at Cambridge, and in the year 1782, was admitted into holy orders. In 1796, he became rector of Barham, having done the duties of curate of that parish for fourteen years. He first studied botany, and while collect- ing the plants of the neighbourhood in which he lived, he had his mind directed to the study of entomology. A little ' lady bird ' or ' cow lady ' (Coccinella 22 punctata), one day attracted his attention on the window, and his admiration was so much excited, that he began to collect insects with as much zeal as he had already done plants. He has published many valuable papers and me- moirs on various entomological subjects, in the ' Linnsean Transactions ' and ' Zoological Journal ' — but his great fame as an entomologist is derived from his ' Monographia Apum Anglise,' or History of English Bees — his ' Introduction to Entomo- logy,' in conjunction with Mr. Spence, and his description of the insects in the ' Fauna boreal- Americana ' of Sir John Richardson. The first of these works at once stamped him as one of the best entomologists of the day; and had he written nothing else, his fame would have been established. The second has been translated into German and French, and has gone through six or seven edi- tions in this country, and combines the popular form with great scientific merit. Mr. Kirby con- scientiously performed his duties as a clergyman ; he was beloved by his parishioners, and enjoyed the esteem and friendship of most of the natural- ists of his own country, as well as of the continent of Europe and America. He was honorary presi- dent of the Entomological Society of London, fellow of the Royal, Linnaean, Zoological and Geo- logical Societies, and honorary member of several societies abroad. His life was prolonged to the venerable age of ninety-one. [W.B.] KIRCH, Gottfried, a celebrated German as- tronomer, 1639-1710. His wife, Mary Margaret Winckelmann, assistant of her husband, and author of astronomical works, 1670-1720. Chris- tian Frederic, son of the preceding, an astro- nomical observer and author, 1694-1740. KIRCHER, Athanasius, generally called 'Fa- ther Kircher,' was a Jesuit of great learning and varied abilities, born at Geysen, near Fulda, in Germany, 1601 ; died at Rome, in the situation of a professor of Hebrew and mathematics, 1680. His accomplishments seem to have ranged from the lowest to the highest point of the scale of hu- man ingenuity ; including many useful discoveries in his experimental philosophy, and some of the most abstruse subjects of inquiry in his speculations. His works, which were written in Latin, consist of thirty-six volumes, twenty-two of which are in folio, and nearly all the rest in 4to. In such a mass of writing and learned research, it may be supposed there is a good deal of trifling import ; but in his case, as in others of a similar kind, the extent of his labours has been the greatest obstacle to the due appreciation of them. Kircher's fa- vourite subject was the hieroglyphics of Egypt, and the school of Champollion glory over his dark guesses, as so many detected crimes against their new canon of criticism. It may be said, however, that he made the best he could of his 379 KIR traditional and other materials used scholastically ; collecting with much labour, and putting together with marvellous ingenuity, the scattered notices which he found in ancient writers, and sparing no pains in making his own observations. Besides his literary and professional labours, Kircher tra- velled in China. He also collected a valuable museum of antiquities, which he bequeathed to the college of Rome. [E.R.] KIRCHER, Conrad, a Germ, divine, 17th ct. KIRCHER, H., a Ger. missionary 1608-1676. KIRKALDY, W., a partizan of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, executed at Edinburgh 1573. KIRKLAND, T., a medical author, 1721-1798. KIRKPATRICK, Jas., an East Indian officer, known for his works in Oriental learning, d. 1812. KIKMANI, an Arabian author, 14th century. KIRSTEN, KIRCHSTEIK or KIRSTENIUS, G., a German physician and botanist, 1613-1660. KIRSTEN, M., a philologist, 1620-1678. KIRSTEN, Peter, an Arabian scholar, physi- cian to Queen Christina, b. in Prussia 1577-1640. KIRWAN, Richard, born in Galway in the middle of the last century, died 1812. A dis- tinguished chemist, was originally, it is said, des- tined for the bar, but ultimately prosecuted chem- istry and mineralogy. He published a work on the ' Temperatures of Different Latitudes,' ' Ele- ments of Mineralogy,' 'Essay on the Analysis of Mineral Substances,' ' Essay on Phlogiston, ' Essay on Geology,' ' on Manures,' &c. It was his work on ' Phlogiston ' which gained him most notoriety. It was distinguished by the able defence which he made of a bad cause ; but which was thoroughly refuted by Lavoisier, who succeeded in banishing for ever this myth from the field of chemistry. He was un- doubtedly the first chemist who appreciated the importance of inorganic substances as manures, and who advocated a knowledge of the constitu- tion of minerals as being the only criterion of their true position in nature. [R.D.T.] KIRWAN, W. B., an Irish divine, celebrated for his pulpit oratory, dean of Killala after his conversion to protestantism, 1754-1805. KITCHENER, Wx.. an eccentric physician, author of ' The Cook's Oracle,' &c, 1775-1827. KITE, Charles, a medical author, died 1811. KLAPROTH, Heinrich Julius Von, son of the famous chemist of that name, distinguished as an Oriental scholar and critic, was born at Ber- lin in 1783. He abandoned the pursuits of his father, after making considerable progress in them, for the fascinating studies connected with the his- tory and antiquities of the East ; and as early as 1802, commenced the 'Asiatic Magazine' at Dres- den. In 1805 he accompanied a Russian embassy to China ; and in the three years, 1807-1810, was employed by the Academy of St. Petersburg in ex- ploring the Caucasian mountains. On returning to Germany in 1812, he was appointed professor of the Asiatic languages at Berlin. In 1815 he visited Paris with the allies, and was so charmed with its attractions, that France became his adopted coun- try, and the remainder of his days were devoted to the propagation of Asiatic, literature, including the organization of the Asiatic Society, in that ca- pital. The works of Klaproth embrace nearly all the subjects of interest connected with Eastern learning, — races, languages, monuments, and gene- KLO ral history. We may mention among those in French, a Criticism of Champollion, a Memoir on Chemistry translated from the Chinese, a Disser- tation on the Roots of the Semitic Languages, and his editorial labours on the 'Asiatic journal.' Died at Paris 1835. TE.R.] KLAPROTH, Martin Henry, born at Wemi- gerode, 1743, died 1817. A student in various laboratories at Quedlinburg, Hanover, Berlin, without any very distinguished instructor, Klap- roth became in his twenty-eighth year assistant to Valentine Rose,who, however, dying in afew months, he established a laboratory and class of his own in Berlin, and afterwards, when a university was established, he became attached to it. His life was one of incessant labour, and he left six volumes, with materials for a seventh, consisting of upwards of 200 analyses of mineral species exe- cuted with such accuracy, that his results even at the present day, with all the advantages of subse- quent improvements, are quoted as models. He was the discoverer of uranium, zirconia, titanic acid, (although anticipated by Gregor) strontian (also anticipated by Crawford and Hope) tellurium and oxide of cerium, which he termed ochroita). His contributions to processes of analytic chemistry, were invaluable ; probably no chemist having ever developed more of the characters of inorganic sub- stances. Klaproth was modest, generous, un- selfish, and exhibited the benevolent tendency of his character, by the honourable care which he bestowed on the education of the children of Va- lentine Rose. He was also distinguished by sound religious principles, which directed his conduct, and enabled him to avoid superstition on the one side, and infidelity on the other. [R.D.T.] KLASS, Fred. Chr., a Ger. landscape painter, d. abt. 1800. His brother, Christian, d. 1794. KLAUBER, J. S., a Ger. engraver, 1753-1817. KLEBER, Jean Baptiste, a famous general of the French revolution, distinguished for his ser- vices in Egypt, where he was assassinated 1800. KLEIN, B., a German composer, 1794-1832. KLEIN, E. F., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1743-1810. KLEIN, F. A., a Ger. theologian, 1793-1823. KLEIN, G. M., a Ger. philosopher, died 1820. KLEIN, J. T., a Ger. naturalist, 1685-1759. KLEIST, E. C. Von, a Ger. poet, 1715-1759. KLEIST, H. Von, a German poet, 1776-1811. KLEIST VON NOLLENDORF, Count Fred. H. Ferdinand Emilius, a distinguished Prus- sian general, 1763-1823. KLENKER, J. F., a Ger. theologian, 1749-1837. KLINGEMANN, A., a Ger. dramatist, b. 1777. KLINGENSTIERNA, Samuel, a Swedish philosopher and mathematician, au. of Memoirs upon Optics, an edition of Euclid, &c, 1689-1785. KLINGER, F. M. Von, a Rus. dram., 1753-1831. KLINGSTET, C. G., a Rus. pain., 1657-1734. KLINTBERG, C, a Swed. financier, 1767-1826. KLOCKER, D., a German painter, 1629-1698. KLOPSTOCK, Friedrich, a German poet, was highly celebrated till the public taste received a new direction from the more brilliant genius and the greater versatility and ease of Gothe. He was born in 1724, at Quedlinburg, in Prussian Saxony. After receiving a regular education, and studying theology, he abandoned all professional views, and devoted himself entirely to literature. KLO Ho shifted his resilience from place to place, re- siding ;i considerable time at Copenhagen, whither he had been invited with a pension ; and the last thirty years of his life were passed at Hamburg, where he died in 1803. His greatest work, the sacred epic called ' The Messiah,' was published partly in 1748, but not completed till 1778. Its strained dignity, its overflow of feeling, and its artificiality of diction, have long ceased to receive the admiration which was once lavished on them. His odes, especially those of a religious cast, are still much valued by his countrymen, in spite of their frequent obscurity. He made himself known respectably also by philological writings. [W.S.] KLOPSTOCK, Margaret, wife of the pre- ceding, author of a tragedy entitled ' The Death of Abel,' and ' Letters from the Dead,' d. 1758. KLOSE, F. J., an English composer, d. 1830. KLOTZ, C. A., a German critic, 1738-1771. KLUBER, J. L., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1762-1840. KLUGEL, G. S., a Ger. mathema., 1739-1812. KLUIT, A., a Dutch historian, 1735-1807. KLUPFEL, E., a Ger. theologian, 1733-1811. KMETH, D., a Hun. astronomer, 1783-1825. KNAPP, G. C, a Ger. theologian, 1753-1825. KNAPTON, Geo., an Eng. pain., 1698-1788. KNARSKI, S., a Polish savant, 1700-1775. KNEIP, Chr. H., a Germ, painter, 1748-1825. KNELLER, Sir Godfrey, a famous portrait painter, who was born at Lubeck about 1648, and acquired great distinction in England in the reigns of Charles II., James II., and William III. Many of his portraits are at Hampton Court. He died in prosperous circumstances 1723. KNIAJENIN, J. B., a Russian poet, 1742-91. KNIBB, Rev. William, distinguished for his exertions in the cause of negro emancipation, was born in 1800. He arrived in Jamaica in 1824, to labour as teacher of a baptist school, and in 1829 became pastor of the mission church at Falmouth. His efforts to improve their condition secured the warm gratitude and affection of the poor negroes, but provoked the jealousy and hostility of the Slanters. After suffering many indignities in amaica, he returned to England to advocate his favourite cause, and his heart-stirring appeals in favour of total emancipation no doubt had their degree of influence in inducing the British legis- lature to pass the great measure of 1833. He soon afterwards returned to Jamaica, and died of yellow fever in 1845. KNIGHT, E., a comic actor, 1774-1826. KNIGHT, G., a speculative philosopher, last c. KNIGHT, Henry Gally, M.P., distinguished as a man of taste and letters, author of ' Ecclesi- astical Architecture of Italy,' ' Architectural Tour in Normandy,' and many works in classical and polite literature, 1786-1846. KNIGHT, Richard Payne, a gentleman of fortune, distinguished for his taste, his knowledge of classical literature and antiquities, and as a patron of the arts, author of ' A Discourse on the Worship of Priapus, in Sicily,' ' An Essay on the Greek Alphabet/ &c, 1750-1824. KNIGHT, S., a learned divine, died 1746. KNIGHT, Til, a dramatic writer, died 1820. KNIGHT, Tn And., brother of R. P. Knight, dis. in veg. phvsiology and horticulture, 1758-1838. KNIGHTON, Hy., an old clu-onicler, 15th ct. KNO KNIGHTON, SirW., a physician and courtier, finally private secretary to George IV., d. 1836. KNITTEL, F. A., a Ger. minister, 1721-1792. KNOES, O. A., a Swedish savant, died 1804. KNOLLES, R., an English historian, d. 1610. KNOLLES, Sir Robert, a famous warrior of the reign of Edward III., called by French histo- rians Canolle ; he is said to have built Rochester bridge with his spoils acquired in France, 1317-1407. KNOLLIS, Sir F., an Eng. statesman, d. 1596. KNORR, G. W., a German engraver, 1705-61. KNORR-A-RUSENORTH, Christian, a fa- mous Oriental scholar and cabalistic wr., 1636-89. KNOTT, Ed., a learned Jesuit, 1580-1656. KNOWLER, W., an English divine, 1699-1767. KNOWLES, T., a learned divine, 1723-1802. KNOWLTON, T., an antiquarian, 1692-1782. KNOX, John, a tradesman of London, author of 'A Systematic View of Scotland,' written from his own observations, which had for their object the settlement of new towns in connection with a her- ring fishery on the N. E. coast of Scotland, d. 1790. KNOX, John, was bora at Gifford in East Lothian in 1505. In his boyhood he attended the grammar school of Haddington, and in the year 1522 he was sent by his father to the university of Glasgow, and the name of Johannes Knox stands among the incorporati of that year. His precep- tor was Mair, or Major, at that time professor of philosophy and theology, who removed in the fol- lowing year to St. Andrews, whither Knox seems to have followed him, and where he taught the current philosophy. Before his twenty-fifth year Knox was ordained to the priesthood. But his examination of popish theology as usually taught did not satisfy him, and from the writings of Jerome and Augustine he turned to the study of the Scriptures themselves. By degrees he re- nounced scholastic theology as useless and unsound ; and about the year 1535, his mind began that decided process of scrutiny and repudiation which ended in his withdrawal from St. Andrews, and the vengeful arm of Cardinal Beaton, and in his formal avowal of protestantism about the year 1542. He soon found an asylum at Langniddrie, in the house of Hugh Douglas, to whose sons he acted for a short time as tutor. The principles of the reformation had now been spreading for some time — the stake had been consuming its vic- tims — the murder of Cardinal Beaton had pro- duced an immense excitement, the conspirators still held the castle of St. Andrews, and as it was reckoned a place of safety, Knox and his pupils took refuge in it at Easter, in the year 1547. Here he taught and exhorted, and being called to the ministry, exercised also the functions of a Christian pastor, and solemnly dispensed for the first time m public in Scotland the ordinance of the Lord's Supper, after the primitive and protes- tant mode. But in the month of June, a French fleet came to the assistance of the Regent Arran, invested the castle, and forced it to capitulate. Knox and some others were transported to Rouen, confined on board the galleys, and loaded with chains. After a severe and unhealthy imprison- ment of nineteen months, he was liberated in February, 1549, and repaired to England, was at once recommended to the English council, and sent by Cranmer to preach in Berwick. For two 3S1 KNO years he continued there, labouring with charac- teristic ardour, exposing the delusions of popery with no unsparing Iiand, and gaining hosts of con- verts to the cause of the reformation. Tonstall, bishop of Durham, cited him to Newcastle, mid the undaunted Knox delivered a public vin- dication in presence of the bishop and the learned priests of his cathedral, and so increased his fame, that the privy council in London appointed him one of King Edward's chaplains, with a salary of £40 a-year. He was consulted also about some changes in the Book of Common Prayer, and fenenl form of service for the English Church. lis plain speech in the north of England made him many enemies, so that he was summoned to appear at London, where he had already declined a living, and commanded to vindicate himself; and he was there in full enjoyment of the royal patronage, when King Edward died, 6th July, 1553. After the accession of Mary he left the" capital, preached in various parts of the country, and was married at Berwick to Mar- jory Bowes, a young lady to whom he had been long and warmly attached. Finding himself in increasing jeopardy, he left the kingdom and landed at Dieppe, on the 20th January, 1554; set out the next month and travelled through France to Switzerland, was cordially received by the leading divines of the Helvetic churches, re- turned to Dieppe in order to gain information from his native land ; went back to Geneva and won the friendship of Calvin ; was again at Dieppe to learn still more of his family, and the cause of truth in Scotland ; took charge for a brief time of a dis- turbed church at Frankfort, revisited Geneva, and recrossed the channel in 1555. After visiting his wife at Berwick, he preached in Edinburgh and various parts of the country, patronised by many of the nobility and gentry; dispensed the Lord's [Knox's Pulpit at St. Andrews.] Supper in Ayrshire, the region of the Scottish Lollards ; was in consequence of his zealous labours ordered to sist himself before a convention of the clergy, in the church of the Blackfriars at Edinburgh, but the summons was set aside, and the ' diet deserted.' Being about this time chosen KNO pastor of the English congregation at Geneva, he with his family departed for Switzerland, and remained in Geneva for the two following years. The English version, usually called the "Geneva Bible, was made at this time by the English exiles, and here, too, Knox blew ' The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women.' A series of changes favourable; to the reformation had in the meanwhile been taking place in Scotland, the protestants had greatly multiplied, the prospect of coming persecution had banded them together, and Knox, on their invitation, landed at Leith 2d May, 1559. No sooner was it known to the terrified priesthood that the ardent reformer had returned, than he was proclaimed an outlaw. Joining with his brethren, he repaired to Perth, and preached zealously against idolatry, while the chicanery of the Queen Regent, and the accidental folly of a priest so enraged the mob, that they pulled down several religious houses and churches, overthrew the altars, and defaced the pictures and images. This tumult, the origin of which has been often misrepresented, Knox distinctly ascribes to the ' rascal multitude.' The Queen Regent mustered her host to quell these riots ; and the protestant leaders, aware of her ultimate design, raised an army in self-defence, but a treaty prevented any hostile engagement. The 'lords of the congrega- tion' were now alarmed into activity. Knox went down to St. Andrews, and soon, as the effect of his instructions, the popish worship was peacefully abolished, and the church stripped at once of all idolatrous symbols. This example was quickly, but not as peacefully followed in many other parts of the kingdom ; and so there perished many valuable works of art, which had been degraded by their application to superstitious purposes. When his party had obtained temporary posses- sion of Edinburgh, Knox was chosen minister of the city, but he retired with the protestant forces on the approach of the regent, made an extensive tour, and preached in many of the larger towns. After being formally ordained at Edinburgh, in 1560, he pursued with ceaseless zeal the work of reformation : a Confession had been already drawn up, a Book of Discipline was added, and the organization of the church was so far matured, that the first General Assembly of the Church of Scotland was held at Edinburgh, on the 21st December, 1560. No sooner had Queen Mary arrived in Scotland, than she had a long interview with the stern reformer, after a sermon which had offended her. This was followed by several meetings, but to no purpose. Knox's sermons at this time were bold, defiant, and mighty — his tongue was a match for Mary's sceptre. He was accused of high treason, but acquitted, in spite of all the malignant influence of queen and court. After being about three years a widower, he married in March, 1564, Margaret, daughter of Lord Ochiltree, and connected with the royal blood of Scotland. His dispute with the abbot of Crossraguel about this period ia familiar to most readers. The reformer perse- vered amidst growing difficulties — the marriage of the queen with Darnley, and its melancholy con- sequences — the attempt to restore popery — the assassination of Rizzio — his own virtual bau- 882 KNO ishment, and the queen's refusal of permission for him to return to Edinburgh. Darnley was murdered — Mary wedded Bothwell — soon resigned in favour of her son, appointed the earl of Murray regent during his minority, and fled to England — the good regent was assassinated, but Knox still kept his post at Edinburgh. Yet the re- gent's death, and his own multifarious anxieties and labours during these critical times preyed upon his constitution, and in October, 1570, he was struck with apoplexy. In the course of a few weeks he was able to preach again, but not with his wonted vigour. In the meantime the queen's party gained strength by the weakness of Lennox, the abilities of Maitland, and the defec- tion of Kircaldy of Grange ; and when the civil war broke out he retired to St. Andrews, still carrying on by tongue, pen, and counsel, the great work to which his life had been devoted. During a cessation of arms he returned to Edinburgh, and shone out in his pristine style when, on hearing of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, he denounced in glowing terms Charles IX. of France. Sickness, however, soon seized his emaciated frame, and after a very brief period of increasing debility, he died 24th November, 1572. Two days afterwards his body was interred in the churchyard of St. Giles. The funeral was attended by an immense concourse of weeping and af- flicted people, as well as of the resident nobility, and the Regent Morton pronounced over him the well-known eulogium, 'There lies he who never feared the face of man.' Knox was of small stature, and by no means of a robust constitution. His character has been pourtrayed very differently by various writers. Indiscriminate eulogy would be here as much out of place as sweeping censure would be unjust. The reformer was cast upon an age of violence and change, and he needed a correspondent energy. Elegance and delicacy of language were not common at the period, and would have been crushed in the tumult. Knox spoke and wrote his honest thoughts in transparent terms, in terse and homely simplicity, and with far less of uncouthness and solecism than might be imagined. He was obliged to appear not like a scholar in the graceful folds of an academic toga, but as a warrior clad in mail, and armed at all Jwintts for self-defence and aggression. It must lave been a mighty mind that could leave its impress on an entire nation, and on succeeding ages. He was inflexible in maintaining what he felt to be right, and intrepid in defending it. His life was menaced several times, but he moved not from the path of duty. The genial affections of home, friendship, and kindred, often stirred his heart amidst all his sternness and decision. In short, he resembled the hills of his native country, which with their tall and splintered precipices, their shaggy sides, and wild sublimity of aspect, yet often conceal in their bosom green valleys, clear streams, and luxuriant pastures. [J.E.] KNOX, Robert, an East Indian officer, au. of * A History of the Island of Ceylon,' pub. 1681. KNOX, Vicesimus, a clergyman of the Church of England, distinguished as a theological writer and essayist, was born in 1752 ; and, though edu- cated at Oxford, received his degree of D.I). from Philadelphia. He was considered an eloquent KOS preacher, and much m vogue for preaching charity sennons, &c. ; died 1821. His son, Rev. Thomas Knox, D.D., succeeded him as master of Tunbridge grammar school, and in the rectories of Rumwell, and Ramsden Crays, in Essex. Died suddenly, 1843. KNUPFER, N., a German painter, 1603-1600. KNUTSSON, Torkel, grand marshal and senator of Sweden, beheaded at Stockholm 1305. KNUTZEN, or KNUZEN, Mathias, a German fanatic and atheist, in great notoriety about 1674. KNUTZEN. M., a Ger. philosopher. 1713-51. KOB, J., a German philosopher, 1598-1661. KOCH, C. W., a native of Strasburgh, distin. for his researches in middle age antiquities, and author of ' The Revolutions of Europe,' 1737-1813. KOECHER, H. F., a Ger. Orient., 1747-1792. KOECK, P., a Flemish engraver, 1490-1550. KOEGLER, J., a Jesuit missionary, 1680-1746. KOEHLER, J. B., a German critic, 1742-1802. KOEHLER, John David, a learned German, author of laborious works in history and archaeo- logy, 1684-1755. John Tobias, one of his fifteen sons, a learned numismatist, 1720-1767. KOENIG, E., a naturalist of Basle, 1658-1731. His son, of the same name, a mathem., 1678-1752. KOENIG, F., a Ger. mechanician, died 1833. KOENIG, G. M., a German savant, author of a Latin Biographical Dictionary, &c, 1616-1699. KOENIG, H. G., a Ger. bibliopole, 1697-1757. KOENIG, J. G., a dist. Ger. botanist, 1728-85. KOENIG, S.H., a Swiss theologian, 1670-1750. His son, Daniel, translator of Arbuthnot on An- cient Coins, killed by a mob at the age of twenty- two, 1725-1747. Samuel, brother of the pre- ceding, prof, of philosophy and ethics, 1712-57. KOEPPER, J. H. J., a Ger. Hellenist, 1755-91. KOERNER, Chr. Godfrey, a literary savant of Saxony, kn. as a wr. on aesthetics, 1756-1831. KOERNER, Theodore, son of the preceding, celebrated as a lyrical poet and dramatic author, and for his patriotism and courage as a soldier, born 1788, shot on the plains of Leipzig when fighting against the French, 1812. KOES, Frederic, a Danish astr., 1684-1765. KOETS, R., a Flemish painter, 1655-1725. KOHL, J. P., a German historian, 1698-1778. KOIALOWICZ, Albert, a learned Polish Jesuit, au. of a ' History of Lithuania,' 1609-1674. KOLBE, or KOLBEN, Peter, a German as- tronomer, author of a ' Description of the Cape of Good Hope,' 1675-1726. ROLLER, Baron F., an Aus. gen., 1767-1826. KOLLMAN, A. F. C, a Ger. com., 1756-1829. KONIGSMARK, Maria Aurora, countess of, celebrated for her share in the political trans- actions of the period, as the mistress of Augustus II., king of Poland, and mother, by the king, of the famous Marshal Saxe, 1678-1768. KORTHOLT, Christian, a Lutheran divine, flourished in Germany, 1633-1694. His grandson, of the same name, also a theologian, 1709-1751. KOSCIUSKO. Thaddeus Kosciusko was born in 1756, of a noble but not wealthy Lithuanian family. He was educated for a military life ; and, while young, he went to America with other volun- teers, and served the United States in their war of independence against England. He accquired high credit there for skill and courage, and rose to the rank of general in the American army. At 383 KOS trie end of this war, Kosciusko returned to Poland. When the aowned conspirators of Prussia, Russia, and Austria, attacked Poland in 1792, 1793, and effected the second partition of that unhappy country, Kosciusko signalized himself at the head of one of the national armies, until the treacherous cowardice of the Polish king Stanis- laus paralyzed all the efforts of the defenders of the land. Kosciusko now became a refugee ; but when the Poles rose against their oppressors in 1794, Kosciusko returned to serve his country. He was rapturously welcomed. The Poles made him their generalissimo, and their dictator. Never did a nation trust a great man more generously ; and never was a trust more nobly and disinterest- edly fulfilled. He maintained order ; he strove to ameliorate the condition of the serfs. He sum- moned an assembly of representatives of the nobles, and of representatives of the cities. And he gave a brilliant example of an enthusiastic lover of liberty, who was stained by no deed of violence or injus- tice, and who was never hurried by democratic favour into forgetfulness of the shortcomings, as well as of the capabilities, of the age and nation in which he lived. In the field, Kosciusko struggled long and gallantly against adverse fortune and overwhelming numbers. Simple in his habits, un- affected in his manners, amiable and mild to his comrades and associates, chivalrously bold in dan- ger, and sternly resolute when duty required, he was the idol of his soldiers' hearts ; and he com- manded esteem even from his foes. — After many alternations of success, Kosciusko was at last wounded and taken prisoner by the Russians at the fatal battle of Maciovice (1st October, 1794), and the complete downfall of his country soon followed. He was for some time kept in prison by the Russians ; but, in 1796, the emperor Paul released him, and offered him rank in the Russian armies, which was declined. Kosciusko passed some time in the United States and in England, and he then lived in retirement near Paris. He saw through the selfish ambition of Napoleon, and refused to become a soldier of fortune under the French Eagle. In 1814, he exerted himself to obtain for Poland, from the Russian emperor Alex- ander, a free constitution like the English, an am- nesty for all exiles, and the institution of schools for the education of the serfs. Disappointed in the hopes which he formed respecting Alexander's treatment of his country, Kosciusko retired in- to complete privacy at Soleure in Switzerland, where lie closed his unstained and noble life in 1817. [E.S.C.] KOSEGARTEN, B. C, a Dutch theologian, 1722-1803. His son, Louis Theobuu, a dramatic writer and translator, 1758-1818. KOSTER, II., an English traveller, 1793-1820. KOSTROW, E. L., a Russian poet, died 1796. KOTTER, Chk., a German prophet, 1585-1647. KOTZEBUE, August Von, horn at Weimar in 1761, became an advocate. In 1781 he received the first of a series of appointments under the .government. Public business divided his time with literary composition, especially drama- tic : he was for two years poet of the court theatre at Vienna; and his | "lice was ; several times, partly through feuds into he became entangled with Uuthe and his KRA adherents. In 1817, he received from the Russian court an appointment more lucrative than honour- able, being charged with the duty of communicat- ing to his employers information as to the state of opinion in Germany. He aggravated the un- popularity of this employment by scoffing at liberal and constitutional opinions in a weekly paper which he conducted; and, in 1819, Sand, an insane student, seeking him out in Manheim, did what he thought to be good service to the father-land by assassinating the Russian spy. Besides a variety of other works, Kotzebue wrote ninety-eight plays. The best of these are to be found among the come- dies, some of which have lively wit and exact ob- servation of manners; but he is best knowu in England, and not to the credit of German litera- ture, by some of his serious plays, such as ' Pizarro,' ' The Stranger,' and ' Lovers' Vows.' His own countrymen would be very unwilling to have these productions accepted as fair specimens of their dramatic poetry. [W.S.] KOTZEBUE, Otto Von, son of the cele- brated German dramatist, went with Krusen- stern as midshipman in a voyage to Japan in 1803, the object of which was to establish a trade be- tween Russia and that countiy. In 1815 he set sail from Plymouth on a voyage round the world, as lieutenant in command of a Russian ship of 180 tons, and made some important discoveries on the north-west coast of America. Disabled by an accident, he abandoned the idea of penetrating-to the Polar Sea, and returned home in 1818. As captain of a ship of war in the same service, he made a second voyage in 1824-1826, and dis- covered some islands in the Pacific. Accounts of both voyages have been published; of the first by himself; of the second by Escholtz, the well- known naturalist who accompanied him. [J.B.] KOULNEFT, J., a Russian gen., 1773-1812. KOUMAS, C. M., a philosopher, mathematician, and gram., b. in Thessaly 1775, d. at Trieste 1836. KOURAKIN, Boris Ivanovitch, a Rus. gen. and ambassador to Paris and London, 1677-1727. KOURAKIN, Prince, a Rus. diplo., 1752-1818. KOUTOUSOFF, Smolenskoi, field-marshal of Russia, distinguished in the late war, 1745-1813. KRACHENINNIKOW, Stephen, a Russian naturalist, and writer on Kamtschatka, 1712-1754. KRAFFT, J. C., an Aus. designer, 1764-1833. KRAFFT, J. L., a Flemish engraver, last cent. KRAFT, George Wolfgang, a German physician, distinguished as an experimental philo- sopher, 1701-1754. His son, W. Louis, an as- tronomer, 1743-1814. KRAHE, L., a Flemish painter, died 1790. KRANACH, Lucas Sunder of, a distinguished painter, time of Luther and Melancthon, whose portraits by him are still in existence, 1475-1553. His son, of the same name, also a painter, d. 1586. KRANTZ, A., a German historian, died 1517. KRANTZ, G., an eccles. historian, 1660-1733. KRASICKI, Ignatius, prince bishop of War- mia, and one of the most distinguished literati of Poland, bom 1735, died at Berlin 1801. KRAUS, G. M., a Ger. painter and eng., last c. KRAUS, J. Ulric, a Ger. engr., 1645-1719. KRAUS, M., a Germ, philologist, 1526-1607. KRAUSE, CHABLBfl Christian FREDERIC, bora at Eisenbcrg 6th May, 1781, died on 28th 38i ERA September, 1832. Mention of this ingenious and profound metaphysician is introduced here, with the simple view of recommending to the English student one of the most judicious successors of Kant. His writings are altogether fertile. In so far as the writer is aware, he is the first who has thoroughly supplanted the old division of the mind into faculties, by proposing to examine it under its three normal modes of action — as it thinks, feels, and wills. In itself a great reform, suggested perhaps by Kant's scheme of three Critiques; but Kranse has many other claims that would thankfully be recognized by a thoughtful English- man. [J.P.N.] KRAUSE, F., a German painter, 170(5-1754. KRAUSE, G. F., a Proa officer, 1768-1836. KRAUSE, G. F., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1718-84. KRAUSE. J. C., a Prussian historian, 1749-99. KRAUSE', J. C. H., a Prus. savant, 1757-1808. KRAUSE, J. G., a Ger. philolotfst, 1684-1736. KRAUSE, KRAUSS, or KRAUS, J. Baptiste, a learned prelate of the Benedictine order, 1700-62. KRAUSE, S. A., a Dutch painter, 1760-1825. KRAY, Baron De, a native of Hungary, dist. as a general in the Austrian service, died 1801. KREBEL, T. F., a Ger. geographer, 1729-93. KREUTZER, Rodolph, a celebrated musical composer and performer on the violin, 1767-1831. KREYSIG, F. L., a Ger. physician, 1770-1839. KRUDENER, Bourcakd Alex. Constance, Baron De, a Russian diplomatist, 1744-1802. His wife, Juliette Vietinghoff, Baroness De Krudener, authoress of ' Valerie,' a romance founded on her own life, and afterwards celebrated as a prophetess, time of Napoleon, 1766-1824. KRUMMACHER, F. A., a rel. wr., 1768-1*45. KRUNITZ, J. G., a German compiler, 1728-96. KRUSE, Ch., a German savant, 1753-1827. KRUSEMARK, Bahon De, a Prussian general, afterwards political ambas. to France, died 1821. KRUSINSKI, J. T., a Polish mission., d. 1754. KUEHN, C. G., a Ger. med. author, 1754-1840. KUEN, M., an Austrian savant, 1709-1765. KUH, E. M , a German poet, 1731-1790. KUHL, H., a German naturalist, 1797-1821. KUHLMAN, Quirinus, a native of Prussia, LAB celebrated for his prophecies, for which he was burned alive in Russia 1689. A list of forty-two works written by him is given in Adelung's ' Historv of Human Folly.' KUHN, J., a Prussian savant, 1647-1693. KULM, J. A., a German anatomist, 1680-1745. His brother, John George, a physician, d. 1731. KULMANN, E., a Russian poetess, 1808-1825. KUNCKELL, J., a German chemist, 1630-1702. KUNRATH, II., a Ger. alchymist, died 1605. KUSTER, G. G., a Ger. historian, 1095-1776. KUSTER, L., a German critic, 1670-1716. KUTTNER, C. G., a German trav., 1755-1805. KUTUSOFF. See Koutousoff. KUYCK, J. Van, a Dutch painter on glass, born 1530, suffered at the stake 1572. KUYP, or CUYP, A., a Dutch pain., 1600-67. KUYPERS, G., a Dutch Orientalist, last cent. KYDERMYNSTER, or KIDDERMINSTER, Richard, a learned eccles. and antiquar., d. 1531. KYNASTON, Sir Francis, a courtier of the reism of Charles I., dist. as a poet, 15S7-1642. KYNASTON, John, an Eng. divine, 1728-83. KYRLE, John, a distinguished benefactor, im- mortalized in the writings of Pope as 'The Man of Ross,' died at the age of ninety in 1754. [Kyrle's Summer House.] LAAN, H. Vander, a Dutch engrav., b. 1690. LAAR, or LAER, Peter Van, a Dutch pain- ter, called, from his style, Bamboccio, 1613-1675. LABACO. See Abaco Anthony. LABADIE, John, a French Jesuit, who became remarkable as a preacher of new doctrines, and had many followers in France and Germany, 1610-1674. LABAN, the father of Rachel and Leah, and the grandson of Nahor, about 1800 b.c. LABARRE, S., a French architect, 1764-1824. LABARTHE, P., a Fr. traveller, 1760-1824. LABASTIE, Joseph Bimard, Baron De, a French archajologist, editor of a new edition of Jobert's ' Science des Medailles,' 1703-1742. LABAT, John Baptist, a French missionary, and an. of several relations of his travels, 1663-1738. LABBE, C, a French jurisconsult, 1582-1657. LAB BE, P., a French antiquarian, 1594-1680. LABBE, Ph., a learned Fr. Jesuit, 1007-1667. LABBEY, F., a French antiquarian, 1653-1727. LABE, Lousia, sumamed 'the beautiful rope- maker,' a native of Lyons, distinguished for her extraordinary talents and courage in arms at the siege of Perpignan; besides her poems in three different languages, she is the author of a dra- matic piece, entitled ' Debat de la Folie et de l'Amour,' 1526-1566. LABEDOYERE, Charles Angelique Fran- cois Huchet, Count De, one of Napoleon's gen- erals, shot for rejoining the emperor, 1786-1815. LABEO, the surname of several Roman families, the most celebrated members of which are — Quin- tus Fabius, consul, 197 b.c. Antistius, a sena- tor and jurisconsult, died 31 b c. Caius Antis- tius, son of the preceding, a jm-isconsult and his- torian. Antistius, a proconsul and painter, of the 1st century; and Attius, a poet, and contem- porary of Nero, 1st century. 385 2C LAB LARERIUS, a Roman dramatist, died B.C. 44. LAREV, J. R., a French geometr., 1750-1825. LA BIENUS, Titus, a Rom. general, k. 45 B.C. LABORDE, A. Dk, a French poetess, last oen. LABORDE, H. F., Count De, aFr.officer,d.l833. LABORDE, Jean Baptiste, a French Jesuit, and writer on the mechanism of electricity, d. 1777. LABORDE, Jean Joseph De, a gentleman of fortune, who became banker to the court of France, and was executed 1794. His son, F. G. Joseph, a deputy to the constituent assembly, died in Eng- land 1801. His third son, A. L. Joseph, count de la Borde, a liberal deputy of the restoration, aid-de-camp to the king after 1830, author of an itinerary of Spain, and of several political and antiquarian works, 1774-1841. LABORDE, John Benjamin De, first valet de cbambre to Louis XV., distinguished as a com- poser and writer on the hist, of music, exec. 1794. LABOR1E, J. R. P., a Fr. phvsician, 1797-1823. LABOULLAYE-MARILLAC, P. C. Made- leine, Count De, a French chemist, 1774-1824. LABOUREUR, J. Le, a Fr. historian, 1623-75. LABRADOR, J., a Spanish painter, died 1600. LAB RE, R. J., a monk of La Trappe, 1748-76. LABROUSSE, Clotilda Susanna Courcel- les De, born 1741, was an ascetic of the order of St. Francis, who became greatly celebrated by her prophecies at the period of the French revolution. Her impulse was to travel over the world, in order to convert the whole human race by her preaching, but her superiors refused their consent, and she addressed a memorial on the subject, with an ac- count of her life, to M. Pontard, the constitutional bishop of Dordogne. This document came into the hands of Dom Gerle, once a monk, who in 1759 entered into a correspondence with her, and in 1790 endeavoured to introduce her into the na- tional assembly. She afterwards went to Rome, preaching to the populace on her way, and propos- ing to herself the conversion of the pope, hut she was arrested in Italy, and imprisoned in the castle of St. Angelo till 1796, when the directory procured her liberation. Two years later she returned to Paris with the French troops, and was surrounded with a circle of believers till her death in 1821. The duchesse de Bourbon published some curious particulars concerning her in 1791, and her works were collected by Bishop Pontard in 1797. La- martine has perpetuated the mistaken belief that she died in the castle of St. Angelo, while the chair of the illuminee was occupied by Catherine Theos, the new flame of Dom Gerle, at Paris. [E.R.] LA 15 RUNE, J. De, a French historian, d. 1743. LABRUYERE. See Bruyeke. LA-CAILLE, Nicolas Louis De, born March 15, 1713, died March 21, 1762; a celebrated French astronomer ; one of the best Observers in modern times. He had no superior in industry, activity, and honour; and few men have ever handled instruments, equal to him in that envi- able power, which enables the Observer to produce exactness of result, even though his instrument be imperfect. La-Caille was honourably connected with that measurement of the degree of the meridian in France, which rectified Picard's erroneous est i- mate, and went to establish the true shape of the Earth; but his principal achievements lay at the Cape of Good Hope, where he remained four years LAC surveying the southern heavens. After fixing the Iilaces ot about ten thousand stars, he returned to 'aris and published the results of his voyage. His works are numerous, the chief being the Fiuidamenta Astrimotnue and the Ccelum Austrule. His princi- pal catalogue has recently been recomputed with every care, and republished. No name in Observa- tion ranks higher than La-Caille's. [J.P.N.] LACARRY, Giles, a French Jesuit, and pro- fessor of polite literature, philosophy, and theo- logy, celebrated as a numismatist, 1605-1684. LA-CATHELINIERE, Nicholas Ripault De, one of the most daring of the Vendean chiefs, born 1760, executed at Nantes 1794. LACAZE, L. De, a Fr. medical writer, 1703-65. LACEPEDE, Bernard Germain Etienxk De La Ville Sur Illon, Count De, a celebrated French naturalist, pupil of BufFon and Daubenton, author of ' Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupedcs Ovipares et des Serpents,' ' Histoire Naturelle des Poissons,' ' Histoire Naturelle des Cetaces,' &c, 1756-1825. LACHAN, G. De, a French antiquarian, last c. LACKMAN, A. H., a Germ, philol., 1694-1753. LA-CLOS, Peter Ambrose Francis Cho- derlos De, a French officer after the revolution, editor of the 'Journal des Amis de la Constitution,' and author of 'Les Liaisons Dangereuses,' and ' Poesies Fugitives,' 1741-1803. LACOMRE, F., editor of the ' Letters of Chris- tina Queen of Sweden,' a ' Dictionary of Old French,' &c, 1733-1795. LACOMBE, J., a miscellaneous writer, author of a ' History of Christina, queen of Sweden,' 1724- 1801. His brother Honore Lacomre De Prezel, a writer on jurisprudence, born 1725. LACOMBE-SAINT-M1CHEL, Jean Peirre, a French officer, and conventionalist, 1749-1809. LA-CONDAMINE, C. M. DE,a Fr. astronomer, au. of travels in the interior of America, 1701-1774. LACRAIX, S. F., a Fr. geometrician, 1765-1843. LACRETELLE, P. H., a French author, dis- tinguished for his writings on jurisprudence, and the reform of the criminal code, 1751-1824. LACRUZ, J. De, a Spanish painter, 16th cent. LACRUZ, J. Inez De, arelig. poetess, 1614-i!5. LACRUZ, M. De, a Sp. his. painter, 1750-92 LACRUZ- Y-CANO, R., a Sp. dramat., 1728-95. LACTANTIUS. Lucius Caecilius Lactan- tius Firmianus, was in all probability a native of Italy, and bom about the middle of the third century. He studied rhetoric in Africa, as the pupil of Arnobius. His own fame as a teacher of the same art was so extensive, that Diocletian invited him to settle at Nicomedia, and open a school of oratory. But his career in this Greek city was by no means so successful as might have been anticipated from imperial patronage; and therefore he devoted his hours, not to rhetoric, but to literary composition. When an old man, he superintended the education of Crispus, son of Constantine, and he seems to have died in Gaul, perhaps about 330. The prin- cipal work of Lactantius is his ' Divine Institutes,' divided into seven books ; designed to refute paganism, and show, in various ways, the superior purity and lustre of the Christian faith. Lactan- tius wrote also two tracts ' On the Anger of God,' and ' On the Workmanship of God,' along with a Symposium, an Itinerary, and numerous Epistles 386 LAC and Poems. The disquisition ' On the Death of the Persecutors,' which many critics have assigned to another Caecilius, describes the miserable fate of those who attempted to suppress Christianity by sword and fire. The style of this Father has often been admired, and he has been called the Christian Cicero. Certainly he excels all his con- temporaries in the classical form of his style, in the graceful and rhythmical construction of his periods, and the easy and lucid sequency of his clauses. His knowledge of theology was very superficial and inaccurate. The editio princeps of his works was printed at Subiaco, in 14G5, and many other editions have followed at various times and in various places. His book 'On the Death of the Persecutors ' has been twice translated into English, by Gilbert Burnet 1G87, and by Sir David Dalrvmple 1792. [J.E.] LACY, Don St., a Spanish general, 1775-1817. LACY, John, a dramatic wr. and actor, d. 1681. LACYDES, a Greek philosopher, B.C. 241. LADERCHI, J., an Italian historian, d. 1738. LADERCHI, J. B., an Ital. jurist, 1538-1618. LADISLAUS, k. of Bohemia. See Uladislas. LADISLAUS, k. of Poland. See Uladislas. LADISLAUS I., king of Hungary, born 1041, succeeded 1079, died 1095, and was canonized for his piety by Celestin III., 1198. Ladislaus II., called the infant, succeeded and died the same year, 12 DO. Ladislaus III. succeeded 1272, assas- sinated, after a life of debauchery and a disgrace- ful reign, 1290. Ladislaus IV., the same as Uladislas V., king of Poland, succeeded his fa- ther in the latter dignity, 1435, and was elected by the Hungarians, 1440, killed in battle by the Sul- tan Amurath, 1444. Ladislaus V. succeeded in the fifth year of his age, 1444, and died suddenly 1458. Ladislaus VI., son of Casimir IV., king of Po- land, and called, according to the Polish form of his name, Uladislas II., became king of Bohemia 1471, and king of Hungaiy 1490, died 1516. LADISLAUS, or LAUNCELOT, king of Naples, born 1376, sue. his father Charles (Durazzo) III. 1386, defeated by Louis of Anjou 1411, died 1414. LADVOCAT, J. B., a Fr. Hebraist, 1709-1765. LADVOCAT, L. F., a Fr. philoso., 1644-1735. L^ELIANUS, a Kom. emp., procl. and kil. 266. L./ELIUS, Caius, a Roman commander, com- panion-in-arms of Scipio Africanus, consul B.C. 190. His son, of the same name, surnamed 'The Wise,' dist. as an orator and man of letters, consul b.c. 140. LAENNEC, R. T. H.. a Fr.physic, 1781-1826. LAER, Peter De. See Laak. L;E\TNUS, Makcus Valerius, a naval com- mander of Rome, opposed to Philip of Macedon, whom he defeated B.C. 214, consul 210, died 205. LjEVINUS,Publius Valerius, con., b.c. 280. LjEVNIUS, Torrentinus, archbishop of Meck- lin, distinguished as a Latin poet and ed., d. 1595. LAFAGE, R. De, a Fr. des. andengr., 1654-84. LAFAYE, A. De, a Swiss minister, died 1618. LAFAYE, J. Elie Laniget De, a French ma- thematician, 1671-1748. His brother, Jean Fran- cais, a diplomatist and man of letters, 1674-1731. LAFAYETTE, Gilbert Motier De, a French marshal, dist. in the ware with the Engl., b. 1428. LAFAYETTE, Louise Motier De, maid of honour to the queen of Louis XIII., and founder of the convent of Chaillot, where she died, 1065. LAF LAFAYETTE, Marie Madeleine Pioche De La Vergne, Comtess De, a eel. novl., 1632-93. LAFAYETTE, Marie Paul Jean Roch Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis De, one of the most illustrious names in the annals of modern history, was bora at Chavaignac, in Auvergne, 1757, and commenced his career at the court of Louis XV., at the period when hostilities were commencing between Britain and her American colonies. At the age of twenty he left the arms of his bride, and, fitting out two vessels with arms and provisions, sailed for Boston; was received by Washington and his army with acclamations, and, joining their ranks as a volunteer, was wounded in his first action near Philadelphia, and com- manded the vanguard of the patriot army at the capture of New York. On returning to France, when peace was concluded with the mother coun- try, Lafayette found himself in possession of an immense popularity, and presently took his seat with the notables, convoked in 1787. The ques- tions of public right in ferment at this crisis are matters of history. Lafayette embraced the popu- lar cause, and was the first to demand the convo- cation of the estates-general. Elected deputy to the latter body in 1789, he proposed the ' Declara- tion of Rights,' which he had brought from the free soil of America, as the preliminary of a con- stitution. Proclamation of this world-renowned document was made July 22, and it furnished the French people with the metaphysical reasons for the ' sacred right of insurrection ' — a well-known phrase of Lafayette's. Meanwhile the Bastile had been taken July 14, the national guard organized, and Lafayette appointed to the command. In this capacity he rode a white charger, and shone the impersonation of chivalry, and twice the royal family owed their preservation to his address and courage — the greatest of these occasions being the march on Versailles, 5th and 6th of October. Some months later, 12th May, 1790, he joined Bailly in forming the club of Feuillants to counteract the Jacobins — formerly ' the friends of the constitu- tion,' to which his party had belonged before its final transformation. The arrest of the king at Varennes, being followed by the petition for his deposition on the field of Mars, Lafavette lost much of his popularity by assisting Bailly to dis- perse the people, which was not accomplished with- out bloodshed. In the lull of the popular enthu- siasm he returned to his native fields, the national guard, on his retirement, presenting him with a bust of Washington, and a sword forged from the bolts of the Bastile. When the coalition was formed, and their armed troops threatened the frontier, he was appointed general of one of the armies opposed to them. While in this command, the progress of the Jacobins, and the outrages committed upon the royal family, provoked him to address letters of remonstrance to Paris, and these not producing any eflect, he was chivalrous enough to leave his troops and appear at the bar of the assembly. Before leaving the capital on this oc- casion, he had arranged with the king for a review of the national guard, when the ' constitution' was to be saved by a coup de main ; but the review was countermanded in the night, Lafayette rejoined his army, was burnt in efligy by the sansculottes of Paris, and, at length, endeavouring to escape from LAF France, was captured by the Austrians and im- prisoned at Olinutz. lie was confined from the failure of the constitution to the assumption of power by Buonaparte, and released in 1797. La- fayette had no share in any of the events connected with the death of the king and the reign of terror, and. in the years following, rejected every overture of the consul and emperor. His first movement in public was made after the battle of Waterloo, when he endeavoured to preserve the chamber of representatives in being, on the principle that it derived its authority from the electors — not from Buonaparte, by whom it was convoked — and with the view of restoring the public liberties. These arguments were urged upon Blucher and Welling- ton without effect, and Lafayette returned to pri- vate life. In the year 1818, he became a member of the chamber of deputies, and, resuming his career as an advocate of constitutional principles, had the satisfaction of seeing the dream of his life realized in 1830. It was to Lafayette, intrusted with the power of a dictator, in his original char- acter of commander of the national guard, that Louis Philippe owed his elevation to the throne. Time, wiser or more capricious than he, allowed him to see the stone hurled at the feet of his idol, and he earned this saddest of all lessons with him into eternitv, 1834. [E.R.] LA-FERTE-IMBAULT, Maria Thkresa Geoffrin, Marchioness De, celebrated for her lite- rary abilities, 1715-1791. LAFF1TTE, James, the principal of a famous banking establishment at Paris, distinguished in political history as an Orleanist, 1767-1844. LAFFON-LADEBAT, a political writer of the legisl. assembly and council of elders, 1746-1829. LAFITAU/J. F., a French Jesuit, distinguished by his accounts of the North American Indians, and the discoveries of the Portuguese, died 1740. His brother, Peter Francis, a French prelate and ecclesiastical historian, 1685-1764. LAFITE, Ma. Eliz. De, a Fr. writer, 1750-94. LAFOND, C. Ph., a Fr. violinist, 1776-1842. LAFONT, Joseph De, a dramatist, 1686-1725. LAFONTAINE, Augustus Henry Julius, a celebrated German romance writer, 1756-1831. LAFONTAINE, John De. See Fontaine. LAFOREY, Sir F., a Brit, admiral, 1767-1835. LAFORGE, J. De, a French poet, 17th century. LAFOSSE, C. De, a French painter, 1640-1716. His nephew, Anthony, a drama, poet, 1653-1708. LAFOSSE, J. B. J. De, a Fr. engrav., b. 1721. LAIOSSE, J. F., a Fr. preacher, 1734-1813. LAFOSSE, Stephen W., and his son, Philip Stephen, flirt, as veterinary surgeons, last cent. LAGARAYE, Claude tous. Marot, Count De, dist. as the founder of schools for the young, and hospitals for the aged and sick, 1675-1755. LAGARDE, Anthony Escalin Des Aimahs, Baron De, a eel. naval tactician anddiplom., d. 1578. LAGARDE, Philip Bidard De, a French dramatic writer and man of letters, 1710-1767. LAGARDIE. See Gardie. LAGERBRLNG, 8., a Swed. historian, 1707-88. LAGEBLOEP, 1'etei:. professor of eloquence at L'psala, and historian of «. Europe, 1648-1699. LAGERSTROEM, Magnus Von, a Swedish savant, translator, and natural philos., 1696-1759. LAGSY, T. F. De, aFr. mutkemu., 1GGU-1734. LAG LAGOMARSINI, J., anltal. savant, 1698-1773. LAGRAKGF, a Fr. classical transitu, 1738-75. LAGRANGE, Joseph De Chancel De, a Fr. dramatist, eel. for his precocious talents, 1675-1758. LAGRANGE, Joseph Louis, born at Turin, 25th January, 1736, died at Paris, 10th April, 1813; a man prevented only by the rivalship of Laplace, from being held, by common consent, the most illustrious geometer of modern times. The honourable rivalry of these great men was al- most life-long ; nor could it be easily declared at any special date which was foremost in the race. Living at a time when the exigencies of Science demanded, and its possessions pointed to new me- thods and great conquests, their united labours constitute its Modern Epoch: now to one, and then to the other, the glory of the last advance was due. Speaking of the sum of their achieve- ments, this perhaps may, without injustice, be said, — if Laplace, to some extent, surpassed his compeer in the range of his view, and manifested more of an encyclopaedic force, that high merit which belongs to intensity in the power of ge- neralizing, and therefore to taste and lucidity in composition, must be awarded to Lagrange. No Analyst ever possessed a finer appreciation of Me- thod, than the illustrious Piedmontese ; whose name accordingly is inscribed among the Fasti of every department of Inquiry which arrested his notice. This especial characteristic of his genius will best appear through a brief synopsis of his main achievements. — I. In reference to the efforts of Lagrange to bestow on the Infinitesimal Calculus a logical place in pure Analysis, it cannot perhaps be asserted that success was complete ; neverthe- less his positive success has been undervalued. Previous to his time, that Calculus had been chiefly regarded as a powerful Instrument towards im- portant positive results. Indeed, if one except that ever-memorable section of the Principia, it could not be said that attention had been paid to its philosophical basis, so much as to the efficacy of its methods ; nor had the expositions either of Leibnitz or D'Alembert rendered farther research unnecessary to the solidity and symmetry of all Transcendental Analysis. Desirous to establish that symmetry, Lagrange proposed to discard consider- ation alike of Infinitesimals and Limits; and to attach the new Power to the old Foundations, by presenting differentials as co-efficients of the suc- cessive terms of the Infinite Series representing a Function in which the variable has received an increment. The validity of his proof that every function thus modified, must be represented by the series known as Taylor's Theorem, has been strongly contested : but apart from such criticism, it is very certain that by resting the doctrine of the Calculus, on the doctrine of Infinite Series, we do not get rid of the Idea of a Limit; seeing that we can attach no notion to an Equation, one side of which is an Infinite Series, except that the other and apparently definite side expresses the Limit of that Series : and besides, in every application of the Calculus of Functions thus based — whether to Geometrical or Dynamical Problems — our Geome- ter was reduced to the necessity of again directly employing the logic and phraseology of Limits. Unless however, as vitiated by this logical and al- most technical defect at the threshold, the success S88 LAG of the Theorie des Fonctions cannot be questioned. If Lagrange has not succeeded in discarding the consideration of Limits, he has presented Analysis in no greater dependence upon it, than are other branches of Science. After the publication of that remarkable work, it could nowhere be said that the extraneous element inhered in the Method of treatment, but only that it belonged to the nature of the thing treated: and — as a necessary and im- mediate effect of this disentangling — every pure and positive Method in Analysis assumed its proper ge- nerality, and put forth its natural power. The student who would appreciate the gain thus accru- ing from the Theorie des Fonctions, may refer to what it accomplished in the treatment of Series ; or what is yet more special, to its exposition of the nature and treatment of Contacts. — II. The earliest achievement of Lagrange in pure Analysis, was equally illustrative oi* the peculiar character and grasp "of his genius, — we mean the discovery of the Method of Variations. Almost from the rise of Geometrical Science, problems of maxima and minima, had been a favourite and at the same time a difficult exercise with Inquirers : separate solutions varying in ingenuity had througn the contest of wits, been attained for specific problems, but it was reserved for the differential calculus to produce that general method — foreshadowed by Fermat— which diminished the intellectual in- terest of such problems, by rendering them all easily resolvable. But as this difficulty disap- peared, a new class of problems, related to the previous class but much less manageable, gra- dually absorbed attention ; and singularly enough this too became the chosen battle-ground on which the best spirits of Europe contested for superiority. The history of the problem of the solid of least re- sistance is well known ; but it was only one inci- dent in the rivalry of mathematical genius. Now the relation between the new class of problems — problems of Isoperimeters as they were termed — and the old maxima and minima, is the following : a problem regarding a maximum or minimum is this, — to find those values of certain unknown quan- tities, which constitute a certain specified function or combination of these quantities, a maximum or minimum : an Isoperimetrical problem on the other hand is this, — to determine a function or combi- nation of certain unfmown quantities, so that some other specified and determinate function of that function, shall be a maximum or minimum. The great access of difficulty and complicacy here, is apparent; and to these new problems Lagrange applied a new method, as grasping, as exhaustive as the method of the Differential Calculus in the simpler case. And not only did his Calculus of Variations put an end to all efforts after special solutions; but it became, like the simpler calculus, a general method of immense comprehensiveness and power : even now, its resources and applica- tions are not more perhaps than generally sketched out. — III. Next in order of complicacy, if not of difficulty, are the achievements of Lagrange in the Methods of Rational Mechanics. This great division of Mathematical Science, also consisted, previous to the publication of the Mecanique An- ahjtiqne, of separate analytic artifices, whose au- thority rested on a number of separate general principles. Lagrange combined the whole ; or rather LAG he rose above those separate and special principles; producing a method of contemplating mechanics, and a course of procedure, that involved and con- nected them all. The Principle of Virtual Veloci- ties became in his hands the foundation and sum- ming up of all Statics ; and by a dexterous use of D'Alembert's theorem in Dynamics, he suc- ceeded in reducing all Dynamical investigations under the category of strict Statics. His new calculus of Variations was indispensable as an in- strument ; and it enabled him to realize to the ut- most, the grand necessity of his intellect, viz. : to co-ordinate, what he found separate; and so to establish the fixed and final Method of the Science. It is rare that a work like the Mecanique Analytique comes to be valued at once ; nor has this work been so : nevertheless, it has been of greater service to Dynamical Theory than the achievements of any man since the times of Galileo. Through some strange caprice, Lagrange, after concluding his imper- ishable volumes, conceived a strong distaste alike at the subject and his own labours. He did not open the printed volume for a long time ; and his thoughts found refuge in meditation on the History of Religion and Medicine. His friends have said, that what the Analyst thought, on these apparently incongruous subjects, would have made the fortune of several ordinary writers. — IV". What we have said of Lagrange refers mainly to his remarkable influence on Method in Analysis. His specific discoveries are as remarkable, although unsuited — even an enumeration of them — to a work like this. It were wrong, however, to omit his crowning achievement in reference to the mechanism of our Solar System ; especially char- acteristic as it is, of the commanding genius of the man. He and his compeer had worked elaborately at the problem of perturbations — that problem which Newton bequeathed to after time. That the several bodies of the Solar System im- portantly influence each other, and so affect the arrangements of the system, was a consequence of the Law of Gravitation ; but the result, or the harmony of those perturbations had yet to be discerned. Drawing his conclusion from a large induction, Laplace had asserted the invariability of major axes of the Planetary Orbits, and of course, the Stability of the System as a fact: Lagrange, from a higher flight, showed the necessity of that Invariability, and therefore of the permanency of the Planetary Mechanism. It was indeed a great discovery : he proved that because of the dispositions of the Planets, — their arrangement nearly in one plane, the uniformity of the directions of their motions, and the proximity of their orbits to the circular form, this stability must exist: so that, if present arrangements come to an end, it will be through no imperfec- tion ; but because, that — gorgeous though they are — they are somehow subject to the doom of all finite things, and — notwithstanding their augustness — only part of some development yet more gigan- tic, beats of the pulse of a still grander life. It is not easy to estimate the amount of this advance beyond the position of Newton, who thought that our system contained the seeds of dissolution, and that, in the words of Leibnitz, a time would come, when Deity, would require to interfere and 381) LAG re-adjust his worn-out mechanism ! — The life of Lagrange had some anxieties, but it was crowded with honours. Called to Berlin by the great Frederick, he early obtained the position due to him. Afterwards, for many years, he resided in Paris, in command of the first employments. By rare fortune he escaped the fate of Lavoisier — when ' in a moment a head fell which the world might not replace in a century:' and with Laplace he shared the early labours and glories of the Ecoh Normah. Take him as a whole, abstract science has in modern times possessed no other servant so great. [J.P.N.] LAGRENEE, Lons John Francis, a French historical painter, 172l-l*u4. His brother, John James, called the younger, 1740-1821. The nephew of the latter, Anselm Louis, 1775-1832. LAGUERRE, L, a French painter, 1G63-1721. LAGUEKRE, M. J., a eel. cantatrice, 1755-83. LAGUILLE, L., historian of Alsace, 1658-1742. LAHARPE, A. E., a Fr. general, 1754-1796. LAHARPE, F. C, a Swiss republ., 1754-1838. LAHARPE, Jean Francois De, born at Paris in 1739, was the son of an artillery captain of Swiss extraction. In early manhofld he became an author by profession. His strength lay in lite- rary criticism, which at length became his chief employment. He is a useful and judicious critic, though not a profound one; and his analyses of celebrated works are especially instructive. Much may be learned as to modern literature, and a little as to that of Greece and Rome, from his volu- minous ' Lycee, ou Cours de la Litterature,' which contains lectures he delivered in Paris from 1786. He died there in 1803. [W.S.] LAHIRE, Philip De, a French mathematician and astronomer, 1640-1719. His son, Gabriel Philip, a geometrician, 1677-1719. Jean Nicho- las, brother of the latter, a botanist, 1685-1717. LAHIRE, S. V. See Vignoles. LA-HUERTA. G., a Span painter, 1645-1714. LAHYRE, L. De, a French painter, 1606-1656. LAINEZ, Alex., a French poet, 1650-1710. LA INEZ, or LAYNEZ, James, a Sp. Jesuit, general of the order after Loyola, 1512-1565. LAINEZ, S., a French opera singer, died 1822. LAING, Alexander, a Scotch antiquarian and miscellaneous writer, editor of the l Eccentric Ma- gazine/ 1778-1838. LAING, Alex. Gordon, an African explorer, born at Edinburgh, 1794, murdered on the route from Timbuctoo, 1826. LAING, Malcolm, a Scotch hist., 1762-1819. LAING, W., a Scotch bookseller, 1764-1832. LAIRE, Francis Xavikr, a French librarian, nu. of a ' Catalogue of Printed Books from the Inven- tion of the Art to the year 1500,' &c, 1738-1801. LA1RESSE, G., a Flemish painter, 1640-1711. LAIS, a Sicilian courtezan, assassina. i;.< . 850, LAISNE, Anthony, a Fr. archaeologist, 17th c. LAJARD, P. A., a Fr. statesman, 1757-1808. LAKE, Arthur, a dignitary of the Church of England, known as a religious writer, died 1626. LAKE, Gerarh, first Viscount Lake, an English general, distinguished in Germany during a years' war, and as commander-in-chief in India, 1744-1808. I. \LA, a female painter, 1st century B.C. LA LAM ANT, John, a dieting, miunt, 17th c. LAL LALANDE, J De, a Fr. lawyer, 1622-1703. LALANDE, Joseph Jebomb Lk Francaw De, born July 11, 1732, died in Paris 4th April, 1807 ; an observer of much industry, and a volu- minous writer, who contributed something to the ad- vance of astronomy, and much to a diffusion of the knowledge of it. He was one of the group of sa- vans whom Frederick the Great gathered around him; and he conducted the observatory established by that eccentric monarch at Berlin. On his re- turn to Paris he pursued his researches; often com- municating memoirs to the Academy of Sciences. He assisted Clairaut with materials for his com- putation of the return of Halley's comet ; pub- lished an account of the transit of Venus; composed his great work on astronomy, which extends to four 4to volumes ; and drew up his catalogue of eight thousand stars. He also edited and wrote many elementary treatises. The catalogue of La- lande has been recently published in this country, and is of considerable value. His systematic and historical works have given place to others ; al- though the 'Traits' may still be consulted with advantage by the student. We owe also to Lalande the completion of Montucla's valuable History of Mathematics. [J.P.N.] LALANDE, M. Richard De, a French com- poser, celebrated for his ballet music, 1657-1726. LALANE, P., a French poet, died 1661. LALAUNE, Noel De, aFr. divine, 1618-1673. LALLEMAND, Baron, a Fr. gen., 1774-1803. LALLEMAND, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1710-1802. LALLEMANDET, J., a Fr. theoh, 1595-1647. LALLEMANT, J. P., a learned Jesuit, known as a great adversary of the Jansenists, 1660-1694. LALLEMANT, L., a learned Jesuit, 1578-1635. LALLEMANT, P., an ascetic writer, 1622-73. LALLEMANT. Richard Couteray, a French printer and editor, known for his fine editions of the classics, 1726-1807. His brother, Nicholas, was associated with him in these works, and ano- ther brother, Richard Xavier Felix Lalle- mant De Maupas, was vicar-general of Avranches, and president of the Academy of Rouen, died 1810. LALLEMENT, W., a journalist, 1782-182S. LALLI, Giov. B., an Italian poet, 1572-1637. LALLOUETTE, A., a Fr. author, 1653-1724. LALLOUETTE, F. P., a theologian, died 1697. LALLOUETTE, J. F., a Fr. compos., 1653-1728. LALLOUETTE, P., a Fr. physician, 1711-92. LALLY, Thomas Arthur, Count De, baron of Tullendally, or Tollendal, in Ireland, was de- scended from one of those devoted adherents of the Stuarts who became naturalized in France, and who there acquired distinction in the service of the crown. He was born in Dauphine, 1702, and began his military career in an Irish regiment, commanded by his uncle, General Dillon. After greatly distinguishing himself at the sieges of Kehl, Menin, Ypres, and Fames, and particularly at the battle of Fontenoy (dating from 1733 to 1749), he was appointed ( 1756) commandant-general of the French possessions in the East Indies. On his arrival tnere, at the end of April, 1758, war was declared with the English, over whom he obtained a series of successes, but was at length defeated before Madras, and then besieged in Pondicherry, upon which he had been compelled to fall hack. Here, with less than a thousand men, he resisted 390 LAL the whole English army for several months, and only surrendered when reduced to the last extremity, January 16, 1761. He now became the prisoner of the English, but was soon liberated, and, re- turning to France, was arrested on a charge of treason. All the perils and toils he had under- gone were rewarded by the corrupt administration of that expiring monarchy by his judicial murder, in the vain effort to hide from the public eye their own factious dishonesty. He was dragged to the scaffold with a gag in his mouth to prevent him from addressing the people, and was executed May 9, 1766. [E.R.] LALLY-TOLLENDAL, Trophimus Gerard, Marquis De, son of the preceding, was born at Paris, 1751, and though he was ignorant of his parentage until the eve of his father's execution, he devoted himself to obtain the re-establishment of his good name. His filial efforts were virtually crowned with success in 1778, though the last judicial form was never completed in consequence of the troubles of the period, and in 1783 he obtained possession of his estates. In 1789 he became a deputy of the noblesse to the estates- general, and was one of the most popular mem- bers of that body when it changed its name to the national assembly, and commenced the erection of a constitution. In the fruitless labours directed to this end he was a warm supporter of Lafayette ; but, despairing of the monarchy and the constitu- tion, he retired with Necker, in September, 1790, and published an address to the French people. After the 10th of August, 1792, he was arrested by the Jacobins, but escaped the massacres of Sep- tember, and arrived safely in England ; where, as a royalist, and a writer in the interest of the emi- grants, he enjoyed a small pension from the go- vernment. He was authorized to return to France by the first consul in 1801, but took no part in public affairs till the restoration, when he became a member of the privy council, and, in that capa- city, accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent during the hundred days of 1815. After the second re- storation he was made a peer of France ; and, remaining true to his principles, resisted the at- tempts of the Bourbons to resume their arbitrary power. He died a few weeks before the revolution of July, 1830, and has left a name in consider- able repute both as an historico-political writer and a poet. [E.R.] LALONDE, F. R., aFr. antiquarian, 1685-1765. LALUZERNE, C/esar Henry, a nephew of Malesherbes, min. of foreign affairs under Necker. LALUZERNE, Caesar William Cardinal De, one of the clerical deputies to the estates- general, and the first to propose the establishment of a representative system in France, author of se- veral theological and political works, 1738-1822. LAM A, J. B.,apaint. and architect of Naples, al>t. 1508-1579. Another of the same name, b. 1660. LAMA, Julia, a Venetian painter, last century. LA MANNA, J., a Sicilian poet, 1580-1640. LAMANON, R. P., a Fr. naturalist, 1752-1787. LAMARCK, or as his real name is, Jean Bap- tiste Pierre Antoine De Monet, an eminent naturalist, was born at Bazantine in Picardy in 1744. He died in 1829. A soldier in his youth, he had already begun to distinguish himself, when an accident compelled him to relinquish the army. LAM Like many other naturalists, Lamarck's first study was botany. The first work he published was the 1 Flore Francaise,' which, appearing at a time when Rousseau had made botany fashionable, met with an astonishing degree of success. Other botanical works soon followed, and for some time Lamarck seemed completely occupied with these, and works of a more speculative kind, which do not now add much to his reputation. In 1793 he was appointed to a chair attached to the museum of natural history at the Garden of Plants, which had for its object the history of insects and the lower animals, which Linnaaus had arranged under the general name of worms. At this time he was fifty years of age, and the study of zoology was nearly new to him. Such, however, were his zeal and assiduity in preparing himself for the duties of his chair, that m a few years he had made him- self thoroughly master of the subject; and his great and excellent work, the ' Histoire des Ani- maux sans Vertebres,' will ever entitle him to take his place in the very first rank of zoologists. As a conchologist, Lamarck's name stands pre- eminent, and the Lamarckan arrangement of shells is still that of the present day. A sad affliction overtook him in his latter days. He gradually lost his sight, and for some years before his death he was totally blind, while an injudicious invest- ment of his money in some swindling schemes, reduced him in his old age to comparative poverty. [W.B.I LAMARQUE, F., aFr. conventions, 1755-1839. LAMAKQUE, Max., a Fr. general, 1770-1832. LAMB, Lady Caroline, daughter of the earl of Besborough, and wife of the Hon. William Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne, distinguished as a novelist and fugitive writer, 1786-1828. [House oi Ciiailus Lamb ] LAMB, Charles, the son of a barrister's clerk, was born in London in 1775. He was educated at Christ's Hospital ; and, being disqualified by stam- mering from being sent to college on the foundation, he became, in 1792, a clerk in the India House. He retained this place for thirty-three years, living with a sister, to whom he devoted himself in circum- stances of melancholy interest, and indulging those literary tastes which constituted his happiness. 391 LAM He died in 1834. From the days of his schoolboy friendship with Coleridge, he always continued to associate with men of letters; no one could have been more admired or liked than he was by his friends ; and during the last period of his lite his name was one of the most famous of the day, though few of those who knew it were really fami- liar with his works. He was a man of unquestion- able though eccentric genius. His sphere of thinking was very confined, but he moved in it with great independence; his fancy was lively and origi- nal, but very irregular; he had great power both of pathos and of quiet humour, and oscdlated cap- riciously between the two extremes ; and his taste, keenly alive to the beautiful, was gratified not less by the oddest puns which his teeming fantasy suggested to him. His style is characterized by a singular engrafting of modern peculiarities on the diction of our Old English writers; and hetook equal delight in rapturously expatiating on the beauties of Elizabethan literature, and in observing and chro- nicling the oddities of contemporary life in the aspect in which it presented itself to him. His tragedy of 'John Woodvil,' published in 1801, is a disjointed series of beautiful imitations of the old dramatists: some of his smaller poems are strangely touching. He criticised with intuitive fineness of feeling in his 4 Specimens of the English Dramatic Poets ' (1808) ; and there are suggestive criticisms, especially on the drama and the stage, in others of his productions. The most notable of these are the fantastically beautiful ' Essays of Elia. 1 [\V.S.] LAMB, George, younger brother of Lord Mel- bourne, a reviewer and sec. of state, 1784-1834. LAMB, Sir James Bland Burges, Baronet, only son of George Burges, Esq., known as a jour- nalist and miscellaneous writer, 1752-1825. LAMBALLE. The Princess Lamballe, whose fate is one of the most piteous stories of the French revolution, was a descendant of the house of Savoy- Carignan, and was born at Turin, 1749. In 1767 she married the Prince de Lamballe, son of the Due de Penthievre, and the year following was left a widow at the age of eighteen. Her subse- Suent history is closely connected with that of larie Antoinette, who made her the superinten- dent of her household, and the agent of her bounty. The queen and the princess were passionately at- tached to each other; and the latter, who had escaped to England at the commencement of the honors of 1792, hastened back again when she heard that the queen was in prison, and with heroic fortitude asked, and obtained permission to share her misfortunes in the Temple. This indul- gence was thought too merciful by the commune of Paris, who ordered her, at the end of August, to be imprisoned separately in La Force. Im- mense sums of money, and many agents among the dangerous party were set in motion to save her, but even Hubert and Lhuilier could not conduct her in safety through the ranks of the nnsnmrini at the outside of the prison, on the fatal 3d September. The circumstances of her murder are too horrible to repeat. Her head was after- wards paraded at the top of a pike before the windows of the Temple, and conveyed in thp -:ame. manner, in the midst of a drunken sat':, the Palais Royal. The Duo D'Orleans, who was LAM dining within, went to the window, and, as the writer is assured by a connection of one who w r as in the room at the time, said to his companions, 4 It is only Lamballe ; I know her by her beautiful hair ! ' Writers of all parties agree that the Princess de Lamballe was as good as she was beautiful. Lamartine has given a letter from Marie Antoinette, which was found in the hair of the princess after her assassination, entreating her to provide for her own safetv by remaining with the old Due de Penthievre. This letter, till then unknown, is a touching proof of the friendship which united the unhappy princesses. [E.R.J LAMBARDE, W., an emin. lawyer and antiq., auth. of a Treatise on the Saxon Laws, 153G-1601. LAMBECIUS, P., a Dutch historian, 1628-80. LAMBERT, a king of Italy, reigned 892-898. LAMBERT, brother and successor of Guy, duke of Spoleto in 917, duke of Tuscany also 929, de- posed and deprived of his sight by his broth., 931. LAMBERT, a Benedictine chronicler, 11th ct. LAMBERT, a bishop of Arras, died 1115. LAMBERT, Anne Therese, Marquise De, a lady distinguished for her literary talents, and f)atronage of learning, authoress of writings pub- is hed after her decease in 1733. LAMBERT, A. B., an Eng. botan., 1761-1842. LAMBERT, C. F., a laborious French writer on historical and archaeological subjects, died 1765. LAMBERT, F., a protestant tbeol., 1487-1530. LAMBERT, G., an English painter, 1710-65. LAMBERT, John, a general of the parlia- mentary forces during the civil war, chiefly re- markable for his opposition to the protectorate, especially of Richard Cromwell. In the year of the counter-revolution he was preparing for a contest with Monk, as the chief of the extreme republicans, but was arrested, and after the resto- ration banished to Guernsey. His taste for the arts of peace was shown in retirement by his devotion to horticulture and flower painting. He was born about 1620, and educated for the bar. He became a Roman Catholic, and died 1692. LAMBERT, John Henry, a German mathe- matician and philosopher of Fr. descent, reputed the ablest geometrician of the 18th cent., 1728-77. LAMBERT, Jos., a Fr. religions wr., 1654-1722. LAMBERT, Mich., a Fr. musician, 1610-1690. LAMBERT, S., a Fr. Jesuit and poet, d. 1667. LAMBERTI, A., a Neapolitan mission., 17th c. LAMBERTI, B., an Italian painter, 1652-1721. LAMBERTI, L., an Ital. Hellenist, 1758-1813. LAMBERTY, W. De, a Fr. politi., 1660-1742. LAMBESE, Charees Eugene, of Lorraine, colonel of the royal allemands under Louis XVI., and a noted enemy of the revolution, 1751-1825. LAMBIN, Dionysius, or Denis, professor of eloquence and of Greek and Latin literature in the college of France, author of valuable commen- taries and translations, 1516-1572. LAM BIN ET, P., a Fr. bibliopolist, 1742-1813. LAMBRECHTS, C. J. M., a jurisconsult and political character of Belgium, 1753-1823. LAM BRUN, Margaret, the widow of a Scotch adherent of Mary Stuart, remarkable for her at- tempt to assassinate Queen Elizabeth. LAMBTON, John George. See Dupiiam. LAMBTON, WILLIAM, an English officer, con- ductor of a great trigono. survey of India, d. 1823. 392 LAM LAMESENGERE, P. De, a Fr. an., 1761-1831. LAMET, Adrian Augustine De Bussy De, a doctor of the Sorbonne, (list, as a casuist, d. 1691 L AMETH. Three brothers of this name became marked characters in the events of the French revolution, and all had previously distinguished themselves in the cause of American independence, following in the wake of Lafayette— 1. Alexan- der, the most noted of them, bom 1760, distin- guished himself in the estates-general by his pro- ject for organizing the army, which was instantly adopted. He served in the army of the north under Luckner and Lafayette, and, sharing in the flight of the latter, was captured by the Prussians, and imprisoned at Magdeburgh during the three years 1792-1795. Being set at liberty, he next entered into commercial pursuits at Hamburgh, and re- turning to France under the consulate, obtained a prefecture. In this capacity he served the state continuously to the first restoration, but lost fa- vour by accepting office under Napoleon during the hundred days. In 1821 he was returned to the chamber of deputies, and was an active mem- ber of the opposition till his death, in 1829. He wrote a * History of the Constituent Assembly,' which is valuable as the work of an eye-witness. 2. Charles, the next in importance, born 1757, was one of the first among. the noblesse to go over to the third estate in the estates-general, when they formed themselves into a national assembly. He was at first devoted to the people, and was dan- gerously wounded in a duel with Lautrec, fought in their interest. At a later period he shrunk from the gulf that was opening under his feet, and became more decidedly a constitutionalist. He served in the army of the north as general of cavalry under Lafayette, and fled with the rest of his party, in August, 1792. Returning to France in 1800, he accepted military service under Napo- leon. He was elected to the chamber of deputies 1827, and died a partizan of Louis Philippe 1832. 3- Theodore, a constitutionalist like his brothers, and a member of the legislative assembly, fled to Switzerland during the reign of terror, 1793, and was only known subsequently as a representative during the hundred days. Died, aged 81, 1837. All the Lameths possessed military skill and per- sonal courage; but they were drawn into the po- pular cause by vanity and the example of others, and soon lost heart in the movement. [E.R.] LAMETHERIE, Jean Claude De, a French physician, dist. as a natur. and phil., 1743-1817. LA-METTRIE, Julian Offroy De; born at St. Malo 1709, died at Berlin 1751 :— one of that group of eccentric, and in the main not very reputable persons, whom, under the name of philosophers, Frederick the Great collected at Berlin. It were needless to enumerate, and an utter waste of time, to criticise the works published by La-Mettrie, on what he called philosophy : the man had neither heart nor head; dissolute, foolish, and frivolous, he obtained his degree of repute and influence, through a certain reckless insolence and dare-devil gaiety. He belonged to the set which produced that stupidest and dullest of works the Systeme de la Nature. For Frederick, some apology can be conceived : he brought great men around him, as well as persons like La-Mcttrie ; and his own position of resistance and contest, induced LAN him into a certain sympathy with resistants, irre- spective of any critical appreciation of their worth. But for writers and thinkers of the La-Mettrie class, there is neither apology nor palliation. Op- posing what they term bigotry, they are them- selves the most inveterate bigots ; attributing re- ceived opinions to ignorance, they have never un- dergone the labour of acquiring any knowledge; without morals, they undertake to dogmatize on morality ; incapable of earnest thought, they ven- ture to propagate systems of philosophy ! [J.P.N.] LAME Y, Andrew, a Ger. historian, 1726-1802. LAMI, Bernard, a Fr. ecclesiastic, dist. as a mathematician and religious writer, 1645-1715. LAMI, F., a French philosopher, 1636-1711. LAMI, J., an Italian archaeologian, 1697-1770. LAMIA, governor of Syria, 1st century b.c. LAMIO, L. M., a Fr. missionary, 1765-1831. LAMIRAL, Dominique Harcourt, a French traveller and writer on Africa, 1750-1795. LAM MA, Augustine, a Venetian pain., 16th c. LAMONNjE, B. De, a Fr. savant, 1641-1728. LAMOTHE-LE-VAYER, P. De, a French sa- vant, member of the academy, and preceptor in the royal family, author of works which afford valuable illustrations of the remains of antiquity, 1588-1672. LA-MOTTE, Anthony Houdart De, a Fr. poet, dramatic author, and critic, 1672-1731. LA-MOTTE, F., an Austrn. musician, 1751-81. LA-MOTTE, Jeanne De Valois, Countess De, an infamous woman connected with the court of France, implicated with the pretended Count Cagliostro and the Cardinal de Rohan in the fraud of the diamond necklace, by which undeserved dis- grace was entailed upon the Queen Marie Antoin- ette ; born of poor parents at Fontette, in Cham- pagne, 1757, died in London 1791. LA-MOTTE -FOUQUE, Frederick Hein- rich Karl, Baron De, a German poet and novelist, descended from an ancient Norman family, best known as the author of ' Undine ' and for his war songs, 1777-1843. His wife, Caroline, also a novelist, died 1831. LA-MOTTE-PIQUET, Toussaint Wm., Count De, a eel. naval commander of France, 1720-1791. t LAMOURETTE, Adrian, a philosophical di- vine and constitutional prelate of France, connected with Mirabeau in the revolution, 1742-1794. LAMOUREUX, a French sculptor, born 1674. LAMOUROUX, John Vincent Felix, a French naturalist, professor at Caen, 1770-1825. LAMPE, F. A., a Fr. protes. theol., 1683-1729. LAMPILLAS, F. X., a Span. Jesuit, 1739-98. LAMPLUGH, T., an English prelate, 1615-91. LAMPREDI, U., a Neapol. savant, 1761-1836. LAMPRIDIO, B., an Italian poet, 16th cent. LAMPRIDIUS, Aelius, a Latin histor., 4th c. LANA, F. De, an Italian mathem., 1637-1700. LANA, Ludov., an Italian painter, 1597-1646. LANA-PERZI, F., an Italian Jesuit, 1631-87. LANCAROT, , a Portuguese navig., 15th c. LANCASTER. The royal house of Lancaster flourished in two lines. The first commences with Edmond, son of Henry III. and Eleonora of Pro- vence, and brother of Edward I., employed by the latter as ambassador to Philip of France, and afterwards as commander in the expedition for the recovery of Guienne. Born in London, 1245; died at Bayonne, 1296. Thomas, his son and 393 LAN successor in the earldom, cousin-german to Ed- nrd II., headed the confederacy of barons against Ken Gavaston, and, finally, shared the responsibility of his death with Hereford and Arundel. He was at length taken in arms against the sovereign, and beheaded at Pomfret, 1322. Hknky (previously earl of Leicester), brother and heir of Thomas, joined the conspiracy of Isabella and Mortimer against Edward II., and received the king into his custody at Kenilworth. He was freed from this charge on account of his too great humanity ; and, when fortune changed, was ap- pointed guardian and protector of the person of his son, Edward III. He died 1345. Hknky, his son, (previously earl of Derby,) after vainly endea- vouring to make peace with .John, king of France, Under the mediation of the pope at Avignon, was sent with an army into Normandy, and took part in the victory of Poictiers and the subsequent French wars. About this time his title was changed to duke of Lancaster, this degree of no- bility being then newly introduced into England. He died 1362. — The next duke of Lancaster com- mences a new lineage, that of the princes opposed to the house of York. The first in the line was John ok Gaunt, or Ghent, third son of Edward III., born 1339. He was married successively to the daughter of Henry, the last duke, who died without male issue, and to the daughter of Peter, king of Castile. His name is one of the most cele- brated in English history, and in the chivalry of the middle ages. Died 1399. Henry ok Here- ford, the successor of John of Gaunt in the duke- dom, was son to him by his first wife. He claimed the crown by descent, by the mother's side, from Edmond the first earl, who was popularly supposed to be the elder brother of Edward I., and to have been deprived of the succession by his father for personal reasons. He became king by deposing Richard II., 1399, and was a prince of great ability and valour. He reigned till his death in 1422, and was succeeded by his son, Henry V. The son of the latter also inherited the crown as Henry VI., and in his reign the feuds of York and Lan- caster broke out, which ended in the union of the two houses in the person of Henry VII. See York. [E.R.] LANCASTER, Captain, afterwards Sir JAMB8, had command of one of three ships fitted out in 1591 for the first English expedition to In- dia by the Cane. The object was less to establish trade than to harass the Portuguese; but the result was unfortunate. One of the ships was sent home from the Cape with the sick, another was wrecked on the coast east of the Cape ; Lancaster's ship only reached India. On her return, however, she was driven by stonns to the West Indies and lost, Lancaster and seven men escaping and re- turning to England in a French vessel. In 1594 he made a predatory voyage to Brazil against the Portuguese. His most important services, how- ever, were rendered in his conduct of the expedi- tion sent out to India by the East India Company in May, 1601, soon after their charter was obtained. In compliment to his zeal in promoting the dis- covery of a north-west passage, the existence of which he firmly held, Baffin named after him the sound leading from Baffin's Bay (Sea?) to the Arc- tic Oceaa. His death occurred in 1620. [J. 13.] 394 LAN LANCASTER, Joseph, well known as a pro- mulgator of the system of national education in- troduced by Dr. Bell, was bom in London of ob- scure parents, of the Quaker persuasion, in 1778. He commenced his career by opening a school for poor children in St. George's* Fields, and was soon publicly known for his enthusiasm in the cause he had adopted. He died at New York in indigent circumstances, 1838. LANCELLOTI, or LANCILLOTI, Secondo, a learned Italian writer, historian of the ' Congre- gation of Mount Olivet,' to which he belonged, and author of ' Impostures of Ancient History,' &c, flourished about 1575-1643. LANCELLOTTI, G., an It. jur., abt. 1510-91. LANCELOT, A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1675-1740. LANCELOT, Cl., a Fr. grammarian, 1615-95. LANCHARES, A., a Sp. painter, 1586-165& LANCILOTTI, F., an Ital. painter, 16th cent. LANCILOTTI, J., an Italian painter, 1507-54. LANCISI, Giammaria, or Joannes Maria, an Italian physician, eminent as an anatomist and physiologist, was born at Rome in 1654, and died, after an undisturbed professional career, in 1720. He surpassed the anatomists of his day in gene- ralizing on form; and while demonstrating the fundamental structure of the arterial coats, and the joint action of the nerves and the blood in the motion of the heart, he drew the attention of his students to more remote causes of structure and motion, and recommended the study of analogies. Having discovered the lost copper plates of Eus- tachius, he edited a set of tables from them ; and besides the value of his own writings to the pro- fession, bequeathed a magnificent library of 20,000 volumes to the Hospital of the Holy Ghost. He was physician and chamberlain to several popes between 1688 and his death in 1720, and a mem- ber of many learned societies, as well as a master of polite literature. [E.R.] LANCJEAN, Remi, a Flem. painter, died 1071. LANCON, N. F., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1694-1767. LANCRE, Peter De, a provincial councillor of France, whose name is celebrated in many trials for witchcraft, and as a writer on demonology, d. 1630. LANCRET, N., a French painter, 1690-1743. LANCRINCK, Prosper Henry, a painter of German extraction, employed by Sir Peter Lely in painting the grounds, landscapes, flowers, orna- ments, and sometimes the draperies of his princi- pal pictures, born about 1628, died 1692. LANDAIS, or LANDOIS, Peter, a favourite minister of Francis II., duke of Brittany, formerly his tailor, executed by conspirators, 1485. LAN DEN, J., an Eng. mathematician, 1719-90. LANDENOLFE, the first of the name, prince of Capua, 884-887; the second, prince of Benevento and Capua, succeeded 982, assassinated 993. LANDER, Richard and John, who com- pleted the solution of the great problem of African geography left half-finished by Mango Park, were born in Cornwall — Richard in 1804, his younger brother two years later. The former abandoned the trade of a printer, to which both were brought up, in order to accompany Captain Clapperton on his second journey to Africa, m the capacity of atten- dant. On the death of Clapperton at Soceatoo, 13th September. 1827, he proceeded southward to Fonda, intending thence to trace the course of LAN the Niger to its embouchure ; but meeting with hostile natives, and being without a companion to aid and cheer him, he was obliged to make for Badagry, on the bight of Benin, by the nearest route. He reached "it in safety on the 21st No- vember, two years two months and fourteen days after his departure from it with Clapperton ; and soon after took ship to England. Having sub- mitted to government a plan for exploring the course of the Niger, which was approved of, and confidence being reposed in him, from the intel- ligence, address, and bravery he had already exhibited, Lander was commissioned, by instruc- tions dated 31st December, 1829, to trace the great river from Katunga, to the sea, to Lake Tchad, or wherever its stream should carry him. 'My brother,' says Lander in his account of the journey, 'eagerly volunteered to accompany me, though the government refused to allow him a salary, or make him even the promise of a reward.' John's name is mentioned in the in- structions ; and to him was assigned the duty of making inquiries, as far up as Boussa and Yaoori, after the books and papers that belonged to Mnngo Park, believed to be in possession of the sultan of that country. Richard himself was granted all the articles that he asked for his per- sonal convenience during his journey, together with 200 dollars in coin, and leave to draw for 300 more at Badagry if required ; his wife was to be paid £100 during the ensuing year, and on his ret urn a gratuity of £100 was to be paid to him- self. On such slender means, and such slight temptations, did these two enterprising and high- spirited young men undertake one of the most difficult missions, and accomplish one of the most interesting and important discoveries of modern times. ' Science,' says Lieutenant Becher, ' was here out of the question ; and all depended on that homely quality of mind, determination of purpose, a leading feature in the character of our country- men, without which science itself is of little avail.' — (Introduction to Journal in Family Library.) The Landers left England on the 9th January, 1830 ; and departing from Badagry on the 3lst March with a small escort, crossed the country N.E. to Katunga, following Clapperton's route in his second journey. Thence they turned north- wards to Boussa without separating, as originally contemplated, visited the scene of Park's lamented denth, and discovered some portions of his pro- perty, but not his journal, or any papers of value. From Yaoori, on the 2d August, they began the descent of the river, and without serious molesta- tion reached as far as Kirree. Here they were nbbed and made prisoners, and taken down the river to Eboe, within the delta. At this place, by the promise of a considerable ransom, for which a written promise was given to a friendly chief, King Boy, they were delivered from the imminent dan- ger of being sold as slaves, and they pursued their downward course. On the 18th November, 1830, our adventurous travellers reached the sea by the river Nun (Brass river of the English), one of the chief branches of the Niger, which has its mouth in the bight of Benin, — and thus set for ever at rest the long-disputed question of the course of this great river. The feelings of satisfaction and gratitude which now filled their minds at the suc- LAN cess of their mission, and their deliverance from so many dangers, were speedily changed to those of bitter regret and disappointment, by the disgrace- ful conduct of a countryman. Captain Lake, of the English brig Thomas, on board of which they were taken at the mouth of the river, peremptorily re- fused to honour their draft for goods and arms in favour of King Boy ; and the kind-hearted chief was driven from the ship with terrible threats. On their return home, however, orders were sent out to pay the proper demand. The Landers found their way home from Fernando Po by Rio de Janeiro, and reached Portsmouth on the 10th June, 1831. On their voyage to Rio, they learned that Lake and his crew met a violent death at the hands of pirates. By the kindness of Lord Gode- rich, then colonial secretary, Richard Lander was placed in circumstances of ' honourable compe- tence,' and a government appointment promised to his brother. To Richard also was awarded the first prize given by the Royal Geographical So- ciety, value fifty guineas j and at the same meet- ing at which it was presented, the African Asso- ciation, which had accomplished so much for dis- covery on that continent, was incorporated with the Geographical Society, and thus no longer maintained a separate existence. In the following year, the Landers returned to Africa with the expedition projected by Mr. M'Gregor Laird and other gentlemen of Liverpool, for the purpose of establishing a settlement on the Upper Niger, and opening trade with the interior. From causes, however, which might have been avoided, and could again be foreseen and met, this expedition proved a total failure. Among the great number who perished were the two Landers; Richard, from wounds received in an affray with the na- tives, and John, from the effects of the climate. An interesting account of their discoveries, their joint production, published before leaving Eng- land, forms three volumes of Murray's Family Librarv. [J.B.^ LANDI, Chev. G., an Ital. painter, 1756-1830. LANDI, Cos., an Ital. numismatist, 1521-64. LANDI, Count J., an Ital. moralist, 16th cen. LANDI, Orteksio, an Ital. wr., d. abt. 1560. LANDI, Vekgusio, a military chief, 14th cen. LANDINO, C, an Italian classic, 1425-1504. LAN DO, a pope, who reigned six months in 913. LANDO, a prince of Capua, reigned 842-862. LANDO, Conrad and Lucius, the chiefs of one of the troops of mercenaries that overran Italy in the 14th century. LANDO, M., gonfalonier of Florence in 1378. LANDO, P., doge of Venice after Gritti, 1539-45. LANDON, C. P., a French painter, 1760-1826. LANDON, Letitia Elizabeth, the daughter of an army agent resident in London, became fa- vourably known to poetical readers while she was hardly beyond the years of childhood, by many pieces of verse published in the Literary Gazette. In 1824, while she was still very young, appeared, with her early signature of L.E.L., the first of her volumes which attracted general notice. It con- tained, with smaller pieces, ' The Improvisatrioe.' Other poems of considerable extent showed her to possess much affluence of fancy, and excellent power of expressing romantic emotion. Her strength, however, was wasted, like that of Mrs. 395 LAN Hemans, in a constant succession of small pieces contributed to magazines and annuals ; nor did she ever fulfil the promise of high genius held out by her youthful effusions. She was the authoress, also," of three sentimental novels. In 1837 she married Mr. Maclean, the governor of the settle- ment at Cape Coast; and, accompanying her husband to Africa, she died there in 1838, in consequence of having taken an over-dose of medi- cine. [W.S.] LANDUS, an Ital. physician, assassinated 1562. LANE, Sm Richard, a statesman of the reign of Charles I., who made him lord chief baron of the exchequer, and one of the privy council. He is the author of 'Reports' in the court of exchequer in the reign of King James, and in 1640 was counsel for the earl of Strafford. Died in 1650 or 1651. LANFRANC, archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Pavia in 1005. When but a young man, and after having studied at Bologna, "he travelled into France, stayed for a time at Avranches, and en- tered the monastery of Bee, of which he ultimately became the prior. His teaching here attracted immense crowds of students from all the countries of Europe. William, duke of Normandy, appointed him in 1062 abbot of the monastery of St. Stephen at Caen. He refused the archbishoprick of Rouen, but as counsellor to the Conqueror he came over to England, and was by his influence elected to the see of Canterbury in 1070, and he remained in this high office till he died, May, 1089. Lanfranc was a man of independent spirit, and was no vulgar flatterer of popish pretensions, while he stoutly contested the pre-eminence with Thomas, the arch- bishop of York. He was also a politician of no mean order, and took an active snare in all the business of church and state. He was besides one of the early founders and expositors of the schol- astic philosophy. He has left commentaries on the Epistles of Paul, a tract on transubstantia- tion, and some letters. His works were published by Luc D'Achery, in one volume folio, at Paris, 1648; and in England by Dr. Giles, Oxford, 1844. in two volumes, 8vo. [J.E.] LANFRANC, an Ital. wr. on surgery, 13th cen. LANFRANC, or LANFRANCO, Giovanni, an Italian puinter, pupil of A. Caracci, 1581-1647. LANF REDINI, J., an Ital. cardinal, 1680-1741. LANG, Ch. N., a Swiss naturalist, 1670-1741. LANG, or LANGE, John Michael, a German divine and Oriental scholar, 1664-1731. LANGALLERIE, Philip De Gentil, Mar- quis De, a military officer who served thirty-two campaigns in the French army, and, in consequence of a quarrel with his superiors, entered into the service of Austria, and was subsequently known at the courts of Poland and the Hague. He was imprisoned by the Austrians on a charge of in- triguing with the Turks, and died at Raab, 1717. LANGARA, Don J., a Sp. admiral, 1730-1800. LANGBAINE, Gerard, an English divine, author of several learned works in history and theo- logy, 1608-1658. His son, of the same name, au- thor of 'Enclish Dramatic Poets,' &c, born 1656. LANGBEIN, A. F., a Ger. writer, 1737-1835. LANGDALE, Lord, Henry Bickenteth, a cele- brated English lawyer, 1783-1851. LANGDALE, SIB Maemaduke, an English officer, dist. in the civil wars as a royalist, d. 1601. LAN LANGE, Anne Frances Elizareth, a celeb. actress, born at Genoa of Fr. parents, 1772-1825. LANGE, C, a German philologist, died 1573. LANGE, F., a French painter/1676-1756. LANGE, F., a French writer on law, 1610-1684. LANGE, J., a Prussian physician, 1485-1565. LANGE, J., a German jurisconsult, 1503-1567. LANGE, J., a German philologist, died 1630. LANGE, J. R., a Flemish painter, died 1671. LANGE, Laurence, a Swedish traveller, em- ployed as ambassador to China by Peter the Great, and appointed governor of Irkoutsk on returning from Ins third mission in 1737. He published a narrative of his travels, which contains much in- teresting information on China and the Chinese. LANGE, Rodolph, provost of Munster, dis- tinguished for his learning, and for his zeal in the revival of polite literature in Germanv, 1440-1519. LANGE, W., a Danish savant, 1622-1682. LANGEBECK, James, a learned writer and philologist of Jutland, author of works illustrat- ing Danish history and antiquities, 1710-1774. LANGELAND. See Longland. LANGENDYK, P., a Dutch poet, 1762-1835. LANGERON, Count Andrault De, a French officer in the service of Russia, 1763-1831. LANGES, N. De, a Fr. antiquarian, 1525-1606. LANGETTI, J. B., an Ital. painter, 1635-1676. LANGHAM, Simon De, an English monk, who rose to be abbot of St. Peter's, Westminster, and, finally, archbishop of Canterbury and cardinal. His name occupies a considerable place in the history of the reign of Edward III., who seized the tempo- ralities of his see, and was a long while at enmity with him and his party. He died at Avignon, 1376, but his body was solemnly removed to St. Benet's chapel in Westminster Abbey, where his tomb still exists. LANGHORNE, Daniel, an English divine, kn. as a writer on British history and antiq., d. 1681. LANGHORNE, John, known as a miscellaneous writer and poet, was bom at Kirkby Stephen, in Westmoreland, 1735, and lived by his profession as a tutor and curate in the Church of England. He was the author of many fugitive pieces, published from about 1759 to 1765, when he became a con- tributor to the ' Monthly Review,' and, from that period to his death, in 1779, enjoyed considerable repute in the literary world — such as it then was. In 1804, his son published an edition of his poems with a life of the author; and his brother, Wil- liam, who died before him in 1772, had some poeti- cal skill, and assisted Langhome in a translation of Plutarch. LANGLE, H. M., a Fr. composer, 1741-1807. LANGLE, J. M., a French divine, 1590-1674. His son, Samuel, author of a ' Letter on the Dif- ferences between the Church of England and the Dissenters,' died 1699. LANGLES, L. M., aFr. Orientalist, 1763-1824. LANGLEY, B., an English architect, died 1751. LANGLOIS, Eustace Hyacinth k, a French designer, engraver, and antiquarian, 1777-1837. LANGLOIS, J., a French journalist, 1770-1800. LANGLOIS, J. B., a French Jesuit, 1663-1706. LANGLOIS, M., a Latin poet of the 15th cent. LANGRISH, B., an Eng. med. writer, d. 1750. LANGTOFT, P., an Eng. chronicler, 14th cent. LANGTON, Stephen, an English ecclesiastic, 39G LAN educated in France, and appointed to the see of Canterbury by Innocent III., in the reign of King John. The quarrel on this occasion, between the pope and the crown, brought the kingdom under an interdict, and the king was compelled to yield possession of the diocese, upon which Langton en- tered in 1213. Langton was a learned man, and wrote commentaries on the Scriptures. He also became a strenuous advocate of the independence of the English Church, and manfully resisted the tyranny of the pope. Died 1228. [E.R.] LANGUET, Hubert, a French diplomatist and political writer, who, being a protestant, narrowly escaped the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and died in the service of the prince of Orange, 1518-1581. LANGUET DE GEEGY, Jean Baptiste Joseph, a doctor of the Sorbonne, distinguished as a charitable founder, 1675-1753. His brother, Jean Joseph, a member of the French Academy, and archbishop of Sens, also distinguished for his benevolence, 1677-1753. LANGUSCO, Philip, Count De, a Guelph leader, who held the supreme power at Pavia from 1300 to 1313, died a prisoner at Milan 1315. LANIERE, N., an Italian musician, 1568-1646. LANINO, B., a Lombard painter, died 1558. LANJUINAIS, Joseph, a French ecclesiastic, converted to protestantism, and an associate of the encyclopaedists, died about 1S08. LAKJUINAIS, Jean Denis, nephew of the preceding, distinguished as a great Oriental scholar and lawyer, but more especially for his consistent advocacy of constitutional principles, under every regime of the French government, from the assem- bly of the states-general to the restoration. He is the author of many political and learned works, und was a considerable contributor to the reviews and journals. Born at Rennes 1753, died 1827. LANNAY, Ch. De, an able general of Brabant, dist. in the service of Charles V., about 1470-1527. LANNAY, J. C, a Dutch poet, 1738-82. LANNEAU, Peter Anthony Victor Marcy De, a French grammarian and ecclesi- astic, 1758-1830. LANNES, Jean, Due De Montebello, one of Napoleon's marshals, was born at Guienne 1769, and apprenticed to a dyer. In 1792, he entered the army as a volunteer, and distinguished himself in the first campaign of Italy, and afterwards in tiie principal actions which have shed such a lustre on the French arms. He was mortally wounded at the battle of Essling, in 1809 ; and Napoleon Eassed the remarkable eulogium upon him, that he ad become greater by every day's experience. At first, he said, Lannes had more valour than genius (esprit), but his spirit was continually mounting to the level of his courage ; and he, whom he had found a pigmy, he lost a giant ! [E.R.] LANOUE, Denis De, a Fr. printer, died 1650. LANOUE, Francis De, one of the most cele- brated Calvinist captains of the 16th century, distinguished in the principal actions fought with the League, and killed at the siege of Lamballe, 1531-1591. He is the author of 'Military and Political Dissertations.' His son, Odet, a man of letters, was also in the military service of Henry IV.; and Stanislaus Louis De La Noue, of the same family, served in the French armies in the campaign of 1741 and 1756, and was killed in LAP the affair of Saxenhausen, 1760. He is the author of ' New Military Constitutions.' His life was written by Toustain. LANOUE, J. S. De, a Fr. dramatist, 1701-61. LANSBERG, J., a Bavarian ascetic, died 1539. LANSBERGHE, P., aFlein. astron., 1561-1632. LANSSELUIS, P., a Sp. Hebraist, 1580-1632. LANTARA, S. M., a French painter, 1745-78. LANTIEN, S. F. De, a Fr. author, 1736-1820. LANZANI, A., a Lomb. painter, 1645-1712. LANZI, Luigi, an Italian antiquarian and phi- lologist, and writer on the fine arts, 1732-1810. LANZONI, J., an Italian savant, 1663-1730. LAO-TSEE, LAO-TSEU, or LAA-KIUN, a Chinese philos., who is regarded as the reformer of the sect of Tao-Tsee, flourished in the 6th c. b.c. LAPARA, L., a French engineer, 1651-1706. LAPEROUSE, Jean Francois Galaup De, was born at Alby, dep. of Tarn, 1741. At the age of fifteen he was appointed a midshipman in the French navy, and served with great distinc- tion at home, in the East Indies, and in Canada, up till the peace of 1783. Soon after, he was put in command of an expedition destined to explore the Pacific, with instructions admirably laid down, but embracing a range of discovery much too wide for one expedition to overtake in a reasonable time. The French government had been excited by the example of England, and longed to reap such a harvest of glory as had been recently gained for her by her most accomplished and successful navigator. — La Perouse was to deter- mine everything left incomplete by Cook, to fill up every gap in the maritime geography of the globe. Verification of Cook was not contemplated ; for the French authorities had full confidence in his accuracy, and La Penmse regarded his memory with 'unbounded veneration.' The expedition consisted of two fine frigates, the Boussole and Astrolabe, fitted out in the most complete man- ner, and with such a staff of scientific men as had never before been sent afloat. Yet there is hardly an expedition on record which ended so disas- trously, and to which a like melancholy interest has so long attached. On the 1st August, 1785, the expedition sailed from Brest, and proceeded westwards by the straits of Magellan ; and after visiting several islands in the Pacific, hastened to fulfil instructions by making the American coast in lat. 59° N., and exploring it southwards from the point where Cook had begun his examination, going north. But as La Perouse found it im- possible to reach this latitude earlier than June (1786), and as his instructions obliged him to be in China by February, too little time remained for a satisfactory survey of this broken coast. He arrived at Monterey in September, repaired the ships there, and crossing the Pacific westwards, fixed the position of the Ladrone and Bashee islands, and on 2d January, 1787, cast anchor at Macao. The work appointed for the succeeding summer was an investigation of the coast of Tartary from Corea towards the N.E. This La Perouse successfully accomplished, and was the first to give an accurate coast outline of those regions. From Kamtschatka, with the permission of the Russian governor, he sent M. de Lesseps home to France, overland, with his journals and despatches ; a duty which this enterprising young 397 LAP man safely fulfilled, anhv,' and ' The Excellence of the Christian Re- igion,' 1526-1572. LAPLACE, Peter Anthony De, a miscel- laneous writer, and translator of many English works into French, including a wretched version of Shakspeare and Otway, 1707-1793. LAPLACE, Pierre Simon, Marquis De, bora at Beaumont-en-Auge, near Honfleur, in March, 1749, died in Paris on 5th May, 1827. It were vain indeed to propose to present within the rigorous limits of our volume, either the character or the achievements of this titanic Geometer. The works of his illustrious compeer La Grange are also, in their detail, utterly remote from ap- preciation, unless by masters in mathematical science ; but then, through the exquisite taste of that great man, his perfect conception of method, and his eminent possession of that blending and fusing imagination, which — on whatever it con- cerns itself withal — demands, as a necessity, the imposition of unity and symmetry, — the eye even of the ordinary onlooker, cannot rest on any achievement of his, without discerning something of its import and beauty, and of its value in ex- tending or rearranging some large domain of Analysis. That La Place had nothing of this ^Esthetic Faculty, it would require indeed some- thing beyond hardihood to assert, — seeing that in the Systeme du Monde he has left a resume of all Modem Astronomy, unsurpassed, for perspi- cuity and elegance, in any Scientilic Literature ; and a verdict scarcely less favourable must be pro- nounced on parts of the Essai I'hilosophique sur les Probabihtes and those exquisite, but too few and brief sketches of Mathematical History. Never- theless, it is unfortunately true, that in his more massive works — especially in that one which is his imperishable monument, the Mecanique Celeste — he has shown so great a negligence or disdain of art in composition, that to this day, and chiefly through this defect, it is, to the most instructed, a heaviest labour to peruse it. Think- ing apparently always of results, and rarely if ever of methods, he starts from one mode of ex- position to another, with perplexing rapidity, — not caring apparently, provided he can co-ordinate or rather present in successive order the truths he has to expose, from what source his power to exhibit them comes, or whether or not they are set down as flowing easily and naturally out of each other. Something of this apparent negli- gence ought undoubtedly to be laid to the gigantic LAP character of his enterprise — one that could have been rivalled in its vastness at no former time, and which no one has ventured to undertake again : it was not like that which fell to the lot of Newton, viz. : the privilege to explain and establish for ever a grand Law of Nature, — but the pursuit of that Law through all the intricacies of the actual Universe, the tracking of it as modified by conditions and circumstances, and the precise evaluation of its effects. Still further ; it seems by no means unlikely, that this over- weight — so to speak — of his subject-matter, al- lowed him to permit himself that supreme indif- ference, which has so often induced reprehension, regarding the claims and discoveries of his prede- cessors and rivals. Lagrange's name, for instance, he rarely mentions; one of the finest analytic disco- veries of that Geometer he simply calls ' the formula of No. 21 of the second book of the Mecanique Ce- leste f he treats more summarily still, the remark- able deserts of our own Brook Taylor ; nor indeed need any one go to his volumes for information in History, unless he is first in possession of the substantive merits of all our Analysts. If jealousy, or any feeling akin to it, gave rise to this singular reticence, the jealousy must indeed have been morbid; for, irrespective of the debt we owe him for his immense compositions, La- place had achieved enough, of distinct and posi- tive discovery, to secure as enduring a fame as can fall to any man, since the lifetime of Newton. His strokes, it is true, are apart and rugged ; but they are both wide and deep. With an infelicity remarkable in him, Napoleon is said to have contemptuously designated Laplace the 'infini- tesimal philosopher. 1 Infelicitously ; inasmuch as scarcely any epithet could have been selected less applicable: there is no modern mathema- tician whose power of generalizing was more asping, or in whose mind it more preponderated. lance almost at any page, for instance, of the extraordinary Tlieorie des Frobabilites : — from the opening chapter which unfolds the yet unfathomed Calculus of Generating Functions, down to the last, there are sown through it, as if broadcast, germs of fresh methods — such as that with regard to definite integrals — and of wholly unsuspected resources. It is the same with all writings of his, touching on the metaphysics of his subject ; ever and anon we find the largest views indicated in a sentence or unpretending phrase; and— in still more palpable illustration — it may be permitted us to quote that far-famed 'Nebular Hypothesis,' which, be it exactly accurate or not, leads the astonished imagination — searching a solution of the fundamental constitution of our planetary system — back into the depths of ages, when organized orbs were not, or existed only in the foresight of the Generic Powers, that were then preparing their birth ! From a mind of such a stamp, and indeed from no other, could have sprung his specific and lustrous contributions to Astronomy, for instance — the discovery of the long inequality of Jupiter and Saturn — the settle- ment of the old puzzle regarding the acceleration of the mean motion of the Moon — the theory of Jupiter's Satellites— or that earliest indication of conditions of stability within our system. Beyond and above all, however, the crowning glory of the grs LAP • infinitesimal philosopher ' is unquestionably the power that conceived, and the corresponding forti- tude that executed the Mecanique Celeste. This book, as we have said, had no predecessor ; and a second Laplace must arise, ere it shall be threa- tened by a rival. Extending to five quarto vols, of investigation generally abrupt through its over- condensation, it is divided into the sixteen books whose general titles we subjoin. 1. The General Laws of Equilibrium and Motion. 2. The Law of Universal Gravitation, and the Motion of the Centres of Gravity of the Celestial Bodies. 3. The Figure of the Celestial Bodies. 4. The Oscillation of the Sea and the Atmosphere. 5. The Rotation of the Celestial Bodies. 6. Par- ticular Theories of the Planets. 7. Theory of the Moon. 8. Theory of the Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus. 9. Theory of Comets. 10. Miscellanea, Refraction, &c. 11. Figure and Ro- tation of the Earth. 12. Attraction and Repul- sion of Spheres, and the Statics and Dynamics of Elastic Fluids. 13. Oscillation of Fluids covering Planets. 14. Precession, Libration, and the Ring of Saturn. 15. Supplement to Book II. 16. Further views concerning the Satellites. — Within this immense programme — placed as if paren- thetically — one finds the most striking notices on almost every important problem of mechanical physics; any one of which, would have made the fortune of an ordinary mathematician. The Stu- dent, betaking himself to Laplace, must not go, however, under any delusion. To the best in- formed we have said, the perusal of this stupen- dous work is no holiday task: nor should that valuable assistance be declined, afforded by the an- notated translation of the Mecanique, munificently presented to the world by the excellent American Dr. Bowditch. — In an unhappy hour for the com- pleteness of his fame, Laplace went aside from the field of pure science to become a politician. The cause of Napoleon's displeasure with him is unknown ; certainly the Emperor himself gave no correct account of it. For many reasons, indeed, we should consider Laplace quite unlikely to take suc- cessful part in that great game, in which Empires were the stakes ; but that had signified less, if he had preserved an ordinary constancy. To the First Consul, he had dedicated the First Edition of the Mecanique, — not living to publish a second. But from the Second Edition of the Theorie des Froba- bilites — published after the Restoration — he meanly struck out the former dedication to Napoleon Empereur. One has required so often to lament political degeneracy among Scientific men in France, and their proneness to bend the knee be- fore existing power, that it is refreshing to turn to the unsullied integrity of our late illustrious Arago. — Another charge, commonly brought in this country against our mathematician, we are constrained in all honesty to repudiate ; at the very least, we demand the verdict of Not Proven. Origi- nating, we believe, in Professor Robison's feverish book on continental Free Masonry, and further sus- tained by mistaken views as to the relations of the 1 Nebular Hypothesis,' — the rumour has gone wide abroad, among the religious public of Great Britain, that this great Geometer professed himself, or was an Atheist. It is scarcely necessary to say that Laplace never wrote on Ontology : but we deem it LAP incumbent to add, that after a careful review of his written works, with reference to this interesting point, we are prepared to disallow the title of any one to repeat such an assertion. In the present state of thought and language on such matters, there is no rule which ought to be more sacred than this, — Sentiments ought never to be imputed; nor that right tampered with, which belongs to every man — the right to define and designate his own. Concerning those loftier verities of Ontology, vision, alas ! does not come equally clearly to all ! Bat one's apprehension of Realities so aweple, must not be measured by his degree of glibness in speech, or that often irreverent aptness in the re- petition of words and formulas, which in itself, ar- gues, after all, nothing superior to the parrot's faculty. To the failings of this great French Geo- meter, the splendour even of his achievements, ought, indeed, in nowise to blind us : in regard to the relations of his inner soul to the Infinite, if we cannot rest without curiosity, at least let us judge i'ostly, in charity, and with hope — recalling, in all tumility, his own last words on Earth — Ce que nous coimaissons est peu de chose; ce que nous ignorons est immense ! £j.P.N.] LAPO, James, or Jacopo, of which it is the diminutive, a distinguished Florentine artist, died 1262. His son, Arnolpho, an architect and sculptor, died 1300. Another Lapo, or Jacopo, distinguished as a canonist, died 1381 ; and Ric- cio Di Lapo, a painter of Florence, and grand- father of Giottino, was bom 1330. LAPPOLI, Matthew, an Italian painter, died 15U4. His son, J. Anthony, a painter, 1492-1552. LARA, a celebrated Spanish family, the foun- der of which was Ferdinand Gonzalez, count of Castile and Lara, died 970. In 1130, the family was divided into two branches, the Jirst with Manuique De Lara, who took the title of vis- count of Karbonne, for its stock ; and the second deriving from Ordogno Pekez, and preserving the title of count of Lara, until it became extinct in the latter half of the 14th century. The mem- bers of this family played an important part in the civil wars of Castile, under Alphonso X., Sancho IV., Ferdinand IV., and Alphonso XL, with whom they often disputed the crown. LAUGHER, P. H., an eminent French critic and Hellenist, author of remarks on Voltaire's phi- losophy of histoiy, under the title of a ' Supple- ment,' &c, 1726-1812. LARDIZABAL, Don Manuel De, minister of Ferdinand VII., 1750-1823. LARDNER, Dr. Nathaniel, a learned dis- senting minister, author of ' Credibility of the Gos- pel History,' ' Letter on the Logos,' 'A Vindication of Three of our Saviour's Miracles,' 'The Testi- monies of the Ancient Jews and Pagans in favour of Christianity,' a ' History of Heretics,' &c. Dr. Lardner was educated among the presbyterians, and, in 1729, became assistant minister at Crutched Friars, 1684-1768. LAREVEILLERE-LEPEAUX,LouisMarie, described bv Napoleon as a hot and sincere patriot, and a fanatic by temperament, was born 1753, and became a member of the constituent assembly, the convention, the council of elders, and the directory. He had a considerable share in the direction of affairs, and was chief of the sect of Thcophilanthro- LAS pists. His peculiar talents led him to give his at- tention to the details of business, while he left to Barras the exercise of authority. Died 1824. LARGILLIERE, N., a Fr. painter, 1-J50-1746. LARIVE, J. M. De, a Fr. tragedian, 1744-1827. LARIVEY, P. De, a Fr. dramatist, died 1612. LARIVIERE, P. J. H., a member of the French assembly and convention, dist. among the Giron- dists, whose fate he escaped by flight, 1760-1838. LA ROCHEFOUCAULD. See Rochefou- cauld. LA ROCHE JAQUELEIN. SeeRocHEjAQUE- LEIN. LA ROMANA, Marquis De, a Spanish general, dist. against the French in the late war, died 1811. LAROON, M., a Dutch painter, 1653-1705. LARREY, Dominique Jean, Baron, a cele- brated military surgeon, and devoted follower of Napoleon Buonaparte, who pronounced him the most virtuous man that he had known, 1766-1843. LARREY, Isaac De, a French historian of the reformed religion, who fled to Holland on the revo- cation of the edict of Nantes, au. of a 'Historv of England,' a l Hist, of Louis XIV.,' &c, 1638-1729. LARRIVEE, H., a French actor, 1733-1802. LARROQUE, Matthew De, a French protes- tant and controversial divine, 1619-1684. His son, Daniel, a protestant minister, and author of ' Les Veritables Motifs de la Conversion de 1' Abbe de la Trappe,' 1660-1731. LARRUYA, E., a Span, statistician, died 1804. LARUE, Gervais De, a French ecclesiastic and antiquarian savant, author of ' Histoire des Trouveres,' &c, 1751-1835. LARUE, J. S. De, a Fr. historian, 1765-1830. LARUETTE, J. L., a French actor, 1731-1792. LA SALLE, Ant. C. L. Collinet, Count De, a general of cavalry, killed at Wagram, 1775-1809. LA SALLE, H., a French author, 1765-1833. LASCA, the assumed name of A. F. Grazzini, a burlesque poet and novelist of Florence, b. 1503. LASCARIS. Two learned Greeks of this name were among the fugitives who quitted Constanti- nople in 1454. The first, Constantine Lascaris, died at Messina 1493. He is the author of the first book printed in the Greek character. The second, Andrew John Lascaris, of the same family, distinguished as a scholar and ambassador, was patronised by Leo X., and became principal of the Greek college founded at his own instance. Died at Rome 1535. Constantine Lascaris is gen- erally called Byzantinus, and John, or Andrew John, Rhyndacenus. LASCARIS, A., an Ital. economist, 1776-1838. LASCARIS, P., grandmas, of Malta, 156U-1657. LASCARIS, Theodore, a Greek prince, known as Theodore L, son-in-law of Alexis Angelus, emperor of Constantinople. After the taking of that city by the crusaders in 1203, Lascaris pos- sessed himself of Bithynia, Lydia, the coasts of the Archipelago, and of a part of Phrygia, which he formed into a kingdom, with Nicasa as its capi- tal, and reigned over it from 1206 to his death, 1222. The second of the same name, born 1222, succeeded his father, John Ducas, as emperor of Nicaea 1255, and died 1259. The son of the latter, named John Lascaris, succeeded him when six years of age, and died the same year. His succes- sor was Michad Pahuolo^us. 400 LAS LAS CASES. The count of this name, Marin Joseph Emmanuel Augusts Dieudonne, was a Frenchman of patrician origin, whose history is that of a chivalrous devotion to Napoleon Buona- parte. He was born at the chateau of Las Cases, in the department of the Haute-Garonne, in 1766, and acquired distinction in several actions as a naval officer: among these, was the storming of Gibraltar by the combined fleets of France and Spain. At the outbreak of the French revolution, he joined the emigrants at Coblentz, and after sharing in the fruitless efforts of the Vendean war and the expedition to Quiberon, settled in Eng- land. He was among the flrst of the emigrants to return to France on the invitation of Napoleon ; and having engaged himself as a volunteer under Bernadotte, when the English attacked Flushing in 1809, he became known to the emperor, and gradually rose high in his confidence. His loyalty to Napoleon shone the brighter for his reverses in 1814 and the year following, when he accompanied him to St. Hefena, and remained in the closest inti- macy with him for eighteen months. At the close of each day, Las Cases noted all that transpired, and every thought expressed by the emperor, in a journal, which has since been published as a ' Me- morial of Sainte Helene ;' and in the perusal of which, it must be remembered, that it came under the eye of Napoleon, leaf by leaf, as it was writ- ten. This modern Bayard was at length sent a prisoner to England, and treated with every indig- nity, not to say petty spite, by the government of the time, under Lord Castlereagh. The Emperor Francis at last interfered in his favour, and he was allowed to pass the remainder of his days in peace in the vicinity of Paris. Died 1842. ' fE.R.] LASCO, or LASKI, John A, a Polish theolo- gian, kn. as a promoter of the reformation, d. 1560. LASCY, or LACY, Peter, Count De, an Irish officer, who entered into foreign service after the conquest of Ireland by William III., and became a field-marshal of Russia, and governor of Lithuania, 1678-1751. His son, Joseph Francis Maurice, Count De Lascy, born at St. Petersburg 1725, be- came a marshal in the service of Austria, d. 1801. LASERNA SANTANDER, Ch. An., a learned Biscayan, au. of 'Diet. Bibliographique,' d. 1813. LASIUS, L. 0., a Ger. philologist, 1675-1750. LASNE, M., a French engraver, 1596-1667. LASSALA, M., a Spanish poet, 1729-1798. LASSALLE, A. De, a Fr. metaph., 1754-1829. LASSELS, Richard, an Oxford scholar, who became a convert to Romanism, and wrote 'Travels in Italy,' born 1603, died at Montpellier 1668. LASSO, Orlando Di, an eminent musician of Bavaria, author of a great number of sacred com- positions, 1520-1596. His works were published by his sons, Rudolph and Ferdinand, both of whom disting. themselves in the same profession. LASSONE, J. M. F., a Fr. physician, 1717-88. LASSUS, a Greek poet, about 500 B.C. LASSUS, P., a French pathologist, 1741-1807. LASTESIO, Noel, an Ital. savant, 1707-1792. LASTM AN, Peter, a Dutch painter, 1581-1649. His son, Nicholas, a painter and engr., b. 1619. LATAPIE, F. De Paule, a French botanist, author of ' Hortus Burdigalcnsis,' 1739-1823. LATHAM, John, an English physician, eminent as an ornithologist and antiquarian, author of ' A LAT General Synopsis of Birds,' in 6 vols. 4to; an 'Index Omithologicus ;' and 'A General History of Birds.' The latter is contained in 10 vols. 4to, and is esteemed his greatest work. Born at Eltham in Kent 1740, died 1837. LATHAM, John, a physician of London, author of several contributions to the Medical Transac- tions, and of a work on 'Diabetes,' 1761-1843. LATIL, J. B. M. A. Anthony De, cardinal and archb. of Rheims, conf. of Charles X., 1761-1839. [Birth-place of Latimer.] LATIMER, Hugh, one of the early English re- formers, was bom atThurcaston, near Mount Sorrel, in Leicestershire, about 1472. After taking his de- gree at Cambridge, he entered into holy orders, and was quite a zealot on behalf of popery. The influ- ence of Thomas Bilney induced him to scan the sub- ject more thoroughly, and to study the Bible. His eyes were gradually opened, and at the age of fifty-three he renounced Romanism. His bold opi- nions against many Romish errors soon made him notorious in his own university and elsewhere. He even ventured to remonstrate with Henry VIII. on the sin and danger of prohibiting the Bible in English. Through the patronage of Thomas Crom- well he was appointed to a living in West Kinton, Wiltshire, where he preached with great earnest- ness and fervour the evangelical truths of the refor- mation ; and he first became chaplain to Ann Bo- leyn and then bishop of Worcester in 1535. When the act of the six articles was passed, he dissented, and proved his sincerity by resigning his bishoprick. For his disinterestedness and firmness he was com- mitted to the Tower, where he lay a prisoner for six years ; and though the accession 'of Edward led to his liberation, he would on no account re- sume the government of his see. No sooner had Mary ascended the throne, than Latimer, as might be anticipated, became a marked object of papal ven- geance. He refused to fly from the royal citation, conscious that his hour was come. After a manly vindication of his opinions, he was, along with Rid- ley, condemned to the flames. On the day of his martyrdom at Oxford, 16th October, 1555, he ap- peared in a shroud, was, with his fellow-sufferer, bound by an iron chain to the stake, and five bags of gunpowder were fastened round his body. Tbe faggots were kindled, and Latimer, turning to Rid- ley, cried with prophetic voice, 'Be of good comfort, master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this 401 2D LAT clay light such a candle, by God's grace, in Eng- land, as, I trust, shall never be put out.' Latimer's sermons, which were collected and published, London, 1825, in two octavos, are distinguished by quaint and homely sense, and pointed and vigorous admonition, the offspring of a playful temper, a happy disposition, and a sincere and noble heart. [J.E.] LATIMER, W., a dist. scholar of the 16th cent. LATCH, Bbuuktto, a literary savant, and partizan of the Guelfs, author of ' Tresor de Toutes Choses,' a species of encyclopaedia, written in French, and inventor of the Terza Rima. He was one of the first teachers of Dante, 1220-1294. LATINI, Latino, an Italian critic, 1513-1593. LATOMUS, J., an adv. of Luther, died 1544. LA TOUCHE-TREVILLE, Louis Rene Ma- delaine Lavassor De, vice-admiral of France, and deputv of the noblesse, 1745-1804. LATOTjR, Theodore, a general and count of the Austrian empire, born 1780, appointed minister of war, and barbarouslv murd. by the popul. 1848. LATOUR-MAUBOURG, Marie Victor Fat, Marquis De, a royalist general, minister of war in 1820, afterw. gov. of the ' Invalided,' 1756-1831. LATOUR. See De LatOur, Tour. LATREILLE, Peter Andrew, one of tho greatest entomologists of France, member of the Academy of Sciences, and professor at the Museum of Natural History, 1762-1833. LATROBE, B. H., an Eng. architect, d. 1820. LATTAIGNANT, Gabriel Charles De, a French ecclesiastic, known as a popular poet and gallant, 1697-1779. LATU DE, Henry Mazers De, a French cour- tier, who was liberated from the Bastile in 1784, after an imprisonment of thirty-five years, occa- sioned by his intrigues against Madame Pompa- dour. He is the author of ' Memoirs,' which have made his name eel. throughout Europe, 1724-1804. LAUD, William, archbishop of Canterbury, and favourite minister of Charles I., was a prelate of great learning, and in all probability of sincere in- tentions, but he was carried away by the high sa- cerdotal and regal doctrines which prevailed under the Stuarts. He was born at Reading 1573, be- came fellow of St. John's College 1593, obtained a living in the Church of England 1607, and was appointed chaplain to James I. in 1611. "With Laud's abilities and doctrines, promotion followed as a matter of course, and it became the aim of his life to unite the three kingdoms in one profession of religion. The power of the Star Chamber, courts of high commission, fines, pen- ances, and all the means he could command, were strained to this purpose. Since the Union, the Scotch presbyterians had infused much of their own spirit into the English puritans, and when Prynne, Bastwick, and Burton, came bleeding from the scaffold, such a spirit was aroused as only the blood of those who had provoked it could allay in the minds of the people. It was in 1628 that Laud succeeded the duke of Buckingham as prime minister; in 1630 he became chancellor of Oxford; in 1633, archbishop of Canterbury, and chancellor of the university of Dublin : and in 1637, he pro- cured that decree of the Star Chamber which de- stroyed the liberty of the press, and made him the universal censor and demi-gorgon of opinion in LAU England. With full allowance for all that can ho urged in favour of his zeal for religion, and in the cause of learning, it is neither surprising nor to be regretted that he shared the fate of Strafford. Pity for an infirm old man, and the well-known bigotry of his enemies, would persuade us other- wise. The historian, however, is bound to make choice between these emotions and the demoraliza- tion of a nation, to be followed eventually by such horrors as those of the French revolution. Laud was declared guilty of treason by a bill of attain- der, and executed on Tower Hill, January 10, 1645. [E.R.] LAUDER, Sir Th. Dick, Baronet, a famous novelist and miscellaneous writer, known as a con- tributor to Blackwood's and Tait's Magazines, and for his works descriptive of Scottish scenery, born at Edinburgh 1784, died 1848. LAUDER, W., a Scotch writer, known for his false accusations of plagiary agt. Milton, d. 1771. LAUDERDALE, Duke of, an English states- man, minister of Charles II. from 1670 to 1682. LAUDERDALE, James Maitland, earl of, a statesman of the party of Fox, born 1759, suc- ceeded his father as a Scotch peer 1789, took his seat in the House of Lords as one of the represen- tative peers of Scotland 1790, created a peer of the United Kingdom, and became chancellor of Scot- land 1806, died 1840. The earl of Lauderdale was author of ' Letters to the Peers of Scotland,' pub- lished 1794, and devoted the last ten years of his life to agricultural pursuits. LAUDIVIO, L., an Italian poet, 15th century. LAUDON, Gideon Ernest, Baron Von, a cele- brated Austrian gen. of Scotch descent, 1716-1790. LAUDOUNIERE, Rene De, a French gentle- man, distinguished in an attempt to colonize Florida, when nearly all his companions were massacred by the Spaniards, author of ' Histoire Notable de la Floride,' published 1586, twenty years alter his adventure. LAUGIER, A., a French chemist, 1770-1832. LAUGIER, M. A., a miscel. writer, 1713-1769. LAUGIER DE TASSY, a Fr. hist., last cent. LAUJOIT, P., a French dramatist, 1727-1811. LAUNAY, or LAUNEY, Bernard Rene Jourdan, Marquis De, governor of the Bastile at the commencement of the French revolution, was born in that fortress, of which his father was go- vernor before him, in 1740. The circumstances in which he was placed by the attack of the populace were so unprecedented, that it is not surprising the most contradictory charges have been brought against him. Early m July, 1789, he was visited by three strangers above the common rank, who asked him what he intended to do if the fortress should be attacked? 'My conduct,' he replied, ' is regulated by my duty : I shall defend it.' Soon afterwards, he caused an immense quantity of pow- der to be transferred from the arsenal to the Bas- tile, and, on the 14th of the month, the fortress was besieged and taken. Rather than yield, De Launay had seized a cannoneer's match to blow up the place, but he was turned back from the magazine by two of his own officers with fixed bayonets. After the capitulation of the garrison he was cruelly murdered, and his head paraded through the streets, with six others, elevated on pikes. What became of his body is not known. — The Bastile was fust 402 LAU erected in 1383, and when it was destroyed only seven prisoners were found in it. It was levelled to the ground as the monument of an arbitrary power which had endured for ages ; and the Me- moirs of Latude, who had issued from its gloomy portals in 1784, after a confinement of thirty-five years, were in all probability a great provocative to its destruction. [E.R.] [Siege of the BastUe.] LAUNEY, J. B. De, a Fr. deputy, 1752-1831. LAUNOY, J. De, a doctor of the Sorbonne, known as a theologian and critic, 1603-1678. LAURA, or LAURI, F., an Ital. paint., 1623-94. LAURAGUAIS, Louis Le Felicite, Due De Brancas, and Count De, a French dramatist and miscellaneous writer, 1733-1823. LAURATI, P., an Italian painter, 1282-1340. LAUREMBERG, W., a Ger. physician, 1547- 1612. His son, John, a mathematician, d. 1658. LAURENBERG,, P., a physician, naturalist, and astronomer, 1585-1639. His brother, John, a Greek and Latin poet, hist., and math., 1590-1658. LAURENCE, French, professor of civil law at Oxford, known as a miscellaneous writer, died 1809. His brother, Richard, professor of Heb- rew, archbishop of Cashel, and a distinguished theologian, 1760-1839. LAURENS, Andrew Du, a French physician and anatomist, died 1609. His brother, Honorius, archbishop of Embrun, under Henry IV., d. 1612. LAURENS, Henry, an American statesman and ambassador, 1724-1792. His son, John, a dist. officer and friend of Washington, killed towards the close of the war at the age of twenty-six. LAURENS, L. Des, a Fr. theologian, died 1671. LAURENT, J. A., a Fr. painter, 1763-1833. LAURENT, P., a French engraver, 1739-1809. LAURENT, Peter Joseph, a mechanic of Flanders, celebrated as an hydraulic engineer, and in the construction of artificial limbs, 1715-1773. LAURIERE, E. J. De, a Fr. jurist, 1659-1728. LAURISTON, James Alexander Bernard Law, marquis of, a diplomatist and marshal of France, grandson of Law, the financial projector, was born 1768. He was distinguished in the wars i of the empire, and became ambassador to England as the bearer of the propositions of peace, or rather, of preliminaries of peace between Great Britain and France in 1802. He was promoted to the highest rank under Louis XVIIL, and d. 1828. LAV LAUTREC, Odet De Foix, Seigneur De, one of the bravest captains of France in the 16th cen- tury, died at the siege of Naples 1528. LAUWERS, N., a Flemish designer, born 1620. LAUZUN. The Duke deLauzun, formerly Count Antonine Nompar de Caumont, is the hero of an intrigue with Mademoiselle de Montpensier, the granddaughter of Henry IV., to whom, it was al- leged, he was secretly married. Died, after a long imprisonment and exile, 1723. LAVALETTE, Anth. De, a eel. Jesuit, whose shameful practices in the middle of last cent, con- tributed to the expulsion of his order from France. LAVALETTE, Marie Chamans, Count De, a distinguished soldier of the French revolution, who was born 1769, and, becoming a favourite of Buonaparte, was appointed director-general of the post office, and counsellor of state under the em- pire. He shared the misfortunes of the emperor in 1814, but resumed his functions and promoted the cause of Napoleon during the hundred days, for which, after the restoration, he was condemned to death. By the aid of his wife, and three Eng- lish gentlemen at that time in Paris, he had the good fortune to escape from prison. Died 1830. LAVALETTE, Emilie Louise De Beau- harnais, countess of, and wife of the preceding, deserves a separate notice for her conjugal fidelity and courage. Being a niece of the empress Jose- phine, she was married to Lavalette at the instance of Napoleon towards the close of the last century, and after the condemnation of her husband in 1815, whose execution was fixed for the 21st of Decem- ber, she exchanged clothes with him in prison, and thus enabled him to escape. For her conduct on this occasion she was accused, along with her ac- complices, of a conspiracy against the state ; and though the charge could not be supported, the anxiety she had undergone, and the loss of her husband, ended in insanity. LAVALLEE, John, Marquis De, a Fr. drama, and miscellan. writer in the magazines, 1747-1815. LAVATER, H., a Swiss physician, 1560-1623. LAVATER, John Gaspar, the famous writer on physiognomy, was born at Zurich 1741, and died in 1801 of the wounds which he received when his native town was taken by the French, under Massena, when he was busy in the streets animating the defenders and aiding the sufferers. He was pastor of the principal church in his na- tive place, and has left a high character for moral purity and benevolence of disposition. His ' Phy- siognomy,' consisting indeed only of fragments, or materials, towards a system, was published in 4 volumes 4to, 1775, illustrated with numerous en- gravings. The popularity it immediately acquired was due, in some measure, to the fact that many of the heads were portraits, and his descriptions often a good-humoured satire upon well-known characters. Some of his hints are very valuable, and his inductions sufficiently supported by facts ; but there are many crude observations, and proofs of hasty generalization, which have done much per- haps to prevent physiognomy from making any considerable progress. Besides this popular work, Lavater wrote 'Aphorisms on Man,' 'Jesus the Messiah,' ' Swiss Lays,' ' Spiritual Hymns,' ' A Look into Eternity,' and ' The Secret History of a Self-Observer.' He is unjustly ridiculed for his 403 LAV bMief in spirits, and their agency in human affairs, which is nevertheless a characteristic common to the greatest names in literature and history. His real fault is want of method, without which the greatest philosophical insight must fail to create a system. It cannot be denied, however, that he excels as a moralist, and the more, perhaps, for this very deficiency. As an art-writer he may be more open to criticism, yet his work contains many valuable precepts. [E.R.J LAVATER, L., a Swiss theologian, 1527-1586. LAVAUR, W. De, a French author, 1G53-1730. LAVAUX, C, a French advocate, 1747-1836. LAVAUX, J. C. T., a Ger. lexicog., 1749-1827. LAVICOMTERIE DE ST. SAMPSON, Louis, a political writer, and partizan of the French revo- lution, au. of ' Crimes ues Rois de France,' d. 1809. LAVIXGHAM. R., a prior of Bristol, au. of an abridgment of Bede's History, close of 14th cent. LAVINGTON, Geouge, bishop of Exeter, chiefly known for his ' Enthusiasm of the Metho- dists and Papists Compared,' was born 1683, and died 1762. This work, possessing singular hu- mour, and marked by much learning, is utterly deficient in a true appreciation of the facts con- tained in the Diary of Wesley. As the raillery of a gentleman and a scholar, the book may be un- exceptionable, but it is a singular production for a prelate of the church, and can only be excused by the extravagances it was intended to correct, and the ignorance of its author. Besides this amusing work, and its continuation applied to the Mora- vians, Bishop Lavington published some occasional sermons. [E.R.] LAVOISIER, Antoine Laurent, born in Paris 1743, guillotined 1794. With the advan- tages of birth and station, Lavoisier acquired an excellent education, distinguishing himself at an early period by the precocity of his talents. Al- though Lavoisier might probably have gained celebrity by the discovery and determination of the characters of new bodies, he chose a more impor- tant field, viz. that of generalization, and of thus explaining the bearings of what appeared to others isolated facts of comparatively little import. It was by making use of the discovery of oxygen by Priestley that he was enabled to supply a theory of oxidation and combustion, which has stood the test of three quarters of a century, although he has laid himself open to the charge of at least want of candour in appearing to deprive Priestley and Rutherford of the credit of their discoveries of oxygen and nitrogen. By this theory he extin- guished the idea of phlogiston which had only served to obscure all new discoveries. Another valuable contribution to the science by Lavoisier, was the chemical nomenclature which he is under- stood to have invented, and which is still retained, having served as the basis of all subsequent im- provements in this important branch of the litera- ture of the science. Occupied in his researches on respiration, and in the discharge of his government duties, he was suddenly deprived of fife during the horrors of the French revolution. [R.D.1VJ LAW, Edmund, bishop of Carlisle, was bom at Caitmel, in Lancashire, and lived 1703-1787. He was the author of an ' Inquiry into the Ideas of Space, Time,' &c, published 1734 or 1735, in a controversy with Dr. Clark, arising out of a previ- LAW ous translation by Law of Archbishop King's essay upon the Origin of Evil. His other works are, ' Considerations on the Theory of Religion :' ' Re- flections on the Life and Character of Christ ;' and the works of Locke, with a life and preface. Add to these his sermons and lesser tracts on meta- physical and theological subjects. Law was op- posed to the doctrine of analogy assumed by Arch- bishop King and Bishop Brown, and held that the moral attributes of the human mind were the same as those of the divine, only that they are greater in the latter ca?e. See King. [E.R.] LAW, Edmund. See Ellenborough. LAW, John, the celebrated financial projector, was born at Edinburgh, son of a banking gold- smith there, about 1G70 ; and being a clever ma- thematician and accountant, was employed by his government to bring the accounts of the revenue into order. Thus initiated into the knowledge of finances and of public business, and possessing a restless, scheming disposition, it appeared to him that the industry of the country was languishing for want of money to employ it. This led to his famous project for a Land Bank. A vicious com- mercial theory prevailed at that time, which took its rise from the recent introduction of bank notes, and the supposition that a large currency consti- tutes the wealth of a country without regard to its commercial wants. The Bank of England, and the British banks generally, had acted upon this mistaken notion, and created great disappoint- ments and irritation, by suddenly limiting their loans when they discovered the drain of gold that it created. It was at this juncture that Law came forward with his scheme for issuing paper money equal to the value of all the lands in the kingdom ; and on his proposal being rejected by the parlia- ment of Scotland, earned it to the continent, and finally procured its adoption by the duke of Or- leans, regent for Louis XV., then in his mino- rity. Hitherto bank notes had not been seen in France. Mr. Law commenced his operations in 1717, and between that period and 1720, when the bubble burst, France was converted into one vast stock exchange, and at last covered with rain. Our limits do not admit of particulars in matters so difficult of explanation as financial operations, but the basis ot Law's project was the idea that paper money may be multiplied to any extent, provided there be security in fixed stock; while the truth is, if the bulk of a currency is increased beyond the actual wants of commerce, all its parts, or separate coins and notes, must depreciate in proportion. In the working out of Law's scheme, a trading company was created which had con- veyed to it the whole province of Louisiana, and the possessions of France on the banks of the Mis- sissippi, which, besides, obtained by purchase tho charters and property of the Senegal Company, the India Company, and the China Company, and be- came the sole public creditor by farming the whole of the taxes and revenues of the kingdom. The rain of this vast machinery at that particular mo- ment, and with the suddenness that it occurred, was produced by an edict of the regent, May 21, 1720, reducing the value of the notes, in defiance of Mr. Law's protestations, to an equality with that of the French coinage, which, in former times, had frequently been altered by the government to suit 404 LAW its convenience. This breach of faith instantly stopped then- circulation, the deplorable results of whicn went nigh to produce an insurrection of the people. Law became an exile, and after wan- dering in England, Holland, and Germany, at last died in Venice, fully convinced of the solidity of his system, 1729. See Lauriston. [E.R.] LAW, William, one of the most powerful and original of English writers in the interest of reli- gion, was born at Kingscliffe, in Northampton- shire, 1686, and educated for the Church of Eng- land at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of M.A., and obtained a fellowship in 1711. On the death of Queen Anne, 1714, he refused to take the necessary oaths of allegiance to the new dvnasty, and thus cut himself off from all hope of preferment in the church. In 1717, the Bangorian controversy wascommenced by the attack of Hoadley on the principles and practices of the nonjurors, and Law defended his cause in ' Three Letters,' remarkable for their logical com- pactness and command of language. In 1721 and 1726, he made a further exhibition of his principles in • Remarks on the Fable of the Bees,' and « f he Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments.' In the latter year he also published his ' Christian Perfec- tion,' and in 1729 his ' Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life.' This work is universally acknowledged to be the most stirring appeal to the practical, common sense of mankind, in behalf of religion, ever written, and its 'characters' are not inferior for humour and conception to those of La Bruyere. It is the only work by which Law is known to the public at the present day. Our author had now become domesticated in the family of Gibbon, as tutor to the historian's father, with whose sister, Miss Hester Gibbon, and her friend, Mrs. Hutche- son, he afterwards established himself at Kingscliffe in the capacity of chaplain and almoner. After the ' Serious Call,' he published one of the most powerful of his logical works, entitled ' The Case of Reason,' in answer to Tindal's ' Christianity as Old as the Creation ;' and this, excepting such cor- respondence as he earned on — in which he was a great master — was the last production of his pen before his adoption of the principles of Jacob Bcehmen. His acquaintance with those works may be traced to the years between 1733-1736. In 1737, he sprang like the eagle from fresh fast- nesses, and published his book of the ' Sacrament ' in answer to Hoadley, which unfolds his new philo- sophical divinity in the happiest manner. In 1739 appeared his ' Christian Regeneration,' which is really another • Serious _ Call,' written from higher ground, followed by his ' Earnest and Seri- ous Answer to Dr. Trapp,' who had attacked his ' Christian Perfection' and ' Serious Call.' In 1740 his 'Appeal' was given to the public, the aim of which is to confute Arianism and Deism from the very nature of things ; and, in the same year, a rejoinder to his opponent, entitled, with a fine sense of the humorous, ' Dr. Trapp Vindicated from the Imputation of being a Christian.' In 1746, his ' Way to Divine Knowledge' opened the grounds of a positive religion, founded on the prin- ciples contained in the writings of his master. It was followed by the ' Spirit of Prayer,' introduc- tory to the ' Spirit of Love,' published 1752, which is a masterly demonstration that the wrath to be LAW quenched is not in God, but the creature, who can possess no goodness by birth of his natural parents. Law died in 1761, immediately after completing the most eloquent and perfect of all his works, ' An Humble, Earnest, and Affectionate Address to the Clergy.' It is not easy to do justice to his character and influence in few words ; but he was the first teacher of Wesley, who afterwards quar- relled with him ; and England owes him a great debt in the revival of evangelical religion, and the reaction against the worldliness of the church estab- lishment, which characterized the commencement of last century. However mistaken in the foun- dations of his mystical system, he was always guided by high principle, even to the matter of his bachelorship, which he maintained to the end of his days. Besides the works we have mentioned, he edited an edition of Boehmen, in 4 volumes 4to, which are embellished with drawings, made by a German named Frere. There are likewise some minor tracts from his pen, not included in our enumeration, and among these is a dialogue on 'Justification,' between a churchman and a Calvinistic methodist, published 1759, in answer to Beveridge. All the memoirs of Law are miser- ably deficient in appreciation of his genius and consistency. [E.R.^j LAWES, Henry, the court musician of Charles I., and the composer of Milton's 'Comus,' &c, 1600-1662. His brother, William, also a musical composer, the subject of the next notice. LAWES, William, a celebrated composer, was the son of Thomas Lawes, vicar-choral of Salisbury, of which city he was a native. In his early life he was a member of the choir of Chi- chester, from which place he was called to become one of the gentlemen of the chapel royal in 1602, and afterwards one of the church musicians to King Charles I. He lost his life at the siege of Chester, in the year 1645. [J.M.] LAWLESS, John, an Irish agitator, 1772-1837. LAWRENCE, French. See Laurence. LAWRENCE, J., an Eng. agricul, 1756-1836. LAWRENCE, S., an E. Indian gen., 1697-1775. LAWRENCE, Thos., an English physician and medical wr., au. of the life of Harvey, 1711-1783. LAWRENCE, Sir Thomas, P.R.A., was born at Bristol, 4th May, 1769. He obtained an early reputation at Bath as a portrait painter in crayons, and as early as 1787 established himself as a por- trait painter in oils in London, where four years afterwards, 1791, he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1795 an academician ; he had previously succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as painter to the king. He was knighted by the prince regent in 1815, and in 1820 succeeded West as president of the Royal Academy. He died in London, 7th January, 1830. — Sir Thomas had perhaps, since the days of Vandyck, an unri- valled career as a portrait painter; he, however, owed his chief success to the skilful flattery of his female portraits, the complexions of which left nothing to be desired : his male pictures, as a rule, bear no comparison with his female ; besides being ill-proportioned, they are wanting in manly char- acter; still his portraits of the emperor Francis, of Pius VII., and of the Cardinal Gonsalvi, in the Waterloo Gallery at Windsor, are among the greatest masterpieces of the art extant. — 405 LAW ("Williams, The Life and Correspondence of Sir Thomas Laxorence, 1831.) [R.N.W.] LAWSON, Sir John, a naval commander and royalist, killed in action with the Dutch, 16G5. LAX, Kev. W., an eminent astronomer, d. 1836. LAYA, J. L., a French dramatist, 1761-1833. LA YARD, C. P., a divine and scholar, d. 1803. LAZARUS, prince of Servia, 1386. LAZERI, P., an Italian theologian, 1710-1789. LAZIUS, Wolfgang, a learned physician, and writer on history and antiquities, 1514-1565. LAZOWSKI, a Polish refugee, distinguished as an active agent in the Fr. revolution, died 1793. LAZZ ARA, N., an Ital. archaeologist, 1744-1833. LEACH, Wm. Elford, an eminent naturalist, ■nd curator in the British Museum, 1790-1836. LEAD, Jane, was a mystical writer, whose works date from 1683, or thereabouts, to the close of the century, and who died in 1704. She wrote from her own experience of the spiritual life, and the state of departed spirits, but qualified by a previous acquaintance with the system of Bcenmen. Her works are a ' Revelation of Reve- lations,' explaining a portion of the Apocalypse, ' The Laws of Paradise given forth by Wisdom to a Translated Spirit,' ' The Wonders of God's Crea- tion Manifested in the Variety of Eight Worlds,' &c. This woman, of singular learning and expe- rience, belonged to a society of ' illuminati,' pre- sided over by Dr. Pordage, and, at a later period, to the ' Philadelphians,' among whom Dr. Francis Lee was eminent. The latter has written the life of Jane Lead, and some prefaces to her works. She lived at a period when some great develop- ment from the spiritual world was universally ex- pected, but especially in Germany. See Swe- denhorg. [E.R.] LEAH, the wife of Jacob, and mother ot Reu- ben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah, dates uncertain. LEAKE, John, a phys. and medi. wr., d. 1792. LEAKE, Richard, one of the bravest officers that ever served in the English navy, created master- gunner of all England, and celebrated for his skill in pyrotechnics, 1629-1696. His son, Sir John, admiral of England, celebrated for the relief of Gib- raltar, &c, 1656-1720. Stephen Martyn Leake, nephew and biographer of Sir John, distinguished in heraldry and numismatics, 1702-1773. LEANDER, a French ecclesiastic, died 1667. LEANDER, a youth of Abydos, who was accus- tomed to swim across the Hellespont in order to visit his mistress on the opposite snore, and was at last drowned in a tempest, date unknown. LEANDER, St., archbishop of Seville, 6th cen. LEAPOR, Mary, the daughter of a poor gar- dener, authoress of original poems of great merit, and 'The Unhappy Father,' a tragedy, 1711-1735. LEARCHUS, a Greek sculptor, B.C. 700. LEBAILLY, A. F., a Fr. author, 1756-1832. LEBAS, J. P., a French designer, 1707-1784. LEBAS, P. F. J., a member of the French con- vention and Committee of Public Safety, killed himself when arrested with Robespierre, 1765-94. LEBAUD, P., a French historian, 16th centurv. LE BEUF, John, a Fr. historian, 1687-1760". LEBID, Ben Raihat, an Arab, poet, died 673. LEBLANC, Claude, b. 1669, iecretary of war to Louis XV. during the years 1713-1726, d. 1728. LEC LEBLANC, F., a Fr. numismatist, died 1698. LEBLANC, H.. a painter of Lyons, 17th cent. LEBLANC, J., a French poet, died about 1622. LEBLANC, J. B., a French author, 1707-1781. LEBLANC, Marcel, a Jesuit mission, to China, au. of a ' Hist, of the Revol. of Siam,' 1653-1693. LEBLANC, R., a French classic, about 1510-80. LEBLANC, T., a Fr. commentator, 1599-1669. LEBLANC, V., a Fr. traveller, abt. 1554-1640. LEBLANC, W., bishop of Toulon, distinguished as a philologist and Latin poet, 1520-1588. His nephew, of the same name, also a prelate and Latin poet, 1561-1601. LEBLANC DE GUILLET, Anthony Blanc, called, a dramatic author, 1730-1799. LEBLOND, G. M., a Fr. numisma., 1738-1809. LEBLOND, J. B., a Fr. naturalist, 1747-1815. LEBLOND, \V., a Fr. mathematician, 1704-1751. LEBON, Jos., a mem. of the conv., 1765-1796. LEBRET, H., a Fr. historian, died about 1700. LEBRUN, A. L., a French author, 1680-1743. LEBRUN, C, acele. French painter, 1618-1690. LEBRUN, C. F., duke of Placentia, dist. as a statesman and scholar, time of Napo., 1739-1824. LEBRUN, D., a French jurisconsult, died 1708. LEBRUN, J. B. P., a French painter, 1748-1813. LEBRUN, L., a Jesuit and poet, 1607-1663. LEBRUN, Pierre, a French theologian, au. of 'Histoiredes Pratiques Supcrstitieuses,' 1661-1729. LEBRUN, Pigault, a Fr. novelist, 1742-1835. LEBRUN, Ponce Denis Ecouchard, one of the most celebrated of French lyric poets, flourished at Paris, 1729-1807. LEBRUN-DESMARETTES, J. B., a Jansenist writer, au of a ' Life of St. Paul,' &c, 1650-1731. LECAT, C. N., a surgeon of Picardv, 1700-1768. LECCHI, G. A., an Ital. mathema., 1702-1376. LECENE, C, a Calvinist minister, 1647-1703. LECERF, P., an ecclesiastical wr., 1677-1748. LECERF DE LA VIEVILLE, J. H., chancel- lor of Normandy, and a wr. on music, 1674-1707. LECLERC, David, professor of Hebrew at Geneva, 1591-1665. His brother, Stephen, a physician and scholar, died 1676. LECLERC, John, nephew of the preceding, a laborious theological writer and critic, whose works are well known, and frequently quoted, by the learned. The most famous of his writings concern biblical history, and consist of commentaries, &c, written in Latin, lived 1657-1736. His brother, Daniel, celebrated as a medical writer and ana- tomist, 1652- 1728. Laurent Josse Le Clerc, son of John, also a learned writer, died 1736. LECLERC, John, a French painter, 1587-1633. LECLERC, J. B., a member of the French con- vention, and writer on music, 1755-1826. LECLERC, M., a dramatic writer, 1622-1691. LECLERC, N. G., a French physician, author of ' Histoire Phvsique, Morale, Civile, et Politique de la Russie,' 1726-1798. LECLERC, P., a famous Jansenist, 1706-1773. LECLERC, S., a cele. Fr. engraver, 1637-1714. LECLERC, Victor Emanuel, a French gene- ral, who distinguished himself in Italy, and was married to Pauline, the sister of Napoleon, who afterwards became the wife of Prince Camille Borg- hese. Leclerc, who entered the republican army as a volunteer, was born in 1772, and died of the yel- low fever on an expedition to St. Domingo, 1802. 40C LEC LECLERCQ, C, a French missionary, 17th ct. LECOAT, Yves Maria Gabriel P., a Frencli admiral, appointed by Buonaparte military chief of the port of Boulogne, 1757-182G. LECOCQ, R., a pohtician of the 14th cent. LECOINTRE, Louis, called ' Lecointre of Ver- sailles,' a deputy to the legislative assembly and the French convention, and a bitter enemy of the Girondists, born 1750, died unnoticed 1805. LECOMTE, F., a French sculptor, 1737-1817. LECOMTE, J., a Latin poet, died 1707. LECOMTE, L., a Jesuit and astronomer, author of ' Memoirs on the State of China,' died 1729. LECOMTE, L., a French sculptor, 1643-1695. LECOMTE, M., a female engraver, born 1719. LECONTE, A., a French jurisconsult, d. 1586. LECONTE, L. J. F., a French author, d. 1740. LE-CONTEUR, John, a native of Jersey, dist. as an officer of the British army in India, where he became the prisoner of Tippoo Sultan, 1761-1835. LECT, James, a lawyer of Geneva, 1560-1614. LEDERLIN, J. H., a Ger. philolog., 1672-1737. LEDERMUTTER, M. F., a physician of Nurem- berg, au. of a work on the microscope, 1719-1760. LEDESMA, A. De, a Spanish poet, 1552-1623. LEDOUX, C, a French architect, 1736-1806. LEDRU, A. P., a French botanist, 1761-1831. LEDRU, N. P., a French phvsician, 1731-1807. LEDWICH, E., an Irish antiquary, 1739-1823. LED YARD, John, a famous American travel- ler, born at Groton, in Connecticut, 1751. After a residence among the Indians he came to Eng- land, and sailed with Captain Cook on his second voyage, the narrative of which he published. His next enterprise was a pedestrian tour round the globe; but being prevented from continuing his journey by the Russian government, he returned to London, and was employed by the African Asso- ciation. He had proceeded as far as Grand Cairo, with the design of penetrating the interior of that interesting country, when he died of a virulent disease, 1788. LEE, Anne, sometimes considered the founder of the Shaking Quakers, was born at Manchester, 1735, and after becoming the mother of several children, whom she lost at an early age, gave herself up to religious contemplation, with the conviction that the union of the sexes was the original sin. The society to which she attached herself had been founded by three prophets from the Cevennes, who came to London in 1705, and it was greatly advanced by a person named James Wardley, in 1747. Anne Lee, having become the marked medium of a spiritual manifestation, was recognized as their spiritual head, or ' mother in Jesus Christ,' in 1771. In 1774, she accom- panied some of her people to America, in order to escape persecution, and after travelling through New England, fixed her abode in the neighbour- hood of Albany, where she died, or, in the language of her proselytes, 'withdrew from their bodily view,' 1784. Her case is a very remarkable one. Among other statements, she declared that no one had entered into heaven until the year 1776, which marked the commencement of a new dispensation ; and she claimed for herself to be regarded as the ' Bride of the Lamb,' mentioned in the 12th chapter of the Apocalypse. Her followers increased to a considerable number after her death, LEE and, for a short time at least, established a com- munity of goods. [E.R.I LEE, Charles, a British officer, who engaged in the service of General Washington in the Ameri- can war of independence, died 1782. LEE, Edward, archbishop of York in the reign of Henry VIII., and a zealous opposer of Luther, 1482-1544. LEE, Francis, a learned writer on philosophi- cal, scriptural, and mystical subjects, was a physi- cian, descended, by his mother, from the Percies of Northumberland, and by his father from the same family as the earls of Lichfield. He was born in 1660, and being left an orphan when between four and fi vo years of age, was educated under the care of his aunt, Mrs. Elizabeth Jenkins. On receiving a fel- lowship at Oxford, he became tutor to Sir W. Dawes, afterwards archbishop of York, and at a later period to the son of Lord Stawell, with whose fa- mily he remained on terms of intimacy many years after. From 1691 to 1694 he travelled in Italy, and practised as a physician for some time at Venice. In 1708 he was in "London. In 1719 he went to France, and died on his journey at Gravelines. It is a curious circumstance that he was known to Peter the Great, and, at his request, drew up proposals for the advancement of his kingdom, the spirit of which, if not the form, has continued to guide the czars of Russia. His works are very numerous, but they were all published anonymously, or in the names of others. Some of them were collected in two volumes octavo, and published for the benefit of his wife and daughter, but these were by no means his most important labours — among which may be reckoned his ' History of the Montanists.' His mystic poems are among the highest of that class, and his scriptural commentaries, though false in essential principles, exceedingly ingenious. [E.R.] LEE, Henry, an American general, who com- menced his career in the army of independence, and was afterwards governor of Virginia, 1756-1818. LEE, Nathaniel, an English dramatic writer, author of the 'Rival Queens,' &c. Having at- tempted the stage as an actor without success, he directed his powers to dramatic composition, and produced a number of tragedies. He lat- terly became insane, and was two years an inmate of Bedlam, died 1692. LEE, Rachel Fanny Antonina, a lady of fortune, au. of an ' Essay on Government,' d. 1829. LEE, Samuel, a nonconf. divine, 1625-1691. LEE, Rev. Samuel, D.D., late regius professorof Hebrew in the university of Cambridge, and a great master of biblical and Oriental literature, was ori- ginally a poor carpenter, and was born in the neigh- bourhood of Shrewsbury, 1783. He is one of the most remarkable instances on record of persever- ance in self-education under the most embarrassing circumstances, rewarded at last by the highest suc- cess in the honourable career he had chosen. His principal works are a Hebrew Grammar, a Hebrew Lexicon, and a new translation of Job. He was editor of the Scriptures in the Arabic, Persian, and Malay languages. Died 1852. LEE, Sor-HiA, a novelist and dramatic writer, author of ' The Chapter of Accidents,' and of three stories in the ' Canterbury Tales' of her sister, Miss Harriet Lee, born in London 1750, died 1824. LEECHMAN, W., a Scottish divine, 1706-1785. 407 LEE LEEM, Canute, asrttwtf of Norwav, 1697-1774. LEEPE, J. A. Van., a Dot painter, 1664-1720. LEEUW, G. Vander, a Dutch paint., 1643-88. His br., Peter, of the same profession, 1G44-1705. LEEUW FN. S.. a Dutch jurist, 1625-1682. LEEVES, William, a country clergyman, and composer of sacred music, author of the air of ' Auld Robin Gray,' 1749-1828. LEFEBRE, V., a Flemish engraver, born 1642. LEFEBUBE, S., a French engineer, died 1770. LEFEBUBE, L. H., a Fr. botanist, 1754-1839. LEFEBVBE, A. B., a Fr. engineer, 1734-1807. LEFEBVBE, Francis Joseph, duke of Dant- zic, a marshal and peer of France, commander of the imperial guard at the battle of Jena, 1755-1820. LEFEBVBE, P., a French author, 1705-1784. LEFERON, J., a Fr. wr. on heraldry, 16th cent. LEFEVBE, A. M., a Fr. antiquarian, last cent. LEFEVBE, Cl., a French painter, 1633-1675. LEFEVBE, F. A., a Jesuit and poet, 1670-1737. LEFEVBE, J., a French astronomer, d. 1706. LEFEVBE, J., an old chronicler, died 1390. LEFEVBE, N., a French philologist, 1544-1612. LEFEVBE, N., a French chemist, died 1674. LEFEVBE, P. F. A., a drama, an., 1741-1813. LEFEVBE, B., a cele. portrait painter, d. 1677. LEFEVBE, T., a French savant, 1615-1672. LEFEVBE DE BEAUVBAY, Peter, an. of a •Diet, of Hist, and Philosophical Eesearch,' b. 1724. LEFEVBE DE LA BODEEIE, William, a learned Orientalist, part editor of the Polyglott Bible of Antwerp, 1541-1598. His brother, An- thony, an able negotiator, and the discoverer of the treason of Biron, author of an account of his embassies to England, died 1615. LEFEVBE-GINEAU, Louis, professor of na- tural philosophy and mechanics in the college of France, distinguished also as a politician, and for his share in the introduction of the new system of weights and measures, 1751-1829. LEFOBT, Francis James, a native of Geneva, who became the favourite of Peter the Great, and the founder of the Bussian army, 1656-1699. LEFBEN, Laurence Olaveson, a Swedish s'innit, author of ' Discourses in Philosophy and Theologv,' 1722-1803. LEFBEBE, J., a French historian, died 1583. LEGALLOIS, Julian J. C., aphys. of Brittany, au. of ' Exp. on the Principle of Life,' 1775-1814. LEGAUFFBE, A., a French jurist, 1568-1635. LEGAY, Louis P. P., a Fr. author, 1744-1826. LEGENDBE, Adrian Marie, born in Paris 1751, died there on the 16th January, 1833. A mathematician who would have been at the head of the most illustrious School in modern Europe, had he not possessed as compeers Lagrange and Laplace. The contributions of Legendre to Analysis, were numerous and important, but it is less easy to give an account of them, as they con- sist rather of individual achievements in various departments of Science, than in the completion and co-ordination of comprehensive theories. But it may be said of him with perfect justice, that he rarely touched a subject without advancing our knowledge of it, and connecting his name perma- nently with its progress : we owe him, for instance, the celebrated proposition regarding the spherical excess in Trigonometry ; and in his memoir on the Oruits of Comets, is the earliest proposal to LEG employ the fertile method of the Least Fqimres. Legendre's chief works are his Exercices au Cat- cut Integral, in which he first sketched the deter- mination and development of Elliptic Integrals,— a subject afterwards treated by him more fully in the Traite des Fonctions Ellipthjues, &c. ; his Theorie des Nombres ; and his Eiemens de Geo- metric, — a work of high elegance. A translation of this work into English with important additions by Legendre himself, was edited by Sir David Brewster, and is well known in this country. It attracted, at the time of its publication, consi- derable notice, by the fresh impulse it gave to discussions on the vexed question of Parallel lines — a subject which at different periods of his life had much occupied M. Legendre. It is certainly not true that the effort of the French Geometer to surmount the difficulty by aid of the mere algorithm of Functions, met with any success ; nevertheless, his process, and the criticisms to which it was subjected, seem to lead pretty nearly to the real seat of that difficulty. If a proposition cannot be demonstrated, or is made to lean on assumptions or paralogisms, there is no doubt that imperfection exists where there ought to be none. And the imperfection must be either a flaw in the deduc- tive process, or an inadequate statement of fun- damental principles, — the axiomata not being sufficient to sustain the whole science. There is certainly no flaw in the logic of Geometry : defect therefore must exist in the list of axioms. This indeed appears the opinion of all Geometers ; but most have fallen into the error of supposing, that the defect necessarily relates, to the subject of that specific proposition, where difficulty first appears. This is in nowise a legitimate infer- ence: and nothing but failure could attend the effort to supply the deficiency by new postulates or axioms regarding paraltel lines. The human faculties can lay down no axioms regarding in- finity, and are not entitled to the concession of any postulate. Infinity, in our highest attainable exp>ression of it, is simply the negation of finitude; and no qualities can be predicated concerning it, unless they be negations, or the limit towards which the qualities of a series of finite forms can be shown to tend. The imperfection of Elementary Geometry cannot, accordingly, have anything im- mediately to do with the theory of parallel lines ; it merely happens that in our usual systems, the existence of some fundamental defect first appears when that theory is treated of. The defect itself seems to lie in Euclid's inadequate conception of the necessarily distinctive nature of two definite attri- butes of geometrical quantity— -furm and magnitude. The Greek Geometer did not trace out the manner in which we acquire our notions of these attributes; and he did not therefore recognize it as an axiom, that the attribute of form has no dependence on the attribute of magnitude. The phenomena of Universal Belief, indeed, amply sustain the propo- sition—' If any figure exists or is conceivable, it must exist or be conceivable with the same form, whatever its magnitude.;'' or any other state- ment, involving the truth, that in our Perception of the Geometrical qualities of an O'/ject, Form alone is definite; Magnitude being indefinite: and an analysis of tlie process of Perception reveals the root of that belief: the notion of 408 LEG Magnitude involving an estimate of the dis- tance of the object, while the notion of Form is, at its source, independent of every variable quan- tity. Now, the foregoing axiom, or some one akin to it, is involved in Legendre's mise en equa- tion, as well as in the subsequent processes of Euclid himself; and — that step justified — Le- gendre's process is correct. It does not, however, require aid from the notation or procedures of Functions, to remove the long known imperfection in Geometry: a judicious use of the principle now referred to, being quite adequate, without our departing from ordinary methods. — Legendre's life was spent in privacy and strenuous labour in the service of Science. He was not a favourite with any of the governments of France ; but felt satisfied with the moderate competency that accrued from the application of his attainments. [J.P.N.] LEGENDRE, Gilbert Charles, marquis of St. Aubin Sur Loire, an antiquarian and historical writer, 1688-1746. LEGENDRE, Louis, one of the principal actors in the French revolution, was born at Paris, 1756, and commenced life as a sailor. The year 1789 found him occupied as a butcher, and well prepared by the roughness of his two professions to take apart in popular tumults. He was soon recognized as leader of the people in his own quarter, and greatly distinguished himself at the storming of the Bas- tile. His influence now became very considerable, and he took an active part in the insurrectionary movements of the 5th and 6th of October, 1789, when the people marched upon Versailles — of the 20th of June, 1792, when they invaded the Tuil- eries — and of the 10th of August following, when the guard were massacred, and the royal family imprisoned. He acted between Danton and the lower classes of the people as founder of the Cor- delier's Club in October, 1789 ; and it is a singular proof of the savage sincerity which existed between these men, that they covenanted whichever of the two should detect the other in anv defection from the popular cause should poinard him. Legendre found his wav from the convention into the Com- mittee of Public Safety, and he was the principal speaker in favour of Danton, when accused by Ro- bespierre. The latter easily talked him down, and when Danton was executed, Legendre fawned upon his destroyer until the 9th Thermidor, when he avenged his friend by joining the reaction. He was the chief instrument of the convention in defeating the subsequent attempt of the Jacobins, and finally became a sober member of the council of 500. He died in 1797, and by bequeathing his own body for dissection, made it appear somewhat less wonderful that he should have proposed to cut up that of Louis XVI. among the eighty-six depart- ments of France. [E.R.] LEGENDRE, L., a French historian, 1655-1733. LEGER, Anthony, a learned protestant divine of Piedmont, 1594-1661. His nephew, John, also a learned divine, pastor of the Walloon church of Leyden, and author of a history of the Vaudoise churches, 1615-1670. LEGER, Francis Barry Boyle St., a bar- rister-at-law, known as a fugitive wr., 1799-1829. LEGER, F. P. A., a Fr. dramatist, 1765-1823. LEGER, St., bishop of Antrim, and one of the most important personages of the 7th century. LEI LEGGE, George, baron of Dartmouth, com- mander of the fleet in the interest of James II., died while imprisoned in the Tower, 1647-1691. LEGGIER, P., a French dramatist, 1734-1791. LEGNANO, Stefano Maria, commonly called 'II Leganino,' an Italian hist, painter, 1660-1715. LEGOBIEN, C, a French historian, 1653-1708. LEGONIDEC, J. F. Ma-Mau. Agatho, a na- tive of Brittany, dist. as a Celtic scholar, 1775-1838. LEGOTE, P., a Spanish painter, died 1662. LEGOUVE, J. B., a French gentleman, distin- guished as a man of letters, 1730-1782. His son, Gab. Ma. Jean Baptiste, a dramatist, 1764-1813. LEGRAIN, J., a French historian, 1565-1642. LEGRAND, Albert, a Dominican preacher, au. of the ' Lives of the Saints of Brittany,' d. 1640. LEGRAND, Anthony, a French ecclesiastic and theologian, the first to reduce the philosophy of Descartes to the scholastic method, 17th centurv. LEGRAND, J., a French moralist, 1350-1422. LEGRAND, J., a French historian, 1653-1733. LEGRAND, James William, a famous archi- tect, and writer on the edifices of Paris, 1743-1807. LEGRAND, L., a French theologian, 1711-1780. LEGRAND, L., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1588-1664. LEGRAND, M. A., a French actor, 1673-1728. LEGRAND, Peter, a celebrated buccaneer, dist. against the Spaniards time of Louis XIV., d. 1670. LEGRAND, S. A. M., a Fr. Orient., 1724-1784. LEGRAND D'AUSSAY, Pierre Jean Bap- tists, a learned Fr. Jesuit and fabulist, 1737-1800* LEGRAS, J., a French singer, 1739-1794. LEGRAS, N., a French Hebraist, 1675-1751. LEGRAS, P., a French sculptor, 1656-1719. LEGUANO, S. M., an Ital. painter, 1660-171,5. LEGUAT, F., a French traveller, died 1735. LEHMANN, C. G., a German savant, author of a ' Precis of the Natural Hist, of Man,' 1765-1823. LEHMANN, J. G., a Ger. mineralogist., d. 1767. LEIBNITZ, Godfrey William; born at Leipzig, 3d July, 1646; died at Hanover, 14th November, 1716 : his tomb may be seen at the extremity of the Grand Alley near the gates j it is a small temple, with the inscription Ossa Leibnitzii. There has been but one man in mo- dern Europe who, in the attributes either of uni- versality or intensity of genius, can be named as compeer to the marvellous intellect we are now to contemplate — his compatriot, Goethe. The sphere of the latter, indeed, lay chiefly within the domain of our human sentiments, and the strifes, the defeats, and victories of Practical Life ; never- theless, across this fundamental diversity, it i3 easy to recognize a co-ordinate catholicity and force, raising both to conscious and serene supre- macy, and stamping them as law-givers. With- in the vast regions of speculative Thought, there was no department unvisited by the ever-living activity of Leibnitz, or unillumed by his bril- liancy: nor — in consequence of the very pro- foundly of his conceptions — is there any writer, whose speculations it is more easy to divest of their relation to occasion and time, "and present as a contribution to all ages. Jurisconsult, historian, theologian, naturalist, mathematician, metaphy- sician of the highest order — Leibnitz has left everywhere the firm impress of his all-piercing In- tellect, and sleepless industry; there being not more than one of those large ranges of thought, 409 LEI that can well be described and presented now, apart from commemoration of his achievements. A Juris- consult by early profession and predilection, he descended, like a flash, towards the necessary principles of all Law — and alone in his time, recog- nized the pre-eminent grasp and philosophy of the Jurisprudence of Home. A philosophical Jurist, it is the fashion with men of practice and detail, to scorn as no lawyer, but rather as the jurist of the closet or the drawing-room : the industry and ac- curacy of Leihnitz however, might well affright the most "plodding practitioner ; and lie showed that the philosopher alone, can attain the faculty to track and interpret those practical labyrinths. We ap- peal to his Essay, Nova Methodus Discenda Docen- dceque Jurisprudent'ue, to the Traite Sur le Droit de Souverainete et d'Embassade, or to the elaborate Codex Juris Gentium Diplomatics. Solicited by the elector of Brandenburg to prepare a memoir of that rising House — how untiring the energy he displayed! Throwing off in the way of bye-play such treatises as the Disquisitio de Oriyine Fruncorum, the Accessiones Historical in two vols. 4to, and various pieces in the Collectanea Etymoloyica, — he prepared for the House of Brandenburg, a history from the era of its birth, such as the greatest of European States might not unjustly envy; — the results of which immense and conscientious labours, are now republishing by M. Pertz. Again, as Naturalist, — with foresight like Goethe, and a superior me- thod — let his wonderful ProtoG;EA speak for him ! Catching apparently, at a glance of the phenomena — unanalyzed as all these then were — the main force of their indications, he seizes firmly the two grand originators of present in- organic forms, viz.: the aqueous and the iyneous: and the honour fell to him, first among Euro- peans, to repudiate the common opinion that petrifactions are mere freaks of Nature, but instead, relics of her history. The Protogcea, indeed, is rather a sketch than a finished work, —a mode of composing not unusual with Leib- nitz ; for, although no man was less of a vision- ary, his conceptions of the attainable, extended far beyond what even an age could accomplish. In the Protoyma, and wherever he has left his track, his power to discern the extent of any sphere of Thought, and to lay down its grander outlines, seems even more vigorous than his power to fill in details : without such a faculty, indeed, he could not have been the Lawgiver : — over the unparalleled diversity of Ideas, which our modem world owes to his genius, no intellec- tual Force could have held sway, unless its in- stinct of Unity, or its faculty of Generalizing, had been at least as strong as its ambition to ac- quire, ^'ith the exception, perhaps, of the great Name already mentioned, modern Literaiy History exhibits a grander spectacle nowhere, than the In- tellect of this Hanoverian, moving with so supreme a power, through so wide a diversity of regions, and, in its own sovereign fashion, subjecting all to itself. — But we must speak much more in detail, of the Metaphysical, Religious, and Mathematical Specu- lations of this illustrious Man.— I. The writings and achievements of Leibnitz in Mental Philosophy are great and various. One important work, is purely psychological — Nouveaux Essaissur I ' Entendement LEI IJumain. It is avowedly a critique on Locke's Essay on the Understanding: and notwithstanding that Reid, Stewart, and Cousin, have since written, it is not overstepping iusrice to term it the most valu- able criticism to which that Essay has ever yet been subjected. None of Locke's mistakes regarding the doctrines of Des Cartes, escapes the eye of the Ger- man Philosopher ; and very few of the corrections which the general views of the Englishman have since received, are not initiated in that remarkable work. Had Mr. Stewart and his immediate prede- cessors in this country, been earlier acquainted with these Essays — which are not in the edition of Du- tens — much of their own exposition would have taken on a mere scientific form. But the main achievements of Leibnitz in this field, transcend the sphere of mere psychology. They are two- fold, and as follows; — First: — Starting from the true Cartesian foundation — avowing that the Human Mind can obtain no conception of Real Existence, save through its Intuitions — SPINOZA had recently asked with clear and resolute spirit, what ultimate information reaches us through these intuitions, — what mean we by the Notion of Substance, which is the basis of all our ideas of External or Independent Being ? Following, un- fortunately, not only the method, but also the specific psychology of Des Cartes, that eminent Thinker described our primary Idea of Substance, as characterized in the main by the attribute of Extension; and in stern logical deduction from this fallacy, he reared his huge, but symmetrical Scheme of Pantheism. Logical to the uttermost, his views took fast hold on Philosophy ; nor was the gloomy despotism challenged, until it surrendered and fell at the command of Leibnitz. What, — our greater Thinker inquired afresh, — what really is our primary Idea of Substance ? What truly is the Notion, which — in virtue of the necessities of our Being — we accept as the foundation of our Ideas of External Existence V Is it, that such existence is mere extension — an inert mass, on which changes are impressed, or within which, as mere modifica- tions, they proceed ? Or, on the contrary, is not the conception of active force, inwoven with it? Can we form a rational conception of any external Substance, unless as an External En- ergy, which, by its inherent Activities, makes it- self known to us ? Leibnitz, by simply putting the foregoing question, succeeded in henceforth associating the Idea of Cause, indissolubly with the Idea of Substance : he broke down, at once and for ever, Spinozistic Pantheism ; and established the ground of his own scheme of Monads. It were wrong, perhaps, to speak of the celebrated scheme of Monads as a System properly so called : at all events, it is by our accepting it as an illustration, that it most readily becomes intelligible to the Eng- lish Mind. What know we then of Existence, ex- cept that it is a Force? What for instance the Crys- tal — that ' Geometer of inanimate Nature ' — unless an Energy or simple Power, having the capacity to assimilate what is external, and therewith buildup a fabric in accordance with definite laws V What the Animal, if not an Energy alike primal and indivi- sible, unfolding its Nature and attributes, through the forms into which it constrains whatever it assi- milates ? What is Man — save a loftier Mon AS, oper- ating sovereignly on what is around it, challenging 410 LEI its proper sphere, and, so to speak, establishing its proper dynasty? Stretch higher still; what else those worlds, those vast globes swimming in Ether, but Potentates or Primal Faculties ; or what those mightier and unseen Intelligences among whom as ministers, the Eternal has apportioned his offices ? Repose for a moment under the Idea of the Exter- nal Universe, according to this conception of it, and say if an illustration could be found, more apt or impressive ? No dead Extension, of which the Mind can frame no conception; but, around and over us — beneath our feet in the dust, and aloft through the great vault of Heaven — Energy and Action; Existence synonymous with Force; the shows and forms of Things, but indices of Powers that are ! That primary notion of Substance — the bridge across which we pass to our conception of Realities, — analyze it profoundly as you will, and you find it represented best by the scheme of Monads. — Oftener than once it has been asserted that the more one gets rid of the mere terms and forms of modern Speculation, the more is one conscious of rising into unexpected har- mony with Leibnitz. A truth still more deeply felt, as one analyses his Second great metaphysi- cal conception — his notion, viz.: of Pre-Estab- lished Harmony. This very remarkable scheme grew naturally out of that of Monads. If Ex- istence as we apprehend it, is the development of Independent individual Energies, how comes it that one Energy does not distract or possibly anni- hilate another, but rather assists it ? How are assimilation, intercourse, progress, possible ? Is it not simply because the sphere, the necessities, the nature of each Monas, are primarily, by sovereign and supremest Wisdom, adjusted to all that en- virons it ? To appreciate these questions aright, let us reflect on Man. The utmost we can predi- cate of Man is this, — he is a primal Force, building up a wonderful scheme of nerves, and by that in- strumentality, holding intercourse with everything external. But how is that intercourse realized? Man receives through these nerves nothing but sensations. No image or direct picture of any- thing without, is ever substantially presented to him : — how then, on being aroused by a simple sensation, does the Monas read its cause, or touch the great Universe that hems it in ? This ques- tion reaches the mystery of our Intuitions, or that recondite and inexplicable Faculty, by which we spring from what is felt to what is : and by no form of speech can the nature or affluence of that faculty be better indicated, than by the term Pre-established Harmony. We spring towards the cause of sensation, simply because the Soul, — like every Monas — is by pre-adjustment, in per- fect harmony with all things ; and because in the highest stage of self-consciousness, that Harmony is known. In ourselves in fact, we possess the germ of all things : the Soul is a glorious micro- cosom, within which every phenomenon and law, every form and energy, has its correspondent and counterpart : so that, the stroke of an undulation on the ear, the stroke of another on the eye, reveal, beyond doubt or illusion, that wonderful Universe of colours and sounds ; so that, at the stroke of another sensation, Space, Time, Extension, Form, Externality — all spring up as by miracle ; and so that, those subjective relations or Categories of the LEI. Understanding, and those more spiritual Ideas cf the Reason, are known to be counterparts of mate- rial systems wherein these relations are realized, and of farther off and as yet scarcely descried, pure but real Intelligences. Go to the roots of the mysterious subject, and in something of this sort, all theories of perception and all such philosophies must end. And if this, or aught like it be true, no marvel that the theory of our Intuitions — ex- amined apart — should have been found so fraught with difficulty and fertile of doubt. Self-con- sciousness being the highest and last attainable knowledge ; that which lies at the root of our be- ing, is not likely to be discerned, or reduced within logical theme, while culture is only painfully un- folding. To have defined the strict but exten- sive domain of Intuition, is, we believe, one of the main glories of Kant : not only, however, need it cause little uneasiness that he accounted so many of those laws and Ideas, subjective only ; but, it may be asserted, that as Humanity advances, others now but dimly recognized as dreams, will advance through clearer Subjective reality, into fullest Objective distinctness. — II. A very large amount of meditation and personal ex- ertion were given by Leibnitz not only to the sub- ject-matter of Religion, but also to the affairs of the Church. We can refer in this place, only to the leading residts of his Thoughts, and the spirit in which he approached such themes. Recognizing through a high metaphysic, the necessary existence of God in his fullest person- ality, he bows before him as Creator of the sub- lunary Machine, and as Ruler of Spirits. Be- cause He is a Being of perfect Wisdom, no work of His can be other than perfect ; hence, says Leibnitz, the condition of things around us, is the ' best pos- sible ;' — an Optimism with which he endeavours to reconcile the mystery of Physical and Moral Evil, in his Theodicte. Evil, he conceives the sign and consequence of limitation; and that each Monas inferior to the Supreme, must experience limitations, simply because it is Finite. Whether, by this striking and ingenious scheme, Leibnitz has succeeded better than others, in reconciling with Man's Intellect and Heart, that painful mys- tery of Evil — that painfullest mystery of Sin — it were beside our purpose at present to inquire. But it is necessary to remark that the optimism of the Hanoverian differs toto cash, from that of Pope and Bolingbroke. According to the 'Essay on Man' the maxim '■whatever is, is best, 7 simply represents an imaginary co-existence of all forms and grades of Being, from zero up to Deity ; while Leibnitz strove to demonstrate, that the Universe is a compact Harmony, in which each Being has indeed an independent place, but an independence insured by the necessity of its Existence to the Existence and Life of all others. The two views stand in utter contrast: the one deducing harmony from activity and duty; the other, identifying independence with simple isola- tion. — More important, however, than any attain- able positive result on matters so mysterious, ap- pear to us, the Spirit and Method moving these Inquiries. Satisfied that no Faith could be real, or even intelligible, unless its foundations were de- tected in the Human Reason, — Leibnitz, in this sense, was a Rationalist. Attached to the Church, 411 LEI he yet sought incessantly for the ground of its Beliefs: and on no occasion did be falter in his adhesion to that law of Human Libert v, which is the source of Toleration. It is needful to keep the foregoing truth in view, to interpret aright the position of Leibnitz with regard to the affairs of the Church. Attracted, like every great Mind and Statesman of that time, by the influence of Church questions on the peace and destinies of Europe — he conceived the project of reconciling differences; and he conducted a remarkable cor- respondence with Bossuet and Pelisson, with the view to discern a basis of reconcilement. For once Leibnitz's practical sagacity was in fault : — Bossuet soon informed him, that truth belonged to the Church alone ; that the only possible aim of dealing with the Protestants of Augsburg, was that they might recant and re-enter the Church. Bos- suet had not reached the position of Leibnitz : nor did he care, in political transactions, to acknowledge what he well knew — viz.: that although Religion, like even' Transcendental subject, must rest on what ' passes all Understanding,' — even the great- est of its verities can have no hold or standing place, if dissevered from relationship with the Reason of Man. An external Rule in Morality grows into a Principle, only when it has become harmonized with the Moral Nature of the Agent: and so, Transcendental Propositions, are Dogmas only and not Beliefs, until they have possessed themselves of what is universal and inherent in the Reason, which avows adhesion. But between the Mind and all transcendental Truth, there is this natural Harmony; and on such conviction Leib- nitz grounded Ins hopes. The age of the Revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes however, was not — any more than those recent ones through which the world has rolled — an age for ' Religious Union.' To this phase of our Philosopher's activity be- longs the work recently published in this country under the title ' A System of Theology, by G. W. Von Leibnitz.' His recent Editor Guhrauer, has quite traced the origin of this treatise. Its real title is ' An Exposition by a Protestant, of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church, made with a view to re-establish Unity.' Leibnitz simply desired to express, with that specific aim, the most catholic views then held by the Church. — III. Pass now, however, into an undebateable land. Not one, in which the vast powers of our remarkable Thinker are most conspicuously shown ; but where neither they nor his achievements can be subject of dispute. The epoch we write of, was one of great Mathema- ticians: but, on the continent, Leibnitz was Primus inter Primos; and this, although he was not a pro- fessional mathematician. He did not attain this place, through mere ingenuity or success in the solution of problems ; although in neither, when he pleased, was he ever second: but through that rooted attachment to Method, which characterized all his intellectual nature. In Dynamics and Ma- thematics, his achievements uniformly tended to- wards the generalization and perfecting of the fore- most conceptions floating in his time ; and he cared little for distinction of any other kind. That me- morable success of his, which will ever retain his name in the foremost rank of scientific Discoverers, was of this class. We allude, of course, to the Infinitesimal Calculus; the honour of which, it is a 412 LEI signal national misfortune, that our English mathe- maticians endeavoured so vainly to wrench from him. That Newton also discovered that power- ful method, no Historian of Science can doubt : the regret is, # that in course of the association of these Kings and Peers, any persuasion could have induced our Countryman, to ques- tion the pretensions of his rival. His Rival, we have said: did rivalry really exist ? Not in any true sense. Not in their respective functions; not in the nature of their respective faculties ; for these were incommensurable. It has been a habit, with writers English and Foreign, to com- pare these two vast intelligences: but they dif- fered, as intense and limited power, differs from the glance of an Eagle — surveying the headlands of a Universe. Which Potentate was greatest, it is accordingly not easy to decide. We reverently bend before the Image of the immortal Englishman, piercing to the depths of one universal law of Ma- terial Nature : is the spectacle less admirable, of a Mind, contained by no limits, and, upborn by sym- pathies large and various as the bonds that unite intelligence with matter, penetrating everywhere, and if not always discerning Laws, approaching more nearly to their discovery than any, even of its greatest predecessors '? Dugald Stewart might well and unhesitatingly declare — that Literature, and Science, in their widest significance, gained more by the universality of Leibnitz, than any special subject could have lost through the diffu- sion of his powers. — The private habits of this illustrious Inquirer, were ' those of a sedentary student. He mingled freely — personally as well as by correspondence — with all the remarkable men of his time ; but his hours were chiefly spent in his chair. He was of small stature, slightly bent : his head very large, and with small but piercing eyes. So long as Germany values her supremacy in the Empire of Thought — a supre- macy that has raised her above both Greek and Roman fame — she will cherish as one of her most precious monuments, that little temple which pro- tects the Ossa Leibnitzii. [J.P.N.] LEICESTER. See Dudley. LEICESTER, Thomas William, earl of, and Viscount Coke, distinguished for his munificent encouragement of agriculture ; born 1752, raised to the peerage, after sitting in parliament many years as a partizan of the Whigs, 1837, died 1842". LEICH, J. H., a German philologist, 1720-50. LEIGH, Charles, a physician and medical wr., au. of a ' Natural History of Lancashire,' 17th ct. LEIGH, Sir Edward, a theologian, historian, and critic, distinguished in public life as a member of parliament, a member of the assembly of divines, and a colonel in the parliamentary sendee, and, as an author, by his ' Critica Sacra,' 1603-1671. LEIGHTON, Alexander, a Scottish divine and physician, professor of moral philosophy at Edinburgh, and author of ' Zion's Plea,' and ' The Looking-glass of the Holy War.' These works being reputed as seditious, Lcighton was firosecuted by the Star Chamber, and cruelly muti- ated. He is said to have died insane, after an im- prisonment of eleven years, 1568-1644. LEIGHTON, Robert, son of the preceding, became an episcopalian, and is known as an able theologian and eloquent preacher, 1613-1684. LEI LEISMAN, J. A., a German painter, 1G04-1693. LEISSEGUES, Corentin Urbain James Beictrand De, vice-admiral of France, disting. by the capture of Guadaloupe, &c, 1758-1832. " LEJAY, C., an ecclesiast. wr. of Geneva, d. 1552. LEJAY, Gab. F., a Fr. philologist, died 1734. LEJAY, Guy Michel, an advocate of the par- liament of Paris, distinguished by publishing a polyclott Bible, 1588-1674. , LEJEUNE, J., a French priest, 1592-1672. LEJEUNE, P., a French missionary, 1592-1664. LEKAIN, H. L., a French actor, 1728-1778. LELJE, Cl. M., a French poet, 1745-1791. LELAND or LAYLONDE, John, a famous an- tiquarian, born in London at the commencement of the 16th century. He was educated for the church, and after taking holy orders became chaplain and librarian to Henry VIIL, who, in 1533, appointed him his ' Antiquary,' with a commission to investi- gate ' England's antiquities, and peruse the libra- ries of all cathedrals, abbeys, priories, colleges, and places where any records, writings, or secrets of antiquity were deposited.' He executed this com- mission "with the most unwearied diligence, and died in 1552, after suffering two years from mental derangement. Twelve volumes of his MSS. were afterwards deposited in the Bodleian library, and the remaining portion in the Cottonian collection of the British Museum. They have been greatly resorted to by antiquarian and historical writers, and some portion of them published. LELAND, John, a learned presbyterian minis- ter, located in Dublin, and dist. by his analysis and refutation of deistical writings, 1691-1766. LELAND, Thos., a divine and classical scholar, born in Dublin 1722, author of a ' History of Ire- land,' a ' Life of Philip of Macedon,' &c, d. 1785. LELIE, A. De, a Dutch painter, 1755-1820. LELLI, Hercules, an Italian painter, architect, sculptor, and engraver, Bologna, about 1700-1766. LELLI, J. A., an Italian painter, 1591-1640. LELONG, Jas., a priest of the oratory at Paris, dist. as an historian and bibliographer, 1665-1721. LELY, Sir Peter, a famous portrait painter of the restoration, whose family name was Vander Vaes. He was born in Westphalia, 1617, and re- ceived the honour of knighthood from Charles II. Died 1680. LEMAIRE, J., a Dutch navigator, died 1616. LEMAIRE, Jean, a French historian and poet, who flourished about 1473-1547. LEMAIRE, M. E., a French classic, 1767-1832. LEMAN, Thomas, a Church of England clergy- man, distinguished by his researches in Roman and British antiquities, 1751-1827. LEMARE, P. A., a Fr. grammarian, 1766-1835. LEMAURE, C. N., a Fr. cantatrice, 1704-1783. LEMENE, P., an Italian poet, 1634-1704. LEMENS, B. Van, aFlem. painter, 1637-1704. LEMERY, L. R. J. C, a Fr. astron., 1728-1802. LEMERY, N., a French chemist, 1645-1715. LEMETTAY, P. C, a Fr. painter, 1726-1760. LEMIEBBE, A. M., a Fr. dramat., 1723-1793. LEMIRE, A., a Brabant historian, 1573-1640. LEMLBE, N., a French engraver, 1724-1801. LEMOINE, F., a French painter, 1688-1737. LEMOINE, J., a French cardinal, died 1313. LEMOINE, P., a French poet, 1602-1672. LEMOINE, S., a protestant divine, 1021-1689. LEN LEMON, G. W., an Eng. etymologist, 1726-97. LEMONNIER, Anicet C. Gabriel, a French hist, painter, and pupil of Vien; Rouen, 1743-1824. LEMONNIER, Nicholas, a French professor, author of ' Cursus Philosophise,' 1675-1757. His eldest son, Peter Charles, a learned astronomer, first teacher of Lalande, 1715-1799. His second son, Louis William, distinguished as a physician and experimental philosopher, and a contributor to the Encyclopaedia, 1717-1779. LEMONNIER,, P. R., a dramatic wr., 1731-90. LEMONNIER, W. A., a class, transl., 1721-97. LEMONTEY, Peter Edward, a member of the French assembly, distinguished as a poet and historian, by his ' History of the Regency,' his re- markable work entitled, ' An Essay upon the Mo- narchic Establishment of Louis XIV.,' and various dramas and poems, 1762-1826. LEMOS, P. J., Count De, a Spanish statesman, born about 1560, president of the council of the Indies 1609, viceroy of Naples 1611, died 1634. LEMOS, Thos., a learned Spanish monk of the Dominicans, au. of ' Panoplia Gratia?,' 1550-1629. LEMOT, F. P., a French sculptor, 1773-1827. LEMOYNE, Jean Baptiste, or, more cor- rectly, Mayne, a French opera compos., 1751-96. LEMOYNE, J. L., a French sculptor, 1665- 1755. His son, J. Baptiste, same prof., 1701-78. LEMOYNE, P., a French Jesuit, 1602-1671. LEMPRIERE, John, best known as the author of a ' Classical Dictionary,' first published in 1788, was an English scholar and divine, born at Jersey about 1775, appointed to the rectory of Meeth in Devonshire, 1811, died 1824. LEMUET, P., a French architect, 1591-1669. LEMUET, R., a Fr. mathematician, died 1739. LENCLOS, Anne, or Ninon, De, a woman of pleasure, remarkable for her personal charms, and her influence over the men of learning, of tho 17th century, born at Paris 1616, died 1706. LENFANT, A. C. Anne, a French Jesuit and preacher, born 1726, massacred in Sept., 1792. LENFANT, J., a French painter, 1615-1674. LENFANT, James, a protestant minister and controversialist, author of a history of the ' Coun- cil of Constance,' ' History of Pisa,' ' Histoiy of the Wars of the Hussites,' &c., 1661-1728. LENG, John, bishop of Norwich, disting. as a classical translator and commentator, 1665-1727. LENGLET-DUFRESNOY, Nicholas, a Fr. ecclesiastic, who was five times committed to tho Bastile for his writings and independent conduct, author of a ' Method for Studying History,' ' His- tory of the Hermetic Philosophy, &c, 1674-1755. LENGUICH, Godfrey, an historian and pub- licist of Dantzic, 1690-1744. Charles Benja- min, of the same family, a numismatist, 1742-1795. LENNARD, Sampson, a companion-in-arms of Sir Ph. Sidney, disting. as a translator, died 1633. LENNEPH, J. D. Van, a D. Orient., 1714-71. LENNOX, Charlotte, of whose personal his- tory little is known, save that she was the daugh- ter of Colonel James Ramsay, lieutenant-governor of New York, and a youthful widow, distinguished herself as a novelist and dramatic writer and trans- lator, in the time of Dr. Johnson. She was highly esteemed by her personal friends, Johnson and Richardson, but outlived them, and died in penury in the eighty-fourth year of her age, 1804. 413 LEN LENOIR, A., a French archaeologist, 1788-1889. LENOIR, J. C. P., a Fr. magistrate, 1732-1807. LENOIR, N., a French architect, 1726-1810. LENOIR, Stephen, a celebrated maker of ma- thematical instruments, 1744-1832. His son, P. S. M. Lenoir, accompanied the savants in Na- poleon's expedition to Egypt, 1776-1827. LE NOTRE, A., a famous gardener, 1G13-1700. LENS, A. C, a Flemish painter, 1739-1822. LENS, Bernard, a designer and engraver, flourished in London 1659-1725. His son, of the same name, an engraver and painter of London, born 1680. Another Bernard Lens, also an en- graver, was born at Brussels about 1730. LENTHAL, William, speaker of the House of Commons in the parliament of Charles I., from which office he was dismissed by Cromwell in 1653, but re-elected in the following year, and also in the rump parliament. Born 1591, died after the restoration, when he was pardoned by theking, 1663. LENTULUS, the surname of a branch of the famous Cornelian family of Rome, the principal of whom are — Publics Cornelius Lentulus, an accomplice of Catiline, consul 71 B.C., strangled in prison 66. Lentulus Spintherus, a friend of Cicero, and a partizan of Pompey. Cneius Cornelius Lentulus, surnamed Gaitulicus, con- sul a.d. 26. Lucius, son of the latter, put to death for conspiracy in the reign of Caligula. LENTULUS, a supposed proconsul of Juda?a, to whom a letter, describing the Saviour, has been attributed, but which is pronounced a fabrication. LENTULUS, a mimic, or comedian, 1st century. LENTULUS, C, a German savant, 17th cent. LENTULUS, Cesar J., a Swiss officer in the service of Austria, 1683-1744. His son, R. Scipio Lentulus, dist. in the seven years' war, 1714-86. LENZ, C. G., a German savant, 1763-1809. LEO, a disciple of Plato, killed 350 B.C. LEO, archbishop of Thessalonica, 9th century. LEO, an ecclesiastic and hist, of Ionia, 10th cen. LEO, ' the grammarian,' one of the authors of the Byzantine History, begun by Theophanes, wrote his part about the year 1013. LEO I., pope of Rome in the age of Attila, and a saint of the Roman calendar, author of letters, sermons, &c, and distinguished by the surname of ' Great,' reigned 440-461. Leo II., who intro- duced the custom of sprinkling with holy water, and is also acknowledged a saint, reigned 682-683. Leo III., re-established, after a conspiracy, by Charlemagne, whom he crowned emperor, 795-816. Lbo IV., who was principally engaged in restoring the city, and securing it against the Saracens, 847-855. Leo V., elected, and deposed, and died in prison, within a few weeks, in 903. Leo VI., who is also believed to have died in prison, after reigning about six months, in 928. Leo VII., famous as a disciplinarian, and an advocate for the marriage of priests, 936-939. Leo VIIL, whose reign was one long scene of political dis- turbance, 963-965. Leo IX., a saint of the Ro- man calendar, distinguished by his efforts to reform the clergy, and for his capture by the Normans, who defeated him near Beneventum, born 1002, reigned 1049-1054. Leo X. ; see next article, i-i .< • -\ I., a pope of the Medici family, like Leo X., ! and died a month after his election in 1605. Leo XII., whose reign was disturbed by LEO the Carbonari and other secret societies, and who was chiefly occupied with the internal police of his states, and in political negotiations, norn 1760, reigned 1823-1829. — An anti-pope, named Leo, contested the papacy with Benedict VIIL, under the name of Gregory VI., in 1012. LEO X., Pope. Giovanni De Medici, second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was born at Florence on the first day of December, 1475. He was early destined to the church, received the tonsure when but a boy seven years old, and the year following got several ecclesiastical prefer- ments. At the age of eleven he was made a cardinal by the title of S. Maria in Domenica. Three years afterwards he took up his residence in Rome as one of the princes of the church, but on the election of Alexander VI. he was obliged to retire to Florence. After some turns of fortune, in consequence of the broils among the various states of Italy and France, he was raised to the popedom in 1513, under the name of Leo X., and crowned with unusual pomp and ceremony as the successor of the Galilean fisherman. Several acts of political generosity graced the commencement of his reign. His great desire was to re-establish the peace of Europe, and he entered into treaty with Louis XII. He also renewed the sittings of the famous Lateran council, and brought them to a conclusion in 1517. Afterwards he ioined the league against Francis I., but ultimately entered into a concordat with him. As the tide of policy ebbed and flowed, he made occasional attempts to rouse the Swiss against the French king, leagued himself with Maximilian and Henry VIIL of England, and at a future period, and for the same purpose, with Charles V. in 1521. A formid- able conspiracy on the part of some of the cardi- nals against him was discovered in 1516, and Cardinal Petrucci, who was at the head of it, was condemned and strangled in prison. In self-de- fence Leo created at this period in one day thirty- one new cardinals. He carried the glory of the Roman see to a pitch of unparalleled splendour, and the grateful citizens of his capital erected a statue in his honour. His heart was set upon the defeat of the Turks, and he endeavoured to combine the princes of Europe against them. The project which seems always to have oc- cupied his mind, was the expulsion of the French power from Italy, but in the midst of his triumphs at Milan and Parma, he suddenly died, 1st Decem- ber, 1521, not without great suspicion of having been poisoned. The completion of the church St. Peter was another of his cherished plans, and the papal indulgences issued to raise the necessary funds, created or fostered that discontent that led in a short time to the reformation in Germany. Leo was at first wishful of gentle measures to- ward Luther, but ultimately published the famous bull which Luther so publicly and contemptuously burnt before the gate of Wittemberg. Though the brief pontificate of Leo was so unsuccessful, his patronage of literature and the arts was muni- ficent, as was exhibited in his restoration of the Roman academy, his founding of the Greek insti- tute and the establishment in Rome of a Greek press, his encouragement of search after Eastern manuscript*, his handsome treatment of men of letters, such as Musuius, Ariosto, and Vida, his 414 LEO augmentation of the library of the Vatican, and his propitious employment of RafFaelle the painter on a variety of immortal works. As the head of an Italian ducal house, Leo would have eclipsed all his compeers. Though his character and actions did not in all respects comport with the idea of Ins being visible head of the church, yet he is better than very many of his predecessors. His talents were good, though his erudition was not profound. His tastes were fine in the arts, but his politics were crooked, and his diplomatic schemes had more cunning than wisdom about them. In all his plans for the popedom, he never forgot the ad- vancement of the house of the Medici. Apart from his ecclesiastical status, he must be regarded as one of the zealous and successful co-operators in the revival of letters. [J.E.] LEO I., emperor of the East, surnamed ' the Elder' and ' the Great,' was a Thracian of obscure birth, and succeeded to the throne of Constanti- nople 457. After restoring peace to the empire, which had been rent by religious quarrels, and de- vastated by the barbarians, he died 474. Leo II., surnamed * the Younger,' grandson of the preced- ing, succeeded him, and is supposed to have been poisoned ten months afterwards, 474. Leo III., surnamed ' the Isaurian,' distinguished by his suc- cesses against the Saracens, reigned 717-741. Leo IV., grandson of the latter, and husband of the famous Irene, reigned 775-780. Leo V., sur- named 'the Armenian,' dethroned Nicephorus, and reigned for seven years, disturbed by the inroads of the Bulgarians, and the religious struggles of the image-worshippers, 813-820. Leo VI., surnamed ' the Philosopher,' distinguished himself by the de- feat of the Hungarians ; but sustained a disastrous war with the Saracens, who at last defeated him, 886-911. He was succeeded by his brother, Alex- ander, and his son, Constantine VI., and is the author of an esteemed work on Tactics. LEO I., prince or king of the Armenians, esta- blished in Cilicia, began to reign 1123, was taken prisoner by Johu Commenus in 1137, and died in prison 1141. Leo II., called ' the Great,' grand- son of the preceding, obtained the permission of the emperor, Henry VI., and the pope, Celestine III., to take the title of king, and reigned 1185- 1219. Leo III., who greatly aggrandized his kingdom, reigned 1269-1289. Leo IV., succeeded 1305, and was dethroned and slain by a Mongul general 1308. Leo V., who saw his kingdom de- vastated by civil wars, and the invasion of the Mamelukes and Turcomans, reigned 1320-<*2. Leo VL, proclaimed king 1361, was chased from his kingdom by the sultan of Egypt 1375, and, retir- ing into France, died there 1393. LEO, the Hebrew, a cabalist of the 15th cen. LEO, John, surnamed ' Africanus,' a traveller and geographer, born of Moorish parents, who was converted to Christianity by Leo X., and, becom- ing an Italian scholar, translated into that lan- guage his 4 Description of Africa,' originally writ- ten in Arabic, died about 1526. LEO, Leonardo, an eminent musician, re- garded as one of the greatest opera composers of Naples, 1694-1745. LEO of Marsi, a chronicler of the 12th cent. LEO of Modena, a learned rabbi, died 1654. LEO of Orvijsto, an Ital. chronicler, 12th c. LEO LEO, Pilatus, first professor of Greek at Flo- rence, who lectured there about 1360. LEON, Diego, a Spanish general and partizan of Espartero, born 1804, executed 1840. LEON, F. L. De, a Spanish poet, 1527-1591. LEON, P. L. De, a Spanish historian, 16th c. LEONARD, N. G., a French poet, 1744-1793. LEONARD, St., an anchoret of Limousin, founder of a monastery near Limoges, died 559. LEONARDI, F., a Venetian painter, 1654-1711. LEONARDI, J., a religious founder, 1540-1G09. LEONARDO, A., a Span, painter, 1580-1640. LEONARDO, J., a Span, painter, 1616-1658. LEONE-Y-GAMA, Antonio, cele. for his ex- tensive knowledge of Mexican antiquities, d. 1802. LEONID AS, the first of the name, king of Sparta, immortalized by his glorious defence of the pass of Thermopylae against Xerxes, reigned 491- 480 B.C. The second of the name, began to reign B.C. 257, was banished, and replaced by Cleoin- brotus, 254, recovered his throne 239, died 238. LEON-LEAL, F. De, a Span, painter, 1610-87. LEONTIUS, an ecclesiastical historian, 6th cen. LEOPARDI, A., a Venetian architect, d. 1510. LEOPARDI, J., an Italian poet, 1798-1837. LEOPOLD, duke of Lorraine, father of Francis L, emperor of Germany, was the son of Charles IV., and was born 1679. He was restored to his dukedom, of which Louis XIV. had despoiled him by the peace of Ryswick, 1697, and was married to Elizabeth of Orleans, niece of Louis XIV., d. 1729. LEOPOLD of Austria, elected duke of Ba- varia, after the death of Henry the Proud, 1138-42. LEOPOLD, margrave of Austria, and a saint of the Roman calendar, succeeded 1096, married Agnes, sister of the emperor Henry V., and died 1139. He was canonized 1485. Leopold I. or II., surnamed ' the Glorious,' third son of Albert L, succeeded as duke of Austria 1308, and compelled Louis of Bavaria to divide the empire with his brother, Frederick ; died 1313. Leopold II. or III., surnamed ' the Courageous,' born about 1350, took a part in the Italian wars, and was slain in a battle with the Swiss. 1386. LEOPOLD I., emperor of Austria, born 1640, succeeded his father, Frederick III., 1658, died 1705. Having defeated the Turks in 1664, the commencement of his reign was signalized by a truce of twenty years which he concluded with them. From 1672 to 1679, he sustained a dis- astrous war with Louis XIV., which was then concluded by the peace of Nimeguen. A truce of twenty years with Louis XIV. did not prevent a renewal of hostilities in 1688, which were termi- nated by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. During this latter interval, the Hungarians, headed by Tekeli, and supported by the Turks, rose in arms 1677, and even besieged Vienna, which was re- lieved by Sobieski and the Poles 1683. The other principal events of his reign were the elevation of Hanover into an electorate 1692, of Brandenburg into a kingdom 1702, and a new war with the Turks, who were conq. by Prince Eugene 1697. LEOPOLD II., emperor of Germany, second son of Francis I. and of Maria Theresa, was born 1747, and succeeded his brother, Joseph II., 1790. The events of his reign were some successes obtained over the Turks, a quarrel with Prussia, terminated by the treaty of Sistow 1791, the troubles in Bel- 415 LEO pnm 1700, and the famous declaration of Pilnitz Against the French revolution. He died March 2, 1792, and was succeeded by his son, Francis II. LEOPOLD, A. D., a Germ, author, 1691-1763. LEOPOLD, C. G. De, a Swed. poet, 1756-1829. LEOPOLD, G. A. S., a Germ, wr., 1755-1827. LEOWITZ, C., a Bohem. astrologer, died 1574. LEPAUTRE, Anthony, a French architect, 1014-1691. His brother, John, a designer and engraver, 1617-1682. Peter, son of Anthony, a sculptor, 1659-1744. LEPAYS, R., a French poet, died 1690. LEPEKHTN, J. 1., a barn. Russian, 1739-1802. LEPELLETIER, C., a Fr. theologian, d. 1743. LEPELLETIER, C., a Fr. financier, 1683-1689. LEPELLETIER, J., a French savant, distin- guished in art, languages, mathematics, medicine, and alchvmy, 1633-1711. LEPELLETIER -DE - SAINT - FARGEAU, LouiS Michael, one of the old French noblesse, and a deputy of his order to the estates-general in 1789, was born in Paris 1760, and inherited a large fortune from his parents. On the 4th of August of the year first mentioned, he voted for the aboli- tion of feudal privileges, and, what is more, car- ried the decree into full effect in his own person. When the estates -general resolved itself into a constituent assembly, St. Fargeau joined the pa- triots of the left, and was returned again to the national convention in 1792. His votes in the process against the king had great influence over the court, and led immediately to his own death. On the eve of the king's execution, and before the votes were summed up, St. Fargeau had stepped out for refreshment, and was in the act of paying the restaurateur, when a stranger, who proved to be one of the king's body guard, suddenly ap- proached and asked him if he were not Lepelletier who had voted for the king's death V he replied 1 yes,' and added that he had voted as his con- science had dictated. 'Scelerat,' exclaimed his interrogator, • voila ta recompense !' and instantly run him through with a sword which he had con- cealed under his cloak. Lepelletier St. Fargeau was the author of several works on law and poli- tics, and of a life of Epaminondas. [E.R.] LEPIDUS, Marcus jEmilius, the Roman tri- umvir, had been aedile b.c. 52, praetor 49, and consul with Caesar 46. The latter, when he be- came dictator, made Lepidus general of the cavalry, and, on Caesar's death, he divided the empire with Octavius and Mark Antony. At first he had the whole of Spain and Gallia Narbonensis, but on the defeat of Brutus and Cassius, he was compelled to exchange those provinces for Africa, which- left him without any real authority in the state. He was included in the triumvirate of B.C. 37, but was deserted by his troops, and banished to Circeii by Augustas. Died 12 or 13 B.C. LEPBINCE, A. X., a Fr. painter, 1799-1826. LK1TJNCE, J., a French painter, 1733-1781. His sister, Marie Leprince De Beaumont, a writer of works for young people, 1711-1780. LEROUX. J. J., a Fr. med. writer, 1749-1832. LERY, J. D., a French navigator, 1534-1611. LE SAGI^. Alain, born in 1668, was the son of a lawyer in Brittany, and, being left an orphan in childhood, lost his patrimony through the careless- ness of his guardian. In 1692, after having studied LES at the Jesuit college of Vanncs, he came to Paris, where he was admitted as an advocate, but soon betook himself exclusively to literature. His career was for many years very obscure ; few of his plays were successful, and he long wrote for the small theatres only. Whatever the reason may have been, he received no share of the patronage which the government lavished on many men who were much inferior to him ; but he was well received in good society. Entering on the study of Spanish literature, and using the comedies of that language with ability, but with little success, in his plays, he turned the Spanish models to a more fortunate use in his comic novels. Some of these are among the liveliest and wittiest of their class, and admir- able as cool and observant dissections of human weaknesses. The earliest of them, appearing in 1707, was 'The Devil on Two Sticks' (Le Diablo Boiteux), avowedly a continuation of a Spanish story. His most celebrated work, ' Gil Bias,' though it has been charged with plagiarisms, seems to have really been as much his own in de- sign as it certainly was in those details, which con- stituted its eminent merit. In ' The Adventures of Guzman D'Alfarache,' he confessedly borrowed largely from a Spanish original. Le Sage died at Boulogne in 1747. [W.S.J LESAGE, G. L., a learned physician, 1724-1803. LESCAILLE, James, a Dutch printer, who dist. himself as a poet, 1610-1677. His daughter, Catherine, a poetess anddramat. wr., 1649-1711. LESCAN, J. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1749-1829. LESCURE, L. M., a French royalist, 1766-93. LESKO, the names of several dukes of Poland, thebest known ofwhom are Lesko IV., reigned 892- 913. Lesko V., 1194-1202. Lesko VI.,1279-98. LESLEY, A., a Scottish antiquary, 1694-1758. LESLEY, John, bishop of Ross, in Scotland, celebrated as the advocate and ambassador of Mary Stuart, in whose defence he wrote several elaborate works, born 1527, retired to the continent in 1573, became bishop of Constance 1593, died in the monastery of Guirtenberg, near Brussels, 1596. LESLIE, John, a native of Scotland, who was successively bishop of the Orkneys and of Raphoe and Clogher in Ireland, and is distinguished as a linguist ; he died more than a hundred years old, 1671. His son, Charles, author of the famous books, entitled ' The Snake in the Grass,' and * A Short and Easy Method with the Deists ;' distin- guished also by his adherence to the Pretender, in consequence of which he lost all hope of prefer- ment in the church, was born hi Ireland about 1650, and died 1732. LESLIE, Sir John, born at Largo, in Fife- shire, 16th April, 1766, died 3d November, 1832, at his seat at Coates. Leslie's life was an active one, and he rose to a considerable place in science. He succeeded Professor Playfair in the chair of mathematics in the university of Edinburgh, and, on the death of that eminent man, he again suc- ceeded him in the chair of natural philosophy. The contributions of Sir John Leslie to British science were various : he occupied himself with the expe- rimental theory of Heat, and produced, as his own, several delicate instruments, such as the differ- ential thermometer, — his claim to the invention, however, has been strongly contested. It were not easy to challenge for him very sound judgment or 416 LES much impartiality in his philosophical estimate of other Inquirers ; nor was his style of exposition, written or oral, remarkably well suited to a philo- sophical subject. Still, he had the faculty of in- vention, and a dash of what, in one sense, may be termed genius. His knowledge was extensive; his reading having been vast, and his memory remarkably tenacious. Leslie at one time ob- tained a singular popular repute, from the effort of the Church, to hinder his induction as pro- fessor of mathematics. The hostile charge was that of some form of infidelity, based on his espousal of Hume's views as to the Idea of Necessary Con- nection. The interference failed, and certainly was injudicious. It is not often that inferences as to practical life or religious sentiment, based on spe- culative views, have been approved by succeeding times. If Leslie's doctrine was incorrect under one point of view, that of his opponents was quite as untenable, viewed from another. The contro- versy, however, gave rise to many ingenious pamph- lets, among which was the Essay on Cause and Effect, of the late Dr. Thomas Brown. [J.P.N.] LESSER, Augustin Creuse, Baron De, a dramatic author and man of letters, 1771-1839. LESSER, F. C, a Germ, naturalist, 1692-1754. LESSING, Gotthold Ephraim, the son of a Lutheran pastor, was born, in 1729, at Kamenz, in Upper Lusatia. In 1746 he entered the Univer- sity of Leipzig, where he continued to prosecute his literary studies with extraordinary activity, and in many directions, but showed a strong disinclin- ation to attach himself to any professional pursuit. The dissatisfaction of his father, who was both a poor man and severely orthodox, was increased by the intimacy which the youth contracted with players, and by his writing one or two little thea- trical pieces. After being recalled home, and visiting Berlin, he completed his academical course at Wittemberg. — In 1753 he cast himself fairly on the world as a man of letters, taking up his abode at Berlin, where he remained for seven years. Even in this opening stage of his career, he firmly established his position as the earliest and most energetic of the pioneers who prepared the way for an original development of German literature. His chief friends and coadjutors at this time were the philosophical Jew, Moses Mendelssohn, and Nicolai, the author and bookseller. With these he co-operated in laying the foundation of criticism in Germany, by the ' Bibliothek der Schonen Wis- senschaften,' and the ' Literatur-Briefe.' His stu- dies in Italian, Spanish, and German, directed especially to the drama, furnished him with abun- dant materials for his denunciation of the dryness and formality of the French taste, which then prevailed among his countrymen. His own imi- tation of the English drama, having no higher modoi than Lillo, produced at first nothing better than his domestic tragedy in prose called 'Miss Sara Sampson.' About this time, however, he partly composed, also in prose, his vigorous and impressive tragedy of « Emilia Galotti,' a modern adaptation of the story of Virginia. To this period likewise belong his ' Fables,' which, both the me- trical and the prose ones, are very striking pieces of reflection, and, like all his other writings, mo- dels of clear and symmetrical style. — For five years, from 1760, he lived at Breslau, as secretary to the LES commandant. Here he seems to have been less stea- dily industrious than before, mixing a good deal in society, and having for a time a strange fondness for the hazard-table. But, at Breslau, among his military acquaintances, he planned or composed his spirited drama, ' Minna von Barnhelm.' Here also the study of the arts of design, to which, as exhibited in the master-pieces of Greece, Win- ckelmann was now inviting attention, led him to begin the composition of that which is the most valuable of all his works, ' Laocoon,' or an ' Essay on the Limits of Poetry and Painting,' which was published in 1766. The title of this admirable work indicates but imperfectly its commanding scope. The comparison instituted is between Poetry on the one hand, and the Arts of Design on the other ; and between the several Fine Arts (Poetry included), as contrasted with each other. The purpose of all these arts being assumed to be sub- stantially the same, those differences of process are indicated, which arise between the arts by reason of the differences in their instruments. This, like all Lessing's other philosophical speculations, is merely a fragment, a collection of hints, not the exposition of a system ; but the principles which he has here established go farther towards found- ing a just theory of literature and art, than any other cesthetical work that could be named. — For some years after leaving Breslau, Lessing led a shifting and uncomfortable life His longest residence was at Hamburg, where he became, by necessity, not from choice, director of a theatre set on foot by some sanguine lovers of the drama. One satisfactory fruit of this abortive undertaking, was the series of masterly criticisms on celebrated plays, which he called the ' Hamburgische Drama- turgic' In 1770, after marrying the widow of a Hamburgh merchant, he removed to Wolfenbuttel, being appointed keeper of the library. Here he spent the last eleven years of his troubled life, but not in peace. He was, indeed, meritoriously ac- tive and useful in discharging the duties of his office ; but he became entangled more hotly than ever in those theological controversies, which he seems to have entered at first only as the cham- pion of literature and the drama, but in which he now became the assailant in his turn. His devia- tions from orthodox belief were denounced loudly on his publishing a piece called ' Fragments of an Anonymous Writer,' which he asserted to have been discovered in manuscript in the library, but which was confidently alleged to have been com- posed by himself. His dramatic poem, also, ' Na- than the Wise,' published in 1780, while it is fine and interesting as a series of epic pictures and solemn thoughts, is at least equivocal in its reli- gious aspect. Lessing's last work was his short treatise on 'The Education of the Human Race.' A voluminous correspondence, and many critical pa- pers and notes, are brought together in the collected editions of his works. After much sickness and vexation, he died at Wolfenbuttel in 1781. [W.S.] At the date of Lessing's birth, it could hardly be said that a national German Literature existed, nor had those peculiar philosophic and critical move- ments begun which have now long inspired its pe- culiar life. But the period was auspicious for a re- vival. Frederick the Great had just burst the limits that restrained the political influence of Northern 417 2E LES Germany, and by a series of exploits unparalleled in modern warfare, was evoking the lieroic in Teutonic genius, and teaching his people self-respect and self-dependence, by his vigorous compulsion of Europe to recognize Prussia as one of her integrant nations. Lessing was the Frederick of Thought. By nature wholly Teutonic, he too, Bounded a trumpet call ; and with a restless energy in nowise inferior to Frederick's, an ac- tivity and plenitude of resources that overlooked no opportunity, he dashed, now into this region of dormant literature, now into that unpenetrated department of philosophy, until he had laid the foundation of almost every conquest that has illustrated the recent ever-memorable career of his kindred. The earliest efforts of this remark- able person lay in that direction in which he accomplished one of his latest and greatest triumphs, viz. : literary Criticism and Esthetics. His History of the Theatre; on Letters on Litera- ture ; his Life of Sophocles ; his Dramaturgy ; his Fables perhaps, and his Theory of the Apologue, belonged to a career which culminated in the Laocoon, — that great classic treatise on the respec- tive limits and characteristics of Painting and Poetry. Without forgetting the immense debt that must ever be held due to Winckleman, it may be averred with justice, that in Lessing's Laocoon, all those rich thoughts and aspirations concerning Art, which so enrich modern Teutonic speculation, find their natural root. Striking at once at the principle of distinction, he establishes, that as the arts of Design labour for the gratifica- tion of the outward sense, their proper sphere is within the Beautiful; whereas Poetry and written thought, appeal to the Imagination, which can reconcile itself even to deformity. 'The conse- quences,' says Goethe, ' of this splendid thought were illumined to us as by a lightning flash ; all the criticism that had hitherto passed sentence was thrown away like a worn-out garment ; we thought ourselves redeemed from all evil, and tancied that we might venture to look down with some compassion upon the otherwise so splendid sixteenth century, when, in German sculptures and poems, they knew how to represent Life only un- der the form of a well-bedizened fool, Death under the misformed shape of a rattling skeleton, and the necessary and accredited evils of the world un- der the image of a Devil in Caricature.' — Lessing, however, did not confine himself to precepts, he led the way by his own admirable dramas, to the practical revival of that highest and profonndest Art. Beginning with a drama of common life, Miss Sarah Sampson, he entered a vigorous pro- test against the frivolities of the super-classic school, and asserted the true function of the Drama. Next and far more perfect, Minna Von Barnhelm; then his still greater work, Emilia Galotti ; and he crowned his triumph by the incom- parable Nathan the Wise. Incapable of their reach of imagination, and by no means gifted with the amazing penetrating power of a Shak- speare or a Goethe, nevertheless, Lessing has been surpassed by few in that species of Drama, named the moral Drama — rather one, which, in the largest sense, aims at manifesting systemati- cally, through the Dramatic form, the sphere and aspects of some great principle. His analytic faculty LES was of the first order; his conceptions rarely equalled in definiteness ; and his mode of expres- sion especially excelled in chastity energy and pre- cision. Who has read Nathan, and can again lose sight of him ? Few creations surpass this Hero, in the qualities of repose and elevation ; nor do some of the inferior characters fail to attract corres- ponding admiration. It was Lessing's last great work — the song of the Swan: but its accents have provoked more than an empty and dying echo; they have raised many hearts to the highest con- ception we can form of the virtues of Charity and Tolerance. — The intellect and influence of Les- sing extended far beyond the range of ./Esthetics and the Drama : nor perhaps, has his sway over Germany, or rather his profound appreciation of its tendencies, and foresight of their effects, more strik- ing illustration and record, than in the celebrated Wolfenbuttel Fragments. The work of Reimarus, although shaped and annotated by Lessing, — these remarkable writings first stirred that spirit, which issued in the memorable critical and rational schools of Germany. In these Fragments appear the first formal attack on the then unquestioned tenet of Protestant Churches — the absolute authority of the Scriptures. These writings are declared to be mere Historical documents, which, like all other such documents, must be subjected to the test of criti- cism : it is asserted that the foundations of Chris- tianity are not solely in the gospels — which may be modified by Inquiry, their text altered, and much of it repudiated as spurious: Christianity all the while not losing its truest foundation, which is in the heart and the reason of Man. It were, of course, quite out of place to criticise here, favourably or unfavourably, these Wolfenbuttel pro- positions : the important point is, that under the conduct of Lessing, they foreshadowed, for good or for evil, so much of the future of German thought : — how new thev were at the time, appears in the reclamations of Pastor Goeze of Hamburg, who dealt with them after the manner of Anathe- ma. Lessing followed up with his tract on The Education of the Human Race, in which he at- tempts to shadow out more definitely, the probable future relation of Humanity to the Christian Re- velation. — It is more difficult to state with preci- sion the attitude of Lessing towards speculative philosophy properly so called. Practical as he was and earnest, he thought and speculated chiefly in reference to practical problems and interests ; never- theless, the speculative schemes of his great pre- decessors could not be indifferent to him. Jacobi after Lessing's death, disclosed in certain letters to Mendelssohn, the particulars of a private conversa- tion, tending to establish that his friend had slid into the pantheism of Spinoza. The reporting of such conversation must ever be protested against, as breach of confidence; and it is almost as certainly a source of misrepresentation ; — what thinker does not, in the frankness and confidence of inter- course,, give utterance at times to momentary im- pressions, as if they were his abiding ones ? This much is unquestionable — Lessing has not written one solitary word inconsistent with a firmest persua- sion in the Personality of Man. This great writer, indeed, belongs to a class of minds very easily misapprehended — minds, which none but others in so-' far akin to them, can rightly understand. 418' LES Oftenest in antagonism, or in a critical attitude, thinkers like Lessing do not generally express their whole thought ; they dwell only on the part of the common thought, from which they dissent. So far, however, from being ruled by mere nega- tions, it is certainly more probable that their dis- sent arises from a completer view and possession of truth; and that their effort is confined, to the desire to separate truth from error, or, at all events, from non-essentials. Be that as it may, the writer of whom we speak, stands fitly as the herald of the modern era in his native land: — he polished his mother tongue and made it classical ; and as we have seen, he initiated several of the more re- markable movements for which our Teutonic brethren are now famous. His life was that of a brave unbending literary man. Not exempt from the disasters of such a life, he was not exempt from all its errors : but even amidst error he pos- sessed himself, — he did not resign the freedom, or compromise the dignity of the Thinker. [J.P.N.] LESSIUS, Leonard, a learned Jesuit, suc- cessively professor of philosophy and divinity at Louvain, 1554-1623. LESTANG, Anthony De, a French savant, author of a ' History of the Gauls,' d. 1613 or 1617. LESTERPT-BEAUVAIS, B., a partizan of the Girondists in the convention, executed 1793. LESTRA, F., a French traveller, 17th century. LESTRANGE, or LETRANGE, Rene D'Hau- trefort, Viscount De, gov. of Puy in the interest of the Leaguers, seneschal 1595, died about 1621. L'ESTRANGE, Sir Roger, a partizan of Charles L, famous as a political writer, and trans- lator from the learned languages, 1616-1704. LESUEUR, Eustace, one of the greatest pain- ters of France, called the French Raphael, 1617-55. LESUEUR, J., a French historian, died 1681. LESUEUR, J. F., a Fr. composer, 1763-1837. LESUEUR, Peter, a French wood engraver, 1636-1716. His son, of the same name, who died 1698, and his son, Vincent, died 1743, followed the same art. Their nephew, Nicholas, d. 1764. LESUEUR, Th., a famous mathematician, au. of ' Principles of Natural Philosophy,' &c, 1703-70. LESUIRE, R. M., a French author, 1737-1815. LETHIEULLIER, Smart, a native of Essex, disting. as a naturalist and antiquarian, died 1760. LETT, Gregorio, author of an immense num- ber of works on history, which are generally re- farded as more entertaining than trustworthy, was orn at Milan in 1630, and died 1701. Among his works are a ' History of Sixtus Quintus,' three volumes, 1669 ; a « History of Philip II.,' 1679 ; a ' History of England,' 1682 ; ' The Cardinalism of the Roman Church ;' • Life of Queen Elizabeth ;' • The Nepotism of Rome,' &c. LETROSNE, W. F., a Fr. economist, 1728-1780. LETTICE, John, an English clergyman, known as a poet and miscellaneous writer, 1737-1832. LETTSOM, John Coakley, a native of the West Indies, distinguished in London as a phy- sician, author of professional works and writings on natural history, 1744-1815. LEU, J. J., a Swiss author, 1689-1768. LEU, Ph. De, a French engraver, born 1570. LEUCHT, C. L., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1645-1716. LEUCIPPUS, a Greek philosopher, who lived between the 4th and 5th centuries B.C., and to whom LEV the first idea of the atomic system is attributed, which was afterwards perfected by his disciple Democritus. Kepler and Descartes were much indebted to the ancient doctrines of these masters for the explanation of the planetary vortices. Ba- con remarks that Democritus and Leucippus were so much taken up with the particles of things as to neglect their structure. LEUCKFELD, J. G., a Ger. savant, 1668-1726. LEUSDEN, J., a Dutch Hebraist, 1624-1699. LEUTINGET, N., a Ger. historian, 1547-1612. LEUWENHOECK, Antoine, a celebrated na- turalist, was born at Delft in 1632. He died in 1723. His first title to distinction was derived from the superior skill he manifested in cutting glasses for microscopes and spectacles. He after- wards became more famous for the use he applied the microscope to. His whole life, which was a long one, was devoted to making anatomical obser- vations and experiments, and researches in natural history ; and his numerous papers in the Philoso- phical Transactions of London show his industry and perseverance. His observations upon the con- tinuous nature of arteries and veins ; upon the composition of the blood; upon the structure of the crystalline lens of the eye; upon the spermatic animalcules ; and the history of some of the more minute animals as observed by the microscope, have established his reputation as an accurate obser- ver, and diligent inquirer into the secrets of nature. His fame during his lifetime had spead far and wide ; and when Peter the Great of Russia passed in 1698 by Delft, Leuwenhoeck was expressly in- vited to an interview with his majesty, and de- lighted him by exhibiting through his microscope the circulation of the blood going on in the tail of an eel. [W.B.] LEVACHER, G., a French surgeon, 1693-1760. LEVAILLANT, Francis, a native of Guiana, dist. as an African trav. and naturalist, 1754-1824. LEVASSOR, M., a French historian, 17th cent. LEVE, Ant. De, a cele. Span, general, d. 1536. LEVEQUE, P., a French historian, 1713-1781. LEVER, Sir Asiiton, a gentleman of fortune, who impoverished himself by collecting a museum of natural history, which was exhibited in Leices- ter Square from 1775 to 1785. Died 1788. LEVER, Thomas, an eloquent minister of the reign of Edward VI., au. of sermons, &c, d. 1577. LEVE RIDGE, R., a famous singer, 1670-1758. LEVESQUE, L. C, a Fr. authoress, 1703-1745. LEVESQUE, P. C, a learn, histor., 1736-1812. LEVESQUE-DE-CARAVALIERE, P. A., the author of ' Po6sies de Roi du Navarre,' 1697-1762. LEVESQUE-DE-POUILLY, L. J., a French magistrate and political writer, 1691-1750. His son, J. Simon, also an author, and member of the Academy of Inscriptions, 1734-1820. LEVI, the third son of Jacob and Leah. LEVI, David, a tradesman of London, remark- able for his self-acquired learning, author of ' Letters to Dr. Priestley, in answer to his Letters addressed to the Jews/ a 'Hebrew-English Dic- tionary,' a 'Hebrew Grammar,' 'The Rites and Ceremonies of the Jews,' &c, 1740-1799. LEVI-BEN-GERSHOM, a learned rabbi and disciple of Aristotle, born in Provence, 1290-1370. LEVIEUX, R., a Fr. painter, time of Louis XV. LEVINGSTON, James, a Scottish royalist, 419 LEV created by Charles I. Lord Levir.gston of Almont and earl of Callendar, died 1672. LEVIS, Francis, Duke De, a French marshal, distinguished in Canada, 1720-1787. His son, Pjxbbia Maria Gaston, Due De Levis, a mem- ber of the constituent assembly, known as a politi- cal writer and moralist after the restor., 17G4-1830. LEVIZAC, John Pons Victor Lecoutz De, au. of several works on French literature, d. 1813. LKWELLIN. See Llywelyn. LEWENHAUPT, A. L. Count De, a Swedish general, who died in Russia after a captivity of ten years, 1719 ; author of ' Memoirs,' published 1757. ' LEWENHAUPT, C. E., of the same family as the preceding, sent to Finland against the Russians in 1742, and, failing of success, beheaded in 1743. LEWIS, John, a Church ot England divine, (list, for his antiquarian learning, au. of a ' History of John Wieklifte,' 'History and Antiquities of the Abbey Church of Faversham,' &c, 1675-1746. LEWIS, Matthew Gregory, a popular no- velist, author of 'The Monk,' &c, 1773-1818. LEWIS, Captain Meriwether, had the joint conduct with Lieutenant Clarke (g.v.~) of the first expedition across the Rocky Mountains un- dertaken by the United States government. LEY, or LEIGH, Sir J., an em. lawyer, created Baron Ley and earl of Marlborough, 1552-1628. LEY, John, a controversial divine, 1583-1662. LEYBOURN, W., a mathemat., d. about 1690. LEYDECKER, Melchior, a Dutch theologian, au. of ' The Rep. of the Hebrews,' &c, 1652-1721. LEYDEN, John, a Scotch physician, eminent as a linguist, antiquary, and poet, 1775-1811. LEYDEN, John of, a famous leader of the anabaptists, was a tailor's apprentice at the Hague at the close of the 15th century, and his proper name was John Boccold, or Bockels. The events which have handed his name down to posterity form a bloody episode in the history of the Refor- mation. The movements of Luther had been pre- ceded by political and social commotions in Ger- many, and as it gained strength, the spiritual freedom which it promised was earned down into these disaffected elements. Political sects every- where sprung up, who grounded their dogmas in the religious principles of the reformers, and raised the cry of equality against the princes and nobles who had so long oppressed them. The ignorant, the poor, the hopeless, the turbulent, swelled these dangerous bodies to scores of thousands, and they were only vanquished in one principality to rise with fresh vigour in another, and begin a new reign of terror under other and more daring leaders. One such was John of Leyden, who began to ac- quire influence among them in 1533, about which time he associated himself with the anabaptist Mathison. The name of the party was derived from the alleged necessity of rebaptism into the church, (that of infants being held invalid,) and as the church with them was also the state, this baptism became as the oriflamine of an armed propaganda which threatened every form of exist- ing order. In 1534, the city of Munster was di- vided into two hostile camps, the anabaptists having become so numerous as to proclaim a new religious and political constitution. The prince-bishop was soon deprived of all authority, and collecting his adherents around him, and adding to their number LIB troops of mercenaries, he laid regular siege to tho ' New Israel.' Meanwhile, John of Leyden and his wife had been proclaimed king and queen, and for more than six months their devotee! followers de- fended the city. At length, in June, 1535, tho troops were admitted by treason in the stillness of night, but not to an easy conquest. Possession was disputed street by street, and the greater num- ber of the anabaptists perished in the combat — tho city afterwards being delivered up to pillage for eight days. John of Leyden, and some two of his accomplices, were taken alive, and executed in Jan- uary, 1536, with the cruelty usual at that period. The anabaptists accepted the free principles of tho Reformation without the Bible, in place of which they laid claim to particular inspiration. Like the Quakers, their more peaceful successors, they were the subjects of preternatural convulsions and visionary hallucinations, which often ended in frenzy and demoniac possession. See Storch, Mun- cer. [E.R.] LEYDEN, J. G. Van, a D. chronicler, d. 1504. LEYDEN, Lucas Van. See Jacobs. LEYSER, A., a Prussian jurist, 1663-1752. LEYSER, Polycarp, a theologian of the con- fession of Augsburg, 1552-1601. His grand- nephew, of the same name, a literary savant, 1690- 1728. John, of the same family, author of nu- merous works in favour of polygamy, 1631-1684. LEYSSENS, N., a Flemish painter, 1661-1720. LETO, A., a Spanish painter, 17th century. LEYVA, J. De, a Spanish painter, 1580-1637. LEZARDIERE, Marie Pauline De, author of ' Theorie de la Politique de la Monarchic Fran- caise,' 1754-1835. LEZAY - MARNESIA, Claude Francis Adrian, Marquis De, a man of letters, known as a deputy to the estates-general, and for his at- tempts in 1790 to form a colony in North America, 1735-1800. His son, Adrian, Count De Lezay Marnesia, a political wr. and diplom., 1770-1814. LHOMOND, C. F., a Fr. grammar., 1727-1794. L'HOPITAL. See Hopital. L'HOSE, Nestor, a Fr. Orientalist, 1804-1842. LHUYD, Edward, a Welch antiquarian, author of an 'Irish-English Dictionary,' ' Archaeologia Britannica,' &c, 1670-1709. LHUYD, LHWYD, or LIIOYD, H., a learned antiq., au. of a ' History of Cambria.' &c, d. 1570. LEANS, T. P. De, a Span, painter, 1575-1625. LIARD, Joseph, a Fr. engineer, 1747-1832. LIBANIUS, a famous rhetorician, born at An- tiocli, and educated at Athens, author of numerous oratorical and moral treatises, most of which are still extant, flourished in the time of the emperor Julian, about 314-390. Libanius was the teacher of St. Basil and John Chrysostom. LIBANIUS, G., a German savant, 16th cent. LIBARID, a Georgian general, who made him- self independent in 1045, and was assassin. 1059. LIBARIUS, A., a German physician, distin- guished as the first to speak of tlie transfusion of blood from one living being to another, died 1616. LIBERALE, G., an Italian painter, 16th cent. LIBERALS, V., an Italian painter, 1451-1536. LIBERATUS, an eccles. writer of the 16th ct. LIBERGE, M., a Fr. jurisconsult, died 1599. LIBERI, C. P., an Italian painter, 1605-1687. LIBERIUS, the successor of Julius as pope of 420 LIB Rome, 852. At first the friend of Athanasius, ho was exiled on his account by the emperor Con- stantius, but afterwards most weakly and wickedly subscribed to the Arian tenets. Liberius, how- ever, at last died a good catholic in 366. LIBICKI, J., a Polish poet of the 17th century. LIBURNIO, N., a Venetian savant, 1474-1557. LICETI, F., an Italian philosopher, 1577-1657. LICHERIE, L., a French painter, died 1687. LICHTENAU, Wilhelmijja Euke-Rietz, Countess Von, a favourite of Frederick-William Icing of Prussia, author of ' Memoirs,' 1754-1820. LICHTENBERG, George Christopher, a natural philosopher and moralist, author of many pieces ot wit and humour, including a satire on the system of Lavater, entitled ' The Physiognomy of Tails,' and really distinguished for his contri- butions to the phvsical sciences, 1742-1799. LICHTENSTElN, Joseph Wenceslaus, Prince Von, an Austrian field-marshal, 1696-1772. LICHTENSTEIN, John Joseph, Prince Von, an Austrian general and diplomatist, time of Na- poleon, 1760-1833. His cousin, Aloys Gon- zaque, distinguished himself at Leipzig 1813, and in the campaigns of 1814-1815. LICHTNER, M. G., a Ger. fabulist, 1719-83. LICINIUS, Caius, a Roman poet, 1st c. b.c. LICINIUS, Caius Flavius, a native of Dacia, of obscure origin, who was born about 263, and became emperor of Rome in 312. He was de- feated by Constantine 323, and put to death the year following. His son, Flavius Valerius, who had been declared Caesar in 317, was put to death at Constantinople in 326. LICINIUS-STOLO, a Roman plebeian, who be- came tribune B.C. 375, and consul 363 and 360. LICINIUS-TEGULA, a Roman poet, 200 B.C. LIDDEL, Duncan, a Scotch physician and ma- thematician, founder of a professorship, 1561-1613. LIDEN, J. H., a Swedish writer, author of a 4 History of the Poets of Sweden,' mid. of last cen. LIDNER, B., a Swedish poet, 1759-1793. LIEBE, Ch. S., a Gr. numismatist, 1687-1736. LIEBLE, Ph. L., a French ecclesiastic, au. of 4 The Limits of Charlemagne's Empire,' 1734-1813. LIEMAKER, N., a Flemish painter, 1575-1647. LIERRE, J. Van, a Flem. painter, abt. 1530-83. LIEUTAUD, J., a Fr. astronomer, 1660-1733. LIEUTAUD, J., a Fr. anatomist, 1703-1780. LIEVEN, Count Von, a Swedish general and senator, dist. at Narva and Pultowa, 1670-1733. LIEVENS, J., a Flemish Hellenist, 1546-1599. LIEVENS, J., a Dutch painter, 1607-1663. LIGARIO, P., an Italian painter, 1686-1752. LIGHTFOOT, Dr. John, a Hebrew scholar and divine of the period of the parliamentary wars, born in Staffordshire 1602, died, vice-chancellor of Cambridge, 1675. He was a great master of Rabbinical learning, and was much admired for his temper and disinterested conduct in the difficult times through which he had to pass. The Polyglott Bible, and Poole's Synopsis Criticorum, are a'mong the great works promoted by him. His own works were published m 2 vols, folio, 1684, a second edition in 1686, and one of three vols, in 1699. An octavo vol. of his ' Remains,' with some notices of his life, was published by Strypc. LIGHTFOOT, John, a Church of England minister, who dist. himself as a botanist, 1735-88. LIL LIGNAC, Joseph Adrian Le Large De, a priest of the oratory at Paris, distinguished as the author of several curious works in natural history and theology, died 1762. LIGNE, Charles Joseph, Prince De, was bom of an ancient family at Brussels in 1735, and distinguished himself as a general in the Austrian service from the period of the seven years' war to the congress of Vienna, during the session of which he died, in 1814. He is author of several political works, and of 'Memoirs' of great interest. His works were collected in 6 volumes 8vo, 1817. LIGONIER, John, earl of, a companion-in- arms of Marlborough, born 1678, commander-in- chief 1757, died 1770. „. LIGORIO, Piero, an architect and antiquary of Naples, who shared the direction of the works at the Vatican with Michelangelo, and that of the erection of St. Peter's with Vignola. He died in 1583, and his MSS. and designs collected from the antique, form thirty folio volumes. LIGOZZI, J., an Italian painter, 1543-1627. LIGUORI, A. M. De, an ascetic wr., 1696-1787. LILBURNE, John, a famous English republi- can, whose merits far surpass the reputation in which he has been held, was bom of an old family in the county of Durham, 1613, and, after receiv- ing a common education, became a clothier in Lon- don. He was thoroughly imbued with the temper of the times, and was first known to the public through a prosecution of the Star Chamber for com- plicity with Bastwick. His intrepid defence of his rights as a free -bom Englishman, before that dreaded bar of the high church party, gained for him the familiar appellation of 'free-bora John.' He was condemned to receive 500 lashes at the cart tail, and to stand in the pillory ; but his spirit was only aroused by this disgraceful punishment, his name became the watchword of a large and tumultuous party, and the House of Commons voted the sentence ' barbarous and illegal.' Such a man was not likely to be 'slow' when active measures were resorted to by the parliament. He fought bravely at Edge Hill and Marston Moor, and be- came lieutenant-colonel under the earl of Manches- ter; for an assault upon whose character he suffered imprisonment, and underwent many hardships. His chief fault was the want of a more statesman- like spirit, so that he was continually sinking from the leading position he might have held, in virtue of his integrity and intrepidity, to that of a dema- gogue. He boldly accused Cromwell and Ireton of treason, and the former tried, in vain, to make him comprehend the real situation of affairs, and seems at last to have given him up in despair, and to have prosecuted him from necessity, while he val- ued his steady qualities and incorruptible nature. Reduced to quiescence under the iron hand of the Protector, his political enthusiasm subsided into the religious, and the famous John Lilburne became a preacher among the Quakers. Died 1657. [E.R.] LILIEBLAD, G., a learned Swede, 1651-1710. LILIECRANTZ, J., a Sw. statesm., 1730-1815. LILIENBERG, J. G., chancellor of Sweden, and president of the council of mines, in the reign of Frederick I., died at the end of the last century. His brother, Eric Gustavus, served in France under Marshal Saxe 1740, and died 1770. LILIENTHAL, M., a Germ, divine, 1G86-1750. 421 LIL LILIO, Luigi, in Latin, Lilius, an Italian ma- thematician, author of the plan for reforming the calendar effected by Gregory XIII., died 1571). LILLO, George, an English dramatic writer, famous in the delineation of domestic tragedy, author of ' George Barnwell,' ' Fatal Curiosity,' 'Arden of Faversham,' and other pieces. Lillo carried on the business of a jeweller, and was a man of unblemished character, 1693-1739. LILLY, John, a dramatic writer, author of 'Endymion' and 'Midas,' acted before Queen Elizabeth, and of a famous pamphlet, entitled •Martin Mar-Prelate,' about 1553-1600. LILLY, William, whose reputation as an as- trologer raised him to considerable importance at the time of the parliamentary wars, was born in Leicestershire, 1602, and was in service in London as a bookkeeper, when his master died, and gave him the opportunity of marrying his widow. This lady possessed a small fortune of about £1,000, and dying six years afterwards left him master of considerable leisure, and of the art of invoking spirits, which he had derived from the instruction of Evans, a Welch clergyman, and from the study of Cornelius Agrippa. The first public trial of his art, however, was an attempt to discover a buried treasure in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey with the use of the divining rod, the chief movers in which were Ramsay and Scot. The actors in this scene were terrified from their purpose by a storm which threatened to bury them beneath the ruins of the abbey, and Lilly, who claims the merit of having 'laid the spirits' by which it was raised, attributed their failure to the want of faith and better knowledge in his companions. In 1634 Lilly ventured on a second marriage, which proved unfortunate as a commercial speculation, for though the bride possessed a dowry of £500, she spent more than she brought. In 1644 he published the first of his almanacks, which he continued during the remaining thirty-six years of his lifetime, under the title of ' Merlinus Anglicus.' The predictions contained in this ephemeris, and his interpretation of the three suns which appeared in the heavens that year, on the birth-day ot Prince Charles, brought our astrologer a valuable reputation, and he was soon consulted by both the political parties who divided the kingdom. There can be no doubt that his advice was often well-founded, and his predic- tions frequently verified by the events; but it is just as certain that he was a man of no character. He was a double-dealer and a liar by his own show- ing, but as staunch a believer in his own honesty as in the truth of his art, and perhaps as decent a man as a trading prophet could well be under any circumstances. It is some excuse that he was courted by noble and crowned heads at home and abroad, and richly rewarded by them. In 1648 the parliament of England gave him an annual pennon of £100, which he threw up in disgust two .years afterwards on receiving some affront ; yet he was able to lay out large sums in the purchase of landed property. He died in 1681, leaving works of great interest in the history of astrology, and of some importance as characterizing the times in which he lived, and the historical persons with Whom he was associated. [E.R.] LILY, William, first master of St. Paul's school, author of a well-known Latin grammar, LIN 1468-1522. His son, George, a dignitary of the church, and writer of histoiy, died 1559. Peter, brother of George, and his son of the same name, were also distinguished in the church, and the lat- ter, who died in 1614, is author of ' Sermons.' LIMBOPvCH, H. Van, a D. painter, 1680-1758. LIMBORCH, Philip, pastor of a congregation of Dutch Remonstrants, and professor of divinity, was born at Amsterdam 1633, and died in posses- sion of a high personal character and reputation, 1712. He was nephew, by the mother's side, to Episcopius, and edited some of his papers in con- junction with Hartsoeker. His own works are ' Theologia Christiana,' a defence of Arminian prin- ciples ; a ' History of the Inquisition,' a ' Commen- tary on the Apostolic Writings,' &c. LIMIERS, H. Ph. De, born of French parents in Holland, cele. as a critic and historian, a. 1725. LIMN^EUS, J., a German publicist, 1592-1665. LINACRE, Thomas, a physician and scholar, greatly distinguished in the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIIL, 1460-1524. LINCK, J. H., a German naturalist, 1674-1734. LIND, James, an English physician, died 1794. LINDANUS, W. D., a native of Dort, distin- guished as a controversial divine, and theologian of the Roman Catholic Church, 1525-1588. LINDBLOM, A , a Swedish prelate, 1747-1819. LINDEN, J. A VANDER,a D. phys., 1609-64. LINDERN, F. B. Von, a Ger. botan.> 1682-1755. LINDET, A. T., a French priest, and member of the convention, 1743-1823. His brother, J. B. Robert Lindet, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, died 1825. LINDSAY, Sir David. See Lyndsay. LINDSAY, J., a nonjuring minister of London, au. of a ' History of the Regal Succession,' d. 1768. LINDSAY, R., a Scottish historian, 16th cent. LINDSE Y, Theophilus, a Church of England divine, afterwards known as a preacher and writer on Socinianism, 1723-1808. LINDWOOD, W.,an English divine, died 1446. LINGARD, Dr. John, the Roman Catholic historian of England, was born in Winchester, 1771, and made his first appearance as an author in 1805, when he wrote a series of letters in the Newcastle Courant, entitled ' Catholic Loyalty Vindicated.' To Dr. Lingard belongs the rare honour of refusing a cardinal's hat. He died, after a life of 'illustrious obscurity,' 1851. LINGLOIS, P. F., a French jurist, 1580-1629. LINGUET, Simon Nicholas Henry, a cele- brated political writer and historian, born 1736, executed after taking an active part in the French revolution, 1794. LIN I ERE, F. P. De, a French poet, 1628-1704. LINIERS-BREMONT, Don Santiago, a Spanish commander, who defended Buenos Ayres against the English in 1806-7, and having treated with Buonaparte, was shot by a party of revolu- tionists, 26th August, 1809. LINLEY, Thomas, a distinguished vocal com- poser, received his first instructions in music from Thomas Chillcott, and afterwards from the cele- brated Paradies. Linley was for many years con- ductor of the oratorios and conceits at Bath, and has been called the restorer of the music of Handel, in the same sense as Garrick was of the plays of Shakspeare. Linley went to London 422 LIN and became joint patentee of Drury Lane theatre ■with his son-in-law, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, in which establishment he, for many years, con- ducted the musical department of the entertain- ments. He composed music for the following pieces, namely 'The Duenna,' 'The Carnival of Venice,' ' Selima and the Royal Merchant,' ' The Camp,' 'The Spanish Maid,' 'The Stranger at Home,' ' Love in the East,' and many other pieces. His madrigal for four voices, — 4 Let me, careless and unthoughtful lying, Hear the soft winds above me flying,' is considered equal in all respects, and superior to very many of the most celebrated compositions of the' same class. Linley died in London in 1795, and was buried in Wells cathedral, in the same vault with his daughters, Mrs. Sheridan and Mrs. Tickell. [J.M.] LINLEY, Thomas, a son of the preceding, cele- brated as a violinist, drowned at the age of twenty- two, 1778. His younger son, William, a writer and composer of songs, born about 1767. LINN, William, a minister and protestant writer of New York, 1752-1808. His son, John Blair Linn, a distinguished poet, 1777-1804. LINNJEUS, Charles, or Carl Von Linne, one of the greatest systematic botanists and na- turalists the world has ever seen, was born in Sweden in 1707. He died in 1778. Sweden is justly proud of having given birth to Linnaeus. His father was a poor clergyman in a rural dis- trict, who could scarce afford to give his son an education for a profession, and was at one time nearly apprenticing him to a shoemaker ; and yet we see this son in after years, by dint of his own genius and talents, rising to the rank of a noble- man, and exercising, even while alive, a most ex- traordinary and universal influence over the whole science of natural history. During the earlier years of his life he endured many privations and much poverty ; but his extensive acquirements procured him numerous friends, and in 1741, at the age of thirty-four, he succeeded in being appointed to the professorship of medicine at the university of Up- sala, where he had studied in his youth ; Rosen was professor of botany, a chair which Linnaeus would have preferred, but by an amicable arrange- ment the former lectured on medical subjects, while the latter taught natural history. Previous to his appointment to this chair Linnaeus had tra- velled through Lapland, where he had been sent by the Academy of Sciences for the purpose of ex- fdoring the natural history of that arctic region ; le had visited and examined the great mines of Sweden, where he acquired a good knowledge of mineralogy ; he had explored the natural history of Dalecarlia, for which purpose he had been sent by the governor of that province ; he had visited Denmark, Germany, Holland, and England, and had thus laid up a vast store of knowledge in all the three kingdoms of nature. The extent of this knowledge may be judged of from his ' Systema Naturae,' a work which has now been before the world for more than a century ; and which, not- withstanding that our acquaintance with the objects of nature has increased a hundred-fold since his time, is almost indispensable to every na- turalist even at the present day. His acquire- LIS ments in natural history were universal ; still it is in botany that he has obtained most success and his greatest glory. His arrangement of plants by the sexual system, or by the number, disposition, &c, of the stamina and pistils, maintained the pre-eminence over all rival systems till very lately, and even now, though superseded in a great mea- sure by the natural method of Jussieu, retains a most useful place in the study of botany. The binomial nomenclature which he introduced into botany and zoology, or the use of trivial or specific names appended to the generic, to distinguish the different species of animals and plants, is one of the most important helps to the advancement of the study of natural history that has ever been discovered, and which alone would have immor- talized the name of Linnaeus. — In 1747 Linnaeus was appointed physician to the king ; in 1753 he was created a knight of the Polar Star ; and in 1757 he was raised to the rank of nobility. [W.B.] LINT, Peter Van, a Flemish historical and portrait painter, 1609-1668. His brother, Hen- drick, a painter and engraver, end of the cent. LINTHOCST, J., a Dutch painter, 1755-1815. LINUS, a supposed bishop of Rome, 1 st cent. LINWOOD, Miss, famous for her exhibition of needle-work pictures in Leicester Square, was born in Birmingham, 1755, and died 1845. Her copies of pictures from the old masters possessed extra- ordinary merit, and for one of them, which she be- queathed to the queen, she is said to have refused an offer of three thousand guineas. The collection met the usual fate of such things after her death, and was dispersed by auction. LIONEL, lord of Ferraro and Modena, 1441-50. LIOTARD, John Stephen, a famous enamel painter, who was called 'the Turk' on account of adopting the Turkish costume, born at Geneva 1702, died about 1776. His brother, John Michael, distinguished in Paris as an engraver, died after 1760. LIOTARD, Peter, a Fr. botanist, 1729-1796. LIPENH'S, M., a German divine, 1630-1692. LIPPKRT, P. S., a German artist, 1703-1785. LIPPI, Francesco Filippo, a painter of Flo- rence, bom about 1412, died 1469. His son, Philippino, also distin. as a painter, 1460-1505. LIPPI, Lorenzo, a famous painter of altar pieces, known also as a burlesque poet, 1606-1664. LIPPO, a Florentine painter, assassinated 1347. LIPSIUS, J. G., a Ger. numismatist, died 1820. LIPSIUS, Justus, a celebrated philologist, critic, and antiquary, and prof, at Leyden and Lou- vain, born at Isch, near Brussels, 1/j47, died 1606. LIRELLI, S.,an Italian astronomer, 1751-1811. LIRIS, Leo Du, an astronomer, 17th century. LIRON, J., a learned ecclesiastic, 1665-1748. LIS, or LYS, John Vander, a Dutch painter, 1570-1629 ; another of the same name, 1600-1657. LISCOV, Chr. L., a German poet, died 1760. LISLE, Claude De, a French geographer, historian, and genealogist, 1644-1720. His son, Louis, a physician and wr. on astronomy, d. 1741. LISLE, Sir G., a royalist officer, famous for his defence of Colchester, shot by the republicans 1648. LISLE, J. Troins De, a Provencal adventurer and alchymist, b. abt. 1662, d. in the Bastile 1712. LISLE, W., an English antiquary, died 1637. LISLE. See Delisle, Delisle-De Sales. 423 LIS LIST, Frederic, a political economist and member of the parliament of Wurtemberg, fonnder of the Zollverein or customs union, 1789-184G. LISTER, M., an English naturalist, died 1712. LISTER, T. H., a miscellaneous writer, 1801-42. LISTON, Jonx, was born in Norris Street, Haymarket, in 1776, and was educated at Dr. Barrow's, Soho school. In 1795 he became him- self second master at the Grammar, or library school, Castle Street, Leicester Square, under Archdeacon Tennyson, and was all his life long a great reader. From this school he was, however, expelled for acting plays with the big boys, and went into an office as a clerk. The first time he performed in London, was at the Haymarket, on a benefit night, as Rawbohl, in ' The Iron Chest.' After this, obtaining £40 from a friend for the purpose, he resolved to adopt the stage as a pro- fession, and spent the money in the purchase of theatrical properties. He then acted at Taunton, Exeter, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. His first comic part was Die/gory in ' She Stoops to Con- quer,' and he raised the character at once into im- portance. On the 10th June, 1806, Sir. Liston appeared again at the Haymarket, as a debutant, in Sheepface, in 'The Village Lawyer.' Miss Tyrer (afterwards his wife) made her first appear- ance there also on the same night, as Agnes in 4 The Mountaineers.' His next character was Zekiel Homespun. But it was not until the following October, and at Covent Garden theatre, that he secured extraordinary attention, by the part of Jacob Gawkey, in ' The Chapter of Accidents.' The reputation thus acquired he quite established by his Lord Grizle in ' Tom Thumb,' in which he had to sing ' the dancing song ' three times. His elegant and symmetrical form was exhibited in this feat, and undoubtedly contributed to his re- markable success. His wife also produced a simi- lar sensation in Queen Dolabella — Notwithstand- ing his success in these comic and burlesque parts, Mr. Liston thought himself a tragic actor, and 17th May, 1809, attempted Oclavian. His Domi- nie Sampson, indeed, and Adam Brock evinced touches of genuine pathos. In 1823, Mr. Liston had an engagement at Drury Lane of £50 a- week, which he commenced with Tony Lumpkin. His Maworm next year was applauded by George IV. himself, who encored the celebrated sermon ; and the public nightly afterwards imitated the royal example. In 1825, he appeared in his famous character of Paul Pry; this was the climax of Mr. Liston's popularity. The furor for the play was immense. Mr. Liston was henceforth to be seen moulded in all conceivable materials — plaster, clay, china, butter ; he gave signs to pub- lic houses, names to coaches, and portraits to pocket-handkerchiefs. In 1831, Mr. Liston joined Madame Vestris at the Olympic, where he enjoyed an income of £60 a-wcek, and appeared as Domi- nique, in a new piece, by Mr. Charles Dance, called * Talk of the Devil.' At this theatre, Mr. Liston continued until 1837. The last night he performed was at the Lyceum, for the benefit of Mr. James Vining— but he never took a formal farewell of the stage. His death took place on the 22d LIV and he was remarkable for attention to his reli- gious duties. f.l.A.II."] LISTON, R., a famous surgeon, 1794-1817. LITHGOW, W., a Scotch traveller, died 1640. L1THOV, Gust., a Swedish poet, born 1692. LITTA, Pompeo, Count, an Italian literary antiquarian, died 1852. LITTLE, W., an English historian, born 1136. LITTLE BURY, J., an English divine, 17th cent. LITTLETON, Adam, a divine of the Church of England, celebrated for his skill in the Eastern languages, au. of a Latin dictionary, &c, 1627-94. LITTLETON. Edw., a divine and poet, d. 1734. LITTLETON; or LYTTLETON, Thomas, a famous authority in matters of law, was a judge in the reign of Edward IV., and author of a treatise on 'Tenures,' which is the text-book of Coke's Commentaries, died 1481. Judge Littleton left three sons — William, ancestor of the Lords Lit- tleton of Worcestershire ; Richard, a lawyer of the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. ; and Thomas, knighted by Henry VII. for the capture of Lambert Simnel. A John Littleton de- scended from William, was a partizan of the earl of Essex in the reign of Elizabeth, and died in prison 1600. Edward Littleton, descended from Thomas, was lord-keeper in the reign of Charles L, and created baron of Mounslow in Shropshire, flourished in 1589-1645. Another descendant of Thomas, was a Sir Thomas Littleton, speaker of the H. of Commons in the reign of William III. LITTRE, Alexis, a Fr. anatomist, 1658-1725. LITTROW, J. J., a Ger. astronomer, died 1840. LIVERPOOL, Charles Jenkinson, earl of, a member of parliament and statesman, who occu- pied various offices from 1761 to 1784, and died at the age of eighty-one, 1808. His son, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of Liverpool, born 1770, was the famous statesman who held the premier- ship from 1812 till 1827. Died 1828. LTVIA-DRUSILLA, a Roman empress of the Claudian family, who was first married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, and forcibly taken from him by Augustus, who divorced his own wife in order to marry her. Having no children by the emperor, he adopted her sons by her first husband, one of whom, Tiberius, became his successor. Livia died in the eightv-sixth year of her age, 29. LIVIA-LIVILLA, granddaughter of the pre- ceding by her other son, Drusus Germanicus, mar- ried her cousin, Drusus, son of Tiberius, and hav- ing poisoned her husband in concert with Sejanus, died in a dungeon 35. LIVINEIUS, J., a Flemish divine, died 1599. LIVINGSTON, Edward, an American lawyer and statesman, au. of a new criminal code, d. 1836. LIVINGSTON, John, minister of the Scots church at Rotterdam, auth. of ' Letters' 1603-72. LIVINGSTON, Robt., a distinguished Ameri- can statesman and diplomatist. He was one of the committee who drew up the declaration of independence; in 1780 was secretary for foreign affairs ; and after filling the office of chancellor of the state of New York was appointed minister to France in the time of Buonaparte ; 1746-1813. LIVINGSTON, William, an American author March, 1846, from apoplexy. "The attributes of j and statesman, 1723-90. His son, Brockholst, Mr. Liston's acting were nature, thought, and ' a dist. judge of the state of New York, 1757-1823. study; his conduct in private lift was exemplarw j LIVIUS ANDRONICUS. See Andkonicus. '424 LIV LIVY. Titus Livius Patavinus, the only illustrious Roman historian of the Augustan age, was born at Patavium (now Padua), a town of the Lombar do- Venetian kingdom in Italy, B.C. 59, in the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus. The snrname, Patavinus, seems to fix the place of his birth ; but, according to some authorities, he was (Livy — From an Antique Bust."] born at a village six miles to the south of Pata- vium. The records of his life, like those of many others of the literary men of antiquity, are meagre and unsatisfactory — the materials necessary to form a connected narrative having been supplied by the imaginations of some of his biographers. After passing the early portion of his life^ perhaps in his native town, he appears to have gone to Rome during the reign of Augustus, where his literary talents soon obtained for him the favour and patronage of the emperor. As an admirer of the ancient institutions of his country, Livy attached himself in opinion to the party of Pom- pey, and considered him as the greatest of Roman statesmen and heroes ; but Augustus, entertaining a sincere regard for the historian, did not allow his friendship and patronage to be affected by political opinions, though they seemed to call in question the right by which he ruled the destinies of Rome. Having spent the greater part of his life in the metropolis, he returned in old age to the town of his birth, and there died a.d. 18, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. He left a son, and also a daughter, who married L. Magius, a teacher of rhetoric, a man of moderate talents, who owed his subsequent success principally to his connection with the historian. The preceding short statement contains all the authentic facts which have descended to us in connection with the personal history of Livy. Many other par- ticulars are related by writers who profess to record the life of the Roman historian ; but these are either altogether illusory, or rest upon evidence which will not bear examination. Thus he is said to have commenced his career as a rhetorician, and to have written a work on that science; to have been twice married, and to have left two sons and several daughters ; to have been in the habit, like Virgil, Horace, and other wits of the day, of spending much of his time at Naples ; and to have first attracted the notice of Augustus by present- ing to him some dialogues on philosophy. He is LLO also said to have been the tutor of Claudius, afterwards emperor, and to have recommended to his pupil, in early life, to attempt historical com- position. Livy has erected for himself an enduring monument in his History of Rome. This great work, which he modestly designated Annates (Annals), contained the history of the Roman state from the earliest period till the death of Drusus B.C. 9, and originally consisted of 142 books. Only 35 of these have descended to us ; of the others, with the exception of two, we Eossess Epitomes, or short summaries, but the ooks themselves have been entirely lost. The existing books were brought to light at various times ; some of them towards the middle of the sixteenth century, and a fragment of the ninety- first book appeared for the first time in 1772. The hope so long entertained by the learned, that the lost books would yet be recovered seems now to have yielded to despair. From internal evidence there appears to be reason for believing that the history was divided by the author into decades, or portions each containing ten books. The first decade, which embraces the history till B.C. 294, is entire ; the second is lost ; the third, fourth, and the first five books of the fifth, containing the history from B.C. 219 to B.C. 167, also remain to us. Of the other books nothing has been pre- served except some inconsiderable fragments. It is impossible to ascertain the time during which the historian was occupied with his great work. Niebuhr fixes the commencement of it in B.C. 9, when he was fifty years old, and believes that he had not fully accomplished his design at the close of his life. In forming an estimate of Livy as an historian, it is necessary to bear in mind the object which he seems to have proposed to himself. As a Roman and a patriot, his grand purpose was to celebrate the glories of his native country, and the disinterested patriotism which raised it to universal supremacy. He adopted the early his- tory as he found it, exhibiting the legends in attractive language, without inquiring into their authenticity. He makes no pretensions to the character of a critical historian, and thus, in some degree, escapes from the charge which may fairly be alleged against him, of not consult- ing the public records. ' His style may be pro- nounced almost faultless ; and a great proof of its excellence is, that the charms with which it is in- vested are so little salient, and so equally diffused, that no one feature can be selected for special eulogy, but the whole unite to produce a form of singular beauty and grace. The narrative flows on in a calm, but strong current, clear and sparkling, but deep and unbroken ; the diction displays rich- ness without heaviness, and simplicity without tameness. Nor is his art as a painter less wonder- ful. There is a distinctness in the outline and a warmth of colouring in all his delineations, whether of living men in action, or of things inanimate, which never fail to call up the whole scene, with all its adjuncts, before our eyes.' [G.F.] LLORENTE, Don Juan Antonio, a Spanish historian and chancellor of Toledo, 1756-1823. LLOYD, Charles, bishop of Oxford, and for some time a teacher of Sir Robert Peel, 1784-1829. LLOYD, David, a Welch biographer and his- torian, reader to the Charter-house in London, and 425 LLO author of a 'Life of General Monk,' 'Memoirs of Persons who Suffered for Loyalty,' &c, 1(325-91. LLOYD, Edward, a Welch antiq., 16G0-1709. LLOYD, Henry, a Welch officer in the service of the king of Prussia and the empress of Russia, author of works on tactics, and of a ' History of the Seven Years' War,' 1729-1783. LLOYD, Nich., a learned writer, 1634-1680. LLOYD, Robert, an English poet, 1733-1764. LLOYD, William, a dignitary of the Church of England, distinguished for his writings relating to history and divinity, and his share in the poli- tical transactions of his time, born in Berkshire 1627, chaplain to Charles II. 1666, bishop of St. Asaph 1680, bishop of Lichfield 1692, bishop of Lichfield 1699, died 1717. Bishop Lloyd was one of the prelates who joined Sancroft in protesting against the toleratiou act of James II. LLYWELYN, the name of three Welch princes — the first reigned over South Wales, and fell while defending his country from the Scotch in- vader, Aulaff, 998-1021 ; the second, king of North Wales, married to the daughter of John, king of England, died, after reigning forty-six years, in 1240 ; the third and last sovereign of Wales, fell in battle against Edward I., after a reign of twenty- eight vears, 1282. LLYWELYN, the name of two Welch bards, the earlier of whom lived between 1130 and 1180, the later, a native of Glamorganshire, died 1616. LLYWELYN, Th., a Welch divine, died 1796. LOBAU, George Mouton, Count De, a general of the French empire, distinguished for his gallantrv and his adherence to Napoleon, who called him ' the best colonel that ever commanded a French regiment,' was born 1770, and, being wounded at Waterloo, was sent prisoner to Eng- land, where he remained till 1818. Having re- turned to France, he took part in the revolution of 1830, and was the successor of Lafayette as com- mander of the national guard. He was made a peer and marshal of France 1831. Died 1839. LOBB, Theophilus, a medical wr., 1678-1763. LOBEIRA, Vasco, a Portuguese writer, author of the romance of ' Amadis de Gaul,' died 1403. LOBEL, M. De, a Flem. botanist, 1538-1616. LOBINEAU, G. A., a learned wr., 1666-1727. LOBKOWIZ, G. C, Prince Von, an Austrian general, 1702-1753. His son, Joseph, a famous military officer and ambassador, 1725-1802. LOBO, Gerard, a Span, poet, d. about 1668. LOBO, Jerome, a Portug. mission., 1593-1678. LOBSTEIN, J. F., a Ger. anatom., 1736-1784. LOCATELLI, L., an Ital. chemist, died 1637. LOCCENIUS, J., a Swedish hist., 1599-1677. LOCHNER, J. J., a Ger. numismat., 1600-1669. LOCHNER, ML F., a Ger. naturalist, 1662-1720. LOCK, Mat., an Eng. composer, abt. 1635-77. LOCKART, Alex., a Scot, lawyer, 1675-1732. LOCKE, John, born at Wrington, near Bris- tol, on 29th August, 1632 ; died at Oates, in Essex, on 28th October, 1704. A name than which there is none higher in English philosophical literature ; the name of a Man, surpassed by no one, in that worth which constitutes the dignity of an independent English gentleman. — It is not our intention to offer in this place an analysis of the I ' Ewiy Concerning the Bumun Under- stundinyi' suffice it to touch rapidly on those LOC main points which constitute it a landmark— on the circumstances in which it arose, and the peculiarities that gave it historic signiticanee. [Birth place of John Locke.] Falling, like Kant after him, on a period of one- sidedness or dogmatism — when statements accu- rate in the main, had, through their imperfection as representatives of the whole truth, been twisted into assertions of error — Locke found the freedom of the Human Understanding attacked by the Car- tesians, with the weapon named by them ' Innate Ideas.'' Inquiry he found — fearless and rational — stopped at both its termini : truths clearly within its reach were repudiated because in pretended conflict with so-called Innate Ideas; and regions apparently beyond the sphere of our faculties, were on the same authority sketched out and described, with the pedantry of a me- chanical Surveyor. To determine the length of our line, was therefore Locke's first resolve ; nor can it be asserted that his preliminary war with In- nate Ideas, is — in the sense in which he looked at the subject — wholly unsuccessful. Rightly inter- preted, his theory is this — no authoritative belief can be found in the Mind, which has not an origin in Experience ; and the most extensive or nearly universal Beliefs existing, are shaped and coloured by the varying experience of the men and nations entertaining them. The thesis, so stated, cannot be impugned ; neither the value of its assertion at the epoch of Locke: but our philosopher fails in establishing the proposition which he supposed to be his thesis, viz., that there are no Beliefs in the mind of man, which, — although suggested by, and in their forms, dependent on Experience, — cannot yet be ex- plained unless we attribute to the Thinking Faculty, a proper and independent Modifying Force. Des Cartes himself did not think as Locke imagined he thought : and, to that illus- trious Man the first three chapters of the Essay have therefore no true reference. Following out his partial, because controversial first view, Locke proceeds to unfold in what manner every recog- nized or defensible notion, belonging to the Human Understanding may grow up in it. An imperfect first view — we have said — for while looking at the error, he misses the truth of the Cartesians : lie never even proposed to establish by a preli- minary and rigorous analysis, what those char- 426 LOC acteristics of our various classes of Ideas are, of which every just philosophy must give an account. Missing therefore, not unnaturally, some of their main characteristics; confounding necessity and infinity, with the simple attributes of generality, and immensity, — he proceeds to de- duce all the forms and results of the Understand- ing from our pure Sensations, and the operation on these of what he terms Reflection. Closely scrutinized, Locke's Reflection amounts to nothing more than the exercise of Memo7-y, Compar- ison, and the processes known as Association. The exercise of the Mind as a voluntary Agency indeed seems to remain ; but as Leibnitz soon pointed out, and as subsequent History showed, the descent from this Scheme was easy, towards the undisguised Sensationalism of Condillac and the French School of the close of last century. To charge John Locke — as sound and practical a thinker as ever lived — with the extravagances of these hypothetic schemes, were the worst injustice; nevertheless, there is no precaution against the largest excesses of sensational philosophy, in his mode of presenting the genesis of human thought ; and it cannot be gainsayed, that the ' Essay ' in several important directions, has been the parent among ourselves of as much mischief as could well find place amidst the realities of the English mind. Utterly antagonistic to absolutism in thought or life, — not less repellant of the doctrines of Sir Robert Filmer, than of all theocratic dogmatism, this re- markable work seemed, however, to harmonize with our notions of rational liberty ; and it became the favourite text-book of our best men during the dif- ficult periods when Locke wrote. Himself practically imbued with the sense of personality and inde- pendence in all things, our Philosopher stood by constitutional Liberty, suffered with it, and shared its triumphs. Menaced by the Court party — as corrupt a court as the sun ever shone on, then reigned in England — he withdrew to Holland, and for a time found shelter. During this voluntary exile, his name was erased from the roll of the Students of Christ Church Oxford, in conse- quence of a Royal Mandate ; and the spirit of persecution went so far as to demand the rendi- tion of our philosopher from the States-General. Better times, however, were dawning on England. At the Revolution in 1688, Locke returned in the fleet that brought home our future queen, the princess of Orange ; and henceforward his career was prosperous. His residence in Holland, how- ever, was not without avail to him. Associating chiefly with dissentient protestants, he acquired a truer notion of that cardinal principle, on the strength of which alone, Protestantism can live ; and he showed this in his Letters, on Tolera- tion, as well as in the just freedom of his Exegesis. — It is seldom that a personal History so much delights one, as that of John Locke. Not only can no one discern a stain on the nature and career of the great Englishman , but his practical career, is everywhere in strictest accor- dance with the principles he laboured to establish. Firmly attached to the cause of Toleration, civil or religious, he scrupled not to suffer for either . nor did his opposition to any faction ever drive him from moderation and justice, — disincline him to appreciate his opponents aright, or to conceal the LOK excesses of the party, whose fortunes he mainly espoused. He accepted Human Liberty as a basis of his philosophy; and practically stood by that. Few writers, before or since, in England, have had a finer sense of the respect owing to the determinations of the personal Conscience. — The student is specially recommended to the admirable life of John Locke by Lord King. [J.P.N.] LOCKMAN, J., a miscellaneous wr., 1698-1771. LOCKYER, N., a nonconf. divine, 1612-1684. LOCRE-DE-BOISSY, J. W., a German of French descent, distinguished as a writer on com- mercial law, 1758-1840. LODGE, Edmund, clarencieux-king-at-arms, well known for his ' Portraits of Illustrious Per- sonages of Great Britain,' besides which he wrote ' Illustrations of British History,' and other works of great learning and research, 1756-1839. LODGE. Thomas, an English poet, died 1625. LODGE^ William, an engraver 1649-1689. LOEFLING, P., a Swed. botanist, 1729-1756. LOESEL, J., a German botanist, 1607-1656. LOFTE, Capel, well known as a miscellaneous writer and contributor to magazine literature, was a gentleman of property, who was educated for the law, and became one of the magistrates of Suffolk, born in London 1751, died 1824. LOFTUS, Dudley, an Orient, scholar, 1618-95. LOGAN, John, a pleasing versifier and poet, was born in the county of Edinburgh in 1748. When a very young man he edited the poems of the deceased Michael Bruce, and involved himself in controversy by printing in the volume pieces which he claimed, probably with justice, as his own. In 1770 he became minister of the parish of South Leith ; and his two volumes of Sermons, published after his death, show him to have pos- sessed a singularly fine flow of animated elo- quence. He was also one of the most active and valuable of the contributors to the collection of metrical ' Translations and Paraphrases,' used in the public worship of the Church of Scot- land. He delivered Lectures on History, a sy- nopsis of which he published, and aspired un- successfully to a professorship. A volume of !)oems, appearing in 1781, was extremely popular; iterary avocations engrossed his attention more and more ; and he soon came decidedly into colli- sion with the opinion of the public in Scotland as to the proprieties of the clerical profession, by pub- lishing and bringing on the stage his tragedy of ' Runymede.' His spirits sank, and his habits be- came irregular. He retired from his pastoral charge, spent about two years in London as a re- viewer and pamphleteer, and died there in the end of 1788. [W.S.] LOGAU, Frederick, Baron De, a German poet, whose epigrams and other pieces have been edited by Lessing, 1604-1655. LOGGAN, David, an engr. of Dantzic, d. 1700. LOHAIA, Ib., an Arabian savant, 8th century. LOIR, Nicholas P., a Fr. painter, 1624-1670. LOISEAU, J. F., a Fr. republican, died 1822. LOISEAU, J. S., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1536-1617. LOISEL, A., a French jurisconsult, died 1822. LOKMAN, an ancient Arabian philosopher and fabulist, surnamed Alhakim, or the Wise. He is supposed to have been contemporary with King David, and even to have lived under his patronage 427 LOL and died in Jerusalem, but his history is involved in great obscurity. The fables which bear his name were first published in 1636, and his name is given to a chapter in the Koran. LOLI, Laurent, an Ital. painter, 1612-1691. LOLLARD, or LOLLHARD, Walter, burnt for supposed heresy at Cologne in 1322. There is little reason to suppose that he was the namefather of the sect of the Lollards, or Lollhards. The pro- bability is, that the term is an old German one, of the same root as our word lull, in the phrase, lull to sleep ; and that it was given to those sects in whose religion psalm-singing in a low tone formed a distinguished part. It was thus applied^ by popish ecclesiastics to a great variety of religious parties on the continent as a term of reproach, and in Endand, was appropriated to the followers of Wycliffe. [J.E.] LOLLI, or LOLLY, Antonio, a celebrated violinist, was born at Bergama in 1723. From 1762 to 1773 he was concert-master to the duke of Wurtemburg. He afterwards went to Russia, where he became a great favourite with Catherine II. He died, after a lingering illness, at Naples in 1802. [J.M.] LOLLIANUS, a Roman emperor, killed 267. LOLLIUS, Marius, a Roman consul, 21 b.c. LOM, Josse Van, a Dut. physician, 1500-1562. LOMAZZO, J. P., an Ital. painter, abt, 1538-92. LOMBARD, C. L., a Fr. surgeon, 1741-1811. LOMBARD, J. G., aPrus. statesm., 1767-1812. LOMBARD, J. L., a wr. on tactics, 1723-1794. LOMBARD, L., a Flemish painter, 1482-1565. LOMBARD, Peter, best known as the author of a book of ' Sentences ' collected from the fathers of the church, whose contradictions he en- deavoured to reconcile, was a native of Novara, in Lombardy, and died soon after his election to the archbishopric of Paris, 1160. His work acquired a high degree of celebrity in the middle ages, and gave rise to many glosses and exposi- tions by theologians of all classes, which are now out of date. He was also author of some Scrip- ture commentaries. LOMBARDI, A., an Ital. sculptor, 1487-1536. LOMBARDO, J., an Ital. sculptor, b. abt. 1510. LOMBARDO, Pietro, a Venetian architect and sculptor, who flourished with his sons, Anthony and Tuixio, in the 15th century. The nephew and pupil of the latter, Santo Lombardo, dis- tinguished as an architect, 1504-1560. LOM BART, P., a French engraver, 1612-1682. LOMBERT, P.; a Fr. translator, died abt. 1710. LOMEIER, J., a Dutch philologist, 1636-1699. LOMEIR, J., a Dutch prot. divine, 1636-1699. LOMENIE, Anthony De, secretary of state, and ambassador of Henry IV. to London, died 1G38. His son, Henry Augustus Lomenie, Count De Brienne, minister of state, and author of ' Memoirs,' died 1666. The son of the latter, Louis Henry, Count De Brienne, secretary of state under Louis XIV., died insane, 1635-1698. LOMENIE -DE - BRIENNE, Athanasius Louis Marie, brother of the eel. finance minister, sec. at war in 1787, perished on the scaffold 1794. LOMENIE-DE-BRIENNE, Stepheh Chas. Dk, finance minister of Louis XVI., was born at Paris, 1727, and being educated for the church, was first known as an enemy of the protestants. 428 LON In 1763 he became archbishop of Toulouse, and would seem, from the first, to nave aspired to the part of a Mazarin, or a Richelieu in the state, with- out possessing either the ability or the unscrupulous daring necessary to it. In 1797, after figuring in a commission for the reform of the clergy, and coquetting with the philosophy of D'Alembert, and the encyclopaedists, he became a member of the assembly of notables ; and having headed the party by whom the administration of Calonne was overthrown, he succeeded that unfortunate as min- ister, adopted his plans, and proved himself just as incapable of executing them. He succeeded, however, in quietly dismissing the notables, and then attempted a bold stroke by banishing the parliament of Paris to Troyes, but within a month after was compelled to recall it, and agree to a compromise. In the spring of 1788, he issued the famous edict for altering the constitution of the parliament, and establishing the 'grand bailliages,' and the 'plenary court,' to do the work which that body had refused, namely, the registration of the king's edicts; and in the execution of this measure was reduced to the necessity of dismissing the parliament with the aid of military force. For about two months he tried to bring his new machinery of government into working order, the parliaments ot the provinces everywhere raising their hydra heads to carry on the battle begun at Paris. About this time he was promoted to the rich archbishopric of Sens, and received a car- dinal's hat from Rome, which he returned in 1791, and gained thereby a little fresh popularity. At the end of his two months' despair, July, 1788, he was compelled to announce the convocation of the estates-general for the month of May follow- ing. On the 24th of August he retired from the ministry, and was succeeded by Necker, having by this' time raked together the elements of the wildest conflagration the world ever saw. He was arrested in February, 1794, and died of apoplexy the same night. [E.R.J LOMONOSSOFF, M. Wassiliewitch, a famous poet and historian, regarded as the father of Russian literature, 1711-1764. LONDONDERRY. See Castlereagh. LONG, Edward, a West Indian judge, known as a political wr. and hist, of Jamaica, 1734-1813. LONG, J., an English traveller, last century. LONG, Roger, a divine of the Church of Eng- land, eminent as a mathem. and astr., 1669-1770. LONG, St. John, a native of Limerick, who be- came known in London about the year 1826 as a medical practitioner, and acquired great celebrity by his specific for consumption and for other diseases generally considered incurable by the fa- culty. Not being educated for the profession, he was twice put on his trial for the death of his patients, and on one of these occasions no less than sixty-three persons of the higher classes appeared in his favour. He accumulated a large fortune, and died at the early age of thirty-six, 1834. Three years previously he published ' Discoveries in the Art of Healing. LONG, Thomas, one of the nonjuring divines, author of several learned works connected with the cause to which he belonged, 1621-1700. LONGBEARD, W., a famous demagogue of the reign of Richard I., cruelly executed 1196. LON LONGEPIERRE, Hilary Bernard De, a Fr. Hellenist, classical critic, and poet, 1659-1721. LONG1NUS, Cassius, a Greek philosopher and famous rhetorician, horn about a.d. 210, put to death by Aurelian at Palmyra in 273 a.d. Longinus seems to have been a prolific writer, but no work of his has reached us, except the Treatise on the Sublime. The authorship of this remarkable treatise has been contested ; but there is not much doubt that Longinus ought not to be deprived of the merit so generally attached to his name : it is a treatise which places him among the most eminent critics of antiquity. Longinus was the friend and teacher of the heroic Zenobia : he fell with her fortunes ; and his fate will go down through all history as a dark stain on her imperial conqueror. One of the most recent and best editions of his celebrated treatise, is by M, Egger, Paris, 1837. The other fragments attributed to the Greek philosopher, are appended. [J.P.N.] LONGINUS, Flav., exarch of Italv, 568-584. LONGLAND, or LANGLAND, John, a learned prelate, confessor to Henry VIII., 1473-1547. LONGLAND, or LANGELAND, Robert, a disciple of Wickliife, regarded as the oldest poet in the English language, author of 'The Visions of Pierse Plowman,' a satire upon the Roman clergy, and ' The Plowman's Crede,' written in 1369. LONGMAN, Thomas Norton, many years head of the well-known publishing firm of Messrs. Longman & Co., b. 1770, d. of an accident 1842. ( LONGOBARDI, N., a Sicilian Jesuit and mis- sionary, auth. of ' Letters from China,' 1565-1655. LONGOMONTANUS, Christian, a Danish astronomer, assistant of Tycho Brahe, and profes- sor of mathematics at Copenhagen, 1562-1647. LONGUERUE, Louis Dufour, Abbe De, a Fr. savant, reputed the greatest scholar of hisage, au. of ' Antiquities of the Chaldeans and Egyptians,' ' Historical and Geographical Description of France,' ' The Annals of the Arsacides,' &c, 1652-1733. LONGUEVAL, James, a French Jesuit, and historian of the Gallican church, 1680-1735. LONGUEVILLE, the name of a noble French family, the principal of whom are — Francis D'Orleans, son of the celebrated Dunois, died 1491. His son, of the same name, at whose in- stance, in 1505, the countv of Longueville was erected into a dukedom by Louis XII., died 1512. His brother, Louis, a combatant at the battle of Spurs and at Marignano, died 1516. Claude, killed at the siege of Pavia 1525. Leonard, at whose instance the dukes of Longueville were al- lowed the title of princes of the blood royal by Charles IX., died 1571. Henry, who commanded against the^ Leaguers, and in 1589 won the battle of Senlis, died 1595. His son, of the same name, served under Louis the XIII., and was afterwards imprisoned with Conde and Conti, as partisans of the Fronde, died 1663. The wife of the latter, Anne Genevieve, sister of the great Conde, dis- tinguished for her part in the wars of the Fronde, died in a religious retirement. The last of the family were two sons of Henry and Anne, the eldest of whom died in a convent, 1694; and the second, C. Paris, was killed at the Rhine, 1672. LONGUS. a Gr. romance writer, 4th or 5th c. LONICERUS, John, a learned German editor, 1499-1569. His son, Adam, a physician and na- LOR turalist, 1528-1586. His grandson, John Adam, a physician and man of letters, bom 1557. LOON, Theod. Van, a Flem. painter, 17th c. LOOS, Cornelius, a D. theologian, died 1595. LOOS, 0. H. De, a wr. on alchymy, 1725-85. LOOS, P., one of the encyclopedists, died 1819. LOOSJES, Adrian, a Dutch novelist, last c. LOPE-DE-RUEDA, a Sp. dramatist, d. 1564. LOPE DE VEGA, whose full name was Lope Felix de Vega Carpio, was born at Madrid in 1562, and died there in 1635. Lope, a man of adventurous disposition, led a very active life till he had attained middle age. After having been secretary to the duke of Alva, he was obliged to conceal himself for a time in consequence of a duel ; he served as a soldier, and narrowly escaped shipwreck in the Armada. On the death of his second wife, he took holy orders ; but this step, though it removed him from business, did not slacken his literary activity. He was one of the most prolific of all authors, composing with a ra- pidity which, while it implied extraordinary talents, made it impossible that his works should possess high merit, either in design or in execution. Be- sides writing epics and many other kinds of poems, he produced a number of dramas, so great as to be almost incredible. He himself states it at up- wards of fifteen hundred; and more than five hun- dred plays attributed to him are actually in print. They embrace all the varieties of kind which are to be found among the works of his successor Cal- deron ; and they abound both in snatches of wit and poetical fancy, and in ingenuity of dramatic invention. Though Lope was not the founder of the Spanish Drama, he was the first who made its romantic irregularities attractive through force and originality of genius. While Cervantes, who was fifteen years his senior, was neglected and starving, the writings of Lope procured for him overflowing wealth, and a popularity such as hardly ever was gained by any other living poet. [W.S.] LOPES, F., a Portuguese historian, 14th cent. LOPEZ, Alonzo, a Spanish critic, 16th cent. LOPEZ, Edward, a Spanish navigator, 1578. LOPEZ, Narciso, a general in the Spanish army, commander of the late expedition to Cuba, was born in Venezuela 1799, and was first known in the troubles of 1814, as a liberal. He after- wards enlisted in the royalist army, and at the close of the civil war had attained the rank of colonel, being then only twenty- three years of age. Some years subsequently he was in various official em- ploys at Cuba, and in 1849 commenced his revo- lutionary attempts in the United States. He was garotted at Havannah, 1st September, 1851. LORCH, Melchior, a Ger. paint., 1527-1580. LOREDANO, Leonardo, doge of Venice during the trying period of the league of Cambray, founder of the famous Council of Ten, reigned 1503-1521. P. Loredano, reigned doge 1567- 1570. F. Loredano, 1752-1762. LOREDANO, J. F., a Venetian poet, called 'the Elder,' died 1590. ' The Younger,' of the same name, flourished 1606-1661. LORENZ, J. M., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1723-1801. LORENZI, B., an Italian poet, 1732-1822. LORENZI, J. B., an Ital. sculptor, 1528-1594. LORENZINI, A., an Ital. painter, 1665-1740. LORENZINI, L., an Ital. mathema., 1G52-1721. 429 LOR LORENZINI, or LAUREXTIXI, Francesco Mama, an Italian priest and J. suit, lf;SU-1743. LORET, J., a French poet, died 1665. LORGNA, A. M., an Ital. geometr., died 1796. LORIA, or LAURIA, Roger Die, a famous admiral, born at Loria in Naples in the middle of the 13th centurv, died 1305. LORIOT, A. J., a Fr. mechanician, 1716-1782. LORME, P. De, a French architect, died 1577. LORRAIN, Claude, the painter. See Claude. LORRAIN, Robt. Le, a Fr. sculp., 1666-1743. LORRAINE, Ch., cardinal of. See Guise. LORRAINE, C. De, an ecclesiast. wr., d. 1631. LORRAINE, the Chevalier De, a descen- dant of the Guises, dist. as a courtier and favourite of the due D'Orleans, br. of Louis XIV., d. 1702. LORRAINE, Francis De. See Guise. LORRIS, W. De, a French poet, 12th century. LORRY, Paul Charles, a French jurisconsult and canonist, 1719-1766. His brother, Anne Charles, a physician and learned wr., 1726-1783. LORT, Michael, an Eng. divine, 1725-1790. LOSANA, M., an Italian naturalist, 1758-1833. LOT, the son of Haran, and nephew of the pa- triarch Abraham, with whom he travelled to Egypt, and afterwards settled in Canaan ; supposed date about 1900 B.C. LOTEN, John, a Swiss painter, died 1681. LOTHAIRE. The sovereigns of this name are two emperors — Lothaire I., son of Louis le D£- bonnaire, and third successor of Charlemagne, born about 795, associated with his father 817, crowned king of Lombardy 820, emperor 840, abdicated, and died soon afterwards, 855. Lothaire II., born 1075, elected emperor on the demise of Henry V., 1127. convoked the famous diet of Magde- burg 1135, died 1137. Two kings of France — Lothaire I., same as the emperor of that name, vanquished by his brothers, Louis and Charles, at the battle of Fontenai, and forced to abandon his pretensions by the treaty of Verdun, 843. Lo- thaire II., born 941, succeeded 954, died 986. A king of Lorraine, second son of the emperor Lothaire L, who raised him to that dignity 855, died 869. A king of Italy, son of Hugues of Pro- vence, poisoned by Berenger 950. A king of Kent, brother and sue. of Egbert, 673, kd. in battle 685. LOTI, Carlo, a painter of Munich, 1632-1698. LOTICH, Peter, a distinguished apostle of Lutheranism, in the county of Hanau. died 1567. His nephew, of the same name, known in Latin as JLotic/nus, surnamed Secundus, one of the greatest Latin poets of Germany, 1528-1560. Christian, brother of the latter, an elegant scholar and poet, died 1668. John Peter, grandson of Christian, a critic, historian, and Latin poet, died 1669. LOUDON, John Claudius, a native of Lan- arkshire, educated as a landscape gardener, was born 1783, and died 1843. He is author of many valuable and popular works on gardening, agricul- ture, and architecture, the principal of which are — 'Observations on Laying out Public Squares,' ' On Plantations,' ' On Country Residences,' • On the Fonnation of Gardens,' and 'Hothouses,' ' Encyclopaedias of Gardening and Agriculture,' 'The Gardener's Magazine,' and 'The Magazine of Natural History,' both of which were the first periodicals devoted exclusively to these subjects, 4 Encyclopedia of Plants,' 'Hortus Britannicus,' LOU 'Arboretum Britannicum,' &c. Mr. Loudon was first cousin to Dr. Claudius Buchanan. LOUET, G., a French jurisconsult, died 1608. LOUIS. The German sovereigns of this name are — Louis Le Debonnaire I., emperor of the West and king of France, son of Charlemagne and his second wife, Hildegarde, born 778, named king of Aquitaine by his father 781, and succeeded him as king and emperor 814, died 840. Louis (the Young) II., son of Lothaire I., born about 822, king of Italy 844, associated with his father in the empire 849, emperor 855, died 875. Louis (the Blind) III., grandson of Louis II., bora 880, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Aries 887, crowned emperor at Rome the year after vanquish- ing Berenger 900, deposed and blinded by Beren- fer 903, died 923. Louis (the Infant) IV., orn 893, king of Germany 899, successor of his father, Arnulf, as emperor 908, died 912. Louis V., son of Louis, duke of Bavaria, and Matilda, daughter of the emperor Rodolph L, born 1286, chosen emperor by a part of the electors, while the others adhered to Frederick, son of Albert, em- peror and duke of Austria, 1314 ; defeated the lat- ter, who then renounced his pretensions, 1322; died 1347. — Besides these in the line of German emperors, history mentions Louis the Germ anic, a third son of Louis le Debonnaire, who revolted against his father 817, beat Lothaire at Fontenai 841, and had a considerable kingdom beyond the Rhine secured to him by the treaty of Verdun 843 ; d. 876. His son and successor was Louis the Saxon, killed in battle with the Normans 881. LOUIS. The kings of France of this name are — Louis L, same as the emperor Debonnaire. Louis II., born 846, named king of Aquitaine by his father, Charles the Bald, 867, king of France 877, died 879. Louis III., eldest son and suc- cessor of the preceding, died 882. Louis IV., born 920, reigned 936-954. Louis V., the last of the Carlovingian kings, born 967, succeeded his father, Lothaire, 986, and was poisoned, it is said, at the instigation of Hugh Capet, by his wife, Blanche, 987. Louis VI., son of Philip I. and Bertha, born 1078, associated in the government with his father 1100, king 1108, died 1137. Louis VII., son of the preceding, born 1120, succeeded his father 1137, engaged in a crusade 1147, di- vorced his wife, Eleanor of Guienne, who soon af- terwards married Henry II. of England, 1149, mar- ried Constance of Castile 1154, engaged in a war with England 1167-1176, died 1180. Louis VIII., son of Philip Augustus and Elizabeth of Hainault, born 1187, succeeded his father 1223, died 1226. Louis IX., eldest son of the preceding and Blanche of Castile, famous in French history by the name of Saint Louis, born 1215, succeeded his father under the regency of Blanche 1226, embarked for the Holy Land at the head of an army of 50,000 men 1248, returned to France after the death of his mother 1254, undertook a second crusade, and died of the pestilence while besieging Tunis 1270. Louis X., son of Philip the Fair and Jean of Na- varre, born 1289, king of Navarre 1304, king of France 1314, died 1316. Louis XL, son of Charles VII. and Marie of Anjou, born 1423, married to Margaret of Scotland 1436, became leader of a re- volt against his father 1440-1442 and 1455 ; suc- ceeded to the throne 1461, died 1483. Louis 430 LOU XII., son of Charles, duke of Orleans, and Mary of Cleves, born 1462, succeeded to the throne 1498, invaded the Milanese in alliance with the Venetians 1499, divided Naples with Ferdinand of Spain 1501, joined the league of Cambray against the Venetians 1509, died 1515. This prince was married in 1473 to Jeanne, daughter of Louis XL, whom he repudiated, on his accession, in order to marry Anne of Brittany, the widow of his prede- cessor, Charles VIII. The latter dying in 1514, he married in the year following, some three months before his death, the Princess Mary, sis- ter to Henry VIII. Louis XIIL, son of Henry IV. and Marie de Medici, born 1601, succeeded his father under the regency of the queen-mother 1610, declared of age, and convoked the estates-general for the last time before the French revolution, 1614 ; married to Anne of Austria 1615, took the famous Richelieu into his counsel 1624. For the events and policy of his reign see Richelieu. Louis XIV., see next article. Louis XV., son of Louis duke of Burgundy, and of Marie Adelaide of Savoy, born 1710, succeeded his great-grandfather, Louis XIV., under the regency of the duke of Orleans, 1715, married to Maria Leczinski, daughter of Stanislaus, nominal king of Poland, 1725, war with Germany in the interest of the latter 1733, 1736, defeated at Dettingen in the war occasioned by his treachery to Maria Theresa 1743, peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748, war with England concern- ing the colonies 1755-1763, died 1774. — See Law, Barry. Louis XVL, see article below. Louis XVIL, son of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, born 1785, supposed to have died in the Temple prison 1795. Louis XVIIL, brother of Louis XVL, born 1755, married to Louisa of Savoy 1771, escaped to Coblentz when the king was arrested at \arennes 1791, assumed the title of king of France and Navarre 1795, restored on the fall of Napoleon 1814, retired to Ghent during the hun- dred days, and replaced on the throne after the battle of Waterloo 1815, died 1824. LOUIS XIV., the most magnificent of the Bour- bon kings, and one of those great spirits by whom nations are moved, and the polity of states com- pletely changed, was the son of Louis XIIL and Anne of Austria, and was born after his mother had lamented her sterility for twenty-three years, 5th September, 1638. He succeeded to the throne under the regency of the queen-mother, guided by Cardinal Mazarin, 1643, but did not commence his personal government till the death of the latter, 1661, the year after the treaty of the Pyrenees and his marriage with Maria Theresa, which had been stipulated in the articles. The events of this long minority, so to call it, are briefly related under the article Mazarin ; in this place, therefore, we shall limit ourselves to a summary of the succeeding period. — I. The external political events of his reign commenced with the exaction of a proper re- spect for his government from the court of Rome, 1662-1665. The next event was a brief war with the English, terminated by the -peace of Breda, 1667. In 1666 his father-in-law, Philip IV., being dead, Louis claimed Flanders and Franche-Comte as dowry, and having won them in two campaigns, possession of the former was secured to him by the treaty of Aix, 1668. Soon afterwards, a quarrel with Holland, and the terror inspired by his suc- LOU cesses, provoked a general alliance against him, headed by the prince of Orange, and Louis himself took the field, with the great Condd and Turenne under his orders, 1672. The war continued till 1678, when it was terminated by the treaty of Nimeguen, which, with its almost immediate re- sults, secured great advantages to the French crown. In 1687 Louis was compelled to defend him- self against a still more formidable league, occa- sioned by his revocation of the edict of Nantes, and a long catalogue of wars was concluded by the peace of Ryswick, 1697. During this period he supported the Stuarts, and was obliged by the treaty just mentioned, to acknowledge the prince of Orange as king of Great Britain, under the title of William III. In 1701 the succession of his grandson to the Spanish crown was disputed by the rest of Europe, and a long succession of wars, in which the military genius of Marlborough de- veloped itself, was terminated by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. Louis, though aged and reduced to stand at bay, still retaining vigour enough to save France from the dismemberment threatened by the allies, and to leave to his successor his most valuable conquests. — II. The internal administra- tion of his government in this long period had been marked by the highest magnificence, and con- ducted to the most splendid results. The favourite motto of Louis, ' LEtat, c^est Moif was quite as much the expression of a principle as of personal pride, and it meant the extension and consolida- tion of the state from its own centre, in place of the distraction of government occasioned by the feudal _ system. He carried this principle into effect immediately after the death of Mazarin, by dispensing with any future prime minister; and the issue of it (besides its results in his political wars) was to humble the noblesse, and raise the talent of the middle classes to places of trust — as in the person of Colbert. His great fault — politi- cal as well as moral — was the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685, by which Henry IV. had secured the liberties of his protestant subjects. It was the fruits of his religious bigotry excited by prelates who divided the nation between the ob- scure disputes of the Jansenists and Molinists, and who persuaded Louis that his glory was interested in the preservation of the ancient religion — the more easily that Jansenism opened the door and prepared the way, as became evident even then, for the philosophy of the Revolution. — III. The domestic history of Louis, for the greater part of his life, is far more open to censure than any part of his pub- lic conduct. His succession of mistresses, De La Valliere, Montespan, Fontange, and some less known perhaps, exhibits him in the character of a sensu- alist, and we can only say that he was not an unre- pentant one, for, at least, the last twenty years of his life. To Madame de Maintenon, aided by the oc- casional eloquence of Bossuet, belongs the credit of reforming him in this particular, and the most scep- tical of historians have not been able to show that Madame owed her influence to any sacrifice of hon- our, or that she was not really married to him in 1684, about a year after the death of his queen, Maria Theresa. Apart from all this, Louis XIV. was distinguished by high qualities of heart and mind, and his self-command and moderation in all that pertains to his sovereign character, cannot bo 431 LOU doubted. He most completely realized the idea of a monarchy at a period when the habits of thought, and the manners of a people, naturally fickle, and tired of his long reign, were taking a new direc- tion ; and if he loved warlike enterprise too much, as indeed he deplored on his death-bed, he also loved France, and did all in his power to develop the resources of commerce, industry, literature, and art, and to discover the efficient instruments of a wise administration. Died 1715. [E.R.] LOUIS XVI., king of France, was the second son of the prince dauphin, son of Louis XV., and of Maria Josepha of Saxony, daughter of Frederick Augustus, king of Poland. He was bora at Ver- sailles, and named Due de Berri 1754, became dauphin by the death of his father 1765, and was married to Marie Antoinette of Austria 1770. Amiable, irresolute, and timid, he succeeded to the stained and tottering throne of his grandfather when twenty years of age, 1774, and was crowned at Rheims, amidst the enthusiastic applause of his people, June 11, 1775. Apparently, no sovereign ever ascended the throne under happier auspices, but really no European throne ever stood^ on the verge of a more ternble abyss ; the incapacity and coiTuption of the governing body being already confronted with the philosophic pride and wild vigour of the governed— just awakening to a sens2 of the ' rights of man.' He commenced his reign happily by promoting many useful reforms, and calling the most upright men to his ministry — among others, Turgot and Malesherbes, but it was soon evident that the resources of the state were utterly disproportionate to its expenditure, and discoveries were continually made which brought the court and the government into contempt. As usual in such cases, one palliative succeeded ano- ther, while the root of the evil remained untouched ; and when the distresses of the people were ex- pressed in open disaffection, the ancient machinery of government was found insufficient, either as a means of effectuating the will of the people, or of controlling their blind impulses by the imposition of a more enlightened authority. The issue of this was the convocation of the 'notables,' who met twice, under the ministries ot Calonne and Lomenie Brienne, 1787 and 1788, and of the 'estates- general,' which assembled at the beginning of May, 1789. This body declared for a ' constitu- tion' as the first necessity of France, and took a solemn and united oath not to separate until they had made it. The real conflict between the people and the court was commenced by this act; the disposition to insurrection acquired a form of legal- ity, and the passions of those who might be cap- able of leading the populace were fairly unloosed. Mirabeau, Lafayette, Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Robespierre, and Marat, are among the names of such, and may be consulted in this volume. As a first step, the ' third estate,' or plebeians in the ' estates-general,' refused to acknowledge the clergy and the noblesse as separate bodies, and many of these joining them, they assumed the name of a ' national assembly.' Against this body the guards refused to act, and the people, soon enrolled in clubs and in a national militia, surprised the govern- ment by storming the Bastile, July 14, and commit- ting some deplorable excesses. The national assem- bly, presuming on its actual power under these LOU circumstances to make the constitution, called it- self ' the constituent assembly,' and promulgated the ' rights of man' as a basis. To the excitement of these occurrences was added the maddening effects of a famine in the succeeding autumn, when the worst forms of clubbism commenced, and the Marats, Carriers, Henriots, and Tinvilles, rose into note. In June, 1790, the king attempted to fly, and was arrested at Varennes, — the people meeting to petition for his deposition being dis- persed by musketry on his return. On the 30th of September following he accepted the constitution, and on the 1st of October the first biennial parlia- ment, or legislative assembly, met for the transac- tion of business. The power of ' veto ' having been granted to the king, by this new compact, he was unhappy enough to use it against every important measure proposed by the parliament. In the course of another year his deposition was again agitated, tumultuous processions took place, the palace itself was invaded, and the king compelled to wear the red bonnet, or cap of liberty. As time wore on, the republicans became thoroughly organized, and in August, 1792, the Marsellaise were quartered in Paris, the Tuileries besieged, the Swiss guard massacred, and the royal family imprisoned in the Temple. The party of Danton now occupied the foreground of events, and prepared to assemble a 'national convention,' and resist the threatened invasion of the emigrants and the Germans under the duke of Brunswick. The first act of this body, which met towards the end of September, was to pronounce on the fate of Louis XVI., who was declared guilty of a conspiracy against the general safety of the state, by 693 votes out of 729, and to be worthy of death by a majority of 433 against 288. Danton uttered what the national conven- tion felt under these circumstances : ' the coalesced kings threaten us ; we hurl at their feet, as gage [The Temple Trison.] of battle, the head of a king.' For no crime of his own, Louis was guillotined, in pursuance of this judgment, January 21, 1793, displaying to the last moment the same singular equanimity of temper, not to say insensibility, that had marked his whole career. In private character he was a man of un- 432 LOU exceptionable virtue— a good husband, and a good master, but, as a king, deficient in every neces- sary quality except that of well-meaning. [E.R.] LOUIS PHILIPPE, late king of the French, was the eldest son of the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XVL, and of Marie, daughter of the duke of Penthievre. He was born at Paris 1773, and in 1791 was commander of a troop of dragoons un- der Kellermann, in which capacity he distinguished himself at Valmy and Jemappes. After the exe- cution of his father, (see Orleans), Louis Philippe escaped to Switzerland, and commenced those ro- mantic wanderings through Europe and America, with which the public mind has been rendered familiar. In 1800 he settled at Twickenham, near London. In 1807 he visited Naples, and two years later was married to Amelia, second daugh- ter of the king, after which he settled at Palermo. From the restoration of the Bourbons to 1830, he had resided in France, and in that eventful year was placed on the throne as constitutional king, mainly by the influence of Lafayette, who declared his accession 'the best of republics.' Often his seat swayed beneath him, but he preserved his balance, with singular astuteness, till 1848, when the republican party suddenly recovered the victory of which they had been defrauded eighteen years before, and Louis Philippe became an exile in England. These events are so recent, and the causes of them are so universally known that we think it unneces- sary to enter into details. Perhaps the history of the citizen king will read nobler in the light of an- other age, but for the present we can only regard him as the victim of his own cleverness and his mean ambition. He descended to the grave with less respect than his very misfortunes demanded, on the 26th of August, 1850. [E.R.] [Tomb ol .Louis Philippe.] LOUIS, son of Ferdinand, duke of Parma, born 1773, received tbe crown of Etruriafrom Buonaparte in excbange for his duchy in 1801, died 1803. LOUIS, k. of Spain, reigned eight months, 1724. LOUIS, king of Hungary, called 4 the Great,' born 132& succeeded 1342, elected king of Poland 1370, died 1382. The second of the name, born 1506, succeeded his father Ladislas, as king of LOU Hungary and Bohemia 1516, drowned himself, after being defeated by the Turks, 1526. LOUIS, duke of Savoy, reigned 1451-1465. LOUIS, duke of Anjou, the first of the name, son of John II., king of France, bom 1339, main- tained a struggle with Charles of Durazzo for the throne of Naples 1380-1382, died 1384. The second of the name, son and successor of the pre- ceding, born 1377, was crowned king of Naples by Clement VII. 1390, and died, after a long struggle with Ladislas, without conquering his kingdom, 1417. The third of the name, son and successor of the preceding, born 1403, died 1434, after a fruitless struggle for the kingdom of Naples with Alphonso, king of Arragon. LOUIS of Arragon, succeeded his father, Peter II., as king of Sicily, 1342; died 1355. LOUIS of Tarentum, second husband of his cousin, Joan of Naples, was married to that prin- cess in 1347, driven from the kingdom by Louis L of Hungary, they were recalled by the Neapolitans in 1352, died 1362. LOUISA, Augusta Wilhelmina Amelia, queen of Prussia, born 1776, queen 1793, d. 1810. LOUISA of Lorraine, queen of France, bom 1554, married to Henry III. 1575, died 1601. LOUISA MARIE of France, the last of the daughters of Louis XV., 1737-1787. LOUISA of Savoy, duchesse d'Angouleme, daughter of Philip, duke of Savoy, bom 1476, mar- ried to Louis d'Orleans, count of Angouleme, by whom she became mother of Francis I., 1488. Being appointed regent during the expedition of her son to the Milanese, and during his capti- vity, 1515 and subsequent years, she governed the kingdom with great wisdom, and was respected by all the princes of Europe ; died 1532. LOUISA-ULRICA, queen of Sweden, sister of Frederick II., king of Prussia, bom 1720, married to the prince Gustavus Adolphus 1744, became queen mother 1751, died 1782. LOUREIRO, J. De, a Portu. botanist, d. 1796. LOUTH-ALY-KHAN, seventh regent of Persia, and the last of the Zand dynasty, bom 1768, de- feated and put to death by Aga-Mohammed 1794. LOUTHERBOURG, Ph. J. De, a painter of Strasburg, distinguished for his battles and hunt- ing pieces, 1740-1812. LOUVEL, Louis Peter, a saddler by trade, who conceived such an intense hatred for the Bour- bons that it became a monomania, and caused him to assassinate the due de Berri, February 13, 1820. This event led to political consequences of great moment ; but Louvel declared to the last that he had no accomplices. He was executed the same year, at the age of 37. LOUVET, Peter, the name of two French historians, the first of whom flourished 1569-1646 ; the second 1617-1680. LOUVET-DE-COUVRAY, Jean Baptiste, a Fr. novelist, and mem. of the conven., 1760-97. LOU VIE RS, Ch. James De, a famous defen- der of the liberties ot the Gallican church, coun- cillor of state to Charles V., king of France, 1376. LOUVILLE, C. A. D'Allonville, Marquis De, a French diplomatist, time of Philip V., 1668- 1731. His brother, James Eugene, Chevalier de Louville, author of a number of curious treatises on physical and astronomical subjects, 1671-1732. 433 2F LOU LOUVOTS, Fk. Michel Letellieu, Marquis De, minister of war in the reign of Louis XIV., known to history as the enemy of Colbert, and the author of the Edict of Nantes, 1641-1691. His son, Camille, known as the abbe de Louvois, a famous doctor of the Sorbonne, 1675-1718. LOUYS, E., an ecclesiastical writer, died 1682. LOVAT, Simon Fraser, Lord, a Scotch noble- man, and partizan of Charles Stuart, 1657-1747. LOVE, Christopher, a presbyterian minister, and member of the Assembly of Divines, beheaded for conspiring against the republic, 1618-1651. LOVE, James, son of Mr. Dance, the architect of the Mansion House, known as an actor, d. 1774. LOVEIRA, Vasco, a Portug. writer, d. 1325. LOVELACE, Richard, a poet and dramatic writer, son of Sir William Lovelace of Norwich, where he was born 1618. He was distinguished by his fidelity to Charles I., in whose interest he expended his whole fortune, and died in poverty, 1 658. His poems were published in 2 vols. 8vo, under the title of ' Lucasta.' His plays are ' The Scholar,' a comedy, and ' The Soldier,' a tragedy. LOVIBOND, Edward, an English poet, author of ' The Tears of Old May Day,' and an admirable Eortraiture of Johnson and Garrick in 'The Mul- erry Tree,' died on his estate at Hampton 1775. LOW, G., a Scotch div. and naturalist, 1746-95. LOWE, Lieut. - General Sir Hudson, K.C.B., guardian of Napoleon at St. Helena, was the son of an officer in the British army, and was born in Galway while his father's regiment was quartered there, 1769. He was brought up to the military profession, and performed his first impor- tant services in Corsica at the period of the French revolution, after which, in 1800-1801, he went to Egypt, and fought at the battle of Alexandria. In 1803 he was despatched on a secret mission to Portugal, and subsequently served against the French in Naples, and, when Murat became king, in several important islands of the Mediterranean ; the principal of these operations being his defence of Capri, which, however, he was compelled to evacuate. In 1813 he was sent to northern Ger- many, and, joining the allied Russian and Prussian armies, served under Blucher during the whole of the campaign, and was with him in every action till the surrender of Paris, when he was despatched to England with the news of Napoleon's abdication, and was knighted by the regent. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, Sir Hudson Lowe was attached to the duke of Wellington's armv as quarter-master-general, but left it early in June to take the command of the troops at Genoa, des- tined to act against Marseilles and Toulon. It was during his occupation of the last mentioned place, on the 1st of August, 1815, that he received orders to return home to take charge of the captive em- peror ; an office which an angel from heaven, as Montholon confessed, could not have fulfilled to the satisfaction of the French. It is a little curious, however, that the complaints of that sen- sitive people met with a ready sympathy in Eng- land, ancl some of our foremost writers, as Sir Walter Scott, Sir Archibald Alison, and Lord Campbell have echoed their sentiments. On the other hand, the editor of the recently published !i, she then was queen of France and Scotland. On the ground of Elizabeth's illegitimacy, the Romish party claimed for Mary the sovereignty of England as a descendant of the sister of Henry VIIL, and the union of the French and Scottish crowns in her person, made the claim formidable. The death of Francis, however, after reigning for a few months, broke the main element of strength in her J>retensions. She was now only Queen of Scot- and, a country poor and turbulent. Leaving with bitter regret the brilliant court of France in 1562, she was received with a rude joy Bcarody calculated to reconcile her to the change in the sordid and dreary chambers of Holyrood. Nor 472 MAS even were important national affairs in a condition to gratify her, for in the previous year protestan- tism having been established, her religion had been suppressed, and its profession rendered a crime. She had many contests with Knox and ' the lords of the congregation,' in which earnestness, zeal, and rugged determination on the one side, were met by feminine wit and the overawing influence of royal rank on the other. It was on "the 29th of July," 1565, that she celebrated her unhappy mar- riage with her worthless connection, Henry, Lord Pamley. The next great event in her strange career, was the murder in her presence of her humble friend David Rizzio, the musician, her husband leading on the assassins. It was on the 10th of February, 1567, that Darnley himself was mur- dered, and the house in which he lived blown up after the deed was accomplished. Many volumes have been written, and many are evidently in pre- paration on the question of Mary's accession to the deed, and it would be useless to attempt its dis- cussion within such limits as the present. On the 15th of May, in the same year, occurred Mary's marriage to Bothwell the chief assassin, afact, round which the main circumstances adduced by her op- ponents cluster. On the 17th of June, she was forced to a retirement, which was virtually an im- prisonment, in Lochleven Castle. She escaped on 2d May, 1568, and, defeated on the. field of Lang- side, sought refuge in England. She was received as a prisoner by the jealous queen to whose throne she nad asserted pretensions, and lived nineteen years a captive. If Elizabeth is to be vindicated for this harshness by the recurrence of efforts to as- sert Mary's right to the English throne, yet it is ascertained that the English queen threw out in- ducements, which tending towards secret assassi- nation, admit of no vindication. After a trial under the treason law of England, she was be- headed at Fotheringay Castle on the 8th of Feb- ruary, 1587. [J.H.B.] [Tomb of Mary In Westminster Abbey.] MASACCIO, the name by which Tommaso Glidi is commonly known, Masaccio being a nick- name, the short for Tommasaccio, slovenly Thomas, MAS was bom at San Giovanni in the Valdarno, in 1402. His earliest performances were in the Brancacci chapel, in the church del Carmine, at Florence, where he assisted his master Masolino da Panicale at a very early age, and after Masolino's death, continued the series left incomplete by him. The frescoes of Masaccio in this chapel, which con- tains also his most celebrated works, were executed apparently at two distinct periods, before 1430 and after 1434, when the Medici returned to Florence, and during this interval Masaccio may have visited Rome. He was admitted into the company of St. Luke in 1423, and the earlier or more conventional works may have been executed about 1425, com- prising — ' The Expulsion from Paradise, ' • The Tribute Money,' and perhaps ' Peter Baptizing ;' the others probably ten years later, supposing they were not all completed before 1430, which is quite possible. These works show the state of painting as compared with that of sculpture, exemplified in the gates by Lorenzo Ghiberti, executed at the Siime time, 1425 being the mean date of the two gates. Masaccio was not behind Ghiberti, but may have owed much to his example, as also to the example of Donatello and Brunelleschi, with the last of whom he studied perspective. — The as- sociation of so many men of remarkable ability is perhaps the chief cause of the great advance evident in all the arts in the early part of the 15th cen- tury ; their intercourse developed criticism, the soul of art. Vasari gives us a good example : when Donatello exhibited his Crucifixion (now in the church of Santa Croce), Brunelleschi remarked that he had attempted the impersonation of the Son of God, while he had made only a vulgar peasant. — The works of the Brancacci chapel mark the era of the second epoch of Italian painting, and as the whole, or at least the greater portion, of these frescoes were till lately assumed to be the work of Masaccio, his reputation was second only to that of Raphael for developing the progress of art ; but modern criticism appears to have rectified a com- mon misunderstanding of the text of Vasari, certainly through Vasari's want of precision. — The chapel was commenced by Masolino da Panicale, continued by Masaccio, and completed by Filippino Lippi, the son of Masaccio's pupil, Fra Fihppo Lippi ; and it appears that Vasari's original account in the first edition of his Lives was correct, (the statement was left out in the second,) that besides other portions — ' Paul Visiting Peter in Prison, ' and 'Peter and Paul before the Proconsul,' the two most lauded compositions of the whole chapel, were the work of Filippino, and executed about forty years after the death of Masaccio. The chief argument is founded on the fact of there being several portraits of men in these frescoes which can only have been executed at the later period ; still, the authenticity of these very portraits seems to rest solely upon the fact of their being published as such by Vasari, and until their authenticity is thoroughly established, the subject is not indisput- ably settled.— It is a very difficult and interesting question, very important if true, and we owe its revival to a German and a Dane, Rumohr and Gaye ; but the editors of the new Florentine Vasari (1848) have taken up the argument on the same side with great intelligence : still the main point to be decided is the authenticity of the portraits. — 473 MAS The Brancacci chapel now contains fifteen distinct subjects, eight of which only are attributed by Gave to Masaccio. The completion of the chapel by Filippino raises another question, the date of Masaccio's death. Vasari and Baldinucci state that he died in 1443, not without suspicion of poison ; at the same time it was currently reported, and it is repeated by Vasari and others, that Masaccio died in his 26th year. This, as we know for cer- tain that he was born 1402, would place his death in 1428, before the death of Masolino, whom he succeeded, and it interferes with other statements, though it is well reconcileable with the incom- plete state of the frescoes of the chapel at his death, which is generally admitted to nave been sudden and early : supposing he died in 1443, as Vasari and Baldinucci state, the incompletion of the chapel is not so well accounted for. Rumohr gives an extract from the cathedral accounts of Florence, which seems to show that Masaccio was living in 1446. — The works of Masaccio are of a high order as regards general technical qualities, well drawn, of a fine general character, and dramatic in composition ; and his figures are conspicuous for a simple and grand treatment of drapery, similar in character to those of the now familiar cartoons of Raphael. The difference between these celebrated cartoons and the fresco of Peter and Paul before the Proconsul, by Filippino, is not so much in style, as the great name of Raphael and the inter- vening forty years would lead one to suppose ; but this chapel was notoriously the principal school of Raphael, and nearly every other great painter at the commencement of the sixteenth century. But of course such glory as accrues to Filippino from his restored position is detracted from the reputa- tion of Masaccio. The celebrated figure of Paul in the cartoon of Paul Preaching, is taken from the figure of Paul in the fresco Visiting Peter in Prison, in this chapel, by Filippino, as is now generally assumed; Rosini, however, in his History of Italian Painting, adheres to the old traditions. —Vasari, Vite, &c, ed Flor. 1846, Seqq; Rumohr, Italienische Forsckungen ; Gave, Carteggio Inedito d' Artisti; Rosini, Sloria della I'iiluva Italiana, Pisa, 1848. [R.N.W.] MASANIELLO, the commonly received name of Tomaso Aniello, a fisherman of Naples, who headed the populace in their revolt against the Spanish viceroy, 1647, when only twenty-five years of age. His career lasted but nine days, in which time he had 150,000 men under his orders, and was elevated to sovereign authority. He was murdered by four assassins, armed with arquebuses, and as the resistance he commenced never ceased till the Spanish yoke was broken, he has since been venerated as the liberator of his country. MASCAGNI, D., an ltd. painter, 1579-1636. MASCAGNI, P., an ltd. anatomist, 1752-1815. MASCARDI, Joseph, an Italian jurisconsult, born in the republic of Genoa, died 1630. Augus- tin, his nephew, an historian and professor of rhetoric, 1591-1640. MASCH, A. T., a Ger. theologian, 1724-1807. MASCLEF, F., a Fr. Orientalist, 1663-1728. MASCOU, J. J., a Germ, historian, 1689-1762. MASCRIER, J. B. Dk, a Fr. eccles., 1697-1760. MASDEN, Don J. F.. a Sp. histo., 1740-1817. MASENIUS, or MASEN, James, a German MAS Jesuit, known as a Latin poet, theologian, and critic, 1606-1681. MASERES, Francis, Baron, an eminent ma- thematician, grandson of a French refugee, born in London, 1731, died 1824. MASETTI, A., an Italian engineer, 1757-1833. MASHAM, Abigail, a cousin of Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, and fav. of Queen Anne, d. 1734. MASHAM, Lady Damaris, daughter of Dr. Ralph Cudworth, and wife of Sir Francis Masham, father-in-law of the preceding, remarkable for her skill in arithmetic, geography, chronology, history, philosophy, and divinity, author of moral and reli- gious discourses, 1658-1708. MASINISSA, an African prince, died B.C. 149. MASIUS, or MAES, A., a Belgian Orientalist, and theological writer, 1527-1573. MASKELYNE, Nevil, LL.D., born in Lon- don, 1732; died February, 1811, aged seventy- nine: a very eminent British astronomer and mathematician: he filled the important office of Astronomer Royal with the highest credit for forty-six years. To Maskelyne are owing many important improvements in practical astronomy — especially in its application to Navigation : his ex- ertions brought into general use the method of lunar distances. Maskelyne was unfortunately obstructed by cloudy weather, in his attempt to ob- serve the transit of Venus over the sun's disc, on 6th June, 1761, for which purpose he had gone to St. Helena. We owe him, however, the planning and successful carrying out of the effort to deter- mine the mean density of the Earth, by the observed deflection of the plummet at the moun- tain mass Schehallion. There have been very few British practical astronomers who are entitled to rank with Maskelyne. [J.P.N.] MASON, Charles, assistant astronomer at Greenwich Observatory, d. in Pennsylvania 1787. MASON, F., a learned divine, about 1566-1621. MASON, John, a nonconformist minister, born at Dunmow, in Essex, 1706, died 1763, known as a moralist and miscellaneous writer by his works, entitled ' Self Knowledge,' which has been frequently republished, ' Practical Discourses,' ' Christian Morals,' ' Essay on Elocution,' ' Essay on the Power of Numbers, and the Principles of Harmony in Poetical Compositions,' ' Essay on the Power and Harmony of Prosaic Numbers,' &c. A Life of the author, by his relative, John Mason Good, was prefixed to an edition of the k Self Knowledge,' published in 1811. MASON, Sir John, a famous statesman in the reigns of Henry VIIL, Edward VI., Marv, and Elizabeth, died 1566. MASON, William, was bora in 1725, and edu- cated at Cambridge. Entering the church, his father's profession, he held several preferments, and was a canon of York long before his death, which occurred in 1797. He is now remembered chiefly for having been the editor and biographer of the poet Gray. In his life-time, however, he was not only esteemed for his accomplishments, espe- cially in music and painting, but likewise famous in no small degree as a poet. His ' English Garden,' amidst much dulness, contains some pleasing bits of scenery ; and he showed great courage, not unsupported by power of language and passion, in the attempt he made to naturalize 474 MAS the Greek chorus in the modern drama. His first play, ' Elfrida,' is inferior to his second, ' Carac- tacus,' on which his contemporary fame mainly rested. [W.S.] MASOTTI, D., an Ital. lithotomist, 1698-1779. MASQUE DE FEB. See Saint Mars. MASSA, N., a Venetian medical wr., d. 1563. MASSANEILLO. See Masaniello. MASSARD, J., a French engraver, 1740-1822. MASSARI, L., an Italian painter, 1569-1633. MASSARIA, A., an Italian physician, 1510-98. MASSE, J. B., a French painter, 1687-1767. MASSENA. Andre Massena was born of humble parentage at Nice in 1758. He entered the French army as a common soldier, and rose to be duke of Rivoli, prince of Esslingen, and marshal of France. He highly distinguished himself in the early Italian campaigns of Napoleon ; and in 1799 he was commander-in-chief in Switzerland. He saved France by the victory of Zurich, which he gained over the Austrians and Russians in the autumn of that year. In 1800 he defended Genoa with re- markable obstinacy and skill against the Austrians, but was ultimately starved into capitulation. In 1805 Massena commanded in Italy, and defeated the archduke Charles at Caldiero. In 1809 he signalized himself greatly at the battle of Esslin- gen (or Aspern) in Germany, and by his firmness saved the French imperial army from utter de- struction. In 1810 Napoleon sent Massena with a powerful force to conquer Portugal, and 'to drive the English and their Sepoy general into the sea.' But the genius and firmness of Wellington proved too much for the ' Spoiled child of Victory,' as Massena was called in the French armies. The lines of Torres Vedras were a barrier that the French marshal dared not assail, and he retired from Portugal in 1811, showing consummate mili- tary skill in the conduct of his retreat, and equal barbarity in his treatment of the unhappy country which was the scene of the war. Massena was in command at Toulon at the time of Napoleon's first abdication in 1814. He promptly acknowledged Louis XVIII. ; but joined Napoleon in the next year on the return from Elba. He commanded the na- tional guard of Paris during the hundred days. Marshal Massena died in 1817. [E.S.C.] MASSIEU, J. B., a French prelate, 1743-1818. MASSIEU, W., a Fr. archaeologist, 1665-1722. MASSILLON, Jean Baptists, the most cele- brated pulpit orator of France, was the son of a notary public, and born in 1663, at Hieres, in Pro- vence. When only nineteen, he entered into the congregation of the Oratory, and immediately at- tracted notice by the elegance of his manner and the general style of his elocution. The first public displays of his eloquence were made at Vienne, where he performed the duties of Theological Tutor, and the grand occasion on which his powers of ora- tory were strongly enlisted, was on the death of Henri de Villars, archbishop of that place. The magnificence of his funeral oration called forth uni- versal admiration, and his fame being widely ex- tended, he was invited to one of the principal churches in Paris. Although several preachers of eminence were already stationed in that capital, Massillon determined to reach the summit of fame by striking into a new path by himself, and he ac- complished his design ; for his pulpit addresses 475 MAS were in so novel a style, and so irresistibly attrac- tive, so plain and level to every understanding, yet so replete with pathos, and so distinguished for profound and accurate knowledge of human nature, his language was so copious, and his mastery over the passions so consummate, that he was acknow- ledged, with universal consent, to surpass all his contemporaries. Having frequent opportunities of preaching before the Court, he on one occasion had the finest compliment paid him that a preacher ever received. ' Father,' said the Monarch, • when I hear other preachers, I go away much pleased with them, but when I hear you, I go away much dis- pleased with myself.' One sermon, described by Voltaire in the Encyclopedic, produced an extra- ordinary impression. The subject was 'The small number of the elect,' and so overpowering was the picture he drew of the scenes of the last judgment, ' that the hearers involuntarily started from their seats, and such a general murmur of surprise and acclamation arose as disconcerted the preacher him- self.' But the effect was in consequence greatly increased, and the excitement of the audience was carried to the highest pitch of intensity. The celebrated actor Barron, having gone to hear him, shortly after his settlement in Paris, waited on him in the vestry, and told him to continue as he had begun; and, at another time, said to a brother actor, who accompanied him, ' my friend, that is the true orator, we are mere players.' Massillon was raised to the see of Clermont," in 1717 — a pro- motion for which he was indebted to the Regent, who, after attending a course of sermons, was im- pressed with the highest ideas of the preacher's merits. The publication of his famous sermons, entitled, ' Petit-careme,' two years after, procured him an honour of a different kind, the highest liter- ary honour that is known in France, that of being elected a member of the Academy. Massillon now resided wholly and in complete retirement, devoting himself to the duties of his diocese, and being held in high and universal estimation, not only for the splendour of his eloquence and the greatness of his talents, but for his moral and religious worth ; he was a lively companion, a faithful friend, a kind and condescending master, and full of benevolence and charity to the poor. His death took place at Clermont, in Sept., 1742, when he had nearly completed his seventy-fifth year. His published discourses occupy 14 volumes. [R.J.] MASSINGER, Philip, was born in 1584, at Salisbury, or perhaps at Wilton, the seat of the earl of Pembroke, in whose household his father held some office. He was sent to Oxford in his eighteenth year, probably with a view to his enter- ing the church. He left the university without taking a degree, and, for reasons which are not known, was thrown on the world penniless and unpatronised : his best editor, Giffbrd, infers from fmssages in his works that he had become a Catho- ic. In 1606 he came to London ; and he was al- ways afterwards a play-writer, conferring on our language some of its dramatic masterpieces, but bearing even more than his share in the poverty which was suffered by almost all the dramatists of that brilliant and singular era. The particulars of his history are very obscure. We know, how- ever, that he wrote jointly with others, especially Fletcher, Middleton, and Rowley. A melancholy MAS letter, written stent 1G13 to Hcnslowe the theat- rical manager, shows him to have hecn then in great pecuniary distress ; he himself, in a dedica- tion, dated 1632, thankfully acknowledges that the bounty of one or two men of rank had kept him alive ; and the obscurity of his sad career, at its close, is proved by the register of St. Saviours' in Southwark, which, in 1640, notes the burial of 4 Philip Massinger, a stranger.' The famous col- lection of manuscript plays, which the cook of the herald Warburton used for covering pies, contained twelve attributed to Massinger. Gilford names thirty-seven plays as being his in whole or in part, and prints eighteen of these. Some critics insist on placing Massinger next after Shakspeare; and it is at least indisputable that he is one of the very best of the Old English dramatists. He wants comic humour, but has prodigious vigour, more, indeed, than almost any of his contemporaries, in the conception and delineation of character; his representations of society abound in traits of keen observation, and boldly independent thinking ; his situations and incidents are devised with great originality and force; and his serious passages, though often wanting in natural pathos, have a loftymelancholy both of imagery and feeling, and a peculiar grace and melody of expression. He is known to play-goers by ' A New Way to Pay Old Debts;' his 'Maid of Honour' also has been re- Stored to the stage ; and Rowe's ' Fair Penitent ' is a plagiarism from his ' Fatal Dowry.' Among his other works may be named especially the gloomy tragedy of ' The Unnatural Combat,' and ' The City Madam,' an extraordinarily spirited pic- ture of actual life, idealized into a semi-comic strain of poetry. [W.S.] MASSINGftERD, Sir Oswald, of Lincoln- shire, distinguished as a knight of St. John of Jerusalem, last prior of that order in Ireland, and last Turcopolier of Malta, born 1490 ; installed prior at the instance of Cardinal Pole in the reign of Queen Marv, 1550. MASSON, A., a French ecclesiastic, 1620-1700. MASSON, A., a French painter, 1636-1702. MASSON, C. F. P., a Fr. author, 1762-1807. MASSON, Francis, a Fr. sculptor, 1745-1807. MASSON, Francis, a Scot, botan., 1741-1805. MASSON, Innocent C, a general of the Car- thusian order of monks and learned wr., 1628-1703. MASSON, Jean, a French protestant, who took refuge in England on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, became tutor in the family of Bishop Burnet, and wrote some theological and critical works, flourished about 1680-1750. His brother, Samuel, part conductor with Jean of a 'Criti- cal Journal,' and pastor of the English church at Dort ; dates unknown. MASSON, Jean Papire, a French historian and geographical writer, author of ' Annals of France,' &c, 1554-1611. His brother, Jean, historian of Jeanne Dare, died 1630. MASSUET, the name of two learned Benedic- tines, the earliest of whom, Rene, was author of the ' Annals ' of his order, ' Lives of the Saints,' and an edition of ' Irenaeus,' 1066-1716. The later, named Peter, became a protestant, and wrote several poor histories, 1699-1734. MASTERS, R., an antiquarian writer, 1713-98. MASTERS, Thomas, a scholar and poetical MAT writer, who is said to have assisted Lord Herbert of Cherbury in his life of Henry VIIL, died 1643. MASUCCI, A., an Italian painter, 1691-175S. MASUCCIO, a famous architect and sculptor of Naples, flourished 1230-1305. MATANI, A., an Ital. mathematician, 1730-79. MATHER, Richard, a native of Lancashire, who took orders at Oxford, but was suspended for nonconformity in 1633, and afterwards settled in New England. Died there 1669. Samuel, his eldest son, born in Lancashire 1626, accompanied his father to America 1635, but returning to Eng- land in 1650, was actively employed as a minister in various parts of the three Kingdoms, and died 1671. Increase, youngest son of Richard, born in New England 1635, took his degree of B.A. at Harvard college 1656, and joined his brother in Ireland 1657. He was afterwards known as a deputy to the English government in the cause of colonial freedom, and takes rank in literature as a religious essayist and historian, died 1723. Cot- ton-Mather, D.D., son of the preceding, and the most eminent of the family, was born at Boston 1663, died 1728. His works are very numerous, but the principal of them are ' An Ecclesiastical History of New England,' 'The Christian Philoso- pher,' ' Psalterium Americanum,' and ' The Won- ders of the Invisible World,' which is an account of the trials of witches, with observations on the operation of spirits in association with men. MATHIAS. See Matthias. MATHIAS, an emper. of Germany, 1557-1619. MATHIAS, C, a German savant, 1584-1655. MATHIAS-CORVINUS, one of the greatest kings of Hungary, was son of John Hunniades, born in Transylvania 1443, succeeded Ladislaus V. 1458, crowned in 1464, after he had advanced nearly to the walls of Vienna, and compelled the emperor to recognize him, became king of Bohe- mia 1469, conquered Austria 1485, died 1490. MATHIAS, Thomas James, a writer in the department of polite literature and criticism, who became a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1776, and died at Naples 1835. Besides 'The Pursuits of Literature,' and other publications in English, he is the author of several works in Ital- ian, which he wrote with great facilitv. MATHILDA, MATHILDE. See Matilda. MATHON-DE-LA-COUR, James, a French mathematician and experimental philosopher, 1712-1790. His son, Charles Joseph, a scholar and miscellan. wr., b. 1738, exec, at Lyons 1794. MATIGNON, James Goyon De, a marshal of France, distinguished at the battles of Jarnac, Rocheabeille, and Montcontour. He was one of the first to recognize Henry of Navarre after the death of Henry III., and officiated as constable at his coronation, 1525-1597. MATILDA. The queens and princesses of this name are — 1. Saint Matilda, wife of Henry the Fowler, and queen of Germany, died 968. 2. Matilda, countess of Tuscany, born 1046, suc- ceeded her father, Boniface III., 1054, married successively Godfrey Le Bossa, son of the duke of Lorraine, and Guelph, son of the duke of Bavaria, died 1115. This princess is remarkable in history for her devotion to the papacy, which she endowed with vast possessions, and thereby laid the founda- tion of long-continued wars between the popes and 47G MAT the emperors. 3. Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, daughter of Baldwin V., count of Flanders, and of Adela, princess of France, married to the duke of Normandv 1054, crowned queen of England 10G8, died 1083. She had eleven chil- dren, the best known of whom are — Piobert, William Rufus, and Henry Beaufort. 4. Saint Matilda, daughter of Malcolm king of Scotland, and queen consort of Henry I. of England, to whom she was manned in 1100, died 1118. 5. Matilda, or Maud, daughter of the latter, bom 1100, was married to Henry V., emperor of Ger- many, 1111, Henry dving in 1125, she was united two years afterwards to Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, and in 1135 succeeded to the throne of England by the death of her father. She was crowned, after vanquishing her rival Stephen, 1141, but afterwards suffered a reverse, and took refuge in France, where she died 1167. After the death of Stephen, her son by Geoffrey Plantagenet, succeeded as Henry II. 6. Ma- tilda, countess of Angouleme and la Marche, flourished 1179-1233. 7. Matilda Caroline, daughter of Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, granddaughter of the princess Sophia of Zell, and sister of George III., born 1751, married to Chris- tiern VII., and became queen of Denmark in the year of his succession 1766, divorced upon a charge of adultery with Count Struensde, 1772, died, after much suffering, in the twenty-fourth year of her age, 1775. MATSKO, J. M., a Hungarian astron., 1721-96. MATSYS, or MESSIS, Quintin, a Flemish f>ainter, known as ' the blacksmith of Antwerp,' laving been originally a blacksmith or farrier, was bora in 1460. He is the subject of an interesting love story which relates that he fell in love with the daughter of an artist, whose hand was only to be obtained by a master of the same profession ; died 1529. He had a son, named John, who painted in the same stvle. MATTATHIAS. See Maccabeus. MATTEI, L., an Italian poet, 1622-1705. MATTEIS, P. De, a pain, of Naples, 1662-1728. MATTH;EI, C. F., a Pruss. savant, 1744-1811. MATTHiEUS, A., a Dutch jurisct., 1635-1710. MATTHESON, J., a Dutch music, 1681-1764. MATTHEW, the writer of the gospel so called, was a publican or collector of the taxes imposed by the Romans, who became one of the twelve apostles. He wrote his gospel from 30 to 40 years after Christ, some writers say in the Hebrew or Syriac. The probability is, that one was written in Hebrew, a.d. 37 or 38, and another in Greek for the Gentiles 61. Tradition states that he died in Ethiopia. He is sometimes called Levi. MATTHEW, the first of the name, duke of Lorraine, and a companion-in-arms of Frederick Barbarossa, reigned 1139-1176. The second, dates 1220-1251. MATTHEW, Tobtas, successively bishop of Durham, and archbishop of York, distinguished for his learning and virtues, was born in Bristol 1546, died 1628. His son, of the same name, was a cour- tier, accomplished as an artist and man of letters, and acted tne part of a Jesuit spy, 1578-1655. MATTHEW of Westminster, one of the most venerable, and most scrupulously accurate fathers of English history, was a Benedictine monk of the MAU Abbey of Westminster, and lived at an uncertain period in the 14th century. His history modelled on the style of Matthew 'Paris, extended to 1307, and was continued seventy years later by an- other hand. MATTHEWS, Charles, an English comedian, with powers of mimicry never excelled, was born in 1776. His talents were various, and he had the rare capacity of creating characters out of slender materials given by the writers of his en- tertainments, which he denominated 'Matthews at Home.' To these monologues the comedian resorted, in the first instance, to occupy the inter- vals that occurred between his stage-engagements; but they proved so successful as to command ulti- mately his undivided attention. He died in 1837. [J.A.H.] MATTHEWS, T., an English admiral, d. 1751. MATTHIAS, supposed to have been one of the seventy disciples, and the one chosen by lot to fill the place of Judas as an apostle, is said to have preached in Cappadocia, and to have died there. His history is uncertain. MATTHIAS, the name of several high priests of the Jews, commencement of the Christian era. MATTHIEU, P., a French histor., 1563-1621. MATTHISSON, Frederic Von, a lyric poet of Saxony, author of the ' Adelaide,' the music to which was composed bv Beethoven, 1761-1831. MATTIOLI, L., an Italian painter, 1662-1741. MATTIOLI, P. A., an Ital. naturalist, 1500-77. MATTOCKS, Isabella, an actress, 1746-1826. MATURIN, Charles Robert, descended from a French family, who fled their country on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, was born in Dublin, 1782. He was educated for the church, in which he became a curate, and wrote some dis- courses directed against the errors of Rome. He acquired somewhat more celebrity, however, as a novelist and writer for the stage, and is said to have been an eloquent preacher, died 1825. MATURIN, Henry, an Irish clergyman, author of several tragedies and novels, 1772-1842. MATURINO, an Italian painter, died 1527. MATY, Matthew, a Dutch physician, settled in England, known as a miscellaneous writer and librarian to the British Museum, bora about 1718, died 1776. His son, Paul Henry, one of the librarians of the British Museum, and secretary to the Royal Society, 1745-1787. MAUBURNE, J., a Flem. ascetic, 1460-1502. MAUCROIX, F. De, a Fr. transla., 1619-1708. MAUDUIT, A. R., a Fr. mathema., 1731-1815. MAUDUIT, Israel, son of a dissenting min- ister, known as a political wr., London, 1708-87. MAUDUIT, M., a Fr. theologian, 1644-1709. MAUGARD, A., a French author, 1739-1817. MAULEON, A. De, a Fr. historian, died 1653. MAUNDREL, H., a eel. traveller, date 1697. MAUNOIR, P. J., a French theolog., 1606-83. MAUPEOU, Rene Charles De, born in Paris 1688, became vice-chancellor in 1763, d. 1775. MAUPEOU, Rene Nicolas Charles Au- gustin De, son of the preceding, was born 1714, and became chancellor of France 1768. His char- acter was that of a low and corrupt intriguer, and he preserved his influence with Louis XV., by pay- ing the most servile court to the king's mistress, Dubarry. In 1771 he banished the parliament of 477 MAU Paris, and substituted a royal council for it, called in derision 'the Maupeou parliament.' He was exiled to his own estates on the recall of the parliament by Louis XVI., 1774, and died peace- ably in 1792. His last act was a gift of 800,000 francs to the nation. [E.R.] MAUPERCHE, H., a French painter, 1606-86. MAUPERTIUS, P. L., Moreau De, one of the most celebrated mathematicians and astronomers of France, 1698-1759. MAUR, St., a French Benedictine of the 6th century, whose name was adopted by a congrega- tion of religious persons in the period between 1618 and 1627. This order soon acquired author- ity over more than a hundred religious houses, and is famous for the number of learned men it has produced. MAURAND, Peter, a leader of the Albi- genses in the 13th century, born 1199. MAUREPAS, Jean Frederic Philippeaux, Count De, a French statesman, born 1701, flour- ished at the court of Louis XIV., from 1715 to 1749, when he was banished by the intrigues of Madame de Pompadour. He was recalled to the ministry by Louis XVI., in 1774, and it was by his advice that the French government aided the Americans in their war of independence ; d. 1781. MAURICE, elector of Saxony, celebrated as the founder of German protestantism, born 1521 ; killed in battle 1553. MAURICE, A., a Swiss minister, 17th century. MAURICE, F. W., a Swiss agricul., 1750-1826. MAURICE of Nassau, prince of Orange, one of the founders of the Dutch republic, was the son of William I., prince of Orange, and was about eighteen years of age when the latter was assas- sinated in 1584. It is explained in the article William how the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain was occasioned by the resolve of Philip to domineer over the protestant freedom of the country by the introduction of the inquisition. It is sufficient to add here, that the death of the stadtholder was followed by the re-annexation of the southern provinces to the Spanish crown, while the northern raised Maurice to the stadthol- dership, and refused the treacherous peace that was offered to them by the duke of Parma. From his accession to power in 1584 till 1609, Maurice continued the war of independence, the comman- ders opposed to him being Count Mansfeldt, the duke of Parma, the archduke Albert, or, strictly speaking, Albert's wife, Isabella, (' the only man in her family '), and last of all Spinola. After the capture of Ostend on the one side, and the strong fortress of Slnyfs on the other, and repeated proofs that, in the persons of Maurice and Spinola, two of the greatest masters of war were opposed to each other, Spain offered to treat with the united provinces on the basis of their independence, and m 1609 a truce of twelve years was agreed upon. In this interval the Dutch republic made immense progress, but all the fruits of liberty were distaste- ful to Maurice, whose tendencies were to absolute authority, supported by his religious zeal for the strictest form of Calvinism. Accordingly, in the Arminian controversy it suited his purpose to favour Gomarus, and in 1618, the synod of Dort being convened, which determined in favour of 'Predestination,' he arrested the chiefs of the op- MAX posite party, and sent Barn c veldt, the popular statesman, to the block, while Ledenberg escaped the rack by stabbing himself, and the learned Grotius was consigned to perpetual imprisonment. The remainder of Maurice's life was such as the Neophyte of blood deserved. The two sons of Barneveldt stirred up popular commotions to re- venge the death of their aged father, and followed him to the scaffold in 1623. In 1621, also, the truce with Spain had expired, and Spinola renewed the war with such superior strength, that he com- pelled Maurice, weakened by intestine divisions, to act on the defensive. He now sunk under his mortifications, and died at the Hague, while Breda was invested by the enemy, in 1625, leaving the conduct of the war to his brother and successor, Frederick, whom he advised with his last breath to recall the Arminians. [E.R.] MAURICE, Thomas, an Oriental scholar and historian, was descended from a respectable Welch family, and was born at Hertford, 1753. He was a minister of the Church of England, and assis- tant-librarian at the British Museum, where he died 1824. His principal works relate to the history and antiquities of Hindostan. MAURISIO, G., an Italian chronicler, 13th ct. MAURUS, H., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1632-1724. MAURUS, T., a Roman poet, 1st century. MAURY, Jean Siffrein, a French cardinal, political orator and literateur, was born of a poor family in 1746, and was distinguished for his elo- quence as a preacher and eulogist before the revo- lution. In 1789 he was sent to the estates- general as deputy for the clergy of Peronne, and took part with the noblesse and the Gallican church against Mirabeau. In 1791 he retired to Rome, and in 1794 was made a cardinal. In 1806, he returned to Paris, and having tendered his sub- mission to Napoleon, became, four years after- wards, archbishop of Paris. He again sought safety in Rome on the fall of the emperor in 1814, and died there 1817. [E.R.] MAUSSAC, P, J. De, a French hellenist and classical, critic, 1590-1650. MAUVILLON, Eleazar, an Italian historian, secretary to Frederick Augustus, king of Poland, 1712-1779. His son, James, an historical writer and friend of Mirabeau, 1743-1794. MAVOR, William Fordyce, a Scottish clergyman of the Church of England, author of many works, the subjects of which are addressed to the education of youth, 1758-1838. MAWE, Joseph, a master of the sciences of mineralogy and conchology, author of a 'Treatise on Diamonds and Precious Stones,' ' Familar Les- sons on Mineralogy and Geology,' 'The Linnaean System of Conchology,' &c, b. abt. 1755, d. 1829. MAXENTIUS, Marcus Aurelius Valer- ius, one of six contemporary emperors of Rome, reigned 306-312. MAXIMIANUS, Galerius Valerius, a shepherd of Dacia, who became emperor of the East, 305-311. MAXIMIANUS, Marcus Aurelius Valer- ius Herculius, a Roman soldier, who became colleague of Diocletian in the empire 286. He endeavoured to murder his rival Constantine, to whom he had given his daughter Faustina in mar- riage, and being frustrated by the fidelity of the 478 MAX latter, strangled himself 310. He was the father and contemporary of Maxentius. MAXIMILIAN, a saint, martyred 295. MAXIMILIAN I., emperor of Germany, son of the emperor Frederic III., and of Eleonora of Portugal was born 1459. He first became an independent prince by his marriage with Mary of Burgundy, the daughter of Charles Le Temeraire who was killed 1477. This match involved him in a war with Louis XL, king of France, in which he was successful, though he was defeated at a later period by the Milanese. In 1486 Maximilian was elected king of the Romans, in 1493 emperor. He died in 1516, and was succeeded by his grand- son Charles V. Maximilian II., son of Ferdi- nand I., was born at Vienna 1527, elected king of the Romans 1562, and succeeded his father as king of Hungary and Bohemia, and emperor of Germany 1564. Died 1576. MAXIMILIAN, a duke of Milan, 16th cent. MAXIMILIAN, the name of three sovereign Srinces of Bavaria. 1. Emmanuel Maximilian, uke and elector, known to history from 1685 to his death in 1726. 2. Leopold Maximilian, duke and elector, succeeded 1746, died 1777. 3. Maximilian Joseph, king of Bavaria, born 1756, crowned 1799, married his daughter to Eugene Beauharnais, son of Josephine, and had his duchy raised to a kingdom 1806, joined the league against France 1813. Died 1825. MAXIMINUS, Caius Julius Verus, a herds- man of Thrace, born of Gothic parents, who became emperor of Rome 235, killed by his troops 238. MAXIMINUS, Caius Galerius Valerius, an Illyrian peasant, known by the name of Daia, or Daza, wno was named Caesar by the influence of his uncle Galerius 305, and proclaimed emperor when five others had already assumed the purple 308, poisoned himself after his deft, by Licinius 313. MAXIMUS, Clodius Pupienus, a Roman general, proclaimed emperor by the senate along with Decimus Cariius Balbinus, in opposition to Maximums, 237, killed along with Balbinus 238. MAXIMUS, Magnus, a Roman soldier, pro- claimed emperor in Britain, and afterwards ac- knowledged in Gaul and all the West 383, k. 388. MAXIMUS, Petronius, a noble Roman who became emperor under peculiar and tragical cir- cumstances in 455, after he had been three times praatorian prefect of Italy, and twice consul. In the year mentioned, Valentinian III. having committed an outrage upon the wife of Maximus, was assassinated at his instigation, and the latter appointed his successor by the unanimous voice of the Roman people. In less than three months afterwards he was murdered in the streets for attempting to fly on the appearance of the fleet of Genseric, king of the Vandals. [E.R.] MAXIMUS, St., the first of the name, an apostle of Lombard, and bishop of Turin, 5th cen- tury. The second, a theological writer, died 662. MAXIMUS the Cynic, a pagan theurgist, confidant of the emperor Julian, 4th century. MAXIMUS the Greek, an ecclesiastical sa- vant, died at Moscow 15th century. MAXIMUS of Turin, a bp. of that see, 5th c. MAXIMUS of Tyre, a Phoenician philosopher, who flourished at Athens in the 2d century. MAXWELL, Sir M., a naval comman., d. 1831. MAZ MAXWELL, Robert, Lord, one of the lords of the regency for James V. of Scotland, d. 1546. MAXWELL, W. H., a lively English novelist, author of ' Wild Sports of the West,' &c, d. 1851. MAY, Louis Du, a French historian, 17th ct. MAY, Thomas, a republican poet and historian of the parliament of England, 1594-1650. MAYENNE, Charles of Lorraine, duke of, son of Francis, duke of Guise, a famous French commander in the interest of the catholics, 1554- 1611. His son, Henry, chamberlain of France, and governor of Guienne, born 1578, killed at the siege of Montauban, 1621. MAYER, Andrew, a Germ, astron., 1716-82. MAYER, C, a Jesuit and astronomer, 1719-83. MAYER, J. C. A., a Prussian anat., 1747-1801. MAYER, J. F., a German theolog., 1650-1712. MAYER, Tobias, a German astron., 1723-62. MAYET, S., a German writer, 1751-1825. MAYNARD, F., a French poet, 1582-1646. MAYNARD, Sir John, a lawyer and member of parliament, one of the managers of the trials of the earl of Strafford and Archbishop Laud, 1602-90. MAYNE, Jasper, an eminent clergyman, who amused himself as a wit and playwright, d. 1672. MAYNE, John, a Scotch poet, died 1836. MAYNO, J. B., a Spanish artist, 1594-1654. MAYNWARING, Arthur, a political and mis- cellaneous writer, time of William III., 1668-1712. MAYO, Herbert, M.D., an English physio- logist, died 1852. MAYOR, Thomas, a Spanish friar, 17th cent. MAYOW, John, a physician and physiological writer, author of works" on respiration and the muscular motion of animal bodies, 1645-1679. MAYR, G., a German Hebraist, 1565-1623. MAYR, J. De, a German adventurer, 1716-59, MAYRE, J., a Jesuit and poet, 1628-1694. MAZARIN, Julius, an ecclesiastic and states- man, was born at Piscina, in the Abruzzi, in the year 1602. He was educated for the church, and m 1641 received a cardinal's hat. His name is conspicuous in the history of Europe as prime minister of France in the middle of the seventeenth century. But he merely occupied a place created by the powerful genius of Richelieu, who in crush- ing the aristocracy, left to whoever should be prime minister of France during the minority of Louis XIV., one of the most important positions in Europe. Mazarin had to support the crown and the cause of Anne of Austria, during the miserable war of the Fronde, and he was at one juncture obliged to flee for personal safety. Had he been even as able a man as his predecessor, it could not have been expected that he should go- vern as a native Frenchman could, and perhaps nothing better proves how effectively Richelieu had subdued the discordant elements in France, than that an Italian should be able to govern the country. Mazarin died on the 9th of March, 1661. [J.H.B.] MAZDAK, a Persian communist, who com- menced his agitation about 501, and was put to death after making a convert of the king Khobad. MAZEAS, J. M., a Fr. mathemat., 1716-1801. MAZELINE, P., a French sculptor, 1632-1708. MAZEPPA, John, the famous hctman of the Cossacks, whose name has been rendered familiar as one of Byron's heroes, was a native of the pala- 479 MAZ tinnte of Podolia, and for some time ■ page at the court of John Casimir. Being discovered in an in- trigue with the wife of a Polish gentleman, the latter bound him on the back of one of the wild horses of the Ukraine, which carried him to the country of the Cossacks, with whom he remained, and in 1687 became their chief commander. He was a favourite of Peter the Great, who gave him the title of prince, but growing tired of the Russian yoke, Mazeppa allied himself with Charles XII. of Sweden, and advised him to fight the disastrous battle of Pultowa. After his defeat he retired to V\ allachia, and thence to Bender, where he d. 1709. MAZET, Andrew, a Fr. phvsician, 1793-1821. MAZO-MARTINEZ, J. B. Del, paint, to Philip IV. of Spain, and pupil of Velasquez, died 1687. MAZOIS, F., a French architect, 1783-1827. MAZURE, F. A. J., a Fr. histor., 1776-1828. MAZZA, Andrew, an Ital. saiwit, 1724-1797. MAZZA, Angelo, an Italian poet, 1741-1817. MAZZHINGI, Joseph, Count, an eminent opera composer, descended from a family of Tus- caay, but born of an English mother in England, 1765, died at Bath 1844. MAZZOCCHI, A. S., an It. antiq., 1684-1771. MAZZUCCHELLI, The Count Giammaria, an Italian librarian, known as a literary bio- grapher and writer on antiquity, 1707-1765. MAZZUCCHELLI, The Aebe P., a philologist and antiquarian of Milan, flourished 1762-182!). MAZZUCCHELLI, The Chevalier Pier Francesco, called II Morazzone, an Italian pain- ter in the style of Tintoretto, 1571-1626. MAZZUOLI, Francesco, a celebrated Italian fiainter, called Parmiziano, or the Parmesan, rom his native city, 1503-1540. His cousin and scholar, Girolamo, died about 1590. MAZZUOLI, J., a painter of Ferrara, d. 1589. MEAD, Richard, physician to George II., known as a professional writer, 1673-1754. MEADOWCOURT, Richard, a divine and critic, author of Notes on Milton, 1697-1769. MEARA. See O'Meara. MEARES, J., an English navigator in 1788-89. MECHAIN, Pierre Francis Andre, a dist. French astronomer and mathematician, 1774-1805. MEDARD, St., a Fr. prelate, flour. 457-545. MEDE, Joseph, a English divine, 1586-1638. MEDER, P. J., a Russian mineralog., 1763-1826. MEDICI. The illustrious Florentine family of this name begins with Salvestro, who enjoyed the rank of gonfalonier from 1378 to his banish- ment in 1381. John, his son and successor, dis- tinguished for his commercial enterprise, and for promoting the interests of the republic, flourished 1360-1428. Cosmo, one of the sons of the latter, born in 1389, and known as 'the father of his country,' acquired immense wealth and influence, and laid the foundation of his reputation by the munificent patronage of letters, and the conjunc- tion of consummate statesmanship with his com- mercial enterprise. Many of the first Tuscan families combined against him, but he overcame all rivalry, and was for thirty-four years the sole arbitrator of the republic, and the adviser of the sovereign houses of Italy ; died 1464. Peter L, his son and successor, was born 1414, and became the victim of a revolt in 1469. Lorenzo THE Magnificent, son and successor of Peter, was MED bora 1418, and governed the state in conjunction with his brother Julian, till the latter was assas- sinated by the Pazzi in 1478. Escaping from this massacre he sustained a war with Ferdinand of Naples, with whom he signed a definitive peace in 1480. He then devoted himself to the pro- secution of plans for the advancement of learning and the arts, revived the Academy of Pisa, founded another at Florence, collected a vast treasure of literature, and founded a gallery of art, in which the taste of Michelangelo was formed under his patronage. He died universally beloved and hon- oured, in the zenith of his renown 1492. His life has been written by Roscoe. He had three sons, John, who became pope, (see Leo X.), Julian, and Peter. The latter, Peter II., succeeded Lor- enzo, and was deprived of his estates when the French invaded Italy in 1494. He finished his career in the service of France, and was drowned 1504, leaving two sons, Lorenzo and Cosmo. Ju- lian II., brother and successor of Peter, abdicated in favour of Lorenzo 1513, and became due de Ne- mours by his marriage with the aunt of Francis I. He died 1516. Lorenzo II., eldest son of Peter II., came to power by the abdication of his uncle, and governed under the influence of Leo X., who invested him with the duchy of Urbino. He died 1519, leaving an only daughter. (See Marie De Medicis). After some reverses we find the family re-established in the sovereignty of Florence, under the influence of Charles V., with the title of dukes. The first was Alexander, proclaimed duke 1532, stabbed by his relative Lorenzino, after poisoning his cousin Hippolytus 1537. Lorenzino, mur- derer of Alexander, was assassinated at Venice by order of Cosmo I., 1548. (See Catherine De Medici). Cosmo I., called ' The Great,' duke of Florence, and grand duke of Tuscany, was the son of John the Invincible, descended from Lorenzo, and was born 1519. He was raised to power by the influence of Charles V., and abdicated in fa- vour of his son 1564. In 1569 he became grand duke of Tuscany, and died 1574. Francis Maria, son and successor of Cosmo, flourished 1541-1587. Ferdinand I., brother and succes- sor of the latter, was also cardinal and grand duke of Tuscany, 1551-1609. Cosmo II., son and suc- cessor of Ferdinand, 1590-1621. Ferdinand II., son and successor of Cosmo II., 1610-1670. Cosmo III., son and successor of Ferdinand II., 1642-1723. John Gaston, son and successor of the latter, was the last of the Medici who reigned over Tuscany, being compelled to abdicate and make way for Francis II., duke of Lorraine, by the great powers. He flourished 1671-1737. His daughter, Anne, wife of John William, elector Palatine, was the last of the family. She d. 1743. MEDICI, The Chevalier Don Luigi De, a statesman of Naples, was born 1754, and in 1791 became director of the police. From this post he made his way to the ministry, and in the time of Joseph Buonaparte, followed the fortunes of the Bourbons. The arrest of Murat, the public debt of Naples, and the struggles with the Carbonari, were among the circumstances in which he be- came a distinguished actor. In 1818 he became a fugitive at Rome, but was in power again in 1824, and assisted in delivering the kingdom from the Austrian occupation. Died 183U. 480 MED MEDICUS, F. C, aBavar. botanist, 1736-1808. MEDINA, G. B., a Flemish painter, 1660-1711. MEDINA, J. De., a Span, ecclesiastic, d. 1556. MEDINA, Sir J., a portrait painter, 1659-1711. MEDINA, M. De, a Spanish friar, 16th cent. MEDINA, P. De, a Span, mathemat., 16th ct. MEDINA, S. J. P. De, a Span, poet, 17th cent. MEDINA-SIDONIA, Gaspard Alonzo Pe- rez De Guzman, duke of, governor of Anda- lusia in the reign of Philip IV., noted for his at- tempt to render himself independent in 1640. For others of the family, see Guzman. MEDYN, Abon, an Arabian savant, died 1193. MEEL, J., a Flemish painter, 1599-1644. MEEN, H., a divine andclass. scholar, 1745-1817. MEEREN, or MEEB, John Van De, called 'the Old,' a Dutch painter of sea-pieces, land- scapes, and battles, 1627-1691. Another painter of the same names, called ' the Younger,' and fa- mous for his pastoral scenes, 1665-1698. MEGASTHENES, a Gr. historian, 3d cent. B.C. MEGERLIN, D. F., a Ger. theologian, d. 1778. MEGISER, J., a Germ, philologist, 1555-1616. MEHEGAN, William Alexander De, de- scended from an Irish family who went into France with James II., distinguished as an elegant mis- cellaneous writer, 1721-1766. MEHEMET ALI, born in 1765 at Cavalla, in the part of European Turkey which was for- merly Macedonia. He entered the Turkish army, and served in Egypt against the French. He rose by degrees in military rank and political impor- tance m that country ; and at length in 1806 he purchased the post of pacha of Egypt from the sultan's government. He finally broke the power of the Mamelukes ; and by treacherously inviting them to a festival as friends, he obtained an oppor- tunity, of which he mercilessly availed himself, to massacre the last of these formidable cavaliers in 1811. He carried on by his sons several cam- paigns in behalf of the sultan against the Waha- bite rebels in Arabia; and he afterwards sent troops under his son, Ibrahim Pacha, to the Morea, who gave important aid to the Turks in the Greek war of independence. In 1830 he ob- tained from the sultan the government of the island of Candia; and he next endeavoured to make himself master of Syria, which Sultan Mahomed had refused him He sent a large army to that important province, and he was thereupon declared a rebel by the Porte, and the Turkish armies were sent against him. Mehemet Ali's troops had been carefully trained by European officers, and they beat the sultan's in every encounter. Peace was made between the powerful viceroy of Egypt and his humiliated sovereign in 1833, by the interven- tion of the chief states of Europe. Hostilities broke out again between them in 1839 ; and, as before, the Egyptian forces were uniformly vic- torious over the Turkish. The armed interposi- tion of the English, and the capture of Acre and the other fortresses on the Syrian coast by our fleet, under the guidance of Admiral Napier, com- pelled Mehemet Ali to come to terms again with the Porte. He was obliged to give up Syria ; but the hereditary nashalic of Egypt was secured to him and his children. — Mehemet Ali was free from bigotry ; he was an earnest admirer of European civilization, and he strove to introduce it among | MEL his Egyptian subjects. He showed a rare degree of high-mindedness and generosity in 1840, by allowing the English mails and travellers to and from India, to pass unmolested as usual through his dominions, at the very time our fleet were blockading his capital, Alexandria, and were de- stroying his fortresses and garrisons in Syria. Me- hemet Ali died in 1848. [E.S.C.l MEHEMET-EFFENDI, a Turkish statesman, known as plenipotentiary of the Sublime Porte at the treaty of Passarovitz 1718, and ambassador to France 1720. He was exiled after the deposition of Achmet III., 1730. His son, Said, ambassa- dor to France in 1742, introduced the printing press, which he established at Scutari. MEHUL, S. H., a Fr. composer, 1763-1817. MEHUS, L., an Italian philologist, died 1791. MEIBOM, or MEIBOMIUS, the name of several learned Germans : — 1. John Henry, a publicist and annalist, 1555-1625. 2. His son, of the same names, a physician and professional writer, 1590- 1655. 3. Henry, son of the latter, a physician and historian, 1638-1700. 4. Mark, a relative of thepreceding, an antiquar. and Hebraist, 1630-1711. MEIER, J., a Prussian philologist, 1661-1732. MEIGRET, L., a Fr. grammarian, born 1510. MEINER, J. W., a Bavar. philologist, 1723-89. MEINERS, C, a Germ, historian, 1747-1810. MEINTEL, J. G., a Ger. theologian, 1695-1775. MEISNER, B., a German divine, 1587-1626. MEISSNER, A. T., a Ger. novelist, 1753-1807. MELA, Pomponius, a Roman geographer, 1st c. MELANCHTHON, Philip, was born at Bre- theim, in the lower Palatinate, in 1497. His father was an armourer, and his original German name was Schwartzerd, which, in imitation of Reuchlin and other learned men, he Grecized into Melanchthon, or as he used, especially in his latter days, to spell it, Melanthon. Both names denote ' black earth.' After having studied at Pfortzheim for two years, Philip removed to Heidelberg, where he became bachelor of arts ; and on being refused a master- ship, on account of his youth, he repaired to Tubingen, where he became a lecturer. In 1518 he received the high encomium of Erasmus, and, at the instigation of Luther and Reuchlin, he was the same year invited by Frederick, elector of Saxony, to fill the chair of Greek in the recently founded University of Wittemberg. At this seat of learning he was at once under the mighty spirit and influ- ence of his intrepid colleague Luther. His agency in the great Reformation has been overshadowed by that of Luther, but he was ever active and industrious in his own humble and unosten- tatious mode. In 1519 he accompanied Luther to Leipzig, in order to dispute with Eckius, and in 1521 he published his famous Loci Com- munes, a treatise which in his own lifetime went through sixty editions. In 1520 he married the daughter of one of the burgomasters of Wittem- berg, and by her had two sons and two daughters. During the progress of the Reformation he visited many cities, and was active in patronising semi- naries of learning. Nor was his pen idle in the cause; and though his compositions had not the overwhelming torrent of Luther's rhetoric, yet their quiet, elegant, and self-possessed tone were not the less useful in aiding the emancipation and progress of Germany. He was as earnest as Luther to free 481 21 MEL theology from scholastic subtleties. There is no doubt that many of the plans carried out by the Reformers were the result of Mclanelnhon's wise suggestions. His Greek scholarship was also of continued and inestimable advantage to Luther in his work of translating the Bible. His own com- mentaries also show how his erudition qualified him to be a lucid, accurate, and elegant expositor. In 1530 Melanchthon was appointed to draw up the general Confession which was presented to the em- peror at Augsburg, and he also wrote the Apology for it. He was invited to dispute with the Sorbonne in 1535, but refused this invitation, as well as a similar and subsequent one from England. After Luther's death, Melanchthon was often sadly perplexed and harassed. The famous measure of the Interim did not find him disinclined to look upon it with a kindly eye. Men of bolder character rallied him on his irresoluteness, and pointed to his failures at Worms, Ratisbon, and Bonn. His orthodoxy was suspected, and he was blamed for the approxima- tion of his views on the Lord's Supper to those of the Swiss Reformers. These rough and unceremonious assaults often plunged him into grief. Melanch- thon died at Wittemberg, 19th April, 1568, aged sixty-three. The amiability, gentleness, and be- nignant purity of Melanchthon ; his zeal, learning, and ingenuity, have placed him next to Luther as an agent in the work of the Reformation. He sometimes fretted at Luther's overbearing vehe- mence, but he venerated its grounds; and Luther, though he might doubt the propriety of Philip's procedure in some cases, and stigmatize it as mere expediency, was won by his gentle demeanour and unquestioned sincerity. These qualities, like the • still small voice,' often commended the new doc- trine where the whirlwind and thunder had only produced terror and revidsion. Melanchthon wrote on many topics besides theology, such as commen- [House of ftlelauclitbon ] taries on various Greek and Latin classics, and some historical and philosophical treatises. His works were published at Wittemberg in 4 vols, folio, in 1562 and subsequent years, and were re- printed several times. There had been a previous MEL edition printed at Basel in 1541. A new edition has been in course of preparation and publication for many years under the editorial care of Bretsch- neider ana Bindseil. The general title is Corpus Reformatorum, and eighteen quarto volumes have already appeared. [J.E."] MELANDERHIELM, Daniel, a Swedish geo- metrician and astronomer, 1726-1810. ME LAN THUS, a Greek painter, 4 th cent, b c. MELBOURNE, William Lamb, Viscount, the Whig statesman whose name and career is so familiar to the present generation, was born in 1779, and commenced his political life in parlia- ment in 1805. The same year he married the Lady Caroline Ponsonby, known to literature as Lady Caroline Lamb, whose tastes were con- genial with his own, and who shared with him the classical studies in which they were both proficient. In 1827 he became secretary for Ireland, and the next year, succeeding to his father's title, entered the House of Lords. In 1830 he joined the administration of Earl Grey as home secretary, and in March, 1834, suc- ceeded him as premier. From the autumn of the same year to the spring of 1835, he was sup- planted by the duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel, but at the latter period returned to power, and retained the premiership, with the exception of a brief retirement in 1839, till the close of his public life in 1841. Great difference of opinion prevails as to the statesmanship of Lord Mel- bourne, but he held office during that most trying period when the Reform Bill was in agitation/and it required no mean talents, however well sup- ported by party, to compete with such a statesman as Sir Robert Peel during subsequent years. He was an accomplished gentleman, an agreeable com- panion, and a finished speaker. Died"l848. [E.R. "j MELCHTHAL, Arnold of. See Winckel- RIED. MELDOLA, Dr. Raphael, principal of the Jewish rabbis in England, celebrated as a theolo- gian and philosopher, died 1828. MELEAGER, a Gr. epigrammatist, 1st c. b.c. MELEAGER, one of the generals of Alexander, who obtained Lydia on the division of the empire, slain by order of Perdicas, B.C. 323. MELENDEZ-VALDEZ, Jean Antonio, one of the most celeb, lyric poets of Spain, 1754-1817. MELETIUS, an Egyptian prelate, 4th century. MELETIUS, a Greek geographer, 1661-1714. MELFORT, Duke De. See Dkummonh. MELI, Giovanni, a Sicilian poet, 1740-1815. MELISSINO, a Russian officer, 1730-1804. MELISSUS, an Eleatic philosopher, 5th ct. b.c. MELISSUS, Paul, a German poet, 1539- 16u2. MELITO, St., a bishop of Sardia, 2d century. MELITUS, a Greek orator and poet, who was one of the principal accusers of Socrates. MELIUS, Spurius, a Rom. knight, k. b.c. 438. MELLAN, C, a French designer, 1598-1688. MELLO, P. De, a Portug. statesm., 1760-1830. MELLON, Harriet, a country actress, who was introduced on the London stage by Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and became celebrated by her marriage in 1814 with Thomas Courts, Esq., the wealthy banker, and in 1827 with the duke of St. Albans. She died in 1837, leaving the bulk of her immense property to the granddaughter of her first MEL husband, and youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, now known as Miss Burdett Coutts. MELMOTH, William, a learned bencher of Lincoln's Inn, chiefly remembered as the author of a religious work entitled • The Great Importance of a Religious Life,' 1666-1743. His son, of the same name, a classical transl. and poet, 1710-99. MELOZZO, F., an Italian painter, 15th cent. MELVIL, Sir James, a Scottish statesman and historian, attached to the person of Mary Stuart, au. of ' Memoirs,' pub. in 1683, 1530-1606. MELVILLE, Andrew, was the youngest of nine sons of Richard Melville of Baldovy, near Montrose, and was born on the 1st August, 1545. When only two years old he lost his father, who was killed at the battle of Pinkie, but his eldest brother took an affectionate charge of him. Placed first at the grammar school of Montrose, where he made great progress, especially in Latin, he en- tered St. Mary's College, St. Andrews, in 1559, in his fourteenth year. Having finished the usual course of study, he left the university in 1564, with a distinguished reputation, departed to the continent, attended for two years the university of Paris, and was then appointed a regent in the col- lege of St. Marceon, when he was only twenty-one years of age. Leaving the place after a siege, he travelled to Switzerland in a state of great fatigue and destitution, and on arriving at Geneva, ob- tained the chair of humanity in its academy. On his return to Scotland in July, 1574, he was im- mediately chosen principal of Glasgow college l>y the General Assembly. His zeal, assiduity, and skill in this high position,were of vast profit to the dilapidated seminary. In 1580, he was translated to the principality of St. Mary's College, St. An- drews, where his labours were very abundant in the reform of academic training and discipline. But his attention was also, and chiefly, devoted to ecclesiastical affairs, and he heartily and vigorously prosecuted his convictions. On the subject of church government his views were strictly presby- terian, and the establishment of this form of ec- clesiastical administration in Scotland was mainly owing to his exertions and influence. • Being moderator of the General Assembly, which met at St. Andrews in 1582, he proceeded with an act of discipline in defiance of a royal message to desist. Preaching at the next meeting of Assembly, he in- veighed severely against the tyrannous measures of the court, and against those who had brought into the country the ' bludie gullie ' of absolute power. This fearless charge led to a citation before the privy council for nigh treason, and though the crime was not proved, he was sentenced to im- prisonment. Apprehensive that his life was really in danger, he set out for London, and did not re- turn to the north till the faction of Arran had been dismissed. At length he took his former place in St. Andrews, and continued in hearty warfare for the liberties of the church. For his share in the trial of Adamson, the king dismissed him from the principality, and charged him to confine him- self beyond the Water of Tay. The suspension, however, was only brief. On the arrival of James with his queen from Denmark, Melville pronounced, and afterwards published, a Latin poem of high merit, named ' Stephaniskion.' In 1590 Melville was elected rector of the university. In 1594 he MEN was again moderator of the General Assembly. There was evidently after this time a strong desire on the part of the king to make the kirk a mere tool of political power, or to restore episcopacy. Melville strenuously resisted every such attempt, whether made in an open or clandestine form. A tumult in Edinburgh was taken advantage of, its ministers were severely dealt with, and by and by Melville was prohibited from attending church courts, and soon after confined within the precincts of his college. After King James's accession to the throne of England, Melville was summoned to London, with several of his brethren, and severely catechised and reprimanded by the royal pedant. Melville enraged the king by some verses he happened to write on the furniture of the royal altar, was found guilty of scandalum magnatnm, finally imprisoned in the Tower, and deprived of his principality. At length, after four years' confinement, he was liberated, principally at the request of the duke of Bouillon, who wished him to occupy a chair in the university of Sedan. Melville arrived there in 1611, entered on his work with zeal, boldly refuted the Arminian- ism of one of his colleagues, and in his seventy- fourth year wrote a beautiful Epithalnmium en occasion of the marriage of a daughter of the ducal house. Episcopal government had now been re- stored in Scotland ; but the old man was still such an object of terror that he was not recalled from exile. In 1620 his health, which had. been seri- ously impaired during his incarceration in the Tower, failed him, and he died at Sedan in 1622, at the age of seventy-seven. Melville's Latin poems, such as his L Carmen Mosis,' and those men- tioned already in this article, are classical produc- tions of a high order. He was a scholar and divine also of no common attainments. He was acti lie, cheerful, bold, candid and devout, and his im- petuosity often arose to sublimity^ when he ap- peared in excited vindication of his church and country. Dr. M'Crie concludes his two interest- ing volumes of Melville's life with the declaration : — ' I know of no individual, after her Reformer, from whom Scotland has received greater benefits, and to whom she owes a deeper debt of gratitude and respect, than Andrew Melville.' [J.E.] MELVILLE, Henry Dundas, Lord Viscount, son of Robert Dundas, Lord Arniston, was born m 1740, and joined the administration of Mr. Pitt when he obtained the reins of government, after the death of the marquis of Rockingham. Lord Melville followed the fortunes of his leader, in or out of office, as home secretary, secretary of war, and first lord of the admiralty. He was impeached for neglect of duty in the latter capacity at the in- stance of Mr. Whitbread in 1805, but acquitted of the charges by his peers. He retired from office, however, and died in privacy 1811. MELVILLE, R., a Scotch officer, 1723-1809. MEMMI, S., an Italian painter, 1285-1345. MEMMO, Marc- Ant., a Ven. doge, 1612-15. MEMMO, Tribuno, a Venetian doge, 979-991. MEMNON, a king of ^Ethiopia, age of Troy. MEMNON, a Persian general, died 333 b.c. MEMNON, a Greek historian, 1st or 2d cent. MENA, J. De, a Spanish poet, 1412-1456. MENA, P. De, a Spanish sculptor, 1620-1603. MENA, P. G. Dk, a Spanish painter, 1600-74. 483 MEN MENAGE, Gilles, a French ecclesiastic, cele- brated for his learning and bel-esprit, and called by Bayle ' The Varron of the 17th century,' was born at Angers, 1613, and died at Paris 1692. He was the protege of Cardinal de Retz, and the companion of the finest spirits of his age. He is the author of classical and philosophical works, poems, &c. MENAGE, Mat., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1388-1446. MENANDER, a celebrated Athenian poet, au- thor of a great number of dramatic works, of which only a few fragments remain extant, 342-299 B.C. MENARD, Cu, a French historian, 1580-1652. MENARD, F., a Fr. canonical wr., 1570-1623. MENARD, Leon, a Fr. antiquary, 1706-1767. MENARD, N. H., a Fr. ecclesiastic, 1585-1644. MENASSEH, Ben Israel, a learned rabbin of Spain, author of * The Conciliator,' in which many apparent contradictions in the Sacred Scrip- tures are harmonised, 1604-1659. MENDELSSOHN, Dr. Felix Bartholdy, was born at Hamburg, on the 3d of February, 1809. His father, who was an eminent merchant, is re- ported to have said that he was nothing more than the son of one great man and father of another. And this was in a great measure true. The grand- father of the musician was Moses Mendelssohn, who passed the greater part of his early life in making copies of the Bible. The poor copyist, by means of. his talent, his indomitable perseverance, and his incredible energy, soon became one of the most illustrious philosophers in Germany. His works, which were devoured with eagerness, soon procured him a large fortune, which, bequeathed to his family, insured them all the luxuries of life, but did not corrupt their native goodness. Before young Felix, the subject of this memoir, was six years old, he gave extraordinary indications of a genius for music. He astonished all Berlin by his precocious intellect, his docility, his obedience, and his eagerness for the acquisition of knowledge of all kinds, but more especially of that art in which he afterwards made himself so consummate a master. At eight years old he became a pupil of Berger on the piano, and of Zelter for composition and har- mony. Even at this early age, he read at first eight the most difficult works of Handel, Sebastian Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. He after- wards studied the piano under Klein, Hummel, and Moschelles. And he subsequently studied counter- point under Cherubini, who augured the greatest things of his pupil. Before he was nine years old, his performance on the piano-forte was so aston- ishing that his friends advised him to play in pub- lic; and, in consequence, he made his debut at Berlin in 1819, where his success was most trium- phant. At ten years of age he knew all the great works of the masters named above ; and at twelve he improvised upon a given theme in a style so masterly, that old Goethe, the poet, s'icd tears and embraced the young artist. In 1*24 he first pub- lished his compositions, which were four quartetts and a sonata. In 1827, his opera, Die Hochzeit de Camacho, was performed at Berlin, from which period, up to the day of his death, he produced all sorts of compositions with the most wonderful rapidity, and all perfect in their kind, from the ' Songs without Words,' to duets, songs, piano-forte -works, and up to the Oratorio. But all this while Mendelssohn did not devote his time exclusively MEN to the study of music. He was well acquainted with natural philosophy, was an able draughtsman, and a proficient in almost all modern languages. With English he was intimately acquainted, and, like all well-informed Germans, he was passionately fond of the works of Shakspeare. And this devo- tion and profound knowledge of the great poet were reflected in the supplemental music which he composed for the ' Midsummer Night's Dream,' of which it is not too much to say that it is in all respects worthy to be wedded to the immortal poetry which inspired it. This work was performed in London, in 1830, when Mendelssohn conducted the orchestra. It caused an immense sensation. In 1833, Mendelssohn was appointed musical di- rector at Dusseldorf, which place he held for two years, when he resigned and accepted the post of director of the Gewanhouse concerts at Leipzig. At the musical festival at Dusseldorf, on the 22d of May, 1836, his grand Oratorio, St. Paul, was first produced, which marked a new era in the history of music. In 1835 he was in London, when he, at the Philharmonic Society, conducted the performance of his Symphony in A major. During one of his visits to Britain, he made a tour to the West Highlands of Scotland, and immor- talized his impressions of those wild and romantic islands, lochs, and mountains, by his overture to ' The Isles of Fingal.' His last and greatest work, ' Elijah,' was first produced in this country, having been performed at the Birmingham Musical Fes- tival, in August, 1846. It was subsequently per- formed at Exeter Hall, London, in April, 1847, and afterwards at Gloucester Musical Festival in the same year. While in England, he had the honour of an invitation to visit the queen, on which occasion he received the most marked proofs of the esteem in which he was held by her Ma- jesty and her royal Consort. It was at the sug- gestion of the queen, who furnished him with the theme, that Mendelssohn composed his Scot- tish Overture. Soon after this he went to Switzer- land, to repose from the fatigues of study, and while there he heard of the death of a dearly be- loved sister, which event preyed hard upon his mind, and was the beginning of those ailments which finally brought him to an early grave. Whilst languishing in grief in Switzerland, he wrote the first act of an opera, ' Lorelei,' which, with some other posthumous works, has been published since his demise. During this period he was advised by his medical attendants to abstain from all mental labour. He had been afflicted with two strokes of paralysis, and his physician feared that a third would prove fatal, but he could not pause. Work was with him a law of his being. Mendelssohn could not five and be idle, and there is now no doubt that the labour he imposed upon his brain had a large share in the cause of his death. Mr. Moschelles published in the Morning Post of Thursday, November 12, the following interesting account of the last moments of Mendelssohn, which will appropriately close this brief sketch of the life of one of the greatest and most ori- ginal musicians that ever lived: — 'Mendelssohn felt the first approach of the malady which ultimately terminated his life on the 8th of October (1847). It was an attack of an apoplectic nature. From that day until the 28th he experi- 484 MEN enced moments of ease and relapses. During this period he felt sufficiently well to take several car- riage airings. On the 28th, when in full convales- cence, a second attack occurred, hut this was of short duration. He promptly recovered his senses, and his strength returned. Notwithstanding this, he felt severe attacks of headache, and could not sleep for three or four days. During the nights of the 2d and 3d of November his sleep returned, and he slept seven hours consecutively. Upon his awaking on the morning of the 3d, he felt quite well, and his family had sanguine hopes of his re- covery. He remained thus during the forenoon ; hut at two o'clock he had a relapse, and a third attack supervened more violent and more prolonged than any of the former ones. He recovered con- sciousness but slowly, after bleeding, application of leeches, and vigorous friction. He was attended by Dr. Clarus and Dr. Hammer of Leipzig. Mes- sengers had been sent for Dr. Schonbein of Berlin, whose arrival was waited for with intense anxiety, but he did not come. The night passed in alterna- tions of agitation and tranquillity. Mendelssohn recognized all persons present, but spoke little. On the morning of the 4th his state caused the most vivid inquietude. The directors of the ' Gewan- house' decided on putting off the concert which was to have taken place that evening. At the se- cond hour the sufferer became insensible, and gave no other signs of life than a strong and equal re- spiration. All the efforts of the medical men to restore sight and hearing were useless. From six till eight o'clock blisters and violent frictions were exhibited, but without success. In the meantime his features changed with frightful rapidity. At half-past eight his respiration became feebler — it was evident that his end was near. At last, at nine o'clock on the 4th, alengthened sigh announced that Mendelssohn had rendered up his soul to his Maker. Near his bed were his wife, his brother, the two doctors, Mr. Schleinitz, Mr. David, and myself. All Leipzig is in mourning.' On the after- noon of the 7th of November, 1847, his funeral ceremonies were performed with great pomp in the St. Paul's church at Leipzig, preparatory to the removal of his remains to their last resting-place at Berlin. The works of Mendelssohn, which were published previous to his death, were one opera, four overtures, two symphonies, three quartetts, two quintettes, two sonatas, a concerto for the piano-forte, a psalm, ' Non nobis,' an ' Ave Maria' tor eight voices, six books of songs without words, two phantasias, three chorales, and number- less varied themes, songs, duets, capriccios, &c, for the piano-forte, and his two imperishable orato- rios 'St. Paul' and 'Elijah.' Among his MSS., many of which have been published since his death, were an overture and symphony, several chorales, the ' Walpurgis Night,' cantatas, an operatta, 'The Son and Stranger,' some sacred pieces, and music adapted to 'Antigone,' and the '(Edipus Colon- nus.' Mendelssohn left behind him a wife and five children. His loss was mourned wherever music was studied, and wherever his works were known. And every hour since his death his great- ness is becoming more and more appreciated, and his works bid fair to become what they ought to be, the most prized and popular of all the classical works of the great masters. [J-M.] MEN MENDELSSOHN, Moses, a Jewish philoso- pher and moralist, who holds high rank among the literati of Germany, and has been dignified with the title of the Jewish Socrates, 1729-1786. MENDEZ, Moses, an English poet, died 1758. MENDEZ-PINTO, Ferdinand, a Portuguese, who sailed for the Indies in 1537, and being taken by the Moors did not return to his country until 1558. The relation of his adventures is as cunous and ex- travagant as that of the Englishman, Mandeville. MENDOZA, Antonio Hurtado De, a Por- tuguese poet, statesman, and member of the inqui- sition, died 1631. Andreo, a member of the same family, distinguished as a general, 1579-1606. MENDOZA, B. De, a Span, historian, 16th c MENDOZA, Diego Hurtado De, a Spanish diplomatist, historian, and man of letters, 1503-75. MENDOZA, Inigo Lopez De, first Marquis de Santillana, a dist. poet of Castile, 1398-1458. MENDOZA, J. G., a Spanish divine, auth. of a Hist, of China, where he was ambassador in 1584. MENDOZA, P. G. De, cardinal of Sp., 1428-95. MENEDEMAS, an eleatic philos., 4th cen. B.C. MENELAUS, a geometr. ot Alexandria, 1st c. MENENIUS-AGRIPPA, See Agrippa. MENGOLI, P., an Ital. geometrician, 1625-86. MENGOTTI, F., an Italian engineer, last cent. MENGOZZI, B., an Ital. composer, 1758-1800. MENGS, Antony Raphael, an eminent Bohemian painter, born at Aussig 1728, became painter to the king 1746, professor 1754, painter to the king of Spain 1761, and principal of the Academy of St. Luke in Florence 1769. Besides works of art, consisting both of easel pictures and frescoes, he is author of valuable treatises on sub- jects connected with the principles of painting, and the characters of the great masters. He was an intimate friend of Winckelmann. Died 1779. MENG-TSEU, a Chinese philosopher, 4th c. n.c. MENINSKI, Fr. Mesgnien, anOriental scholar, in the service of the Polish and Austrian govern- ments, 1623-1698. MENIPPUS, a Phoenician cynic, 4th cent. B.C. MENIUS, F., a learned Swede, died 1659. MENJOT, Ant., a Fr. physician, 1615-1690. MENLOES, D., a Swed. nat. philos., 17th cent. MENNANDER, C. F., a Swed. prelate, last c. MENNES, or MENNIS, Sir John, a military and naval commander, and member of the govern- ment after the restoration, kn. as a poet, 1598-1671. MENNO, called Simonis, or Simonson, from his parentage, a famous anabaptist, founder of the Mennonites, in the Low Countries, 1496-1561. MENOCHIUS, or MEKOCHIO, Jajiks, an Italian jurisconsult, 1531-1607. His son, John Stephen, a learned Jesuit, author of a Scripture Commentarv, &c, 1576-1655. MENODORUS, an Athenian sculptor, 1st cent. MENOU, James Francis, Baron De, a French general and deputy of the noblesse to the states- general, 1750-1810. MENSCHIKOFF, Alexander, the son of a Russian peasant, who rose to be a distinguished general and statesman, 1674-1729. MENTEL, John, the oldest printer of Stras- burg, originally a'writer and illuminator of MSS., for whom the invention of printing was claimed by his descendant, James Mentkl, flourished 1410- 1478. The latter, a learned physician, 1597-1671. 485 MEN MENTZEL, C, a German botanist, 1022-1701. MENZ, Fred., a Ger. antiquarian, 1680-1749. MENZ EL, Fred. William, a traitor to the court of Saxony, where he acted as cabinet secre- tary, 1726-1796. MENZINI, B., an Italian poet, 1646-1704. MENZOCEHI, F., an ltal. painter, 16th cent. MERANO, F., a Genoese painter, 1620-1657. MEBAT, L. G., a French botanist, 1712-1790. MERCATI, J. B., an ltal. engraver, 17th cent. MERCATI, M., an ltal. naturalist, 1541 -lo93. MERCATOR, Gerard, a native of Flanders, distinguished as a mathematician and geographer, especially for the method of laying down charts and maps which goes by his name. This plan, useful in navigation, represents the surface of the earth projected on a plane, so that all the meri- dians and parallels are straight lines, 1512-1594. MERCATOR, Marius, a friend of St. Augus- tine, known as a controversial writer, 5th centurv. MERCATOR, N., a Ger. mathema., died 1687. MERCIER, Bartholomew, known in France as the abbe de St. Leger, a miscel. writ., 1734-99. MERCIER, C., an ascetic writer, died 1680. MERCIEB, C. F. X., a French wr., 1763-1800. MERCIER, John, a French Hebraist and com- mentator, died 1572. His son, Josias, a learned critic, died 1626. .MERCIER, L. S., a Fr. politician, 1740-1814. MERCIER, N., a French grammarian, d. 1657. MERCIER, of La Vendee, a royalist chief, and camp marshal under the duke d'Artois, 1778-1800. MERCOEUR, Eliza, a Fr. poetess, 1809-1835. MERDDIN, a Welch poet, 6th century. MERGEY, J. De, a Fr. commander, 1536-1615. MERIAN, the name of a family of artists who flourished in Basle, 17th and 18th centuries. Mat- thew, an engraver, 1593-1651. His son, of the same name, aiso an engraver, 1621-1687. Maria Sibylla, sister of the latter, a painter and na- turalist, celebrated for her work on flowers and insects, 1647-1717. This accomplished lady was married to Andrew Graaf, a painter and architect of Nuremberg, by whom she had two daughters, both skilled m drawing, and one of them in the Hebrew language. Another member of the family, John Matthew Meeian, was distinguished as a painter, and died 1716. MERIAN, J. B., a German philos., 1723-1807. MERIGHI, R., an Italian poet, 1658-1737. MERLE, M. De, a Fr. commander, 1548-1589. MERLIN, Ambrose, who has the reputation of an enchanter in the romance of Chivalry, was a British writer, who flourished towards the latter end of the 5th century. He is said to have lived in the court of King Arthur. The work attributed to him is a book of prophecies, which have been illustrated and compared with the English annals by T. Hevwood, 1641. MERLIN, JAMES, a French priest, died 1541. MERLIN, John Joseph, an ingenious fo- reigner, who long resided in London, and invented several pieces of curious mechanism ; among these was an automaton conjuror, the principal object in his exhibition at Clerkenwell, which he en- titled ' Merlin's Cave.' Died 1803. MERLIN, F. A., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1754-1838. M ERLIN-OF-THIONVILLE, A. C, a member of the Fr. assembly and convention, 1762-1833. MI-S MERMET, C, a French poet, 1550-1602. M EH MET, L. F. E.. a Fr. author, 1763-1825. MERODACH, a king of Babvlon, 8th cent. B.C. MEROVEUS, a king of the Franks, 448-458. MERRET, Christopher, a native of Glouces- tershire, known in London as a phvsician and na- turalist, 1614-1695. MERRICK, James, a clergyman of the Church of England, chiefly known as a poet, and called by Bishop Lowth ' one of the best of men, and most eminent of scholars,' 1720-1769. MERRY, Robert, a poet and dramat., 1755-98. MERSCH, Van Deb, a Flemish officer in the service of France, who became leader of the pat- riots of Brabant in 1789. He afterwards served in the interest of the Austrians, and died 1702. MERSENNE, or MERSENNUS, Marin, a French ecclesiastic, celebrated as a mathematician and philosopher, 1588-1648. MERULA, G., an Italian savant, 1424-1494. MERULA, P., a Dutch historian, 1558-1007. MERY, F., a French ecclesiastic, died 1723. MERY, J., a French anatomist, 1645-1722. MERY, L., a controversial writer, 1727-1792. MERZ, James, a Swiss painter, 1783-1807. MERZ, Ph. P., a German theologian, b. 175 1. MESCHINOT, J., a French poet, 1430-1509. MESMER, Frederick Anthony, the first great promoter of animal magnetism, was a Ger- man physician, born at Mersburg in Suabia, 1734. His name belongs to that select" class of ' Charla- tans,' so called, who have the misfortune to an- nounce principles which they do not really under- stand themselves, but which are yet found in na- ture, and who get abused beyond measure, because they point out more than they can either explain or support to the satisfaction of science. The career of Mesmer is soon related. In 1773-4, his attention as a physician was called to the convul- sive movements by which a young lady named Oesterline was periodically affected, and in 1776 he published the theory, first suggested by this case, in a treatise entitled 'De Planetarum Influxu.' A slight verbal inaccuracy in the statement of this theory may easily make it appear, at first view, ex- travagant, but fairly stated it is this : — The hea- venly bodies, but especially the sun and moon, act upon all the elastic elements; thus, as is well known, they cause and direct the flux and reflux of the sea and the atmosphere. The whole uni- verse, however, is pervaded by an element more subtle than the air, which penetrates all bodies, to which the nervous systems of all animals as naturally respond as the eye to light, and by the periodical sway of which, the body is necessarily affected. Mesmer seems to have considered this subtle medium to be one and the same with the magnetic element, and consequently to be capable of concentration, transmission, and direction, ac- cording to the established laws of the magnet, and he soon found in practice that he could magnetize animal bodies as well as inert matter, by employ- ing the same agencies. At this time one Father Hell was professor of astronomy at Vienna, and Mesmer employed his workmen, and probably consulted the astronomer himself, to procure the most suitable magnets for his experiments. What - ever their respective shares may have been in this matter, they were shortly at issue before the pub- 486 MES lie, Hell claiming the discovery as his own. This led Meaner to take higher ground, declaring that the magnets were not at all necessary to the effects, but that they resulted from an action that was proper to animal bodies themselves. Disen- gaged from his adversary by this step in advance, our discoverer memorialised the Academy of Sciences at Paris, the Royal Society of London, and the Academy of Berlin : the two former did not condescend to reply, and the latter in their an- swer treated him as a visionary. About this time, in 1777, it was alleged that he had performed a cure, almost amounting to the miraculous, upon a Mademoiselle Paradis, who was suffering from gotta serena and convulsive movements of the eves — the case, however, has been disputed, it being known that the lady was quite blind in 1784 ; the probability is, that the effects were really produced, but were not permanent. Disre- garded by the learned bodies to whom he had ad- dressed himself, and treated as a juggling impostor by his professional brethren, Mesmer removed from Vienna to Paris in 1778, and soon acquired a prodigious popularity by his marvellous cures, and received large sums of money subscribed by his admirers. It must be supposed that his deter- mination was to rise by his discovery, and to estab- lish himself in a position which he might be able to«retain as the master of a school devoted to the new art, and to effect this he allowed it to be un- derstood that there was an esoteric doctrine of animal magnetism, with which even his most ar- dent disciples, Bergasse and Deslon, were not ac- quainted. In the same spirit, and partly, we must add, to produce a ci'isis favourable to his own action upon a great number of persons to- gether, Mesmer established the baauet, a kind of magnetic battery, around which his patients as- sembled, and when the crisis took place, (mani- fested in a great variety of startling effects), the arch-magician appeared, to moderate and direct the action in each case. The scenes at these re- unions drew the attention of the French govern- ment to Mesmer's proceedings, and in 1784 a com- mission of savants was appointed, with instruc- tions to examine the means employed by Mesmer and the results obtained. The members of this com- mission consisted of four physicians, one of whom was Dr. Guillotin, and five members of the Acade- my, Franklin, Leroi, Bailly, De Bory, and Lavoi- sier. The result of their inquiry was announced in a report drawn up by Bailly, and is well known to have been unfavourable not only to the truth of animal magnetism, but to its morality. Though Mesiner and his disciples endeavoured to keep their ground, and succeeded in establishing many societies of magnetizers, and though, soon after- wards, clairvoyance became popular, and was in- troduced as a new degree in freemasonry, the dis- coverer found it necessary to quit France, and coming to England, resided here some time under a feigned name. Mesmer passed the remainder of his life in comparative obscurity, and died in his native place 1815, doubtless much happier in knowing that his doctrine had been accepted by the learned, and had found such advocates as Deleuze and Puyscgur, than in coquetting with governments, and aggrandizing his name with a worthless popularity. In regard to his supposed MES secret, and his refusal of any intelligible explanation of his process, we may repeat here what he himself urges in his ' Memoire sur la Decouverte du Magne- tisme Animal,' namely, that no reasoning can clear up the difficulties of such a subject, but only ex- perience. There is also another consideration. Pub- lic opinion in the time of Mesmer was influenced widely and deeply by the philosophy of the ency- clopedists, and any explanation that involved the recognition of spiritual laws would be received as empirical. At the present day the acknowledgedhead of curative Mesmerism in this country, prefers total ignorance on the part of his operators, and to treat animal magnetism as a material force only. That it is force operating between substance and sub- stance there can be no question, but then, is mat- ter anything more than one form or condition of substance ? " If not, how are healings by prayer, and when the operator is far distant from his patient, to be accounted for? The truth is, neither Mesmer himself, nor any of his disciples down to the present hour, have been able to demonstrate the principles of the art, so as to include all its phenomena, because they cease to follow nature, and bow down before those false idols of the mind, against which they have been warned by Bacon, as soon as another condition of being is indicated. The Saviour himself generally healed by the touch, yet always from the spirit of love, and if the for- mer is found successful when the latter is not re- cognized, and if these touchings can be traced to their connection with material forces, it is only a proof that the material world is clothed over the spiritual, and that magnetism, gravitation, or any other term by which we designate force, is nothing but the manifested law of the Supreme Will, acting through the least things and the greatest, with or without a thankful recognition, in this condition of being, which we choose to call material. Cer- tain we are, that this whole subject is treated most unphilosophically, both by its friends and enemies, and that we must in this, as in all other cases, court and encourage nature to discover her- self if we would have her secret. — The system of Mesmer was published in German at Berlin by the famous Nicolai, under the title of'Mcsmer- ismus, &c.,' 1815. [E.R.] MESSALA, a Roman general and orator, who commanded a legion under Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, died about the year 11, aged seventy-two. MESSALINA, Statilia, a Roman lady, who had for her fifth husband the emperor Nero, who had murdered her fourth husband, Atticus Visti- mns. After the death of the emperor in the year G8, she devoted herself to literary pursuits. MESSALINA, Valeria, daughter of Valerius Messalinus Barbatus, was a Roman lady, who became the wife of Claudius, and shared with him the imperial throne. Her licentious conduct is un- paralleled in history, for she not only made her husband's palace the scene of her debaucheries, but often quitted it at night, and acted as a com- mon prostitute. When summoned by the enraged emperor, after some fresh extravagance in the year 48, she attempted to kill herself, but wanted cour- age, and her enemy Narcissus, who dreaded *the result of the interview, caused her to be despatched by a soldier. MESSENIUS, John, a Swedish savant, author MES of • Scandia Dlustrata,' 1584-1637. His son, Ar- nold, historian of the Swedish nobility, ex. 1648. MESSIER, Cir., a Fr. astronomer, 1730-1817. MESSIS, Quentin, a Flem. painter, 1450-1529. MESTON, W., a Scottish poet, 1G88-1745. METASTASIO, Pietko, the son of a pastry- cook named Trapassi, was born at Rome in 1(598. When he was no more than ten years old, his talent for extemporaneous versification attracted the no- tice of the accomplished lawyer, Gravina, who adopted and educated him, and, with a whim savouring of the taste of the Italian academies, made him exchange his family name for its Hel- lenic synonyme Metastasio. The youth became celebrated as an improvisatore before completing his eighteenth year. Soon afterwards he inherited from his benefactor a considerable fortune ; but he spent it in no long time, chiefly through kindly but careless benevolence. He now began to write for the stage, gained in this field great fame but little profit at Naples and Rome, and, in 1729, was appointed Imperial Laureate at Vienna. His duties consisted in writing the Italian text for operas ; and this continued to be his occupation for the remainder of his life, except during the closing of the theatre at Vienna on the breaking out of the first war between Austria and Prussia in 1741. He died at Vienna in 1782. The ' libretto ' of the operas, usually quite worthless, and treated merely as an adjunct to the music, be- came, in the hands of Metastasio, genuinely and beautifully poetical. The lyrical turn of his genius fitted him admirably for giving expression in words to the sentiment of the airs interspersed through the recitative of the dialogue ; and many of the songs in his operas, with some separate composi- tions of the sort (such as l La Partenza'), are ex- quisite for the delicacy and fanciful charm both of their feeling and of their diction. He gave simi- lar excellences, in a wonderful degree, to the conception and design of his dramas, and to many passages of the dialogue. His works have a mo- notonous sweetness, an utter want of characteriza- tion, and a great deficiency in reality and practical interest. But the best of them, such as ' L'Olim- J)iade,' breathe a romantic air which is very de- ightful. [W.S.] METCALFE, Charles Theophilus, Lord, an East Indian officer and diplomatist, who was appointed governor of Jamaica after the emanci- pation of the negroes, and subsequently governor of Canada, 1785-1846. M ETELLI, Agustino, an Ital. artist, 1607-60. METELLUS, the name of several illustrious Romans : — 1. Caius C^ecilius, the conqueror of Macedonia and proconsul of Spain, known from 148 to 141 b.c. 2. Quintus C^ecilius, his son, conqueror of Jugurtha in Numidia, exiled B.C. 100 by the influence of Marius and Saturninus. 3. Quintus Cecilius, son of the latter, and a parlizan of Sylla against Marius, distinguished in the Spanish war, died B.C. 63. 4. Quintus Ca:- CiLius, son of the last named, distinguished in the war against Caesar, killed himself alter the defeat of Thapsus, B.C. 46. METELLUS, H., a Latin poet, 1080-1157. METEREN, E. Van, a Flem. hist., 1516-1612. METHODIUS, the name of three personages in ecclesiastical history: — 1. Saint METHODIUS, MEY author of a poem written against Porphyry, and some theological treatises, only fragments of" which remain ; supposed to have died a martyr about 31 1 or 312. He was successively bishop of Olympus and Tyre. 2. Methodius, sumamed ' the Con- fessor/ patriarch of Constantinople in 842. known as a partizan of the image-worshippers, died 847. 3. A Methodius, who is remembered along with his brother, Cyrillus, as the first preachers of Christianity among the Sclavonians, 9th century. METIUS, Adrian, a Dutch mathematician, son of an engineer, of the same names, 1571-1635. His brother, James, said to have invented teles- copes, died 1636. METKERKE, A., a Flem. scholar, 1528-1591. METOCHITA, T., a Gr. historian, died 1332. METON, an Athenian astronomer, 5th ct. b.c. METTRIE, J. Offray De La, a pupil of Boer- haave, kn. as a physician and philosopher, 1709-51. METZGER, J. D., a Fr. physician, 1739-1805. METZU, Gabriel, a Dutch painter, 1615-58. MEUNG, J. De, a French poet, 1260-1320. MEUNIER, H. H. J., a Fr. general, 1758-1832. MEUNIER, J. A., a French writer, 1707-1780. MEURISSE, M., a Fr. theologian, died 1644. MEURSIUS, John, a famous Dutch critic, philologist, and historian, professor of Greek at Levden, 1579-1639. His son, John, an archaeolo- gist, 1613-1653. MEUSCHEN, J. G., a German theologian and philologist, 1680-1743. His son, Frederick Christian, a writer on conchology, born 1719. MEUTEW, Anthony Francis Vander, a Flemish painter, cele. for his battle-pieces, 1634-90. MEXIA, Pedro, a Span, historian, died 1552. MEYER, Conrad, a Swiss painter, 1695-1766. MEYER, Felix, a Swiss painter, 1653-1713. MEYER, J., a Flemish historian, 1491-1552. MEYER, Jer., a German painter, 1735-1789. MEYER, J. D., a Dutch jurist, 1780-1834. MEYER, Philippe, was born at Strasburg, in Alsatia, in the year 1737. At an early age he went to college to study for the protestant church, but the love of music interfered greatly with his theological studies. At twenty years of age he by accident became possessed of an old harp, and having made some proficiency upon this instru- ment, he forthwith devoted himself exclusively to the study of music. Some time after this he studied the science of music under Miithel, a pupil of the great Bach, and here Meyer's style may be said to have been formed. He soon after this went to Paris, and thence to London, where he resided for several years. Having returned to France, he was induced to compose for the opera, where his style procured for him the sobriquet of the Young Gluck. Several circumstances tended soon after this to render Meyer unpopular; he returned to London about the year 1784, where he gave up all pretensions as a performer, and lived upon his re- putation as a composer. He died in 1819, leaving two sons musicians and composers, viz., Philippe. jun., and Frederick Charles. [J.M.] MEYER, Theodore, a painter and engraver of Zurich, 1572-1658. His son, Rodolih, hb engraver, died 1638. His second son, Conrad, a painter and engraver, 1618-1689. MEYNIER, C, a French painter, 1768-1832. MEYNIER, H., a French historian, 16th cent. 488 MEY MEYRAUX, P. S., a Swiss naturalist, d. 1832. MEYBICK, Sir S. R., a lawyer of the ecclesi- astical court, author of a ' Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour,' on which subject he is consi- dered an authority, 1783-1848. MEYSSENS, John, a Flemish painter, born 1612. His son, Cornelius, an engraver, b. 1646. MEYTENS, M. De, an Austr. pain., 1695-1779. MEZERAI, Francis Eudes De, one of the most celebrated of French historians, who flourished in the time of Richelieu and Colbert, was born in 1610, and commenced his career as a political writer. He was some time attached to the army as com- missary, but more lately received a pension from the court as a man of letters, which he lost ' for writing what he thought to be the truth,' d. 1683. MEZERAY, J., a French actress, 1772-1823. MEZIRIAC, Claude Gaspard Bachet De, a Fr. archaeologist and mathematician,- 1581-1638. MICAH, the name of two Jewish prophets, the elder of whom fi. in the 9th cent. B.C. ; the latter, author of the book of that name, in the 8th c. B.C. MICHAEL I., emperor of the East, successor of Nicephorus, 811, abdicated on occasion of a mili- tary sedition, in favour of Leo the Armenian, 813, died 846. Michael, II., succeeded Leo the Arme- nian 820, died 829. Michael III., succeeded in the third year of his age, 842, under the guardian- ship of his mother, Theodora. In 859 he was per- suaded by his uncle, Bardas, to assume the power himself, and his mother shortly after died of grief in a convent. In 866 he put Bardas to death, and made Basil, the Macedonian, his associate in the empire, who killed him, 867. Michael IV., was raised to the throne by Zoe, after she had poisoned her husband, Romanus Argyrus, 1034 ; died 1041. Micilel V., nephew of the preceding, occupied the throne a few months after his death, and was dethroned by Zoe and Theodora, 1042. Michael VL, succeeded Theodora 1056, and was dethroned by his officers, who elevated Isaac Commenus to the imperial dignity, 1057. Michael VIL, son of Constantine Ducas and Eudoxia, succeeded his father 1067 ; and, being dethroned by Nicephorus Botoniates in 1078, retired to a monastery, and died archbishop of Ephesus. Michael (Palaeo- logus) VIII., became »egent for John Lascaris 1258, and emperor in 1261, after deposing and putting out the eyes of his protege; died, after a troubled reign, 1282. MICHiEL, patriarch of Constantinople, 1043-57. MICHEL, vaivode of Wallachia, 1595. MICHAEL, king of the Bulgarians, 1245-1258. MICHAEL, tha first of the name, grand duke of Russia, reigned 1175. The second, grand duke of Kiev, killed by the Tartars 1245. They're? (or the second), grand duke of Russia, succeeded 1304, put to death by the Tartars 1317. The fourth, first czar of Russia, of the house of Romanof, called IflCHJEL Feodorwitch, born 1598, elected 1613, died 1645. He was succeeded by his son, Alexis. MICHAEL, kins of Poland, elected 1669, d. 1673. MICHEL ANGELO DA CARAVAGGIO. See Caravaggio. MICHAEL ANGELO DELLA BATTAGLIE, whose proper name was M. A. Cerquozzi, a Roman painter, 1600-1660. MICHAELIS, J. B., a German poet, 1746-72. M1CHAELIS, John David, a famous Orien- MIC talist and biblical critic, was bom at Halle, 1717, where his father, Christian Benedict Michaelis, was professor of divinity and the Oriental lan- guages. He entered the university in 1733, and was admitted master of philosophy, and became assistant lecturer under his father in 1739. In 1746, he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy in the university of Gottingen, hav- ing previously visited England, and officiated as preacher at the German chapel, St. James's palace. During the remainder of his life he was associated with the principal learned societies of Europe, and was raised, in 1786, to the rank of Aulic Counsellor in Hanover, besides being em- ployed in many affairs of moment requiring the exercise of his statesmanship. His religious opinions were unsettled, but the strictest integrity formed the basis of his conduct. Died 1791. MICHAELIS, John Henry, great uncle of the preceding, born 1668, was a teacher of the Oriental languages at the university of Halle, and in 1699 became professor of Greek m the same in- stitution ; in 1707 keeper of the university library ; and in 1732 senior of the faculty of divinity, and inspector of the theological seminary. Died 1738. MICHAUD, C. I. F., a Fr. general, 1753-1835. MICHAUD, J., a French historian, 1767-1839. MICHAULT, J. B., a Fr. philologist, 1707-70. MICHAULT, P., a French poet, died 1467. MICHAUX, Andre, a French traveller, and writer on the botany of foreign parts, bom at Ver- sailles 1746, died at Madagascar 1802. His son, Francis Andre, a writer on the forest trees of North America, &c, 1746-1802. MICHEL, C. L. S., a Fr. statesman, 1754-1814. MICHEL, J., a Gascon poet, died about 1700. MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI, was born at Castel Caprese in the diocese of Arezzo in Tuscany, 6th March, 1475. He was apprenticed for three years to Domenico Ghirlandajo on 1st April, 1488. — His earlier studies were made in the so-called academy of Lorenzo de Medici, a garden containing sculptures near the church of St. Mark, and he was early patronised by that prince, after whose death in 1492, Michelangelo removed to Bologna; he returned to Florence in 1494, and now attained, by a statue of the ' Sleeping Cupid,' a great reputation. This statue was sold as an antique at Rome, which led Michelangelo to try his fortunes there, and he then executed his cele- brated Pietd, now in St. Peter's. — He returned to Florence at the commencement of the six- teenth century, and further distinguished himself by his colossal David, now on the Piazza Gran- duca, and appeared for the first time in the char- acter of a painter; being commissioned by the Gonfaloniere Soderiui to paint one end of the Council Hall, the other end being awarded to Leo- nardo Da Vinci. Though Michelangelo made his cartoon known as the world-celebrated ' Cartoon of Pisa,' he never commenced the painting; the cartoon was exhibited in 1506, and created a great sensa- tion among the artists of Florence; it became, says Benvennto Cellini, ' The School of the World.'— Michelangelo had visited Rome a second time dur- ing its progress by the invitation of Julius II., and at Bologna in 1507 he made the famous colossal statue of that pontiff, which was afterwards con- verted into a cannon and used against the pope by 489 MIC the Bolognose. In 1508 commences the great career of Michelangelo as a painter; he then visited Rome for the third time, and was commissioned by Julius II. to paint the ceiling of the Sistine chapel; Raphael was ordered at the same time to decorate the Statute, or dwelling rooms of the Vatican palace. The ceiling was finished on All- Saints' Day, 1st November, 1512, the actual painting ot the frescoes having occupied only twenty months, the cartoons occupying the greater portion of the interval. These frescoes represent — the creation, of the world, and of man ; his fall ; and the early history of the world with reference to man's final redemption and salvation : they are the grandest productions of modern art, greatly superior to the ' Last Judgment' executed on the altar wall upwards of twenty years after- wards. — Michelangelo was occupied also during the progress of this ceiling with the monument of Julius, which was, however, finally suspended by the death of the pope in 1513; what was done of the monu- ment was arranged and put up in the church of San Pietro in Montorio ; the celebrated statue of Moses was one of the sculptures for the intended mauso- leum. Michelangelo Avas now for twenty years kept from the carrying out of his great design of the history of man in the Sistine chapel. Leo X. oc- cupied him for nine years in selecting marble in the quarries of Pietra Santa for the facade of the church of San Lorenzo at Florence, and he was employed in the Medici chapel of the same church during the pontificate of Adrian VI., and part of that of Clement VII., but finally in the tenth year of this pope, 1533, he was ordered to go on with the frescoes of the Sistine, and he completed the ' Last Judgment ' in 1541, in the pontificate of Paul III. — His last works in painting were the frescoes of the Capella Paolina, executed for Paul III., finished in 1549; he is said never to have {minted in oil-colours. — This extraordinary man lad appeared in a third character when seventy years oi age, he was then, 1546, appointed to suc- ceed Antonio da San Gallo as architect of St. Peter's, and he continued architect during five pontificates, carrying the building out to the base of the cupola. (See Bramante.) This great artist was also a poet: he was never married. — Michelangelo died 17th February, 1564, having very nearly completed his eighty-ninth year ; his body was carried to Florence and deposited in a vault in the church of Santa Croce. — There is little space in a limited work of this character to enter upon anv details of the extraordinary works of Michelangelo, spreading as they do, over four provinces of the fine arts ; most opinions concern- ing him are uniform in their expressions of praise : his name was the last word pronounced by Sir Joshua Reynolds in the Royal Academy, and even his great rival, Raphael, is said to have exclaimed that he thanked Cod he was born in the days of Michelangelo. His most extraordinary achieve- ment is doubtless the ceiling of the Sistine chapel ; the Prophets and Sibyls of this great work are, for sublimity and grandeur, indisputably the triumphs of modern art. The element of his style, whether in painting or in sculpture, is an abstract imper- sonation of dignity, which sentiment prevails un- der whatever ercmtion the subject may be repre- sented. A similar uniformity of style in design, MID is of such constancy as to amount to manner, and this mannerism of form is the chief defect of all the works of this great artist; bu,t one overcharged muscular standard of form is evident for man, wo- man, or child, of every age and of every , Count Di, an Austrian general and writer on tactics, 1608-1681. MONTECUCULLI, Sebastiano Di, a gentle- man of Ferrara, put to death on the allegation of having caused the death of the son of Francis I., supposed to have been poisoned in 1536. MONTEGRE, A. F. Jenin De, a French phy- sician, and wr. on animal magnetism, 1779-1808. MONTEMAYOR, G. De, a Sp. poet, 1520-62. MONTEMERLO, J. S., an Italian poet, 1515- 1572. Hisson, Nicholas, histor. of Tortona, 1618. MONTENAULT, C. P., a Fr. writer, died 1749. MONTKRCHI, J., an Ital. antiquarian, 17th c. MONTE RE AU, P. De, a Fr. architect, d. 1266. MONTEREUL, or MONTEREUIL, Bernar- MON nrx De, a French Jesuit, known as an ecclesias- tical historian, &c, 1596-1646. MONTESPAN, Frances Athenais, Mar- chioness De, one of the mistresses of Louis XIV., was born 1641, married to the marquis de Montes- pan in 1663, and supplanted the duchess de la Valliere in the affections of the king, 1668. She maintained her influence over Louis several years, and had three children by him, but was compelled to give way on his marriage with Madame de Maintenon. Died 1717. [Birth-place of Montesquieu. J MONTESQUIEU, Carl De Secondat, Baron De, was born on the 18th January, 1689, at the castle of La Brede, near Bourdeaux, whence he held another title of nobility. He was a very hard student in his youth. He seems at first to have devoted himself to physical science, but he turned his more mature attention to law, the here- ditary profession of his family. In the year 1717 he succeeded both to the family estate and to the perpetual presidency of the parliament of Bour- deaux. While he occupied that high judicial office he laboriously performed its functions. His con- science would not permit him to sacrifice the pub- lic business to his literary and philosophical tastes, and he resigned his chair in 1726. He had five years earlier printed the most popular, but not the most important of his works, the ' Lettres Persan- nes.' A violent literary dispute has arisen from the question whether he withdrew or disavowed some of the religious opinions in this work, with the view of removing trie king's opposition to his being a member of the Academy — at all events he succeeded in gaining his object. In 1748 he pub- lished his ' Esprit des Lois,' one of the most la- borious books ever written. It had an immense influence on the literature of the age, and founded that method of philosophising and finding out facts to justify opinion, which characterized his fol- lowers of the French school, and entered in a great measure into the spirit of the Scottish school of philosophy. Like most original minded men he brought to his work a degree of genius and know- ledge which his imitators could not cope with, and which concealed, in his hands, the defects of the system. His life is the history of his works, and the even tenor of his days was little disturbed by external events. Little is known of his per- sonal character and habits, and it is hence in- 505 fastened with a padlock — "Come,'' said he, j Montfort as president, to administer the affairs of MON teWing to find a curious notice of him in the memoirs of Lord Chailcnunt. lie, when a young man, visited Montesquieu. They set off together on a ramble, when, as the narrator says, 'we soon arrived at the skirts of a beautiful wood, cut into walks, and paled round, the entrance to which was barricaded oy a moveable bar, about three feet searching in his pocket, "it is not worth our while to wait for the key : you, I am sure, can leap as well as I can, and this bar shall not stop me." So saying he ran at the bar and tairly jumped over it, while we followed him with amazement, but not without delight to see the philosopher likely to be- come our play-fellow. This behaviour had exactly the effect which he meant it should have. He had observed our awkward timidity, and was determined to rid us of it.' — {Memoirs, 33). Montesquieu died in February, 1755. [J.H.B.] MONTET, J'., a French chemist, 1722-1782. MON first incident in it being Montlort's recall from his government. In 1208 Henry had convoked a parliament, to procure supplies for the conquest of Sicily. The occasion was seized by Montfort and the barons, to make an armed protest against his government, the end of which was the ap- pointment of twenty-four of their number, with the kingdom. Such a truce co ' nature of things be of Ion could not in the very king and his son, Prince Edward, endeavour- ing to reconquer the royal authority by force of arms, were defeated at the battle of Lewes, 1264, an event which transferred the government, in reality, to Simon de Montfort, though he acknow- ledged the bishop of Chichester and the earl of Gloucester as his associates. In the year following, January, 1265, De Montfort convened a parlia- ment, in which representatives were sent from the boroughs for the first time on record, and thus MONTETH, or MONTE ITH, Robert, names ! originated the House, of Commons. He was now common to two Scottish writers, one on historical \ the leader of the popular party, and was obliged subjects, and the other a collector of all the epi- i to take the field by the disaffection of the earl of tanhs of Scotland ; last century MONTEZUMA, the first of the name, king of Mexico, reigned 1155-1483. The second, Mexican emperor at the time of the Spanish invasion, suc- ceeded 1502, and died of a wound from a stone while in the hands of the Spaniards 1520. One of his children, baptized by the Spaniards, became the stock of the counts of Montezuma and Tula. MONTFAUCON. Bernard De, a French] Benedictine, distinguished as a critical and anti- j quarian writer, 1655-1741. MONTFORT, A. De, a Dutch painter, 1532-83. ! MONTFORT, L. M. Grtgnon De, a Fr. Jesuit j and missionary, kn. as a relig. founder, 1673-1716. MONTFORT, Simon De. 1. This name, fam- \ ous in the middle age history of France ana Eng : Gloucester, who soon after, with many other of the ' barons, joined Prince Edward, previously a cap- tive with his father in the camp of Montfort. Tne battle of Evesham. 5th August, 1265, decided the contest. Simon de Montfort, overpowered by num- bers, fell in the midst of his menus, and the ruin of his family succeeded as a matter ot course. [E.R.] MONTGERNON, Louis Basil Carre De, a counsellor of the parliament of Paris, famous for his vindication of the miracles wrought at the tomb of the Abbe Paris, for which he was impri- soned in the Bastih?, and then exiled, 1686-1754. MONTGLOT, Marquis De, a French histo- rian, camp-marshal time of Louis XIII. and Louis XIV., 1610-1675. MONTGOLFIER, the name of two brothers, lanu, was first borne by a knight crusader, de- ' natives of France, celebrated in the history of air- scended from the lords of Montfort, near Paris. His career dates from 1199, when he went to the balloons, and in the manufacture of paper. The elder, Joseph, lived 1740-1810. The younger, Holy Land, companion-in-arms of Thibauit, count j James Stephen, bora 1745, commenced his expe of Champagne, but it becomes of more historical | riments 1782. died 1799, importance in 1208, when he was appointed chief of the barbarous crusade against the Albigenscs, then protected by Raymond, count of Toulouse. In 1213 he obtained a great victorv at Muret over the confederated armies of that prince, of his bro- ther-in-law, Peter, king of Arragon, and the nobles who had united with them, and was then appointed I by the pope sovereign of all the countries con- quered from the alleged heretics. He was killed while besieging Toulouse, 1218. 2. The Simon De Montfort of English history, was a younger son of the preceding, who quitted France either in 1231 or 1236, in consequence of a dispute with Queen Blanche, mother of Saint Louis. He was the heir of estates in this country, which had been held by his family in the reign of King John, and on coming to settle here, received possession of them with the title of earl of Leicester. Henry III., in fact, received him into great favour, per- mitted him to many his sister, the countess dowa- ger of Pembroke, and appointed him lieutenant- general, or seneschal, of (iaeeony. From this time the interest of English history turns on the dis- putes between this" turbulent "subject at the head of a confederacy of the barons and the crown, the MONTGOMERY, the name of a noble family, sprung from Roger de Montgomery, a com- panion-in-arms of William the Conqueror. The son of Roger was banished the kingdom in the reign of Henry I., and one of his descendants was created earl ot Eglinton by James IV., 1502. Ga- Bfiifid Montgomery, a member of this family, had the misfortune to wound Henry II. in a tour- nament, of which the king died, 1559. He after- wards distinguished himself in the religious wars of France, and was beheaded by order of the catholic queen, Catherine de Medici, 1576. MONTGOMMERY, Richard, an Irish general, dist. as a nartizan of the Americans, 1737-1775. MONTI, J., an Italian botanist. 1682-1760. MONTI, P. M., an Italian cardinal, 1675-1754. MONTI, Vincexzo, an Italian poet and dra- matist, kn. also as a versatile politician, 1733-1828. MONTJOIE, F. C. Galart De, a French royalist and man of letters, author of ' Principles of the French Monarchy,' and of a ' History of Robespierre's Conspiracy,' 1756-1816. MONTMORENCY, the name of a noble French family, the first of whom was BoiTCHABD, one of the great feudatories of the 10th century. Those 50G MON distinguished in succeeding ages are, — Matthew, grand constable 1130, regent during the crusade 1147, died 1160. Matthew, grandson of the latter, called the great constable, served in the crusade against the Albigenses, and under the re- gency of Blanche, during the minority of her son, Louis IX., died 1230. Charles, marshal and governor of Normandy, died 1381. Anne, con- stable of France, born 1493, companion-in-arms and in captivity of Francis I., 1525-26, gained the battle of"Dreux against the Calvinists 1562, and that of St. Denis, where he fell gloriously, covered with wounds, 1567. Henry I., second son of Anne, born 1544, fought with his father, and was created marshal in Piedmont 1566. He was one of the first to recognize Henry IV., who made him constable 1593; died 1614. Henry II., son of the latter, born 1595, was named admiral by Louis XIII. as early as 1612, and greatly distinguished himself against the Calvinists. He was beheaded, after vainly opposing himself to the ambition of Richelieu, 1632. He was the last of the first ducal branch of this house. His sister, Char- lotte Margaret, became wife of the second Henry, prince of Conde, and mother of the great Conde ; died 1650. MONTMORT, Peter Raymond De, a French geometrician, the disciple and friend of Male- branche, 1678-1719. MONTPENSIER, Anne Maria Louisa D'Or- leaxs, known as Mademoiselle, Duchess De, was the daughter of Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII. and of Marie de Bourbon. She is dist. for her part in the wars of the Fronde, and is au. of 'Memoirs' and some romances, 1627-1693. MONTPENSIER, Anthony Philip D'Or- leans, Due De, younger brother of Louis Philippe, and an officer under Dumouriez, 1775-1807. MONTPENSIER, Catherine Maria of Lorraine, Duchesse De, daughter of the duke of Guise, and wife of the second Louis, due de Mont- pensier, noted for her hatred against Henry III., during the wars of the league, 1552-1596. MONTPENSIER, Charles. See Bourbon. MONTPENSIER, Francis De Bourbon, Due De, known as the prince dauphin, distin- guished in the religious wars, and one of the first to acknowledge Henry IV., 1539-1592. MONTROSE, James Graham, marquis of, b. 1612, was in early life attached to the covenanters, but afterwards entered the service of Charles I., for whom he gained several advantages. After the death of Charles I. he retired to France, and then to Germany, and took part in the last cam- paigns of the seven years' war. He next made a descent on Scotland in favour of Charles II., but, abandoned by his troops, he was delivered to the parliament, and executed at Edinburgh 1650. MOXTUCCI, A., an It. philologist, 1762-1829. MONTUCLA, J. S., a Fr. mathem., 1725-99. MONVEL, J. M. Boutet De, a French dra- matic writer and actor, 1745-1811. MOOR, Karel De, a Dutch paint., 1656-1738. MOORCROFT, William, a writer of travels to the Himalayan parts of Hindostan, died 1823. MOORE, Eowakd, son of a nonconformist minister of Abingdon, distinguished as a poet and miscellaneous writer, 1712-1757. MOORE, F., an African traveller, last century. MOO MOORE, John, an eminent prelate and pro- moter of letters in the reign of William and Mary. bom 1662, died bishop of Ely, 1714. MOORE, John, archbishop of Canterbury, was b. in Gloucestershire, where his father was a gra- zier, 1733; promoted to the primacy 1783; d. 1805. MOORE, John, a physician and miscellaneous writer, was born at Stirling 1729, where his father, the Rev. Charles Moore, was minister of the Episcopal church. In 1772, he set out on his travels as the medical attendant and tutor of the young duke of Hamilton, returning home in 1778. The observations made in the course of their ex- tended tour over Europe, furnished the materials of his most interesting works. Died 1802. MOORE. Sir John Moore was born at Glas- gow in 1761. He was the son of Dr. John Moore, the well-known physician and author. He entered the army young, and soon rose to rank and distinc- tion. He served in Corsica in 1785, and afterwards in the West Indies, in Holland, and Egypt. In 1802 he did permanent benefit to our army by dis- ciplining several regiments as light infantry in a camp of instruction in Kent. He then introduced several tactical improvements, which have since been generally adopted in our service. After tak- ing part in two expeditions to Sicily and Swe- den, Moore received his most important command in 1808. He was then placed at the head of the British army, which was to co-operate with the patriots in Spain and Portugal, against the French invaders of the Peninsula. Moore advanced through the north of Spain to Salamanca ; but the Spanish armies with which he was to co-operate were routed by the French ; Madrid, which he was to protect, surrendered while Moore was on his march ; the reports and promises of the Spanish juntas and their agents proved to be mere bombast and lies ; and Moore found that the whole of the vast French armies of the Peninsula were gather- ing round him to overwhelm the small force that he commanded. A rapid retreat to the northern coast of Spain was the only chance of saving the English troops from destruction or surrender. This retreat was made in the midst of the severe winter of 1808-9, through the rugged country of Galicia ; and it is almost unparalleled in military his- tory for the sufferings of the retiring army. Moore at last reached Corunna, closely pursued by supe- rior forces under Soult. Transports lay in the harbour to receive the British troops; but Soult pressed hastily forward, so that it was impos. 1821 - [E-R-l ■ ADA3IK, whose maiden name was ooaannah Curchod, was born in 1739, in the moontam village of Grassy, situated between the Pays de Vaud and Franche-Comte. Her father wae a man of considerable talents as a pastor of tbe Swiss church; her mother was descended from an ancient family of Provence, who had fled M Switzerland on the revocation of the edict of 2!52«ji5 f^ m the ^"^S article, this EEflZri** J W f* , mamed to the mi"i*ter JMecfcer, and she greatly distinguished herself dur- Jueterms of office in every possible form of !?f B * f4lfa ""' Sbe en *tcd *n hospital in Paris with g ^ " 01 ^' w " • £P* reformer of prison •boaea, and surrounded fcrself with the most dis- 5» ,, ^. Blen w, 'o offered her the !*y " A ": /" * gff»t learning, and her rare 17%, the year JT" 1 ** ^ *B«flections on Divorce.' k i-of* l"* 1 ""^ °7 her husban.l in 6 [E.R] alem, d. 1068 alter NEL NEEDHAM, John Tuberville, a Rom.in Catholic divine, distinguished as a naturalist and physiologist, 1713-1781. NEEDHAM, M., a political writer, 1620-1G78. NEEDHAM, W., an anatomical wr., died 1691. NEEF, or NEEFS, Peter, the elder of the name, a Flemish painter, 1570-1651. The younger, his son, born about 1600. NEEL, L. B., a French author, died 1754. NEELE, Henry, a poet and miscellaneous writer, bom 1798, died by his own hand 1828. NEER, Arnold Vandkr, a Dutch painter, 1619-1683. His son and pupil, Eglon Henimuo, distinguished for his portraits and historial com- positions, 1643-1703. NEGRI, P., a Venetian painter, 17th century. NEGRI, Virginius, an Ital. religieuse, d. 1555. NEGRO, NERO, or NIGER, Andalone De, an astronomer of Genoa, born 1270. NEGRO, F., an Italian savant, 16th century. NEHEMLAH, a celebrated Jew of the captivity, who obtained permission of Artaxerxes Longi- manus to rebuild the Temple, and governed the people, 5th century b.c. NELEDINSKJ-MELEZKJ, Jurj Alexan- rowitsch, a Russian song-writer, 1751-1829. 630 [Birth-plnce of XolsonJ NELSON. Horatio Nelson was born 2(^h September, 1758, at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk. His father was a clergyman of the Church of England, and the rector of Burnham Thorpe parish. His uncle, by the mother's side, Captain Suckling, commanded the Raisonnable, a sixtv-four gun ship, on board of which young Nelson was entered as a midshipman at the age of twelve. He was a lad of weakly frame, and seemed ill suited for the hardships of a seafaring life. But he had moral courage as well as physical courage vr , 1 £ hest order - His strong sense of duty, sublimed by earnest religious feeling, gave him at once the keenest incentive to exertion, and a never- tailing stay and support amid the vicissitudes of lortune. As boy, and as man, he won the love as well as the confidence of all whom he acted with, whether as superiors, equals, or subordinates. The d.-tails of Nelson's early life, as given in Nmt hey s admirable biography, abound in traits wlueh mark out the spirit of the future victor of ■nd Iraialgar, and of the almost idolized NEL chief of the British navy. — In 1773, Nelson served in the expedition to the Polar seas under Commo- dore Phipps. In 1777 he was made a lieutenant, and two years afterwards he obtained the rank of post-captain, and the command of the Hinchin- brooke of 28 guns. He distinguished himself in some desperate attacks on the Spanish forts in Nicaragua, and served on the American coast till the general peace in 1783. — In 1784 he was ap- pointed to the Boreas, and for some time was stationed in the West Indies. He here showed his political courage and independence of character by stopping the contraband traffic which the Americans carried on with our colonies. This had been connived at, and even sanctioned by the British authorities in the islands, and Nelson ran the greatest risk of ruin in purse and in profes- sional prospects by the sturdy course which he pursued. He said himself afterwards of this trying part of his career, ' Conscious rectitude bore me through it ; ' and he obtained in the end the just thanks of our government for his patriotic conduct. While in the West Indies he married Mrs. Nisbet, the widow of Dr. Nisbet, a physician. — When England took part in the wars of the French revolution, Nelson was appointed to the Agamemnon, a 64 gun-ship. He did good service on board of her in the Mediterranean during 1793, 1794, and 1795, and he equally signalized himself on shore in Corsica, while co-operating with Paoli and the patriotic party in that island against the French. He lost an eye at the siege of Calvi. In 1797 he took a distinguished part in Jervis's victory over the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent. He commanded the Captain, 74, in that action ; and boarded and captured two of the enemy's large ships, the San Nicolas and the San Josef. He led the boarders himself from the first of these prizes to the other, exclaiming the well-known words, 'Westminster Abbey or vic- tory!' — He was now knighted, and advanced to the rank of rear-admiral. In 1797 he led an attack on the island of TenerifFe, which was beaten off with severe loss to the assailants. Nelson, who led the attack in person, lost his right arm, and his life was saved with the greatest difficulty by his son-in-law, Lieutenant Nesbit. In a memorial which he was required to present, as a matter of form, after this action, to entitle him to a pension, he gave in the following cata- logue of services performed by him during the war. He had been in four actions with the fleets of the enemy, in three cutting out expeditions, and in taking three towns. He had served ashore with the army four months, and commanded the bat- teries in two sieges. He had assisted in the capture of seven sail of the line, six frigates, four corvettes, eleven privateers, and fifty sail of merchant vessels. He had been actually per- sonally engaged with the enemy one hundred and twenty times, in which service he had lost his right eye and his right arm, and received several severe wounds and contusions in the body. — In 1798 he rejoined the fleet in the Mediterranean, and was sent with a squadron to watch the French expedition which was fitting out at Toulon, and which ultimately escaped by favour of the weather, and reached Egypt. Nelson did not arrive off Egypt in time to prevent Buonaparte's army from NEL landing, but he found the French fleet in Aboukir Bay, on the 1st of August, and though it far outnumbered his own force, he instantly attacked and nearly destroyed it in a battle, which it is hard to match in naval warfare, either for the genius shown by the victorious admiral in his tactics, or the heroism which he and his men dis- played throughout the contest. This, the battle of the Nile, was, as Nelson truly said, not a mere victory, it was a conquest ; and Napoleon in his memoirs bears ample testimony to its decisive effects on the French prospects. Nelson was now raised to the peerage, and honours of the highest kind were heaped on him by every Court that was engaged in war with France. He now took an active part in restoring the royal family of Naples to the throne of that country; and formed an un- fortunate attachment for Lady Hamilton, a compan- ion of the Neapolitan Queen, which led to the destruction of Nelson's domestic happiness; and caused his fame to be sullied by his lending his aid to the cruel reprisals which the mean and cowardly Bourbons of Naples took on the chiefs of their lately insurgent subjects. In 1801, Nelson was second in command of the expedition which was sent against Denmark. On the 2d of April in that year, he led the advanced squadron of the fleet against the Danish capital, and fought the desperate battle of Copenhagen. He refused to obey the signal to retire, which the commander-in-chief, alarmed at his peril, displayed ; and continued the action till the Danish line of defences was nearly , destroyed. A flag of truce was then sent by him, and after some negotiation the Danes submitted to the requisitions of the English government. On the renewal of the war between England and France, after the breach of the peace of Amiens, in 1803, Nelson received the command of the Mediterranean fleet. He blockaded Toulon for many months, but at length the French squadron under Admiral Villeneuve escaped to sea, and effected a junction with the Spanish ships off Cadiz. The combined fleets now sailed for the West Indies, and thither and back again to Europe did Nelson follow them, twice traversing the Atlantic in unremitting but unsuccessful chase. When Nelson anchored at Gibraltar on the 20th June, 1805, he went on shore for the first time since 16th June, 1803. In his own words, ' he had not had his foot out of his ship, the Victory, for two years, wanting only ten days.' For the seamanship and resolution which the English admiral showed during this arduous f>art of his career, the worthiest eulogium is to be ound in the writings of a French naval officer, in Captain Jurien de la Graviere's History of the Last Naval War. Nelson returned to England; but when intelligence arrived that the combined ene- mies' fleets, after their action with Sir Robert Cal- der, were at Cadiz, Nelson volunteered to take the command again against them. His services were gladly accepted, and on the 16th Sept., 1805, our fine old English admiral left England for the last time. He arrived off Cadiz on the 29th Sept ; and, on the 19th of October, the enemv's admiral came out of port. They were deceived by Nelson's skilful tactics, as to the number of the English ships, and they hoped to crush him with an over- whelming force. Even as it was, they had 33 sail of the line and 7 frigates, against 27 of the line and 531 KEL i under Nelson. On the 21st of October, than off Cape Trafalgar. Forming into two columns, one of which he led him- • tv. while Colliiigwood led the other in tin- Royal Sovereign, Nelson burst through the double line of the French and Spaniards, and • on the close and general action, for which he g ardently prayed. In four hours 20 of the eneniv had struck; others were Hying in despair; and the marine on which Napoleon had relied for the invasion of England was annihilated. But the victory was bought at the expense of the chief ite. About a quarter past one, in the heat of the battle, Nelson was shot through the back by a musket ball. He survived long enough to know that the victory was complete ; and his last words lhank'God I have done my duty.' His ever-memorable signal to his fleet, immediately before the battle commenced, had been ' England expects even' man to do his duty,' and, if ever a man lived and died in earnest, fearless, unselfish discharge of his duty to his countrv, it was Admiral Nelson, victor of the Nile, Copenhagen, and Tra- [E.S.C.] KELSON. Robert, a minister of the Church of England, known as the author of several devout and learned works, the principal of which is his well-known 4 Festivals and Fasts.' For the sub- stance of this work, there is reason to believe, he was greatly indebted to Dr. Francis Lee. He is generally called ' the pious Nelson,' and was much j esteemed by Archbishop Tillotson, who died in his arms. Born in London 1656, died 1715. NELS4 >X. Samuel, an Irish patriot, and editor of the ' Northern Star,' in the rebellion of 1790. NEMESIUS, a Christian philosopher, 4th cent. NKMOURS, a titular name borne by several persons distinguished in French history, among whom are— James D'Armagnac, Due De Nem- ours, cousin by marriage to Louis XL, who caused him to be beheaded 1477. Louis, his son and r in the duchy, viceroy of Naples for Cbarles VIII., killed at the battle of Cerignola 1 .aston Dl Foix, son of Mary, sister of Louis XIL, killed at the battle of Ravenna 1512. Philip of Savoy, uncle to Francis L, who in- vested him with the duchy 1528. James of Sa- l distinguished commander, 1531-1585. IIkni'.y, second son and successor of James, con- nected with the league, and afterwards with Henry IV., 1571-1632. Henry IL, second son and successor of Henry L, born 1625, appointed archbishop of Rheims 1651, abandoned the church on the death of his elder brother, and married Mary D'Orleans, daughter of the due de Longue- ville, 1657, died 1659. This lady survived her i many years, and, in 1694, was recognized i of NeofchateL She died in 1707, leav- ing valuable 'Memoirs' of the minority of Louis A the wars of the Fronde. The title was borne again by the second son of Louis Philippe, late king of the French. i British historian, 7th centurv. NKNY man, 1712-84. B rman historian of the time of Julius Caesar and the first six yean of Augustus. The only remains of his works are some short biographies of twenty Greek generals, and of Hamilcar and Hannibal. NES NEPOS, Flavi us Julius, emperor of the West, predecessor of Augustulus, 473-475. NEPREU, F., an ascetic writer, 1639-1708. NERI, Pompeo, an Ital. economist, 1707-1776. NERI, Saint Philip De, founder of the con- gregation of the Oratory in Italy, 1515-1595. NERLI, Filippo, an Ital. historian, 1485-1556. NERO, emperor of Rome, whose full name was Lucius Domitius Nero Claudius Cval Society was a description of a second reflecting telescope, which excited great interest in England and abroad. The telescope itself was sent to the Society in December, 1671, 'for his "a perusal.'— On the 18th September, 1672, to the secretary, Mr. Oldenburg, a ry which he considered the if not the most considerable detection hitherto made in the operations of nature. This was the discovery of the composition of light, which was read to the Society on the 8th Febru- : which led him into interminable rati with Hook, Huygens, and nreral : hen controversies embittered hi* pea< i im resolve to have nothing do with that litigious lady philosophy. — On the 11th January, 1671, Newton was elected a fellow of the Koyal Society. In 1673 he was die- 1 in a competition for the law fellowship, a disappointment increased by the fact that he was about this time in such circum- :.ly pay- ed him.' Very soon afterwards, how e rer . whea his fellow- about to expire, be obtained p H NEW from the crown to hold the Lucasian chair along with a fellowship, without being obliged to go into orders. — On the 9th December, 1675, Newton communicated to the Royal Society a discourse on colours. This interesting paper contained fuller details on the composition and decomposition of white light, andanew hypothesisconcermngcolours, with some propositions explaining the colours of thin transparent plates, and their relation to the colours of natural bodies. — This discourse again brought Newton into a controversy with Hook, but notwithstanding this interruption, he was soon occupied with those profound studies, the results of which were afterwards consigned in his immortal work the ' Principia.' He had long ago deduced from the laws of Kepler the important law that gravity decreased with the square of the distance, a law to which Sir Christopher Wren, Halley, and Hook, had all been led by independent study. No demonstration of it, however, had been given, and no proof obtained that the same power which made the apple to fall, was that which retained the moon and the other planets in their orbits. Adopting the ordinary measure of the earth's radius, he had been led to the conclusion that the force which kept the moon in her orbit, if the same as gravity, was one-sixth greater than that which is actually observed, a result which perplexed him, and prevented him from communicating to his friends the great speculation in which he was engaged. In June, 1682, however, he had heard of Picard's more accurate measure of the earth's diameter, and repeating with this measure his former calcu- lations, he found to his extreme delight that the force of gravity, by which bodies fall at the earth's surface, 4,000 miles from the earth's centre, when diminished as the square of 240,000 miles, the moon's distance, was almost exactly equal to that which kept the moon in her orbit. Hence, it followed that the same power retained all the other satellites round their primaries and all the primaries round the sun. — In August, 1684, when Dr. Halley visited Newton at Cambridge, he learned from him that he had surmounted the difficulties of the planetary motion, and promised him a copy of the treatise he had written on the subject. This treatise, ' De Mota Corporum,' was after some delay com- pleted, and presented to the Royal Society on the 28th April, 1686, being the first book of the ' Philosophise Naturalis Principia Mathematical The second book was sent to the Society on the 1st March, 1687, the third on the 6th April, and the whole work published at the expense of Dr. Halley about midsummer of that year. — We have already seen that Newton discovered the doc- trine of fluxions in 1666, the principle and applica- tion of which he explained in his treatise 'Analysis per Equationes numero terminorum Infinitas,' which he communicated to Dr. Barrow in June, lo ami his own writings, ami is j mentioned with the literati of the WTO- Died 1811. NICOLAL, F... a Swedish theologian, d. 1580. NICOLAI, J., a Saxon phflokgirt, died 1708. M« I -I.AI. N. A., .i tier, pathologist, 1722-1802. NICOLAL, N. M.. an Italian writer. 1756-1833. NICOLAI, W., a French writer, 1716-1788. rench historian, 1622-1695. Akmii.i.k, generally called 'the was a French servant girl, rem ark - her charity and pious devotion, 1606-1671 published in 1676, entitled 'The h of Divine Love in the Life of a great servant of God.' S, Sin Nicholas Harris, a naval •fleer who afterwards became a barrister, and z himself to literary pursuits acquired a lisl : _uished name as a genealogical and his- critic. He is generally known by the ■better designation of Sir Harris Nicolas. His .1 works are a 'Chronology of History,' ues of Lord Nelson,' ' Life of Hatton,' > of the Battle of Agincourt,' &c. He wm engaged at his death on a ' History of the md the Papers of Sir Hudson Lowe, the latter of which have since been edited by Forsyth. Born in Cornwall 1709, died 1848. 1 LAS, P., a Fr. mathemat., d. about 1720. NICOLAL S-DAMASCENUS, a poet and his- torian of Damascus, who lived in the 1st ct. B.C. LAI S-MYXEPSUS, a med. wr., 13th c. I Al S-I , I!.Kl > OSITUS,amed.wr.,12thc. LAY, L. IL, a German poet, 1737-1820. 'LAY, N., a French traveller, 1517-1583. !!■:. Claude, a French poet, 1611-1686. •LE, F., a French geometrician, 1683-1758. LE, N., a French architect, 1701-1784. •LE, Peter, nephew of Claude Nicole the poet, and one of the most celeb, of the Port ;th. as a moralist and theologian, 1625-95. ; KF, N. P., a Russian dram., 1758-1816. LINO, G., an Ital. singer, eel. 1697-1717. LLE, G. IT., a Fr. journalist, 1767-1828. OLO DEL ABBATE. See Abati. -OUARD, generally called Nicolo, a famous theatrical composer, born at Malta of French origin, and distin. at Paris, 1777-1818. I.SON, William, a learned prelate and antiquary, author of three valuable works entitled respectively the English, Irish, and Scotch His- torical Library, b. in Cumberland 1655, d. 1727. MEDES, a Ger. geometrician, 1st c. B.C. NIOOMEDES, xhc first of the name, king of P.ithvnia, B.C. 278-250; the second, 148-89; the ne of Mithridates, 89-75. I . John, a French statesman, 1530-1600. {, D., a Span, navigator, 16th cent. •lei -rated Danish tra- D in the duchy of Lauenburgh, 1788, lug raised himself "from the condition of a peasant to that of a land surveyor, was sent on a expedition to Arabia in 1758. The object ictionnairede la Fable,' 1755-1841. . ■ Flemish painter, died 1823. D Asiatic theologian, supposed to ive flourished about the middle of the 3d cen- l "lie Vodka Creed, attributed to him, is an •ir (o state the doctrine of Christ's divinity, vithout supposing a trinity of separate persons. \!:<>I.A. KorrA, a lady of Verona, re- markable for her beauty, her learning, and her talents for poetry, 1428-1466. A brother of hers, ahdo, is also kn. as a theological wr. AROLA, L., an Italian savatit, 16th cent. NOGAROLA, T., an Ital. theologian, 18th cent. NOIROT, Claude, a Fr. writer on the origin S, Mnmmincs, &c, born 1570, publ. 1609. NOLAN. M., anlrish lawyer, died 1827. NOLDIUS, Christian, a learned Danish min- r of divinity, 1626-1683. Not. I. EKKNS, Joseph Francis, an English painter, son of a Fleming, long resident in this country, 1706-1748. His son, Joseph, a cele. sculptor, and favourite of George III., 1737-1823. NOLLET, D., a Flemish painter, 1640-1736. N< >LLET, J. A., a Fr. natural philos., 1700-70. MOMSZ, Jan, a Dutch poet, 1738-1803. Nl >N'ICS, Marcellus, a philosopher, 4th cent. NONIUS, or NONNTUS, the Latinized name ©f Pedro Nunez, a Portug. mathemat., 1492-1577. NONIUS, NONNIUS, or NUNNEZ, Lewis, a Spanish physician and philologist, b. about 1560. NOODT, "Gerard, a Dutch jurist, 1647-1725. BERG, or NORDBERG, Dr. George, a Swedish historian, chaplain and biographer of Charles XII., 1677-1744. I'.ERG, Matthias, a Swedish Orientalist, prof, of Greek and theology at Upsala, 1747-1826. NORBY, S., a Danish admiral, killed 1530. NoRDEN, Fred. Louis, a Danish traveller, author of ' Memoirs upon the Ruins and Colossal Statues of Thebes,' and of • Travels in Egypt and <: both illustrated, 1708-1742. N< >RDEN, John, a scholar and surveyor of the crown lands, author of several religious quaint died about 1625. NORDEHAKKEB. J. De, a Swedish naval commander, author of several memoirs, last cent. NORDEN-FLEICHT, Hedwige Charlotte De, a lady of Stockholm, known in Sweden as a poetess, 1719-1 7 W. NORDENHEIM, J. Christopher, a Swedish physician, and wr. on Hereditary Diseases, d. 1719. NORDENSCHOLD, a Swedish governor of Fin- land, disting. as a political economist, died 1764. NOR DENSE JOLD, Augustus, a Swedish tra- veller, and one of several followers of Swedenborg who interested themselves in African enterprise, close of last century. NoRDIX, Charles Gustavus, a Swedish goranl and statesman, author of • Materials for h History,' 1749-1812. NORFOLK, Bogkr Biood. earl of, one of the barons who compelled Henry III. to confirm Magna Charts, died 1270. His nephew, of the same names, distinguished in the reign of Edward I., 101. See Howard. ATE, Edward, an Eng. artist, 17th cen. NOBIS, Hlnrv, a learned Italian cardinal of 540 NOR Irish descent, author of a ' History of Pelagian- ism,' and chief librarian of the Vatican, 1631-1704. NORIS, M., a Venetian dramatist, 1640-1710. NORMAND, Cl. J., a Fr. antiquary, 1704-61. NORMANN-EHRENFELS, Chas. Fred. Le- brecht, Count De, a Ger. officer, who organized an armed band at Corinth, and was mortally wounded in the cause of Greek independence, 1784-1822. NORRIS, John, founder of a professorship and prize essay at Cambridge university, 1734-1777. NORRIS, John, second son of Henry, first Lord Norris, distinguished in the military service of France during the civil wars of that country. He went to Ireland with the earl of Essex, and after- wards served in Flanders under the archduke of Austria, the duke of Lorraine, and William of Nassau. In 1585 he was commander of the English troops sent to the aid of Antwerp. In 1588 he was intrusted with the power of the crown in Ireland by Queen Elizabeth, and in 1591 commanded the troops sent in aid of Henry of Navarre against the leaguers. He returned to his Irish government in 1594, and died a few years after. [E.R.] NORRIS, John, whose name ranks among the principal of our philosophical divines, was born at Collingbourne Kingston, in Wiltshire, of which place his father was rector, 1657. He took his bachelor's degree at Oxford in 1680, and was ad- mitted M.A. 1684. In 1689 he became rector of Newton Sodoc in Somersetshire ; in 1691 was promoted to the richer living of Bemerton near Salisbury; and died there in 1711 after a life of hard^ study, which probably hastened his end. Norris, at college, was an ardent student and admirer of Plato, and when, a few years afterwards, the tendency of Locke's philosophy to one extreme of belief, provoked a controversy which travelled the length and breadth of Europe, he was found with the opposite party — followers of Cartesius and Malebranche. He published his principal work in 1701, entitled 'An Essay towards a Theory of the Ideal or Intellectual World,' written, professedly, in support of Malebranche — the theory that we perceive all things in God, whose thoughts, to use such a term, are our ideal forms. Norris, in short, was an idealist, to the extent of declaring that after all that had been argued from the time of Descartes to his own, the existence of external objects of sensation is only probable but by no means certain. His other works, which rank in the Platonic class of divinity with those of Henry More, his contem- porary and correspondent, are ' The Picture of Love Unveiled,' translated from Waryng, ' An Ideal of Happiness,' 'Theory and Regulation of Love,' 'Reason and Religion,' 'The Natural Immortality of the Soul,' together with poems and discourses on a variety of subjects. [E.R.] NORRIS, Sir John, a naval officer, dist. in the Mediterranean under Sir Cloudesly Shovel, d. 1749 NORRIS, Robert, a native of Liverpool famous for his sojourn of eighteen years on the coast of Guinea. He wrote ' Memoirs of the Reign of Bossa Ahadee, king of Dahomey, an inland country of Guinea, to which is added the author's journey to Abomey the capital,' published in Lon- don, 1789. NORMS, S., a theological writer, died 1630. NORRMAN, L., a Swed. Oriental., 1654-1703. NORRY, C, a French architect, author of a NOR Memoir of the Expedition to Egypt, which he accompanied, 1756-1832. NORTH, the name of a distinguished family, of whom we may mention — Sir Edward, an emi- nent lawyer, created Baron North, of Catlidge, in Cambridgeshire, by Queen Mary. Dudley, Lord North, his great grandson, born 1581, distinguished as a partizan of the parliament, and appointed by them to the admiralty, died 1666. Dudley, son and successor of the latter, distinguished in parliament, and author of the ' Life of Edward, Lord North,' ' Passages Relating to the Long Parliament,' 4 Light in the Way to Paradise,' &c., died 1677. Four sons of the last named — Francis,, Baron Guildford, lord-keeper of the great seal in the reigns of Charles II. and James if., author of Political Essays and Narratives, and a Philosophical Essay on Music, about 1640-1685. Sir Dudley, a great Turkey merchant, author of ' Observations on the Manners, Customs, and Jurisprudence of the Turks,' died 1691. John, born 1645, elected pro- fessor of Greek at Cambridge 1672, and created D.D. the following year on the visit of Charles II., died 1683. Roger, attorney-general to James II., known as an historical critic and miscellaneous writer, died 1733. To the same family belongs the subject of the following article. NORTH, Frederick, earl of Guildford, gener- ally called Lord North, belongs to English history as chief of the administration during the American war of independence. He was appointed Commissioner of the Treasury 1759 ; and resigned with his leader in July, 1765, when he joined the opposition to the Rockingham ministry. He came into office again with the Grafton ministry, 1766; in 1767 became chancellor of the exchequer; and in 1770 succeeded the duke of Grafton as minister, when he brought in a bill for the repeal of all the duties lately imposed upon the American colonists, with the exception of that upon tea, and this ex- ception, in 1773, led to disturbances, which in 1775 merged in actual hostilities, and to the declara- tion of independence, 4th July, 1776. The struggle lasted during the whole of Lord North's adminis- tration, but was virtually ended by the surren- der of Lord Cornwallis, at York Town, 19th Oct., 1781. Lord North resigned on the 20th of March, 1782. He became earl of Guildford by the death of his father in 1790, and died 1792, after being afflicted several years with blindness ; 1732-1792. NORTH, G., an Engl, numismatist, 1710-1772. NORTHAMPTON, Earl of. See Howard. NORTHAMPTON, Spencer Josh. Alwyne Compton, marquis of, well known for his love of science and literature, was born 1790, and suc- ceeded to the title of his father in 1828. He was known in the House of Lords as an advocate of popular measures; but the arena in which he chiefly distinguished himself was that already in- dicated. From 1838 till 1849 he held the presi- dency of the Royal Society, and during this period his mansion was the scene of frequent and brilliant reunions of the most distinguished men in philosophy, art, and literature. The marquis of Northampton was also one of the presidents of the British Association, and he filled the same office in the Royal Society of Literature at the time of his death, 1851. NORTIICOTE, James, an eminent historical NOV painter and writer on art, was born at Plymouth, where his father was a coachmaker, 1746. His best works are 'Hubert and Arthur,' and 'The Murder of the Two Princes in the Tower.' He is author of Fables illustrated with his own de- signs, of 'Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds,' and a Life of Titian.' Died 1831. NORTON, Lady F., a religious wr., died 1720. NORTON, John, a wr. on orthography, 17th c. NORTON, Thomas, a barrister- at-Iaw, known as a zealous Calvinist, and translator of the fam- ous ' Institutes.' He assisted Sternhold and Hop- kins in a metrical version of the Psalms, and is supposed to have died about 1584. NORWOOD, Richard, an English geometer, one of the first to measure a degree of the -meri- dian, 1635. NORZI, Solomon, an Italian rabbin, 17th cen. NOSTRADAMUS, Michel, a physician of Provence, known as an astrologer in the time of Catherine de Medici. He composed ' Seven Cen- turies of Prophecies' in enigmatical rhymes, some of which are admitted to have been most exactly fulfilled; among others his prophecy, a hundred years before its occurrence, of the execution of Charles I., and still more surprising, of the exact date of the French Republic, 1792. He died in 1566. His brother, John, known as an historical writer, died 1590. His son, Caesar, a poet and historian, flourished 1555-1629. Michael, another son, known as an astrologer and prophet like his father, died 1574. NOTARAS, C, apatriarch of Jerusalem, d. 1733. NOTT, John, a surgeon in the employ of the East India Company, dist. as an Oriental scholar and poetical and miscellaneous writer, 1751-182G. NOTT, Major-General Sir William, an officer in the East Indian service, greatly distin- guished in the late Affghan war, born at Casrmar- then 1782, died 1845. NOTTINGHAM. See Finch, Howard. NOUE. See Lanoue. NOUET, James, a French ascetic, 1605-1680. NOUET, N. A., a French astronomer, d. 1811. NOUGURET, P. J. B., aFr. novelist, 1742-1823. NOULLEAU, J. B., a Fr. theolog., 1604-1672. NOUR-DJIHAN, wife of the Mogul emperor, Djihan-Guir, famous for the happy influence which she exercised over him, and said to be the disco- verer of the essence of roses, reigned 1611-1645. NOUR-ED-DEEN-ALI, suit, of Egypt,1257-59. NOUR-ED-DEEN-MAHMOUD, Melek-el- adel, commonly called Nouradin, or Nour-ed- deen, a celebrated Moslem ruler of Syria and Egypt, born 1117, succeeded his father in Syria 1145, commenced the conquest of Egypt after the death of Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, 1162, died when he was preparing to march against his ambitious lieutenant, Saladin, 1174. NOUWAYRI, Shehab-ed-deen Ahmed, an Arabian historian and encyclopaedist, 1283-1331. NOVA, J. Da, a Spanish navigator, 16th cent NOVALIS, the literary cognomen of Fred- erick Von Hardenberg, a German literateur and poet, born at Mansfield near Eisleben, 1772, died 1801. His works were published by Tieck and Schlegel in 1814 — the principal of them being lyrical poems and the philosophical romance 4 Heinrich Von Ofterdinsen.' 541 NOV NYS t lie church of Car- by order of the senate,, when accidentally discovered tbage in the time of Cyprian, who procured lus excommunication for heresy, and gave him occa- sion to form a MR church. After this, in 251, Novatus went to Koine and became I partizan of his namesake, the subject of the following article. MIS. NOVATIAN, or XOVATIANUS, supposed to be a native of Phrygia, and to have been educated as a Stoic philosopher, was a pres- : .man Church, distinguished for his learning and eloquence. He is called the first anti- pope, from being chosen bishop of Rome by a min- ority of the clergy at the same time as Cornelius, whose election was confirmed by a council in 251. The party of Novatian was distinguished by their I re-admit apostates to the communion of the church. This, with some other points of dis- cipline, gained for them the appellation of Cathari, or Puritans. The time of his death is uncertain. NOVKRRE, J. G., a Fr. ballet comp., 1727-1810. X< »\ 1KOFF, N. I., a Russian au., 1744-1818. NOWELL, Alexander, a dignitary of the Church of England, and the last surviving father of the reformation in this country, was born at Whalley, in Lancashire, 1507 or 1508. He was jiloyed as second master of Westminster school, and, in 1551, became one of the preben- daries of Westminster. He was among the exiles at Strasburg in the reign of Queen Mary, and, returning on the accession of Elizabeth, he became dean of St. Paul's in 1560. He is the author of the Church of England Catechism, and the founder of a free grammar school in his native county, and of thirteen Oxford scholarships. Died 1602. NOWELL, Laurence, younger brother of the _ r , became dean of Lichfield, and is known as the author of a Saxon Dictionary, now in the Bodleian library ; died 1576. . William, attorney-general in the reign of Charles I., and author of the ill-advised project for raising supplies without the consent of parlia- ment, 15, 7-1634. . a German anatomist, 1660-1692. NUGENT, George Grenville, Lord, known when a young man as Lord George Grenville, was the second son of the marquis of Buckingham, and brother of the late duke. He was born in 1789, and 6at in lour parliaments, as member for Aylesburv, previous to the passing of the reform bill. In 1830 he became connected with the Whigs in the govern- ment ; and from 1832 to 1835 was lord high com- missioner of the Ionian Islands. He had no seat in the house from this period till 1847, when he appeared for his old constituency. Died 1850. Lord Nugent wrote 'Memorials of Hampden and his Times,* and ' Lands, Classical and Sacred.' His name was generally a popular one. 1ENT, Eobert Craggs, Earl, a descen- dant of the Nugeuts of Westmeath, known as a poet, died 1788. NUGENT, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer and translator, au. of a French Dictionary, died 1772. M'.MA POMPILIUS, said to be the successor Lui as king of Pome, and distinguished as a philosopher ai . was of Sabine origin, go of forty-three years, b.o. •7J. lb- was the founder of the most important religious institutions of tin- Romans, and left writ- ings explanatory of his system, which were burnt four hundred years after his tune. NUMENIUS, a Christian Platonist, 2d century, NUMERIANUS, Marcus Aurelius, emperor of Rome, succeeded his father, Carus, 283 or 284, and is supposed to have been murdered a few months afterwards by his father-in-law, Arrius Aper, who was stabbed without trial by Diocletian. NUMITOR, said to be the son of Procas, king of Alba, and grandfather of Romulus. NUNEZ, or NUNNEZ, the name of several dis- tinguished Portuguese and Spaniards — Ambrose, a physician and professor at Salamanca, died 1553. Ferdinand, a learned philologist and classical editor, about 1473-1553. Juan and Pedro, dis- tinguished painters ; the former in the 16th cen- tury, the latter about 1614-1654. Matthew, Nunez de Supelveda, fresco painter to Philip IV. in 1640, and Nunez de Villavicenrio, a pupil of Murillo, 1635-1700. NUNEZ DE BALBOA, a Spaniard, governor of the small colony of Darien, guided by reports of the Indians, that a great sea existed a few days' journey to the south, undertook a most difficult and hazardous journey across the marshy tracts of the isthmus in September, 1513, in the hope of discovering the ocean so long the object to Colum- bus of a fruitless search. Nearing at length the watershed, his impatience became uncontrollable, and he ran forward in advance of his men to an eminence in sight. Having reached this, and mounted into a tree, his delighted eye rested on the vast expanse of the boundless Pacific. He now hurried forward, and plunging into the waves, claimed the sovereignty of the ' Great South Sea ' for the crown of Spain. From the natives of the coast he received the most wonderful accounts of the power and wealth of the nations occupying the lands to the far south, which they affirmed to have no end. Thirteen years after, the former statement was fully confirmed by Pizarro ; six years after Magellan disproved the latter. Messengers were immediately sent to Spain with the important tidings; but instead of a reward, or important appointment arriving for De Balboa, he was in a short time superseded in his government by Davila, a mean, envious, and cruel man, who, four years after, on some trifling accusation, had the heroic discoverer of the Pacific put publicly to an igno- minious death. [J.B.] NUNNING, J. H., a Ger. antiquary, 1675-1753. NUVOLONE, the name of three painters of Lombardy— Pamfilo, the father, born about 1608, died 1651. Carlo Francesco, his eldest son, surnamed the Guido of Lombardy, 1608-1661. Guisetpe, younger brother of the latter, called II Pamfilo, a great painter of altar-pieces, 1619-1703. NUZZI, Mario, an Italian painter, 1603-1673. NYE, Philip, a minister of the Church of Eng- land, who became a nonconformist, and seems to have been a time-server and demagogue, 1596-1672. N YERUP, Erasmus, a Danish hist., 1759-1829. NYMANN, G., a Germ, anatomist, 1594-1638. NYSTEN, Pierre Hubert, a French phy- sician, distinguished for his researches in electro- physiology, author of a Dictionary of Medicine, Pathological Chemistry, and Experiments upon the Muscular Organs of Man, and of the Red-blooded Animals, 1771-1818. 542 OAT OBE OATES, Titus, well known to English history as a political intriguer in the reign of Charles II., was the son of an anabaptist preacher, and was born about 1619. He was educated for the Church of England, and became chaplain in one of the king's ships, but was dismissed in disgrace, and joined the Jesuits. In September, 1678, having rejoined the Church of England, he made a dis- closure of a pretended popish plot, which caused the execution and imprisonment of many eminent ! 9 men; and for which he received a handsome pen- » sion, and a residence at Whitehall, till the end of j | Charles II.'s reign. On the accession of James, he was convicted of perjury and publicly whipped, but recovered his libertv, and was pensioned again by William III. Died 1705. OBEID-ALLAK, a famous Arabian commander, successively governor of Khorassan, Basrah, and Konfah ; killed 685. OBEID-ALLAH, Abu Mohummed, the first caliph of the Fatimite dynasty, reigned 910-933. ! O'BEIRNE, Thomas Lewis, an Irish prelate known as a political and miscell. wr., 1748-1823. OBEREIT, J. H., a Swiss alchymist, 1725-9S. OBERKAMP, F. J., a Ger. physician, 1710-1768. His son, F. Philip, prof, of anatomy, died 1793. OBERKAMPF, C. Philip, the originator of the French manufac. of printed cotton, 1738-1815. OBERLIN, John Frederic, pastor of Wald- bach, was born at Strasburg, on 1st August, 1740. His father held office in the Gymnasium of that city ; and being a man of great vivacity, as well as assiduous devotedness to his duties, was in the habit of taking his children on holidays to a small patrimonial farm he possessed a few miles out of town. There entering into all the feelings and sports of boyhood, he joined in every active and healthy amusement, and especially, as playing ' at soldiers ' was a favourite pastime, the father in- variably acted the part of drummer and major. The mother, a woman of great talents, energy, and piety, imbued her family not only with her earnest spirit and sound principles of religion, but also with her own passionate fondness for sacred music, and never did the children separate at night without her leading the juvenile circle in chanting one of Luther's beautiful hymns. Dr. Lorentz, an evangelical minister of high popular gifts, was her favourite preacher, and as young Frederic fre- quently accompanied her to the Lutheran chapel, the tones, manner, as well as strains of the Doc- tor's preaching made such an impression on the susceptible and pious heart of the boy, that he early cherished the desire of devoting his future life to the service of God and the good of his fel- low-men. Having completed his studies, and acted a few years as tutor in the family of an eminent sur- feon in Strasburg, Oberlin entered on the duties of is sacred profession, by engaging to act in the capacity of chaplain to a French regiment which was quartered in the city. During the four years he filled that situation he prosecuted his private studies with great ardour, and at the expiry of that term, he resigned the office on obtaining a curacy in the Ban de la Roche, or Steinthal, a mountainous district in Alsace. It was an exten- sive valley lying in a state of wild uncultivated na- ture, divided into two parishes, of which the Wald- bach was one, and comprising from eighty to a hun- dred families. These people, whose sequestered condition had hitherto placed them almost beyond [View of the Ban de la Roche.] the pale of civilization, were in a state of rude simplicity or rather barbarism, indolent and fil- thy — because almost entire strangers to all the useful arts of life ; and their state as to religion may be imagined from the fact, that they knew nothing of the Bible, except that it was a large book, said to have come from God. The idea of undertaking the pastoral duties of such a wild and neglected people, was a prospect from which most persons would have shrunk. But Oberlin was known to possess the self-denying spirit, the en- ergetic fortitude, and the enterprising genius suited to the exigencies of the place; and accordingly being urged by those who were interested in the regeneration of* that people, he at length accepted the onerous charge. Oberlin was precisely of the cast of mind adapted for the Waldbacb. A person of literary attainments or studious habits would have been perfectly useless in such a parish. The pastor who aimed at doing any good required bodily activity far more than study, and was under a necessity of combining physical and social with spiritual improvement. Wedded to habits of here- ditary indolence, the people made open resistance to Oberlin's first attempts at innovation; and although his experimental measures were of an ob- viously useful and practical character, they excused themselves in the usual spirit of the sluggard, on the plea that what had done for their fathers might well satisfy them. The resolute minister, no way discouraged, proceeded to the execution of his pro- jected schemes; and the first attempt he made was to form roads. Throughout the whole parish there was nothing but foot tracks, which were im- passable during the greater part of the year, and the Bruche, a stream that bounded it in the direc- tion of Strasburg was crossed only by a series of stepping-stones, which, when the river was swollen 543 OBE OCC by the winter rains, were submerged, so that for ! who had entered with intelligent and zealons activity into all his undertakings, her place in the care ot his house as well as in the domestic duties of the parish was supplied by a pious and sensible young woman, Louisa Schelper, who had long been resident in his family. There was need of so econo- mical and prudent a manager ; for during the dis- orders consequent on the great French revolution, Oberlin no longer enjoyed his scanty stipend, and his maintenance was derived wholly from the con- tributions of his parishioners. During the reign of terror, however, when all worship elsewhere was proscribed, he was allowed to minister to his flock, — an immunity for which he was indebted partly to the poor and isolated position of his pansh, and partly to the excellence of his own character. As at once the result and the evidence of the great improvements he had made, the population of the Steinthal during his incumbency rose from eighty, or a hundred, to three thousand. Oberlin was a simple, earnest, evangelical preacher, and one char- acteristic of his discourses was the numerous anec- dotes he introduced of persons eminent for piety, known to him by reading or intercourse. The popu- lation of his parish being of a mixed character, he preached on Sabbaths in French, and on Friday evenings in German. Other meetings he held for reading to the people, and as he studied always to improve every moment of time, he caused the women to knit stockings ; and when he had read or spoken long, he used to stop and say, ' Children are you tired yet ?' or, ' you have had enough for this night.' He was decorated by Louis XVIII. with the legion of honour. Oberlin died in 1826, at the age of eighty-six, having earned the character of being one of the most useful men that have ap- peared in any country in modern times. [R.J.] OBERLIN, Jeremiah James, elder brother or* the preceding, distinguished as an antiquarian and philological writer, b. at Strasburg 1735, d. 1806. OBICINI-OBIZZING, Thomas, a catholic mis- sionary, afterwards professor of Oriental languages, died 1636. OBRECHT, Ulric, a Fr. juriscon., 1646-1701. OBSEQUENS, Julius, a Latin wr., 4th cent. OBSOP(EUS. See Opsop^us. OCAMPO, F. D., a Span, historian, 16th cent. OCARIZ, or OCARITZ, Don Joseph, Cheva- lier D', a Spanish diplomatist, who held the post of charge ct affaires at Paris in 1792, and distin- guished himself by endeavouring to save Louis XVI., born about 1750, died 1805. OCCAM, or OCKHAM, William of : born at Ockliam in the county of Surrey about the close of the thirteenth century; taught with brilliant success in Paris, in the early part of the fourteenth ; a Franciscan, like his master, Duns Scotus; the greatest of the later Schoolmen — by title the ' In- vincible Doctor;' the philosopher who gave the final blow to the fantastic Realism of the middle ages, and perhaps the first effective blow to the authority of the Pope ; the predecessor of D'Aflly and Gerson, and, not remotely, the progenitor of Luther.— It cannot be expected that in a work like this, any extensive appreciation can be given of a subject so thorny and strange as the Scholastic Philosophy ; nevertheless, occasion may be taken of our mention of Occam, to warn the Student against hastily adopting those crude and nearly nine months the inhabitants were com- pletely secluded from all intercourse with the world. Oberlin proposed to throw a wooden bridge over this stream, and by excavating the mounds or blasting the rocks, construct a road to the city. Having assembled hie parishioners in a field, he explained his design, and finishing his ad- dress with the words " Whoever is persuaded of the benefits of the bridge, let them follow me," he shouldered a pick-axe, and accompanied by his servant, commenced the work of excavation. The effect of his words and his example was electric. When the first surprise was over, all classes — old and young, offered their assistance, and from morn- ing to night continued to labour for six months at their pastor's side with unabated assiduity till the bridge was erected. When opened, it received the name of Lepont-de charite. The obvious advan- tages of this bridge disposed the parishioners to listen the more readily to other undertakings which their public-spirited pastor contemplated for their benefit. He opened roads to the neighbouring towns — introduced the use of agricultural imple- ments — sent the more promising boys, some to the n earest counties to learn farming,and others to Stras- burg to be taught the knowledge of different trades — erected neat cottages instead of the wretched cabins of turf in which the inhabitants dwelt — intro- duced the culture of the potato instead of the wild apples and pears which had hitherto formed their staple subsistence — showed them the use of many common plants for food and physic — instructed them in every useful art that tended to the comfort and advancement of social life, and made so many improvements in the villages, houses, fields, and gardens of the Steinthal, that the parish which at his entrance was a neglected waste, a dreary desert, began to blossom as the rose. These im- provements on the domestic, social, and agricultural economy of the Steinthal were only preparatory to other and higher reformations he contemplated on the moral state and religious character of the in- habitants. The confidence he had gained by his benevolent exertions for their temporal good he employed for promoting their spiritual welfare by establishing weekly prayer-meetings, introducing infant schools, as well as seminaries of a higher character, in which, besides the common branches of education, astronomy, agriculture, and various mechanical arts, such as plaiting straw, knitting, cotton-spinning by the hand, and the manufac- ture of silk ribbons were taught by masters and •s properly Qualified for the office. He himself superintended the religious instruction of the children, teaching them not only to read and understand the history and principles of the Bible, but instructing them in a knowledge of sacred music by chanting the hymns sung in the church, and also of several branches of natural history, with a view of illustrating the perfections of God. By means of a printing press he had in his own house, he prepared religious tracts for distribution, and established itinerant libraries which, after being devoted to one village for three months, were tbea removed for the use of another. The expense of all these various schemes he was enabled to meet by the liberality of some Christian friends in Stras- burg. Oberlin having been deprived of his wife, 544 occ common views of its deserts, and its place in the history of Thought. Difficult to peruse, as most of the writings of these singular disputants unqes- tionably are, and in great part from the apparent barbarism of their language, it must not be over- looked that this difficulty and uncouthness be- longed almost necessarily to the excessive subtlety and sagacity with which they attacked the highest problems that can engage the Human Intellect. It falls to every new metaphysical school, or rather to every great school in a new epoch, to invent in so far its own language : take for example the writings of the Philosopher of Konigsberg, who, strangely enough, was long reputed obscure and even unintelligible, because of the very pains he took to render his expression of profoundest Thought, about the clearest and most precise, of which any language contains a record : nor is the remark of Mr. Hallam to be doubted, that as words are meant to express precise ideas, ' it was as impossible,' in the times of which we speak, 'to write metaphysics in good Latin, as modern na- turalists have found it to describe plants and ani- mals.' Besides the strangeness of terminology too, we must keep in mind that every age has a position peculiar to itself, around which, as a centre, the battle of Thought is contested; and it is only by taking account of this specialty, and separating from it the tactics and efforts of the contending Parties, that one can come to recognize the identity in all ages, of these Parties and Tactics — that one can discern in the East, in Greece early and late, in those Middle Ages, and in mo- dern Europe, the representatives and movements of Forces, whose antagonism is perpetual, and amid whose conflicts we live. The form in which these Schoolmen placed the great question they discussed, was mainly a grammatical one; but, underneath that form, those precise problems were debated which divided the followers of Aristotle and Plato, which sever Descartes and Hobbes, Locke and Kant. If sometimes subtle to a fault, and minute apparently to painful affectation — an error into which the grammatical form of their speculations inevitably led them — Aquinas, Sco- tus, Roscelin, Abelard, and Occam, were neither pedants nor sciolists, but brave divers into the depths of human thought: men who struggled fearlessly with the difficulties, the doubts, and hopes of the Soul: and, by their energy of purpose, eloquence in speech, and the firmness of the grasp ■with which they held the tendencies of their time, they again emancipated the World. Let us note in illustration, and in general and catholic terms, the inquiries which engaged Occam. — It is universally known that Schoolmen became finally divided into two great sects — Realists and Nominalists. The former, whose leaders were Aquinas and Duns Scotus, had a subdivision into Thomists and Sco- tisls; the latter — including the Conceptualists — following the great names of Roscelin, Abelard, and Occam. The following were the positions upheld by Occam. — In those days as now, the first field of dispute was the Theory of Perception. How do we perceive? How do Mind and Matter meet? Occam maintains that we know only two things, viz., the existence of an object, and the exis- tence of a mental impression. The notion of images transmitted, he declares a pure fantasy. 545 OCC Certain senses, he says, receive an image of ex- ternal objects, (sight, for instance), but this recep- tion accompanies the act of perceiving, and does not constitute it. There are but two partial causes of sensation — the Subject which feels; and the Object, that is perceived : —further, we know nothing and need not inquire. And so of objects remembered : he rejects with equal decision the theory then in vogue, that we perceive or image what is past, through effect of Resemblances of objects continuing, as essences or shadows in the Mind : he says that Recollection is a power of the mind, and that we cannot define it more minutely. So also with regard to general terms or notions. They result from the action of the Intellect, on things perceived. Intelligible Species or Entities, representing general ideas, he utterly repudiates. The Mind, which has the faculty to perceive objects, has also a power to abstract, to compare, to differ- entiate, to combine. And so, it forms conceptions corresponding to these operations, and expresses their results. There was a prevalent belief or posi- tion connected with this subject, in reference to the Divine mind. His attributes of Justice, Good- ness, Wisdom, &c, were imagined separate Enti- ties, with which he held council, on proceeding to act. No! said Occam, these are modes or forms of* the Supreme Reason; they are At- tributes, and not Entities. The Nominalism of Occam as thus expressed, certainly does not reach that of Hobbes and Locke ; nor indeed can we easily distinguish it from views that would not be termed Nominalist, in these our modern times. But is it not easy to recognize, in the basis of such dis- putations, the most important difficulties of Philo- sophy — those very problems that agitate us still? One thing at least is clear ; — questions of such sort regarding all things Human and Divine, clothed in any garb — even in the grammatical — could not be presented with the ardour of an Abelard, or the logic of Occam, without stirring men's souls to an extent, so that no dogma of Popish Infallibility, could lay the tumult again. Occam, as we have said, was therefore a legitimate progenitor of Luther : but another point of most anxious interest is inseparable from the subject we contemplate, — we mean the singular influence on the fates of the World, of the genius of the French or Gallic race. It may be taken now almost as an historic maxim, that the Teuton originates Thought, France dif- fuses it, and the Anglo-Saxon realizes it, and gathers its good fnnts. How strange in the providence of God, that Paris, even under its most absolute Monarchs, should have been the source — moral as well as material — of mightiest Revolutions ! Is it that the peculiar genius of the Gallic Race, endows it with the gift to foresee, as well as the facility to be dazzled, by new Ideas? Paris when most Catholic, was, par excellence, the seat of those intellectual strifes which ulti- mately destroyed the Pope : Paris when most absolute, was, through the popularity of the Encyclopaedists, the centre of those influences which first introduced the wildest Republicanism into Europe : Paris under a profound despotism, ploughed up the roots of every despotism in the old Continent: Paris, now, in its fresh anomalous condition, has, we doubt not, a similar and sin- gular Destiny to fulfil [J.P.N.J 2N occ oco OCOIIIALI, the common appellation of Kill- \ and conspicuous .supporters, it was evident that ha under Selim' 1.., distinguished the large built, 1**^^ *££ £~* Ali, captain paiha ttto 1572, died about L67/. rurs. i G«r. numism., 1624-1606. S i QCANUS, a Pythagorean philo- sopher, supposed author of a work. l On tlio I'ni- OCHENUS, B., an Italian polemic, 1487-1664. OCHS fleeter of law, awfc. at Bask for his part in the Helvetic revolution, 1749-1821. vn, wno looked around with the air of an Eastern prince, was by no means the democratic leader of a republican people. He had an uncle who rose high in the military sen-ice of France, of whom he used to speak as ashamed to own that his nephew occupied the humble position of an avocat. He was educated at St. Owen and Douay, and at first destined for the church, hut the relaxation which \ in, an officer in the ! admitted Eoman Catholics to the har, opened for him a more brilliant career. He kept his terms at the Middle Temple, and was admitted to the Irish bar in Easter term, 1798. He was a very hard student, and is described by Sir Jonah Barrington as having ' bottled ' a quantity of legal knowledge !■ iia Company, ousting, in the Xepaulese war, b. in New England, 1758, d. 1826; OGKLEY, Simon, distinguished for his Orien- tal learning, and his zeal in promoting the culture of the Arabian language, of which he was professor His principal works are a cens ' a ' Life of Mahomet' prematurely, I ' History off the Saracens,' ry of the Present Jews,' from the Italian of Leo M'odena, ' An latroduction to the Oriental Languages,' and 'The Improvement of Human Reason, exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yok- dhan,' translated from the Arabic. O'CONNELL, Daniel, was born near Cahir Siveen in the county of Kerry, on the 6th of Au- 776. In his youth, and subsequently as the hospitable lord of Derrynane Abbey, he lived at Cambridge, was 7 born' at Exeter 1678, and died, | for subsequent use. His great characteristic, in- deed, as a daring leader of the people against the existing order of things, was the wonderful saga- city with which he could march along the boun- dary line of strict legal action without crossing it, or committing either himself or his followers. At the Irish bar he was beyond all question the first advocate of his day, whether for oratory or a ready adaptation of the law. And thus,_ wdien it is known that he collected large subsidies from his fellow-countrymen in the form of what was termed the patriotic rent, it must at the same time be remembered that he gave up a practice as lucra- tive as the Irish bar could afford. His later career is intimately connected with the recollections of all who have paid attention to the passing politics of the day. It may be mentioned, however, as chronologically fixing the commencement of his historical career, that it was in the year 1809 that he first came forth as a champion of the Irish Eoman Catholics, by holdly proposing, in a small meeting of the body in William-Street, Dublin, the establishment of a general committee. In 1815 he made himself unpleasantly notorious, by killing in a duel Mr. D'Esterre, who challenged him for calling the corporation of Dublin beggarly. When the ' Catholic Association,' afterwards formed by him, was denounced by the law, he found means of evading the penalties, and recon- structing the association on a firmer basis. When he proceeded systematically to obtain elections of persons who could not take the oaths, statesmen saw the necessity of concession, and the Eoman Catholic Emancipation Act was passed. After the Reform Bill he became conspicuous as the head of a parliamentary body, who, acknowledging his leadership, and voting together, were called • O'Connell's Tail.' About the year 1840 he struck out the agitation for the repeal of the union, which became a failure in his hands. In January, 1844 the government, of Sir Robert Peel resolving to grapple with him and the repeal agitators, be- gan criminal proceedings, and obtained a convic- tion, followed by a sentence of imprisonment, but it was reversed in the House of Lords. O'Con- nell, however, was now an old man — the trial shook his nerves and his position. It was followed by the miseries of the potato blight, and on the 15th of May, 1847, he died during a sojourn in Italy, which was called a pilgrimage, and sup- posed to partake of a penitential or religious char- acter. [J.H.B.] Abbey.J much amid the wild scenery, and as wild popula- tion of his native district. It is still a scarcely le territory, with but scanty road com- munication through the narrow gaps in the moun- tain ranges, and so sterile, as to present even a part of Ireland thinly peopled. — It is impossible to look at O'Connell's career and character with- out believing that the snot with which his career was so closely connected, had a characteristic in- fluence on his mind. His father was a petty landowner. Whether O'Connell was of high or humble birth, has been a matter ever disputed. He claimed high descent, and it was conceded to him by his Irish followers ; but this is one of the characteristics without which that singular people would never acknowledge leadership. It was \ ;is a point of policy that lie should be reported to come of the true old blood, and when t through the crowd in his great family coach, broadly emblazoned with a quartered shield j O'CONNOR, General Arthur, uncle of the 546 OCO OER notorious Feargus O'Connor, and one of the prin- cipal actors in the Irish rebellion of 1798, was originally a barrister, and having the good fortune to escape punishment, after that event went to France, where the first Consul appointed him general of division. In 1809 he married the daughter of the famous Condorcet, niece on her mother's side to Marshal Grouchy, and in 1834 purchased the chateau of Bignon from the heirs of Mirabeau, where he died 1852. O'CONNOR, Charles, a catholic clergyman, author of works elucidating Irish history, d. 1828. O'CONNOR, Roderick, king of Connaught, in the time of the conquest of Ireland by Henry II. O'CONNOR, Turlogh, called 'the Great,' a king of Connaught, who aimed at the entire sove- reignty of the country, 1088-1156. OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, illustrious for her virtues, her beauty, and her accomplish- ments, was the widow of Claudius Marcellus, by whom she had a son and two daughters, when she was married, at the instance of her brother, to the triumvir, Mark Antony. The latter neglected her for Cleopatra, queen of Egypt ; notwithstanding which, Octavia displayed the most noble fidelity to his house and fortunes, and devoted herself to the education of all his children. She died of the de- jection into which she was thrown by the loss of her son by Marcellus, who was the intended heir of Augustus, and who was idolized by the people of Rome, B.C. 11. [E.R.] OCTAVIA, a daughter of the emperor Claudius by Messalina. She was the sister of Britannicus, and, at the age of sixteen, became the wife of Nero. The latter divorced her and married Pop- paea, at whose instance she was put to death in the twentieth year of her age, a.d. 62. ODARRI, G., an Italian painter, 1663-1731. ODENATUS, Septimius, son of an Arabian sheik, who allied himself with the Romans against Sapor, king of Persia, and, after defeating the latter, was associated with Gallienus in the em- pire. He was married to Zenobia, who remained qu. of Palmyra after his death. Assassinated 267. ODERICO-DE-PORTENAU, a cele. Francis- can missionary, author of his travels, 1286-1331. ODE RICO, G. L., an Italian numismatist, 1725-1803. ODESCALCHI, the name of two noble philan- thropists of Rome — the first of whom, Mark An- tonio, was cousin to Innocent XL, and founder of an hospital for the destitute, died 1670. The second, Thomas, almoner to the same pope, foun- der of an institution for the education and employ- ment of pooflthildren, died 1692. ODIER, Lewis, a physician of Geneva, who distinguished himself by the introduction of vac- cine on the continent, author of a 'Manual of Practical Medicine,' 1748-1817. ODIER, P. A., a Fr. administrator, 1774-1825. ODILON, St., a famous abbot of Clugny, dis- till guishedas a Latin poet and theologian, 962-1048. ODINGTON, Walter, commonly called ' Wal- ter of Evesham,' being abbot of that monastery, distinguished in music and astronomy, 13th cent. ODO, a Romish saint, and abbot of Clugny, famous for his reforms in monastic discip., 879-943. ODO of Kent, a Benedictine monk, who be- came successively prior of St. Saviour's and abbot j a Naturen,' caused a great sensation 647 of Battle Abbey. He is the author of some learned writings, and was a friend of Becket, died 1200. OECOLAMPADIUS, John, was bora at Weinsperg in Franconiain the year 1482. He was educated atHeilbrun, and afterwards at Heidelberg. At Stutgard he met with the famous Rcuchlin, under whom he studied Greek so ardently as in a short time to compose and publish a Greek gram* mar. In 1515 he began to preach, and he cor- dially assisted Erasmus at Basle in publishing his Annotations on the New Testament. After this he entered the monastery of St. Bridget at Augs- burg, but after two years left it for more active labours. In 1521 the protestant light began to dawn upon him, and he soon came to the assist- ance of Zwingli, the Swiss Reformer, and con- curred with him in his views of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper in opposition to Luther. He was mingled up for many years in those discus- sions, and in the conventions held to secure agree- ment. He disputed with Dr. Eck at Baden, and the debate lasted eighteen days. Basle was his head-quarters, and the scene of his earnest and multiplied pastoral labours. _ In 1531 he was seized with severe and sudden sickness, and he died in December of that year, in the forty-ninth year of his age. He has left behind him several works, but his special memory lies in his living diligence, meekness, prudence, self-denial, and success in carrying on the Swiss reformation from Popery. His original name was Hausschein, House-lamp, which he, according to a prevalent custom, changed into the Greek surname Oecolampadius, of similar meaning. [J-E-] OECUMENIUS, a Gr. commentator, 10th cent. OEDER, G. C, a German botanist, 1728-1791. OEFELS, A. F. D', a Ger. savant, 1706-1780. OEHLENSCHLiEGER, Adam, the greatest dramatic poet of the Scandinavian North, was b. 1777. He commenced his career on the stage, but abandoned the profession for literature, and finally became professor of ./Esthetics in his native city. Among his greatest works may be mentioned — 1. 'The Death of Balder;' 2. 'The Gods of the North;' 3. 'Aladdin;' 4. ' Stserkodder ;' 5. 'Ha- kem-Jarl;' 6. 'Palnatoke;' 7. 'Axel and Val- borg;' 8. 'The Admiral Fordens Kjold,' and many others. Died 28th January, 1850. OEHLMULAR, D. J., a Ger. archit., 1791-1823. OELRICHS, G., a Germ, antiquarian, 1727-89. OELRICHS, J. C. C, a Germ. List., 1722-98. OELRICHS, J. G. A., a Ger. savant, 1767-91. OENOMAUS, a Greek philosopher, 2d century. OENOPIDES of duo, a Pythagorean philo- sopher, 5th century B.C. OERN, N., a traveller and wr. on Lapland, 1707. OERNHEIM, or ORNSJOELMS, Claudius, called in Latin Aorhenius, a Swed. hist., 1625-95. OERNSCHOELD, P. Abraham, Baron De, founder of the manufacture of linens and prints in Sweden, died 1770. OERSTED, Hans Christian, professor of physics at the university of Copenhagen, and secretary of the Academy of Sciences in that city, was born 1777. He is the author of numerous works in physics — more especially in magnetism and chemistry, most of which are written in Latin. His last production, in Danish, entitled 'Amnion Died 1851 OES OESER, A. F., a painter and engraver of Prrs- . ••.>. Hm ion, Pbedebio, died 1792. :. Fred. Christopher, a learned philologist and mystic divine of Germany, who prelate of Murhard, b Wurtem- berg, and died at the age of eightv, 1782. His }>riiK-ip:il work is the ' Earthlv and Heavenly Phi- (enborz and Others,' which included of Baehmen, Ifalehranche, Newton, Clu- . '...liquet, Bagliv, and Fricker. This •n involved him in considerable trouble with the Consistory; and in a controversy with r, however, was protected by the duke of Wurtemberg, as Dr. Tafel has been in the same j the piTflltt king. The son of Oetinger ! a work, entitled ' Metaphysica et Che- n.iea,' his father at the time being interdicted from writing. This prelate was a great master of the philosophy of Leibnitz. [K-K-] OETTER, S. W., a German historian, 1720-92. OEXM E I J X, A. 0., a Flem. buccaneer, au. of a . of the Adventures to India,' publ. 1686. ilHIL, G., a Spanish general, 1784-1831. \. the successor of his uncle, Ethelbald, as king of Mercia, was placed on the throne after a fcuccessful insurrection in 757. He greatly ex- tended his kingdom, and added that of the East to it by treacherously murdering Ethelbert. In his latter years, he made peace with his con- science by the foundation of St. Alban's Abbey, and an annual payment to the pope, known in after ages as Peter's pence. Died 796. OGDEN, Samuel, a learned minister of the Church of England, born at Manchester 1716, of Halifax school 1744-1753, and, finally, rector of Lawford and Stansfield ; died 1778. lie is the author of some popular ' Sermons.' OGE, a Creole of the French colony of St. Do- mingo, who distinguished himself at the period of the revolution, as leader of an insurrection. Being overpowered by the troops, he and his lieutenant, ;nes, were broken on the wheel. OGRE, JL a French geographer, 1728-1789. OGIEIJ, C, a French writer of his travels and ice in the North of Europe, 1595-1654. OGILBY, John, an ingenious Scotchman, dist. as a literary speculator and author, 1600-1G76. OGILVIE, John, a Scottish divine and poet, author of ' Philosophical and Critical Observations on Composition, 1 ' Evidence of Prophecy,' and an epic poem entitled ' Britannia,' 1733-1814. r, a Polish patriot, 1731-1803. ETHORPE, James Edward, an English officer, who distinguished himself in the German wars under Prince Eugene, and afterwards as chief of the colony of Georgia. Being sent in pursuit of the rebels in 1745, and not overtaking them, he was tried by court-martial, and honour- titted. Born in Surrey 1698, died 1785. OUALLOBAN, Sylvester, an Irish antiqua- rian, author of an 'Introduction to Irish History,' .1 Bistorj of Ireland,' &c, 1728-1807. O'HARA, Kank, an Irish dramatist, died 1782. OIPENABT, A., a Spanish historian, 16th cen. I., or < HJZEL, J., a Ger. civilian, 1631-86. L, or OUSEL, P., a Ger.Hebr., 1671-1724. • I. IS, a French poet, 15th century. hish comedian. 1746-1833. OKOLSKI, F. S., a Polish historian, 17th cent. 548 OLE OLAFSEN, the name of several distinguished Icelanders — Magnus, a clergyman, and Latin translator of the Edda, 1573-1636. Stephen, translator of the Edda and Voluspa, died 1688. EoOERT, a minister, distinguished as a naturalist, 1721-1776. His brother, John, an antiquarian, 1731-1801. A third brother, Magnus, an admi- nistrator and writer, 1728-1800. OLAHUS, Nicholas, a Hungarian prelate and statesman, au. of a ' History of Attila,' 1493-1568. OLAUS, or OLOF, the first of the Swedish chiefs who received the title of king, bom 984 ; received at his baptism the English name of Sieg- fried 1008, died 1026. OLAUS, the name of two Danish kings — the first of whom reigned in Jutland only, and was killed 814. The second, reigned 1086-1095. OLAUS, the first of the name, king of Norway, reigned 994-1000. The second, 1014-1032. The third, shared the throne with Magnus II., 1066- 1096, and reigned alone 1069-1093. The fourth reigned, with his two brothers, 1103-1116. The fifth, born 1370, became king of Denmark after Waldemar, 1376, and king of "Norway on the death of his father, 1380 ; died 1387. OLAUS, P., a Danish chronicler, 16th century. OLAVIDES, Pablo Antonio Josef, Count De Pilos, a Spanish statesman, distinguished as a promoter of agricultural industry in the Sierra Morena, and author of a religious work, entitled ' The Triumph of the Gospel,' 1725-1803. OLBERS, H. W. M., a Ger. astron., 1758-1840. OLDCASTLE, Sir John, commonly called the ' good Lord Cobham,' was a domestic of the court ot Henry V., and is both the first author and first martyr of our nobility. Becoming a disciple of Wickliffe, he devoted his wealth and energies to the propagation of the reformed doctrines, for which he was hung in chains and then burnt alive, 1417. His life has been written by Gilpin. OLDENBURG, Henry, a physician, born in the duchy of Bremen 1626, who became one of the first members, and the colleague of Dr. Wilkins, in the secretaryship of the Royal Society. He published the ' Philosophical Transactions ' from 1665-1677, and died 1678. OLDERMAN, J., a learned German, 1686-172S OLDFIELD, Anne, an Eng. actress, 1683-1730 OLDHAM, Hugh, an English prelate, supposed to have been born at Oldham, near Manchester, founder of the grammar school in the last-named town, and a great benefactor of Corpus College, Oxford; died 1519. OLDHAM, John, a satiric poet,^653-1683. OLDIS WORTH, W., a miscel. wTiter, d. 1784 OLDMIXON, J., an historical wr., 1673-1742. OLDOINL A., an Italian savant, 1612-1685. OLDSWORTH, E., an Eng. writer, 1688-1747. OLDYS, William, distinguished as a biogra- Iihical writer, and for his great knowledge of Eng- ish books, was the natural son of Dr. W. Oldvs, chancellor of Lincoln, and was born 1696. He was almost constantly employed by the booksellers, and died 1761. His principal works are a ' Lite of Sir Walter Raleigh,' ' The British Librarian,' a translation of Camden's 'Britannia,' and the lives signed G. in the k Biographia Britannic**' OLEARIUS, the name by which Adam Oel- schl/EGEu is generally known, a famous German OLE traveller and mathematician, author of Stones from the Persian, a Voyage to the Indies, a Chro- nicle of Holstein, &c, 1599-1671. OLEARIUS, Godfrey, a German divine, author of biblical translations, &c, 1604-1685. John, his son, author of ' Sacred Hermeneutics,' and vari- ous theological works, 1639-1713. John God- frey, elder brother of the latter, an ecclesiastical biographer, 1635-1710. Godfrey, son of John, au. of historical and theological works, 1672-1715. O'LEARY, Arthur, an Irish priest, distin- guished for his loyalty to the English government, author of ' Addresses,' and of ' A Defence of his Conduct and Writings,' 1729-1802. OLEASHER, J., a Portuguese divine, d. 1663. OLENSCHLiEGER, J. D., called 'Olearius,' a German publicist and historical writer, 1711-1778. OLESNIKI, S., a Polish cardinal, died 1455. OLEY, Barnabas, a learned divine, who be- came archdeacon of Ely after the restoration, and died 1686. He published the works of Dr. Jack- son and Herbert's ' Country Parson.' OLGA, a woman of obscure birth, who became the wife of Igor, grand duke of Russia ; and after the death of her husband, in 945, governed the country for ten years as regent. Having become a Christian, and contributed to the spread of the i'aith, she is regarded as a saint in the Greek church; died 968. OLGIERD, grand duke of Lithuania, 1330-81. OLIER, J. J., a French ascetic writer, 1608-57. OLINA, J. P., an Italian naturalist, 16th cent. OLIVA, Alessandro, altal. cardinal, 1408-63. OLIVA, F. P. D', a Span, wr., abt. 1497-1533. OLIVA, John, an Italian antiquary, author of 'The Progress and Decay of Roman Learning,' &c, 1689-1757. OLIVAREZ, Gasper Guzman, Count Duke D', a Spanish statesman, devoted to the house of Austria, descended from the Guzmans of Castile, born at Rome, during his father's embassage to Sextus Quintus, about 1587, minister for twenty- two years during the reign of Philip IV. and his {jolitical enemy, Richelieu, died a few months after lis dismissal, 1643. OLIVECRANTZ, John Paulin, a Swedish statesman, and master of polite literat., 1633-1707. OLIVER, Isaac, an English miniature painter, 1566-1617. His son, Peter, same profession, 1001-1654. John, supposed to be his nephew, a painter on glass, 1616-1700. OLIVER, W., a physician of Bath, died 1764. OLIVET, Joseph Toulier D', a Fr. Jesuit, dist. as an elegant writer and classic, 1682-1768. OLIVETAN, Peter Robert, a relative and townsman of Calvin, said to have been poisoned at Rome in 1536, and, by other accounts, to have died at Ferrara 1538. He was one of the first re- formers, and published a French version of the Scriptures, which became the foundation of the Genevan Bible. OLIVEYRA, Francis Xavier De, a Portu- guese writer, who was connected with several em- bassies, and, becoming a protestant, took up his residence in England, 1702-1783. OLIVEYRA, S., a Portuguese rabbin, d. 1708. OLIVIER, C. M., a French critic, 1701-1736. OLIVIER, F., chancellor of France, 1497-1560. OLIVIER, James, a president of the parlia- ONK ment of Paris, born about 1460, died 1519. His son, John, a poet, and grand almoner, afterwards bishop of Anders, died 1540. OLIVIER; S., prof, of canon law, 1538-1609. OLIVIER, W. A., a Fr. naturalist, 1756-1814. OLIVIERI, A. C, an Ital. antiquarv, 1708-89. OLIVIERI, D., an Italian painter, 1679-1755. OLLIVIER, R,, a French writer, 1727-1814. OLMOS, F. A., a Span, missionary, died 1571. OLYBRIUS, Flavius Anicius, emperor of the West, died after a three months' reign, 472. OL YMPIAS, daughter of Pyrrhus, and wife of Alexander, king of Epirus, died about 240 B.C. OL YMPIAS, daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus, wife of Philip, king of Macedon, and mo- ther of Alexander the Great. Having been re- pudiated by Philip, shortly before his assassi- nation, B.C. 336, she is supposed to have instigated that crime, and was guilty of great atrocities dur- ing the minority of her son. Put to death b.c. 317. OLYMPIODORUS, a Platonic philosopher of Alexandria, commencement of the 6th century. Another philosopher of the same name and place, author of a commentary on Aristotle, about the end of the 6th century. A third savant of this name was deacon of Alexandria about the end of the 7th centurv, and wrote Commentaries. OLZOFFSKI, Andrew, a Polish statesman and prelate, distinguished for his wisdom and pa- triotism, born 1678. OMAR, the. first caliph of the name, and father- in-law of Mahomet, succeeded Aboubeker 634, conquered Jerusalem 637, and Alexandria 640. It was on this occasion that the great library of the Ptolemies was destroyed, and in the reign of Omar that the institutions of the Mahommedans began to assume their proper form. He was assassi- nated by a Persian slave 644. The second Omar succeeded 717, and was assassinated 720. OMAR, the fourth and last Arabian king of Badajoz, sue. his brother 1082, and was k. 1090. OMAR, acel. Mussulman doctor, abt. 1068-1142. OMAR-PACHA, dey of Algiers, 1815-1817. OMAYAH, or OMMIAH, a prince who ruled the Arabian tribe of Khoreish, the same to which Mahomet belonged, before the advent of the latter at the commencement of the 7th century. He was the stock of the Ommiade caliphs. O'MEARA, Barry Edward, a surgeon in the British navy, whose medical skill and "knowledge of Italian induced the emperor Napoleon to invite him to St. Helena, in the capacity of his medical attendant. He remained with the emperor till 1818, when a rupture occurred between him and Sir Hudson Lowe, whose conduct he deemed op- pressive, and he returned to England. He became a partizan of O'Connell in his later years, and died 1836, at the age of sixty-six. He wrote ' A Voice from St. Helena,' and several other works on the same subject. OMMEGANCK, B. B., a Fie. painter, 1775-1826. ONESICRITUS, a Gr. historian, 4th cent, n.c ONIAS, the name of several high priests of the Jews — the first of whom governed the Hebrew re- public, 322-302 b.c. The second, 233-219 b.c. The third, who is much spoken of in the book of the Maccabees, 199-170 b.c. The fourth, called also Menelaus, reigned 172-162 B.C. OXKELOS, a celebrated rabbin, supposed to 54U ONO D > native of Babylon, and to have flonr- bhed about the time of MB bOtd He wrote the Chakbe Targun, or paraphrase on the Pentateuch, which is remarkable for the purity of its language, fannitj with the Hebrew 'text. ' ACRILUS, ■ Greek poet, (5th cent. n.c SANDER, a Greek Platonist, wh< remaining work is a discourse on the duties and general Of U army, 1st century. OOBT, Lambbbcbt Van, a Flemish historical . orn in 1520. ADAM, his son, 1657-16 II, . 1 \. <>r. Van, the elder, a Flemish painter, '.i-tingnishod for his numerous altar-pieces, born about 1000, died 1071. His son, of the same names, called the Younger, a portrait and his- | linter, 1087-1718. BEWICK, Mama Vak, a pupil of J. De lebrated for her exquisite fruit and flower . L630-1693. . Ami.i.ia, was the daughter of the late | hysieian, Dr. Alderson, of Norwich, and the sitter Ot Mr. Baron Alderson. She was married to John Opie, the eminent historical pain- ter, in 17S4, and survived him nearly half a century. From an early period she devoted herself to literary . principally in the composition of works of fiction and moral tales. These have been chiefly admired for their simplicity and genial feeling. Her public literary career extended from 1805, when she published her ' Adeline Mowbray,' down to 1834, when her ' Lavs for the Dead' issued from the press. Besides these she is the author of 4 Detraction Displayed,' ' Father and Daughter,' 1 Madeline,' ' Temper,' ' Valentine's Eve,' &c. But her happiest effort is considered to be the ' Illus- trations of Lving.' For the last twenty-five years of her life she was a member of the Society of Friends, and lived in the strictest retirement at ten, where in 1853 she died, aged 84. OPIE, John, the famous historical painter, was son of a carpenter, and was born in the neigh- bourhood of Truro, Cornwall, 1761. Having shown many proofs of his genius, he commenced painting under the advice of Dr. Wolcott, and at if twenty was introduced to Sir Joshua ' i, in London. He succeeded Fuseli as :• or" painting at the Royal Academy, and was a lecturer at the Royal Institution. He wrote ' An Inquiry into the Requisite Cultivation of the in England.' Died 1807. EER, P., a Dutch annalist, 1526-1595. ( >PITZ 1 or OPITIUS, Henry, a German divine and Orientalist, whose singular opinions as the pupil of Matthias Wasmuth, subjected him to much enmity among the learned, 1642-1712. OPITZ, or OPITIUS, Martin, regarded as • of modern German poetry, 1597-1639. « M'J'I \\". a (Jr. poet and grammarian. 3d cent. OPPIU8 CAIUS, the name of two Romans— the first, a tribune of the people, b.c. 215. The second, one of Caesar's lieutenants, 50 •>..<•. OPSOPiEIJS, J., a German critic, 155(3-1500. philologist, died 1540. I -1720. I. A., an Italian painter, 1320-1389. ORDERIC.ViTAUg, an English monk of French 1 historian, 12th con. ORDINAIRE, C.N., a Fr.nafcnralist, 171 GOIO, A., an Ital. theologian, 1677-1635. 650 ORI O'REILLY, Alexander, Count, an Irish gene- ral, disting. in the service of Spain, 1735-1794. O'REILLY, Andrew, Count, a native of Ire- land, who became a general of cavalry in the ser- vice of Austria, and was governor of Vienna when it capitulated, 1741-1832. ORELLANA, Francisco, a Span. adventurer, regarded as the discoverer of the Amazons, 1549. ORESME, N., an eminent Fr. prelate, d. 1382. ORFANEL, Hyacinth, a Spanish missionary and hist, of Japan, where he was burnt alive, 1622. ORFILA, M., a physician, celebrated for his contributions to toxicological chemistry, born at Port Mahon in 1783, died in Paris 1853. ORGAGNA, A., an Italian painter, 1329-1389. ORIANI, B., an Italian astronomer, 1753-1832. ORIBASIUS, a Greek physician, 4th century. ORIENT, J., a Hungarian painter, died 1747. ORIENTIUS, St., bishop of Auch, d. aht.460. ORIGEN, surnamed Adamantius, was born at Alexandria about the year a.d. 186. His father, Leonides, an intelligent and educated Christian, was martyred in the year 203, and Origen, his mother, and six younger sons, were left in great destitution. The fatherless pupil studied under Clemens Alexandrinus and Am- monius Saccas, and made so great proficiency that in his eighteenth year Demetrius the bishop raised him to the office of catechist. In this position his success in teaching Christianity was so great, that his life was threatened by his pagan adversaries. During this period he practised peculiar austerities, and subjected himself to a strange mutilation, agreeably to what he deemed the correct meaning of the statement in Matthew xix. 12. He sold his library of secular books for a perpetual income of four oboli a-day, went without shoes, and slept on the ground. About the year 212 he made a brief visit to Rome. On his return to Alexandria he devoted himself more exclusively and assiduously to biblical studies. Among the persons recovered from error by him, was a man of wealth, named Ambrose, who gratefully supplied his teacher with seven amanuenses and as many copyists. The dan- ger in which persecution placed him, obliged him to leave Alexandria in 215, and he took refuge in Cajsarea. Here, though invested with no ecclesi- astical office, he publicly expounded the Scriptures. In the year following he was recalled to Alexan- dria, and still pursued his Scripture studies. Im- mediately afterwards he journeyed into Greece ; on his way through Palestine he was ordained a presbyter, and at Antioch had an interview, at her earnest request, with Mammaea, mother of the emperor Alexander Severus. The bishop Deme- trius, who had been for some time jealous of the growing fame of Origen, now openly attacked him on his return. In an assembly of prelates he pro- nounced sentence of exile upon Origen, and having in another degraded him from the priesthood, he sent a circular to all the bishops demanding their concurrence in the judgment. In Palestine, how- ever, Origen was protected ; he lived, studied, and preached in Caesarea. Persecution broke out again under Decius, and he was imprisoned and tortured. He showed himself prepared for martyrdom,. but was at length released. His sufferings, however, shortened his life, and he died at Tyre in the year 253, about his sixty ninth year. — The private life ORI and character of Origen were marked by great piety, moderation, meekness, humility, and industry. Under trying provocation he maintained an un- ruffled temper, and in times of danger he was never unnerved. His orthodoxy was impeached during his lifetime, and Origenism became in succeeding centuries an interminable theme of wrangling and accusation. The fancy of Origen did lead him often astray into wild and extravagant specula- tions, such as the dream of an ante-natal exis- tence, the pre-existence of Christ's human soul, and the final restoration of men and fallen spirits. His grammatical knowledge did not preserve him from the common and enticing error of spiritual- izing, or allegorizing Scripture. As a defender of the faith, Origen was far before any of his contem- pories, as may be seen in his book 'against Celsus,' and the remains of the Philocalia, which was compiled out of his writings by Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus, and principally from this clever defence. In the shape of commentary, scholia, or homilies, he published on nearly the whole of Scripture, though only a few portions of these voluminous works have been preserved. His trea- tise ' De Principiis ' is extant in the Latin version of Rufinus. Others of his numerous works exist only in scanty fragments. The • Exhortation to Martyrdom,' and the book ' On Prayer,' have come down to us. Eusebius speaks of having collected a hundred of his letters. But one chief province of Origen's literary labours was upon the text of Scripture. His famous Hexapla, the best known of his editions, presents, in successive columns the Hebrew, Hebrew in Greek characters, and the Greek versions of Aquila, Symmachus, the Seventy, and Theodotion; other Greek versions were occasionally added in additional columns. This was a critical attempt to amend the text of the Septuagint. The surviving remains of this noble and costly polyglot were published by Mont- faucon, in 2 folio volumes, Paris, 1714. The earlier editions of Origen's works were chiefly in Latin versions, such as those of Merlin, Erasmus, Panzer, andGenebrard. Huet published the exegeti- cal works in 2 folios, Rouen, 1688 ; but the Edi- tio princeps is the Benedictine one, of De La Rue, Pans, 1733-59, 4 vols., folio, reprinted in fifteen volumes by Oberthiir, Wiirzburg, 1785. A later edition by Lommatzsch in twenty -five 12rno volumes, was printed at Berlin, 1832-48, and a good life was published by Redepenning in two octavos at Bonn, 1846. With all his skilled dili- gence in biblical literature, Origen was not a safe guide in theology. There is at the same time no doubt that many of his works were interpolated, yet it is plain that he was prone to theorize, and to propound hypotheses which could not be sus- tained. His hints were by and by broadened by others into assertions, and his conjectures changed into positive affirmations. We cannot but admire his industry and erudition, though we smile at his psychology, and refuse to admit the truth of many of the dogmas with which his name has been so long connected. [J.E.] ORIGEN, the disciple and friend of Porphyry, lived at the same time as the preceding, and was the successor of Plotinus in the chair of philosophy ORLANDI,' Cl., an Ital. architect, 1694-1775. ORL ORLANDI, P. A., an Ital. art-writer, 1660-1727. ORLANDINI, N., an Italian Jesuit, known as the first historian of his order, 1554-1606. ORLAY, B. Van, a Flem. painter, b. abt. 1490. ORLAY, J. Van, a Flem. painter, b. abt. 1656. ORLEANS, an ancient dukedom, and titular name borne by the princes of the blood royal in France, of which there are two lines : — 1. The first line has given the following names to history : — Louis I. of France, duke d'Orleans, second son of Charles V., born 1371, became regent in conse- quence of the mental incapacity of his brother, Charles VI., 1393, and was murdered by his cousin, the duke of Burgundy, 1407. This event was the source of the bloody feuds between the houses of Orleans and Burgundy. Charles, son of the pre- ceding, duke of Angouleme in his father's lifetime, taken prisoner at the battle of Agincourt, died while attempting the conquest of the Milanese, which he claimed in right of his mother, 1465. He left a son, Louis II. of Orleans, who, in 1498, succeeded to the crown as Louis XII. — Between the first and second houses we find John Bap- tist Gaston, third son of Henry IV. and Mary de Medici, bom 1608, created duke of Orleans 1626, and noted for his intrigues during the reign of his brother, Louis XIII. He was banished to Blois by Mazarin in 1652, and died there 1660. — 2. The second house of Orleans commences with Philip L, second son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria, bom 1640, received the title of Orleans on the death of his uncle, Gaston, 1660, and the next year was married to his cousin, Henrietta Anne, daughter of Charles I. of England. He is sus- pected of having poisoned this princess, and, in 1671, was married to Elizabeth of Bavaria, of whom his successor was born ; died 1701. Philip II., bom 1674, succeeded to the title of the pre- ceding 1701, and became the celebrated regent Or- leans after the death of Louis XIV. He was edu- cated in profligacy by the abbe Dubois, and brought the kingdom to the verge of an insurrection (see Law); died suddenly 1723. Louis, son and successor of the latter, bom 1703, was distin- guished for his accomplishments as a universal scholar and linguist. He died, after passing his life in a literary and religious retirement, 1752. Louis Philip, son and successor of Louis the preceding, bom 1725, was lieutenant-general in the Flemish wars and governor of Dauphine. He was a man of taste and a lover of literature, and died generally regretted 1785. Louis Joseph Philip, son of the last named, see article below. Louis Philip, his son and successor, same as the late king of French. See Louis Philippe. Fer- dinand Philip Louis Charles Henry, eldest son of the late king of the French, was born 1810 at Palermo, and distinguished himself in 1831 at the siege of Antwerp, and more recently in the African campaigns. He was killed by a fall from his carriage, near Neuilly, 13th July, 1842. His sons are the present Count de Paris, born 1838, and the due de Chartres, bom 1840. His sister, Marie, princess of Orleans, born at Palermo 1813, was greatly distinguished for her love of art, and especially for her skill in sculpture. She was mar- ried to the duke of Wurtemberg in 1837, and died of consumption 1839. Her greatest work is the statue of Joan of Arc, in the museum of Versailles. 651 OIL OBL1 i'nii ii'ri: Joseph, Dnc D\ ite kins of the French, and cousin \ ! . Bon at St Cloud, with the M ntftfwiTi 1717, became doc leded to the title and gf his lather in 17*7. [fl 1 7CJ he mar- daughter of the due de Penthievre, and Hit of the popularity that to her as member of a family beloved by the people. In the conilict between the court and the parliaments, which preceded the revolution, Orleans fully justified this preference by g the former, and, as a natural conse- \.as received coldly by the royal family, and exposed to many mortifications at court; one considerable instance of which was the refusal of the kinp: to appoint him grand admiral of France j it v that had fairly reverted to the due d' Orleans by ordinary custom. His predilection for the popular cause was accompanied by a private cliaracter undeniably bad. It may be enough to say on this point, that, as he frequently Kngland, he was the boon companion of the prince of Wales, and shared in all those nameless crimes against morality that we com- monly understand by ' blackguardism.' The scene of his orgies in France was the Palais Royal. ' He changed the noble and spacious gardens of his palace into a market of luxury, devoted by daj to traffic (as a means of repairing his shat- tered fortunes), and by night to play and de- bauchery — a complete sink of iniquities, built in the heart of the capital — a work of cupidity which antique manners never could forgive this prince; and which, being gradually adopted as their forum by the indolence of the Parisian population, was destined to become the cradle of the revolution.' The due d'Orleans, in fact, and the Palais Royul, became the centre of the great conspiracy that was striding onwards to overthrow all that should have been dear to the descendant of a line of kings. Honour, decency, the privacy of the do- mestic life of royalty, and the fair name of his cousin Marie Antoinette, were all sacrificed by the man whose natural place at such a crisis was among the chief defenders of the throne. In 1792 1 Orleans took his seat with the republicans in the National Convention, and adopted for him- self and his heirs the name of Egalite — even voting for the king's death, 'simply occupied with his duty,' as he expressed himself, 'and convinced that the enemies of public liberty deserved to die.' It has been affirmed that he went to see Louis executed, but this is by no means certain ; for his position, especially after the king's death, as first fn-ince of the blood, was such as to bring upon lim the hatred and suspicion of all parties. He was accused, at last, of plotting to re-establish the monarch}-, either in his own person, or in his family, and the Jacobins were resolved to rid themselves of the embarrassment of his presence. A revulsion of feeling seems to have taken place after his arrest, and he conducted himself with unexpected courage, propriety, and ■elf-p on the day of his trial and execution — which took place, after Kraal months' imprisonment, on 6th November, 1793. On being asked ' Whether he had not voted the death Of the tyrant with the ambitious premeditation of bucceeding him '< ' 552 ORO 'No,' he replied, 'I obeyed my heart and con- science.' 'Since you were determined to con- demn me,' he added, 'you should have found more specious pretexts, for you will never persuade any one that you believed me really guilty of the treason you charge me with.' Louis d'Orlcans, in truth, understood the temper of the people too well to think of aspiring to the crown, and had made himself too familiar with them to dream of any respect in such a character. The republicans sacrificed him for future security, as they would have done every member of the royal family if it had been possible to secure their persons. f^E.R.1 ORLEANS-DE-LA-MOTTE, Louis Francis Gabriel D', born 1683, became bishop of Amiens 1733, and died 1774. He is regarded as the model of a Christian minister, and is author of ' Spiritual Letters,' published 1777. His life, by Proyart, was published 1788. ORLEY, B. Van, a Flemish painter, 1490-156O. ORLEY, Richard Van, and his son, John, distinguished at Brussels as miniature painters and engravers; the former 1652-1732. ORLOFF, Gregory, a Russian general and political intriguer, who greatly promoted the ele- vation of his mistress, Catharine II., to the throne. Being disappointed in his hope of sharing the crown with her, and declining a private marriage, he was supplanted by a new favourite, and died insane 1783. He had one son by the empress, named Bobrinkski. Alexis, his brother and fel- low-conspirator, was a man of gigantic stature and strength, and is said to have strangled the emperor Peter with his own hands. He was a fa- vourite of Catharine, and was married to the princess Taranoff, daughter of the empress Eliza- beth ; died 1808. Gregory Vladimirowitz, a nobleman of the same family, bearing the title of Count ORLOFF,was distinguished for hispatron-r age and culture of letters. He is author of ' His- torical, Political, and Literary Memoirs of Naples,' a ' History of the Arts in Italy,' flour. 1778-1826. ORME, Robert, son of Dr. Alexander Orme, a physician and surgeon, employed by the East India Company, distinguished for his historical works on British India, 1728-1801. ORMEROD, Oliver, a Church of England minister and polemical writer of the time of James L, author of ' The Picture of a Puritan,' and ' The Picture of a Papist,' died 1626. ORMOND, James Butler, duke of, a com- mander in the army of Charles L, and a strenuous adherent of his son Charles II., whose restoration he laboured to promote, 1610-1688. His son, Thomas, earl of Ossory, distinguished as a naval and military commander, 1634-1680. His grand- son, James, second duke of Ormond, a partizan of the prince of Orange, and afterwards of the Pre- tender, 1665-1747. OROBIO, Balthasar, called by some hiogra- 5 hers Isaac De Castro Orobio, was a Spanish ew, who professed the Roman Catholic faith in his native country, where he was a physician and professor of metaphysics. He was tortured and imprisoned by the inquisition on suspicion of his real character, and afterwards on going to Amster- dam, was circumcised and became a Jew out- wardly, on which occasion he took the name of Isaac. He wrote a philosophical book against Spinoza. ORO OROSIUS, P., a Spanish ecclesiastic, 4th cent. ORRENTE, P., a Spanish painter, died 1G42. ORSATO, J. B., an Italian antiq., 1673-1720. ORSATO, Sertorio, an Italian antiquarian and historian, usually called Ursatus, 1617-1G78. ORSI, J. A., an Italian historian, 1692-1761. ORSINI, a noble Italian family, the most cele- brated of whom are — Nicholas, count of Pitig- liano, a Venetian general, time of the league of Cambray, 1412-1510. His cousin, Lorenzo, or Renzo de Ceri, conquered the duchy of Urbino, in the interest of Leo X., and defended Rome against the constable Bourbon, died 1536. Ful- vio, in the Latinized form, Fulvius Ursinus, a distinguished scholar and antiquarian writer, 1529- 1600." The popes, Nicholas III. and Benedict XIII., were of this family, and a branch of the family entered the Neapolitan service, and became the counts of Nola and dukes of Gradina. Fran- cesco and Paolo, of this branch, were strangled at Sinegaglia by Ceesar Borgia, and the cardinal Orsini was poisoned by Caesar's father, the pope Alexander VI. See also Ursius. ORTE, or ORTHES, H. D'Aspremont, Vis- count D', governor of Bayonne at the period of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, in which, to his honour, he refused to participate. ORTEGA, C. G. De. a Span, botanist, 1730-1810. ORTELIUS, A., a Flem. geographer, 1527-1598. ORTON, Job, an Eng. dis. minister, 1717-1783. ORES APOLLO, otherwise HORUS APOLLO, and HORAPOLLO, the supposed author of two ancient books concerning the Hieroglyphics of the Egyptians, first published by Aldus in 1505, was a native of Egypt, and first taught as a gram- marian at Alexandria, and then at Constantinople, in the reign of Theodosius, about 380. The interesting fragment known by his name is sup- posed to be, substantially, of much older date, and to have been written in the Egyptian tongue, the books we now have (according to this hypothesis) being a reproduction or abridged version in Greek. The explanations of Orus Apollo have exercised a good deal the curiosity of the learned, and some of the signs are admitted to have the value he assigns to them. The book has often been repub- lished since the time of Aldus, and several times with a Latin version, the latest being that of Leemans, Amsterdam, 1834. The following will give some idea of the meanings of Orus Apollo : — The scarabseus — virility, paternity, strength ; the stars — fate and providence; the dew, or soft rain — doctrine ; fire and water, as emblems of lustration and expiation — purity; the ox — temperance and strength; the crocodile — insane fury, rapacity, fecundity ; the frog — an imperfect or unformed man; the lion's head — watchfulness; the anterior members of the lion — power ; the lamp burning — life ; the eye — God ; the face without eyes, or two eyes represented over a mask— the manes, or infernal gods; the black dove — constancy in widowhood. It is quite clear that this interesting fragment of antiquity contains the remnant of some traditions of remote times, mingled with later inventions or guesses. Orus Apollo gives the meaning of the cross as future life or salvation, and confesses that he cannot explain why. This is the crux ansata, erroneously regarded as the key of the Nile, and usually held by Osiris. [E.R.'j OST ORVILLE, J. P. D\ a Dutch critic, 1G96-1751. ORY, F., a French jurisconsult, died 1657. ORZECHOWSKI, Stanislaus, in Latin, Ori- chovius, a Polish orator and historian, 16th cent. OS, J. Van, a Dutch flower painter, 1744-1808. His son, T. William, a landsc. painter, b. 1776. OSBECK, P., a Swedish navigator, died 1805. OSBORNE, Francis, a parliamentary and re- publican statesman, formerly master of the horse to the celebrated earl of Pembroke, known as an historical and political writer, b. abt. 1588, d. 1658. OSIANDER, Andrew, a celebrated protestant theologian, who joined the party of Luther when he declared against indulgences, and took part in all the discussions when the confession of faith was formed at Augsburgh. Born at Guntzenhausen, in Franconia, 1498^ died 1552. His son, Luke, called the elder, a famous controversialist, 1534- 1604. Luke, son of the latter, chancellor of the university of Tubingen, 1570-1638. Andrew, another son of the elder Luke, well known as a theologian and commentator, 1562-1617. OSIANDER, John Adam, a theologian and philologist, professor at Tubingen, 1622-1697. His son, of the same names, a physician, 1659-1708. The son of the latter, who also bore the same names, 1701-1756. John, son of the first John Adam, distinguished as a philologist, 1657-1724. OSIO, F., an Italian historical critic, 1587-1631. OSIUS, a Spanish theologian, bishop of Cordova at the period of the council of Nice, 256-358. OSMAN, son of Ibrahim, emperor of the Turks, who was taken captive when a child by certain Maltese adventurers, and, being educated as a Christian, became vicar-general of the Dominicans at Malta : died 1676. OSMAN-BEY, Nemsey, a Hungarian officer in the service of Austria, who was born about 1740, and, when disgraced in his regiment, retired to Constantinople and became a Moslem. He was distinguished for his skill in archaeology and nu- mismatics, and was murdered by his servants, 1785. OSMOND, J. B. L., a Fr. wr. on books, d. 1775. OSMUND, St., a bishop of Salisbury, 11th cent. OSORIO, J., a Portuguese prelate, 1506-1580. OSSENBEECK, J. Van, a D. painter, 1627-78. OSSIAN, a Gaelic bard, who is supposed to have lived in the 3d century, and is represented as the son of Fingal, king of Morven. See M acpherson. OSSOLI, the Countess, better known as Mar- garet Fuller, was bom in Massachusets, U.S., 1810, and when quite a girl was remarkable for the avidity with which she applied herself to classical and literary studies. She became mis- tress of a brilliant reputation in Boston and New York, chiefly founded on her conversational powers, and the leading part she took in the friendly conversazioni made up at her friends' houses, and in a less degree on the genius and sensibility displayed in her writings. In 1847, while on a tour in Italy, she became the wife of the marquis Ossoli, and on returning to America in 1850, they both perished by shipwreck on the beach of Fire Island. With her perished the MS. of a work on Italy, containing the last and ripest fruits of her genius. OSSORY, Thomas, count of. See Okmond. OSTADE, Adrian Van, a Dutch painter, 1 610- 1685. His brother and pupil, Isaac, 1617-1671. 553 OST OSTERYALD, J. Fncomo, a Swim divine, author of ■ Catechi&m and a History of the Bible, 1 717. OSTERWICK, Maria Van, celebrated as a flower painter, born near Delft 1G30, died 1693. I [US, a Latin poet, 1st centnrv. OSTR< USKI, vaivode of Kieff, died 1608. OSTKOWSKI, a Polish general, lGtli centurv. OSTKOW SKI. Tii. Adrian Rawicz, a Polish statesman and friend of the constitution, 1739-1817. OSWALD, a saint and king of Northumberland, converted, and killed in battle 642. Another St. ( tawaUL bishop of Worcester and York, died 922. LLD, E., an Austrian savant, 1511-1579. < •SWALD, J., a Scottish philosopher, last cent. OSYMANDIAS, ■ king of Thebes, who built the Memnonium, B.C. 2000. OTFRID, a German poet and divine, 9th cent. OTHER, OHTHER, or OTTAR, a Norwegian •r of the age of Alfred the Great. OTHMAN, or'OSMAN, the founder of the Otto- man empire and the dynasty of the Osmanlis, was a Turkish chief who made himself master of Bithy- nia, flourished 1259-1326. A second, of the same name, was the sixteenth Ottoman sultan, reigned 1618-1622. A third, who was the twenty-fifth reigned 1754-1774. OTHMAN AL RHADY, About. Said, a king nd Morocco, reigned 1310-1331. Ol'HMAN-IBN-AFFAN, son-in-law of Maho- met, succeeded to Omar as third caliph 644. He was murdered by Mohammed, son of Abubekr, 656. 1 10, emperor of Rome, reigned 32-69. OTHO I., emperor of Germany, distinguished as the Great, was the eldest son of Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony. He was born 912, elected king of Germany 936, and crowned emperor 962, after subduing Bohemia and Italy, besides waging a suc- arfare with Nicephorus, emperor of the I >ied 973. Otho II., son of the preceding, was born 955, consecrated king of Lombardy 962, and reigned as emperor after his father 973-983. I i I., son and successor of the latter, was a boy when his father died, and died when only thirty years of age, probably of poison, 1002. Otho IV., son of Henry, the lion duke of Saxony, was born about 1175, and succeeded 1197. He was not re- cognized over all Germany till 1208, nor conse- 1 1209. In 1214 he was totally defeated by Philip Augustus. Died 1218. OTHO, duke of Saxony, was the first hereditary lord of that country, and reigned from 880 to 912. L, same as the first emperor of that name. < n HO, a duke of Burgundy, 956-965. », the first of the name, count of Bur- gundy, third son of the emperor Frederick I., suc- ceeded him in the county 1190, died 1200. The second of the name succeeded the preceding by marrying his widow, Beatrice, 1200, and died 1234. The third, son of the preceding, died 1248. The eldest son and sue. of Alix, 1279, d. 1302. OTHO OV Bavaria, elected king of Hungary 1305, was compelled to abdicate 1307. Otho, duke of Suabia. obtained the duchy of Bavaria in 976, and was killed the same year. The second Otho ia received the duchy from Agnes, mother of Henry IV., in 106% and was al reverses in 1088. The third, called »tl was nominated by Frederic Barbarossa, and reigned OTR 1180-1183. The fourth, called the Illustrious, suc- ceeded his father, Louis I., 1231, died 12.33. OTHO of Brunswick. See Brunswick. OTHO, Henry, Count Palatine, reig. 1556-59. OTHO, St., the apostle of Pomerania, 1060-1139. OTHO, or OTTO, bishop of Freysingen, son of Leopold, margrave of Austria, and Agnes, daughter of the emperor Hemy IV., celebrated as a chro- nicler; died 1158. OTHO, OTHON, or OTTON, George, a Ger. Orientalist and rabbinical philosopher, 1634-1713. OTRANTO, Joseph Fouche, duke of, minis- ter of police under Buonaparte, was born at Nantes in 1763. When the revolution broke out he made himself conspicuous by the extravagance of his har- angues in the patriot club of that city, and in 1792 was sent to the convention. His career as a teacher of philosophy before the revolution was probably the reason of his appointment, in convention, on the Committee of Public Instruction. This function, however, presented little scope for his ambition, and he soon worked himself into the Committee of Fin- ance. In this capacity he displayed his abilities by realizing a good deal of confiscated property for the use of government ; and his public spirit was so highly approved that he was next sent to raise a battalion of troops in the city of Troyes. The trial of Louis XVI. was now approaching, and Fouche, who had identified himself with the party of Marat, voted for the instant execution of the king. In Sep- tember, 1793, he was sent to the department of the Nievre, to see the decrees of the convention executed ; and besides suppressing public worship, he loaded himself with the spoil of the churches. This mission being satisfactorily executed, he was associated with that of Collot D'Herbois to Lyons, and there the most horrible atrocities were com- mitted. His maxim was, that nothing ought to arrest the will of the people, ' the explosion of the mine, the devouring activity of the flame, should express their power . . . their determination, like that of the tyrant, should be felt as a thunder- clap.' Such was the language of the day to which Fouch6 lent himself with Jesuitical cunning ; and for him there is no apology, as for a Marat, in his sincerity. ' Brought up in a cloister, Fouche' had learnt that monkish humility which stoops only to rise the higher; and he devoted himself to "the tyranny of the people, until he became the instru- ment of a new Caesar. More of an actor by nature than Collot was by profession, he played the part of a Brutus with the 'soul of Sejanus.' He was not yet, then, in his real element ; the overthrow of altars, the disgrace of the cross and the Bible, which he caused to be dragged through the streets at the tail of an ass, the plunder of mansions and churches, and the wholesale butcheries of the city of Lyons, were coolly calculated the price paid for popular influence. After the fall of Robes- pierre accusations were heard against him on all sides, and in June, 1795, he was driven out of the convention. Enabled to return by the amnesty of October, Fouche remained quiet for about two years, and then, under the Directory, became in succession ambassador to Milan, ambassador to Holland, and minister of police. This latter was the very function for which nature had organized Fouche, and for which his career had thoroughly prepared him. He was to the political Jesuits all 654 OTB that Buonaparte became to the army ; in him the native cunning of the born conspirator and the finished spy arrayed itself against the daring of the soldier, and the genius of the statesman. He was wise enough to be aware that power like his could only be exercised in secret, and hence his willingness to contribute to the establishment of Napoleon as consul ; the successful soldier, on the other hand, seems to have been always conscious of the meanness and danger of employing such an instrument ; but in this he had no choice, for un- less he would have assassinated Fouchd, the only means of keeping such a man harmless, was to employ him in his own interest. Fouche" had mixed with men of all parties, was thoroughly conversant with their projects, and held the threads of a thousand conspiracies in his hands. Napoleon finding such a man in authority, and his system of espionage in full action, continued him in office till the peace of Amiens in 1802, when his functions were united to those of the minister of justice, M. Regnier, and Fouche was sent to Aix with the dignity of senator. In 1806, after Napo- leon had become emperor, a new coalition was formed against him, and to meet certain of its emergencies, Fouche resumed his post as minister of police 5 his evening parties from this time becom- ing more brilliant than ever, for he was now created duke of Otranto, and opened his drawing-room to the old French nobility, many of whom acted as his spies. Napoleon in the midst of his brilliant successes, was restive under the general persuasion of Europe that his throne was dependent on such a system; yet he retained the minister till his marriage with the Austrian princess, when he vainly supposed that his dynasty was established. Preceding that event in 1809, Fouche had made a daring exhibition of his power. During Na- poleon's absence in the campaign concluded by the peace of Schonbrunn, the English made a descent upon Belgium. Fouche" at this time was minister ot the interior as well as minister of police, and without consulting the emperor, he organized an army of the National Guard with astonishing rapidity, and having put Bernadotte at its head, who was not in favour with Napoleon, sent him to expel the enemy ; about the same time he had, virtually, his own private agent at the court of St. James's in the person of M. Ouvrard. The com- plications arising out of these circumstances de- termined the emperor's course, and after his second marriage Fouche" was appointed governor of Rome, the duke of Rovigo becoming minister of the interior. It was well understood that this change was equivalent to his disgrace, and Fouche" remained in a splendid retirement till the disas- trous campaign of Russia in 1812, when the em- peror, sensible of the mischief he might now do. ap- pointed him governor of the Illyrian provinces, and on the loss of Germany, still to keep him at a distance, governor of Naples. The services of Fouche" were not enlisted by the provisional govern- ment of 1814, and there is a question how far he was a party in any way to Napoleon's return from Elba. He resumed his old function, however, as minister of police during the hundred days, and after the battle of Waterloo, advised the emperor to abdicate, at the same time making his own peace with the Bourbons at Ghent. The services OUD of Fouch6 were retained some time by Louis XVIII., but he soon found his position untenable, and thought it convenient to make good his retreat by going as ambassador to Dresden. The law of 1816, passed generally against all the regicides, deprived him of this last political refuge, and after travelling some time in Germany, he settled at Trieste. Fouche" died in 1820, leaving a fortune estimated at half- a-million sterling. [E.R.] OTT, John Henry, a Swiss divine, 1617-1682. His son, J. Baptist, eel. as an Orientalist, b. 1661. OTT, Pet. Charles, Baron, an Austrian field, marshal, disting. against the Turks, and more re- cently in the wars of Italy against France, d. 1809. OTTER, John, a Swedish Orientalist, 1707-48. OTTH, Adolphus, a Swiss physician, 1803-39. OTTINI, Pascal, an Italian painter, d. 1630. OTTLEY, William Young, late keeper of the prints in the British Museum, author of works con- nected with the fine arts, including a critical cata- logue of the National Gallery, ' The Italian School of Design,' ' The Origin and' Early History of En- graving,' &c, 1772-1836. OTTO. See Guericke. OTTO, Everhard, a Ger. juriscon., 1685-1756. OTTO, Louis William, Count De Moslay, a French diplomatist, who negotiated the marriage of Napoleon with Marie Louise, 1754-1817. OTTO, V^nius, an Italian painter, 1556-1634. OTWAY, Thomas, was born in 1651, at his father's parsonage in Sussex. From Winchester school he was sent to Oxford, but left the univer- sity for London in his twenty-first year, without a degree. Going on the stage, he failed completely, and began to write plays in 1675. His tragedy of ' Don Carlos ' was extremely popular ; two or three comic pieces, though very indifferent, were licentious enough to please the debauched patrons of the theatres : the author was likewise a jovial companion ; and one of Charles II.'s natural sons procured for him, in 1677, a commission in the army then serving in Flanders. Very soon, how- ever, he retired from service, returned to London in great poverty, and recommenced authorship. He now wrote some translations, and many occasional and miscellaneous poems, and produced a new series of plays. Among these were the two tragedies through which his name is remembered : 'The Orphan' appeared in 1680, and 'Venice Pre- served' m 1682. Both of these, especially the latter, abound in that deep pathos which was so cordially admired by Dry den, and which attracted the sympathy of the poetic and imaginative Collins. Otway continued to be poor ; and nis unfortunate life came to a close in his thirty-fourth year. He died, 1685, in a house in Tower-Hill, where he was hiding from his creditors ; and it is asserted that, suffering from hunger, he eagerly swallowed a crust of bread, and was choked by it. [W.S.] OUDENARDE. See Audenaerd. OUDENDORP, F. D\ aD. philolog., 1696-1761. OUDET, Ja. Joseph, a French officer, born about 1773, killed at Wagrnm, 1809. OUDIN, Casimer, a French monk, author of ' Commentaries on the Ancient Writings of the Church,' 1638-1717. OUDIN, Cesar, a French interpreter and diplo- matist, time of Henry IV., author of a translation of Don Quixote, died 1625. His son, Anthony 555 OUD of the same profession, and author of a history of . died 1658. 1'.. ■ French writer, 17th century. OUDIN, I.. OUDINET, M. A.. ■ Fr. medallist, 1648-1712. OUDINOT.Cb \ku-s Nicholas, duke of Reg- gio, and marshal of France, was the son of a mer- nd was born at Bar-Sur-Ornain 1767. Ho nny when nineteen man of age, and when the revolution broke out held the rank of captain. He embraced the popular cause, and the rank of general, accompanied Massena ir.to Italy as one of his staff-officers in 1799. His fortunes from this time were linked with those of Napoleon till the capitulation of Paris, March 31, Alien he became a Bourbonist. In that :• he headed the army that invaded Spain lent at Madrid some months rnor. In 1830, true to his principles, he adhered to the new dynasty. He succeeded Mar- ncey as governor of the lnvalides 1842, and die i OUDRY, J. B., a French painter, 1686-1755. OUGHTRED, Wm., a minister of the Church of England, dist. as a mathematician, 1574-1660. ■ HJGH-BEYG. See Ulugh-Beigii. OB I. TN E.MAN, Henry D\ a Flemish historian, 1546-1605. His br., Philip, an ascetic, died 1652. 3EL. SeeOisEL. OUSELEY, Sir William, an Oriental scholar and wr. on Persian history and literat., 1771-1842. OUTHIER, R., a Fr. astronomer, 1694-1774. OUTRAM. or OUT RAM, William, a Church of England minister, celebrated for his learning as a theologian, 1625-1679. OUVILLE, Antoine Le Metel D', a French dramatist and translator, died about 1656. OUVRARD, Julian, a French grocer who be- came contractor to the army, and ultimately a political employe^, died in England 1847. OUVRA&D, Rene, a French ecclesiastic, dis- ting. as a writer on music and polemics, died 1694. OOWATEB, A. Van, a D. painter, 14th cent. VI EB, J., a Dutch painter, 1747-1793. NS, Jurien, a Dutch painter, 1620-16C8. OVERALL, .John, a learned prelate, author of a work entitled ' The Convocation Book,' written in opposition to Parsons, to advocate the divine right of government. He had a share also in the translation of the Bible and the Church Catechism. Born 1559. died bishop of Norwich 1619. OVERBECK, Bonavknture Van, a Dutch historical painter and designer, 1660-1706. OVEBBUBY, Sib Thomas, known as an ele- gant miscellaneous writer, but more especially for < al death at the instance of the earl of r and the countess of Essex, was born in Warwickshire about 15*1. He contracted an in- timacy with the earl, then Robert Carr, at the court of Ja:nes I., and provoked the anger of the countess by endeavouring to dissuade i. irying her; the fact being that he was privy to their intrigues, and well acquainted with the infamous character of the lady. Rochester had the address to procure the imprisonment of his friend in the Tower of London, by en cause of offence between him and the king, and, some months la* n to be poisoned there, ugh suspicious were en- 55G OVI tertained at the time, it was not till 1616 that tins deed of darkness was discovered, when the inferior agents were all apprehended, tried, and executed. Rochester, now earl of Somerset, and the countess, were also tried and condemned, but they were both pardoned by the king, for private reasons. A nephew of Sir Thomas Overbury, who bore the same names, and inherited his estates, was author of some curious tracts, published 1676-1677. OVID. Publius Ovidius Naso, the love poet of the Romans, was born at Sulmo, (now Sul- mone.) a town in the country of the Peligni, about ninety miles south-east from Rome, on the 20th of March, B.C. 43, the year which witnessed the fall of the Roman consuls under the walls of Mo- dena, the formation of the second triumvirate, and the cruel murder of Cicero. The leading events of his life have been transmitted to us cniefly in his own writings. His father belonged to an old equestrian family, and the future poet was the second son, his elder brother being exactly twelve months his senior. At an early age he was brought to Rome along with his brother, and there edu- cated under the most distinguished masters. When the usual period arrived he repaired to Athens for the purpose of completing his studies ; and, before returning to Rome, visited, along with the poet Macer, the magnificent cities of Asia Minor. Ovid had manifested even in boyhood a decided taste for poetical composition; but his father, believing that poetry did not necessarily lead to wealth or politi- cal distinction, endeavoured to check the youthful aspirations of his son, and urged him to adopt the profession of law, as that which opened up to him the highest offices of the state. Parental au- thority for a time prevailed, and his poetical studies gave place to attendance in the forum. On attaining the legal age, he performed succes- sively the duties of several of the minor offices of state ; but his bodily health and his mental con- stitution alike disqualified him for active or public life. Poetry was his delight ; and, therefore, notwithstanding the remonstrances of his father, he resolved to abandon the forum, and to devote himself exclusively to the cultivation of the muses. He now courted the society of the most eminent poets of the day; and the admiration which he cherished for them is pleasingly evinced by his statement, that, when they were assembled, he regarded them as so many divinities. Among his most intimate friends were Macer, Propertius, Ponticus, and Bassus. Ovid was married throe times. His first wife, to whom he was united when scarcely beyond boyhood, was, he tells us, unworthy of his affection, so that the union was of short duration ; the second, though of blame- less character, was also soon discarded, without any serious charge being alleged against her. His third wife, who belonged to the' Fabian family, appears to have been every way worthy of the sincere affection which the poet entertained for her till the day of his death. By her he had a daughter, Perilla, who was twice married, and had a child by each husband. Till the end of his fiftieth year, Ovid had spent a life of uninter- rupted prosperity and enjoyment. His fortune, though moderate, placed' within his reach the luxuries of refined life, and his fame as a poet collected around him a large circle of devoted OVI admirers. The favour and patronage of Augustus and the imperial family were also extended to him. But a reverse of fortune, as sudden as it was unexpected, was destined to overtake him. At the close of the year a.d. 8. he was ordered by an imperial edict to transport himself to Tomi, a colony in the country of the Getaj, on the shore of the Euxine, a little to the south of the mouths of the Danube. Resistance was vain. Over- whelmed with grief he tore himself from the arms of his afflicted wife, and set out in the month of December for the place of his destination, which he reached the following spring. The cause of his banishment is a question which has long exercised the ingenuity of scholars; and though various solutions of it have been proposed, it still continues to be a subject of discussion. The ostensible reason was the immoral tendency of his Art of Love, which had been published for nearly two years, and to this Ovid frequently alludes ; but there is no room for doubt that the wrath of the emperor had been excited by some other and more grave offence. The poet himself declares that his offence was an inadvertence, rather than a crime; but his expressions, when alluding to it, are ambiguous, and even incon- sistent. This sudden transition from the luxury and refinement of Rome to the inhospitable soil and the barbarism of Moesia, would have tested severely even the sternest philosophy ; and it must be admitted that Ovid did not display great fortitude in submitting to his fate. He died at Tomi, a.d. 18, in the sixtieth year of his age, and the tenth of his banishment. Ovid was born a poet — he ' lisped in numbers, for the numbers came ; ' and that he possessed high poetical genius is unquestionable. His judgment and taste, however, are sometimes at fault, and the vigorous fancy and warmth of colouring displayed in some parts of his works are required to counter- balance the false taste and frigid conceit which present themselves in others. At the same time, it must be granted that no poet, either ancient or modern, has expressed beautiful thoughts in more appropriate language. The works of Ovid con- sist of the Amoves, or Loves, in three books ; the Heroides, or Heroical Epistles, twenty-one in number; the Ars Amatoria, or Art of Love; the Jiemedia Amoris ; the Metamorphoses, in fifteen books; the Fasti, in six books; the Tristia, in five books ; the Epistles from Pontus, in four books, besides some minor poems. [G.F .] OVIEDO, A. De, a Spanish prelate, died 1577. OVIEDO, Gonzalo Fernanoes De, a Spanish officer who became director of the gold and silver mines of Hayti, and is known as one of the earliest and best historians of the New World. He was the discoverer of the curative virtues of guaiacum. Born at Madrid abt. 1478, date of his death unkn. OWAIN, a famous British or Welch name borne by a son of Mexen Wledig, who was elected king in the time of the Romans, and is numbered with the British saints. Another Owain was prince of Powys 1110-1114, when he was killed by Gerald, constable of Pembroke, whose wife he had seduced. A third, Owain Civeilog, known as a warrior and poet, died about 1197. OWAIN-GLANDWR. See Gt,endower. OWAIN, or OWEN TUDOli, the grandfather OWE of Henry VIL, was lord of Pennrynydd, in Angle- sea. In 1426 he married Catharine, the widow of Henry V., and had three sons by her. The eldest became a monk. The second was Edmund, earl of Richmond, father of Henry VII., and the third, Jasper, earl of Pembroke. OWEN, George, an English physician, d. 1558. OWEN, Henry, a learned divine of the Church of England, born in Merionethshire 1716, died in London 1795. He is author of • Observations on the Four Gospels,' ' The Intent and Propriety of the Scripture Miracles,' ' An Inquiry into the Pre- sent State of the Septuagint Version of the Old Testament,' an ' Introduction to Hebrew Criti- cism,' a ' Treatise on Trigonometry,' &c. OWEN, John, D.D., a scion of an ancient Welch family, was born in 1616 at Stadham, Ox- fordshire. His precocious talents and acquire- ments procured him admission into Queen's Col- lege at the age of twelve, and he was made Mas- ter of Arts at nineteen. Devoted to his studies at that age, he spent only four hours in bed, but at the same time was fond of all manly and athletic sports, which tended greatly to give vigour and stamina to his constitution. When only twenty- one, he headed the students in a determined resis- tance to some superstitious rites which the then chancellor of Oxford, Archbishop Laud, designed to impose: and though successful in putting down the innovation, Owen paid dearly for the part he acted, for he was obliged to leave the university. He immediately took orders, although he entered into no pastoral duties owing to the state of his bodily as well as mental health, for he became subject for a time to a deep and desponding anxiety about his spiritual interests. Owen's prospects in life were greatly affected by the part lie acted on the outbreak of the civil war. Having zealously espoused the parliamentary cause, an incensed uncle, who had promised to make him heir to his large estate, expunged his name from his will; and he was left accordingly to his own resources. He went an entire stranger to London, and there com- menced his career of authorship by publishing his ' Display of Arminianism,' a work suited to the times. "The society for purging the church of here- sies rewarded him through their Chairman with the living of Frodham in Essex, and during the year and a-half he resided in that parish, his popularity as a preacher was so great, that crowds flocked to hear him from all the surrounding districts. He resigned this living for a charge at Coggeshall, a market town about five miles distant, where he changed from the presbyterian form of church government to the congregational, as being more accordant with the primitive church of the New Testament. His name and character had risen so high, that he was invited to preach before the par- liament on 20th April, 1646, and on several occa- sions afterwards he performed the same duty, being selected particularly from his energy as well as his full approval of the proceeding to preach before that body on the day after the execution of Charles I. He became a favourite with Cromwell, who took him as his chaplain first to Ireland, and at a later period into Scotland. On returning home, his design was to resume his pastoral labours at Coggeshall. But the parliament having no- minated him dean of the university of Oxford, he 557 OWE removed thither in 1651, and was soon after chosen vice-chancellor. During his administration of the chancellorship, which he held for live years, he ren- . , es, aiul by liis moderation, :iiat were then bitterly :uvd the love and respect of all par- ties. His duties as chancellor, though onerous, were not allowed to interfere either with his labour in preaching, or his pursuit in literature. He preached every Sa I i arv's, and he published seve- ral of his best works, such as ' The Perseverance of ta,' in 1664 ' The Vindiciaj Evengeliea?, or •v'ry of the Gospel Vindicated,' and 'Com- munion with God, 1 which has been valued by many as one of his greatest performances. The restora- tion of the Stuart dynasty led, amongst other changes of government, to Owen's ejection from his ty offices: and, having gone to reside at Stadham", a small estate he possessed, lived there mot. till, things having become settled and tranquil, he ventured to return to London, and take a public share in works connected with the in- f religion and learning. The rancour of the royalist and High Church party raged so violently against dissenters generally, and Owen in particular, that he contemplated seriously two successive offers made him of important offices in American colleges. His personal safety was sometimes endangered, for on one occasion, his mansion at Stadham was beset by troopers, and he narrowly escaped being made prisoner, by flight through a postern door. He was, even when invested with power and the chief direction of affairs, an enlightened and consistent advocate of the right of private judgment and re- ligious toleration. A bnef period of respite was granted to the nonconformists, during Bucking- ham's administration which commenced in 1667, and Owen undertook the charge of a numerous and influential congregation in Leadenhall-Street. But this interval of indulgence was of short dura- tion. A bill against conventicles was passed into a law in 1670, and by the fines and imprisonments it imposed, gave a heavy blow and great discour- agement to the cause of dissent. Owen about this time began to decline in health. His great and long-continued labours had made serious in- roads on a frame naturally robust and athletic, and having retired to a house at Ealing, occupied him- self in^ preparing his last work, 'The Glory of Christ,' for the press. He expired on 24th August, 1683, and was interred in the cemetery of Bunhill Owen has been often styled ' The Prince of Divines,' and his works, though marked by the tedious prolixity of the age, are a storehouse of valuable m; ■• [R.J.] OWEN, .John, a Welch epigrammatist, d. 1622. N, John, a minister of the Church of Eng- land, born about 1766, known as the secretary and historian of the Bible Society. He wrote also, ions on the State of Religion and Politics in France and Great Britain,' and ' The Christian Days.' Died 1822. OWEN. Li.w is ■ Welch Jesuit, born 1572. OWEN, Thomas, a learned judge, died 1598. H, WlLLIAM. one of the ablest English portrait painters, was born at Ludlow in Shropshire ■ J7<;:». Uc eaoM to London, by the advice of ■ ■•'.ifdit, at the earlv age oi became the pupil of Catton the Royal Academician. 558 OXE He attracted also the notice of Sir Joshua Rey- nolds by a copy he made of the 'Perdita' of that painter. Owen first exhibited at the Royal Aca- demy in 1792 ; his connections increased so rapidly that in the following year he exhibited seven por- traits. He frequently veiy much enhanced the value of his portraits by making them generally interesting as fancy pictures, such as ' Venns ' — 'The Bacchante' — 'Cottage Child from Nature' — ' The Children in the Wood,' &c. His success was certainly very great; notwithstanding the rivalry of Lawrence, Beechey, and Hoppner; he had painted the Lord Chancellor and William Pitt before his thirtieth year ; and the list of Owen's portraits comprises a very large proportion of the men of rank and talent of the early part of this century. He was superior to Lawrence in male heads : they were void of the simpering prettiness and delicacy of complexion which injure many of Lawrences" heads: the sitting full length of William Scott, Lord Stowell, in his robes, is worthy of Vandyck. He was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1806; in 1810 he was made principal portrait painter to the Prince Regent, and in 1813 he declined the honour of knighthood. He died 11th February, 1825, in his fifty-sixth year, after a lingering illness, though the imme- diate cause of death was his taking opium instead of an aperient draught, owing to the mistake of the druggist, who had misplaced the labels. — (Cunningham, Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters, &c.) fR-N.W.] OWTRAM. SeeOuTRAM. OXBERRY, W. H., a popular English come- dian, 1808-1851. OXENBRIDGE, J., an Eng. theolog., 1609-74. OXENSTIERNA, Axel, Count, one of the greatest statesmen that Sweden ever produced, was born at Fano in Upland, 1588, and educated in several of the German universities. He made his first appearance at court in the reign of Charles IX., father of Gustavus Adolphus, and was employed in an important diplomatic mission as early as 1606. Gustavus and Oxenstierna were great friends, and when the former succeeded to the crown in the eighteenth year of his age, the latter, only ten years older, stood by his side as high chancellor. From that time, 1611, to the majority of Christina, 1644, the name of Oxen- stierna occupies a large space in Swedish history, — indeed in the history of Europe, as the political antagonist of Richelieu. Gustavus reposed the most unlimited confidence in his honesty and statesmanship, and we shall see immediately that Christina, though far from feeling the same friend- ship for him as her father, was compelled to do hom- age to his true worth and ability. We can only give a few principal dates to mark his career. In* 1613 he negotiated the peace between Sweden and Den- mark. In 1617 he concluded the peace of Stol- bova, which followed the Russian campaign, and in 1630, when Gustavus took the field against the imperialists, he was invested with full authority in all civil and military affairs on the Rhine. On the fall of the Swedish hero at Lutzen, 1632, it devolved on the chancellor to take measures for the security of the kingdom, and the senate in- trusted him with full powers, so that, in fact, he became virtual king during the minority of Chris- OXE tina. The burden of the war and the administra- tion both rested on his shoulders, and he was not the man to shrink from the responsibility of either. In October, 1633, he presented his memorial to the council, which embraced a complete plan of public defence and finance, provided for the im- provement of towns, the abolition of burdens on trade, and the security of civil freedom. He was necessarily intrusted with great power, and it is a I>roof of his greatness that he retained it without osing his popularity; and though it was a period of reform and reorganization, he consolidated the state, and placed the daughter of his friend on an unimpaired throne. In 1642 Christina began to preside at the council ; in 1644 she assumed the government, and in the month of August, 1645, Oxenstierna concluded the peace of Denmark, on which occasion she created him count of Soder- moene. He was, of course, a principal party to the conclusion of the thirty years' war, by the peace of Westphalia, 1648, and sent his son, John Oxen- stierna, as plenipotentiary to the convention of the powers on that occasion : it was in answer to his expressions of diffidence that the chancellor used the words which have become proverbial, — ' You do not know, my son, with how little wisdom men are governed !' Oxenstierna vainly opposed the intention of the queen to abdicate, and he died a few months afterwards in the same year, 1654. It is thus the daughter of Gustavus writes of him : — ' This great man had large attainments, having studied much in his youth. He contrived to read in the midst of his great occupations. He had a great capacity and knowledge of the affairs and interests of the world. He knew the strong and the weak points of all the states of our Europe. PAD He had consummate wisdom and prudence, a vast capacity; a great heart. He was indefatigable. He had an assiduity and application to business incomparable. He made it his pleasure and his only occupation ; and when he took relaxation his diversion was business. He was sober, as much as one could be in an age and country where that virtue was unknown. He was a full sleeper, and said that no affair had ever hindered him from sleeping in his life except twice : the first was the death of the late king, the other the loss of the battle of Nordlingen. He has often told me that when he went to rest he stript off his cares with his clothes, and let them repose till the next day. For the rest, he Avas ambitious but faithful, incor- ruptible, a little too slow and phlegmatic' [E.R.] OZANAM, J., a Fr. mathematician, 1640-1717. OZAROUSKI, Peter, hetman or grand-general of the crown of Poland, hung by the people of War- saw as a partizan of the Russians, 1794. OZELL, John, an English writer of great learn- ing and industry, whose principal works are trans- lations from the French, Italian, and Spanish. Among these are Don Quixote, Fenelon on Learn- ing, Rabelais, a complete version of Moliere, and some of the dramas of Corneille and Racine. He is introduced into the Dunciad by Pope, whose rival he was. He d. in the office of auditor for St. Paul's Cathedral and St. Thomas's Hospital, 1743. OZERETZKOVSKI, Nikolai Yakowle- witsch, a Russian naturalist, 1750-1827. OZEROFF, Wladislav Alexandrovitsch, a Russian officer, dist. as a dramatic wr., 1770-1816. OZI, Stephen, a French composer, 1754-1805. OZIAS, the chief of Bethulia, when it was be- sieged by Holofernes. See Holofernes, Judith. PAAW, Peter, a Dutch botanist, 1564-1617. PACATIANUS, Titus Claudius Marcius, a Roman usurper, killed by Decius about 249. PACATUS, Latinus Dreranius, a poet and orator of the time of Theodosius the Great, 4th c. PACCA, Bartolomeo, Cardinal, born at Bene- vento 1756, was raised to that dignity by Pius VII. in 1801, and distinguished himself in the Solitics of the succeeding period as the enemy of fapoleon, who twice imprisoned him. He retired from state affairs in 1824, and has since published his ' Memoirs.' Died 1844. PACCHIONI, A., an Ital. anatom., 1664-1726. PACCIOLI, L., an Ital. mathematician, 16th c. PACCORI, A., an ascetic writer, 1649-1730. PACE, or PACIO, an Ital. juriscon., 1550-1635. PACE, or PAICE, Richard, one of the most eminent diplomatists and men of learning in the 16th century, was born in Hampshire about 1482, and educated at the university of Padua. He com- menced his public life in the service of Cardinal Bambridge, or Bainbridge, whom he accompanied to Italy, and was afterwards often employed in state affairs by Wolsey. Having fallen under the displeasure of that haughty prelate, he was impri- soned two years in the Tower ; and his mind was so much affected that, in the later years of his life, he was only in the possession of his faculties at intervals. He wrote several learned pieces, and was highly esteemed by his friends, Sir Thomas More and Erasmus. Died 1532. PACHECO, Francesco, a Spanish painter and art-writer, taught by the same master as Velas- quez, 1571-1654. PACHECO, Donna Maria. See Padilla. PACHYMERA, G., a Gr. historian, 13th cent. PACIAN, St., a Spanish prelate, 4th century. PACIANDI, Paola Maria, an Italian eccle- siastic, distinguished as an antiquarian and his- torian, 1710-1785. PACIFICUS, an Italian mechanician, 776-844. PACIFICUS, M., a Latin poet, 15th century. PACIO, Giulio, an Italian savant, 1550-1635. PACK, R., a miscellaneous writer, died 1728. PACUVIUS, M., a Roman poet, 2d cent. B.C. PADILLA, Don Juan De, a Spanish noble, who distinguished himself as leader of the popular party in a revolt against Charles V., during the period 1620-1622. He organized a general conven- tion of the malcontents under the title of a junta, by which body he was appointed chief commander of a force of 20,000 men, but not until the cause had been greatly endangered by an unskilful leader. He was taken prisoner at the rout of Villatar, April 23, 1622, and shot the following day. His wife, Donna Maria de Pacheco, exhibited the same heroic spirit as her husband, and, after his death, defended the city of Toledo till reduced to 559 PAD ry. She then made her escape to iL when she died in poverty. PADILLA, I.okkn/o Ds, :v Spanish antiqua- rian and Me to ri o l writer, died about 154u. His i a men, author of an ecclesiastical his- tory of Spain, 1527-1607. PAEB, Y., an Italian composer, 1774-1839. PAEZ, F. A., a Portuguese divine, died 1532. PAEZ, Pedro, a famous Spanish Jesuit and missionary, anthor of a Description of Abyssinia, where he* introduced the Roman Catholic faith, 1564-1622. Another of the name, Gaspard bo distinguished in Abyssinia, 1582-1635. PAGAN, a king of Bulgaria, reigned 764-771. PAGAN, Blaise Francois, Count De, a fa- mous marshal in the French wars, founder of the French school of fortifying, 1604-1665. \N T ACCI, J., a French writer, 1729-1797. PAGANEL, P., a French politician, 1745-1826. PAGANI, the name of several Italian painters : — Vkenzo, died towards the end of the 15th cen- t ury. Lattanzio, his son and scholar, known as a painter till 1553, when he abandoned the art. sco, flourished at Florence, 1531-1561. ( i i i:(i« ihio, son of Francesco, 1558-1605. Paolo, distinguished at Venice and Milan, 1661-1716. ANANI, Nicolo, one of the greatest vio- linists that ever lived, was born at Genoa in 1784. His first lessons in music were imparted to him by his father, who seems to have discovered in the early infancy of the young Nicolo germs of that marvellous genius, which afterwards struck the musical world with wonder. At eight years old the boy was so far advanced that he took a pro- minent violion part in public saloons, as well as in the orchestra of the church. After having studied under Costa, Rolla, Ghiretti, and Paer, he was ap- pointed director of the orchestra to the court at Lucca. In 1828, after having performed in vari- ous cities in Italy, he visited Vienna, when a charge of having murdered his wife was brought against him. He was able, however, to successfully refute the ill-founded charge. In 1831, Paganani went to Paris, were he created an immense sensation. After this he went to Brussels, where his wonderful slight of hand on the violin created only laughter. In the year last named the ' Wizard of the Bow,' as he was called, came to England, where he met with astonishing success, and where he received larger sums for his public performances then ever had even been dreamed of before his advent. Paganani died at Nice, in 1840, from a disease of the larynx, leaving an immense fortune. It has been said that though this great and original artist and inventor of difficulties and novel effects on the violin, was inordinately fond of money, he frequently ventured large sums at play in the gaming houses at Paris and other capital cities. His reputation is tarnished from the fact that he often condescended to mean tricks that he might secure the worthless applause of the crowds of 'pretended amateurs,' who flocked to his exhibi- tions. In person Paganani was tall and thin, with ein.ichted features, un acquiline nose, and long ' locks, which personal peculiarities added in the eyes of the unskilled, to enhance the : his performances. [J.M.] I . WILLIAM, a divine of the Church of . ml of ' The Peace-Maker,' &c, 1690-1663. PAI PAGEAU, M., a French poet, 16th centnrv. PAGES, F. X., a French novelist, 1745-1X02. PAGES, Garnier, a French politician, d. ltf 41. PAGES, Pierre Marie Francois, Viscount De, a Fr. navigator, k. at St. Domingo, 1748-1793. PAGET, Eusebius, a puritan divine, 15-12- 1617. His son, Epiiraim, a divine, 1575-1647. PAGET, Lord William, a statesman and am- bassador, reign of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., died 1564. PAGI, Anthony, a learned ecclesiastic of the order of cordeliers, author of Annotations on the Annals of Baronius, 1624-1690. His nephew, Francis, a cordelier and historian of the popes, 1654-1721. A nephew of the latter, ealled the Abbe Pagi, author of a history of the Nether- lands, about 1690-1740. PAGNEST, A. H. C, a Fr. painter, 1790-1819. PAGNINO, S., an Ital. Orientalist, 1470-1536. PAINE, Thomas, born at Thetford, in Norfolk, on the 29th of January, 1737. He was of humble origin, and conducted in early life his father's busi- ness of a staymaker. He was destined afterwards to a vast notoriety which might have proved an enduring reputation if he had well applied the great talents with which he was endowed. His history may be cited as an unhappy illustration of the defectiveness of any social system which does not supply a legitimate place for the ambitious longings of men of humble rank, by supplying them with education and the means of advance- ment. In other conditions, Paine might have been a great popular preacher, a distinguished states- man, or an eminent lawyer. He went to America at the outbreak of the war of independence, and there enlisted himself against the claims and in- terests of his own country, by writing the pamph- let called ' Common Sense.' He led a restless life, passing from one employment to another. It is generally said that he was repeatedly dismissed for misconduct. But the prejudices against his writ- ings were so deep that all statements about his personal conduct should be taken with caution. In 1790, he published the first part of his ' Rights of Man,' a controversial attack on Burke's views on the French Revolution. The second part, which was a mere palpable attack on the constitution and government of Britain, procured a verdict for libel againsti ts author in the King's Bench. There is no doubt that this work, not undeservedly, lashed many abuses, but it, at the same time, showed not so much a desire for reform as a reckless malignity against every class and person wielding power and influence in society. The clear tenderness of his style and the appliance of his illustrations have made many readers regret their defects, which be- came still more flagrant in his subsequent, ' Age of Reason.' He acted as a citizen of France. But for all his sympathy with the republic, he narrowly escaped being guillotined bv Robespierre, and he died at Baltimore on the 8th of June, 1809. [J.H.B.] PAINTER, W., an English writer, 16th century. PAISIELLO, Giovanni, was born at Tarento, in 1741. Having been placed at the Jesuits' col- lege, in his native city, Paisiello soon distinguished himself amongst his fellow-pupils when they had, according to the rule of the college, to join in sing- ing the hymn to the Virgin. His father was then induced to send him to Naples, that he might study SCO PAI music, where he was placed, under the tuition of Durante, a celebrated master of the period ; and, after five years' study, he became first master among the pupils of the Conservatoire. His first opera was brought out at the theatre of Bologna, in 1763. The reputation of Paisiello rose so high, that he had engagements to compose operas for all the principal states of Europe, and in the prosecution of his artistic career he visited Ger- many, Austria, Russia, and France. Paisiello, whose compositions were the most popular of the day, composed about sixty operas, besides masses, cantatas, concertos, songs, &c. He was named member of many learned societies in Italy, and was elected an associate of the French Institute, on the SOth of December, 1809. He died in Naples in the year 1818, when his remains received a public funeral, attended with all the pomp whicn the catholic church knows so well to employ on grand occasions. On the evening of his funeral in's ' Nina' was performed, when the king of Naples and the whole court attended. [J.M.] PAITONI, J. M., a Venetian writer, died 1774. PAJOL, P., a French general, 1772-1844. PAJON, C, a Fr. protestant writer, 1626-1C85. PAJOU, H., a French author, died 1776. PAJOU, A., a French sculptor, 1730-1809. PAKENHAM, Sir Thomas, a famous naval commander in the last general war, 1758-1836. PAKINGTON, Dorothy, Lady, supposed by Dr. Hickes to be the authoress of the ' W hole Duty of Man,' died 1679. PALADINI, Filippo, a painter of the Floren- tine school, 1544-1614. His daughter, Arch- angela, a painter, poet, and musician, 1599-162-2. PALjEMON, a Latin grammarian, 1st century. PALiEFATUS, an ancient Greek philosopher. PALiEOLOGUS, the surname of several em- perors of the East : — 1. Andronicus II. and An- dronicus III., which see. 2. John VI., born at Constantinople 1332, succeeded his father, Andro- nicus, 1341, shared his power with Cantacuzenus till 1355, died, after a debauched life and many reverses, 1391. He was succeeded by his son, Manuel. 3. John VII., grandson of John VI., horn 1390, associated with his uncle, Manuel, 1419, succeeded him 1425, died 1439. PALAFOX-Y-MELZI, Don Joseph, the brave defender of Saragossa, was a Spanish officer de- scended from an old family of Arragon. He was living in privacy at Alfranca, near Saragossa, when that city was menaced by the French armies in 1808, and was proclaimed governor by the people, though only twenty-nine years of age, and without experience, on the 25th of May in that year. Such was the heroism of the people of Saragossa, headed by Palaibx, that the French were compelled to retreat, after a murderous siege and bombardment of sixty-one days. They returned, however, in much greater force, under Marshals Moncey and Mortier, in the month of November, and the for- mer, a few weeks later, was succeeded by Lannes. The city held out till the 20th of February — men, women, and children fighting in its defence till it became a heap of ruins, and suffering dreadfully from an epidemic fever. Palafox himself being PAL a prisoner at Vincennes till the restoration of Fer- dinand, who, in June, 1814, appointed him captain- general of Arragon. Died 1847. [E.R.l PALAFOX-Y-MENDOZA, Juan De, aSpanisa statesman and prelate, best known by his ' History of the Siege of Fontarabia,' and his ' History of the Conquest of China by the Tartars,' 1600-1659. PALAPRAT, J. B. De, a Fr. dramat., 1650-1721. PALAZZI, J., a Venetian historian, 1640-1713. PALEARIUS, A., an Italian scholar and theo- logian, executed at Rome for heresv, 1570. PALENCIA, A. De, a Span, historian, 15th c. PALEOTTI, G., an Italian cardinal, 1522-1597. PALESTRINA, Giovanni Pietre, Aloisia Da, sometimes, also, called Pierluigi, was born at Palestrina, the ancient Prseneste, near Rome, about the year 1524. It is believed that his first instructor in music was Claude Goudimel, a Hugue- not, native of Besancon, who was murdered at Lyons in 1572, on the fatal day of the St. Bartholomew. Having distinguished himself as a composer he was about the year 1551, admitted into the pope's cha- pel at Rome, where he was soon afterwards ap- pointed master by Pope Julius III. In 1555, it having been discovered that Palestrina had quitted the state of celibacy, Pope Paul IV. abruptly dis- missed him from his post, to which he was after- wards restored in 1571. He having brought church harmony to a degree of perfection that had never before been attempted and never since excelled, departed this life on the 2d of February, 1594. In the course of this master's life, the council of Trent having, amongst other matters, taken the state of church music into consideration, appointed two cardinals to superintend the reform, which they had resolved upon. Immediately, by their direction, Palestrina set about the duty, and pro- duced his celebrated work, known as ' The Mass of Pope Marcellus.' Such was the effect this work produced, that, when it was first performed, every person was enraptured, and the pope com- pared it to the heavenly melodies which the apostle John heard in his visions. The following account of Palestrina's death was entered in the register of the Pontifical chapel : — ' February 2, 1594, this morning died the most excellent musician, Signor Giovanni Palestrina, our dear companion, and maestro de capetlo of St. Peter's church, whither his funeral was attended, not only by all the musicians of Rome, but by an infinite concourse of people, when "Libera me, Domine," (as composed by himself) was sung by the whole college.' Upon his coffin was inscribed ' Joannes retrus Aloysuis Prcenestinus Musicce Princeps? His works, which were very numerous, were chiefly ecclesiastical. Several of his motets and sacred songs are in use in England at the present day. [J.M.] PALETTA. J. B., an Ital. anatomist, 1747-1832. PALEY, William, D.D., a celebrated divine of the Church of England, was born in 1743 at Peter- borough, Northamptonshire. At the age of sixteen he entered Christ's College, Cambridge. But unhap- pily, seduced by the influence of a few gay and dis- solute companions, the first two years of his uni- versity residence were entirely lost or misspent. Having had the wisdom and fortitude, however, to disentangle himself from this disgraceful connec- prostrated by the disease, and, hopeless of success, then resigned the command to St. Marc, and the j tion, he resolved on a course of devoted study ; and next day the city capitulated. Its defender became such rapid progress did he make that, in 17Gt>, he 561 2 PAli a fellow of the college, and soon after col- league to Dr. Law in his public lectures on Moral V.losophv, as well as on the New irly occupation directed t lie mind of Paley to those subjects, which, when more . studied, lie gave to the public in works •aincd him extensive fame as an author. Both as a college lecturer and a preacher. he was greatly admired lor his sound sense and tally for his extraordinary skill in simplifying the most abstruse and difficult subiects, and bringing them down to the level of the hum- anly. His early patron, Law, who had become bishop of Carlisle, and who was well aware of Paley's merits, promoted his views in the church by presenting him first to the vicarage of Dalston, Cumberland, then to Appleby, in Westmoreland, till in the course of years, he rose to be archdeacon .■. It was" not till 1785, that his ' Ele- ments of Moral and Political Philosophy' appeared. It was almost immediately adopted as a text-book ridge; and although its leading principle, — that of expediency, has often drawn down upon the rjrstem of which it is the foundation, the weight of severe censure, the work from the sound it pervades it, as well as from the clearness and force of its arguments, still maintains its ground. Not long after, Paley again came before the world as an author by the publication of Hora? Paulinse, or ' The Truth of the Scripture History ' proved from undesigned coincidences in the epistles of Paul. More than any other of Paley's works, this treatise displays the characteristic qualities of the author's mind, and it formed a most important contribution to sacred literature, not only from the intrinsic value of the work, but from its opening up a new line of argument in illustration of the evidences. Palev did not take any open or prominent part in the discussion of public or political questions. But his hostility to the slave trade roused all his ener- gies ; and having drawn up an answer to the claims of the 6lave dealers, sent it to the parliamentary committee immediately previous to the discussion of the subject in the House of Lords. It produced a deep impression, and the author was rewarded not only by seeing the adoption of his views, but hy promotion to the rectory of Bishop-Wearmouth, one of the most lucrative situations in the Church of England. It was there he composed and pub- lished his ' Natural Theology,' amid the paroxysms of a painful disease which brought him gradually to the grave. Dr. Paley was suspected or hetero- doxy, having discovered a strong inclination to Aliafl sentiments. In other respects, he was a genial, warm - hearted, benevolent man, distin- guished for shrewdness and strong good sense; and those mental qualities which he possessed in so emi- nent a degree were brought to bear predominantly on the subjects of religion. Died 1805. [RJ.J PALFTK, J., a Flemish anatomist, 1649-1730. PALISOT-DE-BEAUVOIS, Amur. Marie 1 k. .lo-i.i-n.a dist. French naturalist, 1752-1820. PAUSSOT-DE-MONTENOY, Charles, a Fr. dramatic writer and literary critic, 1730-1814. PALI- of the greatest . the French nation, painter, n, chemist, naturalist, and economist, born 0, died in the Bastile, where he was im- prisoned by Henry III. as a CJvinh,t, 1589. PAL PALLADINO, Giacomo, or James, an Dalian S relate and theologian, generally called Giacomo e Teramo, author of ' Consolatio Peccatorum,' a religious romance, 15th century. PALLADIO, Andrea, a famous Italian archi- tect, to whose skill Italy is indebted for many of her most beautiful edifices, born at Vicenza 1518, author of a ' Treatise on Architecture,' first pub- lished at Venice 1570, died 1580. PALLAD1US, the name of several ancient sa- vants: — 1. A bishop of Helenopolis, in Bitliynia, author of a ' History of the Hermits of the Desert,' and friend of Chrysostom, born about 368. 2. An author of a ' Dialogue of the Life of Chrysostom,' written at Rome 408. It is a question among the learned whether or not he is the same as the pre- ceding. 3. A Roman writer on agriculture, son of a Gaulish pracfect, born about 405. 4. A Romish prelate, mentioned as ' the first apostle of the Scots,' died about 450. 5. A physician of Alexandria, sur- named Sophista, or Satrosophista, author of me- dical works in Greek, 6th century. PALLAS, the freedman and confidant of the emperor Claudius, who, at his instance, married Agrippina. He was put to death hy Nero. PALLAS, Peter Simon, a German traveller and naturalist, author of works on the history, topography, and natural history of various parts of the Russian dominions, 1741-1811. PALLAVICINI, or PELAVICINO, the Mar- quis Oberto, a chief of the Ghibellines, died 1269. PALLAVICINO, Ferrante, a satirical poet and man of letters, born 1618, beheaded 1644 PALLAVICINO, Sforza, an Italian cardinal, au. of a ' History of the Co. of Trent,' 1607-1067. PALLIERE, V. L., a Fr. painter, 1787-1820. PALLIOT, P., a French genealogist, 1608-1698. PALLISER, Sir Hugh, a British admiral, who was born 1721, and after distinguishing himself on several occasions, including the taking of Quebec, was second in command to Admiral Keppel in the famous action oft Ushant, 1778. On this occasion a misunderstanding arose between the two officers, who preferred charges against each other, which ended in the censure of Palliser. He became go- vernor of Greenwich Hospital, and died there 1796. PALLUEL, F. C. De, a Fr. agricult., 1741-89. PALM, J. G., a German divine, 1697-1743. PALM, J. P., a German patriot, shot 1806. PALMA, Jacob, the name of two Italian pain- ters, the elder of whom was born at Bergamo 1518, and died at Venice 1574. The younger, his great nephew, flourished at Venice, 1544-1628. PALMELLA, Don Pedro De Suza Hol- stein, duke of, a distinguished Portuguese states- man, was born at Turin 1781 ; and after an educa- tion in Portugal, followed by the customary Euro- pean travels of a nobleman, took a leading part in the political troubles of his country, and especially in opposing the succession of Don Miguel ; d. 1850. PALMER, H., a learned divine, 1601-1647. PALMER, John, an English actor, was born in London about 1742, and commenced his career as an actor in inferior parts at the Haymarket and Drury Lane theatres. Gradually increasing in re- putation, he was at length appointed manager to a new theatre proposed to be built in the east of London, but not being able to procure a patent, he returned to Drury, under circumstances of peciuii- 5G2 PAL ary embarrassment, which ultimately induced him to resolve to emigrate to America, which country, however, he never visited. His death was re- markable. It took place on the stage of the Liver- pool theatre, while performing the character of the Stranger, and uttering the exclamation — 'There is another and a better world.' This event occurred 2d August, 1798. Mr. Palmer was one of those actors who are made by time and prac- tice. He was a modest and punctilious man, much respected, with, it would seem, a dash of superstition in his character; and, according to Boaden, seems to have had a presentiment of his death. [J.A.H.] PALMER, John, held in remembrance as the first projector of mail coaches, was a native of Bath, where he followed the trade of a brewer. After the adoption of his scheme, he became comp- troller-general of the post office, from which office he was removed in 1792, died 1818. PALMER, S., an historian of printing, d. 1732. PALMIERI, M., an Italian annalist, 1405-1475. PALMIERI, V., an Ital. theologian, 1753-1820. PALMQUIST, Magnus, Baron De, a Swedish mathematician, and president of the Company of Miners, 1660-1729. PALMSCHOELD, Elias, a Swedish historical antiquarian employed at Stockholm, died 1719. PALOMINO-Y-VELASCO, A. Antonio, a Span, painter and biographer of artists, 1653-1726. PALSGRAVE, John, a polite wr., died 1554. PAMELE, J. De, a Fr. theologian, 1536-1587. PAMPHILIUS, a Greek painter, 4th cent. PAMPHILIUS, St., a presbyter of Caesarea, in Palestine, who suffered martyrdom in the perse- cution under Maximinius, 309. PANARD, C. F., a Fr. poet, about 1691-1764. PANAS1US, a Stoic philosopher, 2d cent. b.o. PANCIROLI, G., an Italian jurist, 1523-1582. PANEKOUCKE, Andrew Joseph, a Flemish bookseller and literateur, 1700-1753. His son, Charles Joseph, distinguished as a journalist at Paris, founder of the 'Moniteur,' &c, 1736-1798. PANEL, A. X., a Fr. numismatist, 1699-1777. PANIGAROLA, F., an Italian prelate, 1548-94. PANIN, Nikita Joanovitch, Count De, a Russian statesman, who rose to distinction in the armies of Peter the Great, and became prime minister to Catharine; b. at Lucca 1718, d. 1783. PANNINI, Gian Paolo, an Italian architect and landscape painter, 1691-1764. His son, Fran- cis, dist. in the same line of art, dates unknown. PANNONINO, J., a Hungarian poet, 1434-72. PANTiENUS, a Christian philosopher, 2d cent. PANTALEON, H., a Fr. historian, 1522-1595. PANVINIO, O., an Ital. historian, 1529-1568. PANGASIS, a Greek poet, 5th century B.C. PANZACETIA, Maria Helena, an Italian ladv, disting. as an historical painter, 1668-1709. PANZKR, G. W. F., a Ger. bibliog., 1729-1805. PAOLI, D. S., an Italian literateur, 1684-1751. PAOLI, Hyacinth, or Giacinto, a native of Corsica, distinguished for his part in liberating his country from the Genoese, 1729. He became one of the chief magistrates of the country, and acted as the lieutenant of the king elected by the patriots. He retired to Naples on the invasion of the French, and died there about 1755. His son, Pascal, is the subject of the following article. An elder son, 563 PAR Clement, also a distinguished patriot, died in Italy, and with him, as he left only daughters, the name of Paoli became extinct. PAOLI, Pascal, was born in Corsica in 1726. His native island had long been under the oppres- sive domination of the Genoese, which the Corsi- cans made repeated efforts to shake off. Paoli was raised to the headship of the liberating party in 1755. He organized a regular civil and military government, and for thirteen years carried on the war of independence against the Genoese with un- varying spirit, and with general success. In 1768, the Genoese sold their right of sovereignty over Corsica to France. The French endeavoured to induce Paoli to recognize their dominion and adopt their interests, by lavish offers of rank and money. But Paoli rejected all their bribes, and made a gal- lant though unsuccessful resistance to the troops which they poured into Corsica. After the French conquest was completed, Paoli took refuge in Eng- land, were he was received with merited respect. The British government settled a pension on him, and he passed many years in honoured friendship with Burke, Johnson, and other distinguished Englishmen of the age. When the war of the French Revolution commenced, Paoli headed an expedition to Corsica, by which it was sought to detach that island from France, and unite it to the British dominion. This attempt, after some tem- porary successes, ultimately failed. Paoli returned to England, where he passed the remainder of his life in tranquillity. Hediedinl807. Hedeservedthe eulogium which the English historian Lord Mahon has pronounced on him, of being 'a brave and skil- ful soldier, and an upright and disinterested states- man.' He was also a warm and sincere friend; his literary acquirements were considerable ; and he was a man of spotless integrity and pure morals in private life. [E.S.C.] PAOLINI, P., an Italian dramatist, 1663-1726. PAPA, J. Del, an Ital. physician, 1649-1753. PAPIAS, a grammarian of the 11th century. PAPIAS, St., a bishop of Hierapolis, 2d cent. PAPILLON, A., a French poet, 1487-1559. PAPILLON, John, two French wood engravers, father and son— the former, 1639-1710 ; the latter, 1661-1710. A younger son, Nicholas, same pro- fession, 1663-1714. A grandson of the elder John, named John Baptist, noted for his foliage and flowers, 1698-1776. A brother of the latter, J. B. Michel, 1720-1746. PAPILLON, P., a French canonist, 1666-1738. PAPILLON, T., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1514-1596. PAPIN, Denis, an ingenious Frenchman, who assisted Boyle in many of his experiments, and in- vented the digester known by his name, died 1710. PAPIN, Isaac, a French divine, 1657-1709. PAPINIAN, a celebrated Roman jurist, 175-212. PAPON, J., a French Hellenist, 1505-1590. PAPON, J. P., a French historian, 1734-1805. PAPPENHEIM, Count, one of the most illus- trious generals of Austria during the thirty years' war, 1594-1632. PAPPONI, J., an Italian jurist, died 1605. PAPPUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, 4th c PAPPUS, J., a German divine, 1549-1610. PAQUOT, J. N., an Austrian hist, 1722-1803. PARABOSCO, G., an Italian poet, 16th cent. PARACELSUS. Philippus Aureolus PAR TiiFoniRASTrs Paracelsus Bombast, ab IIomi.nhkim. was born about the year 1493, near Zurich. Although he has left; no discovery behind him, he is highly distinguished as the founder of the modern science of medicine. He instituted an immense number of experiments on the influence of chemical remedies in disease, and acquired much fame by the successful result of his treatment. He travelled extensively throughout Europe for the purpose of adding to his stock of knowledge, and of studying nature in her varied departments. He was professor of physic and surgery at Basle, from 1526 to 1527, when he abdicated his office and afterwards became a wanderer through various parts of Germany, Cohnar, Moravia, Vienna, Hungary, and finally Salzburg, where he died in 1541, in his forty- eighth year. Paracelsus was a man of most dissolute habits and unprincipled character; and his works (Opera) are filled with the highest flights of unintelligible bombastic jarjgon, un- worthy of perusal, but are such as might be ex- pected from one who united in his person the qualities of a fanatic and a drunkard. [R.D.T.] PARADIN, William, a French historian, 1510- 1590. His brother, Claude, a writer on gene- I <•., about the same period. John, cousin of the preceding, dist. as a poet, about 1508-1588. PARADIS, Paul, a Jewish convert, first pro- fessor of Hebrew at Paris, died 1559. PARADIS DE RAYMONDIS, John Zacha- riah, a Fr. moralist and agriculturist, 1746-1800. PARADISI, Count Agostino, an Italian poet, professor of civil economy and the Belles Lettres at Modena, born at Vignola, Reggio, 1736, d. 1783. PARADISI, Count John, son of the preced- ing, born about 1 760, became director of the Cis- alpine republic in 1797, and, at a later period, pre- sident of Napoleon's Italian senate. He died 1826, distinguished as a philosopher and man of letters. PARASINA MALATESTA. See Nicholas. PARCK, Thomas, an engraver, 1759-1834. PARCELLES, John, a Dutch painter, noted for his storm-pieces, 1597-1641. His son, Julius, born about 1628, painted in the same style. PARCIEUX. See Deparcieux. PARDIES, J. G., a French savant, 1636-1673. PARDOUX, B., a French physician, 1545-1611. PARE, Ambrose, one of the greatest surgeons of modern times, called the father of French sur- gery, was born in 1509, and was professional ad- viser of four French sovereigns. Though a Hugue- not, he was in the fullest confidence of Charles IX., and by his favour escaped the massacre of St. Bar- tholomew; died 1590. PAREJ V.I. De, a Spanish painter, 1606-1670. PARENT, A., a Fr. mathematician, 1666-1716. PARE US, the name of three distinguished theo- logians and philologists of Germany; — David ithor of many commentaries, 1548- 1622. I'mii.ii-.! da -.n, about 1576- 1050. Daniel, ton of the hitter. 1605-1686. PARFA1ET, F., a Fr. dramatist, 1698-1753. PARI J I, J., an Italian architect, died 1635. PARIXI, J., an Italian poet, 1729-1799. PARIS, A., ■ French ecclesiastic, 1631-1683. PARIS, V., a notary of Paris, known at the period of the revolution as a friend of Danton. PARIS. F., a French religious writer, d. 1718. 604 PAR PARIS, Francis, commonly called the Abbe Paris, was a French ecclesiastic, born 1090. He died after a life of religious mortification and charity 1727, and was buried in the cemetery of Saint -Medard. Here the most extraordinary scenes took place, occasioned by the alleged mi- racles wrought at his tomb, where persons went into convulsions and transports of prophetic de- lirium. An account of these occurrences was written by the magistrate Montqueron, and they only ceased when the government took active measures, prosecuted some of the parties, and walled up trie ground. PARIS, J. B. F., a French general, about 1748-1820. PARIS, Jean J., a political writer, died 1824. PARIS, L. M., a writer on grammar, 1740-1806. PARIS, Matthew, one of our earliest English historians, was a Benedictine monk of St. Albans, and is known from 1245, to the year of his death, 1259. He was a man of the highest character, and distinguished as a musician, poet, orator, theo- logian, painter, and architect. His practical talents were turned to the reformation of monastic dis- cipline, on which account he was sent to Norway by the pope. His principal work, first published in 1571, extends over English history from the reign of William the Conqueror to his own times, the earlier portion being lost. Other works of his exist only in MS. PARIS, M. A., a French general, killed 1814. PARIS, P. A., a French architect, 1747-1819. PARIS, P. L., an actor of the French revolution, originally a priest of the oratory, executed 1794. PARISAN, P. G., a French dramatist, 1755-93. PARK, Sir J. A., a disting. lawyer, died 1839. PARK, Mungo, was born at the farm of Fowlshiels, near Selkirk, on the 10th September, 1771. An aptness for learning which ne early showed, and a reserved and thoughtful manner, and grave deportment, which were natural to him, and distinguished him through life, induced his parents to select him as the most fitting of their sons for the ministry of the Church of Scotland. His education was directed accord- ingly ; but his own tastes and aspirations took a different turn, and choosing the medical profes- sion, he was apprenticed, at the age of fifteen, to Mr. Anderson, a surgeon in Selkirk. Here he remained three years, and then went to study at Edinburgh college, where his attendance on the usual course was continued for three successive sessions, the term necessary for graduation as a surgeon. A taste for botany acquired at this penod, and freely indulged in during his summer rambles, was of the greatest use to him afterwards, and may be said to have in a great measure determined his future career. A young neighbour, James Dickson, afterwards his brother-in-law, going to London to seek employment as a gardener, was engaged by a nurseryman at Hammersmith, to whose gardens Sir Joseph Banks was a frequent visitor. Dickson's superior intelligence attracted Sir Joseph's notice ; and when some years after- wards he began business on his own account as a seedsman, and waited upon Sir Joseph, he was most kindly received by him, and offered the free use of his library. Dickson gladly availed himself of the advantages thus presented to him, and PAR became afterwards a distinguished botanist, author of a work on eryptogamic plants, and of many valuable papers in the Linnssan transactions. He took Park with him on a botanical tour in the Highlands while he was a student ; and when Park afterwards went to London, on the completion of his course, he introduced him to Sir Joseph Banks, through whose influence the situation of assistant surgeon in the Worcester East Indiaman was soon obtained. Park sailed in February, 1792, and re- turned the following year. He brought home some interesting plants, and contributed to the Linnsean Society a paper on eight new fishes from Sumatra. He now remained for some time inac- tive, enjoying intercourse with scientific men, to whom he was introduced by Sir Joseph Banks, then president of the Royal Society, whose warm friendship towards him knew no interruption dur- ing his entire career. Sir Joseph was an active member of the African Association, formed in 1778, for the exploration of the central portions of that continent ; and Park's attention must, of course, have been much drawn to the subject. Hav- ing no ardour in the pursuit of his profession, and probably even no fondness for it, while he had long cherished a strong desire for foreign travel, it was natural that Park should offer_ himself to the Association when they were looking out for a successor to Major Houghton, who had perished in a late attempt to reach the Niger from the west coast. Park's knowledge of natural history and medicine, his age — the full vigour of youth — his previous experience of a hot climate, his enthu- siasm, and a reputation for courage and address, founded, it would seem, rather upon an observa- tion of his personal qualities and general bearing, than upon anything which he had yet done, formed recommendations of so strong a nature that the Association accepted his offer. After due preparation he left England on the 22d May, 1795; and on the 5th July reached Pisania, a British factory 200 miles up the river Gambia, where he remained some time with Dr. Laidley, the resident agent. Beginning his journey on the 2d December, he first crossed the country E.N.E. to Yarra, and then turning S.E. traversed the kingdoms of Leedamar and Bambarra, till he came in sight of the Niger near Sego : ' I saw with infinite pleasure the great object of my mission, the long sought-for majestic Niger, glittering to the morning sun, as broad as the Thames at Westminster, and flowing slowly to the eastward. I hastened to the brink, and having drunk of the water, lifted up my fervent thanks in prayer to the Great Ruler of all things, for having thus far crowned my endeavours with success.' Thus, the first step was gained in the solution of a most dif- ficult problem, deemed by his country of great im- portance, and which had already baffled the skill of numerous enterprising travellers, and the efforts of powerful states. Park was determined to work the problem fully out, by tracing the mysterious course of this great river. He found it impossible, however, to proceed farther down than Siila, near Jenne, and on the 30th July he began his homeward journey towards the Gambia. Following the Niger as far up as Bammakoo, and there turning to the right, he crossed the country watered by the streams of the Senegal, by a route more southerly PAR than his former track, and at length reached Pisa- nia on the 10th June, 1797 ; having thus accom- plished a journey whose hardship and suffering are, perhaps, without a parallel in the history of inland discovery. Soon after he returned home ; and residing mostly at his native place, occupied himself in preparing an account of his travels. In August, 1799, being then in his twenty-eighth year, he married the daughter of his former master, Mr. Anderson, and, in October 1801, settled in the town of Peebles for the practice of his profession. During the few years which he spent here, he en- joyed much domestic happiness, and the privilege of associating with Sir Walter Scott, Dr. Adam Ferguson, the historian, and other persons of note. His mind was, however, kept in an unsettled state up till the end of 1804, by several proposals from government for new schemes of discovery. One for a new expedition to Central Africa was at length matured, and Park was requested to take the com- mand. ' Park,' says his biographer, ' was so much afraid of encountering the distress of his family, that he proceeded directly to London from Edinburgh without returning to bid them a formal adieu.' Towards other friends he practised the same con- straint upon his feelings. He sailed from Ports- mouth January 30th, 1805. Pisania was again fixed on as the point of departure. His companions on his former journey were two negroes, and even these had accompanied him no farther than Yarra, so that for more than three-fourths of his journey he was quite alone. On the second journey he had stipulated for a good escort ; and the presence of two friends, Mr. Anderson, his wife's brother, as sur- geon, and Mr. Scott, a young neighbour, as artist. With these two friends, five artificers from the royal dock-yards, Lieutenant Martyn, thirty-five privates from the garrison at Goree, and Isaaco, a Mandingo, a priest and trader, as guide and interpreter, and forty asses with baggage, Park left Pisania on the 4th of May, 1805. He chose the route by which he had returned on his first journey ; but the time of starting was most unfortunate and ill-chosen, — less by any fault of his, than the delay of the govern- ment in despatching the ships from England. On the 8th June the rainy season set in, and the mis- fortunes of the expedition began. On the 19th August, Park reached the summit of the mountain ridge, dividing the river basins of the Senegal and Niger, and came once more in sight of the latter, ' rolling its immense stream along the plain,' and, on the evening of the same day, pitched his tent on the banks of the Niger at Bammakoo, where he had struck off from the river on his homeward route. Only seven men now remained; most of the rest had died of fever or dysentery by the way, among whom was Mr. Scott the artist; a few had been left sick in charge of friendly natives, but were not afterwards heard of. Nearly a month be- fore, the last of the forty asses had died. The ex- pedition now descended the river in two canoes to Sansanding, between Sego and Silla, where his brother-in-law, Mr. Anderson, and two of the men, fell victims to the dreadful climate. Lieu- tenant Martyn and three soldiers were all who now survived. With their aid, Park constructed a vessel, which was named the schooner Joliba, 40 feet long by 6 broad, and drawing, when loaded, only one foot water; and having engaged a guide 5G5 PAR PAR and interpreter, named Amadi Fatoum.i, instead of \ elevated to the primacy on the accession of Eliza- u ho was sent back to the Gambia with his ind letters, purchased three slaves, and laid I of provisions, he set sail down the river on the 17th November, in the hope of tracing the remaining course of this famed stream, the lower part of which, according to the theory which he nad fi»nn< ■ 1. was identical with the Congo, or Zaire, entering the Atlantic in lat. 15° S. This, however, it was destined that the intrepid and en- thusiastic traveller was not to accomplish. His despatches, forwarded by Isaaco, contained the last intelligence ever received from him, and for many rears his fate was involved in mystery. It was at length distinctly made out by information gleaned from various quarters, that, about the beginning of June 1806, he had descended the river as far as Boussa, 650 miles below Timbnctoo ; that here his interpreter, whose engagement now terminated, : on shore with a present for the king of Yaouri ; that this was withheld by the Dooty, or chief, to whom it was given, and the king was told the white men had gone to return no more; that the king hereupon imprisoned the interpreter, and sent a band of armed men to intercept Park's pas- ■ocky narrows near Boussa; and that here, after ■ vain struggle against superior numbers, Park and all his companions, except one of the . leaped into the river to attempt their y swimming, and were drowned. Fatouma was afterwards released, and met with this negro. Their narratives, and Park's journal, with an intro- ductory sketch of his life and labours, were pub- lished together in 1815. Government paid to his widow, according to stipulation before he left home, the sum of £4000. His family consisted of three sons and one daughter ; the latter, mar- ried to H. W. Meredith, Esq., of Pentry-Bichen, Denbighshire, and his youngest son, Archi- bald, an officer in the East India Company's ser- vice, are still alive. All his brothers and sisters had families, many of whom are still living; and several of his relatives occupy stations of high re- spectability in G lasgow. In person, Mungo Park was tall and muscular, and possessed an extraordinary power of enduring fatigue ; and by his many noble, mental, and moral qualities, was no less fitted for the right conduct of the important enterprises in which he was engaged. [J.B.I PARK, T., a bibliographical writer, 1759-1834. PARKE, .!.. a famous musician, 1745-1829. PABKEB, (Ikohge, earl of Macclesfield, son of the first earl, who was lord chancellor of England, distinguished as a mathematician, died 1766. PABKEB. Hknky, Lord Morley, one of the barons who threatened Clement VII. with the loss of his supremacy if he refused his consent to the divorce of Henry VIII. He bears the reputation of a man of letters, and some of his works exist in MS., 1476-1556. PABKEB, Matthkw, the second protestant archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Norwich 1504, and was early distinguished by his progress in every branch of knowledge connected with the study of divinity. In 1533 he became chaplain to Queen Anne Boleyn, and was charged by her with the care of her daughter Elizabeth. He remained dinent during the reign of Mary, though search was several times made for him, and was beth. He was among the first selected to prepare the Reformed Liturgy ; and the • Bishops' Bible,' which remained in use till the present translation was effected, was printed under his inspection. Archbishop Parker was also a great antiquarian, and had some share, either as patron or editor, in the work ' De Antiquitate Britannicse Ecclesia*,' besides being the founder of the first Society of Antiquaries. He died 1575. PARKER, Richaud, appointed admiral of the fleet by the mutineers during the revolt at the Nore, was a disgraced midshipman, who was serv- ing at that juncture as a common sailor. He was a man of enterprise and address, and acquired im- mense influence over the men. On the reduction of the mutiny by Lord Howe, he was hanged on board the Sandwich, June 30, 1797. PARKER, Robert, a puritan writer on theo- logical subjects, known from 1583 to 1607. His son, Thomas, a theological and religious writer, took refuge in America 1634, died there 1677. PARKER, Samuel, a prelate of the reign of James II., who at that period joined the papists. He is author of a history of his own times and many other works, in particular ' A Discourse of Eccle- siastical Polity, written against the dissenters ; born at Northampton 1640, died 1687. PARKES, Samuel, a practical chemist, well known as the author of many useful elementary works, 1759-1825. PARKHURST, John, bishop of Norwich in the reign of Elizabeth, and previously the teacher of Bishop Jewel, at Merton college. He was a pre- late of eminent learning and piety ; 1511-1574. PARKHURST, John, author of the well-known Hebrew and Greek lexicons, was born in North- amptonshire 1728, and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge. He entered into orders, but held no preferments in the church, and, possessing consi- derable property, devoted himself to literary pur- suits. He was a man of high principle, and a receiver of the philosophy of John Hutchinson. Died at Epsom 1797. PARKINS, J., a writer on law, 16th century. PARKINSON, J., a writer on botany, d. 1567. PARKINSON, T., a mathemat., 1745-1830. PARMENIDES, of Elea, in Magna GraBcia, born about 536 B.C.; one of the chief of the Eleatic school. That great search concerning the substance of things occupied Parmenides ; but instead of finding Unity in Nature, he discerned it in Mind alone. It is the Reason which con- ceives and bestows Unity on Plurality; so that true Reality is Subjective. The scheme of Par- menides is a pure Idealism, and open to all the objections to which one-sided schemes are liable. He exercised, however, much influence on the speculations of Plato. PARMENIO, a Macedonian gen., d. B.C. 329. PARM ENTIER, Anthony A., a famous French agricultural writer and philanthropist, 1737-1813. PARM ENTIER, J., a Fr. painter, 1658-1730. PARMENTIER, J., a French navigator, known also as a versifier and translator, 16th century, PARMIZIANO. SeeMAzzuoLi. PARNELL, Thomas, born at Dublin in 1679, took orders, and became archdeacon of Clogher. He received, also, other preferments through the 566 PAR interest of Swift, when he deserted the Whig party on their fall in the latter part of the reign of Queen Anne. He was a contributor to the Spec- tator and Guardian, and, after flying to London from his Irish parsonage, became intimate with the leading men of letters. His poetry comes nearer to Pope's, in sweetness of versification, than do any other verses of the time : and he has not only much felicity of diction, but also a very pleasing seriousness of sentiment, shown in such pieces as his popular allegory 'The Hermit.' His death, which occurred in 1718, is said to have been hastened by intemperate habits, and these have been attributed to the grief he felt for the loss of his wife. [W.S.] PARODI, Filippo, a Genoese sculptor, born about 1640, died 1708. Domenico, his son, an historical painter, 1668-1740. Battista, brother of Domenico, 1674-1730. Pellegrino, son of Domenico, a portrait painter, died after 1741. PAROLETTI, Victor Modeste, an Italian physician, dist. as a philos. and natural., 1765-1834. PARR. See Catharine Parr. PARR, Richard, an Irish divine, an. of Ser- mons and a 'Life of Archbishop Usher,' 1617-91. PARR, Samuel, an eminent classical scholar and critic, was the son of an apothecary of Harrow- on-the-Hill, in Middlesex, and was born there 1746. He obtained a living in the Church of Eng- land, in the gift of Sir Francis Burdett, and wrote several works of temporary interest ; died 1825. PARR, Thomas, noticed here as an extraordi- nary instance of longevity, was a native of Shrop- shire. He was born in 1483, and laboured in hus- bandry till after he was one hundred and thirty years old. He died in 1635, when nearly one hun- dred and fifty -three years of age ; and even then, Dr. Harvey, who opened his body, found no internal signs of decay. His grandson died at the age of one hundred and twenty. PARR, W., a partizan of Mary Stuart, ex. 1584. PARRENNIN, D., a Fr. mission., 1665-1741. PARRHASIUS, a Greek painter, 5th cent. b.c. PARRHASIUS, Aulus James, an Italian grammarian and classical editor, 1470-1534. PARROCEL, Bartholomew, a French pain- ter, died 1660. His son, Joseph, a great painter of battles, 1648-1704. Charles, son ana pupil of Joseph, 1688-1752. Ignatius, nephew and pupil of Joseph, died 1722. Pierre, younger brother of the latter, also a pupil of his uncle Joseph, about 1720-1765. Ignatius, son of Pierrre, and last painter of the family, d. abt. 1774. PARRY, Caleb Hillier, father of the well- known arctic navigator, distinguished as a phy- sician and naturalist, and more than forty years physician at the Bath hospital, was born in 1756. Hi's principal work is entitled 'The Elements of Pathology;' died 1822. PARRY, R., bishop of St. Asaph, died 1620. PARRY, R., a divine and theologian, 1722-1780. PARRY, W., an English painter, 1742-1791. PARSIN, J., a Dutch engraver, 16th century. PARSONS, A., an English traveller, died 1785. PARSONS, James, a physician, anatomist, and antiquarian, au. of several curious works, 1705-70. PARSONS, John, an anatomist, 1742-1785. PARSONS, Philip, a minister of the Church of England, kn. as a miscellaneous wr., 1729-1812. PAS PARSONS, Robert, whose name is sometimes written Persons, an English Jesuit, famous for his intermeddling in affairs of state, 1547-1610. PARUTA, Paul, a Venetian diplomatist, and historiographer to the state, 1540-1598. PARUTA, Philip, an antiquarian, died 1629. PAS, Anth. De, a French general, 1641-1711. PAS, or PAAS, Crispin De, a Dutch designer and engraver, born about 1536, had three sons in the same profession : — Crispin, the eldest, born 1570; William, the second, dates unknown; Simon, the third, a portrait engraver, born 1574. His daughter, Madeleine, also distinguished herself in the art, born 1576. PASCAL, theirs* of the name pope, 817-824. The second, 1099-1113. The third, an antipope, elected in opposition to Alexander III., and sup- ported by the emperor Frederick, 1164-1168. Ano- ther antipope, of the name, headed a faction some time in 687. PASCAL, Blaise, was a native of Clermont in Auvergne, where he was born 19th June, 1623. His ancestors had, for several generations, held high offices in the French government, and his father was a provincial judge in his native county. Even in boyhood, the extraordinary power and acuteness of Blaise Pascal displayed itself. His father, who was an eminent mathematician, under- took the sole management of his son's education, and for that purpose removed to Paris. The bias of young Pascal's mind being strongly inclined to- wards mathematical science, the prudent father, afraid lest the favourite subject might engross his mind to the neglect of other necessary branches, took care to give him little or no access to his library. He confined his son's attention, as much as possible, to the study of languages. But nature could not be repressed, and the daily pastime of the boy was to draw mathematical diagrams, with charcoal, on the floor. In this stolen enjoyment, his father surprised him, and the figure that was then absorbing his thoughts was the 32d proposi- tion of Euclid ; showing that he had already mas- tered all the previous elements that enter into that demonstration. His father thenceforth set him to the regular study of Euclid ; and so great was his proficiency in the science, that, before completing his sixteenth year, he had composed a treatise on conic sections, invented an arithmetical machine, for which, in 1649, he obtained a patent ; and at the age of twenty-three had finished those important experiments, in pneumatics and hydrostatics, which have so honourably connected his name with the progress of natural philosophy, and raised him to the same rank with Torricelli and Boyle. A serious illness, brought on by intense application to study, obliged him, for a long time, to suspend his fa- vourite pursuits, and on his recovery, circumstances occurred that powerfully diverted his thoughts into a different channel. During his protracted sickness, he had received deep impressions of reli- gion, so that under an overwhelming sense of its importance he resolved to renounce all the scientific and secular pursuits, to which his taste and genius so strongly directed him, and to apply his mind exclusively to the study of theology, and the means by which he might promote the best interests of his fellow-men. Through the loopholes of his pious retreat, however, he took an occasional glance at 567 PAS what was passing in the world, and on the out- break of the fierce contests that were waged be- iween the Jmmnktl and the Jesuits, Pascal showed himself a keen and powerful advocate of the former. It was in connection with the contro- versy respecting Arnauld, that he wrote his famous - of a Provincial to one of his Friends,' which first appeared in the year 1656, under the fictitious authorship of Louis de Montalte. They contain a most withering exposure of the false morality of the Jesuits, and the sentiments are ex- pressed in a style of elegance, accompanied with the most sparkling wit and bitter sarcasms, which, although enlisted in a foreign and bygone contro- versy, have secured to the work a lasting fame. Pascal meditated a work of high importance, viz., an inquiry into the character and evidences of Christianity, and in the hands of so original, pro- found, and independent a thinker, there was reason to expect a production which would interest and instruct the whole Christian world. But his . or 'Thoughts on Religion,' a posthumous volume of loose and desultory fragments, which were meant to be woven into a regular composition, is all that was accomplished of this grand design, for he was arrested in the midst of his work by death in 1662, which happened so suddenly and in such suspicious circumstances, as gave some colour to the charge of his being earned off by poison. [R.J.'] [Home in which Pascal died.] PASCH, G., a German philologist, 1661-1707. PASCH, J., a professor of philosophy, d. 1709. PASCH, Jean, a Swedish landscape and marine painter, 1706-1769. Laurence, of the same family name, is known as a portrait painter; and his (laughter, Ulrica Frederica, was a member of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, 1735-96. PASCHAL. See Pascal. PASCHAL, C, a Fr. antiquarian, died 1625. PASCHAL, F., a Fr. dramatist, 17th century. PASCHIUS, G., a Ger. philologist, 1661-1707. I ASCOLI, A., an Ital. anatomist, 1669-1757. PASCOLI, L., an Ital. art-writer, 1674-1744. \> * SJS£ I : LI ' L ' an ItaL Pinter, 1629-1700. PASQUALIS. See Martinez. PAT PASQUIER, Stephen, an eminent French civilian, and enemy of the Jesuits, 1529-1615. PASS, PASSE, or PAAS. See Pas. PASSAROTTI, Bartalomeo, an Italian pain- ter and engraver, died 1592. He had two sons, also disting. in art : — Tiburzio, died 1612 ; and Aurelio, who died between 1592 and 1605. PASSEMANT, C. S., aFr. astronomer, 1702-69. PASSERAT, J., a French poet, 1534-1602. PASSERI, Giambattista, an Italian anti- quarian and naturalist, 1694-1780. PASSERI, Giambattista, an Italian painter and poet, 1610-1679. His nephew, Guiseppe, also a painter, 1654-1714. PASSEROTTI. See Passarctti. PASSIGNANO, Dominico Cresti Da, a dis- ting. painter of the Florentine school, 1568-1638. PASSIONEI, Domenico, a learned Italian cardinal, and promoter of literature, 1682-1761. PASSWAN-OGLOU, Osman, a pacha of Wid- din, in Bulgaria, who revolted against the porte, after his father had been put to death ; and, after a long struggle, compelled the sultan to confirm him in the government. He was afterwards faithful to the Turks in a war with the Russians, 1758-1807. PASTEUR, J. D., a Dut. naturalist, 1763-1804. PASTORIUS, J., a Ger. historian, 1610-1681. PATARASI, L., an Ital. naturalist, 1674-1727. PATEL, Peter, a French landscape painter, killed in a duel, 1654-1703. His son, of* the same names, painted several emblematic subjects ; dates unknown. PATER, Paul, a Hungarian savant, 1656-1724. PATERCULUS, a Roman historian, d. 18 B.C. PATERSON, C. W., a Brit. admiral, 1756-1841. PATERSON, S., a bibliographer, 1728-1802. PATICHI, A., an Italian painter, 1762-1788. PATIN, Guy, a French physician, distinguished in the disputes which divided the profession con- cerning chemical remedies, as the determined enemy of antimonial and similar preparations, 1601-1672. His letters, which have been pub- lished since his death, are curious and interesting. Charles, his second son, distinguished as a phy- sician and numismatist, 1633-1693. The wife of the latter, and their two daughters, Charlotte and Gabrielle, were women of remarkable leamine:, and have left some writings. PAT1SSON, M., a Fr. Hellenist, died abt. 1600. PATKUL, John Reginald De, a gentleman of Poland, who distinguished himself by his en- deavours to shake off the Swedish yoke in the reigns of Charles XI. and Charles XII. He was treacherously given up to the latter by Augustus, and broken on the wheel 1707. PATON, R., an English painter, last century. PATOUILLET, L., a Fr. Jesuit and controver- sialist, au. of 'Apology for Cartouche,' 1699-1779. PATRAT, J., a French playwright, 1732-1801. PATRICK, A., a Polish prelate, 16th century. PATRICK, Peter, one of Justinian's ambas- sadors, and finally master of the palace, was a na- tive of Thessalonica. Very little is known concern- ing his history; and of his work, 'The History of Ambassadors,' written in Greek, only some frag- ments remain. PATRICK, St., the patron of Ireland, was the first to convert the pagan Irish to Christianity, and is supposed to nave commenced his mission 568 PAT there in 433. According to his own account he was bora at Kilpatrick, between Dumbarton and Glasgow, but other accounts represent him as a native of Pembrokeshire and of Brittany. Nen- nius, who wrote in the 7th century, states that his original name was Maur, and that the name Patricius was given to him when consecrated by Pope Celestine. He fixed his residence at Armagh, which is become the metropolitan see, and is sup- posed to have continued his missions about forty years. Usher, however, places his death as late as 493. PATRICK, Samuel, a divine and classical critic, editor of an edition of Hederick's Greek Lexicon, died 1748. PATRICK, Simon, a learned prelate, born at Gainsborough 1626, died bishop of Ely 1707. His works are — ' Heart's Ease, or a Remedy against all Troubles,' 'Jewish Hypocrisy,' ' A Convert to the Present Generation,' ' Parable of the Pilgrim,' ' Exposition of the Commandments,' a ' Debate be- tween a Conformist and Nonconformist,' ' Treatise on the Holy Communion,' ' The Devout Christian,' ' Jesus and the Resurrection Justified by Witnesses in Heaven and Earth,' ' A History of the Church of Peterborough ' (of which he was dean), various para- phrases and commentaries on the Prophets, and a number of occasional sermons. When rector of St. Paul's, Covent Garden, he greatly endeared him- self to his parishioners by remaining with them during the wnole time of the plague in 1665. PATRIN, E. L. M., a Fr. geologist, 1742-1815. PATRIX, P., a French poet, 1585-1672. PATRIZI, A., an Italian historian, died 1496. PATRIZI, F., an Italian Platonist, 1529-1597. PATTE, P., a French architect, 1723-1814. PATTEN, T., an English theologian, 1754-90. PATTISON, James, well known as member of parliament for London, and governor of the Bank of England, was born 1786. He was the repre- sentative of an old commercial family. His par- liamentary career began in 1835. In 1841 he was unsuccessful, but was returned on the death of Sir W. Wood in 1843, and again at the general elec- tion in 1847. Died 1849. PATTISON, William,' a native of Sussex, who distinguished himself as a poet, and died in his twenty-first year, after a miserable life, 1706-1727. PATUZZI, J. V., an Ital. theologian, 1700-69. PAUCTON, M. J. P., a Fr. mathemat., 1736-98. PAUDITZ, C, a German painter, 17th century. PAUL, or SAUL, (Acts xiii. 9,) was a native of Tarsus, in Cilicia, and inherited the privileges of a Roman citizen. (Acts xxii. 28, 29."> His descent and education were wholly Jewish, and the latter was of the highest order. Under the instruction of Gamaliel, a distinguished Jewish rabbi at Jerusalem, (Acts v. 34,) he became mas- ter of the Jewish law. (Acts xxii. 3 ; Gal. i. 14.) He had been also taught a useful mechanical trade, according to the custom of the nation, for the Tal- mud says, he that does not train his son to some secular occupation is as bad as if he taught him to steal. The handicraft to which Saul was trained was that of a 'tent-maker.' Tent-making is a com- mon and popular branch of business in the East, where these light and portable edifices are in so great and constant requisition. Cilicia, Saul's na- tive province, was famed for a certain species of PAU goat's hair, which was woven into haircloth. This form of industry may have been Saul's early em- ployment, and as such tent-cloth was largely used in the army, this manufacture may have suggested to the apostle's mind the many military figures and illusions which are scattered through his writings. (Acts xviii. 3.) His residence at Jerusalem com- menced at an early period, (Acts xxvi. 4,) and he was probably from twenty-two to twenty-five years old when Christ commenced his public ministry. He belonged to the sect of the Pharisees, as did also his father. (Acts xxiii. 6.) The preaching of the gospel by the apostles, and especially the fact of Christ's resurrection from the dead, on which they placed their chief stress, excited, of course, a violent opposition among the Jews, which, before long, broke out in open violence. Stephen, an eloquent and powerful advocate of the new re- ligion, was seized and stoned to death. Among the spectators, and perhaps promoters, of this bloody deed, was Paul; who, we may suppose, from the manner in which he was regarded by the murderers, and, indeed, from his own confession, was fully with them in the act. (Acts vii. 58. Comp. xxii. 20.) His temperament, talents, and education fitted him to become a leader in the per- secution of the apostles and their adherents ; and he commenced his career with a degree of zeal bordering on madness. He ' breathed out threaten- ings and slaughter.' His whole spirit was excited against the new religion, and he even sought for authority to go to Damascus, whither many of the disciples had fled after the murder of Stephen, and bind and drag to Jerusalem, without distinction of age or sex, all the followers of Christ whom he could find. Just before he reached Damascus, however, he was arrested by a miraculous light, so intense as to deprive him of vision. He fell to the earth in helpless prostration and terror. (Acts xxii. 11.) At the same time Christ revealed himself as the real object of his persecution. (Acts xxvi. 15. Comp. 1 Cor. xv. 8.) Paul on being converted did not wait very long in Damascus ; and we are not to infer from the narrative of Luke that imme- diately on leaving Damascus he went to Jerusalem. The time which he spent in Arabia may be esti- mated at from one year and a-half to two years ; for immediately after his conversion, he must have spent at least some months at Damascus, before, as an apostle, he gave himself to his missionary journeyings, — and such was his journey into Ara- bia. When now he had returned to Damascus, he commenced making known, unreservedly and ener- getically, the gospel of Christ in the synagogues of the Jews, in the same manner that he did in his first abode in that city. The following chronolo- gical arrangement will enable the reader to con- nect the principal events in the life of Paul : — A.D. Paul's conversion. (Acts ix.,) 21st year of Tiberius, 30 He goes into Arabia, and returns to Damascus; (Gal. L 17 ;) at the end of three years in all, he escapes from Damascus and goes to Jerusalem, (Acts i*. 23, Ac.,) 39 From Jerusalem Paul goes to Cilicia and Syria. (Acts ix. 30; Gal. i. 21.) From Antioch he is sent with Barnabas to Jerusalem to carry alms, (Acts xl 30.) 45 The first missionary journey of Paul and Barnabas from Antioch, continued about two years, (Acts xiii., xiv.,) commencing, 45 PAU After spending several years in Antioch, (Acts xiv. ml and Barnabas are sent a second time to Jerusalem, to consult the ajwstles respecting dr- cumcision, JR., (Acts xv. 2,) ■> n expelled from Koine, a.d 52-54; Paul, on his second missionary journey, (Acts xv, 40,) after passing thronjrh Asia Minor to Europe, finds Aquilaand Prisdlhi at Corinth, (Acts xviii. 2,).. 64 Paul remains eighteen months in Corinth. (Acts wiii. 11.) Aft« being brought before Gallio, he : g tor .1 erusalem the fourth time, and then goes to Antioch, (Acts xviii. S3,) 56 Tiie apostle winters at Nicojwlis, (Tit. iii. 12,) and then goefl to Ephesus, (Acts xix. 1,) 57 atdeaee of two years or more at Ephesus, Paul departs for Macedonia, (Acts xx 1,) 59 After wintering in Achaia, Paul goes the fifth time to Jerusalem, where he is imprisoned, (Acts xxi.; xxiil..) 60 The apostle remains two years in prison at Cesarea, and is then sent to Rome, where he arrives in the fining, after wintering in Malta, (Acts xxiv. 27; wiii.,) 63 The history in Acts concludes, and Paul is supposed by some to have been set at liberty, 65 Probable martyrdom, 66 [J.E.] PAUL, the name of two saints besides the Apostle, the earlier a hermit of the Thebaid, about 239-8 11. The later, a patriarch of Constantinople, 1 340, put to death 350 or 351. PAUL, thejirst of the name, pope, reigned 757- 707. The second, 1464-1471. The third, of the Farnese family, succeeded Clement VII., 1534, excommunicated Henry VIII. 1535, concluded a league with the Venetians and Charles V. against the" Turks 1538, concurred in the foundation of the Jesuits 1540, convoked the council of Trent 1542, died 1549. 1'he fourth, reigned 1555-1559. The Jifth, of the Borghese family, succeeded Leo XL taUined a quarrel with Venice, which was terminated by Henry IV. 1605-1607, died 1621. PAUL L, emperor of Russia, son of Catharine the Great and Peter III., was born 1754, and suc- ceeded on the death of his mother 1796. He was assassinated 1800, and sue. by his son, Alexander. PAUL, an exarch of Ravenna, killed 728. PAUL of Burgos. See Paul of S. Maria. PAUL the Deacon, a monkish histor., d. 743. PAUL-DE-LA-CROIX, an Italian founder of a religious congregation, 1720, died 1775. PAUL or Samosata, bishop of that place, on iirates, and patriarch of Antioch, flourished from 260 to 273. He was deposed for heresy 270, but could not be expelled from his dignities till after the fall of Zenobia. The sect of I'aul'ums, or Pavlianistx, was named after him, and con- demned by the council of Nice. Their doctrines were a form of Socinianism. PAUL Of SAXCXA Maria, a converted Jew, born at Burgos in 1353, died a dignitary of the church 1435. His three sons, Alfhonso, Gon- ial v<>, and Aloares, also rose in the church, the elder of them becoming bishop of Burgos. He t hor of an abridgment of Spanish history. I'A I ' L hik Sn.r.NTiAuv. a Christian poet, chief Bean who had charge of Justinian's palace. PAUL Dl Vin< knt, one of the most revered saints of the Roman calendar, founder of the con- f'Pri« - of the Mission*, 1 was born in umble life 1576; and in all the offices which he held, was renowned for his warm zeal and exten- sive charity ; died 1060. PAU PAUL, A. L., a French ecclesiastic, 1740-1809. PAULA, a sainted lady of Rome, died 404. PAULET, J. J., a Fr. medical wr., 1740-1805. PAULET, W., an English courtier, 1475-1572. PAULI. See Paulli. PAULIANS, Aime Henri, a learned Fr. Jesuit, author of several philosophical works, 1722-1802. PAULIN- 1)E - SAINT - BARTH ELEMY, the name by which John Philip Werdin, an Austrian Carmelite and missionary, is generally known. The frincipal scene of his labours was in the East ndies, and he has left some valuable Oriental works, 1748-1806. PAULINUS, the name of three saints:— 1. A bishop of Treves, elected 349, deposed 353, died in exile 359. 2. A famous ecclesiastical writer, born in Gaul 353, died bishop of Nola 431. 3. A patri- arch of Aquileia, 726-804. PAULLI, Simon, a Danish physician and na- turalist, 1603-1680. His son, of the same name, settled at Strasburg as a painter 1661, author of miscellaneous publications, 1664. Another son. James Henry, was professor of anatomy and of history at Copenhagen, and was employed in affairs of state by Christiern V. A third son, Oliger, born at Copenhagen 1644, became secretary to the India Company, and acquired a large fortune by commerce. He then suddenly announced himself as the subject of certain visions, in obeying the mandates of which he lost his property, and en- deavoured to engage the Christian powers in a crusade against the Turks, for the purpose of restoring Israel. He published numerous works, in Flemish and German, and suffered imprison- ment in pursuit of this object, and at last died in obscurity, 1715. PAUL1NI, C. F., a Ger. naturalist, 1643-1712. PAULMIER DE GRENTEMESNIL, Julian Le, a French physician, who witnessed the mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew, and wrote on surgery, 1520-1588. His son, James, a learned antiqua- rian and philologist, 1587-1670. PAULMY, Anthony Rene De Voyer D'Ar- genson, Marquis De, a Fr. literateur, 1722-1787. PAULUS of iEGiNA, a medical wr.,7th cent. PAULUS, jEmilius Lucius. See jEmilius. PAULUS, Julius, a Roman lawyer, 3d cent. PAULUS, Peter, a statesman of Dutch Flan- ders, author of a ' Commentary on the Treaty of Utrecht,' and other works, 1754-1796. PAUSAN1US, a Greek geographer, 2d cent. PAUSANIAS, a general of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, who distinguished himself at the battle of Plataea, and was afterwards detected in a trea- sonable attempt to deliver his country to the Per- sians. Having fled to a temple of Minerva, the sanctity of which secured him from violence, the Greeks surrounded the building with heaps of stones, and thus starved him to death, B.C. 467. PAUSIAS, a Greek painter, 4th century B.C. PAUSON. a Greek painter, 5th cent. B.C. PAUW, C. De, a Dutch savant, 1739-1799. PAUW, J. C, a Dutch classic, 17th century. PAUW, Reignier, a Dutch magistrate and diplomatist, 1564-1636. Adrian, his son, grand pensionary of Holland, 1631, plenipotentiary at the peace of Munster, 1648, died 1653. Cornelius, brother of the latter, a statesman, 1593-1631. PAUWS, P., Dutch physician, 1564-1617. 670 PAU PAUWELS, J., a Belgian composer, 1771-1804. PAVILLON, John Francis Du Chevron Du, a French naval commander, 1730-1782. PAVILLON, Nicholas, a famous preacher, born at Paris 1597, died bishop of Aleth 1677. Stephen, his son, a man of letters, 1632-1705. PAYNE, J., an English engraver, 1608-1648. PAYS, Rene Le, a French poet, 1636-1690. PAZ, J. A. De, a Spanish Jesuit, 1560-1620. PAZZI, Jacopo, chief of the Italian faction op- posed to the Medici, put to death 1478. PEACHAM, Henry, an accomplished gentle- man, who is supposed to have been tutor in the earl of Arundel's family, and who wrote many works known to the readers of polite literature : among these are some complimentary poems, ' The Gentleman's Exercise,' intended as a treatise on art ; ' Minerva Britannica,' a collection of em- blems in verse, illustrated with plates ; and ' The Complete Gentleman.' This latter work is the one for which he was most celebrated, and it has been frequently reprinted. Died about 1640. PEACOCK, R., a learned prelate, 1390-1460. PEARCE, Nathaniel, a sailor famous for his long residence in Abyssinia, 1780-1820. PEARCE, Zachary, successively bishop of Bangor and Rochester, distinguished as a classical scholar, and author of a ' Commentary on the Evangelists,' 1690-1774. PEARSALL, R., a nonconf. divine, 1698-1762. PEARSON, Edward, a learned minister of the Church of England, author of a Norrisian prize essay on the ^Goodness of God, as Manifested in the Mission of Jesus Christ,' a 'Collection of Prayers,' and Tracts against the theory of Paley on moral obligation, 1756-1811. PEARSON, George, a physician of London, and writer on analytical chemistry, died 1828. PEARSON, John a learned English prelate, was born in Norfolk, where his father was rector of Creake and Snoring, 1612, and died, bishop of Chester, 1686. He is regarded as the greatest divine of his age, and is best known by his ' Ex- position of the Creed,' published while he was vicar of St. Clement's Eastcheap, 1650. The principal of his other works is a ' Defence of the Epistles ' of St. Ignatius. PEARSON, Margaret Eglinton, disting. for her skill in the art of painting on glass, d. 1823. PECCHIO, G., an Italian economist, 1785-1835. PECEI, J. A., an Ital. antiquarian, 1693-1768. PECHANTRE, N. De, a Fr. dram., 1638-1709. PECHMEJA, J., a Fr. literateur, 1741-1785. PECK, Francis, a dignitary of the Church of England, known as an antiquarian and historian. His principal works relate to English history, and the antiquities of Stamford, 1692-1743. PECKHAM, J., archb. of Canterbury d. 1292. PECKWELL, H., a Calvinist divine," 1737-87. PECQUET, Anthony, grand master of the waters and forests of Rouen, known as a writer on the forest laws and general politics, 1704-1762. PECQUET, J., a French anatomist, 1622-1674. PEDRAZI, P., an Ital. antiquarian, 1644-1720. PEDRO, emperor of Brazil, was eldest son of John VI., king of Portugal, eldest brother of Don Miguel, and nephew to Ferdinand VII., king of Spain. He was born in 1798, and was married in 1^17 to Leopoldine, archduchess of Austria, daugh- PEE ter of Francis I., emperor; and in 1829, when that princess had been dead three years, to Amelia, princess of Leuchtenberg, daughter of Eugene Beauharnais. In 1831 he abdicated the throne of Brazil in favour of his son, Pedro II., and came to England ; his object being to solicit aid against his brother, Miguel, who had usurped the throne of Portugal. The defeat of Miguel's fleet in 1832, by Admiral Napier, decided the war, which had been marked by some sharp engagements on land. Pedro died in 1834, and his daughter by his first wife, Leopoldine, ascended the throne. She was the late Queen Donna Maria. PEEL, Sir Robert, father of the celebrated statesman, was the third son of Mr. Peel, of Peel Cross, Lancashire. He was born in 1750, and amassed great wealth in the cotton trade, became a member of parliament, and in 1801 was created a baronet. Died at Drayton Manor, 1830. [Birthplace of Sir Robert Peel.] PEEL, Sir Robert, was born on 5th Febru- ary, 1788. His father was a celebrated manufac- turer, whose successful career was intimately con- nected with the development of the industrial energies of Britain during the great European war. The elder Peel left a princely fortune to be inherited by his distinguished son, and there is no doubt that the peculiar position in which he was placed had much influence on the mind of the statesman. In wealth and rank he was nominally among the aristocracy, and his own character was reserved and somewhat haughty. In the external movements of society he would feel his place a high one, and the proudest aristocracy were na- turally ever willing to acknowledge a considerable position to the clever, rich, and highly educated cotton-spinner's son. Yet he would have oppor- tunities of being conscious that he was not ad- mitted within the sacred arena of the old feudal aristocratic families, whose generations had been intermarrying for centuries. His was a nature to see and feel this, while the history of his father's rise, and all the antecedents of his own greatness, would concur to throw his sympathies into the cause of progress and energy. He studied at Harrow and Oxford, where he early distinguished himself among the most brilliant men of his day. When just twenty-one years of age he entered 571 TEE parliament as member for Cashel, and thenceforth the sphere of his exertions and triumphs was the of Commons, in the historv of which his career will form a large feature, fie was no ora- tor, nor was he properly speaking a natural and niniple debater. His manner was the artificial one of thorough training, but for an artificial man- ner it was I good one, and the house from his practice got to like it, though to a stranger it was generally unpleasant. He could state his case clearly and forcibly, but he seldom liked to abandon a subject until he had discussed it at great length. He avoided in a marked manner the statement of general principles, as if he feared that he might afterwards nave to say or do something inconsistent with them, and he generally made out his case on the details of the matter, rather than on any wide rule or principle of political opinion. At the beginning of his parliamentary career he was ap- pointed to serve on Horner's bullion committee, and the peculiarities of his mind were then distinctly remarked. It was seen that he went into the in- quiry with opinions totally unformed — that he pro- ceeded with the examination systematically and calmly, as if it had related to some philosophical question about the composition of metals, but that after having formed his opinions, he deemed it his function and duty to carry them resolutely into practice. In 1811 he was made under secretary tor the colonies, and in 1812, while only twenty- four, he received the very responsible appointment of chief secretary for Ireland. — After carrying his celebrated currency measure of 1819, he became in 1822 home secretary. Refusing to take office un- der Canning, he joined the ministry of the duke of Wellington in 1828. Here by conceding catholic emancipation, against which he had previously protested, he did one of those acts which have been called tergiversation by some, and the result of honest conviction, rising above original pre- possession by others. He still, however, professed to belong to the Conservative party, and he be- came a strenuous opponent of Earl Grey's ministry and the Reiorm Bill. When a Conservative govern- ment was, from mere accidental and personal causes not well explained, established in 1834, he gallantly undertook the attempt to work it, though conscious that the task was hopeless. He became prime minister in 1841 with better pros- pects. The position in which he was placed was that of the head of a protectionist government, established to defeat and suppress the free trade party. As circumstances developed themselves in the few critical years from 1841 to 1846, some in- dications of opinion created alarm among the thorough protectionists, and it was seen that the prime minister becoming convinced of the truth of free trade, was determined to carry its principles into practice. After a repeal of the corn laws and other measures in the same spirit, he resigned office to the party to whom his later opinions legi- timately belonged, in the summer of 1846. He died on the 2d of July, 1850, of internal injuries I by a fall from a horse. [J.H.B.] ■ dramatic writer and poet of the age of Elizabeth, was a native of Devon- shire, and died some time before 1598. He took the degree of M.A. at Oxford in 1579, after which • ed to London, and is supposed to have PEL had the ordering of the city pageants. Five of his plavs are still extant. PEGEL, M., a German savant, died 1610. PEGGE, Samuel, father and son, both of the same name, distinguished as antiquarian writers — the former, a minister of the Church of England, flourished 1704-1796 ; the latter, a barrister, 1731- 1800. Sir Christopher, son of the younger Samuel, was regius professor of medicine at Ox- ford, and died 1825. PEINS, G., a German painter, 1500-1556. PEIRCE, J., a nonconform, divine, 1673-172G. PEIRESC, Nicholas Cl. Fabri De, a gentle- man of Florence, descended from the Fabri of Pisa, dist. as an antiquarian, Oriental scholar, astrono- mer, and naturalist, and. equally famous for his protection of the learned, born 1580, expired in the arms of his friend and biographer, Gassendi, 1637. PEIROUSE, Philip Picot, Baron De La, a distinguished French naturalist, 1744-1818. PELAGIUS, sometimes surnamed Brito. is usually supposed to have been a native of this country, his Greek name being a translation of his Celtic one, — Mokgan. The opinions which he afterwards advocated were probably the growth of many years, for at first during his residence in Rome, whither he came in the year 400, he was noted only for his earnest zeal and austere ac- tivities. He had even the address to hold inter- course with Augustine, when he visited Africa, and also with Jerome, without his being suspected of heresy. At length the agitation commenced. Pelagius, who had meanwhile gone to the East, was accused before John of Jerusalem and the synod of Diospolis, but acquitted, though he was formally anathematized by Pope Innocentius, in a.d. 417. Other sentences were passed upon the heresiarch, and his subsequent history is unknown. His doc- trines were a denial of the distinctive truths of scrip- ture and evangelical theology, — such as original sin and depravity, moral inability, and the need of divine grace to renovate. In fact, the tenets ascribed to Pelagius, ignore the guilt of man, and all but make him his own deliverer. In attempting to denude redemption of mystery, he robbed it of reality. His opponents, however, complained of his lubricity, and perhaps his own views are not to be judged of by the extreme sentiments of his pupils. Several of the works of Pelagius have descended to us, such as his ' Commentaries on Paul's Epis- tles,' and his ' Confession of Faith.' [J.E.] PELAGIUS, a king of the Austurias, died 737. PELAGIUS, the first of the name, pope, in the reign of Justinian, 555-559 ; the second, 578-590. PELAGIUS, Magloire, a man of colour, who became a general in the French army, died 1804. PELAGIUS, St., a convert of Antioch, 5th ct. t PELETIER, Claude Le, one of the most dis- tinguished members of the ancient French magis- trature, provost of merchants, and builder of the ?uay which bears his name at Paris, 1631-1711. lis brother, Michjsl, a learned man and coun- cillor of state, died 1725. PELETIER, James, a French mathematician and man of letters, 1517-1582. John, his brother, a theologian, died 1583. James, their nephew, an ecclesiastic, executed in effigy for his alleged share in the death of the president Brisson, 1595. PELL, John, a learned divine and mathema- 672 PEL tician, who settled at Breda as professor of philo- sophy and mathematics, and was a great corres- pondent of Cavendish. Besides the works pub- lished by him, his MSS. and letters, in the British Museum, occupy nearly forty folio volumes. Born at Southwick, in Susses, 1G10, died 1685. PELLEGRIN, Simon Joseph, a French eccle- siastic, kn. as a dramatic wr. and poet, 1663-1745. PELLEPRAT, P., a Fr. missionary, 1606-1667. PELLERIN, J., a Fr. numismatist, 1684-1782. PELLETIER. See Lepelletier. PELLETIER, B., a pharmacopolist, 1761-97. PELLEW, Edward See Exmouth. PELLICAN, C, a Germ. Hebraist, 1478-1536. PELLICER, J. A., a Span, savant, 1740-1806. PELLICO, Silvio, was born at Saluzza, in Piedmont, 1789. He was known in early life as a poet and dramatic writer, especially by his fine tragedy l Francesca da Rimini.' In 1819, he started the ' Conciliator,' a literary and scientific journal, which brought him under the Austrian censorship, and in 1821, he was arrested and condemned to death with Count Gonfalonieri and others; all charged with conspiracy as members of the Car- bonari societies. This punishment was commuted on the scaffold, and the patriots consigned to a hor- rible imprisonment ; that of Silvio Pellico, chiefly passed in the fortress of Spielberg, lasting till the General amnesty of 1830. The pathetic account of is sufferings, ' Le Mie Prigioni,' produced an im- mense effect, and the name of Pellico, connected with those of Gioberti and Balbo, has kept alive the purest flame of patriotism that has yet burned in their unhappy country. He died in the house of the Marchesa Barolo, in February, 1854. [E.R.] PELLIEUX, J. N., a Fr. antiquary, 1749-1832. PELLISSON-FONTANIER, Paul, an emi- nent historian and member of the French Aca- demy, who was educated for the law, and at the age of twenty-one published a ' Commentary on the Institutes of Justinian.' He is famed also for the courage with which he defended his old pro- tector, Fouquet, on whose disgrace he was con- signed to a five years' imprisonment in the Bastile. His works are a ' History of the French Academy,' 4 History of Louis XIV., ' History of the Conquest of Franche-Comtey and 'Reflections upon Religious Differences.' Born at Beziers 1624, died 1693. PELLOUTIER, Simon, a German of French descent, au. of a ' History of the Celts,' 1694-1757. PELOPIDAS, a famous Theban general, com- panion-in-arms of Epaminondas, died B.C. 364. PELS, A., a Dutch miscellaneous wr., d. 1681. PELTAN, T. A., a Germ, theologian, 1552-84. PELTIER, J. G., a Fr. journalist, died 1825. PEMBERTON, Henry, professor of medicine at Gresham College, and a member of the Royal Society, bears a distinguished name as a mathe- matician and natural philosopher. He was the contemporary and friend of Sir Isaac Newton. Born in London 1694, died 1771. PEMBLE, W., a learned divine, 1591-1623. PEMBROKE, Mary Herbert, wife of Henry, earl of, a poetical writer, died 1821. PEMBROKE, T., a painter, about 1700-1728. PENA, John, a Fr. mathematician, 1530-1560. PENA, John Nunez De La, a Spanish histo- rian of the Canary Islands, 1676. PENA, Peter, a French botanist, 16th century. PEN PENINGTON, Isaac, son of an alderman and mayor of London, famous as a writer among the Quakers, was born about 1617, joined that reli- gious body 1658, and died 1679. A daughter of his wife, by her former husband, was married to the celebrated William Penn. PENN, Sir William, a brave and patriotic admiral, dist. in the war against the Dutch under the duke of York, born at Bristol 1621, died 1670. PENN, William, was born in Windsor, on the 14th of October, 1644. His father was Sir Wil- liam Penn, a distinguished admiral, who boasted a high and ancient lineage. While the young man studied at Oxford, the great feud between the Puritan and Carabic party then raging was inter- rupted by the appearance of a new claimant to their allegiances, in a representative of the start- ling opinions of George Fox. From their boldness and originality, and their rejection of the authorita- tive restraints laid on both the other factions, this had a charm for one of young Penn's bold and original nature, and he joined the new sect resolv- ing to brave all the consequences. A far more painful portion of them, even than his expulsion from college, encountered him in the domestic circle, where the feelings of the proud old admiral were deeply wounded by finding his son a schismatic. It was one of the veteran's maxims, however, that conscience and honour were before all things, and the spirit and manliness with which his son car- ried out the principles he adopted seem to have appeased his indignation. In 1668, Penn published the first of his voluminous works ' Truth Exalted,' and two years afterwards he was imprisoned, under the conventicle act, for seditious preaching. In 1677, he travelled on the continent with his celebrated brethren, Robert Barclay and George Fox. It was in the year 1681 that, in compensa- tion for a debt to his father by the crown, he received a grant of the province on the Delaware, called the New Netherlands. It was a signally fortunate incident that in the reckless disposal of such gifts at that time, one should have fallen into hands like his. Such was the foundation of the colony of Pennsylvania, now an empire. It was commenced in a spirit of magnanimous justice, incomprehensible to that age, in an agreement with the natives, and the admission that they had claims to be considered before the colonists took absolute possession. When the relaxations with which James II. wished to purchase the assent of the dissenters to his Romish projects began, the conduct of Penn created suspicions and accusations which have clouded his fame. His position was peculiar, since it was not easy to find among the dissenting bodies any other man whose rank and importance made him so likely a medium of communication with the court, and, at the same time, the Quakers not having much harmony with the others, and being little liked by them, were more apt to accede to measures not generally ac- ceptable to dissenters at large. Thus Penn had friendly communications with the court, and gave his support to its measures. ^ Whether he dis- honourably implicated himself, is matter of too extensive controversy to be here entered on, and reference must be made to the vindication in Mr. Hepsworth Dixon's Memoirs, published in 1851. One charge against him is that when in Mon- 573 TKN T mouth's rebellion, some young girls of Taunton were threatened with the punishment of death for i .irked standard* tor Monmouth, Peim be- came the looker far their pardon, as a pecuniary Uion in favour of the maids of honour. BM has given reason to suppose that the tor was a different person, named George Penne. After the Revolution, Peon lived uuder •on of favouring the Jacobite cause, and bis bitter davs were clouded. The death of his l followed by that of his eldest son. He married a second time in 1696. He was afterwards encumbered with debt, and died on the 30th of July, 1718. [J.H.B.] 5& [Grare of Penn.] 'A, L., an Italian composer, died 1693. PENNANT, Thos., a celebrated naturalist, was born in 1726. He died in 1798. His father was the proprietor of an estate in Flintshire, north Wales, to which he succeeded at the age of thirty-seven. He devoted almost all his spare time to travelling and the study of natural history and antiquities. He is the author of many works, some of which retain a considerable reputation. His ' British Zoology' is a work of much excellence, and his ' Tour in Scot- land' obtained for him a high character as an ac- curate observer. He made that country much better known to the English than it had hitherto been, and he assisted Lightfoot materially in his excellent work ' The Flora Scotica,' Amongst his other works we may more particularly mention his sis of Quadrupeds,' and the 'Arctic Zoology ;' his ' Tour through Wales,' and the ' Antiquities of London.' He was a fellow of the Royal and Anti- quarian Societies, and many others, both at home and abroad, and corresponded with Linnaeus, Buf- fon, Haller, and many of the distinguished men of •r has named a genus of plants after him, Pennantia. [W.B.] PENNI, 0. F.. ■ Florentine painter, 1488-1528. His brother, Lucas, bom about 1500. PENNICUIK, A., a Scot, physician, 1652-1722. NY, Ei>waro, a painter, 1714-1791. PENNY, I iK'Mas, an Engl, naturalist, 16th c. PENROSE, Thomas, a poetical wr., 1743-79. J . or AP HENRY, John, the. author of ■us tract which gave him the name by which he is generally known, Martin Mar-Prelate^ was born iu Wain 1559 ; and after taking his de- PEP croc at Oxford became an anabaptist, P.rownist, or puritan, as he is variously called. He was exe- cuted for his opposition to the church, 1593. PENTHIEVRE, L.J. M. De Bourbon, Due De, regarded as one of the most upright states- men or France in the last century, 1725-179:5. PENTZ, G., a German engraver, 1500-1550. PENZEL, A. J., a Ger. philologist, 1749-1819. PEPIN of Heristal, called also Pei>in Le Gros, was the stock of the second dynasty, or Carlovingian line of French kings. He was grand- son by the mother's side to Pepin de Landen, who governed Australia in the reign of Dagobert, and stood in the same relation by his father to the famous Arnaud, archbishop of Metz, who com- bined in his own person the characters of a warrior, statesman, diplomatist, and prince of the church. Pepin of Heristal took his surname from his seat on the Meuse, near Liege, while the Christian prefix derived from his maternal grandfather may have been chosen as a recommendation to the people of Austrasia. The Austrasians, in fact, when Ebroin, mayor of the palace of Neustria, became their legal governor by the death of Dagobert II. in GSO, preferred the hazard of a contest in favour of Pepin, to the yoke of the well-known tyrant, and a struggle was then begun which produced the assassination of the latter, and made Pepin of Heristal the virtual master of the Frank monarchy. It is an historical question how far Clothaire II. and the Dagoberts contributed to the elevation of this family, who at length overthrew their dynasty, but there can be no doubt about two facts, — 1, that it was the period of a struggle between the local and the national powers, such as we often recognize at a later age in the history of feudalism ; and 2, that the Merovingian, or first line of kings, descended from Clovis, hud become a feeble, cruel, and debauched race. Thierry, who reigned nominally during this struggle, was no exception to the rule in point of feebleness ; and when Ebroin was vanquished, who had tyrannized over him as well as the people, he refused to make the amende honorable to those who had been injured. It was the disaffection thus pro- duced that armed the followers of Pepin against their common sovereign, and the king being de- feated, found that he had exchanged a master hated by all his subjects for one whom they re- garded as their saviour. Pepin, however, con- tented himself with the old title, ' Mayor of the Palace,' and not only propped up Thierry himself, but crowned three of his descendants after him, who are called in French history, Les Rois Faineans — ' Do-nothing kings.' The real power was firmly grasped in the hands of Pepin Heristal, who sub- dued the tributary princes by continual victories, and consolidated the order of the state without daring to assume the pageantry of it. He died in 714, leaving his natural son, Charles Martel, to take the next step in advance, which consisted in administering the kingdom, not with the title of king indeed, but with the throne absolutely vacant. [E.R.J PEPIN LE BREF, son of Charles Martel, and grandson of the preceding, is the first king of France of the Carlovingian dynasty. He suc- ceeded to his father's authority conjointly with his brother Carloman, in 741, and by filling the 674 PEP throne with Childeric, a foolish prince of the Merovingian line, surnamed ' the idiot,' acquired the sanction necessary to support the continued assumption of power by his own family. While Childeric acted the part of the roifuintant, Pepin le Bref, so named from his short stature, was reaping glory in the field, and in 746 was left without a competitor by the retirement of Carlo- man to a monastery. The clergy and the pope were easily conciliated in favour of a power which promised to preserve the church from the surround- ing anarchy, and stop the progress of the Saracens, now spread as far as the south of France. In 750, therefore, Pepin le Bref dethroned Childeric, and having shaved off his long hair, which was an essential character of royalty with the Merovingian kings, coniined him in a monastery. In 752 he caused himself to be consecrated at Soissons, and in 754 received the pope himself (Stephen II.) as a petitioner for intervention in Italy. This was the beginning of the Prankish empire, successor of the old Roman, which had ended in universal anarchy. Pepin and his queen Bertha were crowned in the church of St. Denis by the pope, and the king then accompanied him into Italy at the head of an army, besieged Astolphus, king of the Lombards, in Pavia, and compelled him to abandon his pretensions to the sovereignty of Rome and the exarchate of Ravenna. Another expedition was rendered necessary by the revolt of Astolphus, who was again subdued by the champion of the church, who also obtained a signal victory over the Saracens, reunited Aquitaine to his kingdom, and waged successful war against the German princes. Pepin le Bref died in the seven- teenth year of his reign, 768, and was succeeded by Charlemagne. It is admitted by late historians that this change of dynasty was coincident with the elevation of the eastern Franks, whose fresher energy, guided by the chiefs of the Pepin family, enabled them to push upwards to the seat of government, and take the place of their feebler kindred. [E.R.] PEPIN, the second son of Charlemagne, born 776, became king of Italy 781, died 810. PEPIN, the Jirst of the name, king of Aqui- taine, was the son of Louis le Debonnaire, and was bom 803. Aquitaine was apportioned to him in 817, died 838. The second of the name was son of the preceding, died in a monastery 864. PEPIN, M., a Flemish painter, born 1578. PEPOLI, a rich Italian family who aimed at the sovereign power in Bologna, 14th century. PEPOLI, A. H., an Italian poet, 1757-1796. PEPUSCH, John Christopher, one of the greatest theoretical musicians of modern times, was born at Berlin, about 1667. He came to London in 1700, and was engaged as musician at Drury Lane theatre, where it is believed he assisted in adapting the operas which were performed there. In 1713, the university of Oxford admitted him to the degree of Doctor in Music. At the instance of Gay and Rich he undertook to compose and adapt the music for the l Beggar's Opera.' Having writ- ten a paper on the ancient genera, which was read before the Royal Society, and published in the Philosophical Transactions, in the year 1746, he soon afterwards was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He died in 1752. L J - M PER PEPYS, Samuel, born in 1632, was the son of a tailor in London, but related to persons of dis- tinction, whose patronage procured him public offices, and introduced him into aristocratic society. After having served with much ability as a clerk in the Navy Board, he became secretary of the Admiralty under Charles II., and held the place till the Revolution. He died in 1703. Pepys was one of the strangest of mortals : with great talents and activity in business he united a considerable knowledge of several of the fine arts, and a suf- ficient turn for science to make him no unworthy president of the Royal Society : he was a man of much shrewd observation on the follies of others and the habits of his time, and yet himself a fop and an egotist, vain to the extreme of the ridicul- ous, and delighting in trifling and gossipping as much as in his more serious occupations. His own character is most amusingly shown, and that of his profligate age most instructively painted, in his ' Memoirs' and correspondence. A collec- tion of books and manuscripts which he bequeathed to Magdalen College, Oxford, contained 2,000 old English ballads, which were among the chief authorities of Percy in the compilation of his ' Reliques.' [W.S.] PERANDA, S., a Venetian painter, 1566-1638. PERAU, Gabriel Louis Calabre, a French writer, author of the 'Secrets of the Freemasons,' a continuation of the ' Lives of Illustrious Men of France,' and editor of editions of Rabelais, Boileau, and Bossuet, 1700-1767. PERAULT, W., a Dominican writer, died 1275. PERCEVAL, John, fifth baronet of the family, and first earl of Egmont, was born at Barton, in Yorkshire, 1683, and died 1748. He was one of the founders of the colony of Georgia, and wrote several works of temporary interest. His son, of the same name, second earl of Egmont, was a member of parliament, and one of the privy council- on the accession of George III. He was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Lovel and Holland, and wrote some political tracts. Born at West- minster 1711, died 1770. His second eon is the subject of the following notice. PERCEVAL, Spescer, a lawyer and states- man, the second son of John Lord Egmont, was born in the year 1762. His education appears to have been private until he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar from Lin- coln's Inn, in 1786. This connection was of a sort which, at that time, secured immediate success even to ordinary abilities. He was made a king's counsel in 1796, when he entered parliament. He attracted the notice of Pitt by a constitutional pamphlet, and soon found himself in the path to political or professional advancement as he might incline. In 1801 he was made solicitor, and in 1802, attorney-general. When the Grenville minis- try was overturned in 1807, he led the new minis- try as chancellor of the exchequer. This appoint- ment marked the decided opposition of the new government to the tolerant views which had de- stroyed its predecessors. Perceval is one of the few men in the rank of statesmen, in this country, whose names are associated with rancour or intole- rant religious views, and they seem in him to have sprung less from a desire to oppress than from a cold ungenial nature. One of his rivals said that 575 PER he was like a fish, and the comparison seems to have been accepted by those who knew him. On the 11th of Mar, 1812, he was shot while passing through the loubv of the House of Commons by a man named Bellinghain. Great alarm was, of It that the maniac represented some poli- tical or religious combination, but it was soon discorered that his enmity was entirely on personal grounds. [J.H.B.] PKRCIVAL, Thomas, a physician, who prac- ticed his profession at Manchester, and was dist. M an ethical and miscellaneous writer, 1740-1804. PERCLIGIA, a Turkish visionary, who excited a commotion in Natolia, and was put to death, declaring himself an apostle of God, in 1418. PERCY, the family name of a follower of Wil- liam the Conqueror, from whom sprang the lords of Alnwick, in Northumberland. The members of this family best known to history are — William Dl Pkrcy, whose grand-daughters were married to the earl of Warwick, and to the brother-in-law of Henry I. After him a Henky De Percy, reign of Edward I. A second Henry was mar- ried to the Princess Mary of Lancaster, in the reign of Edward III., and it was his sons whom Richard II. created respectively earl of Northumberland and earl of Worcester. The latter was beheaded after the victory of Henry IV., near Shrewsbury, while the son of the former, Henry Percy, called ' Hotspur,' fell gallantly in the battle ; and his father, Northumberland, was killed in Yorkshire 1408. The son of Hotspur was restored by Henry V. to the title of earl of Northumberland, and was killed in the battle of St. Albans 1455. PERCY, Petkr Francis, Baron, a French armv surgeon, time of Napoleon, famous for his professional skill and devoted zeal, and the con- triver of perambulating hospitals, which he orga- nized for the army of the Rhine, 1754-1825. PERCY, Thomas, the well-known editor of ' Ancient English Poetry,' was the son of a grocer of Shropshire, who was educated at Oxford, and became a minister, and finally a prelate, in the Church of England. He was born 1729, obtained a vicarage in Northamptonshire 1756, and com- menced nis literary career by publishing a Chinese romance in 1761. The fame of his first-named Publication procured him an introduction to the 'ercies of Northumberland, and he became, in 1765, chaplain to the duke. In 1770 he published the 'Hermit of Warkworth,' and his translation of Mallet's 'Northern Antiquities' Died at his episcopal palace of Dromore 1811. PERDICCAS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, killed while aiming at the sovereignty Hl'ter the death of Alexander, 322 B.C. PEREDA, A., a Spanish painter, 1599-1669. I'KHKIIXK, Hardouin De BeaugmontDe, a French prelate and historian, 1605-1670. PEREGRINUS, a Cynic philosopher, 2d cent. PEIIEIRA, D. Nunez Alvarez, a Portuguese ihttawnm and commander, 1360-1431. PEREIRA-bE-FIGUKIREDO, Antonio, a Portuguese ecclesiastic, theologian, and ecclesias- tic] historian, 1726-1797. PERE1SA, G., a Spanish physician, 16th cent. 1 .11! A. .Jonathan, late physician to the London Hospital, distinguished for "his knowledge of pharmacy and general science, author of ' Ele- 5 PER ments of Materia Medica.' Born of humble paren- tage at Shoreditch 1804, died 1853. PEREIRE, Jacob Rodrijuez, a Portuguese, famous as a teacher of the deaf and dumb, 1716-80! PEREYRA, D., a Portug. painter, 1570-1640. PEREYRA, M., a Portug. sculptor, 1614-1667. PEREYRA, V., a Spanish painter, died 1618. PEREZ, A., a Spanish painter, 1660-1727. PEREZ, A., a Spanish jurisconsult, 1585-1611 PERKZ, David, who was born of Spanish pa- rents at Naples, in the year 1711, received nis musical education from Antonio Galli, and Fran- cisco Mancini. He early showed an uncommon genius for music, and his progress in the art was remarkably rapid. After having brought out operas at Palermo and in Naples, he was invited to Rome, where he soon became extremely popular. In 1752, Joseph, king of Portugal., offered him the situ- ation of cnapel-master at Lisbon, which office he accepted, and where his talents were as much prized as they had been in Sicily and Italy. Perez died in the service of the king of Portugal, aged sixty-seven years, after having resided at Lisbon, much admired and respected, during a period of twenty-seven years. Though wanting in grace, his compositions were valuable from the genius, science, and power displayed in them. Like Handel, Perez. was blind during" the latter years of his life, and when labouring under this severe deprivation, and confined to his bed, he frequently, without the aid of any instrument, dictated compositions in several parts. Besides twelve operas, he left much sacred music, which possesses almost unequalled beauty. [J.M.] PEREZ, Don Antonio, a Spanish statesman, celebrated by the unhappy story of his love for the Princess d'Eboli, mistress of Philip II., and the persecution it brought upon him. He is known also as an historian. Died in poverty at Paris 1611. PEREZ, J., a Spanish writer, 1512-1545. PERGOLA, Angelo De La, one of the most able Ghibeline commanders of Italy, died 1427. PERGOLESI, Giovanni Battista, was born near Naples, about the year 1704, and was educated under Gaetano Greco, and Durante. Having dis- covered that music, previous to his own time, was too much loaded with mere scientific embellishment, he determined to leave the style in which he had been taught, and to adopt the more melodious and simple one of Vinci and Hasse. He composed sev- eral operas, which did not meet with much success. His sacred compositions, however, were duly ap- preciated, and upon these his fame now rests. He died of consumption in 1737, and no sooner was his death made public, than all the cities of Italy, that had paid no attention to his works when he was alive, strove which should do most justice to them when he was dead ; and every person became anxious to possess even the most trifling of his compositions. [J.M.] PERI, J. D., an Italian poet, 17th century. PERIANDER, who is one of the seven reputed sages of Greece, was a tyrant of Corinth, who suc- ceeded his father, Cypselus, B.C. 633, and died with the reputation of an able ruler B.C. 563. He was a man of licentious manners, and, in the latter part of his reign, became a cruel ruler. PERICLES, the greatest of Athenian statesmen, was the son of Xanthippus, the conqueror of My cale, PER niece of the famous Cleisthenes. ami Agsrista The date of b took a share in public business in B.C. 469, we may ahsolute. PER But the boundless influence which lie I lie date of his birth is unknown, but as he first ' had thus acquired was not debased by the promo- ' tion of selfish objects. Averse to the further ex- tension by conquest of the Athenian dominions, he employed himself chiefly in consolidating the empire already acquired, in establishing the surplus popula- tion as additional colonies, and proving, when necessary, by military achievements, which place him high as a commander, that the resources at his disposal were sufficient to maintain the position which he claimed for his country. Believing that the supremacy of Athens rested on her maritime superiority, he bestowed especial care on the navv, and maintained a well-trained fleet in constant readiness for action. But Pericles found a more congenial occupation in cultivating the arts of peace. The public funds, which had been greatly increased by his management, were expended in the erection of those magnificent temples and public buildings which rendered Athens the wonder and admiration of Greece. Architecture and sculp- ture attained to a degree of perfection which modern ages have in vain endeavoured to rival, poetry started into full maturity, and the drama, in the hands of Sophocles, reached the highest excellence. From these peaceful pui'suits Pericles was withdrawn by the Peloponnesian war(B.c.431), which he lived to conduct for the first two years. At the conclusion of the first campaign he delivered the funeral oration in honour of those who had fallen, a speech which, as reported by Thucydides, is one of the most remarkable of all the composi- tions of antiquity. During the following year Athens was visited by the plague, which carried off his two sons, his sister, and most of his intimate friends. In the middle of the succeeding year (b.c. 429) Pericles died of a lingering illness, which was perhaps connected with the epidemic, though not attended by any of its violent symp- toms. [G.F.j PERIER, Casimtr, a statesman of the reign of Louis Philippe, was born at Grenoble 1777, and from 1798 to 1800, or shortly after, served in the French anny. In 1802 he commenced those com- mercial and manufacturing speculations, by which he acquired an immense fortune; in 1816 brought himself into notice by a financial pamphlet, and in 1817 was elected one of the deputies for the Seine. From that period till 1830 he opposed the minis- try, and on the 30th July became minister of the interior. He succeeded Lafitte as head of the government, in March, 1831. Died 1832. PERIER, James Constantine, associated with his brother, Charles, in the famous cannon foundries of Chaillot and Liege, and more lately in the manufacture of steam engines, was born at Paris 1742, and died 1818. He is author of an ' Essay on Steam Engines,' the construction of which he had studied in England. PERIERS, B. De, a French writer, died 1514. PERIGNON, Dominique Catherine, Mar- ?uis De, a peer and marshal of France, was born 754, became a deputy to the legislative assembly 1791, succeeded Dugommier, and distinguished himself at the battle of Escola 1794, ambassador to Madrid 1796, marshal 1804, governor of Parma and Placenza 1806, and successor of Jourdan at Naples 1808, joined the Bourbons, and became a peer after the fall of Napoleon ; died 1818. 577 2P [Pericles— from an Aneitnt Bust.] lpgitimately infer that he was born soon after the beginning of the fifth century B.C. He early gave indications of a mind capable of great achievements, and, following his natural inclinations, spent his youth in retirement, devoting himself to those studies which he felt to be best calculated for fit- ting him to enter upon political life. His rank and fortune opened to him the schools of the most eminent teachers of their respective arts and sciences. He was taught the higher music by Damon, who contributed mainly to train him for his political career; was initiated into the subtleties of the Eleatic school under Zeno, and especially profited by the philosophical teaching of Anaxa- goras, with whom he was long united in intimate friendship. By his intercourse with the last named philosopher, his habits of thought, and also the style and tone of his eloquence, were believed to have been formed; and an abiding effect on his future life was produced by the sublime specula- tions to which he listened. No specimens of his oratory remain to us ; but by the unanimous testi- mony of ancient authors it is admitted to. have been of the highest kind. In the year B.c. 469, two years after the ostracism of Themistocles, and about the time of the death of Aristides, Pericles began to engage in the political movements of the time. His hereditary prepossessions led him to espouse the cause of the people, and hispre-eminent talents, combined with untiring assiduity in public ait'airs, soon placed him at the head of the demo- cratical party, and in opposition to Cimon, who was the acknowledged leader of the aristocracy. From this period till his death, the biography of Pericles is the history of his country. He aimed his first blow at the aristocracy through the coun- cil of the Araeopagus, which, notwithstanding the powerful opposition of Ciinon, he succeeded in depriving of its judicial power, except in incon- siderable cases. This triumph was soon followed by the ostracism of Cimon, an event which for some time left him without a formidable rival. After b.c 444 the power of Pericles was nearly PES Magazine, and finally became sole editor and pro- prietor of the Mmtiing Chronicle. It was at his suggestion that the modern plan of reporting was adopted, by employing a succession of reporters instead of a single one. Died 1821. PERRY, John, an English engineer and travel- ler, au. of ' The Present State of Russia ;' d. 1733. PERSEUS, or PERSES, the last king of Mace- don, was a natural son of Philip V., whom he suc- ceeded B.C. 179. He was vanquished by the Ro- mans B.C. 167, and died in prison at Rome. PERSEUS, Aulus Flaccus, a Roman satirist, who directed his shafts against the general cor- ruption of the times, and died young, 62. PERSIUS, a Roman orator, 2d century B.C. PERTI, J. A., an Italian composer, 1656-1723. PERTINAX, Publius Helvius, the successor of Commodus as emperor of Rome, was the son of a charcoal burner, and was born 126, in the reign of Adrian. He was assas. by the praetorians within three months of his elevation to the throne, 193. PERUGIUS, Pietro, whose family name was Vanucci, is most celebrated as the master of Raphael. He was born at Citta Delia Pieve, near Perugia, 1446 ; and first distinguished himself by a * Descent from the Cross,' painted for the church of Saint Chiara, at Florence, 1485. One of his best pictures is said to be an Infant Christ, in the Albani Palace, at Rome, Died 1524. PERUSE, J. De La, a French poet, 16th cent. PERUZZI, B., an Italian painter, 1481-1536. PESARESE, the surname of Simon Conta- rini, an Italian painter and engraver, 1612-1648. PESCATORE, Giambattista, an Italian poet and senator of Ravenna, died 1558. PESCENNIUS NIGER, Caius, a governor of Syria, proclaimed emperor of Rome at Antioch on the death of Pertinax 193, slain 195. PESSELIER, Charles Stephen, a French dramatic author and poet, 1712-1763. PESTALOZZI, Henry, descended from a family of Italian origin, was bora at Zurich, 12th January, 1745. He was educated for the church, and even commenced preaching, but for some reason abandoned this occupation when about twenty-eight years of age. He then studied for the law, wrote an essay on the Constitution of Sparta, and on discovering the intense selfishness of the profession, bound himself apprentice to a fanner. With the experience thus acquired he spent the remainder of his property in the purchase and cultivation of a piece of land, and for the sake of employing the poor became partner in a cotton mill ; it is probable that he was moved to both these enterprises by the 'iEmilius' of Rous- seau, which afforded him a view of his true calling, and the only one which he could reconcile with his ! benevolent "feelings. He began his career as an t educator on his farm of Neuhof, by admitting ; orphan children into his own house, whom he pro- vided with food, clothing, and education — the PER PERINGSKIOELD, John, professor at Up- nh, h M antiquary to the king of 1720. PERKINS, Elisha, and his son, Benjamin ■fcn physicians, known as advo- • metallic tractors as ■ means of healing, awe famous by the name of Pekkinism ; the lat- ter die.! I PERKINS, William, a minister of the Church of Eug., kn. as a Calvinistic theologian, 1558-1602. TRUNK TTI, Dom Anthony Joseph, a learned French ecclesiastic of the Benedictine order, author of a curious Historical Journal of a voyage to the Falkland Isles, where he accompanied Bougain- ville ; a Dictionary of Painting, Sculpture, and En- S Bring, a Dictionary of Hermetic Philosophy and rthcSogr, and several works on physiognomy and ethnology. He also published a translation of Columella, of Wolff's Mathematics, and of some of Swedenborg's works, 1716-1801. His brother, James, a priest, and historiographer to the city s, 1696-1777. PERON, P., a French naturalist, 1775-1810. PERONI, J., an Italian sculptor, 1627-1663. PEROTTI, N., a Italian grammarian, 1430-80. PEROUSE. See Laperouse. PERPENNA, a Roman general, and partizan of Marina, put to death by Pompey b.c. 74. PERPINIAN, P. J., a Spanish painter and theo- logian, one of the best modern Latinists, d. 1566. PERRAULT, Charles, a French barrister, who became comptroller-general of the royal build- ings, and a member of the Academy, and acquired great celebrity as a literateur and a poet, was born at Paris 1628. He commenced that famous con- troversy concerning the comparative merits of the ancients and moderns, in which Boileau advocated the former and Perrault the latter. His principal work is The Age of Louis XIV. Died 1703. CLAUDS, brother of the preceding, celebrated as an architect, mechanician, and naturalist, flourished 1613-1688. Among his artistic productions are the colonnade of the Louvre, and most of the vases which ornament the gardens of Versailles. The principal of his writings are a Translation of Vi- truvius, Memoirs of the Natural History of Animals, and Medical Essays. Peter, a third brother, wrote on fountains, 1674. Nicholas, a fourth brother, died young in 1661, and left a treatise entitled ' La Morale des Jesuits,' which was published in 1667. PERREAU, J. A., a French writer, 1749-1813. l:EIN, J., a French naturalist, 1750-1805. PERIER. See Dupkkiek. PERRIER, F., a French painter, 1590-1650 PERRIER, F., a French jurist, 1645-1700. PERRIN, A. S., a Frrnch painter, 1761-1832. PERRON. See Dotrbbo*. PERRONNET, Jon EoDOLPH, a celebrated Pranck engineer and bridge builder, 1708-1794 PER ROT, Sis J., a naval officer, died 1592. PERROT D'ABLAN< Oil; i ' Ni< HOLA8, a IV. Helvetic government refusmg to take any cogniz- wi., an. of several classical translations, 1606-64. j ance of his projects. This was in 1775. In 1798, PERRY, James, known as a miscellaneous however, some time after publishing his popular v i iter and journalist, was son of a man of business romance, entitled 'Leonard and Gertrude,' in which at Aberdeen, where he was horn 1756. He came to London 1777, and was employed as a reporter ' .eneral Advertiser and tin- Evening Post. lu 1782 he projected and edited the European he. partly developed his ideas, he was appointed by the Swiss Directory to the charge of a larger number of children who had been left orphans by the French wars. He was allowed the use of a 678 suppressed convent at Stantz, the capital of Under- walden, and being compelled to abandon this by the approach of the French army, was transferred to the canton of Berne, where the chateau of Burgdorf, with its surrounding domain, was placed at his disposal. Pestalozzi availed himself of this opportunity to enlarge his plans, pupils flocked to him who paid for their instruction, and he was able to engage assistants. In 1804, after a tem- porary removal elsewhere, he established himself m the castle of Yverdun, in the canton of Vaud, which, with its surrounding estate, was generously fiven to him by that government. This change ad been rendered necessary by the increase of his pupils, and Yverdun became a normal school, where young men of all nations surrounded the venerable philanthropist, and were instructed in his new system of education. The fame of Pesta- lozzi was widely spread, and his name everywhere honoured. The canton of Zurich nominated him member of the Helvetic Consulta, convened by Buonaparte, and the emperor of Russia graced him with the order of St. Wladimir. He continued at Yverdun till 1825, when he retired to Neuhof, and in 1826 was named president of the Helvetic Society of Olten. Meantime, indeed, for some years past, the institution of Yverdun had been foing to ruin, and soon after the retirement of 'estalozzi, his successor, M. Schmidt, was ordered to leave the country. The works of this great benefactor are 'Leonard and Gertrude,' already mentioned, ' How Gertrude Instructs her Children,' 1 Researches on the Course of Nature in the Edu- cation of the Human Race,' ' Elementary Educa- tion,' and several others, developing his plan of instruction by objects, the essential principle of which is the drawing forth of the internal faculties. Whatever maybe thought of his system as a whole, the present generation is deeply indebted to Pesta- lozzi for the fresher thoughts and experiments which his plans suggested. It is his grand dis- tinction to be among the first benefactors of the poor — the first to claim for their squalid children the full advantage of all that is impressive in art and beautiful in nature — the first to share his bread with them, and to dwell amongst them, as a {)oor man himself, in order, as he expresses it, that le might ' Teach those harassed with poverty to live as men.' [E.R.] PET PESTALOZZI, J. J., a physician and profes- sional writer at Lyons, 1674-1742. Anthony Joseph, probably his son, a physician, 1703-1779. PESTEL, F. W., a German jurist, 1724-1805. PETAN, Paul, a chronologist and antiquarian, flourished at Orleans, 1568-1614. His great- nephew, Denis, commonly called Petavhts, one of the most learned chronologists of his age, 1583 -1652. PETAVIUS, Dionysius. See Petan. PETER, the Apostle, whose name was ori- ginally Simon, was born at Betlisaida, in Galilee, and was about forty years of age when he became a follower of our Lord. He is supposed to have suffered martyrdom at Rome, along with Paul, 65. PETER, the name of five saints of Rome : — 1. A bishop of Alexandria, martyred 311 under Maximums. 2. Peter, surnamed Chn/sologus, an Italian prelate, author of Sermons and Homilies, died 452. 3. An archbishop of Tarentaise, died 1174. 4. Peter Nolasque, founder of the order for the redemption of Christian slaves from the infidels, entitled 'The Confraternity of Mercy,' died 1256. 5. Peter of Alcantara, a Fran- ciscan friar, 1499-1562. PETER I., emperor of Russia (next article.) Peter II., son of Alexis Petrowitz and the Prin- cess Charlotte of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel, born 1715, succeeded Catharine I. 1727, died 1730. Peter III., son of Anne, eldest daughter of Peter I. and of Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein Got- torp, born 1728, was created grand duke by his sister, Elizabeth, 1742, and succeeded her 1762. He was put to death the same year by his wife, Catharine, who succeeded him as Catharine II. PETER THE FIRST, czar of Russia, was born May 30, 1672. He is usually called Peter the Great, nor can the epithet be justly denied to the man who gave his country sea ports, commerce, fleets, and manufactures, arts, and educational insti- tutions ; and who changed the despised and barba- rous Muscovy, which our ancestors spoke of as we now speak of Timbuctoo, into the Russia whose am- bitious schemes and preponderating force all the world now anxiously watches. Moreover, the exploits which Peter achieved, were mainly due to his own innate strength of character, and not to the fa- vourable coincidence of circumstances. If it be true that the secret of greatness lies in energy of the will, in resolute endurance, and in self-sacrifice, there are few historical personages in whom its elements have been more strongly developed than in the imperial organizer of the Russian power. Peter succeeded to the crown of Russia at the age often; but his half-sister Sophia, who held the regency, strove not only to keep him as long as possible from the exercise of power, but to render him unfit for it, by giving him a purposely defec- tive education, and by placing in his way, as he grew up, every temptation to idleness and sensu- i ality. Much of the coarseness, the vice, and the savage violence which deformed Peter's career in after life, may be traced to the taints thus early given to his moral system ; the spirit must have been surpassingly strong and self-relying that could rise to any greatness in manhood, after a boy- hood and early youth of such neglect and corrup- tion. In 1689 Peter emancipated himself from the regent's domination, and took the reins of govern- ment into his own hands. He strove hard to repair PET :s of his education ; ho acquired, almost entirely by self-teaching, a knowledge of several foreign' languages; be studied earnestly the me- chanical arts, especially Booh as related to ship- building; his darling object being to give Russia sbips and commerce, though, when he began his the possessed no sea- port except that of Archangel in the northern sea. He endeavoured also to form a body of troops on the model of the armies of the civilized nations of western Europe. He exercised them in hostilities against the Turks and Tartars on his south-eastern frontier, during which he gained the important city of Azoph. In 1G97, having provided tor the safety of his empire, and left troops under the command of the best of the foreign officers who had aided him in his re- forms, so as to curb any reactionary movements of the discontented part of bis subjects, Peter travelled as a private person through Germany, Holland, and England. He laboured hard to improve his knowledge of ship-building, and other useful parts of practical knowledge. To do this the more effectu- ally he worked with his own hands as a common shipwright in the dockyard at Amsterdam, and [Houm in which Peter lived at Zaandam.] afterwards in the English yard at Deptford. Dur- absence from Russia the Strefitzes (the old Muscovite soldiers) mutinied, but were put down by General Gordon, whom Peter had left in command of his new troops. Peter hurried back to Russia, and punished the mutineers with frightful cruelty. He now proceeded with renewed vehemence in the changes of manners and dress, as well as the introduction of useful arts, which he forced upon his barbarous subjects. In his zeal to do good he was too frequently injudicious in choosing times and seasons for the work ; and the least show of opposition irritated him into ferocity, which was fearfully aggravated by the habit of drunkenness, which he had acquired during his neglected youth, and from which he never set himself free. In 1700 the war between him and Charles XII. of Sweden commenced. At first the Swedes always defeated the Russians ; but Peter was not disheartened. He recruited his armies; improved their discipline, and foretold that in the long run the Swedes would teach them how to win. Charles XII. ne- glected the coast of the Baltic ; and Peter took advantage of this to pour troops into Ingria, Care- on, Livonia, and Esthonia. In 1702 be laid PET the foundation of St. Petersburg on the Neva. Not less than 100,000 lives are said to have been sacrificed in raising the future capital of Russia among the swamps, where Peter ordered its erec- tion, and where, with characteristic pertinacity of purpose and indifference to human suffering, he urged on the completion of the work, though made avTare of its perils and difficulties. In 1709 he defeated Charles XII. in the decisive battle ot Pultowa ; and when the war between Sweden and Russia was ended, by the peace of Nystadt in 1721, Russia gained as part of her dominions, Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia. Her empire was now firmly planted along the coast of the Baltic ; and her in- fluence upon Poland, and other eastern countries of Europe, Christendom, was developing itself into paramount ascendancy. Peter was less fortunate in his wars against the Turks. In his campaign on the Pruth in 1711, his army was surrounded by the enemy ; and he was only saved by the dexterity of his empress, Catharine, who was with him, and who succeeded in either bribing or persuading the Grand Vizier of the Turks into a negotiation, by which the Russian army was permitted to retire, and peace was restored, though at the price of the restoration of Azoph. In his family Peter ex- perienced heavy sorrows. His first marriage pro- duced mutual unhappiness; and his eldest son, Alexis, thwarted all his projects, and connected himself with the disaffected party, who wished to abolish all Peter's reforms and restore the old Muscovite fashions. Peter compelled his son to renounce all claim to the succession ; and tried him before a high court, which condemned him to death. Two days after this, Alexis died in prison. It was said that he sickened when sentenced, and that his illness was natural ; but the tine manner of his death is a mystery. Peter's second and favourite wife, Catharine, was a Livonian peasant girl, who married a Swedish soldier, and became a prisoner of war to Peter's favourite general, Men- zikoff. Menzikoff made her his mistress, but Peter saw her and fell in love with her, and took her as his own. Seven years afterwards (in 1711) he married her; and she ruled Russia as empress after his death. Peter died in 1725. It is easy to collect anecdotes of coarse debauchery, of almost frantic cruelty, and injudicious obstinacy from the acts of his long reign. But, to estimate him fairly, he and his deeds must be taken for all in all, and their grand result upon his country's fortunes must be considered. Nor must the debasing disadvan- tages of his early education be ever forgotten by those who sit in judgment on his character as a ruler and a man. His last words were, ' I trust that in respect of the good I have striven to do my people, God will pardon my sins.' [E.S.C.J PETER, king of Castile, surnamed the Cruel, born 1334, succeeded his father, Alphonso XL, 1350, assassinated, after a cruel reign, by Henry, his natural brother, 1369. PETER I., king of Arragon, or Pedro, as King ol Navarre, reigned 1094-1104. Peter II., succeeded bis father, Alphonso II., 119G; having put himself at the head of the Albigenses, he was defeated and killed at the battle of Muret, gained by Simon de Montfort, 1212. Peter III., born 1239, succeeded his father, James I., 1276, and inherited the kingdom of Sicily by his marriage PET with Constance, daughter of Manfred. He took an active part in the expulsion of the French, and was crowned in Sicily, after the massacre of the Sicilian vespers, 1282 ; died 1285, after sustaining, gloriously, a war with Charles of Anjou and Philip of France. Peter IV., born 1319, succeeded his father, Alphonso IV., 1336, died, after a fruitless war for the sovereignty of Castile, 1387. PETER I., king of Sicily, same as Peter III. of Arragon. Peter II., son of Frederick I., was crowned 1321, during the lifetime of his father, und succeeded him 1337, died 1342. PETER I., king of Portugal, horn 1320, suc- ceeded his father, Alphonso IV., 1357 ; died, after a beneficent reign, 1367. This prince was secretly married to Inez de Castro, who was murdered by order of his father 1339. Peter II., second son of John IV., bom 1648, became regent after the fall of his brother, Alphonso VI., 1667, compelled Spain to recognize the independence of Portugal 1668. On the death of Alphonso, 1683, he re- ceived the title of king ; died, while effecting the conquest of Estramadura, 1706. PETER, king of Hungary, reigned 1038-1047. PETER I., king of the Bulgarians, succeeded his father 927. His reign was troubled with in- ternal dissensions, and wars with the Russians and Greeks ; died 970. Peter II., obtained the royal power, in association with his brother, Asan, 1186, and they were both slain about 1195. PETER I., king of Cyprus and Jerusalem, succeeded his father, Hugh IV., 1361, and was assassinated 1367. Peter II., son and successor Clermont, and making an eloquent appeal to the of the preceding, died 1382. assembly, was frequently interrupted by their ac- PETER I., duke of Brittany, succeeded by his clamations. He was acknowledged chief of the marriage with Alix, daughter of Guy, 1212, and, crusade, and ordered that every one engaged in it after her death in 1221, became chief of the league should wear a cross of red stuff. Peter, mean- of the great vassals against Blanche of Castile, while, collected a vast body of adventurers, esti- He went to Palestine 1240, accompanied Louis | mated at a hundred thousand souls, from the IX. to Egypt 1248, and died on the voyage home, j borders of France and Lorraine, and while God- Peter ft., second son of John VI., succeeded his j frey of Bouillon mustered those of higher rank in brother, Francis I., 1450, died 1457. a more soldierlike and deliberate manner, pro- PETER, count of Savoy, surnamed • the Little I ceeded with this fanatic crowd, by way of the Charlemagne,' succeeded his father, 1263, d. 1268. Rhine and Danube to the East. Ignorant of the PET became a professor of religion, and devoted his days to solitude and austere practices. About 1095 he was led by the prevalent feeling of the age to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, then in possession of the Turks, and was deeply im- pressed by the profanation of the holy places, the indignities suffered by the pilgrims, and the general oppression to which the Christian inhabi- tants of the East were then subject. The same feeling was universal throughout Christendom, and the popes had long cherished the design of an ex- pedition against the Mahommedans, which it only required the enthusiasm of a man like Peter the Hermit to render practicable. Urban II. received him as a prophet, and authorized his mission. He now traversed the greater part of continental Europe, riding on an ass, his head and feet bare, his body clothed with the coarse garment of a hermit, girded round the waist with a rope, and bearing a ueavy crucifix in his hand. To under- stand his success, we must take into account the poverty of the masses, and the alluring prospect of a residence in Eastern lands, the scenes of which were painted in glowing colours by the apostle of the holy war. Thousands of outcasts had always been ready to follow the princes in their maraud- ing expeditions or political wars, and how much more in a war which enlisted the highest sym- pathies of their nature in its behalf, which re- ceived the sanction of the ministers of religion, and was regarded as the will of God ! The pope summoned a council, which met at Placenza and PETER of Alcantara. See above (Saints.) PETER of St. Andrew, a theologian, philo- sopher, and hist, of the Carmelite order, 1624-71. PETER of Blois, an ecclesiastic who settled in England in the reign of Henry II., and is esteemed one of the most learned men of his age, died about 1200. PETER CHRYSOLOGUS. See above (Saints.) PETER of Clugny, an abbot of that monas- tery, called also Peter the Venf^able, and by his proper name Peter Maurice, a distinguished theologian and Latin poet. He was born 1092 or 1094, became abbot after Hugh II. in 1122 or 1123, and in 1140 gave shelter to the unfortunate Abelard, and interceded for him at Rome. Died 1156. His works were published in 1522. PETER of Cottona, a name by which the Italian painter, F. Berettini, is known, 1596-1669. route, and without the means of subsistence, it fearful to contemplate the disorders and sufferings of such a march. About a third part reached the mountains of Thrace, and Peter himself took refuge in Constantinople, where he awaited the coming of Godfrey ot Bouillon. At the same time he induced the emperor Alexis to send troops in aid of his followers, about three or four thousand of whom were rescued. Peter accompanied the army of Godfrey, and was present at the storm- ing of Antioch, and before the capture of Jerusa- lem addressed the crusaders on the Mount of Olives. He then acted a short time as vicar- general for the patriarch of the holy city — the Jesuit Outreman says, as viceroy. The latter part of his life, like the commencement, is wrapt in ob- scurity. It is not known when he returned to Europe, but he died in a monastery he had founded PETER THE HERMIT, preacher and leader in the diocese of Liege, 1115. The movement he of the first crusade, was born in the eleventh century, and was first known as an officer in the army of the counts of Boulogne, serving in Flanders, about the year 1071. After this he Eassed some years in the quiet of domestic life, ad several children, and on the death of his wife had commenced continued to agitate Europe for nearly two centuries, and its general effect upon the march of civilization may be pronounced almost incalculable. [E.R-1 PETER of St. Louis, a French ecclesiastic of the Carmelite order, kn. as a poet, about 1C2G-84. 581 PET PET PKTFR MAURICE. See Peter of Clugny. ^tained his position as mayor of Paris, after tlie PETER NOLASQUE. See above (Saints.) PETER of Sicily, a political negotiator in victory of the Marseillaise on the 10th of August, and the dreadful massacres of September, but . e of the emperor Basil in 870. He wrote , found it impossible to prevent the excesses on of the Manicha?ans, published 1604 that occasion. Returned to the National Conven- PETER mi. \ bM.KABi.E. See P. of Clugny. j tion, he was unanimously elected its first presi PETERBOROUGH, earl of. See Mordaunt. dent, and voted for the king's death, but pro 'ETERKIX, Alexander., son of a^ Scottish minister, and known of late years as a miscellane- r, was bora in 1781. He was educated as a solicitor, and, in 1843, was engaged pro- fessionally for the Strathbogie clergymen— in the straggle which led to the disruption in the Scot- tish national church. Died 1846. PETERS, Boxa ventura, a Flemish painter, famous for his storms and shipping, 1614-1615. Jons, his brother and pupil, 1625-1677. PETERS, C, a German painter, 1808-1830. PETERS, C, a learned Eng. divine, died 1777. PETERS, F. L., a Flemish painter, 1606-1654. PETE RS, G., a Dutch painter, born 1580. PETERS, High, an English Jesuit, known as the counsellor and confessor of James II. PETERS, Hugh, a disreputable character who connected himself with the English republican party as a pamphleteer and pulpit demagogue. He was born in Cornwall 1599, educated at Cam- bridge, and figured successively as an actor, a minister in the Church of England, and a preacher among the independents. Executed 1660. PETERS, William, a minister of the Church of England, best known as an artist, died 1814. PE 1'ERSEN, H., a Swiss minister, died 1820. PETERSEN, John William, bora at Osna- burg 1649, and pastor at Hanover, became cele- brated about 1692 for his prophetic announcements. He was then deposed, and died in obscurity. His wife, Jeanne Eleanora de Merlan, partook in his enthusiasm, and pnblished his life. PETERSEN, P. N., a Ger. musician, 1761-1830. PETHION DE VILLENEUVE, Jerome, a Girondist leader of the French revolution, was the son of an attorney at Chartres, and was himself an advocate when chosen deputy to the Tiers Etat of the Estates-General. His character placed him in a political situation between the Girondists and Jacooins, but his political and philosophical creed was the same as Brissot's, and he held it sincerely and implacably. He was one of the most zealous parties to the propagation of the ' Rights of Man ' as the basis of a constitution, and it was at his instance that the Jacobin Club was reorganized — which led to the foundation of the Cordeliers, and the separation of the more violent members. The nation at this time was with the moderate uid the influence of Lafayette was only just on the wane. Pethion profited by it, as one of the most practical men in his party, and was successively president of the National Assembly, president of the Criminal Tribunal, and mayor of Paris. In the latter function he succeeded Bailly, November, 1791, and polled twice as many votes as Lafayette. On the famous 20th of June, 1792, when the mob of Paris compelled the king to put on the red cap, Pethion and Louis nounced in favour of delay. From this time he was identified with the Girondists by the followers of Robespierre, and included in the proscription of that body on the 31st of May, 1793. He was among the few who escaped the guillotine to meet a more miserable fate. Having fled with Buzot and Salles to the department of Calvados, they made a fruitless attempt to raise the populace, and were obliged to hide in the woods. Whether they put an end to their own existence, or were starved to death, is not known, but the remains of Buzot and Pethion were found by the gleaners in a corn-field gnawed by wolves. [E.R.] PETION, Alexander Salies, president of the republic of Hayti, was a man of colour, born free at Port-au-Prince, 1770, and educated at the military school of Paris. He served with distinc- tion in the French army, and after the expulsion of the English, was an active party in the civil wars of the island. In 1804 Dessalines became chief of the infant republic, and having made him- self emperor, was killed in Octoher, 1806. His successor was Christophe, who also assumed the kingly title, and it was against this latter that Petion obtained his most signal victory on the 1st of January, 1808, a year after his own election as president. This success fully established his authority as chief of the republic, and he retained the presidency till his death in 1818, when he was succeeded by his friend General Boyer. PETIS, Francis, a learned French Orientalist and historian, 1622-1695. His son, Francis Petis De La Croix, like him, a great Oriental scholar, but also a traveller in the East, and his successor as royal interpreter, 1653-1713. A. L. Marie, son of the latter, professor of Arabic in the Royal College, 1698-175*1. PETIT, A., a French medical writer, 1718-94. PETIT, A. T., a French physician and writer on experimental philosophy, 1791-1820. PETIT, F. P. Dv, aFr. naturalist, 1664-1741. PETIT, Jean Louis, a celebrated French sur- geon, born at Paris on the 13th of March, 1674, and died in that city on the 20th of April, 1750, aged 76. Petit enjoyed a deservedly great reputa- tion during his lifetime, and was undoubtedly one of the founders of modern French surgery. He was remarkable for his professional enthusiasm and industry ; and his writings are still held in high es- timation. The first edition of his work on the Bones, was published at Paris, in 12mo, in 1705 ; but, in 1758, it was enlarged to two volumes. His treatise on Surgical Diseases was a posthumous work, and was published by his pupil, Dr. Lesne, in 1774, twenty- tour years after the author's death. [J.M'C] PETIT, M., an advent, traveller, died 1815. PETIT, M. A., a French surgeon, 1766-1811. PETIT, P., a physician, distinguished as a writer exchanged anery words ; the next day, however, I on physiology, and Latin poet, 1617-1687. the mayor addressed a proclamation to the people j PETIT, P., a dist. mathematician, 1594-1677 calling upon them to defend the constitution and the king, and to respect his person. He main- 662 PETIT, S., a philologist and theolog., 1594-1643. PETIT-DIDIER, Matthew, a learned French PET prelate, a great friend and advocate of ultramon- tanism, and author of critical, historical, and chronological dissertations on the Scriptures, 1659-1728. His brother, John Joseph, a Jesuit and theologian, 1664-1756. PETIT-YHOUARS, Albert Du, a French botanist, author of ' Botanic Miscellanies,' d. 1831. PETITOT, Cl. B., director-general of the Paris university, author of several tragedies and trans- lations, 1772-1825. PETITOT, John, a famous enameller and miniature painter, born at Geneva 1G07, died 1691. PETIT-PIED, Nicholas, a learned French canonist, about 1630-1705. His nephew, of the same name, a doctor of the Sorbonne, and a very voluminous wr. in favour of Jansenism, 1665-1747. PETIT-RADEL, L. F., a distinguished French architect, 1740-1818. His brother, Philip, a surgeon and Hellenist, 1749-1815. A third bro- ther, L. C. FRANCIS, an archaeologist, 1756-1836. PETiTZ, J. Raimond De, author of a 'Lib- rary of Amateur Artists,' about 1715-1780. PETIVER, Jas., surgeon to the Charter House, London, distinguished as a botanical wr., d. 1718. PETlLEUSrT., a Danish Orientalist, d. 1673. PETRARCH, Francesco, was born at Arezzo in Tuscany in 1304. His father, a Florentine notary, had been exiled two years before, in the same disturbance which drove out the poet Dante ; and he soon left Italy for Avignon, where the papal court then resided. The son was educated there and at Montpellier, and then sent to study law at Bo- logna. Though Petrarch certainly loved the Mneid more than the Pandects, and copied ancient manu- scripts more willingly than law papers, yet the sub- sequent course of his public life proves that he did not neglect professional pursuits, and that he pre- pared himself for being a useful man of business. Returning to Avignon soon after he became of age, he found himself in possession of a small inherit- ance, and indulged for some years in an alterna- tion of classical studies and political composition, with such gaiety (sombre, perhaps, but not the jnore pure on that account) as the clerical court offered. In the year 1327 he conceived an attach- ment to an Avignonese lady, young but already married. His attentions to her were treated much as a matter of course; the admirer was cer- tainly never admitted even to the most innocent stage of modern cicisbeism : there appears to have been at no time much intercourse between the parties; and we do not know with certainty so much as the lady's real name. She became fa- mous in her lifetime, and is still celebrated, as the ' Laura ' of the verses in which Petrarch sang her praises: but his passion does seem to have been little more than a flight of imaginative sentiment, remarkable only for the length of its endurance, and for the genius of the person by whom it was entertained. About 1338 he retired for two or three years to dwell in the beautiful valley of Vaucluse, near Avignon. He himself said that his withdrawal to the retreat which he immortalized, was caused by no reason more senti- mental or poetic than his disgust with the licen- tiousness of the papal court, and the disappoint- ment of the hopes of preferment which the pope had held out to him. Long before this time his talents and accomplishments had procured for him PET not only distinguished patronage, but frequent and active employment. He now speedily quitted Vaucluse for Italy, where he became the confi- dential friend and diplomatic agent of several sovereigns, and skilfully executed missions not only in Italy, but in France and Germany. Though he never took orders, his employers re- warded him bv ecclesiastical benefices in the north of Italy; and his longest residences were at Parma, Milan, Padua, and Venice. In 1370, when his health was already failing, through attacks of pal- pitation and epilepsy, he left Padua for the neigh- bouring village of Arqua, seated among the lovely Euganean Hills. There he built a house, still preserved, but was hardlv ever free from illness till his death in 1374. — Petrarch, whose life was thus active, is immortal in the history of literature in virtue of more claims than one. He is placed as one of the most celebrated of poets in right of his ' Rime,' that is, verses in the modem Italian tongue, of which he was one of the earliest culti- vators and refiners. Celebrating in these his visionary love, he modelled the Italian sonnet, and gave to it, and to other forms of lyrical poetry, not only an admirable polish of diction and melody, but a delicacy of poetic feeling which has hardly ever been equalled, and a play of rich fancy which, if it often degenerates into false wit, is as often delightfully and purely beautiful. But, though Petrarch's Sonnets, and Canzoni, and ' Triumphs,' could all be forgotten, he would still be honoured as one of the benefactors of European civilization. No one but Boccaccio shares with him the glory of having been the chief restorer of classical learning. He was himself a voluminous Latin writer, both in prose and verse; and his fame as a poet in his own day, and his coronation in the Roman capitol in 1341, rested on his celebration of the second Punic war in his epic poem 'Africa.' But his greatest merit lay in his having recalled attention to the higher and more correct classical authors ; [Tomb of Pelrarch.] in his having been an enthusiastic and successful agent in reviving the study of the Greek tongue ; and in his having been, in his travels and other- wise, an indefatigable collector and preserver of 683 PET ancient manuscripts. To his care we owe copies :1 classical works, which, but lor him, would, in all likelihood, have perished. [W.S.] PBTBE, Sir William, a chancery clerk, em- fli.vtd in the visitation of the monasteries by Kurv VIII., for which he received a grant of iids and knighthood, died 1572. PETRI, B., a professor of Brabant, died 1630. PETRI, C, a Danish divine, 16th century. PETRI, Si 1 1 kid, historiographer of the states of Friesland, secretary to Cardinal Granvella, fpm William I. of Nassau), and professor of law at Cologne, author of historical and philologi- cal works, died 1597. PETRI, or PETERSON, Laurence, one of the three principal Swedish reformers, first pro- ttrstant bishop of Upsala, and a theological writer, 1199-1573. His brother, Olave, also a reformer, whose vehement addresses almost produced a civil war, author of 'Memoirs,' 1497-1562. A third of the name, Jonas Petbi, bishop of Linkoping in the 17th century, was author of a Latin and Swedish dictionary, published 1640. I'ETROF, Wassilj Petrowitsch, a famous Russian poet and philologist, appointed her reader and councillor of state by Catharine, 1736-1799. PETRONL R., an Italian cardinal, died 1314. PETRONIUS, Titus, called 'Petronius Arbi- ter,' a favourite of Nero, and supposed author of a fragment entitled ' Satiricon,' died 66. PETRUCCI, Pandolph, a citizen of Sienna who obtained the sovereign power, and died 1512. PETTUS, Sir John, a member of parliament, and deputy-governor of the royal mines, author of some professional and other works, died abt. 1690. PETTY, Sir William, son of a clothier in Hampshire, and founder of the Lansdowne family, was born 1623, and being educated as a physician, became, in 1660, professor of anatomy at Oxford. His talents, however, were of the most versatile description, and he had the happy gift of turning them to some practical account in every way that promised to be a source of emolument ; not satis- fied with teaching anatomy and chemistry, he became Gresham professor of music ; and as to in- ventions, a copying machine to write two letters at once, and a double-bottomed ship to sail against wind and tide, show what he was capable of. In 10.",2 he was appointed physician to the army in Ireland, to which he added the office of contractor for surveying the forfeited lands, one of the corn- er! for their division, clerk to the council, and secretary to the lord-lieutenant, Henry Crom- well. With the wealth thus amassed, he became . In carrying out so many and extensive works, 685 Phidias must necessarily have had many assistants. bolarswarc Agoi-an-itus, Alcamcnes, Such were his assistants probably in M ulptures of the Parthenon, now in this country, and known as the EhjOO marbles; brought from Atliens by Lord Elgin in 1803, and d by the British government in 1816. We have in these wonderful works adequate testimony of the deserved reputation of Phidias, and quite sufficient to show that the arts of Greece, at least of the time of Pericles, cannot be too highly L We have in these marbles the best expo- sition of the ideal, and a perfect illustration of the ■rthotic element of style as distinct, from mere representation or imitation. The so-called Theseus, the Ilissus, the Metopes, and the Panathenaic frieze all exhibit the most perfect ideality of form, at the same time of a grand generic character. The ideal or generic development of these sculptures can only have resulted from the long experience of centuries, or from extraordinary circumstances, but partly lrom the combination of both. All healthy object to similar exercise, would most pro- bably assume much the same character : the atnle- ■s of the Greeks, common and popular, gave ists such opportunities of viewing the naked form in all its perfection, that the general excel- lence of their sculpture is not surprising. In the Elgin marbles we have doubtless all the several beauties of the athlete combined in the individual, yet so modified as altogether to obviate the sense of any special individuality, leaving only the im- pression of the perfect human form, illustrating its general attributes themselves in all their wonder- ful versatility and perfection, without suggesting for a moment the notion of a limited individual SC quality; always excepting when such special limit or quality is not the specific object of the individual representation, as in the Farnese Hercules, the type of muscular strength. This is the ideal in its general and special development, and which we find invariably well illustrated in Greek sculpture, but nowhere with more refined grandeur than in the works of Phidias, as exempli- fied in the invaluable Elgin marbles. — (Miiller, Life and Works of Phidias de Phidiee vita et operibm &c, Gottingen, 1827. A very full account of Phi- dias and his works may be found in the Dictionary of Greek and Human Biography, edited by Dr. Smith.) [R.N.W.] :1IL ASTER, an Italian prelate, 4th century. PHILES, Mamki,, a Greek poet, 14th century. PHILELPHU8, Francis, a celebrated Italian philologist and state secretary, 1398-1481. m.K.MON, a Greek poet, 4th century B.C. PHILEMON, a Greek grammarian, 12th cent. PHILIBEIiT, the frst of the name, duke of Savoy, succeeded his father, Amadeus IX., 1472, _'. i he second, bucceeded his father, Philip II., 1497, died 1604. PH1LIBERT-EKAN UEL, son of Charles Ema- nuel, duke of Savoy, grand prior of Castile and Leon, and grand admiral of Spain, died 1624. PHILIDOB. Asdhe, born at Dreux in 1726, was the son of a musician, whose real name was Mi« mi. IIankan, but who, for the excellence of his performances upon the hautboy was named Phihdor by the king of France. The young Andre, in childhood, entered as page in the" band of the PHI king of France, then under the direction of the chapel-master Cainpra. After having left the situ- ation of page, Phihdor settled in Paris, where he supported himself from his income as teacher and copier of music. Besides his musical talent, he had gained such a reputation as a chess player, that he was induced to travel; accordingly, in the year 1745, he left Paris for Holland, German v, England, &c. During his travels he greatly improved his musical taste. In 1753 he was in England, when he set Dryden's Ode to St. Cecilia to music. He had while here devoted his atten- tion principally to chess ; and he gained extended fame from having published his analysis of the game, which is still referred to as an authority. On his return to France, in 1754, he again resumed his musical studies, and produced music to a dra- matic piece, which was performed with great suc- cess in 1759. This work laid the foundation of his musical reputation. Philidor, along with Duni and Monsigny, is regarded as one of the founders of the modern French comic opera. After having pro- duced about twenty operas at the Opera Comique, he came to London in the year 1779, where he pro- duced the music to Horace's 'Carmen Seculare/ which is esteemed as his best work. He died in London in 1795. [J»M.] PHILIP, the name of three saints : — 1. The apostle, who is supposed to have preached in Phrygia, and died at an advanced age. 2. The deacon chosen by the apostles who preached at Csesarea, where he received Saint Paul 58, died 70. 3. Philip of Neri, an Italian ecclesiastic, foun- der of the oratory, &c, 1515-1595. PHILIP, son of Herod the Great and of a wo- man named Cleopatra, obtained from Augustus the rank of tetrarch, and governed his states with great wisdom from b.c. 4 to a.d. 33. After his death his states were reunited to Syria. PHILIP, king of Syria, son of Antiochus VIII., dethroned by Tigranes B.C. 80, died 57. PHILIP I., king of Macedon, reigned in that obscure period of its history when it was regarded as a barbarian territory by the Greek states, about B.C. 400. Nothing worthy of notice is recorded of him. Philip II., see next article. Philip III., a natural son of Philip II., reigned seven years after the death of Alexander the Great, and was killed by order of Olympias 316 b.c. He is called Philip Arrhidaeus. Philip IV., succeeded his father Cassander on the throne of Macedon b.c. 296, and died 295. Philip V., son of De- metrius III., succeeded at the age of three years, B.C. 233, his uncle, Antigonus Doson, being guardian. After the battle of Canna? he entered into a treaty with Hannibal, and thus brought the Romans upon the stage of Grecian affairs. He was totally defeated 197, and though he obtained reasonable terms, left the struggle to his son Per- seus. Died b.c. 179. PHILIP II., by whose valour and genius the little state of Macedon was raised to the supremacy over all Greece, was the third son of Amyntas, and was born in 383 or 382 b.c. He succeeded his elder brother, Perdiccas, in the first place as guardian of his infant son, but soon after as sovereign, in the twenty-third year of his age, B.C. 360 ; the existence of rival claimants to the crown, and the exterior evils with which the state was 536 PHI threatened, rendering his usurpation, if it may he called so, acceptable to the whole people. Pnilip had been detained at Thebes as a hostage from his fifteenth to his eighteenth year, and was thoroughly versed in the tactics of Epaminondas, with whose father he had lodged ; besides which, his brother, Perdiccas, had intrusted him with a government in Macedonia, and had allowed him to organize troops. His chief military arm was the after- wards famous Macedonian phalanx, a force or- ganized by himself — the materials he drew upon being a mountain peasantry accustomed to poverty and toil, without cities or even fixed habitations to render peace more desirable than war to them. Athens and Thebes had reached their highest vigour when Philip came to the throne, but the latter had lost her presiding genius in Epaminondas, and the former was seriously weakened by the ' social war ' which now broke out, and which raged from 358 to 355 b.c. Philip took advantage of this troubled period to possess himself of Amphi- polis, which gave him access to the gold mines of Mount Pangaeus, soon a source of immense revenue to him, and the reason of his founding the new town of PhilippL The 'sacred war' earned on by the Amphictyonic council against the Phocians, gave the Macedonians another great opportunity for stepping in as armed arbitrators, and with the steady purpose in view of humbling the power of Thebes and Athens. After the capture of Methone — the last possession of the Athenians on the Macedonian coast — between 354 and 352, Philip marched into Thessaly at the head of 20,000 men, gave himself out as the champion of Delphi, and adorned his soldiers with laurel, which they plucked in the vale of Tempe. He was now joined try the famous Thessalian cavalry, and having become master of Thessaly in 352, he endeavoured to force the pass of Thermopylae, but was repulsed by the Athenians ; Philip, however, compensated himself by equipping a navy to harass the Athenian commerce. From 349 to 347 he became victor in the Olynthian war, which made him complete master of the Chalcidian peninsula and doubled his power. The terror of his name provoked the 4 Philippics ' of Demosthenes, who endeavoured to rouse the people of Athens to form a general league against him — instead of which, each party in the sacred or Phocian war was anxious to ob- tain his succour against the others. This state of things led to embassages, the members of which, with the exception of Demosthenes, were cajoled or bribed by Philip into a shameful peace, which in 346 left him master of the Phocian cities, of the pass of Thermopylae, and in the position of general to the Amphictyon council. In the latter capacity he was really the crowned protector of the Grecian faith, and in the spirit proper to his office he at once marched into Greece, hut instead of acting against the profane Locians, he seized the city of Elatea, and began to fortify it. Demos- thenes now exerted all his eloquence and states- manship to raise the ancient spirit of Grecian in- dependence, and a powerful army was soon in the field, but being without able or patriotic com- manders was defeated at the decisive battle of Chaeroneia in August, 338 B.C. After this last struggle for freedom, Philip was acknowledged chief of the whole Hellenic world by all the states except PHI Sparta, and in 337 he summoned a congress at Corinth to organize an expedition against Persia. While preparing for this enterprise he repudiated his wife, Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great. and the same year espoused Cleopatra, niece of Attains, who bore him a son, looked upon as the rival of Alexander in the succession. These cir- cumstances led to dissensions at court, and in the year 336 b.o. to the death of Philip, who was murdered at the instigation of Olympias while engaged in a religious festival. He had several other wives or mistresses, and was addicted to intemperance; but as a king, for political and military genius, for persuasive eloquence, the gen- eral spirit of humanity, and for courage in the field, the name of Philip of Macedon may vie with any in history. At the time of his death the first division of his army had passed into Asia under the conduct of Attalus, and the young Alexander had already distinguished himself M commander of one wing of his army at the battle of Chaeroneia. [E.R.] PHILIP, emperor of Rome, was born in Arabia about 204, and having entered into the military service of the Romans, became prastorian praefect 243. The emperor Gordian was compelled to re- ceive him as a colleague on the throne by the army which had conquered Sapor, king of Persia ; and in the following year, 244, Philip assumed the whole authority by putting his rival to death. He was killed in battle by the soldiers of Decius 249. PHILIP, emperor of Germany, was the second son of Frederick Barbarossa. He was bom 1178, became king of Suabia and Tuscany after the death of his father 1190, and emperor after the death of his brother, Henry VI., 1198. He was assassinated 1208, and succeeded by Otho IV. PHILIP I., king of France, son of Henry I. and Anne of Russia, was born 1052, and succeeded to the throne under the guardianship of Baldwin V., count of Flanders, 1060, died, after a troubled reign, mixed up with the affairs of William the Conqueror, 1108. Philip IL, surnamed Augus- tus, son of Louis VII. and of Alix, daughter of Thibault, count of Champagne, was born 1165, suc- ceeded his father 1180, accompanied Richard Cceur de Lion to the Holy Land 1190, invaded Nor- mandy during Richard's captivity 1193, confiscated the possessions of King John in France, after the supposed murder of Arthur, 1203, prepared to in- vade England at the instance of the pope 1213, turned his arms against Flanders and gained the celebrated battle of Bouvines 1214, died 1223. Philip Augustus was one of the ablest princes that ever reigned in France, both as a commander and an administrator. Philip III., called the Hardy, was the son of Louis IX. and Margaret of Provence. He was born 1245, and succeeded his father 1270. In 1271 he possessed himself of Toulouse on the death of his uncle, Alphonso ; in 1272 he repressed the revolt of Roger, count of Foix, and in 1276 sustained a war against Alphonso X., king of Cas- tile. The invasion of Sicily by Peter of Arragon, and the massacre of the French, known as 'the Sicilian vespers,' caused him to make war against that prince, in the course of which he died, 1285. Philip IV., called the Fair, or Handsome, son of the preceding by his first wife, Isabella of Arragon, was born 1208, and succeeded his father 12&5. He 687 PHI was engnged in wars with the English and Flemings; and in a quarrel with the pope, in the course of which he was excommunicated. Inl303 the estates-general •. assembled. In 1312 he suppressed the Templars (m MOLAl); died 1314. He was an able but most despotic sovereign. Philip V., called the Aon/7, second son of the preceding, was born about 1298, and succeeded to the throne in virtue Of the Salic law, which excluded the daughter of his brother, Louis X., who died 1316. In his reign * cruel persecution began against the Jews, in the midst of which he died, 1322. Philip VI., called l)t \ulois, was son of Charles, count of Valois, a MM son of Philip the Hardv. He was born 1293, and succeeded Charles le Bel 1328. In his reign occurred the wars with Edward III. of Eng- land, who claimed the French crown as grandson, bv his mother, of Philip the Fair. Philip lost the battle of Cressy in 1346, when 30,000 men, and the chief of his nohilitv, were slain. He died dur- ing a truce with the English, 1350. 'PHILIP I., among the Spanish kings, was the son of Maximilian I., emperor of Germany, by Mary of Burgundy. He was bom 1478, and on the death of his mother, 1482, became sovereign of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, the right of which he transmitted to his posterity of the house of Austria. In 1496 he married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and in 1502 the young couple were acknowledged law- ful successors to the crown of Spain. In 1506 they were declared joint king and queen of Castile, and Philip died the same year. He was the father of Charles V. Philip II., (next article). Philip III., son of Philip II. and Anne of Austria, born 1578, succeeded his father 1598, died 1621. Philip IV., son of Philip III. and Margaret of Austria, was born 1605, and succeeded his father 1621. Brides a war with the Dutch, he had to contend against the league formed against the house of .'i u.stria by Richelieu, by which he lost many pro- vinces. In 1640 the duke of Braganza made him- self king of Portugal, in 1647 Massaniello led the revolt in Naples, and in 1648 Philip was compelled to renounce all claims upon the United Provinces by the treaty of Westphalia (see article Maurice < f Nassau). In 1659, after the junction of Cromwell with France, and the victories of Blake, Philip concluded the treaty of the Pyrenees. In 1665 his forces were totally defeated by the Por- tuguese, and he died the same year. Philip V., second son of Louis the dauphin of France, great- grandson of the preceding, and grandson of Louis as born 1683. He succeeded to the throne of Spain by the testament of Charles II., and was proclaimed at Madrid 1700. The succession was disputed, and a league formed against it between England, Holland, Russia, Savoy, and Portugal, which led to a twelve years' war, concluded by the treaty of Utrecht 1713. Bv this treaty the Eng- lish obtained Gibraltar and Minorca ; Naples, Sar- dinia, the Milanese, and the coasts of Tuscany, were relinquished to the archduke Charles, who had been the rival of Philip, and was now be- come emperor; and the duke of Savoy i Sicily. Philip now married Elizabeth Farnese, princess of Mantua, and the notorious Alberoni 1: is minister, whom he was obliged to dis- miss, in 1720, by a fresh combination. He then pni fell into a state of melancholy, abdicated in favour of his son, Louis, and was obliged to resume the crown in consequence of his death, 1724 ; died 1746. PHILIP II., king of Spain, who projected the conquest of England by the famous 'Armada,' was the son of Charles v., emperor, and of Isabella of Portugal. He was born at Valladolid in 1527, eight years after his father's accession to the em- pire, and was married in succession to the Princess Mary of Portugal, 1543, and to Mary, queen of England, in the month of July, 1554", the same year in which he became king of Naples and Sicily hy the abdication of his father. The most jealous J)recautions were taken on this occasion to prevent lis assumption of any real power in this country, and the temper of the people, and the queen her- self, were so little to his taste, that in the course of 1555 (August) he retired to Flanders. There was a political reason for this journey, however. Charles V. was preparing to resign the empire by first investing his son with his hereditary domin- ions, and in the succeeding October he solemnly re- nounced the sovereignty of the Low Countries in his favour, at an assembly of the states-general in Brussels. About a month after, Philip received the sceptre of Spain and the Indies by the same self-abnegation of his father, and his first act was to propose a truce with France, which was broken almost as soon as concluded upon. Till Septem- ber, 1556, he lived rather a debauched life, it would appear, in his Flemish dominions, and then came to England, where he had the mortification to be refused the ceremony of a coronation, and the troops he demanded in aid of his war with France. These, however, were at length conceded to him by Mary, in violation of her marriage articles, and the levy, joined to the army of Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, and Count Egmont, assisted to gain the battle of St. Quintin, 10th August, 1557. > On the death of Mary in 1558, Philip, who was still prosecuting the war, made proposals of marriage to her successor, Elizabeth, and was refused; his military operations mean- while greatly retarding the Reformation in this country. In 1559 the French were reduced to sue for peace, and the policy and the arms of Philip, though he was no soldier himself, were crowned by the peace of Chateau-Cambresis on the 13th of April in that year ; one condition of it being the marriage of Philip to the princess Eliza- beth of France, daughter of Henry II. Freed from this political war, Philip now applied himself to the subjugation of the Moriscoes— the descen- dants of the Mahommedan conquerors of Spain, and commenced that intestine struggle which was not terminated till the reign of his successor. In the course of the year (1559) he returned to Val- ladolid, having appointed his half-sister, Margaret, sovereign of the Low Countries ; his first act in that city was to send thirty-three protestants to the stake, of whose torments he went to be an eye- witness. About the same time he transferred the seat of government to Madrid. In 1566 the revolt of the Netherlands commenced, which ended in the separation of the seven northern provinces from the crown of Spain, and their formation into the Dutch republic. This struggle lasted about thirty years till the close of Philip's reign ; the principal incidents are noted in other articles, (William PHI I. of Nassau; Maurice of Nassau). The events of this protracted struggle were varied in 1567 by a domestic tragedy — the rebellion, arrest, and suspicious death of Don Carlos, the son of Philip and his first wife Mary of Portugal. Shortly afterwards he lost the queen Elizabeth, his third wife, and about the same time the Moors of Granada revolted, whose subjugation was effected in 1570. In 1571 the archduchess Anne of Aus- tria became his fourth wife, and the same year his natural brother, Don John of Austria, obtained the great naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks. In 1580 his troops under Alva subdued Portu- gal, of which, and all its dependencies, Philip now became sovereign. By this time the protes- tant power and its policy had become centred in England under Elizabeth, who at length openly engaged herself in behalf of the Netherlands, and everywhere threatened the security of Philip ; the seas at that time being ruled by our great Admiral Drake. In 1586 the pope, Sixtus Quintus, offered his support to Philip, and the Invincible Armada was prepared for the invasion of England. It was commanded by the duke of Medina Sidonia, and totally defeated by the combined Dutch and Eng- lish fleets, aided by a great storm in the British channel, 1588. The remainder of Philip's reign was occupied with his French wars as a party to the league, in pursuance of the same dark policy against Henry IV. This struggle was concluded bv the peace of Vervins, 1597. (See Navarre). Philip died at Madrid, 13th September, 1598 ; having earned for himself the character of a cruel bigot, and made the most desperate efforts to sus- tain the preponderance of Spain in Europe, and the triumph of the papacy. No European sovereign has been able to resume the struggle on the same scale of magnificence to this day. [E.R.] PHILIP I., count of Savoy, succeeded his brother, Peter, 12G8, died 1285. Philip II., duke of Savoy, succeeded Charles II., 1496, died 1497. Another Philip, born 1278, was prince of Albania and the Morea. He began to reign over Savoy at the death of Count Philip 1285, but Amadeus V., his uncle, took the sovereignty, and left Philip that of Piedmont; died 1338. PHILIP, the first of the name, count of Bur- gundy, succeeded his mother, Jeanne of Valois, as count of Artois 1335, and obtained the county of Burgundy from his brother 1338 ; died 1346. The tecond, a son of the preceding, succeeded to the four counties of Burgundy, Auvergne, Boulogne, and Artois, at the age of eighteen months, and died 1361. The third, Philip the Hardy, born 1342, received the duchy of Burgundy from his father, King John, 1364, and, by his marriage with Margaret of Flanders, became count of Flan- ders, of Artois, of Rethel, and of Nevera. He was one of the princes appointed to administer the government of France during the incapacity of Charles VI., and whose rivalry with the duke of Orleans created great troubles; died 1404. The fourth, grandson of the preceding by his son John, and Margaret of Bavaria, was born 1396, and succeeded his father 1419; died 1467. He was father of Charolois, afterwards Charles the Bold. PHILIP, duke of Brabant, reigned 1427-1430. PHILIP, count of Flanders, called Philip of Alsace, sue his father, Thierry, 1169, died 1191. PHI PHILIP, elector palatine, born 1448, succeeded his uncle, Frederick, 1476, died 1508. A seemtd of the name, Philip William of Neubouho, born 1615, succeeded the elector Charles 1686. died 1690. PHILIP, duke of Parma, born 1720, was son of Philip V. of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese, and son-in-law of Louis XV. He became duke of Parma, Placenza, and Gnastalla, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748 ; died 1769. PHILIP, duke of Suabia. See Philip, Emp. PHILIP of Alsace. See Philip, Count of Flanders. PHILIP of Orleans. See Orleans. PHILIP the Solitary, a Gr. monk, 12th ct PHILIP of Thessalonica, a Greek epigram- matist, supposed no later than the age of Augustin. PHILIP of the Most Holy Trinity, a fam- ous missionary to Persia and the Indies, bora at Avijmon 1603, died 1671. PHILIP of Valois. See Ph. VI. of France. PHILIPPE, C. A., a Fr. magistrate, 1614-98. PHILIPPE, Louis. See Louis Philippe. PHILIPPI, H., a learned Jesuit, 1575-1636. PHILIPPICUS-BARDANES, emperor of the East, proclaimed, after causing the assassination of Justinian II., 711, dethroned by the people 713. PHILIPPIDES, an Athenian poet, B.C. 335. PHILIPPON, Baron, the French general who defended Badajoz in 1811 ; 1760-1836. PHILIPPUS of Acarnana, the friend and physician of Alexander the Great, whose life he saved, B.C. 333. PHILIPPUS, the name assumed by the im- ?ostor, Andriscus, who pretended to be the son of erseus, and became king of Macedonia. PHILIPS, Ambrose, descended from an ancient family of Leicestershire, known as a poet and mis- cellaneous writer. He was the associate of Steele, Addison, and the wits of that period , born about 1671, died 1749. PHILIPS, Catharine, an accomplished lady, authoress of Translations from Corneille, 1631-64. PHILIPS, Fabian, a lawyer and royalist, au- thor of several political pamphlets, and of books re- lating to ancient customs and privileges in Eng- land, 1601-1690. PHILIPS, John, a poetical writer, 1676-1708. PHILIPS, Richard, F.R.S., F.G.S., an Eng- lish chemist, died 1851. PHILIPS, Thomas, a Roman Catholic minister and theologian, author of the ' Study of Sacred Literature, J Life of Cardinal Pole,' &c, d. 1774. PHILISTUS, an ancient historian, supposed to be a native of Syracuse, about 431-356 b.c. PHILLIP, Arthur, an English naval officer, first governor of Botany Bay, 1738-1814. PHILLIPS, Edward, son of Anne, the sister of Milton, and of Edward Phillips, secondary in the crown office, was born 1630. He was educated by his illustrious uncle, of whom he wrote a life. Ihe best known of his works is a complete collec- tion of the Poets, with observations upon them, in which it is supposed Milton assisted him. His brother, John, at first a political adherent of his uncle, afterwards wrote in favour of the restora- tion. Dates unknown. PHILLIPS, Morgan, or Philip Morgan, a Roman Catholic controversial writer, 16th century. 589 PHI PHILLIPS, Thomas, R.A., a distinguished por- trait painter ami writer on art, born at Dudley, Warwickshire, 1770, died, after co-operating in the foundation of the Artists' General Benevolent Institution, 18J5. PH1I.0 <»f Bir.i.os. a Greek historian, chiefly known as translator of Sanconiatho from the Phoe- nician into the Greek language, fragments of which have teen preserved in the works of Eusebius. He flourished in the reign of Nero. PH1LO OF Byzantius, a Greek architect, au. (38fl 00 Machines of War, abt. 3d ct. B.C. PHILO, JunMVB, was born of Jewish parents at Alexandria, not long before the commencement of the Christian era. He was a devotee of the Platonic philosophy, and it tinges all his inter- pretations of the sacred books. In a.d. 41, he was sent as chief deputy from the Jews in Alexandria to the emperor Caligula, in order to defend them against Apion, who had charged them with the crime of disloyalty. Again did he go to Rome in the reign of Claudius. Several of the writings of Philo have escaped the wreck of time, such as his treatise Dt Mundi Opificio ; his ' Allegories of the Law,' full of strange fancy and wild interpretations, his book 4 0n Dreams,' and numerous tracts on biblical subjects, filled with Platonism and alle- gory. His works have been edited by Turnebus, ibl.j Paris, 1552 ; by Mangey in 2 vols, fol., 1742 ; reprinted under the care of Pfeiffer, at Erlangen, in 1820, and by Richter in 8 octavo vols., Leipzig, 1828-30. [J.E.] PHILO of Larissa, a philosopher of Athens, who quitted that city on the success of the arms of Mithridates and went to Rome, where he had Cicero for a disciple. PIIILODEMUS, an Epicurean philos., B.C. 100. PHILOLAUS: a later Pythagorean: born at Crotona, or Tarentum, towards the close of the fifth century before Christ. Aresas, a probable disciple of Pythagoras, was his master ; so that we receive the doctrine from Philolaus, onlv as it appeared to the third generation. (Article Py- thagoras). It has been repeated once and again that Philolaus, divined the true theory of the Uni- verse, and was the virtual predecessor of Coperni- . thing can be more false. In his scheme indeed, not the Earth, but Fire is placed in the centre of the Universe : that Fire, however, is not the Sun, which, on the contrary, he makes revolve around the central *"$. The scheme, in so far as it can be understood, is altogether fantastic, based on no observation or comparison of phenomena, but on vague and now unintelligible metaphysical GOnndentMMi The only predecessor of Coperni- coa in Antiquity, was Aristarchus of Samos, whose remarkable conjectures appeared first, in the Editio J'liuceps of Archimedes — published after Coperni- cus vr I J.P.N.1 PHILOPOEMEK, called the fast of the Greeks, was really their last great commander. He was born in Arcadia B.C. 253, became in 210 generalis- simo of the Achajan League, and conquered the Spartans — at which time he abolished the laws of Lycuigl his victories in this • M the battle of Mantim-a. H<; v. as OB when a prisoner of the aine year that proved fatal to Hannibal anl Scipio. PHO PIIII.OSTRATUS, Flavius, a Greek rhetori- cian, author of ' Lives of the Sophists,' ' Comments on the Heroes of Homer,' and a descriptive work on art, entitled ' Icones,' known about 193. Ano- ther Philostratus, his nephew, wrote a work similar to the ' Icones,' and bearing the same title. He was known about 217. PHILOTHEUS, a patriarch of Constantinople, author of several learned works, died about 1371. PHILOXENUS, the name of three Greeks, the most ancient a didactic and burlesque poet, 440- 380 B.C. The second, a painter, was contem- porary with Apclles, and is known to have exe- cuted a battle-piece, B.C. 316. The third, called also Xenaias, was a bishop of Heliopolis, and a writer in favour of the Syrian Jacobites, died A.D. 518. PHILPOT, John, son of Sir Peter Philpot, and sheriff of Hampshire, known as a learned Calvinist writer and minister of the Church of England, burnt in Smithfield in the reign of Mary, 1555. PHILPOT, or PHILIPOT, John, a heraldist and antiquarian, assistant of Camden, and editor of his Remains, time of James I. ; died 1G45. Thomas, his son, wrote a History of Heraldry. PHLEGON, a Greek historian, 2d century! PHOCAS, emperor of the East, 602-610. PHOCION, a famous Athenian general, states- man, orator, and diplomatist, chief of the aristo- cratic party at Athens, and a great opponent of Philip and Alexander. He was put to death by poison B.C. 317, and afterwards honoured by the regrets of his countrymen. PHOCYLIDES, a Greek poet, 4th cent. B.C. PHOTIUS, one of the most illustrious men of his age, was born of noble parents in the early part of the ninth century. He was also connected by the marriage of his brother with the royal family. He held various secular offices under the emperor, such as that of proto-a-secretis, or chief justice, and the captaincy of the royal life guards. His literary attainments were of a very high order, the result of diligent and continued study. But he rose suddenly and unexpectedly to the summit of ecclesiastical dignity. The patriarch Ignatius had been deposed and banished, and Photius, though a layman, was elected in his room. In less than a week he summarily passed through all the inferior grades of office, was in as many successive days, monk, reader, sub-deacon, deacon, presbyter, and finally patriarch. This questionable procedure was confirmed by two councils, one in 853, and the other in 859. But, in 862 Pope Nicolaus, in con- sequence of a dispute about jurisdiction, declared the election void, and excommunicated Photius and his adherents. Photius, however, retained his place, but a schism was produced between the Eastern and Western churches. The emperor Michael III. was assassinated in a.d. 867. and his murderer and successor, Basil I., exiled Photius, brought back Ignatius his predecessor, and in a general council held at Constantinople, in 869, this transaction was solemnly ratified. When Igna- tius died, in 877, Photius was elevated to his former position, and his restoration was sanctioned by the head of the Western churches. Photius immediately laboured by the machinery of pliant councils, to have all the previous proceedings against himself declared null and void, and on this 590 PHR account, he incurred again the anathema of the pope. Ecclesiastical intrigue and manoeuvre, and not truth and right in those days determined the victory. Leo VI. succeeded Basil in 886, and he immediately, but probably on unjust grounds, banished the restless patriarch to Armenia, where he remained in exile till his death. The date of his death is unknown, but some place it in a.d. 891. Photius was a scheming diplomatist, keenly alive to his own interests, but not without a happy mixture of benignity and decision. His weapons of self- defence and self-aggrandizement where those of the age in which he lived, suppleness and chicanery, a jealous watch over all rivals, and the unscru- pulous use of every means to enjoy, retain, and make the most of the imperial favour and patron- age. Photius had been a voracious reader, and was also an accomplished critic. His Myriobiblon or Bibliotheca is a review and epitome of ancient Greek literature in 280 divisions, and contains notices of many rare and valuable works which themselves have been lost. The best edition is that of Bekker, Berlin, 1824, 2 vols. 8vo. Numerous other works were composed in the long life of this illustrious prelate and statesman, and many of his letters have been collected. We have his Com- pendium, his Amphilochia, — a theological treatise in the form of question and answer — his collection of Canons, Homilies, a tract on the Procession of the Holy Spirit, one against the Manichseans, Com- mentaries on St. Paul's Epistles, and a Catena on the Psalms, &c, but many of these still slumber in MSS. No collected edition of his works has ap- peared. Had Photius been a professional writer of uninterrupted leisure, he could scarcely have writ- ten more, and when we reflect on his long and scheming life, on his chequered and absorbing career, as courtier and patriarch, polemic and exile, intriguer and preacher, we cannot surely with- hold our admiration of his industry and erudi- tion. [J.E.] PHRAHATACES, a king of Parthia, succeeded his father, Phrahates IV., and killed in the year 9. PHRAHATES I., king of Parthia, succeeded his father, Priapatius, 178 B.C., and, dying soon after, left his kingdom to his brother, Mithridates. Phrahates II., son of Mithridates I., reigned about 139-127 b.o. Phrahates III., about 70-58 b.o. Phrahates IV., obtained the crown by killing his father, Orodes, 37 B.C., and was killed in turn by his son, Phrahataces, a.d. 9. Phrahates V., so n of the preceding, was absent at Rome when his brother usurped the throne, and was invested with the royalty by Tiberius. He departed for Syria to regain his kingdom while Abraham III. reigned over it, and died on his journey 35. PHRANZA, G., a Greek historian, 15th cent. PHRYG10, F. C, a German divine, died 1543. PHRYNICUS, three distinguished Greeks:— The earliest, an Athenian writer of tragedy, con- temporary with jEschylus, 5th century B.C. The second, a comic poet of Athens, known B.C. 430. The third, surnamed Aiirhabius, a sophist and rhetorician of Bithynia, 2d century. PHRYNIS, a Greek musician, 5th century B.C. PI A, Philip N., a French chemist, 1721-1799. PIACENTI, D. G., an Ital. antiqu., 1684-1754. PIALI, an Ottoman admiral, 16th century. PIAZZA, C, an Italian painter, 16th century. 591 PIC PIAZZA, Jer. Bartholomew, an Italian con- vert to the Church of England, formerly a judge of the inquisition, author of an historical* account of the inquisition and its proceedings, d. abt. 1745. PIAZZA, P., an Italian painter, 1547-1621. PIAZZI, J., an Italian astronomer, 1746-1826. PICARD, J., a French astronomer, 1629-1682. PICARD, L. B., a Fr. dramatist, 1769-1828. PICARD, M., a German savant, 1574-1620. PICART, Stephen, a French engraver, 1631- 1721. His son, Bernard, a designer and en- graver, author of ' Illustrations of the Religious Ceremonies of all Nations,' 1663-1733. PICCADONI, J. B., superior-general of the order of Minors, a theologian and philoso., 1766-1829. PICCART, M., a Germ, philologist, 1574-1620. PICCINI, Nicolai, was born at Bari in Naples in 1728. This composer has been regarded as the most fertile and original that the school of Naples ever produced. Like many other musicians, he was first meant to be brought up to the church, but the ruling passion frustrated all parental intentions. He studied in the conservatory of San Onofrio under Leo and Durante. In 1758 he was invited to Rome, where he brought out several operas. In Dec. 1776, he arrived at Paris, where he, in the course of a year afterwards, found himself opposed to Gluck, who about this time effected a revolution in French music. For some time the musical feuds of the admirers of the Italian and the German kept Paris in a ferment. Gluck was, however, at the termination of the war, pronounced victor. At the breaking out of the French Revolution, he returned to Naples, but the ministry there having forbid- den him to appear in public, he remained almost a close prisoner m his own apartments. In 1799 he returned to Paris, when the Emperor Napoleon appointed him inspector in the National Conser- vatory of Music, which situation he held till the time of his death, which took place in 1801. [J.M.] PICCINI, Joseph, eldest son of the preceding, known as a dramatic writer, 1758-1826. PICCOLOMINI. See Pius II. PICCOLOMINI, Cardinal, the name by which James Ammanati is best known, a famous name in the history of Italy, 1422-1479. PICCOLOMINI, Alessandro, archbishop of Patras and coadjutor of Sienna, known as a philo- logist, 1508-1578. Francesco, a relation of the preceding, known as a learned writer, 1520-1604. PICCOLOMINI, Alphonso, duke de Monte- mariano, an Italian adventurer who ravaged the states of the church, and was hung 1591. PICCOLOMINI, Octavia, an Austrian general of the same family as the preceding, 1599-1656. PICHAT, M., a French dramatist, 1786-1828. PICHEGRU, Charles, was born in 1761, of Snrents in a humble rank of life, in Franche Comte\ [e was educated for the army at the Military College of Brienne, where he was monitor to Na- poleon Buonaparte. The Revolution found him in the rank of adjutant ; and he rose rapidly during the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. At the end of that year he obtained the chief command of the army of the Rhine, which was then disorganized by a series of reverses. Pichegru restored discipline and spirit ; gained the victory of Haguenau, Dec. 23, 1793, and drove the allies before him into the Dutch territory. The severity of that winter made pic the passage of (lie fror.cn rivers practicable, and in .T.muary, 1794, Pichegru invaded and conquered Holland. He captured not only towns and for- tresses, but also some of tbe Dutch fleet, which .(11 up in the Tcxcl. Pichegru sent his i avalrv over the ice; and the strange spectacle was DtfMBtod of slii]>s being attacked and taken by horse soldiers, i'ichegru was favourable to the >n of the Bourbons, and entered into a secret negotiation with their emissaries for this pur- pose. The French Directory suspected him, and recalled him from his command. He took part in the unsuccessful attempts at reaction in Paris in 1 7i»7, and was exiled to Guiana. He escaped thence to England, where he was well received. In 1804 he came secretly to Paris with other royalists; but he was arrested by Buonaparte's police and thrown into prison. He was found dead, in his bed there, on the morning of the Gth April, 1805. The Imperialists said that he had committed sui- cide ; the Royalists, that he had been murdered. There may be too much cause to suspect that Pichegru came foully by his death ; but we be- lieve Napoleon's assertion at St. Helena, that he, at least, was personally free from guilt in the mat- ter. [E.S.C.] PICHLER, Caroline, one of the most prolific novelists and dramaticwrs. of Germany, 1769-1843. PICHLER, G., a Germ, theologian, died 1786. PICHON, J., a French missionary, 1683-1751. PICHON, T., a French writer, 1700-1781. PICHON, T. J., a Fr. theologian, 1731-1812. PICKEN, Andrew, a Scottish novelist and miscellaneous wr., born at Paisley 1788, died 1833. PICPAPE, N. J. P. De, a Fr. Jesuit, 1731-93. PICTET, Benedict, professor of theology at Geneva, author of a History of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, 1655-1724. His relation, John Louis, an astronomer, 1739-1781. PICTET, Mark Augustus, a naturalist and philosopher, president of the Society for the Ad- vancement ot the Arts, at Geneva, 1752-1825. His brother, Charles Pictet De Rochemont, a political negotiator, agriculturist, and miscellane- ous writer, 1755-1824. PICTON, Sir Thomas, a gallant officer, de- scended from an old family of Pembrokeshire, entered the army as ensign in 1771, and, after serving in the West Indies, rose to the rank of colonel, and became governor of Trinidad in 1797. His next services were at the capture of Flushing, of which also he was appointed governor in 1809. He afterwards distinguished himself in the Penin- sular war, at Badajoz, Vittoria, Ciudad Rodrigo, and other great actions. Killed at Waterloo 1815. PICUS, Mirandulus. See Mirandola. PIDOUX, J., physician of Henry III., d. 1610. PIERCE, Edward, a famous painter of altar- pieces, ceilings, and architecture, died about 1715. PIERQUIN, J., a French priest, died 1742. PIELRE, Cornelius De Lapide, a learned Jesuit, au. of commentaries on the Bible, d. 1637. PIERRE, J. B., a French painter, 1714-1789. PIERRES, P. D., a French printer, 1741-1808. PIERSON, C, a Dutch painter, 1631-1714. PIERSON, J., a philologist, 1731-1759. FILTERS, B., a Flemish marine painter, 1014- JjOHB, Lis brother, same profes., b. 1626. FILTERS, G., a Uutch painter, born lofcO. 592 PIN PIETRE, S., a French physician, died 1616. PIETRI, P. Da., an Italian painter, 17th cent. PIETRO, M. Di, an Ital. cardinal, 1747-1821. PIGALLE, J. B., an Italian sculptor, 1714-85. PIGANIOL-DE-LA-FORCE, J. Aimau, a French litcrateur and geographer, 1675-1753. PIGAULT-LEBRUN, G. C. Antoine, a fer- tile novelist and dramatic writer, 1753-1835. PIGHIUS, Albert, a Dutch mathematician and Roman Catholic controversialist, born about 1490, died 1542. His nephew, Stephen Vinaud, a learned antiquarian, 1520-1604. PIGNA, Giambattista, a learned Italian, his- torian of the house of Este, 1529-1575. PIGNATELLI, F., a Neapolitan statesman, b. 1732, capt.-general of the Two Sicilies 1789, vicar- general of the kingdom of Naples 1806, died 1812. PIGNONE, S., an Italian painter, 1612-1698. PIGNORIA, L., an Ital. antiquary, 1571-1631. PIGNOTTI, Lorenzo, professor of natural philosophy at Pisa, distinguished as an historian, and the most celebr. of Ital. fabulists, 1789-1812. PIGRAY, Peter, a French surgeon, died 1613. PILATUS, Leontius, a monk of Calabria, dist. at the revival of letters in Europe, 14th century. PILES, Roger De, a Fr. art-writer, 1635-1709. PILKINGTON, James, a learned English pre- late, created bishop of Durham by Elizabeth, after the Marian persecution, 1520-1575. PILKINGTON, Letitia, a lady of Dutch ex- traction, born in Dublin 1712, and married to the Rev. Samuel Pilkington. She wrote several plays, some poems, and her own ' Memoirs.' She was separated from her husband in consequence of irregular conduct, and was supported some time by contributions obtained for her through the interest ofCibber. Died 1750. PILLET, C. M., a Fr. biographer, died 1826. PILON, F., an Irish actor, 1750-1788. PILON, G., a French sculptor, died 1590. PILPAY, an Indian fabulist, Bramin, and coun- cillor of state to one of the rajahs, said to have lived 2,000 years B.C. His fables were translated into French by Galland in 1704, and by the Abbi Dubois in 1820. PIMENOFF, a Russian sculptor, died 1833. PINA, Ruy De, a Portug. historian, died 1521. PINART, M., a French Orientalist, 1659-1717. PINAS, J., a Dutch painter, 1597-1660. PINDAR, the greatest of the Greek lyric poets, was born, according to the best authorities, at Cynocephalap, a village of Beeotia, between Thebes and Thespia, b.c. 518, and died B.C. 439, after completing his eightieth year. As is the case with most of the celebrated authors of antiquity, but few particulars respecting his life have been trans- mitted to us, and even these are derived from some ancient biographies of uncertain authority and value. According to one of these, he was the son of Daiphantus and Cleidice, and was born during the time of the celebration of the Pythian games (August or September), the latter fact being de- rived from one of his own fragments. He seems to have been twice married, and to have had one son and two daughters. His family, which claimed descent, from Cadmus, ranked among the noblest in Thebes, and enjoyed a hereditary celebrity for skill in music, especially for flute-playing, a pro- fession which, at that time, was held in high repu- PIN tation in the Boeotian capital. The youthful poet, to whom the family talent had descended, at first applied himself to that branch of poetry which was best adapted to the accompaniment of the flute ; and his father, who had observed in him the indications of poetical genius, sent him to Athens, where, under the tuition of Lasus of Hermione, the founder of the Athenian school of dithyram- bic poetry, he received that instruction in the art which was necessary to enable him to attain dis- tinction. While at Athens, he likewise availed himself of the instructions of Agathocles and Apol- lodorus. Returning to Thebes in his twentieth year, he further profited by the instructions and advice of Myrtis and Corinna of Tanagra, two poetesses who at that time enjoyed great celebrity at Thebes, and with both of whom he afterwards contended unsuccessfully for the musical prize. Pindar commenced his career as a composer of choral odes at the early age of twenty, and his re- putation soon extended to all parts of the Hellenic world. The productions of his muse were eagerly solicited by different states and princes to com- memorate remarkable events; the tvrants and wealthy men of Greece paid homage to his superior genius ; and the free states vied with each other in honouring him as the great lyric poet of his age. Athens, Mgixia,, and Opus conferred upon him the honour of electing him a public guest ; the inhabi- tants of Ceos employed him to compose for them a processional song, to the exclusion of two celebrated poets of their own ; and by the order of the priestess at Delphi, he received a portion of the banquet of the Theoxenia. Pindar manifests in his works a strong religious feeling, and entertaining a pro- found reverence for the gods, rejects those forms of the ancient legends which ascribes to them the frailties and immorality of mortals. He dedicated a temple to the Great Mother near his own house in Thebes ; and erected statues to Jupiter- Ammon, and Mercury in the market-place. Extraordinary honours were paid to him after his death. The Athenians erected to him a statue of brass, repre- senting him with a diadem and a lyre, and a book folded on his knees; while the Lacedaemonians, when they took Thebes, spared his house and family ; and the same mark of veneration was afterwards shown to his memory by Alexander. Only a small portion of his works have come down to our time, and these, with a single exception, all belong to one class, the Epinician or triumphal odes, odes celebrating respectively the victories gained in the four national games of Greece, the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. Be- sides these, he wrote dithyrambs, hymns to the gods, poems, dirges, drinking songs, mimic dancing Bongs, songs of maidens, and panegyrics on princes, of all of which we possess numerous fragments. Our estimate of Pindar as a poet must be formed from his Epinician odes alone, though it is evident from the testimony of the ancient writers, and par- ticularly of Horace, that he was equally celebrated in other departments of poetry. The subjects which he selected for his muse do not appear, at first sight, to be well fitted for sublime poetry; but the genius of the poet, summoning to its aid the splendid mythology of the oldest times, and the mighty exploits ot the heroes and demigods, •invests the object of his panegyric with a fascina- PIN tion which seems really genuine. ' He is chiefly remarkable for the gigantic boldness of his con- ceptions and the daring sublimity of his metaphors, which stamp him the jEschylus of lyric poetry. The flights of his imagination are not, however, like those of the great tragedian, mingled with the in- tensity of human passion, which, while they carry us beyond ourselves, still come home to the heart. He has the fight without the heat, his splendours dazzle, but do not warm us. There is little of human feeling in his works.' [G.F. ] P1NDEMONTE, Ippolito, Count, an Italian poet, biographer, and miscellan. wr., 1753-1828. PINE, John, a highly talented English en- graver, appointed Blue Mantle in Heralds College, and engraver of the royal signets, 1690-1756. His son, Robert Edge Pine, a portrait and histori- cal painter, died 1790. PINEAU, G. Du, a French lawyer, 1573-1644. PINEAU, S., a French surgeon, 1550-1619. PINEDA, J. De, a Sp. theologian, 1557-1637. PINEL, Le P., a French priest of the oratory, known as a controversial writer, and for his vision- ary enthusiasm, died before 1777. PINEL, Philip, a celebrated physician of Paris, distinguished for his treatment of the insane, and his valuable works on the subject, 1742-1826. PINELLI, Gianvincenzo, a great collector of books and manuscripts, and patron of literature, born at Naples, of Genoese descent, 1535; died 1601. Maffeo, sometimes confounded with the preceding, also a learned bibliopole, and friend of Morelli, flourished at Venice, 1736-1785. PINELO, Antonio De Leon, a laborious writer on Spanish America, born in Peru 17th ot. PINET, Antohny Du, lord of Noroy, a mis- cell, writer and defender of protestantism, 16th ct. PINGERON, J. C, a French writer, died 1795. PINGRE. A. G., a Fr. astronomer, 1711-1796. PINI, E., an Italian naturalist, died 1825. PINKERTON, John, a native of Edinburgh, dist. as a poet, antiquarian, and geogr., 1758-1826. PINKNEY, William, an eloquent lawyer and statesman of America, distinguished as a political negotiator for the state of Maryland, and as a member of the senate, 1765-1822. His son, Ed- ward Coate, a naval officer, known to litera- ture as a poet, 1802-1828. PINSON, , a French surgeon, famous as a modeller of anatomical subjects in wax, 1745-1828. PINSON, or PYNSON, Richard, an early English printer, who was originally servant to Caxton, and introduced the Roman letter into this country, died about 1530. PINSSON, F., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1612-1691. PINTO, F. M., a Portuguese traveller, 16th ct. PINTO, H, a Portuguese divine, died 1584. PINTO, Isaac, a Portug. economist, died 1787. PINTURRICHIO, Bernardino, a famous Ita- lian painter, scholar of Perugius, and associate in the labours of Raphael, 1454-1513. PINZI, J. A., an Ital. numismatist, 1713-1769. PINZON, Alonzo, Vincent Yankz, and Martin, three brothers, Spaniards, who had commands in Columbus' first voyage, and by whose exertions mainly it was that a sufficient number of men were induced to risk their lives on the perilous enterprise. Vincent Yanez was the most distinguished of the brothers ; he made 593 2Q PIO wvernl vovneos, on the most important of which he sailed in December 1499, and discovered Brazil, and the river Amazon, three months before Cabral took possession of South America for the crown of Port [J-B.] PIOMBO. See Sebastiano. PIOZZI, Estuku Lynch, a distinguished name in the literary circle of Dr. Johnson, was the daughter of John Salusbury, Esq., of Bodvel in Carnarvonshire, where she was born 1739. In 1763 she married Mr. Thrale, a brewer, and mem- ber of parliament for Southwark, and this gentle- man having made the acquaintance of Dr. John- son, the latter became a constant visitor at their house, at Streatham, in Surrey. In 1784 Mrs. Thrale, after a three years' widowhood, married Gabriel Piozzi, an Italian music-master, with whom she went abroad ; this match cost her the friendship of the great moralist, who had been greatly opposed to" it. In 178(5 she published ' Anecdotes of Dr. Johnson during the Last Twenty Years of his Life,' and in 1788 her corres- pondence with him. Her other literary produc- tions consist of poems and fugitive pieces of a mis- cellaneous description ; the chief of them is her poetical story, entitled 'The Three Warnings.' She returned'to England after the death of Piozzi, and died at Clifton, near Bristol, 1821. PIPELET, F., a French surgeon, 1722-1792. PIPER, Charles, Count, councillor of state, and minister to Chas. XII. of Sweden, 1646-1716. PIPER, Francis Le, an English painter, of Walloon descent, died about 1740. PIPPI. See Romano. PIPPING, H., a Germ, theologian, 1670-1722. PIRANESI, (Jiambattista, Cavaliere, was born at Rome in 1707 ; he studied some time in Venice as an architect, but settled in Rome, and henceforth devoted himself to archaeology, and etching the various rains and monuments of Rome, in which he was assisted by his son, the Cav. Francksco Piranesi; and together they have produced the most extraordinary and interesting work, as a whole, that we possess on the magnifi- cence of the ancient Romans. Yet it must always be borne in mind that the archaeological was secondary to the artistic element in their admirable etchings, and much is supplied by enthusiasm and imagination, as well as what has been afforded by the actual monument; but the existing ruins as they \\ ere, are powerfully and faithfully given, and even the ornamental fragments have their pictorial truth, if not their exact proportions or details. The elder Piranesi died at Rome in 1778 ; the son in 1810, he was horn at Rome in 1750. The son completed what the father commenced : the early editions are the most valued ; a complete collection is very rare, as all the monuments or re published separately, and was worth, before the publication of the new Paris reprint, be- tween three and four hundred pounds. The new edition in 29 volumes, atlas folio, published at Paris, 1886-47, is worth about £70; it contains plates by mom other artists besides the Piranesi, and some modern as well as ancient monu- [R.N.W.] P1RES, Tik.mas, a Portuguese ambassador to China, — the first European who ever went there in that capacity; the date of his mission 1517. PIS PIPvINGER, B., a Germ, engraver, 1770-1826. PI BON, Aime, a French apothecary, disting. as a poet, 1640-1727. His son, Alexis, a poet, dramatic author, and man of wit, 1689-177.'!. PIROT, E., a French theologian, 1631-1713. PIRRO, R., a Sicilian historian, 1577-1651. PISAN, C. De, an Italian poetess, died 1420. PISANI, N., a Venetian admiral, distinguished in the third war between the Venetians and Genoese, from 1350 to 1354, when he was taken captive with all his fleet by Paganino Doria. H e was released at the conclusion of peace 1355, and died in obscurity. Victor, son or nephew of the pre- ceding, obtained a victory over the Genoese at Antium in 1378, and was beaten by Lucien Doria 1379. After three months' imprisonment at Venice he was restored to his command, and captured the whole Genoese fleet at Chioggia. Died 1380. PISANO, the surname of several distinguished artists of Pisa, very important in the early history of art in Italy. Giunta Pisano, or Giunta di Giustino of' Pisa, is the earliest known Tuscan painter, and a crucifixion painted by him in the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, at Assisi, about the year 1236, is still preserved ; it is admirable in impasto and absolutely great as a work of art, compared with anything we know of this early period in Italy. Giunta was anterior to Cimabue. This shows how little reliance is to be placed on local and partial histories, especially where indivi- duals are made heroes of. This picture, of which a fac-simile has been published by the Diisseldorf painter, Ramboux, in his ' Outlines from Tracings, illustrating the Old Christian Art in Italy,' shows that so far from Cimabue being the father of Italian painting, he was scarcely equal to Giunta, certainly inferior in style of drawing. If an individual can have the credit of reviving painting in Italy it must belong to Giunta Pisano, for anything we know, as yet, to the contrary; he is said to have worked with the Greeks about 1210. There was notori- ously an influx of Greek artists into Italy, after the Venetian capture of Constantinople in 1204, but we know of no Greek works equal to this crucifixion by Giunta. There are several other works of his preserved, and the progress of the art was evidently very slow, even down to the time of Masaccio, not- withstanding the great impulse given to it by the works of Giotto. Giunta was not noticed by Va- sari. Niccola Pisano was equally distinguished as sculptor and architect, and must hold the same rank in the former art that Giunta does in painting. He distinguished himself as early as 1225 at Bo- logna, were he executed the celebrated tomb of San Domenico. Niccola was also a great architect, he executed the church of the Fran at Venice ; he was the pioneer of the Renaissance in Italy, in sculpture and in architecture. He died in 1278. Giovanni Pisano, the son and assistant of Nic- cola, and likewise one of the greatest of the early sculptors and architects of Italy, died at Pisa i'n 1320, and was placed in the same tomb wkh his father in the Campo Santo. Andrea Pisano was another early artist of Pisa, but nearly a cen- tury later than Giunta; he was a sculptor and architect, and the friend of Giotto, a few years his senior. Andrea was born about 1280. Of several works still extant by Andrea ' the bronze gates of the Baptistery of St. John (see Ghiberti) are 694 PIS the most important. These two gates are still per- fect ; the exact date of their execution is disputed, whether they were finished in 1330, or only com- menced in that year. The relief's are from the life of John the Baptist, and the general design of the gate is said to have been made by Giotto ; but Giotto's share, if any, must have been more that of the architect than the sculptor, though even defin- ing the panels and indicating the subjects ; he can scarcely have had more to do with the design than this, or his name would have been more intimately associated with them. The work appears to have been modelled by Andrea and his son Nino, and the castings commenced by some Venetian artists in 1330, and the complete gates to have been finished and gilded in 1339, with the exception of some decorations of the architrave, which were added many years afterwards by Vittorio, the son of Lorenzo Ghiberti, in order to make them har- monize with the other two sets of gates executed by his father. The gates of Andrea were originally in the centre of the Baptistery, opposite to the cathedral, but were afterwards removed to the side, to give place to the more beautiful work of Ghiberti, in the year 1424. Andrea was made citizen of Florence, and died there in 1345 ; he was buried in the cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore. All three sets of gates have been well engraved in outline by Lasinio, 1^ tre Porte del Baltisterio di Firenze. Florence, 1823.— (Vasari, Vite de Pittori, &c. Ed. Flor., 1846, seq. ; Cicognara, Sloria delta Scukura ; Rumohr, Italienische Forschungen ; Rosini., Storia delta Pitiura Italiana.) [R.N.W.] PISANSKI, G. C., a Ger. philologist, 1725-90. PISISTRATUS, a citizen of Athens who raised himself to the sovereign authority in the time of Solon, to whom he was related, B.C. 560. Com- pelled to retire from the city by the conspiracy of Megacles and Lycurgus, he returned soon after by effecting a compromise, but was obliged to retire again, and suffer an exile of eleven years, which he spent in making preparations to recover his authority. In the eleventh year he reappeared at the head of an army and regained his power, which he retained till his death, B.C. 527. He was a beneficent ruler, and did much to promote the rise of Greek literature. We owe to him the poems of Homer in their present form, Pisistratus having col- lected them, as they were scattered in detached parts throughout Greece, and digested them into order. P1SSAREF, A., a Russian poet, 1801-1828. PISSELEU, Anne De. See Estampes. PISTORIUS, John, a Ger. controversialist, son of a Lutheran divine of the same name, 1546-1608. PITCAIRNE, Archibald, an eminent phy- sician, born and educated at Edinburgh, and even- tually settled there after holding a professorship at Leyden. He founded his medical system upon his knowledge of mathematics, and wrote several learned works in support of it. Among his more general writings may be mentioned a vindication of the claims of Harvey, 1652-1713. PITH O IS, C, a French writer, died 1676. PITHON, Peter, a French magistrate, pro- foundly learned as a Jurisconsult and philologist, and the first to publish the laws of the Visigoths. He is represented by De Thou as one of the first men of his age, as well for probity, candour, and real piety, as for the extent of his learning, the 595 PIT soundness of his judgment, and his political wis- dom ; born at Troyes 1539, died 1596. His brother, Francis, also a jurisconsult, 1543-1621. PITISCUS, Bartholomew, a German mathe- matician and astronomer, 1561-1613. His nephew, Samuel, a learned philologist, 1637-1717. PITOT, Henry, a French mathematician, tac- tician, and engineer, especially of canals, 1695-1771. PITROU, R., a French engineer, 1684-1750. PITS, John, a native of Southampton, who went to France, and becoming a catholic was pro- tected by the cardinal of Lorraine, known as a theologian and biographer, died 1616. PITT, Christopher, an English clergyman, author of miscellaneous poems, and a translation of Virgil, Vida's Art of Poetrv, &c, 1699-1748. PITT, Thomas, the founder of the family of the great earl of Chatham, was born in Dorset- shire 1653, and towards the end of the century be- came governor of Fort St. George, in the East Indies. He made a large fortune, chiefly owing to his possession of a diamond, by which he cleared considerably more than £100,000. In 1716 he was appointed governor of Jamaica. He sat in four parliaments for Old Sarum and Thirsk, and died 1726. His eldest son, Robert Pitt, father of William, earl of Chatham, d. 1727. See Chatham. PITT, William, the second son of the great Lord Chatham, was born at Hayes in Kent, on the 28th of May, in the year 1759. He was edu- cated at home under private tuition until at the age of fourteen he entered at Cambridge. His biogra- phers are profuse in their testimonies to his preco- cious capacity and readiness in acquiring know- ledge. He was indeed saturated with tuition of all kinds, and taught from his earliest youth by his haughty father to consider himself the hope of the country. He thus acquired at the age when young men are just ridding themselves of boyish shyness an austere self-possession, which im- parted to everything he did an air of wisdom and authority. He never knew the nature of diffi- dence, and the easy assurance with which he took whatever duty or office presented itself, is sup- posed, not without good reason, to have deceived the world as to the extent of his capacity. In January, 1781, he was returned to parliament for Appleby, and at once threw himself into the busi- ness of the session with the confidence of an old debater. He boldly adopted the projects of reform, then rising into shape in Britain side by side with the discontents in France, and in 1782 brought on his motion for a reform in the representation of the people. On the accession of Lord Shelburne's admin- istration in July, he was made chancellor of the ex- chequer, and this invitation to retire from the party who were deemed Utopian theorists, showed that a well-founded reliance was placed in his ambition, overcoming his reforming propensities. It was in the December of 1783 that King George dismissed the coalition ministry, and placing young Pitt at the head of the cabinet, conducted with his able championship that battle in which the crown de- feated the political aristocracy. Among the states- men of the day, Dundas, afterwards his right hand man, had the sagacity to see beforehand that he would be victorious, and to sacrifice other pros- pects for a participation in his fortune. Once established in power, he ruled through seventeen PIT ot the most eventful years of European history. When his ratal began he had not quite abandoned his old ra foiUUM views, and being well versed in tlie newly promulgated philosophy of Adam Smith, partial to the principle Ot free trade. But the French revolution drove him back from all \e projects, and the frightened country submitted to a sort of ministerial and parliamen- ipotiam. The great conflict in which the young minister of a constitutional country mea- sured his strength with the young military despot of France, is matter of history familiar to all. That Pitt, although perhaps his powers have been somewhat exaggerated by panegyrists, showed ■real resources cannot be denied. His readiness in debate and promptness in comprehending busi- ness have seldom been equalled. What chiefly surprises people of the present day in the history of ins career, is the vast amount of dissipation, and especially of drinking, with which his great labours were diversified ; but perhaps his frailties have, like his abilities, been exaggerated. It was said of him that he never was truly young, that he never had the freshness, naturalness, and open- ness of youth ; it is certain that he grew old be- fore his time, and he died of a broken and ex- hausted constitution, on the 23d of January, [J.H.B.] PITTACUS, one of the seven sages of Greece, was a native of Mitylene, in the isle of Lesbos, where he was born about B.C. 650. He was in- voted with the sovereign power by the people of Athens, and voluntarily abdicated after re-establish- injr the authority of the laws. Died abt. 570 B.C. I'll IKhT, J. M., a Venetian engraver, 1703-87. PITTIS, T., an English divine, died 1687. 1TTTON, J. S., a Fr. historian, about 1620-90. PITTONI, J. B., a Venet. painter, 1687-1767. PITTS, William, an English artist, 1790-1840. PIUS I., pope and saint of Rome, is supposed to have commenced his pontificate, or rather bishoprick, about 152 or 153, and to have died 157. The date of his reign, however, as given by other authorities, is from 127 to 142. He was succeeded by Anicetus. Pius II. (jEneas Sylvius Picco- i.omini), born 1405, succeeded CalixtusIII. 1458, died 1 104. He was a great theologian, diploma- tist, canonist, historian, orator, and, in fact, a pontiff uuiverally accomplished. He made great i organize a crusade against the Ottomans. I'ii - III. (Anono ToiMvst iiini), enjoyed a pontificate of twenty-five days, 1503. Pius IV. (<;iov. Angelo Medici, or Medichino, of Milan), succeeded Paul IV. 1559, died 1565. In his reign the council of Trent finished its sittings, which lasted from 1545 to 1563. Pius V. (Mi- < in i.i: GmaLKBl), born of an obscure family in Piedmont 1504, succeeded the preceding 1566, he died 1572. In hia reign, the bull In Ccena Domini was published, which claims privileges for the clergy irreconcilable with the civil authority ; he •eded byCtagorr XIII.. and canonized by I'M re VI. and Pius VII. Clement XI. in 1713. (following articles.) Pus VIII. (FfiAHCKSCO Xaverio Casikm.iosi), born near Ancona 1761, sue. Leo XII. 1829, and d. after reigning twenty months lH.'JO. Hiss Gregory XVI. PIUS VI., pope of Rome, by same Giov \\m B&4SCHI, descended from a noble family, 6M PIU was born at Cesena 1717, and succeeded Clement XIV., better known as Ganganelli, 15th February, 1775. The first five years of his reign were oc- cupied with public works and economical projects — among others the draining of the Pontine marshes, which helped to embarrass his finances and impoverish the state. In 1780 his political troubles commenced by the accession of Joseph to the power of the empress Queen Maria Theresa, the new emperor being bent on separating the church from the papal jurisdiction. This lie did by suppressing a great number of monasteries, for- bidding any intercourse between the remainder and Rome, and taking upon himself the nomination of bishops — even of those in Italy. The agitation, intrigues, and social troubles consequent on these proceedings, kept the pope fully occupied till the French revolution ; and then, the invasion of Italy by the French occasioned him still greater difficulties. In 1791 Avignon was united to France, the pope pretended to a neutrality which he did not observe, heavy contributions were imposed on him, and Ferrara, Romagna, and the Bolognese, were incor- porated with the newly-formed Cisalpine republic; the price of peace, in fine, was the revocation of the papal edicts launched against the Jansenists, and the acknowledgment of the civil constitution ot the French clergy Some disorders in Rome be- tween the French and Italians, in course of which the French general Duphot was shot, led to the expedition of Berthier, who arrived in Rome on the 10th of February, 1798, and on the 15th pro- claimed it a republic. The Vatican was now oc- cupied by the French troops, the apartment in which the pope sat plundered before his eyes, and even the ring stolen from his finger. He was then taken prisoner, and being carried to France, died there in August, 1799. [E.R.] PIUS VII., successor of the preceding, by name Gregorio Luigi Barnaba Chiaramonti, also of noble descent, and a native of Cesena, was born 1740. He became a cardinal in 1785, and in that character propitiated the favour of the French at the period of his predecessor's humiliation. On the fall of Pius VI. the papacy was taken under the protection of the coalesced powers, and just about the time of his death the combined troops of Austria, Russia, and Naples, had succeeded m extinguishing the Roman republic. Cardinal Chiaramonti was elected pope, and took the name of Pius VII., at Venice, on the 13th of March, 1800 ; at the same time he appointed Cardinal Gon- salvi his secretary. The power of the French re- volution was now grasped by the hands of a mas- ter spirit, and instead of destroying the papacy, Napoleon was resolved on moulding it to his pur- poses by whatever force might be necessary This great man knew that a nation could not subsist without a religion, and that the genius of the French demanded it rather as an institution than an internal life. By the concordat of 1801, he restored Catholicism in France, and bound Pius VII. to recognize the independence of the French chturch. In 1804 the pope was induced to crown the emperor at Paris, hoping, perhaps, to deter him from his purpose of extending the same prin- ciples of independence to Germany and Italy. In this effort Pius VII. had the mortification to fail, and as he still resisted the policy of the emperor, the PIV latter, in 1808 and 1809, united all tlie states of the church to the French empire, and on being excommunicated, arrested the pope himself, and finally carried him prisoner to Fontainbleau. Here, on the 25th of January, 1813, the pope signed a concordat granting all that Napoleon demanded, but retracted again, when the French soon after were expelled from Germany. He now temporized and awaited the issue of events, and was restored to his capital on the 24th of May, 1814, by the coalition of the protestant states, with the house of Austria, against Bounaparte. Gonsalvi now resumed his functions as papal secre- tary, with a people reduced to servitude under princes who were the mere tools of Austria, and a fanatical conclave at Rome, who governed by a system of mere terror and corruption — and with- out the slightest regard for the privileges and pros- perity of the papal subjects. In 1817 Pius VII. revoked the concordat of 1801, and concluded a new one with the French crown, one effect of which was the restoration of Avignon. This year, also, he commenced the persecution of the secret societies of patriots, known as the Carbonari, but was a little deterred by the revolutions of 1820 and 1821 in Spain, Naples, aud Piedmont; the patriots at the same time being soothed by the friendly disposition of Gonsalvi. Affairs were in this fever- ish state when the aged pope died, as the result of an accident, on the 20th of August, 1823. His successor was Leo XII. [E.R.] PIVATI, G. F., an Italian savant, 1689-1764. PIX, Mary, an Eng. dramatist, d. about 1720. PIXODATUS, a king of Caria, in Asia Minor, only known as the father of Mausoleus and Arti- niesa, whose names are familiar to history. He flourished in the 4th century b.c. PIZARRO, Francisco, the conqueror of Peru, was the illegitimate son of a Spanish colonel of in- fantry and a peasant girl of Estremadura. He was born at Truxillo about 1571. Neglected by his parents, he was suffered to grow up in ignorance and idleness. But he had a strong frame and a bold spirit ; and, stirred by the marvellous tales with which Spain was filled about the newly-dis- covered world beyond the Atlantic, Pizarro left Europe for Hispaniola, and served for many years in the perilous and painful expeditions which Ojeda, Balboa, Pedrarias, and others, led into the interior and to the western coast of the American continent. Pizarro was fifty years old before he obtained the means of undertaking his great enter- prise against the Peruvian empire, the wealth and Bnlendour of which had long been rumoured among the Spanish settlements on the isthmus of Darien, but which no European had previously dared to attack ; so formidable were the reports of its power, and so terrific were the hardships of the voyage and land march, which were to be overcome before the frontier of Peru could be reached. Pizarro's chief associate in his enterprise was Diego Almagro, a soldier of fortune like himself. The first attempt against Peru was made in 1524, but produced nothing beyond the discovery of some islands and parts of the coast of the Pacific, though the suf- ferings of the adventurers were extreme. Pizarro sailed again for Panama in 1526 ; and succeeded PIZ but the most heroic constancy on the part of Pizarro could have overcome the toils and suffer- ings which he and his little band experienced. On one occasion he and a few followers were detained for several months on an almost barren island. Worn down with famine, cold, and disease, many of the Spaniards wished to abandon the disastrous enterprise and return to Panama. Pizarro as- sembled them, and traced with his sword a line on the sand from east to west ; then turning towards the south, he said, ' Comrades, on that side are toil, hunger, nakedness, the drenching storm, battle, and death. On this side are ease and safety; but on that side lies Peru with its wealth ; on this side is Panama and its poverty. Choose, each man, what best becomes a brave Castilian. For my part, I go to the south.' Saying this, Pizarro stepped across the line, and thirteen of his band followed. At the head of this scanty but deter- mined remnant, Pizarro persevered ; and the arri- val of succour soon enabled him to leave the scene of suffering and trial, and to gain ocular proof of the value of the great prize which he aimed at. In 1528, Pizarro sailed to Spain, and there sought and obtained from Charles V. ample authority and rank for conducting the conquest of the great South American empire, the existence and results of which he was now able to demonstrate. But it was left to the adventurers themselves to provide the means of conquest ; and when Pizarro, in Janu- ary, 1531, sailed from Panama, on his third and last expedition, he had onlv 180 men under his command, 27 of whom had horses. Some rein- forcements reached him after he had landed on the coast near Peru ; but the whole force, with which he ultimately advanced into the heart of that em- pire, did not exceed 110 foot soldiers, 67 cavalry, and two small pieces of artillery called falconets. With this force (aided, however, largely by fraud) Pizarro overthrew the dominion of the Peruvian Incas, which extended over 35 degrees of latitude, over many millions of an orderly, industrious, civilized, and wealthy population, and which was supported by large armies of well disci- plined and veteran soldiers. Pizarro, after a march of great difficulty across the mountain chain of the Andes, reached the city of Caxamalca, near which the Peruvian Inca, or sovereign, Atahualpa, was encamped with numerous forces. Pizarro per- suaded Atahualpa to visit the Spanish camp, and then suddenly attacked the Peruvians who attended their monarch, and after a frightful massacre suc- ceeded in making the Inca his prisoner. The sub- mission of part of the empire was now easily effected, a^ the Peruvians obeyed implicitly the commands which their captive monarch issued at the Spaniards' dictation. After immense quantities of gold had been extorted from the natives as a ransom for their sovereign, Pizarro brought him to trial under a charge of exciting insurrection against the Spaniards, and put him to death. Pizarro then set up another member of the Peruvian family as Inca, and inarched upon Cuzco, the capital of the empire. The Spaniards now encountered fre- quent and obstinate resistance from the natives ; but the terror of the European fire-arms, and of the cavalry, told strongly in favour of the invaders; in exploring part of the Peruvian territory, and > though consummate generalship and indomitable 'thy city of Tumbez. Nothing bravery were also required. Pizarro's skill wns entering the wealthy 597 HZ ever ready in each emergency, and his courage was a quality in which the Spanish soldier was never Inm Unhappily, he was equally signa- lized bv insatiable avarice, remorseless cruelty, and habits of brutal license and outrage. Cuzco was taken bv the Spaniards; and a desperate attempt, which the Indians made a few years after- wards to recapture it, was ultimately repulsed, though not till after the European power in Peru had been brought to the very Drink of destruction. Feuds and civil war soon broke out among the conquerors: and Almagro, Pizarro's old comrade, was put to death, after being defeated in a pitched battle which he and his partizans fought against Pizarro's adherents. Pizarro, who now bore the title of marquess, ruled Peru for some time with almost royal power. He had founded the city of Lima as the new capital of Peru, and he devoted planting t the pr PLA PLANCIUS, P., a Flem. protestant, 1552-1G22. PLANCUS, Lucius, a Roman tribune and consul, supposed founder of Lyons, died about 12. PLANCY, W., a French Hellenist, died 1568. PLANER, J. J., a German botanist, 1745-1789. PLANK, T. J., a German historian, 1751-1833. PLANQUE, F., a French physician, 1696-1 7G5. PLANT, J. T., a German writer, 1758-1794. PLANTA, Joseph, minister of the German Re- formed church in London, librarian of the British Museum, and historian of the Helvetic Confe- deracy, 1744-1827. PLARTIN, C, a French printer, 1514-1589. PLATEN, D. F. De, a Pruss. general, 1714-87. PLATER, F., a physician of Basle, 1536-1614. PLATIERE, Imbert De La, a Frencli general, known as the marshal de Bourdillon, died 1567. PLATINA, the commonly received name of Bar- European j tolomeo De Sacchi, an Ital. historian, 1421-81. physician, 1744-1818. [Plato— From an Ancient G«m.] himself to its adornment, to settlements in various parts ot" the provinces, to j PLATNER, John Zachary, an eminent sur sending out expeditions of discovery beyond the gical writer and professor at Leipzig, 1694-1747. frontier, and to working the mines, with which the j His son, Ernest, a physician, moralist, and meta- conquered regions abounded. The lot of the na- tives under him was miserable; and though he lavished wealth and land on his own favourite fol- lowers, he treated the other Spaniards, especially those who had followed Almagro, with harshness and contempt. A conspiracy was at last formed against him by some of the surviving friends of that chief. They suddenly attacked Pizarro in his palace on the 26th June, 1541, and killed him after a des- perate resistance. [E.S.C.] PIZZI, J., an Italian writer, 1719-1790. PLAAT, Andr. H. J. Vander, a famous Dutch engineer and hydraulic mechanician, 1761-1819. PLACE, Ci- De La, a French priest, 17th ct. PLACE, Francis, a native ol Durham, dist. for his etchings of landscapes, &c, died 1728. PLACE, Francis, well known as a politician, was born in humble circumstances 1772, and began his public career as secretary to the Constitutional Association, which numbered Hardy and Home Tooke among its members. He afterwards partici- pated in the agitation for every great measure of reform, and especially in that for the abolition of the corn laws. He was also a great promoter of inventions and the industrial arts. Died 1854. PLACE, J. De La, a Fr. protestant, 1596-1665. PLACE. Peter De La, in Latin Platianus, or Plutea, a French jurisconsult, historian, and ma- gistrate, born about 1520, killed at the massacre of St Bartholomew 1572. PLACE, P. A. De La, a French novelist and dra- matic writ., once editor of the Mercury, 1707-93 PLACENTINUS, or PLACENTIUS, Peter, author of a Latin poem, entitled ' Pugna Porco- rum,' in 360 verses, every word of which begins with a P. died about 1548. PLACETTE, J. De La, a Fr. protes., 1639-1718. PLACIDIA, daughter of Theodosius the Great, born at Constantinople about 388, became, in second nuptials, the wife of Constantius, a general ot Hoiiorius. Her son by him became emperor of the West under the title of Valentinian III., but the government was really administered by the empress-mother Placidia. Died at Rome 450. PLANCH E, R. De La, a Fr. historian, 16th ct. PL ANCHER, Urbain, a learned Benedictine cf St. Maur, au. of a history of Burgundy, d. 17iU. PLATO, horn at Athens or Egina ahout 430 B.C.; died in his eightieth year. There is no other name in Speculative Philosophy like Plato's. He stands to the whole world of Thought, as Shak- spere in Modern Times; not unapproachable, neither unapproached, hut possessing an unchal- lengeable and scarcely explicable supremacy. It is very wonderful — the catholic power and insight of this illustrious man, the entireness of his know- ledge and sympathy, and of course the reach of his intuitions. M. Cousin has recently claimed him as an Eclectic ; falsely, if bv the epithet, he would indicate a philosopher who selects; who, roaming through all by-gone speculations, has found a piece here and a piece there, and then fused them cunninglv, so that neither Sect nor solitary Thinker mig'ht feel that he or it had no part in him : but, with truth in the highest degree, if he desired to claim for the mind of Plato a range so vast, a power to adventure so deep and soar so high, that, what all schools pre- existent, and that have flourished since, saw only partially, he saw completely, and so could round off their contentions, and adjust their correspon- dences into one grand Orb. The first and most 598 PLA general view we can take of him, tends directly to- wards such an estimate. Greece — and the preced- ing and subsequent World as well — was divided be- tween two opposing inclinations, that evolved two hostile camps; the one searching after Unity alone, — the other finding in Phenomena the secret of Things. Plato, grasped both, with all the force of his powerful and perfectly balanced Soul: he comprehended both sides of the medal of Jove. Athirst, at every moment of his life, and in every movement of his mind, for intercourse with that Absolute Good, which is the Universal Lawgiver, and for whose sake all things are, — he has yet sympathy as thorough, with every discur- sive tendency of the Intellect, rejoicing m its activities and distinctions, loving Art and Politics, and Human Interests and Laws, no less than the most mundane philosopher of them all. Turn one phase of the Mind of Plato towards Modern Europe, there is no feature of our ever shifting physiognomy — not an event amid the buzz., and whirling around us — on which he would not have cast some welcome light: carry him to Egypt or the land of Menu — there too, he would have felt at home, only aloft, because nearer the centre of Universal Life, than those already absorbed, emo- tionless Eremites. Notice his Theodicee. On the one hand Matter, the slave of Necessity, and itself without Order; on the other, God, Intelligence, and Freedom, transforming and organizing for ever, this rude Substance — incited by his Eternal Goodness : the Idea of Good labouring ever more to emerge through multiplying forms into clearer and clearer expression : hence that march ever on- ward ; hence, also, the possibility of Wisdom and Philosophy. From the extreme beginnings of Thought, what School which has ascended among the Mysteries, ever elaborated a fairer Synthesis i It is not merely the profoundly, but this very spaciousness of Plato, which renders the due com- prehension of him, arduous. A System, one can at any time survey: but a noble and a full grown Soul, is in variety as well as reach, a type of the incomprehensible Universe: didactic Thinkers, even so great as Aristotle, may by dint of ear- nestness be gone round and round ; out what for- mula is adequate for a Shakspere, or a Goethe? A free Genius, instinct with Poetry as with Know- ledge, with which Science is not higher than Art, and which permits no single Faculty to be exclu- sive, can be defined only by its unexhausted In- fluence over the unfolding of the World, and there- fore belongs essentially to the category of the In- expressible. Nevertheless the student must be imperatively warned against those ordinary com- plaints of ordinary interpreters of Plato. No man ever wrote more clearly The Truths he utters, are often hard to realize ; but the Expression is trans- ?arent as a mountain brook: no marvel though 'lato has been held in this country obscure, see- ing that a similar charge is laid, and moder- ately approved, against a writer of a much more limited order, but in distinctness and precision not inferior to old Euclid himself, — Emmanuel Kant! It seems too, that Plato is a Mystic, and veils, or even defaces Truth, through the excesses of his Jmof/inatum. Plato is as real as his immortal Master: he is not a Mystic, unless Socrates was one. Imagination, he has to overflowing. Beauty PLA hovers ever over him, and immortal fir us, we decline to speak : — let us just glance at his method and results in social speculation, as set forth in the Republic ; — earnestly recommending to the English reader, the study of the work itself, by aid of the recent translation by Messrs. Vaughan & Davies of Cambridge. The dialogue opens, as usual, dramatically. But as soon as the characters are defined, the question is mooted whether Justice is something eternal, or the mere Creature of Society — that is, whether Society has a -basis in some principle of Unity, independent of shifting forms. What then is Justice in a State? As shown in the first two books, there cannot be two kinds of Justice — a private Justice and a state Justice; the bond which unites man to his fellow, and no other, is the bond which bestows on every Society its proper degree of coherence. In illustration, COO PLA take up the picture of an actual Society, and critise its arrangements. Nowhere is Plato less a mere speculator than in this part of the Republic. So far from being an Utopian, he starts with the pre- mise that every selfishness exists, and every evil re- sult of it: and his practical question is, under what conditions Society may nevertheless cohere ? Would that the ensuing discussion had been accepted as a lesson, by all Time ! Not concerning himself with outward or police regulations for the repression of evil, Plato inquires, what are the Principles of Life in any possible Society, and how they may best be developed V And his extensive treatment of this momentous subject has caused the Repub- lic sometimes to be accounted a formal Essay on Education. Classes are named as essential to all living Societies — the Magistracy representing the idea of Wisdom — Guardians representing the idea of Fortitude — and the Masses, subsisting through temperance of desire, self-restraining and sub- mitting. Underneath all which, lies the funda- mental conception of Justice, that, by the asser- tion of whose Supremacy, he preluded the whole. There are parts of this superb dialogue so far reaching, that the conflicts and consequent morals of Modern Civilization can hardly as yet find appreciation for them. We refer especially to what has been termed Plato's Communism and his views of the ultimate relation of the Sexes. Concerning Problems, whose practical solution lies in the Future, it is wisest not to pro- nounce over absolutely: suffice it to rel'er only with indignation to the uses made of his doc- trines here, to disparage his great name. — Again referring to the Dialogue itself, we must close this brief notice. The wisdom of Plato has taught and nourished the most learned and the greatest of past times : there is no healthier exercise for the earnest man now, than the study of his works. Nay there are errors all around us — errors in practical and speculative Politics, errors in speculative Religion — having their roots deep in the imperfect portions of our Modern Civilization, which can find nowhere a surer corrective. — The best edition of the works of this immortal Greek, is the recent one by Utallbaum. [J.P.N.J PLATO, a Greek poet, 5th century b.c. PLATOFF, or PLATOW, Count, a famous hetman of the Cossacks, distinguished against the Turks in Moldavia, and during the French inva- sion of 1812, born about 1763, died 1818. PLATON, Beffschin, a Russian prelate, and distinguished theological writer, 1737-1812. PLAUTUS, Titus Maccius, regarded as the father of Latin comedy, is supposed to have been of mean parentage, and was bom in Umbria about 227 or 224 B.C. About twenty-one of his plays are still extant, the vast number attributed to him having been reduced within that limit by the critic Varro. These have been frequently translated into Italian, French, German, and English, and Lessing has devoted an essay to the life and writ- ings of Plautus. Died b.c. 184. PLAYFAIR, John, Professor, first of Mathe- matics, and then of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh; born 10th March, 1749, at Manse of Benvie, Forfarshire; died at Edin- burgh, 19th July, 1819. Mr. Plavfair, the son of a Scottish clergyman, was destined" for the Church j PLA and indeed he occupied the living of Liff and Ben- vie, for a few years after the death of his father in 1773; but his scientific and literary tastes, and the power he could bring to the illustration of whatever scientific subject arrested his attention, quickly embarked him on a different and very dis- tinguished career. His bent towards Science, manifested itself quite early in life ; for, previous to the date just mentioned, he had stood, although a young man, competitor for several Chairs in our Scottish Universities : in his earliest attempt in Marischal College Aberdeen, he was defeated only by the veterans Trail and Hamilton. From the manse of Benvie, he passed, after a short interval of connection with Mr. Ferguson of Raith, to the joint professorship (in company with Dr. Adam Ferguson) of Mathematics in Edinburgh ; and from that year — 1785 — he devoted himself, with remarkable success, to the advancement and adorn- ment of all leading Inquiries concerning the Laws of Nature. Were proof needed of Playfair's un- resting activity in the path of his affections, surely that is ample which the pages of the Edinburgh Review an of of the Edinburgh Philosophical Trans- actions, will, to posterity, always afford. But ac- tivity was not his chief characteristic. With the instinct of a Mind placed above the Inquiry of its time, and therefore descrying its headlands, or the points at which it was passing farthest into the unknown, he seldom thought or wrote, unless on those questions on whose solution in either way, depended the shape and course of some opening and future science. To Playfair, Scotland owes its introduction to the arduous works of Laplace ; it was he who first publicly explained the value and criticised the methods of great National Sur- veys; he was the exponent of the labours of Maskelyne, in determining the density of our globe ; earliest he broke ground on the subject of Imaginary quantities, and renewed discussion on Porisms ; he led the way in Modern Geology by his masterly Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth ; and he left as a model for Scientific Histories, that exquisite, although unfinished 1 Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical and Physical Science,' which prefaces the recent Editions of the Encyclopadin Britannica. Play- fair was distinguished by yet higher attributes. No man ever excelled him in the power of effective exposition ; and this is equivalent to asserting that he had that appreciation of Method, which apper- tains only to mmds of the highest order, for it in- volves an almost instinctive power of separating between the important and the unimportant, and seizing the features of that Harmony, which un- derlies all phenomena. An intuition, we say ; for the gift seems inexplicable, unless as an expression more or less distinct, of that correlation between Mind and the external Universe, which Leibnitz designated as a Pre-established Harmony. But even these excellencies, great and rare as they are, do not in our estimation equal another — viz.: the exquisite temper and wholeness of the Man. The memory of Playfair has yet scarcely faded amid the best circles of Edinburgh ; and affection for him, is, with many, as an heir-loom or favourite tradition that will descend. He was an example, in all things, of what culture— apart from mero attainment — can make a Man. i'he finest pas- 601 PLA sage of the Roman Orator in his Archias, or the well-known lines of Ovid :— ingenuas didicittefirtrUtrr artes, KmoUit mores, nee sinit esseferos when hid beside practical life and actual character, ■MB oftener a satire than a laudation ; but Play- fair might have recited them and never Mushed. Mild and manlv, liberal generous and sedate, the best of the rising minds of his time thronged around him, and drew strength and fair resolve from the svmmetrical nature they contemplated. pod thing to advance science by original discovery; but infinitely greater that scientific thought should advance and emancipate the Man. Our Scottish Metropolis was at that period rarely fortunate. Beside Playfair, Dugald Stewart taught,— a man of corresponding equality and com- mand of temper, of singular openness and moral reach. Others resembled them ; for, in virtue of their power of assimilation, two Minds so distin- guished, could not stand alone. Nor must we omit From the list, Professor John Millar of Glasgow- author of the Historical View of the English Government. It is not too much, to say that by giving tone and expansion to the hearts and intel- lects around them, and growing up under their care, these remarkable persons have exercised most important influence on the recent progress of Britain, and thus on the destinies of the world, i land never present herself under another garb ! We have certainly no ambition to ejaculate, — Roma! Roma! Roma! Non e pin come era prima! [J.P.N.] PLAYFAIR, William, brother of the preced- ing, an ingenious inventor and author, 1759-1823. PLAYFORD, J., a writer on music, 1G13-1693. PLEE, A., a French botanist, died 1825. PEYEL. J., an Austrian pianist, 1757-1833. PLINY, the Elder, (Caius Plinius Secundus,) a distinguished writer on natural history and botany, was born a.d. 23, most probably at Novocomum, the modern Como (though Verona disputes with it the honour of being his birth-place). He died in a.i>. 79. Inferior in grasp of intellect, but ranking only second to Aristotle as a natural historian, the name of Pliny shines out through the mist of an- tiquity with particular lustre. In his youth he served in the army, and in his more mature years held some important appointments in the state. Possessing an extraordinary aptitude for collecting information, and endowed with an amazing love for study, his whole life was devoted to the prosecu- tion of scientific pursuits. Rising before day-break, the early part of the morning was employed by him as his time for transacting business. The rest of the day was spent in study, and even during his meals, while taking his bath, or while on a journey, he had a reader attending him, to read from some favourite author. He took notes from every work he read, for he used to say, ' There was no book so bad but what might afford something valuable to be derived from it.' His writings were numerous, but the only one that has reached our times is his famous ' Natural History.' This great work is a perfect mine of observations; though unfortunately the true and the fabulous are mixed up in nearly equal proportions. It contains, he says himself, extracts from no fewer than 2,000 volumes, from PLO authors of all kinds, travellers, historians, geogra- phers, philosophers, and physicians. He devotes part of it to the natural history of animals, and in the four books which treat of them, he has amassed an immense number of facts, such as they were known and believed at that time. The only ar- rangement he adopts is according to their size or importance. The part which treats of botany, occupies a much larger space ; ten books contain- ing the historv of plants, and five, the remedies derived from them. It is unfortunately impossible now to recognize many of the plants he has de- scribed ; but his merits as a botanist or zoologist are not to be judged of by comparing his knowledge with ours, but by recollecting the age in which he lived, and the effects which his works have had in keeping alive the knowledge of nature during the dark ages which succeeded him. His death was remarkable. During a tremendous eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Plmy, who had then the com- mand of the fleet, wishing to save the poor inhabi- tants of the country, in the neighbourhood of the volcano, and, at the same time, anxious to examine in person the awful phenomenon, sailed to the scene of terror, and was unfortunately suffocated by the noxious fumes. It is generally believed that this was the same eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed Herculaneum. [W.B.] [Pliny the Younger— From an Ancient JJust] PLINY, the Younger, a nephew and adopted son of the preceding, distinguished as an orator, historian, and statesman, was bom at Como in 61 or C2. His mother, Plinia, was a sister of Pliny the Elder, and he remained under the care of the latter till his eighteenth year, when the eruption of Vesuvius took place, which proved fatal to his protector. He began his career as a Roman ad- vocate the year following, and in the reign of Tra- jan held a government in Bithynia. The time of his death is uncertain. PLOT, BoBBRT, a native of Kent, author of 'The Natural History of Oxford and Stafford- shires,' 1G40-1G9G. PLOTINU8, the most famous teacher of the new Platonic school, was born at Lycopolis in Ml PLO Egypt about a.d. 204. The original bent of his mind was to speculation, and he had prosecuted such studies under Ammonius Saccas, at Alexan- dria, for eleven years, when, in his thirty-ninth year, he joined the expedition of Gordian against the Partisans, as a means of enabling him to study the philosophy of the East. At the emperor's death he found his way back to Antioch, and afterwards went to Rome, where he taught for six-and-twenty years with great popularity, and where he gradually developed his system and composed many books, which were corrected and arranged by his pupil Porphyry. He died in Campania in a.d. 274. Porphyry divided his master's 54 books into six iEnneads, or sections of nine. The metaphysics of Plotinus are obscure in their subtlety, though Plato was his acknowledged guide and pattern. He held that in order to perfect knowledge, the subject and object must be united, that the intelligent agent and the thing understood — the apprehending and the apprehended, must not be in separation ; the spirit having everything spiritual within itself. Great stress was laid by him upon pure intuition, as in some one of its gleams even the absolute and un- conditioned might be discovered. Out of the spirit is developed the soul, which is brought into contact with the sensuous world. Plotinus had learned Eclecticism from Ammonius, but he added to it a mysticism peculiar to himself, while he at- tempted to clothe Paganism in the garb of a philo- sophical theism. Probably towards the end of his life his transcendental visions and extacies were the result of a diseased organization, which had been reduced and emaciated by continued absti- nence. His system acquired great popularity in sub- sequent years, and sometimes opposed Christianity and often modified it. Creuzer's edition of Plo- tinus in 3 vols. 4to was printed at the Oxford University press in 1835, and the jEnneads ap- peared in a Latin translation by Marsilius Ficinus, Florence, 1492. [J.E.] PLOUCQUET, G., a Ger. metaphys., 1716-90. PLOWDEN, C, an English Jesuit, 1743-1821. PLOWDEN, Edmund, a Catholic lawyer, au- thor of 4 Commentaries and Reports,' 1517-1584. PLOWDEN, Francis, an Irish barrister, known as an historian and miscellaneous writer, d. 1829. PLUCHE. Noel A., a professor of rhetoric at Rheims, distinguished as a naturalist and man of letters, and for his opposition to the bull ' Uni- genitus.' He is author of 4 Spectacle de la Nature,' 9 vols., ' Histoire du Ciel, Id^es des Poetes, des Philosophes et de Moise,' 2 vols., ' La Meoanique des Langues,' and some lesser works, 1688-1761. PLUKENET, L., an Eng. botanist, 1642-1710. PLUMTER, C, a French botanist, 1646-1706. PLUMPTREE, James, a Church of England minister, known as a miscellaneous wr., 1770-1832. PLUNKET, Oliver, a Roman Catholic pre- late, executed on a false charge of treason, 1681. PLUNKET, William Conyngham, Lord, was the son of the Rev. Thomas Plunket, pastor of a Eresbyterian congregation, Enniskillen, Ireland, [e was born there in 1761 ; and after practising with success as a barrister, became a member of the Irish parliament, under the patronage of Lord Charlemont. He soon distinguished himself in op- position to the government, and especially in re- sisting the legislative union, notwithstanding which PLU he appeared for the crown on the prosecution of the patriot, Einmett, and addressed the jury with inhuman earnestness, in order to dissociate him- self, it is said, from the failing fortunes of those who were once his friends. Promotion followed as a matter of course. In 1803 he became solicitor- general for Ireland, and two years later attorney- general, from which time his rising fortunes were associated with those of Grenville and Fox in the government. In 1806-7 he was a member of the Whig cabinet with Lord Grenville and the late Earl Grey, and for many years afterwards was attached to the political interests of the former. The discontent which pervaded the country at the period of the Manchester massacre, and, in fact, to the end of the Castlereagh government in 1822, found no sympathy in the bosom of Lord Plunket, who earned the gratitude of the Tories by his ora- torical services in the extenuation of their errors, and the defence of their policy. As the first law officer of the Irish government during the vice- royalty of Lord Wellesley, in the time of Canning, he shared in their general unpopularity, but some- what later he acquired great credit by promoting the act of catholic emancipation. In 1827 he was raised to the peerage, and from that time to 1830 was chief justice of the Common Pleas in Ireland. After the retirement of Wellington, Lord Plunket had no further share in the legislation of the country, but remained chancellor of Ireland under the Whigs for many subsequent years, being suc- ceeded in that office by Lord Campbell. His pub- lic life ended in 1841, and he died at the advanced age of eighty-nine in January, 1854. [E.R."} PLUQUET, Francis Andrew Adrian, a learned French abb£, author of a ' Dictionary of Heresies,' ' Essay on Luxurv,' and ' The Classical Books of the Chinese,' 1716-1790. [Plutarch— From an Ancient Gtm.] PLUTARCH (Plutarchus*), was a native of Chaeronca, a city of Boeotia. The time of his birth is uncertain. From the few facts which he has recorded of himself, we learn that he was studying philosophy under Ammonius, at Delphi, when the Emperor Nero made his progress through Greece in the twelfth year of his reign, a.d. 66. His family was one of some importance in Chaer- onea, and members of it had held the highest civic offices in their native city. Of the events of his C03 POC Bft vorv little is known. It appears from his that he visited Italy and Rome, perhaps more than once ; and that he delivered lectures in his vernacular language on philosophy, in the imperial citv, during the reign of Domitian, which were attended by most of those who pretended to be employed in" the study of philosophy. It is probable that the substance of these lectures was afterwards embodied in his moral writings. At a late period in life he began to read the Latin authors, having, as he states, during his residence in Italy, beeu prevented from acquiring a know- ledge of the language by the circumstance of 'having so many commissions to execute, and so many people coming to him to receive his instructions in philosopny.' The latter part of his lite was spent in honour and comfort in his native city, where he passed through various magis- terial offices, and enjoyed the honour and emolu- ments of a priesthood. He had four sons and a daughter. The time and circumstances of his death are unknown ; but his intellectual attainments and character have heen transmitted to us in his works. The great work, which has immortalized the name of Plutarch, is his ' Parallel hich contains the biography of forty-six distinguished Greeks and Romans. The Lives are arranged in pairs, each pair containing the life of a Greek and a Roman, followed by a comparative estimate of the two. In a few cases the compara- tive estimate is omitted or lost. Besides these there are four other biographies which were writ- ten by Plutarch, and a life of Homer, which is sometimes attributed to him. Fifteen other bio- graphies have been lost. Few of the ancient writers have attained so extensive celebrity as Plutarch. His 4 Parallel Lives ' have delighted and instructed every successive generation since they were given to the world; and are equally acceptable to people of every age and class. As materials for history they have been found not altogether trustworthy ; but the chief object of the author was to delineate character as exhibited by the events of a man's life, whether these were important or trifling, and without a strict regard to the order in which they occurred. His other writings, which amount to upwards of sixty, are comprehended under the title of 'Moralia,' or 4 Ethical Works ;' though some of these are of an historical or anecdotical character. In all his writ- ings a moral end is apparent. 'A kind, humane disposition, and a love of everything that is en- nobling and excellent, pervade his writings, and five the reader the same kind of pleasure that he M in the company of an esteemed friend, whose singleness of heart appears in everything that he loes.' [G.F.] POCHARD, J., a French theologian, 1715-1786. POCOCK, Edward, son of a minister of the Church of England, bearing the same name, was born at Oxford 1604, died 1691. He is greatly distinguished as an Oriental scholar, and for his learning as a theologian. His eldest son, Edward, published, in 1671, the 'Life of Hai Ebn Yokdan,' translated into English by Ockley ; and his son, 'i homab, a translation from Menasseh Ben Israel I 'iin of Life,' 1699. SlB G., a brave admiral, 1706-1762. POt'OCK, Isaac a native of Bristol, first 604 POI known as an historical painter, and afterwards as a prolific writer for the stage, 1782-1835. POCOCKE, Richard, a native of Southamp- ton, who became bishop of Ossory and Meath, and is known as the writer of travels, 1704-1765. PODESTA, J. B., an Italian Orientalist, 17th c. POELENBURG, Cornelius, a Dutch land- scape painter, employed by Charles L, 1586-1660. POERNER, C. G., a Ger. chemist, 1732-1796. POGGI, S. M., an Ital. dramatist, 1685-1722. POGGIANI, J., an Italian writer, 1522-1568. POGGIO-BRACCIOLINI, a philologist and historian, one of the first promoters of Italian literature, 1380-1459. POHL, J. C, a German physician and writer on vampyres, 1706-1780. J. Emmanuel, his son, a physician and botanist, 1746-1800. POHL, J. E., an Austrian botanist, 1784-1834. POILLY, Francis, a French engraver, 1622- 1693. Nicholas, his brother and pupil, 1626- 1696. J. Baptist, son of Nicholas, died 1728. Francois, brother of J. Baptist, died 1723. POINSINET, A., a French dramatist, 1735-69. POINSINET-DE-SIRRY, Louis, a French dramatic wr., translator, and antiquar., 1733-1804. POINTER, J., an English historian, last cent. POIRET, Peter, one of the greatest mystical writers produced in the protestant church, was born at Mentz, where his father was a sword-maker, in 1646, and became pastor of Amveil, in the duchy of Deux-Ponts, 1672. He was a master of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, but having no taste for a merely scholastic divinity, he studied the philosophy of Descartes, and during the four years that he retained his pastoral charge, pub- lished a work on Cartesian principles, entitled 1 Cogitationes Rationalia de Deo, Anima, et Malo,' which produced a considerable sensation, and was attacked by Bayle. In 1676, the conquests of Louis XIV. occasioned Poiret's retreat to Ham- burgh, where he became acquainted with Madame Bourignon, and through her experiences, in the first place, with the grounds of the mystic philo- sophy, the further study of which led him to point out the defects of the philosophy of Descartes, whose admirers have applied to his criticisms the fable of the viper and the file. He published his digest of the mystic philosophy, including the ex- perience of Madame Bourie^ion, wrought into a system, under the title of ' De jEconomia Divina,' or universal system of nature. The principle of it is abstraction, or the preference of a presumed illumination to reason ; the same in essence as the quietism of Molinos, the annihilation of the Hindoo philosophy, and the divine vision of Bcehmen. In all these cases we are presented with a vast trea- sure of experience, demonstrating the existence of a super-sensual wisdom, as manifested to the pre- sent sceptical age in some rare examples of clair- voyance, the physical preparation being really the same, though produced by different means. From Hamburgh Poiret removed to Rheinsburg, in the neighbourhood of Leyden, where he died In 1719. A complete list of his works would be useless without a description of them, for which we have not space. The curious may consult the catalogue raisonne, in the Memoirs of J. P. Niceron, pub- lished at Paris 1727-1745. [E.R.] POIREY, F., a French theologian, 1584-1637. POI POIRIER, G., a learned ecclesiastic, 1724-1803. POIRSON, J. B., a Fr. geographer, 1761-1831. POISSON, N. J., a Fr. theologian, died 1710. POISSON. See Pompadour. POISSON, Raimond, a French actor and dra- matic anthor, died 1690. His son, Paul, an ex- cellent comic actor, 1658-1735. Philip, son of Paul, an actor and dramatic author, 1682-1743. Farnoult, br. of Philip, a comic actor, d. 1753. POISSON, D. S., a French analyst, 1781-1840. POISSONNIER, Peter Isaac, a physician and chemist, one of the first to read chemical lec- tures at Paris, and to devise the means of procur- ing fresh water from the sea, 1720-1798. POITEVIN, J., a Fr. astronomer, 1742-1807. POITIERS, Diana of. See Diana. POITIERS, P. De. a Fr. theologian, died 1205. POIVRE, N., a French naturalist, 1719-1786. POIVRE, Peter, a French ecclesiastic, known as a traveller and philosophical observer, 1715. POIX, L. De, a French Orientalist, 1714-1782. POLANEO, C., a Spanish painter, 17th cent. POLANO, P., a doge of Venice, 1130-1148. POLE, Reginald, the famous cardinal and papal legate in the reign of Queen Mary, was a vounger son of Lord Montacute, cousin of Henry VII. He was born at Stourton castle, in Stafford- shire, 1500, and after completing his studies in the English and Italian universities, appeared at the court of Henry VIII. in 1525. In 1529 he went to Paris to avoid any share in the discussion of the king's divorce, but when Henry had resolved to submit the question to the foreign universities, this unlucky step caused his selection of Pole to represent him in that city. Instead of yielding, Pole honestly returned home, and in 1531 refused the archbishopric of York, which was offered him on condition of compliance. The king having dis- missed him in anger, he consulted his safety by leaving the kingdom, and rejoined the company of the distinguished men he had known at Padua and Venice. The literary circle in which he moved was formed by Caraffa, Sadolet, Gilberto, Fregoso, arch- bishop of Salerno, Bembo, and Contarini. These men even embraced the doctrine of Justification, and in their social meetings discussed the means of reforming the papacy — their great principle being to preserve the unity of the church under the papal government. In Italy, during the reign of Henry VIIL, Reginald Pole rose to great dis- tinction, and, on the accession of Paul III. in 1534, was raised to the cardinalate, as were his friends just mentioned. On the death of Paul, in 1549, it was almost determined to put the triple crown on his head. His place in English history commences under the date 1553, that of the acces- sion of Queen Mary, who at once invited him to England, and gave him the place of Cranmer, whom she deposed, as archbishop of Canterbury. He arrived in London, dignified as papal legate, in November, 1554, and was received by Mary in presence of her husband, Philip II. of Spain, at St. Paul's cross. On this occasion, as we read in the correspondence of Bullinger, he addressed the queen with the salutation of the Virgin — 'Hail Mary, full of grace,' &c. He advocated moderate measures in the council, as may be supposed from his humane disposition and his inclination to pro- testant opinions. After his death, we find Paul POL IV. complaining that England might have been retained with ease had Cardinal Pole been sup- ported in his measures. In 1556, Pole was created chancellor of both universities, Oxford and Cam- bridge, having previously been ordained priest, and inaugurated into his archbishopric — the latter after the burning of Cranmer, which took place in March of that year. It is curious that Cardinal Pole survived the queen only a few hours. The circumstance is thus satirically alluded to in a letter addressed to Bullinger by E. Sandys, — ' We yesterday received a letter from England, in which the death of Mary, the accession of Elizabeth, and the decease of Cardinal Pole is confirmed. That good cardinal, that he might not raise any disturb- ance, or impede the progress of the gospel, departed this life the day alter his friend, Queen Mary, (17th November, 1558.) Such was the love and harmony between them, that not even death itself could separate them. We have nothing, therefore, to fear from Pole, for dead men do not bite.' — (Letters from the archives of Zurich, pvblished by the Parker Society.) Some allowance must be made for the asperity of party, for no one can doubt the sincerity, humanity, and learning of Cardinal Pole. Ranke shows that he injured him- self in Italy by boldly stating the doctrines of the Gospel at the council of Trent in 1545. [E R.~] POLEMBERG. See Poelenburg. POLEMO, three distinguished Greeks : — 1. A philosophical teacher, who had for his disciples Zeno and Arcesilas, and who differed but little from Aristotle, died B.C. 270. 2. A geographical and historical writer, surnamed Periegetes, about 200 B.C. 3. A native of Laodicea, one of the most celeb, rhetoricians at the beginning of the 2d cent. POLEMO, theirs* of the name king of Pontus, under the triumvirate of Mark Antony, died 1. The second, his son and successor, was recognized king by Caligula 39, and deposed bv Nero 65. POLENI, J., a Venetian antiquar., 1683-1761. POLHEM, Christopher, Count, a Swedish engineer, member of the Academy at Stockholm, and contributor to its transactions on subjects of commercial economy and mechanics. The great works over which he presided are the docks at Carlscrona and the Trolhetta canal. The cele- brated Swedenborg was his coadjutor, 1661-1751. POLI, G. S., an Italian physiologist, 1746-1825. POLI, M., an Italian chemist, 1662-1714. POLIER, A. L. H. De, a Fr. Orient., 1741-95. POLIGNAC, Jules, Prince De, whose name, as the minister of Charles X., king of France, has acquired an European interest from the revolution of 1830, was descended from an ancient family, which suffered with the other noblesse of France by the establishment of the Republic in 1792. He became known to the political world as a party to George's conspiracy against Napoleon in 1804, and was rewarded with the title of prince by the pone of Rome for his devotion to the church after the restoration of Louis XVIII. From 1823 to 1829 he resided in London as ambassador, and then re- turned to head the administration which provoked the revolution of July. After a short imprison- ment and exile, he was allowed to reside in France. Died in the sixty-fourth year of his age, 1847. POLIGNAC, Melchior De, archbishop ol Auch, and cardinal, was born at Languedoc 1661. C05 TTe received the diplomatist. l>ie POL e on going to Rome as a POLIOMAG, Voi.andf Martine Gabrif.t.t.e ISTBOH, Duchesse De, a favourite of the queen Marie Antoinette, and gouvernante of the iml children, 1749-1793. POUTIAN, or POLIZIANO, Angelo, an Italian whaltt who became tutor to the children of Lorenzo de Medici, and was appointed by him canon of Florence. He wrote a ' History of the Conspiracy of the Pazzi,' and edited a collection of Qrwfc epigrams, 1454-1494. 1 '( > LK,\j., an American lawyer and statesman, b. I7W, elected president of the U.S. in 1844, d. 1849. l't iLLAJUOLO, Antonio, a painter, sculptor, engraver, and goldsmith of Florence, 1426-1498. POLLEXFKN, SlB HenBT, an eminent law- yer and member of parliament, acted as counsel tor the seven bishops in 1688, and was knighted after the revolution, and appointed chief justice of the Common Pleas: died 1692. POLLICH, J. A., a Ger. naturalist, 1740-1780. POLLINI, C, an Italian botanist, 1783-1833. POLLIXI, J., an Italian historian, 16th cent. POLLIO, Caius Asinius, a Roman consul, and friend of Augustus, most celebrated as the patrou of letters, and for the protection he afforded to Virgil and Horace; died in the year 3, aged eighty. l't d.LIO, Trebellius, a wr. of Roman history, only fragments of whose works remain, about 300. [ Birthplace of Ro!>ert Pollok.] POLLOK, Robert, was born in 1798, in Ren- frewshire, where his father was a small farmer. After having worked for some years on the farm, he determined on becoming a preacher; and, adding a little Latin to the elementary education he had pre- viously received, he entered, at the age of nineteen, on a five years' course of study in the university of Glasgow. Afterwards, while he was a student of thooli.gv, he published two or three little prose talcs of a religious east ; and then, also, he was working up many of his poetical fragments into his of Time.' This energetic and ambitious poem appeared in the spring of 1827, and speedily obtained a popularity which it is not likely soon to Iom Its deeply religious character recommended it to serious persons : and it was admired by critics for the manv flashes of original genius, which light up the crude and unwieldy design, and atone for 606 POL the narrow range of thought and knowledge, as well as for the stiff pomposity that pervades the diction. There are in it a few passages which are strikingly and most poetically imaginative, and some which are beautifully touching. The poet did not long survive to enjoy his fame, or to prose- cute his profession, to which he was admitted, as a preacher in the United Secession Church, very soon after the publication of his poem. He had already shown symptoms of consumption, which now became more decided; friends, gained for him by his fenius, furnished him with assistance for going to taly ; but he was able to travel no farther than Southampton, where he died in September, 1827, before completing his twenty-ninth year. [W.S.] POLLUX, Julius, two Greek writers, some- times confounded together, — the earlier, a gram- marian and sophist, born in Egypt about 180 B.C. ; the later, an historian of the 4th century. POLO, Marco, was the son of a Venetian merchant, Niccolo Polo, and was born about the year 1250. Some months before his birth, his father Niccolo, and uncle Maffio, resolved to make the experiment of opening a trade with the Tartar princes who had lately established themselves in the East of Europe. For this purpose they sailed for Constantinople with a valuable cargo of goods, which they disposed of to great advantage ; and investing the proceeds in rich jewels, they crossed the Black Sea, and travelling to Bolgar on the Volga, placed these at the service of a Tar- tar prince there. He rewarded them with twice the value of the jewels; and as they were well satisfied with their gains they now wished to return home. This they could not compass in consequence of the breaking out of a war between two princes whose territories lay on their route. They accordingly travelled round the north end of the Caspian, and reached Bokhara in safety. Here they remained three years ; and were then induced to accompany a Persian embassy to the Grand Khan, Kublai, who then held his magni- ficent court at Kemenfu, in Chinese Tartary. He received them into favour, and promoted them to honour. This wise prince, like others of his race, held the liberal maxim, which has received in our own day much favour among statesmen, that all forms of faith which are professed by great num- bers of persons should have encouragement and support. Accordingly, in prosecution of his pur- pose he commissioned one of his grandees, and the two Poli, on an embassy to the lord of the Christians, requesting his holiness to send 100 wise men to instruct his people in the religion and arts of the Western world. The Tartar nobleman died by the way; but the Poli pursued their journey in safety, exhibiting the Khan's order and seal upon a golden tablet, which he had given them as a passport. In 1269, having been three years by tne way, they reached Acre, and soon after arrived in Venice. Marco was now ap- proaching manhood, and his mother having died in giving him birth, his father's ties to his native city were less binding. Accordingly, in 1271, the two brothers started on their return to the court of Kublai, taking young Marco with them, and bearing letters from Pope Gregory X. They readied Tai-yuen-foo in safety, where the Khan was then residing. Young Marco was received POL into the highest favour, and was employed on many important missions both in China proper, Tartary, and the adjoining countries. He held for three years the high office of governor of the city of Yau-tchoo-foo, in S.E. China. He thus enjoyed opportunities which no European has ever possessed, of becoming acquainted with the country and its institutions. Polo's travels were at one time regarded as of no value, but his accuracy in relating what he himself saw, has been from time to time in later years confirmed in a remarkable manner. The best edition of his travels is said to be that by Count Baldelli, 4 vols. 4to, Florence, 1827. It contains a map of Africa, drawn in 1351, and another with the routes fol- lowed by the Poli in Asia marked upon it. The Arabian and Chinese maps which Polo brought home are thought to have suggested to the Portu- guese the passage by the Cape. The three Poli remained seventeen years in China; Kublai re- fused to let them depart, till at length his grand- nephew, reigning in Persia, sent ambassadors to his court to ask in marriage a young princess of the blood royal. It was found impossible for her to proceed by land, and Marco having just returned from a voyage to India, and represented the safety of the passage, the Khan reluctantly consented to the request of the ambassador, to let the Poli con- duct them by sea to Persia, with the young prin- cess destined to be their master's bride. A fleet of 14 ships was prepared, the Poli were loaded with presents, empowered to act as the Khan's am- bassadors at the European courts, and entreated to return after they had visited their friends. The fleet reached Ormuz in eighteen months — and the three Venetians arrived in their native city in 1295, after an absence of 24 years. They found themselves forgotten of all their old friends and acquaintances, but a display of their enormous wealth at a great feast which they gave, speedily brought a greater accession of new friends than they found to be quite convenient. Marco was soon after his return taken prisoner in a sea-fight with the Genoese, in which be commanded a galley. He was carried to Genoa, and detained four years; but treated with great kindness so soon as his history became known. He sent to Venice for his papers, and employed his leisure in putting his notes into shape. On his return, he married, led a settled and respectable life, and died at a good old age. His father lived till 1316, and had a second family by a young wife. [J.B.] POLWHELE, Richard, a minister of Truro, in Cornwall, known as an antiquarian, biographer, historian, and poet. His Histories of Devon and Cornwall are highly esteemed ; 1759-1838. POLYjENUS, a Greek author, 2d century. POLYBIUS, a celebrated Greek historian, who greatly distinguished himself in public affairs dur- ing the wars of the Achaean league, born about 204 B.C., died 122. POLYBIUS of Cos, a medical writer, pupil and son-in-law of Hippocrates, 5th century B.C. POLYCARP, St., one of the most illustrious and ancient of the Christian fathers, burnt alive in the persecution under Marcus Aurelius, 167. POLYCLES, a Greek sculptor, 4th century b.c Another sculptor of the name, flour, abt. 170 B.C. POLYCLLTUS, a Greek sculptor. 5th cL B.C. POL POLYCRATES, a tyrant of Samos, put to death by Orontes, time of Cambvses, 6th century B.C. POLYCRATES, bishop of Ephesus, 2d century. POLYDORUS, Virgilius, an Italian histori- cal writer, who was sent to England by Alexander VI., to collect the tax called Peter's pence, and obtained a living in the Church of England. His works are a ' Collection of Proverbs,' a Treatise on Prodigies, and particularly a History of Eng- land. He was a friend of Erasmus, and "flourished about 1470-1555. POLYGNOTUSoFTHASES,theearliestrecorded painter of Greece, who has attained great fame, appears to have been settled at Athens about 463 B.C., whither he had accompanied Cimon after his conquest of Thasos. With Polygnotus painting was fully developed in all the essential principles of art, though his style might still want the delicacies of execution which distinguised the period of refinement about the time of Alexander the Great. The first portrait on record is the picture of Elpinice, the sister of Cimon, and his own mistress, which Poly- gnotus introduced in the ' Rape of Cassandra,' Eainted by him, in the ' Poecile ' at Athens, a cele- rated portico illustrated with the history of the Athenians, and where the philosophers and others used to meet and gossip. Polygnotus seems to have been a complete painter, though established quite a generation before the execution of the Elgin mar- bles ; his style was, however, doubtless, somewhat similar to the style of those great works, ideal or generic. There is a memorable passage in the Poetics of Aristotle, speaking in the very highest terms of this great painter. Aristotle says, com- paring him with two of his contemporaries : — 4 Dionysius paints men as they are, Pauson worse, and Polygnotus better than they are.' Many other Greek wnters speak of him in the highest terms. Lucian enumerates him among the four greatest colourists of the Greeks, these being Polygnotus, Euphranor, Apelles, and Aetion. The greatest works of Polygnotus were the two extensive series of pictures {tempera paintings) executed on the two principal sides of the Lesche, or public hall at Del- phi, attached to the Temple of Apollo, as a con- venient place of meeting for the various Greeks from every part, who were in the habit of visiting Delphi, for the sake of consulting the oracle there, which was the most famous of all the Greek oracles. These pictures, executed most probably on panels of larch, and inserted into the walls, represented on one side, the war of Troy, and, on the other, the Descent of Ulysses into Hades to consult the Soul of Tiresias. Popular and general subjects which were necessarily interesting to Greeks of every race, and thus the most appropriate subjects for the decoration of so purely a national building. They were known as the 'Iliad' and ' Odyssey' of Polygnotus, though he had consulted all other traditions, as well as Homer, in their composition. The popularity of these works was so great that the Amphictyonic Council (the deputies from the Greek cities who met every spring at Delphi) voted Polygnotus public hospitality throughout Greece, that is, including all cities in league, and in these towns, should the business of Polygnotus ever call him, he was entitled to be maintained at the expense of the municipality. So great an honour has been conferred apparently only on one man since, 607 POL i . Apollodorus. the grammarian. Some similar at- donbtieaa purely per- ■ooal, noma to haw been paid to Albrecht Durer, in fas journey in the Netherlands, in 1620-21; he speaks in every eaai of being entertained by the tfornberi Consul in the several great towns be visited. Oreai as the art of Polygnotus was, it does ; to have approached that dramatic truth ntation winch distinguishes the works of ftaphaol, or many less considerable of the moderns. His ait was representative almost as much as imi- tative , its object seems to have been chiefly ethic ; .ad events are indicated rather than abso- ltuelv presented, but, of course, this is more strictly feme el the accessories; a house for instance, or a wall, represented a city ; a man throwing down the stones of the wall, the destruction of the city ; a tent, an encampment; the striking or taking down a tent, a departure; a ship, a fleet; a few captives, a conquest; a few warriors, an army; and a few dead bodies, a victory. The ultimate value of works of this class depends upon the merit of the execution ; perfectly treated they may be made perhaps more impressive than an actual dra- matic representation, as the very nature of the treat- ment compels the mind to reflection, one of the highest objects of all high art. — (Bdttiger, i" deen zur Arcftaeologie der Mablerei; Wornum, Epochs of' Painting Characterized.) [R.N.W.] POLYHISTOR. See Alexander, Solinus. P<»MBAL, Sebastian Joseph Carvaliio- Melho, Marquis De, an arbitrary Portuguese statesman. 1699-1782. POMEUIUS, J., a moralist, 5th century. P( >M ET, Peter, a French chemist, 1658-1699. POMEY, Francis, a French Jesuit, 1618-1673. POMFRET, John, whose poetical works are now seldom read, was born in Bedfordshire 1667, and became rector of Maiden, in that county. He published a volume of poems in 1699, the most fiopular of them being nis ' Choice,' a picture of lappiness founded on affluence and tranquillity. Some additional compositions were published after his death. That event was the consequence of an attack of small-pox, while awaiting in London his institution to a richer living in 1703. POM IS, D. De, a Jewish writer, 1525-1587. POMPADOUR, Jeanne Antoinette Pois- I .rquise De, a mistress of Louis XV., in whose favour she succeeded Madame de Chateau- roux, 1744. She was then twenty-two years of age, and was created Marchioness the year follow- i a pension of 240,000 francs. She was a <>f boundless extravagance, but gave great encouragement to arts and literature, did much to promote the establishment of the porcelain manu- facture, and the military school, and aided power- fully in the suppression of the Jesuits, died 1764. POMPEL G., an Italian poet, 1731-1788. POMPEY, Cmoua, surnamed • The Great,' son r>f Pompcius Strabo, a Roman general, was born lie distinguished himself against the enemies of the Roman senate, both within the state and without, and at last fell in the struggle against Caesar for absolute power. The events which mark his career are briefly these. Like his father, under whom he commenced his military / against Marius, Pompey ranged himself with the aristocratic party of the republic. POM He was in his twenty-third year only when he raised three complete legions, 60,000 men, at his own expense, and took the field in behalf of Sylla — at that juncture returning from his expedition against Mithridates. By his twenty-sixth year Pompey had defeated the remains of the Marian Earty in Cisalpine Gaul, Sicily, and Africa, and on is return to Rome, B.C. 83, was hailed Magnus — the great — by Sylla; his audacious perseverance also procuring for him the honours or a triumph. On the death of Sylla in B.C. 78, Pompey went as proconsul to Spain, where the plebeian war was continued by Sertorius, and after a four years' arduous struggle, he remained master of the field, his opponent having been betrayed and assassi- nated. He returned to Italy in time to give the finishing blow to the similar victories of Crassus, and in B.C. 70 Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls. In possession of this office he restored the tribunitial power, and afterwards dismissed his army, remaining at Rome as a private citizen. In the beginning of the year B.C. 67, he was in- trusted with extraordinary powers, in order to de- stroy the lawless bands and the piratical adven- turers who infested the coasts of the Mediterranean, and having effected this, he was made absolute dictator in the East, and superseded Lucullus in the command against Mithridates. The latter he completely routed in B.C. 66, and soon after be- coming master of Asia Minor, pursued his con- quests through Syria and Palestine as far as the Red Sea. For these services he obtained a third magnificent triumph at Rome, and in B.C. 60 joined Caesar and Crassus in the triumvirate, the former of whom gave him his daughter Julia in marriage. Succeeding events caused Pompey to draw closer to the senatorial party, and with him, as the representa- tive of the patrician republic, went Cato, the honest enemy of the ambition of Caesar. In B.C. 54 Julia died, in the year following Crassus was slain in Asia, and now the hostility between Caesar and Pompey rapidly developed itself. The former hav- ing applied for the consulship refused to present himself in Rome as a private citizen, and a decree of the senate declared him a public enemy unless he resigned his command. Instead of doing so, Csesar crossed ths Rubicon with his troops B.C. 49, and Pompey, accompanied by Cato, Cicero, and the other nobles of Rome, fell back upon Greece, where the great battle of Pharsalia de- cided his fate. Pompey was advised to seek an asylum in Egypt, then ruled by a sovereign he had protected, Ptolemy XII. He was received with pretended friendship, but treacherously murdered as soon as he had stepped ashore, B.C. 48, and his head being cut off, it was sent to Caesar, who turned away from it and could not restrain his tears. Pompey fell, and with him the republic of Rome, for want of the art of government : the brilliance of his early victories earned him to power, but the remembrance of his greatness in the field was a poor compensation for the anarchy that prevailed at Rome. [E.R.] POMPEY, Cneius, son of the preceding, en- deavoured to carry on the war against Caesar. He was defeated at Munda, and soon after killed, B.C. 45. POMPEY, Sextus, younger son of Pompev the Great, continued the war after the defeat of C08 POM his brother, and the subjugation of Spain by Caesar. He made himself master of Corsica, Sicily, Sar- dinia, and Achaia, and rendered himself formidable as a naval commander against the second triumvir- ate. Being at length defeated and taken prisoner, he was k. at Miletus, by order of Antony, B.C. 35. POMPIGNAN, John James Le Franc, Mar- quis De, a French scholar and poet, whose works consist of dramas, moral discourses, odes in imita- tion of Virgil, and many pieces opposed to the new philosophy, 1709-1784. His br., J. Georges, a prelate and writer on incredulity, 1715-1790. POMPONAZZL Pietro, a famous Italian philosopher, who argued that the immortality of the soul cannot be proved by any natural reasons, but depends solely on revelation, 1462-1524. POMPONIUS-LjETUS, Julius, the Latinized name of a learned Italian antiquary, 1425-1497. POMPOXIUS Sextus, a Roman jurist, 2d ct. POMPONIUS. See Bellievre. ^ POMPONNE or POMPONE, Simon Arnauld, Marquise De, a Fr. statesman and diplo., 1618-99. PONA, Francesco, an Italian writer, 17th ct. POND, John, an astronomer, born about 1767, succeeded Maskelyne as astronomer-royal, 1831, died 1836. PONIATOWSKI, Prince Joseph, nephew of Count Stanislaus, born 1763, distinguished himself in arms under Kosciusko, the Polish patriot, be- came minister of war to the provincial govern- ment established at Warsaw in 1806. In 1809 he •defended the grand duchy against the army of Ferdinand. In 1813 he was named marshal of France, during the battle of Leipzig, and displayed great skill and gallantry in covering the retreat of the French. He was drowned in the Elster while endeavouring to effect his own escape two days afterwards, 19th October. PONIATOWSKI, Stanislaus, Count De, father of Stanislaus Augustus, king of Poland, castellan of Cracovia, and a companion-in-arms of Charles XII., flourished 1678-1762. PONIATOWSKI, Stanislaus Augustus, son of the preceding. See Stanislaus Augustus. PONIATOWSKI, Prince Stanislaus, a second nephew of Count Stanislaus, distinguished as a master of arts and letters, of which he was the generous protector; born at Warsaw, 1754, died at Florence, 1832. PONINSKI, A. L., a Polish poet, died 1742. PONS, a count of Toulouse, reigned 1037-1060. PONS, a count of Tripoli, reigned 1112-1137. PONS, J. F. De, a Fr. literateur, 1683-1733. PONS, J. L., a Fr. astronomer, 1761-1835. PONSONBY, Sir Frederick Cavendish, brother of the earl of Besborough, and distin- guished as a cavalry officer, was born 1783. He entered the army as cornet in 1800, and became remarkable for his gallant bearing in the penin- sular war. He was present at the battles of Tala- vera, Barossa, Vimiera, Salamanca, and Vittoria, and terminated his brilliant career on the field of Waterloo, died 1837. PONSONBY, George, younger son of John Ponsonby, speaker of the Irish House of Commons, distinc. as a lawyer and statesman, 1755-1817. PONSONBY, Sir William, a British cavalry officer, born 1772, killed at Waterloo after a bril- liant and successful charge against the Fr., 1815. POP PONTANUS, J., a Bohem. savant, 1542-1626. PONTANUS, J. Isaac, a Danish philologist and histor. of the city of Amsterdam, 1571-1639. PONTANUS, the common name of J. Jovien Pontano, one of the most elegant and fertile Latin writers of the 15th century, distinguished as a poet and historian, 1426-1503. PONTAS, J., a French casuist, 1638-1728. PONTE, L. De, a Spanish ascetic writer, known to Fr. literature as Dupont, 1554-1624. PONTIANUS, a pope of Rome, 230-235. PONTIUS, an ecclesiastical writer, 3d century. PONTIUS, the Latinized form of Paul Du- pont, an engraver of Antwerp, born 1596. PONTIUS, Constantine, a learned Spanish divine, died in prison while awaiting his execution as a protestant, 1559. PONTOPPIDDAN, Eric Ericson, a Dan- ish prelate, known as a theologian and Latin poet, 1616-1678. Eric, his grandnephew, a prelate and antiquary, 1698-1764. J. Louis, brother of the latter, a theologian, died 1799. PONTORNO, Jacopo, whose proper name was Carrucci, an eminent Ital. painter, 1493-1558. PONTOUX, C. De, a Fr. writer, 1530-1579. PONZ, Anthony, a Span, painter, 1725 -1792. PONZIO, Paul, an Italian sculptor, 16th cent. POOL, EL a Dutch poet, 1689-1733. POOL, J. Van, a Dutch portrait painter, 1666- 1745. His wife, Rachel, daughter of Ruysch the anatomist, also a painter, 1664-1750. POOL, M., a Dutch engraver, born 1670. POOL, or POOLE, Matthew, author of a work highly valued by theological students, en- titled 'Synopsis Criticorum,' was a presbyterian divine, born at York 1624. He was ejected from his living when the act of uniformity was enforced in 1662, and in 1666 made himself obnoxious to another large party by attacking the Roman Church. After this occurrence he retired to Am- sterdam, where he died 1679. POPE, Alexander, was born in May, 1688, in London. His father was a linen-draper in Lom- bard Street, and, having spent his youth at Lisbon, had embraced the Roman Catholic faith, which his son, in an easy way, retained as it was taught to him. Pope inherited bodily feebleness from both parents : his father was deformed, and his mother gave him his headaches and his Jacobitism. He was a very sickly child, and hardly less so in man- hood : he never grew to be taller than about four feet; and his deformity and weakness of limbs were so great that, for many years before his death, ho could not dress or undress himself. In these cir- cumstances Pope gathered his scanty education, and wrote poems wnich placed his name first in the brilliant literature of his time ; nor was he pre- vented by 'is infirmities from taking, in aristocratic society, the place which, in that age of patronage, was won by his literary celebrity and secured oy the agreeableness of manner he had when his tem- per was not chafed. The poetic endowments of Pope were very fine ; and there occur in his works short passages that are among the gems of our poetry, and felicitous images and turns of expres- sion that have become household words. In fact no poet furnishes so many brief quotations as he does; a distinction which he owes in part to the epigrammatic pointedness of his diction, and to th« 009 2R POP singular skill of his versification. Bnt many of the striking lines and phrases which thus come into the mouths of every one, are either cold in feeling or positively unpoetical in matter : they are apt expressions <*f worldly shrewdness, not effusions of imaginative susceptibility. His rhythm, too, which in its way is perfect, has a mannerism and a mono- tonous smoothness, which make it more than doubt- ful whether, even in his favourite ten-syllable rhymes, he deserves to be held as having really improved on the manly and varied melodies of Dryden. The steadiness, likewise, with which he adhered to the themes and forms that had become fashionable under the guidance of that celebrated poet, made it impossible for Pope's real and unques- tionable genuis to develop itself freely ; and his prin- cipal poems are, both by the nature of their subjects and by the cautious and dissertative character of their tone, so very uncongenial to the poetical taste of our century, that it is not wonderful his writings should now be neglected and his place in the file of our poets degraded below his due. Yet, though the fact is little noticed, it was not without efforts in another direction, that Pope resolved to write for the drawing-room instead of the world ; it was not till he had exercised his youthful fancy on higher topics and in worthier forms, that he contented himself with gaining celebrity as an admirable writer of didactic and familiar verse, and as one of the very best of all poetical satirists. — His edu- cation, ill begun at home by a Jesuit, was con- tinued with little more success at school ; where, till the age of twelve, he learned hardly more than to admire Ogilby's clumsy translation of the Iliad, and Sandys' polished version of Ovid. The re- mainder of his youth was spent at Benfield, in Windsor Forest, where his father, having retired from business, had purchased a house and a few acres of land. Here the young poet was left to educate himself. He never became an accurate scholar, even in Greek, Latin, or French, which were his only studies beyond English literature ; but the sickly boy devoured books eagerly, acquired much literary knowledge, and wrote verses which his father encouraged and corrected. The ' Ode to Solitude," printed among his works, dates from his twelfth year; before he was fifteen he had, likewise, made his translations of the first book of Statins, and of Ovid's Epistle of Sappho ; and at this time, also, by producing his ' Imitations of English Poets,' he showed some love for those old masters whom afterwards he so unwisely neglected. Now, likewise, he wrote a comedy, of which we know nothing; a tragedy on the story of Saint Gene- vieve ; and an epic poem called ' Alexander,' which is described as having been an imitation of the . . and was preserved by him till, in the height of his fame, his friend Atterbury made him burn it. An inclination to linger in the purer fields of poetry was indicated also, though accompanied by little originality of invention or strength of poetic feeling, in the works by which he first intro- duced himself to the public. These were the ' Pas- torals,' printed in 1709, (when the writer was in his twenty-first year), but written a good while before, and already admired in manuscript by persons of rank to whom be had become known. They were : with great applause. In the ' Essay on Criticism,' which appeared in 1711, he stepped at POP once into that dissertative school of pr.erry, in which his chief efforts were always afterwards made. The ' Essay,' with all its weakness of prin- ciples and barrenness of poetical elements, is not only a wonderful production for a boy, but really equal, in many points, to anything he subsequently wrote. His celebrity was effectually and most deservedly secured in 1712, by the first edition of his ' Rape of the Lock.' When, in his twenty- sixth year, he republished this poetic immortaliza- tion of fashionable trifles, with the addition of the supernatural machinery, he had given to our lan- guage a mock-heroic poem, superior to Boileau's [The residence of Pope.] ' Lutrin' and to everything else of the sort. In the interval between these two versions of the ' Rape,' appeared ' The Messiah,' ' The Temple of Fame,' (founded on Chaucer), the ' Ode on St. Cecilia's Day,' and ' Windsor Forest,' (probably written much earlier). The poems which have now been named have more of the essence of poetry than any of Pope's later works. — During a second period, ex- tending through more ffian a dozen years, his chief employments "were prompted by the necessity of securing a livelihood. His father, affected by a political panic, had refused to invest his savings in any way, and had lived on the capital, which was already nearly exhausted ; and all Pope's writings had as yet gained him scarcely £150. He now un- dertook his Translation of the Iliad, which occupied him for more than five years, and, published by subscription (from 1715 to 1720), produced to the author more than £5,000. It was received with an admiration which will readily be yielded by all readers who can forget the original. But it pro- duced a quarrel with Addison, from whom indeed Pope, closely allied both by opinion and friend- ship with Swift and the Tories, always stood at some distance. Pope's poor edition of Shakspeare was pub- lished in 1725 ; and his Odyssey, of which only 12 books were translated by himself, appeared in that year and the next, adding considerably to the little fortune he had made by its predecessor. He was now hotly engaged in those squabbles with the small authors of his day, which embittered all the rest of his life. In 1727, in three volumes of ' Miscellanies,' partly written by Swift and others, he declared open war on his enemies by the treatise 'On the Art of Sinking in Poetry.' The poet himself took the crowning step of his revenge, in 010 POP 1 728, by issuing his tremendous satire ' The Dun- ciad.' — In 1715, when the Iliad had secured for him the prospect of independence, he became the pos- sessor of the villa at Twickenham, which became famous as his residence for the last thirty years of his life. Here his father died soon, and his mother some years afterwards. Both were keenly regretted by their son, whose affection for his family and for a few friends was as strong as the jealousy and irritability which continually entangled him in quarrels out of doors. From this pleasant retreat, after the publication of the Dunciad, he tired off a good many squibs on his critics ; and, among other tasks, he altered his great satire, dethroning its original hero, Theobald, (who had edited Shaks- peare better than he had), and putting Colley Cib- ber in his place. But the principal employment of those years was the composition of a new series of works, in which he emulated the half-prosaic poetry of Horace's epistles with great success; while he took a more ambitious flight in ethical meditations, for which he was philosophically very poorly qualified, though he gave much grace and sweetness to the expression of his crude opinions. The poems of this group embrace, besides some minor pieces, the ' Essay on Man,' setting forth, after Bolingbroke, a theory of optimism, the con- sequences of which he certainly did not understand ; the 'Epistle on Taste,' which landed him, for the first time, in squabbles with the great ; the ' Imita- tions of Horace,' with translations from the same poet ; and the ' Universal Prayer,' published in 1738. In 1737 he published selections from his \ Correspondence,' containing letters, many of which are very elegant but very artificial pieces of prose writing. He was engaged to the last in his war with the dunces ; for he contributed to Arbuthnot's wonderfully witty 'Memoirs of Martinus Scrib- lerus,' which appeared in 1741. His frail body, which had held out longer than might have been expected, was quite unable to support him into old age. Asthma and the beginnings of dropsy warned him, for several months, that the end was at hand. He set himself to meet the catastrophe with calm seriousness, and died in May, 1744, some days after having completed his fifty-sixth year. [W.S.] POPE, Sir Thomas, a Roman Catholic states- man, and friend of Sir Thomas More, born in Ox- fordshire 1508, fnd. Trinity College 1554, d. 1558. POPE, Walter, an English physician, known as a novelist and miscellaneous writer, died 1714. POPHAM, Sir Home Riggs, a naval officer, born in Ireland 1762, most celebrated for his ex- pedition against Buenos Avres, for which he was reprimanded after a trial, the charge being that he had acted without sufficient authority. He was afterwards commander-in-chief on the Jamaica station, and died 1820. POPHAM, Sir J., an Eng. judge, 1531-1607. POPPiEA, a Roman empress, wife of Nero, who took her from her second husband, Otho, 62. Killed by a kick from Nero when pregnant, 65. PORBUS, Peter, a Dutch painter, born about 1510, died 1583. His son, Francis, a portrait painter of rare excellence, 1540-1580. Francis, 4 the Younger,' son of the latter, and possessor of his genius, 1570-1622. PORCARI, Stefano, a gentleman of Rome, executed for conspiracy against Nicholas V., 1453. POR PORCQ, J. C, a French theologian, 1636-1722. PORDENONE, the common name, taken from his birth-place, of Giov. Antonio Licinio Re- gillo, a Venetian painter, 1483-1540. Bernar- dino, who bears the same surname, a relation and pupil of the preceding, 16th century. Giulio, one of his nephews, also a scholar of "his, 1500-1561. J. Antonio, brother of the latter, died 1576. POREE, Charles, a French Jesuit and rheto- rician, 1675-1741. His brother, C. Gabriel, a canonist, 1685-1770. PORLIER, Juan Diaz, surnamed II Mar- quesito, a Spanish general, born at Carthagena, in South America, about 1775, hung for conspiring against Ferdinand VII., after attempting to restore the constitution, 1815. PORPHYRY, one of the Neoplatonists, and early opponents of Christianity, was born a.d. 233, pro- bably in a Tyrian colony, settled in Batanea. His original name was Malchus, the Shemitic term for a king, but Longinus, his master, gave him the appellation of Porphyry, in allusion to the purple vestments of royal persons. He studied under Origen and under Longinus in his youth, but at thirty years of age attached himself, at Rome, to Plotinus, whose works he arranged and corrected. Leaving Rome, where his thoughts had often re- verted to suicide as the speediest means of freeing his spirit from its present prison-house, he went to Sicily, where he wrote his attack on Christianity. He seems to have returned to Rome, and he died about the year 304. Porphyry was a man of great abilities and erudition, and his elegant style con- tributed in no small degree to the popularity of the Plotinian philosophy (Plotinus). His asceticism may be found in his treatise ' On Abstinence,' and the strange but not uncommon union of superstition and scepticism may be seen in his doctrine of demons, in his ascription of the power of miracles to Plo- tinus, and in his record ot a special extacy enjoyed by him in his sixty-eighth year, in which he w;is privileged to gaze upon the unveiled Divinity. He laboured to find discrepancies in the Scriptures, and he made a special assault upon the authenticity of the book of Daniel. The history of the gospels was also subjected to similar treatment. His 15 books against Christianity were ordered to be destroyed by the emperor Theodosus, so that we are only acquainted with their nature and contents through the replies made to them by such writers as Eusebius and Jerome. Besides his philosophical and antichristian works, Porphyry wrote commen- taries on Homer, and treatises on a great variety of miscellaneous subjects. [J.E.J PORPORA, Nicolo, born at Naples in 1689, was the celebrated pupil of the no less celebrated Alessandro Scarlatti. In early life he left home and composed and brought out operas with great success in Vienna, Venice, Dresden, and several other continental cities. In 1773 Porpora was en- gaged as composer and director of the operas established in opposition to Handel, but in spite of all the science, talent, and industry which he brought to the task he had undertaken, the London public heard his compositions with an indifference which, it is said, ' amounted almost to contempt.' Por- pora, therefore, quitted England in disgust and returned to Italy, where he became one of the prin- cipal masters in the Conservatory at Venice. He 611 POR late in life retired to Naples, where he died in mat ..: the age of 82. Porpora was particularly fortunate as a singing master, and amongst his most celebrated pupils were Farinelli, Mingotte, and Caffarelli, besides many other dramatic voca- lists. [J.M.] PORPORATI, A., an Ital. engraver, 1741-1816. PORQUET, P. C. F.,u French poet, 1728-179G. PORSENNA, a king of Etruria, 6th cent. B.C. PORSON, Riciiakd, an eminent scholar and critic, professor of Greek in the university of Cam- bridge, was born at East Raston, in Norfolk, where his father was parish clerk, 1759. He be- came professor in 1793, and two years later com- menced the Greek editions on which his reputation rests, by the publication of Euripides. Died in the office of librarian to the London Institution, 1808. PORTA, Baccio Della, better known as Fra Bartholomen di San Marco, an Italian painter, friend and scholar of Raphael, 1469-1517. PORTA, Giambattista, an Italian of noble family, disk as a natural philosopher, 1540-1615. PORTA, James Della, an Italian sculptor and architect, died about the end of the 16th cen- tury. His nephew, William, a sculptor, same age. J. Baptiste, his relation and pupil, 1542- 1597. Thomas, br. of the latter, dates unknown. PORTA, Joseph, called Porta del Salvati, a painter of the Florentine school, about 1520-1570. PORTA, or PORTIUS, Simon, an Italian philo- sopher, pupil of Pomponazzi, 1496-1554. Ano- ther Simon Portius, published Greek lexicons, 17th century. PORTAL, A., a French physician, 1742-1832. PORTAL, P., a French accoucheur, died 1703. PORTALIS, Jean E. Marie, councillor of state and minister of religion under Napoleon, 1746-1807. PORTE, Abbe J. De La, a French compiler, author of ' Esprit de l'Encyclopedie,' 1713-1779. His nephew, Sebastian, deputy to the assembly, the convention, and the council of 500, died 1823. PORTE, A. De La, a Fr. statesman, 1737-92. PORTE, M. De La, a French writer, 1530-71. PORTE, P. De La, a valet in the sen-ice of Anne of Austria and Louis XIV., author of 4 Memoirs of the Reigns of Louis XIII. and Louis XIV.,' 1603-1680. I'OUTE-DU-THEIL,Francis John Gabriel De La, an antiquarian and Hellenist, 1742-1815. PORTER, Anna Maria, a popular novelist, was the daughter of a military officer, who died soon after her birth. She resided in the neigh- bourhood of London with her mother and sister, and died at Bristol while making a tour for the re-cstablishment of her health in 1832. Her works are ' Artless Tales,' written before she was twelve years old, 1793-1795, 'Walsh Colville,' 1797, 'Octavia,' 1798, 'The Lake of Killarney,' 1804, ' A Sailor's Friendship and a Soldier's Love,' 1805, ' The Hungarian Brothers,' 1807, ' Don Se- bastian,' 1809, ' Ballads and Poems,' 1811, • Re- cluse of Norway,' 1814, 'The Village of Marien- dorpt,' 'The Fall of St. Magdalen,' 'Tales of ,' 'The Knight of St. John,' 'Tales Round a Winter's Hearth,' and some others. POSTER, Jane, elder sister of the preceding, was born 1776, and commenced her literary career in 1 BOS, by publishing her first novel, ' Thaddeus of This interesting fiction became highly POS popular, and Miss Porter ever after retained the celebrity it brought her. The principal of her other works are ' The Scottish Chiefs,' 'The Pastor's Fire- side,' 'Duke Christian of Luneberg,' 'Tales Round a Winter's Hearth,' (to which the sisters contributed in common), 'The Field of Forty Footsteps,' and ' Sir Seaward's Diary.' She went to Petersburg with her brother, Sir R. K. Porter, and after she was left companionless by his death in 1842, resided generally at Bristol. Died 1850. PORTER, Sir Robert Kerr, brother of the popular novelists, and himself distinguished as an artist, author, and diplomatist, was born at Dur- ham in 1780. After exhibiting some historical pic- tures in London he went to Russia as painter to the emperor, and while there married a daughter of Prince Scherbatoff. On leaving Russia he joined the army, and was with Sir John Moore at the battle of Corunna, receiving the honour of knight- hood in 1813. From 1817 to 1820 he was travel- ling in the East, and in 1826 was appointed consul at Venezuela, where he resided till 1841. He then obtained leave of absence with the intention of visiting St. Petersburg and London, and died in the former city, of apoplexy, 1842. His works are 'Travelling Sketches in Russia and Sweden,' ' Letters from Portugal and Spain,' ' A Narrative of the Russian Campagin,' and his travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, and ancient Babylonia. PORTER, F., an Irish theologian, died 1702. PORTER, George Richardson, an English economist, 1793-1852. PORTES, P. Des, a French poet, 1546-1606. PORTEUS, Beileey, successively bishop of Chester and London, was born at York in 1731, and raised to those sees respectively in 1776 and 1787. He was a man of great literary ability. His principal work is a ' Life of Archbishop Staker,' an edition of which, with the other pro- ductions of his pen, was edited by his nephew the late Dr. Hodgson, dean of Carlisle and rector of St. George's, Hanover Square. Died 1808. PORTUS, Francis, an eminent Italian scholar and classical critic, 1511-1581. His son, Armilius, a distinguished Hellenist, died 1610. PORY, John, an English traveller and trans- lator of Leo Africanus, sec. to the colony of Virgi- nia from 1619 to 1621 ; time of his death unknown. PORZIO, L. A., an Ital. physician, 1639-1723. POSADAS, F., a Span, theologian, 1644-1713. POSIDONIUS, a Stoic philosopher, who taught at Rhodes in the time of Mithridates, 1st century B.C., and to whom Plutarch was indebted for the materials of some of his Lives, especially that of Marius, with whom Posidonius was acquainted. Another Posidonius flourished at Alexandria about 260 b.c. He was a famous astronomer, and well versed in the physical sciences. POSSELT, E. H., a Ger. historian, 1763-1804. POSSEVIN, Anthony, a learned Italian Jesuit and diplomatist, 1534-1611. His brother, J. Bap- tist, a man of letters, 1520-1549. Anthony, their nephew, a physician and Latin poet, 17th ct. POSSIDIUS, St., an African prelate, 4th cent. POSSIDONIUS. See Posidonius. POST, F., a Dutch painter, about 1621-1680. POSTEL, William, a remarkable visionary, acknowledged to be one of the most learned men of his age, was born in Normandy 1510. He was 012 POS sent to the East to collect curious MSS. by Francis I., and on Lis return was appointed professor of mathematics and languages. He was banished from France through the influence of the queen of Navarre, and died in a monastery 1581. POSTHUMUS, Aulus, a 'Roman dictator, consul with Virginius, B.C. 496. See Postumus. POSTLETHWAYT, Malachi, a member of the Antiquarian Society, and writer on commercial subjects, died 1767. POSTUMUS, Marcus Cassianus Latinius, a Gaulish general and governor of that province, who was proclaimed emper. in 257, massacred 267. PO TAMO, a Platonic philosopher, 3d century. POTEMKIM, Gregory Alexandrovitsch, a Russian prince and field-marshal, was born at Smolensko of a noble family in 1736. He entered the army when young, and" possessing great per- sonal advantages attracted the notice of the em- press Catharine, with whom he became a special favourite. He greatly distinguished himself by his victories over the Turks, especially by his con- quest of the Crimea, 1783, and of the cities of Bender, Otchakow, and Kilianova, 1787-1790. These successes, and the favour of the empress, invested him with despotic authority in the Rus- sian empire. He died of an epidemic distemper during the conquest of Jassy, 1791. POTENGER, or POTTINGER, John, a bar- rister, poet, and miscellaneous writer, 1647-1733. POTENZANO, F., an Italian poet, died 1599. POTERAT, Marquis De, one of the secret agents of French diplomacy during the revolution, was b. in 1740, and was one of the state prisoners delivered from the Bastile in 1789. Died 1808. POTHIER, R. J., a French jurist, 1699-1772. POTIER, C, a French comedian, 1775-1838. POTOCKI, Claudia, wife of Count Bernard Potocki, remarkable for her personal sacrihces in the exercise of benevolence, especially during the Polish struggle of 1830-3; born in Posen 1802, died in exile at Geneva, worn out with grief, 1836. POTOCKI, Count Ignatius, grand marshal of Lithuania before the destruction of Poland, and a fellow-patriot of Kosciusko, was born 1751. In 1791 he took refuge in Saxony, and published a political tract upon the establishment and fall of the constitution, — returning, however, to share in the last struggle for independence. He then passed some time in the prisons of St. Petersburg and Warsaw, and died at Vienna 1809. POTOCKI, Count John, a Polish ambassador in the interest of Russia, author of a ' History of the Primitive Russians,' &c, 1769-1815. POTOCKI, Count Stanislaus, minister of worship and public instruction for the grand duchy of Warsaw, known as a publicist, 1757-1821. POTOCKI, Count Stanislaus Felicie. a Polish nobleman, in the Russian service, 1750-1805. POTOCKI, V., a Polish poet, 17th century. POTT, J., a German chemist, 1692-1777. POTT, Percival, a surgeon of London, author of many valuable professional works, 1713-1788. POTTER, Barnabas, an English prelate, born in Kendal about 1579, died 1642. Christopher, his nephew, an eminent divine and partizan of Charles I., born about 1591, died 1646. POTTER, F., a learned divine, 1594-1678. POTTER, John, author of the well-known POU 1 Antiquities of Greece,' was a son of Thomas Pot- ter, a linen-draper of Wakefield, where he was born about 1674. He died archbishop of Canter- bury 1747. He published the first volume of his 1 Antiquitates,' and a beautiful edition of Lyco- phronis Alexandra, before reaching his twenty- fourth year, in 1697. His theological works were published in 3 vols, at Oxford 1753. POTTER, Paul, a Dutch painter, 1625-1654. POTTER, Robert, a famous Greek scholar and translator of the Church of England, 1721-1804. POUCHET, F. A., a Fr. theologian, 1666-1723. POUCHET, L. E., a Fr. economist, 1748-1809. POUGENS, Marie Chapler Joseph De, a distinguished painter, and philological and archae- ological savant, 1755-1833. POUGET, B., an Italian cardinal, 1280-1351. POULAT, J. B., a French poet, died 1705. POULLE, Louis, a Fr. preacher, 1702-1781. POUPART, Fr., a Fr. anatomist, 1661-1709. POUPET, C. De, a Fr. statesman, 1470-1529. POUQUEVILLE, F. C. H. L., a celebrated French traveller and historian, 1770-1838. POURCHOT, E., a Fr. philosopher. 1651-1734. POUSCHKINE, Alex., a popular novelist, poet, and historian of Russia, born at St. Peters- burg 1799, killed in a duel 1837 POUSSIN, Nicolas, was born at Andelys in Normandy, about June 19, 1594, of a noble family of Soissons. He learnt painting under Quintin Variu of his native place ; then, when only eighteen years old, tried his fortune in Paris, and in 1624, in his thirtieth year, settled in Rome, where, with the exception of a visit paid to France in 1640-2, he dwelt the remainder of his life. He died there, Nov. 19, 1665. Poussin, though by birth a Frenchman, must almost be accounted among the painters of Italy ; his style is peculiar, 4 no works of any modern,' says Sir Joshua Rey- nolds, ' have so much of the air of antique painting as those of Poussin.' His pictures have been com- pared with coloured bas-reliefs, a term not inexpres- sive of his style. His peculiar leaning to this sculpturesque treatment may in some measure be explained by his close intimacy with his friend Du Quesnoy, the sculptor, known as Fiammingo ; they lived in the same house together at Rome. His colouring, compared with his drawing, is inferior and mannered, which is somewhat remarkable, consi- dering that he studied in the school of Domenichino at Rome, whom he considered to be the best pain- ter of his time. ' The Seven Sacraments,' painted twice by Poussin, are among his most celebrated works, and both sets are now in England, one at Belvoir Castle, the other in the Bridgewater Gal- lery, London. His works are very numerous; the prints that have been engraved after his principal pictures only, amount to upwards of two hundred. Some of his best works are in the British National Gallery, as the 'Bacchanalian Festival,' No. 42, finely engraved by Doo, which constitutes an ex- cellent exponent of his style, with all his merits and peculiarities in perfection. He was a skilful landscape painter also, indeed one of the ablest of the landscape painters of Italy, though the peater fame in this department of his younger brother-in- law, GasparDughet, who took the name of Pous- sin, has eclipsed the reputation of Nicolas. Gas- par Poussin was born of French parents in Rome, G13 POU in 1613. and died there in 1675; like Claude he waa .xilu.Mvely an Italian painter. The National Gallery possesses also some of the finest works of this artist. The sombre character of his landscapes is in some measure due to the dark grounds on which he painted. — (In-llori, Vita di Nicola Pus- siwh &&, Home, 1671. Wornum, Descriptive and d Catalogue of the National Gallery, &o0 [R.N.W.] l'« MTEAU, Cl., a French surgeon, 1725-1775. POWELL, David, a famous Welch antiquarian and minister of the church, about 1552-1590. His son, Gabkiel, eel. as a controversialist, 1575-1611. POWELL, E., a popish divine, executed 1540. POWELL, G., an English actor, died 1714. POWELL, G., a Welch scholar, 1561-1620. POWELL, Sik John, an eminent lawyer and judge, dist. at the trial of the seven bishops, d. 1696. POWELL, W., an English actor, died 1769. pi WELL, W. S., a learned divine, 1717-1775. POWER, Tyko.nk, was the son of an Irish gentleman, of the county of Waterford, and was born 1795. His mother was left a widow in his infancy, and removed to Glamorganshire in South near the town of Cardiff, where there was a theatre. Here Power first appeared as Romeo ; the next notice we have of him is his attempting Orlando at Monmouth, after which he returned to the maternal retreat. On his return, some time after, to the stage, he began to discover his unsuit- ability for tragedy, and went into the comic line, and tried his juvenile strength in Mercutio, Bene- dict, Charles Surface, and Belcover ; occasionally, however, we find him doing pathetic parts, such as Alonzo, at Newport in the Isle of Wight. At Margate also he served alternately under both : but, on the Kentish circuit generally, ap- pears principally to have adhered to 1 halia, though at Newcastle-upon-Tyne we find Melpomene again in the ascendant; and at Dublin he actually made his debut as Romeo, to which he added Jeremy In 1818 Mr. Power retired from the •robably disgusted with its difficulties; but in 1*21 we find him making a new essay at the Olympic and Astley's theatres, which latter he ouitted for the Lyceum, where he appeared on 2d Jnly, 1822, as Robert Haythvrn, in ' The Turn- pike Gate.' In 1823 he was appointed manager of the Olympic, and soon after was granted an ap- •nce at Drury Lane, but produced no effect. Next year, at the Adelphi theatre, Mr. Power was enabled to make a stand in a new part called Val- mondi, and to achieve a triumph as Paddy CfHal- loran, in a neglected Irish farce. It was with great unwillingness that he undertook the part, which, nevertheless, proved the stepping-stone to his fortune. He soon found it to his advantage to :>• his abilities exclusively to the delineation of Irish characters. As an Hibernian representative Mr. Power enjoyed a rich brogue, a smart and viva- cious air, a whimsical leer that lighted up the jokes that came trippingly from his tongue, and a voice for singing in which he could indulge in the broadest patois. These qualities he exhibited in •The Irish Tutor,' in Murtoch JJelany, /'/ielim ()' Flanninyan, Rory O'More, Pierce O'/fm-a, WPlenipo, and a host of other characters, written expressly for him. His triumphs were witl within the walls of the three London theatres, Old PEA Drurv, Covent Garden, and the Haymarket. In 18 ID Mr. Power migrated for America, whence he never returned. After a most profitable career, notwithstanding ill health, he embarked in the steam-ship 'The President,' which sailed from New York 11th March, 1841. It had 123 souls on board. On the 12th a great storm occurred, which raged for two days and three nights. Whether, as suspected, the vessel foundered while heating between Nantucket shoals and George's Bank, remains unknown. Nothing more was ever heard of that fatal bark and its numerous tenants : — "There is no ray By which her doom we may explore; We only know she sailed away, Was seen, but never heard of more.' [J.A.H.] POWNALL, Thomas, a distinguished antiqua- rian, and statesman, 1722-1805. POYET, B., a French architect, 1742-1824. POYET, W., chancellor of France, 1474-1548. POYNET, or PONET, John, successively bishop of Rochester and Winchester, 1516-1566. POYNINGS, Sir Edward, a statesman of the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. POYNTER, W., a theological writer, died 1827. POZZETT, P., an Italian savant, 1769-1816. POZZI, J. B., an Italian painter, 16th century. POZZI, J. H., an Italian poet, 1697-1752. POZZI, Stefano, a clever Italian painter, 1708- 1768. His brother, Joseph, a painter, died 1765. POZZO, Andrea, an Italian Jesuit, dist. as a painter, architect, and writer on art, 1642-1709. POZZO, C. Del, an archasologist, died 1657. POZZO, Count J. Del, an architect, b. 1718. POZZO -DI-BORGO, Charles Andreas, Count, a native of Corsica, distinguished as a statesman in the interest of the ' Holy Alliance,' was born in Corsica, 1764, and first became con- spicuous as a partizan of the English in the time of Paoli. When Corsica was incorporated with France, Pozzo-di-Borgo became a political em- ploye of other governments, and contributed his services— especially as a general and ambassador in the Russian service — to the overthrow of Na- poleon. He was a man of great political ability and foresight. After the fall of Napoleon, from 1814 to 1830, he acted as Russian ambassador at Paris, and since then he was living about two years ambassador in London. Died in Paris, 1842. PRADES, J. M. De, a Fr. theologian, 1720-82. PRADIER, James, a distinguished French sculptor, 1792-1852. PRADO, B. De, a Spanish painter, died 1593. PRADO, J., a Spanish commentator, 1547-95. PRADON, N., a French poet, 1632-1698. PRADT, Abbe Dominique De, distinguished as a political writer and diplomatist, was born in Auvergne 1759, became a deputy of the ecclesias- tical order to the estates-general 1789, having pre- viously published the first of his political pamphlets, entitled ' Antidote to the Congress of Radstadt.' After urging a coalition of Europe against the French republic he became a Buonapartist, and assisted at Napoleon's coronation as king of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon he became an adherent of the Bourbons. Died 1837. PRAM, C, a Danish poet, 1756-1821. PRASLIN, Cesar Gabriel De Choiseul, 614 PRA Due Do, a statesman and peer of France, cousin of the Due de Choiseiil, 1712-1785. PRAT, A. Du, a French cardinal, 1465-1535. PRAT1LLI, F. M., an Ital. antiquary, d. 1770. PRATO, J. De, an Ital. philologist, died 1782. PRATT, Charles, earl of Camden, chancellor under the Rockingham administration, 1714-1794. PRATT, Sir C, a peninsular officer, 1771-1839. PRATT, S. J., a novelist, 1749-1814. PRAXILLA, a Greek poetess, 5th century B.C. PRAXITELES, a famous Grecian sculptor, au- thor of works in bronze and marble, 4th cent. B.C. PRAXITELES, a disting. carver, 1st cent. b.c. PRAY, G., an historian of Hungary, 1723-1801. PREISSNITZ, Vincent, a celebrated Prus- sian, discoverer of the water cure, 1799-1851. PREMONTVAL, Peter Le Guay De, a French writer and mathematician, 1716-1767. PRESTET, J., a Fr. mathematician, died 1690. PRESTON, John, a learned puritan of the Church of England, author of a ' Treatise on the Covenant,' 1587-1628. PRESTON, T., a dramatic writer, died 1598. PRESTON, W., a Scotch writer, 1742-1818. PRETI, M., an Italian painter, 1613-1699. PREVOST, Cl , a Fr. theologian, 1693-1752. PREVOST, I. B., a Genev. natural., 1755-1819. PREVOST, P., a French painter, 1764-1823. PREVOST, P., a French literateur, 1751-1839. PREVOST D'EXILES, Anthony Francis, a miscellaneous writer and novelist, translator of Clarissa Harlowe and Sir C. Grandison, 1697-1763. PREVOST D'EXMES, Francis Le, a French literateur and dramatic author, 1729-1793. PREVOST DE LAJANNES, M., a French magistrate and prof, of jurisprudence, 1696-1749. PREVOST-SAINT-LUCIEN, R. H., a French writer on public law, 1740-1808. PRICE, John, a native of London, who went to Florence and became superintendent of the museum to the grand duke, and professor of Greek at Pisa ; author of Scripture and Classical Com- mentaries, 1600-1676. PRICE, Sir John, an eminent antiquarian, author of a Defence of British History in answer to Polvdorus, died about 1553. PRICE, Du. Richard, a native of Glamorgan- shire, who attained eminence as a dissenting minis- ter and financial and political writer, 1723-1791. PRICHARD, James Cawles, well known for his ' Researches into the Physical History of Man- kind,' was born in Herefordshire, 1786. From 1810 to 1845 he was in practice at Bristol as a physician, and then removed to London on receiv- ing an appointment as commissioner on lunacy. Died 1848. PRICHARD, R., a Welch divine, died 1644. PRIDEAUX, John, D.D., bishop of Worcester, was born at Steward, Devonshire, 17th September, 1578. His father not being in circumstances to ■fiord him the advantages of a liberal education, he was indebted to the liberality of a Christian lady in the parish, who sent him to a grammar school, where he acquired an elementary knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages. Having an unquench- able thirst for learning, ne travelled on foot to Ox- ford, and supported himself by some menial services in Exeter college, his time being divided between the senile offices of the kitchen, and the study of ele- PRI gant literature. — A person of such energy and de- votion to the pursuit of knowledge could not but rise to distinction, and accordingly his great eminence procured his election as a member, till in due course he became rector, of the college. In 1615, he was appointed regius professor of divinity, with which office was then associated that of canon of Christ church, and afterwards he filled the high and more influential station of vice-chancellor for a series of years. His last and highest step in the ladder of preferment was his consecration to the see of Worcester in December, 1641. Amid all this dignity of station, however, he was not exempt from trouble, for his devoted loyalty to the cause of Charles I. exposed him to many hardships, and ultimately reduced him to such poverty that he was obliged to sell his library for the maintenance of himself and family. He was a man of mild, amiable, and unassuming manners, of great piety and such profound and extensive learning, that he was called by his contemporaries 'the Pillar of orthodoxy.' But he was withal the merest child as to know- ledge of the world, and so regardless of pecuniary matters, that he involved his family in great difficul- ties by his imprudence or carelessness about money. He died at Bredon in Worcestershire, 30th July, 1650, leaving to his children no legacy but ' God's blessing and a father's prayers,' as he expressed it in his will. [R-J-l PRIDEAUX, Humphrey, D.D., a divine of as great celebrity as the preceding, was born at Pad- stow in Cornwall in 1648. He began his education at Westminster school, from which he was sent to Oxford. He distinguished himself at that univer- sity by his scholastic acquirements; and it was during his residence there that he became author, by the publication of the ' Marmora Oxoniensa,' or the ancient inscriptions from the Arundelian mar- bles, a work which procured him the patron age of the lord chancellor Finch, afterwards earl of Notting- ham, through whom he was appointed a prebend, and afterwards dean of Norwich cathedral. Hav- ing become disabled through constitutional infir- mity from discharging the public duties of the ministry, he was obliged, under a conscientious sense of duty, to resign his offices in the church, and devote himself entirely to the cultivation of sacred literature. His ' Connection of the Old and New Testament with the History of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations,' and his ' Life of Ma- homet,' have long been held in high repute, and obtained an extensive circulation. He died No- vember, 1724. [R.J.] PRIESTLEY, Joseph, was born at Fieldhead, near Leeds, in 1733, where his father was a wool- len cloth manufacturer. From the poverty of his parents he obtained only a medium education ; but he became a dissenting preacher, and continued in this vocation with various degrees of success till 1767, when he settled in a chapel at Leeds, and commenced his great literary and chemical career. In perusing the works of this remarkable man it is impossible to fail being struck with his intense love of truth. In his scientific note-books he re- gisters every fact as it appeared to his senses | in his political and theological writings he fearlessly states his opinions as they are brought out by his cross-examination of bis own thoughts and medi- tations, and that liberty of independent thought 615 which he claims for himself, he determinedly de- mands for others. In his scientific career his object was uniformly to question nature by every experimental investigation, and to state Its as he obtained them. He laid the basis of the chemistry of the cases, and of those modes of investigation in the pneumatic branch of the science which are still pursued. He dis- covered a great variety of facts in this department tf the science. To him we are indebted for the knowledge of oxygen, binoxide of nitrogen, sul- phurousacid, fluosilicic acid, muriatic acid, am- monia, carburetted hydrogen, and carbonic oxide. England has produced few men endowed with L-v:it.T versatility of talent than Priestley. Whether we view him as a pneumatic chemist, a theologian, an electrician, a historian, a politician, his writings bear the impress of an original mind, uncontrolled by any tendency to follow in beaten tracks, hut constantly panting for new fields of in- n. It will 'ever remain a stain upon the name of England that this noble-minded man, this honour to humanity, should have been compelled by persecution, on account of his religion and politics, to flee his native country. He died in America in the year 1804. [R.D.T.] PEIEZAC, 1). De, a Fr. juriscons., 1590-16G2. PRILESZKY, J. B., a learned Hungarian Jesuit and bagiographer, born 1709. PRIMATIOIO, or LE PRIMATICE, F., an Italian architect and painter, 1490-1570. PRIMEROSE, Gilbert, a Scottish divine, chaplain to James I., and minister of the French church in London, author of ' Jacob's Vow,' and other theological works, died 1642. His son, ■ phvsician and medical wr., d. abt. 1660. PRINCE, J M a biographical writer, 1643-1723. PRINCE DE BEAUMONT, Madame Le, a French lady, settled as a teacher in England, au- thor of several works, died 1780. Her brother, John Baptist Le Prince, a painter, 1733-1781. PR INGLE, Sir John, a Scottish physician, eminent as a natural philosopher and professional writer, born 1707, president of the Royal Society 1772, died 1782. PRIXGLE, Thomas, a Scottish poet and mis- cellaneous writer, was born at Blacklaw, Teviot- dale, 1789. He began life as a clerk,, and having attracted the notice of Scott as a magazine writer, soon after adopted literature as a profession, and endeavoured to establish a newspaper at Edin- burgh. Failing in this, he emigrated to the Cape of Good Hope, and, returning to England in 1826, became secretary to the Anti-Slavery Society. He was afterwards known as editor of the popular annual, ■ Friendship's Offering,' and in 1834 pub- lished his 'African Sketches,' followed by his 'Nar- rative of a Residence in South Africa.' Died 1834. PRIXSEP, Jambs, an Asiatic antiquarian, sec- retarv to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, 1800-40. PRIOLO, 15., a French historian, 1602-1667. PRIOR, M a n 1 1 i.w, whose period of authorship was contemporary with the last years of Dryden and the earliest stage of Pope, was a pleasing poet, r or originality, but remark- able for his skill in versification, and his gay and easy imagery and diction. His occasional epi- grams and his lively but indecent tales, are his best productions; though there is merit, also, in his PRO semi-metaphysical poem ' Alma, or the Progress of the Soul,' and in his attempt at religious poetry in ' Solomon.' His poems were only the recreations of a man actively engaged in public life. Born in 1664, he was the son of a joiner in London. Ac- cident having directed the attention of Lord Dorset to the boy's studious habits, education was procured for him ; and, on leaving Oxford, he distinguished himself, under the government of King Wiliiam, as a dexterous diplomatist in several foreign missions. Deserting his political party, like so many men of higher rank in that slippery time, he shared, in the latter part of his life, the vicissitudes and dangers of the Tories. He lived till 1721. ( W.S.] PRIOR, T., an Irish economist, 1679-1751. PRISCIAN, a famous Roman grammarian, master of a school at Constantinople, 4th century. PRISCILLIAN, a Spanish heresiarch of the fourth century. The errors which misled him had been imported by one Marcus from Egypt. Pris- cillian had both wealth and influence, so that his conversion gave eclat to the novel heresy, and not a few were seduced by his eloquence and ex- ample. After long contests, the matter was brought for judgment before a council at Saragossa, in 380, and the most prominent of the sect were ex- communicated. That Priscillian might have a sacred shield thrown over him, he was made by his sect bishop of Avila. By a rescript of Gratian, the party was condemned and banished, though the decree was afterwards recalled. Under Gratian's successor, Maximus, the Priscillianist leaders and bishops were summoned to Bourdeaux for trial. Priscillian himself appealed to the emperor, and the business was committed to Evodius, a minister of state. The spiritual offence was brought before a civil tribunal, and at Treves, in 385, Priscillian was put to the rack, and induced to make sad con- fessions, not only of error, but of hideous impurities. At length he was executed, and the sword of per- secution fell upon his adherents, who flourished for a season in spite of the cruelties to which they were subjected. The heresy of Priscillian was a strange mixture of Gnostic and Manichaean ab- surdities, combined with allegorical interpretations and mystical rhapsodies. Sabellianism, or the denial of a personal distinction in the Godhead, was a further characteristic of the system. The sect were also severe ascetics, and necessarily so from their opinions of the origin and essence of matter, and, therefore, the accusation of their indulging in lasciviousness and unnatural lusts seems an inven- tion of their opponents. But they held a loose morality in reference to the obligation of speaking truth, and resorted to dissimulation in the diffusion and defence of their dogmas. f J.E.I PRITCHARD, H., an English actress, 1711-68. PRITZ, J. G., a German divine, 1662-1732. PROBUS, Marcus Aurelius Valerius, a native of Pannonia, who served in the Roman army, and became emperor after the death of Taci- tus 276. He distinguished himself by several vic- tories over the barbarians in Gaul, and was killed by his mutinous soldiers 282. PROBUS, M. V., a Latin grammarian, 2d cent. PROCACCINI, Andrea, a pupil of Carlo Ma- ratti, Dainter to the king of Spain, 1667-1734. PROCACCINI, Ercole, an hist&rical painter of Bologna, born 1520, died about 1591. His three 616 PRO sons were his pupils : — Camillo, one of the first artists of that age, 1546-1626. Giulio Cesare, a tine imitator of Correggio, 1548-1626. Carlo Antonio, celebrated for his landscapes, fruits, and flowers, dates unknown. The son of the latter, called Ercole the Younger, studied under his uncle, Giulio Cesare, and painted flowers with great skill, 1596-1676. PROCIDA, Giovanni Di, a native of Palermo, chief of the conspiracy against the French known as the ' Sicilian Vespers,' about 1225-1302. PROCLUS, born at Byzantium 412 a.c. ; died at Athens 485. Esteemed by some the most powerful thinker of the Alexandrian School — an opinion in which we cannot concur. His works, however, are very numerous : an excellent edition of many of them, we owe to M. Cousin. PROCLUS, patriarch of Constantinople, d. 447. PROCOPE-COUTEAU, the received name of M. Coltelli, a French physician and dramatic writer, 1684-1753. PROCOPIUS, a martyr and saint, 4th century. PROCOPIUS, a Greek theologian, 5th century. PROCOPIUS, a Greek historian, 6th century. PROCOPIUS, Demetrius, a Greek writer, author of an account of the learned Greeks of ancient times, last century. PROCOPOWITSCH, Feophan, called the Russian Chrysostom, an archbishop of Novogorod, 1681-1736. PRODICUS of Ceos, afterwards settled in Athens; where, in the times of Socrates, he pro- fessed Wisdom, and taught like the other Sophists. His success, in one sense, was great ; for he accu- mulated a large fortune — having adapted his terms to all classes of purchasers ; — the poor man had his lesson for one drachma, while the rich were charged fifty drachmas a-head. Prodicus also, fell under the lash of Aristophanes ; and it is understood that, for the crime of Atheism, he was condemned to the fate of Socrates ; — most strange association ! — Respecting Prodicus himself, there is a certain dispute : the general rumour from An- tiquity being, that his life was not a pure one, and that the money acquired by the teaching of Vir- tue, was dissipated by Pleasure. Mr. Grote, the accomplished historian, has recently questioned this, on grounds, some of which appear of weight, but do not, as a whole, carry full conviction. To Prodicus, it is true, we owe that famous apologue — the Choice of Hercules. It is not safe, however, to infer from any abstract teaching concerning Virtue, the character of the Teacher: it is rather the character of the Teacher that gives value to the Teaching; insomuch, that even an imperfect teaching, provided it presents the sincerity of its source, will ever contain more to instruct and elevate, than extremest purism, which is only — words or prudery. Neither must the incul- cation of abstention from what is called worldly Jdeasure, or of asceticism, in any form, be con- bunded with the Teaching of Virtue. True vir- tue consists in the influence of habits on the Soul ; and its chief characteristic is, the purpose for which either knowledge or habits are striven for. The celebrated sneer ot Gibbon — That the virtues of the clergy are more dangerous to society than their rices — strikes deeper perhaps than that acute philosopher thought. Certainly the Asceticism PRO in his eye, was the efficient cloak of all practical vice : but who can misinterpret even the sincere asceticism, and almost unparalleled devotion of the Jesuit, or discern in it, aught other than the sacri- fice of his own being— just as he would sacrifice the whole world — to an immoral and most hazardous lust of Dominion ? — The question now started is vastly more important, than in its bearing on the personal character of Prodicus. It involves, the entire problem regarding the position of the ' Sophists ; ' a class of Teachers in Athens, of which Prodicus may be taken as a supreme instance. That these Teachers formed no School is unquestionable; and it was only the sheerest folly, and a gross libel on the Athenian people, through which, they were ever imagined, banded, by malice prepense, to unfold and make popular an ' Art of Lying.'' The persons so called, had little connection with each other, taught varying and often opposing doctrines, and assuredly they be- lieved — in a sense — what they taught. — Let us look more minutely at the phenomenon. — And first, as to the so-called 'Art of Lying.' _ On nothing does greater confusion of thought exist in society, than with respect to the import of the phrase — '■Speaking Truth. 1 It is the meanest who in any age choose to distribute what they know to be false ;— even although it has become a question of strange casuistry, how far the false in Fact, may be Truth in principle and reality. Truth-speaking is not synonymous with the utterance of our existing convictions: it involves in- extricably, the far profounder question, — with what impartiality, under what solicitudes of conscience, have these convictions been acquired ? And this again touches on the still deeper Inquiry — In what spirit, and for what purpose may the Soul of Man present itself — as a recipient — before the great Universe? Suppose, for instance, that Truth or Knowledge is sought, merely as an arm whereby to accomplish some specific external purpose, is there much reason to believe that either will be attained in their purity ? If Virtue is sought, so that it subserve Power ; and Knowledge, so that it enable its pos- sessor to acquire social or professional standing, is it likely that the quest for either will be successful? Are the conditions of any actual country or phase of civilization, so full and absolute, that the Mind in its search for Truth, may safely say, that it desires, and will receive nothing except what can be turned to account, under these conditions ? Now the so- called Sophists or public Teachers of Athens, pub- licly avowed the purpose of enabling young men to obtain power in the State. This, was the coveted prize — the profession prepared for ; — and in subservience to this end, and to no other, they taught. One thing only, could follow : the effort after knowledge became a struggle for effect ; the pursuit of truth, the culture of Rhetoric ; con- tests of words, obscured the importance of things : and Conscience is like the unsunned snow ; — let a breath touch it, and its virgin whiteness disappears. —But, if this state of things was fatal to the dis- cernment of Truth, much more certainly, did it render growth in Wisdom, impossible. Wisdom is the property of harmony and nobility of Soul ; and no more the result of Knowledge per se. than of the exercise of the meanest mechanical employment. The assertion may seem harsh, if 617 PRO not paradoxical; but ask History— nay, circum- snice. Docs knowledge emancipate? Are special acquirements, coveted for special ends, the very slightest guarantee against a poorness of sentiment MM heart, of which one finds the exact congener among the rudest and most illiterate ? — In this -., it would appear, lay the error of the j ovular Teachers of Athens; and — with what- ever individual exceptions — where have ever lived any extensive class of Teachers, who, at these Sophists are entitled to cast a stone? The pure and large Mind of SOOBATBS perceived the destructive error; and against it, his life was a pro- tot.— 'Make vourself virtuous and noble,' was • mi your mm will come'! A message so terrible and overturning, that it has never been delivered in any age even in part, without ruin to the Prophet. " In Athens it led to Death : but in Athens it was heard, and permitted to ini- tiate a Revolution. In that great Democracy, the Prophet had to contend with Men, but not with Institutions; therefore, although he fell, he suc- L (Article Socrates). [J.P.N.] PRODICUS, a heretic of the 2d century. PROKOPH1EV, Ivan Prokophievitsch, a famous Russian sculptor, 1758-1828. PRONY, Gaspard C. F. Marie, Baron De, a learned engineer, physician, and mathematician, professor at the polytechnic school, 1755-1839. PROPERTIES, Sextus Aurelius, a Latin poet, of the age of Ovid and Virgil, who shared witli them the friendship of Maecenas, d. about 12. PROSPER, St., a learned theologian and his- torian of the 5th century, known for nis opposition to the Pelagians. He was a native of Aquitaine, and survived Augustine, to whom he wrote in 427. Another Pbobpeb, who lived about the same time, was a native of Africa, and wrote on the call of the Gentiles. A third, called Prosper Pito, was a poet and chronicler, and lived in Gaul towards the end of the 4th century. His works are often confounded with those of St. Prosper. PROTAGORAS ; one of the most celebrated of those Teachers of Athens, called Sophists. We have spoken of them under the article Prodicus. In its chief features, the philosophy of Protagoras, resembled that of Locke. He denied the Absolute ; and his maxim was that Man, or each Man, is the ■ of all Truth. PBOTOGENE8, a Greek painter, 336 B.C. PROUDHON, J. B. V., a Fr. jurist, 1758-1838. PBOVENZALE, Marcello, an artist in eel. for his portrait of Paul V., 1575-1639. PROYART, L. B., a Fr. histor., abt. 1743-1808. PRUDENTIUS, Aurelius, a Christian, and native of Spain, author of valuable poems, b. 348. PRUDHOMM E, L., a Fr. journalist, au. of 'The Errors and Crimes of the Revolution,' 1752-1830. PRUDHON, P. P., a Fr. painter, 1760-1823. I'RYCE, William, a physician and mineralo- gist, author of a Cornish Vocabulary and Gram- in.ir, last century. PRYNNE, William, famous in the history of English puritanism, was born of a good family at Swanswick, in Somersetshire, 1600, and became a PRY the courts of high commission had reduced England to a despotism equal to that of France, while the manners of the age were a scandal to religion and good morals. Marshall, Manton, Calamy, Burton, and other preachers in London, kept alive the spirit of earnest piety and love of freedom, which soon after produced the commonwealth — when the mere sight of Burton, as Neale remarks, was a sermon against oppression. Prynne, who was a person of sour temper and austere practices, re- markable for his indefatigable application to study, begun to write in 1627, and in 1632 he published his ' HistriomastixJ a tedious work of more than a thousand pages, full of learning and curious quota- tions, and written against plays, masks, dancing, and especially against women-actors. Some pas- sages in this work were supposed to be levelled against the queen, who had acted in a pastoral performed at Somerset House ; and the language of the book was certainly, like most others of that age, anything but refined and complimentary. The real cause of offence in the eyes of Archbishop Laud, who originated the prosecution against Prynne, was, of course, far other than this libellous matter, namely, the opposition of Prynne and his entire party to the Arminian system and the juris- diction of the bishops. The information included both the aspersions of the author against the queen and the lords of the council, for their share in the diversions of the age, and his commendation of ' factious persons.' The cause was tried before the Star Chamber, and the condemnation of Prynne was a matter of course. After a full hear- ing he was sentenced to have his book burnt by the common hangman, to be degraded from the bar, and turned out of the society of Lincoln's Inn, to be degraded at Oxford, to stand twice in the pillory, at Westminster and Cheapside, and to lose one of his ears at each place, to pay a fine of £5,000, and then to be imprisoned for life. This must have been a moderate sentence in the eves of some of the lords of the council, for the earl of Dorset addressed their prisoner in these words : — 1 Mr. Prynne, I declare you to be a schism-maker in the church, a sedition-sower in the common- wealth, a wolf in sheep's clothing; in a word, omnium malorum neguissimus. I shall fine him £10,000, which is more than he is worth, yet less than he deserves. I will not set him at liberty, no more than a plagued man or a mad dog, who, though he can't bite will foam ; he is so far from being a social soul that he is not a ra- tional soul. He is fit to live in dens with such beasts of prey as wolves and tigers like himself; therefore, I condemn him to perpetual imprison- ment ; and for corporal punishment I would have him branded in the forehead, slit in the nose, and have his ears chopped off.' The sentence was exe- cuted, and the general raid against nonconformists caused many to seek refuge in Holland. In 1636 Prynne, though in prison, wrote another book, entitled ' News from Ipswich ' against the system of Laud, (see Laud), and being condemned again to another fine of £5,000, and to lose the remain- der of his ears, had the very stumps hacked off, barrister at law, and member of Lincoln's Inn at and was branded on both cheeks in the presence the time when Dr. Preston, a celebrated puritan divine, was lecturer there. It was the period when the illegal operations of the Star Chamber, and of indignant thousands, on the 30th of June, 1657. In this last sentence Burton the famous preacher, and Bastwickthe physician, were included with him, 618 PRZ and the former was accompanied on his road to prison by a vast concourse of the populace. In 1640 Prynne was chosen member of the long parliament for Newport, and was then released by order of the House of Commons, together with his fellow-suf- ferers, and they entered London in the midst of a triumphant procession which met them some miles from town. The House of Commons likewise voted them money in compensation, which they never got, in consequence of the disturbed state of the times. The cruel punishment these men had undergone ex- cited the spirit of the nation, and prepared it for the change of government, yet Prynne was no party to those measures, and when Colonel Pride took possession of the house, he was among the ex- cluded members ; he also published a ' Memento ' against the trial of the king, for which he was im- prisoned by the parliament. His subsequent his- tory is that of an enemy of Cromwell, and having joined in the restoration of Charles II., he was ap- pointed chief keeper of the records in the Tower, and died in that office at his chambers in Lincoln's Inn, 1669. Wood calculates that he wrote a sheet of MS. for every day of his lifetime after reaching man's estate. ' His custom was, when he studied, to put on a long quilted cap, which came an inch over his eyes, serving as an umbrella to defend them from too much light ; and seldom eating a dinner, would every three hours or more be munch- ing a roll of bread, and now and then refresh his exhausted spirits with ale. editor of Neale) Butler seems to allude in his address to his muse : — ' Thou that with ale or viler liquors Didst inspire Withers, Prynne, or Vicars, And teach them, though it were in spite Of nature and their stars, to write.' His works amount to forty volumes, folio and quarto. The most valuable, and a very useful f>erformance, is his ' Collection of Records ' in four arjre volumes. [E.R.] PRZEMYSLAS, a king of Poland, who seized the crown on the death of Lesko VI. 1295, and was assassinated 1296. PRZIPCOVIUS, Samuel, a Polish statesman and zealot of the Socinians, b. abt. 1592, d. 1670. PSALMANAZAR, George, generally regarded as the assumed name of a singular character, known to the literary world in the time of Dr. Johnson, who at one period associated with him. He is supposed to have been born in France about 1679. He was the principal author of the ' Uni- versal History,' and wrote a volume of Scriptural essays, a version of the Psalms, and his own Me- moirs. Died 1763. PSAMMENITUS, the last Egyptian king named by Herodotus, sue. his father, Amasis, B.C. 525, deposed by Cambyses after a reign of six months. PSAMMIS, a king of Egypt, 599-594 B.C. PSAMMETICHUS, aking of Egypt, who reigned fifty-four years, during fifteen of which he was compelled to divide his power with eleven other sovereigns. He reigned alone from 652 to 614 B.C., and was succeeded by his son, Necho. Ano- ther Psammetichus reigned 400-397 b.c A king of Corinth, of the same name, reigned 585- 582 b.c, after whose time the republican form of government was established. PSAMMUS, a king of Egypt, 819-810 B.C. PTO PSAMMUTHIS, a kin? of Egypt, 380-379 B.C. PSAUME, N., a French theologian, 1518-1575. PSELLUS, Michel Con'stantine, a Greek physician, known as a classical commentator and mathematician, about 1105. Another Psellus, called Michael the Elder, wrote a work, ' De Operatione Dasmonum,' in the 9th century. PSINACHES, a king of Egypt, who is said to have reigned from 1021 to 1013 b.c PSUSENNES, the jirst of the name, king of Egvpt, 1077-1037 B.C. The second, 1013-979 b.c PSYCHRISTUS, a physician of the 5th cent. PTOLEMY (Soter) I., king of E^ypt, natural son of Philip of Macedon, and an officer of Alex- ander the Great, succeeded to the government of Egypt on the death of the latter b.c 324. He took the title of king 307, and raised the new capital of Egypt to the highest importance as the centre of commerce and learning. The museum and library founded by him gave birth to the fam- ous Alexandrian school. Died B.C. 283. Ptolemy (Philadelphus) II., eldest son of the preceding by Berenice, began to reign in conjunction with his father 285, and became sole king 283. His reign fully sustained the reputation of the former, especially by his generous patronage of letters, one example of which is the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures, which he caused to be exe- cuted. Died b.c 247. Ptolemy (Euergetes) _ III., son and successor of the preceding, continued To this (says the his policy, and earned his victorious arms into Syria, Cilicia, and the whole country to the shore of the Euphrates. He restored the idols and much of the wealth ravished by Cambyses, and died, after a short reign, b.c 222 or 221. Ptolemy (Philopator) IV., son and successor of the pre- ceding, whom he was suspected of" having mur- dered, was a cruel and debauched character. He was named Philopator (lover of his father)., ironi- cally. He caused his wife, Arsinoe, who was also his sister, to be put to death, and sustained a furious war with Antiochus the Great, whom lie defeated near Gaza. Died B.c 205. Ptolemy (Epiphanes) V., son of the preceding, was born B.c 210, became king 205, and was poisoned by his courtiers 180. He brought the Romans into Egypt by appealing to them for protection against Antiochus the Great. He left three children — Ptolemy Philometor, Ptolemy Physcon, and Cleo- patra, who was successively the wife of her two brothers. Ptolemy (Philometor) VI., son of the preceding and Cleopatra of Svria, was bora B.C. 186, commenced his reign at the age of five years 181, protected by his mother. He was de- feated by Antiochus, and compelled to admit his brother to a share in the government 171. Died of his wounds, fighting against Alexander Balas in Syria, 146. Ptolemy (Euergetes) VII., brother of Philometor, became guardian of the young king, Ptolemy Eupator, and the year after superseded him on the throne by espousing the queen mother, Cleopatra, 145. He then killed Eupator, and con- tinued his reign, stained with debaucheries and cruelty, till 117 or 116 b.c Ptolemy (Soter) VIII., son of the preceding and Cleopatra, suc- ceeded 116, and sustained a war against his mother, who preferred her other son, Ptolemy IX., till 106. After the death of Cleopatra and the expul- sion of Ptolemy IX., who had usurped the throne 619 no he assumed the sovereign authority, and in 8^. died 81 b.c. He left the crown to his daughter, Berenice, called also Cleopatra. Ptolemy (Alex- am'i 1:) IX.. second son of Ptolemy VII. and CTtHmatra , usurped the kingdom a short time dur- ing the reign of the preceding, and was dethroned, alter murdering his mother Cleopatra, 88. Pto- ii.my (Ai .i-xaxi>i:i:) X., son of the preceding, succeeded Ptolemy VIII. 81, under the patronage Of the Romans in the time of Sylla. He married Berenice Cleopatra, whom he caused to be assassi- nated, for which he was himself massacred after a reign of nineteen days. Ptolemy (Auletes) XI., a natural son of Ptolemy VIII., was the only descendant of this line of princes after the tragedy just mentioned. He assumed the royal authority but was not acknowledged king till 59. was obliged to fly from Alexandria, and was in Rome, soliciting assistance to re-establish t ill 55. He was then restored by Gabinius, the governor of Syria and lieutenant-general of Pompev, and died 52. Ptolemy (Dionysius) XII., eldest son of the preceding, succeeded to the throne conjointly with his sister, Cleopatra, under the protection of Pompey, 52. He became a parti- zan of Caesar in the civil wars, and after the battle of Pliarsalia caused Pompey to be assassinated, who sought refuge in his states, 48. Aspiring to be sole king, he then took arms against Cassar, who had decided that Cleopatra should continue to reign with him, and was drowned in the Nile while flying from the field of battle, e.c. 47. Pk a. i.m y XIII., younger brother of the preceding, was eleven years of age when Cleopatra was left sole mistress of Egypt by his death. She was compelled to marry him by Caesar, and he reigned with her till his death, 44 or 43 B.C. Ptolemy ;iox) XIV., an illegitimate son of Caesar and Cleopatra, obtained the title of king from the Roman triumvirs, B.C. 42. He was killed by order of Augustus at the age of eighteen, B.C. 30. PTOLEMY, two kings of Macedonia: — theirs/, mrnamei A forties, a natural son of Amnyntas II., usurped the throne to the prejudice of his brother, Perdiccas, B.C. 371, and was dethroned by Pelo- pidas 368. The second, surnamed Craunus, eldest son of Ptolemy Soter and Euridice, succeeded B.C. 264, and was killed in battle with the Gauls 280. PTOLEMY APION, king of Cyrene, and all the Libyan dependencies of Egypt, was a son of Ptolemy VII. and his mistress Irene, and suc- ceeded 117 or 116 B.C. by the will of his father. He died b.c. 96, and bequeathed his estates to the Romans, who declined the bargain for a time, and gave the people their liberty. PTOLEMY PHILADELPHIA, a son of An- tony and Cleopatra, was made king of Syria, Pboenicia, and Cilicia, by his father B.C. 32. He Dover reigned, however, but lived at the court of Juba, king of Numidia, having iirst graced the triumph of Augustus together with his brother, Al'-xander, and his sister Cleopatra. PTOLEMY, king of Cyprus, a natural son of Ptolemy VI 1 1., succeeded to tbe sovereignty of that island at the death of his lather n.c. 81. The Romans having resolved to reduce his kingdom to a province, he was poisoned B.C. 58. PTOLEMY, king of Mauritania, son of Juba II. and Cleopatra, daughter of Mark Antony and PUF of the last Cleopatra of Egypt, began to reign 19 or 20 B.C. Killed by order of Caligula a.d. 40. PTOLEMY, one of the petty sovereigns who reigned in Syria after the fall of the Seleucides, suc- ceeded his father, Menneus, probably as grand priest, 86 B.C. After the conquest of Mithridates the Great, he was protected by Pompey, and died about 21 B.C. He was succeeded by his son, Lysanias, at whose death the Lebanon sovereignty was given to Cleopatra, PTOLEMY, an Egyptian priest and historian, flourished in the reign of Augustus. PTOLEMY, Claudius, one of the most dis- tinguished men of Science of Antiquity : he lived during the first half of the second century ; and his works on Astronomy and Geography con- tinued authorities and text-books for fourteen hundred years. In consequence of the close con- nection between Ptolemy and Hipparchus, whose discoveries he reported, and whose labours he con- tinued, it is difficult to detect Ptolemy's proper deservings : but Delambre has evidently done him injustice from a desire to exalt Hipparchus. The larger portion of the Planetary theory, as that was represented by the scheme of Epicycles, is unques- tionably due to him; and his great work — the Almagest, or Syntax, is the only complete syste- matic work on Astronomy which the ancient world produced. As a geographer, Ptolemy is distin- guished from Straho: the work of the latter is confined to descriptive geography; while that of Ptolemy is mathematical. A very admirable edition of it has recently appeared in Germany. The Astronomical and Chronological works of Ptolemy, along with the Commentaries of Theon, were edited and published along with a French translation, in six handsome quarto volumes, by the Abbe Halma. [J.P.N.] PTOLEMY of Lucca, the ecclesiastical name assumed by Baktolomeo Fiadoxi, an historian, 14th century. PUBITSKA, F., a Bohemian hist., 1722-1807. PUBLICOLA, Publius Valerius, successor of Collatinus as consul and founder of the Roman republic, 509 b.c, died 501. PUBLIUS SYRIUS, a Latin poet or dramatist, of whose writings some fragments, or moral sen- tences, are preserved in the works of Seneca. He was a native of Syria, and went to Rome in the condition of a slave about 50 B.C. PUCCI, F., an Italian theologian, died 1600. PUCELLE, R., a French lawyer, 1655-1746. PUCELLE. See Joan of Aijc. PUFFENDORF, Samuel, a historian, jurist, and naturalist, was born at Chemnitz in Saxony in the year 1632. He was educated at Leipzig for the protestant ministry, but the bent of his mind was in another direction. Through the in- strumentality of his elder brother he entered the diplomatic service of Sweden. In the course of his duty he was detained at Copenhagen during a rupture between Sweden and Denmark, and it is said to have been during this period of forced leisure that he turned from the practice to the theory of diplomacy and international relations. In the year 1660 he published his well-known ' Elementa Jurisprudential Universalis,' and twelve years afterwards, the still better known ' De Jure Natural et Gentium.' He wrote some 620 PUG historical works, chiefly directed to gratify his crowned employes, which have only heen known because they were written by the anthor of the treatise on the law of nature and nations. This work owed its existence in a great measure to the original labours of Grotius. Puffendorf had a clear and systematic mind, and a great capacity for seeing and developing views which were rational and plausible, if not profound. In this he re- sembled the Scottish school of philosophers with whom his works, and especially a small ethical Treatise ' De Officio Hominis et Civis,' were deemed of great authority. His views on the anomalous position of the German empire created a vast controversy, and such political influence as it has been rare for theoretical writers to create. He died at Berlin, where he had been ennobled by the elector of Brandenbureh, in 1694. [J.H.B.] PUGATSCHEFF, Jemeljan or Yemelka, a Cossack general, who obtained military rank in the Prussian and Austrian armies, and afterwards passed himself off as Peter III., emperor of Russia. He took the Beld in 1773, and, soon at the head of 16,000 men, he was marching on Moscow, when he was betrayed and executed 1775. PUGET, L. De, a French naturalist, 1629-1709. PUGET, Peter, one of the greatest artists produced by France, distinguished as a sculptor, architect, painter, and ship-builder, 1622-1694. His son, Francis, an architect and painter, d. 1707. PUGHE, William Owen, a Welch literateur, author of a Lexicon and other works, 1760-1835. PUGIN, A., a French designer, died 1832. PUGIN, Augustus Northmore Welby, was the son of a French gentleman who fled to England at the period of the revolution. He was born in 1811, and commenced his professional career as a scene painter and decorator at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden : he published his first work, on • Gothic Furniture,' in 1835, and ' The Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament ' in 1844. Died 1852. PUISAYE, Count Joseph De, a French officer of noble family, who sat as a deputy in the states- general, and, being proscribed by the republic, in- duced the English government to undertake the expedition to Quiberon ; died in England 1827. PUISSANT, L., a Fr. geometrician, 1769-1843. PUJOL, A., a Fr. medical writer, 1739-1804. PUJOULX, J. B., a dramatist, 1762-1821. PULCHERIA, jElia, saint and empress of the East, was daughter of Arcadius and Eudoxia. She was born at Constantinople 399, and governed the empire under the name or her brother, Theodosius, from the age of fifteen to the year 447, when she was disgraced. After the death of Theodosius in 450, she was proclaimed empress, and ruled with Marcianus, whom she married, till her death in 453. She was a woman of exemplary conduct, and has the credit of assembling the council of Chalcedon in 451. PULCI, Luizi, an Italian poet, 1431-1487. PULGAR, F. De, a Spanish historian, 1436-86. PULIGO, D., an Italian painter, 1475-1527. PULLUS, or PULLER, R., an English cardinal, who restored the university of Oxford, 12th cent. PULTENEY, R., a dist. botanist, 1730-1801. PULTENEY, William, earl of Bath, descended from an old family of Leicestershire, was born 1682, and commenced his career in parliament in PUR 1705. He became a privy councillor and secre- tary of war at the accession of George I., being then a friend and partizan of Walpole. He after- wards became the enemy of that minister, and was associated with Bolingbroke as editor of the Crajts- man. Died 1764. PULZONE, S., an Italian painter, 1550-1588. PUNT, J., a Dutch painter, 1711-1779. PUPIENUS. See Maximus Clodius. PURCELL, Henry, the greatest of English musicians, was bom in 1658, as it is believed, in Westminster. His father and uncle were both musicians, and gentlemen of the Chapel Royal at tiic Restoration. It is known that Purcell's father c ; ed in 1664, so that the young musician could not have received much benefit from his instructions. It is not a little to be wondered at that there is no account of from whom he received his first lessons in musical art, though from the circumstance that he was entered as one of the children of the chapel when Cook was master, it is inferred that he had under him commenced his education. He is sup- posed, also, to have received lessons from Pelham Humphreys, and afterwards from Dr. Blow, on whose tombstone was inscribed that he had been ' master to the famous Mr. Henry Purcell.' While still a boy, Purcell composed several Anthems that were thought worthy of being performed, and some of these juvenile essays in composition are in use in the English cathedrals to the present time. At eighteen years of age he was appointed organist at Westminster Abbey ; and at twenty-four he was promoted to one of the three places of organist to the Chapel Royal. After this his fame was spread far and wide, and his sacred compositions were sought after with greediness and listened to with a feeling akin to religious rapture. From this period until thirty years after his death, his songs took precedence of all others, and only at length gave way before the fashionable operatic songs of the greater Handel. The works of Purcell embrace every species of composition then known, and all were far beyond those of his contemporaries. Pur- cell's first dramatic writings were to the songs in Nahum Tate's ' Dido and iEneas.' He afterwards composed music for Nat Lee's ' Theodosius, or the Force of Love,' which was performed at the Duke's theatre in 1690. In the same year he composed music for the 'Tempest.' In 1691 he set the songs of Dryden's, ' King Arthur' to original music. In 1692 « The Indian Queen,' by Sir R. Howard and Dryden was brought out with music by Purcell. He next wrote music for D'Urfey's 'Don Quixote,' In D'Urfey's ' Pills to Purge Melancholy' several of his songs are published, as also iu Playford's ' Singing Master.' In 1695 he composed music for 'Boadicea.' He also wrote airs, overtures, and interludes for many dramas. He composed throe cantatas, two of which ' Mad Bess ' and ' From Rosy Bowers,' are still ranked as unrivalled works of their kind. After his death, which happened in November, 1695, his widow collected and published his works in 2 volumes folio, under the title of ' Orpheus Britannicus.' It is said of Purcell ' that his anthems far exceed in number those of ;uiy other composer, and would alone have furnished sufficient employment for a moderately active mind, and a life of average duration.' Purcell's remain! were deposited in Westminster Abbey, where a G21 PUR tablet to his memory may be seen, with the follow- lition, said" to be from the pen of Dry- den :— ' Hire lies Henry Purcell, Esq., who left thia life, and is gone to' that blessed place, where l ..\vn harmony can be exceeded. Obiit. •Jlmo die Novembris, Anno artatis suae 37mo Annoq. Domini 1095.' [J.M.] PURCHAS, Samuel, a native of Essex, editor of a collection of vova^es and travels, abt. 1577-1628. PURE, M. De, a French writer, 1634-1680. PURI, D., a Swiss philanthropist, 1709-1786. PURI, J. P., a Swiss traveller, last century. PURVER, Anthony, a poor rustic of Hamp- shire, who mastered the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin n and executed an English version of the Scriptures, which was printed at the cost of Dr. Fothergill. While engaged in these studies he settled at Andover as a schoolmaster, and finally became a preacher among the quakers. Born about 1702, died 1777. PUSCHKIN, A. S.. a Russian poet, 1799-1837. PUSSORT, H., a French jurist, 1615-1697. PUTTEN, Henry Van Der, called in Latin Ericirus I'uteanus, and in French Dupuy, a learned Dutch writer and poet, 1574-1646. PUTTENHAM, George, an Oxford scholar, kn. as a poet in the age of Elizabeth, d. abt. 1600. IT ITER, J. S., a Germ, publicist, 1725-1807. PUY, A. J. Du. a Fr. statesman, 1753-1832. PUY, H. Du. See Putten. PUY, Louis Du, a Fr. literateur, 1709-1795. PUY, Pierre, Du, a learned French antiqua- rian, historian, and theologian, 1582-1651. 1TY-SEGUR, James De Chastenet, Vis- count De, a French officer, who was at thirty battles and a hundred and twenty sieges without ever receiving a wound. He was born in 1600, and is author of Memoirs relating to the period, 1617 to 1658 ; died 1682. His son, James Francis, commander-in-chief in the French Netherlands and marshal of France, author of 'The Art of War,* 1 CJ.3-17-13. The son of the latter, Francis Maxim is De Chastenet, Marquis de Puysegur, a lieutenant-general, and writer on church pro- perty and the military art in China, 1716-1782. His second son, Anthony Hyacinthe Anne De Cwusn i.m.i De Puysegur, better known as the Count de Chastenet, a navigator and archaeologist, 1752-1802. P. L. De Chastenet, Comte De Puysegur, son of the marshal, an officer and minister of war, 1727-1807. J. Augustus, brother of the latter, a distinguished prelate and deputy of the estates -general, 1740-1803. Armand Marie .Ia.mes, son of the minister of war, camp- marshal and physician, famous for his zeal in the propagation of animal magnetism, 1782-1825. PI ZOS, N., a French accoucheur, 1686-1753. PUY, or PVE, II. J., a native of London, suc- cessor of Wharton as poet-laureate, 1745-1813. PYLE, Thomas, a minister of the Church of England, known as a Scripture commentator, and partizan of Hoadley in the Bangorian contro- versy, 1674-1 7.0*;. PVM, John, member for Tavistock in all the parliaments of Charles I., and leader of the House of Commons during the struggle preceding the parliamentary wars, was born in Somersetshire, 1584, and educated at Oxford. He was the orator of the day, and such was his popularity, that he PYM was called « King Pym.' The events which mark his career fill a considerable space in English his- tory. In 1626-1628 he was among those who managed the impeachment of the duke of Buck- ingham and Dr. Manwaring — the latter for his ser- mon on the regal prerogative, in which he argued that the consent of parliament was not necessary for the levying of taxes, and that the Divine laws require implicit obedience to the king. In 1639 Pym and his party came into close relationship with the Scotch Covenanters. When the long parliament met, 3d November, 1640, he harangued them on the grievances of the nation, which they immediately took into consideration instead of the king's speech ; thus he was the Mirabeau of the English Tennis Court. About a week afterwards he made a more studied and more impetuous dis- course on grievances, and impeached the earl of Strafford not only of crimes against the state, but of immoralities ; he was also one of the managers of his trial, as, in short, he was always at the head of the public business, and knew more of parlia- mentary matters than any man living. In Febru- ary, 1641, he spoke against Archbishop Laud, on occasion of his impeachment, and after the execu- tion of that prelate he became chairman of the committee appointed by the House of Commons during the recess, which lasted from 9th September to 20th October, by which committee the sovereign authority was in some measure exercised. The next great event, beginning of 1642, was the im- peachment of the five members, Hollis, Hazlerig, Hampden, Pym, and Strode, who were demanded by the king for treasonable practices, and pro- tected by the city ; on this occasion the king left London, apprehensive of his personal safety. Pym, therefore, saw the commencement of the final struggle between Charles I. and his parlia- ment, but he died before any decisive advantage had been obtained, on the 8th of December, 1643, about a month after he had been appointed lieu- tenant of the ordnance. It was reported among the royalists that the cause of his death was mor- bus pediculosus; and in order to disprove this calumny his body was exposed for several days to the public gaze; afterwards, it was attended to the grave in Westminster Abbey by most of the lords and commons in parliament. Shortly before his death Pym published a ' Vindication ' of his con- duct. After alluding to the divisions fomented by the bishops, and their encouragement of the malignants, he adds : — ' For these reasons I gave my opinion for abolishing their functions, which I conceive may as well be done as the dissolution of monasteries, monks, and friars, was in King Henry the Eighth's time : ' he concludes with declaring that he was not the author of the present distrac- tions ; with acknowledging the king for his lawful sovereign; and with the honest conviction that when he was persecuted as a traitor merely for the service of his country, no man could blame him for taking care of his own safety by flying for refuge to the protection of parliament, who wete pleased to make his cause their own. The puritan Mar shall attended Pym's deathbed, and in the funeral sermon which he preached before parliament, passed the highest eulogium on the strict morality, piety, and serenity of the departed patriot and statesman. It is admitted that Pym was one of the 622 PYN first to urge the necessity of appealing to the sword. On the restoration of Charles II., Pym's body was dug up in Henry the Seventh's chapel, with those of about twenty others, including the gallant Admiral Blake, the mother of Cromwell, and his daughter Mrs. Claypole, and transferred to the neighbouring churchyard. He is said to have left several children, and his lady, who died in 1620, is reported to have been a highly accom- plished woman. [E.R.] PYNAKKER, A., a Dutch painter, 1621-1673. PYNSON, Richard. See Pinson. PYRA, J. E., a German poet, 1715-1744. PYRRHO, born at Elts, where he lived about the year 340 B.C. Plato was then dead : disputa- tions had arisen in the Academy, which had not had the fortune to obtain a second master : Aris- totle attacked it on all sides ; and philosophy was in confusion. In the midst of these quarrels, the remarkable person we have named arose, and proclaimed as the dogma of his Philosophy and his rule of Life — ' I know nothing about it and abstain.' Of a man who wrote nothing, and whose character must be gathered from scraps preserved by auditors, it is impossible to speak with decision ; but to his power over his contem- poraries, and, therefore, to nis genius, the singular embalmment of his name bears ample testimony. Great mistakes have prevailed regarding the doc- trines of Pyrrho: — notable Greeks had never so little common sense, as a personage like what he is vulgarly imagined to have been: — the stories about his doubting the evidence of his senses, and wilfully butting against any post or rock in his way, are simply absurd — even more so than those similar myths, once prevalent regarding our shrewd and sagacious compatriot David Hume ! We shall learn the nature of Pyrrho's scepticism, through reflection on his position. The scheme he propounded, or rather the resource to which he fled, was simply a tertium quid, in refer- ence to Affirmative and Negative systems, prevailing in his time. Now what were these? Nothing but the very conflict waging in philoso- phy around ourselves — the conflict, viz., between Idealism and Sensualism — between doctrines of the Absolute, and of the dependence of the Mind for all its functions, on the shows and events of ex- ternal Nature. There are two Schools, said Pyrrho, — whose systems, viewed from their differ- ent points of sight, appear equally probable ; and the relation of the strength of the arguments sustaining them seems to be — par. Is it not most likely then, that the problem sought to be resolved, is really insoluble by the human facul- ties and therefore, that the true position, of the sage, is one of Indifference ? In the principle of a Scepticism of this sort, there is certainly nothing ridiculous : it involves little more than we find in the Antinomies of Kant: assuredly it has firmer ground, than thousands of popular dogmatisms on either side. There is no reason whatever to suppose that l'vrrho's doctrines went beyond this : — he never denied subjective certainty, or sought to weaken the evidence of consciousness. — One cau- tion to the student may be repeated : — he ought in no case to credit the follies, attributed to these Speculative Greeks ; for, if eminently speculative, they were, in their quality of natural Artists, PYT eminently clear and practical also. There is a maxim of Coleridge's, which should, in no attempt at interpretation, be at any time lost sight of: — ' Never suppose that you understand a man's Ignorance, until you are sure that you are not iynorant of his Understanding.'' [J.P.N/j [Pyrrhus— from an Antique Bust.] PYRRHUS, son of JEcides, and king of Epirus, one of the most illustrious generals of antiquity, was born about 318 B.C., and was left an orphan in childhood under the protection of Glaucias, king of Illyria. He was placed on the throne of his ancestors by force of arms when about twelve years of age, and reigned peacefully five years, when advantage was taken of his absence to transfer the crown to his great uncle, Neoptolemus. After serving in the army of Alexander the Great, and greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301, Pyrrhus recovered his domin- ions, which he shared with his rival, and then caused the latter to be put to death. He next contended with the Romans for possession of the dominions of Alexander the Great, and became master of Macedon. Among his principal battles was that of 279 B.C. against the Roman consuls Sulpicius and Decius. He was killed, gallantly fighting, at the siege of Argos, B.C. 272. The life of Pyrrhus is one of the most interesting written by Plutarch. [ E - R -] PYTHAGORAS lived, according to the chron- ology of Clinton, about 570 b.c. Cicero tells us, he settled in Magna Graxia, in the fourth year of Tarquinius Superbus, or when Rome had begun to rise — between 520 and 530 B.C. : — One of the most august Forms of which we can descry any outline, through these long twenty-four cen- turies ; nor, if we reflect, how thickly the mists have settled around all acts and Actors of that far past, can it be wonderful, that, as if his Shadow only, is now to be discerned. — Before attempting to lay down on a modern canvas, even a space for that Shadow, we must consent to a few princi- ples of applicable historic criticism. And, foremost of all, it is imperative that we disconnect not only with Reality or Fact, but also with the pretensions, and therefore with the reputation of this memor- able Teacher, every shred of the marvellous that so soon got fastened to his name. Not merely the 623 PYT story of the golden thigh— a, myth of the vulgarest kiiui, and valuable only as evidence that such myths spring up and endure, — but also those manifold traditions concerning his supernatural instruction; tor assuredly in the tales of nis initia- tion in the cave of the Cretan Jupiter, or that his system of morals flowed direct from inspired lips at Delphi, there is nothing beyond incidents of travel occurring to one who thirsted for all know- ledge ; and disfigured through the slavish venera- tion of disciples, who, instead of being fed by his genius, succumbed to his authority, and slid insen- sibly into such modes as those, of rendering reason for their ultimate formula and final appeal — the muTtt iQr,. — Next, and with equal decision, we re- ject as binding on Pvthagoras, the logical schemes constructed by his followers, even so early as the times of Philolaus. The schools founded on the name of an illustrious Master, never retain his genius ; and as in default of power of Insight, and the difficult power of Thought, there remains the easy exercise of Logic, it uniformly befals — as already we have required to assert — that the letter of the original teaching becomes substituted for its spirit; symbols and figures of speech at first simple and catholic, are adduced in defence of mere dogmas and phantasms ; and — worst of all — effective and living Morals, toucliing on the prac- tical relations of Man with Society and God, are displaced by arid Theory. This is the process by which, in the words of a remarkable writer of our own day, Wisdom, is dried for sale and exporta- tion ; and has not its pestilence followed the steps of all mighty Instructors, whose feet have ever touched the soil of our World ? Let us not charge to Pvthagoras, that doctrine which defines the Physical World by the number five, — the Veget- able by the number six,— the Animal by seven, — Human Life by eight, — Ultramundane Life by nine, — and the Divine Life by the As**^ or Ten ! The Mind that has left so great a remembrance, and which fills that imposing portion of the sphere of Antiquity, did not gain its influence over the working Manhood by its time, through the concoc- tion or preaching of enigmas like these ! — Lastly: we must not approach these ancient philo- sophies, or undertake their interpretation, as if they were inherently mysterious, or different in kind, from the aspirations of great and sincere Thinkers of our own day :— The concealed lore of Egyptian priests, the secrets at Eleusis or Samo- thrace, were neither knowledge nor philosophies, but presumption and pretence, founded on the abuse of both. Greatness in Antiquity, is like Greatness now, — its foremost affection being for the simplicity of Truth ; and to the right appre- hension of what that Greatness was, there is no path save one. The Ingenuous alone can under- stand the Ingenuous: — The worthy Seeker, will ever carry along with him, faith in Greatness and reverence for it ; but this conviction, also, — that, to whatever extent careful criticism of the influ- ences and circumstances, within which an Ancient Teacher lived, does not enable us to trans- late his thoughts into the universal language of the Heart and Peason of Humanity, to that same extent must he be held as severed from nd therefore effaced from its Past. — Under such dim but guiding lights, let us, Ciii PYT as best we may, and with rapid crayon, proceed to sketch the features of the Crotonian statesman and sage. And first, — as to the position from which Pythagoras started. He could have no starting point except the fundamental Idea of the Ionian School, which, in an enlarged sense, is the fundamental Idea of all Greek philosophy — viz.: beneath the endless forms and singular changes of outward things, there is some great Unity or Principle, — just as the unfathomed and deep sound- ing ocean, rests underneath the billows that chase each other across its surface, and die in ripples on the shore. Now the Ionians, or the physical school, sought this principle in a common physical ele- ment; and, on the ground of imperfect observation, or ruder experiments, one imagined that the forms of substance could be traced to transforma- tions of Water; another to modifications of Air; and a third laid it down that Fire is the universal substance or Force. This form of the general conception, must be taken as our first systematic statement of that problem, which still occupies Chemical Analysts : it is the glory of Pythagoras, that he struck out a new mode of the same grand search, and laid the foundation of those Physical Sciences, which look not for elements, but relations, and, through these, for ultimate Laws — indicating primal Forces. The most consummate and inventive Mathematician of that epoch — he found in Numbers, the expression of the relation of Quantity, and in Geometry, an organ that could evolve the relations of Form. It were simply foolish to pretend, that he proceeded far, in the reduction of phenomena within such relations : but the idea of a possible science in this direction, took strong hold of his masculine intellect and Greek imagination ; and he embodied the convic- tion, in the dogma of his School. These convictions were deepened, and his conception of the charac- ter of the Universe vastly enlarged, by what we must consider either a most fortunate guess, or a capital discovery. Struck, as could not fail to a Samian, by that unsurpassed music, which had floated around him from infancy, in the chaunred Lyrics, and great Epics of Troy, he seems to have discerned that Harmony was representible by Number ; and hence the second fundamental be- lief of his Philosophy, that Harmony too is sacred, and one of the first principles of Things. It may not be said, that in the expression of truths so deep, an Inquirer, even sagacious as Pythagoras, must always have avoided fantastic expressions and mystical forms; but then his notions were correct at their root, and his faith a living and practical one : he looked at the scheme of Things around him, no longer as perplexing, but as a mighty order and a solemn music, and he bent in wonder and adoration ! Should the student desire a tangible and veritable Image of such a philo- sophy, he must not go to Philolaus, or Antiquarian Critics, but to the writings of John Kepler. He too, spoke strangely in his youth ; but those dreams about relation and'harmony, conducted him in the end to a *t»jak», u euu — to Laws which produced the epoch of Newton, and raised him into an ever- lasting Name. — The sage and Lawgiver of Crotona, Stands, however, towards the ancient and modern World alike, in a second aspect — one that shows him on a platform quite above any which belongs PYT to mere Speculative Physics. First, or at least most clearly in the Greek world, he felt and as- serted the indestructible personality of the Human Soul, and that the ground of its Existence, is its Moral State. Children laugh at the doctrine of the Metempsychosis; but observe what it really signifies, and the august verities it includes. It is an averment, in the first place, of the indepen- dence of the Ego, or of the Soul, not merely of surrounding and changing accidents, but of its present and apparent Life, — an idea, which, in its majestic proportions can take possession of no Mind, without making it great. Pythagoras, missed none of these proportions. The soul is measured by its moral conditions, and its fates and forms correspond with these. If it has done well its duty in its existing state, if it has been taught and elevated by experience, Death is the gate towards some loftier form and more ex- panded sphere : if, on the contrary, in the conflict of right and wrong, it has done the wrong, and stooped to be a slave of passion, what fate is pos- sible but descent, and the shape of grovelling creatures ? Be it remembered, this metempsychosis is our earliest practical representation of the no- tion of Immortality ; nor is there a truer account anywhere, at so primal an age, of Man's Moral re- lation with the Gods. The history of the Soul, indeed, is supposed confined to this Earth ; and therefore, the modes of Terrestrial Life, are taken as fully presenting that History. No sublime Revelation announcing a purely spiritual Exis- tence, had descended to illumine Pythagoras : and Worlds beyond this, were not then imagined ; — he knew not "that the lights of the midnight Vault are mighty Orbs, stretching upward and upward, away through serene Ether, and — through every variety of circumstance and condition — merg- ing into the Infinite. Surely it is no slight honour, and was enough to uphold his con- fidence that knowledge came to him from a Higher Source, that the mind of that illustrious Greek, reached so deep an insight, and could sus- tain so large a belief. — Realize now and combine the two foregoing conditions, — those warm and eager speculations concerning the Harmony of the Universe, and that profound conviction of Man's QUE large destinies, and the paramount import of his Moral Nature ; — could a great Soul possessed by both, remain in inaction, or be satisfied with mere speculative teaching? Pythagoras, appears to have added that highest attribute of Humanity — Wisdom, or the power practically to understand Mankind, and therefore to influence our Human Fates. Hence, his memorable effort in Magna Grsecia to found a new Moral Commonwealth — the first and the best Utopia, of which we have any record ; the excellence of its aim flowing from the character and principles of its Founder, and its sagacity demonstrated by its great success. Ignorance and external circumstance eventually prevailed to crush it ; but many ages elapsed, ere the fame of the great confederacy of Crotona, faded in Greece. We know little that is certain, of the positive laws of that Confederacy ; but its founda- tion was this, — as Harmony is the rule of Uni- versal Nature, and the cause of its Stability, so must it be the rule of all Human Societies, which fulfil their object and may reach permanence. It is not easy to refuse assent to such a conceptions neither can one overlook that while it involve; the germ of all Utopias, framed from that time untii now — it expresses also, that which, as it becomes realized, constitutes the history of Civili- zation. It is probable that Pythagoras, like his successors, hoped too much from mere laws and external conditions of Order, and trusted too little to that inner and unseen order, which ordains that the ultimate sum of the World, shall be worked out by the efforts, and even through the imperfec- tions of the Individual ; — nevertheless, his august Name must stand far up in that bright roll of Worthies, who have practically held by Reason, and not despaired of Humanity. — Let the great Shade, have all honour. [J.P.N.] PYTHEAS, a celebrated mathematician, astro- nomer, and geographer, born in the Greek colony of Marseilles, then called Massillia, in the time of Alexander the Great. He is famous for his voyages of discovery, which are said to have extended as far as Iceland. PYTHODORIS, a queen of Pontus, wife of Pole- mon I., and queen regent during the minority of her son, Polemon II., beginning of the Christian era. Q QUADE, M. F., a Prus. philologist, 1682-1757. QUADRATUS, a bishop of Athens, known as one of the early apologists for Christianity, 2d ct. QUADRIO, Francis Xavier, a learned Italian Jesuit, author of a ' History of Poetry,' 1695-1756. QUAGLIATI, Paolo, the earliest dramatist who introduced music on the stage at Rome, 1606. QUAGLIO, G., an Italian painter, eel. abt. 1693. QUAGLIO, Lorenzo, a native of Italy, who accompanied his father to Vienna, and was edu- cated and practised there as an architect, 1730- 1804. His son, Giovanni Maria, and his ne- phews, Guilio and Guiseppe, were distinguished as scene painters, and flourished from about 1750- to 1800. Dominico, the son of Guiseppe, called the Canaletto of Germany, 1786-1837. QUAINI, Francisco, an Ital. painter, 1611- 80. His son, Luigi, a pupil of Guercino, 1643-1717. QUANZ, J. J., a Germ, musician, 1697-1773. QUARENGH1, G., an Ital. painter, 1744-1817. QUARIN, J., an Austrian physician, 1733-1814. QUARLES, Fran., an Engl, poet, 1592-1614. QUARREY, J. H., an ascetic writer, 1580-1656. QUATREMAIRE, J. R., a Benedictine of the congregation of St. Maur, kn. as a critic, 1611-71. QUATROMANNI, Sertorius, a miscellaneous Italian writer and classical translator, 1551-1606. QUELLINUS, E., an em. Flem. painter, 1607- 78. John Erasmus, his son and pupil, 1630-1715. QUENSEL, Conrad, a Swedish mathema- tician, 1676-1732. A relation of his, of the same names, author of ' The Swedish Flora,' 1768-1806. QUERP:NGHI, Aktomo, a learned Italian, author of Italian and Latin poems, 1546-1 688. QUERINI, Angelo Maria, a famous Itai.m cardinal and man of letters, 1680-1759. 625 2S QUE QUERLON, Anne Gabriel Mkvsnier De, a French scholar, editor, and journalist, 1702-1780. QUERNO, C, a Neapolitan poet, died 1528. QUERSTEDT, J. A., a Ger. divine, 1617-1688. QUER Y MARTINEZ, Joseph, a Spanish in, an. of ' The Flora of Spain,' 1695-1764. QUESADA, Don, a Spanish general and royalist, murdered by the populace in 1836. QUESNAY, Irancois, sometimes called the father of the school of French economists, was born in the village of Ecquevilli in 1694. He was of peasant origin, and raised himself to notice by his acquirements as a physician. He was attracted from his obscure retreat to Paris, where he came under the notice of the potent Pompadour, whose patronage of the philosophical physician was one of the best acts of her life. He published some professional works, but his book on the most ad- vantageous method of governing mankind, pub- lished in 1768, is the achievement with which his name has been chiefly connected. At the root of his opinions lay a view long influential from its plausibility, that as the means of human subsis- tence, clothing, and generally the necessaries of life come from the earth, agriculture must be con- sidered the only productive kind of industry, all others being secondary, as they merely modify what it brings into existence. He inferred from this that the peasantry class ought to be encour- aged, to the neglect, or even the prejudice of others. His works have strikingly illustrated the view, that in such matters good is done by earnestly pushing opinions, however extravagant, since it was from Quesnay's teaching that the internal free trade in agricultural produce promoted by Turgot, and the abolition of the feudal exactions, were de- rived. He died in December, 1774. [J.H.B.] QUESNEL, Abbe, a Fr. controversialist, lastc. QUESNAL, Baron, one of Napoleon's generals, born 1775, found drowned in the Seine 1815. QUESNEL, Pasquier, a famous theologian of the Jansenist party, born at Paris 1634, died at Amsterdam, where "he had taken refuge, 1719. QUESNOI, F. Du, a Flem. sculptor, 1592-1646. QUETIF, J., a French bibliographer, 1618-98. QUEVEDO Y VILLEGAS, Francisco Go- mez De, a Spanish politician, best known as a poet and satirist, born at Madrid 1580, died 1645. QUEVEDO, P., a Spanish prelate, died 1818. QUICK, John, an Eng. comedian, 1748-1831. QUICK, John, a nonconf. divine, 1636-1706. Q\ I EN DE LA NEUFVILLE, James Le, a French historian of Portugal, appointed director of the posts in French Flanders, 1647-1728. QUIGNOXEZ, Francisco De, an eminent Spanish cardinal and liturgical writer, died 1540. QUILLET, C, a French poet, 1602-1661. QUILLOT, C, a French quietist, 17th century. QUIN, Jamks, a celebrated actor, was the son of an Irish barrister. He was born in London 1003, but educated in Dublin. His mother, un- fortunately, turning out to be a bigamist, poor Quin was treated as illegitimate, and inherited nothing of his father's fortune. In 1715, with his prospects thus blighted, and his education unfin- ished, he sought and obtained an engagement at Drury Lane, which he quitted in 1717 for the m Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, acquiring there great reputation in the stately characters of tra- QUI gedy; such as Cnto, Coriolamis, and Zanga, and the stronger parts in comedy, among which wen Sir John Brute, Volpone, Fatstaff. Subsequently acting at Covent Garden, and in 1735 at Drury Lane, under Fleetwood, he received higher terms than any actor had previously commanded. This pre-eminence he retained until the appearance of Garrick, of whom he could not conceal his envy ; and though he consented to act with the new per- former in 1747 at Covent Garden, yet the result was so little favourable to his own position, that it is evident he gradually prepared for his final re- tirement. Quin was one of the admirers and patrons of Thomson, the poet of 'The Seasons,' aud, while unknown to him, spontaneously pre- sented him with one hundred pounds to deliver him from an arrest ; and after the poet's death ap- peared in his tragedy of ' Coriolanus,' and spoke a prologue written by Lord Lyttelton, on which occasion the actor is said to have displayed un- common sensibility. De closed his career in 1733, in the character of Falstaff, which he performed for the benefit of his friend Ryan. His celebrity in this part was very great, and there can be no doubt from the accounts we have of it, that it was a masterly and intellectual performance. He died at Bath, where he had resided for many years, in 1766. His monument in Bath cathedral bears an epitaph written by Garrick, in a spirit of apprecia- tion highly honourable to both actors. [J.A.H.] QUINAULT, Philip, a celebrated lyric poet and opera writer, 1635-1688. QUINAULT-DUFRESNE,Abraham Alexis, a celebrated French actor, 1695-1767. His sister, Jeanne Francoise, an actress and literary friend of Voltaire, died 1783. Jean Baptist, brother of both the preceding, and an actor, died 1744. Some others of the family were also distinguished on the stage. QUINCY, C. Sevin, Marquis De, a French officer and historian, flourished about 1660-1729. QUINCY, John, an English physician and medical writer, died in London 1723. QUINETTE, M., a Fr. politician, died 1821. QUINQUARBOREUS. See Cinq-Arbres. QUINTILLIANUS, Marcus Fabius, a famous teacher of eloquence in the reign of Galba and his successors, was born about 42, probably of a Span- ish family settled in Rome. The younger Pliny was one of his pupils, and in the reign of Domitian he was intrusted with the education of two of the emperor's grand-nephews. His work ' De Institu- tion Oratoria,' is one of the most valuable relics of antiquity. It has been translated into English by Guthrie and Patsall. Date of his death unknown. QUINTILLUS, Marcus Aurelius Claudius, a Roman emp., who reigned seventeen days, 270. QUINTINIE, John De La, a celebrated writer on horticulture, and director -general to the royal gardens at Versailles, 1626-1688. QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS, a Latin his- torian, supposed to have flourished in the 2d cent. QUINTUS SMYRNJ1US, called also Quintus Calaber, a Greek poet of the 5th century. QUINZANO, or QUINTIANUS, the com- monly received name of J. F. Conti, surnamed Sloa, an Italian poet and philologist, 1484-1557. QUIR1NI, A. M., an Ital. cardinal, 1684-1755. QU1EINO, P., a Venetian traveller, 15th cent. 626 QUI QUIROGA, J., a Spanish Jesuit, 1707-1784. QUIROS, A., a Spanish missionary, dk d 1622. QUIROS, H. B., a Spanish canonist, last cent. QUIROS, H. B., Pedro Fernandez De, a celebrated Spanish navigator, d. at Panama 1614. QUIROS, T., a Spanish missionary, 1599-1662. RAC QUISTORP, John, a German minister and Lutheran professor of divinity, 1584-1648. His son, of the same names, also a divine and profes- sor, 1624-1669. QUITA, Domingos Das Reis, a Portuguese poet, cele. for his elegies and pastorals, 1728-1770. R RABANUS MAURUS, was born of French parents at Mayence in a.d. 776. On the complet- ing of his early studies at Fulda in Hesse, he was there made a deacon in 801, and he betook himself to Tour the following year to enjoy the tuition of the famous Alcuin. It is also apparent from his writings that he had in his youth made a pilgrim- age to Palestine. In his twenty-fifth year he be- came head of the convent school at Fulda, where his successful teaching drew around him many pupils, and not a few of the nobility intrusted him with the education of their sons. In 822 he was conse- crated abbot, but he still directed the seminary, which supplied many able teachers for the Frankish and German churches. On a complaint of the monks that his absorption in literary pursuits hindered the discharge of his more active conven- tual duties, he retired in 842, after a presidency of twenty years. He was, however, drawn out of this voluntary seclusion in 847, on being made archbishop of Mayence. In this situation he was the opposer and persecutor of Gottschalk, in con- sequence of his doctrine of predestination. Ra- banus died in a.d. 856. His influence was great among the churches in the diffusion of practical piety, and he had several illustrious disciples. His erudition and general attainments were respectable for the age in which he lived, and as a lecturer, he instructed his scholars in general literature and science as well as theology. He wrote com- mentaries on all the canonical books and many of the apocryphal ones, and left behind him numerous treatises, sermons, and letters. A collected edi- tion of the most of his works was published at Cologne, 1627, in 6 folios. [J.E.] RABAUT, Peter, a French protestant minister, 1718-1795. His son, John Paul, a protestant minister, and deputy to the constituent assembly and the convention, author of numerous political works, 1743-1793. James Anthony, brother of the latter, also a minister and deputy, 1744-1808. A third brother, Rabaut Duruis, known only as a politician, died 1808. RABBE, Alphonso, a French journalist, his- torian, and biographical writer, 1786-1830. RABELAIS, Francois, is, of all humourists, the most variously original, and the most remarkable for combining wit and humour ; but he is also the most unscrupulously audacious, and for many reasons by far the most difficult to be understood. There are traditionally attributed to him many adventures, most of which are nothing more than coarse practical jokes, or sayings profane or licen- tious, borrowed from his writings. The facts which we know in regard to his life, few as they are, suf- fice to make us wonder how it was, that he not only escaped the stake and the scaffold, but was a parish priest to the hour of his death. — He was born of poor parents, about 1483, at Chinon in 627 Touraine ; and the time he spent in a conventual school at Angers, is said to have been put to pro- fit in no way, unless by making him intimate with his school-fellow Du Bellay, who was afterwards a cardinal, and his zealous patron and protector. He next became a friar in a convent of the Corde- liers ; and there he was a hard student, but is said to have been both dissolute and satirical. At all events, he eloped, studied medicine at Montpellier, took a doctor's degree, practised as a physician, lectured with success, and published, besides other works, translations from Hippocrates and Galen. While he was going through tliis stage in his his- tory, the patrons he had gained obtained permis- sion for him to transfer himself to the order of the Benedictines. He attended Cardinal Du Bellay when he was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1536 ; and on his return to France his patron procured for him a prebend, and the curacy of the village of Mudon, near Paris. He is believed to have died in 1553, and to have then been about seventy years old. — His famous romance appeared in suc- cessive fragments : it is a characteristic specimen of his oddities, that the second book, being pub- lished in 1533, preceded the first by two years ; and the third book was printed in 1546. When it had proceeded thus far, remonstrances from the clergy induced Francis I. to have it read to him : he pro- nounced it harmless ; and the author continued to be protected by Henry II. The fourth book, in which the attacks on the church, and sneers at re- ligion itself, became yet bolder, appeared only in 1552 ; and it was not till 1564 that the publica- tion was completed by the whole of the fifth book. The romance commonly goes by the name of its earliest parts : — 'The Inestimable Life of the Great Gargantua, Father of Pantagruel, a Book Full of Pantagruelism.' Gargantua is a royal giant : the heroes of most of the adventures are Pantagruel, his son and successor, a good easy king ; and his favourite Panurge, the quintessence of buffoonery, sarcasm, and knavery. It is not easy to discover anything which Rabelais either believed or re- spected ; and his satire, with all its enigmatical cover- ings, tells terribly both on civil and on ecclesias- tical governments. But there is in it a large fund of good sense ; and the humour and fun, with all their depravity, are often irresistibly comic. [W.S.] RABENER, T. W., a Ger. moralist, 1714-1771. RABUS, Peter, a Dutch critic, 1660-1702. RABUTIN, Roger, Count De Bussy, a French wit and satirist, time of Louis XIV., 1618-1693. RACAN, Honorat De Bueil, Marquis, a disting. poet and disciple of Malherbe, 1589-1670. RACHEL, the younger daughter of Laban, and wife of Jacob. She was the mother of Joseph and Benjamin, and died at the birth of the latter. RACINE, Bonaventure, a learned French priest and ecclesiastical historian, 1708-1755. RAC R \OTNE, Jean, contests with his immediate ■or, Corneille, the glory of being the among the French Tragic Dramatists. Submitting implicitly to the code of laws laid down by the critics of his time, he did much to- wards making the Regular or Classical School of the Drama acceptable and permanent, by imparting to his tragedies all the perfection which it is possible to conceive genius as giving to works constructed on so naiTow a model. His grace and melody of (fiction are exquisite; and his refined tenderness of feeling, often melting into profound pathos, breaks out through all the barriers imposed by the unities, and the simple plots, and the monotony of the rhymed Alexandrine verses. — Racine was born in 1639, at La Ferte-Milon, in Picardy, where his father was a tax-collector. The most important part of his education was received in the school of the Port-Royalists, whose earnest piety and severe morality received no discredit either from the writ- ings or' from the conduct of their pupil. In his twenty-first year he celebrated the marriage of Louis XIV., in a poem which gained him the favour of the king, exhibited not long afterwards by a pension, and followed by many other bene- factions. He began his dramatic career in 1663 ; but his first two tragedies, though not unsuccess- ful, really deserved the poor opinion expressed of them by Corneille, of whom they were little more than imitations. Racine's fine genius shone out with all its brightness in 1667, when ' Andromaque' was played ; and for ten years more he continued to produce, almost annually, plays, constituting a series of masterpieces, and exhibiting so little ine- quality that critical opinions are still divided as to their comparative merit. The first of these was the highly-finished comedy, ' Les Plaideurs ; ' but the success of this piece did not tempt the poet to diverge again from the tragic drama. ' Britannicus ' appeared in 1669, and was followed by 'Berenice' (in which Racine measured lances with Corneille), 1 Bajazet,' ' Mithridates,' the very skilfully con- structed 'Iphigenie,' and 'Phedre,' the work in which the dramatist's power in painting the ten- derness and fire of love is most strikingly displayed. In 1677, when the ' Phedre' came on the stage, Ra- cine and Boileau received honorary appointments as historiographers royal. The dramatist seems to have meditated making the office real ; and he is said to have been deterred from publishing his- tories by a rebuke, which some of his memoranda drew on him when they were communicated by his patroness, Madame de Maintcnon, to the king. At all events he ceased, for twelve years, to write dramas, and never again wrote for the public stage. Some would have it that he was disgusted by the critical warfare which had been kindled by his latest plays ; others assert him to have been influ- enced f>y the religious impressions which, beyond doubt, now acted on him more and more strongly. He made a happy marriage, superintended carefully the instruction of his children, and was much en- gaged in serious studies. He wrote a short ' His- tory of Port-Royal.' In 1689 ' Esther,' the first, and much the weaker, of his two sacred dramas, ijed by the young ladies of St. Cyr. In 1699, the denial directors of that school having prohibited stage-playing to the pupils, he sent 'AtbabV to the press, and had the mortification RAF to find that it was too devout and earnest for the taste of the public. If no works had ever been written except plays, and if there were no play- writers but tliose of France, the assertion would be true which Voltaire makes as to this noble drama, — that it comes nearer to perfection than any other literary work which ever issued from the hands of man. It was the last effort of its admirable author. He died from abscess of the liver, in great pain, but with placid resignation, in 1699. * [W.S. j RACINE, Louis, son of the preceding, distin- guished as a poet and miscellaneous wr., 1692-1763. RACLE, L, a French engineer, 1736-1791* RADAGAISUS, leader of one of the German hosts by which Italy was invaded at the beginning of the 5th cent. Beheaded by Stilico 40-1 or 406! RADCLIFFE, Ann, a once popular novelist, whose maiden name was Ward, was born in Lon- don, 1764, and at the age of twenty-three married to William Radclitfe, a graduate of Oxford, after- wards proprietor and editor of the English Chro- nicle. The fashion of her romances was super- seded by that of the new school, headed by Sir Wal- ter Scott, but they must always be esteemed the principal of their class. Her great forte was the de- scription of scenes of terror, the surprise of sudden or unseen danger, and the excitement of suspense. Her first performance was ' The Castle of Athhn and Dumblaine,' followed by ' The Sicilian Romance,' ' The Romance of the Forest,' ' The Mysteries of Udolpho,' and ' The Italian.' She also published ' Travels through Holland and along the Rhine ' in 1793. Died 1823. RADCLIFFE, John, founder of the great library of medical and philosophical science at Oxford, was an English physician, born at Wake- field 1650. He took his diploma in 1682, and having settled in London, became, in 1686, physi- cian to the princess Anne of Denmark. He was also occasionally employed by William III., and by Anne when she succeeded him as queen, but was not in great favour with either of them. He died in 1714, leaving £40,000 for the purpose first mentioned. RADEGONDA, a princess of the Franks, who became the wife of Clothaire, and died in the monastery of St. Croix, founded by her, 587. RADEMAKER, two Dutch painters— Gkrakd flourished 1672-1711. Abraham, 1675-1735. RADER, M., a Jesuit of Tyrol, 1561-1634. RADET, Stephen, one of Napoleon's generals, by whom Pius VII. was escorted from Rome as a prisoner in 1809, 1762-1825. RAEBURN, Sir Henry, a Scottish artist, esteemed second only to Sir Thomas Lawrence, as a portrait painter, was born at Stockbridge, near Edinburgh, 1756. He became president of the Edinburgh Academy of Painting, and when George IV. visited his northern capital in 1822, received the honour of knighthood, and soon after the ap- pointment of first portrait painter to the king in Scotland. Died 18-23. R&MOND, F. De, a Fr. historian, 1540-1602. RAFFAELLE. See Raphael. RAFFENEL, C. D., a French wr., 1797-1827. RAFFLES, Sir Thomas Stamford, distin- guished as an administrator, traveller, and na- turalist, was the son of Benjamin Raffles, captain in the West India trad?, and was born at sea oft* 028 RAG Jamaica, 1781. He gradually rose from the posi- tion of a clerk in the India House to that of lieu- tenant-governor, first of Java, and afterwards of Fort Marlborough in Sumatra. In 1819 he estab- lished the British settlement and free port of Singapore, and founded a college there for the en- couragement of Anglo-Chinese and Malay litera- ture. His principal work is a ' History of Java,' but he sent home to England valuable collections of objects in natural history, and on his return founded the Zoological Society, of which he was first president. Died 1826. RAGGI, A., an Italian sculptor, 1624-1686. RAGHIB PACHA, Mohammed, grand vizier of the Ottomans, a diplomatist and writer, 1702-67. RAGOTZKI, the name of several princes of Transylvania : — 1. George, whose name is some- times spelt Racoczi, an ally of the Swedes during the thirty years' war, 1630-1648. 2. George the Younger, joined the Swedes against Poland 1659, died fighting against the Turks 1669. 3. Francis, author of a liturgy used throughout Hungary, died 1676. 4. Francis Leopold, the most famous of the family, conspired with Louis XIV. to deliver the Hungarians from the yoke of Austria, and was declared protector of Hungary in 1704. Being defeated by the peace of 1713, he renounced his own estates, and retired to Turkey ; 1676-1735. RAGUENET, Francis, a French writer on miscellaneous subjects, au. of a ' History of Oliver Cromwell,' and a ' Life of Turenne,' 1660-1722. RAGUET, G. B., a French writer, 1668-1748. RAGUSA, J., a Sicilian Jesuit, born 1665. RAHN, John Henry, a name common to three natives of Zurich : — 1. A voluminous writer of Swiss history, 1646-1708. 2. A physician, 1709- 1786. 3. A physician, 1749-1782. RAHN, J. H. G., a Prussian jurist, 1766-1807. RAIEVSKI, A., a Russian historian, 1813. EAIKES, RoBERT,the founder of Sunday schools in England, was a native of Gloucester, where he was born in 1735. He succeeded his father as proprietor of the Gloucester Journal, a paper in extensive circulation. He was a man of great piety, and, besides attendance on the ordinary diets of public worship, was long in the habit of frequenting early morning prayers every week-day at the Cathedral. As might be expected from a person of such devout and eminently Christian character, he was distinguished for his benevolent support of every scheme and institution which was directed to ameliorate the condition or advance the interests of humanity. To him belongs pre- eminently the high distinction of originating Sun- day schools ; and the idea of those institutions was first suggested to his mind by witnessing the painful spectacle of youthful profligacy and dissipa- tion, which the streets of Gloucester as well as other large towns in England, exhibited on the Lord's day. At that time, it had long been a subject of complaint among farmers and others that they suf- fered more from the depredations of juvenile delin- quents on that day, than on all the other days of the week together. The lower classes universally allowed their children to roam at large on the highways and the fields, where they came in 6uch numbers that the country people were obliged to remain at home to watch their property. Mr. Eaikcs himself was unexpectedly led to witness a RAI similar scene, for having occasion, early one morn- ing, to go to a plebeian part of the town of Glou- cester, where was a large pin manufactory, he was greatly shocked by multitudes of poor children run- ning wild and riotous in the streets, and swearing such horrid oaths, as afforded sad evidence of the ignorance and depravity that prevailed amongst the class to which they belonged. He resolved on making some attempt to reclaim them from this state of moral degradation, which seemed so ex- tensively prevalent, and to give those wretched little creatures the benefits of, not only a secular, but a moral and religious education. After revolv- ing the subject long and anxiously in his mind, he at length prepared to reduce his scheme to practice. Having engaged the services of four women, ac- customed to teach poor children, at the rate of one shilling a- day, and who were to receive and instruct as many as he should bring every Sunday, he be- gan the operations of his school. But there were more difficulties lying in the way than he imagined, chiefly from the backwardness of the poor, and their indifference to send their children. A beginning, however, was made with a few, others soon fol- lowed, and the schools began to prosper. Read- ing, being marched to church under the care of their teachers, and after church, the repetition of the catechism for an hour, constituted the regular routine he established. ' With regard to the rules to be observed, all the children were required to come to school as clean as possible. Many were at first deterred, because they wanted decent clothing, but this was not to be supplied. Although without shoes or in a ragged coat, all were welcome, — the only condition being clean hands, a clean face, and thehair combed.' Numbers pressed to the schools, the children varying from six years old to twelve or fourteen. Little rewards were distributed amongst the younger, and good places were pro- cured for the older children, and both of ttiese produced the effect of exciting emulation. Such was the scheme which this Christian philanthropist devised for the moral and religious improvement of the poor ; and it soon drew general attention in England, from the beneficial results it produced. Similar institutions were ere long commenced in most of the large towns of England. A Sunday School Association was formed for the benefit of the poor children in the metropolis, and Mr. Raikes in consequence of his zeal and merits, was enrolled an honorary member. A far higher honour awaited this benevolent gentleman, in its being publicly certified after a long series of years, that not one of the scholars at his institution in Gloucester, had ever been either in the city or the county prisons. Mr. Raikes died in 1811. [R.J.] RAIMBACH, Abraham, a native of London, celebrated for his line engravings of Sir David Wilkie's pictures, 1776-1843. RAIMOND, J. IL, a Fr. architect, 1742-1811. RAIMOND, St., the third general of the Domi- nicans, known as an ascetic writer, 1175-1275. RAIMOND1, Giambattista, a great Oriental scholar, born at Cremona, in Italy, 1540. He founded an Oriental press, under the patronage of the cardinal Medici, at Florence, and put all the Oriental books in order at Rome. From these circumstances, the college of the Propaganda took its rise, liis Arabian Grammar was pub. in 1610, C2D RAI E AIMONDI, Marc A., a friend of Raphael, and fndr. of the It. school of engrav., 1488-1546. RAINBOW, E., an English prelate, 1608-1684. ELAINE. M., a distinguished scholar, 1760-1810. RAINOLDS. J., a learned Eng. div., 1549-1607. RAITCH, J., a Servian historian, 1726-1801. RAJALIN, T., a Finnish admiral, 1673-1741. KAKOUBAH, or RAGUBAH, peischwah or prince regent of the Mahrattas, distinguished in the events which agitated the Mahratta kingdom in 1772 and 1782. Died in ohscurity. RALEGH, Carew, son of the great historical character noticed below, was born in the Tower of London 1604, and made several fruitless efforts to regain the forfeited estates of his father. He received a pension of £400 a-year, however, and in 1659 became governor of Jersey, by favour of General Monk. He wrote a vindication of his lather. Died 1666. His cousin, Walter Ralegh, became chaplain to Charles I., and was stabbed by his gaoler 1646. [Birth-place of Ralegh.] RALEGH, Sir Walter, born a.d. 1552, was the most remarkable man of that remarkable period, which is commonly called the Elizabethan age. He was of an ancient Devonshire family, and was educated at Oxford and the Temple. He then served for some years as a volunteer under Coligni and Conde, in France, and afterwards under the prince of Orange in the Netherlands. In 1579 he first displayed that zeal for maritime discovery and colonization, which is the most brilliant feature in his character. He joined an expedition to Ame- rica, which was designed to found a colony in New- foundland, but was beaten back by a superior Span- ish force. He then served in Ireland, and highly distinguished himself against the Irish rebels and their Spanish auxiliaries. In 1582 he appeared at Elizabeth's court, and was very graciously received. His reputation for soldiership", his learning, which was varied and profound, his eloquence and ready wit, and the personal advantages and accomplish- ments, in which he was pre-eminent, all combined in raising him high in his sovereign's favour. In 1583 he accompanied his half-brother, Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert, in another voyage to North America, which proved most calamitous, and in which Gilbert perished. Balegb still persevered in his schemes for extending England's dominions beyond the At- b30 RAL lantic, and in 1585 he sent out another expedition, which discovered Virginia. He was one of the most trusted and most trustworthy of the naval heroes of England, who defended her in 1588 against the Spanish Armada. In 1589 he served in the expedition against Portugal under Drake and Norris. The young earl of Essex was also with the troops employed on this occasion, and it was in a quarrel between him and Ralegh as to the operations of the forces, that the unhappy jealousy between those two originated. A short time afterwards Ralegh fell under Queen Eliza- beth's displeasure on account of certain love- passages between him and Miss Throgmorton, whom he subsequently married. He was im- prisoned for a time, but was soon released, and gradually recovered the queen's favour. In 1595 he organized and led an expedition to Central and South America, in the nope of discovering Eldorado, the golden land, in the existence of which all of that age firmly believed; nor can we who have witnessed the discoveries of gold in California, deride that belief as visionary and wholly unfounded. Ralegh sailed to Guiana and the neighbouring districts ; he explored the river Ori- noco for 400 miles from its mouth ; and he wrote an account of his voyage and the new countries explored by him, which is remarkable for the elo- quence and graphic beauty of style which it dis- plays. During the latter years of Elizabeth's life Ralegh joined Cecil in intriguing against Essex ; and he had the evil gratification of witnessing his rival's ruin and death, little thinking that he was himself to experience the retribution of a similar fate. James I. on his accession, at first treated Ralegh with favour; but Cecil, who had in the late queen's reign overthrown Essex by Ralegh's aid, was now determined to put down Ralegh; and the king's mind was soon poisoned against Sir Walter. Deprived of his dignities and lucrative appointments, Ralegh seems to have listened to the schemes of other disaffected men for altering the line of succession to the crown ; but the charge on which he was tried and convicted in 1603 of being a traitor in the pay of Spain, was unproved and unfounded. He was sentenced to death, and his property was confiscated ; but James kept him close prisoner in the Tower for twelve years, dur- ing which time he wrote his great work, the ' His- tory of the World.' In 1615 James released him, and permitted him to sail on an expedition to Guiana. This enterprise proved disastrous, and on Ralegh's return home he was arrested, and James resolved to put him to death under the old sentence of treason that had been passed on him in 1603. There can be no doubt that James was mainly led to commit this disgraceful act by his desire to win the favour of the Spanish court, which never had forgotten the sendees that Ralegh had done for England against Spain, and now clamoured loudly lor the blood of the English hero. Sir Walter was beheaded on the 28th October, 1618, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. The versatility of the femus of this great man is almost unparalleled, le was an excellent classical scholar, and well read in metaphysics and divinity, besides being generally conversant with the literature of his own and other modern countries. His prose writings are eloquent and vigorous; raid he was RAL the author of several poems, small in length, but great in beauty. He was eminent in the mechan- ical arts ; and was the originator of many impor- tant improvements in ship-building. He was a daring navigator and explorer of new countries; and he was unwearied in his zeal for extending the commerce, and for creating the colonial power of England. He was a sage, as well as a bold captain by sea and by land ; he was a skilful (though not always a successful) politician ; and he was pre-eminent in all personal accomplish- ments and courtly graces. He was also a liberal promoter of intellectual energy and eminence in others ; and he was the patron and personal friend of many of the most distinguished writers who adorned that bright epoch of English liter- ature. [E.S.C.] RALPH, James, a native of Philadelphia, known as a political and historical writer and poet, came to this country in 1725, died at Chiswick 1762. RAMAZZINI, Bernardo, an Italian physician, dist. as a poet and professional writer, 1633-1714. RAMBERG, J. H., an engraver, last century. RAMBOUILLET, a branch of the Angennes family, distinguished by the names of— James, a favourite statesman of Francis I., died 1562. Charles, son of James, better known as the cardinal de Rambouillet, author of Memoirs, 1530- 1587. Charles, grandson of James, and Mar- quis de Rambouillet, camp-marshal and ambas- sador, 1577-1652. RAMBURES, David De, commander-in-chief of the French archery, distinguished by his military services, and killed at the battle of Agincourt, 1415*. EAMEAU, Jean Philippe, was born at Dijon in 1683. After having become acquainted with the rudiments of music, he composed a musi- cal entertainment, which was received with great applause when it was performed at Avignon. He then received the situation of organist of the cathedral church of Clermont in Auvergne, where he commenced his investigations into the principles of music His fame as a theorist chiefly depends upon his work ' Demonstrations of the Principles of Harmony,' which was published at Paris in 1750. From the principles enunciated in this work his countrymen style Rameau 4 The Newton of Harmony.' About this period he was called to Paris, where he was appointed director of the opera. The king of France conferred upon this eminent theorist the ribbon of the order of St. Michel, and raised him to the rank of nobility. Rameau died in the year 1764. Besides his very numerous theo- lvtical works he composed many operas, ballets, serenatas, concertos, songs, &c, &c. [.J.M. ) RAM EL, Peter, a member of the French assembly, and general of brigade, killed at the age of thirty in the campaign of the Rhine, 1761. His brother, John Peter, a distinguished general of the empire, was born in 1770, and assassinated after the second restoration in 1815. RAMELLL A., a French engineer, 1531-1590. BAM ESSES, or RAMSES, a name common_to seven Egyptian kings, who reigned from the 17th to the 13th century B.C. Ramesses V. is sup- posed to lie the same as Sesostris. I RAM i;Y, C, a French sculptor, 1754-1838. ' R A M l.V. R, C W., a German poet, 1725-1798. RAMMOHUN ROY, Rajah, a philosopher ram: and reformer of British India, was born at Bor- douan in the province of Bengal, 1774, or be- tween that and 1780. He belonged to the Brah- min caste, of the class esteemed for their learning and purity of blood, and seems to have devoted himself when quite young to the study of the sacred literature of the Hindoos. His endeavour was to discover the pure theism of the primitive revelation, and to separate it from the corruptions of the priesthood, and though great hopes were entertained of him by Christian missionaries, there can be no doubt that he regaruea some parts of their system as equally idolatrous with the changes that had taken place in the religion of the Hin- doos. He adopted the philosophy and the pure morality of the precepts of the Saviour, but accept- ing no system of faith that was proffered to him, he applied himself to the study of the Hebrew Scriptures in the same independent spirit that he had examined the Vedas of his own country. Rammohun Roy, however, was not a speculative believer, but a practical reformer, and in political sentiments a republican. He had risen from the position of clerk in the office of the tax-collector of Rungpore to that of dewan, or chief native superintendent of the revenue, the highest office that a Hindoo could hold under the British govern- ment. In this official situation he acquired such a fortune as enabled him to rank with the zem- indars, or proprietors, and applying himself to administrative as well as religions reform, ho eventually effected a change in the English jurispru- dence of Bengal. Circumstances led to his resi- dence at Calcutta, where he became a political writer and journalist in his native language, and boldly adopted revolutionary principles, at the same time not forgetting the reserve of a statesman. In 1830 he was created rajah by the great Mogul, and sent on a mission to England for the settlement of his claims against the East India Company. He effected this object with great diplomatic skill, and while here he took an enthusiastic interest in the progress of the reform agitation, and the hopes it held out for the better government of India. He was claimed at this time as a convert to Christi- anity, and though generally considered a Unitar- ian, he usually attended the services of the Estab- lished Church. His Christianity, it should be re- membered, was based on a profound acquaintance with the metaphysics of the Hindoos, and on his researches into the primitive theism ; and though an ingenious countryman of our own, Thomas Maurice, had long since endeavoured to show the similarity between the Christian Trinity and the triad of Brahma, Vishnou, aud Shiva, there are few orthodox Calvinists who would be disposed to agree with him. Rammohun Roy did not survive his acquaintance with European manners long enough to master the whole of this problem, but being attacked by sudden illness at Bristol, expired there on the 27tn of September, 1833. As his bio- grapher in the Gentleman's Magazine observes :— ' When it is considered that Rammohun Roy was in a great degree self-taught, the extent of his acquirements must be admitted to have been re- markable. He was a thorough master of the Sans- crit language and of the Arabic ; he was an exceed- ingly good Persian scholar, and quoted the Persian poets liberally, appropriately, and gracefully; aud 031 HAM of course, lie well understood the Hindoo and Ben- gali tongues. He bad read ■ peat deal of English literature, rhiei'y historical; and he wrote in our language with grammatical accuracy and ability. . . . . He was a quick and keen observer of character, and in the ordinary course of life dis- .1 prudent.' It may be added that his superiority to the native Hindoos generally, his vast knowledge, his independence of habit, and his well-known patriotism, gained for him the highest consideration in his own country. [E.R.] RAMOND DE CARBONNIERES, Louis l'i: vntis I'.i.i/Aiu in, a Fr. naturalist, 1755-1827. RAMOS, H., a Sp. mathematician, 1738-1801. RAMSAY, Allan, with the exception of Burns, the most thoroughly national of the Scottish poets, was born in 1685,' at Leadhills in Lanarkshire. His father was in the employment of Lord Hope- toun at the lead mines, and is said to have been descended from a branch of the family of the earls of Dalhousie, a circumstance of which the poet was naturally vain, and which shines out in his works in the form of respect and attachment to the claims of ' gude bluid,' and gentle ancestry. His father died early, and his mother marrying again, he was sent to Edinburgh, and bound apprentice to a wigmaker, then a profession of a higher grade than in our times. Ramsay continued to pursue this humble avocation for several years after his apprenticeship was finished. In 1712, his first poetical production appeared, being an address 'To the most happy Members of the Easy Club,' Auld Reekie being 'then and long after, noted for its commercial clubs and associations. In 1716, he published an edition of James the First's poem of ' Christ's Kirk on the Green,' having added a second canto himself, and in two years after, a third. He now abandoned his original profession, and commenced business as a bookseller in Edin- burgh, a more congenial and fitting occupation for the poet and literary man. In 1720, he published himself, a collection of his poems, by subscription, and by which he is said to nave realized four hun- dred guineas, a very large sum considering the id which establishes the early and wide popularity which he had acquired. The most of the pieces in this collection had been issued by Ramsay as they were written, in sheets at a penny a-piece, and the good folks of Edinburgh had come to look upon them as a luxury, quite as necessary as ' caller haddies' or strong ale. Allan issued the first volume of his well-known ' Tea Table Miscel- lany' in 1724, and three more volumes at short intervals afterwards ; about the same time he pub- ■:;, a collection of Scots poems, wrote by the Ingenious before 1600.' The muq- num tptu of this ancient writer made its appear- ance in 1725, ' The Gentle Shepherd,' the {meat dramatic pastoral ever published. In a soft and g'-ntle sweetness of expression, and in a rich ex- hibition of old Scottish manners and habits, interspersed with dramatic touches of nature and character, no Scottish poem has maintained a more permanent or a higher place in the national mind and ■flections. — Some M the higher class poems of Bonis can alone compete with it in this respect In 1730 he published his 'Thirty Fables,' in which . of 'The Monk and the Miller's Wife,' though somewhat broad in style, aud previously CG2 RAN told by Dunbar, greatly increased his reputation as a poet and painter of national manners. He now appears to have withdrawn from the labours of composition, and to have given himself up to the enjoyment of the select literary society of the most eminent men of his time and country, by whom his conversation and talents were highly appreciated. He erected a house for himself on the north side of the Castle Hill, which is still we believe in exis- tence, and where he died in 1758, at the advanced age of seventy-two, full of years and honour. [T. I).] RAMSAY, Allan, son of the preceding, dis- tinguished as a painter and writer on art, 1709-84. RAMSAY, Andrew Michael, better known as the Chevalier Ramsay, was born at Ayr 1686, and educated at Edinburgh. He was converted to the Roman Catholic faith by Feuelon in 1710, and rose to distinction under his patronage as governor to the duke of Chateau Thierry, and the prince of Turenne. After this he went to Home as preceptor to the children of the Pretender, called there James III., and, returning to Scotland, was admitted into the family of the duke of Argyll. He died at St. Germain-En-Loire, the retreat of the exiled Stuarts, 1743. His principal works are a ' Life of Fenelon,' ' The Voyages of Cyrus,' ' Discourse upon Epic Poetry,' a ' History of Marshal Turenne,' and a 'Discourse on Freemasonry,' of which order, in France, he was grand chancellor. He wrote in the French language with remarkable purity. RAMSAY, David, an American physician and member of congress, distinguished as an historian, born 1749, shot by a maniac 1815. RAMSAY, J., a Scottish divine, 1733-1789. RAMSDEN, Jesse, a native of Yorkshire, dist. as an optician and instrument maker, 1735-1800. RAMUS, or LA RAMEE, Peteb, a celebrated French philosopher, mathematician, grammarian, and philologist, k. on St. Bartholomew's day, 1572. RAMUSIO, or RAMNUSIO, G. B., a Venetian traveller, geographer, and historian, 1485-1557. RANCE, Aumand John Le Bouthtlier Db, an ascetic writer, most celebrated as the reformer of the monks of La Trappe, 1626-1700. RANCHIN, F., a French physician, 1560-1641. RANCHIN, Henry, author of a metrical ver- sion of the Psalms in French, published 1697. RANCK, , a Spanish painter, last century. RANCONET, Aimer De, a famous antiqua- rian, and master of Roman jurisprudence, d. 1559. RANCONNIER, J., a French missionary to Paraguay, author of Letters, published 1636. RANDALL, J., an English divine, died 1622. RANDOLPH, Thomas, an English dramatic poet, au. of the ' Muses' Looking-Glass,' 1605-34. RANDOLPH, Thomas, a minister of the Church of England, born at Canterbury, where his father was recorder, 1701, vice-chancellor 1756- 1759, archdeacon of Oxford 1707, Margaret pro- fessor of divinity 1768, died 1783. He wrote several theological works. His son, John, born 1749, was successively bishop of Oxford, Bangor, and London, and a dist. Greek scholar; died 1813. RANDOLPH, Sir Thomas, born in Kent 1523, distinguished as ambassador to France, Russia, and Scotland, in the reign of Elizabeth. He is author of Letters, which have appeared in various m collections, and of an account of his Embassy to W Russia, inserted in Hakluyt's Voyages. Died lo90. RAN RANFAING, Marie Elizaretii De, a reli- rious founder, better known as the venerable Mother Elizabeth, 1592-1649. EANNEQUIN, RENNEQUIN, or SWALM RENKIN, inventor of a famous hydraulic engine, known as the machine of Marly, 1644-1708. RANTZAU, Josias, Count De, a French mar- shal, distinguished in the German and Flemish wars, and as the chief instrument by whom the pro- testant religion was established in Denmark. Died in the Bastile, where he had been confined by Mazarin, 1650. Henry, of the same family, an astrologer, 1526-1598. EAOUL, or EODOLPH, son of Richard, duke of Burgundy, succeeded Robert, duke of France, with the title of king, 923 ; died 936. RAOUL, a duke of Lorraine, 1328-1346. RAOUL, archdeacon of Poitiers, 12th century. RAOUL of Caen, a French historian, 11th ct. RAOUL-GLABER, a Fr. chronicler, 11th cent. RAOUL. See Eollo Vermandois. RAOUX, J., a French painter, 1667-1734. RAPHAEL, Santi or Sanzio, was born at Urbino, in the Contrada del Monte, April 6, 1483. His father, Giovanni Santi, gave him his first instructions in his art, and after the death of his Barents, he was placed by his uncles, in 1494, with ietro Perugino, the most celebrated painter of the Umbrian school, and then engaged on some frescoes on the Sala del Cambio at Perugia. In October, 1504, Raphael removed to Florence, and appears to have made this city his head-quarters until he was called to Rome in 1508 ; with the exception of a few months passed at Perugia, in 1505, and a short interval at Bologna the following year, he resided constantly at Florence. The works exe- cuted by him during this period are said to be in his Florentine manner, those executed previously, in his first or Perugino manner, of which the • Coronation of the Virgin,' now in the Vatican, and the ' Spozalizio,' or ' Marriage of the Virgin,' in the Brera at Milan, are fine examples; of his second or Florentine manner, ' The Entombment,' in the Borghese Gallery at Rome, is the best ex- ample. The ' St. Catherine ' in the National Gallery is in the same manner. During his stay in Flo- rence, Raphael made the acquaintance of Fra Bar- tolommeo, and that of Francia at Bologna, from both of whom he had every opportunity of improv- ing himself, independent of the enlarged views he must have gained by moving from a provincial town to so important a city as Florence, then superior even to Rome as a school of painting. The Brancacci chapel alone was a school of art, and in 1506 Raphael had with other masters the opportunity of studying the world-renowned car- toons of Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, in preparation for the Council Hall. With such op- portunities he could not but enlarge his manner, and we accordingly soon find in Rome a very much grander treatment'of form, than even in the best of his Florentine works, though the first of his great frescoes in the Vatican is in his Florentine style. Raphael was invited to Rome by Julius II. through his countryman Bramante, and he was already settled there in the beginning of September, 1508 ; ^Michelangelo paid his third visit to Rome in the ^lame vear, a coincidence which was doubtless of con- siderable advantage to Raphael, the younger man RAP the rivalry of Michelangelo being an invaluable stimulus to him. The first fresco of the Vatican stanze or dwelling rooms, was the Theology or 'Dispute on the Sacrament' as it is called: "this was completed in 1509. In the same room called the Stanza della Secjnatura, are the frescoes of ' Poetry,' ' Philosophy,' the celebrated ' School of Athens,' and ' Jurisprudence,' all completed in 1511 ; his third or Roman style commences with the ' School of Athens.' In the second chamber, known as the Stanza deW Eliodoro, are, the ' Ex- pulsion of Heliodorus from the temple of Jeru- salem,' his grandest -work, the ' Mass of Bolsena,' the ' Attila,' and ' St. Peter delivei'ed from Prison,' all finished in 1514, the two former in 1512 during the pontificate of Julius. The third chamber, finished in 1517, called the Stanza deW Licendio, was painted almost wholly by Raphael's scholars ; the great works of the Vatican stanze, for which those chambers are so renowned, are comprised in those of the first two chambers mentioned. The fourth, really the first on entering, called the Stanza di Costantino, was nearly entirely executed under the direction of Giulio Romano after Raphael's death. It is worthy of remark, that the ceiling of the Sistine chapel by Michelangelo and the most celebrated frescoes of the Stanze, those painted by Raphael himself, were executed simultaneously between 1508 and 1512, and during the pontificate of Julius, no real lover of art himself, and who little suspected the almost inexhaustible source of [Hesidunce of Raphuel.] wealth which his simple undertakings were destined to prove to his country in after generations. The slow progress of the Vatican frescoes after the painting of the second chamber, was owing to the numerous commissions Raphael received from Leo X., who succeeded Julius, besides many from other art patrons in Rome and elsewhere. Raphael executed, between 1512 and 1520, besides numer- ous Madonnas, holv families, portraits, &c, the following great works and masterpieces ; — the St. Cecilia, at Bologna ; the Madonna di San Sisto, at Dresden ; the Spasimo, at Madrid ; the Cartoons, at Hampton Court (1515-16); the frescoes of the Farnesina (1518), and his last and most cele- brated oil picture 'The Transfiguration.' In addi- tion to these labours, from 1515 he had the chief charge of the building of the new Basilica of St. Peter ; he was appointed capoarchitetto on the 1st of August of that year, by Leo X. This unri- C33 RAP vailed painter died at, Rome on his birth-day, April »*. 1580, aued exactly thirty-seven years ; and after lving in state, with his own picture of the Trans- foration at Ins head, he was buried with great pomp in the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres, the ancient Pantheon, commonly called in Rome the Rotonda. The inscription on his tomb, written by his friend the Cardinal Bembo, and, therefore, deserving of all reliance, concludes with the follow- ing lines: — Vixit An. xxxvil., Integer Integros. Quo die natus est, eo esse Desiit Viii. Id. Aprilis, MDXX. lie lived exactly thirty-seven years, he died on the same dav of the year that he was born, April 6, which in 1520 happening to fall on Good Friday, led to the popular error that Raphael was born also on Good Friday, 1483, which fell in that year on the _'*th of March ; should such have actually been the case, and the inscription of the cardinal be wrong, the 28th March must be substituted for April 6, mentioned above as his birth-day. Raphael is said to have left property to the amount of about 16,000 ducats, a very large sum in those days when money had nearly ten times its present value. He be- queathed his painting materials, works of art, &c, to his two favourite pupils, Gianfrancesco Penni, and Giulio Romano, on condition that they should complete his unfinished works. Raphael was never married, but is said to have been engaged to Maria Bibiena, the niece of the Cardinal Bibiena, who, however, died before him. He was of a slight build, sallow in complexion, with brown eyes, and about five feet eight inches high. His tomb was opened in 1833 and the skeleton found entire with all the teeth perfect ; a mould was taken from his skull. His numerous school was completely dis- persed after the sack of Rome in 1527, but Giulio Romano revived it in some measure at Mantua. Besides the above mentioned painters, Pierino del Vaga, Polidoro da Caravaggio, and Benvenuto Tisjo, commonly called Garofalo, were among his most distinguished scholars ; the last has been not inappropriately styled the miniature Raphael. It is matter of common regret that Raphael was removed so prematurely, as is assumed, from the world, many concluding that it is beyond our power to realize the perfection to which he might have carried his art had he been longer spared to prose- cute it ; this is, however, less than doubtful. Raphael if not too successful to improve, was far too much occupied ever to have had the remotest chance of surpassing his previous great works ; the later frescoes of the Vatican were neglected, and besides the important charge of St. Peter's from 1515, he was appointed at the close of the following year superintendent of antiquities, and of the excava- tions of Rome. He trusted almost entirely to assistants in his latter paintings : the cartoons at Hampton Court are perfect exponents of his later executions, and it would have been impossible for him to have returned to a more elaborate style : neither was it desirable. The rivalry of Sebastiano del Piombo, ardently encouraged by Michelangelo, appears to have given a transitory impulse to re- newed efforts at executory skill, but with no real advantage to his own characteristic style. Though more elaborate in composition and more highly finished, the • Transfiguration ' is not equal for RAP simple sublimity and grandeur to the • Madonna di San Sisto,' executed some years before. Raphael did not escape the pernicious any more than the good influence of Michelangelo, whose style was admirably adapted to his own character and sub- jects, but very inappropriate to Raphael's ; the con- sequences were injurious. In the Stanza deW ln- cendio we already find a loose slovenly style of design, heavy and vulgar, exhibiting mere physical ethics, sentiment being sacrificed to limb. Great art, to approach Raphael's, must consist of some- thing more than vigorous limbs. Raphael's greatest works are unrivalled, but it is not probable, con- sidering all the circumstances, that he would ever have equalled them again in his days of grandeur, much less have surpassed them. As it is, his glory soars above that of all his competitors, not except- ing Michelangelo himself; and notwithstanding that in individual qualities he was surpassed by several, he is universally acclaimed the prince of painters, and chiefly for those lofty sentimental qualities of his works which all can feel but few describe. In all his works the treatment is sub- ordinate to the conception. He has scarcely been approached in propriety of invention, composition, or expression ; and is almost without an equal in the natural simplicity and grandeur of his forms : for moral force in allegory and history unrivalled, for fidelity in portrait unsurpassed, and for sub- limity and grandeur of conception inferior to Michelangelo alone. The prints after Raphael's works, including drawings amounting altogether to nearly 900, are extremely numerous and well known : from Marc Antonio downwards, no painter has perhaps been better rendered. His biographies are likewise many and voluminous, in Italian, French, German, and in English : one of the latest the great work of Passavant, Rafael von Urbino und sein Vater Giovanni Sand, Leipzig, 1839, is the largest and most complete in every respect. There are besides : — Vasari, Vile d£ ritlori, &c, in which the notice of the Florentine edition of the Raccolta Artistica, 1852, is veiy complete ; further, Vita inedita di Raffaello da Urbino illustrata con note da Angela Comolli, Rome, 1790; Notizie intor- no Raffaello Sanzio aus Urbino, by Don Carlo Fea : Rome 1822 ; Rehberg, Rafael Sanzio aus Urbino Miinchen, 1824 ; Quantremere de Quincy, Historie de la vie et des Ouvrages de Raphael, Paris, 1814; Longhena, Is'oria della vita e dtl/e opere di Raffaello Sanzio, &c, del Sig. Quartremere de Quincy, &c, Milan, 1829 ; Pungileoni, Elogio Storico di Raf- faello Santi da Urbino, Urbino, 1829-31 ; Desno- yers, Appendice a I'ouorage intitule Histoire de la vie et Des ouvrages de Raphael, &c, Paris, 1853 ; and in English Duppa, Life of Raffaello Sanzio, London, 1816. Raphael is scarcely repre- sented in the National Gallery, notwithstanding, we have a specimen of each of his three manners in — The Vision of a Knight, St. Catherine, and the portrait of Julius II. The fragment of cartoon, belonging to a second and inferior series ordered by Francis L, is not by the hand of Raphael. Even the magnificent cartoons at Hampton Court, and these cannot be too highly valued, do not give an adequate idea of the exquisite sentiment which pervades the majority of his greater Madonna * pieces. The cartoons, however, at Hampton Court 9 are of such commanding grandeur of style that 034 RAP they have been almost intuitively admitted now for three centuries as the inalienable type for apostolic representation. [R.N.W.i RAPHELENG, or REPHELENGIUS, the com- monly received name of Francis Rantenghien, a learned Orientalist of French Flanders, 1539- 1597. His son, Francis, author of Latin poems and notes upon Seneca, published 1587. RAPIN, N., a French poet, died 1608. RAPIN, R., a learned Jesuit, 1621-1687. RAPIN-THOYRAS, Paul De, best known as the author of an English history, was a nephew of the celebrated Pelisson, and son of James Rapin Sieur de Thoyras, descended from a noble family of Savoy. He was born in 1661, aud came to England on the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. He subsequently entered into the service of the prince of Orange, and was with him in the Irish wars. On the death of that prince he retired to Wesel, in the duchy of Cleves, where he com- posed his history. He is considered an impartial and well-informed historian. Died 1725. RAPP, John, a general and peer of France, was born at Colmar, in Alsace, 1772 ; and was successively aide-de-camp to Desaix and Buona- parte during the consulate. He was employed by the latter in the subjugation of Switzerland, and greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Aus- terlitz, and the defence of Dantzic. He finally attached himself to the Bourbons, and died 1821. RASCAS, P. A., a Fr. antiquarian, 1567-1620. RASCHE, J. C, a Ger. numismatist, 1733-1805. RASCHI. By this name is known Solomon Ben Jarchi, one of the most learned rabbins of the Israelitish wanderers, who is said to have been born at Troyes in Champagne, 1040, and to have died there 1105. Other places have claimed the honour of his birth, and his surname is variously spelt, as Isaaki, Isarchi, Jarhi, Racca, Raschi, and Raski. He was remarkable for the precocity of his talents and the largeness of his mind : this, as well as his adventurous disposition, may be surmised from the fact that he commenced, when about thirty years of age, the extensive programme of his travels, intended to embrace every known country in the world, in order to collect materials for the history of his scattered people. In pursuit of this object he visited his brethren in Italy, Egypt, Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, Armenia, Persia, Tartary, Muscovy, and Germany ; he was dissuaded from using his materials, however, by Maimonides, who considered the design impolitic at that time. He settled at Troyes, therefore, and devoted his acquirements to biblical commentaries and rabbinical learning. Dr. Clarke says, Raschi ! wrote a commentary on the whole Bible so com- pletely obscure in many places, as to require a very large comment to make it intelligible.' On the other hand, it must be admitted that the metaphysics and philosophy of the rabbis is little understood, and though much obscurity may be expected in a mass of writing on traditional and speculative knowledge, it is undeniable that the Jewish learning abounds in marks of genius and in profoundly philosophical reflections. Raschi was buried at Troyes, but when the Jews were driven out of France they carried his remains with them and reinterred them at Prague. [E.R.] RASCHID. See Haroun-Al-Raschid. RAV m RASCHID-EDDIN, a Persian historian, physi- cian, and vizier to the sultan Ghazan-Khan, 13th c. RASES, an Arabian historian of Spain, 9th ct. RASORI, J., an Italian physician, 1766-1837. RASPE, R. E., a Ger. antiquarian, 1737-1794. RASTALL, John, an early English printer, author of several curious and learned works, and brother-in-law of Sir Thomas More, died 1536. His son, William, a judge, died 1565. RATCLIFF, R., an English dramatist, d. 1553. RATCLIFFE, Thomas, earl of Sussex, known as a statesman and ambassador, died 1583. RATRAMN, a French theologian, 9th century. RATSCHKY, J. F., a German poet, 1757-1810. RATTE, S. H. De, a Fr. astronom., 1722-1805. RAU, Christian, otherwise Ravi.% Ravias, or Rave, a Prussian Orientalist, 1603-1677. RAU, J. E., a Prussian theologian, 1695-1770. RAU, J. J., a German Hebraist, died 1745. RAU, J. J., a German anatomist, 1668-1719. RAU, Sebald, professor of Oriental languages at Utrecht, 1724-1818. Sebald Foulques Jean, his son, a poet and Orientalist, 1765-1807. RAULIN, J., a French preacher, 1443-1514. RAULIN, J., a French physician, 1708-1784. RAUWOLF, L., a German botanist, died 1596. RAUZZINI, Venauzio, an excellent musician, and esteemed the greatest pianist of his time, was a native of Rome. In early life he went to Vienna, and afterwards to Munich, were he resided for several years. In 1774 he was engaged as one of the principal singers at the opera in London. After some time he retired to Bath, where he for many years managed the concerts. He composed several operas and a great variety of detached composi- tions, which were highly popular. He was long classed amongst the first scientific musicians who had made this country their home. Amongst his pupils may be mentioned Madame Mara, Mrs. Bil- lington, and Messrs. Braham and Incledon. Rauz- zini, who was universally esteemed and beloved in private life, died in 1810, aged 62 years. [J.M.] RAVAILLAC, Francis, the assassin of Henry IV. of France, was a Roman Catholic fanatic of singular character, born at Angouleme 1578, or 1579. His naturally gloomy temperament was deepened by a lawsuit, followed by an imprison- ment for debt, in the course of which he is said to have been haunted by visions, and acquired such a morbid nervousness, that the very name of a Huguenot would excite him to fury. It is not without a certain risk that one expresses any be- lief in reports of this nature except as symp- toms of disease, but it is impossible to overlook the historical evidence bearing on the circum- stances alluded to. The king himself also had a pre- sentiment of his fate, and repeatedly gave expres- sion to it ; even the courtiers for some time before the event were in a state of preternatural excite- ment. The design of Ravaillac, meantime, was the secret of his own bosom, and he took advantage of the queen's coronation, on the 14th of May, 1610, to put it in execution. Henry IV. was proceeding in his carriage along the Rue de la Ferronerie when some obstruction occurred, and Ravaillac stepping on the wheel, struck his noble victim through the window; he stabbed the king twice through the heart, and death was instantaneous. The assassin made no attempt to escape, but stood still with 635 RAV i the Moody knife in his hand, and would have been cut down by one of tho»gentlemen, but the duke (PEpernoa fetorpoeed, anil he was arrested. Ap- plication of torture failed to wring any confession from him implicating others, and he was torn to pieces by horses in the Place de tireve, on the 27th of the same month. The moral complicity of the catholic league in this tragedy cannot be doubted ; the fanaticism of the enemies of Henry IV. put the knife in Kavaillac's hand by a much surer method than that of bargain and sale. The death of Henry was followed by the regency of Marie de Medici. [E.R.] RAVENET, Simon Francis, a French en- graver, 1706-1774. His son, Simon, an engraver, born about 1755. RAVENNA, M. Da, an Ital. engraver, ICth ct. BAVENNE, J. De, a scholar of Petrarch, and one of the restorers of letters in Italy, 1350-1420. BAVENSCROFT, Thomas, a composer and publisher of music, famous for his Psalm tunes and works known to musical antiquaries, 17th ct. BAVESTEYN, John Van, a Dutch portrait painter, born about 1580. His son, Arnold, born at the Hague in 1615, was also a portrait painter, und in 1661 was chosen chief of the Society of Arts in his native place. Nicholas, of the same fumilv, a painter of histoiy, 1661-1750. RAVIN, or RAVTUS. See Rau. BAVTSIUS- TEXTOR, whose proper name was J. Tinier De Ravisi, professor of rhetoric at the college of Navarre, 1480-1524. R AWENDY, Ahmed, an Arabian savant, author of a new doctrine of metempsychosis, died 905. RAWLET, J., an English painter, 1642-1686. RAWLEY, W., an English divine, who acted as chaplain and secretary to Lord Bacon, 1588-1667. BAWLINSON, Christopher, a famous mas- ter of Saxon and northern literature, 1677-1733. BAWLINSON, Sir Thomas, mayor of London in 1706, when he repaired and beautified Guildhall, 1647-1724. His eldest son, Thomas, a remark- able collector of books and MSS., the supposed original of Addison's Tom Folio, died 1725. Rich- ard, a fourth son of Sir Thomas, an eminent anti- quarian, died at Islington 1755. BAWSON, Sir W., an English oculist, d. 1829. RAY, Rev. John, a very celebrated botanist and zoologist, was born at Black Hetley, in Essex, in 1628. He died in 1705. Few events in Ray's life were strikinir or remarkable. His father filled the humble station of a blacksmith, but was able to give his son a good classical education. At the age of sixteen he went to the university of Cambridge, and in 1660 was ordained both deacon and priest at the same time, lie held a fellowship in Trinity College for a number of years; but, in 1662, he was deprived of this by his scruples in conforming to the celebrated Bartholomew Act. During his residence at Cambridge, he had acted as tutor to many gentlemen of high rank, amongst whom especially was the son of Sir Francis Willoughby. Upon his being forced to leave the university, he travelled with his pupil through various parts of England, and on the continent, and on his return took up his abode for the most part at bis friend's Ifiddleton Hall, in Warwickshire. Mr. Willoughby was an ardent student of natural his- . I'y, v.liuse name had already become c; RAY famous as a botanist, assisted him in his studies. His kind patron and friend died in 1672, in the prime of life, leaving two infant sons whom he confided to the care of Ray, appointing him one of his executors, and leaving him an annuity of £60 a-year. He soon afterwards married, and finally settled in his native village. The books which Ray published on botany are numerous ; and his second edition of the ' Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britan- nicorum,' has been said by an eminent botanist, to be of all the systematical and practical floras of any country, the most perfect that ever came under his observation. His method of classifying plants was a natural one, distributing them according to the number of their cotyledons, and has formed the basis of that system, which is now, under the name of Jussieuan, universally received by botanists of the present day. He is termed by Haller, ' the greatest botanist in the memory of man ;' and by Sir James Edward Smith, he is said to be ' the most accurate in observation, the most philosophical in contemplation, and the most faithful in descrip- tion, amongst all the botanists of our own, or per- haps any other time.' As a zoologist, Ray ranks also very high. Up to his time naturalists were satisfied with Aristotle's classification of the animal kingdom. Ray, however, conscious of its defects, and daring to think for himself, invented another, founded on the structure of the Heart. Cuvier declares Ray to be the first true systematist of the animal kingdom, and both he and Linnaeus avow themselves deeply indebted to his labours, in their succeeding systematic arrangements. We may conclude this brief notice of this justly celebrated man in the words of a learned botanist : ' We readily acknowledge we are proud of being able to call him our countryman, for he was in all respects as good as he was great.' Plunder dedicated a genus of plants to the memory of John Ray, under the name Jan-Raia. Linnaeus changed it to Ra-jania ; but Sir J. E. Smith has more lately with better taste adopted the name Raiania. [W.B.] RAY-DE-ST.-GEINEZ, James Marie, a French tactician, author of a military history of Louis XIV., 1712-1777. RAYMOND, several counts of Toulouse:— -Ray- mond I., reigned 852-865. Raymond 11., reigned 918-923. _ Raymond HI., son and successor of the preceding, created duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne by Raoul, king of France, 923-950. Raymond IV., bom 1042, succeeded his brother, William IV., in 1088, as count of Toulouse, duke of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence ; in 1096 he went to Jerusalem with the first crusade, and refused the crown proffered to him after the cap- ture of the city; died in Syria 1105. Raymond V., born 1134, succeeded his father 1148, died 1194. Raymond VI., son of the preceding, born 1156, succeeded 1194, and, being a friend of the Albi- genses, was twice excommunicated 1208 and 1211, and despoiled of his estates by Simon de Montfort 1218, died 1222. Raymond VII., son of hay- mond VI., and last count of Toulouse, was born 1197, and after struggling with his father for the recovery of his possessions, vanquished Simon do Montfort in 1224. He was so enfeebled by these continual wars, however, that he submitted to a humiliating peace with the pope and the king of Fran 3 in 1229. He died 1242, leaving his estates BAT to his only daughter, Jeanne, who had married Alphonso, count "of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX. RAYMOND, J. M., a Fr. general, dist. in the service of the native princes of India, 1755-1798. RAYMOND, J. M., a Fr. chemist, 1756-1817. RAYMOND, Robert, Lord, solicitor-general in the reign of Anne, and successively attorney- general and chief justice of the King's Bench in the reign of George I. ; died 1732. RAYMOND! See Raimondi. RAYNAL, James, a French historian of Tou- louse, 1723-1807. His brother, Francis, a Greek scholar, 172G-1810. RAYNAL, William Thomas Francis, a French historian and political writer, was born at St. Geniez, in the Rouergue, 1711, and acquired an European reputation by his ' Philosophical His- tory of the Two Indies.' He was a great partizan of the encyclopedists, and a man of remarkable benevolence. His other historical works are of less note. Died 1796. RAYNAUD, T., a Fr. theologian, 1583-1663. RAYNOUARD, Francois Juste Marie, a French dramatic writer and philologist, 1761-1836. RAZI, a celebrated Arabian physician, died 923. RAZOUX, J., a French physician, 1723-1798. RAZZI, G. A., an Italian painter, 1479-1554. RE, Philip, an Italian agriculturist, 1763-1817. READING, an English divine, 1588-1667. REAL. See Saint Real. REAL, Andrew, a Fr. politician, 1765-1832. REAL-DE-CURBON, Gaspard De, a French writer 'On the Science of Government,' 1682- 1752. His nephew, Balthazar, an ecclesiastic and learned writer, 1701-1774. REAL, Philip Francis, Count, an ally of Danton during the French revolution, 1765-1834. REALINO, B., an Italian Jesuit, 1530-1616. REAUMUR, Rene Antoine Ferchault De, a celebrated French physician and naturalist, was born at Rochelle, 1683, and died 1757. He has the merit of reducing thermometers to a common standard, and the thermometer of 80 degrees, in- vented by him in 1731, still bears his name. He was successful in several new applications of chemistry to different branches of manufacture, especially those of porcelain and steel. His principal works are 'Memoirs of his Discoveries,' 'The History of Insects,' and a ' History of the Auriferous Rivers of France.' He was also the discoverer of the turquoise mines in Languedoc. REBENTISCH, J. Frederick, a German surgeon, disting. as a wr. on botany in 1804-1805. REBOLLEDO, Bernardino, Count Di, a Spanish soldier, poet, and diplomatist, 1597-1677. REBUFFI, P., a French jurist, 1487-1557. RECCHI, N. A., a botanist of Naples, 16th ct. RECHENBERG, Adam, a learned theologian and philologist of Leipzig, 1642-1721. RECHTERS, T., a Dutch painter, 1700-1768. RECORDE, Robert, a native of Pembroke- shire, and one of the first mathematicians in this country to adopt the svstem of Copernicus, d. 1558. REDENTRIELM, "or REENTRIELM, James, a Swedish antiquarian, b. at Upsala 1644, d. 1691. REDESDALE, John Freeman Mitford, Baron, a distinguished lawyer and statesman, who assisted at the trial of Hardy and Home Tooke, and finally became lord chancellor, 1748-1830. REG REDI, Francesco, an eminent natural philoso- pher, poet, and philologian of Italv, 1626-1697. REDI, J., an Italian painter, 1665-1726. REDING, Aloys, Baron Von, landemann and general of the Swiss at the period of the French invasion, born 1755, repulsed the French on the plains of Morgarten, 1798, became chief of the central government, 1801, died 1818. REDMAN, or REDMAYNE, John, a digni- tary and theol. of the English Church, 1499-1551. REDOUTE, P. J., a Flemish pain., 1759-1840. REED, Isaac, a miscellaneous writer and dra- matic critic, born in London 1742, died 1807. REED, J., a dramatic writer, 1723-1787. REES, Abraham, D.D., whose encyclopaedia is well known, was born in Montgomeryshire, 1743, and educated as a dissenting minister in the academy of Hoxton. He was teacher of mathe- matics at that institution from 1702 till its disso- lution in 1784, and soon after taught philosophy and theology in the new college at Hackney. He was employed as editor of Chamber's Cyclopaedia in the period 1776 to 1786, and some years later edited the great work known by his name in 45 volumes 4to. Dr. Rees died in 1825, having at that time been minister of the chapel in Old Jewry about forty years. Rees's Cyclopaedia is still valuable as representing the state of knowledge just at the commencement of modern progress. REEVE, Clara, daughter of a clergyman of Ipswich, distinguished as a novelist, 1723-1808. REEVE, John, one of the most popular actors on the London stage, famous for his representation of burlesque character, was born in London, 1799, and made his first appearance at Drury Lane, in the character of ' Sylvester Daggerwood,' in 1819. The principal scene of his later performances was the Adelphi theatre in the Strand. Died 1838. REEVES, John, successively a barrister and magistrate, author of ' Thoughts on the English Government,' and of a ' History of the Law of Shipping and Navigation,' 1752-1829. REEVES, W., an English divine, 1668-1726. REGA, H. J., a French physician, 1690-1754. REGGIO, F., an Italian astronomer, 1743-1804. REGILLIANUS, Quintus Nonius, a Roman emperor, elected 261, killed 263. REGINALDUS, Valerius, otherwise Renaud or Regnauld, a Fr. Jesuit and casuist, 1540-1623. REGIOMONTANUS. SeeMuLLER. REGIS, Jean Baptiste, a French Jesuit and missionary to China, in the period 1708-1715. He is author of a Latin translation of the Y-King, and of a map of the country. His nephew, Joseph Charles, known as a man of letters, 1718-1777. REGIS, J. F., a French preacher, 1597-1640. REGIS, P., a French physician, 1656-1726. REGIS, Pierre Sylvan, whose proper name was Leroy, a Cartesian philosopher, 1632-1707. REGIUS, H. Leroy, or Duroy, a physician and Cartesian philosopher of Utrecht, 1598-1679. REGIUS, Urbain, or Lb Roy, a learned re- former, poet, and professor of rhetoric, died 1541. REGNARD, Jean Francois, a comic poet, who ranks next to Moliere in French literature, and is remarkable for his adventurous life, 1617-1709. REGNAULD, Michjsl Louis Stephen, called 1 Regnault of Saint Jean D'Angely,' a Fr. magistrate and member of the estates-general, 1760-1819. C37 REG REI REGNAULDTN, THOMAS. a French sculptor, ! concertos for the violin and violoncello, choruses, songs, odes, overtures, and church music. He died in the year 1814. [J.M.] REICHENBACH, George of, a distin. maker of optical instruments and telescopes, 1772-1826. REICHSTADT, Napoleon Fran. Charles Joseph Buonaparte, Due De, only son of Na- poleon and his Austrian bride, Maria Louisa, was born at Paris, 20th March, 1811. His birth was an event of great political importance, and Napo- leon himselt announced it to the crowds who thronged the Tuileries with the ambitious words : — ' C'est un roi de Rome ! ' Napoleon, at this time at the height of his power, was preparing for the struggle which every one foresaw must take place with the might of Russia, and as usual with him, he anticipated the coalition by a sudden invasion of the North. The young king of Rome had just completed his third year when the disasters of Moscow and Leipzig opened the gates of Paris to the allied armies, and was with his mother at Blois when the capital capitulated, 30th March, 1814. The emperor was exiled to Elba, and his wife and son conveyed to Vienna, where the young prince received the title of Due de Reich- stadt, a petty principality of Bohemia, and was confided to the care of the count Dietrichstein. His father made vain attempts to recover posses- sion of the child, for whose existence he had paid a heavy price in the divorce of Josephine, and on his second abdication in 1815, he endeavoured to secure his succession as Napoleon II. The Bour- bons, however, were restored by the allied sove- reigns, Maria Louisa became duchess of Parma and mistress of Count Neipperg, and her son was consigned to oblivion at the court of his grand- father. The eyes of Europe were often turned upon the young Napoleon as he grew to manhood, and displayed some of the rare qualities possessed by his father; the governments of Louis XVII I and member of the Academy, died 1706 KKiiNAULT, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1754-1829. REGNAULT, N., a Fr. physician, 1683-1762. REGNIER, Claude Ambrose, duke of Massa, a French statesman at the period of the revolution and the empire, 1746-1814. REGNIER, E., a Fr. mechanician, 1757-1825. REGNIER, a French Latin poet, 1589-1663. REGNIER, M., a French satirist, 1573-1613. REGNIER -DESMARAIS, Francis Sera- ph in. a French writer, author of poems in his own language and in Latin and Italian, secretary to the Academy, and one of the most active editors of the dictionary, 1632-1713. REGNIER-DESTOURBET, H. P., a French writer and advocate of the Jesuits, 1804-1831. REGULUS, Marcus Attilius, a Roman general, consul B.C. 256, killed at Carthage 251. REGULUS - SERRANUS, Caius Atilius, consul of Rome B.C. 257, obtained the naval vic- tory of Lipari in the war with the Carthaginians. REHFELD, C. F., a Germ, physician, 1735-94. REHNSCHOLD, Charles Gustavus, a dis- tinguished senator and field-marshal of Sweden, 1651-1 T^. REICHA, Antoine Joseph, a celebrated musi- cal composer and theorist, was born at Prague in 1770, and received his education at the university of Bonn. Between the years 1794 and 1807 he lived at Hamburg, at Paris, and at Vienna, where he produced several works which were eminently successful. In 1808 he revisited Paris, when he gave a course of lectures on composition, which were well attended. His career as an operatic composer then commenced. After the death of Mehul he was appointed professor of the Conser- vatoire de Musique, where he instituted a new and greatly improved method of tuition, which has had great effect over all Europe in improving the study and advancing the knowledge of music. In May, 1835, he was admitted a member of the National Institute, and he died in May, 1836. [J.M.] REICHARD, H. A. Ottocar, a statesman and literateur, dukedom of Gotha, 1751-18 '8. REICHARD, H. G., a German philologist, 1742-1801. REICIIARDT, Christian, author of 'The Science of Agriculture and Gardening,' 1685-1775. REICHARDT, Johann Friedrich, was born at Konigsberg in Prussia, in the year 1752. This composer, whose talents developed themselves in a remarkable degree even in early infancy, studied for two years at the university of Konigsberg, un- der the great philosopher Emanuel Kant, and after- wards two years at the university of Leipzig. He then travelled through Germany, and on his return to Prussia he was appointed Director of Salt-works under government. Reichardt was chapel-master under three kings of Prussia, namely, Frederick the Great, and Frederick William II., and III. He was also manager of the French and German theatres, and conductor of the orchestra to the king of Westphalia, and member and correspondent of several learned societies. He composed an im- mense number of literary and musical works, the list of which is much too long to be given here. His musical works embrace all classes of compositions, openis, sonatas, and concertos for the harpsichord, and Charles X. also may be supposed to have felt that his existence at the court of Vienna was a perpetual menace. Whatever hopes or fears he may have excited were set at rest by his death in 1832, when a rapid decline terminated his life at the early age of twenty-one. The due de Reich- stadt bore a strong resemblance to Napoleon ; the finely chiselled mouth and chin, the massive fore- head, and the deep brilliancy of his eyes, were re- markably alike ; the same may be said of his capa- city for the penetration of character, and his general temperament. He applied himself in- tensely to military and historical studies, and especially to all that concerned the career of his father, but he had no real freedom at the court. His portrait was almost the last object that the exile of St. Helena gazed upon, whose last testa- ment is an evidence how much he still hoped for the child of his ambition : — ' I recommend him never to forget that he was born a French prince, and never to permit himself to become an instru- ment in the hands of the sovereigns who oppress the peoples of Europe. He must never be found in the ranks of those who combat with France, or in any manner annoy her. Let him adopt my motto, " All for the French people." ' [E.R.J REID, Thomas, born at Strachan in Kincar- dineshire, 26th April, 1710 ; died in Glasgow, 7th October, 1795 : the illustrious founder of the 638 REI • Scottish School ' in Philosophy. The events of Reid's Life were few, hut most honourable to him ; and the entire tenor of his Life, that which befitted an unobtrusive, but earnest, and successful Inquirer into Truth. Under the influence of early connections, his thoughts naturally turned towards Philosophy, and the profession of the Church; and he completed the studies needful to that end at Marischal College, Aberdeen. But about this period, Hume's Treatise on Human Nature aston- ished and troubled Philosophy. Until then, Reid had accepted Locke, and even the startling deduc- tions of Berkeley did not alarm him. But Hume went much farther. Along with the Material World, he had banished those Spiritual conceptions which Reid held in greatest account; he denied, the Personality, and therefore the Liberty and Re- sponsibility of Man. The sincere Scottish Clergy- man, felt and knew, that, in a Philosophy whose conclusions were so false, the most serious error must inhere ; and that, as its Logic showed no flaw, the fault must lie in the foundations. Soon after, in 1763, his great work appeared — the ' Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,' 1 — that vigorous protest on behalf of our Human Consciousness, which determined the long subsequent course of Scottish Philosophy. Pre- vious to the publication of this work, Reid had left his parish (in 1752) for the Chair of Moral Philo- sophy in his Alma Mater; but the reputation established by the ' Inquiry,' procured his transla- tion to a more important sphere ; — he was chosen in 1764 to succeed Adam Smith in the corres- ponding Chair in the University of Glasgow. In 1785 and 1788, he published his Essays on the In- tellectual Faculties, and the A ctive Powers. Philo- sophy has recently obtained the classic edition from Sir William Hamilton. — We shall BfeityM succinctly as possible the characteristics of Reid's Reform. The first fallacy in the system of Locke and his successors, at which he struck, was the doctrine of Perception. The problem, in what way does the Mind reach the external world, — had always been held fundamental in Philosophy. And a favourite mode of conceiving it was this — certain Images or Ideas, intermediate between mind and matter — representing the latter, and apprehensible by the former — constitute the bridge between these two contrasted substances That being the case, said Berkeley, we do not perceive Matter or the External World at all; and, added Hume, we perceive and can know nothing save Ideas. The various forms and modifications of this cumbrous and purely fantastic conception have recently been scientifically arranged and ex- pounded by Sir William Hamilton ; who has shown afresh that Reid's solution of the vexed problem is the only tenable one. Perception, said he, is not a representation, but a presentation. We do not reach it, from Sensation, through any medium ; the world — the cause of the sensation — appears in the mind along with the sensation itself, and with the same evidence. The root or beginning of all our knowledge is thus essentially a Dualism: — the Intuition is as immediate as the Action that gives rise to it. (Article Leibntiz). And by this simple solution, which is but the as- sertion of a fact — attested to be such by Consci- ousness — Reid dispersed the perplexities of preced- REI ing Thinkers, and ought to have prevented the rise of many of the ambitious and baseless schemes in which Germany has since then been unhappily so fertile. — Reid's next point, touched the rationale of our Judgments. According to Locke, a Judgment is the mere comparison of terms or ideas furnished by simple apprehension i — we receive ideas, said that Phhilosopher, alto- gether from Sensation ; the Mind compares these Ideas ; and, from this comparison, results know- ledge or judgments. Reid overthrew this doc- trine also. Judgments, he said, are not mere abstract terms; neither mere statements of the identity or discordance of abstract terms. They come from analyses of concrete notions by the Mind, acting according to its own inherent Laws, and under the susay of principles, belonging to its constitution, and of which none of its opera- tions are independent. This_ doctrine of Judg- ment, led our Inquirer, inevitably, to a farther and yet higher question, viz.: What are those Laws? What those Fundamental Principles of the Reason? Reid replies, by a summary of First Truths, or Truths of Common Sense; and next by an analysis of the Faculties. Very few persons will now be disposed to say, that in the details or phraseology of these replies, Reid's system is un- impeachable. The name Faculty, was perhaps unfortunate, and no scientific, precise, or exhaus- tive method, guided his research after First Truths ; — he merely enumerates a few principles, which he says are evident to Common Sense. Nevertheless, "the solution offered is correct in the main ; and it is not an exaggeration, that it over- turned Sensationalism in this country. He car- ried with him the same method into Moral Inves- tigations, re-establishing on surest foundations, the Personality and Liberty of Man. — It is of mo- ment that a correct apprehension be obtained of the exact place occupied by Reid and the Scottish School generally, in the history of later Mental Philosophy. That he stands among the foremost of that class of Thinkers who have contended with Scepticism in all its forms, and Sensationalism under whatever modification, does not require to be reasserted : the really important question is, what is the relationship of Reid's system to those of other Modern Leaders, who, in so far as his main object is concerned, have made common cause with him ? Among the great men, whose general aim was identical with Reid's, we easily distin- guish two — Des Cartes and Kant : let us fix, then, the relations between Cartesianism, our Scottish Reform, and the Critical Philosophy. Now, it is not to be doubted that the foundation — the starting point of unquestionable certainty — is — in all these systems — the same : neither is the glory of having first descried that Common Sense Foundation, to be withheld from the illustrious Frenchman. Previous to the labours of Des Cartes, the metaphysicians of Modern Europe, had discerned no absolute starting point; their schemes usually reposed on some abstract and often fanciful postulate; nor can more forcible illustration be given of the merit of Des Cartes' achievement, than the subsequent aberrations of Spinoza. The foundation, whose claims and sufficiency are so fully vindicated in the Treatise on Method and the Meditations, is simply this : — RKX it is a First Trnth— possessed of an Absolute Cer- tainty, from which the certainty belonging to all other Truth is derived — that /, a Thinking Sub- ject, exist. This Ego, then, being our first or pri- mary sphere of observation and scrutiny ; — what find rre 1 'htre f And in establishing this foundation and putting this question, Des Cartes spread out the entire domain of Psychology. Sciences are built up slowly; and psychological observation is peculiarly difficult : Des Cartes did not advance far with the superstructure; he left hints merely and separate truths; and he often erred. The earliest subsequent progress may most justly be attributed to Rem, for Locke, with all his acute- l not a sound Psychologist, — he started from a Theory regarding the Origin of our Ideas. Consciousness, said Reid, which assures us of the existence and personality of the Thinking Subject, dedans in a manner equally imperative, the phe- nomena and attributes of that Subject. It tells in the Jirst place, of certain Faculties, or modes of action — demanding faith for the operations of these Faculties. And it declares secondly, the existence of certain absolute principles or beliefs, from which in none of its actions, the Ego can shake itself free: principles which, when mixed up with the subject-matter of sensations, give rise to equally imperative contingent truths. As already indi- cated, Keid was rather a sound Thinker than pos- sessed of the Scientific Spirit. Although there- fore he discovered the foregoing Truths, and fully appreciated and unfolded their importance, he penetrated no farther. He descried fundamental facts in Psychology, but he never entertained an idea that Psychology — any more than any other branch of Inquiry — cannot be elevated into a Sci- ence, if attention be confined to examination of its separate fundamental Facts. That loftier ques- tion was beyond him— What is the Organic Struc- ture of the Intellect of which these facts are pro- ducts or phenomena ? In other words, — In what way are principles possible, which are not evolved by our faculties, but rather govern them, seeing that no faculty can construct any notion which does not pre-suppose these principles? And again, — How comes it, that knowledge relative to the nature and action of the Faculties of an Individual Mind, can ever assume to be Absolute? It is into this arduous Sphere of pure Science that Kant boldly entered, and where his triumphs have been won. His arrangement or classifica- tion of the Mind's Modes of Energy (Faculties) is simpler and better discriminated than Reid's; he has traced the absolutism of First Truths to the fact, that d priori or constitutent Laws, f:he Mind's action in every Mode of its Inergy; and he has exhausted the list of such Truths, by detecting these d priori Laws. — Such, the relationship among these remarkable Thinkers. It has been signally unfortunate for the progress of Philosophy in Scotland, that we have not been disposed to regard our country- man as a contributor merely. Not satisfied with recognizing his immense merits, we have sup- it he sounded all the depths of Psycho- owledge; — thus wilfully shutting up our iee from the memorable adraoces m tame. Of late years, indeed, we have been growing sensible oi' our mistake. [J.P.N.] REM REIFESTEIN, John Frederick, a Prussian cameo painter and improver of the art, 1719-179.'). REIFFENBERG, Francis I)e, a French Jesuit, historian, theol., and Latin poet, 1719-64. REIGNY, L. A. B., a French writer, 1757-1810. REIL, J. C, a Germ, physiologist, 1759-1813. REIMAR, or REIMARIUS, Herman Samuel, a philologist and naturalist, professor of philoso- Ehy at Hamburg, 1694-1748. His son, J. A. [enry, a physician and naturalist, 1729-1801. REIMMANN, James Frederick, a German savant, author of a ' History of Logic,' 1668-1713 REINA. F., a French writer, 1770-1825. REINBECK, J. G., a German theologian and philosophical disciple of Wolf, 1682-1741. REINECCIUS, C, a theologian and Hebraist, editor of a Bible in four languages, 1668-1752. REINECCIUS, Reinier, an antiquarian and disciple of Melanchthon, one of the restorers of historical studies in Germany, 1541-1595. REINEGGS, J., a German traveller, 1744-93. REINER, W. L., a German painter, 1686-1743. REINESIUS, Thomas, a learned physician and archaeologist of Gotha, 1587-1667. REINHARD, F. Volkmar, a protestant theolo- gian and moralist of Sulzbach, 1753-1812. REINHART, C. F., Count, a diplomatist, mem- ber of the Institute, and peer of France, 1751-1837. REINHOLD, C. Leo, a Ger. philos., one of the first to enforce the doctrines of Kant, 1758-1823. REINHOLD, Erasmus, a German astronomer and professor of mathematics, 1511-1553. His son, of the same name, who was a physician, wrote on geometry, and on a new star which ap- peared in Cassiopeia, 1575, REISER, A., a German theologian, 1628-1686. REISKE, John James, an eminent philologist, and Arabic scholar of Saxony, 1716-1774. His wife, Ernestina Christina, was a Latin and Greek scholar, and aided her husband in all his labours, 1735-1798. REITZ, Frederick Wolfgang, a German philologist and editor of some classics, 1733-1790. REITZ, John Frederick, a learned philolo- gist, 1695-1778. His brother, G. Otho, a Greek editor, 1702-1769 RE LAND, A., a Dutch Orientalist, 1676-1718. RELTAN, Richard, a Church of England min- ister, naturalist, and classical editor, 1755-1823. REMARD, C, a French bibliopole, 1706-1828. REMBERSUS, one of the first promoters of Christianity in Denmark, d. abp. of Hamburgh 888. REMBRANDT, Gerritz, commonly called Rem- brandt Van Rhyn, was born in his father's mill on the banks of the Rhine between Leyerdorp and Kowkerk, near Leyden, June 15, 1606. He became the pupil of Jacob Van Swanenburg, with whom he remained three years ; he studied also under Pieter Lastman at Amsterdam, and Jacob Pinas at Haarlem. He settled at Amsterdam in 1630, and appears to have died there, according to Immerzeel, July 19, 1664, but no register of his burial has been yet discovered. Rembrandt was equally dis- tinguished as an etcher and a painter ; his etch- ings amount to nearly 400 : they are dated from 1628 to 1661. The chief characteristic of his works is forcible light and shade. He is well represented in the National Gallery; and his influence has been more direct upon the British school of pain- C10 REM ters than that of any other master. — (Tmmerzeel, Aanteekeningen op de Lofredd op Rembrandt, also De Levens en Werken der Hollandsche en Vlaanmsche Kunstschilders, &c, 1843 ; Bartsch, Le Peinter qraveur; Burnet, Rembrandt and his works, 1848.) [R.N.W.] REMER, J. A., a Germ, historian, 1736-1804. REMI, or REMIGIUS, the name of two saints of the Roman calendar : — 1. An apostle of the Franks who baptized Clovis, and became arch- bishop of Rheims, died 533. 2. An archbishop of Lyons, who was of Gaulish origin, and wrote taunst Godeschalcus, presided at the council of Valence 855, died 875. A third of the name, called Remi, or Remigius of Auxerre, was a Benedictine monk and commentator, died 980. REMI, A., a French poet, 1600-1646. REMI, J. H., a French jurist, 1738-1782. REMONDI, Balthasar M., a Venetian bishop of Zante, disting. as an Orientalist, 1698-1777, REMUSAT, Claire Elizabeth Jeanne, Countess De, lady of the palace to the empress Josephine, authoress of an Essay on Female Edu- cation, 1780-1821. REMUSAT, Jean Pierre Abel, professor of the Chinese and Tartar languages at the college of France, author of a Chinese Grammar, and some valuable translations, 1788-1832. REMUSAT, P. F. De, a Fr. writer. 1755-1803. RENANUS. See Rhenanus. RENARD, J. A., a French architect, 1744-73. RENAU D'ELISAGARAY, Bernard, a fa- mous naval engineer and architect, an. of ' Theorie de la Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux,' 1652-1719. RENAUD, the first of the name, count of Bur- gundy, reigned 1027-1057; the second, succeeded 1087,' died in the Holy Land, 1097; the third, succeeded 1126, died, and was succeeded by his daughter, Beatrix, 1148. RENAUD, the first of the name, count of Bar, reigned 1105-1149, and sustained a long struggle with the emperor Henrv V. The second, succeeded his brother, Hugh, 1155, died 1170. RENAUD, L., a French preacher, 1690-1771. RENAUD, or REGNAULD. See Reginaldus. RENAUDIE, Godfrey De Bapay, Seigneur De La, a party to the conspiracy of Amboise, 1560. RENAUDOT, Theophrastus, a physician and biographer, founder of the ' Gazette de France,' 1584-1653. The 'Gazette' was continued by his two sons, Isaac and Efsebius. Eusebius, his grandson, was a learned Orientalist and ecclesi- astical historian, 1656-1720. RENAULT, A. C, a young woman, executed at Paris for attempting the life of Robespierre, 1794. RENAZZI, P. M., an Italian jurist, 1747-1808. RENE of Anjou, the last of his dynasty who sat on the throne of Naples, and the father of Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., king of England, was born at the castle of Angers in 1409, and succeeded his brother as duke of Anjou and count of Provence, 1434. He had previously be- come duke of Lorraine by his marnage with Isa- bella, the heiress of that state, and had suffered a long captivity, and been deprived of the succession by his competitor, Anthony, count of Vaudemont. He was still the prisoner of that polite gentleman REN of Naples in- 1435, gave him a claim to the Two Sicilies. These events, and the warlike employ- ment they promised to Rene, were a sufficient in- ducement for Anthony to rid his hands of him, and the heir of Naples and Sicily was permitted to fight his way to the throne. The succession was disputed by Alfonso of Arragon, who took Naples in 1442, and chased Rene back to Provence. But the conquests of the English had also de- prived him of his whole heritage in France, and Rene found himself a titular king of some of the fairest portions of the earth, and duke of Anjou, Maine, and Bar, without a province under his own command. Such was his position when the duke of Suffolk negotiated the marriage of Rene's daughter with Henry VI., and it is thus alluded to in the taunts put in the mouth of York by Shakspeare : — 4 Thy father hears the type of king of Naples, Of hoth the Sicils and Jerusalem ; Yet not so wealthy as an English yeoman. Hath that poor monarch taught thee to insult ?' Margaret, however, if poor, was a finely accom- plished woman, and. possessed the heroic spirit of many others of hei sex in that age ; her father, Ren6, also was distinguished by many of the quali- ties of a good and wise king, whose lot was cast in evil times; and he was called 'the good King Rene' by his subjects of Provence. Anjou and Maine were restored to him by the treaty with Henry VI., but Louis XL, in 1473, deprived him of the former, and attached it definitively to the French crown. It was according to the necessity and the spirit of the times, for the European monarchies were then absorbing the old feudal lord- ships and petty sovereignties into themselves, and forming the national monarchies, such as France became in the next centuiy under Louis XIV. Rene died at Aix in Provence, 1470, and so lately as 1823 a marble statue was erected to him in that city. He was the last count of Provence, that portion of his hereditary dominions having been annexed to France at his death. [E.R.] RENE II., duke of Lorraine, bom 1451, suc- ceeded to the duchy in right of his mother, daughter of Rene" of Anjou, 1493, died 1508. RENEE of France, duchess of Ferrara, second daughter of Louis XII., was born 1510. In 1528 she married Hercules II., duke of Ferrara, and was distinguished for her love of letters, and her friend- ship for Calvin and the protestants. Died 1575. RENNEL, Major, an East Indian officer, and distinguished geographical writer, 1742-1830. RENNELL, Thomas, dean of Winchester, and son-in-law of Sir William Blackstone, regarded as one of the most accomplished men of his age, author of Sermons, 1753-1840. His son, of the same name, born at Winchester 1787, became in 1811 editor of the ' British Critic,' and published about the same time his ' Animadversions on the Unitarian Version of the New Testament ;' d. 1824. RENNEVILLE, Constantine De, author of a ' History of the Bastile,' in which he had been confined on a charge of treason ; born at Caen 1650, died in England 1724. RENNEVILLE, Sophie, a French lady, author of works on education, 1771-1822. RENNIE, John, a distinguished civil engineer, when he succeeded to the duchfes of Anjou and | Provence in 1434, and when the death of Joan II. and the first perhaps who in the execution of Oil 2T REN machinery carefully distributed and accurately calculated the st.aiiis of tlie different parts, so that re justly jn-oportioned, a feature which up . recent period was a peculiar characteristic of British machinery. He was born at Phantassie in Haddingtonshire', 7th June, 1761. His father was a farmer, celebrated for his skill and desire to improve agriculture. As early as 1780, on being asked at what season he began ploughing, answered that he ploughed at all seasons! John Rennie acquired the rudiments of education at the school of Phantassie and afterwards at Dunbar, where, on the promotion of the master, he, for a short .ducted the school. He early displayed a love of nature, and an aptitude for mechanical contrivance, and the use ot tools. He worked as a mechanic for some years under Andrew Meikle, a millwright of the district, under whose superin- tendence he assisted in the erection of some mills in Haddingtonshire, and went as far as Dundee to erect one on his own account. The opportunity presented itself, and Rennie took advantage of it, to attend the courses of lectures on mechanical philosophy and chemistry, by Robison and Black, in Edinburgh college. Prepared thus with what books and professors could teach, he entered the world ; and it may be said, that during all the course of his useful'life, he was adding to his stock of knowledge, or seeking the means of improving his practice "by observing the operations and effects of his own works, as well as of those which had ■<-uted by other engineers. About 1781, or when in his twenty-first year, feeling himself qualified to practise the profession of civil engineer- ing on a greater scale than Scotland then afforded field for, he set out for London. On his way he spent some months with Watt at Soho. Soon after he was established in London, Bolton and Watt em- ployed Rennie in the construction of two steam engines, and the machinery connected with them, at the Albion Flour Mills. All the wheel work was of cast iron instead of wood, which had been always previously used in such machinery. The works were finished in 1789, and obtained Watt's highest commendation. Rennie continued to the last to be employed in the construction of steam engines and other machinery, and, at the same time, he was almost constantly engaged in designing or superin- tending those public works which have given him so just a claim to celebrity. Rennie designed and executed innumerable bridges, but his masterpieces are Waterloo bridge, the Southwark cast iron bridge, and New London bridge, the execution of which latter was left to his sons to complete. His great engineering genius was displayed besides in numerous canals for navigation successfully carried out under his direction ; in the extensive drainage schemes for the Lincolnshire fens, which he planned and executed ; in the magnificent London, and East and West India docks ; the Hull docks, where he constructed the first dredging machine used in this country. But the catalogue of his works cannot be recited here. He was indefatigable in business, and personally directed minutest details. He was a man of noble presence, of somewhat austere tem- per, and not very social habits. Chantrey, who made a bust of him, said of it that it was his (Chantrey's) Jupiter. Until within a few vearsof bin death he enjoyed excellent health. He died Oc- RET tober 16, 1821, at the early age of sixty-one, leaving many magnificent designs to be executed by his two elder sons, George and John, the latter now Sir John Rennie ; he was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. [L.D.B.G.] RENNIGER, or RHANGEE, Michel, a native of Hampshire, chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, and author of Latin poems, 1529-1609. RENOU, A., a French painter, 1731-1806. RENTI, Gaston Jean Baptiste, a French nobleman, remarkable for his ascetic devotion to religion, and for his charities, 1611-1649. RENZI, A., an Italian writer, 1780-1823. REPNIN, Nicholas Wasilieyvitsch, Prince, a celebrated Russian diplomatist, 1731-1801. REPTON, Humphrey, a private gentleman, dist. as a wr. on landscape gardening, 1752-1818. REQUENO Y VIVES, Vincent, a Spanish Jesuit, numismatist, and archaeologist, 1743-1811. REQUIER, J. B., a French writer, 1715-1799. RESENIUS, John Paul, a learned divine, son of a Lutheran clergyman of Denmark, 1561-1638. His grandson, Peter John, professsr of moral philosophy and jurisprud. at Copenhagen, 1625-88. RESTAUT, P., a Fr. grrammarian, 1696-1764. RESTIF-DE-LA-BRETONNE, N. E., a fertile and cynical French novelist, 1731-1806. RESTOUT, John, a French painter, director of the Academy, 1692-1768. His son, J. Bernard. a painter and member of the Academy, died 1796. RESTY, J. A., a Latin poet, 1755-1814. RETZ, Gilles De Saval, Seigneur De, a French marshal, born 1396, distinguished himself in the wars with the English, and acquired a dis- graceful celebrity by his cruelties and infamous debaucheries : hung and burnt 1440. RETZ, or RA1Z, Albert De Gondi, Marshal De, a native of Florence, who came to France with Catharine de Medici, and was rewarded with the barony of Retz and a marshal's baton, 1522-1601. His brother, Pierre, Cardinal De Retz, advanced by favour of Catharine, 1533-1616. Their grand- nephew is the subject of the following article. RETZ, Jean Francois Paul De Gondt, Cardinal De, the hero of the civil wars of the Fronde in the minority of Louis XIV., was the son of Philip Emanuel de Gondi, general of the French Galleys, and was born at Montmirail, 1614. He was educated by St. Vincent de Paul, and destined for the church, but turned out a licen- tious and turbulent character in his youth, and preferred entering into the intrigues of the court, and heading the popular party opposed to Mazarin and Conde\ Tne only sincere parties in this cabal, for it hardly possesses the dignity of a civil war, though it was marked by all the sufferings of one, was the distressed people, who became the mere tools of ambition and faction. The popular manifestations provoked by De Retz were similar to those which marked the commencement of the French revolution ; and the year 1649 was signa- lized by the resort to arms and the erection of barricades. The court was obliged to leave Paris till De Retz was purchased by a cardinalate, to which he was nominated by the king in 1651 ; he was then arrested, during the lull which followed, by Mazarin, and remained a prisoner from 1651 to 1654, when he escaped to Spain, and going from that country to Rome, engaged in tho intrigues at 612 RET the papal court. In 1661, the death of Mazarin enabled him to return to France and make his peace with the king; he resigned, however, the titular archbishopric which he nad held since the death of his uncle, and received the abbey of St. Denis in lieu of it. The remainder of his life presents a singular contrast with the part we have sketched; he abandoned his magnificent manner of living, and sequestered the greater part of his income to the payment of his debts, amounting to more than a million and a-half sterling ; twice it is said, he wished to renounce the purple, which he confessed to have purchased too dearly. He died at Paris, universally esteemed, in 1679, leaving ' Memoirs ' which are highly valued for their impartiality, and for the sketches of charac- ter with which they are replete. [E.R.] RETZIUS, A. J., a Swed. botanist, 1747-1821. REUCHLIN, John, one of the most eminent German scholars, prof, of Greek and Hebrew at Wit- temberg, and teacher of Melanchthon, 1455-1522. REUILLY, J. De, a Fr. traveller, 1780-1810. REUSCH, J. P., a Ger. philologist, 1691-1754. REUSNER, N., a German jurisconsult and statesman, author of some compilations and Latin poems, 1545-1602. His brother, Elias, an anti- quary and historian, 1555-1612. REUSS, J. D., a Germ, philologist, 1750-1837. REUTH, B., a Russian historian, last century. REUVEN, P., a Dutch painter, 1650-1718. REUVENS, John Everhard, one of the most learned jurisconsults ever produced in Hol- land, was born at Haarlem, 1763, and perished at Brussels, the victim of a conspiracy in 1816. He was one of the authors of the new criminal code of the Low Countries. REVEL, J., a French painter, 1684-1751. REVELEY, Wili.ey, a pupil of Sir W. Cham- bers, dist. as an architect and antiquary, d. 1799. REVELLIERE - LEPAUX, Louis Marie, successively member of the constituent assembly, the convention, and the directory, 1753-1824. REVER, M'. F. G., a Fr. antiquary, 1753-1828. REVIUS, J., a Dutch savant, 1586-1658. REWBELL, Jean Baptiste, successively de- puty to the estates-general, the convention, and the directory of the French republic, in which office he was replaced bv Sieyes, 1746-1816. REY, J., a French chemist, died 1645. REY, Jean Baptiste, an eminent musical composer, several years director of the orchestra in the chapel of Napoleon, 1734-1810. REYHER, S., a German savant, 1635-1714. REYN, J. De, a Flemish painter, died 1678. REYNA, C. De, a Spanish Hebraist, 16th cent. REYNEAU, C. R., a Fr. geometr., 1656-1728. REYNER, E., a nonconf. div., abt. 1600-1670. REYNIER, John Louis Ebenezer, a French general and statesman, 1771-1814. His brother, J. L. Anthony, an economist, 1762-1814. REYNOLDS, E., an Engl, prelate, 1595-1676. REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, considered the founder of the English school of painting as regards its special characteristics, was born at Plympton in Devonshire, where his father was rector, July 16, 1723. He was intended for the medical pro- fession, but was induced by the perusal of Richard- son's Essays on Painting, &c., to take up painting as a profession. A handsome edition of these RHI . essays was in 1773 dedicated to Sir Joshua by Richardson's son, comprising — The Theory of Painting, Essay on the Art of Criticism, and The Science of a Connoisseur. Reynolds' first master was Hudson the portrait painter, with whom he was placed in 1741. He first set up as a portrait pain- ter at Devonport, but in 1746 settled in London in St. Martin's Lane. In 1749 he accompanied Com- modore Keppel in the Centurion to the Mediter- ranean, and remained altogether about three years in Italy. He commenced husiness again in Lon- don in 1752, and soon became the most prominent painter of the capital. In 1768, when the Royal Academy was established, Reynolds was unani- mously elected president at the first meeting of the members, December 14, of that year, and he was knighted by George III. in consequence. In 1784 he succeeded Allan Ramsay as principal painter in ordinary to the king; and after an unrivalled career as a portrait painter, died at his house in Leicester Square, February 23, 1792. He was buried with great pomp in St. Paul's Cathedral, where a fine statue by Flaxman is placed immedi- ately below the dome, in honour of his memory. His large fortune, about £80,000, was inherited by his niece, Miss Palmer, who became afterwards marchioness of Thomond. His collection of works of art sold for nearly £17,000. Sir Joshua Rey- nolds, notwithstanding his careless and feeble drawing, was indisputably a great painter ; some of his portraits are among the first masterpieces of the art, whether as simple portraits, or as fancy pieces, as for instance, ' Lord Heathfield ' in the National Gallery, of the former class, and ' Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse,' at Dulwich, of the latter. His pictures are necessarily veiy numerous, their chief excellence is their natural grace, ful- ness of expression, substantial character, and fre- quently a charming richness of colour and light and shade. His eulogium cannot be better ex- pressed than in the words of Burke : — ' He was the first Englishman who added the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his country ;' ' The loss of no man of his time can be felt with more sincere, general, and unmixed sorrow.' Sir Joshua has bequeathed to posterity besides his paintings, fifteen elegant and valuable ' Discourses,' of which a magnificent edition edited by John Burnet, was published bv James Carpenter in 1842. There is a full life "of Reynolds by North - cote, two vols. 8vo, London, 1819. [R.N.W.] REYRAC, Francis Philip Delaurens De, a French ecclesiastic and poet, 1734-1782. REYS, Anthony Das, a Portuguese divine, known as a poet and biographer, 1690-1738. REZZANO, F., an Italian poet, 1731-1780. REZZONICO, Anthony Joseph, Count Delia Torre, an Ital. critic, and gov. of Parma, 1709-85. RHAY, T., a French controversialist, 1603-71. RHAZES, an Arabian physician, died 932. RHEINEK, C, a German composer, 1748-96. RHENANUS, Beatus, a learned critic, and one of the restorers of letters in Germany, 1485-1547. RHENFERD, J., a Ger. Orientalist, 1654-1712. RHESE, J. D., a Welch philologist, 1534-1609. RHETICUS, G. J., a Swiss astron., 1514-1576. RHIANUS, a Greek grammarian, B.C. 200. RHIGAS, a modern Greek poet, and martyr of patriotism, was born in Thessaly about 1753. 613 RHO Having organized a secret society to achieve the independence of Greece, he was arrested by the Austrian government, and, a rescue being feared, fwaed in the Danube, May, 171)8. His poems are said to be full of inspiration, besides which lie commenced a (ireek journal, and trans- cral French works. IMIO, J., an Itahan ascetic, 1590-1662. RHODE, J. G., a Germ. Orientalist, died 1827. RHODES, Alexander De, a Fr. Jesuit, dist. as a missionary to the East, from 1618 to 1660. RHODES. J., a Danish savant, 1587-1659. RHODIGINUS, Coslius, a learned Italian, called by Scaliger, who was a pupil of his, the Varro of his age. His proper name was Lodo- Ki' < iieri, 1450-1525. l: HO DOM AN, L., a Germ, savant, 1546-1606. KlIUNKEN, or RUHNEKEN, David, an eminent critic and professor at Leyden, 1723-98. BHYNE, W. F., a Dutch naturalist, 17th cent. RHYZF.LIUS, Andrew, a Swedish antiqua- rian, chaplain to Charles XII., bp. of Lincoping, and member of the Upsala Academy, 1677-1755. i; 1 HALT A, Franciso, a Spanish painter, 1551- Juan, his son and pupil, 1597-1628. RIB AS. Joseph De, a Neapolitan general, em- ployed in the service of Russia, and one of the nego- tiators of the peace of Jassi; born about 1735. KIBAS-Y-CARASQUILLAS, F. De, a Spanish Dominican, and adversary of the Jesuits, 1612-87. KIBERA, Anastasius Pantaleon De, a ■ at and wit, time of Philip IV., 1580-1629. R I B E R A. See Spagnoletto. KIBES, Anne Arnaud De, a French colonel of engineers, distinguished in Spain in the wars of the French republic and of the empire, 1731-1811. R1BIER, W., a French historian and deputy to the estates-general, 1575-1663. RIBIT, J., a French Hellenist, 16th century. RIBOUTTE, F. L., a Fr. dramat., 1770-1834. RICARD, D., a French translator, 1741-1803. RICARDO, David, a merchant of London, of Dutch descent, famous for his writings on finance and the statistics of public economy, was bom 1772, and first appeared as an author during the n connected with the Bullion Committee His great work 'On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,' was published In 1819, he became member of parlia- ment for Portarlington. Died 1823. RICART, or RYCAUT, Sir Paul, an English traveller, historian, and diplomatist, died 1700. RICCATI, Vincent De, an Italian mathema- tician and engineer, 1707-1775. His brother, JOURDAO ",. 1709-1790. RHODIGINUS. RICCI, Antonio, an Italian painter, surnamed • - .-lit by Domenichino, 1600-1649. RICCI. C. an Italian painter, 1580-1620. RICCI, J. B., an Italian p.-! iter, 1545-1620. .. the last general of the >rn at Florence, 17u3, died in the oaatle \_"-lo. 177."». HJa IPIO, an Italian prelate, imprisoned for his attachment to 1741-1810. li missionary, 1552-1610. L, an Italian cardinal, 1619-1682. \o, an Italian painter, who executed in this country the Montague 611 RIC House, 1660-1734. Marco, his nephew and pupil, born 1676, died at Venice 1730. RICCIARELLI. See Voltkkk a. RICCIO, B., an Italian painter, 16th century. RICCIO, Domenico, generally called Bi-usa- sorci, an Italian painter, 1494-1567. His son, Felix, called Brusasorci the Younger, 155(1-1 605. Baptista. the brother of the latter, and Cecilia, his sister, were also painters. RICCIOLI,Giovani Batista, a learned Italian Jesuit and astronomer, 1578-1671. RICCOBONI, Luigi, called Lelio, an eminent Italian dramatist and comic actor, horn at Modena about 1674, died 1753. His first wife, Hklena Virginia Baletti, was also an actress and authoress, 1686-1771. Their son, Antonio Fran- cesco, was an actor, dramatic writer, and alchy- mist, 1707-1772. The wife of the latter, Marie Jeanne Laboras De Mezieees, a French lady, was disting. as an actress and novelist, 1713-92. * RICH, Claudius James, the distinguished traveller and Orientalist, was born in 1787, near Dijon, in Burgundy, and was brought to England in his infancy, and educated at Bristol. He became so remarkable for his skill in the Eastern languages that he obtained an appointment in the East India Company's service as early as 1803, when in his seventeenth year. In 1807 he resided with Sir James Macintosh, at Bombay, and married his daughter. His researches in Babylonia date from 1811 to 1820, and he died prematurely at Shiras in 1821. His Oriental antiquities and MSS. were purchased by parliament for the British Museum. His memoirs were published by his widow, and went through a second edition in 1839. RICH, Penelope Devereux, Lady of Lord Robert Rich, was a daughter of the old earl of Essex, and the affianced bride of Sir Philip Sidney. She is the Stella of his exquisitely beautiful love verses, and is admitted to have been the finest woman of her age. The love story of ' AstropheP and ' Stella,' is one of the most painful romances of real life. It has been illustrated by the graceful pen of Mrs. Jameson among others. RICHARD I., king of England, surnamed Coeur de Lion, the ' Lion-hearted,' was the second son of Henry II. and Eleanor of Guienne, who had been divorced by Louis VII. of France. He was born at Oxford in 1157, and succeeded to the throne by the death of his father in 1189 ; having previously displayed so haughty and rebellious a spirit, that it had contributed to lay the aged king in his grave. Remorse for his past misconduct was instantly followed by preparations for a crusade in Palestine, which had been resolved on during Henry's lifetime, in consequence of the progress in arms of the renowned Saladin. On the 1st of July, 1190, Richard met Philip Au- gustus of France in the plain of Vezelai, and agreed upon the terms of a mutual expedition-, he was then accompanied from Marseilles by the English barons, and the kings rejoined company at Messina, the appointed rendezvous of the two armies. Here the romantic episode of Richard's expedition against Cyprus, and his marriage with Berengaris took place. In the middle of 1191 these interesting proceedings ended in the arrival of the armament before St. Jean d'Acre, then, and for two years past besieged by the crusaders, RIC under the emperor Frederic. The English monarch immediately became popular among the knights, and took a leading part in the operations of the siege. The fortress surrendered, notwithstanding the efforts of Saladin to raise the siege on the 12th of July, and soon afterwards Philip Augustus departed for France, pretending sickness, but really disgusted with the supremacy of Richard, and far outshone by him in feats of" arms. Richard now marched from St. Jean D'Acre at the head of 100,000 men, and defeated Saladin in a general engagement on the road towards Ascalon. This victory put the crusaders in possession of the prin- cipal towns along the sea-coast, and furnished such a basis of operations that Richard was enabled to press forward to the capture of Jerusalem. Disaffection among the Christian forces prevented the accomplishment of this design, and Richard, hearing of the perfidy of his brother, John, and Philip of France, concluded a trace with Saladin, and embarked for Europe on the 9th of October, 1192. His fame had already been spread far and wide by the songs of the troubadours, and the reports of the pilgrims. Armed with a heavy battle-axe, he never hesitated to rush single- handed into the midst of the enemy, and such deeds are recorded of him as would be incredible if they were not well attested by eye-witnesses. On the passage home he was shipwrecked near Aquiliei, on the coast of Italy, and, disguising himself as a pilgrim, he endeavoured to reach Eng- land by way of Germany. When near Vienna, his real character was discovered, and Leopold, duke of Austria, caused him to be arrested both in revenge of his brother-in-law, the lung of Cyprus, and of the contempt that Richard had shown for his flag at Acre. On his captivity becoming known, [Castle of Tiernbteigen, the prison of Richard.] which was concealed as long as possible, Richard was ransomed by his subjects at the price of 100,000 marks, and arrived in London on the 20th of March, 1194. His contemptible brother, John, had been in connivance with Philip to usurp the kingdom, and that monarch advised him of Rich- ard's return, with the laconic warning to 'take care of himself, for the devil had broke loose.' Richard, however, generously forgave him, and having been crowned again at Winchester, crossed over to France to chastise Philip. Hostilities were RIC interrupted by a truce, and being resumed again a second trace was agreed upon, both which events occurred within the three years, 1196-1199. In the last-mentioned year Richard was preparing to return to England, when Vidomar, the count of Limoges, discovered a treasure, part of which he sent to Richard as his feudal superior. The lat- ter claimed the whole. Avariciousness could be no part of such a character, but it should be con- sidered that he had been at great costs in his recent wars, and his conscience may have told him that his subjects had paid a far higher ransom for him than he was worth as their sovereign. Provoked at the refusal of the Limousan, Coeur de Lion invested the castle of Chaluz, and haughtily refusing all overtures, threatened to hang the whofe garrison as soon as he had taken the place. While reconnoitering this stronghold, he was shot in the shoulder with an arrow by a cross-bow -man, named Bertrand de Gourdon. The wound proved mortal, and Richard expired in the tenth year of his reign, on the 16th April, 1199. The garrison in the meanwhile had been defeated, and the king dis- played his usual magnanimity by ordering that Gourdon should be set at liberty. On the con- trary, the hapless man was flayed alive and then hung, by order of Marchadee, the leader of the Brabantine soldiers in Richard's army. The fame of Richard Coeur de Lion has been no less widely spread in the East than in his own country, and his daring passed into a proverb among the Sara- cens. He had qualities also that must have made him a great king, in every sense of the word, had he outlived his martial enthusiasm, or had war been pursued for political ends in those times as in later ages. [E.R.I RICHARD II., eldest son of Edward the black Erince, and of Jane, daughter of Edmund, earl of [ent, was bora at Bourdeaux 1366, and succeeded his grandfather, Edward III., 1377. He was called to govern in difficult times, when the nobles were turbulent and powerful, and the commons were just acquiring a knowledge of the power they might possibly exercise : his minority also was disturbed by the continuance of the French wars of his grandfather. At that time the modern principles of taxation were not understood, and disaffection was provoked by the exactions neces- sary for the public service. A priest, named John Ball, became the orator of the multitude, and the people rushed to arms under Wat Tyler, a poor man, whose daughter had been outraged by the indecent conduct of the collector of the poll-tax. This was in 1381, when the king was only fifteen years of age. Tyler, who lived at Dartford, in Kent, collected a body of 100,000 insurgents under his banner, and having pitched his camp at Black- heath, made a disastrous descent upon the metro- polis. The promises of the government caused the greater part of this force to disband, and their leader was stabbed in Smithfield while conferring with the king, by Walworth, mayor of London. Assassination under such circumstances was a dangerous experiment, but Richard at this critical moment, with great presence of mind, rode up to the insurgents, and declaring he would redress their grievances, finally persuaded them to dis- perse to their homes. By similar means the insur- rection, which had spread from county to county, Uo RIC was everywhere suppressed in detail ; and when all was supposed to he over the concessions were withdrawn, and commissioners being sent to all pacta, supported by a large army, 1,500 of the liiMirp-nts were executed. The display of spirit l>v Riehard on this, and a few other occasions sub- sequently, was mere impulse or empty vanity, un- supported hy any steadfast resolve or sense of KM the remainder of his reign would be wholly comprehended in the history of his fall, and the assumption of power by a man of stronger will and more politic judgment, in the person of lis cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, duke of Lancaster. It is the history of favouritism and weakness on the one hand, giving abundant scope to ambition mid strength ot resolve on the other. Richard, beOMM the prisoner of Henry, was solemnly de- posed on the 29th of September, 1399, and was either killed or starved to death in Pontefract : the beginning of 1400. The usurpation of the duke of Lancaster, now Henry IV., com- menced the civil wars of England between the red and white n [E.R.] RICHARD III., the most execrated of all Eng- lish princes, was the youngest son of Richard duke of York, and was born at Fotheringay eastle in Northamptonshire, 1452. He was luke of Gloucester in 1461, on the acces- sion of his brother, Edward IV., who claimed the throne as a descendant of Philippa, only daughter of the duke of Clarence, who was the second son ird III. In 1472 Richard married Ann, widow of the Lancastrian prince of Wales, and daughter of the great Warwick ; the sister of that ing previously wedded his brother Clar- l lie latter prince being his elder brother, in the way of Richard's ambition, who fomented the intrigues which proved fatal to him ; on the death of Edward in 1483, Richard became the natural guardian of his nephews, and | anted legal protector of the kingdom. r of the boys was immediately proclaimed Edward V., the other was duke of York. '1 lie history of the times is only obscurely known, but the tradition of the murder of these princes in the Tower by order of Richard, is in all human probability substantially true, and a darker deed bery is not on record in any language. This event took place about the middle of 1483, y, 1484, the succession of Richard i by a senile parliament, his other a children of Clarence, having been de- clared illegitimate by defamation of the usurper's own mother. In about three months afterwards Richard lost his son, the prince of Wales, and within another year the daughter of Warwick fol- ■ r child to the tomb. Richard, thus made a widower, proposed to marry the Princess Eliza- Icat daughter of his brother Edward, who tined for fa earl of Richmond, the heir of tar. The latter was abroad at the time, bat now hastened the preparations for ided ratua to deliver England from Richard's tyranny, and in tine, landed at Milford n tha 7th of August, 1 185. Richard took I at the head of 16,009 men, and met ' the head of 10,000, with the assur- revar, of aid from Lord Stanlev, who ded another body of 7,000. The encounter RIC took place at Bosworth field, near Leicester, on the 21st of August, and Stanley keeping his pro- mise at the critical moment, secured the victory to Richmond. Richard III. was as brave as he was cruel and politic. As the action grew despe- rate he fought with the courage of a hero, and making a last determined rush at his opponent, he fell under the number of assailants that closed around him. Richmond then became king under the title of Henry VII., and having married Eliza- beth, united thereby the houses of York and Lan- caster, and thus terminated the civil wars. In so short a time, passed in expectation of his last struggle, Richard can hardly be said to have reigned, yet he distinguished himself by acts which mark the statesman. Such acts, however, can never be admitted to cancel crime ; the first good act is to avoid evil ; the first possible right, is its independence of all wrong. [E.R .] RICHARD, two dukes of Normandy: — Rich- ard I., son and successor of William Long-Sword, reigned 993-996. Richard II., son and succes- sor of the preceding, 996-1027. A duke of Bur- gundy, reigned 877-921. A count of Evreux, who accompanied William the Bastard in his expedi- tion against England, reigned 1037-1067. Two princes of Capua: — Richard L, succeeded his father as count of Aversa 1059, and was invested with the principality of Capua by the pope, Nicho- las II., 1062 ; died 1078. Richard II. succeeded 1091, and, being deposed by his subjects, was re- established by Roger, duke of Apulia, 1098, died 1105. Lastly, a count of Rhodes, who died after a long reign about 1135. RICHARD, bishop of Chichester, died 1253. RICHARD, archbishop of Armagh, surnamed Armachanus, said to have translated the Bible into Irish, and a reformer of the friars, died 1360. RICHARD of Bury, a learned statesman and patron of learning, was born at Bury St. Edmunds 1287. He commenced his career as tutor of Prince Edward, afterwards Edward III., became bishop of Durham in 1333, and chancellor and high treasurer of England in 1334 ; died 1345. RICHARD of Cirencester, a Benedictine monk of Westminster, author of works on Saxon and British history, died 1401 or 1402. RICHARD of Cornwall, an uncrowned em- peror of Germany, son of John, king of England, was born 1209, and first distinguished himself in Palestine. He was crowned king of Germany at Aix-la-Chapelle to the prejudice of Conrad in 1257, and was remarkable for the wisdom of his adminis- tration ; died 1272. RICHARD of St. Victor, a Scottish divine and Scripture commentator of the 12th century. RICHARD, C, a Fr. mathematician, 1589-1664. RICHARD, C. L., a political and ecclesiastical writer, author of ' Dictionnaire des Sciences Eccle- siastiques,' b. in Lorraine 1711, shot at Mons 1794. RICHARD, Claude Louis, an excellent bo- tanist, was born in 1754. He died in 1821. His grandfather was one of Bernard de Jussieu's gar- deners at the Jardin du Roi at Paris, and his father had the superintendence of Louis XVth's garden at Auteuil. Inheriting thus a love for botany, his pas- sion for the study was carried to the extreme. His parent! wished him to study theology, as they had good prospects for him in the church, but neither C-16 RIC tears, entreaties, nor threats, could prevail upon him to follow the line of life chalked out for him, and his father at last turned him out of doors at the age of fourteen, with a miserable pittance to support him. Nothing daunted by this rigorous treat- ment, the young enthusiast made his way to Paris, where he studied botany under Bernard de Jussieu, and in a few years afterwards received an appoint- ment to proceed as botanist to Cayenne and the other French colonies in America. He remained there for eight years, and during that time made exten- sive collections both in botany and zoology. Arriv- ing in France in 1789, he found the men in power too much absorbed in their own struggles for exis- tence to attend to scientific pursuits. He had thus the mortification to find the little money he had previously accumulated gone, his health in- jured and himself cruelly neglected. Unfortunately for science these disappointments and blighted hopes rendered him misanthropical and churlish. He shut himself up from the scientific world, and henceforth studied for himself alone. The fine collections he made, thus became of no avail to his countrymen, and he was exceedingly chary even in communicating to any one the results of his re- searches. In 1795 he was appointed professor of botany at the Ecole de Medecine. His lectures were excellent and well attended ; and fortunately a portion of them has been published by one of his pupils from notes taken at the time. This work and a few memoirs which he published in some of the scientific journals show that he possessed ori- ginal views in botany, and could express them with great conciseness and accuracy. He had in view the intention of producing a new philosophy of botany in the style of Linnaeus, as also a new terminology of the science, but he did not live to bring them to maturity. [W.B.] RICHARD G., a French missionary, 1764-1832. EICHARD J., an ecclesiastical wr., 1639-1719. RICHARD, J. P., a Fr. preacher, 1743-1820. RICHARDSON, J., an African traveller, d. 1851. RICHARDSON, John, a learned Irish prelate, au. of 'Observations on the Old Testament,' d. 1654. RICHARDSON, Jonathan, a distinguished portrait painter and writer on art, about 1665- 1745. His son and literary assistant, died 1771. RICHARDSON, Joseph, a poet, died 1803. RICHARDSON, Samuel, the son of a joiner, was born in Derbyshire in 1689. After passing through a village school, he was bound to a printer in London, and, after having been a few years fore- man to his master, set up in business for himself. He prospered as rapidly as his good conduct and industry deserved, was appointed printer of the journals of the House of Commons, and enjoyed domestic happiness in two successive marriages. He was always fond of reading, was a voluminous letter-writer, especially to ladies, and furnished prefaces to the booksellers. But his authorship went no farther than this, till he had completed his fiftieth year. He then agreed, on the request of two publishers, to compose a series of familiar and instructive letters ; and, when he had worked for three months at his task, what he produced was his novel of ' Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded.' It was published in 1740. It was the first novel of domestic life which had broke in on the unna- tural romances, (for Defoe had barred himself from RIC polite patronage by his unlucky choice of subjects); and it had therefore novelty, besides its great merit in natural and minute description, to recom- mend it to the extraordinary popularity which it immediately attained. In 1749 it was followed by 'The History of Clarissa Harlowe,' a novel whose pathos is so profound as to be positively painful. In 'The History of Sir Charles Grandi- son,' published in 1753, the author aspired some- what above the sphere of manners which he mh best qualified to describe; but, in spite of this, and of the wearisome prolixity which reigns here yet more than in his other novels, this is really a fine picture of the ideal gentleman. It is to the immortal honour of Richardson that he, the earliest of our modern novelists, (unless Defce should be ranked among them,) produced works untainted by the immorality which disgraced Fielding and his other successors. He passed his old age in comfort and fame, being only a good deal spoiled by the homage of his admirers, particularly the ladies who flocked about him. He died in 1761. [W.S.] RICHARDSON, W., son of a Scottish minister, known as a miscellaneous writer and poet, d. 1814. RICHARDSON, W., a learned antiquarian and minister of the Church of England, 1698-1775. RICHE, Claude Anthony Gaspard, a Fr. phvsician, distinguished as a naturalist, 1762-1797. RICHELET, Cesar Peter, a Fr. writer, au. of several Dictionaries and translations, 1631-1691. RICHELIEU, Armand Jean Du Plessis, Cardinal, was born at Paris on the 5th of Septem- ber, 1585. The family name was Plessis, but many members of it became distinguished in con- nection with the territorial title of Richelieu. Ar- mand was a younger son, and was consecrated bishop of Lucon in 1607. It was a period when the possession of the great ecclesiastical dignities was not supposed in France to turn the habits of a young man of noble family from the usual licen- tious pursuits of his rank, but Richelieu was fonder of power than of pleasure, and he soon ac- quired it by ably and rigidly performing the func- tions of his high office. His court success is said to have commenced with a harangue which it fell to him to deliver to the young monarch, Louis XIII., and which secured the attention and approval of the queen mother, Mary of Medicis. He received his cardinal's hat in 1622, and two years afterwards became chief minister of the crown. His ministry was remarkable for the development of great systems, and the chief of them was the breaking down the territorial power of the nobility, and con- firming the influence of the crown, which had long before brought the commons under subjection to a perfect despotism. His career was distinguished at once by daring and success. All who resisted him, including the highest princes of the blood, were remorselessly executed as common criminals, and thinking it necessary to his purpose, he drove his old patroness the queen dowager into exile. He broke the power of the Calvinists by besieging and taking their stronghold Rochelle. But his antipathy to them seems to have originated less in religious intolerance than in a desire to uproot those singular secular privileges which made them supreme even over the royal prerogative in the districts assigned to them. In counteracting the power of Austria, which was the second main C47 RIC of his ministry, ho used for hie purpose :' the north, and the Mahommedans • ■nth, with thorough impartiality. He combined with his courage and jiro.it talent many ludicrous weakness. He died on the 4th of : !_>. [J.H.B.] RICHELIEU, Axphokso Louis Du Plessis st brother of the statesman, known as the s. and distinguished tor his charities ; 1 582 - 1 658. L. F. Armani), his grand-nephew, a naraha) of France, and member of the Academy, was born at Pane in 1696; at the age of fourteen < .immenced life at court, died \kmani> KMMAxria, grandson of the latter, was born in 1766, and at the period of the ^migration, 1789, took service under Suwarrow. S he returned to France, and became foreign minister. Died 1822. RICHER, ADRIAN, a distinguished French his- torian, 1720-1798. His brother, Francis, a juris- nd writer on mythology, &c., 1718-1790. RICHER, K-, a learned French divine, author rk on ecclesiastical and political power, which gave rise to much controversy, 1560-1631. RICHER, E., an elegant and learned French writer, author of ' La Nouvelle Jerusalem,' d. 1835. RICHER, H., a dramatic writer, 1685-1748. RICHER, J., a French astronomer, died 1696. RICHERAND, Barno, a celebrated French i and writer on physiology, died 1840. RICHMAN, G. W., a native of Livonia, prof. of natural philosophy at Petersburg, 1711-1753. RICHMOND, Charles Lennox, duke of, y of state and grand master of artillery, 1735-1 #06. His nephew, and heir of the same governor of Plymouth, lord-lieutenant of . and governor of Canada, 1764-1812. RICHMOND, Legh, a minister of the Church of England, editor of a 'Selection from the Fathers of the Church,' and author of 'Annals of the Poor,' 1 77-.'- 1 RICHTER, A. G., a Ger. surgeon, 1742-1812. RIC HTER, Jean Paul Fkiedrich, was born in 1768, in the principality of Baireuth, in Fran- conia. His father, a Lutheran village pastor, was so poor that his son's education was carried on with much difficulty; and, dying before Jean Paul the university, he left his family in great The youth, bent on attaining scholar- ship, and intending at first to be a clergyman, bile at Leipzig, often wanting and in 1783 he found his way to the press with a work (the ' Grunlandische Prozessen,') which showed him to have already opened his vein. Another of his strange sketches, 'An Extract from the Devil's Papers, lay unpub- aral years, during which Jean Paul i b the depths of penury. In 1793 Iiool in the little town of Sch war- in Ids native province; and then also he public applause for the first time, by the tion of 'Tiie Invisible Lodger.' Thus en- couraged, he devoted himself entirely to author- red forth his works with rapidity, and one of the mo-' among the Ger- man writers of his time. He shifted bifl I •. and then settled at Baireuth for of his life, which dosed in 1825. Jean Paul wrote philosophical treatises, such as his 618 RID 'Levana, or the Theory of Education,' and the 'In- troduction to ^Esthetics' (Vorschule der jEsthetik). But his fame rests on a kind of compositions which are almost, yet not quite, novels or romances. They unite narrative, description, and reflection ; they pass from the wildest flights of grotesque and original humour to tlie depths of pathetic ten- derness ; they contain as much of striking thought as ever was embodied in any work of fiction, and as much of poetic imagination as ever was ex- pressed in prose. His thinking is unsystematic, but often wonderfully suggestive as well as acute ; and his style is entirely his own, and so eccentric, that his books are not less difficult for Germans than for foreigners. Among the works which fill his sixty volumes a few may be named : — ' Hes- perus,' ' Quintus Fixlein,' ' Biographical Diver- sions under the Skill of a Giantess,' ' Flower, Fruit, and Thorn-Pieces,' ' The Journey of the Regimental Chaplain Schmelzle,' 'Titan,' 'The Life of Fibel,' ' The Comet, or Nicolaus Markgraf.' [W.S.] RICHTER, Otto Frederick Von, a Rus- sian traveller and Oriental scholar, 1792-1816. RICIMER, a Roman patrician and general, of Swedish origin, regarded as the ablest commander of the age. From the period of his first great suc- cess against the enemies of Rome in 4o6, he de- posed and created the emperors at his will. In 472 he stormed Rome, and gave it up to the pil- lage and cruelty of his soldiers. He d. soon after. RICIUS, P., a learned German, 16th century. RICKMAN. John a distinguished statistician, many years assistant clerk in the House of Com- mons, 1771-1841. RIDER, John, an Irish prelate, 1562-1633. RIDER, William, master of St. Paul's school, author of a ' History of England,' &c, died 1785. RIDGLEY, T., a nonconf. divine, 1667-1734. RIDINGER, J. E., a Germ, painter, 1695-1767. RIDLEY, Gloster, an English divine and theologian, best known as a dramatic writer and poet, 1702-1774. His son, James, a chaplain in the army, author of 'Tales of the Genii,' d. 17()5. RIDLEY, Nicholas, a martyr of the English Church during the Marian persecution, was born in Northumberland, and educated at Newcastle-on- Tyne, at the commencement of the sixteenth cen- tury. He was soon known for his high attain- ments in theological learning, and his promotion commenced by his appointment as chaplain to the archbishop of Canterbury (Cranmer) in 1537. On the accession of Edward VI. in 1547, he had be- come a popular preacher of the doctrines of the reformation; in September of that year he was appointed bishop of Rochester, and in 1549, on the deprivation of Bonner, bishop of London. Ridley and Cranmer worked heartily together during the reign of Edward VI., but with this difference, that Cranmer was more willing to trim his sails to the current winds, and Ridley stood firmer by his individual convictions. It was a long time before he gave up the doctrine of the corporal presence in the eucharist, and he never abandoned his prefer- ence for episcopalian distinctions, the use of vest- ments, and the priestly manner of administering the Lord's supper. Ridley tried in vain to recon- cile Hooker, the bishop elect of Gloucester, to the retention of these ' rags of superstition,' and the latter underwent a long imprisonment before he EID submitted to wear them. It is to Ridley, in short, more than to any other prelate, that we are in- debted for the English liturgy as it exists at pre- sent ; and no one acquainted with the history of Edward the Sixth's reign will require to be told under what difficulties it was formed. When the health of Edward was declining in 1553, he in- duced that prince to endow the public charities which bear his name ; viz., Christ's Hospital, St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, and Bridewell ; and on the king's death joined the party who endea- voured to place the crown on the head of Lady Jane Grey. Though he submitted himself to Mary, he was committed to the Tower in July, 1553, and in March, 1554, was conveyed to Ox- ford, together with Latimer and Cranmer, to be tried for heresy. He walked to the place of exe- cution in his episcopal robes, a striking proof of his regard for those distinctions, and was burnt with Latimer on the 16th of October, 1555, in front of Balliol college. He endured the torments of the stake with great courage, and as the flames did not reach the vital parts so soon in his case, Latimer expired before him. His woi'ks have been republished by the Parker Society. [E.R.] RIDLEY, Sir Thomas, of the same family as the martyr, distinguished as a civilian, died 1629. RIDOLFI, C, an Italian painter, 1570-1644. RIDOLFI, C, a painter and historian, 1602-60. RIEBOV, G. H., a Germ, theologian, 1708-74. RIEDESEL, J. H., a Germ, diploma., 1740-85. RIEDINGER, John Elias, a native of Ulm in Suabia, dist. as a painter of animals, 1695-1757. RIEGGER, J. A. G., a Ger. canonist, d. 1795. RIEGO-Y-NUNEZ, Rafael Del, a Spanish officer and patriot of the revolution of 1820, born 1785, executed after the restoration of Ferdinand VII., November, 1823. R1EM, J., a German agriculturist, 1739-1807. RIENZI, or RIENZO. Cola, or Nicola Gab- kino De Rienzo, famous in Roman history for his assumption of the dictatorship in that capital, was born of humble parents about 1310, and was known in 1340 as a friend of Petrarch, and like the poet, was distinguished by his love of the ancient republican institutions of Rome, and by his pro- found knowledge of antiquity. He was also a great orator, and was in the habit of addressing the people on their political degradation and the oppression of the nobles. His most frequent theme was the destruction of the noble monuments of ancient Rome, the conversion of palaces and tombs into fortresses by the rival factions, and the total abandonment of the city by the popes, who then resided at Avignon. His eloquent appeals bor- rowed force from the ruins, in the midst of which he. addressed the people, and it was always easy to give that political meaning to his harangues that the anarchy of the times dictated. The papal authority favoured a movement which held out some prospect of depressing the factions, and on the 20tn of May, 1347, Rienzo was accompanied to the capitol, at the head of an immense multi- tude, by tne bishop of Orvieto, the pope's vicar, and was then appointed the people's tribune with his sanction. In this character Rienzo, surrounded with a regular militia, re-established the adminis- tration of justice, sent ambassadors to other states, and was courted, as the mediator between them RIN and the pope, by some of the principal sovereigns of Europe. His power lasted no longer than the December of the same year, when a reaction took place, headed by the great families he had de- pressed, and Rienzo, abandoned by the people, sought refuge in Bohemia. In 1352 he was con- veyed a prisoner to Avignon, and would have been executed, but his own eloquence, the intercession of his friend Petrarch, and the death of Clement. VI., saved him. Innocent VI., who succeeded Clement, found it politic to restore Rienzo to his dictatorship, but he was now hampered with re- strictions, and with the necessity of raising sup- plies of money for the pope. These circumstances, and the severities he found it necessary to exercise, alienated the city, and a popular tumult being excited, Rienzo was massacred on the 8th of Octo- ber, 1354. The popes continued to reside at Avignon till 1376, a period, in the whole of seventy years, bewailed by Petrarch as a time of barbaric devastation. [E.R.] RIES, Ferdinand, a celebrated musician, was born at Bonn in Germany, in the year 1784. His father and grandfather were both musicians, the one having been first violinist, and the other leader of the orchestra, at Cologne. The young Ferdi- nand received his musical education from Bernhard Romberg, and from Albrechtsberger. In 1801 he removed to Munich, and afterwards to Vienna, where he became the first acknowledged pupil of Beethoven, and where he laid the foundation of his future fame as a composer. In 1805 he was drawn as a conscript for the French army, but having in early life lost the sight of one eye from small-pox he was dismissed as being disqualified to serve as a soldier. He afterwards visited Russia, where he remained till 1813, when he arrived in England and was admitted a member of the Philharmonic So- ciety, where several of his compositions were per- formed with great applause, and where he was much admired as a piano-forte player. Having acquired a well-merited independence he returned to his native town, when he produced two German operas and an oratorio ' David.' He died at Frank- fort in 1838. [J.M.] METER, H., a Swiss painter, 1751-1818. RIGAUD, Hyacinth, a celebrated painter, called the Vandyke of France, 1659-1743. RIGAUD, Stkimikn Pktkk, professor of astro- nomy at Oxford, born at Richmond, 1775, d. 1839. RlGAULT, N., a Fr. philologist, 1577-1654. RIGHINL. V., an Italian composer, 1758-1812. BIGHTWISE, or BITWYSE, John, a classical scholar, and master of St. Paul's school, d. 1532. BIGORD, IUGORDUS, RIGOTTUS, or RI- GOTUS, a French ecclesiastic and historian of Philip-Augustus of France, died about 1207. BIGOBD, J. P., a French antiq., 1656-1727. BILEY, .John, an English painter, 1646-1691. I.MXALDI, OdBSIOO, a learned ecclesiastical historian, born at Treviso, 1595, died 1671. RINCON, A. De, a Span, painter, 1446-1500. RING, JOHN, a pupil of the two Hunters, dis- tinguished as a surgical writer, 1751-1821. RINGELBERGlUS, Joachim Fortius, Ger- man Siikuck, a dating. Flemish philos., 16th ct. BINGGLI, C, a Swiss painter, 1575-1635. BINK, F. T., a German Orientalist, died 1811. K1NNANN, S., a Swiss mineralogist, 1720-92. 649 BIN niXrrCIXT, Ottavio, » Florentine poet, said to be the inventor of the opera, died 1621. KM U A. P. Dr., a Spanish poet, 1590-1658. RIOLAN, Jean, a French physician of consi- derable celebrity, born at Paris in 1580, and died there vd seventy-seven. He was ■ vigorous con- troversialist, and his somewhat numerous treatises were collected into 1 volume folio, in 1650. In conjunction with La Brosse he was the founder of j Botanic Garden at Paris, to establish which lie had obtained permission from Mary de is, the mother of Louis XIII. [J.M'C] BIPAULT. L. M., a French savant, 1775-1823. BIPLEY, SBOKOB, or Gregory, an English alchvmist and poet, time of Henry VII., d. 1490. llll'PKBDA, John William, Baron De, a uid political adventurer, who rose to great distinction in the empire of Morocco, born at Gro- in Flanders, 1680, died at Tetuan 1737. RIQUET, PBTBB Paul DE,the engineer of the noble canal of Languedoc, to the execution of which he devoted the whole of his fortune, 1604- lliis canal unites the Mediterranean with the Bay of Biscay, and the works were completed bv Biqnet's two sons. ' K is BECK, G., a Dutch historian, 1750-1786. BISDON, Tristram, a native of Devonshire, author of a * Survey' of that county, 1580-1640. BI8LET. T., a puritan divine, 1630-1716. RITCHIE, Joseph, one of the victims of Afri- can discovery, was employed in an exploring expe- dition with Captain Lyon, and d. in Fezzan 1819. BITSON, Isaac, a medical pupil, distinguished as a professional and miscellaneous wr., 1761-89. BITSON, Joseph, an English lawyer, disting. as a literary antiquarian and editor, 1752-1803. RITTANGELIUS, or EITHANGEL, John Stephen, professor of Oriental languages at Konigsberg, author of several books founded on his Judaicat learning, died about 1652. BITTENHOUSE, David, a celebrated Ameri- can astronomer and mathematician, 1732-1796. BITTER, J. B., a German chemist, 1762-1807. BTTTEB, J. \\\, a Ger. philosopher, 1776-1810. RITTEBSIIUYS, Conrad, a native of Bruns- wick, dist. as a civilian and philologist, 1560-1618. . Nicholas, a genealogist, 1597-1670. BITWYSE. See Rightwise. LTVARD, D. F., a Fr. mathemat., 1697-1778. KIVAROL, Anthony, Count De, a French political writer, celebrated for his bons mots and '•al spirit, b. in Languedoc 1754, d. 1801. \ SOLA A., an Italian painter, 1607-1640. BIVA ULT, D., a French tactician, died 1616. RIY.-UT ELLA. Antonio, a native of Pied- mont, dist. as an archaeologist and bibliop., 1708-53. RIVAZ, P. J. Dk, a Fr. chronologist, 1711-72. l.TVE, John Joseph, a French ecclesiastic and writer on literary history, who was remarkable for his turbulence during the revolution, 1730-1792. BIVET, A., a French Calvinist, 1572-1651. BIVET DE LA GRANGE, Antih-nv, a learned Benedictine, author of a 4 Literary History of France,' 1683-1740. BIVI1 Dim De, an emigrant noble and officer in the army of Conde, who was gover- nor of the young due de Bourdeaux ; born 1765, condemned to death as a spv of the Bourbons, but v Josephine, 1804, died 1 - C50 BOB BIVIERE, L., a French physician, 1589-1650. RIVIERE, Mercier De La, a distinguished political economist, author of ' The Order, Natural and Essential, of Political Societies,' born about 1720, died 1793, or 1794. RIVIERE, P. J. H. La. See Lariviere. RIVIERE, Roch Lebaillif, Sieur De La, a eel. empirical physician and astrologer, died 1605. BIVINUS, the Latinized name of Andrew Bachman, a Ger. phys. and philologist, 1600-56. RIVINUS, Augustus Quirinus, but whose family name was Bachmann, an excellent botanist, was born at Leipzig in 1652. He died in 1723. The son of a learned father, he soon became equally distinguished himself; and filled the chair of pnysi- ology^and botany at the university of his native town. He was a correspondent of John Ray's, and published a classification of plants about the same time as he did. His system was founded on the flower, on the number, regularity and irregularity, of the petals. He was the first to abandon the division of plants into trees, shrubs, and herba- ceous plants, an arrangement which was still clung to by Tournefort and Ray. His controversy with the latter upon this subject, is the chief thing which has made Bivinus known to the botanists of this country ; though the value of his works and his great merits as a botanist, entitled him to higher con- sideration than he has hitherto received at their hands. Plumier has named a genus of plants after him, Bivina. [W.B.] RIZI, J., a Spanish painter and art-writer, 1595-1675. His brother, Francis, a painter and architect, 1608-1685. RIZZIO, or RICCIO, David, an Italian musi- cian and linguist, who became private secretary to Mary queen of Scots, and was murdered at Holy- rood House by Lord Ruthven, and the other accom- plices of Darnley, 1566. It was pretended by the enemies of the queen that an improper intimacy existed between her and Rizzio, but all the pro- babilities are opposed to such a belief. The most recent work which throws any light on this subject is that of Miss Strickland. ROA, M. De, a Spanish historian, died 1637. ROBBIA, L. Della, an Ital. sculptor, 15th ct. ROBERT, earl of Annandale, father of Robert Bruce, who became king of Scotland, was related to the blood royal by his mother, Isabella of Scot- land. He was the competitor of Baliol for the crown on the death of Alexander III. in 1285. Died soon after the battle of Falkirk, which was fousrht 22d July, 1298. ROBERT I., king of Scotland. See Bruce. ROBERT II. and III. See Stuart. ROBERT, surnamed 4 The Strong,' regarded as the stock of the Capet dynasty, died 866. ROBERT, king of France, son of the preceding, received the crown at Soissons from the lords op- posed to Charles the Simple 922, killed 923. ROBERT, called 'The Devout,' king of France, shared the throne with his father, Hugh Capet, 988, succeeded him as sole king 996, died 1031. ROBERT, emperor of Constantinople, 1219-28. ROBERT, emperor of Germany, 1400-1410. K< M'.ERT, j£rs* of the name, duke of Normandy, called 'Le Magnifique,' and l Le Diablo,' succeeded his brother, Richard III., in 1027, or 1028. Hav- ing gone on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he ROB was poisoned at Niccea in Bithynia, 1035. His natural son, William the Conqueror, suc- ceeded him. Robert II., surnamed 'Short Shanks,' son of the latter, obtained the duchy of Normandy after his father's death, 1087, died, the prisoner of his bro. Henry, at Cardiff castle, 1134. ROBERT, called 'The Old,' duke of Burgundy, third son of King Robert, was invested with the duchy by his brother, Henry I., 1032, and died 1075. Robert II., succeeded his father, Hughes IV., before his death 1272, and was married to Agnes, daughter of St. Louis, died 1305. ROBERT, count of Burgundy, reigned 1303-15. ROBERT, duke of Bar, reigned 1351-1411. ROBERT, count of Evreux, reigned 989-1037. ROBERT, thejirst of the name, count of Flan- ders, second son of Baldwin V., succeeded his nephew, Arnoul, 1072, died in Palestine 1093. Robert II., son and successor of the preceding, greatly distinguished by his exploits at Jerusalem, the crown of which was offered to him ; died 1111. Robert III., reigned 1305-1322. ROBERT I., count of Artois, third son of Louis VIII., and brother of St. Louis. Having accom- panied the latter into Egypt, he was killed at the battle of Mansourah 1250. Robert II., a posthu- mous son of the preceding, -was distinguished in the second crusade, and was killed in a battle with the Flemings near Coutrai 1302. Robert III., grandson of Robert II., born 1287, was mortally wounded in a battle with the French, and died in London 1343. ROBERT of Anjou, king of Naples, distin- guished in the struggle of the middle ages between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, was the third son of Charles II., and succeeded that sovereign by a decision of the pope in 1309. It is not easy to express the real principles at issue between those parties, but, in general terms, the Ghibellines were the friends of the ascendancy of imperial govern- ment, and the Guelphs were identified with the separate nationalities under the ascendancy of the Church of Rome. Hence, the Guelph sovereigns were often on the side of the popes, and were always opposed to the emperors of Germany and their allies. With the crown of Naples conferred upon him to the prejudice of his nephew, Carobert, Robert of Anjou received the remission of all the debts of his father to the papal see, and, besides that, the lordship of several cities in Piedmont, and the alliance of the Guelph cities of Tuscany : the advantages which he offered in return being the combined resistance of Italy to the pretensions of Henry VII. The policy of Robert was to tem- porize, and hold his power in reserve rather than nazard a battle ; and he was known to say that he rather gloried in the title of poet and philosopher (to which he had some claim) than in that of king. His championship of the church lasted from 1310 to 1324, when the Neapolitan and Roman armies were beaten, and Raimond of Cordova, who com- manded them, taken prisoner. Robert, however, in the interval, had acquired Genoa, and defended his acquisition with some show of military talent against the Ghibellines of Lombardy, in 1318. In all his other projects he was disappointed. Two attempts to conquer Sicily failed, and his only son, Charles, after being defeated in his attempts to carry on the war, died in Tuscany 1328. Robert ROB endeavoured to sustain the fortunes of his house, by marrying his daughter, Joan, to Prince Andrew, son of "his nephew, Carobert, who had become king of Hungary, with what result may be seen in another article (Joan of Naples.) He died, esteemed by his own subjects, 1343. [E.R.] ROBERT of Auxerre, a French monk, author of a Chronicle of that place, died 1212. ROBERT of Geneva, an antipope, elected under the name of Clement VII., in opposition to Urban VI., 1378, died 1394. It was this election which commenced the famous schism of the West. ROBERT of Gloucester, an old annalist, supposed to have been a monk, reign of Edward IV. ROBERT of Lincoln, bishop of that see, and one of the most learned men of his age, died 1253. ROBERT of Vauoondy, Giles, geographer to Louis XV., 1688-1766. Didier, his son and successor, 1723-1786. ROBERT, F., a French geographer, 1737-1819. ROBERT, the name of several French painters : — Nicholas, famous for his miniature animals and plants, 1610-1684. Hubert, a painter of architecture and landscape, 1733-1808. Leopold, a pupil of David, dist. for his groups, 1794-1835. ROBERTI, Giovanni Batista, Count, an Italian professor and philosopher, author of meta- phvsical and literary works, 1719-1786. ROBERTI, J., a learned Jesuit, 1569-1651. ROBERTIS, Denis De, an Italian ecclesiastic, professor of philosophy and theology at Paris, dist. as an orator, poet, and astrologer, died 1342. ROBERTS, B. C, an antiquar. wr., 1789-1810. ROBERTS, Emma, an accomplished lady, known as the friend of Miss Landon, and authoress of 'Historical and Biographical Memoirs of the Rival Houses of York and Lancaster,' ' Oriental Scenes,' &c, died at Poonah, in India, 1840. ROBERTS, F., a puritan divine, 1609-1675. ROBERTS, P., a Welch divine, died 1819. ROBERTSON, Joseph, a minister of the Church of England, author of an 'Introduction to the Study of Polite Literature,' an ' Essay on Female Education,' and other works, 1726-1802. ROBERTSON, S. G., a Fr. aeronaut, died 1837. ROBERTSON, Thomas, a dignitary in the church in the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, au- thor of some grammatical tracts in Latin, 16th ct. ROBERTSON, Dr. William, was born in 1721, at Borthwick, in Mid-Lothian, Avhere his father was then the parish minister. He went through the usual education for the Church of Scotland, and in his twenty-second year became minister of the rural parish of Gladsmuir, in Had- dingtonshire. He speedily displayed, in the eccle- siastical courts, that ability as a debater and orator, which afterwards, assisted by the weight of his literary reputation and his exemplary character, made him the leader of one of the two great parties in the church. In his retired manse he busied himself also with literature, associated with the men of letters who were then gathered in the Scottish capital, and in 1755-6 co-operated with Blair and Adam Smith in their attempt to establish an ' Edinburgh Review.' There, too, he wrote his first historical work, 'The History of Scotland during the Reigns of Mary and of James VI.' It was received with great favour, and appreciated by none more highly than by David Hume, 051 eob between whom nnd Robertson there was ■ cordial pood-will, in spite of literary rivalsliij) and serious i i aon. Botli in this and in his other Robertson shows himself an admirable story-teller, writing with remarkable animation, and ■ whuh, though not possessing Hume's ease, is wonderfully correct; and he was also a conscientious and successful investigator of origi- nal authorities. Io the year of his first publica- tion he removed to Edinburgh, being appointed to one of the city churches; and in 17G2 he became also Principal of the University. About this time he refused a proposal from the government to take orders in England, with a view to his being made a bishop; and in 1764 he was named historiogra- pher-royal for Scotland. His literary industry was not checked, either by his success, or by his multi- farious occupations and his close attention to his duties. In 1769 he published his most masterly work, ' The History of Charles V. : ' and two other productions less valuable followed ; the of America' in 1777, and ' An Histo- juisition concerning Ancient India' in 1791. Of his pulpit eloquence, to which a warm tribute is paid by Dr. Lrskine, his friendly col- I hough his opponent in the church courts, no specimen has been printed except one sermon. !th took place in 1793. [W.S.] ROBERTSON, William, an Irish divine, au- thor of ' An Attempt to Explain the words Rea- son, Substance, Person, Creeds, Orthodoxy, Catho- lic Church, Subscription, and Index Expurga- torius.' For this publication he was rewarded by the university of Glasgow with the degree of D.D., and was afterwards master of the Wolverhampton grammar school, 1705-1783. ;RTS< >N, W., a grammarian, 1650-1686. BOBEBVAL, Giles Person De, an eminent geometer, professor of mathematics in the College lJoyal of France, author of numerous memoirs, and partv to a c ontro v argj with Descartes, 1602-1675. ROBESPIERRE," Francois Joseph Maxi- milikn Isidore, the chief actor in the French revolution, was born at Arras in 1759. His father was of English origin, by profession an advocate. and though not rich, as tew could be at a provin- cial bar, he was sufficiently well off to pay for the education of his children. Maximilien, therefore, was sent to Paris, and educated for the same pro- at the college of Louis le Grand, where Camille Desmoulins was his fellow-student. At the outbreak of the revolution he was but thirty years of age, yet he had already acquired a liter- ary and professional celebrity in his native pro- : I possessed so much of the public con- fidence that he was sent as a deputy to the estates-general. Like many others in that assem- bly whose names, in the course of the next five led every mouth in Europe, Robespierre was unknown and unmarked as a man of any like- lihood, and was destined to remain 60 until the popalf applause had been exhausted by a Necker, tie, and a Uixmbean. Of all those assem- bled, however, he was the only man who went with a predetermined conviction, with a design as is own devotion to it proved to be '. and with a nature that his heart would nevez prev ent him from adopting it might recommend the:. EOB his conscience as necessary. His character was that of a man formed by study, whose sentiments were fashioned as of cold, polished steel, and whose sense of justice, if it came warm from the heart in early youth, had hardened into marble, hu- man in its proportions, incorruptible in its natnre, but statue-like in its frigid insensibility. Such was Robespierre as he played his part on the stage of public events, yet this man apparently so in- sensible, had a brother whom he loved, and who in return almost idolized him ; a sister to whom he had given up the little independence he had in- herited from his father ; and all those cherished memories of a first love, to which the heart in secret clings but the more fondly, as the outward features are moulded into indifference by disappoint- ment. To state the whole truth, the friends of Robespierre, and his political colleagues, exhibited the utmost devotion for his person, and the object of a later attachment, on his part, could never comprehend the maledictions heaped upon his memory ; he was so pure, so virtuous, so gentle as she remembered him ! These facts may be incom- prehensible, but they are such as we find on record, and no public life can be understood if the private character and the circumstances created by it are insufficiently known. Robespierre's sense of jus- tice, and his indifference to the means of accom- E fishing it, may account for his public influence, ut they would leave the devoted friendship of a Lebas, a St. Just, and of a brother well acquainted with his private life inexplicable unless there were some chord in his heart that responded to it. The secret of that devotion must be sought in their knowledge of his character, and their admiration of the perfect command that Robespierre possessed over his sensibilities, and the subjugation of his whole nature to a stern logic, working by mathe- matical rule, and resolved to extract the symme- trical order of his dreams out of the elements around him, regardless of all human feeling. For a long time this disposition remained unknown, and few could have supposed that his studied manners and his sickly countenance concealed the real hero of the revolution. Such, however, was the fact. Robespierre was deeply read in the his- tory of the Grecian and Roman republics, and next to his admiration for the examples set by the free states and heroes of antiquity, may be mentioned the Contrat Social of Rousseau. These were the mo- dels according to which he had formed his ideal of a state, and whether a Mirabeau declaimed in the tribune, or a Necker and a Roland contrived in the cabinet, he advanced stealthily, but with a deadly certainty, towards his object. During the early sittings of the estates-general, he was the close observer of those who represented public opinion in that body, but said little himself; but when the discussion of the constitution came on, he frequently occupied the tribune, and grew bolder in the ex- pression of his republican sentiments as he found them acceptable to the people. Trial by jury, the enfranchisement of the slaves, the liberty of the press, the abolition of capital punishment, were among the special subjects advocated by hiin. It was on a question of very different import, how- ever, that he was first recognized as the man of the people. We must here briefly review events. In May, 1789, the states-general had assembled at 052 ROB Versailles. In June, the third estate or commons had virtually rebelled against the crown, and being joined by some of the clergy and nobility, had assumed the title of a national assembly, against which the guards had refused to act. In July the Bastile was destroyed, the national guard enrolled under Lafayette, and the ' Rights of Man ' promul gated as the basis of a constitution ; the national assembly then changed its title to that of consti tuent assembly. In the course of the next three months the revolutionary journalism commenced and the creation of clubs; the first of these was the Breton's Committee, which changed its name successively to French Revolution Club, Club of [Hall of the Jacobins.] flie Friends of the Constitution, and Jacobiris Club, so called from its meeting in the hall of a Jacobite convent ; it was definitively formed on the 6th of October, 1789. Soon after it the Cordeliers, a still more violent body, agitated by Danton and Camille Desmoulins, was formed ; and, in May, 1790, the Club of Fenillants, which was intended to rally the constitutionalists against the Jacobins. In one or other of these clubs all the characters who figured in the reign of terror rose to note, and most of the orators in the constituent assembly were in alliance with them. Chief of these was Mirabeau, who died suddenly in March, 1791, and with him expired the hopes of the court ever to come to an understanding with the people. Shortly after, therefore, in the month of June, the king and the royal family attempted to fly, and being arrested atVarennes, were brought back to Paris. This was Robespierre's opportunity. The people had lost their idol in Mirabeau, and were now in a state of the highest excitement and exasperation. The orator addressed the assembly in the dispas- sionate and well-studied periods customary with him, and demonstrated by arguments drawn from antiquity,and by quotations from the Contrat Social, that the king was responsible to the people as their chief magistrate, intrusted with certain executive functions, but himself forming no part of the national representation. From this moment Robes- pierre took the place up to which he had steadily advanced from the beginning, as chief of the revolu- tionary movement, and he now began to hint that the constitution was only a first step in the end to be achieved. Soon after, in September, 1791, ROB that document was completed and formally ac- cepted_ by the king; and, the day following, the first biennial parliament, or legislative assembly, met for business ; this body was composed wholly of new members by the advice of Robespierre, who was crowned with oak leaves, and being placed in a carriage, from which the horses had been detached, was drawn through the streets by the enthusiastic people, who proclaimed him the' real defender of their rights.' In the June previous Robespierre had been appointed public accuser at the criminal tribunal of Paris, and he retained this function till April, 1792, when he resigned it in order to devote himself to the popular cause in the Jacobin's Club. He studiously preserved himself free from all taint of violence or inconsistency, and yet acquired such influence in this body that he was named one of the new municipality after the insurrection of August, and in this capacity had to bewail the prison massacres ; on this occasion he betrayed more sensibility than on any other in the course of his history. The convention met in Sept., and Robespierre, supported by an immense popu- larity, became one of its members, and entered upon the last eventful stages of his political jour- ney. The first event was an accusation commenced against him by Barbarous, who accused Robespierre of an attempt to concentrate the public authority under his own hands in the Paris municipality; this, however, ended in words. The fate of the king was then decided on by the majority of all parties. Robespierre said little, but his words were, as usual, cold and decisive ; there was no rational doubt that the king must die, though he said it with regret, in order that the republic might live. The temper and policy of Robespierre was that of reason incarnate, and the lives of men, or thousands of men, were admitted into his balance of. probabilities, as so many figures in a mathema- tical problem. The fate of the king and the other members of the royal family hardly required the acceleration given to it by his hand; the real struggle for him, as he felt conscious, was with the two great parties who would resist the dictatorship at which Tie was determined to arrive ; these were the Girondins and the Montagnards, the former in- cluding nearly all the respectability, talent, and eloquence of France ; and the latter, the atheism and immorality. Robespierre's calculation of means was admirably ingenious, but it was still such as the circumstances dictated. The most scrupulous were to be sacrificed first, by aid of those less so ; the effect of which would be to throw all the odium of the terror upon the last and worst class, whom the dictator would then, in the face of the admiring world, vanquish himself; thus Robespierre the Apollo, bom of France the Latona in the midst of her terrors, was to vanquish the dreaded sea mons- ter, and institute the new Pythian games. This programme was exactly followed. The struggle with the Girondins was terminated by the proscrip- tions of the 31st May and 2d of June, 1793; the Dantonists, who stood next on the roster, fell with their chief on the 5th of April, 1794; and there now remained the vile faction of Hebert and Chaumete. Perhaps Robespierre had not calculated on the remains of the vanquished parties forming a coalition with these scoundrels against him ; such, however, was the case when he commented 653 ROB .struggle, by calling the Jacobin leaders and proconsuls to account for their atrocities. critical hour was the 27th of July, 1794, ideal illed, aocordiof to the Republican calendar, the Mb Ihennidor. A month previous Robespierre had withdrawn from the Committee of Public Safety, and completely isolated himself from the men lie had doomed to destruction ; in this inter- val the committees of death (those of Public Safety and General Surety) had grown more insatiate of blood daily. In a" speech of remarkable daring Robespierre apostrophized the men of violence, and, as he well knew, staked his life upon the issue of it in the convention. The conspiracy against him in that body instantly betrayed itself, and he pro- ceeded to the club of Jacobins ; their enthusiasm was immense, and they urged him to arrest the two committees, and march upon the convention. This he absolutely refused to do, as an act that would brand him with the name of tyrant, and the next day, repeating his visit to the national repre- sentatives, was arrested by that body in the midst of a tumultuous scene ; the younger Robespierre, I^ebas, St. Just, and Couthon, stood by him nobly, and became his fellow-prisoners. There might now have been a fierce struggle, but Henriot, mad with drunkenness, who should have headed the troops of the municipality, was arrested by the officers of the convention at the very moment when the prisoners were released and conveyed to the Hotel de Ville by Fleuriot, Pagan, and Coffinhal. Robespierre remained passive, and refusing to lend his sanction by word or gesture to any illegal act ■print the convention, was seized again by the soldiers of Barras, a small party of whom, con- ducted by Leonard Bourdon, forced their way into the HaUe de VErjcdite. Here, it has been repeatedly said, Robespierre attempted to destroy himself, and was found with his jaw shot through ; it is now proved, however, that it was the cowardly act of Lis enemies as they entered the room. He spoke no word and betrayed no emotion after his arrest, though he was subjected to every conceivable in- dignity and insult. The formalities at the bar of Fouquier Tinville soon gone through, Robespierre and his party were conveyed to the scaffold. His end is thus recorded : ' Before the knife was loosened the executioners pulled off the bandage which enveloped his face, in order to prevent the linen from deadening the blow of the axe. The agony ■ d by this drew from the wretched suf- ferer a cry of anguish that was heard to the op- posite side of the Place de la Revolution ; then followed a silence like that of the grave, interrupted, at intervals, by a dull sullen noise ; the guillotine fell, and the head of Robespierre rolled into the basket. The crowd held their breath for some seconds, then burst into a loud and unanimous cheering.' It was the second day only after Robespierre had made his last desperate effort for the Republic in the National Convention, July 28th, 1 . ( K.i;/] ESPIEERE, Aioustin Box Joseph, called Uie Younger, brother of the preceding, was bom at Arras 17C4, and became a deputy to the the devoted friend of bar, and came, forward to share his fate in I ration on the 8th Thermidor: the pre ROB courage to the sanguinary proceedings of the pro- consuls. When his brother was arrested, and Lebas had shot himself dead, Augustin threw him- self from a window of the Hotel de Ville, which, however, only broke his leg. He was executed with the elder Robespierre and his colleagues the following day. ROBESPIERRE, Charlotte, sister of the took up her abode at Paris when they became members of the convention, and had for her admirer Fouche, who was no favourite of the dictator. She *vas arrested on the 9th Thermidor, but soon after set at liberty and pensioned. Her 1 Memoirs ' contain some interesting particulars. Died at Paris 1834. ROBILANT, Esprit Ben Nicolas De, a Sar- dinian officer, engineer, and mineralog., 1724-1801. ROBIN, Jean, a French botanist, keeper of the Garden of Plants, 1550-1597. His account of the king's garden was published 1601. Vespa- sian, a brother of Jean, was also a botanist. ROBINET, J. B. R., a Fr. writer, 1735-1820. ROBINS, Benjamin, an eminent mathema- tician and engineer of artillery, employed by the East India Company. He wrote several works on gunnery and mathematics, and is said to have written the narrative of Anson's voyage, 1707-51. ROBINS, J., an astronomer, died 1558. ROBINSON, Anastasia, daughter of a por- trait painter, and pupil of Dr. Crofts in music, distinguished as a vocalist and opera actor. She quitted the stage on account of her marriage to the earl of Peterborough ; died 1750. ROBINSON, Mary, a woman of great beauty, known as an actress and miscellaneous writer, was born at Bristol 1758. She was married when quite a girl to an attorney, and commenced her career on the stage under the patronage of Gar- rick, at Drury Lane theatre. She attracted the attention of the prince of Wales in the character of Perdita, in the ' Winter's Tale,' and became his mistress for a short time. Her chief means of support in after years was the produce of her pen as a novelist. Died 1800. ROBINSON, Richard, archbishop of Armagh and Lord of Rokeby, b. in Yorkshire 1709, d. 1794. ROBINSON, Robert, a nonconformist minis- ter, born at Swaffham in Norfolk 1735, died a convert to Socinianism 1790. He wrote on the question which has again become the subject of public discussion, concerning marriage with a deceased wife's sister, a ' History of Baptism,' &c. ROBINSON, Thomas, a minister of the Church of England, author of ' Scripture Charac- ters,' &c, born 1749. ROBINSON, Thomas, rector of Ousley, in Cum- berland, au. of works in natural history, died 1719. ROBISON, John, professor of natural philoso- phy at Edinburgh, was born at Boghall, in Stirling- shire, 1739, and died in 1805. He is chiefly re- markable as the author of a book which attracted considerable attention at the close of the century, entitled 'Proofs of a Conspiracy against all the Religions and Governments of Europe, carried on in the Secret Meetings of Free Masons, Illuminati, and Reading Societies.' This work ran through four editions in the course of a few months, but it now only creates a smile. It contains some curious •r he had opposed himself with great j particulars, however, bearing on the French revo- C54 ROB lution. Mr. Robison, when a youth, was attached to the royal navy, and was in the boat with General Wolfe when he landed on the heights of Abraham before the taking of Quebec. lie is known as a writer in natural philosophy, and as a contributor to the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica.' [E.R.] ROBOR'fELLO, Francesco, an Italian philo- logist, and editor of Greek classics, 1516-1567. ROB-ROY, or Robert the Red, the popular designation of a Highland freebooter, whose real name was Robert Macgregor. He was born about 1660, and was a dealer in cattle till the rebellion of 1715, when he joined the army of the Pretender. Having lost his estates in this quarrel, he became an outlaw, and his daring adventures and somewhat chivalrous character, have made him one of the heroes of Scottish romance. He died at an advanced age, probably soon after 1733. He took the name of Campbell in consequence of the Macgregors having been outlawed m the previous century. ROBSON, G. F., a native of Durham, dist. as a water-colour painter and draughtsman, died 1833. ROBY, John, a banker of Rochdale, known to literature by his collections of the Traditions of Lancashire, perish, in the ' Orion ' steam-boat 1850. ROCABERTI DI PERELADA, JuanTomaso, general of the Dominicans, distinguished as a writer in favour of the papacy, b. in Spain 1624, d. 1699. ROCCA, A., an Italian ecclesiastic, 1545-1620. ROCHAMBEAU, Jean Baptiste Donatien De Vimeur, Count De, a French marshal, com- mander of the French forces sent in aid of the Americans, author of ' Memoirs,' 1725-1807. His son, Donatien Marie Joseph, born 1750, killed at the battle of Leipzig 1813. ROCHE, E. De La, a Fr. mathemat., 16th cent. ROCHE, J. De., a French commander, of Swiss descent, famous for his defence of the castle of Villemont against the due de Rohan in 1621. It is remarkable that his portrait, still in possession of the family, bears a striking resemblance to that of Oliver Cromwell. ROCHE, J. B. L. De La, a doctor of the Sor- bonne, au. of a panegyric ot St. Genevieve, d. 1780. ROCHE, P. L. Lefebvre De La, a French clergyman and learned writer, about 1740-1806. ROCHE, Regina Maria, an English novelist, au. of ' The Children of the Abbey,' &c, 1765-1845. ROCHE, Sophie De La, a Ger. novelist, daugh- ter of a physician named Guttermann, 1750-1807. ROCHE-AYMOR, Charles Antoine De La, cardinal and archbishop of Rheims, 1692-1777. ROCHECOTTE, F. Guyon, Count De, a royalist general, b. 1769, shot as a conspirator 1798. ROCHE-FLAVIN, Bernard De La, a French Jesuit and historian of the parliaments, 1552-1627. ROCHEFORT, W. De, a Fr. writer, 1731-88. ROCHEFOUCAULD, F. De La, bishop of Senlis, cardinal and Rom. ambassador, 1558-1645. ROCHEFOUCAULD, Francis, Due De La, firince of Marsillae, a famous name in French iterature, and in the troubles of the Fronde, 1613- 1680. Several others of the name have been dis- tinguished at later periods of French history, and the last duke of this house was massacred at the Abbaye prison, in September 1792. ROCHE JAQUELEIN, Henri De La, a fam- ous chief of La VendOe, who became generalissimo ROD at the age of twenty-two, and sustained a struggle with the republican troops for ten months with great skill and intrepidity, born 1773, killed at Nouaille- 1794. ROCHELLE, B. La, a Fr. actor, 1748-1807. ROCHESTER, John Wilmot, earl of, a pro- fligate favourite and wit of the court of Charles II., born 1648, died prematurely, worn out with his debaucheries, 1680. ROCHON, A. M. De, a Fr. astron., 1741-1817. ROCHON DE CHABANNES, Marc Antony James, a French dramatic writer, 1730-1800. ROCKINGHAM, Charles Watson Went- worth, second marquis of, leader of a section of the Whig party, and prime minister, was born in 1730, and succeeded to the estates and dignities of his father in 1750. On the accession of George III. party feeling ran high, and was greatly aggra- vated by the intrigues of the sovereign with his favourite, Lord Bute. These circumstances ren- dered it difficult to keep a ministry together, and recourse was frequently had to politicians of very middling qualifications. Such was Lord Rocking- ham, a man of unostentatious integrity and sound constitutional feeling, but on the other hand, neither a great orator, nor a statesman of very brilliant parts. He became minister in July, 1765, when the Grenville ministry was turned out, dur- ing the debates on the regency bill, which had become necessary in consequence of the mental afflictions of the king. The first measure of the marquis of Rockingham was the repeal of the American stamp act, which had received the royal assent in the March previous, but he reserved to parliament the right of taxing the colonies, and proceeded quietly with some constitutional reforms, such as the prohibition of general warrants. He also encouraged trade, in the way of protection from competition, then, and till lately, the political fashion. The weakness of this ministry yielded place to that of Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, in June, 1766, and when the latter was succeeded by the administration of Lord North, the marquis of Rockingham went into opposition with the Whig chief. He became minister again after the fall of Lord North in March, 1782, but retired from office and from the world on the succeeding 1st of July. In this latter period Lord Rockingham appears to have been willing to sanction some measure of parliamentary reform, but it would be difficult to believe he was equal to any great emergency. A jeu cTesprit of the times runs thus : — 'Truth to tell, if one may without shocking 'em, The nation's asleep, and the minister— Rockingham !' [E.R.] ROCOCLES, J. B., a Fr. historian, died 1696. RODE, Chr. Bernard, a German painter and engraver, 1725-1797. His brother, J. Henry, an engraver, 1727-1759. RODE, P., a French violinist, 1774-1833. RODELLA, J. B., an Italian writer, 1724-94. RODERIC, or RODERIQUE, last king of the Visigoths of Spain, killed in battle 711. RODNEY, George Brydges, Lord, a famous British admiral, was son of a captain in the navy, and was born at Walton-on-Thames 1718. His principal services were the defeat of L'Etcndiere's squadron, 1747 ; the bombardment of Havre, and the destruction of the stores intended for the 655 ROD of England, 1759 j the capture of several i-lan.is in the West Indies, 17C1 ; the defeat of a Beet under Lmgara, near Cape St. . :iud of the French near Martinique, nd the victory over De Orasse, the best remembered of his achievements, 1782. For his long continued services to the nation, Rodney was rewarded with a baronetcy, and a pension, in the £4,000 per annum. Died 1792. BODOLPfl OF H.\rs»rr.<;n, Jtnt emperor of Gcnnanv of this name, was born 1218, and suc- ::.s father, Albert the Wise, as count of Hapsburgh 1240. In 1273 he was elected king of . ms. In 1278 he defeated Ottocar, king of Bohemia, which enabled him to confer Austria, Sivria, and Carniola on his son, Albert ; died 1291. ROOOLPB 11., born at Vienna 1552, was crowned king of Hungary 1572, king of Bohemia and king of the Romans 1575, and emperor on the death of his father, Maximilian II., 1576. He lost the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia by the revolt .other, Mathias, and died 1612. RODOLPH I., king of Burgundy, shared the throne with his father, Conrad II., count of Aux- erre 886, took the title of king 888, died 912. Rodolph II., his son and successor, made him- self king of Italy 922, and, on renouncing this enterprise, founded the kingdom of Aries and Burgundy 933 ; died 937. Rodolph III., called the Devout, and the Do-nothing, grandson of the preceding, bora 993, succeeded his father, Conrad. 994, died 1032. RODOLPH, three dukes of Saxony :— Rodolph I., son and successor of Albert 11.,'reigned 1298- 1356. Rodolph II., son and sue. of Rodolph I., 1356-1370. Rodolph III., nephew of the latter, succeeded 1388, died a prisoner in Bohemia 1418. RODOLPH, the first of the name, count pala- tine, succeeded his father, Louis II., 1294, declared against Albert, duke of Austria, in favour of Adol- pbus of Nassau 1300, died in England 1319. The second of the name, son of the preceding, succeeded his brother, Adolphus, 1327, concluded a peace with the emperor, Louis of Bavaria, 1329, d. 1353. RODOLPH, count of Rheinfelden and duke of Suabia, elected king of Germany 1077, killed 1080. RODON, or DE RODON, David, a French professor of philosophy and reformer, died 1664. RODRIGUEZ, Alphonso, a Jesuit of Valla- dolid, whose work on Christian Perfection ranks high in mystic divinity, and has been translated into all the European languages, 1526-1616. RODRIGUEZ, A. J., a theologian, 1705-1781. RODRIGUEZ, J., a Portug. missy., 1559-1633. RODRIGUEZ, V., a Sp. architect, 1717-1785. BODWELL, UBOBGE Herbert, an English composer and voter, died 1851. EOE, Sir Thomas, a native of Essex, distin- guished as a traveller and diplomatist, was born at I>ow-Layton about 1580, and was knighted by James I. in 1604, soon after which he was sent by Prince Henry to make discoveries in America. His public life commences in 1614, when he was MBftdor to • logttL, at whose court he continued till 161*. The remainder of was fully occupied with political embassies, parliamentary duties u member for Ciren- the university of Oxford; i 1BUCK, John, a physician and ROH mental chemist, born at Sheffield 1718, died, after ruining himself by his projects, 1794. ROEDERER, Count, a French statesman, professor of moral science and politics, 1754-1835. ROEHL, L. H., a Ger. astronomer, died 1790. ROEL, Hermann Alexander, a protestant German divine and Cartesian philosopher, d. 1718. ROELAS, J. De Las, a Sp. painter, died 1625. ROELAS, P. De Las, a Spanish painter, taught by Titian, and regarded as the rival of Murillo, 1560-1620. ROEMER, O., a Danish astronomer, 1644-1710. ROENER, J. J., a Swiss botanist, 1761-1819. ROEPEL, C, a Dutch painter, 1679-1748. ROESEL, A. J., a German painter, 1705-1759. ROESTRAETEN, P., a Dutch portrait painter, who distinguished himself in England, 1627-1698. ROGER, the name of several European princes: — Roger I., count of Sicily, is known to history from 1058 to his death in 1101. Roger II., son of the preceding, became king of Sicily 1130, and died 1154. A cousin of the latter, Robert, dulce of Apulia, succeeded his father, Robert Guiscard, 1085, died 1111. Roger I., count of Carcassonne, reigned 1130-1150. Roger II., whose reign was greatly disturbed by quarrels with Raymond V., count of Toulouse, 1167-1194. Roger of Mont- gomery, co;mf! of Alencon, nephew of William the Conqueror, succeeded 1070, and, having accom- panied William to England, commanded his ad- vanced guard at the battle of Hastings, and was created earl of Shrewsbury, died 1094. ROGER, or RICHARD, of Hexham, a monk of that abbey, known as an historian, 12th century. ROGER of Hoveden. See Hoveden. ROGER, A., a Dutch protestant, 17th century. ROGER, E., a French missionary, 17th century. ROGER, F., a French author, 1776-1842. ROGER-MARTIN, a French mathematician and physician, mem. of the council of 500, 1741-1811. ROGERS, B., an English composer, 17th cent. ROGERS, C, an antiquarian, 1711-1784. ROGERS, D., a statesman, about 1540-1590. ROGERS, G., an episco. clergyman, 1741-1835. ROGERS, John, the first martyr of the reign of Queen Mary, was first known as chaplain at Antwerp, and afterwards as collaborates of Tyn- dale and Coverdale in effecting a translation of the Bible. He preached against popery at St. Paul's Cross immediately after the accession of Mary, and was burnt at Smithfield, February 4, 1555. ROGERS, John, rector of St. Giles's.. Cripple- gate, and a writer against Hoadley, 1679-172'J. ROGERS, Thomas, chaplain to Bancroft, bishop of London, author of several works, 1568-1616. ROGERS, Thomas, an episcopal clergyman, author of 'Providence Displayed in the Corona- tion of King William and Queen Mary,' 1660-94. ROGERS, Woods, a famous naval commander and circumnavigator of the globe, died 1732. ROHAN, a noble French family, numbering the following eminent churchmen: — Arm and Gas- ton, cardinal and bishop of Strasburg, 1674-1749. Armand, called tlie cardinal of Soubisse, grand- nephew of the preceding, and holder of the same dignities, 1717-1756. Armand Jule, his cousin, cardinal and archbishop of Rheims, 1695-1762. Louis Constant! nk, brother of the latter, car- dinal and bishop of Strasburg, 1697-1779. Louis 606 ROH Rene Edward, Prince De Rohan, ambassador to Vienna, bishop of Strasburg, cardinal and grand- almoner of France, best known by the affair of the diamond necklace, 1734-1803. J. H. Meriadec, Prince De Rohan-Guemenee, elder brother of the necklace cardinal, born 1726, rendered himself notorious by his prodigalities, and by his failure for more than a million sterling in '1783. Louis Francis Augustus, Due De Rohan-Chabot, and lieutenant-general in the French army, bom 1733, ■was massacred at the Abbaye prison 1794. Louis Francis Augustus, Due De Rohan-Chabot, prince of Leon, and cardinal, a descendant of the Montmorencies by his mother, 1788-1833. Be- sides these, are the names distinguished in the religious wars, as follows : — ROHAN, Henry, Due De, and prince of Leon, one of the most distinguished characters of his age, was born in Brittany 1579, and first acquired distinction at the siege of Amiens under Henry IV., Avhen in the sixteenth year of his age. He became chief of the Calvinist party on the acces- sion of Louis XIII., and acted a principal part in the insurrection of 1620, and all the ensuing wars. He was a great political writer, and has left me- moirs which are highly valued by historians. Died of his wounds, received at the battle of Rhcinfeld 1638. His wife, Margaret De Betiiune, daughter of Sully, famous for her heroic defence of Castres against the Marechal de Themines in 1625, died 1660. His sister, Anne, distinguished by her courage at the siege of Rochelle, and for her great learning and capacity, 1584-1646. His brother, Benjamin De Rohan, lord of Soubisse, was also a Calvinist leader, and died in England, where he had taken refuge, 1630. Tancred, a presumed son of Duke Henry, was killed during the troubles of the Fronde, in the nineteenth year of his age, 1649. ROHAN, Louis, Prince De, or Chevalier de Rohan, b. abt. 1635, executed for conspiracv, 1674. ROHAULT, J. a Cartesian philos., 1620-1675. ROHDICH, F. W., a Prussian general, 1719-96. ROI, Gilbert, a French jurisconsult, 16th cent. ROKES, H., a Dutch painter, 1621-1682. ROLAND, the supposed nephew of Charlemagne, a popular hero of the romance of chivalry, killed at the battle of Roncevaux 778. ROLAND, count of Savoy, died 1263. ROLAND, P. L., a French sculptor, 1746-1816. ROLAND DE LA PLATIERE., Jean Marie, born at Villefranche, in the neighbourhood of Lyons, 1732, was Inspector General of manu- factures and commerce in that city when the French revolution commenced, and having em- braced popular principles, became, in 1790, mem- ber of the Lyons municipality. In February, 1791, he was sent to Paris as deputy extraordinary, to defend the commercial interests of Lyons in the committees of the Constituent Assembly, and remained there seven months, accompanied by his noble-hearted wife, who is the subject of the fol- lowing notice. Tmfl period dates from the con- templated flight of the king, just before the death of Mirabeau, to the dispersion of the assembly after the acceptance of the new constitution, and it made the Rolands acquainted with the rising popularity of Robespierre and the Girondins, who were not yet divided into distinct parties. They ROL now returned home to La Platiere for a short period, but in December returned to Paris: the office of inspector having been abolished, Roland had to claim a retiring pension ; but he was also invited back by the patriots to take a part in the movement, for at this juncture the invasion of the emigrants was impending, and the veto of the king had brought the parliament to a stand-still. The practical philosophy, commercial knowledge, and strict simplicity of Roland, recommended him to men of all parties, and when the patriot min- istry was formed in March, 1792, he was made minister of the interior. He kept his position till 13th June, when the royal veto upon the proposal to form a patriot camp around Paris, and upon the decree against the priests, provoked his celebrated letter to the king, written, however, by Madame Roland, and, as a consequence, his almost instant dismissal. This event was followed by the ar- rival of the Marseillaise in Paris, and the conflict at the Tuileries, on the 10th of August, when Roland was recalled, and Danton became minister of justice. The struggle between the Girondists and the municipality under the guidance of Robes- pierre filled up the period till the 31st May; the former party were then vanquished, and Roland was among the number who saved their lives by flight. He found an asylum with his friends at Rouen, but deliberately killed himself with his cane-sword on hearing of the execution of his wife, 15th November, 1793. His body was found by the road-side, and a paper in his pocket con- tained his last words, among which were these :— ' Whoever thou art that findest these remains, respect them, as those of a man who consecrated his life to usefulness, and who dies as he has lived, virtuous and honest On hearing of my wife's death I would not remain another day upon this earth so stained with crimes.' [E.E J ROLAND, Manon Jeanne Philippon, Ma- dame, wife of the preceding, and herself the spirit of the Girondin party, was the daughter of a Paris engraver, and was born in that city 1754. She was the only child of nine left to the care of her father, who provided her with masters regardless of expense, and gave her a brilliant education ; the best ground for which existed in her native talents, her firm spirit, her personal beauty, and her un- doubted virtues. Antiquities, heraldry, philosophy, and, among other books, the Bible, made up her earliest studies ; her favourite authors, however, were Plutarch, Tacitus, Montaigne, and Rousseau. She became the wife of Roland in 1779, and as her love for him was founded on his antique virtues and his philosophic spirit, she has been called • The Heloise of the eighteenth century :' he was also twenty years her senior. She became the sharer in all his studies, aided him in editing his works, and during his two ministries acted as his secretary, and entered into all the intrigues of his party without debasing herself by their meanness. She was the angel of the cause she espoused, the soul of honour and the conscience of all who embraced it; while her boldness, her political sagacity, and her sarcastic eloquence were equally dreaded by their adversaries. After the flight of her husband, Madame Roland was arrested by order of the Paris commune, under the dictation of Marat and Robespierre, and consigned to the C57 2U ROL Abbaye prison, from which, on the 31st of October, removed to a more wretched abode in the Coiu-iergerie. When sentenced, at the bar of Fouquier Tinville, she was eager to embrace her late, and rode to the guillotine clad in white, her §tek hair hanging down to her girdle. She I her conviction that her husband would not survive her. On the scaffold, this noblest victim of the cause in which she suffered, apostro- Ehized the statue of liberty, and bowing her head efore it exclaimed ' Ah Liberty ! what crimes are committed in thy name !' The moment before, she had asked for pen and paper ■ to write the strange thoughts that were rising in her,' a request which was refused. She was executed on the 8th of November, 1793. Besides her miscellaneous works, Madame Roland left Memoirs composed during her captivity, and a last affecting composition in the Counsels of a Letter, addressed to her little girl; the former, it is suspected, have been since tam- pered with. j_E.R.] ROLANDER, Daniel, a Swedish naturalist and traveller, nourished about 1720-1776. ROLANDINO, an Ital. chronicler, 1200-1276. ROLANDO, L., an Ital. anatomist, 1775-1831. ROLDAN, Peter, a Span, sculptor, 1624-1700. Louisa, his daughter and assistant, 1654-1704. ROLLA, A., a French violinist, 1757-1837. ROLLE, H., an English lawyer, 1589-1656. ROLLE, M., a Fr. mathematician, 1652-1719. ROLLI, P. A., an Italian poet, 1687-1767. ROLLIN, Charles, a celebrated popular writer, historian, and Latin poet, b. at Paris 1661, d. 1741. ROLLO, the leader of an adventurous band of Normans, who conquered the French province named after them in the 9th century, was the son of a Norwegian earl, named Ragnvald, whose father, again, was one of the petty chiefs or kings of Drontheim. This is the highest point to which his ancestry can be traced, notwithstanding the mistaken zeal of genealogists in honour of the English sovereigns descended from William the Conqueror. The circumstances which produced the expedition of Rollo, were briefly these. Harold Harfagra having, from 870 to 880, made himself master of all Norway, which had previously been divided into several petty states, caused many Norwegian chieftains to emigrate, who sought fresh homes in Iceland, the Orkneys, and the isles of Faro and Shetland, and infested the northern seas with their piratical excursions. One such was this Rolf, or Rollo, who, prohibited from ever returning to Norway by Harold, retired to the Hebrides, where many of the Norwegian nobility had taken refuge. His first attempts at the head of these adventurers were against England, but the order established by Alfred rendered his efforts fruitless. He then tried the security of the coast of France, and venturing up the Seine took Rouen, at that time called Neustria, from whence he proceeded to the siege of Paris. Charles the Simple, king of the Franks, was glad to pur- chase a peace by ceding the territory already conquered: by Rollo, and which is supposed to have comprised that part of the ancient Neus- tria which corresponds to the department of the Seine In/erieure, and a portion of the depart- ment of the llwe. He also gave him his daughter, Gueile, in marriage. The bargain was concluded ROM at St. Clair in the year 912, soon after which Rollo, or Raoul I., as he was afterwards called, was baptized by the archbishop of Rouen, in the cathedral of that city. He is said to have exhi- bited all the virtues of a religious, wise, and liberal prince; he was also intrepid as a warrior, and of such a noble stature that no horse could carry him. Rollo died in 917, or, according to other accounts, in 932, and was succeeded by his son, William, sumamed Long-Sword. [E.R.] ROLLOCK, R., a Scottish divine, 1555-1598. ROLT, Richard, supposed to have been born at Shrewsbury 1724 or 1725, a miscellaneous writer and historian, time of Johnson, died 1770. ROMAGNOSI, Gian Domenico, a disting. political economist, b. at Piacenza, 1761, d. 1835. ROMAINE, William, born at Hartlepool, in the county of Durham, 1714 ; distinguished as a religious writer and divine of Calvinistic principles. After several curacies he was successively chaplain to the Lord Mayor, 1741 ; lecturer to the united garishes of St. George's, Botolph Lane, and St. otolph's, Billingsgate, 1748; lecturer to St. Dunstan's-in-the-West, 1749; assistant morning preacher at St. George's, Hanover Square, 1750; and rector of St. Anne's, Blacktriar's, 1764. About 1752, he was also appointed professor of astronomy in Gresham College, but is said to have resigned m consequence of his zeal for the doc- trines of Hutchinson. His principal works are ' Discourses upon the Law and Gospel,' 4 The Life of Faith,' ' The Walk of Faith,' « The Triumph of Faith,' 'Doctrine of the Sacrament,' and an enlarged edition of Calasio's Hebrew Concordance and Lexicon. He acquired considerable popu- larity by writing against the naturalization of the Jews, a measure then under discussion in parlia- ment. Died 1795. ROMAN, John Helmich, a Swedish musician, time of Ulrica Eleonora, 1694-1758. ROMAN, J. J. T., a French writer, 1726-1787. ROMAN A, Don Peter Cara YSureda, Mar- quis De La, a Spanish general, 1761-1811. ROMANELLI, Abbe D., an antiquary and topographer of Naples, 1756-1819. ROMANELLI, Giovan Francesco, an Italian painter, 1617-1662. His son, Urbain, 1638-82. ROMANINE, G., an Italian painter, famous as an imitator of Titian, 16th century. ROMANO, Eccelino, or Ezzelino, Da, an Italian warrior, distinguished in the second crusade under Conrad III. 1147, died 60on after 1175. His son, of the same name, succeeded to his father's lordship, and became a distinguished Ghibelline chief, died after 1235. The son of the latter, also of the same name, born 1194, was invested by his father, in 1215, with the principality of Bassano, and greatly increased his power. Such was his tyranny that Alexander IV., in 1256, proclaimed a crusade against him, and he fell at Cassano, September 16, 1259. His brother, Albert, who ruled at Treviso, was hunted down and killed, together with all his family, by the Guelphs, 1260. ROMANO, Giulio, the name by which Giulio Pippi, or rather De* Giannuzzi, is commonly known, was born at Rome in 1499, and early distinguished himself as one of the ablest and favourite pupils of Raphael. He completed with Penni(see Raphael,) the frescoes of the Stanza di Coslantino in the 653 ROM Vatican after the death of Raphael, in 1523, and in the following year entered the service of the duke Federigo Gonzaga at Mantua, where he suc- ceeded in establishing a considerable school ; the celebrated Primaticcio who carried the Italian principles of painting into France was one of his pupils. Giulio died at Mantua, November 1, 1546, aged only forty-seven, leaving extensive works in fresco and many admirable oil paintings to justify his fame as the principal of all Raphael's scholars. He was also a distinguished architect, and may be considered perhaps the ablest of the Italian orna- mental decorators. His principal frescoes are « The Fall of the Giants,' and the ' Story of Cupid and Psyche,' in the Palazzo del Te at Mantua. A specimen of his fresco painting has been recently presented to the National Gallery by Lord Over- stone ; as regards oil painting, he is supposed to have had a great share in at least the under paint- ing of the principal of the later pictures of that class by Raphael. — (Vasari, vile de Piltori, &c, Ed. Flor., 1846, seqq. ; Gaye, Carteggio Inerh'to KF.R, M. A., a landsc. painter, 1743-1801. ROOS, a family of German painters: — John Hi:ni;y, a pupil of Adrian de Bio, 1631-1685. IHBOOOBS, his brother, 1638-1698. Philip, second son of John Henry, commonly called Rosa da Tivoli, from his long residence "there, a great Sainter of animals and landscapes, 1655-1705. oii\- Melchior, brother of the latter, 1659-1731. i. grandson of Philip, a painter and en- r, about 1728-1790. ROOSE, Nicholas, whose proper name was I.n m \< ki.i:, a painter of Ghent, 1575-1646. ROOSE, T. G. A., a Ger. anatomist, 1771-1803. ROPER, John, professor of philosophy, and one of the most learned theologians of Oxford, d. 1534. ROPKU. William, attorney-general in the reign of Henry VIII., and son-in-law of Sir Thomas More. A Life of More, written by him, was pub- lished in 1712. His daughter, Margaret, was a lady of great accomplishments, and translated Eusebius into English. ROQUE, G. A. De La, a learned heraldist and genealogical writer of Normandy, 1597-1686. ROQUE, John De La, a French writer of his voyages and travels in the East, 1661-1745. His brother, Anthony, a journalist, 1672-1744. ROQ'JES, Peter, a French divine, 1685-1748. [Hoom of Balrator Rosa.] R< ISA, Salvator, was horn near Naples, July 21, 1615. In 1835 lie visited Rome and met with much success, end iinally settled there, where he died, March 15, 1673. His favourite subjects were landscapes, chiefly of wild and romantic scenery, and these works' he executed with consummate mastery. Many of his best pictures are in this country.— (Passeri, VUe de' Pittori, &c— the life of Salvator by Lad; Morgan is a romance.) [R.N.W.i M-liA CABRJEBA, Madame, a famous in portrait painter, 1675-1757. IMOND, commonly called 'Fair Rosa- mond,' a famous name in our legendary history, 600 ROS was a daughter of Walter Clifford, baron of Hero- ford, and mistress of Henry II. One of her sons by him became archbishop of York. The facts of her history are not well ascertained, but she is said to have perished, a victim of the jealousy of Queen Eleanor, about 1173. ROSAPINA, Francesco, an Ital. engraver, ccl. for his pictures from the old masters, 1762-18 1 1 . ROSCELLINUS, RUZELIN, or RUCELIX, an ecclesiastic and scholastic philosopher of Brit- tany, 11th century. ROSCHID IBN. SeeAvERROES. ROSCIUS, Quintus, a celebrated Roman actor, and friend of Cicero, to whom he gave lessons in declamation, lived about 129-62 b.c. Another Roscius, proscribed by Sylla, and accused of hav- ing slain his father, was like the former a client of Cicero, but little is known of him. ROSCOE, William, was born in 1753, and became an attorney in Liverpool. It was in the little leisure left by active business that he acquired his fine and tasteful scholarship, and distinguished himself as one of the most accomplished and ele- gant writers of his time. He wrote pamphlets on the slave trade and in defence of the French Revo- lution; and in 1796 his literary celebrity was est: ahj- lished by his first and best historical work, ' The Life of Lorenzo de Medici.' In 1805 appeared 'The Life and Pontificate of Leo X. ;' and next year Roscoe, who had now become a partner in a Liverpool banking-house, was elected to represent the borough in parliament. He produced several minor works, both in prose and in verse, original and translated, and edited the works of Pope. In 1816 the warm sympathy of his fellow-citizens was excited towards this excellent and philanthro- pic man, by the failure of his firm. He died in 1831. [W.S.] ROSCOE, Henry, youngest son of the preced- ing, was born in 1800, and called to the bar in 1826. He wrote the Lives of Eminent British Lawyers in Lardner's Cyclopasdia, a Life of his father, and edited North's Lives ; died 1836. ROSCOE, W. S., eldest son of the historian, author of miscellaneous poems, and a translation of Klopstock's Messiah, left in M.S., 1782-1843. ROSCOMMON. See Dillon. ROSE, George, a statesman and political writer, was the son of an episcopal clergyman of Brechin, in Angus-shire, where he was born in 1744. He was brought up by an uncle who kept a school in London ; and after serving as purser in the navy, became keeper of the Exchequer records, through the interest of the earl of Marchmont. While in this office he superintended the publica- tion of the Domesday Book, and completed the Journals of the Lords, in 31 vols, folio. Under the ministry of Mr. Pitt he became president of the board or trade, and, with the exception of his retirement during the Grenville administration, retained this post till his death, in 1818. He wrote several valuable works on subjects connected with the revenue. ROSE, J. B., a French divine, 1716-1805. ROSE, H. J., a minister of the Ch. of England, dist. for his learning as a theologian, 1795-1838. ROSE, Samuel, a lawyer, 1767-1804. ROSE, William, a French prelate, and violent partizan of the catholic league, died 1602. BOS ROSEL, J. A., a German painter, 1705-1759. ROSELL, A. G., a Sp. mathematician, 1731-94. ROSELLI, A., an Ital. jurisconsult, 1380-1466. ROSELLINI, Ippolito, professor of Oriental languages at Bologna, and a great master of Egyptian antiquities of the school of Champollion, whom he accompanied to Egypt. After the death of the latter, he was intrusted with the publication of the great work resulting from their joint labours, entitled 'Monuments of Egypt and Arabia,' 1800-43! ROSEN, Frederick Augustus, an eminent Oriental scholar, was born at Hanover, 1805, and became professor of Oriental languages in the university of London. Died prematurely, after he had written or edited several important works, 1837. ROSEN, Gregory, Baron, a Russian officer, distinguished in the wars of Napoleon, 1789-1832. ROSEN DE ROSENSTEIN, Nicholas, com- monly called Dr. Rosen, a physician and pro- fessional writer, 1706-1773. ROSENHANE, Sherixg, Baron De, a Swedish senator, diplomatist, and governor of Ostrogothia, 1609-1663. His descendant of the same name and title, secretary of state, and commander of the order of the Polar Star, author of Memoirs, &c, 1754-1812. Gust ave, of the same family, a sonneteer, date 1680-1681. ROSENMULLER, John George, a German critic, and professor of theology, 1736-1815. His son, Ernest Frederick Charles, a distin- guished Arabic scholar, 1768-1835. John Chkis- tian, another son, professor of anatomy and sur- gery, author of professional works, 1771-1820. ROSIN, or ROSIN US, in German Roszfeld, John, a learned antiquarian, about 1550-1626. ROSINI, C. M., a Ital. archaeologist, 1749-1837. ROSNY, A. J. N. De, a Fr. novelist, 1771-1814. ROSS, Alexander, a Scotch poet, 1699-1784. ROSS, Alexander, a Scottish divine, who be- came chaplain to Charles I. and master of the free school at Southampton, 1590-1654. Ross was a man of considerable attainments in classical learn- ing and philosophy, and made great pretensions to a knowledge of the secrets of antiquity. Butler thus alludes to him :— 4 There was an ancient sage philosopher, That hath read Alexander Koss over.' His ' View of All Religions ' is the work by which he is best known. ROSS, D., an English actor, died 1790. ROSS, John, a learned prelate, died 1792. ROSS, or ROUSE, John, canon of Osney, an ancient writer on the civil and ecclesiastical anti- quities of Warwickshire, died at Guy's Cliff 1491. ROSSELLI, Annibal, a friar of Calabria, author of a ' Commentary' upon Pimander, 1578. ROSSELLI, Cojio, a Florentine painter, 1416- 1484. Piero De Cosimo, a pupil of Como Ros- selli, 1441-1484. Matthew, a pupil of Pagani and Passegnano, 1578-1650. ROSSELLI, Como, a Florentine preacher, and writer on the art of memory, died 1578. Stephen, his relation, an historian, 1598-1664. ROSSET, F. De, a Provencal poet, born 1570, died after 1630. Joseph, a sculptor, 1706-1786. ROSSI, the name of several Italians distin- guished in art: — Antonio, a painter of the Venetian school, master of Titian, 14th century. DOS Antonio, a Bolognese painter, 1700-1753. An- gelo, a Genoese sculptor, 1671-1715. J. Anto- nio, an architect of Rome, 1616-1695. Mathias, a Roman architect, 1637-1695. Murto, a painter of Naples, taught by Stanzioni and Guido, 1626- 1651. Paqualino, a painter of Vicenzo, b. 1641. Properzia, a female sculptor of Bologna, b. 1495. ROSSI, Adelaide Helen Josephine Char- lotte, Countess De, Madame Cellier, a French lady, author of numerous works connected with education, 1778-1822. ROSSI, B. De, an Italian critic, 16th century. ROSSI, D. J. B., an Ital. Orientalist, 1742-1831. ROSSI, Ignatius DE,aHeb.scholar,1740-1824. ROSSI, Giovanni V., in Latin Janus Aiciiis Eri/thraus, a philologist and biographer, 1577-1647. ROSSI, Girolamo, in Latin liubens, a physi- cian and historian of Ravenna, 1539-1607. ROSSI, N., an Italian bibliopole, 1711-1785. ROSSI, O., an Italian archaeologist, 1570-1630. ROSSI, Pellegrino, Count, a noble victim of the popular cause in Italy, was born at Carrara, in 1787, and being admitted to the profession of an advocate at Bologna, was practising at the bar in that city from 1809 till 1814. In the latter year he was obliged to fly the country, through his com- plicity with the false movement excited by Murat, who had deluded the patriots of Italy with a pros- pect of their independence, which it was out of his power to realize. Rossi, after the fall of Murat, escaped to Geneva, and there rose to such professional eminence that we find him, in 1819, professor of law; in 1820, a member of the coun- cil ; and shortly after, a deputy to the diet, and an active party to' the revision of the federal constitu- tion. In 1833 he was induced to take up his residence in Paris, and, being naturalized, was appointed, in 1845, ambassador from the French court to Rome. Two series of circumstances would here require consideration in a more extended notice ; the first, strictly biographical, exhibiting the formation of Rossi's political convictions in the atmosphere of the doctrinaires of the French cham- ber; and, the second, the state to which the abominable government of Gregory XVI. and the several factions of Italy had reduced that unhappy country. The brief facts are, that the Papal court had maintained an unremitting war against every shade of liberal opinion; the "administration was wretchedly bad ; no equality existed in the eye of the law ; tbere was no statistics ; an enormous public debt; education and religious instruction utterly inadequate to the needs of the people, and a censor- ship of the press as dark as the Inquisition of the middle ages : add to this, the rancorous opposition of the political sects, the constantly increasing persecution to which they were all alike subject, and the general perversion of the moral sense and political conscience resulting from these causes, and we have a faint outline of the state of Italy at the period of Count Rossi's mission. In the following year, 1846, Gregory XVI. died, and l'ius L\\ succeeded him with a disposition to grapple with the difficulties of the country, supported as he was by the French influence represented by Rossi, and with the countenance of England exhibited in the mission of Lord Minto and the famous letter of Palmerston. A general amnesty, and the progress of administrative reform, were suddenly enlivened G01 ROS bv the revolution of Naples and Paris in February, 1848, ami the impetus given in Italy drove two <:i>tiiKt political movements to a sudden head; that of Giovine Italia, which had been fostered by Mazzini ever since the revolution of 1831, and that which the writings of Gioberti and Balbo had ripened under the sun of Carlo Alberto in northern Italy. The latter came to issue first. Carlo Alberto, with the chivalrous blood of the house of Savoy in his veins, proclaimed the inde- pendence of Italy under one native sovereign at 'Glorious Milan,*" and Rossi warned the pope that if he did not grasp this sword, it would be turned against him ; the weak old man, however, proffered his services to Austria and Charles Albert as a mediator for peace, and the latter was the sacrifice. This hone being disappointed, the next effort of ho had been deprived of his employments by the French republic and become prime minister iu Rome, was to torm a league of the separate con- stitutional states, with deputies from each sitting in parliament ; and as this scheme acquired form and stability it became more and more distasteful to the republican party of Mazzini, by which, also, the efforts of Carlo Alberto had been paralyzed. All through these transactions there had been great tumults and some bloodshed apart from that of the war in Sardinia, and the demand which Mazzini and Giovine Italia opposed to the plan of Rossi, was that for a national convention. In fine the deputies were appointed to meet on the 15th of November, 1848, and Rossi himself represented Bologna. Precautions had been taken against an outbreak, and the carriages of the deputies went through masses of people into the court yard of the Vatican. As that of Rossi stopped at the portico, there was a cry for help, close at hand, and in the confusion created by it, the bystanders closed round the statesman, there was a momentary scuffle, and the quick flash of a dagger was seen for a while it was hardly known what had occurred, but it was only the corpse of Rossi that the doors were closed upon. — The flight of the pope, and the establishment of the Roman republic, afterwards put down by French bayonets, which are still held at her throat, are matters of history, and too recent, perhaps, to be righteously judged. There is a serious question also, whether Rome, considering the geography of Italy and the requirements of commerce, can ever be the seat of government for a united Italy ; whether the dominion, whatever its form, of that beautiful but hapless country must not occupy two seats — Milan perhaps in the north, and Naples in the Booth. [E.R.] ROSSI, Piebo Dk, a celebrated general of the ., chief of the Guelphs in Parma, d. 1357. 51, QUIBICO, an Italian poet, 1696-1760. IIGNOL, J. A., a republican general, com- mander in La Vendee, 1759-1802. [GNOLL, l!i:i:NAiM)iso,an Italian Jesuit, who first produced the MS. of the 'Imitation,' bearing the name of J. Gersen, died 1613. l.VN, Ar.i.xANDKR Wedderbubne, earl of, a Scottish lawyer and statesman, was born 1733, and first distinguished himself in parliament in appa riti on to the Grenville administration. He was successively solicitor-general 1771, attorney- general 1778, and chief justice of the Common Pleas, with the title of Lord Loughborough, 1780. CG2 ROU From 1793 to 1801 he served with Pitt as chan- cellor, and then retired with the title of earl of Rosslyn. Died 1805. ROSSLYN, James St. Clair Erskine, earl of, nephew of the preceding, and heir of his peerage, was a distinguished peninsular officer, and one of the most intimate friends of the duke of Wellington. Before succeeding to the peerage in 1805, he was many years in the House of Com- mons. In 1829 he became a member of privy council, and was its president under Sir Robert Peel in 1834. Died 1837. ROSSO, Del, called by the French Maitre Roux, a distinguished Florentine painter, died 1541. ROSSO, J. Del, an Ital. architect, 1760-1831. ROSTAN, C, a French botanist, 1774-1833. ROSTGAARD, Frederick De, archivist to the k. of Denmark, and a great scholar, 1671-1745. ROSTOPCHIN, Feodor, Count, a Russian statesman and general, commander at Moscow at the period of the French invasion 1812, 1763-1826. ROSWEIDE, Herirert, a learned and volu- minous wr. in ecclesiastical antiquities, 1569-1629. ROTA, B., a Neapolitan poet, 1509-1575. ROTA, J. B., an Italian historian, died 1786. ROTA, M., an Italian designer, 16th century. ROTA, M. A., a Venetian physician, 1589-1662. ROTA, V., an Italian dramatist, 1703-1785. ROTARI, Piero, Count, painter to the court of St. Petersburg, born at Verona 1707, died 1764. ROTGANS, £., a Dutch poet, 1645-1710. ROTHARIS, king of the Lombards, 636-652. ROTHELIN, C. D'Obleans De, a Fr. savant and man of letters, m. of the Academy, 1691-1744. ROTHENBOURG, Fr. Rodolph, Count Von, a Prussian general and diplomatist, 1710-1751. ROTHENHAMER, or ROTTENHAMER, J., a painter of Munich, style of Tintoret, 1564-1606. ROTHERAM, John, rector of Houghton-le- Spring, author of an ' Apology for the Athanasian Creed,' and of a much valued treatise on the 'Doc- trine of Justification by Faith,' died 1788. ROTHERAM, John, an English physician, and writer on 'The Properties of Water,' d. 1787. ROTHSCHILD, Mayer Ansklm, founder of the house by which the financial operations of Europe have been controlled since the commence- ment of the present century, was a native of Frankfort. He was educated for the priesthood, but preferring the profession of a banker, acquired great credit and wealth at the period of Napoleon's occupation in Germany. Died 1812. ROTHSCHILD, Nathan Mayer, son of the preceding, and agent for his father in London, came to this country in 1800, and by the extent of his loan operations acquired immense influence as a contractor in that branch of public credit. He died in 1836, and was succeeded by his eldest son, the present Baron Rothschild. ROTROU, J. De, a Fr. dramatist, 1609-1650. ROTTENHAMER. See RoTHENHAMEB. ROTTECT, Charles Von, a native of Baden, successively professor of history, and professor of politics and jurisprudence, in the university of his native city, author of numerous works which have disting. his name throughout Europe, 1775-1848. ROU BANE, B. G., a Russian author, 1739-95. ROUBAUD, Peter Joseph Andrew, a French economist and grammarian, 1730-1792. ROU ROUBILIAC, L. F., a French sculptor, known by several of his works in this country, 1725-1762. ROUBIN, Giles De, a French poet, died 1712. ROUCHER, J. A., a French poet, 1745-1794. ROUELLE, Wm. Francis, professor of chem- istry to the Garden of Plants at Paris, 1703-1770. His brother, H. Marian us, a chemist, 1718-79. ROUGEMONT, F., a native of Maestricht, kn. as a Chinese missionarv and scholar, 1624-1676. ROUGET DE LISLE, Joseph, the writer and composer of the Marseillaise, was a French officer of artillery, born at Lons-le-Saunier, among the Jura mountains, 1760. In the winter of 1791- 1792 he was in garrison at Strasburg, and is said to have passed most of his leisure at the house of the mayor of that city, where his skill on the clavicord and his social qualities made him a welcome visitor. It was here the Republican Hymn was first composed and sung, at that parti- cular juncture when the king's veto had stultified every act of the first constitutional parliament, and the country was threatened with the invasion of the emigrants and their German allies. The re- semblance between this marching song and Burns's 1 Scots wha hae wi' Wallace bled,' is most striking, and it would be difficult to believe that the one had not suggested the other if Lamartine had not given a somewhat romantic account of the manner of its composition, which precludes the idea. The song was just become known when the departments were preparing to obey the call of Paris for a body of 20,000 patriot troops, and the band from Mar- seilles were the first to chant its threatening measures as they traversed France ; it afterwards made the round of Europe, and the footfall of Napoleon's troops as they scaled the Alps kept time to its wild notes. Rouget de Lisle's kind host was accompanied to the scaffold by this song, and the composer himself only escaped by the fall of Robespierre. He found no favour with succeed- ing governments, but carried his republican prin- ciples into private life and pursued the career of a lyrical composer and author. Died 1836. [E.R.] ROUGNON, N. F., a Fr. physician, 1727-1790. ROUILLE, P. J., a French Jesuit, 1681-1740. ROUS, or ROUSE, Francis, a native of Corn- wall, distinguished for his zeal as a republican and member of Cromwell's privy council, 1579-1659. ROUSE, or ROSS, John. See Ross. ROUSSEAU, J., a French painter, 1630-1693. ROUSSEAU, Jean Baptists, a dramatic author, and the most eminent of the lyric poets, born at Paris of humble parentage 1670, died 1741. ROUSSEAU, Jean Francois Xavier, of the same family as the celebrated philosopher (follow- ing article), a man of letters, and consul in Persia, 1738-1808. His son, J. B. L. Xavier, consul at Aleppo, Bagdad, and Tripoli, 1781-1831. ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, son of a watch- maker at Geneva, was born there on the 28th of June, 1712.— The first half of the extraordinary life of this extraordinary man, occupying thirty- three years, was spent in a succession of adven- tures, making the most painfully interesting part of the record he has himself bequeathed to us, a re- cord exhibiting a hardy daring of self-inquisition, which (as he justly says) no other man ever ven- tured to communicate to the world. The history of this period in Rousseau's career was not only quite ROU unproductive of literary promise, but would have appeared to forebode little or nothing either of moral worth or of intellectual achievement in any path. — After learning something in a village school, he began life as the apprentice of an engraver ; and, on being harshly treated, he became addicted to idle- ness, lying, and stealing. At length he ran away into Savoy, and, giving hopes of his conversion to Catholicism, was received into an ecclesiastical school at Turin, where he read his recantation, but refused to prosecute his education for the priesthood. Being dismissed, he became a do- mestic servant : in one of bis places he com- mitted a theft, and charged a waiting-maid with it ; from another he was dismissed for insolent in- subordination. Now, when he was in his eighteenth year, he was received by Madame De VVarens, a Swiss lady, residing at Annecy, and after- wards at Chambery. His patroness sheltered him in her house for ten years, pardoned him for two elopements, induced him to study French wri- ters, and supported him even when he disdained to retain employments which she more than once procured for him. The shameful issue is too well known. In 1741 he walked to Paris, having in his pocket fifteen louis, and a new scheme of musi- cal notation, which was at once condemned by the musicians. He found his way, it is not clear how, into the society of men of science and letters, such as Marivaux, Fontenelle, and Diderot ; and in 1743 friends obtained a place for him as a kind of secretary or clerk to the French ambassador at Venice. There he spent nearly two years, with no ap- parent improvement of morality, and with as little evidence of devotion to any pursuit either profit- able or honourable. His dismissal by his master, and his return to France, closed his long period of aimless wandering. — Rousseau came to Paris in 1745. Hiring a room in an obscure lodging-house, the strange man conceived a liking for the ser- vant-maid, Therese Levasseur, a vulgar, unattrac- tive, and dull young woman of twenty-four. He took her to live with him as his mistress, and married her twenty years afterwards ; the attach- ment of the fantastic dreamer to her was only strengthened by time ; and Therese and her mother not only preyed on his narrow means, but aggra- vated his suspicious temper, and were continual mischief-makers between his friends and him. Five children bora to the pair were coolly de- posited in the Foundling Hospital; and their father appeared to receive with profound indiffer- ence the failure of an attempt which some of his patrons made to identify and recover them. In the year of his arrival in Paris, after an unsuccess- ful attempt at the composition of operatic music, Rousseau found a place as a clerk in the employ- ment of a farmer-general, whose wife had laughed at him for making love to her some years before. About 1748 Diderot and D'Alembert engaged him to write musical articles for the Encyclopedic, which, as he said himself, he executed very quickly and very ill. He had great musical genius, but is pronounced to have never acquired more than a very middling knowledge of the science. Soon afterwards, being thirty-seven years old, he made the first attempt in authorship that indicated any true vocation for the pursuit. He read in a news- paper a prize-question proposed by the Academy C33 ROU of Dijon :— ' Has the progress of the sciences ami arts contributed to the corruption or to the puriti- eation of morals ? ' It seemed to him as if a new world of thought had revealed itself to his mind; 1 off a vehement denunciation of civilized it in, and obtained the prize. His in- distinct visions soon began to assume shape and colour. He was, it is true, little qualified, either by knowledge of history, or by exact philosophical habits, for working out true results in the problem of social progress: but his meditations brooded eagerly over the task ; his impregnable self-confidence satisfied him that he was able to perform it, and the power of passionate eloquence which lurked within, soon enabled him to impress the world marvel- it h the representation lie gave of his irregu- lar conceptions. Rousseau was not great, either as a poet or as a philosopher ; but he possessed, •raordinarv degree, and with a felicitous hi of the elements, that union of the two characters, which seems to be more powerful than anything else in commanding the sympathy and guiding the opinions of the world. In the works which he composed after the date now in question, he exercised this power with a success which no writer has ever surpassed. Meanwhile, however, he saw his way but dimly. — His musical reputation was raised by the success of his opera, 'Le Devin du Village ;' and he wrote also a tragedy and three comedies, all of little worth. A second, but less 1 prize-essay, ' On the Origin of Inequal- ity among Mankind, developed further his politi- cal speculations. He dedicated it to the magis- trates of his native town, visited Geneva, was full of republican enthusiasm, and professed himself » alvinist. And here it is worth while to notice, that, so far as any fixed opinions can be attributed to such a mind, Rousseau was never either atheist or deist: he was a desponding sceptic, who felt himself compelled to reverence the mor- ality of Scripture, little as he obeyed it in his life. — He had now given up his clerkship for a govern- ment appointment, which he immediately resigned in a panic; and henceforth, for a long time, his very narrow income was chiefly made up by copy- '•, in which his friends employed him as a delicate way of giving aid to a proud man. In 1756 he accepted the invitation of Madame D'Epi- nay to take up his residence on her estate, in the valley of Montmorenci, at the retired country house There he composed some of his most brilliantly eloquent writings. His touch- ing hut very equivocal novel, ' La Nouvelle Eloise,' i in 1759 ; ' Emile,' an acute but chimeri- cal treatise on education, published in 1762, was condemned with reason, both by the archbishop and the parliament of Paris. Immediately after- wards, the ' Contrat Social,' the most systematic exposition of his dream of social equality, was re- ceived with still more serious disapprobation by the government, and Rousseau found it wise to take refuge in Switzerland. Thence, passing fcis Pariau De, a French poet and classical translator. 1747-1810. SAIXT-Al'llIX, A., a Fr. engraver, 1736-1807. r-AUBIN, Aug. Alexander D'Her- BLK, tailed, a French singer and actor, 1754-1818. SAI SAINT-AUBIX, C, a publicist, 1755-1820. SAINT-AUBIX, G. C. See Legendre. SAINT-AULAIUE, Francois JOSEPH Da Beaupoil. Marquis De, a Fr. poet, 1613-17 -12. SAINT-CHAM OND, Claire Marie Maza- relli, Dame De, a learned Fr. writer, 1731-1 784 SAINT-CLOST, Perros De, or Pierre De Saint Cloud, writer of a satirical allegory, called the Romance of Reynard, which consists of 2,000 verses, and has been translated into most European languages, 13th centurv. SAINT-CONTEST,DominiqueClaudeBae- berie De, a French statesman and diplomatist, 1668-1730. His son, F. Dominique, minister of state for foreign affairs in 1751, under the influence of Madame de' Pompadour, 1701-1754. SA1NT-CVR, Oi>ET Joseph De Vaux De Giry, Abb6 De, a Greek scholar, preceptor of the dauphin, son of Louis XV., died 1761. SAINT-CYBAN, Jean Duveroier De Hau- ranne, Abbe De, a Jansenist theolog., 1581-1642. SAINTE-BEUVE, Jacques De, a writer on Grace and Predestination, 1613-1677. SAINTE-CROIX, Guillaume Emmanuel Joseph, Baron De, a learned French historian, author of ' Researches into the Mysteries of Paganism,' ' Critical Examination of the Histories of Alexander the Great,' and other works of high value, 1746-1809. SAINTE-CROIX, or SANTA CROCE, Pros- per De, cardinal and papal nuncio, 1513-1589. SAINT-EVREMOND, C. Marguerite De St. Denis, Seigneur De, a royalist and proter/e of Mazarin during the troubles of the Fronde, distin- guished as an elegant writer, 1613-1703. SAINT-FAL, S. M., a French actor, 1760-1835. SAINT-FLORENTIN, L. Phelypeaux, Count De, son of Phelipeaux de la Vrilliere, minister in various functions for more than fifty years to Louis XV., and a debauched character, 1705-1777. SAINTE-FOIX, Germain Francois Poulain De, a French writer and antiquarian, 1698-1776. SAINT-GALL, the Monk oe, an anonymous Latin writer of the 9 th century. SAINT-GELAIS, Octavius De, a poet and bishop of Angouleme, and biographer of Louis XII.. 1466-1502. M ELLIN, his natural son, an ecclesi- astic, and au. of Latin and French poems, d. 1559. SAINT-GENIES, J. De, a Fr. poet, 1607-63. SAINT-GENIS, A. N., a Fr. lawyer, 1741-1808. SAINT-GEORGE, Chevalier De, a mulatto, born of a negress at Guadaloupe, greatly distin- guished by his accomplishments at the French court, and especially for his skill as a swordsman. He commanded a troop of horse at the beginning of the revolution, 1745-1801. SAINT-GERAN. See Guiciie. SAINT-GERMAIN, Count De, a singular character, some way connected with the illunannti of last century, and equally remarkable for the extent of his knowledge and his communications with the French court, especially with Louis XV. and Madame de Pompadour. He is said to have died at Schleswig in 1784. The curious should compare with his pretensions the traditions of The Wandering Jew. which are collected together in the Chronicles of Cartophilus (so called), lately published l>v David Hoffman. SAINT-GERMAIN, Robert, Count De, a 672 SAI Jesuit and statesman, minister of war to Louis XVI., author of Memoirs, 1708-1778. SAINT-GERMAN, or SEINT-GERMAN, Christopher, an Eng. lawyer of the 16th cent. SAINT-GILES, otherwise Joannes Anglicus, or Jean de St. Albuin, a learned theologian, and doctor of medicine to Philip Augustus, king of France, died ahout 1255. SAINT-HILAIRE. See Geoffroy. SAINTE-HUBERTI, Antoinette Cecilia Clavel, a French opera singer, 1756-1821. SAINT-HURUGE, Marquis De, a character of the French revolution, ahout 1750-1810. SAINT-HYAC1NTHE, Hyacinthe Cordon- nier, better known as Themiseuil de Saint Hya- cinthe, an ingenious French critic, 1681-1714. SAINTE-HYACINTHE. See Charrerie. SAINT-JOHN. See Bolingbroke. SAINT-JORRI, Pierre Dufaur De, in Latin Petrus Faber, a learned French Jesuit, 1540-1600. SAINT-JOSEPH, Isidore, a theologian and historian of the Carmelites of Italy, died 1666. SAINT-JOSEPH, Pierre Mathiew De, otherwise Pierre Foglia, an Asiatic missionary and botanist, born in Naples 1617, died 1691. SAINT-JULIEN, L. G. Baillet, Baron De, a miscellaneous writer, 1720-1780. SAINT-JULIEN, Pierre De, a partizan of the league, and historian of Burgundy, 1520-1593. SAINT-JURE, J. B. De, an ascetic, 1588-1657. SAINT-JUST, Antoine, one of the most re- markable characters, all things considered, produced by the revolutionary epoch of France, was born at Decise in the Nivernais 1768, and was only twer.ty- four years of age when the revolution had grown to a white heat m 1792-3. He was the son of a knight of St. Louis, descended from a distinguished family, and had passed through a brilliant career as a student, when he became adjutant-major in a legion of the national guard ; and in this position made the acquaintance of Robespierre. The alliance of these two men is one of the most in- teresting studies presented by the history of those times. The intelligence of St. Just was as cold, clear, and glassy as that of Robespierre, his character as austere, his ambition as great, his personal courage, moral and physical, unsurpassed by any character known to history, and his enthusiasm dis- tinctly suiyeneris, for we are not only unacquainted with anything resembling it, but it appears as we scan it, to contradict the word itself. Light, sparkling, and dauntless, in Camille Desmoulins, this character of mind strikes us as one common to all ages and to every cause; in St. Just, on the con- trary, heated to the highest pitch, and star-like in its brightness, it is yet fixed in preternatural fascination, or if it ever stir, seems only to string up his nerves as by a magnetic tension to make them the stronger and more resonant organ of the resolute spirit. In cold impassive reason, the two men, St. Just and Robespierre, resemble each other, as in the strict purity of their lives, but in this quality there is no comparison, and to explain St. Just, we must suppose the wildest enthusiasm in the outward nature transfixed and bound down to its cruel purposes by the gleam of the frigid intel- ligence in the inner. His almost feminine coun- tenance, and his perfect devotion to Robespierre, obtained for St. Just this striking but profane SAI appellation : the Saint John of the Messiah of the People. He surpassed his master in impassibility as the terrible events of the revolution swept by, and on the night of the September massacres slept soundly in the same chamber where Robespierre paced up and down watching, as he expressed it, 1 like remorse or crime.' At this time, the name of St. Just was almost unknown to the people, but he took his place in the National Convention, which met soon afterwards, with the air of one accustomed to be heard and obeyed as an oracle. He was the mask of the spirit of Robespierre, and so perfectly devoted to him, that the ideas of the one were uttered by the voice of the other, not in slavish subjection, but with more axiomatic and un- answerable simplicity, and with a more daring application to emergencies ; it was, as if the soul of Robespierre had two bodies, the one more plausible in utterance, the other sharper and more remorse- less. This devotion of St. Just was entirely due to the acquiescence of his reason in the sentiments of Robespierre, and to his solemn conviction that the republic could only triumph by those ideas : he was strictly the minister of Robespierre the dictator, and he embodied the conceptions of his master in those practical measures wnich could alone carry him to power. The overthrow of the Gironde and the Dantonists was only a step towards the con- centration of every power ot the state in the committees of the convention, formed to work under one head ; the struggle which he directed, in fact, was that of a republic one and indivisible, opposed to the idea of a confederation which it was impossible to form in imitation of the United States that had been the natural growth of time and circumstances. After the fall of the Girondins, the triumvirate of Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just, was formed definitely in the committee of Sa/ut Public, and under the dictation of this body, at the time when France was menaced with destruction, no right, whether of life or property, was allowed to be pleaded in preference to the supreme right of the nation to save itself. The inexorable logic of this argument, put in force, became the terror, and they who look upon a Robespierre and a St. Just as mere spirits of darkness, and agents of iniquity, should consider well the sorrowful nights and days which this young man of twenty-five or six must have passed when he wrote in his diary: 'It is but a small matter to quit a life like this, a state of being so miserable that the only choice left us, is to become the accomplice of crime or the helpless witness of it.' The most striking proof of his heroism was given when the Austrians, reunited to the army of Conde, had forced the lines of Weissembourg, and were advancing upon Strasburg. Sent there with Lebas, in the character of a proconsul, St. Just charged at the head of the Alsatian peasantry, hastily armed, and, with an intrepidity that aston- ished the soldiers, rolled back the invaders, and saved his country. In this character he was the legal autocrat of the entire district, and in the emergency the lives and properties of all were at his disposal; was he therefore merciful or cruel when he saved ' thousands of heads,' as it is con- fessed, by sending one scoundrel to the guillotine V In short, there is only one honest way of judging these men, and that is by the exceptional character 673 2X SAT of the times, ami not as Christians, for such they were not, but as the heathen avengers of the ,1 arron of many ganarattaoi of pretended Christum. St Just, true to the last, accompanied rre to the scaffold, and regarded with a disdainful air the crowd vociferating around him. • •xtvuted on the 27th of July, 1794 or ac- ou-ding to the republican style, on the 9th Thermi- te, year 2. His poems and political writings bear witness to his literary talents. [E.R.] SAINT- JUST, Godard D'Aucourt De, a dramatic and miscellaneous writer, 1770-1826. SAINT-LAMBERT, Charles Francis, Mar- quis De, a fabulist and philosopher, 1717-1803. M'-LAURENT, Baron De, a French artillery officer in the wars of Napoleon, 1763-1832. SAINT-LEU. See Hortensk. SAINT-LO, A. De, a Fr. missionary, d. 1638. SAINT-LOUIS. See Louis (IX.) SAINT-LOUIS, See Peter of St. Louis. SAINT-LUC, Francois D'Espinay De, a French commander, who distinguished himself Bgaaac the Calvinists, and became a master of artillery under Henry IV., killed 1597. His son, Timoleon, ambassador to England and marshal of France, 1580-1644. SAINT-MARC, C. H. Lepebvre, an editor, historian, and chronologist, 1698-1769. SAINT-MARC, J. P. Andrew Des Rosins, Marquis De, a poet and dramatist, 1728-1813. SAINT-MARCELLIN, a natural son of the celebrated Fontanes, distinguished by his valour at the battle of Borodino, in the Russian campaign of 1812, and as an opera writer, 1791-1819. SAINT-MARS, a French officer of_ quality, whose name has been preserved in history in connection with that most perplexing of all secrets, ' The Man in the Iron Mask. Vague rumours of such a prisoner were all that existed till the pub- lication of Voltaire's Louis XIV., when for the first time they assumed due consistency. After all that has been written on the subject, it cannot be said that more is known at this hour than had been re- lated by Voltaire, except some confirmations of the substantial accuracy of his account, and some additional traits of character, which may help to solve the riddle, if ever fresh light should be thrown upon it by the publication of hitherto unedited state documents. Briefly, the story is as follows : — Towards 1662, a state prisoner of noble stature, and the most accomplished de- meanour, wearing a mask of black velvet, was consigned to the custody of Saint-Mars, at that time governor of the castle of Pignerol. In 1686, Saint-Mars was transferred to the Isle of Saint- Marguerite, in the sea of Provence, and he took his prisoner with him : he did the same when he became governor of the Bastile in 1690. This mysterious person was uniformly treated with the highest respect by the governor, who himself waited upon him, and the same deference was shown by the marquis of Louvois on occasion of a visit previous to his removal from St. Marguerite : his mask was so constructed with steel springs that he had perfect liberty to eat and drink ; he was served in the richest manner, and was accus- tomed to entertain himself with books and music. Before his transference to the Baatile, he seized an opportunity to scratch some intelligence on a SAI silver plate, which he threw out near a fishing boat that he perceived moored to the shore ; the fisherman, however, was unable to read, and he carried the plate to Saint-Mars, who would not allow him to depart until perfectly satisfied that no discovery had been made. In the end tho prisoner died in the Bastile, and was buried in the parish cemetery of Saint Paul, by midnight, November, 1703, under the evidently feigned name of Marchiali : the furniture of his room, the window casements, and every possible thing on which he could have left any record, were then carefully burnt ; the ceiling was pulled down and reduced to powder; finally, the Bastile records, since perused, were found to contain only the obscurest allusions to him. The last statesman who possessed this secret was Chamillac, who, on his deathbed refused to make a discovery of it : though entreated by his son-in-law, the second marquis de Feuillade, he said he had been bound by an oath. The medical attendant of the prisoner had never seen his face, but says that he informed him a few days before his death that he believed he was near sixty years of age; the registry of the burial, on the other hand, gives forty-five as the age of the pretended Marchiali, but this again may have been designed to baffle in- vestigation. This strange history, it will be ob- served, commences about the period of Mazarin's death, and it covers the greater part of the reign of Louis XIV. It would be inconsistent with our limits to discuss the conjectures to which it has given rise — some of them sufficiently romantic. What surprises us is, that historians do not observe how little reason would be left for the careful pre- servation of the secret beyond the lifetime of the prisoner, if it could be proved he was any one of the persons hitherto supposed. [E.R.] SAINTE-MARTHE, Charles Francis, Mar- quis De, a French fabulist and poet, 1717-1803. SAINT-MARTIN, J. Antoine De, eel. for his researches into the history of Armenia, 1791-1832. SAINT-MARTIN, J. Didier De, a Chinese missionary and writer in Chinese, 1743-1801. SAINT-MARTIN, Louis Claude De, called by himself le Philosophe inconnu (which we read philosopher of the unknoion), was born at Amboise, of a noble French family, 1743, and is said to have commenced his metaphysical studies upon tho ' Art of Knowing One's Self,' written by James Abbadie, a French protestant theologian. He is sometimes confounded with Martinez Pasqua- lis, who was the real founder of the sect of Mar- tinists, and the first teacher, but by no means the master, of Saint-Martin. The period when these two philosophical inquirers became acquainted, was marked by a reaction against the sceptical philosophy of the encyclopedists, against whom Saint-Martin launched the first and most valued of his writings, entitled Des Erreurs et de la Verite, published at Lyons 1775, between which period and 1778 the operations of the genuine Martinists in France had become extinct. The name, indeed, still remained. The Chevaliers Bienfaisants, re- formed under the name of Philalethes, and said to have embraced the doctrines of Saint-Martin and Swedenborg, invited the former to take the presi- dent's chair in 1784, but he refused the honour ; as to Swedenborg, the writer has before him an C74 SAI original letter, written by a French disciple of his in 1785, utterly disavowing the connection, and charging these very Martinists, so called, with the pursuit of magic : — so much for the right of such societies to assume names, and for the sar- casm of Lamartine (' Girondins,' vol. i. p. 188), that 'The theosophists, disciples of the sublime but obscure Swedenborg, the Saint-Martin of Germany, pretended to complete the gospel, and transform humanity,' &c. It is a point of some interest in the history of those times, for not only were the occult societies of Germany and France influential among the people, but the most dis- tinguished princes were enrolled amongst them, as may be read in the article Weishau:pt. Saint-Martin was neither faithful to one system nor another, but coquetted with them all, Martinez Pasqualis, Alchymy, Animal Magnetism, Sweden- borg, and Jacob Boehmen, until he was cast ashore in the midst of the French revolution, and became, as he regarded himself, 'the Robinson Crusoe of spiritualism.' He possessed vast ori- ginal genius and metaphysical insight, and as a thinker he digested and assimilated whatever he found to his taste ; we should not be far from the truth, perhaps, in pronouncing that the principles of Boehmen had taken the deepest hold of his imagination and reason; and that much in his later writings may be regarded as a modern re- production of them, tinctured, however, by what he had acquired from Swedenborg, and by his experience in animal magnetism. The first of his works is mentioned above. It was followed by 'Tableau Naturel des Rapports entre Dieu, l'Homme, et l'Univers,' 1782, the principle of which is the explanation of things by man, and not of man by things. In 1790 he published * l'Homme du Desir.' In 1792 the ' Ecce Homo,' intended to correct the rage at that time for mag- netic prodigies, and to elevate the soul to sub- limer mysteries. In 1796 appeared 'Le Nouvel Homme.' In 1800, ' De l'Esprit des choses, ou coup d'oeil Philosophique sur la Nature des Etres et sur l'Objet de leur Existence,' a work which we have seen denounced as ' a tissue of foolish propositions,' on the strength of an extract, which is, notwithstanding, of great philosophic depth. In 1802 he ushered to the light of day ' Le Ministere de l'Homme Esprit,' with these remark- able words : — ' Although the subject of this work promises greater clearness than my others, it is too remote from ordinary ideas to let me hopo for much success. I have often felt while writing that the result would be much as if I had played a selection of waltzes and contre-dances on my violin in the cemetery of Mont-Martre, where would be fine to do with my bow, but really the corpses lying there would neither understand my music nor dance to it !' Besides these and other works of his own, Saint-Martin translated into French the ' Three Principles,' and the ' Aurora,' of Jacob Boehmen. The Russian statesman, Prince Gallitzin, is said to have been his convert, but we are not aware whether any connection exists be- tween this fact and the rise of the Martinists in the city of Moscow •. a very insufficient account of the latter will be found in Pinkerton's translation of a work concerning the state of the Greek church, from the Scalvonic of Platon. Saint-Martin, like SAI so many others of the noblesse of France, suffered by the French revolution, and being implicated in a conspiracy, owed his life to the revolution of Thermidor. Died 1803. [E.R.] SAINT-MARTIN, Michel De, a religious founder and writer, 1614-1687. SAINT-MAURICE, Alex. Ma. Eleonor, Prince De Montbarey, minister of war to Louis XVI. from 1776 to 1780, au. of Memoirs, 1732-96. SAINT-MAURIS, J. De, a French juriscon- sult, statesman, and diplomatist, died 1555. SAINT-MAURIS, Prudent De, a juriscon- sult and ambassador, of another family, d. 1584. SAINT-MEARD, Francois Jouugniac De, a journalist and chevalier of the order of Saint Louis, born at Bourdeaux 1745, and known at the period of the revolution as the editor of a royalist paper, entitled ' Journal de la Cour et de la Ville.' After the installation of the revolutionary leaders in the Paris Commune, by the insurrection of August 10, 1792, Saint-Meard was arrested and imprisoned in the ' Abbaye,' where he became an eye-witness of the September massacres. He has related his terrible experience in a brochure entitled, 'My Thirty-six Hours' Agony,' the thrilling interest of which carried it through above a hundred editions. After the 'terror' Saint- Meard continued to frequent the literary salons of Paris, and received the humorous title of ' Presi- dent and General-in-chief of the Universal Society of Gobe-mouches.' Died 1827. [E.R.I SAINT-MICHEL, A. De, a Fr. wr., 1795-1827. SAINT-MORYS, Et. Bourgevin-Vialart, Count De, a French general, known as a naturalist and miscellaneous writer, 1772-1817. SAINT-NON, Jean Claude Richard, Abbd De, a celebrated amateur in the arts, 1727-1791. SAINTE-PALAYE, J. B. De La Curne De, the historian of French chivalry, 1697-1781. SAINT-PARD, otherwise P. N. Van Blotaqne, a French Jesuit and religious writer, 1734-1824. SAINT-PAVIN, Denis Sanguin De, a French poet and ecclesiastic, 1600-1670. SAINT-PERAVI, J. N. M. Guerineau De, a political writer and poet, 1732-1789. SAINT-PHILIP. See Baccalar Y Sanna. SAINT-PIERRE, Charles Irenee Castel, Abbe" De, a political writer and philanthropist, who was educated as an ecclesiastic, and devoted himself theoretically and practically to the public good. Among his "works is a ' Project for a Per- petual Peace,' conceived at the congress of Utrecht (1713), and pronounced by the cardinal Dubois '■the dream of a good man. 1 He was far in ad- vance of his age; and being excluded from the French Academy for the courageous expression of his opinions concerning the government of Louis XIV., that body took more than half a century to revise their judgment of him ; at length, in 1775, his eulogium was pronounced by D'Alembert. The French are indebted to him not only for his philosophical 'dreams,' but for that expressive word bienjaisance, which he introduced into the language. [E.R] ST. PIERRE, Eustace De, a patriotic citizen of Calais, who distinguished himself when Edward III. of England besieged that place in 1347. SAINT-PIERRE, J. H. Bernahdin De, a celebrated French writer, well known hi this coun- 675 SAI trv by his beautiful romance of ' Paul and Virginia,' was Wri at Havre 1737, and passed some time in of France, where the scene of his story is laid, as an engineer. He was a friend of Rousseau, and author of works making altogether twelve volumes, recommending a higher virtue than that exhibited in his own life. Died 1814. SAINT-PRIEST, F. E. Guignaro, Count De, an ambassador andpartizan of the Bourbons, 1735- L8SL His son, G. Emmanuel, a general who served against France, 1776-1814. SAINT-PRIEST, or SAINT-PRET, Jean YVm, in archivist and historian, died 1720. S AINT-RAMBERT, Gabriel De, a Cartesian philosopher and friend of Rousseau, died 1720. SAINT-REAL, Cesar Vichard, Abbe De, a controversialist and historian, 1639-1692. SAINT-REMY, Pierre Surirey De, a French officer and writer on artillery, died 1716. SAINT-SAPHORIN, A. F. L. De Mestral De, a diplomatist employed by the Danish court, a great connoisseur in art, 1738-1805. SAINT-SILVESTRE, J. L. Du Faure, Mar- quis De, a commander under Turenne, 1627-1719. C. F. Du Faure, of the same family and title, an historical writer, 1752-1818. N. H. Maurice Do Faure, called president St. Silvestre, a magis- trate and political writer, died 1811. SAINT-SIMON, C. F. De Rouvroy Sandri- COURT, a learned French prelate, and collector of a valuable library, 1727-1794. His brother, Louis De Rouvroy, Due De Saint-Simon, a statesman and diplomatist during the regency of the duke of Orleans, author of Memoirs of the highest value towards the historv of his times, 1675-1755. SAINT-SIMON, Claude Henri, Count De, founder of a school of social science and rational doctrine named after him, was born at Paris 1760. Member of an illustrious family which traced its origin, through the counts of Vermandois, to Charlemagne, he had the best education that his country could then afford, and one of his teachers was the great encyclopedist D'Alembert. He entered the army, according to the prevailing fashion with the young nobles, in 1777, and though he hated war, he embarked, two years later, for America, and served under Washington, thinking only of some vast social design that would be pro- moted by the emancipation of America. In 1783 he returned to France, and quitting the military career, he was known at the period of the revolu- tion as a speculator, conjointly with a count de Redem, in the national domains: his object was to acquire property as a means of realizing his ideas, and he regarded the convulsions which then agitated society as nothing more than the pre- paratory destruction of the old order of things. During the Terror, St. Simon was arrested in mistake for another of the same name, and only recovered his liberty after the revolution of Thermidor, 27th July, 1794 His time and for- tune were now devoted with apostolic enthusiasm, to what he considered his mission, and, in 1807, he gave his iih-as to the world in his 'Introduction to the Scientific Labours of the Nineteenth Cen- tury.' This work was intended as a supplement to the reports demanded by Napoleon on the progress of idenoe rinee 17*:*. and in oottnacden with Saint- Simon's other works, may be said to contain the SAI germ of all that is valuable in Comtc's positive philosophy. It declares the time arrived to generalize the whole body of science with a view to social progress, and lays down the principle that useful labour is the proper destiny of all men. It was followed in 1808 by Letters addressed to the Institute; in 1810, by a 'Prospectus of a New Encyclopaedia ;' in 1814 by the ' Re-organization of European Society ;' and nearly every year, in short, by some fresh development of his philosophical speculations. The sum of his meaning may he expressed somewhat in these terms: as Newton had reduced astronomy to a positive law when he dis- covered gravitation, so may all the sciences and speculations of men be brought, practically, to a positive doctrine ; chemistry and the other branches of experimental philosophy come first ; meta- physical and theological Knowledge follow in the order of their remoteness from demonstration ; and social science as the most complex of all completes the encyclopaedia of human knowledge and ex- perience. Newton, it is argued, laid the foundation of this temple of science by demonstrating the law of gravitation ; and Locke proved that it could be carried to completion by demonstrating the per- fectibility of the human spirit. This, we say, is the fundamental conception of Saint-Simon's, as it has become more recently of Comte's, philosophy ; it is to be regretted that, in the carrying out of this idea, they are both deficient in the sense of all that constitutes religion, and in any true, or even tolerable recognition, of revealed truth ; the church and its doctrines are at best a kind of spiritual police force, easy to be dispensed with when tho positive theism is reached. These works, however, are valuable political studies, they point to many results at which society must arrive, and they suggest a valuable method of reviewing history and philosophy: to be safely used they must be treated like crude ore, from which the time metal is only to be extracted by a severe process. Saint- Simon exhausted his resources to such a degree that he passed a severe winter without fuel and almost without food. He once attempted suicide, but the pistol-shot only deprived him of the sight of one eye. He died at Paris May 19, 1825, with these last words on his lips ' L'Avenir est a nous,' (the future is ours). He left a small, but devoted body of disciples at his death, who had for their organ a periodical entitled ' Le Producteur ; ' the then leader died of a broken heart, and his party being scattered by the interference of government, his successor, M. Enfantin, became an active pro- moter of railways and other objects of immediate utility. [E.R.] SAINT-SIMON, Maximilian H. De, a botanist, tactician, and historian, 1720-1799. SAINT-URSIN, M. De, a medical writer, physician in the French army, 1763-1818. SAINT VINCENT. John Jervis, earl of St. Vincent, and admiral of the British fleet, was born in 1734, at Meaford in Staffordshire. He entered the navy at the age of ten, under Admiral Rodney. He served in 1759 in the expedition against Quebec ; and had risen to the rank of post-captain when the American war broke out. He distinguished him- self greatly in the course of this war, and was knighted ; and early in the next great war against revolutionary France he was made an admiral. 670 SAI In 1797 he had the command of the Mediterranean fleet, and was specially employed in watching the fleets of Spain, which country was in alliance with France against England. The Spanish admiral at last put to sea with 27 large ships of the line, and was brought to action by Sir John Jervis, who had only 15 ships of much inferior size and weight of metal. This glorious battle was fought off Cape St. Vincent, 14th February, 1797, and ended in the complete defeat of the Spaniards and the capture of four of their ships. The English admiral was raised to the peerage for this victory by the title of Earl St. Vincent, and received a pension of £3,000 a-year. In 1800, Lord St. Vincent was placed in command of the channel fleet, and in 1801 he was made first lord of the admiralty, from which station he was removed when Pitt returned to power in 1804. Lord St. Vincent was a stern reformer of abuses, having no respect to persons, and visiting the misdeeds of men in rank and authority as severely as he dealt with the faults of the humblest seaman in the fleet, or the meanest artizan in the dockyard. England is indebted to him not only for his splendid services in action against the enemy, but for the improved discipline and spirit, which he in- troduced into every department of our navy, among officers as well as men, and for the noble example of devotion to duty which he always set in his own person. He saw and brought forward into notice the abilities of Nelson, Duckworth, Strachan, Troubridge, Parker, and many more of our best officers during the war ; and he was as firm a friend to honour and merit, as he was an unflinching foe to dishonesty and incompetency. Earl St. Vin- cent died 15th March, 1823. [E.S.C.] SAINT-VINCENT, Gregory De, a French mathematician and writer on comets, 1584-1667. SAINT-VINCENT, Paul De. See Paul. SAINT-YVES, C, an oculist, 1667-1733. SAITER, D., an Austrian painter, 1674-1705. SALA, Angelo, an Italian physician and her- metic chemist, died 1639. SALA, N., an Italian composer, 1710-1800. SALA, V.. an Italian painter, 1803-1835. SALADIN, otherwise' SALAH - ED - DEEN, sultan of Egypt and Syria, one of the most en- lightened and chivalrous of Saracen princes, was born at the castle of Tecrit, on the Tigris, of which his father was governor in 1137. His family had given many warriors to the princes of Mesopotamia and Aleppo, and Saladin was about thirty years of age when he accompanied his uncle, Shiracoh, in an expedition to Egypt; on whose death, in 1168, he became commander of the forces. Like Me- hemet Ali in recent times, he possessed power and ambition sufficient to render himself independent ; and, to omit details of his wars, we find him master of Syria and Egypt in 1183, so far at least, as to be in no dread of opposition from the native princes. The Christian knights, however, had carried their arms to the East, and Saladin had been defeated some years before by Reginald De Chatillon, grand- master of the Templars, who was now in posses- sion of Jerusalem, and in the habit of committing great outrages upon the Saracens. Saladin widely consolidated his own authority before attacking these invaders ; and among his national improve- ments may be mentioned the foundation of colleges and hospitals, and the fortification of his cities, SAL especially of Cairo. In 1187 he gave battle to the Christian army of 80,000 men on the plain of Hittin, or Tiberias, and having completely van- quished them, he slew Chatillon with his own hand, and took Guy of Lusignan, the Christian king of Jerusalem, prisoner : soon afterwai-ds he captured the Holy City, and though he put the templars and knights hospitallers to the sword, the other Franks had the alternative of becoming slaves or paying ransom. News of these disasters arriving in Europe, produced the second crusade, in which Richard Cceur de Lion took part in alliance with Philip Augustus of France ; preceded a year or two by the emperor Frederic Barbarossa, who died before their arrival, and an immense host of combatants. The key of Syria, then, as it is now, was the fortress of St. Jean D'Acre, and the siege endured two years, 1189-1191, in which interval prodigies of valour were performed on both sides ; the fortress at length surrendered, and the crusade was concluded by another year's truce between Sala- din and Richard, after which the latter embarked for England. Neither of these remarkable characters were destined to survive their acquaintance with each other very long. Saladin was seized with a bilious fever at Damascus, and died there at the moment he was contemplating an extensive pro- gramme of conquests, in 1193. — Christians and Saracens have vied with each other in writing panegyrics on the justice, valour, generosity, and political wisdom, of this prince, who possessed the art, not simply of acquiring power, but of devoting it to the good of his subjects. Seventeen sons and a brother survived him to share his power, and his conquests were presently divided into several states. [E.R.] SALADIN II., great-grandson of the preceding, assassinated after a vain attempt to recover the dominion of Egypt, 1229-1261. SALADIN, J. B. M., a Fr. politician, d. 1810. SALARIO, A., a painter of Milan, died 1559. SALAZAR Y MARDONES, P. De, a Spanish historian of the emperor Charles V., died 1570. SALAZAR Y MENDOZA, P. De, a Spanish historian of that monarchy, 17th century. SALDEN, W., a Dutch divine, died 1694. SALE, A. De La, a French writer, 1398-1462. SALE, George, an Oriental scholar, best known by his translation of the Koran, was born in 1680, and died in 1736. But little is known of his personal history. He contributed the cosmo- gony, and a small portion of the other matter to the 'Universal History,' and his MSS. in the Radcliffe Library, comprise some valuable articles from Arabic, Persian, and Turkish literature. SALE, Sir Robert Henry, an illustrious name in the annals of Anglo-Indian warfare, was bom in 1782, and entered the army as ensign in the 36th Foot 1795. He was just in time to take a subordinate part in the achievements at the close of last century, which secured that magnificent country to the British crown ; his name was more distinctly marked, however, in the Burmese war of 1824-6, in the course of which he was commis- sioned as lieutenant-colonel. From that period till the commencement of our enterprises in Aff- ghanistan, there was little opportunity for reaping other laurels; but events were ripening, wiiich soon demanded the soldier's prowess, and were 677 SAL destined to tax tin utmost resources of our enm- -. TiicM' circumstances date from 1835, commencing with the mission of Alexander Burnes, the envoy of Lord Auckland, whose object was to negotiate for consolidating the government of homed, u ■ bulwark against the designs of There appears to have boon much insincerity, and certainly a good deal of pro- crastination and timidity in these overtures, so that eventually Dost Mahomed, instead of becoming our ally threw'himself into the arms of our enemies. In 1838 Sale was appointed to the command of the 1st Bengal brigade in the impending war, and his troops formed the advance throughout the whole Afghanistan campaign; finally, in September, ■ d efeate d Dost Mahomed at Purwan- Dutrah, and compelled him to surrender to Sir William M'Naghten. In 1841 the war was re- newed, and Sale commanded the brigade which stormed the Khoord Cabul Pass, but was com- pelled to retreat upon Jellalabad, followed by the army of Akhbar Khan. Shut up in this place, Sale and his gallant troops were closely besieged from the 12th of November, 1841, to the 7th of April, 1842, on which day he made a grand attack upon the besieging army, and so completely routed it, that he captured the guns, the ammunition, and the camp. In 1845 the Sikh army, commanded by Sirdar lej Singh, crossed the Sutlej, and Sale was now with the British forces under Sir Hugh Gough, as quartermaster-general ; the two armies met in deadly conflict at the battle of Moodkee, Dec. 18, and victory being declared for the British, Gough pushed on, and, tour days later, fought the decisive battle of Ferozeshah. In the first action Sir Robert Sale had his left thigh shattered by a grape shot, which proved mortal to him ; he was then in the sixty-fifth year of his age. The principal works illustrating this series of events are a 'Narrative of the War in Afghanistan in 1838-9,' bv Capt. H. Havelock, 2 vols., 1840 : ' A Memoir of India and Afghanistan,' by J. Harlan, 1842, and ' The His- tory of the War in Afghanistan,' by J. W. Kaye, 2 vols., 1851. A curious little work was also pub- lished, by H. T. Prinsep, in 1844, entitled • Note on the Historical Besults deducible from Recent Discoveries in Afghanistan.' We may add that our Sikh enemies are the representatives of a religious reformation preached in India by a con- temporary of Luther. [E.R.] SALERNE, P., a French naturalist, died 1760. SALES, St. Francis De. See Francis. SALES, Louis, Count De, brother of St. Fran- cis, a soldier and diplomatist, famous for his de- fence of Savoy against the Spaniards, and of the city of Annecy against Louis XIII.; he also nego- tiated the treaty of Dole, 1577-1654. Charles, his son, governor of St. Christopher, 1625-1666. ' SALFI, F., a French dramatist, 1759-1832. SALGAR, a Turcoman chief, founder of the dynasty named after him, died 1171. SA I.IAN*. J., a French Jesuit, 1557-1640. SALICETI, G., an Italian physician, died 1250. SALICETTI, Chkistoi-hkk, a native of Cor- sica, who promoted the union of that country to France, and was successively deputy to the constituent assembly, member of the convention, and the council of MO. and finally minister of war at Naples under Joseph and Murat, 1757-1809. SAL SALIEVI, A., an Italian composer, 1750-1825. SALIMBEIN, Cavaliere Vim i i;a, an Italian painter of sacred subjects, 1557-1613. SALINAS, Francis De, a Spanish scholar, and writer on musical theory, 1513-1590. SALIUS, Hugues De, a French physician and antiquary, 1632-1710. His brother, Jean B ar- tiste, a writer on the wines of Burgundy, 1704. SALISBURY. See Cecil, John. SALISBURY, W., a Welch lawyer, first trans- lator of the liturgy into that language, died 1670. SALLE, J. A., a French Jesuit, 1712-1778. SALLE, J. B. De La, a French priest and founder of a religious order, 1631-1719. SALLRE, P. De La, a designer, 1723-1804. SALLENGRE, A. H. De, a Dutch writer, counsellor to the prince of Orange, 1694-1723. SALLO, Denis De, a French writer, the foun- der of modern periodical criticism, 1626-1669. 678 [Sallust— From an Antique Bust J SALLUST, (Caius Sallustius Crispus) the Roman historian, was born at Amiternund, a town of the Salimes, to the north-east of Rome, B.C. 86. Though a member of a plebeian family he was educated for the service of' the state, and entered upon public life during the struggle between the aristocracy and the democracy which ended in the subversion of Roman liberty. About the age of twenty-seven he obtained the quasstorship ; and as tribune of the people in B.C. 52, he took an active part in connection with the outrages which resulted m the murder of Claudius and the banishment of Milo, identifying himself with the popular party, and thereby incurring the deadly hatred of the nobility. Two years after the expiry of his tri- buneship he was expelled from the senate by the accusers on the ground of immoral conduct ; but it is quite possible that his greatest offence was his attachment to the cause of the people, while his judges belonged to the opposite faction. After his degradation, he seems to have repaired to Caesar's camo in Gaul, and to have accompanied him dur- ing his invasion of Italy. By Caesar's interest he was restored to his seat in the senate, and elected to the office of praetor B.C. 47, in which capacity he accompanied his patron to Africa, and, on the conclusion of the war, was left as governor of Numidia. While invested with this important SAL trust be is said to have enriched himself by plun- dering the country placed under his charge ; and the allegation is to some extent confirmed by the fact of the immense wealth which he afterwards possessed, and which he profusely expended in forming splendid gardens on the Quirinal hill. On his return from Africa Sallust withdrew from pub- lic affairs, and spent the remainder of his life in his luxurious retreat, engaged in the composition of the historical works which he left behind him. His death took place B.C. 34. His historical works consisted of— 1. The Calilina, or History of the Conspiracy of Catiline in b.c. 63, of the events of which he was a spectator. 2. The Jugurtha, or His- tory of the War maintained by the Romans against Jugurtha, king of Numidia, from B.C. Ill to 106, the materials for which he had probably collec- ted during his residence in that country ; and 3. The Histories, or histories, in five books, which are said to have comprised the period from the death of Sulla, b.c. 78 to B.C. 66. The first two works have coma down to us entire, of the last we have only fragments ; and the loss of it is the more to be regretted, as it must have contained an account of one of the most important periods of Roman history, respecting which our information is very meagre and unsatisfactory. Of Sallust's character, as a politician and historian, very contradictory opinions have been expressed both by the ancients and the moderns. As a devoted partizan of Caesar, he was exposed to the censure of the party of Pom- pey ; and it is therefore probable that the charge of" immorality, though not unfounded, was some- what exaggerated by party malevolence. The allegation of extortion in his province appears to rest on a firmer foundation. His philosophical in- troductions have been blamed as misplaced, and as containing opinions with which the writer did not sympathize, charges which must perhaps be to some extent admitted. His two works, how- ever, must be judged as historical essays, illustra- tive of great political facts, and thus admitting a greater degree of latitude on the part of the writer, than would be admissible in continuous narrative. His style, though elaborate and arti- ficial, is generally concise and perspicuous, but is occasionally marred by the use of archaic words, and by a love of brevity which is obviously the result of imitation. He is, however, entitled to the merit of being the first Roman who wrote what is now regarded as history. [G-F.] SALLUSTIUS, a Platonist of the 4th century. SALMANAZAR, a king of Nineveh, 8th c. B.C. SALMASIUS. See Saumaise. SALMERON, A., a Span, theologian, 1515-85. SALMON, E. G., a Spanish statesman, d. 1832. SALMON, F., a French priest, 1667-1736. SALMON, J., otherwise Maigret or Macrinus, a Latin poet, teacher of the children of Rene of Savoy, 1490-1517. His son, Charles, a Latin poet, massacred on Bartholomew's day, 1572. SALMON, Nathanael, a non-juring divine, known as an antiquary and extensive writer of county history, died 1742. Thomas, his brother, a chronologist and historian, died about 1750. SALMON, R., an Eng. mechanician, 1763-1821. SALMON, U. P., a Fr. mineralogist, 1767-1805. SALMON, W., a miscellaneous wr., d. abt. 1700. SALOME, a Jewish princess, died 72. SAN SALOMON, J. P., a Ger. musician, 1745-1815. SALONIUS, a French prelate, 5th century. SALT, Henry, a traveller and philologist, author of an ' Essay upon Hieroglyphics,' d. 1827. SALTER, S., a learned divine, died 1773. SALTMARSH, John, an Antinomian minister, chaplain in the army under Fairfax, died 1647. SALUTATO, L. Coluccio Pierio, a Latin poet and chancellor of Florence, 1330-1400. SALVA, F., a Spanish physician, 1747-1808. SALVATOR ROSA. See Rosa. SALVERTE, Anne Joseph Eusebius Bacon- niere, a member of the French chamber of depu- ties, to whkh he was first returned in 1828. He was a liberal in politics, and wrote an ' Historical Essay upon the Names of Men and Places,' and a work on the ' Occult Sciences.' In the latter he ascribes all the mysteries of antiquity to the know- ledge possessed by the priests in natural philo- sophv, and, that failing them, to trickery and im- posture, 1771-1839. SALVI, N., an Italian architect, 1699-1751. SALVI, Tarquinio, an Italian painter, 16th cent. Giambatista, his son and pupil, 1605-85. SALVIANI, H., an icthyologist, 1514-1572. SALVIATI, F. Rossi De, an Italian painter, 1510-1563. ForSalviati 'the Younger,' see Porta. SALVIATI, Giovanni, an Ital. cardinal, dist. as a great protector of arts and letters, 1490-1553. SALVINI, A. M., a learned Italian, 1653-1729. SAMBUCUS, John, a learned Hungarian phy- sician, antiquary, and historian, 1531-1584. SAMERIUS, H., a German Jesuit, 1540-1610. SAMMES, A., an English antiquary, died 1679. SAMPSON, H., a nonconf. divine, died 1705. SAMPSON, Thomas, an eminent reformer and companion of the refugees at Geneva, nephew by marriage to Latimer, 1517-1589. SAMSON, Ole Johan, a Danish dramatist and author of Scandinavian Tales, 1759-1796. SAMSON, a judge of Israel, 12th century B.C. SAMUEL, the last judge of Israel, and one of their prophets, supposed date 1132-1043 B.C. SAMUEL, a king of Bulgaria, 971-1014. SAMWELL, David, surgeon of the Discovery when Captain Cook was murdered, died 1799. SANADON, N. S., a French Jesuit, 1676-1733. SANCERRE, L. De, constable of France, dis- tinguished in arms against the English, 1342-1402. SANCHES, Ant. Nunez Ribeiro, a Portu- guese physician in the Russian army, 1699-1783. SANCHEZ, F., a Portug. philoso., 1562-1632. SANCHEZ, Francisco, in Latin Sanctius Brocensis, a Spanish grammarian, 1523-1601. SANCHEZ, G., a Spanish Jesuit, died 1628. SANCHEZ, Peter Anthony, a learned Span- ish ecclesiastic and philanthropist, 1740-1806. SANCHEZ, T., a Spanish casuist, 1550-1610. SANCHEZ, T. A., a bibliographer, 1732-1798. SANCHO, Ignatius, a negro slave, remark- able for his attainments in polite literature, author of a ' Theory of Music,' ' Letters,' &c, 1729-1780. SANCHONIATHON, a Phoenician historian, regarded as the most ancient writer of the heathen world, is supposed to have been a native of Berytus, but as the age to which he is referred is beyond the historical epoch, nothing certain can be related of him. Even the authenticity of the fragments attributed to him has been disputed, but it only 679 SAN requires an ordinary acquaintance with the under- standing of those remote ages to be convinced that genuine remains of a very high antiquity, whether written by Sanchoniathon or any other. The history attributed to him was composed in the Phoenician language, and its materials collected from the archives of the Phoenician cities, and from the registers preserved in the Phoenician and Egyptian temples. It was translated into Greek by l'hilo Byblius, in the reign of Hadrian, and the existing fragments of it preserved by Eusebius amongst the citations of his ' Evangelical Prepara- tion.' One fragment is called ' The Cosmogony,' professedly derived from Tautus, Thoth, Athothis, or Hermes. Another, and by far the larger, is called the ' Generations ;' it presents many interest- ing points of comparison with the Mosaic Scrip- tures, and professes to be the real history of those times stripped of allegory. ' All these things, the son of Thabion, the first Hierophant of all among the Phoenicians, allegorized and mixed up with the occurrences and accidents of nature and the world, and delivered to the priests and prophets, the superintendents of the mysteries, and they, per- ceiving the rage for these allegories increase, delivered them to their successors and to foreigners ; of whom one was Isiris, the inventor of the three k'tters. the brother of Chna, who is called 4 the first Phoenician.' The third and last fragment is a few lines preserved from Sanchoniathon's history of the Serpent. The whole will be found in Cory, who suggests that Sanchoniathon's omission of any direct notice of the flood, in which he differs from all other ancient writers, may be accounted for bv liis determination to reject whatever was alle- gorical. [E.R.] SANCROFT, William, archbishop of Canter- bury, one of the prelates sent to the Tower by James II. in 1688, for refusing to order the public reading of the king's declaration of indulgence in favour of the Catholics, 1616-1693. SANCTIUS. See Sanchez. SANCTORIUS, Sauctokius, whose true name was Santori Sautorio, an Italian physician of con- siderable distinction, was born at Capo DTstria, in 1561, and died at Venice in 1636, aged seventy-five. He was the founder of what is called the Statical School in Medicine, and in 1612 published a treatise entitled, Art de Medicina Staiica, in which he endeavoured to estimate the loss of weight that the body undergoes by the various excretions, particu- larly by insensible transpiration, to which he at- tached much importance. [J.M'C] SAND, Christopher Van Den, in Latin Sandivs, a German Socinian, 1644-1680. SAND, C. L., a German student, member of a secret society, and assass. of Kotzebue, 1795-1818. SAMDBT. P.. an English artist, 1732-1809. SANDS, John Van Den, a Dutch jurisconsult and historian, died 1638. BANDSMAN. Robert, founder of the sect who took from him the denomination of Sande- manians, was a native of Perth, in Scotland, where he was born 1723. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and having married a daughter of the Rev. John Glass, became a fol- lower of his opinions and an elder in one of his churches. The subject of controversy which led to the formation of this party, was a particular view 680 SAN of the nature of justifying faith, but they differ, also, from other communions in the matter of discipline and church fellowship, especially in the administration of the sacrament of the Holy Sup- per. Their fundamental tenets are Calvinistic. Sandeman died at Danbury, aged forty- eight, 1771. SANDEN, H. De, a Ger. physician, 1672-1728. SANDIER, Anthony, in Latin Sanderus, a Flemish topographer and antiquary, 1586-1664. SANDERS, Nicholas, a Roman Catholic theologian and controversial writer, 1527-1580. SANDERS, R., a miscellaneous wr., 1727-1783. SANDERSON, Robert, an English antiqua- rian, historian of Henry V., &c, 1660-1741. SANDERSON, Robert, bishop of Lincoln, dis- tinguished for his extensive antiquarian, scholastic, and historical information, known as a casuist and polemical writer. 1587-1663. SANDERUS.' See Sander. SANDES. See Sandys. SANDFORD, Sir Daniel Keyte, professor of Greek at Glasgow, son of Dr. Sandford, a pre- late of the Scottish Episcopal Church, died 1838. SANDFORD F., a heraldist, 1630-1693. SANDINI, A., an Italian historian, 1692-1751. SANDIUS. See Sand. SANDOVAL, F. P. De, a Sp.histor., 1560-1621. SANDRART, Joachim Von, a native of Frank- fort, disting. as a painter and art-writer, 1606-88. SANDWICH. See Montagu. SANDYS, or SANDES, Edwin, a dignitary of the church, who was vice-chancellor of Cambridge on the accession of Queen Mary, and suffered depo- sition and imprisonment as a partizan of Lady Jane Grey. In the reign of Elizabeth he was suc- cessively bishop of Worcester and London, and archbishop of \ork, and had a share in the trans- lation known as the Bishops' Bible, 1519-1588. Sir Edwin, his second son, a traveller and diplo- matist, to whom some sacred poems have been attributed, 1561-1629. George, brother of the latter, and seventh son of the archbishop, a tra- veller and classical translator, 1577-1643. — Pope declared that English poetry owed much of its beauty to the translations of George Sandys, who was highly esteemed by his contemporaries for his learning and virtues. SANE, A. M., a French writer, 1773-1818. SANGALLO, Giuliano Giamberti, called, an Italian artist and architect, son of Francesco Giamberti, 1443-1517. Antonio, his brother, employed by Alexander VI. to convert Hadrian's mausoleum into a fortress, now the castle of St. Angelo, died 1534. Antonio, nephew of the pre- ceding, and the most distinguished architect of the family, a pupil of Bramante, 1482-1546. Anto- nio Baptista Gobbo, brother of the latter, a translator of Vitruvius. His nephew, Bastiano, a painter, decorator, and architect, 1481-1551. SAN-GIORGIO, Benvenuto Da, an Italian historian and diplomatist, 1450-1525. SANMICHELLI, Michele, an Ital. architect, friend of Bramante and Michelangelo, 1484-1559. SANNAZARO, J., an Italian poet, 1458-1530. SAN-SEVERO, Raymond De Sangro, prince of, a Neapolitan, eminent for his mechanical inventions and as an amateur of the arts, 1710-71. SANSON, Nicholas, a French geographer, SAN eminent for the accuracy and number of his maps, 1600-1667. His three sons, Nicholas, William, and Adrian, were remarkable in the same art. His cousin, James, a genealogist and ecclesiastical historian of Abbeville, 1596-1665. SANSOV1NO, Jacopo Tatti, called, an Ital- ian sculptor and architect, 1479-1570. Fran- cesco, his son, a grammarian, 1521-1586. SANTA-CRUZ, Alvarez De Bassano, Mar- quis De, a Spanish admiral, died 1587. SANTA-CRUZ DE MARZENADO, Alvar, Marquis De, a Spanish general, diplomatist, and tactician, b. 1687, k. by the Moors at Oran, 1732. SANTEN, L. Van, a Dutch poet, 1746-1798. SANTERRE, Antoine Joseph, an actor in the French revolution, a brewer, of Flemish descent, was born at Paris 1752. He was by no means the rude character sometimes represented, but well educated, and the possessor of a large fortune, acquired in trade. His familiarity with the work- men in his employ, and his extreme generosity (for in famine time, he gave away nearly £12,000 worth of meat and rice) made him popular in St. Antoine, and he became commander of the battalion of that quarter. He displayed great courage and presence of mind at the storming of the Bastile, and would deserve remembrance if it were only for one other act about the same time, that of saving the invaluable Bibliotheque du Roi from destruc- tion by the mob. In May, 1792, he became com- mander of the national guard, and on the 20th of June, when the Marseillaise had arrived, and the palace was invaded by the populace, he thrust his fellow patriots out of the queen's chamber and protected Marie Antoinette and her children from further outrage ; it is said that from this time may be dated the secret understanding that the queen had with the agitators of the faubourgs. Many other instances of the good nature of this Ajax of the Parisian populace might be mentioned, as that of causing the drums to cease beating for a few moments when Louis was on the scaffold ; this gave the king the opportunity of addressing a lew words to the people, and so provoked the Mar- seillaise that they would have commenced firing had not the drums instantly struck up again by order of another general. Santerre possessing little talent, but a vast deal of courage, often run immense risk to save life and property, and there is no wonder that he miscarried, when despatched to La Vendee, in command of an army, to oppose Kossignol. For this mischance, however, he was thrown into prison, and did not recover his liberty until after the fall of Robespierre. His good- natured, and useful, though not very brilliant part in this strange drama of history was now at an end, and he died^in obscurity 1809. [E.K.] SANTERRE, J. B., a Fr. painter, 1651-1717. SANTEUIL, or SANTEUL, John De, in Latin Santolius, a French ecclesiastic and Latin poet, 1630-1697. SANTORIO. See Sanctorius. SANTOS, J. Dos, a Portug. mission., d. 1622. SAN U DO, Marco, a Venetian general who signalized himself in the army of crusaders who overthrew the Greek empire, 1153-1220. An- gelo, son of the preceding, and his successor as duke of the Archipelago, 1195-1254. Marco, son of Angelo and third" duke, died 1263. GUL1 SAR elmo, son and successor of Marco, 1284. Nicolo, son and successor of the latter, distinguished against the Genoese and the Turks. Giovanni, brother of Nicolo, sixth and last duke, married his daughter to the prince of Negropont, who became prince of Naxos. SANUTO, Livio,a Venetian noble, distinguished as a poet, historian, and geographer, 1530-1586. SANUTO, Marino, a Venetian traveller in the East, author of a curious work, 14th century. His relative, of the same name, historiographer to the state of Venice, au. of valuable Diaries, 1466-1531. SANZIO, J. De, an Italian painter, 15th cent. SAPOR I., king of Persia of the Sassanide dynasty, succeeded his father, Artaxerxes, 240. He invaded Mesopotamia 242, and having con- quered Armenia, Syria, and Cilicia, he put to death the emperor Valerius with great cruelty. He was defeated by Odenatus 269, and died 271. Sapor II., a posthumous son of Hormisdas II., was proclaimed 310, before his birth. He became an active and warlike prince in conflict with the Romans, and was a great enemy to Christianity, died 380. Sapor III., succeeded Artaxerxes II., 384, he kept peace with the Romans, died 389. SAPOR, a king of Armenia, 420. SAPPHO, a lyric poetess of old Greece, born at Lesbos, and supposed to have flourished about 610 B.C. Nothing certain is known of her life, but she is represented as a woman of dissolute morals, and is said to have drowned herself in consequence of the neglect of a youth with whom she had become enamoured. The invention of the Sapphic verse is attributed to her, but there only remains of her writings a ' Hymn to Venus,' and an ' Ode to a Young Female,' which have been rendered into English by Ambrose Philips. The contradictory traditions concerning her life have led to the sup- position that other celebrated women of the same name must have lived at different epochs. SARABIA, J. De, a Span, painter, 100S-1669. SARAVIA, II. A., of Spanish origin, but reckoned among English divines, was a professor of divinity and friend of Hooker, 1531-1613. SARAZIN, J., a French sculptor, 1590-1660. SARAZNO, J., a French marshal, 1770-1824. SARBIEWSKI, Matthias Casimir, in Latin Sarbievius, a Polish lyric poet, 1595-1640. SAPCHIANI, Guiseppe, an Italian economist, archivist of Tuscany during the revol., 1746-1821. SARCMASIUS. See Schuetzfleisch. SARDANAPALUS, the name of several princes of Assyria, the most celebrated of whom was the last sovereign of the first Assyrian empire. His reign dates from 836 to 817 B.C., when he was dethroned by Arbaces and Belesis, at the head of a revolt of the Medes, Persians, and Babylonians. In the last extremity, Sardanapalus, who had withstood a siege for three years in Nineveh, placed himself, his treasures, his wives, and his eunuchs on a funeral pile, which he fired with his own hand. He had ceased to exist when the city was taken, and that event was followed by the dis- memberment of the Assyrian empire. The above date is only an approximation to the true one, as authorities vary. L^-^0 SARPI, Piktro, called Fra Paolo, a Venetian historian, and defender of the republic against tie pope, Paul V., 1552-1623. Cbl SAR BABBABAT, N., ■ French botanist, 1698-1737, SABBASIN, J. A., i Fr. physician, lGth cent. SABBASIN, J. F., a French poet, 1603-1654 SARRASIN, M., a naturalist, 1659-1736. SARTI, G., an Italian composer, 1730-1802. SARTO, Andrea Vannccchi, called Del, the most dist. painter of the Tuscan school, 1488-1530. SASSI. See Sad. SAUL, the first king of the Israelites, perished in combat with the Philistines B.C. 1040. SAULL the apostle of Corsica, 1535-1592. SAUMAISE, Claude, in Latin Salmrtsius, a native of Burgundy, eminent for his learning as a critic, commentator, Orientalist, and archaeologist. He was bom in 1588, and having retired to Hol- land on account of his protestantism, succeeded Scaliger as professor of history at Leyden in 1631. In 1649 he wrote a Latin memorial in defence of Charles I., which was answered by Milton for the Earliament. In 1650 he visited the court of Sweden y invitation from Queen Christina, and is said to have suffered from the climate, so that he never recovered, but died in 1658. His father, Benigne De Saumaise, was a Greek scholar, and counsellor to the parliament of Burgundy, 1560-1640. SAUMAREZ, James, Lord De, a British ad- miral, who was born in Guernsey 1757, and first signalized himself in the naval service during the American war. In 1797 he was in the action off Cape St. Vincent, and was second in command to Nelson at the battle of the Nile, fought soon after. In 1801 Ue was named rear-admiral of the blue, and appointed to the command of the squadron off Cadiz. With this little fleet he won a signal vic- tory, for which he received the thanks of both houses of parliament, and a pension of £1,200. He became vice-admiral in 1831, died 1836. SAUNDERS, Sir E., an Engl, judge, d. 1683. SAUNDERS, J. C, a dist. oculist, 1773-1810. SAUNDERS, W., a medical writer, 1743-1819. SAUNDERSON, Nicholas, a native of Thur- leston, in Yorkshire, who distinguished himself as a mathematician, though he was deprived of his sight by small-pox when only twelve months old. He was born in 1682, and succeeded Whiston as professor of mathematics at Cambridge university in 1711. The account of Saunderson's experience, the quickness to which his senses of hearing and feeling were heightened, and his surprising acquisitions, is one of the most interesting in bio- graphical literature. Died 1739. SAURIN, Elie, a French protestant minister, 1639-1703. Joseph, his brother, a natural philo- sopher and mathematician, remarkable for his independent spirit, and for his controversies with Rolle, Huyghens, and Rousseau ; he also abjured Calvinism, 1659-1737. Bernard Joseph, son of the latter, a dramatic writer, 1706-1791. SAURIN, James, one of the most eminent Erotestant ministers of France, was the son of a iwyer at Nismes, and became pastor of the Wal- loon church in London, and afterwards to the protestant nobles who had sought refuge at the Hague. He is the author of some theological and critical works, 1677-1 T.i'i. SAURIN, BlOBl Hon. William, an Irish lawyer, and attorney-general, 1767-1840. SAUSSAY, A. Du, a Fr. theolog., 1689-1675. SAUSSURE, H. B., a Swiss natural, and pliilo- SAV sophcr, disting. for his valuable observations made while exploring the glaciers of the Alps, and for improvements in scientific instruments, 1740-99. SAUSSURE, Nicholas Theodore De, born at Geneva, October, 1767; died April, 1845; son of the preceding. He accompanied his father in his travels, and assisted him in many of his researches. He afterwards devoted himself to physiological chemistry, and contributed many important papers to this department of science. Priestley had shown that plants absorbed carbonic acid; Saus- sure confirmed this observation, and proved that a small proportion of this gas in the atmosphere favours vegetation, but that a larger amount asphyxiates plants. He likewise devoted much time to a subject originally broached by Kirwan, viz., the connection between the inorganic con- stituents of plants and the soils on which they grow, and established Kirwan's view that inorganic food is necessary for vegetation. He likewise made numerous researches on the composition of the air, at Geneva, particularly on the proportion of carbonic acid which is present in different con- ditions of the atmosphere; and obtained results which have been confirmed by the experiments of more modern chemists with all the delicate appli- ances of recent discovery. He was one of the first persons to point out the identity of sugar of starch and of grapes ; and to invent modes of analyzing organic substances so early as the beginning of the present century. [R.D.T.] SAUVAGE, D., a French historian, 1520-1587. SAUVAGES, F. Boissier De, a French botan- ist, 1706-1767. His brother., P Augustin, a philologist, 1716-1795. SAUVAL, H., a French historian, 1620-1670. SAUVEUR, Joseph, a French physician and mathematician, who created the science of musical acoustics, 1653-1716. SAVAGE, Henry, chaplain to Charles II., and historian of Balliol college, 1604-1672. SAVAGE, John, a facetious divine, supposed author of a ' Collection of Letters,' &c, died 1747. SAVAGE, Richard, has very little claim to remembrance as a poet. Yet he threw off some happy lines and phrases, and, among others, the often-quoted verse, 'The tenth transmitter of a foolish face.' His best poems, too, ' The Wanderer,' and ' The Bastard,' have, especially the latter, the interest which belongs to strong feeling vented on real facts. The history of this unfortunate man was a tragic romance; and it has preserved his name by having been related in one of the most impressive of narratives. His biographer, Samuel Johnson, who became acquainted with him when the two were alike destitute and hopeless, sneaks of him with an affection which, amidst all the unlucky man's faults, must have been justified by some good points in his character From John- son's 'Life of Savage' the facts may be best learned. He was bom 1698, the illegitimate child of two persons of rank, was persecuted by his mother, narrowly escaped execution for murder, and, after a miserable life of forty-five years, died, a prisoner for debt, in 1743. [W.S.1 SAVARON, J., a French writer, 1550-1622. SAVART, F., a French physician, 1791-1841. SAVARY, A. C, a French physician and pupil of the physiologist Bichat, 1776-1814. C82 SAV SAVARY, James, farmer of the revenues of the French crown, and a writer on commercial law, 1622-1690. His two sons, James and Philemon, compiled ' The Universal Dictionary of Commerce,' published 1723. SAVARY, Nicholas, a French traveller and Orientalist, 1750-1788. Julian, his brother, historian of the wars of La Vendee, 1824. SAVARY, Rene, a distinguished French general. He was a native of Ardennes, and was appointed colonel of gend'armes by the first consul for his bravery, but perhaps more for his ready obedience in executing the sentence against the unfortunate Duke D'Enghien. He was created Duke of Roviga for his services in Prussia, and com- manded the army in Spain until the arrival of Joseph; he succeeded the duke of Otranto as minister-general of police. After the restoration he lived in retirement; but at the revolution in July, 1831, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the African army, 1774-1833. SAVERIEN, Alexander, a French mathe- matician and writer on naval tactics, 1720-1805. SAVIGNY, C. De, a French writer, born 1540. SAVILLE, Sir Henry, a native of Yorkshire, distinguished as an elegant Greek scholar, mathe- matician, and patron of learning, founder of two professorships at Oxford, 1549-1622. SAVILLE, George. See Halifax. SAVIOLI, L. V., an Italian poet, 1729-1804. SAVOLDO, G., an Italian painter, 16th cent. SAVONAROLA, J. M., a physician of Padua, 1384-1462. His grandson, Girolamo, next ar- ticle. Raphael,^ the same family, a compiler, 1646-1730. Innocent Raphael, nephew of the latter, and an author, 1680-1748. SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO, or JEROME, was born at Ferrara, 12th October, 1452. He enjoyed a religious education, and was in some respects a precocious youth. Though originally intended for his father's profession, as a physician, he secretly became a Dominican monk in 1474. After teaching philosophy for a season, he devoted his whole attention to preaching, and produced a great sensation by the pointedness and vehemence of his pulpit oratory. In 1489 he removed to Flo- rence, lived in the convent of St. Marco, and de- claimed with extraordinary freedom and daring, and with unusual success, against every form of hypocrisy, vice, and unbelief. His unbounded in- fluence and constitutional ardour, seem to have heated his imagination, and he ventured on occa- sional predictions, at once novel and startling, and published them in the form of authentic oracles, and under the impression that they were genuine revelations to himself from heaven. With characteristic boldness and energy, he interfered with the politics of Florence, inculcated demo- cracy, and opposed the ascendancy of the Medici, so that when they were expelled, he became a leader of the triumphant party. These victors formed a vast deliberative council, and discussed with great pomp the affairs of state, while Savo- narola was exalted by them into a kind of prophetic and judicial president of the republic. His enemies, in the meantime, accused him to the pope, Alexan- der VI., as an impostor and a heretic. His holiness summoned him to Rome, but the reformer refused to obey the citation. On this refusal he was ex- SAX communicated and forbidden to preach. But this sentence only excited him to more terrible denun- ciations, in which the pope himself was styled a usurper. A Franciscan inquisitor was sent to challenge and confront Savonarola, but the citizens interfered and sheltered him. The popular tide at length turned, when he shrank, after some vacillations, from subjecting his cause to an ordeal by fire. His antagonists entered the con- vent, dragged him out, placed him on the rack, and extorted some ejaculations from the unhappy victim, which their malignity easily construed into confessions of guilt. On being ultimately con- demned to death with two of^his associates, he was first strangled, then his body was tossed into the flames, and his ashes were thrown into the river, 23d May, 1498. The most of Savonarola's writings were in Italian, and only a few in Latin. He left behind him about 300 sermons and 50 tracts. His 'Triumphus Crucis,' is a work of some power, but his genius is principally seen in those sermons in which the errors of Romanism are unsparingly condemned, and many evangelical truths illustrated and enforced, and which are also distinguished and filled with peculiar unction and piety. The opinions of Roman Catholic writers vary widely as to the character of this hero- martyr, some holding him to be a saint, and others branding him as a heretic. Burned by one pope, he was tacitly canonized by another. Over the room he inhabited in the convent of St. Mark, still stands an inscription with the epithet — ' Vir Apostolicus? Savonarola was in many things in advance of his age, and was a reformer before the reformation. Eloquent, sincere, and devout, he laboured with heart and soul for his church and country, and met with that fate which the patriot and apostle have so often received from a fickle people, and an alarmed and vindictive despot- ism. [J.E.] SAVOT, L., a French numismatist, 1579-1640. SAWYER, Sir Robert, one of the chief coun- sel for the seven bps., reign of James II., d. 1692. SAXE, Christopher, in Latin Saxius, a Ger- man philologist and literary historian, 1714-1806. SAXE. Count Maurice of Saxony, better known in history as Marshal Saxe, was the natural son of Augustus II., king of Poland, and elector of Saxony. Maurice was a soldier, and saw actual service at the siege of Lisle, when he was only 12 years old. He was at Malplaquet in 1709 ; and he afterwards served under Prince Eugene against the Turks. In 1720 he was introduaed to the Re- fent Orleans, who persuaded him to enter into the Yench service, ana gave him the rank of marshal. Though a married man, he was as notorious for the frequency of his love adventures, as for his mili- tary abilities. He obtained the Duchy of Cour- land in 1726, through the fondness of the Duchess Anna for him, but he soon lost his new principality. He alienated the duchess by his inconstancy, and thus lost also the chance ot becoming emperor of Russia, when Anna succeeded to the throne of the czars in 1730. When the war broke out between France and Austria in 1733, Marshal Saxe solicited and obtained employment in the French armies. He distinguished himself greatly at the siege of Philipsburg; and when peace was made in 1736 he devoted some time to the study of the art of CG3 SAX war, and to the composition of a treatise on that subject, which is still cited by military writers. It was in the muni European war, which began in 1740. that he pained the triumphs by which he is best known. He commanded the French army at Fontenoy in 1745, and won a memorable victory over the English and their allies, which was fol- lowed by the conquest of all Belgium. At the commencement of the campaign of that year, Mar- shal Saxe was lying Bl ^ Paris, with his constitu- tion utterly ruined by the dissolute life which he had long led, and suffering under a severe attack of dropsy. His physicians told him that if he left Paris for the army they could not answer for his life. His answer was, ' The question now is not how I am to live, but how I am to go,' and he went and conquered accordingly. He was obliged to be tapped ouly tive days before the battle was fought ; and he was carried about in a litter dur- ing the engagement. The victory of the French was due mainly to his skill and energy, and to the valour of the Irish brigade in the French ser- i i 1747 he gained a second victory over the English and their allies at Laffelt. He survived the conclusion of the war about two years, and died in 1750, loaded with honours by the French, who were indebted to him for the two chief of the very few successes which they have ever had in fair pitched battles against the English. [E.S.C.] SAXE-COBOURG. See Cobukg. SAXE-GOTHA, Ernest, duke of, a comman- der in the German wars of Gustavus Adolphus, 1C01-1675. Ernest II., a great patron of the sciences and letters, 1745-1804. SAXE-GOTHA and ALTENBERG, E. Leo- pold, duke of, distinguished as a poet and musi- cian. 1772-1822. .vW'E-TESCHEN, Albert, duke of, son of Augustus II., king of Poland, and brother of the dauphiness, mother of Louis XVI., known as an enemy of the French republic, 1738-1822. SAXE-WEIMAR, Bernard, duke of, one of the most celebrated generals of the protestants during the thirty years' war, 1600-1639. >.\\T, or SASSI, Guiseppe Antonio, an ecclesiastical historian ot Milan, 1675-1751. SAXO, called Grammaticus, on account of his learning, a Danish historian, 12th century. SAY; J. B., a French economist, 1767-1832. SAY, Samuel, a dissenting minister, known as a poet and essavist, died 1743. SCACCHI, F., an Italian savant, 1573-1643. SCACCIA, J., an Italian engineer, 1778-1833. SC.EVOLA, Mltius, one of the heroes of Ro- man story, said to have conspired with 300 others against Porsenna. He saved his life by an act of heroism, of which the record will be found in Livy. SCALA, Babtolomkko, gonfalonier of Flo- rence, and the historian of his state, 1430-1495. Hi.s daughter, Ali->.>andra, wife of the poet Manillas, celeb, for her great learning, died 1506. SCALA, Delia, a famous Ghibelline family of Ferrara, principal of whom are Masting, elected podesta about 1200, assassinated by the Guelphs 1277. Albert, Lis brother, who avenged his death and governed after him from 1277 to 1300. Can 1 kan< i.sco, called 'The Great,' the most illustrious of the family, grandson of Mastino, pode.^ta from 1312 to his death in 1329. Dante, SCA who found a refuge at his court, has immortalized him in verse. A second Mastino, nephew of the latter, reigned 1329-1351. He was followed by Can II. and Can III., both his sons, the latter of whom died 1375. Antonio, a natural son of Can III., reigned with his brother, Bartolommeo, and had him put to death 1381. He afterward3 lost his estates, and died 1388. SCALA, D. De La, a physician, 1632-1677. SCALIGER, Julius Cesar, called the' Elder,' a famous classical scholar and commentator, was born at Padua or Verona in 1484, and being naturalized in France, died at Agen in 1558. His history is disputed, as he is not believed to be the person he represented himself, but rather a Guilio Bordone, son of Benedetto Bordone, a Paduan, who followed the profession of an illuminator at Vienna. His inordinate vanity is supposed to have prompted him to pretend to a relationship with the Scalas of Verona. He acquired great reputation in France by his skill in polemics. SCALIGER, Joseph Justus, son of the pre- ceding, and the creator of the chronological science, was born at Agar in 1540, and in 1593 became professor of polite literature at Leyden. He far surpassed his father in learning, and drew largely upon his stock of words in all languages to abuse his learned contemporaries, with many of whom, like his father, he entered into angry controversies. The merit belongs to him of inventing the Julian period. Died 1609. SCAMOZZI, V., an Ital. architect, 1552-1616. SCANDERBEG, or BEY ALEXANDER, a celebrated Albanian chief, whose, proper name was George Castriotto. His father, Prince John of Albania, gave him in hostage to Amurath II. The sultan had him educated in the Mahommedan faith, and at the age of eighteen gave him the command of a body of 5,000 troops, which he led against the Servians. His father dying in 1432, he resolved to acquire possession of his hereditary principality. Being a man of great prowess and energy of character, he soon effected his purpose ; having previously renounced the Mahommedan faith and allegiance to the sultan, by deserting to the Christians and joining Hunniades, general of the Hungarian army. Becoming chief of the Albanians, a protracted and harassing war fol- lowed, with various fortune, until, by repeated successes, he completely consolidated his power, and preserved the independence of his country. He was a great terror to the Turks, who styled him the ' White Devil of Wallachia,' and the Al- banians still celebrate him in their national songs. After his death, however, his country soon again submitted to Mussulman rule, 1404-1467. SCANDIANESE, whose proper name was Titus Ganzarini, an Italian dramatist, 1518-82. SCAPULA, J., a Germ, lexicographer, 16th ct. SCARAMUCCIA, L. Pellegrini, a Milanese painter and engraver, 1616-1080. SCARBOROUGH, Sir Charles, physician to Charles II., known as a mathematician, 1616-93. SCARDONA, J. F., an It, physic, 1718-1800. SCARLATTI, Alessandro, the founder of the Neapolitan school of music, 1650-1725. His ton, DOMKNICO, a composer and harpist, 168:;-17.~»7. • in SEPPB, son of the latter, an opera composer, 1718-1776. 684 SCA SCARPA, A., an Italian anatomist, 1747-1832. SCARRON, Paul, famous in French literature as a burlesque writer and comic poet, was born at Paris in 1610. Having wasted his fortune in debauchery, he commenced writing for the theatres, and received a pension from Anne of Austria, which was withdrawn on the appearance of his ' Mazarinade.' In 1652 he persuaded the Mademoiselle D'Abigne, afterwards the famous Madame de Maintenon, to marry him, and for- tunately for her, departed this life in 1660. The best of "his works is the 'Roman Comique,' trans- lated by Goldsmith. SCARSELLA, Sigismund, surnamed Modino, an Italian painter, 1530-1614. His son, Ippolito, surnamed Scarlepino, a painter, 1551-1621. SCARSGILL, W. P., an English wr., d. 1836. SCAVINI, J. M., an Ital. phvsic, 1770-1825. SCHAAF, C, a Germ. Orientalist, 1646-1719. SCHAARSCHMIDT, Antony and Samuel, distinguished surgeons and anatomists, the former 1720-1791, the latter 1709-1747. SCHABOL, J. R., a Fr. agricultur., 1690-1768. SCHADOW, Z. R., an Ital. sculp., 1786-1822. SCHADOW, J. G, a Germ, sculp., 1764-1850. SCHjEFFER, G. H., a Ger. Hellenist, 1764-1840. SCH^EFFER, J. C, a German naturalist, 1718-1790. His brother, J. Gottlieb, a phy- sician, 1720-1795. SCHALKEN, G., a Dutch painter, 1643-1706. SCHALL, J. A., a Ger. missionary, 1591-1659. SCHANK, John, a native of Fifeshire, distin- guished as a naval officer and engineer, 1740-1823. SCHANNAT, J. F., a Ger. historian, 1683-1739. SCHARD, S., a German compiler, 1535-1573. SCHARFENBERG, G. L., a German entomolo- gist, duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, 1746-1810. SCHARROK, R., an English philosopher of the school of Hobbes, 17th century. SCHATTEN, N., histor. of Westphalia, 1608-76. SCHATZ, G., a German poet, 1763-1795. SCHAUFELEIN, J., a Dutch painter and en- graver, taught by Albert Durer, 1487-1550. SCHEDE, P., a German poet, 1539-1600. SCHEDE, E., a Germ, antiquarian, 1615-1641. SCHEDONE, or SCHIDONE, Bartolomeo, an Italian painter, style of Correggio, 1570-1615. SCHEELE, Charles William, a native of Sweden, born 19th December, 1742, at Stral- sund, Sweden ; died 21st May, 1786, at Koping on Lake Moeler. This distinguished Swedish chemist, the son of a tradesman, was educated at a private academy in his native town, and after- wards at a public school, and then served his ap- prenticeship as an apothecary at Gotheborg. He subsequently acted as assistant to apothecaries at Malmo, Stockholm, and Upsala. There his genius attracted the attention ot the professors at this celebrated university, who encouraged him in his pursuits; but it is remarkable that the Swedish government, although aware of his talents, allowed, perhaps the ablest man which that country has produced, ultimately to end his days as a humble apothecary in a village on the banks of Lake Moeler. To him we owe the discovery of fluorine, chlorine, and of molybdic, tungstic, arsenic, lactic, gallic, tartaric, oxalic, citric, malic, purpuric, and saclactic acids, glycerine and oxy- gen. He ascertained the nature and the consti- scn tucnts of ammonia and prussic acid, tho charac- ters of barytes and manganese, and the elements of the atmosphere. Few men of his century, with the exception of Priestley, can be compared with him as a discoverer. The last act of his life exhi- bits his character in a highly honourable phase. When in 1777 he bought the apothecaries' shop at Koping, he formed the intention of marrying the widow of his predecessor, and only delayed for the purpose of saving so much property as to make such an alliance desirable on her part. While labouring under a mortal rheumatic affection he declared his intention of marrying her in March, 1786 ; but his disease increasing rapidly, it was not till the 19th May that the ceremony was per- formed. On the 21st he left her all his property, and on the same day he breathed his last. f R.D.Tl] SCHEELS, R. H., a Dutch savant, 1622-1664. SCHEFFEL, C. S., a Ger. physic, 1693-1763. SCHEFFER, John, a German archaeologist and literary savant, professor at Upsala, 1621-1679. His grandson, Henry Theophilus, a Swedish chemist and botanist, 1710-1759. SCHEIBE, J. A., a Ger. composer, 1708-1776. SCHEID, E., a Dutch Orientalist, 1742-1795. SCHEIDT, Balthazar, a German theologian and Orientalist, 1624-1670. His son, Valentine, a physician, 1651-1731. SCHEIDT, Chr. L., a legist and historiogra- pher to the king of Denmark, 1709-1761. SCHEINER, C, a Ger. astronomer, 1575-1650. SCHELHAMMER, Christopher, a Dutch botanist, 1620-1652. His son, Gonthier Chris- topher, a physician and botanist, 1649-1716. SCHELLER, E. J. G., a German lexico- grapher and philologist, 1735-1803. SCHELLING, Frederick William Joseph ; bom at Leonberg in Wirtemberg, 27th January, 1775 : his philosophical career seems closed, but Schelling still lives in honoured retirement near Berlin. We shall certainly not attempt to give a critical account of the speculations of this remark- able man. It must suffice if we can point out his place, in the history of recent German philosophy, and define his practical influence over his contem- poraries: nor do we undertake even this, unless under concession of the license to employ such general language as alone may convey to the reader of notices like these, some distinct concep- tion of the character of an obscure and difficult theme. — The order of recent German speculation, as marked by its authors, is the following — Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel. In the article de- voted to him, we have explained pretty fully the peculiar achievements of Kant, which were briefly these ; — living in an age when the pure sensational philosophy had arrived at its lowest stage, deny- ing activity and even personality to Mind, — he re- established by irresistible criticism, that Mind is an essential Energy and Force; and farther un- folded the specific Laws according to which that Force acts. He showed that whatever the exter- nal Universe on which the Mental Force acts, our Substantive Knowledge depends, for its form and nature, wholly on these Mental Laws. Nay — overlooking to a large extent the possible power of Intuition properly so-called (article Leibnitz) —he went so far as to say that, of the External Universe itself, we can know nothing save that it 685 sen r rather that an obscure something— called m nux— exists. It is evident wherein erit lies; he established the prime Re- ality of Subjective or Mental Laws.— Next, came PlOBTB. Can it be alleged, said he, that • Philo- sophy is complete, so long as it recognizes, on the one hand, a Subjective Force, and opposite to it that hidden and impenetrable. Externality called the Noumenon ? Let us look deeper into things! What necessity for this Noumenon? Do we in realitv know anything except the move- t Mind itself; and is not the thing we term Extemalitv, only our sense of obstacles in the way of the Mind's efforts to develop itself? Hence his pure Subjective Idealism :— he re- jected the existence of everything except his Ego; and it cannot be denied that he had several logical _vs over Kant.— When Fichte's philoso- phy—sustained by his wonderful ardour and elo- quence — promised to become supreme, Schelling b4 ventured a loftier flight. On first entering the philosophic arena, he was quite young; and a Temperament essentially poetic, warm with the Enthusiasm of early years, possessed as its companion and fellow-worker, an Intellect, which — whatever its degree of incompleteness — must, by all the world, be confessed to have been endowed with extraordinary powers. With Fichte, Schelling rejected Kant's dualism— the first and fatal step of both, (article Hamilton). The ultimate principle of Philosophy, he said, must be One, or the Absolute. Now this Absolute can- not be in the Object or in Externality ; for that is not perceived or known to exist unless by a Mental Force distinct from itself; neither in the Mental Force of Kant, which needs a Noumenon to stir it to action ; nor in the Ego of Fichte, which only develops itself under the experience of obstacles. What then, is that, which all Philosophy seeks — the One of Parmenides, the Substance of Spin- oza, — that Absolute and Transcendent Reality, which is the foundation at once of all existence and all knowledge ; and, for Itself, has no founda- tion except Itself? It will be observed how nearly this Inquiry touches on the thought of all Religious Philosophy, — so near is it, that the so- lution might appear contained in the Idea of a Sii'kkmi: .Mind, in whom we live, move, and have our Being. And Schelling actually finds it, in an Idea closely analogous — the Idea of an Abso- lute Subject — of an Ego, not special like Fichte's, but Absolute and Transcendent, characterized by perfect unity, by liberty, reality, absolute substan- tiality, — cause imminent, infinite, indivisible, im- mutable. The correspondence, however, is not more than apparent : at least, there is soon a widest divergence. From this Absolute, according to Schelling, all things flow, or rather they are only its developments : Material Creation is an expres- sion of its Infinite Reality, its positive manifesta- tion within the limits of the Finite ; and Mind is the act of its Self- consciousness, it is the act or power by which its Laws and Ideas are directly seen and felt. No use then, he exclaims, of a Pre-estab- lished Harmony between the realms of Thought and Existence; for they are the same : the actual World is only the representation of Ideas, and Mind is the type of the Universe. The SUBJECT and Object, are thus not only, mere harmonious SCH Opposites : they are Identical.— There are two distinct aspects under which this extraordinary and daring Philosophy of Identity, must be re- garded : a few remarks on eaeli will enable ns to comprehend the nature and limits of Schelling's influence. — I. And, first, on that point of lofti- est moment as to the character of any Philoso- phy — the place it assigns to the Nature and Duties of Man. Now, it cannot be doubted, that, whatever the glowing and gorgeous account it can give of the attributes and dignity of the Reason — attaining in its high Inspirations, identity with the Absolute itself— Schelling's philosophy is open to that fatal objection already alluded to under article Hegel — it builds upon Ideas obtained through our human Consciousness, and finally de- monstrates that these Ideas are untrue! We should despair of success in an attempt to com- municate here, anything of a distinct account of the conceptions of this remarkable German, as to the position of the individual Ego ; bnt it is plain, that there is no room among them either for our Human Personality, or our Human Liberty. His writings, indeed, are full of impressive references to Moral Liberty; but he tells us, when nar- rowly questioned, that Liberty, as a power of in- dependent action, is incompatible with the idea of the Absolute. Neither on Schelling's system can personality of any kind inhere in the individual Mind. If we understand him aright, the soul is nothing more than an Idea of the soul of God. Its Individuality perishes with the body of which it is the living pnnciple ; although, as an Idea, it must live for ever, within the Thought of the Absolute, to which it returns. If, as has been alleged, this Pantheism is the most gorgeous of all similar schemes that Philosophy, ancient or mo- dern, has evolved ; certainly it is also one of the least disguised. It was understood that after silence during those twenty years, within which the system of Hegel rose, flourished, and fell, Schelling had undertaken to state his Philosophy anew, and to supplement it, so that Human Duty and Responsibility should be saved. For this end in 1841, he reappeared, in possession of the Chair at Berlin ; but after occupying that distinguished place for three years, he has finally retired, with- out affording the world assurance of his success. — Turning from the views of Schelling regarding Man, to those which inspire his conceptions of the External Universe, we pass from darkness into light. Considering this vast scheme of Material Nature, not as a mere collection of dead forces, held together by external relationship; but as a development now and for ever — a development in- cessantly unfolding, of the attributes of that Supreme Intelligence — how profound, and impressive the Thought ! It is no exaggeration that this exalted and most true Idea, has infused alike into the Science, Art, and Literature of Ger- many, the greater portion of that loftiness and in- hering life, which has stamped it with the impress of Immortality. The Universe, said Schelling, is not merely an existence, it is a becoming, an about-to-be. It is not a mechanism, but a gigantic organism : and on this ground Oken and many of his compeers wrought out those wonderful and prophetic views, which — even now — to elaborate ana discern in their details, is perhaps the highest SCH glory of our own illustrious Owen. — II. We must hasten, however, with a few and brief remarks, on the second main feature of this singular Scheme. Sehelling's philosophy is a Philosophy of Iden- tity. He does not deny either Mind or Matter — i.e., either the Ego or the non-Ego ; but he de- clares them variations inform only, and that they are the same. The Mind is in one sense a mirror of the external universe ; the Ideas of the former, are the Laws of the latter: — hence, every true Philosophy of Nature must aim at discerning the Identity of these Laws with these Ideas ; for the discovery of such Identity is its ultimate triumph. — Likewise from this essential aspect of Sehelling's system, much error, and much of highest value have flowed. His own systematic ^ Natur Philo- sophies is certainly very strange ; and no one in this country can recognize any accuracy in its method. Undervaluing the guidance of Induction, he institutes a description of a priori inquiry, — starting from the Mental Pole ; and, laying down what he finds there, as a sort of a priori schema, he sets about constructing Laws of Nature, in cor- respondence with it. Nothing can well be con- ceived farther from truth than his actual results ; although even amid that extraordinary medley many curious germs and indications, lie hid — flashings of unquestionable genius. But the general Idea has not been unproductive. It has inspired many of the noblest productions of Goethe ; and we can trace its influence through all German poetry since Schelling first wrote. Its greatest achievements, however, lie in the Philosophy of Art. It has raised Art, from being a mere imitation or copy of Nature, to a high re- search after Archetypal Ideas, — a research conducted in the main by that mysterious and profoundest Faculty belonging to our Human Spirit — the Faculty of Imagination. — The English reader will find many conceptions drawn from Schelling, scattered through the prose writ- ings of Coleridge, whose remarkable mind such a philosophy was especially calculated to fascinate. — Of his successor Hegel, we have already endeavoured to speak. See also article Spinoza. [J.P.N.] SCHELLINGS, William, a Dutch painter of landscape and history, 1631-1678. Daniel, his brother and pupil, 1633-1701. SCHERMER, L., a Dutch painter, 1688-1710. SCHERZ, J. G., a Ger. antiquarian, 1678-1754. SCHEUCHZER, John James, a Swiss physi- cian and naturalist, 1672-1733. His brother, John, a botanist, 1684-1738. His son, John Gaspar, a naturalist, 1702-1729. SCHEYB, F. C. De, a Germ, poet, 1704-1777. SCHIAMINOSSI, Raphael, an Italian painter and engraver, bora at Borgo-San-Sepolcro, 1580. SCHIAVONE, Andrew, whose proper name was Mi;dula, a painter of Dalmatia, 1522-1582.J SCHIDONE. See Schedone. SCHIEFERDECKER, John David, a German theologian and Orientalist, 1672-1721. SCHIERSCHMIDT, J. J., a German juriscon- sult, and partizan of the doctrines of Wolfe, d. 1778. SCHILL, Ferdinand Von, a Prussian officer, disting. in the war against the French, 1773-1809. SC1IILLER, Friedricii, is the only German poet who can contest the supremacy of Goethe. SCH His range of thought is incomparably narrower; his _ imagery not only wants the inexhaustible variety of Goethe's, but also fails in reaching his romantic cast of refined ideality ; and his tone of feeling is less purely and abstractedly poetical. But his poetry, while its richness of imagination within its own sphere is magnificent, and while it is ruled by a very high sense of art, glows with a flame of intense and elevated moral emotion, which is irresistibly and delightfully impressive. It com- municates the spirit which prompted it, and which governed the character of the warm-hearted and conscientious poet, — the spirit of love and reve- rence, of love for mankind, and reverence for all that is truly great and noble. It was accident and emulation, rather than innate aptitude, that led him to put forth his strength most frequently on the drama; and his greatest works are less excellent in their portraiture of character (which is monotonous and often unreal), than in their deep passion, their moral purity and dignity, and their beautiful array of imaginative adornment. Many of his smaller poems, his odes and ballads, are as fine as those of Goethe; and he was not only an animated and eloquent historian, but also an acute expounder of the laws of philosophical criticism. — The short life of Schiller, beginning at a time whose literary character for Germany has been noted in the memoir of Goethe, is distributed, by his biographer Carlyle, into three periods. — The first of these reaches from his birth, on the 10th of November 1759, to 1783, when he was in his twenty-fourth year. This was the time of his irregular youthful aspirations, a stage in his history which was in some points like the youth of Goethe. His father, a retired army surgeon, was still in the service of the duke of Wurtemberg ; and the poet was born at Marbach, in that duchy. After shifting from school to school, he was, in 1733, by the command of the duke, placed for six years in a college recently founded at Stuttgard, and administered with a military formality of dis- cipline, which proved highly irksome to the pupil. He had contemplated being a clergyman. He was now compelled to study law ; and it was only as a change of evils that he accepted, after two years, the permission to betake himself to medicine. His favourite books were the critical and philosophical works of Lessing ; the • Goetz,' lately published by Goethe, which prompted a juvenile tragedy ; and, among other poems, the ' Messias ' of Klopstock, which tempted him to an imitation in his four- teenth year. In his nineteenth year he began to write ' The Robbers,' an irregularly impressive monument of youthful fantasy, an exaggerated picture of human passion and error, drawn by one who, in his own words, had 'presumed to delineate men two years before he had met one.' In 1780, having been appointed a regimental surgeon, he was able to print his tragedy : it caused universal excitement and much alarm, and brought on the author a ducal censure. In October, 1782, he absconded from Stuttgard to seek freedom and fame. In 1783 he published two other prose tra- gedies, 'Fiesco' and 'Cabal and Loveie.' Both are remarkable works, and the latter is deeply in- teresting ; but neither is worthy to have been any- thing more than a youthful essay-piece of Schiller. — The second period of his fife opens here. Becom- 067 SCH ing, for subsistence, 'poet' to the theatre at Man- lieim, lie produced, besides small poems, the ' Phi- losophical Letters,' which show the continuance of his chaotic and unsettled state of mind ; and, in the ' Thalia,' a periodical devoted to criticism, and chiefly written by himself, he printed, in 1784, the first three acts of the noble ' Don Carlos,' his earliest dramatic piece in verse. In the spring of 17^.") he pave up his place in the theatre, and went to live in the pretty village of Gohlis, in the wood- land meadows near Leipzig. There he wrote, in a more cheerful vein than hitherto, his beautiful 4 Song to Joy.' ' Don Carlos,' completed in 1786, made him celebrated as one of the tirst of all Ger- man poets ; but he was weary of dramatic writing, and occupied himself much with lyrical and nar- rative ballads, like ' The Song of the Bell,' ' The Walk to the Forge,' ' Knight Toggenburg,' and ' The Cranes of Ibycus.' About this time also, he printed his extraordinary prose romance (never finished) called 'The Ghost-Seer.' He was next busied much with historical studies, and printed in part a 4 History of Remarkable Conspiracies and Revolu- tions.' Soon afterwards he visited Weimar, where he became acquainted with Herder and Wieland, and afterwards with Goethe, between whom and him there was at first much dryness, giving place by degrees to cordial esteem. In 1788 appeared the first volume of his admirable 4 History of the Revolt of the Netherlands,' which procured for him what he bad long panted for, a quiet and indepen- dent social position. — His attainment of this object begins the third and last period of his life. In 1789, being in his thirtieth year, he was appointed to the professorship of history at Jena, a few miles from Weimar ; and in the beginning of the next year he married happily. He retained his pro- fessorship for ten years", removing, in 1799, to Weimar, where he lived on a pension from the duke, and on the fruits of such literary labour as he was able to undertake. He had been threatened with a disease of the chest as early as the time of his settlement at Jena; and the air of that place was pronounced too keen for him. The physicians indeed ordered, without ef/ect, a total abstinence from intellectual exertion. Among the earliest fruits of this period were 4 The History of the Thirty Years' War' (1791), regarded as his best work of this kind; and several treatises on the Philosophy of History, taken from or prompted by his lectures. Afterwards, studying the philosophy of Kant, he endeavoured to apply its principles to Literary Criticism in several singularly interesting essays, among which may be noted the ' Letters on the jEsthetical Education of Mankind' (1795). A good many critical and other papers were fur- nished to periodicals; and large additions were made to the stock of his minor poems. But, amidst all these exertions, and with a disease which he knew to be killing him, Schiller composed also the last and finest series of his long Poems. ,He con- templated writing an historical epic: but the design was never executed, and he fell back on the drama. His last historical work suggested the idea of 4 Wallcnstein ;' and this fine play, or series of plays, which has with justice been declared to be 4 the greatest dramatic work of the eighteeenth century,' appeared in 1798 iy of ' Maria Stuart' was published in 18U0; the admirable 'Maid of SCII Orleans' in 1801; in 1803, in the beautiful but im- perfect tragedy of 'The Bride of Messina,' Schiller tried how far the forms of the Greek drama could be accommodated to modern ideas ; and, in 1801, the career of an illustrious poet was worthily closed by the animated and poetical drama, ' Wil- helm Tell.' That year, at Berlin, where he saw his last play acted, Schiller's disease brought him to the brink of the grave. He recovered sufficiently to return to Weimar, and died there on the 9th of Mav, 1805. [W.S.] SCHILLER, J. G., father of the great poet, known as an agriculturist, 1723-1796. SCHILLING, F. A., a Ger. novelist, 1766-1839. SCHILTER, J., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1632-1705. SCHIM, H., a Dutch poet, 1695-1742. SCHIMMELMANN, Ernest Henry, Count Von, a statesman and patron of letters, died 1833. SCHIMMELMANN, Henry Charles, Count Von, a Danish minister of finance, 1724-1782. SCHIMMELPENNINCK, Rutger John, a Dutch statesman and revolutionist, 1761-1825. SCHINNER, or SKINNER, Matthew, known in history as the Cardinal of Sion, legate of the pope Julius II., and chief of the intrigues opposed to the pretensions of the French, died 1521. SCHINDLER, V., a learned German, d. 1611. SCHLEGEL, John Elias, a German poet and dramatic writer, some of whose plays are still acted in his native country, ancestor of the dis- tinguished brothers of that name, 1718-1749. John Henry, his brother, professor of history, 1724-1780. John Adolphus, a third brother, distinguished for his literary talents as a theologian and poet, and particularly for his eloquence as a minister of the Lutheran church, 1721-1793. Charle3 Augustus, eldest son of the latter, an officer in the service of the English East India Company, and a student of Sanscrit literature, died young. His other two sons are the subjects of the following articles. SCHLEGEL, August Wiliielm Von, the son of a Lutheran clergyman, was born at Hanover in 1767. At Gottingen, where he was first edu- cated for the church, he passed to philosophical studies, and distinguished himself by contributing both prose and verse to the leading periodicals. In 1797 he began to publish his excellent translation of Shakspeare, which, after some years, he left to be completed and improved by Tieck. In the same year he obtained a professorship at Jena. He mar- ried a daughter of Michaelis; but, soon separating from her, and resigning his office, he spent several years at Berlin. He there published the first of two volumes of poems, which, with his classical tragedy 4 Ion,' were for a time highly estimated ; and he also translated Calderon. But his chief occupation was the contribution of critical and other papers to periodicals, in which, with his brother Frederick and Ludwig Tieck, he aimed at inculcating those views of literature which make up the system, called by the Germans the Romantic, In 1805 he became acquainted with Madame de Stael, whom he taught pretty nearly all she ever learned of German literature, and attended during her travels for several years. The eloquent and striking ' Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature,' which have made his name so popular in England, were delivered at Vienna in SCH 1808, and printed the year after. On the fall of Napoleon lie went to Coppet, and resided there till Madame de Staei's death in 1818. Next year he was appointed professor of history at Bonn, an office which he held till his death. Here he mar- ried a daughter of the theologian, Paulus; and this marriage, like the other, soon ended in a separa- tion. His ambition now, besides some minor objects, aimed mainly at skill and fame as an Orientalist ; and by his essays, translations, and teaching, he did very much for the study of the Sanscrit lan- guage. He died in 1845. " [W.S.] SCHLEGEL, Friedrich Von, the younger brother of Wilhelm, possessed both greater exact- ness of knowledge, and greater power of philo- sophical thought : but he was obscure and mys- tical, and earned completely away by that dream of reverence for the middle ages, which he, his brother, Tieck, Novaks, and others, laid as the foundation of their so-called Romanti- cism. He was born at Hanover in 1772, and died in 1829. Classical literature was the theme of his earliest works. In 1796 he and his bro- ther set on foot the ' Athenaeum,' the first organ of their peculiar critical opinions. His history afterwards exhibits a constant changing of place, and an industrious and versatile series of literary works ; while his pursuits were further varied by political and official employment. The serious- ness and consistency with which he carried out his admiration of the mediaeval period showed themselves, in him as in some of the poets and artists, by a change of religion : he and his wife, a daughter of Moses Mendelssohn, became Roman Catholics in 1801. The same turn of mind made him act, with sincerity but much unpopularity, as a zealous abettor of the political system of the Austrian government. The works of his which are best known in this country are the ' Lectures on the History of Ancient and Modern Litera- ture,' (1815), and the 'Philosophy of History,' (1829). [W.S.] SCHLEGEL, T., a Ger. philologist, 1739-1810. SCHLEGEL, T. A., a Ger. physician, 1727-72. SCHLEIERMACHER, Frederic Daniel Ernest, an eminent German divine, was a native of Breslau, where he was born in 1768. His education was obtained in the Moravian institu- tion at Niesky, and on leaving that academy in 1787 to pursue the study of theology, to which he had resolved on dedicating his future life, he re- paired to the university of Halle. Having received orders, he was in 1794 appointed assistant preacher at Landsberg, on the Warte: and afterwards minister of the charite, a large hospital in Berlin. In that situation he continued six years, and dur- ing his incumbency published a variety of little works, rach as a German translation of Fawcett's Sermons, the Monologues, Letters of a Minister out of Berlin, and various contributions to religious and literary periodicals. His translation of Plato was begun at an early period ; and as that was a great undertaking, comprising several large volumes, the publication extended over a series of years. Having been appointed to a situation at Stolpe, he left Berlin, in 1802, and settled in that curacy, where he published a volume of sermons. He had not, however, been a year resident at Stolpe, when he was chosen professor extraordinarius of divinity SCH at Halle and preacher to the university. On the separation of Halle from Prussia, in 1807, he returned to Berlin as a public lecturer, and in two years after was appointed first minister of Trinity church, and afterwards professor ordinarius of the new university in that city. At this period he published his celebrated ' Study of Theology,' and in consequence several literary honours were con- ferred on him, for he was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and secretary to the Philosophical Society. It must be acknowledged, that, however eminent his literary and philosophical acquirements, he brought at this part of his career a spirit of rash theoretical speculation to the dis- cussion of theological subjects, that was deeply deplored by all simple hearted believers in the Gospel. Among his productions of this character must be ranked his ' Essay on the Gospel of Luke,' which was published in 1817 ; his ' Body of Divinity' (Christiche Glaube) was given to the world in 1822. This remarkable work, it is diffi- cult to describe, for its plan is altogether unique, consisting of a regular consecutive series of philo- sophical propositions, the elucidation of which by turns astonishes the reader with its profundity, perplexes him with its intricacy, and delights him with the ardent piety that pervades it. In 1828, Schleiermacher accepted an invitation to come to London, to preach on the re-opening of Dr. Stein- kopff's German church of the Evangelical Lutheran School. His text on that occasion was taken from Ephes. iv. 23, and the sermon, amid much that was of an eminently devotional and impressive strain, produced a great sensation by its novel and startling peculiarities. He was the author of several volumes of sermons, besides his last work on ' The Doctrine of the Christian Faith.' He died 12th February, 1834, in the full enjoyment of the comforts of the gospel. A posthumous portrait of him soon after his death was published, accompanied by an admirable hymn of Claus Harms, or ' Heaven as the Christian's Fatherland,' and under the picture the following inscription, 4 Happy end of a celebrated Divine.' The early writings of this eminent man abounded in a strain of sentiment, that led to his being extensively classed with the Neologian divines of Germany. Nay, the bold and startling opinions he announced in his larger works gave rise to impressions still more unfavourable to his theological soundness, for he has been characterized by various writers as a Sabellian, Hegelian, Fatalist, and even a Pantheist. Those who are most intimately conversant with his works, regard all such epithets as entirely unwar- ranted at any period of his life. There can be no doubt, however, that as he advanced in life his views became more scriptural and orthodox, and he must be considered as the great leader in that happy movement, which broke up the old school of German theology, — as occupying a midway place between a Hegel and a Hengstcnberg, between a dead Rationalism and a living Evangelism. He was a person of the most active habits. He preached ever; Sabbath, without notes, to acrowded audience, and "his lectures at the university during the week attracted as great a crowd of admirers as his ser- mons in the church. He exercised an immense influence over the intellectual, and especially the religious character of his <"o uitryineu. j_i:.J.j C89 2i SCH BCHLICHTEGROLL, A. II. Fbtokric Vox, ■ German biographer and numismatist, 1764-1822. SCHLICHTTNGIUS, Jonas De Buccowiec, ■ Socinian writer of Poland, 1596-1664. SOHLOEZER, or 8CI1LOETZER. A. L., a German historian and Orientalist, 1737-1809. SCHLUTER, A., a Dutch sculptor, 16G2-1713. SCHMAUSS, John James, professor of public law and history at Gottingen, author of a 'Precis of the Historv 'of the Empire,' 1G90-1747. SCHMIDT, B., a German jurist, 1726-1778. SCHMIDT, Christopher, a writer of Rus- sian history, Hanover, 1740-1801. His son, CoHBAD Frederic, a theologian and philoso- pher, 1770-1832. SCHMIDT, E.. a Germ, philologist, 1560-1 G37. SCHMIDT, F.'W., a German botanist, d. 1796. SCHMIDT, G. F., a Germ, engraver, 1712-75. SCHMIDT, J. A., a Lutheran div., 1652-1726. SCHMIDT, M. I., a Germ, historian, 1736-94. SCHMIDT, S., a German Orientalist, d. 1697. SCHMITH, Nicholas, a learned Jesuit and historian of Hungary, died 1767. SCHMITZ, H. N\, a Dutch engraver, 1758-90. SCHMUCK, E. J., a Germ, physician, the first to write on magnetism in that country, died 1792. SCHNEIDER, C. V., a Ger. anatom., 1610-80. SCHNEIDER, E., or J. G., a German Hellen- ist, and actor in the French revolution, 1756-1794. SCHNEIDER, John Gottlieb, a German I.-.ifo^rapher, and naturalist, 1750-1822. SC1INURRER, C. F., a German theologian end Orientalist, 1742-1822. SCHOBER, G., a Germ, physician, 1670-1739. SCHOEFFER, Peter, one "of the inventors of printing, was a native of Gemsheim in Darmstadt, and in early life followed the trade of a copyist at Paris. He was connected with Guttemherg and Faust from about the year 1450, and the daughter of the latter became his wife. He is supposed to have died in 1502. SCHOEPF, J. D., a Ger. naturalist, 1752-1800. SCHOEPFLIN, J. D., a German historian and publicist, professor at Strasburg, 1694-1771. SCHOLAR! US, a patriarch of Constantinople, who was secretary to John Palseologns, and changed his name to Gennadius, died 1460. SCHOMBERG, A. C, a divine, 1756-1792. SCHOMBERG, Armand Frederic De, de- scended from a German family, was born of an En-'ish mother of the house of Dudley in 1619, and began his military career in the army of Gus- tuvus Adolphus. From 1661 to 1685 he was in the service of France, and became marshal, but in the last mentioned year he retired to Brandenburg in consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and became Pmssian commander-in-chief and prime minister. In 1688 he joined the prince of Orange, and was shot at the battle of the Bovne, loth Jnlv, 1690. M IHOW BERG, Hknry, Count De, and marshal of France, distinguished as a statesman, ambassa- dor, and commander, was born of an ancient family of Misnia, established at Paris, 1583, died 1632. His son, Charles, a marshal of France, and governor of Languedoc, 1601-1656. SCHOMBERG, Isaac and Ralph, two sons of • .J 'wish physician of Cologne, who died in Lon- don 1761. Isaac was a graduate of Leyden and sen Cambridge, but was refused a fellowship in the College of Physicians, and died 1780. RALPH practised as a "physician at Yarmouth and Bath, defrauded a public charity, and published a stolen Life of Meeamas as his own, died 1792. SCHOMBERG, Isaac, a naval commander and historian, who distinguished himself in the fleet of Rodnev, and in the victory of Howe 1794, d. 1813. SCHONER, J., a Ger. mathemat., 1477-1551. SCHOOCK1NS, M., a Dutch critic. 1614-1669. SCHOORL,SCHOREL,orSCIIOREEL,JoiiN, a Dutch painter of the Italian school, 1495-15G2. SCHOOTEN, F., a Dut. mathemat., 17th cent. SCHOPENHAUER, Johanna, a popular Ger- man authoress, who lived at Weimar, and enjoyed the friendship of Goethe, 1770-1838. SCHOPP, Caspar, in Latin Scioppws, a learned German, called the ' Grammatical Cur,' 1670-1 649. SCHOTANUS, C, a Dutch historian, 1603-71. SCHOTT, And., a learned Flemish Jesuit, 1552- 1629. Francis, his br., an author, 1548-1622. SCHOTT, Gaspard, the pupil and friend of Father Kische, famous for his discoveiies in natural and experimental philosophy, 1608-1660. SCHOTTE, J. P., a Ger. physician, 1744-1785. SCHRADER, J., a Dutch savant, 1721-1782. SCHREIBER, J. F., a surgeon, mathematician, and prof, of anatoniv at St. Petersburg, 1705-60. SCHREVELIUS, Cornelius, a laborious Dutch critic and lexicographer, Haarlem, 1615-67. SCHROECH, L., a Ger. physician, 1646-1730. SCHROECKH, J. M., a native of Vienna, author of a History of the Church, 1733-1803. SCHROEDER, C, an Austr. general, d. 1807. SCHROEDER, John Joachim, a German Orientalist, 1680-1756. His son, Philip Georges, a physician and medical writer, 1729-1772. SCHUBART, C. F. D., a Germ, poet, 1739-91. SCHUBERT, F., an Aust. musician, 1795-1830. SCHRYVER, Peter. See Scriverius. SCHULEMBOURG, J. Mathias, Count Von, a companion-in-arms of Prince Eugene, 1661-1747. SCHULTENS, Albert, a German Orientalist and biblical commentator, 1686-1750. His son, John James, an Orientalist, and successor of his father as professor at Leyden, 1716-1778. Henry Albert, son and successor of the latter, 1749-93. SCHULTET, Abraham, in Latin Scultehts, an eminent protestant divine of Germanv, 1566-1625. SCHULTING, A., a German jurist, 1659-1734. SCHULTING, C, a D. theologian, 1540-1604. SCHULTZ, Bartholomew, in Latin Scullefus, a Ger. mathematician, who was employed by Gre- gory XIII. in reforming the calendar, 1540-1614. SCHULTZE, E. C. F., a Ger. poet, 1789-1817. SCHULZE, Benjamin, an Orientalist scholar and Lutheran missionary to India, died 1760. SCHULZE, G. E., a Ger. philosopher, author of a work opposed to Kant and Reinhold, 1761-1833. SCHULZE, J., a German philosopher, partizan of the doctrines of Kant, 1739-1805. SCHULZE, P. H., a Ger. physician, 1687-1744. SCHUMACHER, Heinrich Christian, a distinguished professor of astronomy, born at Hol- stein 1780, died 1850. SCHURER, J. L., a Ger. physician, 1734-1790. SCHURMANN, Anna Maria De, a native of Cologne, remarkable for the extent of her know- ledge in the arts and sciences, 1607-1678. COO sen sci SCHURTZFLEISCH, Conrad Samuel, in ! lius, surnamed Nasica, son of the Cneius Coma- Latin Sarcmasius, a German savant, 1641-1708, SCHUSTER, G., a Ger. physician, 1701-1785. SCHUTZ, C. G., a Ger. philologist, 1747-1832. SCHWAB, J. C, a German mathematician and philosopher, opposed to Kant, 1743-1821. SCHWANTHALER, an eminent German sculptor, 1802-184S. SCHWARTZ, Berthold, otherwise Con- staxti.ne AuoiaiTZEN, a German monk, to whom the invention of gunpowder has been attri- buted. He was preceded, however, by Roger Bacon, who died 1292. Cannon were first used by the Venetians in 1300, and were employed by the English at the battle of Cressv 1346. SCHWARTZ, C, a Germ, painter, 1550-1594. SCHWARTZ, C. T., a Ger. savant, 1675-1751. SCHWARTZENBURG, Charles Philip, Prince Von, an Austrian field-marshal and diplo- matist, born at Vienna 1771. He negotiated the marriage between Napoleon and Maria Louisa in 1809, commanded the Austrian contingent, in the campaign of Russia 1812, and was general of the troops which entered Paris after its capitulation 1814; died 1819. SCHWARZENBERG, Prince, the celebrated Austrian statesman, succeeded Metternich as prime minister in November, 1848, when the Austrian empire was almost in ruins ; 1800-1852. SCHWEDIAUR, or SWEDIAUR, F. X., a French physician and naturalist, 1748-1824. SCHWERIN, Curt Christopher, Count Von, field-marshal in the service of Prussia, companion- in-arms of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, born 1684, killed at the battle of Prague 1757. SCIAVONI, M., an Italian painter, 1522-15S2. SCILLA, Aug., an Italian painter, 1639-1700. SCINA, D., an Italian physician, 1765-1837. SCIOPPIUS. SeeScHopp. SCIPIO, the name of several illustrious Romans : — 1. Publius Cornelius, general of cavalry and consul, 393 b.c. 2. Lucius Cornelius, sur- named Barbatus, consul 297 b.c. 3. Lucius Cornelius, consul 259 and censor 258 b.c. The inscription on his tomb, discovered in 1780, is one of the oldest monuments of the Latin tongue. 4. Cneius Cornelius, surnamed Asina, twice consul, 260 and 254 B.C. ; he distinguished him- self against the Carthaginians in Sicily. 5. Pub- lius Cornelius, consul 218 B.C., in which year he lost the battle of Picinus, which left Hannibal master of novthern Italy ; he went as proconsul to Spain, and was killed there in the contest with Asdrubal212. 6. Cneius Cornelius, surnamed Calvus, brother of the preceding, filled the same offices, and reaped his laurels and his death in Spain about the same time. 7. Publius Corne- lius, surnamed Africunus the Elder, son of Pub- lius Cornelius and nephew of the preceding (next article). 8. Cneius Cornelius and Lucius (or Publics) Cornelius, sons of Scipio Africanus, have little place in history ; the latter, however, is memorable as an historical writer, and for his adoption of the second Africanus. 9. Lucius Cor- nelius, surnamed the Asiatic, son of the Publius who was killed in Spain, and companion-in-arms of his brother, Africanus. He was consul 189 B.C., and defeated Antiochus. king of Syria, but after- wards died in obscurity. 10. Publius Corne- lius killed in Spain ; he is remembered as a man of the rarest public virtue, distinguished him- self as a jurisconsult, defeated the Lusitanians, and was consul 200 b.c. 11. Publics Cornelius Scipio Nasica, surnamed Corculum, son of the preceding, consul 162 b.c. 12. Publius Corne- lius, surnamed Serapion, son of the preceding, was consul 138 b.c, and became sovereign pontiff by the choice of his fellow-citizens, without pre- senting^ himself at the election. He suppressed the sedition of Tiberius Gracchus, his cousin, at the cost of three hundred lives, B.C. 133, and was then sent on a mission to Asia, where he died 131. 13. His son, Publius Cornelius, was consul 112 b.c, and died the same year. 14. Scn-io Nasica, son of the latter, known, in consequence of his adoption, as Metellus Scipio, and the enemy of Cagsar, exercised great influence at the declining period of the republic; he killed him- self after the defeat of Thapsus B.C. 46. 15. His son, Publius Cornelius, was consul in the reign of Augustus b.c 15, and was exiled for his inces- tuous intercourse with Julia. 16. The last of the Scipios known to history, grandson of the preced- ing, was a vile character of the reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero. He distinguished himself, however, as a soldier. SCIPIO AFRICANUS the ELDER (Pub- lius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major), the greatest man of his age, was born B.C. 231. He was the son of P. Cornelius Scipio who encountered Hannibal on the banks of the Ticiuo (b.c 218); and perished in Spain b.c 211. When only seven- teen years old, Scipio saved the life of his father in the battle of the Ticino ; two years after (b.c 216) he fought at Cannae as a military tribune ; and, being one of the few officers who survived that fatal carnage, was principally instrumental in pre- venting the Roman nobility from leaving Italy in despair. The distinction which he had thus ":io quired secured his unanimous election to the ajdile- ship in B.C. 212 ; and in B.C. 210 he was sent as proconsul to Spain, nearly the whole of which country had reverted to the possession of the Car- thaginians. Here his remarkable talents first dis- played themselves; his military skill defeated the enemy in the field of battle, while his personal influ- ence, his humanity and courtesy, gained for him the affections of the inhabitants of the country. Returning to Rome in b.c 206, he was unanimously elected consul for the following year, and obtained the province of Sicily, with power to cross over into Africa, if he should deem it necessary for the interest of the state. The senate resolutely refused him an army, thus rendering his command worth- less ; but the celebrity of his name soon attracted volunteers from all the towns of Italy ; and having obtained a prolongation of his command, he pro- ceeded as proconsul to Africa (b.c 204), where, in conjunction with Masinissa, king of the Numi- dians, he obtained some advantages over the enemy. The Carthaginians in the meantime had collected a powerful army under the command of Hasdrubal, the 6on of Gisco, and were aided by Syphax, a Numidian prince, who brought with him a numer- ous force. In the early part of b.c 203, Scipio made an unexpected attack upon the two encamp- ments, burnt them to the ground, and destroyed C91 SCI nearly the whole army. The two generals, who escaped, soon returned'with a fresh force, but wen • I with great slaughter. TheCartha- og alarmed by these repeated ived to recall Hannibal from Italy; ■ time opened negotiations for peace, they obtained a trace for forty-five day*. Before the specified time expired, the Car- i populace, who had never been desirous of ptg ff t, plundered some Poinan ships which were DOna for Seipto'l army, and insulted a ho wore sent to demand re- paration. Hostilities were resumed on the arrival of Hannibal, who soon collected an army far in number to that of Scipio. Hannibal, •hat the loss of a battle would be ruiii' '. was anxious before it was . to conclude a peace ; and Scipio, fearing Lome might succeed in sup- planting him in the command, was not unwilling tn end to the war; but the terms which he offered were such as the enemy could not, without entire submission, accept, and Hannibal was thus forced to continue to act on the defensive. Scipio now resolved to hazard a decisive battle, which his opponent cautiously avoided, till on the Roman army feigning a retreat, Hannibal followed with his cavalry, and was defeated in the neighbourhood of Zama. The decisive battle was at last fought on the 19th of October, B.C. 202, not far from the Zama. Scipio's victory was complete ; • f the Carthaginians were slain, and an equal number taken prisoners. The negotiations nhich ensued were concluded during the following year, when Scipio returned to Rome, and was I with the greatest enthusiasm. He entered the city in triumph, and obtained, in honour of his victories, the surname of Africanus. The rest of his life was passed in comparative quiet. He was censor in B.C. 199, and consul a second time in ! . He served as a legate in Greece under his brother, Lucius, who was consul B.C. 190 ; and having on his return been accused of receiving bribes from Antiochus, king of Syria, he quitted Borne and retired to his country seat at Liternum, where he spent the remainder" of his days in the cultivation of his estate. He is believed to have leaving two sons and two daughters, mger of whom was the mother of the o, as a general, was second to none but his great opponent Hannibal ; as a Roman he does not deserve equal praise; he dis- regarded the laws of the constitution whenever these stood in the way of his own views and pas- • • ■■■>*■ [G.F.l AFRICANUS the YOUNGER, Cornelius .Scipio JEmiliunui Africanus was the younger son of Lucius jEmilius Pauline, the conqueror of ,nd the adapted son of Publius Scip.. | the sons of the great Africani born B.c 185, as ' • .'■ ::. I! donia. ] m atmMm S< ipio must have been titi part, at the . king of Mace- years he appears to have tudy of literature; and as a military commander ing every oppor- k letters C92 SCI and philosophy. The historian Polvlmis, with whom he probably became acquainted in Greece, was his intimate friend, and accompanied him in nearly all his campaigns ; and the poets Lucilius and Terence, at a later period of his life, enjoyed Ins friendship and patronage. His fondness of Greek literature and refinement excited feelings of uneasiness in the minds of his friends ; but to this Scipio added the virtues and patriotism of a genuine Roman. He first attracted notice in B.C. 101, when, in consequence of the disasters which had befallen the Romans in Spain, great difficulty was experienced in raising troops, which he at once re- moved by offering his services. As military tri- bune in the army of Lucullus he distinguished himself by personal courage, while his disinterested integrity gained the affections of the barbarians as well as his own countrymen. On the breaking out of the third Punic war in B.C. 149 he went to Africa, still holding the rank of military tribune, and again distinguished himself so much by his courage, pru- dence, and justice, as to gain the unlimited con- fidence of all with whom he came in contact. In B.C. 14.8 he returned to Rome, accompanied by the wishes of all the soldiers that he might soon be sent back as their commander ; and such was the impression produced by his character and achieve- ments that, when he offered himself a candidate for the sedileship for B.C. 147, he was elected con- sul, though he had not attained the legal age, and had Africa assigned to him as his province. On his arrival in the Roman camp he speedily restored discipline, and commenced a series of operations which ultimately confined the Carthaginians to their capital. In the spring of the following year he attacked the devoted city, which was defended from street to street, and from house to house, and, after a struggle of three days, razed it to the ground. When the arrangements necessary for reducing Africa to the form of a province were completed, Scipio returned to Rome, where he obtained a splendid triumph, and also the surname of Afri- canus. He was censor in B.C. 142. Meanwhile, the war continued to rage in Spain, the inhabitants of Numantia still continuing to refuse to ac- knowledge the supremacy of Rome. Scipio was accordingly appointed consul a second time B.C. 134, and succeeded in reducing them to submission (b.c. 133) after they had suffered the most dread- ful extremities of hunger. For this victory he received the surname of Numantinus. During his command in Spain, Tiberius Gracchus, to whose sis- ter, Sempronia, he was married, had fallen a victim to his efforts in favour of an Agrarian law ; and the conqueror of Numantia, on his return to Rome in B.C. 132, became the leader of the aristocracy in preventing the law from being carried into effect. He thus sacrificed the favour of the people. After making a violent speech in the Forum, in which he a second time publicly avowed his approval of the death of Tiberius Gracchus, he went home in the evening, accompanied by the senate and a great number of the allies, and retired to his bed-room with the intention of preparing a speech for the following day. Next morning he was found dead in his bed-room ; and a general opinion prevailed that he had been murdered. Suspicion fell upon various persons ; and among others, upon his wife. SptnnrAnifl anil ln»r m.,ili,n- rUna»li« 1GF1 ; Sempronia, and her mother, Cornelia. SCL SCLATER, W., an English divine, died 1647. SCOPAS, a Greek sculptor, 4th century B.C. SCOPOLI, Giovanni Antonio, a naturalist and mineralogist of Tyrol, 1723-1787. SCORZA, S., a Genevese painter, 1589-1631. SCOTT, a family of dissenting ministers, the Iu-incipal of whom was Daniel, a writer of much earning on the Trinity, died 1759. Thomas, his half-brother, author of Sermons, died 1746. The son of the latter, of the same name, published a version of the book of Job in 1774 ; and his second son, Joseph Nichol, both a minister and physi- cian, died about 1774. SCOTT, David, a Scottish historian, and par- tizan of the Stuarts, 1675-1742. SCOTT, David, was born at Edinburgh in the month of October, 1806. His father, Robert Scott, brought him up to his own profession, that of an engraver, but this pursuit being extremely distaste- ful to the younger Scott, he evidently took to paint- ing in 1827, after the expiration of his apprentice- ship. Having made several preliminary studies and efforts in Edinburgh, and attended "the ana- tomical lectures of Dr. Monro, he considered him- self sufficiently prepared for an Italian tour. He started in the autumn of 1832, and spent the greater portion of 1833 in Rome, where he painted a large unintelligible picture, which he called ' Discord,' or ' Household Gods Destroyed ;' a com- position recalling Flaxman's Prometheus Chained, but in this case absurdly applied ; it suggests, if anything, Samson awaking after the treachery of Delilah. He returned to England in the spring of the following year, to find ' the colouring of Eng- lish pictures of the day, white and vermilion, flimsy, raw, unnatural, and sketchy,' in common no doubt with many other travellers on the con- tinent some years back. David Scott came home a devoted victim to the grand style, as fore- shadowed in his ' Discord,' but to the poetic or ethic, rather than the religious ; like Michelangelo, he was a lover of the abstract, but wanting the deep pious devotion which certainly pervaded the grand conceptions of that extraordinary man. Scott now exhibited a long succession of pictures at the Royal Scottish Academy, of which he was a member, of varied merit, but all of an unusual character and subject, classic and other history, however, gradually asserting its claim to share attention with abstract aesthetics, generally too abstruse to be felt at all by Scott's public ; but in some instances the work was a compromise be- tween the two, as in his ' Paracelsus,' or ' Alchy- mist,' and in his truly magnificent work, indeed his masterpiece, ' Vasco de Gama encountering the Spirit of tlie Cape,' now placed in the Trinity House at Leitli. His perseverance in this unbeaten path in spite of an almost constant succession of dis- appointments as regards the more substantial rewards of art, gradually undermined his consti- tution, and he sunk at last into a premature grave March 5, 1849, in his forty-third year. With all his ill-timed abstractions, and moral peculiarities, and they are abundantly shown in the very inter- esting memoir of him by his brother, Scott was unquestionably a very superior artist, and may claim the martyr's branch with far more justice than Haydon. Most of his works show a high intellectuality, and many as pictures are vigorously SCO drawn and even gorgeously coloured, as for instance his admirable ' Triumph of Love,' in the possession of his brother, a subject offering a delightful spot of sunshine among the usually prevailing gloomy abstractions of his pessimist philosophy. Among his unquestionably good works, also, either for sentiment of execution or both, are : — Queen Elizabeth in the Globe Theatre ; Peter the Her- mit j Jane Shore ; Richard III. ; Achilles address- ing the Manes of Patroclus. To these must be added some series of designs, as those illustrating the Pilgrim's Progress ; and his very remarkable and admirable series on 'The Ancient Mariner,' fully worthy of that extraordinary poem. For further details the reader may consult the Memoir of David Scott, E.S.A., containing his journal in Italy, notes on art and other papers, with seven illustrations, by William B. Scott, an ably planned work, and calculated to afford, if anything can, an invaluable lesson to all inordinately ambitious young artists, suffering under an impatient morbid hankering after the praise of those collectively, whose judgments individually they invariably profess to despise when unfavourable to them- selves. [R.N.W.] SCOTT, G. L., a mathematician, died 1780. SCOTT, Helenas, the son of a Scottish minis- ter, practised as a physician at Bombay, and wrote ' The Adventures of a Rupee,' died 1821. SCOTT, James, an episcopal divine, celebrated as a preacher and political wnter, 1733-1814. SCOTT, John. See Eldon. SCOTT, John, a Quaker poet, 1739-1783. SCOTT, John, a miscellaneous writer, who commenced the publication of the ' London Maga- zine' in 1820, and was killed in a duel arising out of a literary quarrel 1821. His works are 'A Visit to Paris in 1814,' and ' Paris Revisited in 1815 by Way of Brussels, including a Walk over the Field of Waterloo.' SCOTT, John, a learned minister of the Church of England, author of 'The Christian Life from its Beginning to its Consummation in Glory,' and of some critical and casuistical works, 1638-1694. SCOTT, Sir Michael, generally reputed a magician, was a native of Scotland, remarkable for his learning and skill in the occult sciences. His works are ' The Secrets of Nature,' ' The Sun and Moon,' 'Mensa Philosophica,' an edition of Aristotle, and a translation of Avicenna's History of Animals from the Arabic into Latin; died 1293. SCOTT, Michael, a Scottish merchant, author of the well-known sketches entitled ' Tom Cringle's Log,' which first appeared in ' Blackwood's Maga- zine.' Born in Glasgow 1789, died 1835. SCOTT, Reynold or Reginald, a gentleman of Kent, remarkable for his work written against the common belief in witchcraft, which was replied to bv Casaubon, Glanvil, and James I. ; d. 1599. SCOTT, Samuel, an English painter, d. 1772. SCOTT, Thomas, rector of Aston Sandford, author of a 'Defence of Calvinism,' 17 17-182 1. SCOTT, Thomas, otherwise Eotkeram, from his birth-place in Yorkshire, a prelate and states- man, diea 1500. SCOTT, Siu Walter, had a pedigree, his senso of which affected materially both the spirit of U| writings and the events of his life. From tba great border-family, now represented by the G93 SCO of Buedeuch, there came in the fourteenth centurv, as an offshoot, the family of Harden, the beads of which are barons of Pohvarth. The poet's great grandfather was a younger eon of Scott of Harden; his grandfather, poorly became a farmer in Roxburgh- shire; and his father, Walter Scott, was a writer jnet or attorney in Edinburgh, and mar- ried the daughter of a medical professor in the university. Walter, the fourth child of this couple, was born in the Old Town of Edinburgh, on the It, 1771. He was a sickly infant, and became incurably lame in his second year ; and, s, till he was about eight years of age, his childhood was principally spent at his grandfather's farm hoow ot Sandyknowe, where he became familiar with the scenery and tradi- tions and ballads of the border. In this stage he i of reading ; but, on being placed at the f Edinburgh, towards the end of failed to distinguish himself in the regular of the class. He was, however, eminent for his historical and miscellaneous knowledge, for his skill in story-telling, and for his personal courage. relfth year his love of ballad-poetry was ineradicably established, by the delight with which he perused Percy's ' Beliques.' In the winter of entered the university of his native city, attending onlv one session, with little or no appar- ent profit. He never understood Greek beyond the -, and had but a loose scholarship in Latin ; and the acquaintance, which he obtained in early manhood, with French, Italian, Spanish, and Ger- man, was very superficial. In May, 1786, when be was nearly fifteen years old, he was articled to bis father, and attended regularly in chambers for ir years. For literary avocations he was making, undesignedly, full preparation, bydevour- .ances, novels, histories, and old plays; while he continued to distinguish himself by tell- ing and inventing stories. II is father's intention, as well as his own, was, that he should come to the bar n lance in the debating-club, called the Speculative Society, was one of his steps of training, while it gave occasion for his writing of essavs, exhibiting his turn for antiquarian and poetical studies. In 1792 he was admitted as a member of the Scottish Faculty of Advocates.— In 1796 he published transitions, in verse, of Biir- nnan ballads, I>enora, and the Wild Hunts- itributed to Lewis's Tales of Won- • 1 bis translation of Goethe's prose drama, 'Ooeti Von Berlicbingen: 1 and in 1799 he wrote, and made known to his friends, the earliest of his considerable efforts in original poetry, 'Mm,' 'The Eve of St. John,' :••' Still he had gained no reputation; nor was literary com- position more than an occasional employment for turn. He paid an average amount ot attention to P r °k*V on ! an( * WM dejnVous to secure an inde- i ne source other than 1707 he married Miss I rench emigrant, whose small fortune added something to his income : his father's death q ■ moderate patri- S35» * nd » '" ' »f the duke of Baedeuch and I/.rd Mclvili clitics he •Uadily and warmly adhered, bestowed on him the SCO sheriffship of Selkirkshire, an easy office, with a salary of three hundred pounds. In the same year, his poetical taste, both in rhyme and in diction, (if not in more important matters,) received a new impulse and direction from hearing unpublished poems of Wordsworth and Coleridge, especially ' Christabel." Now, likewise, easy in circumstances and occupying a good position in society, Scott was sufficiently independent of professional labour to devote himself more and more to less uncongenial pursuits; and he gradually made authorship the main business of his life. — The brilliant period of Scott's literary career extends from 1802, when ho was in his thirty-first year, to 1825, when he was in his fifty-fourth. In the first of those years he published the first and second volumes, and in the next year the third volume, of 'The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border.' This publication gave him at once a distinguished reputation. The old bal- lads were excellently edited ; the annotations showed great sagacity, good sense, and various knowledge ; and there was undeniable promise in the few ballads of his own that were inserted in the collection. In 1802, likewise, he had began to write what he called, in a letter to Ellis, ' a kind of romance of border-chivalry, in a light-horseman sort of stanza.' This piece, insensibly swelling in dimensions, soon became too bulky for the 'Min- strelsy,' and was reserved to be the foundation- stone of Scott's celebrity as an original poet. It was circulated among his friends, and warmly ap- proved by Jeffrey, VVordsworth, and others ; while the author was editing the ancient romance of ' Sir Tristrem.' It appeared at length, in 1805, under tha title of ' The Lay of the Last Ministrel.' Its success was immediate and unexampled. Sur- prise, doubtless, aided the result : the poem ap- peared when genuine poetry had long been unheard by the public, unless in the earliest volumes of Crabbe and Campbell; and it was also the first vigorous poetical narrative that had been produced in England for more than a century. But, further, it was the earliest poem which was inspired by the animation and eagerness of the age that gave it birth. The ' Lay' was not, any more than its suc- cessors, the effort of a poet aiming at the highest effects of his art : but it was a work of great fenius and originality ; and, if inferior to some of cott's later poems in mechanism, and less rich in strikingly poetical passages, it was more faith- ful than any of them to his design, of re-construct- ing the chivalrous romance in a shape accommo- dated to modern sympathies. ' Marmion,' contain- ing, in its description of the battle, one of the most spirited passages in the whole range of our poetry, appeared in 1808; the beautiful metrical romanco of » The Lady of the Lake' in 1810; in 1811 camo the ' Vision of Don Roderick,' indicating a decrease of strength, which showed itself next year also in 'Bokeby;' in 1815 was published '•The Lord of the Isles;' and the list of the metrical romances closes with 'The Bridal of Tricrmain,' and 'Harold the Dauntless,' published respectively in 1813 and 1817, and both of them anonymously. In the course of this period, also, the poet edited the works of Dryden and Swift, contributed for a time to the Edinburgh Review, and in 1808 assisted zealously in establishing its formidable rival the Quarlerli/. He wrote also biographical and criti- GU1 SCO cal prefaces, and performed much of other miscel- laneous labour. To such work he was led by those commercial engagements which he now formed, and which exercised in the end so disastrous an influence on his fortune. His school-fellow, James Ballantyne, having been the editor and printer of a newspaper in Roxburghshire, was assisted by Scott in setting up a printing-house in Edinburgh ; and the poet, after having lent money to the firm, became really a partner of* it in 1805. Not long afterwards, his connection with trade became yet closer. He quarrelled with his bookseller, Con- stable; he desired to obtain facilities for giving to the world literature of a higher stamp than that on which publishers are likely to venture; and, not very consistently with his desire, he entertained sanguine hopes of profit from a publishing busi- ness guided hy a man of knowledge and influence like himself. Accordingly, in 1808, John Ballan- tyne, a brother of James, was placed at the head of a new publishing firm ; but here, as in the former case, Scott was a partner to the extent of a third. All these arrangements were kept pro- foundly secret ; in the eyes of the public, and even of his most intimate associates, Scott was merely the patron and friend of the Messrs. Ballantyne. — A fewyears after the formation of these partnerships, Scott entered on the second stage of his literary progress. He was one of the first to discover the waning popularity of his poetry ; and he cheerfully set himself at work to regain his laurels on a new field. He wished for fame: he wished also for gain. He had long cherished the ambition of ter- ritorial possession ; and this ambition he could not hope to gratify speedily from his ordinary means, though his appointment as one of the principal clerks of the Court of Session in Scotland (an hon- ourable and very easy post), added, from about 1812, thirteen hundred a- year to his income. From this passion arose many of the rash adventures which finally ruined the publishing firm ; hence also, in no small degree, arose the eager industry with which, when his prose works proved so profitable, he poured forth volume after volume. In 1805, while he was engaged on Marmion, he had begun to write a novel : in three weeks during the sum- mer of 1814 he added two volumes to it ; and it was published anonymously in July of that year, bear- ing the name of ' Waverlev, or, 'Tis Sixty Years Since.' For a dozen years afterwards, the Wavcrlcy Novels, popular beyond example, admired by critics as well as devoured by the public, were showered out in ceaseless succession; and, although a few of the earliest are decidedly the most vigorous and life-like, it was not till towards the close of the series that the falling off was steady or remarkable. The dates are, in themselves, enough to prove mar- vellous activity and fertility, and indomitable steadi- ness of working. From 'Waverley ' in 1815 to the ; Tales of the Crusaders' in 1825, eighteen novels appeared within eleven years. — This was the last year of Scott's prosperity, or rather the last year during which the world was allowed to believe hiin prosperous. The extraordinary success of the novels had enabled him to assume, more rapidly than he could have hoped, that place among the landed gentry, which it was his fatal weakness to overvalue so immensely. Purchasing, in 1811, a farm on the banks of 'the Tweed, nau.ing it Ab- SCO botsford, and building a cottage on it, he acquired land around it till ne possessed a considerable estate. He erected the baronial castle which we now behold, filled it with antiquarian nick-nacks and ornaments, planted and improved his grounds, and dispensed hospitalities which the most dis.inguished men in Europe were proud to partake. In 1820 he received a baronetcy ; and in the following year he figured as the director of the whimsical pagean- try which celebrated the visit of George IV. to Scotland.— Even before this time both firms of Ballantynes were tottering ; and they were brought to the ground in the beginning of 1826, by the failure of Constable's house, with which they were deeply involved. The mortifying disclosureof Sir Walter's concealed partnership followed of course ; and his liabilities were found to amount to a sum not much short of £150,000. He acted like a man of courage and a high-minded gentleman. He refused to offer to the creditors any composition, or to accept from them any discharge ; he pledged himself to devote the whole labour of his subse- quent life to the payment of the debt ; he fulfilled the pledge, and died before his time through the toil which it cost him. A great part of the debt was satisfied during his lifetime ; and the balance of the principal was paid by his executors. One main aid in effecting the result was the collected edition of his works, with the personal notes which he condescended to furnish to it. But he produced likewise a new series of writings, which, although the later are distressingly indicative of decay, and the best of them are not of a very high order, must be looked on with the respect due to the motive which prompted them. — In 1826 he published his novel of ' Woodstock,' written while his pecuniary anxie- ties and humiliation were at their height ; after- wards appeared the • Life of Napoleon,' (partly written before the bankruptcy), the 'Tales of a Grandfather,' the first and second series of the ' Chronicles of the Canongate,' ' Anne of Geierstein,' a ' History of Scotland' for Lardner's Cyclopaedia, two Dramas, and ' Letters on Demonology.' In 1831 the failure of the active intellect was'showu [Dry burgh Abbey ] unequivocally by 'Count Robert of Paris,' and ' Castle Dangerous.' In 1830 Sir Walter had been attacked by paralysis, which recurred acutely more than once : and, prevailed on at last to pause from labour, he set out, in September, 1831, for the C*J5 SCO continent, of which, in his better days, he had ; s was the farthest point he rcached; the mind give W9J completely ;_ he was tsford in July, me days of unconsciousness, : September, lie was buried [W.S.] . !. \\ ii.i i am. See Stowell. IT, C. G., an Ital. dramatist, 1759-1821. SCOTTI, J. C, an Italian Jesuit, 1602-1669. 11. M \i:. i u.o, a learned ecclesiastic, born at Naples 1711, member of the legislative commission of the Neapolitan republic 1799, exe- cuted bv the counter-revolutionists 1800. GAL, 11.. a Scottish divine, 1650-1678. BCRlBANt, C, a Flemish Jesuit, one of the apostles commissioned by that hody in .'known as a controversial wr., 1561-1629. : BONIANUS, a Roman commander, pro- emperor in Dalmatia, and assassinated 42. SCBIBONIUS, a Roman physician, 1st cent. .VERIl'S, the Latinized name of Peter S< HKYvii;, a Dutch philologist and historian. ir,60. SCRIMZEOR, H.. a Scotch writer, 1506-1571. SCROGGS, Sir W., an English judge, 1623-83. SCROrE, William, a writer on sporting sub- jects, 1772-1852. SCUDDER, H., a preshyterian writer, 17th cen. SCUDERI, George De, a French poet, novelist, and dramatic writer, 1601-1667. His wife was equally celebrated in epistolary composition. His eminent for her wit and writ- ings as a novelist, 1607-1701. LTETUS. See Schultet, Schultz. : 1 1- US, or SCULTZ, John, a writer on snrgerv, born at Ulm 1595, died 1645. POLI, L., an Italian ascetic, 1530-1610. g< IYLITZES, J., a Greek historian, 11th cent. MAN, L., an English divine, died 1675. ;:CI1, Edward. See Tucker. \. Ai.iiert, a Dutch naturalist and phar- macopolist, Amsterdam, 1665-1736. \STIAN, king of Portugal, son of the Infant John by Joanna, daughter of the emperor Charles V., was bom 1554, and succeeded his grandfather, John III , 1557. In 1578 he led the flower of his nobility into Africa on a wild expedi- tion against the Moors, and perished in battle with nearly all his followers. Sebastian's fate being long uncertain, and having no issue to succeed ••e occasion to many impostors to assume bis name and title, and eventually to the annexa- \.'uin. Horace De, a cele- i marshal, distinguished during the onarchy, 1772-1851. I'n )M no, the name by mmonly known, a keeper of the leaden •eals. He was born at Venice U \ lis."), and was on* of the pupils of Giovanni Bellini. He went to • the invitation of Agostino Gbigi, and soon bin with Michel- le?' * ^y whom, as ■catnat Raphael. '1 he lar-e picture of the Raising V, was painted by # Sebastiano. in irbkb he is said to have been 1 by Michelangelo, in rivalry frith the Trans- SEG figuration of Raphael. They were hoth painted for Giulio de Medici, the bishop of Narbonne, and were exhibited together in Rome, and are not M unequal as to make the choice a matter of course. Sebastiano found his advocates. Sebastiano was created Frate del Piombo by Clement VII. It is the duty of this officer to fix the leaden seal to the bulls, &c. A salary is attached to it, and Fr;v Sebastiano del Piombo was no longer the painter Sebastiano Luciani had been : his ease made him lazv, Michelangelo reproved him for idleness ; he was a great portrait painter. He died at Rome in 1547.— (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c.) [R.N.W.] SEBER, W., a German philologist, 1573-16:54. SECHELLES, J. Moreau De, a French states- man and financial administrator, 1690-1760. SECKENDORF, Guv Louis Von, a German statesman, divine, and ecclesiastical historian, 1626- 1692. His nephew, Frederick Henon, Count Von Seckendorf, a field-marshal and diplomatist in the interest, successively, of Prussia, Poland, and Austria, 1673-1763. Leon, Baron De Sec- kendorf, a poet, of the same family, 1773-1809. SECKER, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, a great promoter of religion and ecclesiastical learning, author of Sermons, 1693-1768. SECOUSSE, D. F., a Fr. historian, 1691-1754. SECUNDUS. See Everard. SEDAINE, M. J., a Fr. dramatist, 1719-1797. SEDANO, John Joseph Lopez De, a learned Spanish writer and numismatist, 1729-1801. SEDGWICK, three puritan divines :— Obadiaii, preacher of St. Paul's, Covent Garden, &c, mem- ber of the Westminster Assembly, 1600-1658. William, called the apostle of Ely, dates unknown. Doomsday Seogwick, so called from preaching the approaching end of the world, died about 1669. SEDILLOT, J. J. Emmanuel, a French Ori- entalist and astronomer, 1777-1832. SEDLEY, Sir Charles, a dramatic writer, courtier, and wit of the court of Charles II., who afterwards promoted the revolution of 1688, born at Aylesford, in Kent, about 1639, died 1701. SLDULIUS, C-elius or C^ecilius, an Irish or Scotch priest, known as a Latin poet, 5th century. SEED. Jeremiah, a learned divine, died 1747. SEEGERS, or SEGHERS, Gerard, a Flemish painter of altar-pieces, 1589-1651. His brother, Daniel, a flower painter, 1590-1660. SEELEN, J. 11. De, a German philologist, 1687-1762.' SEEMILLER, Sebastian, a Bavarian Orien- talist and bibliographical writer, 1752-1798. SEETZER, Ulric Jasper, a Dutch traveller in the East, supposed to have perished 1811. SEGAR, Sir William, garter-king-at-arms, author of ' Honour, Civil and Military, 1 died 1638. SKGAUD, W. De, a French Jesuit, 1674-1748. SEGHERS. SccSeecers. SEGNER, J. A., a Hungarian mathematician and philosopher, 1701-1777. SEGNERI, Paolo, an Italian Jesuit, dialing. as a preacher and theologian, nephew, Paolo, a Jesuit ana BEGNI, B., an Italian his SEGRAIS, J. R, l)i:,a French poet, 1624-1701. SEGUIER, J. F., a learned botanist and numis- matist, allied to the noble family of that name, whose names occur in the next article, 1703-1784. Italian Jesuit, dialing, gian, 1624-1694. His id preacher, 1673-1713. iatorian, died 1559. C'J« SEG SEGUIER, Peter, a French diplomatist, whose talents were opposed to the policy of Pope Julius II., 1504-1580. His son, Anthony, a lawyer and ambassador, 1552-1626. Peter, grandson of the f i\st of that name, chancellor of France, and one of the founders of the French Academy, 1588- 1672. Anthony Louis, of the same family, a royalist at the period of the revolution. 1726-1791. SEGUR, a nohle family of Guienne, principal of whom are — Henry Francis, Count De Seeur, and lieutenant-general, 1689-1751. Philip Hknry, his son, Marquis, a marshal of France, minister of war in 1780 before Brienne, 1724-1801. Louis Philip, son of the latter, companion-in-arms of Lafayette in America, known also as a diplomatist and historian, 1753-1832. Joskph Alexander, second son of Philip Henry, a dramatic and mis- cellaneous writer, 1756-1805. SEILER, G. F., a Ger. philosopher, 1733-1807. SEISSEL, or SEYSSEL, Claude De, a French historian and political writer, translator of Euse- hius, and historian of Louis XII., 1450-1520. SEJAN, N., a French composer, 1745-1819. SEJAN US, Lucius jElius, a prastorian general of Rome, a favourite of the emperor Tiberius, put to death for aiming at the supreme authority 31. SELDEN, John, a famous scholar, antiquarian, and political character, time of Charles I. He was born at Salvington, in Sussex, and educated for the law. He entered the House of Commons in 1624, and in 1640 represented Oxford in the long par- liament. He afterwards became archivist of the Tower and a commissioner of the admiralty. His whole life was devoted to learning, and he bears the character of a sincere Christian and a true patriot; 1584-1654. SELEUCUS, surnamed A7cafor, founder of the race of Syrian princes called Seleucidce, was one of the generals of Alexander the Great, and, on the death of that prince, was governor of Media and Babylonia. He extended the dominion of his arms and policy as far as the Indus, and in 280 B.C. was acknowledged king of Macedon, Thrace, and Asia Minor, lie reigned only a few months, and was assassinated by Ceraunus 279 B.C. Seleucus II., surnamed Callinicus, succeeded Antiochus II. 247 B.C., and after losing many of his provinces by the invasion of Ptolemy III. 242, was taken prisoner by the Parthians. He died in captivity B.C. 225. Skleucus III., surnamed Ceraunus, son and suc- cessor of the preceding, was assassinated B.C. 222. SELEUCU8 IV., surnamed Phitopator, was son of Antiochus the Great, to whom he succeeded B.C. 186, poisoned by his minister, Heliodorus, 174. Seleucus V. was son of Demetrius II., and was proclaimed kin:* with Antiochus Grypus B.C. 125. lie was killed by order of his mother, Cleopatra, 122. Seleucus VI., son of Antiochus Grypus, became king over a part of Syria in 97 B.C., and took the remainder from bis uncle, Antiochus Cyricus, 94. He was killed the year following in tlie contest which ensued with the son of the latter. SELIM, three emperors of the Turks:— Selim I., son of Bijazet II., born 1467, dethroned his father and killed his two brothers 1512, defeated the shah of Persia 1514, conquered Syria and Egypt 1516-1517, died 1520. Sklim II., suc- ceeded his father, Soliinan 1L, in 1566, took Cyprus from the Venetians 1570, and Triis from SEN the Spaniards in 1571. In the same year he lost the great naval battle of Lepanto ; died 1574. Selim III., son of Mustapha III., was bnrn 1761, succeeded his uncle, Abdoul llamid, 1789, sus- tained a disastrous war against Russia and Eng- land, which was terminated by the peace of Jassi in 1792. He was afterwards the ally of England against France at the period of the expedition to Egypt, and signalized his reign at the conclusion of hostilities, by introducing our European civiliza- tion into his states. He was dethroned in 1807, and strangled the following year by order of Mus- tapha IV., who succeeded him. SELIS, N. J., a French writer, 1737-1802. SELKIRK, Alexander, upon whose adven- ture the story of Robinson Crusoe was founded by Daniel Defoe, was a native of Largo, in Fifeshire, where he was born about 1680. He was left on the island of Juan Fernandez in 1704 by a Captain Stradling, to whom he had given some cause of offence. lie was rescued by Captain Wood Rogers in 1709, and is said to have related his adventures to Defoe, with a view to their publication. SELLE, C. T., a German physician, 1748-1800. SELLER, A., an English divine, 1647-1720. SELLIUS, Adam Buckhardt, a Russian monk and writer, originally of Denmark, d. 1746. SELLIUS, Godfrey, a native of Dantzic, known as a naturalist and historian, died 1767. SELLON, Baker John, known for many years as a police magistrate, author of a standard law- book, entitled 'Analysis of the Practice of the Court of King's Bench and Common Pleas,' born in London 1762, died 1835. SELVES, J. B., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1757-1823. SEMERY, A., a French theologian, 1630-1717. SEMIRAMIS, a queen of Assyria, of whom we have little certain historical knowledge. She is generally regarded as the wife of Ninus, and is said to have put him to death. The traditions agree that she reigned forty-two years after Ninus : she was called Rett on account of her atrocities. SEMLER, J. S., a German divine, 1725-1791. SEMPRONIA, two Roman ladies :— 1. The wife of Scipio iEmilianus, a sister of the Gracchi, who is accused of having contributed to the death of her husband. 2. A lady concerned in the con- spiracy of Catiline. SEMPBONIUS, a name of frequent occurrence in Roman history. The principal who have borne it were the Gracchi (see that article); besides these may be mentioned— Semproni us Asellio, a military tribune of Rome, distinguished in Spain B.C. 137. Skmpronius Longus, consul of Home B.C. 217, distinguished in the field against llan- nihal. Sempronius Tuditanus, a Roman tri- bune and commander, who was consul B.C. 203, and defeated Hannibal at Crotona. The others of the name are of less mark. SENAULT. J. V ., a Flcm. ccclesias., 1599-1672. SENDIVOG, M., a Polish alcbyraUt, 1666-1646* SENEBIEB, John, a protestant minister of Geneva, known as a natural philosopher and his- torian, 1742-1809. SENECA, Lucius Annaeus; born at Cordova in the second year of our era; put to death at Borne by order of Nero in the sixty-sixth. A literateur, rhetorician, and philosopher, whose practical life is marked by all the singular contra- C97 SEN dictions that abound in liis writings. At first a stern f Stoic; tl.cn the ambitious politician ith 1. alios at the court. Vanished at the instance of Mcssalina, he writes his famous work on Consolations ; the next production of his [Seueca— irvm iw Antique /Just J pen being a new Consolation, addressed to Polyb'uis, a frccdiian — s mean and miserable flat- tery intended for the car of Claudius. Recalled by Agrippina, we find him installed, in company with Burrhus, as preceptor and guardian of Nero; labouring avowedly during a few years, along with his firmer colleague, to restrain the passions of that disgrace of humanity ; boldly defending Burrhus ice of Nero, — winking, meanwhile, at his pupil's worst excesses ; even prompting to evil, for if we can credit antiquity, Seneca suggested that revolting and most monstrous parricide — all the while preaching the austerities of Stoicism : lastly, rising into the vigour of his best days, and, if with some ostentation, still meeting death as becomes a brave man !— Seneca, is perhaps the type and ideal, alike in action and thinking, of that large class of minds, possessed by a lively and restless fancy, and of remarkable quickness in appreciating, who m cither of heart or intellect, and are totally deficient in that invaluable power f. I tigh and low, large and small, in all grades of society and manners of life, we meet with such persons; and although never consistent, they are yet in one sense always sin- cere—/.*., they are ruled by the plan or opinion which is suthoritative for the hour. Having no real Originality— that which cannot be divorced from ability to penetrate towards Truth— Seneca's Uterary writings are worthless: nor are his moral speculations stamped with the Tower-murk. In theory be is a copyist, and a bad one, for he sel- *•■» rea* .. ground of any theory : and although in bis practical writings he always dis- P»7» B^eat scuteness, and expresses himself cJearij and plennantly— qualities much increased by bu large acquaintance with the surface of the *orid,— «ven the U.»t of his maxims arc tarnished M !■••• net efex iggeration. Generally, the colour » o« Gold, but the ru»j of the awsnt- H [J.P.N.] BER SENECAI, SENECA Y, or SENECE, Antoine Bauderon De, a French poet, 1643-1737. SENEFELDER, Aloys, a native of Munich, inventor of the art of lithography, 1771-1834. SENKENBERG, H. C.^ Baron De, a juriscon- sult, and aulic counsellor of the emperor, 1704- 1768. His brother, J. Christian, a physician and founder of an hospital at Frankfort, 1707- 1772. R. Chart.es, son of the first named, a jurisconsult and German and Latin poet, d. 1799. SENNACHERIB, king of Assyria, B.C. 712-707. SENNERT, Daniel, physician to the elector of Saxony, 1572-1637. Hi's son, Andrew, an Oriental scholar, 1606-1689. SEPTIMIUS. See Severus. SEPULVEDA, Juan Ginks De, a learned Spaniard, who was historiographer to the emperor Charles V., and wrote his Life, 1490-1573. SERAIN, P. E., a Fr. agriculturist, 1738-1821. SERAO, F., an ltd. archaeologist, 1702-1793. SERAPION, a physician of Alexandria, sup- posed to have written against Hippocrates, 3d cen- tury B.C. A second of the name was a Syrian physician, author of two works still existing, 8th or Uth century. A third, called Serapion Junior, was an Arabian physician and medical writer of the 11th century. SERARIUS/Nicholas, a learned Jesuit, called 4 the luminary of the German church,' 1555-1609. SERASSI, P. A., an Ital. biographer, 1721-91. SERENUS, A. L., a Roman poet, 1st century. SERGARDI, L., an Italian satirist, 1660-1726. S ERG EL, J. T., a Swedish sculptor, 1740-1814. SERGIUS, the first of the name, pope of Rome, time of Justinian II., 687-701. The second, in whose pontificate Italy was invaded by the Sara- cens, and Louis II. was consecrated king of Italy, 844-847. The third, one of Mai-ozia's lovers, and father by her of John X., 904-911. The fourth, said to be the first who changed his name on assum- ing the tiara, 1009-1012. 'SERGIUS, a patriarch of C'stantinople, 610-39. SERIEYS, A., a French compiler, 1755-1819. SERIMAN, Z., a Venetian writer, 1708-1784. SERLIO, S., an Italian architect, 1475-1552. SEROUX D'AGINCOURT, John Bapt. Louis George, a Fr. historian and antiquar., 1730-1814. SERPILIUS, G., a Hungarian ecclesiastic, con- troversial writer and poet, 1668-1723. SERRA, A., an Italian economist, 16th centy. SERRA, M., an Italian painter, 1658-1728. SERRANO, T., an Italian Jesuit, 1715-1784. SERRAO, J. A., an Italian prelate, 1731-1799. SERRE, Hercules, Count De, a French states- man attached to the party of Richelieu, 1777-1821. SERRES, John Dk, in Latin Serrrmus, a learned French Calvinist and historiographer, 1540- 1598. His br., Olivier, an agricult., 1539-1619. 6ERRES, OLIVE, a lady who claimed to be princess of Cumberland, as the legitimate daughter of Henry Frederick, duke of Cumberland, by a sister of the Rev. Dr. Wilmot ; she was bom at Warwick in 1772, and made a fruitless effort to obtain the recognition of her claims on the death of George III., previous to which she had been married to Mr. Serres, the king's marine painter. Died 1884. SERRONL, II., an Ital. theologian, 1517-1587. BERRY, J. H., a French theologian, 1059-1738. SER SERTORIUS, Quintus, a partizan of Marina in the civil war between the plebeians and the sena- torial oligarchy, headed by Sylla, was born in Italy about 121 B.C. He reaped his earliest laurels in the war against the Cimbri and Teutones, on the Gaulish frontier, and there also became acquainted with the chief of the people. When Sylla triumphed in Italy, Sertorius retired to his praetorial govern- ment in Spain ; and though he was continually harassed by Metellus, he virtually rendered that country independent under his command, and endeavoured to give it the benefits of a pater- nal government. He was assassinated at a ban- quet to which he had been invited by the Roman general Perpenna B.C. 72. [E.R.] SERVETUS, or SERVE DE, Michael, was bora at Villa Nuova in Arragon, a.d. 1509. From his birth-place he assumed '"the cognomen of Vil- lanovanus ; and the surname Reves, which he put on the title-page of his books, appears to be a quaint transposition of the first two syllables of Servetus. His father was a lawyer, and wishing his son to study for his own profession, sent him for that purpose to Toulouse. But literature and theology occupied his attention and engrossed his leisure. On returning to Spain he attached him- self to Quintana, confessor to the emperor Charles V., and accompanied him first into Italy and then to Germany. In the year 1550 he took up his re- sidence at Basle, and often conferred with Oeco- lampadius on matters of theology. His mind now began to evolve its peculiar speculations, all in antagonism to the current beliefs. In 1531 ap- peared his first work at Hagenau, ' De Trinitatis Erroribus,' in which the notion of a Trinity was not only discussed, but caricatured. The emperor ordered the book to be suppressed, and the year following Servetus published apologetic dialogues, condemning the juvenility of the work, but still maintaining the same doctrines. In 1533 he went to France, studied at Paris, afterwards re- moved to Orleans, and resided for two years as corrector of the press at Lyons, busying him- self with the study of medicine. In 1537 he re- visited Paris, and took the degrees of master of arts and doctor of medicine. Leaving Paris, after an accusation by the Sorbonne, he settled ulti- mately at Vienne, and for a series of years prac- tised medicine. He had been a considerable time composing a book on Theology, and under the title of k Christianismi Restitutio,' it appeared at Vienne in 1553, but without author's name or date. The book produced a great sensation— sus- picion, in consequence of some Genevan correspon- dence with a French refugee called De Trie, fell at length on Servetus, and he was imprisoned by the inquisitors. During the process he contrived to escape and fled at once to Geneva, where lie lay in concealment for a month, waiting an opportu- nity to set out for Naples. After his flight from Vienne he was burned there in effigy, having been previously condemned as an outlaw, and he would have been burned in person, if he had not so opportunely made his escape. As he was about to leave Geneva for Zurich he was discovered, and at the suggestion of Calvin ho was at once appre- hended, on the 13th August, 1553. The accuser of the Spaniard was Nicholas de la Fontaine, i Frenchman, but Calvin himself framed the eight- SER and-thirty articles of charge, as we learn from one of his own letters. At the first hearing of the case Servetus made explanations, and at the second hearing Calvin himself attended. In the mean- time the council of Geneva wrote to Vienne, with information that Servetus was in custody, and re- solved as the trial went on to send communications to several of the cantons. The council of Vienne demanded back the prisoner, but with tears in his eyes he entreated ttie Genevan syndics to retain him, and sist him before their own tribunal. The Genevan magistrates stood upon prerogative, or the burning of Servetus would have happened at popish Vienne, and the protestant syndics were proud to rival a catholic city in severity of pen- alty. His prosecution was now given to the at- torney-general, and the charge of sedition was specially pressed against the accused ; for politics superseded theology in the discussion. Servetus replied at some length, and in his subsequent petition one of his principal endeavours is to clear himself from the charge of being a disturber of society. Calvin and he were confronted — they had maintained a correspondence some months previ- ous, and Servetus actually craved an indictment to be preferred against the reformer. Calvin, in the meantime, had quarrelled with the council in a case of discipline ; the Libertine or anti-Calvinist party were growing in power, and Servetus hoped apparently to turn the tables on his principal antagonist. The opinion of the churches in Swit- zerland had now been asked, and they unani- mously condemned Servetus, though they differed as to the amount of punishment which should be inflicted on him. Toward the end of the pro- tracted investigation the influence of Calvin was little felt, and" on the 2Gth of October, the un- happy Servetus was doomed to the stake the following day. Calvin interfered for a more leni- ent form ofpunishment, but his request was not granted. Servetus was greatly affected when he heard his sentence, though he gradually resumed his composure. Farell attended him, but seems to have made no impression upon his mind. The next day the sentence was carried into effect in all its cruel barbarity. The sufferer, during the half- hour of his consciousness amidst the flames, cried repeatedly — 'Jesus, thou Son of the Eternal God, have mercy on me.' — This execution of Servetus has acquired an adventitious eminence from its circumstances. Had he been burned at Vienne, the deed would have been known only as one of thousands inflicted by papal mandate. But tho scene of the martyrdom in the protestant republic of Geneva, and the theological notoriety of Calvin, have given it an extraordinary and a polemical celebrity. Much has been said and written about it : it lias barbed many a declamation : and the harsh and vindictive spirit of Calvin has been often reprobated. But the fact is, that only in the year 1842, were the original records of the trial dis- covered and employed in the account. M. De La Valayre in 1842 made good use of those docu- ment's, and so did Billiet in 1844, in his 'Relation du Proces Criminal Intente :v Geneve en 1553 Contre Michel Servet,' &c— The result throws a better and more faithful light on the whole trans- action. It is proved that while Calvin approved of the punishment of death according to a theory 690 6ES theneommonlv entertained, yet that ho had little or no direct influence with the council during the Utter portion of the trial. (See Calvin). The i and politics in the govern- ment of tir.icva. fid its rulers to helieve them- selves iaVMted with the power of punishing heresy as a sin against God and a crime against the state. the very same period Bert'helier. a citizen, had been excluded from the church by Calvin, hut the council declared him capable of receiving the communion. In 1547 Gruct, a leader of the Libertine party, had been beheaded for sedition, n ligious opinion formed a special charge In the document which contains the sentence against Servetus, assaults on Calvin and the Genevan ministers are not mentioned at all. Servetus himself held the same theoretic ..d in his indictment against Calvin he puts the alternative— ' Till the cause he decided lor his death or mine.' So that had he obtained supremacy in Geneva, he would not have scrupled to burn Calvin What a miserable misconception of human right and Divine enactment ! And it was certainly a sad and inconsistent thing for reformers to deny to others the toleration which they had claimed and gained for themselves. The career of Servetus was peculiar. Born in the land of the Auto-da-Fe, he was sent out of it to study, his father being afraid that his son's free speculations and pugnacious propensity would place him within the grasp of the inquisition ; and yet he perished neither in Spain nor France. Coleridjre has said, that 'if any poor fanatic ever thrust himself into the flames, that man was Ser- vetus.' We cannot use these words in all their latitude; yet, certainly Servetus, with all his ac- knowledged talents and gifts, mi ambitious and arrogant, was, in short, what Mosheirn calls a 1 semifanatic' But surely such a character did not merit so awful a penalty, and we may read in the flames of Servetus that "man is responsible to God alone for his belief, that truth does not suffer by toleration, for fire is not able to extirpate what argument cannot overthrow. A passage is found in the 'Restitutio' of Servetus, which has been understood by some as anticipating by seventy Tears, Harvey's famous discovery of the circulation of the blood. While we admit the boldness and eloquence of Servetus, his rare acquirements and restless industry, we are compelled to add that ns made by him on his trial, both M and Geneva, do not place his moral r in the same favourable light. [J.E.j a De, a F rench 1670-1727. His grandson, Emmanuel i soldier and writer, 1755-1804. b French jurisconsult, who died suddeidv when in the act of remonstrating ist his tyrannical acts, 1626. " I \i ui - Hosoratus, a Roman tor upon Virgil, 5th c. in jurist mp, b.c. 43. ; ; I king of Rome, WMC Sede d his : Tarquin the Elder, ration of Tullia and her husband, u.< invent* SEY SESTINI, D., an Ital. antiquarian, 1 750-1 832. SESTO, C.esar Da, called the Milanese, an Italian painter of the lGth century. SETTALA, Lcdovioo, in Latin Septalius, an eminent .Milanese physician, 1552-1633. His son, MANFRED, BR able mathematician, 1600-1680. SETTLE, Elkanaii, known as a poet an d dramatic writer, horn at Dunstable 1G18, d. 1721 SEUME, J. T., a German writer, 1763-1810. SEVERINUS, a pope of Rome, 6 10. SEVERUS, three Roman emperors: — 1. Lucius Septimius Sevekus, the most important, was born on the African coast 146, and having com- manded the legions of Illyria, was proclaimed on the death of Pertinax 193. He made many eon- quests in the East, and in 208 came to this island, where he built a wall between the Forth and ll • Clyde, as a check against the Picts. He died at York in 211. 2. Flavius Valerius Severus, killed by Maxentius, after a short indulgence in power, 807. 3. Vibius Severus, proclaimed by the legions of Illyria 461, died 4G5. 4. See ALEXANDER. SEVERUS, founder of a Christian sect, 2,1 cent. SEVERUS, A., a Greek rhetorician, 5th cent. SEVERUS, C, a Roman epic poet, 1st cental v. SEVERUS, S., a Christian poet, 4th century. SEVIGNE, Marie De Rabutin Chant'al, Marchioness De, celebrated for her fine under- standing and epistolary talents, was born at the chateau de Bourdilly, in Burgundy, 1G27. After the death of the marquis de Sevigne, she lived in widowhood twenty-five years, devoted to the edu- cation of her children. Her famous letters were addressed to her daughter, Madame de Grignan. Died 1696. SEVIN, F., a French philologist, 1682-1741. SEWARD, Anna, a once popular writer, known as the friend and biographer of Dr. Darwin, was the daughter of the Rev. T. Seward, rector of Eyam, in Derbyshire, where she was horn 1747. Her publications were the poetical romance of Louisa, 1782 ; a Collection of Sonnets, 1799 ; and the Life of Darwin in 1804. She died in 1809, since which her Literary Remains and Corres- pondence have appeared. SEWARD, W., a biographical writer, 1746-99. SEWELL, George, a native of Windsor, who was settled as a physician at Hampstead, and is known to fame as a poet and miscellaneous writer, by his tragedy of ' Sir Walter Ralegh,' a ' Vindica- tion of the English Stage,' &c. ; died 172G. SEWELL, William, son of a surgeon at Am- sterdam, whose father was an English refugee, known as a Quaker historian, 1654-1720. SEXTIUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, 1st cent. SEXTIUS-EMPIRICUS, a Greek philosopher and physician, time of Commodus. SEYBOLD, I). C, a Ger. philologist, 1747-1804. SEYDLITZ, Frederic William, Baron Von, a companion-in -arms of Frederick the Great, dis- tinguished in the seven years' war, 1722-1773. SKYMOUR, Arabella. See Arabella. SEYMOUR, Edward, duke of Somerset, and uncle to Edward VI., was brother to Queen Jane Seymour, and on his sister's marriage to Henry VIII. in 1536, was created Viscount Bcauchamp. He distinguished himself in " .. the Scottish and », the reputed French wars, and in the straggle for power after the death of Henry, became governor of the young 700 SEY king and protector of the realm. In 1548 he was created dulse of Somerset, and took the functions of lord-treasurer and earl-marshal ; in the same vcar he headed the troops in Scotland, and won the battle of Musselburgh. His power was at last broken by the intrigues of the earl of Warwick, afterwards duke of Northumberland, and he was beheaded on Tower Hill. 22d January, 1552. SEYSSEL. See Skissel. SFOBZA, a noble Italian family founded by Giacomo Attendolo, a peasant of the Romagna, ■who was born at Cottignola in 1369, and enlisting in a company of soldiers that passed through the village, rose gradually to the rank of general. He was called Sforza on account of his great vigour. He was drowned in effecting the passage of the river Pescara, in the service of Joan or Naples, 1121. Franceso Alessandro, duke of Milan, was a natural son of the preceding. He was born in 1401, and rose to distinction m the service of Joan, afterwards as general of the Milanese troops; be was created duke by the leaders of a revolt in 1450, died 1466. The descendants of the latter possessed the duchy through several generations, fhe principal of them was Maximilian, who figured in the events that followed the league of Cambrai, and died at Paris, in the reign of Francis I., 1530. See Visconti. SFOBZA, Bona, daughter of J. G. Sforza, one of the preceding dukes, and of Isabella of Arragon, became queen of Poland by her marriage with Si-ismund I. in 1518 ; she died 1557. SHADWELL, Sir Lancelot, a judge and member of parliament, bom 1779, vice-chancellor 1S27, died 1850. SHADWELL, Thomas, a dramatic writer, and successor of Dryden as poet-laureate and historio- grapher, was born of a good family in Norfolk 1640. He followed in the wake of Ben Jonson as a writer of comedy; died 1692. Charles, supposed to be his son or nephew, also a play- writer, died 1726. SHAFTESBURY. The first earl of Shaftes- bury was the brilliant but inconsistent statesman of Charles II.'s reign. His son, the second earl, was the father of Anthony Ashley Cooper, the third earl, the subject of this notice. He was bom in London in 1671, and educated under the superintendence of his grandfather. He travelled for some years on the continent, and in 1693 en- tered the House of Commons, where he acted energetically with the Whig party. His health already threatening to fail, he went abroad in 1698, and studied in Holland under the advice of Baylc and Le Clerc. Next year his father's death called him to the House of Lords; but, early in the reign of Anne, his premature infirmities forced him to retire altogether from public life. Thenceforth he busied himself exclusively with philosophy and literature, till he died at Naples in 1713. — In 1711 he had collected his writings into a series, which he entitled 'Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Times.' The most important pieces in the collection are, the 'Inquiry concerning Vir- tue or Merit,' first published in 1699 ; and the Pla- tonic dialogue, called 'The Moralists, a Philosophi- cal Rhapsody,' whose first appearance was in 1709. Both as a philosopher and as a writer, Shaftes- bury has encountered extremes, equally undeserved, SHA of admiration and of censure. His style is elabo- rate, artificial, affected, and studded all over with foreign and pedantic terms of his own invention ; and he very seldom puts off his offensive air of foppish condescension. But there is hardly a page of his volumes in which we are not struck by the elements of fine writing ; and some passages of his, with their lofty thoughtful eloquence, and their exquisite music of rhythm, are among the most beautiful things in the English language. The moral elevation and purity of the sentiments are always worthy of the amiable and irreproachable character of the author. The great defect in Shaftesbury's philosophical thinking is its indis- tinctness : he merely throws out hints, in a man- ner not unlike his master and model Plato, and often gives reason for believing that he himself had apprehended very obscurely the ideas he strives to express. Inconsistency, real or apparent, is a natural accompaniment of this mistiness of thought ; and the vacillating uncertainty of opinion betrays itself most of all when questions of religion are directly handled. His mind had received a wrong bias through the scorn he felt for the Toryism and Jacobitism then rampant in the Church of Eng- land ; and the tendency was augmented by his observation of the popularity possessed, among the clergy as elsewhere, by the philosophy of Locke, which Shaftesbury believed to contain the germ of evil religious consequences. Although, likewise, no thinkers could be more unlike than the cold and sceptical Bayle and the enthusiastic and aspiring Shaftesbury, the intercourse of the two did not improbably affect in some degree the opinions of the young Englishman. Accordingly Shaftesbury give's vent, especially in ' The Moralist,' to expres- sions and assertions, which fully justified Leland in uttering a warning against him in his ' View of Deistical Writers ;' while elsewhere he contradicts such passages directly, or neutralizes them by fine trains of devout meditation. — In the philosophical system (if such it can be called) of the author of the ' Characteristics,' there are two or three pecu- liarities calling for hasty commendation. First, in Metaphysics he strenuously vindicated the possi- bility of a priori notions against the sensualistic. philosophy of Locke ; and his views on this great question, while they called forth the warm admira- tion of Leibnitz, and accorded with the opinions of that great thinker, were likewise a foretaste of the creed taught afterwards in fragments by Reid and systematized (not in all points safely) by Kant and his disciples. In the second place, Shaftesbury's Ethical doctrines placed him, at two points, in op- position to systems then prevalent in England. He combated eagerly and convincingly the Selfish theory of Hobbes: he directed thinkers into a psychological track that had recently been neglected, when, refusing to confine himself exclusively (like Cudworth anil Clarke) to the region of Reason or Intellect, he indicated Feeling as an essential ele- ment in all Facts of Conscience or operations of the Moral Sense or Faculty. [_W.S.] SHAH-ABBAS. See Arras. SHAKSPERE, William, 'burn at Stratford- upon-Avon, married and had children there! went to London, where he commenced actor, and wrote poems and plays; returned to Stratford, made his will, and died.'" ' This,' says Stcevens, ' is all that 701 sua a of certainty, about Wc should have cared very little about : and marriage, the will, or the death, of untry-town in the sixteenth I it for die one other ce rtainty. ' he wrote i play*. 1 That fact renders the minutest in the life of this son of a Warwickshire veoman a matter of interest to t he whole human [U.rui place of Shakspere. J race; for out of the cottage in which he was horn, has gone forth a voice which is the mightiest in modern literature; which has had no small in- fluence in forming our national character; and which, in connection with the higher teaching from ia refining and humanizing wherever its sound is heard. — Steevens was in a great degree far as regards a mere hiographical notice of I biography lies in a critical estimate of his writings, as compared with others ol his time, and in his relation to the age in which he flourished. The documentary biography. beyond that furnished by the facts that tell us the datea of his several works ; lies in a very narrow compass. — William Shakspere was born "in 15G4. His baptism was registered in the parish church of Stratford, on the 26th of April, in that year. It was usual to baptize within three days of birth, and, therefore, his birth-day is held to be the 23d of April, the St. George's day of England. The probability, though not the certainty, is that he was born in the town of Stratford. The old house there, in which he is said to have been born, was TOqueetionablv the property of his father, John re. His father was married and livino- in • Uis mother was Mary Arden of the ancient family of the Ardens. The course Miakspcre may be traced bv the parochial and municipal records, from the office of juryman of the court leet in 165& to that of bailiff, or chief magistrate, in 15C8. He has been held to have been a butcher, or a wool -stapler, or a glover In an age when there was little subdivision of ocopattons, the yeoman cultivating his hind night have sob: , dressed *etr wool, and prepared their peltries. The oc- cupier of , grazing land had no large separate m * rk * u for , *'" es. 1 bere was a free grammar school at Stratford. We have no record \'f k "",••'.'" - ■>;-'';• went to that school; but way should we doubt that 1 ted there • ttwaa thenar. hie education. 6ome SHA persons have endeavoured to show that there is no tincture of grammar school studies in his writings; that he was essentially unlearned. Such a belief is now wholly abandoned, except by those pedants, if there be any left, who think that there can be no learning without a constant parade of it. It has been stated by Rcwe, that John Shakspere had ' a large family, ten children in all.' There were other Sliaksperes in Stratford. The registers dis- tinctly show that the father of the poet had five children who survived the period of infancy. We have no trace how William Shakspere was em- ployed in the interval between his school-days and manhood. Some holdthat lie was an attorney's clerk. The tradition is that he was a wild voung fellow, stealing deer. The certainty is that he was treasur- ing up that store of knowledge, and cultivating that range of genius, which made him what he became. — At Shottery, a pretty village within a mile of Stratford, is an old farm-house, now divided into several tenements, where dwelt a family of the name of Hathaway ; and this pro- perty remained in the possession of their de- scendants. Anne Hathaway became the wife of William Shakspere in 1582. The marriage- bond and license are preserved in the Consistorial Court, at Worcester. By this marriage there were three children, Susanna, Hamnet, and Judeth. Hamnet, the only son, died in 1596 The two daughters survived their father, and inherited his property. — Soon after his marriage William Shakspere became connected with the Blackfriars' Theatre, in Lon- don. In 1589, when he was only twenty-five years of age, he was a joint proprietor of that theatre, with four others below him in the list. The players of the Blackfriars' were the Lord Chamberlain's company, those who acted under royal patronage. We know nothing of the date of the production of his first play. We can absolutely assign very few dates to any of his plays, except by the following table, which has been given by Mr. Knight, of the positive facts which determine dates previous to which they had been pro- duced : — Henry VI., Part I Alluded to by Nashe in 'Pierce Pennilcsse,' 1592 Henry VI., Part II Printed as 'The First Part of the Conten- tion,' 1594 Henry VI , Tart III Printed as ' The True Tragedy of Richard _, , JTT UukeofYork.' 1595 Richard II Printed 1687 Richard III Printed 1597 Romeo and Juliet Printed 1697 Love's Labour's Lost Printed 1698 Henry IV, Part 1 Printed 1593 Henry IV, Part II Printed 1600 Henry V Printed I(j00 Merchant of Venice Printed 1CC0. Mcn- ... , „ , tioned by Meres.... 1593 Midsummer Mght'sDream Printed 1G00. Men- „ . ,, _ _ ticned by Meres.... 1598 Much Ado about kothing. Printed 1800 AsYouLikelt Entered at Stationers' All's Well that Ends Well. Held to be mentioned by Meres as ' Love's _, _ _ „ Labour's Won ' 1 598 TWO Gentlemen of Venn a Mentioned by Meres... 1698 Comedy of Emm Mentioned by Meres.. 1698 King John... Mentioned by Mercs... 1698 l.tus Androniau Printed icoo ; Merry Wives of Windsor.. Printed 1603 ,li,tDlct Printed 1003 02 SHA Twelfth Night Acted in the Middle Temple Hall 1602 Othello Acted at Harefield.... 1002 Measure for Measure Acted at Whitehall 1604 Lear Printed 1008. Acted at Whitehall 1607 Taming of the Shrew Supposed to have been acted at Henslow's Theatre, 1593, En- tered at Stationers' Hall 1607 Troilus and Cressida Printed 1609. Previ- ously acted at Court 1609 Pericles Printed 1609 The Tempest Acted at Whitehall ... . 1611 The Winter Tale Acted at Whitehall.. .. 1611 Henry VIII Acted as a new play when the Globe was burned 1613 Of the thirty-seven plays of Sh-ikspere, the ex- istence of thirty-one is thus defined by contemporary records. The six which are not so defined, are Cymbeline, Macbeth, Timon, and the three Roman plays. — There are not many instances of the men- tion of Shakspere, during his lifetime, by writers of his period; but one writer, Francis Meres, notices many of his more important plays, in 1598. His poems carry their own dates, ' Venus and Adonis ' was published in 1593 ; ' Lucrece' in 1594; the 'Sonnets' in 1609. Meres had men- tioned, in 1598, Shakspere's ' sugered sonnets amongst his private friends.' — Shakspere became rich in connection with the theatres. He pur- chased the principal house in Stratford in 1597, and parcels of land in that parish. He became the tithe-owner also by purchase. It is supposed that he ceased to be connected with the theatres in 1609, for there is a valuation of his property in that year, for which he asked £1,433 6s. 8d. His father died in 1601 ; and it is more than probable that the greatest of poets succeeded him as a practical former in his native place. He had his actions in the bailiff's court for corn sold and delivered. He was looked up to by his neighbours, as there is evidence in letters. His eldest daughter, in 1607, married Dr. Hall, an eminent physician residing in Stratford. Judeth married Thomas Quiney, a tradesman of substance, in February, 1616. The register of Stratford has another register two months afterwards. On the 25th Aprd, William Shakspere was buried in the parish church. Anne, the wife, survived till 1623. She was amply pro- vided for by the laws of her country ; for the greater part of Shakspere's property was freehold, :*nd the widow was entitled, for her life, to the (lover of one-third. The bequest to her of the second -best bed was one of affection, and not of neglect. The best bed was always an heir-loom. — The eldest daughter, Susanna, died in 1649. Judeth died in 1662. Neither left any heir-male. The one grand-daughter of Shakspere, Elizabeth Hall, inherited the bulk of his property. By her second marriage she became the wife of Sir John Barnard. In half a century the family estates were all scattered, and went to other races ; with the exception of two houses in Henley-Street, which Lady Barnard devised to her kinsman, Thomas Hart, the grandson of Shakspere's sister, Joan. These houses were purchased by the nation, in 1847, of the descendants of the Harts. [O.K.] SIIAMMAI, a Jewish rabbi., president of the Sanhedrim , at first a disciple of Hillcl, but after - SIIA wards dissented from his master, and set up a new- college ; 1st century B.C. SHANFARAH, an Arabian poet, 6th century. SHARP, ABRAHAM, an astronomer and mecha- nician, who became assistant to Flamsteed at the Royal Observatory, 1651-1742. SHARP, James, the victim of his intemperate zeal for imposing the system of the Anglican Church upon Scotland, was a native of Banffshire, where he was born in 1618. He was first an advo- cate of the presbyterians, but after the restoration became a tool of the court party, and was rewarded with the archbishopric of St. Andrews. The wan- ton cruelties which followed provoked the bitterest hatred against him, and, on the 3d of May, 1679, he was dragged from his coach, and murdered in the presence of his daughter. This event occurred about three miles from St. Andrews. SHARP, John, grandfather of the celebrated Granville Sharpe (see below), was a learned pre- late and theologian. He was born at Bradford, in Yorkshire, 1644, and distinguished himself by preaching against popery in the reign of James II. After the revolution he was successively dean of Canterbury and archbishop of York; died 1713. His son, Thomas, archdeacon of Northumberland and prebendary of Durham, was a master of Heb- rew learning; born about 1693, died 1758. SHARP, Rich., a gentleman of great wealth, well known in the literary world, and once a member of parliament, au. of ' Letters and Essays,' 1759-1835. SHARP, S., a writer on surgery, died 1778. SHARP, William, this eminent engraver was born in London, January 29, 1749. His father, who was a gunmaker, early apprenticed him to a bright engraver, and he commenced his career by engraving such works as door plates, &c, his first effort being on a pewter pot ; but in 1782 he completely resigned this business, and commenced as a line engraver, executing plates after Stothard and others, for the booksellers, but he soon acquired a great reputation, and engraved many considerable works from the old and modern masters, and such is the delicacy and precision of his lines, that some I of his plates are considered, both in this country and abroad, the finest specimens of line engraving extant ; as for instance, the portrait of John Hun- ter, after Sir Joshua Reynolds, or his ■ Lear,' after West. Sharp died at Chiswick of dropsy in the chest, July 25, 1824. He was a member of the academies of Munich and Vienna, but had declined the honour of 'Associate Engraver' in the Royal Academy of his own country, considering the ex- clusion of engravers from the full honours of the academy, an affront to the profession. This exclu- sion is now (1853) suspended. Sharp is reputed latterly to have resigned his mind to the reveries of Richard Brothers, Joanna Southcote, and Emanuel Swedenborg. That he may at one time have had faith in all these is possible, but not simultaneously. To confound the sublime morals and doctrines of Swedenborg with the reveries of Brothers, or the delusions of Joanna Southcote, is not less ridiculous than to assume that an ortho- dox Mahometan could at the same time be a good Christian. [R.N.W.j SHARPE, Granville, was born in 1734 at Durham, and was apprenticed in trade, but, hav- ing a strong turn for literature, he abandoned the F03 SUA uncongenial pursuit of boriltw His friends having procured him a situation in the Ordnance Office, discharging the duties tment until the declaration of war America, and entertaining strong consci- : ■ the policy and jus! . his place. Being possessed l a v ilred to dedicate his life :md to the duties of active benevolence. He for the abolition of the slave ed distinguished himself by his zeal in measures for the extensive distribution of the Bib! kllC author of various literary ral pamphlets on slavery, he published Tracts on the Hebrew language, and i on the Definite Article in the Greek :.:. Mr. Sharpe died on Oth July, [R.J.] lRPE, Gregory, a jdiilosophical divine ntahst, born in Yorkshire 1713, died 1771. SHARROCK, BoBBKT, a dignitary of the Ch. of England, and a writer on moralitv, 17th cent WW O, a Yorkshire poet, 1739-1786. MI AW. <;., a distir.g. naturalist, 1751-1813. SHAW. Si;: Jamks, a native of Ayrshire, who rose from the position of a merchant's clerk to the l;:2;h office of chamberlain in the city of London. - born in 1764, and became alderman in 1798, sheriff in 1803, and lord mayor in 1805. The same year he was returned to parliament by . aid continued one of its representatives till 1818. In 1831 he was elected chamberlain, and died highlv respected at the age of eighty, 1843. V, John, an English divine, died 1689. SHAW, PsTBB, a medical writer, 1695-1763. SHAW, SAMUEL, a divine and schoolmaster, r of miscellaneous works, 1635-1696. V. Stebbtng, rector of Hartshorne, in -hire, known as a topographical writer, and originally tutor of Sir Francis Burdett, 1762-1802. .', Thomas, a native of Kendal, who be- came chaplain to the English factory at Algiers, and wrote an account of his travels, 1692-1751. \. David, professor of Oriental languages ■ bury College, and translator of Mirk- hond's tfistorv of the Early Kings of Persia, bom . 1836. IBEARE, John, a physician and political writer, pensioned by the earl of Bute, 1709-1788. MAirny Archer, second only to ias Lawrence as a portrait painter, was born in Dublin 1769. He exhibited his first pic- ture at the Royal Academy in 1789, and at his death, in 1850, was senior member and president institution. He is author of several poeti- cal productions on art, and was in other respects accomplished man. CKIVGIIAMSHIRE. LBURNE, William Petty, Lord, and first marquis of Lansdowne, born 1737. Became president of the Board of Trade in 1763, and joined Lord Chatham's administration in 1766. After the duwolntion istry he was a zealous oppositionist till 17> was appointed aecretary of st He became bead of the cabinet v., I the marquis of I till the coalition of Lord North and Mr. Fox; afterwards be was created marquis of Lansdowne, died 1805. snE SHELDON, Gilbert, a munificent prelate who succeeded Juxon in the primacy, and besides expending above £66,000 in charitable objects, remained at his post in the midst of the afflicted during the plague of London. Among the works executed at his expense is the theatre which bears his name at Oxford. Born at Stanton, in Stafford- shire, 1598, died 1677. SHELLEY, G., a writing-master, died 1736. SHELLEY, Percy Bysshe, a poet of admir- able genius, was, in the words which he applied to himself, ' a power girt round with weakness.' There is something marvellous in the rich originality of his imagination, and the ideal loveliness of the forms which it pours forth. But his figures float in the air without touching earth ; he wants both practical strength of sympathy and intuition of human character; and, while always wedding thought with fancy, he thinks so obscurely that his attempts at narrative fail completely, while even those lyrical flights which are his best efforts are often mystical or unintelligible. This ambitious turn of speculation, ill-directed and uncurbed, caused the unhappiness of his life as well as the chief faults of his poems. With the utmost gen- tleness and amiability of personal demeanour, he united an extreme confidence in his own opinions on abstract questions; and, setting himself up, with the presumption of youth, in opposition to received principleswhichhedidnot understand, he made him- self voluntarily an outcast, and remained through life a martyr to his own indistinct chimeras. — Shel- ley, the son of a wealthy baronet in Sussex, was born in that county in 1792. His school-days were made uncomfortable by his sensitive and* retired temper; and he was not distinguished as a scholar. But he laid the foundation of good Greek scholar- ship, and wrote two novels before he was sixteen. In 1808 he was sent from Eton to Oxford. Here, with very slight philosophical reading, he became entangled in metaphysical difficulties, and. at seven- teen, was pleased to publish, with a direct appeal to the heads of colleges, a pamphlet entitled ' The Necessity of Atheism.' He was immediately ex- pelled. Soon afterwards he printed his poem of 1 Queen Mab,' in which singular poetical beauties are interspersed through a wild mass of speculative absurdities. His alienation from his family was completed when, at the age of eighteen, he mar- ried the daughter of a person who had kept a coffeehouse. After three years of misery to ooth parties, the ill-assorted marriage issued in a separa- tion ; and not very long afterwards Shelley was agitated into temporary derangement, by learning that his wife had destroyed herself. His children were taken from him bv a decree of the Court of Chancery, on the ground of the atheism which be had avowed, and which he was too proud to retract on compulsion. Already, among his various wander- ings, he had, in 1816, become ""acquainted with Lord Bvron, and lived near him on the Lake of Geneva, There, and by the Lake of Como, he began to write poetry very sedulously, having for some time written oftener in prose. He studied and admired Wordsworth and Coleridge ; he was familiar with the Greek dramatists, from whom he made some fine translations ; but probably no models influenced him so much as Goethe and Calderon. Not long after his wife's death he married the daughter of 7UJ SHE Godwin, a lady well known as the authoress of 'Frankenstein' and other novels. They resided for a few months in Buckinghamshire, where they made themselves beloved by their charity to the poor; and_ Shelley's generosity had been remark- able even in the poverty which he had more than once suffered. During this time, Shelley wrote his exquisite 'Alastor,' and the gorgeously obscure 1 Revolt of Islam.' In the spring of 1818 he and his family removed to Italy, where they at length settled themselves at Pisa. In that country, with health already failing, Shelley produced some of his principal works, in a period of about four years. Such were the beautiful though dreamy lyrical drama called 'Prometheus Unbound;' the gloomy tragedy of '• The Cenci ;' the mysterious but attrac- tive ' Epipschydion ;' 'Julian and Maddalo,' in which he pourtrays himself and Byron : and many singularly fine small pieces, lyrical and reflective. In July, 1822, when he had not quite completed his twenty-ninth year, he was drowned in a storm which he encountered in his yacht on the Gulf of Spezia. In obedience to his own desire, his body, when thrown ashore, was burned, under the direc- tion of Lord Byron and other friends ; and the ashes were carried to Rome, and buried beside the grave of Keats in the Protestant cemetery beneath the shadow of the pyramid. [W.S.] [Tomb of Shelley] SHELLEY, Mary Wolstoncroft, wife of the poet, was b. in 1797, and acquired great reputation Dy her * Frankenstein.' Among her other works is an edition of her hnsband's poems; died 1851. SHENSTONE, William, was born in 1714, in Shropshire, where his father owned the small estate of the Leasowes. He spent his youth, at Oxford and elsewhere, in literary idling and verse-making. About his thirtieth year he succeeded to the family property; and his principal employment after- wards was the execution of those operations in landscape gardening, which made the Leasowes one of the show places of England, but involved the owner in pecuniary embarrassment. Shenstone was a pleasant but not vigorous writer, both in verse and in prose. His ' Pastoral Ballad' is one of the best pieces we have of its artificial kind, and SHE contains some fine touches, both of description and sentiment ; and his ' Schoolmistress,' a semi- burlesque imitation of Spenser's diction and stanza, has a spirit and originality which he never else- where showed. He died in 1763. [W.S.I SHLPREVE, or SHEPERY, John, one of the most learned men of his age, professor of Hebrew at Oxford about 1538, and author of Latin poems, &c, died 1542. SHERARD, or SHERWOOD, William, a learned botanist and antiquarian, who became British consul at Smyrna, and devoted much time in exploring Natolia and Greece ; born in Leices- tershire 1659, died 1728. His brother, James, born 1666, cultivated a fine botanical garden at Eltham, in Kent, died 1737. SHERBURNE, Sir Edward, clerk of the ordnance in the time of Charles I., known as a poet and classical translator, 1618-1702. SHERIDAN, Thomas, grandfather of the dramatist (next article), was born in the county ofCavan about 1684, and though of poor paren- tage became a clergyman in the Irish Church. He was a friend of Dean Swift, and an incorrigible wit, a genuine Irish sloven, a ' quibbler, a punster, and a fiddler,' died in extreme indigence 1738. His son, Thomas, born at Quilea in 1721, went upon the stage in 1742, and was very successful as a tragedian ; he wrote a ' Life of Swift,' ' Lec- tures on Elocution,' and an ' Orthoepical Dic- tionary of the English Language,' died 1788. Frances, wife of the latter, and grand-daughter of Sir Oliver Chamberlane, acquired considerable repute as a novelist, especially by her delightful romance of ' Nourjahad, 1724-1767. SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, was born at Dublin in 1751. His grandfather, Dr. Sheri- dan, a clergyman and schoolmaster in Ireland, was an improvident wit, and a friend and coadjutor of Swift ; his father, Thomas Sheridan, was well known as an actor and a teacher of elocution, and as the author of a Pronouncing Dictionary ; and his mother, a remarkably amiable and accomplished woman, wrote, besides other pieces, the fairy tale of ' Nourjahad.' Richard, an idle and mischievous boy, passed at school for a hopeless blockhead. But, though he had not learned to spell English when he left Harrow, at the age of eighteen, he was ambitious enough to join his friend, Halhed (the Orientalist), in publishing a translation from the Greek. He professed to study law in the Middle Temple ; but his prospects were very hazy indeed, when, being barely of age, he made a run- away marriage with Miss Linley, a beautiful and accomplished singer. He refused to allow his wife to perform in public; and a small fortune she brought him was speedily dissipated by that care- less way of living, which he practised at all stages of his life. — His career falls into two periods, ex- hibiting an alternation such as few men have gone •iter and theatrical successfully into a through. The comic play-writer and theatrical manager transformed himself successfully int statesman and orator. — His earliest comedy, ' The Rivals,' appeared in 1775, when the author was not much more than twenty-three years old. This humorous and lively play was succeeded next year by the commonplace farce of ' St Patrick's Day,' and the witty and clever little opera of 'The Duenna.' In 1777, was played bos celebrated 705 2Z SHE comedy 'The School for Scandal,' an inimitable seen on its weak Nile, and fuller of sparkling wit than any English play except those of Conmve. Sheridan's course of play writing may be said to have closed in 1779, and" ill-natured farce 'The Critic.' While engaged in bringing out his earliest plays, be became one of the proprietors of Drury Lane Theatre; and, acting as manager, he conducted his affairs with his usual carelessness. The wit which he exhibited in society was even more re- markable than that which glittered in his comedies; but the one as well as the other was really gained («s his biographer, Moore, amusingly shows') by careful premeditation, and owed very much to unscrupulous and dexterous borrowing. — Becoming intimate with Fox and Burke, and impressing these eminent men with a strong belief in his politi- cal and oratorical talents, he obtained a seat in parliament in 1780. He worked hard for the House •f Commons, and was, in his great efforts, one of the most showy and striking of parliamentary orators. Of his famous speech on the trial of Warren Hastings, no record has been preserved that at all accounts for the extraordinary impres- sion which it unquestionably made. Losing his wife in 1792, he married again, in 1796, a lady *ith whom he received five thousand pounds; and with this money and fifteen thousand pounds from shares in the theatre, he purchased an estate, and dreamt of living in splendour. But his affairs were already deranged beyond retrieval ; and his sottish habits were becoming more and more confirmed. The last dozen years of his life were spent in continual difficulties, which made it the more honourable to him that he adhered steadfastly to the Whigs, even when his patron and boon-companion, the Prince Regent, deserted them. He was treasurer of the iring the short ministry of Fox and Gren- ville; but after 1812 he was no longer able to speak in the house. Abandoned by friends, hunted by bailiffs, and sunk in habits and feelings, the wit and orator died in 1816. Those who had not offered to cheer his deathbed, gave him a grave in Westminster Abbey. [W.S.l SHERLOCK, HL, an English divine, 1613-1689. K, William, an episcopalian divine, was born in London, 1641, and received his educa- tion at Eton. Having distinguished himself at the university by his talents and acquirements, he obtained rapid preferment in the church, for, in 1669, he was appointed rector of the parish of St. George's, London ; in 1681, prebendary of Pancras, Pi cathedral; master of the Temple, and rector of Therfield ; in 1691, dean of St. Paul's. His best known works are a 4 Practical Treatise on Death;' 'A Discourse on Providence;' and 'The Future Judgment.' He died in 1707. TR. J. 1 SHERLOCK, Dr. Thomas, son of the preced- ing, and a clergyman of the Church of England also. He was born in 1678, and having repaired in doe time to St. Catherine Hall, Cambridge, to prosecute his education, he became eventually master of that college. He afterwards succeeded bis father aa master of the Temple ; and it may be stated, $m somewhat remarkable, that both father and son held ti. for the long period of — renty years. In 1728 he was elevated to the aa bishop of BsSfOr, and thence, in 1734, 70G SHI he was translated to the see of Salisbury. A still higher promotion was put in his offer, for he was urged, m 1747, to accept the primacy. But that high honour he was obliged to decline on account of his bodily infirmities. He was prevailed on, however, in the year following to accept the see of London. His death took place in 1761. He was a popular and voluminous author. His ' Sermons,' his ' Use and Intent of Prophecy,' and his contro- versial writings on the Bangorian Controversy form the chief of his published works. [R. J.] SHERWIN, John Keyse, an eminent engraver and designer, born in Sussex of humble parentage about 1750, died 1790. SHERWOOD, Mrs., a popular English novelist and writer of juvenile books, 1775-1851. SHIEL, Richard Lalor, bom in Dublin 1793, and best known as a parliamentary orator, was called to the Irish bar in 1814, when he had already distinguished himself as a speaker at pub- lic meetings. His connection with politics dates from 1822, when he became an active supporter of the Catholic Association ; and his career in par- liament from 1829, after the passing of the Catholic Relief Act. In 1850 he went as her majesty's minister to the court of Tuscany; d. there 1851. SHIELD, William, an eminent English com- poser, was born at Smalfield in the county of Durham, in the year 1749. He was apprenticed to a boat-builder at North Shields, during which period his musical talents began to develop them- selves in such an extraordinary manner that he was induced to devote himself wholly to the study of the science. Shield first appeared as a dramatic composer in 1778. In rapid succession he pro- duced music to the ' Flitch of Bacon ;' ' Rosina ;' 'The Poor Soldier;' 'Robin Hood;' 'Fontain- bleau ;' ' Marian ;' ' Oscar and Malvina ;' ' The Woodman,' &c. In 1807 he made a tour of the continent, and soon after his return home published his ; Introduction to Harmony,' which reached a second edition in 1817. He published also a volume of glees, and ' The Rudiments of Thorough Bass.' In 1817 the prince regent (George IV.) appointed him to the situation of master of the band of musicians in ordinary to the king, in which situation he conducted the musical services at the coronation of George IV. He died in 1829. [J.M.] SHIPLEY, Jonathan, a prelate and poetical writer, one of whose daughters became the wife of Sir William Jones, born about 1714, died 1788. SHIRLEY, Sir Anthony, a famous Eastern traveller, who became the ambassador of Shah Abbas to various courts of Europe, and Spanish admiral in the Levant ; born at Weston, in Sussex, 1565, supposed to have died in Spain about 1630. His brother, Sir Thomas, travelled with him, and published an account of Turkey. A third brother, Sir Robert, was also his fellow-traveller, and, like Sir Anthony, acted as ambassador of the shah, 1570-1623. SHIRLEY, James, a well-known poet and dramatic writer of the Elizabethan age, was born in London about 1594, and educated at Oxford and Cambridge. After taking a curacy in the Church of England he became catholic, and after an unsuccessful attempt to establish a grammar school, commenced writing for the stage. He was rendered destitute by the great fire of London, and SHI both he and his wife were so affected with grief and terror at this event, that they died within twenty -four hours of each other, 1666. SHIRLEY, Thomas, a relation of the traveller of that name, known as a medical writer, 1638-78. SHIRLEY, Walter Augustus, bishop of Sodor and Man, born at Westport, in Ireland, 1797, died 1847. SHLOEZER, A. L., a Ger. writer, 1737-1809. SHORE, Jane, the wife of a wealthy jeweller, in Lombard-Street, who became the mistress of Edward IV., and is represented as a woman of extraordinary beauty. In 1482, after Edward's death, she was punished on an accusation of witch- craft by the duke of Gloucester, and deprived of her house and fortune, but it is unknown where she died. There is proof that she was living in the reign of Henry VIII., at which time she is spoken of in high terms by Sir Thomas More. SHORT, J., a Scotch optician, 1710-1768. SHORT, T., a physician and professional writer, author, among other works, of a ' Natural History of Mineral and Medicinal Waters,' died 1772. SHOVEL, Sir Cloudesley, a British admiral, born of humble parentage near Clay, in Norfolk, about 1650. In 1674 he served under Sir John Narborough, and greatly distinguished himself in the attack on Tripoli. His other principal actions were the victories of Cape la Hogue and Malaga. He was drowned by shipwreck on the Stilly Islands, 22d October, 1707. SHOWER, Sir Bartholomew, an eminent lawyer and recorder of London, died 1701. His brother, John, a puritan divine, 1657-1715. SHRAPNEL, Henry, lieutenant-general in the royal artillery, inventor of the deadly case-shot, named after him ' Shrapnel shells,' died 1842. SHUCKFORD, S., a learned divine, died 1754. SHUTE, J., a divine and royalist, died 1643. SHUTER, E., a popular comedian, died 1776. SHUTTLEWORTH, Philip Nicholas, bishop of Chichester, author of a ' Discourse on the Con- sistency of the Whole Scheme of Revelation with Itself and with Human Reason,' and of a work against Puseyism, entitled • Scripture not Tradi- tion,' 1782-1842. SIAUVE, S. M., a Fr. antiquarian, died 1812. SIBBALD, Sir Robert, a Scottish physician, naturalist, and political writer, 1643-1712. SIBBS, R., a puritan divine, 1577-1635. SIBILET, M., a French poet, 1512-1589. SIBTHORP, John, regius professor of botany at Oxford, author of ' Flora Oxoniensis,' 1758-96. SIBYL, daughter of Amaury I., king of Jerusa- lem, and successively wife of William Longsword, by whom she was mother of Baldwin V., and of Guy of Lusignan. With the latter she mounted the throne of Jerusalem 1186, the year preceding his death by the hand of Saladin. SICARD, an Italian prelate and historian, auth. of a ' Chronicle,' published by Muratori, died 1215. SICARD, C, a French Jesuit, 1677-1726. SICARD, Roch Ambrose Cucurron, a French abbe, born at Foussenet, near Toulouse, 1742, succeeded the abbe L'Epee as master of tlie deaf and dumb school in Paris 1789, died 1822. He had two narrow escapes during the revolution, at which epoch he joined Jauftret in publishing the ' Religious, Political, and Literary Annals of SID France.' He wrote several works on the interest- ing subject which chiefly occupied his attention, and in 1800 established a printing press for the use of his scholars. SICHEM, C. Van, a Dutch engraver, d. 1580. SIDDONS, Mrs. Henry, daughter of a come- dian named Murray, became the wife of Mr. H. Siddons, son of the great actress (next article.) That gentleman dying in 1814, the brother of his widow undertook the management of the Edin- burgh theatre in her interest, where, for many years, she excelled in genteel comedy and the gentler parts of tragedy. Died after 1830. SIDDONS, Sarah, the most eminent of Eng- lish actresses, was the eldest daughter of Roger Kemble, and was born at Brecknock in South Wales, 14th July, 1755. Notwithstanding her father's connection with the theatre, there seemed at first small chance of her becoming an actress, as her parents placed her out as lady's-maid in the family of Mrs. Greathead of Guy's Cliff, near War- wick, and in that position the incipient queen of tragedy remained for two years. They resorted to this measure for the purpose of separating her from Mr. Siddons, a member of her father's com- pany, for whom she had an attachment; but to whom, notwithstanding such opposition, she was married in 1773. Two years afterwards she made her appearance in London, 29th December. Her debut had been procured by Lord Bruce, after- wards earl of Aylesbury, who had recommended her to Garrick, but the result was not flattering. The character, perhaps, was ill chosen — Portia, in ' The Merchant of Venice.' In the summer of next year we find her at Birmingham playing with Henderson, and subsequently at Bath with increas- ing success, in such parts "as Euphrasia, Alicia, Rosalind, Matilda, and Lady Townley. On her next appearance at Drury Lane, 10th October, 1782, the actress proved triumphant. The part was better suited to her powers — Isabella, in ' The Fatal Marriage.' This was followed by Jane Shore* Euphemia, Calista, Belvidera, and Zara, in ' The Mourning Bride.' In Dublin and Cork, in the following year, she enjoyed a repetition of her metropolitan triumph. On her return to London she attempted another Isabella, that of Shak- speare in the difficult play of ' Measure for Mea- sure.' This was in November, 1783. To the same year belong also her appearances in Con- stance, Volumnia, and Lady Macbeth ; and to the following, the rememberable circumstance of Sir Joshua Reynolds painting her portrait in the character of the tragic muse, of which he was so proud that he traced his name on the hem of the muse's garment. Her fame now became preroga- tive, and her profits large. At Edinburgh she re- ceived a thousand guineas for performing ten nights, with many presents, among them a mag- nificent silver urn, inscribed 'A Reward to Merit.' Mrs. Siddons owed much of her success to her personal beauty and dignity; her voice was re- markably melodious, and her mental endowments were extraordinary. On her brother, John Kem- ble, becoming manager of Drury Lane in the spring of 1788, she appeared for his benefit as Katharine, in ' The Taming of the Shrew.' In the same theatre, also, she played Juliet in 1790, and Lady Macbeth in 1794. She transferred her ru7 SID talents to Covent Garden theatre, on her brother's taking a share in it (1801), and continued to reign there until its conflagration in 1808, with a short interrepuim, during which Master Betty shone as a meteor. On the opening of the new theatre, 18th September, 1809, she appeared as Lady Macbeth, but in consequence of the 0. P. riots, did not appear again until 24th April, 1810. In the following season she repeated all her prin- cipal characters, and on 29th June, 1812, retired r from the stage, in the part of Lady Macbeth, her greatest effort ; reciting on the occa- sion a poetical address written by Mr. Horace Twiss, her nephew. After her retirement from the stage, she gave a course of public readings from Shakspeare at the Argyle Rooms, to which after- wards she added public readings from Milton's •Paradise Lost.' Between 1812 and 1817 she like- wise appeared on two or three occasions; but a new style of acting had then set in, which ren- dered her further appearances inexpedient Her death took place 8th June, 1831, at Upper Baker- Street, London ; and she was buried in a vault at Paddington church. Her style of acting was grand, noble, and natural ; somewhat cold and classical, but free from the formality which distin- guished that of her brother. [J.A.H.] !OUTH, Henry Addington, Viscount, • statesman ot the party of William Pitt, eldest son of Dr. Addington. He entered parliament in 1784, and was admitted to the office of speaker as early as 1789. This honourable post he retained twelve years, and then resigned it to take the more responsible position of prime minister, in which he succeeded Pitt in March, 1801. He remained at the head of affairs till May, 1804, and in 1805 became president of the council under the great leader ot his party. In 1812 Lord Liverpool be- came premier, ana Viscount Sidmonth home sec- retary. In 1822 he retired to private life, and passed the remainder of his years at his official residence as ranger of Richmond Park; 1757-1844. SI I)N K Y, Algernon. See Sydney. SIDNEY, Sir Henry, an English statesman, descended from a noble family in Surrey, and knighted by Edward VI. He held several state offices, and in 1568 was sent to Ireland as lord- deputy. He married Mary, eldest daughter of John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, and sister of Robert Dudley, the favourite of Elizabeth; d. 1586. KEY. Mary, countess of Pembroke, and daughter of the preceding, bears a distinguished name in English literature, both as the sympa- thizing friend of her brother, Sir Philip Sidney, and as the possessor of similar talents. She was married to the earl of Pembroke in 1576, and hav- ing survived her husband twenty years, died at her house in Aldersgate-Street, 1601. She wrote an Elegy on her brother, and other poems, includ- ing translations of the Psalms from the Hebrew. She also translated Mornay's • Discourse of Life i,' and the 'Tragedy of Antonie.' SIDNEY, Sib Philip, son of Sir Henry Sidney « Penshurst, in Kent, was born there on the 29th November, 1554. He made while young the tour of the greater part of Europe, and, in 1575, re- turned to England, where he became one of the brightest ornament! of tbe court uf Queen Eliza- beth. His learning was unusually ample and 708 SIE varied, his natural genius was brilliant, and he was pre-eminent in all the martial accomplish- ments and courtly graces which our great queen prized so dearly. He was a generous patron to Spenser and others of the literary band who gem- med the Elizabethan era. Sir Philip's own pro- ductions both in poetry and prose, though over- burdened by the pedantic conceits which the con- ventional taste of the court delighted in, show no ordinary amount of pathos, and an exquisite sense of natural beauty. The queen had restrained him from joining Drake's expedition in 1585, and also from seeking the elective crown of Poland, ' refus- ing ' as Camden says • to further his advancement, out of fear that she should lose the jewel of her times.' But in 1586 he obtained the command of the cavalry in the auxiliary army which Leicester led to the Netherlands against the Spaniards. Sidney fell in a skirmish near Zutphen, 22d Sep- tember, 1586, at the early age of tnirty-two. He had headed three successful charges of his own squadron against the enemy, when he was shot through the thigh with a musket ball. The bullet shattered the bone, and Sidney in great agony was carried off the field by his followers. As they bore him along he asked for water, and a bottle of it was found and brought to him. He raised it to his lips, but as he saw at that moment a poor soldier, wno lay mangled on the ground, • ghastly casting up his eyes at the bottle, Sir Philip removed the un- tasted draught from his own lips, and held it out to the dying man, saying 'Thy necessity is yet greater than mine.' Sidney's wound proved mor- tal, and he died at Amheim, after eighteen clays of severe suffering. He was buried in old St. Paul's, deeply regretted by his countrymen of every rank. A general mourning was observed for him, an honour then without precedent in England. [E.S.C.] SIDONIUS, Caius Sollius Apollinaris Modestus, a Fr. poet and orator, Lyons, 428-488. SIEBENKEES, John Philip, prof, of philo- sophy and Oriental languages at Altorf, 1759-96. SIEYES, Count Emmanuel Joseph, com- monly called the Abbe Sieyes, a politician of the French revolution, was born at Frejus, 1748. To him, mainly, Buonaparte was indebted for the op- portunity of assuming the supreme authority, and the interest of Sieyes' history terminates with that event. At the period of the American revolution he occupied the post of grand-vicar in the diocese of Chartres, but soon after abandoned his ecclesias- tical expectations for the arena of politics. The prospect of the estates-general meeting towards 1789 gave occasion to his first publications, the principal of which, 'Qu'est-ce que le Tiers Etat?' (What is the Third Estate), contributed greatly to the formation of a sound public opinion on government, though a most threatening one under the circumstances. It exhibited more than 25,000,000 of men governed without law or rea- son by about 200,000 of the privileged orders, consisting of the clerical and lay noblesse. Sieyes, returned to the estates-general by the electors of Paris, powerfully seconded Mirabeau on occasion of the Seance Royale, 23d June, 1789, and the assembly being declared national, he thenceforth devoted himself, with his extensive knowledge of the former history of France, to the erection of a constitution. We may say a word here to the SIE writers and readers of histories of those times : — it is one thing to judge of the probability of success in such a labour when the results have been long known, but quite another to pronounce on it be- fore the event ; add to which, the patriotic daring of Sieyes, for that period, was no less remarkable than the foresight and logical clearness of his views. In one point he went beyond Mirabeau, that, namely, of the royal veto, the principle laid down by Sieyes was that of making the king's office purely magisterial, and giving him no right to interfere with the will of the nation as expressed by its representatives; a point which is now re- garded as secure in the English constitution, for though the sovereign really possesses the veto, it is wisely treated as obsolete. It would occupy too much space to follow the Abbe Sieyes through the labours of the constituent assembly; it is well known that the ideas of the Girondins prevailed, and as this became more evident, Sieyes grew re- served, and finally retired from public affairs for a short season. In this interval the Jacobin out- burst of 10th August occurred, the national con- vention was summoned, and Sieyes reappeared as one of its members : the first question was that of the king's fate, now a prisoner in the Temple, and Sieyes gave his vote by simply repeating the words ' la mort,' (death), and to the questions of delay and appeal, 'no;' it is denied in the Biographie ties Contemporaines that he used the words 'la mort sans phrase.' In the height of the Jacobin ascendancy, Sieyes cautiously opposed the party of Robespierre in convention, from which he re- tired after the fall of the Girondins, and only re- sumed his place some months after the fall of Robespierre; at this period he narrowly escaped an attempt at assassination, and soon afterwards went as ambassador to Prussia, While there we read this notice of him in the recently published memoirs of the duke of Buckingham ; it occurs in a letter from Mr. T. Grenville, then at the court of Berlin : — ' I have seen Sieyes at court with his scarf and cockade. What Lavater would say of his features I know not, but I have seldom seen a countenance of so bad impression. His manners, conduct, and appearance here, have produced nothing but disgust in all that are not of the lower ranks of lite, but it is to those that his mis- sion is considered as being chiefly addressed, and he is said to have both means and agents enough to work through upon the lower classes down here.' At this very tune, so fallacious is opinion, Sieyes was intriguing, not with the lower orders, but with Buonaparte, then in Egypt, to whom he had conveyed an intimation of the state of affairs under the Directory. In fine, Napoleon suddenly returned, and concerted with Sieyes the coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire, which resulted in the appointment of Sieyes, Ducos, and Napoleon, as provisional consuls. The part of Sieyes was nearly played out when he had placed the crown of Charlemagne within reach of the successful sol- dier, and great must have been his disappointment when the latter grasped his projects, and absorbed the whole power and merit of realizing them in his own person. It is probable that Sieyes could never understand such a result, and in the char- acter of Senator, he often made vain efforts to resist his master. On the restoration of the Bour- SIG bons, he became an exile, but the revolution of 1830 enabled him to return to his country, where he died, at the advanced age of eighty-eight, in 1836. [E.R.] SIGALON, X., a French painter, 1790-1837. SIGAUD DE LAFOND, Jean Rene, a French physician and natural philosopher, disting. as the discoverer of new methods in obstetrics, 1740-1810. SIGEBERT, two kings of France, theirs* born about 535, was the third son of Clothaire I., king of the Franks, whom he succeeded as king of Aus- trasia, or Metz, 561. He was assassinated at Vitry, at the instance of Fredegonde, mistress of his rival, Childeric, 575. The second of the name, son of Dagobert I., succeeded to the king- dom of Austrasia 638, died 656. Several Anglo- Saxon kings of this name are also mentioned. SIGEBERTUS, a monk of Gemblours, in Bra- bant, a disting. historian and savant, 1030-1112. SIGISMUND, a king of Burgundy, 516-524. SIGISMUND, emperor of Germany, son of Charles IV., and brother of Wenceslaus, was born 1368, became margrave of Brandenburg, 1378 ; king of Hungary, in virtue of his marriage with Mary, daughter of Louis, 1386 ; and emperor in 1410. Between the last two dates he had to con- tend with the Turkish emperor, Bajazet, and, after becoming emperor, with a revolt in Bo- hemia, headed by Ziska, and occasioned by the disgraceful burning of John Huss. He became master of events, and was crowned at Prague in 1436, died 1437. His second wife is called the Messalina of Germany. SIGISMUND, three kings of Poland— Sigis- mund I., called ' the Great,' son of Casimir IV., was born 1466, and succeeded his brother, Alex- ander, in 1507, died 1548. Sigismund II., surnamed Augustus, born 1520, was son of the preceding, and succeeded him in 1548, died 1572. Sigismund III., surnamed De Vasa, born 1566, was son of John III., king of Sweden and of Catharine, the daughter of Sigismund I. He was elected king of Poland in 1587, and succeeded to the crown of Sweden in 1594. Being a catholic, his uncle, Charles, duke of Sudermania, easily undermined his authority in Sweden, and he lost that kingdom in 1604. In 1610, he succeeded in placing his son, Uladislaus, on the throne of Russia, but was afterwards obliged to succumb, and besides that, was involved in the war with Gustavus Adolphus. Died 1632. SIGNORELLI, Luca, was born at Cortona in 1441, and was the pupil of Piero Delia Francesca. He was one of those extraordinary geniuses like the Pisani, Giotto Masaccio, and some few others, whose works have formed eras in the history of art. It is hardly too much to say, that Signorelli anticipated Michelangelo in grandeur of design ; he constitutes the connecting link between Masaccio and Michelangelo, as Fihppino does between Ma- saccio and Raphael. Signorelli's great works are in the chapel of the Madonna di San Brizzio in the cathedral of Orvieto, where he has represented in extensive frescoes, the History of Antichrist, the Resurrection of the Dead, Hell, and Paradise. These frescoes were commenced in 1499, in con- tinuation of the unfinished series begun by Fra Giovanni da Fiesole : the ceiling was finished in 1500. The whole of the frescoes were finished 709 SIG _ 1503, and are sufficiently new and vigorous to account for the extraordinary progress in design generally displayed in the famous car- toon by >fichelangelo exhibited in 1506. Such is the extraordinary vigour displayed in these frescoes that Vasari and many others have indicated Signorelli as the immediate precursor of Michelangelo, who, says Vasari, always expressed the highest admiration for his works, and Vasari adds, that all may see what use he made of the inventions of Luca in his great work of the Last Judgment, in the Sistine chapel, especially in the forms of the angels and demons, and in the arrange- The fact is indisputable, some of the best figures are little more than transcripts from Sig- norelli. Luca died at Arezzo in 1524, whither he had retired, and where he lived, says Vasari, more after the manner of a nobleman than an artist. — (Vasari, ViU d£ Piltori, &c Ed. Flor., 1846, ■ml] [R.N.W.] SIGONIUS, C, a learned Italian, 1520-1584. SIGORGNE, P., a Fr. philosopher, 1719-1809. ART, G. P., a Germ, anatomist, 1711-95. SILANION, an Athenian sculptor, 346 B.C. SILHON, J., a French philosopher, died 1666. SILHOUETTE, Stephen De, a French states- man, disk as a miscellaneous writer, 1709-1767. SILIUS ITALICUS, Caius, a Roman pleader, and author of poems on the Punic war, was born a.d. 16, and became consul under Nero, 68. He was afterwards proconsul of Asia ; died 100. SILVA, D., a learned Milanese, 1690-1779. SILVA, J. B., a French physician, 1682-1748. SILVERSTOLPE, A. G., a Swedish states- man, historiographer, and philologist, 1772-1824. MI.VKRIUS, a pope of Rome, 536-538. SILVESTER. See Sylvester. SILVESTRE, Israel, a French designer and engraver, 1621-1691. His son, Louis, a painter, and member of the Academy, 1675-1760. SIMEON, a Jewish rabbi who flourished about the year 120, and through fear of the Romans retired to a cave, where he lay in concealment twelve years, and composed the Zohar, a cabal- istic work. SIMEON, Charles, fifty-three years rector of Trinity Church, in the university of Cambridge, author of valuable theological works, published entire in 21 vols. 8vo, 1832. These consist of Discourses, forming a commentary upon every book of the Old and New Testament, born at Reading 1759, died 1836. OF Durham, an English historian of the Saxon and other kings from 616 to 1130. He probably died soon after the latter of these dates. SIMEON, J. J., a Fr. jurisconsult, 1749-1842. MM EON, surnamed Metaphrastes, an eccle- siastic of Constantinople, who lived in the tenth century, author of 4 Lives of the Saints.' EON of Polotsk, a Russian preacher, ecclesiastical writer, and dramatist, 1028-1680. [EON, surnamed Stylites, a Christian fanatic who acquired immense fame by passing the last forty-seven years of his life upon the tops of ruined pillars. He flouri.-liwJ, if meh a word is at all applicable to him, from 3J2 to 461. A second saint of the name dwelt on his pillar sixtv- '-ar*. but the former was the original in- ventor of this pastime. SIN SIMEONI, G., an Italian writer, 1509-1570. SIMI, N., an Italian astronomer, 1530-1564. SIMLER, Josias, a Swiss divine, 1540-1576. SIMMONS, S. F., a learned physic, 1750-1813. SIMMONS. See Symmons. SIMNEL, Lambert, an impostor of the reign of Henry VII., who gave himself out for the duke of York, second son of Edward IV. He was de- feated at the battle of Stoke 1487, and was punished by promotion to an office in the king's kitchen. SIMON. See Montfort. SIMON, E. T., a French writer, 1740-1818. SIMON, J. F., a French antiquarv, 1654-1719. SIMON, Richard, a French Hebraist and theologian, who sustained a controversy with Bossuet and the Port Royal savants, 1638-1712. Another of the same names, published a Dic- tionary of the Bible in 1703, which was super- seded by that of Calmet. SIMON, V., a French dramatist, 1753-1820. SIMONET, E., a French theologian, 1662-1733. SIMONETTA, Giovanni, a learned Sicilian, author of a History of Francisco Sforza, in whose service he was, died about 1491. Others of the family were also writers. SIMONIDES, a Greek poet, 558-468 B.C. SIMONIN, S., a poet and ascetic, died 1668. SIMPLIC1US, a Greek philosopher of the time of Justinian, in the 6th century, author of Com- mentaries on the works of Aristotle and Epictetus. SIMPLICIUS, two saints of the Roman calen- dar : — the earliest, a bishop of Autun about 374 ; the latter, a pope, who sue. Hilary 467, died 483. SIMPSON, Edward, rector of Eastling, in Kent, dist. as a divine and chronologist, 1578-1651. SIMPSON, James, an Edinburgh lawyer, known as a writer on education, died 1853. SIMPSON, Thomas, the son of a poor weaver, who rose through difficult circumstances to be professor of mathematics at the Royal Academy, author of Treatises on Fluxions, Chance, Annuities, Algebra, and other subjects, born in Leicestershire 1710, died 1761. SIMS, James, a physician and professional writer, most distinguished as a botanist, d. 1831. SIMSON, R., a Scotch mathemat., 1687-1768. SINCLAIR, Charles Gideon, Baron, a Swed. general and writer on military tactics, 1730-1803. SINCLAIR, SINCLAIRE, or SINCLAKE, George, an engineer and professor of philosophy at Glasgow, author of works on hydrostatics, and the principles of astronomy and navigation. He wrote also a popular book on witches and appa- ritions, entitled 'Satan's Invisible World Dis- covered.' Died 1696. SINCLAIR, Sir John, an eminent political and miscellaneous writer, philanthropist, and member of parliament, was born at Thurlow castle, in Caithness, 1754, and admitted to the English bar in 1775. Five years after, he became member for his native county, and soon acquired that celebrity as a public character which con- nected his name with the stirring events at the commencement of the present century. He was the author of a ' History of the Revenue of Great Britain,' and a ' Statistical Account of Scotland.' Died 1835. SINDHYAII, SINDIAH, or SCINDIA, Ma- hadji, a Mahratta prince, who invaded llindostan 10 SIN SIX on the fall of the Great Mogul in 1770, and be- afterwards, was the composition of his largest and came master of Delhi, 1741-1794. SINGH, Maha Rajah Runjeet, the despot of Lahore and Cachemire, was born in 1779, and was first known as a captain of banditti. His career is one of the most remarkable among the numerous instances of success which mark the | possession of genius and an iron will, in states of society, which, however magnificent, may still be j called barbarous. His troop of marauders swelled ; to an army, which he brought into the highest state j of skill and subordination, until it was sufficient ] to give him the command of millions of people, j He died in the sixtieth year of his age, after a protracted illness, in 1839, and his funeral pyre was honoured by the voluntary death of four of his princesses and seven slave-girls. A portrait, and some particulars concerning this extraordinary man will be found in Mr. Princep's work on the Origin of the Sikh Power. [E.R.] SINNER, J. R., a Swiss savant, 1730-1787. SIRANI, J. A., an Italian painter and engraver, 1610-79. Elizabeth, his daughter, was also an artist, and was poisoned at the age of twenty-six. SIRI, V., an Italian historian, 1608-1685. S1RICIUS, a pope of Rome, 385-399. SIRLET, F., a German engraver, died 1737. SIRMOND, James, a learned French Jesuit, 1559-1651. John, his nephew, historiographer royal, 1589-1649. Anthony, brother of the latter, a Jesuit preacher and theologian, 1591-1643. SISMONDI. Jean Charles Leonard Si- monde De' Sismondi, divided his life, as he him- self says, between history and political economy. His works in the latter department are confessedly vacillating, hypothetical, and unsatisfactory; but his historical writings are very valuable, both for most laborious work, 'L'Histoire Des Francais.' The first volume appeared in 1821 ; and he did not live to carry it farther than the reign of Louis XV. In 1822 he published ' Julia Sevcra,' a short but heavy historical novel of the Fall of the Roman Empire ; and a history of that period appeared in 1835. In the last year of his lite he made himself unpopular at Geneva by advocating the expulsion of Prince Louis Napoleon from Switzerland. He died in his native city in 1842. [W-S-] SISMONDI, Ugilino, called Buzzacherino, a Pisan admiral, celebrated by his naval victory over the Genoese in 1241. SIVERS, H. J., a German naturalist, 1709-58. SIX, John, a Dutch dramatic writer, known also as the friend of Rembrandt, 1618-1700. He had a relation of the same name, who translated the Psalms into Dutch verse. SIXTUS, or XYSTUS, the name of several popes, of whom the most remarkable was Sixtus Quintus, the subject of the following article : the preceding four are — Sixtus I., of uncertain date, say 119-128. Sixtus II., like the former, a martyr of the Christian religion, 257 or 260. Sixtus III., the successor of Celestine, 435, died 440, since which his name has been enrolled with the saints. Six- tus IV., a member of the noble family of Rovere, in Savona, succeeded Paul II. 1471. He took an active part in the conspiracy of the Pazzi against the house of the Medici dukes of Florence, and ranks among the most unprincipled occupants of the papal chair. He wrote some ascetic works, and founded the Vatican library ; died 1484. SIXTUS QUINTUS, one of the most celebrated of the popes of Rome, was descended from Scla- vonian parents who had fled to Italy at the period their matter and their liveliness of composition; and \ of the Ottoman conquest of their country. His he did good service also as a critic of Italian and father, Pereto Peretti, was a vine-dresser in the Spanish literature. He was the last of a noble | humblest circumstances, but so hopeful of the for- family, which, driven from Pisa into France by re- tunes of his son that he named him Felix or publican dissensions in the fourteenth century, was again (being protestant) forced into Switzerland by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. He was born in 1773, at Geneva, where his father was a clergy- man. After completing the usual education in his native place, he was compelled, by losses of his father on the bankruptcy of the French funds, to become a mercantile clerk at Lyons. The revolu- | progress in scholarship and dialectics, and being tionaiy disturbances drove the family about for ordained priest acquired a valuable reputation by several years, in the course of which* they spent Felice. This child was born in 1521, and educated by his uncle, Fra Salvatore, who had fortunately joined the Franciscan order of friars : before passing under his care, however, the young Felix had acted as swine-herd, or in any field oc- cupation by which a scanty addition could be made to his parents' income. I" elix Peretti made great twelve months in England; and for five years, from 1795, Sismondi directed the cultivation of a small estate which his father purchased in Tuscany. In 1801, the family having returned to Geneva, he Fublished his sensible and useful 'Tableau de Agriculture Toscane.' He had also made much E reparation for his historical work on Italy ; but is speculations in political economy were the first to be completed. In 1807 appeared the earliest volumes of his excellent ' Histoire des Republiques Italiennes,' which was completed, in sixteen vols., in 1818, and augmented in a subsequent edition. A series of Lectures which he delivered at Geneva, was published in 1813, and is well known is England by a translation : ' Historical View of the Literature of the South of Europe.' In 1819 he went to England, to marry a sister-in-law of Sir James Mackintosh. His principal employment his oratory as Lent preacher in Rome, in the year 1552. His firmness in the catholic faith at this time — under trying circumstances — procured him also the friendship of the grand inquisitor, and the now rising churchman attached nimself to the severe party of Ignatius and others, whose influ- ence was then beginning to be felt. In quick succession he became commissary - general at Bologna, inquisitor at Venice, and procurator- general of his order; and these steps gained, by dint of a pushing and resolute ambition, he is said to have assumed the greatest humility, and affected the infirmities of old age ; the truth of such st:.te- ments, however, is denied by Ranke, who justly observes that the highest dignities are not to be won by such means. It is much more probable that Peretti's energy as a reformer of his order, and the discriminating friendship of the pope, Pius V., marked him out as the man for the epoch, and we 711 SIX he stood firmly by his favourite, whom SME SLINGELANDT, Pktee Van, a famous Dutch Kdothed with the purplein 1570. The son of | P^ T ^£™f^£ Gerard D °w, J640-1691. I now ranked with the princes of Italy by the title of Cardinal Montalto, and he still varied his public labours by rural occupations. We are not informed of all the circumstances attending his election to the papacy, but he sue- I ist and promoter ot natural history, was born in owded Gregory XIII. in 1585, and at once com- | Ireland in 1660. He died in 1752. He studied BMOced the administrative and social reforms in SLINGELANDT, Simon Van, grand pension- ary and treasurer-general of the United Provinces, died 1736. SLOANE, Sir Hans, Bart., a celebrated botan- Italy that he had so long contemplated. Unlike a recent example, he carried his measures with a high and firm hand, and so vigorously enforced justice, that the instances often read more like cold-blooded cruelty : his measures had the desired effect, however, of extirpating the bandits who had so long overrun the country, and of bringing some show of order out of the general lawlessness of medicine, but being fond of natural history, he devoted much attention to that science, and, in 1687, accompanied the duke of Albemarle to Jamaica. A short residence in that island enabled him to collect an immense number of plants, and other objects of natural history, with which he returned to England, and commenced the practice of his profession. In this he succeeded admirably, soon acquiring a high reputation, and becoming president of the College society. We cannot enumerate here his great j of Physicians, and physician to George II. His enterprises in administrative reform, or the mag- nificence of his public works, but they all mark his passion for order and completeness. His foreign policy was of the same trenchant descrip love for the natural sciences continued throughout his life. He was the friend and correspondent of John Ray and most of the celebrated natural- ists and philosophers of his time ; and filled, with tion ; no half measures or vaporings were to be : great distinction to himself and advantage to the tolerated ; for examples of this spirit, it may be sufficient to name the great catholic league, and the invasion of England by the Spanish Armada. Still more surprising and gigantic were his concep- tions as he grew old, as his rigid financial sys- tem enabled him to amass a large public treasure in the vaults of Saint Angelo. His designs now were sufficient to prove that he had perfected the government of his own states, and improved the discipline of the church, as an instrument of a more universal dominion than the papacy had ever reached ; even the Greek church and the empire of Mahomet were destined to be transformed under his hand. Sixtus Quintus breathed his last amid these visions of grandeur on the 27th of August, 1590. A storm burst over the palace of the Quirinal at the moment of his death, and it became an article of the popular faith that he had achieved his enterprises by a compact with the evil one, which had then expired. [E.R.] SIXTUS "i Siknna, a preacher and theologian, born of Jewish parents, 1520-1569. SIXTUS op Vesoll, Jean Paris, called Le Pere, a French Capuchin and Orientalist, 1736-92. BKELTON, Jcm.v, one of the early poet- lanreates of England, when that office was con- ferred as a degree at the university, was born towards the close of the 15th century. He was known to be curate of Trompirigton and rector of Dip, in Norfolk, in 1507, and is understood to have garnished his sermons with a good deal of invective against persons in authority. His poeti- cal satires brought down upon him the displeasure of Wolsey, who ordered him to be arrested; Skel- ton, however, was protected in the sanctuary of ster by the abbot, Islip, and d. there 1529. 1.1 1 >N, P., an Irish divine, 1707-1787. Mg I philologist, 1622-1667. SKY J 1 K. .J., otherwise Scroderus, a Swedish senator, originally the preceptor of Gustavus Adol- pbua, 1677-1646, His mfbtm. Laurence, known aaaneccfoi 1696. SLA : Vl.i:. Wii.i.iam, an elegiac • n, in Kent, 1587-1647. per name was MM», a celebrated Ger. hi-torian, 1506-66. Society, first, the office of secretary; and, next, at the death of Sir Isaac Newton, that of president of the Royal Society. He is the author of many valuable works and treatises, amongst which are his catalogue of the plants of Jamaica, written in Latin ; and his voyage to, and natural history of, that island. He accumulated an immense store of objects of natural history, art, and antiquities, which, along with his library, consisting of 50,000 volumes and MSS., he bequeathed to the British nation, upon condition that they would pay to his family a sum of £20,000 sterling. Parliament agreeing to this condition, secured the collection, and having already become possessors of the Har- leian manuscripts, and the Cottonian library, de- posited them in the fine old mansion, Montagu House, which they purchased for the purpose, and thus laid the foundation of the British Mu- seum. [W.B.] SLODTZ, Sebastian, a sculptor, founder of a family of distinguished French artists, originally of Antwerp, 1655-1726. His son, P. Ambrose, a designer, and professor of painting to the French Academy, died 1758. Rene Michael, brother of the latter, a sculptor and designer, 1705-1764. SMALBROKE, Richard, bishop of St. David's, distinguished as a controversialist, 1672-1749. SMALRIDGE, George, bishop of Bristol, known as a theologian and Latin poet, 1666-1719. SMART, Christopher, an elegant classical scholar and poet, born at Shipbourne, in Kent, 1722 ; d., the victim of a settled melancholy, 1771. SMEATHMANN, Henry, an English natural- ist and traveller in Africa, 1750-1787. SM EATON, John, a man of rare talent, who occupies a most conspicuous place in the history of civil engineering. He was amongst the first who styled himself ' civil engineer,' and to no name of more unimpeachable character or higher talent can members of the profession point as its type. Smeaton was born in 1724, at the dawn of the epoch of Britain's first display of commercial and manu- facturing vitality. As a mere boy he showed his bent to the mechanical pursuits. In 1742 he came to London, to attend the courts of law in West- minster, in pursuance of his father's design to 712 SME make him an attorney like himself; but, in 1750, we find him established as a philosophical instru- ment maker in Great Turnstile, Holborn. The sapling had taken its bent, and nature was too strong for any effort of authority to give the tree another form. In 1752 and 1753, he made the ex- periments ' concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn mills, and other machines depend- ing on circular motion,' from which resulted the most valuable improvements in hydraulic machines, and which remain to this day a standard of the philosophical process of inquiry into practical questions. For this essay Smeaton received the Copley gold medal of the Royal Society in 1759, of which he had been made a member in 1753, in acknowledgment of previous contributions to its transactions. In 1754, Smeaton travelled in Hol- land and the Netherlands, and there no doubt ac- quired a most important part of the engineering education, which qualified him to occupy the con- spicuous position he afterwards did as standing counsel of his profession. In 1756, Smeaton com- menced the great work which more than any other may be looked upon as a lasting monument of his skill — the Eddystone lighthouse. Two light- houses had been erected on the Eddystone Rock before Smeaton's admirable structure, of which the first was swept away in a storm, and the second, which was of timber, was destroyed by fire in December, 1755. The cutting of the rock, for the foundation of the building, was commenced August, 1756. The first stone was landed June 12, 1757. The building was finished October, 1759, and the lantern lighted for the first time on the 16th of that month. In all, there were 421 days' work upon the rock. This, Smeaton's first work, was also his greatest : probably the epoch of its erection, and other circumstances considered, it was the most arduous undertaking that has fallen to the lot of any engineer to execute, and none was ever more successfully accomplished. And now having been buffeted by the storms of nearly 100 years, Smeaton's work stands unmoved as the rock it is built on, a proud monument to its great author. Robert and Allan Stevenson have erected the Bell Rock and the Skerry-Vor lighthouses since, but distinguished as is the merit due to these men, they have readily testified as to who taught the first great lesson, and what was their example and standard of excellence. Smeaton's reports on the works he executed or advised to be carried out, were published in 1812, under the supervision of the Society of Civil Engineers, founded in 1771 by Smeaton and his friends. These reports are a mine of wealth for the sound principles they unfold and the able practice they exemplify, both alike based on close observation of the operations of nature, and affording examples of cautious sagacity in ap- plying the instructions she gives by means within the reach of art. Smeaton perfected the atmos- pheric steam engine, but lived to see the far greater improvements of the steam engine by James Watt come into extensive operation. Smeaton dedicated his spare time to philosophical study and investi- gation, and had an astronomical observatory at Austhorpe near Leeds, his birth-place. Here, on the 16th September, 1792, while walking in his garden, Smeaton was seized with an attack of paralysis, and on the 28th Oct. he died. [L.D.B.G.] SMI SMELLIE, William, a Scotch physician, au- thor of a complete course of midwifery, died 1763. SMELLIE, William, a printer of Edinburgh, translator of Buffon's Natural History, and author of a work entitled the 'Philosophy of Natural History,' 1740-1795. SMIDS, Ludolph, a German poet, 1649-1720. SMIRKE, Robert, a native ol Carlisle, famous as a painter of historical and imaginative subjects, member of the Academy, 1752-1845. SMITH, Adam, a very great name in Scottish Literature ; distinguished even amid those of our best writers and philosophers; and which will recall to all ages, as it now does to every civilized nation, the Man who by the authority of Reason laid the foundations of the Freedom of Industry, and of unfettered Commerce among States. Smith was born at Kirkaldy in Fifeshire on 5th June, 1723 : in 1737 he entered the university of Glasgow, where he studied under Hutcheson : from Glasgow he passed to Baliol College, Oxford, returning to Edinburgh in 1748. In 1751, he ob- tained the Chair of Logic in his Alma-Mater ; and in the subsequent year he was nominated to the professorship of Moral Philosophy. It is unneces- sary to record that his genius threw around this ancient University the greatest splendour of which it yet can boast, — an assertion not to be modified, even although his successor was Reid. Resign- ing his chair in 1763, he accompanied the young duke of Buccleuch to the continent — meeting in Paris, along with his old companion Hume, the distinguished Economist and Statesman, Tur- got and the celebrated Quesnay. Probably first moved thereto by his intimacy with Hume — who, some time previously had published his ex- quisite Political Essays — Smith had long turned his thoughts to the momentous subject which after- wards engrossed them; and his interest in it must have been greatly deepened by intercourse with the founders of that famous French School, which first aimed to reduce all Problems concern- ing the Public Riches, into the form of a Science. At all events, on his return to Scotland in 1766, he retired to his native town ; and after ten years of undisturbed meditation, he produced his imper- ishable work, ' On, the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.' In just tribute to the ex- traordinary deserts of the Author of the ' Inquiry,' Government bestowed on Smith a lucrative and not laborious Fiscal Office. He fixed his resi- dence thereafter in Edinburgh, where he died on 8th July, 1790. As a Man, Smith left behind him the truest testimony to his worth — viz., the best minds of his country mourning for their lost friend. He was simple and sincere, earnest in his beliefs, indefatigable in work ; nor do many of the odd anecdotes that still circulate regarding his absence and abstraction, fail to do their part in enabling us to complete a picture of him. Besides his great works, the Theory of the Moral Senti- ments and the Wealth of Nations, he left a few philosophical Essays, among which is a precis of the early History of Astronomy, most exact, pene- trating, and beautiful. He had been engaged for many years on another work, that promised to be of higher moment than even the Wealth of Na- tions — viz., a Treatise of Civil and Political Law — meaning to trace at once the History and the 713 SMI Theory of Law, from their obscure commence- ments, in the infancy of Society and in the Hu- man Reason, up to 'their highest developments. It is only the student of Smith's actual works, who can conceive the amount of detriment to Science involved in the loss of such a Treatise. No fragments of it remain. — We hasten to offer • briefaccount of the two great and completed investigations whose titles are as above. — I. Dis- ciple of Hutcheson, the Author of the Theory of Moral Sentiments, is in clear revolt against the moral doctrine of Houhes — viz., that the founda- tion of Moralitv is the feeling of Self-interest, and also against the somewhat broader scheme of :is propounded by Hume. Concurring with his Master, that we must seek that founda- tion in disinterested sentiment, he does not concur with him, that the required sentiment is Benevo- lence. In Smith's view the foundation of Morals is in Sympathy: we feel, he says, that conduct right on the part of another, with which we sym- pathize; and we hence infer that such acts on our own parts, alone can be right, with which others sympathize. However narrow and singular this principle may seem as a basis, the skill, clearness, feeling and eloquence, with which the theory is developed, will ever attract admiration, nor per- haps is any portion of its development more in- genious and striking, than where Smith shows, now Reason— working on the ground of primal feeling — gradually forms the rules of Morality, — involuntarily, almost, classifying the virtues; and so impressing on the mind those rules and classi- fications, that, in acting, we seldom or never re- quire to recur to consideration of the fundamental sentiment. Amidst the pleasure, however, with which we go along with these deductions, one very important question cannot fail to occur, — May not something of the same kind be estab- lished, with regard to any other supposed foun- dation of morality? If— accepting sympathy as that foundation— we really act through rule, and » direct sense of the obligation of the several and not because of any immediate feeling of sympathy; can it justly be averred against the nralists who claim Utility or Self-interest, as the simple or ultimate basis, that they are ever acting wink direct eye to Self- Interest? 'There is a truth 1:< r<- which sadly damages the scaffolding beneath certain declamatory criticisms! — The errors of Smith's system are two. First, deriving the sense of right from sympathy with others, it pro- nounces, that no one can have a sense of right un- less through intercourse with others ; and that the quickness of that sense must be proportionate to the extent of such intercourse. The Author of the Theory, adopts this conclusion, and ingeniously but vainly defends it The feeling of right, has sanctions in the Human Soul, which transcend everything that concerns intercourse with our fellows. Secondly, Like Hutcheson's scheme of Benevolence, and the doctrine of Utility itself, the Moral Theory of Sympathy, is quite too narrow ; mistaking an noral motive, for the Supreme Faculty wl ill motives, and determines Moral Action. This Supreme Faculty has been termed Conscience: we prater to rith K an t th e Practical Reason: it nergy through whose unchallengeable supre- 714 SMI macy, the philosopher of Konigsberg first dis- cerned that Reality, which is the awful counter- part of the Subjective Idea of God.— II. The 'Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,' stands to the Science it created, in the relation held by the labours of Lavoisier, to Chemi- cal Science, or the combined discoveries and in- vestigations of Copernicus, Kepler, and Newton, to Astronomy. Previous to the era of Adam Smith, all Economic Theories rested on some abstract principle, demonstrated by no induction, but merely assumed as true ; in other words, a prin- ciple expressive of the common notions of the time. It was reserved for the great Scotchman to appeal for its foundations, to Observation, and Experience analyzed by Reason; to apply in this case the strictest rales of Philosophic Induction ; and, on the basis so discovered, to rear a permanent struc- ture. It is not requisite now, neither would avail- able space permit us, to follow Smith in this con- scientious research. It is matter of common know- ledge, how clearly he discerned, and how firmly he established, the truths that all things coveted by men are the produce of labour, and that the quantity of labour employed in their production is the real measure of value : nor have we leisure to trace, the fine and continuous reasoning which led him from these simple and indubitable, but formerly unnoticed Principles, to the ultimate Laws which determine the economic prosperity of Nations. His achievements were indeed exhaustive, as the bare contents of his Treatise suffice to show. It consists of five sections. In the first he discusses the general causes of the formation, increase, and decline of Public Riches, and of their distribution among the various classes of men, who make up a modern Society. Next he analyzes the nature of Capital, explaining the mode in which it gradu- ally accumulates, and the nature of its efficacy in the production of Wealth. The third and fourth sections are occupied in examining the various theories or abstract doctrines in Political Economy, that have successively prevailed at different epochs of History and among various Nations; and in de- termining their influence — good and evil — over the development of the arts and agriculture, of industry and commerce. Finally, we have a searching glance at the nature of Public or State Revenue, and inquiries concerning the best and justest means of raising it by taxation. It is the peculiarity of Smith — indeed of every sound thinker on such subjects — that at every step not only of his inductive, but also of his deductive processes, he looks far around him over Society, as well as deeply into the nature of Man ; so that what he writes may be sustained alike by experi- ence and principle : and few men have ever pos- sessed in so remarkable a degree, the power to analyze experience — to separate the causes of complex phenomena, and assign to each the por- tion of the result which is due to it. So rich is it in Historic criticism and illustration, that the Wealth of Nations is admitted by every reader to possess a charm belonging to scarcely any work of the same kind, that either preceded or has fol- lowed it. With the exception of one very recent Thinker, who possesses at once an amount of political and historical knowledge and power of discernment, not inferior to Smith's, the English SMI writers on this subject, since the publication of the Classic Treatise, have rather been keen logicians than observers : and perhaps the highest compli- ment that can be paid to the Wealth of Nations, lies in the fewness and comparative unimportance of the modifications, which any of its conclusions have undergone, even from the scrutiny of such men as Ricardo, Malthus, and James Mill. — Smith in his lifetime reaped a deserved celebrity. On its ' first publication, the Inquiry was hailed as the Organon of a new Science, and rapidly translated into every language within civilized Europe. 'And ever since, it has been adding triumph to triumph ; prejudices, one after another, falling before its force ; and men and nations, in propor- tion as they acknowledge its worth, becoming more and more bound in brotherhood. Is then, this remarkable monument complete ; — shall Smith's doctrines, unmodified, continue to govern the policy of States? A question not lightly to be answered ! The relations of the classes within Society are changing; and sentiments prac- tically unknown in Smith's time, are pressing up- ward into sway. There is one great Element, even towards the production of the Wealth of a People, of which, in this memorable work, one misses notice. Among Machines, what one is equal in might or productiveness to the Human Brain ? And how fares this, under the stern and withering action of the Division of Labour? It is foolish to throw aside questions of this sort, under the pretence that they smell of Socialism. The man would be daring who should deny, that under an organization permitting the culture and employ- ment by every one, of all his Human Faculties, no Nation could fail to increase immeasurably in Wealth, as assuredly it would in Dignity and Happiness. [J.P.N.] SMITH, Anker, an Eng. engraver, 1759-1819. SMITH, Charlotte, wife of a West India merchant, who, in a period of reverse, had recourse to her pen as a means of support, and became a distinguished novelist and poetess; born in Sus- sex, of parents named Turner, 1749, died 1806. SMITH, Edmund, a dramatic wr., 1668-1710. SMITH, Elizabeth, a young lady of remark- able accomplishments in ancient and modern lan- guages, polite literature, and mathematics, author of a new translation of Job, and of the Life of Klopstock ; born at Burnhall, near Durham, 1776, died prematurely of consumption 1806. SMITH, G., a landscape painter, 1714-1776. SMITH, Henry, a Ch. of England divine, whose eloquence rendered him highly popular, 1550-1600. SMITH, Horace, joint author, in connection ■with his brother, James, of the famous ' Rejected Addresses,' was born in London in 1779, and be- came a member of the Stock Exchange. These popular writers formed their literary partnership on the establishment of the ' Pic Nic' newspaper, by Colonel Greville, in 1802, and were soon highly esteemed as periodical writers. The ' Rejected Addresses' appeared in 1812, on the re-opening of Drury Lane theatre, and have continued popu- lar till the present time. Horace was afterwards distinguished as a novelist by his well-known works, ' Love and Mesmerism,' ' Brambletye House,' &c, and died 1849. James, who was older by four years, and followed his father's pro- 715 SMI fession of a solicitor, made no further effort to keep his name in remembrance ; he died in 1839. SMITH, Sir James Edward, an English physician, founder and first president of the Lin- naeau Society, disting. as a naturalist, 1759-1828. SMITH, James, a native of Glasgow, whose name has become cele. in connection with agricul- tural and manufacturing improvements, 1789-1850. SMITH, John, a physician, 1630-1 G79. SMITH, John, a learned divine, author of ' Ten Discourses on Theological Subjects,' 1618-1652. SMITH, John, a mezzotinto engraver, abt. 1700. SMITH, John, known as Capt. John Smith, or Smyth, a military officer and traveller, whose life is intimately connected with the history of New England, 1579-1631. SMITH, or SMYTHE, John, an ambassador, traveller, and writer on military weapons, 16th c. SMITH, John, an English divine and antiqua- rian, editor of an edition of the Venerable Bede, 1659-1715. His son, George, who completed the latter work, was author of a book entitled 4 Britons and Saxons not Converted to Popery,' 1693-1756. SMITH, John, a native of Glenorchy, in Argyll- shire, and a minister of the Scotch Kirk, famous as an antiquarian and Celtic scholar, 1747-1807. His works are Alleine's Alarm, Catechism of Dr. Watts, and other small works, translated into Gaelic; 'Essay on Gaelic Antiquities, concerning the History of the Druids,' ' Ancient Poems, trans- lated from the Gaelic,' • A Dissertation on the Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian,' a • Life of St. Columba,' a ' Commentary on the Prophets,' &c. SMITH, John, a London banker, and member of parliament in the Whig interest, 1767-1842. SMITH, Dr. John Pye, was a native of Shef- field, were he was born in 1775. His father was a bookseller, and young Smith, from his facility of access to books, early acquired a strong taste for reading, which furnished him even in boyhood with a large stock of miscellaneous knowledge, though from the nonconformist principles of his family, it was chiefly directed to the works of the Puritan divines. Having shown a decided bias for the minis- try as his future profession, he was entered a student of the Dissenting college, at Rotherham, under the superintendence of the able and learned Dr. Wil- liams. He was, on the completion of his term of study, appointed classical master of that institu- tion ; and so much satisfaction did he give in the performance of his academical duties, that he was transferred in a few years to the higher and more important college of Homerton, first in the classi- cal and ultimately the theological chair. At an early period of life, he determined to produce a work on one of the leading doctrines of the Christian religion. And the influence of Priestley's writings having been productive of much evil in shaking the faith of many as to the divinity and atonement of Christ, he set himself to the composition of a work which should furnish a full answer and refutation of the Socinian heresy. This book, which he entitled 'lhe Scripture Testimony to the Messiah,' was hailed by all denominations as a most valnaMu contribution to theological literature ; and by the acuteness and force of its reasoning, as well as by its extensive erudition, raised the author to the foremost rank of British divines. He was compli- mented through Dr. Dwight of Yale college, an America, with the honorary degree of D.D. A supplement ary volume was published in 1818, con- stme of ' m '■' the Priesthood of I>r. B«ilh was lei to direct his researches various departments of the great field of ce, especially into that of geology, and being deeply interested in the bearing of that new science on the truth of the Mosaic Record, he pub- lished in UM a treatise entitled, 'The Relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of Geological Science.' Dr. Smith, after discharging the duties of the theological chair at Homerton for the long period of fifty years, resigned his profes- sorship in 1850, and at a public breakfast to which he was invited, he received from his friends a most gratifying and honourable testimonial in the lorm of £2,600 subscription for the aid of students in divinity to be called the Smith Scholarship. His death took place early in the following year in Southwark. [R.J.] SMITH, John Stafford, a famous composer of glees, anthems, and madrigals, died 1836. I il, John Thomas, keeper of the prints and drawings in the British Museum, a miscel- laneous and antiquarian writer, 1766-1833. SMITH, Miles, a learned prelate, one of the ministers employed in translat. the Bible,1568-1624. SMITH, Richard, a Roman Catholic divine and professor at Douay, born in Worcestershire 1500, died 1563. The principal circumstance recorded of him is his attendance at the burning of Ridley and Latimer. SMITH, Richard, a Roman catholic divine and controversial writer, 1566-1655. SMITH, R. A, a Scotch musical composer, whose works, sacred and secular, bear testimony to his high genius and prolific industry. His com- u are likely to maintain their place among ,al music of Scotland, 1780-1829. SMITH, Robert, distinguished as a writer on optics and musical sounds, 1689-1768. .s.MITH, Rob. Percy, brotherof the Rev Sydney Smith, a barrister and man of letters, 1770-1845. Mil I II, S., a presbyterian writer, born 1588. SMITH. Sir Sidney Smith, born at West- minster in 1764, was the son of Sir John Smith, a veteran general of the seven years' war. Young Sidney became a midshipman at the age of twelve, and served in several ot the naval actions of the American war. He then entered the Swedish ser- vice and distinguished himself in the short war of 1788-1790 between Sweden and Russia. He was honoured by the Swedish king with the knighthood of the order of the sword. He returned to the En- glish sen-ice in the war between the French repub- lic and this country, and signalized his courage and skill under Lord Hood in the operations at Toulon in 1793. He next commanded the Dia- mond frigate in the channel fleet, and drew the attention of both friends and foes by the ardu- ous enterprises which he undertook against the ■ '-ast and harbours. He was captured at 7M in a desperate attempt to eat out a privateer that was moored in the Seine. Sir Sidney was taken to Paris and imprisoned in • was treated with peculiar and unjustifiable rigour, till he flftctoj his escape, eeded in reaching England in 1798. He now was appointed captain of the Tiger, 84 gun- SMI ship, and sailed to the Mediterranean. In 1799, when Buonaparte had marched his army from Egypt to Syria, Sir Sidney Smith saved the impor- tant fortress of St. Jean d'Acre, and thereby de- feated the whole scheme of the French expedition. The Turkish commandant, Djizzar Pacha, was about to evacuate Acre and abandon it to the victorious French army, that was advancing along the coast from Jaffa, when Sir Sidney Smith arrived in the bay, and decided the Turks on resisting. Sir Sid- ney had under his command the Tiger of 84, the Theseus of 74 guns, and some smaller vessels. He landed seamen and marines, guns, and ammuni- tion, and co-operated zealously with the Pasha in strengthening the works during the interval of two days, that elapsed before Buonaparte's army arrived. He was also fortunate enough to capture the French flotilla that was conveying heavy guns and stores for the siege, and these were now arrayed in defence of the place. The French appeared before the walls on the 17th of March, and a siege com- menced which Bonaparte urged on for two months with unremitting violence, and which the Turkish garrison and their English confederates resisted with equal firmness. At last, after having lost 4,000 of his best troops, Napoleon raised the siege and retreated to Egypt. He always referred with the utmost bitterness to this disappointment, and spoke of Sir Sidney as the man who made him miss his destiny. Sir Sidney continued to serve off the Syrian and Egyptian coasts, and co-operated in 1801 with the English expedition which General Aber- cromby led to expel the French from the East. Sir Sidney not only as a naval officer protected the disembarkation of the English troops, but he landed himself and took part in the operations of the troops on shore. He was wounded at the battle of Alexandria, in which Abercromby was killed. Sir Sidney was made an admiral in 1805, and he distinguished himself under Sir John Duckworth in forcing the passage of the Dardanelles in 1807. He afterwards commanded on the South American station ; and at the close of the war, he was second in command in the Mediterranean. He died in 1841. [E.S.C.] SMITH, Sydney, was born in Essex, in 1768, and educated at Winchester and Oxford. About 1796 he became a curate on Salisbury Plain, whence, two years afterwards, he removed with a pupil to Edinburgh. There he became intimate in the knot of energetic young men who afterwards became so famous ; and he receives the credit of having sug- gested the idea of the ' Edinburgh Review.' He long continued to furnish that celebrated periodical with papers, which, though displaying neither great knowledge nor great power of thinking, are irresis- tibly diverting and most effective, through the writer's unscrupulous and biting sarcasm, his flashes of eccentric fun, and his unsurpassed skill in the art of quizzing. Sydney Smith's wit was yet more celebrated in society, and established him as one of the most brilliant talkers in the Whig circles of London. He migrated thither from Edin- burgh in 1803: in 1806 he received from Lord Erskine a rectory in Yorkshire, where he resided for some years, and wrote his famous and stinging Letters on the Catholic Question in the name of ' Peter Plymley.' In 1829 he was presented to another living by Lord Lyndhurst ; and in 1831 710 SMI SOB Sol ? re Z ma< i e *? im a ,f a "°" °f.Saint Paul's. . In ! the indifferent translation of • Don Quixote;' and the very careless • History of England,' of which the portion extending from the Revolution to the death of George II. has repeatedly appeared as a sequel to Hume. For a long time after 1756 Smollett edited, with great ability, but not less acrimony, the ' Critical Review,' established as an 1839 he published a collected edition of his works ; and he died in London in 1845. [W.S.] SMITH, Thomas, chaplain to the English em- bassy at Constantinople, author of an Account of the Turks, a Life of Camden, &c, 1638-1710. SMITH, Thomas, a landscape painter of Derby, died 1769. His son, John Raphael, celebrated for his crayon portraits and mezzotinto engrav- ings, died 1812. SMITH, Sir Thomas, secretary of state in the reigns of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, author of * The Commonwealth of England,' 1514-1577. SMITH, W., rector of Trinity church, Chester, author of poems and translations, 1711-1787. SMITH, William, a heraldist, died 1618. SMITH, or SMYTH, William, a learned pre- late, founder of Brasennose College, Oxford, the plan of winch he concerted with his friend, Sir E. Sutton, died 1514. SMITH, William, many years member of the House of Commons, in which he supported liberal measures, and advocated the dissenting interest, born 1756, first entered parliament 1784, d. 1835. SMITH, William, an eminent geologist, was bora at Churchhill, in Oxfordshire, in 1769, and followed the profession of a land surveyor. He is the author of many valuable works, the character of which may be briefly described by the terms in which the Geological Society of London awarded him the Wollaston medal in 1831 : — ' In consi- deration of his being a great original discoverer in English geology ; and especially for his being the first in this country to discover and to teach the identification of strata, and to determine their succession by means of their imbedded fossils.' Died 1839. SMOLLETT, Tobias, was the grandchild (by a younger son) of Sir James Smollett, of Bonhill in Dumbartonshire, and was born in that county in 1721. He was educated in Glasgow for the medical profession; but he attended more to literature, wrote a tragedy in his eighteenth year, and soon afterwards, by his grandfather's death, was left to his own resources, and sought his fortune in Lon- don. Being appointed, in 1741, a surgeon's mate in the navy, he was present in the unfortunate expedition to Carthagena, spent some time else- where in the West Indies, and returned to England in 1746. He threw himself perforce on literature for a livelihood, married a lady whose fortune proved to be disappointingly small, and destroyed any chances he might have Had as a play-writer by quarrelling with managers. 'Roderick Random,' his earliest novel, appeared in 1748, and ' Peregrine Pickle' in 1750. He next attempted medical practice in Bath; but, being quite unsuccessful, returned to London, and became an author for life. His time thenceforth was chiefly employed in the performance of task work, relieved only at intervals by the composition of his later novels, and of a few pieces in verse, insufficient to give him aiy considerable rank as a poet. He was naughty and quarrelsome, but good-hearted and benevolent ; and this union of qualities fitted him equally ill for saving money out of the precarious gains of author- ship, and for enjoying comfort in the stormy voca- tion of a political partizan and literary critic. The best known of his miscellaneous works are two : advocate of the Tory and High Church party ; and Wilkes's famous ' North Briton' owed its existence and its name to his paper ' The Briton,' in which he defended the administration of Lord Bute. His novel of ' Count Fathom' appeared in 1753 ; and 'Sir Lancelot Greaves' was written in 1756, while the author was undergoing imprisonment for a libel. Visiting the continent in 1763 and 1764,when his circumstances and health were shattered, and his spirits sunk by the death of his only child, he published, on his return, his clever but peevish 'Travels through France and Italy.' His ill- humour vented itself anew in ' The Adventures of an Atom,' (1767). After having applied unsuc- cessfully for a consulship in the Mediterranean, he was again compelled to seek for health in a warm climate ; and, in 1770, he left England, never to return. He died near Leghorn in the autumn of 1771, having just completed ' Humphrey Clinker,' which is not only the liveliest of his works of fiction, but breathes often a kindlier and more gentle spirit than the rest. Hazlitt, in his ' Lectures on the English Comic Writers,' and in the ' Edinburgh Review,' has excellently described Smollett's novels, and contrasted their coarse and vigorous pictures of externalities with the fine dissection of character which is presented by Fielding. [W.S.] SMYTH, J. C, a Scotch physician, 1741-1821. SMYTH, William, well known as the friend of Henry Kirke White, professor of modern history at Cambridge, and author of historical works and poems, 1764-1849. SNAPE, Andrew, an English divine, d. 1742. SNAYERS, H., a Flemish engraver, born 1612. SNAYERS, P., a Flemish painter, 1593-1670. SNELL, Rodolph, in Latin Snellius, a Dutch mathematician and philologist, 1547-1613. His son, Willebrod, a mathematician, 1591-1626. SNEYDERS,orSNYDERS,FRANCis,aFlemish painter of hunting and battle-pieces, who frequently executed the animals and fruits in pictures of Rubens, 1579-1657. SNORRO-STURLESON, an Icelandic histo- rian and mythologist, au. of the Edda, 1178-1241. SOANE, Sir John, a metropolitan architect, was born at Reading, where his father was a small builder, 1753. He became errand boy in the office of an architect, and rising to the position of a pupil was finally sent to Italy to pursue his studies by the Royal Academy. Died 1837. SOANEN, J., a Janscnist prelate, 1647-1740. SOBIESKI, John, king of Poland, famous in the wars which marked the last efforts of the Turks to extend their dominions in Europe, was born in Galicia 1629. His father, James, was gover- nor of Poland, and his military distinction was acquired in the Polish army, in the time of those weak kings, Casimir V. and Michael. In 1667, with only 20,000 men, he defeated an army of Cossacks and Tartars numbering 100,000, who left as many dead on the field as the whole number of Sobieski's troops. Casimir dying the year follow- 717 SOB •it have been succeeded by Sobieski, had be made anv effort, but he permitted the election of Michael, and onlv acted unon the dictates of am- bition, when the 'latter had proved his incapacity. A desolating civil war now threatened the country, as the adherents of Sobieski and of Michael were ped against each other, but a new invasion religious service to him. The arguments . ;rks numbering 150,000 combatants, under Mahomet IV., suddenly announced a new danger. At this crisis Michad and his army took to flight, and the partizans of Sobieski, upon whose head a price haa been fixed, swore to detend him : he then fed them against the Turkish hosts, and in another great battle put 15,000 of them to the sword, re- covered the spoils they had taken, and set 80,000 prisoners at liberty. While Sobieski was reaping these laurels in one part of the kingdom, Michael in another had concluded the shameful treaty of Budchaz, by which he bartered away a part ot his dominions on condition of being supported in arms his rebellious general ; against this treaty Sobieski appealed to the diet, and falling upon the Turks once more, beat them at Kotzin (1674), and took the fortress till then deemed impregnable, at a loss to the enemy of 20,000 men. On the day of this battle Michael breathed his last, and Sobieski commenced his reign under the title of John III. ; but he had hardly felt the weight of the crown before a new invasion of 200,000 Turks and Tar- tars summoned him to the field. Once more he led his brave Polanders against this redoubtable enemy, whom he charged with the inspiring battle- cry of 'Christ for ever;' his successes, however, produced no better result than an honourable treaty of peace, which had little more effect than a truce. In 1683 Sobieski was persuaded by the pope to enter into a defensive alliance with the emperor Leopold, and in July of that year the grand vizier, Kara Mustapha, led a vast army of 300,000 men against Vienna. The capital of the Austrian em- pire had no prospect but submission, when Sobieski, yielding to the entreaties of a sovereign who had refused him the title of ■ majesty,' placed himself at the head of a small but devoted army of less than 20,000 men and proceeded to the seat of war by forced marches. On his way, he was joined by some of the German princes, whose reinforcements swelled his army to 75,000, and with this force he came in sight of the Turkish encampment, which he viewed from the ridge of the Kalemberg over- looking the Austrian capital. From these heights Sobieski rushed down upon the enemy, and obtained a victory with the praises of which all Europe led, For the evil return rendered to this hero by the emperor Leopold, and consummated by the peace of Moscow in 1686, we have no space. He died at Warsaw, June 17, 1696, and years afterwards Charles XII. paused in his headlong course to visit his tomb, and drop a tear to his memory. [E.R "I :V. F., a French writer, 1743-1820. BOCB ephew of Laelius So- cinus, and a descendant of the illustrious house of ni, was born at Sienna, in December, 1539. His family being suspected of heresv, Socinus at the age of twenty took refuge in France lor a season, but returned to Italv on his uncle's death, and spent twelve years at Florence in t ! , of the grand duke. In 1574 he retired to Basle, SOC and four years afterwards was invited by the court physician, George Blandrata, to Transyl- vania, where opinions similar to his own had been for some time professed. Francis Davidis had held, as a legitimate deduction, that if Jesus be a mere man, or a creature, it is idolatry to offer any of Socinus failed to convince him, and the refractory divine was thrown into prison, where he died after six years of close confinement. In 1579 Socinus visited Poland, but the unitarians of that country had scruples about admitting him into their com- munion. He left Cracow, after a residence of four years, and soon after married the daughter of a nobleman, who was his patron and protector, and on whose estate he lived in retirement. He gradually obtained influence in the country, and many persons of rank and wealth were led to espouse his creed. In 1598 the mob subjected him to a cruel maltreatment, dragged him through the streets, and burned his papers. Socinus died at a village in the neighbourhood of Cracow, March, 1604. The vague and floating anti-Trini- tarian opinions on the person of Christ, which had for some time been abroad, were reduced by Socinus into a system. He denied the Supreme Deity of the Saviour, affirming that he had no ex- istence till he was born of the Virgin — denied that the Holy Spirit is a person — excluded the atone- ment from his ' scanty creed,' regarding the death of Jesus only as a martyrdom — denied the personality of Satan — and refused the doctrine of original sin and that of eternal punishment. In short, he impugned all that in every age has been held distinctive of evangelical theology. The views of his uncle, Laelius, seem to have first im- pressed his mind with those ideas, and though he discards all fanaticism, yet he indicates that one of that uncle's interpretations, was all but a special revelation to him from Christ himself. Opera, vol. ii. 505. The works of Socinus form the first two volumes of the ' Fratres Poloni,' and consist of numerous exegetical and polemical tracts, and letters ; a long account of an argument with Francis Davidis, the ' Responsio pro Raco- viensibus,' replies to Puccius and Solanus, a mis- cellany of disputations, with a variety of antagon- ists, and a life of the author prefixed by a Polish knight. [J.E.] SOCINUS, Laelius, a celebrated heresiarch, uncle of the preceding, born at Sienna in 1525, but quitted Italy to join the reformation party in Switzerland, where he died in 1563. SOCRATES, born at Athens in the year 468 B.C.; suffered the punishment of death for ' Im- piety' at the age of seventy. — How arduous to approach with a view to represent them — the Just of the Earth! To analyze a speculative system is comparatively easy; even to transfer one's self to the position of its Framer, and so dis- cern it — as alone it can be discerned — from within, is still a task chiefly for the Intellect : more diffi- cult, but also, quite within reach of impartial re- search, to estimate the illustrious Statesman, ap- (>rcciate the obstacles he overcame, and compre- hend the space and duration of his influence : nor, if the Inquirer be earnest and endowed with a por- tion of Imagination, need he shrink from the attempt to accompany the military Hero, to un- 718 soo ravel his complex operations, and even to par- ticipate his ardour amid the clangours of War. But Socrates ! The most just, the most exalted, the completest type of Humanity to which classic Antiquity with its wonderful creations, ever gave birth — the nearest of all who preceded, to a Being we name not here — who, without ambition, or pretence, or external advantage, but, through the simple force of Moral and Intellectual greatness, took unrelaxing hold at once of the Heart and Mind of the Ancient World, — to think or write of Him — even those few broken paragraphs which alone we now undertake — this, demands prepara- tion of a different order, and much rarer moods. —The Parents of Socrates were of no mark or note in the Athenian State ; nor was their son gifted with any of those personal distinctions, which were of indifferent account nowhere in Greece. A face the reverse of beautiful, flattened nose, protruding eyes, the entire physiognomy anything but attrac- tive to a passer by, he made no attempt to veil or compensate deficiencies, by ordinary solicitudes: in coarse tattered cloak, and oftenest unsan- dalled, Socrates strolled through all Public places, — the observed, however, of all observers; fre- quently listened to by multitudes; and greeted by the hearts of the choicest Youth of Athens, whenever he appeared. Closer inspection of the only representations we have of him, goes, indeed, a certain length in explaining this latter remark- able power of fascination. A massive head in- stinct with authority, a broad although rugged brow, and that aspect of self-possession which in- dicates a Man to whom mastery appertained too much of right, to pennit him to feel conscious of it : not a vestige accordingly of repellent affecta- tion, or assumption, or reserve ; but, on the con- trary, the light of the most genial Humour ever flickering like sunshine among his singular fea- tures. Qualities, of all others, the surest to win a way for their possessor to the respect and likings of the cheerful and frank; but one higher, was needed to obtain for Socrates that devoted and enthusiastic attachment, which even a spirit un- tameable as Alcibiades, could not refuse. Broad the gulf usually sundering Youth from Age, depriving Age of its authority as Counsellor, and Youth of the blessings of guardianship : but the severance springs less from the inconstancy and impulsiveness of Youth, than from the rigidity of Age. As Life advances, bonds multiply and tighten around most of us. Custom governs, as second Nature : that is, we bend before social and con- ventional moralities, beliefs, and expectations ; and forget the modes of less fettered existence. No tyranny of Custom, however, had subjected So- crates. Ever increasing in Knowledge and Wis- dom ; to his latest hour he was youthful as at first : no marvel, therefore, though young men clustered around him — hailing him as best companion as well as Sire. Something like a mask of the inestim- able quality now spoken of, is not uncommonly worn— springing from mere lack of thought, and slightness ot temperament. But it belonged to Socrates, because, through his moral and intellec- tual force he lived freely and consciously among those primary Intuitions, which Youth— when Youth is healthy — simply obeys. He had de- scended to the roots of that rich Nature, of which SOC our actual Men are but stunted and fractional de- velopments ; and thus, were his sympathies so full and sincere. Hence too, that unaffected solemnity which often mingled very touchingly with his most humorous moments. He could not conceal from his own Soul, that he had gone deeper than Sense ; and that the Voices to which he listened came from beyond the World. It was not for an Intellect so masculine, to get entangled with un- manageable theories concerning the nature of the Intuitions: he simply felt their presence, and reverently bowed himself down : — like Pythagoras, he said he had a Heavenly guide, and owed his safety to his *• Daemon.'' — Turning from the Man to his mission, one might at first fall into something akin to disappointment at its apparent simplicity ; and because it had so little to do with the found- ing and promulgation of arduous Speculation. Yet the functions which Socrates appropriated, are just the most important that can fall to Mor- tal : and the methods he took to fulfil them, show by their nature, how profound and universal his objects were ; for these methods, without one tittle of modification, are as applicable now as in long gone Athens, and will abide so through all time. TtuBi triKvroy. Before acting or speaking, know what you propose. If you speak, know what you speak : if you believe, know what you believe : no Ignorance is so shameful as an assumed knowing or believing, what one knows not. Ascertain what your Mind, in verity is, and be that. Surely a simple message ! Do we marvel, that the de- livery of it consumed the Existence of one of the greatest of Men ? Circumspice ! It can scarcely require to be mentioned, that Socrates wrote nothing, and was not a professed Doctor. His plan was much more direct and practical. He seized on some one whom he met in his walks ; and, by searching conversation, constrained him into contact with the foregoing truths. For the most part he laboured to bring men to recognize two grand sources of evil — two all prevailing and always prevailing detriments to Sincerity and Truth. Foremost, the careless, unconscientious use of words. A Word: observe what it is, what realities it ought to represent! First, it stands for a certain definite Thing — a fact or form in Na- ture about which there can be no dispute; and secondly, by every one of its derivative meanings, it represents some actual analogy among Things, and certain equally definite laws of the Mind. To understand a word, then, implies no slight know- ledge; and the use of it requires proportional care. Do men really thus comprehend the words they employ ? Take up any common or received pro- position, and question a man who says he stands by it ; — ask, if he comprehends its terms ? We fear it is as certain now, as Socrates demonstrated it to be, in Athens, that — no matter how momentous the proposition, no matter although some entire system of Morals, Politics, or Theology may hang on it — aye, that ninety-nine in a hundred even of so-called intelligent persons, would not come clear through the scrutiny! The power to construct language is an especial distinction of Humanity; and the right ana conscientious use of it, is the means by which alone we connect the past with the present, and discern through Nature and His- tory, those grand and serene principles of Order 719 soc which reveal not looking at strument; Truth gives way to Dogma, and we M without a blush. Would that every generation had its Socrates! Again, Socrates, rejoiced to force on collisions with the profes- sional Teachers of his time,— the class of men who had assumed the title of Sophists. It is now well and generally understood, that the once prevalent conception, that these Sophists were avowed and conscious teachers of Fallacies, is quite erroneous. They had no such distinction. Mere representatives in Athens, of the ordinary professional Teachers of almost every age, they were men who expounded Theories they had never bottomed ; and undertook, for fees, to prepare Young men, by the teaching of Oratory and Philosophy, for the daily work of Athenian public Life. Cer- tainly Socrates did not spare their presumptuous profession of Theories ; and he rejoiced to do then, what, if he had lived on Earth for ever, he might have done every day and anywhere— to reduce them, by his keen interrogations as to the signifi- cation of their propositions, to the embarrassed avowal of Ignorance. But his antipathies were equally strong against the whole system of acquir- ing Knowledge — as it was termed— for use. The thing to be accomplished, he said, is to become true Men, and the uses will follow. Does the Oak of centuries send out its strong arms that they may cast a shadow ? On the contrary, it ascends and spreads, through the vigour of its inner Life ; and then, tribes and nations sit down within the grateful covert. This, indeed, is no idle dis- tinction. Knowledge attained with chief view to specific uses, never forms the Man, and is not true Knowledge. Truth, in itself is not yet represented by conventional institutions and re- quirements : and the Mind which seeks in the first place to subserve these, must be satisfied to miss Truth. First and last, it was the counsel of So- crates — Be Men-rn.fi/ n*vror ! For thus alone can you become true citizens of Athens, or worthy to worship the Gods.— The teaching of Socrates, in so far as we have sketched it, was critical only ; although his interrogations seldom failed to point the way to 6ome momentous positive Truth. Concerning his own positive conclusions, we refer to the article Plato, — desiring rather, in our remaining space to view him as a practical Citizen. And surely, Athens had never a better or a nobler one. Inferior onlv to his love of Truth end Justice, was his ardent love of his natal soil, his desire for its prosperity, and his obedience to ita Laws. When exigencies demanded, a willing {atriot and brave soldier: he fought at Delium, 'otidoea, and Amnhipolis — a pattern of endurance ink and file; and he bore himself without ostentation, or the wish for notice. If he spoke in it was to defend the innocent; and he cared not then, whether before an excited People or the Thirty Tyrant*. During his whole long life, he never broke a Law — refusing in his own case to sanction disobedience, by an easy escape from the SOC consequences of one of the most unjust sentences recorded in History. Observe too, his careful t of the national Mythology — his respect for the Gods. It is not easy to define precisely the dian and father of Man. But he would not disturb the Laws : partly, it may be, through his practical sense of the necessity of Order to all Progress; but mainly through the Motive, which in a later ag« prompted Spinoza to reply to his simple Hostess: — 'Your religion is good; you ought to seek no other, nor doubt that it will assure your salvation, ifwhik it stimidates your piety, it helps you to lead a tran- quil and virtuous life.' What then, in painful wonderment we ask— what had been done by this most illustrious of the Greeks, that the State of Athens could not be safe unless he should perish by Hemlock? W T hat fault, indeed, could be found in him ? ■ Yet they only cried out the more, " Not this man, but Barabbas /" ' Excuse, of course, there is none, although there is explana- tion. Athens was confessedly tolerant ; but the case of Socrates was just that one, for which toleration has existed nowhere or at any time. If, as Mr. Maurice acutely intimates, the new Teacher had only announced some new theory, however antagonistic to those already afloat, no one would have hated him — not even would he have been blamed. By proposing his particular Theory, he would virtually have classed himself with the other Teachers, and been a new Doctor. But Socrates did not do this ; he did not propose a new sect : he proved that the methods of all sects were unworthy, and their pretensions hollow ; he made war on the very profession of Sophist. The ex- perience of the Ages, bears but one witness as to the certainties in such a case. 'If,' says Mr. Maurice, ' a Teacher of this kind is right in what he says, he must be regarded as a public benefac- tor ; the city must honour him above all its citi- zens.' And for such a claim, why expect toler- ance from those who are wise in their generation ! Isolation, was the seal of the greatness of Socrates; but it likewise caused and permitted the crime that destroyed him. Glorious, indeed, that long and noble Life : neither did he die in vain. Ages that are gone, and ages yet to come, will finger over Plato's admiring and affecting narrative. 1 he conversations of that last evening still warm our hearts, and subdue our souls. We hear him yet, the majestic old Man ; amid the afflicted group, he alone unmoved — discoursing of duty, and resigna- tion, and immortality — an Immortality which showed him Death as a mere incident amid Life, — not any sudden disruption or critical change, but the opening of a pathway towards worlds where duty still exists, and wherein the Good and Great who preceded him, surely for ever dwell. Wis- dom he had sought here ; Wisdom he would search for there; only he should discern more clearly, and live more purely. The final moment came. It may be, that through that humour which ever clung to him, or with other and now obscure intent, — • Crito,' he said, 'forget not the Cock that I vowed to Esculapius.' Socrates then departed — *vivput aftixt ! 'The last,' cried Plato, 'of our friend, the best of all men of this time, the wisest and the most just of all men !' [J.P.N.] SOCRATES, surnamedScHOLASTicus, a gram- marian, professor of the law, and pleader at the bar in Constantinople, about the middle of the 5th 720 SOD century, author of an ecclesiastical histoiy which continues that of Eusebius from 309 down to 440. This work is in much esteem as one of those original documents which can be relied on for accuracy and dispassionate judgment. SODERINI, J. A., a Venetian antiquarian, numismatist, and Eastern traveller, 1640-1691. SOLANDER, Daniel, Charles, an eminent naturalist, was born at Nordland, in Sweden, where his father was minister, in 1736. He studied under Linnaeus, and became the com-r panion of Sir Joseph Banks in Captain Cook's first voyage round the world. The objects of natural history collected in this expedition, which ter- minated in 1771, are now in the British Museum, as are the MSS. of Solander. In 1771 he received the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Ox- ford, and in 1773 became assistant librarian at the British Museum. Died 1782. SOLANO, F., a Spanish physician, 1685-1736. SOLARI, two Italian painters : — Andrea, sur- named del Gobbo, born at Milan about 1480 ; Anto- nio, called Zingaro, 1382-1455. SOLARI, J.'G., an Italian poet, 1737-1814. SOLDANI, A, an Ital. naturalist, 1736-1808. SOLDANI, J., an Italian poet, 1579-1641. SOLDANI, M., an Italian sculptor, 1658-1740. SOLE, Antonio Dal, a famous Italian land- scape painter, 1597-1684. His son, Giovanni Giu- seppe, a painter in the style of Guido, 1654-1719. SOLIER, F., a French Jesuit, ascetic writer, and historian of Japan, 1568-1638. SOLIMAN. See Solyman. SOLIMENA, Francesco, surnamed LAbate Ciccio, an eminent painter of Naples, 1657-1747. SOLINUS, Caius Julius, a Latin writer of the 3d century, author of • Polyhistor,' a poor com- pilation taken without acknowledgment from Pliny. SOLIS, Antonio De, a Spanish historian and poet, author of a ' History of Mexico,' 1610-1686. SOLIS, F. De, a Spanish painter, 1629-1684. SOLIS, J. D. De, a Spanish navigator, 16th c. SOLIS, V., a German engraver, 1514-1570. SOLLIER, J. B. De, a Fr. Jesuit, 1669-1740. SOLOMON, the son and successor of David as king of the Jews. SOLOMON, a king of Hungary, 1045-1100. SOLON, born at Salamis in the 638th year be- fore Christ, whence he early removed to Athens : — the one of the Seven Sages of Greece, of whom, fit this long distance of time, we can frame the distinctest picture. Known in his youth as a poet, and, as well for his personal qualities, as because of the station and repute of his family, highly esteemed in Athens, we find him at an early age inducing his fellow-citizens, to rescind by acclama- tion, the shameful decree, which, on account of previous defeats, had threatened death to any citizen who should propose to renew expedi- tions against the revolted Salamis. Appointed commander, Solon returned victorious, only to undertake and accomplish a far harder task. The civil relations in Attica were in confusion : in- stead of Government, Sects raged. The inhabitants of the hill country demanded a government of the most democratic order ; those ot the plain wished an oligarchy; those on the sea shore a mixed form. Draco's Laws — so profuse in death-punish- ments, and therefore so destructive of the best SOL sanctions of authority — still prevailed; and that plague which afterwards so often threatened the extinction of Rome, viz.: the oppression of debtors by creditors, under the letter of harshest laws, had spread through Athens, widely and deep, the spirit of the worst kind of revolutions. To remedy these latter evils was comparatively easy, .inas- much as each could be extirpated by one positive decree; and Solon, now intrusted with the supreme power, annulled Draco's Laws, altered the laws of creditor and debtor, and removed the hardships of existing relations, by an artifice not unknown to modern statesmanships — an artifice never excusable unless under pressure of im- perative and inevitable necessity — viz., a sweep- ing depreciation of the cnivency. But the work of adjusting political relations, or of framing a practical constitution for the State, was not so easy. Solon executed it in a way that enforced the assent, and even gained him the applause of all his countrymen ; nor through all their subse- quent and frequent vicissitudes, did the wisest of the Athenians ever cease to revert with longing regret to his wise Laws. In outline Solon's con- stitution was this : — He divided the citizens into four classes, according to their wealth : — the fourth class, containing the masses. To this class he refused access to any magistracy ; but that no man within the domain of Athens, might be ex- cluded from the rights, duties, and dignity of citi- zenship, he constituted a public assembly of the whole citizens, before which, all decisions of the higher courts might be brought in review: a privilege apparently restricted, but which soon convinced the Athenian plebs, that, in the last re- sort they were really masters of the Laws. Act- ing on that principle of checks, which — however easily discredited by abstract logic — has been found invaluable in experience, from the time of Athens and Rome, down to our own day, Solon sought security against haste or excess of the popular Assembly, first in the Council of the Areopagus, of which all who had been Archons were members, and which he invested with the general guardian- ship of the Laws ; and again in a second Council or Senate, charged with the initiative of every law, and the discussion of it, previous to its being ques- tioned in the Assembly : — each of the four classes sending one hundred members to that Senate. Add to which, that to secure justice and aid the weakness of the poorer classes, he authorized any one to bring before the tribunals a transgres- sor against the person or property of any other : this he considered the most effective police : under • Solon's laws, there were no processes as to Com- petence. Wiser than Lycurgus, Solon expected no perpetuity for his enactments; he ordained them, therefore, merely for a century. Alas ! the Instability of Human affairs! On returning from his travels, the Legislator found Athens again in confusion, and on the eve of the splendid but ab- solute monarchy of Pisistratus ! Want of suuess in Statesmanship is often good proof of deficiency in true Wisdom; and their speedy failure mini have thrown discredit on Solon's Laws. But in modern times, we can interpret more soundly : wo have learnt the surpassing difficulty of planting in an old country, a new Tree. Surely, tne sad ex- perience of France, establishes how inestimable 721 8A SOL the privilege and imperative the dutv, to prune the branches, and clear the roots — so that it decay not nor fall — of that umbrageous Oak under whose r < our forefathers lived ! — Solon, we have said was a poet; he was more, — the fragments that have reached us, prove him a master in Greek ■ong. , He felt too, the dignity and power of the Art; and he consecrated it to the same noble pur- poses to which he gave all his life — the inculca- tion of high morals and philosophy, and the eleva- tion of the Athenian people. We omit here, be- cause they are universally known, those touching personal anecdotes related of him by Hero- 5ta T.T.P.N.] SOLVYNS, Francis Balthasar, a Flemish ho accompanied Sir Home Popham to the East, and published a picturesque description of the Hindoos, their Manners, Customs, and Reli- gious Ceremonies, 1760-1824 SOLYMAN, caliph of Damascus, 715-717. SOLYMAN, emir of Cordova, 1009-1016. SOLYMAN, three emperors of Turkey :— Soly- m\n flTcuUH) L, proclaimed emperor after the defeat and capture of his father, Bajazet, by Timour, 1402; dethroned by his brother, Mousa, during a revolt of his subjects, and soon after killed, 1410. Solyman II., next article. Soly- man III., brother of Mahomet IV., succeeded on his deposition, 1688, having previously acquired the most effeminate habits Dy a forty years' resi- dence in a seraglio, died 1691. SOLYMAN the Great, second Turkish em- peror of that name, was born in 1494, and suc- ceeded his father, Selim, in 1520, being then in the twenty-seventh year of his age. The circum- stances of the period were such as to call forth the highest qualities that any statesman or sovereign could possess. The arms of Selim had been the terror of Christendom, and the next destination of his fleet, at the moment of his death, immediately after his conquest of Egypt, was a subject of the most anxious solicitude. A general league among the Christian princes was in agitation, and it was onlv their own mutual jealousies, and the designs of Francis I. in Italy, that prevented its realiza- tion ; added to which was the enmity of the haughty and warlike Mamelukes in Egypt, and the similar precarious state of many conquests on European territory. The situation of Solvman was much the same as that of the grand duke of Russia would be, if the throne of Nicholas, at the present crisis, were suddenly vacant; but with this difference, that his enemies were anxious for war, and eager to observe the least indication of weak- ness, and take advantage of it to destroy the infi- was the critical period of the consolidation of the Turkish power, and Solyman, without the ferocity of his father, instantly proved himself equal to the emergency. We have not space to enumerate his conquests, but the Mamelukes were Sit down, the Hungarian army defeated, and uda taken ; i -ed Vienna, but was compelled to retire with the loss of 80,000 men ; at the same time he improved the administration of his dominions, encouraged literature, opened roads, erected caravansaries, hospitals, and li- quid exhibited the most enlightened regard retfsra of the vast populations ruled by 1 i.e titles bestowed upon Solyman indicate SOP his high qualities, for while his own countrymen designate him 'the Conqueror' and 'the Legis- lator,' he is called by Europeans 'the Great' and 'the Magnificent:' he was also a poet, and he contributed greatly to form the present Turkish language by the happy fusion of the Arabic and Persian tongues, promoted by his example and polity. He perished of fever in a new expedi- tion against Hungary, while encamped before the walls of Sziyeth, two days before its capture. 8th September, 1566. [E.R.] SOLYMAN, two pachas of Bagdad : — Solyman L, of Georgian parentage, reigned 1750-1762. Solyman II., succeeded 1780, and reigned during a period troubled by the incursions of the Waha- bees, and the ravages of Timour Pacha, in Meso- potamia ; he repulsed the latter, and died 1802. SOLYMAN, emperor of Persia, 1666-1694. SOLYMAN, a general and minister of the Sultan Selim I., governor of Egypt 1526-1538; governor of Zemen 1538-1541 ; after which he became grand vizier. He enriched Egypt with many public monuments, and caused a general survey of the country to be made. SOMEREN, Cornelius Van, a Dutch phy- sician, 1593-1649. His son, John, a magistrate and poet, 1622-1676. SOMEREN, J. Van, a Dutch jurist, 1634-1706. SOMERS, John, Lord, born at Worcester, where his father was an attorney, in 1650 or 1652, died 1716. He united the study of literature with that of the law, and became known as a political writer in the time of Charles II., and in 1688 was one of the counsel for the seven bishops. The success of the revolution now opened the path to honour, and in 1695 Somers had become lord high chancellor of England, with the title of Lord Somers, Baron Evesham. In the reign of Queen Anne he was one of the commissioners for effect- ing the Union of Scotland, and in 1708 became president of the council. SOMERSET. See Seymour. SOMERVILLE, William, a gentleman of Warwickshire, who ranks with the inferior class of poets, author of 'The Chase,' a didactic and descriptive poem, in blank verse, 1692-1742. SOMMIER, J. C, a Fr. theologian, 1661-1737. SOMNER, William, a Saxon scholar and antiquarian, who held the office of clerk to the ecclesiastical court of Canterbury, 1606-1669. SONNERAT, P., a Fr. naturalist, 1745-1815. SONNIN, E. G., a French architect, 1709-1794. SONNINI, C. N. Sigisbert Manon, Count De, a French naturalist and traveller in Western Africa, Egypt, Greece, Wallachia, and Moldavia, au. of works of travel, and of an edition of Buffou with a continuation, in 127 vols. 8vo, 1751-1812. SOPHIA, empress of Constantinople, niece of Theodora, and wife of Justinian II., with whom she shared in the government of the state. After the death of that prince in 578, she conspired against Tiberius Constantine, who had been raised to the throne by her advice, and, being defeated by him, was compelled to live in privacy. SOPHIA, half-sister of Peter the Great, and czariness of Russia, was born 1667, and in 1682 placed herself at the head of the revolt of the Strelitzes. Having succeeded in her ambitious designs, she reigned over the Muscovites under the 722 SOP names of her brothers, Peter and Ivan. The for- mer, however, finally possessed himself of the sole power (Peter the Great), and Sophia died a pri- soner in a convent 1704. SOPHIA-CHARLOTTE, queen of Prussia, daughter of Ernest Augustus, elector of Bruns- wick Lunebnrg, and second wife of Frederick I., 1668-1705. She contributed to the foundation of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. SOPHIA-DOROTHEA, queen of Prussia, daughter of George I., king of England, wife of Frederick William L, and mother of Frederick the Great, 1687-1757. SOPHOCLES, was a native of Colonos, a beau- tiful village in the immediate vicinity of Athens, where he was born b.c. 495, being thus thirty years younger than ^schylus, and fifteen years older than Euripides. His father, Sophilus, being a man of good family, and possessed of considerable wealth, gave him a liberal education in all the literary and personal accomplishments of his age ; and these were still further enchanced by a person eminently handsome, which had been moulded and trained by the exercises of the palaestra. His proficiency in the knowledge of poetry and music, he having been instructed in the latter art by the famous Lamprus, is attested by the fact that, when his countrymen, after the battle of Salamis (b.c. 480), assembled to celebrate, around the trophy raised by their valour, the glorious victory which they had achieved, he, though a youth of fifteen, was selected to play an accompaniment on the lyre to the paean, in which the chorus of youths sung their country's triumph. It is besides probable that he also composed the words of the ode. The commencement of his career as a dra- matist took place under circumstances peculiarly interesting. jEschylns had for thirty years been the undoubted master of the Athenian stage, and was now to contest the palm with a youthful com- petitor of the age of twenty-seven, whose great accomplishments and personal graces had excited an unusual interest in his favour. The festival of the Dionysia was, on this occasion, rendered still more imposing by the return of Cimon from the island of Scyros, bringing with him the bones of Theseus. The people accordingly flocked to the theatre of Bacchus; and when Cimon and his nine colleagues entered the theatre to offer the customary libations to the god, the chief Archon, Aphepsion, instead of choosing judges by lot, detained the ten generals at the altar ; and, after administering to them the usual oath, constituted them the judges between the rival tragedians. Before this tribunal Sophocles exhibited his first tragedy, and by their award obtained the first prize. His subsequent career fully justified the decision of the judges. From this epoch (b.c. 468) he maintained the supremacy till B.C. 441, when his formidable rival Euripides was preferred to him, and gained the first prize. For sixty-three years Sophocles continued to compose^ and exhibit ; and during that period he twenty times obtained the first prize, still more frequently the second, and never descended so low as the third — an amount of Emm which far exceeded that of his great rivals. In B.C. 440 he exhibited the Antigone, the earliest of his extant dramas, a play which gave such satisfaction to the Athenians that they appointed SOT him as a colleague of Pericles and Thucydides in the war against the inhabitants of Samos. He seems to have won no laurels in his military capacity. Several offices of honour and respecta- bility were conferred upon him in his old age ; he was made priest of Halon, a native hero; and after the disastrous termination of the Syracusan expedition (b.c 413) he was, in his eighty-third year, appointed one of the committee of public salvation; in which capacity he consented (b.c. 411) to the appointment of the council of Four Hundred. The last years of his life were disturbed by family dissensions. In consequence of his partiality for a grandson, his eldest son endeavoured to deprive him of the management of his property on the ground of incapacity and dotage. The only- defence offered by the aged dramatist was to read in presence of his judges a passage from the (Edipus at Colonos which he had just written ; on hearing which the judges dismissed the case, and re- buked his son for his undutiful conduct. Sophocles died B.C. 405, after completing his ninetieth year. He is believed to have written 113 plays, of which only seven, along with some fragments, have descended to us. His private character seems to have been, on the whole, amiable ; the blemishes attributed to it being those of the age rather than the individual. In the hands of Sophocles the Athenian tragedy reached its highest degree of perfection. His language is pure and majestic, avoiding on the one hand the daring and sometimes rash flights of ^schylus, and on the other never descending to the common-place diction of Euri- pides. [G.F.] SOPHRANI, R,, a Genoese biographer, 1612-72. SORANUS, two physicians of Ephesus, the earlier of whom dates about the reign of Trajan. SORANZO, J., a doge of Venice, 1312-1328. SORBAIT, P., an Italian physician, died 1691. SORBIERE, Samuel, a French physician, philosopher, and historiographer royal, 1615-1670. SORBIN, A., a French prelate, 1532-1606. SORBONNE, Robert De, a doctor in theology who was the chaplain and confessor of Louis IX., and founded the college that bears his name, was born at Sorbon, a village in the diocese of Rheims, in 1201. His object was to found a society of learned theologians, who should live in common, and deliver lectures gratuitously, and this design he began to execute in 1253, by assembling a body of professors and scholars, whom he lodged near the Luxembourg palace. He died in 1274, and left the bulk of his property to render his bene- faction permanent. The Sorbonnc formed one part onlv of the faculty of theology in the univer- sity of Paris, but its name became so famous that it was often given to the whole, and graduates were proud to name themselves of the Sorbonne, rather than the university. SOREL, Agnes, a maid of honour to the qneen of Charles VII. of France, who has acquired a name in history by the influence she acquired UHK that monarch when she became his mistress, 1409-1450. SOSIGENES, an astronomer of Alexandria, who went to Rome in the time of Julius Caesar, and was employed by him in reforming the calendar, i;.c. 1"). SOSTRATUS, the architect of the renowned Pharos, or lighthouse, of Alexandria, 3d cent. B.C. SOTER, a bishop of Rome, 168-176. F2| SOT i.BY. W.. n English poet, 1750-1833. [£RON, Kkank, a British admiral, em- in the defence of Naples, 1767-1839. >. Domingo, a Span, ecclesiaa., 1494-1560. SOTO. 1 i.ki'Inank Dr., a Spanish adventurer and navigator, of whom an interesting account may B Bancroft's History ot the United States, died 1 >. Peter, a Spanish divine, 1500-1563. S0UBI>1.. Oiaki.ks Db Rohan, Prince De, Mahal of France, and minister of state to Louis XV. In the earlier part of his career he distin- pished himself in the field, but in his later years became implicated in the Dubarry intrigues, so dis- I to that court ; he was brother to the car- of Soubisse (see Rohan), 1715-1787. SOUFFLOT, J. G., a Fr. architect, 1714-1781. i. Ni. olb Jean De Dieun Soult, Duke of Dalmatia and Marshal of France, was born in 1769, at St. Amand. His father was a Soult entered the ranks of the army in 1785; and in 1791 he attracted the favourable notice of Marshal Lukner, and received a lieu- tenant's commission. He rose rapidly under Custine, Hoche, and Marceau, and particularly signalized himself in the victory of Fleurus. In I ted under Massena in Switzerland, and in 1800 he served under the same commander in the defence of Genoa. Soult was wounded and taken prisoner in a sally in the early part of this siege, but was set at liberty after Napoleon's victory at Marengo. Napoleon, who heard of Soult's bravery and skill, now employed him under his own eye ; and Soult's promotion went forward till he had reached the highest station. He was the first of -hals whom Napoleon created in 1804, and he was the first marshal whom Napoleon made a peer. He was the chief organizer of the great army which was assembled at Boulogne for the I of this country ; and when the ' army of England' was countermarched into Germany against the Austrians, Soult led the main column, :i< ipated largely in the glories of the cam- paign of Ulm and Austerlitz. He took in the next year a distinguished share in the victory of Jena; and bhowed consummate firmness as well as dar- e desperate struggle at Preuss Eylau. In ilt was sent into Spain. He defeated the Spaniards at Reynosa, and subsequently com- manded against Sir John Moore, whom he engaged at Corunna. He next occupied the north of Por- tugal, but was surprised and defeated by Welling- ton at the Douro, and retreated with great loss and into Spain. In 1809 he gamed the great I Ocana over the Spaniards, and subdued all the south-west of Spain, except the city of Cadiz. He lost in 1811 the hard fought battle of t Beresford. Soult was recalled to iter the Russian campaign ; but in the July of 1813, he was sent back to Spain to advance of Wellington after the English triumph at Vittoria, and to save the e from invasion. Soult did his duty tnsuccessfolly. He found the wreck ndes of Sp'ain driven in disorgan- ;>on Bayonne; the.spirits of the men were by repeated defeats, and their discipline J*« suffered proportionally. Against him the LogUah and their allies were coming on, flushed SOU ! with success, in the highest state of efficiency, and with Wellington to lead them. Soult restored order and spirit among his men, and in a fortnight from the time of his arrival at Bayonne he led them boldly again into the Spanish territory against the British. A series of engagements in and near the Pyrenees followed, in which Soult showed strategetic abilities of very high order, and gained several partial successes, though ultimately he waa driven back into France. He now defended his native country against the invaders with indomit- able courage, and an inexhaustible fertility of re- sources. Repeatedly engaged, and almost constantly defeated, he still presented an unbroken front against his assailants, and kept his retreating army ready to dispute every tenable post, and to seize any favourable chance of attack that fortune might offer. The final battle of Toulouse was contested by him with undiminished skill and courage ; and though, on the whole, the English were successful, Soult had the advantage on several points of the battle ; 5,000 of his enemies had fallen ; and he led his army safely out of the city, ready for further operations when the news arrived of the emperor's first abdication. In 1815 Soult joined Napoleon and fought at Waterloo, where he acted as one of the emperor's major-generals. On the second return of the Bourbons, Soult was for some time proscribed, but was ultimately restored to all his dignities. After July, 1830, he was much trusted by Louis Philippe, who employed Soult's talents in the war office, and also twice made him president of the council. He was present at our queen's coronation in 1838, as representative of France, and was received with warm favour by the English nation. The old marshal died at his chateau of Soult-Berg, 26th Nov., 1851. [E.S.C.] SOUSA. See Souza and Faria. SOUTH, Robert, rector of Islip, in Oxford- shire, distinguished as a theologian, more especi- ally in the controversy with Sherlock on the Trinity; born at Hackney 1633, died 1716. SOUTHCOTT, Joanna, was born about 1750, at Gittisham, in Devonshire. Her parents were in humble circumstances, and, until her name became celebrated, she obtained her living as a domestic servant. Her case is a very curious one, both in the history of psychology, and of religious enthusiasm. From her mother, who lived till Joanna had reached the age of womanhood, she re- ceived the most exalted religious ideas, the exuber- ance of which her father often felt himself called upon to check: she was still, however, a sober mem- ber of the Church of England. At length she joined the early morning and evening meetings of the Wesleyans, and, in 1792, associated exclusively with that body. The religious exercises to which Joanna was thus introduced seem to have pro- duced, as exciting causes, her remarkable visions and dreams, which soon took the form of pro- phecies, and commanded universal attention. Some of her predictions received a remarkable ful- filment, especially that which she published im- mediately after the conclusion of the peace of Amiens in 1801 ; for she then derided the joy of the nation, and gave the solemn assurance that a calamitous series of wars were about to break out, the events of which would be more terrible than any on record ; at a later period, she as solemnly 724 sou asserted that Napoleon would never land in Eng- land, and that his power would be overthrown. The visions which formed the ground of these prophecies are often very striking as dramatic pictures, and the rude doggrel of her prophetic chants as frequently becomes picturesque, if once the cultivated mind can overcome the disgust first excited by their uncouthness, and their de- ficiency in common grammatical correctness. She began the publication of her prophetic pamphlets in 1794, and about 1804 was brought up to Lon- don, and lodged at the west end by some of her admirers, many of whom were persons of con- sideration in society. Soon after this event, an old man, named Thomas Dowland, and a poor boy, named Joseph, also had visions, and a paper manufacturer named Carpenter — in whose employ they were — finally published many of them : we mention them here, however, because this Car- penter, conceiving himself to be the ' Right Man ' of Joanna's prophecies, finally took her place as the chief of the sect who followed her, having first led the secession when she was believed by the more enlightened of her followers to have fallen under a delusion. That delusion consisted in the belief that she was destined to bring forth Shiloh, or the Messiah, and its origin is explained by Car- penter as the result of her believing that she was the church or bride itself, instead of its shadow or representative. We may here mention, that pre- vious to its arrival at this idolatrous pitch, which it is still painful to contemplate, Joanna had occupied a year in 'sealing' ner followers, gen- erally but most unjustly regarded as a mere trick to make money. The old man Dowland expired in 1804, ten years after the commencement oi his, Joseph's, and Joanna's prophecies, and 1814 was fixed upon by her for the birth of Shiloh. We omit the details of the amazing increase of her followers, and the magnificent preparations made for this event, to state the simple fact, that she was deceived by appearances, and expired on the 27th of December, in that year — having pre- viously declared her conviction that, • If she was deceived, she had, at all events, been the sport of some spirit, good or evil.' The whole case, like many others of the kind, may be explained by the easily ascertained laws of psychology. Females have been known, in states of temporary derange- ment, to go out naked into the streets : the voice having told them that if they would put off their clothes they would be invisible. Such are the terms only into which the spiritual language falls, but clothes, in the symbolic tongue, are bodily states, and these are what must be put off in order that the spirit may enter a life unseen by mortal eye. We throw out the hint, because many such delusions are abroad, and it may serve to show how the sincerity of such a woman as Joanna, ignorant of spiritual laws, may be insufficient to preserve her from the grossest errors. We omitted to say that the appearance which Joanna mistook for pregnancy was the result of a diseased condi- tion, explained when her body was opened. The prevailing thought of her writings is the redemp- tion of man by the agency oi woman, the supposed cause of his fall. [E.R.] SOUTHERN. Thomas, a dramatic writer of the age of Charles II., born at Oxmantown, near Dub- SOU lin, 16G0, died 1746. His tragedy of 'Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage,' is deeply pathetic, and Dryden places him in the same rank as Otway. The principal of his other productions are ' Oroonoko,' and the ' Spartan Dame.' [Uirth-place of JSoutnoy.] SOUTHEY, Robert, was born in 1774 at Bristol, where his father was a linen-draper. In 1792, the means being furnished by his uncle, the English chaplain at Lisbon, with a view to Southey's becoming a clergyman, he was admitted at Baliol College, Oxford. He had already gone through much miscellaneous reading, had planned epics, and written plays. His studies at the uni- versity became still more diversified- Rousseau and Godwin, and the contagious enthusiasm of the French Revolution, made him, for a time, a repub- lican in politics, and in religion a doubter or uni- tarian. Southey was the most unlikely of all men to become a minister in a church whose creed he did not cordially accept. He abandoned his clerical views, began to study medicine, but gave it up in disgust, and left Oxford in 1794. The principal fruit of the extreme opinions he then held was his drama of ' Wat Tyler,' never published by himself. In 1794 he made acquaintance with Coleridge; and, having already published poems in conjunction with his friend Lovell, he now, with his new ally, wrote ' The Fall of Robespierre,' and 'Joan of Arc' In 1795 Southey married, at Bristol, Edith Fricker, the sister of Mrs. Coleridge and Mrs. Lovell ; but, compelled by poverty, the pair imme- diately separated, the poet accompanying his uncle to Lisbon. On his return he published, in 1797, his ' Letters from Spain and Portugal.' He was still reluctant to embrace literature as a profession. The study of law was now commenced in London, but never zealously pursued, and gradually deserted alto- gether for literary study and composition 1 1 is cir- cumstances were made easier by the friendship of Mr. W. W Wynn, who allowed him an annuity of £1G0 till he obtained the Laureateship. His youthful extravagances of opinion were already, to all appearance, quite extinct; if he was not even far on the way towards that admiration of aristo- cratic principles and of the hierarchy of the church of England, which, oddly mixed up with liberal hobbies of his own, he entertained and expressed M vehemently in the later stages of his lite. In i 1803 he settled himself in a house called Greta 725 SPA quite imbecile for a good while before his death, which took place in March, 1843. [W.S.I SOUTHGATE, Riciiakd, an antiquarian, and minister of the Church of England, 1729-1795. SOUTHMAN, P., a Dutch painter, 1580-1646. SOUTHWELL, N., an Eng. Jesuit, died 1676. SOUTHWELL, Robt., an English Jesuit, said to be descended from an ancient family of Norfolk or Suffolk, was born in 1560, and entered the order at Rome in 1578. Having come as a missionary to England, his design was discovered, and he was executed at Tyburn, February 21, 1595. Ho suffered with great courage. He is the author of several religious works and poems. SOUVARROF. See Suwarkow. SOUVIGNY, G. De, a Fr. Hellenist, 1598-1672. SOUZA, John De, a Portuguese Orientalist and state secretary, 1730-1812. See also Faria. SOUZA-BOTELHO, Don Jose Maria, a Por- tuguese diplomatist and man of letters, 1758- 1825. His wife, known as a novelist, died 1836. SOWERBY, James, originally a drawing-mas- ter, known as a writer on botanical and mineralo- gical subjects, illustrated by himself, 1766-1822. SOYE, P. De, a Dutch engraver, 1538-1575. SOZOMEN, Hermias, an ecclesiastical histo- rian, known as a pleader at Constantinople in the 5th century. The portion of his history now extant dates from 323 to 439. SOZOMENO, an Italian historian, 1387-1458. SPADA, J. B., an Italian cardinal, 1597-1675. SPADA, J. J., an Ital. naturalist, 1680-1774. SPADA, L., an Italian painter, 1576-1622. SPAENDONCK, Gerard Van, a Dutch pain- ter, fam. for his flowers and miniatures, 1746-1822. SPAGNOLETTO, the name by which Gui- seppe De Ribera is generally known in Italy. He was born at Xativa, near Valencia, in Spam, January 12, 1588. He went early to Italy, and is so identified with Naples that he is commonly enumerated among the painters of that school. Dominici indeed asserts that he was born in Galli- poli, in the province of Lecce, in Naples, and that his father, a Spanish officer, married there Dorotea Caterina Indolli, a lady of Gallipoli, where Guiseppe was born, in 1593; but according to Cean Ber- mudez, the lady, the place, and the date, are all three wrong. As Dommici is a great authority on Neapolitan painters, nothing short of documents can supplant his account; these, however, Ber- mudez professes to speak from, though he does not give them. He was at first the pupil of Francesco Ribalta in Spain, he then studied in Rome, and eventually with Michelangelo da Caravaggio at Naples, and he not only adopted the naturalist style of this painter, but even surpassed him in his own manner. Lo Spagnoletto was a painter ot prodigious power and facility, but of co-ordinate jealousy and arrogance. He was a prominent mem- ber of the infamous Cabal of Naples, the triumvirate headed by the Greek Belisario Corenzio, the third being Giambattista Caracciolo. These men are reported to have resolved to expel or poison every painter of talent who should attempt to settle in Naples : Domenichino is said to have been their victim, and they succeeded in expel'ing Annibale Caracci, the Cav. D'Arpino, and Guido. Spag- ter tins timers memory noletto terminated his great but scandalous career in a remarkable manner. In 1048 his beautiful SOU Hall, new Keswick ; and there he resided for nearly at his desk with the steadi- nece of an attorney'! clerk, and dividing his time, easily and regularly, between the tasks by which he made his bread, and tbe undertakings by which lie hoped to gain immortality. In 1813, his ' mania of man-mending,' as he called it, being completely cured, he was appointed Poet-Laureate, chiefly through the influence of Sir Walter Scott, who 1 the place ; and the hundred a-year which it gave him was his only certain income till Sir Robert Peel conferred on him a of three hundred pounds. Out of the gains of his industry, the prudent and kind-hearted man of letters supported one of his sisters-in-law for some time in his house, and the other for many .•.Idle he brought up his family in respect- ability, and left at his death several thousand pounds in cash and insurances, and a large and valuable library. His sheet anchor was writing for periodicals, a kind of composition in which he was particularly skilful. The 'Annual Review' re- ia first contributions; he wrote the histori- ans of the ' Edinburgh Annual Register' for the years 1808, 1809, and 1810 ; and he was a constant contributor to 'The Quarterly Review' from its commencement in 1808 till he ceased to be able to write at all. But his separate publica- tions amounted to forty-five, of which by far the .umber were works of his own in prose and verse, his share in the others being that of editor and critic. — In his later years he relied for lasting fame on his historical works and his speculations on pohtics and society. But he was neither a deep or exact thinker, nor possessed of the highest requisites for historical narrative ; and the only permanent popularity he gained in this field was through his Lives of Nelson and of Wesley. 'The Doctor,' begun to be published anonymously in 1834, has much that is clever, and a great deal that is amus- I it contains rather the collections of a reading man than the inventions or observations of a man of genius. All Southey's prose is excellent in style, easy and idiomatic, tasteful and clear, though wanting in point and tending to verbosity. His poetical merits nave been matter of keen con- troversy. He was a better artist than poet, lofty and just in his theory of poetical art rather than spontaneously imaginative or passionate in execu- te he deserves nigh honour for the constancy with which he aimed at deliberate and , erformance, in a time when most "ts worked from inconsiderate impulse factory to find in his best poems so ■ Mire to the real lovers of heavy and vague ; but - -1) and 'The Curse of Kehama' (1810), in spite of their extravagance of theme and their unwise experiments in rhythm, are very fas- to imaginative readers ; and in 'Roderick the Last of the Goths,' (1«14), he has come nearer than any other man of our century to the tone of In 1837 the death of Mrs. Southey, a ft* r 1 ( ' ; ed hmpamoti !• rUa aecB ie, by manym,; Mi.v. Bowles, herself :i this time hismemor_, i rapidly , and he had been 72C SPA daughter. Maria Rosa, became the mistress of Don Juan of Austria, and accompanied that prince to Palermo ; this had such a powerful effect on the proud Spaniard that he disappeared from Naples and was never heard of more, leaving his wife and family with his large fortune at Naples. Cean Bermudez says he died at Naples in 1650, but in which he appears simply to have copied Palomino ; he gives no authority. Luca Giordano was the most distinguished of Spagnoletto's scholars. — (Dominici, Vite dei l'iltori, Scultori, ed Architetti Napolelani; Cean Bermudez, Diccionario His- torico, &c.) [R.N.W.] SPAGNUOLI. See Mantovano. SPALDING, John Joachim, an eloquent Swed- ish clergyman, author of several religious works, 1714-1804. His son, George Ludwig, editor of an edition of Quintilian, 1762-1811. SPALLANZANI, Lazaro, an eminent physi- ologist and naturalist, was born at Scandiano in the duchy of Modena, in 1729. He died in 1799. He studied at Beggio and Bologna, and he soon acquired such a great reputation for learning, that the university of the former town invited him to become professor of logic, metaphysics, and Greek. During the six years he remained there his leisure time was devoted to the prosecution of those physi- cal researches that have rendered his name so cele- brated. He became afterwards professor at Modena, and ultimately filled with great honour to himself and credit to the university, the chair of natural history at Pavia. At this latter place he had the superintendence of the cabinet of natural history belonging to the university; and with the view of raising it from the low state into which it had fallen, he travelled through various countries, as far as Constantinople and Asia Minor, and made great collections of objects in all the departments of nature, with which he enriched it. While at Vienna, on his return home, he heard that some of his colleagues, enemies of his reputation, had ac- cused him of stealing some of the objects from the museum. His innocence, however, was clearly established; it was proclaimed by an imperial edict, aud he returned to Pavia with the greatest honour and eclat. Spallanzani's writings are numerous, and have procured for him an universal reputation as a physiologist and naturalist. His experiments on the reproduction of animals; his researches into the circulation of the blood; his works on the physiology of animals and vegetables; and his interesting accounts of the infusoria and other microscopic animals, are full of new and interesting matter, and have added much to our knowledge of all the subjects of which they treat. [W.B.] SPANGENBERG, A. T., a Moravian prelate, author of a Life of Luxendorf, 1704-1792. SPANHEIMS, Frederic, a German theologian, professor of philosophy at Geneva, and author of several works, 1600-1649. His son, Ezekiel, a learned wr. and statesman, 1629-1710. FBBDKB* UK. brother of the latter, a theologian, 1632-1701. SPARFVENFELDT, J. G., a Swedish philolo- gist, author of a Sclavonic dictionary, 1655-1727. SPARK, T., an English divine, 1655-1692. BPABKB, T., a puritan divine, 1548-1616. SPARRE, Eric, a Swedish senator, who con- tributed to place Sigismund III. on the throne of Tolaud, and was beheaded by Charles IX. 1600, SPE SPARRMANN, Andrew, an eminent Swedish naturalist, was born in the province of Upland about, 1747, and was instructed in botany by Lin- nasus. In 1705 he made a voyage to China, and again in 1772 and 1775, to South Africa. He re- turned from these travels laden with specimens of natural history, both plants and animals. He died at Stockholm, where he had become keeper of the museum, in 1820. SPARROW, A., bishop of Norwich, died 1685. SPARTACUS, a native of Thrace, who became a soldier in the Roman army, and, having deserted, was sold as a slave, and finally numbered with the gladiators condemned to destroy each other for the amusement of the people of Italy. In the year 73 B.C., about the period when Italy was overrun with bandits and its seas infested by pirates, the Seriod of anarchy and social ruin attending the ecline of the ancient republic, Spartacus with about seventy of his companions in bondage effected their escape, and resolved that, since they were to die, the scene of their struggle should be a larger one than the blood-stained arena, and that they would fall as brothers. They were joined by fugitive slaves, and others of the oppressed classes, till their numbers swelled to an army, of which Spartacus became the commander. The details of the struggle are related by Livy, Plutarch, and Appian. Spartacus had no hope of conquering the whole power of Rome, but was resolved on escaping into Germany, and bearing away with him the spoils of the cities of his late masters. He gained three great victories in succession over Lentulus, Genhiis, and the consul of the preceding year, Manlius, and his course was now open to the Alps, but dazzled by these splendid successes he led his troops southward again, and the next year, B.C. 71, he was defeated by Crassus. He per- formed prodigies of valour, before meeting with his death in this last action, and many of his com- panions in arms, who became prisoners, were crucified, and set up at intervals on the road between Rome and Capua. [E.R.l SPARTIANUS, ^Ilius, a Latin historian, of very indifferent repute, 4th century. SPEED, John, an English historian and anti- quary, was born at Farrington, in Cheshire, 1552, and was originally a tailor. His talents coming under the notice of Sir Fulk Greville, procured him an allowance which enabled him to abandon his business, and devote his time to literature. His works are — ' The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine, presenting an exact Geography of the Kyngdomes of England, Scotland, and lie- land, and the Isles adjoyning ; ' 'The History of Great Britaine, from Julius Cesar to James I.;' and ' A Cloud of Witnesses, or the Genealogies of Scripture,' prefixed to a new translation of the Bible in 1611. Died 1629. SPEGEL, Haquin, archbishop of Upsala, known as a poet and philologist, 1645-1714. SPELMAN, Sir Henry, an English historian and antiquary, born at Congham, in Norfolk, 1562, died 1641. His works are considered highly valuable. His son, Sir John, an archaeologist and historian of Alfred the Great, dates unknown. His great-grandson, Edward, a classical scholar and antiquarian, died 1643. SPENCE, Josei'H, an accomplished scholar 727 SPE of poetry at Oxford, author of an iy on Pope's Odyssev,' and an ' Inquiry into eroent between toe works of the Roman 1 the Remains of Ancient Artists;' born illy drowned 1768. SPENCEB, John, a learned divine and critic, author of an erudite Latin treatise on the Hebrew Laws and Rituals, born in Kent, 1630, died 1695. SPENCEB, John Chari.ks, Earl, formerly m Ai.thorp, and known as a Whig n at the period of the Reform Bill, was l>orn in 1782. From 1806 to 1834 he was member for the county of Northampton, and soon after the accession of William IV. became chancellor of the exchequer. He was most remarkable for the zeal with which he devoted himself to agricultural im- provements. Died 1845. SI'ENER, P. J., a German divine, 1G35-1705. [ K.icolman C&Mlv, the residence of Spenser] SPENSER, Edmund, was, with one illustrious exception, the greatest of those poets whose genius brightened the last generation in the long reign of Elizabeth. Closing his life when Shakspeare was in the midst of his career, he was the earliest of the poetical stars that rose in that dazzling firma- ment. Indeed, although English literature had undergone great development as well as great changes during the two centuries that had inter- vened since the death of Chaucer, yet the long period gave birth to no poet of a very high order ; and, in this view, there was truth in the assertion made by Spenser himself, that he was • the shep- •••, v ho after Tityrus his lay first sang.' The spirit of his inventions was caught from the older poetry of England, the irregular minstrelsy :iiddle ages, with its chivalrous ideas, its fantastically gorgeous pictures, and (above all) its saturation in allegory. His forms, on the other hand, were prompted by those Italian studies, in which he was so will versed, and which, introduced earlier by Surrey and others, exercised so strong an influence over all the Elizabethan poetry. Spenser, without forgetting to emulate the lyrical and meditative effusions of Petrarch and his fol- lowers, aimed, in his neatest work, at doing for English literature that which Ariosto and Taaso had recently done for the literatim: of Italy. He ted ele- of inedistYal song, a polished and elaborate SPE I work of art, which should resuscitate the world of I chivalry, in a shape not unacceptable to a genera- I tion farther advanced in knowledge, and familiar with models higher than the old romances. The design was executed, in his ' Faerie Quecne,' with a marvellous affluence of imagery at once romantio and natural, and with a delicate feeling of the beau- tiful such as hardly any poet has ever surpassed. If his symbolic meanings sometimes press them- selves on us so closely as to cool our poetic mood, they are as often embodied in scenes and figures which, with or without regard to their hidden sig- nification, entrance us by a spell as powerful as those of the enchanters and elves amidst whom wo are brought to wander. And, though the plan of the work is too vast ; though the half of it, which is all that we possess, contains Six Books, each of which is as long as most epics : yet these deal suc- cessively with successive characters and events, which are sufficiently independent of one another to allow of their being studied separately, without detriment either to our comprehension of them, or to the aesthetic effect they produce. ^ The 'Faerie Queene' is a great work, a work fairly comparable to the most illustrious of the narrative poems that grace the continental literature of Europe. And, when we think of it as belonging to our Eliza- bethan age, we should remember, also, that it is the only work of the very highest class, excepting only the dramas of Shakspeare, which that age, with all its fertility and energy, was fortunate enough to produce. Nor did it exercise, on the generations immediately succeeding the poet's time, much less of influence on the non-dramatic poetry of England, than the masterpieces of the immortal dramatist exercised on his successors. The cha- racteristic stanza which Spenser invented for his romantic epos, was the very smallest of the points in which following poets were led, consciously or unconsciously, by the example he had set them. — The events of Spenser's life, though less obscure than those of Shakspeare's, are yet known so very imperfectly, that his biographers can do little more than tantalize the curiosity of their readers. Ha was born in London, probably in 1553, but per- haps earlier. He was descended of a good family, probably some offshoot from the house of Althorpc ; and a few circumstances in his early history have suggested the supposition, that his father may havo been one of the Spensers or Spencers of Hurst- wood in Lancashire. He was admitted of Pem- broke Hall, in Cambridge, as a sizar, in 1569, and took his degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1573 and 1576. This is all that we know with certainty in regard to his youth. In the north of England he wrote his first considerable work, which is a series of twelve pastorals, called ' The Shepherd's Calen- dar, 1 published in 1579. These pieces are mado unacceptable to ordinary readers, not only by the fondness for old words and phrases which always clung to the author, but by a frequent excess of rustic familiarity both in sentiment and in expres- sion. Yet some of them in whole, and passages in all of them, justify to the full the reputation they gained for him. About the same time he was tempted into giving some countenance to the at- tempt of the learned physician Gabriel Harvey, to naturalize in England the hexameters and other prosodial forms and laws of the classical tongues. 28 SPE He was already engaged in composing his epic ; and, in his correspondence, mention is made of nine comedies which he had written before 1580. He had become acquainted with Sir Philip Sidney, whose friendship he has commemorated in verse ; and he was patronised, in early manhood, by Sid- ney's uncle, the all-powerful earl of Leicester. In the year last named he went to Ireland, as secre- tary to Lord Grey of Wilton, then appointed viceroy, and immortalized by the poet under the character of Artegal, the personification of justice. Lord Grey's government was very short ; but, while it lasted, the poet was made clerk of the Irish Court of Chancery, and received also a lucrative lease (which he sold) of abbey-lands in the shire of Wexford. In 1586 he received another grant, con- taining three thousand acres of land in the county of Cork, on which stood his castle of Kilcolman. His residence must have been chiefly in Ireland for several years; and, on his Irish domain, by his beloved stream Mulla, his great poem was princi- pally composed. In 1590, the poet being then in England, were published its first Three Books, which are also Dy universal consent the finest. The allegorical design, explained in an introductory letter to Raleigh, was set forth in the title-page : ' The Faerie Queene, disposed into Twelve Books, fashioning Twelve Moral Virtues.' In the Three Legends which now appeared, were allegorized Holiness, Temperance, and Chastity. In 1591 uppeared a volume of his minor poems, quaintly entitled ' Complaints.' Its most noticeable pieces are ' The Ruins of Time,' • The Tears of the Muses,' and a long satirical fable called ■ Mother Hubbard's Tale.' Spenser was addicted to complaining; and, though he had received so much from his patrons, and showed himself attentive and shrewd in mat- ters of business, he was poor in the latter part of his life, whether through improvidence or by rea- son of the disturbed state of Ireland. In the same year in which the ' Complaints ' appeared, the queen bestowed on him a pension of fifty pounds a-year. In 1595 he published • Colin Clout's Come Home Again,' a poem not only very beautiful, but interesting for its many allusions to the poet's per- sonal history. In the same year appeared a large series of Sonnets, and the exquisite ' Lpithalamion,' in which he celebrates his recent marriage. In 1596 Spenser brought to England, and published, the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Books of ' The Faerie Queene.' They are the Legends of Friendship, Justice, and Courtesy. All that we possess beyond these is a fragment containing Two Cantos ' Of Mutability.' The Six Books required for working out the design are traditionally said to have been lost in a voyage from Ireland ; but there is great reason for doubting whether the poem was ever in reality completed. The only other work of the poet that calls for notice is his prose treatise, ' A View of the State of Ireland,' written or finished in 159G, but never published till 1633. It is a sagacious book, and an excellent and vigorons specimen of old English prose. In September, 1598, he was appointed sheriff of Cork. Perhaps this office caused the tragical catastrophe which hastened his end. The rebellion of Tyrone break- ing out immediately, Kilcolman castle was burned, and a new-born child of the owner perished in the Haines. He and his wile escaped, and sought SPI shelter in London. He died there, on the 16th January, 1599. According to Ben Jonson he perished of want ; and the fact may have been so, although it seems improbable. His funeral, at all events, was splendidly celebrated by the earl of Essex ; and his grave is in Westminster Abbey, next to that of Chaucer. [W.S.] SPERLING, Otto, a physician and naturalist of Hamburgh, 1602-81. His son, of the same name, professor of jurisprudence and history, 1634-1715. SPIEGEL, H., a Dutch poet, 1549-1612. SPIELMANN, James Reinhold, an eminent professor of chemistry at Strasburg, 1722-1783. SPIGELIUS, or VAN DEN SPIEGHEL, Adrian, a Flemish medical writer, 1578-1625. SPILBERG, J., a Dutch painter, 1619-1690. SPILLER, John, a sculptor of promising talents, who studied under Bacon, and executed the statue of Charles II. for the Royal Exchange, born in London, 1763 ; died of consumption, 1794. SPINCKES, N., a nonjuring divine, 1654-1727. SPINELLI, F. M., prince of Scala, and a philo- sopher of the Cartesian school, 1686-1752. SPINELLI, M., an Italian historian, 1230-68. SPINELLI, N., a Jesuit of Naples, 14th cent. SPINELLI, or SPINELLO, a family of Italian artists who flourished in the 14th and 15th cen- turies, one of whom is said to have painted a figure of the devil so hideous, that it haunted him in his dreams, and occasioned a singular conference with the presumed original. This singular story is related by Vasari. SPINOLA, Ambrose, Marquis De, descended from a noble family originally of Genoa, was born in 1571, and entered into the military service of Spain at the period of the war in the Netherlands. His first great exploit was the reduction of Ostend, on the 14th September, 1604, after a siege of more than three years, and the loss of 130,000 men under previous commanders. This victory was rendered the more remarkable by the circumstance, that Maurice of Nassau, at the head of an equal num- ber of troops, had made repeated efforts to raise the siege, and Spinola, before his last successful assault on the city, nad sustained fifteen terrible combats with him : such an achievement caused his name to resound through Europe, and he was soon after appointed commander-in-chief in the Netherlands. For the next twenty-six years the name of Spinola appears always foremost in the annals of that pro- tracted struggle, as the hero of the catholic party, and the house of Austria. We may mention among his exploits the capture of Juliers 1622, and of Breda in 1625. He was recalled from this com- mand in 1628 through the influence of intrigues at Madrid, and was subsequently employed in It;ily against the French. His death was hastened by grief at the shameful manner in which his glory was betrayed in this new enterprise, and he expired nt must needs go back if he would dis- cern Spinoza : and he must further add, that the feeble, emaciated, and sickly form he sees writing there, had learned so well the value of indepen- nd had so felt the delight of searching for Truth, that, although sustaining nature on some such sum as our twopence or threepence a-day, he declined to lie drawn from his retirement by muniiicent offers of patronage — resisting the solici- tations even of the world-renowned Prince of —In proceeding with the arduous endea- rour to explain the system of Spinoza, we bespeak the forbearance of scientific readers, and the gravest attention of all others : forbearance, be- cause we must write popularly ; and attention, be- cause the writings we are about to analyze are the true source of so much subsequent Philosophical We shall divide our exposition into several distinct sections.— I. Like his early and only master Des Cartes, Spinoza recognized the necessity of first laying down his Method of In- quiry, or determining by prior investigation the road which alone seemed likely to lead to Truth. There are, he says, three kinds'of knowledge com- monly ao called;— the First, consisting of mere hearsay, and of vague experiences and impres- sions passively received— making up those indis- criminate beliefs, and confused images, which are represented by the opinions and prejudices of the vulgar. Of such knowledfje, the philosopher makes no account— The Second, is of a higher aim; it arises when we seek the relations of things hen after comparing objects ' 'in by their resemblances, we as- cend to the general Law expressing their apparent place and function in the Universe. But this knowledge ia also vitiated and incomplete; viti- nt-.J, because we rarely discern or apprehend an object jpreciseh En* misled by the im and alone is worth the pursuit of the philosopher. It is born when we discern some Absolute Prin- ciple, from which, by rigorous deduction, the char- acter of the Universe, the phenomena of Mind and Matter, the nature of Man and God, can be made to flow. Then we are superior to sense and its illusions; Experience with its deceits and phan- tasms, and Reasoning merely discursive, which can never lead to the absolute goal, are banished from the domain of Metaphysics. If, indeed, it be- longed to the Human Faculties to obtain this primary and all-comprehending principle, Spinoza would "be right ; but he has not brought out the Organ by which these Faculties ever reach the elevation from which he demands that Inquiry start. His method is thus defective at the out- set, and immeasurably inferior to that of Des Cartes, who — not thinking of the desirable, but of the real and practicable — lays down the im- moveable axiom, that Philosophy must ever begin in the certainties of Consciousness. — II. Searching for the adequate primary Principle of Philosophy, Spinoza quickly and easily reaches the Idea of Existence in itself, or as it is termed by him the Idea of Substance — that which stands under all phenomena. What is this Idea? How can we define Substance? It is infinite, it is perfect — else it were limited and determined by something else, and would not be the ultimate principle of Existence. But it must have attributes, or intel- ligible characteristics ? Spinoza speaks of two — • Extension and Thought, and the discussion of these occupies his system. It was suggested by Leibnitz afterwards, that our Idea of Substance, involves also the Idea of Cause, or of Force and Activity — a criticism whose propriety is unques- tionable, and which of itself goes far to invalidate those terrible fatalistic conclusions, which, as we shall see, inhere in the philosophy we are expos- ing. But apart from objections like these, there is the fundamental one — whence drew Spinoza his knowledge of this Idea of Substance and its attri- butes ? By what process, or in what manner can he convince any one of his right to that stupen- dous postulate ? Can he indicate any process, different from an appeal to Consciousness? And yet, the system reared on that postulate, denies and over-rides every other truth of which Con- sciousness testifies ! In this is the weakness of all such efforts; and it is the ruin of all merely empiri- cal as well as of a priori schemes. The M atenalial who owns no mental phenomena except what he can gather from external nature,or explain by itsschemes and appearances, seldom reflects that — seduced by seeming clearness — he is really employing derived and secondary certainties (if the expression be allowable) for the purpose of invalidating a primary one. — III. Let us contemplate now, tho Fabric reared on this postulate by Spinoza : no- where certainly, even in the strictly deductive sciences, is the reasoning more impregnable and complete. Allow the postulate, and before you is a mailed combatant, whose armour opens not a chink for your arrows! This was the real triumph of Spinoza's massive intellect, as well as Mion ot our Senses: Mpnfefe, because the secret of that power by which he so easily J ■ i-ad us to a Law, it doee not ex- crushed opponents.— Substance — this infinite or account f ur Law itscll.— 'Ihe Third kind substance or reality of all things— must, because of 730 SPI its infinity, have an infinite number of Attributes or Qualities, — else were it not infinite. Of these, however, two only are known, or manifested to us by the Universe, viz.: — Extension and Thought. But each Attribute of an Infinite Substance, must in it- self be Infinite — infinite in energy, though limited in quality : Extension, as Extension, can have no bounds ; and Thought, as Thought, must have the faculty of Infinite expansion, owning no limits either in Space or Time. Such the attributes that to us define Substance ; if such attributes did not exist, or were not cognizable, the Infinite Abso- lute Substance, would be a mere negation, un- known and unknowable. Turn now to the separate attributes. Through what is Extension cognizable? Not in itself: — Infinite Space, is a word, a term without meaning, a simple nega- tion. But as Substance has attributes, so Exten- sion as an attribute, has modes or manifesta- tions. The modes or manifestations of Extension — manifestations, through which alone we know it — are the forms which crowd it, and the motions which diversify it. Each of these is Finite : they are therefore multiple; and by the infinity of their numbers, they come, in their totality, to equal the Infinite attribute they represent. This will at once make plain the 16th proposition of the Ethics, ' It is the nature of Substance to develop itself neces- sarily by an infinity of attributes, which also are infinitely modified.'' Again with regard to Thought. Has not Thought its modes? For otherwise how could it be^ known? As Space is shown forth through Form, Thought is manifested through Ideas. Ideas are its modes, and they too are in number infinite. The variety of Things, therefore, is no longer a mystery: it even belongs to their Unity: so that the problem of philosophy is solved. Before us, is this ineffable, and unap- proachable infinite and absolute Substance, un- folded through its Infinite attributes, which again are themselves unfolded and rendered apprehen- sible by that infinitude of modes — Forms and Ideas — which make up the Universe. The student will not fail to detect the true parentage of much of the scheme of Scheixing. Spinoza further declares, that as every mode of Extension must correspond to a mode of Thought, the order and connection of Ideas, is necessarily the same as the order and connection of Things, — surely a pretty close anticipation of the Philosophy of Identity. — IV. It now only remains, that we state succinctly the conclusions accepted by Spinoza and inseparable from his system, regarding Man and Goi>. It is easy to see, that the remorseless logic of Spinoza, could admit no Deity, apart from his Absolute Substance. God, according to this philosophy, must in essence be that Substance; they are convertible Names, with the same Attri- butes. But in justice to that great Thinker, the student must be warned, not to attach to the word substance, conceptions of Inertness, absence of Understanding, or of Will. If Spinoza has said that Deity is void of understanding, he meant only Deity absolutely, just as he would have so spoken of Substance,— that is, treated without regard to its Attribute. We are dealing, it must never be forgotten, with a consummate logician, whose de- ductive method has no flaw; and he necessarily slides tint with the most abstract conception — SPO passing down by regular steps, from almost inac- cessible heights. Rather, the World, all Things are God ; the Material Universe, but also Intelli- gence: every firmament that shines, every thought that pierces the serene, every emotion that agitates the heart, every virtuous and heroic aspiration that raises humanity above circumstance and the grave — these, ay, and manifestations, which hu- man eye nor ear has either heard or seen — these, are fulgurations of Divinity — gleams of the char- acter of that Essence which is All! Surely we have no Atheism here; but a loftiest, however mistaken, Pantheism. It is said quaintly by No valis that Spinoza was ' intoxicated with God!' As to Man, the conclusions are too sorrowful. His Understanding is a mere succession of these modes of Thought; his Soul a more exalted or comprehen- sive Mode: and, as to every mode of Infinite Thought there is a corresponding mode of Exten- sion, each soul has a body which it animates, or of which it is the Idea. No personality here ; not a shred of human Liberty : Body and Soul, each a mere expression, impersonal and transient, of one phase of that huge all-comprehending Develop- ment ! Spinoza saves, indeed, that form of Mor- ality within which he lived himself. Part of the Infinite, let us recognize our blessedness. To live, to enjoy in plenitude, we must concentrate our desires around one aspiration — the longing to pos- sess God, which means to love Him, and thereby to live in Him. — How poorly, this bare outline represents Spinoza! Has the student who per- uses these lines, ever, under the dark vault of Heaven, or at the hour of midnight, experienced perplexity alike of Head and Heart, as he ques- tioned the Mystery of Things V So, likewise, did the young and heroic Jew of whom we write ; and the foregoing was his solution. It must in nowise be forgotten that the Philosophy of which, through mere exercise of Intellect, we give an account, was dug by this remarkable man, from the mine of his profound Nature ; what we describe, he created ; it is for us to examine and contemplate only, but he believed; it gave him dignity and integrity through Life, and did not impair his courage at a lonely Death. [J.P.N.] SPIRITI, S., an Italian historian, 1712-1776. SPIRITO, L„ an Italian poet, born 1436. SPITTLER, Baron Von, a minister of state and historian of Wurtemberg, 1752-1810. SPITZNER, J. E., a Ger. naturalist, 1731-1806. SPIZELIUS, T., a Lutheran divine, 1639-1691. SPOFFORTH, R., an Eng. musician, 1768-1826. . SPOHN, Frederic Augustus William, pro- fessor of philosophy and ancient literature at Leip- zig, born 1792, died prematurely when preparing to publish a work on hieroglyphics, 1824. SPOLVERINI, Hilarion, a Italian painter, famous for his battle-pieces, 1657-1734. SPOLVERINI, Marquis, an Italian adminis- trator and writer of poetry, 1695-1763. SPON, Charles, a French physician and Latin poet, 1609-1684. His son, James, a physician, antiquarian, and traveller, 1647-1685. SPONDE, Henry De, in Latin Spondtmui, a learned French prelate and ecclesiastical historian, 1568-1643. His brother, John, a classical scholar and editor, 1557-1585. SPONT1NI, Gasi-auo, a composer of sacred 731 sro mnaic and operas, was born at Majolatti, in the , 1778, and educated at Naples. He . and in 1807 became director to the empress Josephine. This was followed in 1810 by his appointment as director of in opera, which he exchanged in 1820 for ISAM-master at Berlin, where he remained ;.'. Died in Italy 1851. SP< >NT1 >M. C, an Italian historian, 1552-1610. SPORKNO, .!., an Italian historian, 1490-1560. 6POTSWOOD, or SPOTTISWOOD, John, hop of St. Andrews, descended from an ancient Scottish family, was born in the county of Edinburgh 1565. He accompanied James VI. to Kn^land, who raised him to the primacy, and made him one of the privy council for Scotland the same vear. He laboured greatly to bring the Churcb of Scotland to the episcopal discipline, and became chancellor of that kingdom in 1665, two (bar he had crowned Charles I. at Holyrood. 39. Sir Robert, his second son, wrote y of the Scottish Church, and was put to death bv the Covenanters. SPi: AGGE, Sir Edward, a naval commander, who distinguished himself against the Dutch admirals, Ruyter and Van Troinp, and was acci- dentally drowned 1673. SP&ANGHER. Bartholomew, a Flemish painter, whose principal work is The Last Judg- ment, 1546-1623. . T, Thomas, a learned English prelate, one of the first fellows of the Royal Society of London, of which he wrote a History; he was also the friend and biographer of the poet Cowley ; born in Devonshire 1636, died 1713. SPRENGEL, K., a Germ, botanist, 1766-1833. KGEL, M. C, a Germ, hist., 1746-1803. NGER, B., a German agriculturist and writer on the Cultivation of the Vine, 1724-1791. NGER, P., a Germ, historian, 1735-1806. JTOW, William, minister of Hackney, near Tendon, at the period of the civil wars, author of religious works, and of attacks on episcopacy, I under the name of Smectymmus ; d. 1666. SPURZHEDf, John Gaspar, a famous name in the history of phrenological science, was born at Longwich, near Treves, in 1776, and became ac- quainted with Dr. Gall at Vienna, where he studied medicine. From 1805 till 1813 he was the con- stant companion of Gall in his travels and scien- tific researches, and subsequently became an active iiromulgator of the new doctrine in England and "ranee. He died in 1832, a few months after his arrival in Boston, United States. One of his dis- tinct claims is that of having demonstrated the -tructureof the brain; but his works are too well known to require particular description. IBCIONE, Fbahceso. a painter of the school, and virtuoso of art, 1394-1474. [RE, S., a learned prelate, 1714-1766. '. !.. Mai:.. i BBITI .Ikanne Cadier De I . the daughter of an artist of • her marriage, the attendant friend of the duchess of Maine. fulness to the latter led to her own im- I it in tl Bartfle, on emerging from which the married M. de Staal, an offiost of the Swiss tfemotn of Her Life' . by herself; 1693-1760. 732 STA STABEN, H., a Flemish painter, 1578-1658. STACK, P. P., or STATIUS, a Latin poet, 61-96. STACKHOUSE, John, nephew of the cele- brated divine, distinguished as a botanist, d. 1819. STACKHOUSE/Thomas, a minister of Shrop- shire, author of 'A General View of Ancient His- tory, Chronology, and Geography,' dates unknown. STACKHOUSE, Thomas, a well-known reli- gious writer and theologian, was born in 1680. He became minister of the English Church at Amsterdam, and finally rector of Benham Valence in Berkshire, where he died in 1752. His prin- cipal work is a ' History of the Bible.' STADION, Phil., Count, a diplomatist in the service of Austria, time of Napoleon, 1768-1824. STADIUS, J., a Flemish astronomer, 1527-79. STADLER, M., a Ger. mus. compos., 1743-1833. STAEL, Anne Louise Germaine De, was born in 1766 at Paris, where her father, M. Nec- ker, afterwards the celebrated minister of France, was then a banker's clerk. At the age of twenty she became the wife of the Baron De Stael-Hols- tein, the Swedish ambassador at Paris ; and the strong literary turn which she had already exhibited, now developed itself still further, and produced, in the course of her life, a series of works embracing almost every sort of composition in prose or verse. At first sanguine in the cause of the revolution, she soon became warmly interested in the suffer- ings of its victims, especially the queen, whom she had the courage to defend in print. In 1800 she entered on the course of speculation, in which she was afterwards strongest, by publishing her essay ' De La Litterature, considered dans ses rapports avec les Institutions Sociales ;' and her very equivo- cal novel 'Delphine' appeared in 1802. In that year her husband died. Madame De Stael waa much too independent to be acceptable to Napoleon, who banished her from Paris, and afterwards ordered her to confine herself to her chateau of Coppet on the Lake of Geneva. From 1803 till 1815 she travelled much in Germany, Italy, and England, and visited Sweden and Russia. Her ' Corinne,' in form a novel, and the most eloquent of all tributes to the antiquities and scenery of Italy, appeared in 1807. Her most ambitious work, 'De L'Allemagne,' printed at Paris in 1810, was seized by the police, and only published at London some years later. After the second resto- ration she lived chiefly in Switzerland, where she contracted a secret marriage with M. De Rocca. She died in 1817. After her death, useful contri- butions were made to the history of the times, by the publication of her ' Considerations sur la Revolution Francaise,' and her 'Dix Anncies d' Exil.' [W.S.] STAEL-HOLSTEIN, Eric Magnus, Baron De, a Swedish diplomatist, born 1725, minister plenipotentiary at the court of France from 1783 to 1799, died 1802. He married the celebrated daughter of Necker in 1786, and assisted passively in the French revolution till his recall. STAFFORD, a noble family belonging to the Norman aristocracy of England. The principal historical names are: — Humphrey, a partisan of Henry VI., created duke of Buckingham 1465. Hi.nkv, his grandson, a favourite of Richard III., beheaded 1483. Edward, beheaded on an accu- sation of treason by Henry VIII. 1521. STA STAFFORD, Anthony, a learned writer, au- thor of ' The Life and Death of Henry, Lord Staf- ford,' died 1641. STAFFORD, William Howard, earl of, who STA mended his niece to the care of the nation, she re- ceived a pension of £1,200 per annum, with which, after his death, she commenced a life of great state in the East, and acquired immense influence over received the title by marriage with the heiress of i the Arabian population. Her manner of life, and that house in 1640, was the second son of Thomas, duke of Norfolk. He was executed in connection with the gunpowder plot 1680. STAHL, G. E., a German chemist, 1660-1734. STAINER, or STAYNER, Sir Rich., a naval officer, time of Cromwell and Charles II., d. 1662. STAIR. See Dalrymple. STALBENT, A., a Flemish painter, 1580-1660. STALHENS, J., a Fr. theologian, 1595-1681. STANCARI, F., an Ital. Hebraist, 1501-1574. STANCAIRI, V. F., an Italian mathematician and man of letters, 1678-1709. STANBRIDGE, John, a learned schoolmaster and grammarian, known from 1481 to 1522. STANDISH, Frank Hall, a gentleman of fortune, known as an elegant writer and connoi- seur in the arts, author of a ' Life of Voltaire,' ' The Shores of the Mediterranean,' • Notices on the Northern Capitals of Europe,' ' Seville and its Vicinity,' and ' Poems,' 1798-1840. STANHOPE, a noble English family, principal of whom are:— James, the first earl, who distin- guished himself both as a diplomatist and military officer in the wars of William III., born in Hert- fordshire 1673, died 1721. Charles, grandson of the preceding, and third earl, born 1753, was distinguished as a man of science by several valu- able inventions, among which are the printing press, known by his name, a calculating machine, a vessel to sail against wind and tide, locks for canals, a method for securing buildings from fire, and a monochord for tuning musical instruments. At the period of the French revolution he openly avowed republican sentiments, and even laid aside the insignia of the peerage. By his first wife, daughter of the great earl of Chatham, he had three daughters, one of whom is the subject of the fol- lowing notice ; his second wife, daughter of Mr. Henry Grenville, bore him three sons ; died 1816. STANHOPE, Lady Hester, whose remarkable life in Mount Lebanon may be numbered among the most interesting romances of history, was born in 1766. Her father was the celebrated Lord Stan- hope, and her mother a daughter of the great Earl Chatham, consequently she was niece to William Pitt, in whose house she resided, acting as his private secretary, and sharing in all his confidences. Biographers are silent on the causes which influenced her fate, after the death of her uncle, but they were principally two : — First, the disgust of her high nature for European society, created by her knowledge of the secrets of diplomacy, and the hollow deceitful life of all around her; and secondly, the mystic influence which prevailed for about ten J ears at that period, and of which history takes ittle note. It is certain, however, that from 1794 to the death of Pitt, startling announcements were continually made by private letters to the min- ister, and prophecies were actually fulfilled both in this country and France : it is probable that these circumstances, exaggerated by her unrestrained imagination, and her longing for the free simplicity of nature, finally determined Lady Stanhope to leave England. William Pitt having recom- romantic style are well known ; we will only add, therefore, that it is unfair to judge her character from the reports of English travellers, for she was one of those high-souled women who not only re- fused allegiance to the empty mannerisms she had cast off, but was well able to answer every fool who forced his way into her presence according to his folly. She never married, but adopted the habit of an Arabian cavalier, and under those bright skies, rode and dwelt where she pleased, virtually queen of the deserts, and mistress of the ancient palaces ot Zenobia. Her permanent abode was m Mount Lebanon, about eight miles from Sidon, where she died in 1839. [E.R.] STANHOPE, P. D. See Chesterfield. STANISLAUS, a bishop of Cracovia, k. 1079. STANISLAUS, Augustus, the last king of Poland, was a son of Count Stanislaus Poniatow- ski, and of the princess Czartoryska. He was born in Lithuania in 1732, and was advanced to the throne by the intrigues of Catharine of Russia, aided by another of her favourites, the Polish traitor, Braneski, in 1764. It is hardly neces- sary to mention that the crown of Poland was elec- tive, and that the people had been kept in a state of serfdom under a powerful aristocracy,— circum- stances exceedingly favourable to the Russian de- signs, and productive at last of the infamous parti- tion of Poland, and the virtual effacement ot that ancient kingdom from the map of Europe. The first partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, took place in 1773, and the second, after a long struggle, in 1792, when Kosciusko was defeated by the Russian general, Suwarrow. Stanislaus abdicated his vain title in 1795, and took up his abode in Russia, where he died, in receipt of a pension, the proper reward of his career, in 1798. [E.R.] STANLEY, Edward, bishop of Norwich, a younger son of Sir John Thomas Stanley of Alder- ley, in Cheshire, born 1770, author of a ' Familiar History ot Birds,' published in 1835. He had been upwards of thirty years rector of Alderley, when he was elevated to the see of Norwich through his connection with the Whig party in 1837 ; d. 1849. STANLEY, John, a musical composer, 1713-86. STANLEY, Thomas, the name of three accom- plished men of letters, the first of whom, Sir Thomas Stanley, of Laytonstone, in Essex, wrote poems, and was knighted by Charles I. The second Thomas, and most famous of the three, was his son ; he was a master of philosophy and polite learning, and a friend of William Fair- fax, the translator of Tasso; his works are 'The History of Philosophy, and Lives of the Philoso- phers,' and some original poems, and translation* from the Greek, born 1625, died in London, 1678. The third of the name was a son of the latter, who translated when very young the Histories of .l-.lian. STANLEY, WM., a dignitary of the church, author of ' The Devotion of the Church of Rome compared with the Devotion of the Church of England.' 1647-1781. Si ANSEL, V., a German astronomer, 1621-90. 733 STA BEAMYHUKST, to 'i.\i:n, an Irish ddff- j » poet and historian, 1540-1(518. , I. M. f an ltal. painter, 1585-1050. STAPEL, JOB* I'.«>i>.i:rs A. a Dutch physi- cian and botanist, honoured by Linnaeus, d. 1030. 8TAPLETON, Sib Robert, a native of Carle- York.-hire, who fought in the interest of Charles I. at the battle of Edgehill, 1642, and adhered steadfastly to the royal cause ; he wrote several dramatic pieces, and" translations of the classic poets, died 1009. LETON, Thomas. Roman Catholic pro- fessor of divinity at Louvain, known as a learned controversial writer. 1535-1598. tCK. Samiix, a native of Pomerania, distinguished as a theologian and Oriental scholar, 17. His grandson, John Augustus, a theologian, Orientalist, and historian, professor at rsburg, 1741-1810. STARK, W., a London physician, died 1709. NINA. J., an Italian painter, 1354-1400. STAROWOLSKI, Simon, a Polish ecclesiastic and historian of his countrv, died 1050. STASZIC, S., a Polish patriot, 1755-1800. STATIUS, Publius P., a Roman poet, 01-90. STAUNTON, Sir George Leonard, an Irish phvsician, who rose to the post of attorney- general in Grenada, and having attached himself to Lord Macartney in the character of secretary, was afterwards known as a diplomatist, and his intimate adviser ; his principal services were dis- played in the arrest of Major-general Stuart, commander-in-chief of the Madras army, in treat- ing with Tippoo Sultan, and in the embassy to Cliina ; of the latter he published an interesting account in 2 vols. 4to, 1797. Born in Galway, died 1801. STAUPITZ, J., a German theologian, d. 1527. B I AVELEY, T., a learned antiquary, d. 1083. BBENG, Hex., a friend of Bishop Sherlock, known as a writer in the Bangorian controversy, and the attack on Warburton's Legation, d. 1703. .MAN, J. G., a Scotch officer in the Dutch East India service, author of an interesting narrative. 1745-1797. Sir Richard, was born in 1071 at Dublin, to which his father had gone from Eng- land as secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant. At the < house School in London, he formed a life- \\ ith Addison. Steele next went to but, bent on being a soldier, and dis- couraged by his family, eloped and enlisted in the 1 .nards. His officers, knowing him to be a an, and becoming aware of his attractive . procured an ensign's commission for him ; and, in the gay company of the mess, he exhibited and cherished his good-hearted liveli- ness, his inclination for dissipated extravagance, and the sanguine flightiness which in later life made him a rash and unsuccessful speculator. Intervals of repentance for his follies gave birth, the army, to his tract ' The Chris- tian Hy the nearest ties to a distant land, and if many of the barons kept I aloof from Stephen, it was probably far more from 735 STE of the privileged despotism they might have retained in the latter case, than from any regard I { the state. It would seem, in lien's principal diilicnltics arose 1 for the old Saxon population at a rhen the barons were rising into importance, BSCited by it among the chi- valrous aristocracy introduced by his grandfather ; : whose bearing, and their followers inie>ting the highways, could not but be galling to the peaceful burgher. The intestine troubles produced by these causes were commenced by David ma, to whom Matilda was more nearly than Stephen. Invading England in the spring of 1136, that prince was induced to retire . ssion of Cumberland ; but returning again, in the year following, was defeated at the battle of the Standard, fought on Cutton Moor, August 22, 1138. Then followed, in September, 1139, the arrival of Matilda, supported by the earl of Glouces- ter, and the disaffected barons, to whose forces Stephen was compelled to yield : the triumph of Matilda lasted from February to September, 1141, when the king recovered his liberty, and his rival took refuge in Normandy. Nor yet was Stephen allowed to wear the crown in peace, for Matilda having resigned her pretensions to Henry Planta- genet, her son, that chivalrous prince landed an army at Wareham, in 1153, and met the forces of Stephen at Walhngford. The threatened blood- shed, however, was now avoided by an armistice, for at this juncture the son of Stephen expired, and he was easily prevailed upon to conclude a treaty recognizing Henry as his successor, who had only just arrived at the age of manhood, and could afford to wait a few years : the interval was brief indeed, for Stephen died the year following, aged forty- nine, 1154. The foreign troops drawn by Stephen from Brittany and Flanders, and the for- tresses erected by the barons in their contests with him, were alike harassing to the people during his troubled reign, and besides all this he maintained a difficult struggle with the papal clergy. [E.R.] STEPHEN, James, a lawyer and political writer, who suggested and arranged the system of continental blockade, by which Napoleon was so gnat ly embarrassed during the late war; he was tir*t known as a reporter on the 'Morning Chro- nicle,' but attracted the attention of government by his anonymous pamphlet, entitled ' War in ■.or the Frauds of Neutral Flags,' soon after which he became member for Tralee. Mr. i was connected by marriage with Wilber- ersons by a perusal of the evidence recently aid before the public. He begged Mr. Stephen- son's acceptance of this token of their esteem, wishing him health long to enjoy it, and to enable him to employ those talents with which Providence had blessed him for the benefit of his fellow-crea- tures.' Stephenson in acknowledging the gift, gave the following pledge, which was nobly re- deemed during the subsequent part of his valuable life.—' I shall ever reflect with pride and gratitude that my labours have been honoured with the approbation of such a distinguished meeting ; and vou may rest assured that my time and any talent 1 possess shall hereafter be employed in such man- ner as not to give you, gentlemen, any cause to regret the countenance and support you have so generously afforded me.' Though men of Stephen- son's scope and frame of mind are in a great measure independent of education, they most thoroughly understand the advantages of it. George Stephenson, therefore, took special care to insure his son's receiving every advantage in this way, and was* well rewarded even in the beginning ; for Robert Stephenson carried off mathematical and philosophical prizes lrom Edinburgh university. The first locomotive railway, for the purposes of travelling according to the present principle of traction, was constructed between Stockton and Darlington. Stephenson VU engineer. The safcty- lamp testimonial had enabled him, in partnership STE with certain capitalists and his son, to establish the now world-renowned engine factory in New- castle. On the opening of the Darlington railway, in 1825, Stephenson's engines travelled with a speed of ten miles an hour; but his ideas and anticipations of the capabilities of this mode of transit, both as to speed and the effect it would produce when generally adopted, as he foresaw it must be ultimately, were such as he did not then even dare to express for fear of being pronounced insane! With the engineering of the Liverpool and Manchester railway, Stephenson entered upon the field of his great fame ; and from 1825 to 1847 he occupied the foremost position of all railway engineers, whether in Britain or on the continent. His son, and his pupils and assistants, spread the fame of his name and the principles of his practice from one end of the world to the other, and con- tinue to do so. Stephenson was a man of iron frame of body and mind, of plain manners, ardent temperament', eminently social habits ; too confi- dent of his powers and too sure of his position to be ambitious; he unflinchingly pursued his own ends by all means, and seldom if ever failed in accomplishing his objects. He amassed great wealth, partly from his profession; but he was also an extensive coal proprietor, and it is no small portion of his renown that he mainly, on his own account, established the inland coal trade to the metropolis. He died at Tapton house near Chesterfield, aged sixty-seven, on the 12th August, 1848. [L.D.B.G.] STEPNEY, George, an English poet and am- bassador of the reign of .lames II., 1663-1707. STERBEECK, F., a Flemish botanist, 17th ct. STERLING, John, one of the most indepen- dent and true-hearted thinkers of this age, gener- ally known as an essayist and critic, was born at Karnes castle, in the Isle of Bute, in 1806. His father, Captain Edward Sterling, was a native of Waterford in Ireland, but was descended from a Scotch officer — one of those who acquired military distinction in the army of Gustavus Adolphus. Captain Sterling also was a political writer, and editor of the Times newspaper. From 1810 to 1814 he resided in Glamorganshire, where his son became deeply imbued with that love of nature, and the ' metaphysical and religious ' value of its scenes, which is so conspicuous in his letters and essays. On the fall of Napoleon in 1814 the family went to reside in France, and barely man- aged to effect their escape in the following year, when the exile of Elba returned to reassert his rights; the family then settled in London. In 1824 John Sterling was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, and remained there till 1827, when he left without taking a degree, but returned for that purpose in 1833, on resolving to enter the Church of England. Here he studied the classics under Archdeacon Hare, and though he did not become a thorough scholar, it is pleasant to read the con- fession of his old teacher that he was ' something bettor' in the mastery which he obtained over the spirit of the old Greek poetry and philosophy. In the interval between leaving college and taking orders, Sterling became a contributor to the Atfienceum and other periodicals, and puMDtd Ml literary avocations in London, under the influent e of such men as Coleridge and Wordsworth, not to 7J7 3B Ems forget his friends Carlvle and Frederick Maurice ; ie married the sister of the lady who be- of the latter. The connection of with the church as curate of Herstmon- ccux, of which place his friend, Archdeacon Hare, was rector, felted DO more than iboot six months, but in this period he devoted himself with reli- gious real to all the arduous duties of a country curate; his health meanwhile giving way, and his convictions gradually ripening towards a more .1 faith than 'that of the church articles, king the curacv he had resided some two Tears at St. Vincent, in the West Indies, and after leaving it he once more travelled under more ge- nial skies than those of England, a measure ren- dered necessary by his tendency to consumption. These travels extended, by easy stages and long halts, from the south of France to Italy and . and were varied by his occupations as an author, but still more by the restless energy of his i thinker, engaged in the deep problems Dp by the study of German literature and tiie Bible — no longer to him a mere historical nar- rative but a great symbol, the interpretation of which none of his masters could furnish. About 1841 he published his tragedy of ' Strafford,' which had been to him a labour of love, the one in which his genius ' swam the lightest,' but it fell still-born from the press. In 1813 his sensitive frame, already weakened by the malady which consumed him, re- ceived a severe shock from the death of his mother and his wife within a dav or two of each other, and he breathed his last, kindly watched in his last illness by Mrs. Maurice, in the spring of 18-11. Having appointed Archdeacon Hare and Mr. Carlyle his literary executors, the former published a collec- tion of his works, to which a memoir was prefixed, : and the latter his picturesque and affect- • of John Sterling,' in 1851. W« need not dwell on the distinction between these two works, — the one lamenting his earnest strivings to- wards the truth as a deplorable fall, and the other .:< ally sketching the 'victorious believer and riousdoer.' We may add, however, one preg- nant sentence from the pen of Sterling himself: — ^The quantity of inwardness, faith, and power, which has come before me in my own generation, cannot, I think, pass away into the Invisible with- out helping towards some great outward revolu- tion. Hut ! how perilous will be the position of any man who may stand forth as the leader and : -bearer in such a movement! For how small and weakly charged were the " lofts of storied thunder" even in Luther's time, which the prince Of this world could set loose against him, com- pared with those of modern civilization and philo- sophy, which would be just as fierce in their way as were, of old, the papacy and the empire.' f E.R.J man painter, 1098-1710. ■ Dutch engraver, 17th century. NE, or STEARNE, John, a learned Irish ■ the famous Usher, at the hop of Meath, was born in I died lCW. lie was better known as a theologian than a physician, and has B '. John, sneces- . her, died L745. ■ -ni in 1713 at , owed his Irish birth, aud the passing of 738 STE his childhood in Ireland, to the fact that his father, the younger son of a Yorkshire squire, was then ;i lieutenant in a marching regiment. Laurence was educated by his father's kinsmen; and about 17-1!) a clerical uncle obtained for him a prebend in York Cathedral, and the living of Sutton, in tho East Riding. In addition to these preferments, after his marriage in 1741, his wife's family pre- sented him to the parish of Stillington. Thereafter, the two parishes being adjacent, he continued to Eerform duty in both, residing at Sutton, amusing imself (in his own words) with ' books, painting, fiddling, and shooting,' publishing a couple of ser- mons, "quarrelling with his clerical brethren, and collecting, by observation and reading, the mate- rials on which his literary fame was to be built. Ho became celebrated immediately on publishing the first two volumes of ' Tristram Shandy' in 1759 ; and his reputation increased till the appearance of the ninth and last volume in 17G6. The ' Senti- mental Journey,' which came out in 1768, was undoubtedly inferior, but is still the favourite with many readers. His way of life soon ceased to be, even outwardly, respectable. His publication of two volumes of Sermons in 1760 was a pecuniary speculation. In the same year he obtained another Yorkshire living; but his clerical duties seem to have occupied from this time very little of fait attention. He wandered about, enjoying his noto- riety in London, and making two continental jour- nies, the one into France, the other into Italy. The lightmindedness so evident in his works, arid not least so in the posthumous ' Letters,' edited by his daughter, led him into dissolute habits, of which improvidence was the least serious. He died, in lodgings in London, in 1768, leaving his family quite unprovided for. The moral tendency of Sterne's writings is unquestionably low; his freedom of plagiarism, especially from Rabelais and Moliere, is audacious; but his airy and graceful humour is admirable, and some of his characters are among the most natural and original of all comic portraits. • [W.S.;] STERNE, Richard, a native of Mansfield, iii Nottinghamshire, who attended Laud at his execu- tion in the character of chaplain, and after tho restoration became archbishop of York. He wrote a treatise on Logic, and some Latin poems, besides his share in Walton's Polvglott Bible; 1596-1683. STERNHOLD, Thomas, an English scholar and poet, whose principal claim to remembrance is his share in the versification of the Psalms, d. 154:). STESICHORUS, a Greek poet, 610-560 b.c. STETTEN, Paul Von, a Ger. historian, 170."- 1786. His brother, of the same names, 1731-1808 STEUART-DKNHAM, SlB Jas, a Scottish wr. on political economy, grandson of the lord advocate of this name, bom at Edinburgh 1712, died 1780. STEVENS, A., an English architect, died 1796* STEVENS, George Alexander, a satirist and humorous writer, originally known as a strol- ling player, author of ' The History of Pope Fool,' a novel, 'Lectures upon Heads,' and a number of songs, the most popular of which was ' Tho Storm ;' died 1784. STEVENS, R. J. S., a composer, 1753-1837. STEVENS, William, a tradesman of London, cousin to Bishop Home, and distinguished liko him by his theological writings, 1732-1SU7. STE STEVENS. W. B., a divine and poet, 1755-1800. STEVENSON, Sir John Andrew, a famous musical composer, born in Ireland 1759, died 1833. } ; is most popular work is the arrangement of the Irish melodies, adapted to the words of Moore, and executed in conjunction with him. Ke also wrote for the stage, and composed many anthems and glees. STEVENSON, John Hall, a clever satirist and humorous writer, described by Laurence Sterne, who was his intimate friend, in the character of Eugenius in Tristram Shandy, author of ' Crazy Tales,' 'Fables for Grown 'Gentlemen,' 'Lyric Epistles,' and ' Moral Tales,' 1718-1785. STEVENSON, Robert, a civil engineer, the chief points of whose character were great sagacitv, fortitude, and perseverance. In private life he was a man of sterling worth, who consecrated to bene- ficial ends every talent committed to his trust. Born at Glasgow in June, 1772, the son of a West India merchant, he was, while yet an infant, left fatherless, and circumstances conspired to render the widow and her only son, Robert, by no means well provided for. But the mother's energy over- came these difficulties, and Robert Stevenson re- ceived a good elementary education. About 1787 his mother married Mr. Thomas Smith, an ingeni- ous man, who had commenced life as a tinsmith in Edinburgh, but who afterwards successfully im- proved the mode of illuminating lighthouses, by substituting oil lamps with parabolic mirrors for the open coal fires which formerly served as beacons for the mariner. Stevenson was at the early age of nineteen intrusted by his step-father with the superintendence of the erection of the lighthouse on the Little Cumbrae in the Frith or Clyde, and through this connection became, about 1797, engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board, an office which he resigned in 1843, after having filled its arduous duties for about half a century. The great work of Stevenson's life, that upon which his reputation as an engineer princi- pally rests, is the Bell Rock lighthouse. To him is due the honour of conceiving and executing, a tower of masonry on the Bell Rock, a situation, un- doubtedly, from the level of the rock, which is covered at every tide, of much greater difficulty than the Eddystone. His zeal, ever alive to the possibility of improving on the conceptions of his great master, Smeaton, led him to introduce some advantageous changes in the arrangements of the masonry of the tower, suggested by the facility of procuring stones of greater dimensions than Smeaton had been able to get from the granite quarries of Cornwall. Stevenson may, with the strictest pro- priety, be said to have created the lighthouse sys- tem of Scotland, and brought about its present state of perfection. In no country has the caiopric system of illuminating lighthouses been carried out so per- fectly as in Scotland; and whether we consider the accuracy and beauty of the optical apparatus, the arrangements of the buildings, or the discipline observed by the light-keepers, we cannot fail to recognize the impress of that energetic and comprehensive cast of mind which directed the whole. In works of general engineering Stevenson was very extensively engaged in every part of Bri- tain, and takes rank with Rennic and Telford in the annals of the profession. Mr. Stevenson died STE on the 12th Julv, 1850, in the seventv-ninth year of his age. ' "[L.D.F/.G.] STEVENSON, W., an antiquarian, died 1821. STEVENSON, William, a clerk in the record office, known as a miscellaneous writer, 1772-1829. STEVIN, SlMON, in Latin Stevinus, a Flemish mathematician, teacher of Prince Maurice, and inspector of the dvkes in Holland, died 1G33. STEWART, Dugald, born in Edinburgh, 22d November, 1753 ; died at his seat on the Frith of Forth, 11th June, 1828: — the eloqnent disciple of Reid, and chief expounder of the Philosophy of the Scottish School. Appointed, at the early age of twenty-one, to succeed his father in the Mathe- matical Chair in the University of Edinburgh, — an office honourably filled by him for five years • he was on the retirement of Dr. Fergusson, elected Professor of Moral Philosophy. The charm of his style and manner was so great, and such the clearness of his exposition, that in a brief time his class-room was crowded by rising Youth from all quarters of the United Kingdom ; and it is not to be denied that in conjunction with Playfair and other celebrated men then in Edinburgh, he contri- buted powerfully to confirm that generous liberality of Thought prevailing in our northern metropolis, when Horner, Lansdowne, Brougham, Russell, &c. lived there as young men. This peculiar influence of his teaching too, was strengthened by personal intercourse with him. Of easy access, a kindly gravity, and much openness, he possessed every quality necessary to attach his pupils : and it is not rare even at" this late day, to hear him spoken of with more than admiration. Stewart retained his office until 1810, when, on his retirement, Dr. Thomas Brown was instituted to the Chair. — We wish it were possible to account as highly the Metaphysician, as we require to account the Man. His works, indeed, are voluminous, and few au- thors ever had the gift of a warmer, more perspi- cuous or persuasive style. Whatever idea he touches, he unquestionably adorns: nevertheless it cannot be asserted either that Stewart has done much to advance Speculation, or that he had per- sonally attained an adequate grasp of the History of Philosophy, and the place it lias occupied in the long development of Humanity. Reid and he, it must be remembered, stood in very differ- ent positions. Reid was essentially a Discoverer. Whatever the merit or defects of his system, it was a system framed by himself. Stewart, on the other hand, received it as a work accomplished: and, had he possessed the ability of his Master, tin; Philosophy of the Scottish School would have grown greater under his hands, and passed on to- wards the condition of a Science. Undoubtedly lie improved its phraseology, for instance, for tho term 'Principles of Common Sense,' he substituted 'Laws or Elements of Belief;' he strengthened some of its weaker parts, and gave precision to others; and he enriched Rcid's account of tho Faculties, by much felicitous and apposite illustra- tion — witness his elaborate account of the Laws of Association: but, beyond Reid, he did DOt advance one hair's breadth : with him, as with his master, Philosophy confined itself to a statement or exa- mination of some fundamental ideas of the Bea- ton ; neither attempting to account for them, not to ascend to their origin, nor to follow thein to 739 STE lie loft the Scottish School in . respects, in the condition in which he found it, — ' HriBgt' in the words of Cousin, ' a commencement in psychology, hut no regular •ther ■ metaphysic, nor a theodiccea, nor a cosmology — a little of morals and politics, but :\u' Stewart's best work — that in which ■ discern marks of scientific Thought — is hi* Philosophical Essays; and his worst, is the most famons, viz., the Historical Dissertation in the En- cyclopedia Uritannica. It may seem a harsh and tuous deliverance, but we have no dread of its being gainsaid— that in our higher Philo- sophical Literature, it would be difficult to find a :nate treatment of so great a theme. From • nee of coherence — the absence of any trace of unitv or comprehensive principle, the Disserta- tion is liker the expansion of a commonplace book, than an effort to contemplate the continuous flow of Human Thought. It evinces too, an extraor- dinary defect of sympathy with the whole progress of speculation in modern continental Europe: • manifestly knew nothing of Kant; and he did not think" it necessary to take notice of Spinoza! A singular illustration, surely, how strictly insular, we Scotchmen have been as Thinkers, until within these recent years: and therein a promise that brighter lights, in many .11 break over our future. — Let us conclude in the spirit in which we began, and pay to the memory of Stewart, the tribute owing to a bene- volent, upright, and liberal man of undoubted talent — one of the most polished writers of his i as fascinating a Teacher as ever occupied a chair in our Metropolitan University. [J.P.N.] S'lEWART, Matthew, D.D., born at Rothe- say in 1717; died in 1785. A pupil of Robert Sim- son in the College of Glasgow, he early evinced great mathematical talent ; and, having given am- ple evidence alike of his tastes and power, lie was called from the living of Roseneath to succeed Maclaurin in Edinburgh in 1747. He discharged the duties of this important office until 1772, when his son, the well-known Scottish metaphy- sician, began to assist him. Like all our British mathematicians of that period, Dr. Stewart was strongly attached to Geometrical Methods; and he evinced his singular command of them in the discovery, while at Roseneath, of the propositions published under the title ' Geometrical Theories,' by his 'Tracts, Physical and Mathematical,' and his 'Propositiones More Veterum Demonstrate :' —the latter set of propositions, however, having been discovered by analytical methods, although demonstrated synthetically. The subsequent in- troduction of the Continental analysis into Bri- tain, greatly diminished the interest at one time attached to such exercitations : but if we mistake not, the discovery of new, general, and very power- ful methods in Geometrical treatment, is about to produce a useful revival of old Tastes. [J.I'.X. "1 it. See Castlereagii. ' -ART-DENHAM. See Steuakt. STL EL, Mi. iiaki., in Latin Slifelins, a Lu- livine and mathematician, died 1;3i;o. a. Neapolitan, ■who flourished about the year 1650. He was an : composer, singer, and performer on the violin. The romantic incidents in the life of Stra- liilia have often been narrated, and some years since they were selected as the subject of an opera, the music of which was composed by Von Flotow. from wounds inflicted upon him by the stilettos of two Venetian assassins, somewhere about the year 1670. His compositions were chiefly of a miscellaneous character. [J'M-] 6 1 B A FFORD, Thomas Wkntworth, earl of, victim of his efforts to establish the arbitrary power of Charles I. in England, was the son of Sir William Wentworth, of Went worth- Woodhouse in Yorkshire, and was born in Chancery Lane, Lon- don, in 1593. He was the eldest of twelve chil- dren, and having succeeded to the estates of his father, was soon after appointed custos rotulorum (keeper of the archives) for the West Riding, and in icaine member of parliament for his native county. At the commencement of the reign of Charles I., during the arbitrary administration of Buckingham, Wentworth stood nobly by the rights of the people — he even bore imprisonment, the deprivation of his offices, and his tyrannical exclu- sion from parliament : he was among the foremost promoters of the famous Petition of Right: for, said he, ' We must vindicate — what ? New things V No, — our ancient, legal, and vital liberties, by such a seal upon them as no licentious spirit shall nereafter dare to infringe.' It may seem strange that a man whose political life commenced thus, should leave his party and become the first sacrifice on the altar of freedom, but there are two considerations which explain all such anomalies— those of character and circumstance. Strafford was a man of pre-eminent genius, haughty, auda- cious, and fond of power — of that stamp who mingle with their nobler qualities a reserved am- bition, and ever hold themselves in readiness, like the couchant lion, to make a magnificent spring upon the object they mark out. Circumstances are the determining cause in such a case, and had : th lived a few years later he might have anticipated the actions of a Cromwell, without his strict virtue ; as it happened, the critical death of Buckingham, who fell by assassination, before the popular cause had gained strength enough to much grandeur of success, following quick on recent overtures from the court, provoked the lion to make his spring on what he deemed nobler quarry than the cause he had so long waited on. It was no mean ambition, or obscure contest in wind, .n now involved the renegade, uouldering zeal of England for her ancient liberties, began * bright flame, and Pym rnpted to justify : with him, — beyond all question, the greatest spirit that the king had won to his cause, — I urn of a manly despotism OH tin: one hand, ' ommonwcalth on the other, was now to he ;;:id his head was but the lirtt stake iu the STR game. We shall not consider it necessary to fol- low this great statesman and daring innovator, from one employment to another, or note the measures which brought him to ruin ; all this is matter of history. In 1640, eight years after his appointment as lord-deputy of Ireland, he was re- warded with the earldom, and his style changed to that of lord-lieutenant, hut he was now constrained by the king to await the meeting of parliament; Charles, at the same time, solemnly assuring him that ' not a hair of his head should be touched.' The popular party meanwhile, headed by Pym, had prepared their accusation of Laud and Straf- ford, and the impeachment was carried up to the bar of the House of Lords, on November 18, 1640. The accumulative evidence, and the well-known character of Strafford's designs, could leave no doubt of his intention to accomplish what the indictment charged him with: 'to subvert the fundamental laws of the realm,' as construed by the parliament ; but the necessary legal evidence, under the law of treason, completely failed them, and Strafford made such a defence that the com- mittee abandoned that mode of procedure, and framed a bill of attainder. Abandoned to his fate by Charles, Strafford was executed in pursuance of this sentence on the 12th of May, 1641. His Letters, which make two folio volumes, were pub- lished by Dr. Knowles in 1739. It is remarkable that Whitlocke, chairman of the committee by which the impeachment was conducted, thus testi- fies to the bearing of Strafford when on his trial : — 1 Certainly,' he says, ' never any man acted such a part, on such a theatre, with more wisdom, con- stancy, and eloquence, with greater reason, judg- ment, and temper, and with a better grace in all his words and actions, than did this great and excel- lent person ; and he moved the hearts of all his auditors, some few excepted, to remorse and pity.' [E.R.] STRANGE, Sir Jorw, an English lawyer and author of Reports, 1696-1754. His son, John, a naturalist and antiquarian, 1732-1799. STRANGE, Sir Robert, one of the most emi- nent historical engravers of Europe, was born in Pomona, one of the Orkneys, July 14, 1721. After attempting various pursuits, he joined the Preten- der in 1745, and was present at the battle of Culloden. He afterwards lived by drawing por- traits in Edinburgh, till he married in 1747, when he went abroad, and resided first at Rouen and subsequently at Paris, where he commenced the study of engraving under Le Bas, and he finally settled as an historical engraver, in London, in 1751. His reputation soon extended beyond the limits of his own country : he has no superior as a line engraver generally ; he went again abroad in 1760, and though formally excluded from the Eng- lish Royal Academy, when established in London, in 1768 he was successively elected a member by the academies of Rome, Florence, Bologna, Parma, and Paris. He was knighted by George III. in 1787, and died July 5, 1792, bequeathing to pos- terity many exquisite engravings from some or tho most celebrated Italian pictures. But the plates of Strange are far too elaborate to he numerous, they do not amount to sixty altogether : the Bolog- nese masters appear to have been his favourit< s, but one of his most celebrated works is a fuli- 742 STB length of Charles I., after Vandyck. Strange is un- surpassed in the representation of flesh": a line example is the Venus of the Tribune, after Titian. The qrlestion of the exclusion of engravers from the academy was one taken up very warmly by Sir Robert, he assumed the whole to be personal to himself. Certainly, in the original scheme for the foundation of the academy in 1753, it was designed that two out of the whole number of twenty-four should be engravers. It is gratifying to be able to state, that this standing cause of contention among English artists has at length been removed: the height to which the dispute was carried it one time, may be seen in a statement published by Sir Robert Strange himself, ' An Enquiry into the Rise and Establishment of the Royal Academy of Arts. To which is prefixed a letter to the Earl of Bute.'' London, 1775.— (Le Blanc, Le Graveur en taille douce, Part II., Leipzig, 1848 ; Longhi, La Cal- coyraphia, Milan, 1830.) [R.N.W.] STBATO, a Greek epigrammatic poet, presumed contemporary of Septimus Severus, from 193-211. STRATO of Lampsacus, a Greek philosopher, surnamed the physician, or naturalist, from the materialistic character of his system. He was the successor of Theophrastus, and taught Ptolemy Philadelphus in Egypt. STRAUCH, F. R., a Sp. theologian, 1760-1823. STRAUCH, J., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1612-1679. STRAUCHIUS, jEgidius, a German mathe- matician and controversial divine, 1632-1682. STRAUSS, Jans Janszoon, otherwise John Struys, a Dutch traveller, author of Memoirs of his Life, and of his journies through Muscovy, Tartary, Persia, and the East Indies. His travels date from 1647 to 1673. Died 1694. STREATER, R., an English painter, 1624-80. STRICKLAND, E., distinguished as a traveller and naturalist, grandson of Sir George Strickland of Bayntun, in Yorkshire, and of the celebrated Dr. Cartwright, was born in Yorkshire 1811. His travels in Asia, followed by the publication of papers on geology and ornithology, date in 1835. In 1847 he began his editorial labours upon the zoology and geology of Professor Agassiz for the Ray Society. He succeeded Dr. Buckland as pro- fessor of geology at Oxford, and was killed by a railway accident in September, 1853. STRIGELIUS, Victokinus, a Ger. divine and philosopher, period of the reformation, 1524-1569. STROEMER, Martin, a Swedish professor of natural philosophy and astronomy, 1707-1770. STROGONOFF, Count Alexander Von, the Maecenas of arts and letters at St. Petersburg, born about 1750, died 1811. His nephew, Paul, a military officer and statesman, died 1814. STROZZI, a Florentine name, which has been illustrated by many noble characters as states- men, warriors, and men of letters. The savants and poets are — Pallas, chief of the university, and a devoted friend of learning, 1372-1462. Tito Vespasiano, a Latin poet and statesman, 1422- 1501. Ercole, his son, author of a, poem on the Greek language, and a friend of Bembo, born 1471, assassinated 1508. Francisco Di Soldo, a translator of Xenophon and Thuoydides, known from 1550 to 1563. Ciriaco, or Chirico, pro- fessor of philosophy and Greek at Bologna, 1504- 1505. Laurentia, his sister, a nun, and author STR of festival hymns in Latin, 1511-1591. Gr.ur- nATTisTA, an elegant writer, who was invited to Rome by Urban VIIL, and had apartments in the Vatican, died 1634. Guilio, author of a line epic poem on the origin of Venice, died 1636. Piktro, secretary of briefs under Paul V., and afterwards professor of philosophy at Pisa, 1575- 1640. Bernardo, surnamed 11 Cappucino and llprete Genovese, a painter, 1581-1644. Nicolo, a tragic writer, died 1654; and Giacomo, a poet and dramatist, flourished at Venice, 1583-1060. The public characters are those following : — STROZZI, Filippo, a Florentine senator, bom 1488, and allied to the Medici by his marriage with Clarice, niece of Leo X., famous in history for his attempt to expel that family from the republic. He was taken prisoner, and anticipated the public death reserved for him by self-destruction, 1538. His sons went to France, and engaged in the ser- vice of that state against Charles V., who pro- tected the Medici. Pietro, general of the French galleys and marshal, was killed at the siege of Thionville 1558. Leo, his brother, was chief of the forces sent to the aid of Mary Stuart ; he was killed in Italy 1554. Filippo, son of Pietro, born at Venice 1541, became colonel of the French guards, and distinguished himself at Montcontour and Rochelle ; he was wounded in a fight with the Spanish fleet off the island of St. Michael, and was then thrown overboard, though living, by order of the admiral, Santa Cruz, 1582. STRUDEL, P., a Tyrolese painter, 1660-1717. STRUENSEE, Adrian, a theologian and asce- tic writer, minister at Halle, in Saxony, 1708-1791. His eldest son, Carl August Von Struensee, a distinguished economist, tactician, mathema- tician, and statesman, 1735-1806. His younger son is the subject of the following notice. STRUENSEE, John Frederic, Count, whose fate is connected with that of the hapless princess, Matilda Caroline, sister of George III., was born at Halle in 1737, and became physician to Christian VII., king of Denmark, in 1768. The marriage of Christian had disappointed the ambi- tious hopes of the queen dowager, Julia Maria, who had hitherto been able to retain her influence at court, and had calculated on the succession of her son, Prince Frederic; she became, therefore, the mortal enemy of Matilda, who found herself neglected by the king, and after a long pleasure excursion, in which he was accompanied by Stru- ensee, virtually separated from him. The first circumstance leading to any intimacy between Matilda and Struensee was the inoculation of her child, from which time she appears to have con- certed with him the counter intrigues which led to the ruin of both. He first became governor of the prince, then counsellor of the conferences and reader to the king ; his friend and firm coadjutor, at the same time, Count Brandt, being appointed director of the court spectacles. The imbecility of the king favoured any enterprise, however rash, and Struensee, once in action, contemplated no- thing Bhort of a complete revolution in the state, by which the aristocracy was to be abased, and the people gratified with a free press and many useful reforms. All this was accomplished in 1771, and (lie adventurer became secret minister with tho title of count ; having, however, a powerful party 743 STR of the nobles, headed by the queen dowager and Count Rantzau, opposed to him. This party be- gan by blackening the character of Matilda, who had been MMMM to the king by the influence of v, and as scandal is always palatable to those whose conduct would most merit its enven- omed shafts, the press was set in motion against the authors of its freedom. In fine, the same de- plorable weakness that had enabled Struensee to eifect his rash enterprise, was now used to his de- struction. Late one night in January, 1772, the conspirators suddenly forced their way to the kings apartment, persuaded him that he was about to be assassinated, and procured his order for the arrest of .Struensee, his friend Brandt, and the queen. The latter was sleeping in her cham- ber at four in the morning, when Rantzau entered without ceremony and made her his prisoner, and it is well known that her life was only saved by the presence of the English fleet, by which she was conveyed to Germany. The charge against them was that of conspiracy against the state, aggravated by adultery. Struensee and Brandt were beheaded on the 28th of April, 1772, and four years after Matilda, not then twenty-five years of age, expired in Zell. [E.R.] STRUTT, Joseph, an artist and antiquarian writer, born at Springfield, in Essex, 1749, died in London 1802. Having been apprenticed to Ryland, the engraver, he united the study of antiquities to his profession, and produced the following valuable works: — ' The Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England,' 1773 ; ' Manners, Customs, Arms, Habits, &c, of the English, from the Arrival of the Saxons to the Reign of Henry VIII.,' 1774- Chronicle of England,' 1777-1778; ' Bio- graphical Dictionary of Engravers,' 1785-1786; 'A Complete View of the Dresses and Habits of the People of England,' 1796-1799 ; and that most favourite of all his works, ' The Sports and Pas- times of the People of England,' 1801. STRUVE, George Adam, in Latin Struvius, a Ger. jurisconsult, 1619-1692. His son, Burck- hakd Gotthelf, professor of history, 1672-1738. STRUYS. See Strauss. STRY, A. Van, a Dutch painter, 1755-1824. STBYPEj John, an indefatigable compiler of works relating to ecclesiastical history and bio- graphy, was born at Stepney, of German extrac- tion, 1643, and became rector of Low Layton, in Essex, about 1669. It was here, during a sixty years' incumbency, that he compiled his valuable works, the chief of which are his ' Ecclesiastical Me- morials,' the publication of which was completed in 1721; his 'Annals of the Reformation,' pub- lished from 1709 to 1731; and his 'Lives of the Archbishops Cranmer, Parker, Grindall, and Whit- gift.' In the latter part of his life he became lec- turer at Hackney ; died 1737. \ KT, the royal house of Great Britain after the union of Scotland. The first of the name was the only child of Walter, the Steward of Scotland, and his wife Marjory, daughter of King Robert Bruce; he was born 1816] commanded the second h army at the battle of Hali- •ii July, 1333; concluded the treaty of Perth with Edward III., 1. ed David II. under the title of Robert II. 1 ' i 7 1 , died 1390. His son, Robert III., reined after him, and con- STU tinned the peace till 1399, when the succession of Henry IV. to the throne of England led to the renewal of hostilities ; died 1406. He was suc- ceeded by his son, James, whose successors all bore the same name, — the fifth of the line becom- ing father of the unhappy Queen of Scots. See James, Mary. The other kings of this houso were James the Sixth of Scotland and First of England, Charles I., Charles II., and James II., by whose deposition in 1688 the Stuarts were finally expelled the throne. The son of the last- named, James Francis Edward, called the Elder Pretender, was acknowledged king by Louis XIV., under the title of James III., in 17*01, and in 1719 married the daughter of John Sobieski, king of Poland; he made some vain attempts to recover the kingdom, and died at Rome in 1765. He resigned his pretensions to his son, Charles Edward, born 1721, who fought gallantly for the throne of his ancestors, and was defeated at Cul- loden 1746 ; died at Rome 1788. The last of the Stuarts was his brother, Henry Benedict, who entered the church after the disasters of 1745, and became titular cardinal of York ; on the death of Prince Charles, however, he assumed the vain title of Henry IX. The invasion of Italy by the French republic soon after, compelled him to seek safety in Venice, and he was there supported by a pension from the English crown. Died 1807. STUART, Arabella. See Seymour. STUART, Sir Charles, fourth son of Lord Bute, the favourite of George III., employed as a military officer beginning of last war, 1753-1801. STUART, Daniel, brother-in-law of Sir James Mackintosh, many years editor and proprietor of the ' Morning Post' and the ' Courier, 1766-1846. STUART, Gilbert, a Scottish historian and miscellaneous writer, Edinburgh, 1742-1786. STUART, James, descended from the house of Moray, and known as a partizan of the Whigs, was born at Dunearn in 1776, and became a writer to the signet in 1798. The chief event in his career was a fatal duel with Sir A. Boswell, son of the famous biographer and friend of Dr. John- son, which took place in 1822. Stuart being the victor, was tried for murder, but acquitted. In 1835, when Lord Melbourne became premier, he was in London editing the ' Courier ' newspaper, and was rewarded for his supporting the govern- ment by the office of inspector of factories ; d. 1849. STUART, James, commonly called ' Athenian Stuart,' was born in London, of Scotch parents, in 1713, and prosecuted his famous pedestrian travels in the period from 1742 to 1755. His ' Antiqui- ties of Athens,' a work of high value for its pains- taking research and truthfulness, appeared in 1762 ; died 1788. STUART, John, a Scottish antiquarian and professor of Greek at Aberdeen, author of an 'Ac- count of Marischal College and University,' ' The Sculptured Pillars in the Northern Counties of Scotland,' and ' Observations upon the Various Accounts of the Progress of the Roman Anns in Scotland,' 1751-1827. STUBBE, H., a learned writer, 1631-1676. STUBBS, G., an English divine, 17th century. STUBBS, G., a dieting, painter, 1724-1806. STUBBS, or STUBBE, John, a sturdv puritan and political writer, lived about 1541-1G00. 744 STU STUCKIUS, J. W., a Swiss divine, 1542-1607. STUKELEY, William, a famous antiquarian, horn at Holbech, in Lincolnshire, 1687, died 1765. His works are ' Itinerarium Curiosum,' or an 4 Account of the Antiquities and Curiosities on his Travels through Great Britain,' published 1724; ' Palaaographia Sacra, or Discourses on the Monu- ments of Antiquity that Relate to Sacred His- tory,' 1736; an 'Account of Stonehenge,' 1740, and some others. STURE, Steno, called ' the Elder,' administra- tor of the government of Sweden, was the son of the statesman, Gustavus Anundson Sture, by Bridget, half-sister of Charles Canuteson. The historical events in which all the Stures figured mark the period of the union of the three king- doms, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, as effected by Margaret of Waldemar. Charles Canuteson, installed king in defiance of Christian I. of Den- mark, expired in 1470, and Steno Sture, already known for a ' skilful, cautious, and free-minded lord, and therewithal prosperous in his designs,' received the government at his death, with the counsel never to strive after the regal title, the assumption of which, by Charles, had brought many disasters upon the kingdom. Steno Sture was the man of the people, and the chief votes for his election were those of the peasants and burgesses ; few of the lords followed his banner. In the middle of 1471, Christian appeared at Stockholm with a fleet of seventy ships, and Steno advanced to the relief of the capital with about ten thousand men ; the strength of the Danish army was about the same, and it was posted on a sandy height, called the Brunke- berg, outside the town. Here the battle for the independence of Sweden was fought, on the 11th of October, and the Swedes gained a hard won victory, as mav be judged from the fact that no less than five hundred of the enemy fell around the Danebrog or standard of Christian, who quitted Sweden, and made no further attempts against it. The wise administration of the king- dom by Steno Sture now secured to Sweden a long succession of happy years, and in 1477 he founded the university of Upsala. His later years were disturbed by the invasion of Finland by Russia, the accidental burning of Stockholm, the plague, the failure of crops, and finally, by the revival of the Danish claims under King John. All these circumstances combined to deprive Steno Sture of his power in 1497, but he regained it in 1501, and again carried matters with a high hand. He died by poison, probably administered by the physician of the Danish queen, in 1503. [K.Ii.J STURE, Suanto Nilson, successor of the preceding, was joined in the government of Sweden by a warrior priest named Hemming Gadd, who was ' oftener seen at the head of an army or a fleet than at the altar.' Suanto is described as a val- iant warrior of a bounteous and cheerful disposi- tion. It was said of him proverbially that no one was admitted into his service who was observed to wink before the blow of a battle-axe, and that he would rather strip himself of his clothes than suffer a fellow-soldier to go unrewarded. He seems to have been ' hail fellow, well met,' with the peasantry, and made a gallant stand with them against the pretensions of John, king of Denmark. 745 STU ne was marching against Prince Christian, son of John, when he 'expired suddenly in 1512. His administration had been one prolonged warfare with the Danes, and he succeeded in drawing into his alliance the Hanse Towns of Germany. His death was followed, a year later, by that of King John, who was succeeded by the cruel tvrant, Christian II. [E.R.] STURE, Steno Suanteson, son and successor of the preceding Suanto Sture, and ' the noblest and most chivalrous of his family,' was elected administrator in defiance of the Danish faction, one of whom was run through at the feast in the castle of Stockholm, on that occasion. In 1516, the ambitious prelate Gustavus Trolle, connived at the revival of the Danish claims under Christian, and that invader was defeated by Sture at the battle of Brenn-Kirk, near Stockholm, 22d July, 1518. In this battle the Swedish banner was carried by a young noble, Gustavus Vasa, destined to be the avenger of his country, and the founder of a dynasty ov kings. In the beginning of 1520, the Danish army made a new invasion, and a battle was fought on the ice of lake Assundun in West Goth- land. Steno was mortally wounded, and being car- ried out of the battle, died in his sledge while has- tening across the ice to Stockholm, where his wife, Christina Gyllenstierna, continued the resistance with great heroism. The Swedes, however, were routed, and the coronation of Christian was cele- brated by that 'massacre of Stockholm,' which makes one of the bloodiest chapters of history. Such were the results at which the policy of Mar- garet of Waldemar had arrived; aggravated, how- ever, by the bigotry of a dark and ambitious super- stition assuming the name of religion. These events possess more than the interest of old annals. The Stures of Sweden carried on the bat- tle of freedom and the Christian faith till the Gus- tavuses arose, to whose great victories we owe at this hour the peaceful possession of the Bible in Europe. [E.R.] STURGEON, William, a great discoverer in electro-magnetism and galvanism, was born at Whittington, in Lancashire, 1783. He was ap- prenticed to a shoemaker, and his career exhibits a striking example of the distinction that is some- times reached under the most difficult circum- stances, arising from a deficient education and social position. His experiments and works hav- ing led to his general recognition as a man of high science, Mr. Sturgeon was appointed professor of experimental philosophy in the military academy at Addiscombe ; died 1850. STURGES, John, a theologian, died 1807. STURM, James, a German diplomatist, whoso^ protest against the exclusion of the deputies of the reformed from the diet of Spires, in 1519, led to the appellation of 'Protestants,' was born at Strasburg 1489. He was employed in several em- bassies, and contributed materials towards Slei- dan's History of the Reformation ; died 1555. STURM, John, in Latin Sturmius, called on account of his great learning the German Cicero, author of several original works and translations, Strasburg, 1607-168$ STURM.orSTUKMIUS.JoHwCiiKisToriiEi:, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Altorf, author of several works in physics, SUD ii no, Leonard Ghswiuvheb, nn engineer and writer on architecture, 1069-1719. ime family belongs Christopher Chris- i:m. a pastor at Hamburgh, one of whose works has been translated into most European languages; and is known in English under the : ions on the Works of God,' born Ht Augsburg 1740, died 178G. . John, a London engraver, 1658-1730. STURZ, H. P., a German writer, 173G-1776. B 1YI.K, \\\, a writer on law, 1603-1G79. ID, J ian Baptists Antoixe, an elegant ■, to the Fr. Academy, 1733-1817. REZ, V'., a Spanish theologian, 1548-1617. .!.'/.. J. M., an Ital. antiquary, died 1677. BB BLBYB \S, Peter, a French painter, taught bv his father, Matthew, and by Rival, 1699-1749. ' SUB'l r SUSTERMANS, Justus, it and hist, painter of Antwerp, 1597-1681. [ET, Louis Gabriel, duke of Albufera, one of Napoleon's generals, was born at Lyons :d rose to distinction in the wars waged by the republic in Italy. In 1800 he was major- general, and in 1805 began his career in the Spanish peninsula, where he rose to the command of one division of the army, and obtained his ducal honours. He became a peer of France after the tii n, and died 182G. BUNG, SlB John, a poet and courtier of the period of James L, was born at Whitton, in Middlesex, in 1609, and became the friend and companion of such men as Falkland and Devereux. At the period of the rebellion he displayed his .ad love of show by spending £12,000 in equipping a troop of one hundred horse, who proved too fine to De good for much in the field. Another trait of his character was exhibited by his endeavour to rescue Strafford, for which he was obliged to fly to France, where he died prematurely in io'41. lie was an elegant writer, an accom- plished scholar, and a great wit. SUDAN, J. N., archivist of Lyons, 1761-1827. SL'E, Jean Joseph, father and son, French surgeons, the former 1710-1792. Pierre, a ne- phew of the elder, author of a ' History of Gal- vanism,' 1739-1816. SUENO, three kings of Denmark, the first . '.'85-1014. The second, his grandson, re- • Jie crown of that country to the prejudice -', J, king of Norway, 1047, died 1074. The third, usurped the throne after assassinating Canute V., 1147, and was killed in battle with Waldemar, 11*7. : II I., king of Sweden from 1192-1210. SUETONIUS, Caius Tranquillus, a Roman advocate, who obtained the office of tribune through the influence of his friend, Pliny the Younger, and was afterwards secretary to Trajan. He is now known as an historian and miscellaneous writer, by his ' Lives of the Twelve Cassars,' and his 'Notices of Grammarians, Rhetoricians, and Poets,' ' I.PTS, a Roman general, who became governor of Britain, and vanquished Bosdicea, queen of the Iccni, W. • ii.\ki», a low comedian of great hnmour, and supposed to be inimitable in his line. He was a native of London, and a choir boy in St. Paul's catbedraL He made his first appearance SUL on the stage at the Haymarket theatre, while yet very young; but afterwards sought practice in the provinces, and particularly at York, where he acquired some reputation. In 1781 he appeared at Drury Lane, and became famous in comedy and broad farce. Among the parts for which lie was celebrated were Robin, Endless, and Dicky Gossip. He died in 1805 at the age of forty- seven, habits of intemperance having led to his early death. [J.A.H.] SUEUR, Eustache Le, was born at Mont Didier in 1617, and became the pupil of Simon Vouet at Paris, but by the aid of some of Marc- antonio's prints after Raphael, and some of the pictures of that great painter in France, he deve- loped a style superior to that of any of his contem- poraries. His celebrated series of twenty-two huge pictures, from the life of St. Bruno, now in the Louvre, was painted before his thirtieth year; they were originally painted on wood in the cloister of the Carthusians at Paris, but were transferred to canvas in 1766. Le Sueur died in 1655, in the thirty-eighth year of his age. Considering his com- paratively short life, his works are very numerous, and most of them are on a large scale : they have been w r ell engraved by the Massards, G. Andran, and the two Picarts. His style was grand in design, and he excelled in composition, but he was deficient both in colour and in chiaroscuro. The more showy style of Lebrun obscured the reputation of Le Sueur during his lifetime, but he now holds de- servedly a much higher place than his more success- ful rival. He is sometimes styled the French Raphael. In composition, in character, and in the disposing of draperies, he was equal to the greatest of the Italians. — (Felibien, Entretiens sur les vies $c, desplus excellens Peintres, &c; D'Argenville, Abrege de la vie des Peintres ; Supp. to Pennv Cyclopaedia.) [B.N.W.] SUEUR, J. Le, a French protestant, d. 1681. SUEUR, Peter Le, a French wood engraver, 1636-1716. Nicholas, his nephew, 1690-1764. SUFFREN, J., a French Jesuit, 1565-1641. SUFFREN SAINT-TROPEZ, Peter Andrew De, one of the most dist. naval officers produced by France, served under De Grasse, 1726-1788. SUGER, the Abbe, a French statesman, time of Louis VII. and Louis Le Gros, 1082-1152. SUHM, P. F., a Danish historian, 1728-1798. SUICER, or SCHWEITZER, John Gaspau, a Swiss theologian and Hellenist, 1620-1684. His son, J. Henry, a theologian and commen- tator on the Bible, 1644-1705. SUIDAS, a Greek lexicographer, who is sup- posed to have lived about the 11th century. His work is highly valuable for its details of "literary history, and its excerpta from lost authors. SULLA. See Sylla. SULIVAN, Sir Richard Joseph, a member of parliament, and employe of the East India Company, author of 'Analysis of the Political History of India,' died 1806. SULLIVAN, John, an American general and member of Congress, afterwards a judge of New Hampshire, 1741-1795. His brother, James, governor of Massachusets, author of ' Observations on the Government of the United States,' and >i 1 Dissertation on the Constitutional Liberty of the Press,' 1711-1808. 740 SUL SULLY, H., an English watchmaker, d. 1728. SULLY, Maurice De, bishop of Paris, cele- brated as a preacher, and for having laid the first stone of the cathedral, 1160-1196'. Eudes, his successor, 1197-120S. SULLY, Maximiliex De Bethune, duke of Sully, bora loth December, 1560, was the second son of Francis de Bethune, baron of Rosny, a French protestant noble of high lineage, but impoverished patrimony. Young Maximilien Rosny was taken at the age of twelve to the court of Henry of Navarre, (afterwards Henry IV. of France,) then in his twen- tieth year, and was solemnly commanded by his father to live and die with the royal master, to whom he was then assigned. Rosny accompanied Henry to Paris and narrowly escaped perishing in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. "When the young king of Na- varre escaped from Paris, and renewed the armed resistance of the Huguenots against their catholic persecutors, young Rosny was with him, and be- came, while yet in boyhood, a captain of proved courage and skill. During the nineteen years of civil war, which elapsed before Henry was ac- knowledged king of France, Rosny rendered him the most eminent services, not only by valour and conduct in the field, but by his honesty and can- dour as an adviser, and also by the genius, as a financier and a statesman, which developed itself in the young noble, during the struggles and vicissitudes of this stormy portion of his chivalrous master's career. When the civil wars were at last ended, and Henry obtained undisputed possession of the crown, the internal affairs of the king- dom were in the most deplorable condition. There was the bitterest animosity of sect against sect. Agriculture, trade, and foreign commerce had suf- fered equally from the lawless violence of the contending factions ; the finances of the crown were deeply, and as it seemed irretrievably embarrassed; and the resources of the state were dilapidated and apparently destroyed. Rosny now acted as the king's chief minister in reorganizing the kingdom out of the shipwreck of intestine strife and national bankruptcy. He was indefatigable in searching out and redressing the abuses that had grown up in every department of the adminis- tration ; he investigated the origin and proper character of each branch of the revenue, and he personally examined the productive and commer- cial capabilities of the various districts and towns. He studied the modes of collecting the taxes and other imposts, that might be most lucrative to the crown, and least oppressive to the subject. The schemes, which he thus cautiously and wisely framed, were put into execution by him with equal firmness and skill ; and having found, when he undertook the management of the French finances in 1597. an empty treasury, an increasing national debt, and an over-burdened and discontented po- pulation, he left in 1611 a surplus revenue ? a large accumulation of treasure, and satisfaction and prosperity in every class of the community. It was not only as a financial reformer that he served his king and his country. He was Henry's coun- sellor in all the king's great measures of the reign with regard to foreign affairs, and also in those by which liberty of conscience and full rights of citi- zenship were guaranteed to the Huguenots, and by which the effective administration of the law and SUT the maintenance of order and tranquillity were secured. He was liberally rewarded by his sove- reign with wealth and honours, and in 1606 was made duke de Sully, and a peer of France. After Henry's assassination in 1610 Sully retained his offices for a short time under Louis XIII., but finding his influence decline and his counsels slighted, he retired from the court. Part of the occupation of Sully's after life was the composition of his well-known and valuable Memoirs. He died December 22, 1641. [E.S.C.] SULPICIA, a Roman poetess, 90 b.c. SULPICIUS, Gali.us. See Gai.uus. SULPICIUS - LEMONIA- RUFUS, Servius, a Roman lawyer, and friend of Cicero, 106-43 b.c. SULPICIUS, Rufus, a Roman orator, born 124 B.C., became tribune 88; he was decapitated by Svlla, as a partisan of Marius. SULPICIUS-SEVERUS, an ecclesiastical his- torian of the 5th century, author of a l Life of St. Martin of Tours,' and an' ' Ecclesiastical History.' SULZER, J. G., a Swiss writer, 1720-1779. SUMAROKOFF, Alexander Petrowitsch, a dramatic wr., poet, and fabulist of Moscow, con- sidered the founder of the Russian drama, 1727-77. SUMMONTE, J. A, a Neapolitan historian of the city and kingdom of Naples, who was rewarded for his labours by a persecution, and died 1602. SURITA, or ZURITA, Jerome, a Spanish historian and secretary to the Inquisition, 1512-80. SURIN, J. J., a French Jesuit, 1600-1665. SURIUS, L., an ascetic writer, 1522-1578. SURREY. See Howard. SUSARION, an ancient Greek actor, supposed to be the inventor of comedy. SUSON, B. H., a French ascetic, died 1866. SUSSEX, Augustus Frederick, duke of, sixth son of George III., was bora 1773. He married the Lady Augusta Murray, second daughter of the earl of Dunmore, in defiance of the royal marriage act, and though the marriage was pronounced void, they continued to live together till the lady's death in 1830. The chil- dren of this marriage were Sir Augustus D'Este, since dead, and a daughter, who became the wife of Sir Thomas Wilde, Lord Truro. The duke died in 1843, and was buried, by his own will, at Kensall Green Cemetery. SUSSMITCH, J. P., a Germ, divine, 1705-67. SUTCLIFFE, or SOUTCLIFFE, Mai iiii.w, dean of Exeter, and founder of a learned estab- lishment at Chelsea, which proved the origin of the present military asylum, 1682-1629. SUTTON, Richard, one of the founders of Brazennose College, Oxford, and steward of Sion monastery, near Brentford, known 1490-1522. SUTTON, Thomas, founder of the Charter* house, was an accomplished English gentleman, and merchant, born at Knaith, in Lincolnshire, 1532. In 1569, being already secretary to the earl of Warwick, he was appointed master-general of the ordnance at Berwick, and greatly distin- guished himself in the northern rebellion, which broke out under the earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland. In 1573, he commanded one of the lotteries which compelled the castle of Edin- burgh to surrender to the, English; and ti year went to the assistance of the Regent Morton lis one of the chiefs of a body of 1,5U0 men, bent 47 SUV Bftatoth. In 1681, Sutton married a relative of the earl of Warwick, and soon after commenced those speculations as a con- tractor, merchant, and armed privateer, by which he acquired his immense fortune. This was greatly augmented, however, by the value of the coal dis- covered in two manors which he had purchased of the bishop of Durham. After the loss of his wife in 1602, Sutton began to change his manner of living, and being deeply impressed with a sense of religion, he finally purchased the dissolved mon- : the Chartreuse, which he endowed most nobly with the bulk of his property : the purchase money alone was no less than £i3,000, m those times a much greater sum than at present. He died at Hackney, in 1611, and Iris remains were deposited in a vault prepared for them under the chapel of the Charter-house. After his death, the nephew of Sutton, though munificently provided for, sought to invalidate the foundation of this charity, and the history of his attempt is supposed to implicate Lord Bacon as a particeps criminis. like many of our noble charities, the administra- tion of the Charter-house is said to have been marked by great abuse, the augmented value of the endowment being much more largely shared in by the officials and the school than the needy brethren ; within the last week or two, however, a vindication has been published by the present master, Archdeacon Hale, entitled, • Some Ac- count of the Early History and Foundation of the Hospital.' [E.R.] SUVEE, J. B., a Flemish painter, 1743-1807. SUVENHUSIUS, William, professor of He- brew and Greek at Amsterdam, editor of an edition of the Mischna, with Notes, and a Latin version, published 1703. M WARROW, or SOUVAROFF, Peter Alf.xi> Yasilievitch, Count, a Russian general, remarkable for his headlong valour and barbarian energy of purpose, was born at Suskoi, in the Ukraine, 1730, and commenced his military career in the campaign against Sweden in 1747, shortly followed by the seven years' war. In 1762 he re- turned to his country, but took the field again in 1768, and obtained those successes in Poland which led to its first partition between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, the events of which date from 1768 t 1771. In 1773 he led the Russian hordes against Turkey, and captured in succession Tour- takaye and Hirsout. In 1782 he defeated the Tar- tars of the Crimea, and obliged them to take the oath of submission to Russia : the next year he was appointed general -in-chief and governor of that country. 'I he Turks having renewed the struggle in 1787, a desperate battle was fought at Kinburn, where Suwarrow was severely wounded, and com- pelled to seek repose in his litter ; his troops were soon after thrown into confusion, but the general mounted his horse, and reproaching them with their cowardice, threw himself almost into the midst of the enemy, and retrieved the fortunes of ng victory in this campaign was the capture of Ismail, ■ fortress of Bessarabia, mouth of the Danube, in December, 1789. ft Po landers took the field under Kosciusko, to fight once more the battle of their and in two months the Vistula was crimaoncd with the blood of the patriots : on the 748 SUW 4th of November, Suwarrow captured Prnga, and on the 9th he made his solemn entry into Warsaw, Much has been written about the excessive cruelty practised on this occasion, but there is really no» thing to show that it exceeded the usual practice — fiendish as it is — of a victorious army ; and it is recorded that Suwarrow's eyes filled" with tears when the keys of Warsaw were presented to him, at the remembrance of what had occurred. He was, in some respects, a man of almost barbarian character; of this no denial can reasonably be ad- mitted ; but we are disposed to believe that his method of leading the Russians to victory was as merciful as any method could be, and it is from the Russian side of view that we ought to estimate the character of her commanders; toYneasure them by the higher standard applicable to our own coun- trymen, is manifestly absurd. Suwarrow's eccen- tricities enter largely into all the narratives of his career, but we can hardly find space for his per- sonal portrait, or for those traits of character which properly belong to biography. In height, he barely exceeded five feet, he was miserably thin, had a large mouth, a wrinkled forehead, and a few patches of grey hair on his head. His contempt of dress could only be equalled by his disregard of every form of politeness, and some idea may be formed of both from the fact, that he was washed in the morning by several buckets of cold water thrown over him, and that he often drilled his men in his shirt sleeves, with his stockings hanging down about his heels ; like his men also, proudly dispensing with the use of a pocket handkerchief ! His favourite signal of attack was a shrill cock- crow : • To-morrow morning,' said he, previous to the storming of Ismail, ' I mean to be up an hour before daybreak, I shall then dress and wash my- self, then say my prayers, then give one good cock-crow, and capture Ismail.' His despatches announcing victory were equally singular, and were generally in doggrel rhyme. One of these, in his campaign of 1773, is literally rendered thus — it was addressed to Prince Romanzoff: — ' Glory to God— glory to thee, Tourtakaye's taken and taken by me!' The most remarkable points in his character as a soldier were his contempt of strategy, and his devoted courage : his motto was ' Forward and strike,' 'Nothing to be thought of but the offen- sive — quick marches — energy in attack — the naked steel.' With these qualities he won the hearts of his soldiers, and obtained his great victories over the Poles and Turks. They were unsuited, how- ever, to the atmosphere of a court, and after the death of Catharine, Suwarrow disgusted her suc- cessor, Paul I., and retired to his estate of Khant- schansk, where he remained till 1799. The wish of his heart to take a command against the French was then gratified, and he was sent into Italy at the head of 30,000 Russians, to co-operate with the archduke Charles of Austria. No exigency or respect of persons could induce this stalwart old kern to alter his principles : asked for his plans by the emperor, he protested he had none, or, if he had, that he should not disclose them : presented with propositions for defensive operations, no would not hear of them ; « Tell my lord, the prince, that I know nothing of the defensive ; I can only attack. T shall advance when it seems good to me to do suz so ; and -when I do, I shall not stop in Switzer- land. I shall go, according to my orders, into Franche-Comte. Tell him that at Vienna I am at his feet, but that here I am at least his equal. He is a field-marshal, so am I ; he serves a great emperor, so do I ; he commands an army, so do I : he is young, and I am old. I have acquired expe- rience by successive victories, and I receive neither counsel nor advice from any one : I trust alone in God and my sword.' It is not surprising that he ■was defeated by Massena at Zurich, and that a campaign thus conducted against the generals of the rising star of Napoleon, should have had an ■unsatisfactory termination, yet Suwarrow was never, at any moment, unworthy of his laurels. He was at length ordered to return, and died, ne- glected by the emperor, at St. Petersburgh, Mav 18, 1800. [E.R.] SUZE, Henrietta. See Coligni. SUZE, H. De, archbishop of Embrun, 1250-71. SWAAN, J., a Dutch chemist, 1774-1826. SWAMAIERDAM, Jean, a celebrated anatomist and entomologist, was born at Amsterdam in 1637. He died in 1680. His father was an apothecary, and possessed a collection of objects in natural history. Engaged while a mere boy in cleaning the articles in this museum, the young Swammer- dam soon acquired a taste for the study of nature, and became an especial lover of entomology. He studied medicine at Leyden, and took his degree there in 1667. He prosecuted his anatomical re- searches with great zeal and success, and was the first to discover the art of injecting the arteries and veins, which has proved of such use in dissections. A severe attack of a quartan ague obliged him to intermit his studies for a time, and upon his reco- very he relinquished his human anatomy, and de- voted himself almost entirely to that of insects. In 1669 he published his ' General History of Insects,' in which he attempts a classification of them, ac- cording to their structure and the metamorphoses they undergo. From this work he acquired great reputation, but in consequence of over-exertion in study, his health gave way. He fell soon after- wards into an extremely hypochondriacal state, scarce deigning even to answer a question addressed to him, and atlength became unfit for entering into society. In this sad state of mind he was struck with the peculiar tenets of an extraordinary woman of that time, Antoinette Bourignon, and soon be- came plunged into the depths of her mystical de- votion. He fancied that he would offend the Deity by continuing his anatomical pursuits, and throw- ing away the scalpel, he followed his fanatical leader to Holstein. He returned some time afterwards to Amsterdam, but his mortifications and mystical studies had reduced him to the state of a living skeleton. In one of his fits of melancholy, he burned all the manuscripts he could lay his hands upon ; but fortunately some time previous to this, his limited means had compelled him to sell a 1>ortion of them, which ultimately coming into the lands of Boerhaave, were published by him many years after the unfortunate author's death. [W.B.J SWANEVELT, Hermann, called Hermann of Italy, a Dutch landscape painter, 1620-1690. S WARTZ, Olaus, an excellent botanist, was born at Norkceping in Sweden, in 1760. He died in 1817. At the age of eighteen he was sent to study at SWE the university of Upsal, and attended the lectures of the younger Linnaeus. Soon becoming his own master he devoted himself to travel and collecting plants. While only twenty-three he undertook at his own expense a voyage to the West Indies and South America. He explored the botany of Jamaica, St. Domingo, and the other islands ; and after visiting the coast of America returned to Emope by way of England. In London he made the acquaintance of Sir Joseph Banks, Sir Hans Sloane, &c, and returned to his native country with great acquisitions in both knowledge and collections. He was soon afterwards elected a member of the Academy of Stockholm, and the year after made its president. He was called to the chair of botany at the medico-chirurgical institution of that town, and was decorated by his sovereign with the orders of Vasa and the Polar Star. He taught botany with much success at Stockholm, and continued a great upholder of the Linnajan system. He estab- lished many new genera of plants ; described with clearness and conciseness an immense number of species: and paid particular attention to crypto- gamic botany. Schreber has called a genus of plants after him, Schwartzia. [W.B.] SVEDBERG, or SWEDBERG, Jesper, bishop of Skara in Westrogothia, was born on his father's estate near Fahlun in Sweden, 1653, and was many years chaplain in a regiment of cavalry, and super- intendent of the Swedish mission established in England and America. He was raised to the see of Skara in 1702 by Charles XII., and three years later became doctor of theology at Upsala. In 1719 the family was ennobled, and the name of Swedenborg adopted by his son, Emanuel, as men- tioned in the following article. Bishop Swedberg was a great writer, and among the fruits of his pen is an antobiographv still in MSS. His children are the subjects of some curious notices, among which occurs the following : — ' I have kept my sons to that profession to which God has given them inclination and liking ; and I have not brought up one to the clerical office, although many parents do this inconsiderately and in a manner not justi- fiable, by which the Christian Church, and also tlio clerical order, suffer not a little, and is brought into contempt. I have never had my daughters in Stockholm, where many reside in order to learn fine manners, but where also they learn much that is worldly and injurious to the soul.' This good old man died in 1735. [E.R.] SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, in an eminent sense The Philosopher of Christianity, was born at Stockholm, 29th January, 1688. His parentage is shown in the preceding article, and as the events of his life were few and simple, we shall here limit ourselves to a sketch of his literary career, and a justification of the above title. In 1709 Emanuel Swedberg, afterwards Swedenborg, completed his edncation at the university of Upsala, and pub- lished his academical dissertation, consisting of moral sentences from the writings of Seneca, Pub- lius Syrus, and others, illustrated with notes from the old Latin authors. From 1710 to 1714 ho was journeying abroad, according to the custom in those days, sometimes writing heroic verses, epigrams, or love pieces in the Latin tongue to re- lieve liis toils at the various seats of learning tliat he visited. In 1716 he commenced the publica- 749 SWE SWE papen on the mathematics and physical I liim thinking abort the bodyj he is enrions to sciences in his ' Ihvdalus Hypcrboreus,' and was know what the learned are doing- : into public employment as the colleague Count Polheim; soon afterwards he was appointed assessor in the Metallic College by Charles XII., who honoured him with his personal friendship. In 1718, besides continuing the ' Da> rg published a work on algebra, which included, among the higher rules of mathe- the integral and differential calculus : the ' iwing he assumed the style of nobility by favour of Queen Ulrica Eleonora, and from that period had a seat with the nobles of the equestrian order in the triennial assemblies of the states. From 1719 to 1722, his professional avocations in- troduced him to the study of the fusibility and structure of metals, and, gradually, to the geome- trical principles of chemistry, for the further study of which, and the knowledge of mines, he journeyed some fifteen months through the Ger- man states. The titles of his works in this period indicate very clearly the progress of the Thinker proceeding steadily through the physical sciences towards a philosophy of nature : the chief of them ,uments derived from Appearances Sweden in Favonr of the Depth of the Waters, and Tides of the Sea in the Ancient World ; ' ' Specimens of a Work on the Principles of Che- ' ' Observations on Iron and the Elementary Nature of Fire; 1 and 'Miscellaneous Observations about Natural Things, especially Minerals, Fire, and the Strata of Mountains.' In 1734 he com- M ft mje of this onward march by publish- ing his ' Principia,' contained in the first of three folio volumes, which were issued at Dresden and Leipzig at the expense of the duke of Brunswick, and to publish which, Swedcnborg undertook another journey. This work explains the produc- tion and nature of the elements, the formation and laws of the solar vortex, and the sublime analogy between the starry heavens and the magnetic sphere, it will be found to ante-date many im- portant discoveries, especially in the co-relation of magnetism, electricity, light, gravitation, and all t te phraica] forces; while the practical part on mineralogy has been pronounced, in Cramer's ' Art '•■tals,' ' magnificent and laborious.' While this work was passing through the press, its author made the acquaintance of Wolff's Onto- •>nd that his own theory of ontary world agreed with it, his ambi- tion took wing, and he resolved to try the experi- : applying his principles to the deep sub- meed at by that philosophy. His prompt lied through all difficulties like a sabre-cut — nature is all mechanism — the soul is in nature— these principles of his, with Wolff's seal OB them, are the exponents of nature — why, then, • the nature of the soul with as the elementary world ? think was to do; hence arose peophj of the Infinite, a ' ProdromusJ as it, written immediately after the perusal of Wolff in 1734: in strict relation with all that pre- this little work was but a plank thrown the gulf which separated one field of from another,— it carried Swe mecbaalas of metals and cle- the lain j. Treating of the soul had set 750 whether they have found the same key as himself; now, there- fore, he buries himself for a few days in the lib- rary at Dresden, reads the ' Biliotheque Italique,' which contains an account of the learned men of the day, and finds to his extreme satisfaction, a new and wide field open before him. These learned men are divided into parties — some affirm- ing and others denying the animation of the brain ; others, again, with the microscope searching the body through and through to decide these contests. It is the same with the question of the atomic constitution of the blood — the existence of the animal spirit in the nerves — the growth of the embryo in the womb — the cause of the circulation, and all the kindred topics. Ruysch, Bianchi, Leeu- wenhoeck, Borelli, Lancisi, Morgagni, Malphighi, are here with all the treasures of art and learning, with anatomical preparations and models of tlie human frame hardly equalled by anything in our own times, and finally, with the doctrines of geo- metry and analogy already pressed into the service. Discovery and art had anticipated all the require- ments of the philosopher. It was only for Reason to take up the thread of demonstration at a point where all confessed that nature was seen to work most distinctly and perfectly. Swedenborg, in short, reverting to his attempted demonstration of the connection between soul and body on mathe- matical principles, resolved to pursue his inquiry from this fresh plane of induction Obliged to re"- turn for a season to his professional avocations, he carried this high purpose along with him, and in 1736 obtained leave of absence again for the pur- pose of writing and publishing a great work. Space isnot allowed us to follow him step hy step, as we might do, in the conception and publication of his works on the 'Animal Kingdom.' Three years were occupied abroad in collecting and digesting his materials, and in 1740 'The Econo- my of the Animal Kingdom, Considered Anatomi- cally, Physically, and Philosophically,' appeared at Amsterdam, followed in 1744 by 'The Animal Kingdom,' and in 1745 by 'The Worship and Love of God,' — the latter, apart from its philosophy, ac- . knowledged by competent judges for one of the most gorgeous specimens of Latinity in existence. These works completed the Thinker's second stage ; and among the doctrines contained in them are dis- coveries of high importance in physiology still awaiting an adequate criticism, or courting adop- tion : such are the author's demonstration of tho animation of the brain, and of its coincidence dur- ing formation with the systole and diastole of the heart, and after birth with the respiration of the lungs — of the beautiful provision for muscular action derived from the respiration, exhibiting the function of the lungs in distributing and regulating motion throughout the entire system— of the law of series and society among the organs— and of many others which it would be inconsistent with our limits to enumerate, but tending upwards to a rational psy- chology. Through the whole of his career up to this point, Swedenborg's labours had grown, one task out of another, like a tree ; the goodly proportions and excellent fruit of which, placed him in the highest rank of scientific men; he was not yet, however, the rhilosUET, J., a French historian, 17th cent. OUSOT, S., a French poet, 1547-1590. 756 TACCA, P. J., an Italian sculptor, died 1640. TACCOLI, N., an Italian historian, 1690-1768. TACHARD, Guy, a French Jesuit, known as a missionary to Siam and India from 1680 to 1694. TACI1US (Caius Cornelius), the Roman historian. Tacitus was probably born in the reign of Nero, but neither the place nor the exact time of his birth is known. It appears from a letter of TAC the younger Pliny, who was born a.d. 61, that Tacitus was about the same age with himself, but a little older ; he may, therefore, have been born in a.d. 58 or 59. JHis parentage is veiled in the [Tacitus— Irom an Antique Gem.] same obscurity ; but it is not improbable that his father was Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman knight, who is mentioned by Pliny as a procurator of the emperor in Belgic Gaul. We thus know nothing of the training which he underwent in youth, pre- paratory to the literary labours which he after- wards so ably performed. He has himself recorded a few facts illustrative of his career after he had attained the age of manhood ; and these form the only authentic history of his life. He owed his first promotion to Vespasian, and was indebted for further favours to his sons and successors, Titus and Domitian. In a.d. 77 C. Julius Agricola, who was then consul, betrothed to him his daughter, whom he married in the following year. He was one of fifteen commissioners appointed to super- intend the celebration of the secular games in a.d. 88, and held in the same year the office of praetor. He was not in Rome when his father-in-law died there a.d. 93, nor does he state the reason of his absence. In A.D. 97 he was elected consul to supply the place of Virginius Rufus, who died dur- ing his year of office ; and pronounced over the deceased the funeral oration. In a.d. 99 he was appointed by the senate, along with Pliny, to con- duct the prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa, who was impeached for malversation in his pro- vince ; and, on the testimony of his associate and friend, made a most eloquent and dignified reply to the arguments advanced in defence of the ac- cused. The time of his death is unknown ; but it may perhaps be inferred that he survived Trajan, who died a.d. 117. The extant works of Tacitus are — 1. The Life of Agricola, his father-in-law ; 2. A Treatise on the Manners and Customs of the Ger- mans; 3. Histories; 4. Annals; 5. Dialogue on Orators, or the Causes of the Decline of Eloquence. The Life of Agricola is one of the earliest works of Tacitus, and must have been written after the death of Domitian B.C. 96. It has been much and justly admired as a specimen of Biography ; and is cer- tainly an affectionate tribute to the memory of an able administrator and a good man. His descrip- tion of ancient Germany and its people is not of much value as an historical document, though there can be little doubt that it contains the hearsay accounts which were prevalent in the age of the TAL author. The histories, of which only the first four books and a part of the fifth are extant, compre- hended the period from the accession of Galba (a.d. 68) to the death of Domitian (a.d. 96). The Annals comprised the period from the death of Augustus (a.d. 14) to the death of Nero (a.d. 68). Of these a part of the fifth book is lost, and also the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, the beginning of the elventh, and the end of the sixteenth, which is the last. The style of Tacitus is concise, vigorous, and expressive ; occasionally obscured by elaborate condensation, but always such as to impress the reader with a high opinion of the reflective powers of the writer. [G.F.] TACITUS, Marcus Claudius, successor of Aurelian as emperor of Rome 275, died 276. TACQUET, A., a Flem. mathemat., 1611-1707. TADJ-EDDYN, an Arabian historian, d. 1275. TAFFI, A., an Italian artist, 1213-1294. TAFURI, J. B., an Ital. biographer, 1695-1760. TAGLIACOZIO, TAGLIACOZZI, or TAG- LIACOTIUS, Gaspar, an Italian surgeon, fam- ous for his method of curing wounds of the lips and nose, 1556-1599. TAHUREAU, J., a French poet, 1527-1555. TAILLASSON, John Joseph, a French pain- ter and writer on art, 1746-1809. TAILLE, J. De La, a French poet, dramatist, and historian, 1540-1595. His brother, James, a poet and author of several tragedies, 1542-1562. TAILLEPIED, Noel, a French biographer, antiquarian, and historian of the Druids, 1540-89. TAISAUD, P., a French jurist, 1644-1715. TAI-TSOU, emperor of China, 951-954. TAIE-TSOUNG, emperor of China, 977-997. TALBERT, F. X., a French priest, 1728-1803. TALBOT, Charles, successively earl and duke of Shrewsbury, descended from the famous war- rior of that name (next article), was born in 1660. He held the office of lord chamberlain to James II., but actively promoted the revolution of 1688, and became viceroy of Ireland and lord treasurer, d. 17 17. TALBOT, John, earl of Shrewsbury, called 'The English Achilles,' renowned in the French wars, was the second son of Richard, Lord Talbot, and was born at Blechmore, in Shropshire, 1373. Shakspeare calls him ' The Terror of France ' with historical correctness, his name at the time having really become proverbial in that country. The history of Talbot commences with his call to par- liament by Henry IV., after which, in 1412, ha was appointed lord justice in Ireland, and in 1414 lord-lieutenant. He first, went to France in the reign of Henry V., 1420, and nine years later, under the regent Bedford, his exploits had ren- dered his name a word of terror. At this time, however, the Maid of Orleans (see Joan ev Ai:<) turned the fortunes of war against him, and Talbot became the prisoner of Charles VII. from 1 129 to 1432, when he recovered his liberty by ransom. Under date 1433, the French chronicler, Monatre- let, informs us how 'Messire Jean de Thallebot' came into France, where he conquered many artist and fortresses; on this occasion, in fact, he re- asserted the English dominion in that country, and for his services was created marshal of the king- dom ; at a later period, 1442, the earldom of Shrewsbury was conferred on him. We next hear of him in an embassage for peace 1443, and then, 757 TAL TAL MM in his old lientenancv in Ireland,— our affairs : LIQUE, cardinal and peer of France at the period meanwhile going to ruin. In 1449 we of the revolution, fled with the emigration, but read in old Monstrelet's annals, how valiantly he led three hundred men to the assault of Rouen, and planted the English flag on the battlements. He have returned to England again, and in 1451 went back to Aquitaine as lieutenant- general with extraordinary powers : once more he led the 'noble English' to victorv, and, at the head than five thousand combatants, recovered Guienne, aided, indeed, by the treason of Lesparre and others. Twice did Charles, and twice did Tal- ■ Bourdeaux, — the latter, on the first of visions, becoming prisoner, when he was treated with great courtesy on account of his val- our, and presented by Charles with gifts of horses 1 and silver. In 14.33 be marched to the relief of Castillon, then besieged by the French, and was killed by a cannon ball in the eightieth V- ar of his aL. r e ; one of his sons also fell with him on the field "of battle, and the English, no longer 1 bv his heroic arm, were soon after ex- from France. [E.R.J TALBOT, P., an Irish Jesuit, 1620-1680. TALBOT, R., an English antiquary, died 1558. TALBOT, William, successively bishop of Oxford, Salisbury, and Durham, 1659-1780. His son, Chaki.es, Lord Talbot, brought up to the bar, was born 1684. In 1719 he entered parlia- ment, became solicitor-general in 1726, and lord chancellor in 1733 ; died 1737. Catherine, only child of Edward, his second son, author of several elecantlv written works, 1720-1770. TALFOURD, Thomas Noon, the author of 4 Ion,' was born at Reading in 1795. He was edu- cated there at the Dissenters' grammar school, and ■ 1 in classical literature by Dr. Valpy. In was called to the bar, and first wore the Serjeant's gown in 1833. Two years later Serjeant Talfourd became a member of parliament, and published his famous tragedy, followed at intervals by 'The Athenian Captive,' 'Glencoe,' and the ' Castilian.' In 1849 he was appointed a judge of the Common Pleas, and was on the bench at Staf- ford, apparently in good health, when he suddenly bis last on the 20th March, 1854. ' Ion ' is acknowledged to be a fine classical production, abounding in passages of remarkable beauty. The character of Talfourd also was well worthy of his fame ; perhaps no man was more beloved in his own circle for kindness of heart, and all the of social intercourse. His prose works are a ' Life of Charles Lamb,' Vacation Rambles,' and a biography of Mrs. Radcliffe. 1 AI.IK.SIN, otherwise Pen Bierdd, which sig- nifies ' chief or the bards,' one of the most ancient British or Welch poets, between 520 and 570. TALLAKT, Camille D'Hostun, Due De, a rial, defeated l>v Marlborough, 1652-1728. TALLENT8, F., ■ nonconf. divine, 1619-1708. BYBAHD, a younger branch of the family e first of whom known ik In. Talleyrand, who lived about 1100. After him we find Hki.ik De ::am> PksMOBD, :-n influential cardinal 1364. II. DeTalleyrand, ' rite of Louis Mil., who w led by Richelieu, and r Angl- returned with the Bourbons, and in 1819 became archbishop of Paris, 1786-1821. TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD,CharlesMau- rice De, the character of his house who fills by far the largest space in history, the prince of diplo- matists, was bom at Paris in 1754, and educated for the church. His course of life was not very consistent with this profession, but the wish of his dying father prevailed with Louis XVL, and he was named, in 1788, bishop of Autun, a rural diocese in the Bourbonnaise. The connection, studies, and manners of the young prelate were still such as invited him to preserve his place in society, and he frequented not the less the gay salons of Paris, studying, if anything, Voltaire and Fontenelle, and drawing more closely to Mira- beau and the other stirring spirits of that period. In May, 1789, the states-general met, and Talley- - rand took his place with the clergy, and, adopting popular principles, actively engaged himself in the reorganization of the state, upon which that body so resolutely entered ; he even proposed the con- fiscation and sale of the church property, and when that measure was carried, zealously applied himself to the creation of a constitutional clergy. For these and similar misdeeds, he was excommuni- cated by Pius VI. some six months after he had given the sanction of the church to the people's cause by celebrating high mass on the ' altar of the country.' On leaving the church, Talleyrand at once assumed the character by which he is known to history, and went as ambassador to England with M. Chauvelin, with whom also he was suddenly expelled from London by the minis- try of Pitt ; he then fled to America, his name being compromised in the discoveries of the iron chest, so soon followed by the ruin of the monarchy. He remained in his transatlantic asylum till after the fall of Robespierre., thus escaping the whole period of the reign of terror, and then, returning to Paris, became a member of the newly-founded National Institute, and minister of foreign affairs under the directory. It is at this point that the European interest of his history commences, for he now conspired against his masters, and pro- moted the revolution which carried Napoleon to the summit of power. Here the question occurs, there- fore, What were his convictions? Faith, in what any single party might understand by principle, Talleyrand had not; yet, he possessed some rare quality of mind which, to him, supplied the place of such a faith, and which has been aptly desig- nated a ' supernatural indifference,' — an indif- ference not to his own fate, but to whatsoever event might befall the men or the institutions sur- rounding him, so that his own schemes remained buoyant. Napoleon's summary judgment of him is perhaps nearer the truth than any more laboured criticism, and his words are these: — 'Talleyrand was always in a state of treason, but it icas a trea- sonable complicity with fortune herself; his cir- cumspection was extreme; he conducted himself towards his friends as if, at some future time, they might be his enemies, and towards his enemies as if they might become his friends !' This, after all the apologies we have read for him, really seems to be the sum of the matter ; and however admir- 758 TAL able such a character might be as a minister of foreign affairs, there is surely too much of the Mephistopheles element in it to satisfy any lover of honesty ; it is a judgment, also, by no means ex parte in character, for the fact stated is implied in the very apologies for him. What else is the argu- ment that he shifted from one party to another, lost he should partake in the threatened corruption of the body of which he foresaw the decay, except another way of stating his treasonable eompHatw with fortune ; and what would any cause be worth if all its supporters were in this state of perennial treason towards it? What, again, is the moral worth of that man, however great his capacity, who supports a cause on condition of its suc- cess? We should he doing injustice to the me- mory of Talleyrand, not to add that he earnestly desired peace, and the alliance of France and Eng- land in a progressive policy; his great misiortune was an overweening reliance on the shifts of diplo- macy, his too great willingness to adopt that expe- dient of abominable cunning — though the expres- sion came from a nobler head than his — ' tell a lie and find it truth ! ' Talleyrand remained foreign minister under Napoleon till 1807, when he was created prince of Benevento, and became grand- chamberlain, with the titular rank of vice-grand- elector of the empire. In 1809 he began his oppo- sition to the policy of Napoleon, and being deprived of his office of chamberlain, retired to valencay, where it would appear he conspired against the emperor. The year 1814 found nim acting openly with the allies, and he next appears as minister under Louis XVIII. In the latter years of the opposition which ended in the revolution of 1830, 1 alleyrand took no part in public business, but on the accession of Louis Philippe, as citizen king, he became ambassador once more in England. This appointment he held till January, 1835, when his great age caused him to resign it, and he was suc- ceeded by General Sebastiani. To him, more than any other man, Louis Philippe was indebted for the creation ot his peace policy, maintained, say the French, 'at any price,' — a matter this which must yet await, some time, a righteous judgment. Died 1838. [E.R.] TALLIEN, Jean Lambert, a Jacobin of the French revolution, chief agent in the fall of Bobu pierre, was born at Paris 1769, and was succes- sively clerk to an attorney, and in one of the government offices. At the epoch of the revolu- tion he became secretary to one of the deputies, and at the declining period of the Legislative As- sembly was editor of the ' Ami des Citoyens,' one of the journals by which the populace were goaded to anarchy ; he also actively assisted in organizing the insurrection of August 10, 1792, on the SOC ees s of which he was appointed recording secretary of the Paris Commune. From this time Tallien ranked with the most active members of the moun- tain, and aided in the destruction of the Girondins ; he was also implicated in the massacres of Septem- ber, and became president of the Assembly on the (lav or the king's execution. In the beginning of 17'.' 1 he was sent with Ysabeau to the city of Bourdeaux to crush the remnant of feeling nin, lin- ing in favour of Girondism, and place the rejmbli- Can government on a secure ban*: here he struck tCifMS into the population by his remorseless use TAL of the guillotine, at the same time that he revelled in the proconsular splendour and debauchery of which several other cities of France at that time presented a like example. One of the most beauti- ful and highly spirited women of that age was a Madame de Fontenai, daughter of the count de Cabarrus, a Spanish grandee, of French extrac- tion ; she was detained at Bourdeaux en route for Spain by the arrest of her husband, and was accustomed to address the clubs, where her appear* ance excited the greatest enthusiasm. Easily moved to pity by the terror around her, and fond of adventure and notoriety, this woman resolved to conquer the heart of the dreaded Tallien, and she succeeded so well that his greatest pride was to exhibit her in his splendid equipage, clothed in Grecian costume, to represent the goddess of liberty — a parade of Oriental luxury and vice, which disgusted Robespierre beyond expression, while it amused the people and was the salvation of many of them, for whom this modern Thais was never tired of interceding. Being recalled to Paris as the last struggle between Robespierre and these corrupters of the people drew nigh, Madame de Fontenai was arrested, in the expectation that she would lend her assistance in the fall of Tallien, and, at all events, that she might not embarrass the action of Robespierre and Saint Just. She, however, proved true to her lover, and privately conveyed a note to him, in which she reproached him with cowardice if he suffered her now to perish on the scaffold. Thus exasperated, and certain that his own head would fall next, Tallien acted that daring part in Convention, on the 9th Thermidor, which proved the destruction of Robes- pierre : he was then elected to the Committee of Public Safety, and become president of the Con- vention ; now, also, Madame de Fontenai became his wife. He played a considerable part in subse- Suent events, and was elected on the Council of 00 ; the ascendancy of Buonaparte, however, soon threw men of his stamp into the shade, and Tal- lien died, without ever recovering the undeserved importance he had once enjoyed, in 1820. His beautiful colleague, for such M adame de Fontenai really was, procured a divorce during his absence in Egypt, whither he had gone with Napoleon, and in 1806, was married to the count Joseph de Caraman, afterwards prince of Chimay : she died in 1835. Tallien, we ought to say, admitted his 'errors' as he called them, but pleaded the delirium of the times, a fact surely ot some signi- ficance; ignorant of what the future may have in store for us, let us ponder these circumstai consider well what monstrous births might yet be brought forth among the millions who know nothing of Christianity but the name, ami Little of civilization but its corrupting influences. ( E.I J. ] TALUS, Thomas, the master of V\ illiam Byrde, one of the greatest of English musicians, was born early in the reign of Henry VIII. The mod curious and extraordinary of his works which is still extant was his song of forty vocal parts. This great effort of musicul science is carried on in e flight, pursuit, attack, and choral coun- terpoint to the end. This many-voice; , Gothicism is terminated by twelve bars of lull harmony. Tallis died in 1&86, and was buried in the old parish church of Greenwich. [J.M. j 59 TAL TAI.MA. Fu larCIl JOSBTH, the C.arrick of the French stair, mi bora at Paris about 1770, but a (WD of his boyhood was passed in Lon- (bM at a bwwKng scliool in Lambeth, and then articled to a surgeon; but MOB j<»inc r < TAS chondriac ; he returned to Ferrara, escaped from a convent in which he was placed, wandered on foot to his sister's house at Sorrento, and thence, in 1579, came hack to Ferrara. He is said to have now become violent : at all events, the duke shut him up in a madhouse, the hospital of Sant' Anna, where he was imprisoned for more than seven years. The 'Jerusalem' was printed repeatedly in 1581, in _ spite of his angry prohibitions. It is a chivalrous and Christian epic, displaying a beauty of poetic fancy which had not been reached by any one since Virgil, and a melting tenderness of feeling which has not been equalled in any other treat narrative poem. In the meantime, its un- happy author was, by turns, seeing consolatory angels or tormenting demons, and subsiding into intervals of calmness and sanity. He wrote in his dungeon some of his best pieces, both in prose and in verse. He was released in 1586, and soon after- wards published his tragedy ' Torrismondo.' In 1592 he showed evident decay of judgment by issuing an altered and spoiled edition of the ' Gieru- salemme.' His life was now one of wandering. He was invited to come to Rome from Naples, and be crowned a poet as Petrarch had been. He obeyed the call, but said, truly, that he went only to die. The applause of crowds, and the honour paid to him by the papal court, shed some consolation over his last days. The time had been fixed for his coronation, when he felt his end approaching, retired to the convent of Sant' Onofrio, on a hili overlooking the Eternal City, and there expired calmlv, in the spring of 1595. [W.S.] TASSONI, A., an Italian poet, 1565-1635. TASSONI, A., an Ital. ecclesiastic, 1749-1818. TASTE, L. Bernard De La, bishop of Beth- leem, author of Theological Letters on the subject of Convulsionaries, 1692-1754. TATE, Francis, an English lawyer, author of interesting antiquarian works, 1560-1616. TATE, Nahum, successor of Shadwell as poet- laureate, author of Poems, and of a metrical ver- sion of the Psalms, 1652-1715. TATIAN, a Platonic philosopher who became a convert to Christianity, and is numbered among those early writers of the church who are charged with heresy. He was born in Syria about li>0, and taught in Mesopotamia about 172. T ATI US, a king of the Sabines, who was put to death at Lavinium about 742 B.C. TAUBE, F. W. De, a Fr. geographer, 1724-78. TAUBMAN, Frederic, an eminent Ger. philo- logist and critic, born in Franconia 1565, d. 1613. TAULER or THAULER, John, in Latin Tau- leiiis, a famous name among the mystic divines, was born at Strasburgh, as nearly as can be ascer- tained, about 1290, and died there in 1361. He was a monk of the Dominican order, and in several respects one of the most remarkable men of his age, if, indeed, he may not rightly be regarded as the forerunner of Luther, who, as well as Melancthon, and our own Henry More, highly esteemed his works. His external history possesses little in- terest beyond that which arises from the circum- stances attending his spiritual experience; the brothers of his order having greatly derided, and even persecuted him. The peculiarity which ex- posed him to this treatment was the slight esteem in which he held their superstitious observances. TAY his earnest love of truth, and his devotion to the welfare of the people, especially shown by preach- ing to them in their native German instead of Latin as had previously been the custom. Here also may be mentioned" the influence of his style upon the German language, to which he gave a smoother rhythm, a more exact meaning, and a richer vocabulary than it had previously borne ; a circumstance which has given him a distinguished place in the history of German prose writers. His sermons are admitted to be models in this respect, but of all his writings we can only notice his famous ' Institutions,' commonly known as ' The German Theology,' a work which has been fre- quently translated into Latin and French, and exercised as much influence as any other single book on the development of religious thought. Wesley was at first captivated by it, but it went too deep for him, and he finally rejected it, and adopted" those methodical religious exercises which acquired so great popularity. The sum of the 'Institutions' may be thus stated : — 1. The most rigid performance of mere ceremonials amounts to nothing; it is all but the conceit of form, mere imagery ; the beginning of the spiritual life is pro- found abasement of heart and mind before God. 2. God must be loved above all things, and the neighbour as one's self; this supposes a resigna- tion of all sensual pleasures and external satisfac- tions, so far as they are not produced from the internal state towards God ; in like manner of all self-intelligence, conceit of the understanding, and pleasure of the imagination; this internal self- annihilation is more difficult than mortification of the body, because in the latter case the acts of piety may really be agreeable to the spirit and fall in with its humour. 3. The state to be reached is that of conjunction with God essentially, not under images, or by way of reflection ; He then becomes the effective good of the soul and illuminates the sacred shade with which man has surrounded him- self. — These are the vital principles treated metho- dically in the Institutions, and Tauler himself was called The Illuminated Doctor, from the visions and spiritual voices that reached him. [E.R.] TAUNAY, A., a French sculptor, 1768-1824. TAUNAY, N. A., a French painter, 1755-1830. TAURELLUS, N., a German philosopher, whose endeavour was to establish a fixed demarcation be- tween theology and philosophy, 1547-1586. TAURI, D.. a French anatomist, 1669-1701. TAWSEN, TAUSSEN, or TAGESEN, John, called the Luther of Denmark, one of the earliest promoters of the reform, in that country, 1494-1561. TAVANNES, Gaspard De Saulx De, a French marshal, and one of the most eminent of their commanders, distinguished in the wars of Italy, and in the religious wars which ended in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1509-1573. TAVELLI, J., an Italian theologian, 1764-84. TAYERXER, Richard, clerk to the signet in the reign of Edward VI., author of religious and theological works, born in Norfolk 1505, died 1675. TAvERNIER, Jean Baptwtk, a celebrated Eastern traveller, born in Paris 1605, died at Mos- cow 1686. He made an immense fortune in trad- ing with diamonds ; his ' Travels,' published in 6 vols., 1679, are highly valued. TAYLOR, Brook, a natural philosopher and 63 TAY mathematician, nuthor of Experiments on Iffag- .nil otlicr works, bum at Edmonton, in ">, died 1731. TAYLOB, HS»T. a rector of Hampshire, known as an Arian divine, died 1788. His son, .Ions. w.-ll known as a writer of humorous verse bv liis ' Monsieur Tonson,' and similar pieces, and be • Sun' newspaper, died 1832. TAYLOB, HkbBBRT, Lieut. -CJeneral Sir, sec- retary to the duke of York while engaged in the J private secretary to George III. and Queen Charlotte, 1775-1839. TAYLOB, .Iank, who distinguished herself as a poetical and prose writer for youth, was born in London, where her father exercised the profession of an engraver, 17*3. She afterwards removed with him to Colchester, where he became minister to a dissenting congregation. She published her first work, ' The Beggar Boy,' in 1804. The prin- cipal of her other productions are 'Essays on Rlivme, on Morals, and Manners,' • Original Poems for" Infant Minds,' ' Rhymes for the Nursery,' a prose tale entitled ' Display,' &c, died 1823. TAYLOR, Dr. Jekbny, an eminent bishop of the episcopal Church of England. He was the son of a barber, who resided in Cambridge, and in that town Jeremy was born in 1618. His father having resolved to educate him for the church, he was sent first to the grammar school and after- wards to Caius College in his native town. His brilliant career procured him the patronage of I,and, then chancellor of the university, and from being private chaplain to his patron, he was ap- pointed to the rectory of Uppingham. Through the same influence, he was nominated to the office of chaplain in ordinary to Charles I., to whom on the outbreak of his troubles, Taylor rendered im- portant aid by accompanying him on several of the royalist campaigns, as well as by writing in defence of the English hierarchy. During the reign of the parliamentary party Taylor lost his benefice, and retired into Wales, where he supported himself big a school, till he was taken by Lord Carbnry into his house in the capacity of domestic chaplain. It was during his residence with that nobleman, that Taylor composed most of those brilliant discourses that have long ranked him among the most eloquent of British divines. Crom- well's spies kept a vigilant eye upon him, and he •'.•red imprisonment during the Protecto- rate. At the restoration his steadfast loyalty was rewarded by his appointment to the bishopric of Down and Connor, and the vice-chancellorship of Trinity College, Dublin. Besides his far-famed sermons, Taylor was the author of various other works of great repute — the chief of which are Duhitantium, or Rule of Conscience,' of Pro ph esying,' and 'Holy Living and ':op Taylor died in 1667. [R.J.] TAY1 ommonlycalled 'The Water :i at Gloucester, In 1580, and for a Jong time followed the occupation of a waterman which he kept a public house !. gAcre. Living at the period beJJion he was a staunch royalist, but his - of opinion were rather eccentric ». lb- di'-il in 105-1, and was buried ; Jovent Garden. His woi . in folio, 1680, possess little TAY interest beyond that which attaches to the quaint conceits and manners of a past age. TAYLOR, John, a learned dissenter, who be- came successively minister of a congregation at Norwich, and tutor in divinity at the then newly- founded Warrington academy. He is author ot several works on theology and moral philosophy, and is understood to have been of unitarian prin- ciples; born in Lancashire 1094, died 1761. TAYLOR, John, a dignitary of the Church of England, whose father was a 'barber at Shrews- bury, where he was born 1704. He was a distin- guished Greek scholar and civilian, and wrote some valuable works ; died 1706. TAYLOR, John, an English oculist, known by his travels, of which he wrote a narrative, last cent. TAYLOR, Sir Robert, the son of a London stone-mason, who became a famous architect and sculptor, and served as sheriff, 1714-1788. [jlanjr'b Stone at lladleigh.j TAYLOR, Rowland, rector of Hadleigh, in Suffolk, burnt alive in the reign of Mary, 1555. TAYLOR, Silas, an antiquarian writer, keeper of the government stores at Harwich, 1024-1678. TAYLOR, T., a puritan divine, 1576-1632. TAYLOR, Thomas, usually called 'the Phto- nist,' was born in London, 1758, and became clerk in a banking-house, afterwards assistant secretary to the ' Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.' He devoted all his leisure to the study of Greek literature and the revival of the Platonic philosophy, for which he was eminently qualified by his keen philosophical insight, the richness of his imagination, and the graces of his diction. He was fortunate enough to iind two munificent patrons in the duke of Norfolk and a retired tradesman named Meredith, the lat- ter of whom settled upon him a pension of £100 a-year, while they both supplied him with the expenses of publishing his valuable editions of Plato and other masters of the Grecian philosophy. Mr. Taylor was not simply a translator, though a translator of such works would need to possess rare talents and indefatigable industry; he was also a commentator upon his originals, and carried on the war against Locke, in behalf of the Platonic doctrine of ideas, which regard the soul, not as a tabula rasa, but as a plenitude of forms. One of his concise arguments may here be cited: ' If the soul possess another eye different from that of sense (and that she does so the sciences sufficiently evince) there must be, in the nature of things, species accommodated to her perception different from sensible forms. For if our intellects speculate tilings which have no real subsistence, sucli as Mr. 7G1 *nr.r< TAY Locke's ideas, its condition must be much more unhappy than that of the sensitive eye, since this is co-ordinated to beings, but intellect could specu- late nothing but illusions. Now if this be absurd, and if we possess an intellectual eye which is endued with a visual power, there must be forms correspondent and conjoined with its vision ; forms immoveable, indeed, by a corporeal motion, but moved by an intellectual energy.' We cannot give the catalogue of Mr. Taylor's editions and com- mentaries, as it would occupy more space than this notice, but they all tend to a representation and development of the Grecian theology and of its entire history. Died 1835. [E.R.] TAYLOR, William, author of • English Syno- nymes,' and a 'Survey of German Poetry,' "was the son of a merchant at Norwich, where he was born 1765. He became an intimate friend of Southey at the close of the century, and editor of a local paper, the ' Norwich Iris,' after which he distinguished himself in the metropolis as a re- viewer and critic, died 1836. TAYLOR, William Cooke, a miscellaneous writer in high repute for his indefatigable indus- try, the versatility of his talents, and the accuracy of his works, was born at Youghal, in Ireland, in 1800, and died of the pestilence which ravaged that country in 1849. Among his works are ' The Life and Times of Sir Robert Peel,' ' Manuals of Ancient and Modem History,' ' History of Moham- medanism,' ' Revolutions of Europe,' and ' The History of the House of Orleans.' TAYLOR, Zachary, president of the United States, was born in Orange County, Virginia, 1790, and was descended from an English family who settled in that state in 1692. His father, Colonel Richard Taylor, was a companion-in-arms of Washington, and bore a name dreaded in Indian warfare ; his mother, as usual in the case of men who in any way distinguish themselves, was a woman of high spirit and intelligence. The mili- tary life of Zachary Taylor, who was alwavs noted for his hardihood, commenced at the outbreak of the war with England in 1807, when he was com- missioned as lieutenant, and sent to defend the bor- ders against the Indians : his great exploit on this occasion was the defence of Fort Harrison on the Wabash, at the head of a garrison numbering only fifty-two men. He rose from grade to grade till he "became general in the subsequent Indian wars of Florida and Arkansas, but acquired his great popularity in the invasion of Mexico, 1846, when ie crossed the Rio-Grande, and gained in succes- sion the battles of Palo-alto, Resaca-de-la-P.ilma, Monteney, and Buena-Vista. His character is very well expressed by the nickname of * Rough- md-ready,' given to him, according to a very )revalent fashion of honouring their great men, >y his countrymen. General faylor was elected president in November, 1848, and entered upon office in March, 1849. He was carried off suddenly, jefore completing his term, by an attack of cholera, In July, 1850, and was succeeded by Vice-president Tyler [E.R.] TEDESCHI, N., an Ital. canonist, 1389-1445. TEGEL, Eric, a Swedish historian, died 1638. TEGNER, E., a Swedish poet, 1782-1847. TEIA, last king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, vanquished by Narses, and killed 553. TEL TEIGNMOUTH, John Shore, Lord, an Ori- ental scholar and administrator, connected with the Indian government in the time of Warren Hast- ings, afterwards closely allied with the philanthro- pists of this country, and first president of the Bible Society ; born in Devonshire 1751, died 1834. We are indebted to him for the complete edition of the life of Sir William Jones. TEISSIER, Anthony, a French protestant advocate, who became historiographer to the Prus- sian court, and wrote several works, 1632-1715. TEKELI, Emekic, Count, a patriot of Hun- gary, who headed the revolt of that country against Austria in 1676, died in exile 1705. TELEMANN, George Philip, a great com- poser of overtures, time of Handel, 1681-1767. TELESIO, Antonio, otherwise Thildius, or Ti/esius, an Italian professor of literature and Latin poet, 1482-1533. Bernardino, his ne- phew, a philosopher and mathematician, 1509-88. TELFORD, Thomas, a celebrated civil en- gineer, a striking instance of the many on record of men who have by the force of natural talent — unaided save by uprightness and persevering in- dustry — raised themselves from the lowly estate in which they were born, to take rank among the master spirits of their age. Telford's father was a shepherd of Eskdale in Dumfriesshire, where Thomas, his only son, was born in August, 1757. His father died when he was an infant, and thus the care of Telford's early years devolved upon his mother, for whom he cherished an affectionate re- gard, and evinced true filial piety. He had the immense advantage peculiar to Scotchmen at that time, of the parish school education ; but at the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a mason in Langholm. The construction of small bridges, farm buildings, Scotch churches and manses, were the opportunities afforded him of obtaining practical knowledge. In his autobio- graphy he has expressed his sense of the value of this humble training, observing, that although con- venience and usefulness only are studied in such buildings, yet, ' as therjj is not sufficient employ- ment to produce a division of labour in building, lie was under the necessity of making himself ac- quainted with every detail of procuring, prepar- ing, and employing every kind of material, whether it oe the produce of the forest, the quarry, or the forge ; and this necessity, although unfavourable to the dexterity of the individual workman who earns his livelihood by expertness in one operation, is of singular advantage to the future architect or engineer, whose professional excellence most rest on the adaptation of materials, and a confirmed habit of discrimination and judicious superintend dence.' In 1780 Telford went to Edinlu enlarged his field of observation during two y. ■ar>' employment there, on the splendid improvements of that city then commenced. He then went to London, and was employed in the works of the quadrangle of Somerset Home, where ha ■ayi he 'obt. lined much ]>ractical information.' lie was afterwards engaged as superintendent on various buildings at Portsmouth Dockyard. In 17*7 lie removed to Shrewsbury, to superintend alfflffltkffla on Shrewsbury castle. Here he erected the new- gaol, finally, in 1793, became county sun otV.ce which he continued to hold as Ion 05 TBI bridge was over the Severn . consisting of three elliptical stone ;. the others of 55 feet span. ted the BnSdeaM iron bridge of 130 feet span. Henceforward Ida attention was almost solelv devoted to civil engineering, — The Ellesmere canal, with its magnificent Christie and Pont-y-Cy- svlte riadncta, occupied him chietly from 1795 to i:i 1801 Telford was deputed by govern- ment to report on the works desirable for the im- provement of the internal and external intercourse and trade of Scotland. In consequence of his re- }vorts the Highland roads and bridges were made, the Caledonian canal cut, and many ports and harbours made and improved, all of which works he superintended. The Caledonian canal was opened in 1823. It was a gigantic work for the Eeriod; but has not proved of much use, or to v perfectly executed. — In his exten- sive practice in bridge "building he improved the general practice of engineers of this country, by adopting the important principle of making the spandriis hollow, and supporting the roadway upon slabs laid upon longitudinal walls, instead of fil- ling up the haunches with a mass of loose rubbish, which may press injuriously upon, the arch, and often proves of serious inconvenience when the ma- sonry of the bridge needs any repair. Telford im- proved the Macadam system of road-making, and carried it into effect on the Holyhead roads, for which he was long engineer under the commis- sioners. The Menai suspension bridge on this road is a noble example of Telford's engineering skill and boldness in design, and even now in -ition with the Britannia Tubular bridge, fairly divides with that great work the admiration of the intelligent observer — The St. Katherine I . >ndon, are from Telford's design, and were i under his direction. There are innumer- able happy details in the engineering, for an ac- count ot which we must refer to the plates attached to his autobiography. The work of civil engineer- ing, on the success of which Telford seems to have looked with greatest self-complacency, is the im- provement of the outfall of the Seine river, bv which the drainage of about 30,000 acres of richest sea land was secured, and that of some 80,000 acres improved. This was finished in 1830. He was employed by Swedish governments in the construction of the Gotha canal, and often con- sulted by thf> Russian government. — Before leav- ing Eskdale Telford had acquired some distinc- tion as a poet, and corresponded with Burns, g him to take up other subjects Dfl nature similar to the Cottar's Saturday He is said to have taught himself Latin, French, Italian, and German. He has left valu- ably contributions to engineering literature in the articles architecture, bridge, civil architecture, in- land navigation, in Brewster's « Edinburgh Ency- I in his autobiography. He was itbrd became president of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1820, and re- mained m till his death in 1834.— In all the rela- i umded respect and esteem. He was of athletic form, and reached the age of without any serious illness. It was only late in life that he had any fixed residence. Even iu London he lived in an hotel, for many years in TEL the Salopian at Charing Cross, (now the ' Ship ') but from 1825 he resided in 21 Abingdon-Street, where he died on the 2d September, 1831, at the age of seventy-seven. His mortal remains were interred in Westminster Abbey. [L.D.B.G.] TELL, William, the popular hero of Swiss independence : his story is open to grave doubts, but the facts certainly known are these. In the time of Albert, archduke of Austria, Switzerland was divided into small baronial fiefs, and indepen- dent cities having a democratic form of govern- ment; and these free districts, being surrounded nearly by the imperial domains, were objects of great jealousy to the house of Austria, by which at last their subjugation was resolved upon. Al- ready the archduke possessed the right of ap- pointing bailiffs for administering the criminal jurisdiction in all these places, and such a func- tionary was Gessler, the tyrant of the legends concerning Tell. When the purpose of the Aus- trians became known, the natives of Uri, Scheveitz, and Underwalden, formed the nucleus of an asso- ciation to defend their country ; and three patriots, Furst, Melchal, and Staffaeher, led them to victory January 13th, 1308, when the baronial castles were attacked and the oppressive barons driven out of the country. The legend of William Tell supplies the circumstance which gave the signal for this sudden rising. Gessler, it is said, ap- pointed governor or bailiff of Uri, caused his plumed cap to be elevated on a pole in a public place at Altorf, and required the peasantry to render the same homage to it as to himself: the probability is, that it was raised as a standard to rally his partizans, and discover the disaffected. William Tell, supposed to have been the son-in-law of Walter Furst, treated this symbol with contempt, and was ordered under arrest by the enraged go- vernor : the story adds, that his liberty was offered to him on condition of striking an apple, placed on the head of his child, with a bolt from his cross bow; — it relates that he struck the apple, but [Toll's Chapel on the Lake of Waldstatcn.J having reserved an arrow, destined, as he avowed, for the heart of the governor had his child received any injury, he was still detained in custody and 76G TEL loaded with irons. Gcssler had reason to fear that the friend! of Tell would liberate him if confined in the prison of Altorf; he resolved therefore to convey him across the lake of Waldstaten to his own castle of Kupuacht. On the passage a violent storm arose, and Tell was released from his bonds as the only person capable of managing the boat, which he shoved towards a flat shelf that jutted out into the lake ; on this he suddenly leaped, at the same time snatching up his cross bow, and pushing the boat from shore with his foot as he took the spring: he afterwards lay in wait for Gessler, and shot him as he passed through a mountain defile. It was at this juncture that the peasantry flew to arms at the call of Tell and his fellow-patriots, as already related : and there can be no doubt that his story is substantially true, though the embellishment of the apple seems to have been borrowed from a legend of Denmark. Not yet, however, had the Austrians given up all hope of conquering the 'audacious rustics,' as they styled the Swiss peasantry, and in 1315 the moun- tain passes were invaded by an army of 20,000 men, under the archduke Leopold. This immense force was totally routed by a little band of fourteen hundred Swiss, in the pass of Morgarten, and Tell is believed to have been present in the battle He is said to have perished in the river Schachen, during a great flood, in 1350. [E.R.] TELLER, W. A., a Ger. theologian, 1734-1804. TELLEZ, Balthazar, a Portuguese Jesuit, and historian of his order and of Ethiopia, 1595-1675. TELLEZ DE SYLVA, Don Manuel, mar- quis of Aleyrete, a Portuguese historian, 1682-1736. TELLIER, Michael Le, secretary of state and chancellor of France in the time of Mazarin ; he was the chief instrument in procuring the revoca- tion of the edict of Nantes, the order for which he signed, and died a few days after, 1603-1685. His son, Francis Michael, marquis of Louvois, minister of war, and the enemy and successor of Colbert, 1641-1691. Charles Maurice, brother of the latter, archbishop of Rheims, and an active mover in all ecclesiastical affairs at that time, 1642- 1710. Camille, fourth son of Francis, known as the Abbe de Louvois, a famous doctor of the Sor- bonne, 1675-1718. TELLIER, Michael, a bigoted Jesuit, con- fessor to Louis XIV., and promoter of the bull L'nigenitus; his enmity to the Jansenists was so ■teat, that he demolished the very buildings of the Port Royal, 1643-1719. TEMANZA, T., an Italian architect, 1705-89. TEMPELHOF, G. F., a Prus. artillery officer and tactician under Frederick the Great, 1737-1807. TEMPESTA, Antonio, a Florentine painter of landscapes and battle-pieces, 1555-1630. TEMPESTA, Peter. See Molyh. TEMPLE, a well-known name in the history of English statesmanship, was first borne by Sir William Ti.mi-ll, secretary to Sir Philip Sidney, ho died in his arms; he afterwards accompanied the earl of Essex to Ireland, and became provost of Trinity College, died 1026. His son, Sir.. John, became master of the rolls and privy councillor in reland in the reign of Charles II., and was an eye- witness of the Irish rebellion, of which he wrote a history, published in 1641. Sir William, son of the latter, was the statesman and diplomatist who TER played such an important part in the period of Wiiliam and Mary, and is also known as a miscel- laneous writer, 1628-1700. TEMPLEMAN, Peter, a physician of London, who became keeper of the reading-room in the British Museum, author of several works, 1711-69. TENIERS, David, the elder, a celebrated Flemish painter, pupil of Rubens, 1582-1649. TENIERS, David, the vounger, was born at Antwerp in 1610 ; died at Brussels in 1694, and was buried at Pesth, a village between Antwerp and Mechlin, where he had purchased an estate. Teniers is one of the most distinguished of the Flemish painters, though in subject he belongs more to the Dutch school : his pictures are very numerous, and generally represent fairs, markets, merry-makings, guard rooms, beer houses, and other interiors. His execution is remarkably free, but thoroughly true and masterly in every respect. — (Houbraken, Groote Schouburgk, &c.) [R.N. W.] TENISON, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, author of ' The Creed of Hobbes Examined,' ' Re- mains of Sir Francis Bacon,' and 'Sir Thomas Browne's Tracts,' 1636-1715. TENNANT, Smithson, professor of chemistry in Cambridge, and a discoverer in that branch (if science ; born at Selby, in Yorkshire, 1761, d. 1815. TENNANT, William, a Scottish poet and philologist, professor of Oriental languages at St. Andrews, author of ' Anster Fair,' died 1843. TENNHART, John, a native of Saxony, re- markable for his alleged visions and writings, dic- tated by the ' interior voice,' 1661-1720. TENON, J. R., a French surgeon, 1724-1810. TENTERDEN, Charles Abbot, Lord, an eminent lawyer, who succeeded Lord Ellenboroupli as lord chief justice of the King's Bench, was born at Canterbury, where his father was a hair-dresser, 1762. He acquired an extensive practice as a bar- rister in the Oxford circuit, on which he entered in 1775, and in 1802 he distinguished himself by the publication of a work since recognized as a standard on Maritime Law. His appointment as judge dates from 1818; died 1832. TENTZEL, or TENZEL, William Ernest, a German historian and antiquary, 1659-1707. TERAMO, Giacomodi, archbishop of Florence, and author of an ascetic romance, 1349-1417. TERBURG, G., a Flemish painter, 1608-1681. TEBOIEB, J. P., a Fr. diplomatist. 1704-1767. TEPENCE, the short name of Publius Tar two literary men had called attention to it. Thomson, provided for in the meantime as tutor in the family of Lord Binning, pabusbed ' Snunner' ami 'Spring' in the next two years; and in 17oO, 'Autumn' being added, the four poems were printed together, 773 THO under their common title 'The Seasons.' — The appetraiMi of Mm series was a phenomenon more remarkable than we are apt to suppose. The raw in, meditating among the Cheviot hills and by the banks of the Tweed, had struck OOt a vein of poetry which had not been worked in England since the restoration. When his poem appeared, the artificial school of Pope was in the [Arbour In Thomson's Garden] ascendant ; and the fashionable poets of the day were alike distant from simplicity and nature in the themes they selected, and in the form with which they invested them. Thomson was far from being pure in taste : his tone of sentiment, too, is very often mawkish, and his diction almost every- where pompous and pedantic. But the closeness with which he observed external nature has hardly ever been surpassed; and the poetic intuition with which he apprehends the features of a landscape, and the moral associations which clothe it with the finest part of its beauty, is as keen and exquisite as that of Wordsworth himself. — While the parts of his great work were in progress, Thomson pro- duced, among other things, his unfortunate tragedy of ' Sophonisba.' In 1731 he travelled in France, Italv, and Switzerland, as a tutor ; and the father of his pupil, on becoming the Lord Chancellor Talbot, gave him a sinecure place in his court, which was lost on the patron's death. This event drove him again to write for the stage. There is very little merit even in ' Tancred and Sigismunda,' the last and most successful of his plays. A pen- sion from the prince of Wales raised him just above penury ; and in 1745 his friend Lord Lyttle- ton, coming into power, made him surveyor-general of the Leeward Islands, an office yielding him three hundred a-year. He had long worked on his ' Castle of Indolence,' which he published in 1748. This beautiful poem shows a wonderful improve- ment in taste, and betrays a love of Old English poetry which was hardly "felt by any other person of the time. The poet did not long enjoy the ease in which he was placed. Living in a cottage at Kew, he caught cold in sailing up the Thames, and died of fever in 1748. He was a friendly, shy, and indolent man. [W.S.] THOMSOH, John, a Scottish minister and ; ■'• painter, born in Ayrshire 1778, d. 1840. THOMSON, Thomas. M.D., bom at Crieff, ire, 12th April, 1773; died at Glasgow, 2d July, 1802. Dr. Thomson was educated at the THO parish school of his native place until his four- teenth year, when he was placed under the tuition of Dr. Doig, rector of the borough school of Stirling, and author of ' Letters on the Savage State,' a work which attracted much notice at the time of its publication. His master, an eminent classical scholar, speedily imbued him with a love of litera- ture, which afterwards enabled him to apply numerous improvements to his favourite science. On the conclusion of his scholastic studies he gained a bursary by public competition at the university of St. Andrews, where he remained for three sessions. In 1796, while pursuing his literary and scientific studies at the university of Edinburgh, he succeeded his brother, afterwards the Rev. Dr. James Thomson, minister of Eccles, as one of the editors of the 'Encyclopaedia Britan- nica.' His attendance on the lectures of the cele- brated Dr. Black, during the sessions 1795-9G, imparted to him an intense interest in the science of chemistry, which never deserted him during his subsequent career. He entered on this study with devotion, and wrote the articles Chemistry, Miner- alogy, Vegetable Substances, Animal Substances, and Dyeing Substances, which all appeared before the 10th December, 1800, and formed the ground- work of his celebrated 'System of Chemistry,' which soon became the text-book of the science in almost every country in Europe. In 1800-1 he gave his first course of lectures in Edinburgh with fifty-two pupils ; a second course in the summer of 1801 was attended by thirty-nine students. On the appearance of the first edition of his Chem- istry his winter class swelled to ninety-six mem- bers. He continued his lectures till 1810, in the lawyer's metropolis of his native country, attended usually by the most select of the Scottish and English students, as his roll-book contains such names as James Mill the historian, James War- drop, Charles Badham, Henry Cockburn, James Ballantyne, the distillers Haigs and Steins, George Ballingall, John Abercrombie, Benjamin Travers, John Thomson, Andrew Rutherford, Sir James Sut- tie, Sir Thomas Kirkpatrick, &c. &c. His lectures formed, however, but a secondary portion of his em- ployment, his time being principally taken up with the preparation of new editions of his System, con- ducting an extensive series of researches upon brew- ing for the excise, a work which laid the basis of the Scottish legislation on this subject, and in various chemical consultations. During this period, also, he invented the system of symbols which are now in universal use, as modified in some respects by subsequent discovery, and introduced the use of Greek and Latin numerals to designate the vari- ous degrees of oxidation, &c. of which bodies are sus- ceptible, and which are also in general use. He like- wise first opened in this country a laboratory for practical manipulation. In 1810 he published his 'Elements of Chemistry.' In 1812 he visited Sweden, and published his travels in that country. In 1813 he commenced the 'Annals of Philoso- phy,' and continued to edit this journal for several years. In 1817 he was elected lecturer on chem- istry in the university of Glasgow, a position which was endowed as a professorship in 1818. In 1886 he published 'An Attempt to Establish the First Principles of Chemistry by Experiment, 1 2 vols. 8vo, comprising the results of many thou- 774 orir,^ THO sand experiments to determine the atomic weights of bodies : the most important of which have been confirmed by subsequent experiments. In 1830-31 he published the ' History of Chemistry,' in 2 vols. In 1836 ' Outlines of Mineralogy and Geology,' 2 vols. 8vo, being a portion of the seventh edition of his ' System of Chemistry.' His last work was ' On Brewing and Distillation,' 8vo, 1849. Dr. Thom- son's discoveries were exceedingly numerous, in- cluding chlorocromic acid, hyposulphurous acid, hydrosulphurous acid, potash oxalates of chro- mium, potash chromate of magnesia, chloride of sulphur, called Thomson's liquor, and an immense number of salts, &c. &c, and above fifty species of minerals. Dr. Thomson invented Allan's Saccha- rometer, which is used by the Scottish excise, from which the idea of Bate's instrument, used in Eng- land, was taken ; the original inventor being thus deprived of the proper reward of merit. Dr. Thomson as a chemical teacher was most distin- guished. He has left behind him a numerous band of chemists, who occupy as teachers, manufac- turers, and physicians, some of the most prominent positions in the country. [R.D.T.] THOMSON, William, a Scottish minister who settled in London as an author, and became editor of several periodicals, au. of ' The Man in the Moon,' and 'Memoirs of the War in Asia,' 1746-1817. THORE, J., a French physician, 1762-1823. THORER, A., a Swiss Hellenist, 1489-1550. THORESBY, Ralph, a merchant of Leeds, kn. as an antiquary and topographer, 1658-1725. THORILD, Thomas, a Swedish poet, philoso- pher, and critic of taste, remarkable as a writer on the beautiful in nature, professor at Greifs- walde and Upsala, 1759-1808. THORNDIKE, Herbert, a dignitary of the church, and a great wr. on church principles, d. 1672. THORNHILL, Sir James, an eminent Eng- lish painter, was born at Weymouth in Dorset- shire, 1676. He was a nephew of Dr. Sydenham, the celebrated physician, who placed him under the tuition of an artist in London. Having painted the dome of Saint Paul's, he became his- tory painter to Queen Anne, and executed some allegorical subjects for her at Hampton Court. His masterpiece is the refectory and saloon of the hospital at Greenwich. He died after receiving the honour of knighthood from George I., in 1734. His son, James, inherited much of his genius, and he had a daughter, who became the wife of Ho- garth. THORNTON, Bonnel, a humorous periodical writer, and boon companion of the elder Colman, born in London 1724, died 1768. THORNTON, John Robert, a famous botan- ist, younger son of Thomas Thornton, (below), was born about 1758, and became a physician in London, His works are 'The Philosophy of Medicine,' 'The Philosophy of Politics,' and that on which his fame chiefly rests, ' The Temple of Flora, or Garden of the Botanist, Poet, Painter, and Philosopher.' Died 1837. THORNTON, Samuel, a well-known member of parliament, director of the bank of England, and governor of Greenwich hospital, 1755-1838. THORNTON, Thomas, a militia officer of West Yorkshire, author of several sporting works, and father of the celebrated botanist, died 1823. THO THORPE, John, a physician of the county of Kent, author of professional and antiquarian works, 1682-1750. His son, of the same name, also an antiquarian, 1713-1792. THORWALDSEN, Bertel, (Albert) was born at Copenhagen, November 19, 1770. His father, Gottschalk Thorwaklsen, a carver of wood, beine; a native of Iceland: his mother was of a Danish family. Bertel attended the Danish academy, and soon made such progress as to undertake the earr- ing of figure-heads for ships. In 1793 he obtained the principal gold medal of the academy, whieh gave him the privilege of studying abroad at the expense of the government. He set out for Italy, May 20, 1790, in the Danish frigate Thetis ; ho landed at Naples, and arrived at Rome, March 8, 1797, and he did not return to his native country until 1819, after an absence of twenty-three years. His first important commission was from Mr. Thomas Hope, in 1803, and it was owing to the liberality of this distinguished patron of the arts that Thorwaldsen was enabled to remain and pro- secute his profession in 'the Eternal City.' In 1812, on the occasion of Napoleon's expected visit to Rome, Thorwaldsen greatly distinguished himself by a sketch of the 'Iriumphal entry of Alexander into Babylon,' which he completed with such ex- pedition that the frieze, in plaster, was fixed up in one of the halls of the Quinnal palace within three months of the date of the commission. It is a composition of great extent, measuring 160 Roman palms (the palm is about nine inches) in length, and five in height ; it has been twice executed in marble since, and is well engraved by Amsler of Munich. His principal works, however, were exe- cuted after his visit to Denmark ; he returned to Rome at the close of 1820, and acquired the highest European fame by the following works : — Christ and the Twelve Apostles ; St. John Preaching in the Wilderness; and the monuments to Copernicus, Pius VII., Maximilian of Bavaria, Prince Ponia- towsky and others. The Christ and the St. John were lor the church of our Lady at Copenhagen, where they are now placed. He again visited Denmark, in 1838, but finding the climate disagree with him, returned to Rome in 1841, but again visited Copenhagen in 1842, and died there sud- denly in the theatre,March 24, 1844, of diseaseof the heart, aged seventy-three. Thorwaldsen bequeathed all works of art in his possession to the city of Co- penhagen, to form a distinct collection, and the city now boasts of a great art museum, containing spec i- mens of many classes of art, besides books, &v., known as the Thorwaldsen Museum; he left suf- ficient funds to endow it, and enable it to con- stantly add to its collection, foreign as well as Danish works. Thorwaldsen was never married, but left a natural daughter in Rome well provided. There is a cheap edition of outlines after all the works of Thorwaldsen, now in coarse of publication. — (H. C. Andersen, Bertel Thorwuldaen eine bio- rjraphische skitzze am dem Danischan ubtrtrai/cn von Julius Jieuscher ; and the writer's notice in the AtanpfaNrt to the Penny Cyclopaedia.') [R.N.W.] THOr, .James Ailimis De, in Latin Tliu- anus, a celebrated French historian and Lutinist, whose father and grandfather were both presi- dents of the parliament of Paris, 1553-1617. I)e Thou iuhcrited the talents of his ancestry for 775 THO statesmanship, and was employed as ambassador and finance minister. His son, Francis Au- burn at Taris about 1607, was beheaded on account of his privity to the conspiracy of Cinqmara against Richelieu, 1642. THOUARS. See Petit-Thouars. THOUIN, A., a Fr. horticulturist, 1747-1823. THOURET, J. W., one of the most celebrated members of the French constituent assemby, born in Normandy 1746, executed 1794. His brother, Michael Augustus, a distinguished physician, 1748-1810. W. F. Anthony, son of the deputy, author of an Encyclopaedia, died 1832. THOYNARD, Nicholas, a French scholar, author of a Harmony of the Gospels, 1629-1706. THRASYBULUS, one of the great names of ancient Greece, period of the Peloponnesian or civil war between Sparta and Athens, was the son of Lycus, and was born at Steiria in Attica. He was commander of the infantry at Samos, when the Four Hundred was established on the ruins of the Athenian democracy (as noticed in the article Theramenes), B.C. 411. He immediately swore his soldiers not to recognize the oligarchy, and united with Theramenes and Alcibiades to effect their destruction : at the same time he continued his part in the Peloponnesian war, and to him be- longs the chief honour of the Athenian victory at Cyzicus. That dubious struggle being closed by the victory of Lysander, and the government of the humbled Athenians vested in the thirty tyrants, Thrasybulus took refuge in the Theban territory, where" the patriots of the democracy once more rallied to hun. After the death of Theramenes, Thrasybulus might have occupied his seat among the thirty, but he preferred the liberties of his country, and advancing at the head of the patriots, a thousand in number, he surprised the camp be- fore Phyle, on the frontier of Boeotia, and after repeated successes became master of the govern- ment. In the second of the battles fought on this occasion fell Critias, at whose instance Theramenes had been compelled to drink the poisoned chalice. The despotic Thirty were now replaced by a council of ten representatives, and Thrasybulus exhibited the highest magnanimity towards his enemies. At length, having generously taken the field in aid of the Thebans, menaced by the yoke of Sparta, he was massacred in his tent while encamped in Cilicia, b.c. 389. [E.R.] THUELKELD, Caleb, an English physician and naturalist, settled in Dublin, 1676-1728. THKOSBY, J., a topographer, 1740-1803. THUANUS. See Thou. '1 H DCYDIDES, the historian, was an Athenian citizen, and belonged to the Attic borough Halimus. The date of his birth, which is not quite certain, was, perhaps, B.C. 471. Being of a good family, and living in a city which was the centre of Greek civilization, he received the highest education which the time afforded ; and this, superadded to f:rcat ability, manifested itself in the ' eternal ■i ' which he bequeathed to posterity. He to have studied rhetoric under Antiphon of Rhammus. the most distinguished orator of the time, and to h;i ,-tnution in philosophv from Anaxagoras. The well-known story of hii moved to tears of emulation by : lia recite his history at the Olympic THU games, is generally admitted to be without foun- dation. At the commencement of the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 431), he entered the military service of his country, and in B.C. 424, held the command of a fleet of seven ships which lay off Thasos, when [Thucydides— From an Ancient Bull.] Brasidas, the Lacedaemonian commanded invested Amphipolis, a city on the Strymon, belonging to the Athenians. Thucydides hastened to the assis- tance of his countrymen ; and though he arrived too late to prevent a capitulation, he saved Eion, a seaport at the mouth of the river. In conse- quence of this failure, he was banished by the Athenians, or found it prudent to retire into volun- tary exile, and passed the next twenty years of his life as a refugee. The accounts as to the places of his residence during his exile, are various and conflicting ; we may only infer, that he could not live with safety in any place which was under Athenian dominion. He himself states, that he spent much of his time either in the Peloponnesus, or in places under the Peloponnesian rule ; and his minute description of Syracuse and the neighbour- hood, leads to the belief that he visited these localities. It may, at least, be confidently affirmed that, during this eventful period, he was an atten- tive observer of the great struggle, collected the materials for his history as the events proceeded, and to some extent, reduced them to the form in which they have commanded the admiration of all succeeding generations. When peace was con- cluded with the Lacedaemonians in b.c. 404, a decree was passed, permitting the return of all exiles ; in consequence of which, Thucydides was restored to his country in the following year. According to the united testimony of the ancient writers, he came to a violent end, having died by the hand of an assassin ; but the time and place of his death are not known. There was a tomb erected to his memory at Athens ; and he probably died there. The History of Thucydides was designed to comprise a complete account of the events of the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 431-404), but breaks off in the middle of the twenty-first year I (b.c. 41 1\ It is divided into eight Books, the last of which, in consequence of the absence of 76 THTJ speeches, and a supposed inferiority of style, has, without any good reason, been held by some critics as not genuine. Thucydides has always been placed first in the first rank of philosophical historians. His moral reflections are searching and profound; his speeches abound in political wisdom ; and the simple minuteness of his pictures is often striking and tragic. His style is concise, vigorous, and energetic ; every word has its appro- priate meaning, and not a clause is inserted which is not necessary for his narrative. Hence, he is sometimes harsh and obscure; his sentences are occasionally very involved, and the connection and dependence of the several parts difficult to per- ceive. [G.F.] THUGUT, F., an Austrian statesman, and partv to the coalition against France, 1739-1818. THUILLIER, J. L., a Fr. botanist, died 1822. THULDEN, C. A., a Ger. historian, 17th cent. THULDEN, or TULDEN, Theodore Van, a painter and engraver, taught by Rubens, 1607-76. THUMMEL, M. A., a Ger. writer, 1738-1817. THUMMIG, L. P., a Germ, philos., 1697-1728. THUNBERG, Charles Peter, a Swedish traveller and botanist, prof, at Upsala, 1743-1828. THUNBERG, D., a Swedish engineer, d. 1788. THUNMANN, J., a Swiss antiquarian, 1746-78. THURLOE, John, secretary of state during the protectorate of the two Cromwells, and the chief agent in detecting the plots of Harrison and the fifth monarchy men, born at Abbots-Reding, in Essex, where his father was rector, 1616, died 1668. His state papers, published in 1742, form a valuable mass of historical documents. THURLOW, Edward, Lord, chancellor m the reign of George III., was born at Little Ashfield, near Stowmarket, in Suffolk, where his father was rector, in 1732. He was called to the bar in 1758, and entering parliament as member for Tamworth in 1768, became a distinguished sup- porter of the administration of Lord North. He succeeded Dunning as solicitor-general in 1770, and became attorney-general, after Sir William De Grey, in 1771. On the 3d of June, 1778, he was appointed lord chancellor, and raised to the peerage: on the retirement of Lord North, and the accession of the marquis of Rockingham in 1782, he still retained the seals by express favour of the king, though he neither supported the min- istry, nor was much liked by the premier. On the coalition ministry of Fox and North being formed, he was compelled to retire ; but he came into office again under Mr. Pitt, and, still pursu- ing his inconsistent course of action, was obliged to withdraw in 1792, from which time he took no part in public affairs. Lord Thurlow bears the character of an arrogant, factious politician, rather the bully than the debater in parliament, but vet a man of keen understanding : his character has been delineated by Lords Brougham and Campbell, and slightly sketched by the recent editor of the Rockingham papers. From the latter we cite the following: 4 To Thurlow in his private relations the praise may be fairly awarded. He was a scholar, and a good and ripe one. He was an affectionate parent, and sometimes an active and cherishing patron. He had a kind of rough generosity, which moved him occasionally to take TIE one who thwarted, rather than one who fawned upon him. He befriended Johnson and Crabbe — the one when the shadows of evening were closing upon him, the other when the trials of poverty pressed most heavily In worse times there have been worse chancellors than Edward, Lord Thur- low, but an age of comparative freedom and refine- ment has rarely exhibited one who so ill under- stood, or at least so ill discharged, the functions of a statesman and legislator.' Died 1806. [E.R.] THURMER, J., a Germ, architect, 1789-1833. THURNEYSSER, L., an alchymistand astrolo- ger, son of a goldsmith at Bale, 1531-1596. THUROT, Francis, a French corsair, who en- tered into the royal service, and harassed the Eng- lish commerce in the northern seas ; he was killed in an engagement when returning from his expe- dition to Ireland 1760. THUROT, J.F., a French Hellenist, 1768-1832. THWAITES, Edward, a Saxon and Greek scholar, professor at Oxford, and assistant of Dr. Hickes in compiling his Thesaurus, 1667-1711. THYNNE, Francis, a herald and antiquary, son of William Thynne, the editor of Chaucer, author of a Continuation of Holingshed's Chro- nicles, and a History of Dover, died 1611. THYSIUS, A., a Dutch historian, 1603-1697. TIARA, P., a Dutch savant, 1514-1586. TIARINI, A., an Italian painter, 1577-1658. TIARKS, J. L., a Ger. astronomer, 1789-1837. TIBERIUS, Claudius Nero, the second em- peror of Rome, was born B.C. 42, and succeeded Augustus a.d. 14. He was a great general, and a master of Greek and Roman literature, but as he grew older in years he disgraced himself with every species of cruelty and debauchery. He was pro- bably insane long before the commander of his praetorian guard assumed the responsibility of put- ting him to death, March 16, a.d. 37. TIBERIUS CONSTANTINE, called also Tire- Rius II., one of the most virtuous emperors of the East, was a native of Thrace, and was brought up at the court of Justinian. He succeeded to the throne in 578, and having suppressed the con- spiracy of Sophia, widow of his predecessor, reigned unchallenged till his death in 582. A third of the name reigned emperor of the East, 698-705. TIBULLUS, Albius, a Roman patrician and elegiac poet, whose productions are marked by much feeling for the beauties of nature and the pleasures of a country life. They arc generally printed with the compositions of Catullus and Pro- pertius ; flourished in the 1st century. TICKELL, Thomas, a popular writer and poet of the age of Addison, was Dorn at Bridekirk, near Carlisle, 1686. His father was ft clergyman, an I Tickell was educated at Oxford, where he became a fellow of Queen's College. He obtained an ap- pointment as under-secretary of state through the friendship of Addison, and some of his pieces ftp- pored in the ' Spectator ;' died 1740. Hit grand- son, Richard, a political writer, died 1798. TiCnZXI, S., an Ital. 004 l.-siastic, 1762-1836. TIECK, Ludwio, was born at Berlin in 1773, and studied successively at Halle, Gbttinees, MM Erlangen. Poetry was from boyhood his favourite. study ; but, while he was always a ready and pleasing fortifier, his poet Seal endowDieOta, really in good part a blunt remonstrance, and to prefer very line, worked most strongly when he wrote ia 777 TIE pr.vw. flis Hter.irv career exhibits three epochs. — In the fiat Of these, beginning about 1796, and was one of the most efficient ,ud, like Novalis, made the system attractive by displaying, in inventive com- . an originality of fancy and depth of JttiiBg not possessed by the Schlegels, the critical f i he school. 1 he works he produced dur- ing this period were both numerous and diversi- fied. Some of them were Dramatic and Poetical Parodies, whimsically uniting jest and earnest ; the principal of these being ' Bluebeard ' and ' Puss in Boots. Others were Tales, or compositions like bkh, following in the wake of 'Wilhelm are referred by the Germans to the class of -.Art-Novels:' such are the 'Effusions of the ; an Art-loving Cloister-Brother,' and Starnheld'l Wanderings.' Other pieces, noveva' and 'The Emperor Octavianus,' are saintly or historical Legends, dramatically treated, with a close and studied imitation of the rude drama of the middle ages. Others again, and these the most poetical of all Tieck's works, are Popular Legends (Volksmahrchen), related in a prose narrative form, with great fulness of playful fancy, very much beauty of description, and a sim- plicity or naivete of manner which, sometimes fairly childish, is yet wonderfully pleasing. The first attack of a painful disease of the joints, which made Tieck very long an invalid, came on in 1806, and forced him to cease from literary labour for several years. — He resumed work in 1814, and for five years was chiefly busied on the Old English Drama, which he knew better than any other i ever knew it ; while he translated it with ait, and criticised it, not indeed without great caprice and rashness of judgment, but with much delicacy of poetical feeling. He began with bis ' Old English Theatre,' containing translations and criticisms of old plays, some of which were on tberoaa afterwards handled by Shakspeare, while others were maintained by Tieck (on grounds abundantly fantastic and slippery) to be really his, in spite of the English critics. Visiting London in 1818, and reading and copying in the Museum, he collected materials for two volumes of transla- tions of plays preceding Shakspeare's ( ' Shak- speare's Vorabule').— In 1819, after a life of many wanderings, he finally took up his residence in . where he enjoyed a pension and honorary coun6ellorship. Besides collections of his earlier poems and other works, the chief business of this, the last period in his history, was the writing of BKMt of which first appeared in An- nuals; and which, critical and dissertative in character, and full of dialogue, have much more of analytic and reflective refinement than of narrative impressiveness, and show surprisingly little of the writer's early vein of poetry. Among the most ing of these are 'Pietro of Abano,' and i the Cevennes.' Others are ' Art- NoveU,' to which class belong the 'Poet-Life' and i lively for their heroes Shakspeare and Camoens. Tieck died at Dresden [W.S.] mm h, a Ger. philosopher '. famous for his researches in I'hy, anthrop< of languages, and bimilar subjects, 1745-1803, TIL TIEDGE, C. A., a German poet, 1752-1841. TIEFFENTHALER, Joseph, a Tyrolese mis- sionary, thirty years resident in India, last cent. TIEPOLO, Giovanni Batista, called Tiepo- letto, a celebrated Venetian painter, 1692-1769. TIEPOLO, J., a Venetian poet, 16th century. TIEPOLO, Jacob, a doge of Venice, distin- guished as a partizan of the Guelphs, 1229-1249. Laukent, his son, doge 1268-1275. Bohe.moxd, of the same family, chief of a conspiracy against the doge, Gradinijo, which led to the establish- ment of the Council of Ten, 1810. TIEPOLO, N., a Venetian poet, 16th century. TIERNEY, George, a famous parliamentary debater and political writer, secretary for Ireland, and president of the board of control during the administration of Fox and Grenville ; b. in London, where his father was a merchant, 1756, died 1830. TIGLATH PILESER, or THEGLAT-PHA- LASSAR, son and successor of Sardanapalus as king of Assyria, supposed date 747-728 B.C. TIGNY, Marin Grostete De, a French na- turalist, who, aided by his wife, produced a work in ten volumes on the natural history of insects, valuable as a compendium, 1736-1799. TIGRANES, several princes of Armenia: — Tigranes I., a friend and ally of Cyrus, b.c. 565- 520. Tigranes II., the first king of Armenia of the Arsacides' dynasty, was placed on the throne by his brother, Mithridates II., king of the Par- tisans ; he laboured many years in developing the commercial and industrial resources of the state, b.c.128-95. Tigranes III., called the Great, son of the preceding, succeeded him in b.c. 95 He married Cleopatra, daughter of Mithridates the Great, and was his faithful ally in the gigantic war with Rome; date of his death unknown. The next Tigranes was a captive at Rome, but be- came king by the authorization of Augustus, and allied himself with the Parthians against their masters ; died 6 B.C. His son, Tigranes IV., occupied the throne a short time, and died B.C. 2. Tigranes V., was a grandson of Herod, king of Judaea, and governed Armenia by sufferance of the Romans ; he was put to death by order of Tiberius, a.d. 34. Tigranes VI., another dependent of Rome, figured in history about 61. Tigranes VII., reigned 142-178. Tigranes VIIL, succeeded, with his brother, Arsaces, about 408. In the troubles which ensued, they were both reduced to the ne- cessity of surrendering their rights, the one to Theodosius, emperor of Constantinople, the other to the Parthians. TIL, S. Van, a Dutch theologian, 1644-1731. TILENUS, Daniel, a protestant theologian of the French church, born in Silesia, 1563-1 Goo. TILING, J., a German phvsician, 1688-1715. TILING, M., a German na'turalist, died 1685. TILLADET, J. R. De La Marque De, a French writer, theologian, and philos., 1650-1715. TILLEMANS, Peter, a Flemish painter of landscapes and imaginary views, 1684-1734. TILLEMONT, Sebastian Le Nain De, a fa- mous critic and historian of the Port Royal, author of a ' History of the Emperors and other Princes during the First Six Ages of the Church,' '■Mate- rials towards the Ecclesiastical History of the First Six Ages,' and of much other historical matter, highly valued for extreme accuracy, 1637-1698. TIL TILLET, M., a French agriculturist, 1720-1791. TILLI, M. A., an Italian botanist, 1656-1740. TILLIOT, J. B. Lucotte, Seigneur Du, a French philologist and antiquary, 1668-1750. TILLOCH, Alexander, an ingenious Scotch printer, who became distinguished as a miscellaneous writer and journalist, was born at Glasgow, where his father was a tobacconist, in 1759. In the course of his business as a printer he discovered the art of stereotyping, but, finally abandoning that business, he removed to London, and in 1789 became joint-proprietor and editor of an evening paper, called 4 The Star.' In 1797 he commenced 'The Philosophical Magazine,' and having, from time to time, published a series of papers on theo- logical subjects, he added to these, in 1823, his ' Dissertations on the Apocalypse.' In July, 1824, he commenced ' The Mechanics' Oracle,' a weekly periodical devoted to the instruction of the work- ing classes : he also officiated as preacher to a con- gregation of dissenters in Goswell-Street Road. Some years before his death, which took place in January, 1825, Tilloch was honoured with the degree of LL.D. by the university of Glasgow. TILLOTSON, John, D.D., a distinguished pre- late of the English Church, was a native of Sowerby, Yorkshire. His father was a clothier in that county town, and with respect to religious prin- ciples, was a nonconformist. His father having de- termined to give his son a liberal education, young John was sent in due time to Clare Hall College, Cambridge, where the influence of the society in which he mingled gradually dispelled his dissent- ing prejudices, and having resolved to adhere to the establishment, he began in earnest to prepare for the ministry in connection with the English Church. He soon rose to distinction as a preacher, and preferments flowed upon him in rapid succes- sion — for he was first appointed to a curacy at Cheshunt, then he became rector of Reddington, preacher in Lincoln's Inn, and lecturer at St. Lau- rence, Jersey. Tillotson was sincerely attached to the protestant religion, and an occasion occurred for drawing out strongly his protestant spirit, when Charles II. in 1672 issued a proclamation for liberty of conscience, under the covert design of favouring the Roman Catholics. Tillotson gave a decided op- position to the measure both from the pulpit and the press. Notwithstanding this opposition to their favourite policy, the government deemed it expe- dient to bestow on the popular preacher the highest favours of the crown patronage by appointing him prebendary in St. Paul's, and dean ot Canterbury. Tillotson evinced his protestantism on another occasion in a still more decided manner, by the advocacy of the Exclusion Bill against the duke of York. One gross inconsistency, however, sullies the otherwise honourable character and reputation of Tillotson, viz., that in attending Lord William Russell on the scaffold, he used every effort to per- suade that patriotic nobleman to save himself by adopting the principles of passive obedience, and yet he became himself not long after, one of the most active enemies of the Stuart dynasty by pro- moting the revolution. The important services he rendered to the cause of the prince of Orange, were rewarded on William III. being established on the British throne, by promotion lirst to the dflttMTJ of St. Paul's, and not long alter by his elevation TIL in 1691 to the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury. He had enjoyed that high dignity only three years, when his useful career was brought to a premature end by death. Tillotson was the popular preacher of his day, and in so great estimation were his dis- courses held, that even in that age, the copyright, though it was a posthumous publication, was sold for 2,500 guineas. Tillotson adopted a moderate Arminianism, and his discourses are accordingly devoted to the inculcation chiefly of the practical precepts of the gospel. In private life the arch- bishop was plain and unostentatious, kind to his relatives and charitable to the poor, liberal in his sentiments towards dissenters, and exercised the very extensive influence which his character as well as his office procured him in doing good to all without regard to rank or sectarian distinc- tions; 1630-1694. [R.J.] TILLY. John Tsercles, count of Tilly, was born at the castle of Tilly, in South Brabant, in 1559. He joined the order of Jesuits in youth ; but soon left the ecclesiastical for the military pro- fession. He first entered the Spanish army, and served for several years under Alva, and the other Spanish commanders in the Netherlands. About 1599 he entered the service of the Austrian em- peror, Rudolf, and distinguished himself greatly m several campaigns against the Turks and the Hungarians. He then re-organized and commanded the army of the duke of Bavaria, and was also ap- pointed generalissimo of the forces of the Roman Catholic league in Germany. In the beginning of the Thirty years' war, Tilly subjugated Bohemia by the single great battle of the White Hill (1620). lie then conquered the Palatinate of the Rhine, defeating decisively the protestant troops in the three days' battle of Stadt Loo, 1623. He next commanded against Christian, king of Denmark, who sought to aid the German protestants. Tilly out-manoeuvred and defeated him. When Gus- tavus Adolphus interfered in the war, Tilly was chosen to oppose the Swedish hero. He was now field-marshal, and commander-in-chief of the imperial forces. The first event of this part of the thirty years' war was the siege and capture of the city of Magdeburg by Tilly, 1631. The cruelty of the imperialist army on this occasion excited the deepest horror even in an age and country accustomed to military atrocities. Tilly him- self wrote to the emperor that no such spectacle as that of the ruin of Magdeburg had been wit- nessed on earth, since the captures of Troy and Jerusalem. In the autumn of the same year Tilly met Gustavns Adolphus at Leipzig, and was atteriy defeated, though he effected a soldierly retreat with part of his army. He was again beaten by the Swedish king at the passage of the river Lech, in 1632. Tilly was wounded in this battle, and died on the following day. He is said to have 1 aen personally of austere and pure character, despising all sensual enjoyments, and indifferent to wealth and honours. But the cruelties which he permitted his troops to exercise upon the unoffending inhabi- tants of the countries which were the scenes of liis campaigns, show the frightful effect* of military fanaticism combined wi&teligfou WgOtTf, even in a commander, who hiiiix-lf t.ikcs no pari in the license aud the violence which be sanc- tion*. [E.S.O.] 779 TIL TIT.T.Y. PSTSS Ali x andf.r, Count Do, a fficer of the period of the French revolu- tion, author of some political works relative to the : thai time, 1764-1815. Another Count In i.y. ii"t of the same family as the preceding, took up arms for the republic, and afterwards \ ipoleon, died 1822. 1 1M.KI S. a Pythagorean philosopher, called ri.m.' from his birth-place ; known as the instructor of Plato, and highly eulogized by him. I historian, of the same name, lived about 350 e.c. A third TlKJKUB was a sophist of the third century of our era, and author of a Dic- tionary of Platonic phrases. : \N ! HES, a Greek painter, 400 B.C. TIMOCREON, a comic poet, 476 B.C. TIMOLEON, one of the greatest of Greek gen- erals and patriots, if not the ideal of the Grecian hero, was born in Corinth about 410 B.C. His first exploit was the deliverance of Corinth from the armed dictatorship of his elder brother, Timo- t hough it was necessary to put him to ;id bear the curses of his mother, who had made the tyrant her especial favourite. Timoleon, whose motives were not understood, was execrated for his share in this tragedy, and his existence became so burdensome that he meditated self- tion, and retired altogether from public life : the affecting narrative may be read in Plutarch. I lapse of twenty years, 343 B.C., he was recalled by the Corinthians, and sent to the aid of the Syracusans, then suffering from the despotism vi the younger Dionysius. In this expedition, success attended upon success until all Sicily was redeemed from the cruel slavery to which it had been brought, and Syracuse became the seat of a republican freedom which linked in one brother- hood all the cities that had suffered from the petty tyrants who oppressed them: the Carthaginians were also ex^ led by Hamilcar mere handful of patriots under Timoleon. It is the conduct of the deliverer after these victories that must decide his character, and to him belongs virtue of abdicating a power which he still virtually exercised as a private citizen. Forty thousand Greeks flying before the sword of Philip, the father of Alexander, were glad to accept the new home offered to them in the devastated cities ■ ; and Timoleon, having organized the states, retired to private life, hut always attended the deliberations of the people. In his latter years • to their assemblies in a chariot, from which he also addressed them on account of his blindness: it was his highest joy that he had se- cured to the Syracusans perfect freedom of opinion, and the impartial operation of the laws. He was so highly honoured, that his birth-day was kept as a public festival ; and when he died, B.C. 337, he was buried with ^reat magnificence at the pub- lic cost. The value of his life was soon after proved by the ann< liy which began to spread, and ily spirits which obtained the supremacy [ E K 1 TIMOW r, abt. 300 b.c. Hid disciple in philo- i . i • . 270. •nrope,' the ori- ginal of that character in Shakspeare, u.< . cpelled, and their army of 70,000 men, nilcar and Hasdrubal, defeated by a TIN TIMON, E., a Greek physician, last century. TIM ON, S., a famous Hungarian Jesuit, histo- rian, and antiquary, 1675-1736. TIMOPHANES, a tyrant of Corinth, who was assassinated B.C. 365. See Timoleon. TIMOTHEUS, a Greek poet and musician, un- rivalled in his age. 6th century b.c. He excelled in lyrical composition, and was a skilful performer on the cithara, or harp, which he improved by the addition of two chords. TIMOTHEUS, called « of Thebes,' a celebrated musician, time of Alexander the Great. TIMOTHEUS, an Athenian general, who took a distinguished part in the social wars, and was condemned for avoiding a naval conflict, B.C. 358. TIMUR. See Tamerlane. TINDAL, Matthew, one of the successors of Toland and Shaftesbury in the School of English Deists or Freethinkers, was born at Beer Ferrers in Devonshire about 1657, and was admitted doc- tor of laws at Oxford in 1685. He retained his fellowship during the reign of James II. by pro- fessing the Roman Catholic faith ; he afterwards recanted, however, and adopting revolutionary principles, went to the other extreme, and wrote against the Nonjurors. He now became an advo- cate, and sat as judge in the court of delegates, with a pension from the crown of £200 per annum. Some time afterwards, considerable attention was drawn to him, by his work, entitled ' The Rights of the Christian Church ' and the ensuing contro- versy ; but the production which has rendered his name a memorable one was his ' Christianity as Old as the Creation, which appeared in 1730, "and provoked replies from Dr. Warburton, Leland, Foster, and Conybeare. Dr. Middleton endeavoured to take a middle course in this controversy, as may be seen in that article, but the most effective answer, though its very existence seems to have been forgotten, was that embodied in the ' Appeal ' of William Law, published 1740. Tindal's line of argument was mainly coincident with Shaftesbury's, that the immutable principles of faith and duty must be found within the breast, and that no ex- ternal revelation can have any authority equal to the internal ; this he supported by much learning and show of argument, which Warburton thought he had replied to by the mass of learned evidence contained in his l Legation.' William Law, mak- ing no account of literary evidence, replied by his masterly development of the philosophy of the fall and final recovery of mankind ; a book remarkable for close argument and for its many fine illus- trations, but now obsolete in certain fundamental principles. Tindal died in 1733, and was interred m Clerkenwell church, near the remains of Bishop Burnet. [E.R.] TINDAL, Nicholas, nephew of the preceding, chiefly known by his translation and continuation of Rapin's History of England, 1687-1774. TINDAL Sir Nicholas Conynham, a dis- tinguished lawyer and member of parliament, who rose to the dignity of lord chief justice of the Common Pleas, 1777-1846. TINDAL, William. See Tyndale. TINELLI, T., a Venetian painter, 1586-1638. TINGRI, P. P., a French chemist, 1743-1821. TINTORETTO, Jacopo Rouusti, called Tin- toretto from the circumstance of his father being 780 TIP a dyer, was horn at Venice in 1512. He studied only a few days in the studio of Titian, and was then dismissed by that great painter, for what cause is not known. This circumstance had an admirable effect upon him, it made him have more decided recourse to his own resources, and his spirit is well indicated in the words he wrote up on the wall of his room : — ' The drawing of Michelangelo and the colouring of Titian.' He did eventually become the acknowledged rival of Titian in Venice itself; his Miracle of St. Mark, the Miracolo dello Schiavo, his masterpiece, is now in the academy of Venice, and is generally admitted to be one of the finest pictures in Italy ; there is a good print of it by J. Matham. He died at Venice in 1594, aged eighty-two. Tintoretto is sometimes called il Furioso, from the extraordinary vigour and rapidity with which he painted ; he was bold and grand., but often careless; he is said to have had three pencils, one of gold, one of silver, and a third of iron. — (Ridolfi, Le Maraviylie delV arte, &c.) [R-N.W.] TIPHAIGNE DE LA ROCHE, C. F., a French physician and man of letters, 1729-1774. TIPPOO SAIB, the last sultan of Mysore, was born in 1749, and made his first appearance in the field of Indian warfare at the head of 5,000 horse in 1767. His father was the sultan, Hyder Aii, a soldier of fortune, who constructed his empire out of the dominions of the great Mogul, then falling to ruins. In 1780 the progress of Hyder was arrested by Sir Eyre Coote, under the government of Hastings, and the French having joined their forces to those of the sultan, the young Tippoo became acquainted with Lally Tol- lendal. In December, 1782, the death of his father placed him on the throne of Mysore, and at the head of an army, then in the field, of 88,000 men, supported by a sum of three millions ster- ling in his treasury, besides costly jewels : he continued the war with a zeal far surpassing his father's for Islamism, and in a short time not less than 100,000 persons were forcibly circumcised. In 1784 he concluded an advantageous peace with General Matthews, who surrendered to him the Nugger fort ; but in 1786 he took the field again, provoked by a confederacy formed against him in Southern India, of which the Mahrattas were chief: the war on this occasion lasted till 1792, when his late defeats at Travancore and elsewhere compelled him to conclude a peace with the Mar- quis Cornwallis. The war upon which he had entered, however, was a religious one, and Tippoo was too sincere and courageous to surrender India without a last struggle to the Christians. It is certain that he entered into an extensive corres- pondence, which reached as far as Arabia, his purpose being to organize a general confederacy against the English ; but it is doubtful whether he made any overtures to the French : the advantage he derived from his former acquaintance with them was realized in the superior discipline of his troops. His purpose was anticipated by the government of India, then under the marquis of Wellesley, who sent an invading army, numbering nearly 40,000 men, into his territories at the beginning of 1799. On reaching Seringapatam, his capital, General Harris demanded the cession of half his dominions, a large payment in money, and four of his sons, be- TIT sides four of his principal subjects, as hostages — terms which the sultan rejected, in alternate rage and despair, at being thus bearded in his last stronghold. A breach having been made in the walls, the storming party, of 4,000 men, was led by Sir David Baird on the 4th of May, and Tippoo Saib, resolving not to survive the loss of his king- dom, met the fate of a hero in the thickest of tho conflict ; his body was found amid heaps of slain, and interred with royal honours in his father's sepulchre, after which the empire of Mysore was dismembered. The reader desirous of further particulars may considt, Murray's History of Brit- ish India in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library, 1832, 2d edition, 1850; or Thornton's History of the British Empire in India, 1842. For the due ap- preciation of Tippoo's character, and the correction of some facts, compare the ' History of Tippoo Sultan, translated from the Persian of Myr Hous- sein by Colonel Miles,' 1845. [E.R.] TIPTOFT, John, earl of Worcester, a states- man and patron of letters, executed on a charge of treason, arising out of circumstances connected with his Irish administration, 1470. TIRABOSCHI, Girolamo, a famous historian of Italian and Roman literature, 1731-1794. TIRIN, J., a Flemish Jesuit, 1580-1636. T1SCHBEIN. J. A., a German painter and writer, 1720-1784. His brother, John Henry, founder of a new school similar in character to the Venetian, 1722-1789. J. H. Conrad, their ne- phew, a painter and engraver, 1742-1808. J. IT. William, brother of the latter, known from 1751 to 1803. J. F. Augustus, a third brother, a painter of portraits, 1750-1812. TISSARD, F., a French savant, died 1508. TISSARD, P., a French poet, 1666-1740. TISSOT, A. P., a French jurist, 1782-1823. TISSOT, C. J., a French phvsician, 1750-182G. TISSOT, J. M., a mathematician, died 1650. TISSOT, S. A., a French physician, and author of numerous professional works, 1728-1797. TITI, R., an Italian poet, 1551-1609. TITI, or TITO, Santi Di, a distinguished Ita- lian painter and architect, 1538-1603. TITIAN, or Tiziano Vecellio, one of the greatest of Italian painters, and the prince of colourists and portrait painters, was born in the territory of Venice at Capo del Cadore in 1477. He studied in the school of the Bellini, first with Gentile and afterwards with Giovanni, with whom he was fellow-pupil with Giorgione, his own future rival. Titian first appeared as a great painter at the court of Alfonso I., duke of Ferrara, in 1514, when he painted the ' Bacchus and Ariadne,' in the National Gallery. Two years later he had attained to the full vigour of his extraordinary powers ; in that year he executed his celebrated Assumption of the Virgin,' now in the academy of Venice, and hanging opposite to the Miracolo dello Schiavo by Tintoretto ; the merits of both masters are well illustrated by the contrast. In 1528 Titian painted his 'St. Peter Martyr,' in which he has shown himself one of the "first of landscape painters, especially of landscape as an accessory to figures. In 1545 he visited Rome, where he saw Michelan- gelo; he returned to Venice in the following ve.ir. lie is supposed also to have visited Spain, but this is doubtful; Spain is, however, extremely rich in 781 TIT the WMlMjjlllll of Titi:.n : after Venice, the gal- lery <>t the Pnulo at Madrid gives the greatest dis- play of his powers. It has heen assumed that riatad Spain partly from the ftvet of the f| nohilitv, granted'by Charles V., creating ■t Palatine of the empire, and knight of :- of St. Iago, being dated at Barcelona. :t painter died at Venice of the plague, in 1576, having lived to the extraordinary age of iae years. To describe fully his master- ;<>ne,' would occupy a volume , of his scholars, Paris Bordone, Bonifazio Veneziano, Girolamo di Tiziano, and his own son Orazio Veccllio, were able painters. — (Vasari; Ridolfi ; Zanetti, Delia t'Htura Y T eneziana,&c; Cadorin, Delta amove ai Venezianai di Tiziano Vecellio; Xorthcote, Life of Titian, 1830.) [R.X.W.] TITIUS, G. G., a German jurist, 1661-1714. TITON DU T1LLKT, Evkrard, a master of polite literature and patron of letters, projector of a French Parnassus in honour of Louis XIV., a description of winch he published, 1677-1762. 1 1 rSINGH, J., a Dutch traveller, 1740-1812. T1TTEL, G. A., a Ger. philosopher, died 1816. TITTMAXX, John Augustus Henry, a Ger- man professor of theology, au of ' Encyclopadie der Theologischen Wissenschaften,' 1773-1831. TITUS, a disciple of Paul, and preacher of the Gospel in Dalmatia, 1st centurv. TITUS LIVIUS. See Livy. TITUS, Flavius Vespasianus, emperor of Rome, was the eldest son of the emperor Ves- pa-ian; he was born in the year 40, and educated with Britannicus at the court of Nero . like the latter, he gave way to vices which afforded little promise of a happy reign. From 67 to 70 he was carrving on the war in Judaea, the whole conduct of which devolved upon him on his father's elec- tion as emperor, the capture of Jerusalem, on September 2, of the year last mentioned, brought this struggle to a close, after which Vespasian and Titus were both honoured with a triumph. It is almost unnecessary to mention that the fullest details of this war, the unparalleled cruelties and sufferings with which it was attended, may be read hus ; the episode of the passion of Titus for Berenice will be found in Suetonius. On the death of Vespasian in 79, Titus succeeded as em- peror, commencing, by repeated proofs of his refor- one of the most princely and beneficent reigns in the annals of Home : for this the wisdom Ether was partly to be thanked, he having associated Titus with him in the empire, and de- veloped the nobler traits of his character by the generous trust reposed in him. In the year of his succession the great eruption of Vesuvius took place, which buried Herculaneum, Stabiae, Pom- peii, and other towns beneath its ashes; in the following year a fatal epidemic and a fearful con- n occurred in Rome, and in the next again, • r 13, 81, Titus expired, perhaps of poison, and was succeeded by his brother, Domitian : the had excited were so great that, his death was mourned as a public calamity, a rare honour '■'"me. fE.R 1 LI. See Titian. ' J ll dian astrologer, 1719-1798. TOBIN, A. M. Db., ■ Sp. painter, 1C78-1758. sin, a solicitor, bom at Salisbury, raa TOL author of ' The Honey Moon," 1 ' All's Fair for Love/ and several other plays, 1770-1804. James, his brother, a poet, died 1815. TOD, James, an officer of the East India Com- pany, author of ' Travels,' and Surveys, died 1835. TODD, Hugh, vicar of Stanwix, in Cumber- land, au. of a ' Description of Sweden,' 1658-1728. TODE, H. J., a German naturalist, 1738-1797. TODE, J. C, a Ger. medical writer, 1736-1805. TOFINO DE SAX MIGUEL, Don Vicenso, a Spanish mathemat. and astronomer, 1740-1806. TOINARD, N., a Fr. antiquarian, 1629-1706. TOLAND, John, one of those learned free- thinkers who rendered themselves conspicuous after the publication of Locke's philosophy, was born in Ireland, of Roman Catholic parents, in 1669. As early as his sixteenth year, he shook off the superstitions in which he had been educated, and in consequence of this change, completed his education at Glasgow and Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.A. in the latter university in 1690. At Leyden, where he next passed two years, he made the acquaintance of Leclerc and Leibnitz, and returning to England again, published, in 1695, his 'Christianity not Mysterious.' This work was launched forth in the midst of a contro- versy concerning Socinian principles — that in which South, Sherlock, Wallis, Howes, Cudworth, and others, took part, — and was designed to show 'that there is nothing in the Gospel contrary to reason, or above it, and that no Christian doctrine can be properly called a mystery.' Attacks were made upon the author from all sides, the grand jury of Middlesex answered his work in a ' Pre- sentment,' and the Irish Parliament ordered it to be burnt by the hangman. Toland had gone to Dublin to escape the storm raised against him, chiefly by the Dissenters, in London, and he was now compelled to return to avoid a prosecution by the attorney-general of Ireland : thus alienated from all parties he declared himself a ' Latitudina- rian,' though he always professed himself a Chris- tian. His subsequent works were, a ' Life of Milton,' which accompanied an edition of that author's prose works, ' Amyntor,' ' Origines Juda- ica?,' ' The Philosophy of the Ancients,' ' Hypatia,' ' Xazarenus,' ' History of the Soul's Immortality among the Heathens,' ' The Origin and Force of Prejudices,' and numerous political pamphlets. His principal object, so far as these bore on reli- gion, was to sustain his original controversy, and destroy the authority of the Books of Scripture, deemed canonical: but he was a vain man, proud of distinction, however obtained, and was probably more concerned about the great names he could associate with his own, than the principles he pro- fessed. He died at Putney in the fifty-third year of his age, 1722. In this neighbourhood resided the Gibbons, Bolingbrokes, and Mallets. [E.R.] TOLEDO, Fernando Alvarez De, duke of Alba, or Alva. See Alva. TOLEDO, F. De, Spanish viceroy of Peru-, died in prison after his return home, 1581. TOLEDO, J. De, a Spanish painter, died 1645. TOLEDO, Don P. De, Spanish viceroy of Naples under Charles V, 1484-1553. Peter, of the same family, ambassador in 1608. TOLER, John, Lord Norbury, chief justice of the Common Pleas in L-eland, rose to distinction TOL at the period of tlie rebellion, distinguished as a wit. 1745-1831. TOLET, F., a Spanish cardinal, 1532-1596. TOLET, F., a French physician, died 1724. TOLET, J., an English cardinal, died 1274. TOLLET, Elizabeth, an accomplished Eng- lish lady, author of Poems, 1694-1754. Her ne- phew, George Tollet, author of valuable Notes on Shakspeare, died 1779. TOLLIUS, Cornelius, a Dutch philologist, born about 1620, died 1662. His brother, Alex- ander, also a philologist, died 1675. James, a third brother, a learned physician and professor, 1630-1696. Another Dutch philologist, named Hermann Tollius, was professor at Harden- wyck and Leyden, 1742-1822. "TOLOMEI, J. B., an Italian Jesuit, cardinal, ?.nd statesman, 1655-1726. Nicholas, of the same family, a Jesuit and ecclesiastical writer, 1699-1774. TOLOMMEI, Claudio, an Italian master and promoter of polite literature, 1492-1555. TOMASELLI, J., an Ital. naturalist, 1733-1818. TOMASINI, Giacomo Filippo, bishop of Citta Nuova, a biographical writer, 1597-1654. TOMBES, J., a nonconformist div., 1603-1676. TOMLINE, George, successively bishop of Lincoln and Winchester, author of ' Elements of Christian Theology,' ' Memoirs of Mr. Pitt,' whose secretary he had been, and a ' Refutation of the Charge of Calvinism brought against the Church of England,' 1750-1827. The family name of this prelate was Prettyman, but he took that of i'omline on inheriting an estate left to him. TOMLINS, Elizabeth Sophia, a novelist and miscellaneous wr., b. in London 1768, d. 1828. TONDUZZI, J. C, an Ital. historian, 1617-73. TONE, Theobald Wolfe, founder of the association of * United Irishmen,' was born in Dublin 1763, and by profession a barrister. He commenced his political agitation in 1790, and in 1796 prevailed on the French directory to send an expedition in support of the Irish insurrection. This fleet was scattered by storms, and Tone was made prisoner when conducting a petty armament somewhat later. He committed suicide in prison, November 19, 1798. TONSTALL. See Tunstall. TOR TOOKE, Andrew, a learned schoolmaster and mathematician, born in London 1673, died 1731. TOOKE, John Horne, a political character of very considerable consequence in the last century, noted in the literary world as a grammarian and philologist, was born in Newport-Street, West- minster, where his father was a poulterer, in 1736. His education having been completed at Cam- bridge, he entered into orders, and became, in 1760, vicar of Brentford in Middlesex. He was never sincerely attached to the church, however, but bestowed the greater part of his time on law and politics, for which the factious nature of the times, and the supposed designs of George III. and Lord Bute afforded abundant scope. From 1765 to 1767 he published his philippics against the court and the chief justice, Lord Mansfield, in favour of Wilkes the popular idol, and soon after made the acquaintance of that gentleman, as well as of Vol- taire and Sheridan, on the continent. In 1770 and 1771, a period of great political excitement in Lon- don, he founded the Society for Supporting the Bill of Rights ; this produced a rupture between him and Wilkes, in consequence of the selfish advantages sought by the latter ; about the same time he promoted the publication of the Debates in Parliament, in defiance of the House of Commons. From 1773 to 1782 he was of course the avowed enemy of the administration of Lord North, and the friend of the American patriots ; in this inter- val he underwent a year's imprisonment and a fino of £200. The most important event of his life- was his trial for high treason, in conjunction with Hardy -, this took place at the Old Bailey in 1794, and was remarkable for the ability and self-pos- session with which Mr. Tooke defended himself; it ended in an acquittal, and he afterwards num- bered among his friends Sir Francis Burdett and Major Cartwright. In 1801 he became member of parliament for a nomination borough, having failed in two previous attempts as a candidate for the popular suffrages. Nothing particular marked his subsequent career, and he died at Wimbledon, hav- ing first destroyed all his MSS., in 1812 His greatest literary work is his ' Diversions of Purley,' first published in 1786 ; attempts have been made to prove that he was the real 'Junius.' [E.R.] TOOKE, William, originally a printer, after- wards a foreign chaplain of the Church of Eng- land, author of ' Varieties in Literature,' • Life of Catherine II.,' ' A View of the Russian Empire,' • A General History of Russia,' and Translations of Lucian and of Zollikofer's Sermons; born at Islington 1744, died 1820. TOPFER, H. A., a Ger. philosopher, 1758-1833. TOPHAM, E., an English writer, died 1820. TOPINO-LEBRUN, F. J. B., a French histo- rical painter, perished on the scaffold, 1769-1801. TOPLADY, Augustus Montague, a cele- brated Calvinistic divine and controversial writer, was born at Farnham in Surrey, 1740, and became vicar of Broad Hembury in Devonshire, where he composed most of his writings, in 1762. In 1775 he removed to London, and from that period officiated at the chapel of the French Reformed, near Leicester Fields. Died August 11, 1778. TOPPI, N., an Italian historian, 1603-1681. TORDENSKIOLD, the name conferred on Peter Wessel, a famous Danish admiral, when ennobled by Frederic IV. for his victory over the fleet of Charles XII., king of Sweden, 1691-1720. TORELLI, Joseph, an Italian scholar and ma- thematician, editor of Archimedes, and translator of uEsop's Fables and of the jEneid, 1721-1781. TORELLI, L., an Ital. biographer, 1609-1683. TORELLI, L., an Italian jurist. 1489-1576. TORELLI, P., an Italian poet, 1536-IOwk. TOREN, Olaus, a Swedish naturalist and tra- veller in the East Indies, died 1753. TORFjEUS, TiiOBMonu», in Icelandic Titob- MODUR TORFASON, Or TllORMOD ToltVESEN, a learned historian of Norway, 1648-1719. TORNIEL, or TORNIELLI, Augustus, gen- eral of the Barnabites, and wr. of annals, 15 I TORNIELLL, J. F., an Italian poet, 1693-1752. TOBQUEMADA, John Die, in Latin Turrc- cremata, a Spanish cardinal, confessor to Isabella of Castile, 1388-1468. A Franciscan friar, of the same names, published l ' History of tin- WCMftnd Discoveries in the West Indies,' 1615. A Thomas 783 TOR \i».\ was fiat inquisitor-general of id acted with stub retention vigour that, -, lie had committed 8,8()U victims and 90,000 to various measures of imprisonment; he also banished 100,000 Jews country in that period, 1420-1498. TORRE, Bernardo Della, an ecclesiastical . chaplain to Marat, 1736-1820. RE, FlUPPO DSL, an Italian antiquary and master of polite literature, 1657-1717. TORRE, Giovanni Maria Della, an Italian nntiquarv and natural philosopher, a great im- r of the microscope, 1713-1782. TORRENS, Sir Henry, an Irish officer of the British army, who acted as secretary to Sir Arthur Wellesley in the peninsula, and since then became the promoter of many improvements in military regulations ; bom in Londonderry 1779, died 1828. TORRE N'l IN rs.Ih.KMANN Van Beck, called, a Dutch savant, author of the earliest attempt at U historical dictionary, 1450-1520. TORRENTIUS-LjEVINUS, otherwise Lievin VXMDKM Beken. a Belgian prelate, philologist, and Latin poet, 1525-1595. 1 1 »!;KI(.ELLI,Evangelista, a famous Italian mathematician and natural philosopher, professor at Florence, time of Galileo, 1608-1647. TORRIGIANI, Pietro, a Florentine sculptor, who met with a tragical death in Spain, 1522. TORKIGIANO, T., a physician, 1270-1350. TORRIJOS, Don Jose Maria, a Spanish gen- eral, born at Madrid 1791, distinguished himself in the revolution of 1820, executed 1823. TORRINGTON, George Byng, Viscount, a naval officer who served in the late war, 1768-1831. TORRUBIA, Jose, a Spanish Franciscan, his- torian, and naturalist, died 1768. TORSINELLO, H., an Ital. historic, 1545-99. TORSTENSON, Leonard, Count, a Swedish general, time of Gustavus Adolphus, 1595-1654. TORSTI, F., an Italian physician, 1658-1741. TOSCAN, G., a Fr. horticulturist, 1756-1826. TOSCANELLA, Paolo Del Pozzo, an astro- nomer of Florence, time of Columbus, 1397-1482. !-LI, F.,#n Ital. biographer, 1699-1768. TOSHI, D., an Italian theologian, 1535-1620. TOSSANUS. SeeToussAiN* TOT1LA, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, totally vanquished by Belisarius and killed, 541-552. 1 1 > IT, ClAUDB Akeson, a Swedish general, distinguished against the Russians in 1573, d. 1596. I < > J T, Claude, Count, a Swedish senator and ambassador, time of Christina, 1616-1674. TOTT, Francis, Baron De, a French officer and diplomatist, of Hungarian origin, employed at Con- stantinople and the Crimea, author of Memoirs of the Turks and Tartars, 1733-1793. TOTZE, E., a Prussian historian, 1715-1789. KSK£S\ C E - M ' a Fr - J urLst > 1752-1835. 1ULLM1N, Joshua, successively a baptist and unitarian minister ? editor of anew edition of Neale's History of the Puritans and other works, 1740-1815. \ i man, ■ classical scholar and critic! ^tSt. Ives, in Cornwall, 1713, died 1785. : B. I'i La, a French preacher, last cent. Baillw, Count De La, an Austrian ph II., died 1 s De La, a French Jesuit preacher and religious poet, 1712-1777. TOU TOUR, Maurice. See Delatour. TOUR, Theodore. See Latour. TOUR D'AUVERGNE, Theoi-hilus Malo Corret De La, called the first Grenadier of France, and long the terror of the enemy in Spanish warfare, 1743-1800. TOURLET, R., a French Hellenist, 1770-1836. TOURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton De, a cele- brated botanist, was born at Aix in Provence in 1656. He died in 1708. He was destined by his parents for the chm-ch, but at the death of' his father he chose the profession of medicine. Botany- was his favourite study, and to the prosecution of this, he ultimately devoted his life. He travelled in quest of plants over the Alps and Pyrenees, through Spain and Portugal ; and afterwards visited Holland and England. He had for many years the superin- tendence of the Jardin du Roi, and lectured on botany to a numerous throng of students. Tourne- fort was one of a celebrated triumvirate of botanists which the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centimes produced. Ray in England, Rivinus in Germany, and Tournefort in France, were con- temporaries and correspondents, and botany is much indebted to their labours for the progress it has since made. Tournefort's method of classifica- tion of plants is derived almost entirely from the flower, and, considering the time in which it was published, possesses very great merit. In France he is esteemed as much as Ravis in England; and. the two philosophers are justly reckoned each the pride of their country. In 1700 he was selected, under royal patronage, to proceed to the Levant, to investigate the plants mentioned by ancient writers and to discover new ones. His journey occupied more than two years, during which he made a large collection of plants and other objects of natural history; and upon his return he was nominated professor of medicine at the college of France. His chief botanical works are the ' Ele- ments de Botanique,' and the ' Institutiones Rei Herbaria?' which possess great merit. Plumier named a genus of plants after him, Pittonia ; but Linnaeus afterwards changed it to Tournefortia, which it now retains. [W.B/j TOURNELY, H., a Fr. theologian, 1658-1729. TOURNEMINE, R. J. De, a learned Jesuit, author of ' Reflections on Atheism,' 1661-1739. TOURNEUR, P. C, a Fr. translator, 1736-88. TOURNIE, J. J., a Fr. mechanician, 1690-1770. TOURNON, C. T. Maillard De, an Italian cardinal and legate to India and China, 1668-1710. TOURNON, F. De, a French cardinal and diplo- matist, time of our Henry VIIL, 1489-1562. TOURNON, P. C. Casimir Marcellin, Count De, a French statesman, died 1833. TOURON, A., a French biographer, 1688-1775. TOURRETTE, Marc-Antoine Louis Cla- ret De La, a French naturalist, 1729-1793. TOURTELLE, S., a French phvsician, au. of a • Philosophical History of Medicine",' 1756-1801. TOUSSAIN, Daniel, in Latin Tossanus, a learned protestant theologian, 1541-1602. Paul, his son, author of a Life of the elder Toussain, and of various controversial works, died 1629. JAMBS, a learned Hellenist, died 1547. TOUSSAINT, F. V., a Fr. deist, 1715-1772. TOUSSAINT DE SAINT LUC, the father, a Carmelite and ecclesiastical historian, died 1694. r84 TOU TOUSSAINT, L'Ouverture, was a negro, the son of African slave parents, and was himself a slave in St. Domingo during the greater portion of his life. He is said to have heen born in 1743. When the revolt of the blacks broke out in that island in 1791, Toussaint joined his fellow-country- men ; but he did not sully himself by participation in any of the atrocities that marked the furious struggle of blacks, mulattoes, and whites, each against the other two races, by which the unhappy island was devastated. Toussaint, by his courage and generalship in the field, and still more by his eloquence, his knowledge of character, and his po- litical skill and firmness, made himself chief of the negroes, who were the victorious party in the war. He reduced the part of the island, that had be- longed to the Spaniards, into complete submission. He formed and maintained a regular army of black soldiers, and black officers, disciplined after the European model ; and revived some slight degree of the commerce, by which St. Domingo had once been enriched. By introducing a strict system of compulsory labour among the negroes, whom he allowed to receive a fourtn part of the produce of their toil, he secured the blessing of industry for the land and the people, while the blacks still prided themselves on being no longer the slaves of the white men. He maintained rigid military discipline, and administered justice with stern and impartial vigilance. Notwithstanding the severity of his rule, he was idolized by the negroes, who regarded him as a type of the eminence which their race was fitted to attain. Toussaint preserved a nominal allegiance to France, and assiduously courted Buonaparte's favour after the establishment of the consulate. But Napoleon was resolved to reduce St. Domingo into thorough submission as a colony, and after the peace of Amiens, in 1801, an army of 35,000 troops, under General Le Clerc, was sent on board a powerful fleet from the French ports against the island. Toussaint and his fol- lowers resisted for a time with valour and skill ; but several of the negro generals deserted their [Caitleof Juux.J .hief, and at last Toussaint made his submission, and retired to a farm in the interior, taurine the French acknowledged masters of St. Domingo. TOZ For two months Toussaint lived in retirement, but the French were jealous of his possible influence over the negroes, and, on July 5, 1802, Le Clerc caused Toussaint to be arrested, and sent him a prisoner to France. He was confined in the castle of Joux, in the Jura mountains, where he died on the 27th April, 1803. Toussaint L'Ouverture is a bright example of the intellectual energy and greatness of which the maligned negro race is capable ; and his fate is one of the saddest among the many melancholy proofs of the guilt and meanness which have marked Europeans in their dealings with their African brethren. [E.S.C.] TOUSTAIN, C. F., a learned Benedictine, au- thor of a ' Traite* de Diplomatique,' 1700-1754. TOWERS, Joseph, a miscellaneous and politi- cal writer, born in Southwark, where his father was a dealer in second-hand books, 1737, died 1799. Towers began life as a printer, but became a preacher among the dissenters, and his merits were recognized by the degree of LL.D., conferred upon him by the university of Edinburgh. Among his works are 'A Review of the Genuine Doctrines of Christianity,' ' A Vindication of the Political Opinions of Locke,' and some articles in the Bio- graphia Britannica. TOWERSON, G., a theologian, died 1G97. TOWGOOD, Micajah, a dissenting minister, and famous advocate of the principle of separation from the Established Church ; born in Devonshire 1700, died 1792. TOWNLEY, Charles, a gentleman of Lanca- shire, who is numbered in tne ranks of English scholars and connoisseurs, was born at the seat of his ancestors, 1737. He resided many years at Rome, where he collected the valuable marbles now in the British Museum, and known as the Townley Collection ; died 1805. His uncle, John, was an officer in the French army, and translated Hudibras into the language of his adopted coun- try ; died 1782. TOWNLEY, Jamks, rector of St. Bennet's, Graccchurch-Street, and subsequently master of Merchant Tailors' school, known as a dramatic writer, and chiefly by his piece, entitled 'High Life Below Stairs/ 1715-1778. TOWNSEND, John, founder of the Deaf and Dnmb Asylum in St George's Fields, London, was born in the metropolis 1757, and became minister to an independent congregation, first at Kingston in Surrey, and afterwards at Bermondscv. The IJev. H. C. Mason, vicar of the latter parish, was his coadjutor in founding the asylum, for which a patron was found in the person of the late duke of Gloucester. They also worked together on tho ' Family Bible,' known by the name of Mason's. Mr. i 'ownsend died in 1826. TOW NSEKD, JOSEPH, a minister of the Church of England, educated as a physician under Dr. Cullcn at Edinburgh. He was first interested in religion by the movement of the Wesleyans, and for some time acted as chaplain to Lady Hunting- don, and matched in her chapel at Bath; after which he obtained the living of Pewscy. He wrote several works, and died 181(5. TOWN SON, T., a learned divine, 1715 1792. TOWSTON, W., an English traveller, 16th cU TOZBR, H., a puritan divine, 1602-1 ().">(). TOZZETT1, G. T., an Ital. botanic, 1722-1780. 785 3E TOZ TOZZI, Like, an Italian phvsician, 1638-1717. TRACT, Anthony Louis Claude D*8TUTT :ich moralist and politician, 1754-1^'!6. TRACT, r.i;uNAi:i> Destutt De, an ecclesi- astic ami ascetic writer, 1720-1786. TBADKSCANT, John, a Dutch naturalist and traveller, gardener to Charles I., died about 1652. His son, of the same name, author of a description of his father's curiosities, died about 1662. The latter bequeathed his father's mDMOm to Elias Ashmole, who gave it to the university of Oxford. The Tradescants intro- duced many new plants into this country. TBAETTA, T., an Italian composer, 1727-79. TRAHEKON, B., a learned divine, 16th cent. TRAILL, BOBBBT, a presbyterian minister, author of works highly esteemed among the Cal- vinists, born at Ely, in Fifeshire, 1642, died 1716. His son, Robert, was a minister in the countyof JAM i:s, son of the latter, became an epis- copalian, and was appointed, in 1765, bishop of Down and Connor; died 1783. Til Ad AN, one of the most illustrious emperors of Koine, was born near Seville, in Spain, in the year 53, and was adopted by Nerva in 97. The custom of adoption, when the choice was happily made, prevented the dangers incident to an inter- regnum, and, in this instance, only three months intervened between that expedient and the acces- sion of the new Caesar. It is singular that Tra- jan was no connection or friend of Nerva's, but was chosen by him solely for his well-known virtues, his fine military spirit, and his general fitness for com- mand ; and so well had Rome reason to be satisfied with this choice, that the virtues of the new em- peror remained, for ages after his time, proverbial. The great victories of Trajan were obtained over the Dacians, Germans, and Parthians, and it was to commemorate the first of these that his fa- mous column was erected; imitated in our own times by that of Napoleon. By these victories he fixed securely the boundaries of the Roman em re on the banks of the Rhine and the Tigris. His internal administration was equally glorious, his reign being numbered with that of his succes- sor, Hadrian, and with the period of the two An- tonines, for its great clemency, and rigid discipline of justice— these virtues being ever inseparable. Among his benefactions may be mentioned the humane and legal mode of dealing with the Chris- tians which he enjoined in his rescript to Pliny, appointed by him proconsul of Bithyma and Pon- tus. Trajan died at Selinus, a town in Cilicia, in August. 117. [E.R.1 TKALLES, B. L., a Polish physician, 1708-97. TRALLIANUS. See Alexander. TRAPP, John, a minister of the Church of England, author of Commentaries on all the books ptura, 1601-1669. TRAPP, Joseph, commor^v called Dr. Trapp, grandson of the preceding, and rector of Harling- ton, author of several learned works in divinity and polite literature, 1679-1747. See Law. .'ASA, Cajetan M., an Italian theatine, ■ and historian, 1698-177-!. TRAVEBS, N., a French priest, 1686-1750. TRAVIS, G., an English divine, died 1797. , TBEB1 'udgeand lawyer, period of the revolution, 161 1-1702. 78G TEI TREDGOLD, T., a civil engineer, died 18.11. TREIBER, J. P., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1676-1727. TREILHARD, J. B., Count, a French jurist and deputy to the estates-general, 1742-1810. TBELLON, C, a French poet, 16th century. TBEMBECKI, a Polish poet, died 1812. TREMBLE Y, Abraham, an eminent naturalist and religious writer of Geneva, 1700-1784. TREMELL1US, Emmanuel, son of a Jew of Ferrara, professor of Hebrew at Heidelberg, and author of a version of the Bible, 1510-1580. TRENCHARD, Sir John, a member of parlia- ment and statesman, who was implicated in the Rye-house plot and the rebellion of Monmouth, 1650-1695. John, of the same family, a political writer, of the Whig partv, author of ' The Natural History of Superstition/ 1669-1723. TRENCK, Frederick, Baron Von Der, a cele- brated commander in the Austrian war of succes- sion, was born at Reggio, of a noble Polish family, in 1711. His military career commenced from 1738, when he entered the service of Russia. 1 n 1740 he joined the Austrians, and became chief of the Pandours. His cruel and rapacious conduct created him many enemies, and being thrown into prison, he poisoned himself, after four years' con- finement, in 1749. Frederick, his cousin, au- thor of the celebrated Memoirs, was born in 1726, and entered the Prussian service under Frederick II. He was imprisoned in a dark underground cell at Magdeburg for ten years, and at last per- ished by the guillotine in France, 1794. Maur- ice Flavius, of the same family, was a writer on public law, and died 1810. TRENEUIL, J., a French poet, 1763-1818. TRENTA, P., an Italian poet, 1731-1795. TRENTO, J., an Italian Jesuit, 1728-1784. TRESCHOW, Niels, a Norwegian philosopher and theologian, author of ' The Spirit of Christi- anity,' and the ' Philosophical Testament, or God, Nature, and Revelation,' 1751-1833. TRESHAM, H., an Irish poet, died 1814. TRESSAN, Louis Elizabeth De La Ver- gne, Count De, a French officer and member of the Academy, author of a translation of Orlando Furioso, and other works, 1705-1743. His son, the Abbe De Tressan, a writer, 1749-1809. TRESSAN, Peter De La Vergne De, a mis- sionary, born in Languedoc 1618, died 1684. TREUER, G. S., a Germ, publicist, 1683-1743. TREUTLER, J., a German jurist, 1565-1607. TREUVE, S. M., a Fr. theologian, 1651-1730. TREVISANI, Francesco, an Italian painter, taught by Antonio Zanchi, 1656-1746. Angelo, his brother, a portrait painter, dates unknown. TREVISANI, M. A., a Venetian doge, 1553-51. TREW, C. J., a German botanist, 1695-1769. TRIBOLO, N. Di, an Ital. sculptor, 1500-1550. TRIBONIAN, a celebrated Roman jurist, who was employed by Justinian on the famous digest of the laws, died about 546. Tribonian bears a very indifferent character; a brief account of the great I work on which he was engaged may be seen in the article Justinian. TRICALET, P. J., an ascetic writer, 1696-1761. TRICHET-DUFRESNE, Raphael, a French bibliopole and numismatist, 1611-1661. TRIER, J. P., a Germ, theologian, 1687-1768. TRIEST, A., a Flemish prelate, 1576-1657. TRI TRIEWALD, Samuel, a Swedish poet and statesman, 1688-1742. His brother, Martin, a mathematician and engineer, 1691-1747. TRIGLAND, J., a butch divine, 1652-1705. TRILLER, D. W., a Ger. physician, 1695-1782. TRIMMER, Sarah, authoress of numerous Works designed to promote the religious education of the populace, was the daughter of Joshua Kirby, and was born at Ipswich in 1741. The principal of her works was a periodical continued several years under the title of ' The Guardian of Education. Some of her books have been admitted into the list of the Society for Promoting Chris- tian Knowledge. She died in 1810, and was buried in the family vault at Ealing. TEIMNELL, C., a learned prelate, 1663-1723. . TRINCANO, Didier Gregory, a military en- gineer and writer on fortification, born in Franche- Cointe 1719, died about 1792. His son, H. L. Victor, a mathematician, 1754-1785. TRINCAVELLI, Victor, a physician and clas- sical editor of Venice, 1496-1568. TRIONFETTI, Lelio and Giambatista, Ita- lian botanists : the former 1647-1722 ; the latter, who was his brother, 1656-1708. TRIP, Luke, a Dutch poet, died 1783. TRIPPEL, A., a Swiss sculptor, 1747-1793. TRISSIN, or TRISSINO, Giov. Georgio, an Italian poet, the first who wrote blank verse in that language, 1478-1550. TRISTAN, J., a French numismatist, d. 1656. TRISTAN, L., a Spanish painter, 1586-1640. TRISTAN, N., a Portug. navigator in 1440-7. TRISTAN L'ERMITE, Francis, a French Soet and dramatist, 1601-1649. His brother, kan Baptistk, a poet, historian, and genealogist, died about 1670. TRITHEMIUS, John, a famous German theo- logian and learned writer, 1462-1516. TRIVET, Nicholas, an English Dominican, author of ' Annales Regium Angliae,' died 1328. TRIVTSANO, Marco, a Venetian biographer, died about 1674. His nephew, Bernardo, a philosopher and literary suvunt, 1652-1720. TRIULZI, Giam Giacomo, a distinguished general, born in 1447 of a noble Milanese family. Being slighted at the court of Lodovico Sforza, he entered the French service, and finally headed the invading army of Francis I., and won the battle of Marignano, which put the French in possession of Milan. Died at Chartres, 1518. TROGUS POMPEIUS, a Norman historian, author of a Universal History, abridged by Justin, and described by him as a man of antique elo- quence, time of Augustus. TROILLIUS, Samuel, a learned archbishop of Upsala, 1706-1764. His son, Uno, a|so arch- bishop of Upsala, and a man of letters, 1746-1803. TROLLE, Gustavus, archbishop of Upsala, and partizan of the Danish tyranny, killed in a battle in Norway after his expulsion, 1535. TROLLE ; H., a Danish admiral, 1516-1565. TROLLE, G. H., a Swedish admiral, 1680-1765. TROM.MIUS, A., a German divine, 1638-1719. TBOMP, Marten Hari-ertzoan, a famous Dutch commander, was bom in 1597, and received ais first command from Prince Maurice in 1624. From 1637 to 1*09 he was employed against the Spaniards and Portuguese, and was afterwards 787 TSC matched against our own Admiral Blake ; it was Tromp who sailed up the channel with a broom at his masthead, protesting he would sweep the English from the seas. He was killed in an ac- tion off the Dutch coast, 29th July, 1653. His son, Cornelius Van Tromp, born 1629, dis- played extraordinary courage and skill in his con- tests with the English, and died peaceahly at Am- sterdam in 1691. Some particulars will" be found under the name of Ruyter, his fellow-com- mander. TRONCHAY, G. Du, a Fr. writer, 1540-1582. TRONCHET, F. D., a Fr. jurist, 1726-1806. TRONCHIN, Theodore, a protestant theolo- gian of Geneva, 1582-1657. Lewis, his son and successor as professor of divinity, died 1705. N. Dubreuil, of the same family, a journalist, died in Holland, 1640-1721. TRONCHIN, Theodore, an eminent physician of the same family as the preceding, and a relative, by the mother's side, of Lord Bolingbroke, a great f remoter of inoculation in France, 1709-1781. lis relative, John Robert, a jurisconsult, and writer against Rousseau, 1711-1793. TROOST, C, a Dutch painter, 1697-1750. TROWBRIDGE, Sir Edward T., a distin- guished British admiral, died 1852. TROWBRIDGE, Sir Thomas, a naval officer distinguished in the last war, supposed to have perished at sea in the Bfenheim, 1807. TROSK, M., a German Orientalist, 1588-1636. TROTTER, Thomas, a physician in the royal navy, known as a professional and medical writer, born in Roxburghshire, died 1832. TROTTI, J. P. B., an Ital. painter, 1555-1602. TROTZ, C. H., a Ger. jurisconsult, 1701-1773. TROY, Francis De, a Fr. painter, 1645-1730. His son, same name and profession, 1676-1752. TRUBLET, N. C. J., a Fr. writer, 1697-1770. TRUCHET, John, a French monk, famous as an engineer and man of science, 1657-1729. TRUEBA, Don Telesforo De, a Spanish constitutionalist, who took refuge in England and became known as a dramatist, died 1835. TRUMAN. J., a nonconfor. divine, 1631-1671. TRUMBULL, John, an American lawyer and Soet, born in Connecticut, 1750 ; died 1831. onathan, his son, secretary to Washington, and member of Congress, 1740-1809. John, brother of the latter, a painter of history, some of whose productions adorn the capital at Wash- ington, 1756-1843. TRUMBULL, Sir William, a statesman and diplomatist, time of James II. and William III., well known as the friend and literary confidant of Dryden and Pope, 1638-1716. TRUSLER, J., a literary compiler, 1735-1820. TRYPHIODORUS, a Greek poet and gramma- rian, time of Anastasius, 6th century. TBYPHO. a Syrian usurper between Antio- chus VI. and Antiochus VII., B.C. 140-134. TSCHARNER, Bkknard, a Swiss historian, died 1778. His brother, N. Emmanukl, 1723-9 L TSCHERNING, Andrew, a Prussian poet anu philologirt, 1611-1659. TSCHIBNER. Henry Theopiiilus, professor of theology at Wittcmberg, an eloquent preacher, and author of several works, 1778-1828. TSCHIRNHAUSEN, E. W. Von, a learned TSC German, distinguished for Lis discoveries in the art of manufacturing lenses and burning mirrors, and founder of the manufacture of porcelain in . 1651-1708. T8CHOULBOF, M. D., secretary to the Russian 1 10 historical writer, died 1793. TSCHUDI, (in.i.KS, in Latin Au/idius Tscu- dus, a Swiss historian and teacher of Zuinglius, 72. Dominique, his brother, an ecclesi- astic and historian, 1696-1661 J. Henry, also an historian, 1670-1729. TUAIKE. 1'.. a Trench painter, 1794-1823. TUBI. J. B., an Italian sculptor, 1630-1700. TUCKER, Abraham, the son of a London merchant, who was educated for the bar, and be- came known as a metaphysical writer. His prin- cipal work, entitled ' The Light of Nature Pur- sued,' was published under the fictitious name of Edward Search in 1765; flourished 1705-1774. TUCKER, Josiah, a dignitary of the Church of England, author of a ' Treatise on Civil Govern- ment ; and ' Elements of Commerce,' 1712-1799. TUCKER, St. George, called 'the American Blackstone,' a distinguished lawyer and promoter of the independence of the United States, d. 1828. TUCKER W., a learned divine, died 1620. TUCKEY, James Hengston, an African ex- plorer, au. of ' Maritime Geography,' 1776-1816. TUOKNEY, A., a learned puritan, 1599-1670. TUDWAY, T., a musical composer, 17th cent. TUDOR. See Owain. TUET, J. C. F., a Fr. philologist, 1742-1797. TULL, J., an agricultural writer, 1680-1740. TULLIA. See Tarquin. TULLIN, C. B., a Norwegian histor., 1728-65. TULLIUS HOSTILIUS, successor of Numa Pompilins as king of Rome, B.C. 673-641. TULLY, George, rector of Gateside near New- castle, and a famous writer against popery, died 1697. His uncle, Thomas, a learned divine and controversial writer, 1620-1676. TULP, Nicholas, a Dutch physician who be- came burgomaster, and greatly (listing, himself by his patriotic resistance to Louis XIV., 1594-1674. TUNSTALL, or TONSTAL, Cuthbert, a famous English prelate, uncle of Bernard Gilpin, was born near Richmond, in Yorkshire, about 1474. In 1516 he accompanied Sir Thomas More as am- bassador to Charles V., after which he became successively bishop of London and Durham. He was imprisoned in the Tower during the reign of Edward VI., and though he had shown a humane regard for the persons of protestants in the reign . he was deprived of bis liberty again in that of Elizabeth. His keeper, however, was Arch- bishop Parker, who entertained him in a friendly manner at Lambeth, where he died in 1559. TUNSTALL, Jamks, vicar of Rochdale, author of • Discourses upon Natural and Revealed Reli- gion,' and some classical commentaries, 1710-72. TUBA, Co«MO, an Italian painter, 1406-1469. '1 UBBEBVILLE, Geobgk,s poet and trans- lator of Ovid, born at Whitchurch, «» Devonshire, about 1530, died about 1600. His poetical descrip- tion of Russia was founded on the knowledge he I of that country as secretary to the Eng- lish ambassador, Sir Thomas Randolph. TUKCHI, ALmAKDBO, an Italian painter, taught by Brusasorci, about 1580-1650. TUR TURCHT, L., bishop of Parma, 1724-1803. TURENNE. Henri De La Tour DVLu- vergne, Viscount de Turenne, was born at Sedan, of anoble family, 16th September, 1611. At the ago of fifteen he served in Holland, and studied the art of war under his maternal uncles, Prince Maurice of Nassau, and Prince Frederick Henry. In 1634 he received the command of a French regiment, and gained brilliant distinctions in the campaign in Flan- ders. In 1639 he commanded with success in Italy, and in 1643 he conquered Roussillon. In the next year he was made marshal of France, and com- mander of the French armies in Germany. He gained the great battle of Nordlingen in 1645 ; and by his able manoeuvres, and decision and skill in action, he was the chief cause of the advantages gained over the imperialists in the latter part of the thirty years' war. When the civil war of the French broke out in France, Turenne was first en- gaged against the court, but afterwards became the chief commander of the royal armies. In 1654 and 1655 he commanded against the Spaniards and the Low Countries, gained the battle of the Dunes, and conquered the greater part of Flanders. The peace of the Pyrenees in 1660 closed this war : but when hostilities were renewed in 1667, Turenne ran through another rapid career of victories in Flanders, and the Spaniards were obliged to beg again for peace in the next year. In 1672 he was at the head of the French troops in Holland. He took forty towns in twenty-two days, and won five pitched battles against the Dutch and Austrians. He continued to guide the French arms with al- most unvarying skill and success till the 27th July, 1675, when he was killed by a chance cannon shot when reconnoitring the ground for an intended battle against the celebrated imperialist comman- der, Montecuculi. [E.S.C.] TURGOT, an English monk and historian of Durham, who became bishop of St. Andrews and primate of Scotland, died 1115. TURGOT, Anne Robert Jacques, born at Paris, 10th May, 1727 ; died 20th March, 1781 : one of the purest and most virtuous of men ; cer- tainly the wisest statesman who appeared during the latter days of the French monarchy. Could the fury of the terrible whirlwind which so soon numbered that ancient and gorgeous monarchy among things that were, have been averted by human providence, the man who alone could have saved that calamity was Turgot. In early youth, intended for the Church, his studies were varied, and in regions seldom visited by men of Action. Fortunately for France his purposes changed, and he turned his mind towards the functions of the Magistracy. Having obtained some inferior appointments, the repute of his ad- ministration was such, that in 1774, the Count Maurepas, the first Minister, called him to the high and responsible office of Minister of Finance. Here, the consummate ability of Turgot had fullest scope; and for a time, alike Court and Nation; reposed on his unimpeachable probity. The Finances^ of France, as is well known, were then fast verging towards that condition which forced on. the Revolution. Turgot's remedies were di tinct and simple — 'No bankruptcy, no moi Loans, no increase of Taxes; but a rigorous ex animation of expenditure and resolute reduction.' 88 en ed ■ TUB Nor was the panacea a mere proposal. The Minister was equal to the realizing of it. And the reforms effected during his brief" 'tenor of office were so numerous and important, that Public Credit for the time was re-established! Who knows not, however, that every financial re- former creates an army of enemies ? Is a sine- cure destroyed? Not only its holder, but his family : not only these, but all who are thereby put in fear, conspire against the formidable .Min- ister. On a day marked black in the French Fasti— 12th May, 177G, Turgot was dismissed: poor Louis XVI. having first remarked '// riy a que M. Turgot et moi qui aimons le pevple.' It was about the middle period of his ministry that Turgot addressed to Louis that celebrated memoir on the state of the Municipalities, in which he declared that the safety of France depended en the realisation of such a constitution as actually prevailed long afterwards under Louis Philippe. 4 The cause of the evil, Sire, is, that your people have no constitution. The French nation is a society composed of different orders of men im- perfectly united, and of a people among whom there are few social ties. On this account every man is absorbed in concern for his private in- terests ; no one takes trouble about his public duties, or his relations with others.' Woula that France had then obtained what might have con- verted mutual hatreds into a common patriotism, and jarring classes into a Nation ! — After these two years of office, Turgot lived in retirement; but an active and glorious one. He wrate much ; — the spirit of large and wise philanthropy breath- ing through every line. He had an old attach- ment to political economy; and his pen had fought well in the war with Monopolies. He was fond of metaphysics — especially as these bear on the Theory of Language: his essay on Existence in the Evcyclopcedie is well known. But, perhaps, of all he has left, that which has the most endur- ing value are his Letters to an Ecclesiastic on Toleration: his Discourse on the Advantages of the Christian Rel'uplon: a second Discourse on the J'rogress of the Human Mind: and /Sketch of Universal History. Pregnant as these are with Instruction for all time, we express the fervent hone, that some one of our many enterprising publishers, may see reason to present them to the ISritish people. — Turgot's whole works have been collected recently and published in two elegant royal 8vo volumes. [J.P.N.] TUBGOT, Francis, called 'the Chevalier,' br. of the preceding, and a colonial governor, 1721-89. TUBGOT, M. S., a French provost, 1690-1751. TUBLOT, F. C, a French writer, 1745-1824. TURNEBE, Adrian, in Latin Turnebius, a French Hellenist and critic, 1512-1565. TURNER, D. t an English botanist, died 1818. TUBNEB, D., a baptist writer, 1701-1798. TURNER, EDWABD, M.D., born in Jamaica, 1797; died at London, 1837; the author of a valuable manual of chemistry, and of numerous contributions to chemical mineralogy and stochio- metrv. He began his career as a lecturer in Edinburgh. When University College was insti- tuted, the lectureship of chemistry was offered to Dr. Thomas Thomson, and on his declining to leave Glasgow, he was requested to nominate a TUB qualified chemist; he recommended Dr. Turner, who was accordingly appointed. Dr. Turner was a man of the most amiable disposition, and of acute scientific talents. [ B.D.T.] TUBNEB, J. H., an archaeologist, 1814-1851. [Birthplace of Turner] TUBNEB, Joseph Mallbrd William, was born in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, in the spring of 1775. His father carried on a small business as a hair-dresser; and it was over his father's shop in_ Maiden Lane where most of his early efforts, in the art in which he eventually became so famous, were produced. His abilities appear to have been rapidly developed, for though un- aided by instruction from any master, he ob- tained admission as a student into the Boyal Academy in 1789, in only his fifteenth year, and was an exhibitor in the academy the following year, 1790. In his early youth, Girtin, the water- colour painter, appears to have been Turner's chief adviser, who always expressed a high veneration for bia friend's ability. Turner had also the very great advantage of freely copying in the Gallery, or from the collection of drawings of Dr. Munro in the Adelphi ; and his elaborate drawings soon procured a public recognition of his talents : he was elected an associate of the Boyal Academy in 1800, and an academician in 1802. He was thus for fifty years one of the most distinguished mem- bers ot that institution ; and after a life of almost unrivalled success, and an industry unsui -passed, this great landscape painter died unmarried, and under an assumed name, in an obscure lodging at Chelsea, 19th December, 1851. He was, however, buried by the side of Sir Joshua Reynolds, in the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral.— ll'is life was in every sense a remarkable one; for its humble origin, and for its splendid results; retired and reserved always while living, the splendour of his fame among his contemporaries does not contrast mere strongly with his habits of life, than the gr-i-tand national character henceforth identified wi'.h his name, both by his reputation and tin; dis- position of his property, does with the singular humi.ity of his closing career. His large fortune, 789 TUR both in pictnres and in funded property, he has bequeathed to the nation; his pictures, however, m*K tlie condition that the government provide a suitable dwelling for them within ten years, and his fun. led property towards the establishment of an institution for the benefit of decayed artists. Turner had three styles as a landscape painter, and as the history of every distinguished painter will show, his lirst manner was much distinguished for laborious care in execution : he was chiefly a water- colour painter in early life. The contrast of style between his early and latest works is remarkable — the latter distinguished for its excessive looseness of execution, the former for its elaborate finish ; and, compared with his ordinary works, for a cold- ness of colour. This peculiar coldness of colour he displayed both in his oil and water-colour pic- tures ; and in some of the best of his early works, be shows a decided imitation of Wilson. In middle life he adopted a much freer mode of execution, and a greatly richer style of colouring. His finest works belong to this middle period, of which the two pictures bequeathed by nim to the National Gallery, to be hung between two Claudes, are fine examples : the sun rising in a mist, exhibited in 18U7 ; and Dido building Carthage, exhibited in 1815. Turner may be judged by these works, as he himself considered them two of his principal masterpieces ; and the self-assertion of insisting upon their being exhibited by the side of the Claudes, shows that he courted, and required no indulgence from, our criticism. In comparison with Claude his execution is loose, even in his middle period ; but these two pictures do not suffer more by the comparison than the Claudes — both are injured, as they are nearly in opposite extremes : the Turners require some of his own later works as a foil, and in this case the two bequests might display the happy medium of exe- cution. The majority of Turner's works of this middle period are certainly masterly and brilliant in colour. In the last twenty years of his career he was extravagant to an extreme degree : he played equally with nature and with his colours : although we could not see such effects in nature as he latterly represented, he maintained that we should be glad to see them, nevertheless. Light, with all its prismatic varieties, seemed to have been the chief object of his studies ; individuality of form or character he was wholly indifferent to. The wild looseness of execution in Turner's latest works has not the apology of being attempted on scientific principles ; he "does not work up a par- ticular point of the picture as a focus, and leave tMCOre, as a foil, to enhance it : but all is equally obscure and wild. But were it otherwise, the philosophy would be very questionable: the infinite advantage of the human eye over instru- i- by in .11 U, that it can instantly adapt its beat to any object, and thus distinguish, within a limited range, the distant or the near equally well. It is Una faculty of the eye which makes the natural landscape so charming ; and, 'y, nature also requires that the land- - to be its transcript should ed in all its parts, and thus enable the its wonderful functions over it as it • a natural scene. Turner's works art- ery numerous in all his styles: he exhibited TW1 about 300 pictures in the Royal Academy, which, however, constitute but a very small portion of his works. In 1808 he published a work called Liber Studiorum, or Book of Sketches, in imitation of Claude's LAber Veriiatis. — (John Burnet, Turner and his Works, &c, 1852.) [R.N.W.] TURNER, Samuel, a diplomatist of the East India government time of Hastings, author of an account of his embassy to Thibet, 1749-1802. TURNER, Sharon, a solicitor of London, whose works on Anglo-Saxon history and some other subjects, are reckoned among the standards of English literature, 1768-1847. TURNER, Thomas, chaplain to Laud, bishop of London, and finally dean of Canterbury, 1591- 1(172. Francis, his son, bishop of Ely, one of the seven prelates committed to the Tower by James II., author of a 'Vindication of Archbishop Sancroft,' 'Animadversions on a Pamphlet entitled the Naked Truth,' and other works, died 1700. TURNER, William, rector of Walberton. in Sussex, au. of a ' History of All Religions,' 1695. TURNER, William, a dignitary of the church, who wrote the earliest English herbal, entitled a * History of Plants,' died 1568. TURPIN, TULPIN, or TELPIN, John, in Lat. Turpinus, a Fr. prelate and chronicler, 8th c. TURPIN, F. H., a French historian, 1709-1799. TURPIN DE CRISSE, Lancelot, Count, a French officer and writer on tactics, 1715-1795. TURRETIN, Benedict, a Swiss protestant theologian, 1588-1631. His son, Francis, pro- fessor at Geneva and a theological writer, 1623- 1687. John Alphonsus, son of the latter, and the most celebrated ecclesiastical writer and theolo- gian of the family, 1671-1737. Of the same family were— Michael, professor of divinity, 1616-1721. Samuel, son of Michael, professor of theology and Oriental languages, 1688-1718. TUSSAUO, Madame, thefamous wax-modeller and proprietress of the exhibition in London, was born in Berne 1760. She came to London in 1802, and died there in 1850. TUSSER, Thomas, a poet, called by Warton 'The British Varro,' born in Essex about 1515, died in London between 1580 and 1585. His principal work is quaintly entitled, ' Five Hundreth Points of Good Husbandry vnited to as many of Good Huswif'erie.' TUTCHIN, J., a political writer, died 1707. TUTILO, or TUOTILO, a monk of St. Gall, in Switzerland, distinguished as a painter, sculptor, orator, poet, and musician, 9th century. TWEDDELL, John, an accomplished scholar and traveller, born in Northumberland 1769, died prematurely at Athens 1799. TWELLO, L., a learned divine, died 17 12. TWINING, T., a classical scholar who was pre- sented to the living of St. Mary's, Colchester, by Bishop Lowth, bom in London 1734, died 1804. TWINING, W., an army physician and profes- sional writer, born in Nova Scotia, died 183& TWISS, Horace, a barrister and miscellaneous writer, was the son of Francis Twiss, known as a man of letters, and of Frances, second daughter of Roger Kenible, the father of that celebrated family. He was called to the bar in 1811, and entered parliament as member for Wooton Basset, in 1820: in 1828, he was under-secrotary for the colonics I TWI during the administration of Wellington. He never obtained much success in political life, hut was highly esteemed in the social and literary circle. The principal of his works is a ' Life of Lord Eldon.' Died 1849. TWISS, Richard, a traveller of fortune, known as a miscellaneous writer, 1747-1821. TWISS, W., a nonconformist divine, 17th cent. TWYNE, John, an antiquarian and mayor of Canterbury, died 1581. His grandson, Brian, an antiquarian, was vicar of Rye, in Sussex, and archivist at Oxford, 1579-1614. TWYSDEN, Sir R., an antiquary, 1597-1672. TYCHSEN, 0. G., professor at Rostock, and author of several Oriental works, 1734-1815. TYCHSEN, T. C, an Orientalist, 1758-1834. TYDEMAN, It, a Dutch Movant, 1741-1825. TYE, C, a musical composer, 16th century. TYERS, T., an English critic, 1726-1787. TYMPE, J. G., a Ger. theologian, 1699-1768. TYNDALE, or TINDALE, William, the venerable martyr and translator, was born in the hundred of Berkeley, either at Stinchcomb, or North Nibley, Gloucestershire, about the year 1484. At an early period he was sent to Oxford, where he took his degree, and also gave instruc- tions in Magdalen Hall. But he left Oxford for Cambridge, where it is believed that he took a degree. In 1522 Tyndale is next found as tutor in the house of Sir John Welch of Little Sodbury, not far from Bristol, where he preached in the villages and towns on Sabbath, and often disputed with neighbouring abbots and other Romish ecclesi- astics. Here too, he translated the ' Enchiridion Militis ' of Erasmus, as a present to his host and his lady. His free opinions and discussions soon got him into troublous examinations before the popish dignitaries, but no penalty was inflicted on him. He took the hint, however, left the county, and came to London, his mind being now fully occupied with the idea of translating the Scrip- tures. He soon found, as he himself quaintly says, 4 that there was no room in my lord of Lon- don's palace to translate the New Testament, nay, no place to do it in all England.' In London he sometimes preached at St. Dunstan's-in-the-West, while Alderman Humphrey Monmouth took him under his protection, and gave him an annuity of ten pounds a-year, to enable him to live abroad, for which ten pounds he was in return to pray for the souls of the alderman's father and mother. Tyndale on leaving England went first to Ham- burg. It is often said that from Hamburg he proceeded to Wittemberg, where he met Luther, who had now thrown oft' the last vestige of popish thraldom, and that there he completed his trans- lation of the New Testament. Ihe statement is apparently not correct, for during 1524^ he seems to have remained at Hamburg, and in 1525 he ap- pears to have been first at Cologne and then at Worms. At Cologne Tyndale seems to have com- menced to print Etc fint edition in 4to, hut after ten sheets were printed the work was interrupted, and the translator nil his coadjutors betook themselves to the Lutheran city of Worms, where the quarto was finished, and' an octavo edition also issued from the press. The prologue to the quarto has been republished under the name of 4 A Pathway to the Scriptures.' The translator s TYN name was attached to neither of the two editions, and he assigns a reason for this omission in his 'Wicked Mammon,' published in 1527. Copies of these versions early found their wav into England. In 1526 Tunstall, bishop of London, fulminated his prohibition of them, and two years afterwards a number of copies were collected, nay, some were purchased by the bishop in Antwerp, and burnt at St. Paul's Cross. Warham and Wolsey were also dreadfully enraged, and Sir Thomas More was employed to denounce Tyndale, but his genius was foiled in the attempt, and Tyndale won a precious victory over the learned chancellor. Two editions were then printed at Antwerp, and found their way to England in vessels laden with grain. Endeavours were made to seize Tyndale and pun- ish all who assisted him, but he removed to Mar- burg in Hesse in 1528, and published there a book of great value — 'The Obedience of a Christian Man.' The result of all the English opposition was, that, as Foxe expresses it, ' copies of the New Testament came thick and" threefold into England.' We find Tyndale again at Antwerp in 1529, during which year a fifth edition was printed; the four books of Moses were also translated, printed each at a separate press, and put into cir- culation. The enemies of the translator endea- voured to decoy him into England, but*e was too wary to be so easily entrapped, for he well knew what displeasure Henry VIII. felt at his tract, called ' The Practice of Prelates,' and what pen- alty the royal indignation would speedily inflict. After the martyrdom of Frith, Tyndale set him- self to revise and correct the version of the New Testament, and it was soon thrown off, with this remark in the preface, ' which I have looked over again with all diligence, and compared with the Greek, and have weded out of it many i'autes.' But his enemies in England, whose power h.nl been shaken by the copious circulation of the English New Testament, were the more enraged against him, and conspired to seize him on tho continent, in the name of the emperor. An Eng- lishman, named Philips, betrayed him, and acting under such information, the authorities at Brassou Beized him, in the house of Pointz his friend, and conveyed him to Vilvorde, twenty-three miles from Antwerp. Pointz, who had with difficulty esc aped himself, made every effort for him, but in vain. The neighbouring university of Louvain thirsted for his blood. Tyndale was speedily condemned, and on Friday, the 6th October, 1536, in virtue of a recent Augsburg decree, he was led out to the scene of execution. On being fa s t ene d t>> t ho stake, he cried in loud and earnest prayer, ' Lord, open the eyes of the king of England,' and then was first strangled and afterwards burnt. Bfetenee Bow, No marble tells us whitl -er. The merits of Tyndale must ever be recognized and honoured by all" who enjoy the Knglish Bible— for th.-ir authorized version' of the New Testament has his for its basis. He made good his early boast, that ploughboys should have the Word of Qod. His friends all speak of his great simplicity of heart, and commend his abstemious habits, his zeal, and his industry; while even the Imperil] procurator who prosecuted him styles him, Itown doclus, plus tt Lvnus. The works off Tyndale and 791 TYP Frith were collected and published in three vols. ndon, 1881. [J-K-l [TPOEST. James, in Latin Typotius, a Flemish l;i-ti>ri:in, died 1601. I YKANNIO. a Gr. grammarian, 1st cent. B.C. TYRCONNEI., Richard Talbot, earl of, a nartizan of James II. in Ireland. TYRRELL, James, a barrister of the Temple, ■ Genoa] History of England, 1 1642-1718. TTBTJEU8, a Greek poet and musician, whose military songs and airs animated the Spartan army, and were constantly sung and played as long as that republic existed, 7th century B.C. TYKWIHTT, Thomas, a famous scholar and master of polite literature, was born at Westmin- ster in 1730, and was successively under-secretary at war and clerk to the House of Commons. He resigned the latter situation in 1768, and devoted i.'s future years to literature. Besides his valuable classic commentaries, Tyrwhitt edited Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Rowley's Poems, which he proved to be thaproduction of Chatterton; d. 1786. TYSON, Edward, a physician and writer of curious works in comparative anatomy, 1649-1708. TYSON, James, a dramatic writer, 1799-1820. TYSSEUS, Peter, a Flemish historical pain- ter, 1625-1692. His son, Nicholas, famous for the representation of still life, flowers, fruit, armour, and military weapons, 1660-1719. Augustus, br. of the latter, a landscape painter, 1662-1722. TYTLEK, H. W., a Scotch physic, 1752-1808. TYTLER, James, born at Brechin, in Scotland, 1747, celebrated as a miscellaneous writer, and editor of several periodical works. Died in Ame- rica, where he became a political exile, 1805. TYTLER, WILLIAM, a Scottish antiquarian and ULA historical writer, was born at Edinburgh 1711, and became a writer to the signet, in which profession he continued till his death in 1792. His principal works are ' An Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Evidence produced against Mary Queen of Scots,' a ' Dissertation on the Marriage of Mary to Bothwell,' and the ' Poetical Remains and Life of James L, king of Scotland.' His son, Alexan- der Fraser, Lord Woodhouselee, was succes- sively professor of history, judge advocate, and justice, of the Court of Session. He is the author of several much valued historical and critical works, the principal of which is his ' Elements of Gen- eral History,' 1747-1813. The son of the latter, Patrick Eraser Tytler, the most eminent of the family, was born in 1790, and died after a lingering illness in 1849. His principal work is a ' History of Scotland,' in 9 vols., published at intervals from 1828 to 1843. Besides this con- tribution to historical literature he wrote a ' Life of the Admirable Crichton ; ' ' The Life and Writ- ings of Sir Thomas Craig;' 'Lives of Scottish Worthies;' a 'History of Discovery on the Nor- thern Coasts of America ; ' a ' Life of Sir Walter Raleigh;' and a 'Life of Henry VIIL' In the latter years of his life he enjoyed a pension of £200 a-year, for which he was indebted to the administration of Sir Robert Peel. TZETZES, John or Joannes, a learned gram- marian and poet of Constantinople, author of a valuable work entitled, Chiliades Variarum His- toriarum, or Historical Miscellanies, 12th century. His brother, Isaac, was also a man of taste and letters, and held a magisterial office in Macedonia. TZETZI, J. B., a learned writer, 16th century. TZSCHIRNER. See Tscuiuner. U UBALDL G., a mathematician of the 17th cent. UBALDINI, Petruccio, an illuminator of Florence, who came to England in the reign of Elizabeth as a teacher of his native language, and wrote several historical works, from 1550-1588. UBALDINI, Roger, archbishop of Pisa, in 1276, noted for his cruelty as a Ghibelline chief. Having captured Ugolino and his sons, of the op- posite party, he shut them up in a room and left them to die of hunger. OBERTO. F. Degli, an Ital. poet, died 1370. UCCELLO. P., an Italian painter, 1349-1432. UCHENSKT, J., primate of Poland, died 1581. UDAL, John, a rigid puritan and Oriental scholar, died in the Marshalsea prison, London, BPHBAIM, his son, vicar of St. Augustin's, Walling Street, a zealous royalist, author of a treatise against sacrilege, entitled 'A Coal from the Altar,' and other works, died 1647. UDAL, Nicholas, master of Westminster school, author of several works, 1506-1564. \LRIC, duke of Bohemia, 1012-1037. DDEN. L. Van, a Flemish painter, 1595-1662. UDIN'A. Giovanni Da, an Italian painter, and Raphael, 1489-1 ofiL*. UFFEMBACH, or UFFENBACH, Z.C.Von, a learned German bibliographer, 1683-1734. His !<>iis Frederic, a Iytm poet, 1G87-1769. Peter, a physician, died L68o. UGGERT, A., an Italian antiquary, 1754-1837. UGGIONE, M., an Italian painter, died 1520. UGHELLI, F., an eccles. historian, 1595-1670. UGOLINO. See Gherardesea. UHLICH, G., an Austrian historian, 1743-1794. UILKENS, James Albert, a Dutch naturalist and theologian, professor at Groningen, 1772-1825. U1TENBOGAARD, J., a Dutch theologian of the party of Remonstrants, 1557-1650. ULADISLAS, seven kings of Poland :— Ula- dislas I., duke or king, succeeded his brother, Boleslas, in 1081 or 1082 ; his reign was troubled with civil and foreign wars, died 1102 or 1103. Uladislas II., succeeded his father, Boleslas III., in 1138 or 1139; he was deposed 1146, and died in exile 1159. Uladislas III., was elected king 1202, and deposed in 1206 on account of his cruelties, died 1233. Uladislas IV., surnamed Loketek, became master of the kingdom in 1296, was deposed by the states, and Wenceslaus elected in his room, 1300, but was restored on the death of the latter in 1305 or 1306. He sustained a war with the Teutonic knights, and died 1333. His son, Casimir III., called the Great, succeeded him. Uladislas V., grand duke of Lithuania, ob- tained the crown by marrying Hedwiga, daughter of Louis. See Jagellon. He was succeeded by his son, Casimir IV. Uladislas VI., son of Casimir IV., same as Ladislaus VI., king of 792 ULA Hungary; see that article. Uladislas VII., son of Sigismond, was born 1595, and succeeded his father 1632. He had previously sustained a war with the house of Romanoff, and now in 1C33-4 he conquered the Turks and the Tartars of the Crimea. Died 1648. ULADISLAS, three dukes or kings of Bohemia : — Uladislas I., reigned 1109-1125. Uladislas II., succeeded 1140, deposed and died in the same year, 1173. Uladislas III., reined only a few months in 1198, and died 1222. ' The sixth king of Hungary and Poland of this name, became king of Bohemia in 1471. See Ladislaus. ULDIN, a king of the Huns, 400-412. ULEFELD, Cornifix or Corfito, Count, a Danish statesman time of Christiern VI., d. 1664. ULFT, J. Vander, a Dutch painter, 1627-80. ULLOA, A. De, a Spanish historian, d. 1580. ULLOA, Antonio De, a Spanish general and statesman, a great promoter of industrial and scientific progress in that country, 1718-1795. Ulloa's great distinction was in the mathematical sciences; and when very young he was sent to South America to co-operate with Condamine and the other French academicians in measuring a de- gree of the meridian. His talents, more lately, were turned to account in the construction of public works requiring engineering skill, the intro- duction of the woollen manufacture, &c. ULLOA Y PEREIRA, Louis De, a Spanish poet, time of Philip IV., died 1660. ULPHILAS, a Gothic bishop, known to history about 375 as a delegate to the emperor Valens, from whom he solicited a settlement in Thrace for his countrymen. He is said to have translated the Bible into the Gothic language, and to have in- vented the characters for that purpose. ULPI AN, a rhetorician of Antioch, 4th cent. ULPIANUS, Domitius, a famous jurist of Rome, who became the chief minister of his pupil, the emperor Alexander Severus, in the year 222. He is said to have been a resolute enemy of the Christians; and having effected some reforms in the army, he was murdered by tlie soldiers at the feet of the emperor and his mother, 228. ULRIC, Philip Adam, a native of the bishop- ric of Wurtzbourg, a teacher of jurisprudence and promoter of agriculture improvements, born 1692. ULRICA, Eleanoha, two queens of Sweden. 1. The wife of Charles XL, and mother of Charles XII., was born in 1656 : her father was Frederick III. of Denmark, and her marriage with the Swedish king in 1679 facilitated the establishment of peace between the two countries. She died in 1693. She was remarkable for her great learning and beneficent disposition. 2. The daughter of the preceding, born 1688, succeeded her brother, Charles XII., as queen regnant in 1719. four years after her marriage with prince Frederick of Hesse Cassel. In 1720, she resigned the government into the hands of her husband. Died 1744. ULRICH, J. II., a Ger. philosopher, died 1813. ULRICH, John Jami s, a Swiss theologian, 1569-1638. Another of the same names, professor of moral philosophy and natural law, and an eccle- siastical writer, 1683-1731. John Gasi\\im>, n ecclesiastic, author of a curious history of the Swiss Jews, 1705-1768. John BODOLPH,* min- ister and author of ascetic works, 1728-1795. 7 URQ ULUGn BEGH, a prince of the Tartars, grand- son of the famous Tamerlane, was born in 139 I, and succeeded his father on the throne, in 1417. He had been accustomed to the cares of government from his boyhood, and greatly distinguished himseli as a patron of learning, and by his own astronomi- cal observations, and works illustrating Eastern history and geography. His elder son having re- belled against him, caused him to be put to death near Samarcand in 1449 or 1450. UNDERWOOD, T. R., an artist, and naturalist, author of • Memorable Events in Paris during the Capitulation of 1814,' died 1835. UNGER, J. F., a Ger. economist, 1716-1781. UNTERBERGER, Ignatius, a painter of a Tyrolese family that has produced many cele- brated artists, born at Karales, 1744, died 1797. UNZER, John Augustus, a German physi- cian, distinguished by his works on physiological and psychological subjects, among which may bo mentioned 'A New Doctrine concerning the Move- ments of the Soul and the Imagination,' ' Thoughts on Sleep and Dreams,' ' On the Sensitive Facul- ties of Animated Bodies,' 4 The Physiology of Ani- mated Nature,' and ' Physiological Researches,' 1727-1799. His wife, Jane Charlotte, a poetess and moralist, died 1782. UNZER, Louis Augustus, a German writer, au. of a ' Treatise on Chinese Gardens,' 1748-75. UPHAM, W. E., an Eng. historian, died 1^33. UPTON, James, a learned schoolmaster and divine of the Church of England, editor of classical works, 1670-1749. His son, John, rector of Great Rissington, in Gloucestershire, also a classical editor, published an edition of Spenser's ' Faerie Queene,' and Notes on Shakspeare, 1707-1760. URBAN, eight popes of Rome: — Urban L, succeeded Calixtus 1. in 222, and suffered martyr- dom in 230. Urdan II., whose name was Otho or Eudes, a Frenchman, succeeded Victor III. in 1087 or 1088; he struggled against the pretensions of the emperor, and proclaimed the first crusade at the instance of Peter the Hermit, died 1099. Ur- ban III., reigned in the time of the emperor Fre- deric I., 1185-1187. Urban IV., time of St. Louis, to whom he offered the crown of Sicily, which was accepted by the duke of Anjou. 1261- 1265. He instituted the festival of Corpus ChriatL Urban V., succeeded Innocent VI. 1362, at the period when the papal court was held at Avignon (see Rienzi); he removed to Rome in 1367. but returned again in 1370, and died at Avignon the same year. Urban VI., succeeded Gregory XI. in 1378, and became the abettor of Charles" Du- razzo against Joan of Naples, died after an unquiet pontificate 1389. Urban VII., died the twelfth • lay alter his election in September, 1590. I ki.an V1IL, successor of Gregory XV. in 1623, held the pontificate during a long and busy period marked by the disputes « Jansenism; died 1644. ' IKKAIN, Fekoinano Db St., b French artist, and designer of medals to Innocent XI., 1664- 1731. DBGEO, A., a learned Italian, L446-1600. UBFE, Anne D', a French poet, 16i II<>noi:k, his brother, a novelist and historian of the gallantries of Henry IV., contained in his romance of Astra-a, 1567-1626. UBQUUABT, SlB Thomas, a Scottish mathc- n and philologist, time of Charles II. UBQ rCQT'I.TO, Don Makianno Luiz Dr. a Span- •ii:iii, time of King Joseph, 1768-1817. DBRE \. J. Di . ■ Spanish writer, lGth cent. IIMM'IIA. .T. 1>k, a Span, general, 1728-1800. UBSIN, J. F., a Germ, philologist, 1735-1796. I ::six. Jobs Henry, eawiMtiril superin- tendent at Ratisbon, author of a 'Compendium of the Ecclesiastical History of Germany,' died : . ELantY, his son, a philologist and teacher of the Bdles Leltres, 1647-1707. t KSINS, Anna Maria De La Tremoille, Princess Des, a celebrated name in Spanish his- tory, was born in France about 1643. She was married in 1659 to the prince of Talleyrand Cha- I in 1675 to the duke of Bracciano, chief of the Orsini family. After the death of the latter, she was attached to the court of Spain, and really governed the country during the early part of the reign of Philip V. In 1714, however, she was banished the kingdom, and subsequently kept house for the Pretender, James Stuart. Died 1722. (JBSINS, J. Jouvenel Des. See Juvenal. URSINUS, B., a Germ mathemat., 1587-1633. URSINUS, Zachakv, a German professor of divinity and friend of Melancthon, author of several works, some of which have been translated into English, and a man of high moral character, 1534- 1577. A descendant of his, named Benjamin, was raised to the prelacy when Frederic I. assumed the title of king of Prussia in 1701. For others of the name sec above (Ursin.) URSULA, Saint, a virgin and martyr, sup- posed to have been a daughter of a British prince, and to have been put to death at Cologne at a date which varies from 384 to 463. There is a legend that 11,000 virgin martyrs suffered with her, which some have explained by supposing that she had a companion named Undecini'ua. It is pretty cer- tain, however, that many were put to death at the same time. She is regarded as the patroness of the Sorbonne. URSUS. Nicholas R aymarus, a Danish astro- nomer, and rival of Tvcho Brahe, died 1600. DRVILLE. Sf-eDuMONT. .11. James, D.D.. was born at Dublin, 4th January, 1580. Early destined for the minis- try, lie was entered a student in the university of Dublin, where he acquired a brilliant reputation •': ir in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and divinity. In this latter department, his unquenchable thirst for knowledge had led him into a course of reading far more extensive than what is commonly pursued even bt enthusiastic students of theology — for during his residence at the university, he had not only read the works of all the most celebrated of modern theological writers — but even most of the and more especially he had gained so complete a mastery of the popish controversy, that at the age of eighteen, he entered the lists with a learned Jesuit who had given a general ohaDenge to the protestanta. "With a reputation Lg m high, his promotion in the church was rapid. Having in 1601 obtained orders in chorea, he was appointed Sunday the govern me n t at Christ's church", Dublin. In 1607 he was chosen professor of divinity lirersity and chancellor of the cathedral 'trick. He now entered on a < authorship; and the first work he undertook 794 UTE being an historical dissertation on the government and discipline of the church, he made a tour through England with a view to prosecute some inquiries in the libraries of the two universities. His fame procured him a welcome reception in these vener- able seats of learning. His treatise was published in London, 1610, and a copy of it having been pre- sented by Archbishop Abbot to King James, that monarch, delighted with so powerful a defence of his favourite episcopacy, loaded the author with tokens of his royal approbation — raising him to the bishopric of Meath which was then vacant, and afterwards constituting him a privy councillor of Ireland. By the royal command, Usher went to reside some years in England to prosecute re- searches into the antiquity of the British churches, and during his residence there the archbishop of Armagh having died suddenly, he was elevated to the high position of primate of Ireland, in January, 1624. The results of his antiquarian researches were given to the world in 1632, when he published a rare collection of letters from ancient MSS., extending from the year 592 to 1180. Usher being a man of liberal sentiments as to church government, maintained a friendly correspon- dence with all the eminent men in the churches both of England and Scotland, and took a lively interest in the progress of the gospel throughout the world, by whatever church or instrumentality the truth was diffused. Being, in 1640, driven from his see by the rebellion, and stripped of all his property except his books, he sought an asylum in England. In 1648 he was summoned to the Isle of Wight, to aid the king in negotiating with the parliament respecting the introduction of a uniform system of episcopacy. He sketched out a middle scheme which obtained the warm approbation of his royal master as the best expedient to settle the dif- ferences. But the expectations of this good man were sadly disappointed. The Scottish people would not receive it, and the imprudent attempts to force it on their acceptance, gave rise to the re- ligious wars of which Scotland was the theatre during the seventeenth century. Usher again came before the world in 1650 as an author by the publication of his celebrated 'Annals of the Old and New Testament.' Various other works issued from his industrious pen ; and he was the author of the received chronology of the Bible. After a long and active life, distinguished by use- fulness and adorned by works of piety, he died on 20th March, 1656. [R.J.] USHER, James, of the same family as the distinguished prelate (preceding article), born of catholic parents in 1720, and known as a philo- sophical writer against Locke, died 1772. USSIEUX, L. D', a Fr. agriculturist, 1747-1805. USTARIZ, Gabriel, one of the leaders of the revolution in Spanish America, 1772-1814. USTARIZ, Jerome, a Spanish economist, au- thor of the 'Theory and Practice of Commerce and Navigation,' died about 1760. USTERI, Leonard, a Swiss professor and pro- moter of educational reform, 1741-1789. USUARD, a French hagiographer, 9th centurv. UTENHOVIUS, or UYTTEltoVE, Charles, a native of Ghent, who cultivated the muses in their classic languages, and wrote in defence of the •cformed religion in England, about 1536-1G00. UVA UVA, Benedetto Dell', an Italian ecclesias- tic and writer of sacred poetry, 16th century. UVEDALE, Robert, a classical scholar and botanist, born in London 1642. The date of his death is unknown, but he assisted Dryden in trans- lating Plutarch's Lives. Another Uvedale trans- lated the Memoirs of Philip de Comines. (TWINS, David, a physician and professional writer, whose attention was particularly directed to mental diseases; he had the courage also to adopt the principles of homoeopathy, in favour of which he wrote his last pamphlet, 1780-1837. UXELLES, Nicholas De But, Marquis D', a Fr. commander time of Louis XIV., 1652-1730. VAL UZ, John Peter, a Ger. scholar and poet, who filled several magisterial officesat Anspach, in ran- conia. of which "place he was a native, 1720-1796. UZBEK, a khan of a portion of the people now governed by the emperor of Russia, since called, after his name, Uzbeks, 1305-1342. UZES, Aldebert D', so named from his birth-place, bishop of Nismes, and one of the coun- cil which condemned the Albigenses, died 1180. UZZANO, Nicolo D', a Florentine statesman, attached to the aristocracy and the Guelph party, succeeded Albizzi as chief of the republic, 1417, died 1432. After his death his political sup- porters became exiles from their country. VACA DE GUZMAN, Joseph Maria, a Spanish poet, bom in Grenada abt. 1745, d. 1805. VACAORIUS, an Italian civilian, who became professor of law at Oxford, 12th century. VACCA, AlvarNunezCabeza De, a Spanish governor of Paraguay, transported to Africa for his avarice and cruelty in 1539. VACCA, F , an Italian sculptor, 16th centurv. VACCA BERLIXGHIERI, Francis, a Span- ish physician, 1732-1812. His son, Andrew, a surgeon, died at Pisa in 1726. VACCARO, A., a painter of Naples, 1598-1670. VACCHIERI, C. A, a Ger. histor., 1745-1807. VACHET, B., a French missionary, 1641-1720. VADDER, L. De, a Flem. painter, 1560-1623. VADDERE, J. B., a Flem. historian, 1640-91. VADE, John Joseph, a French play-writer and humorous poet, 1720-1757. VADIANUS, the Latinized name of Joachim Von Watt, a German savant, 1484-1551. VAD1ER, M. W. Alexis, a Jacobin of the French revolution, who took part in most of the violent scenes of that period, and was the accuser of Catharine Theos and her party. The last scene in which he acted, was the conspiracy of Babeuf ; born in Languedoc 1735 ; died in exile 1828. VAGA, Pierino Del, whose real name was Buonaccorsi, an Italian painter, 1500-1547. VAHL, Martin, an excellent botanist, was born at Bergen in Norway, in 1749 or 50. He died in 1804. Vahl commenced his studies in natural his- tory under Strom at Copenhagen. After two years he removed to Upsal, where he prosecuted his bo- tanical studies under the great Linnaeus, and be- came one of his most distinguished pupils. He found favour in the eyes of Mademoiselle Linne, but Linnaeus, at that time in the zenith of his fame, did not consider a poor botanist a sufficient match for his daughter. In 1779 he became lecturer and demonstrator of botany in the garden at Copen- hagen, and a few years afterwards filled the chairs of natural history and botany in the university of that town. He travelled under royal auspices and attheexpense of his sovereign, through great portion of Europe and made an extensive collection of plants. Being provided with excellent introduc- tions, he had free access to the libraries and museums of the various literati of the towns he flailed. In London the rich herbarium of Sir Joseph Banks was open to him, and he had the privilege of examining the manuscripts of Banks's friend Dr. Solander. ne taught botany with much success at Copenhagen, and has left behind him several excellent works which have established his reputation as a first-rate botanist. A genus of plants was dedicated to him by his contemporary Thunberg, under the name of Vahlia. rW.B.""] VAILLANT, Francis Le, son of the French consul at Paramibo, in Dutch Guiana, an eminent traveller and ornithologist, 1753-1824. VAILLANT, G. H., a Latin poet, died 1678. VAILLANT, Jean Foi, one of the greatest of European medallists, time of Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV., by whom he was employed on several important scientific missions, born at Bean- vais 1632, died 1706. His son, Jean Francis Foi, was a physician, and cultivated the same branch of sciences as his father, 1665-1708. VAILLANT, Sebastian, an able botanist, who became director and professor at the Jardin du Roi, in the reign of Louis XIV., 1669-1722. The principal work of Vaillant is his ' Botanicon Parisiense.' He is said to have taught the sexual system of plants. VAILLANT, Walbrant, a French painter and engraver, 1623-1677. He taught three of his brothers who followed the same profession — Mer- nard # James, and Andrew, but the particular dates are unknown. VAILLANT-DE-GUELLE, G., bishop of Or- leans, a philologist and poet, died 1587. VAISSETTE, J., a Fr. historian, 1685-1756.^ VALADON, Zaciiauiah, a French Capuchin and missionary who laboured in Asia Minor, and signalized himself by his devotion to the •uffering< people during the plague at Marseilles, born about 1680, died 17X1. VALARESSO, C, an Italian poet, 1700-1769. VALARSACES, a king of Armenia, dMcend e d from Mithridates the Great, 150-127 B.C VALART, J., a French tavemt, l<;:i,s-1781. VALAZE, ClIAlil.is Elbahork DurniCHl De, one of the Girondin leaders of the French revolution, born at Alcncon, 17.01; died by his own band at the bar of Fonqnier Tinville, where his party were condemned to the guillotine, May .11, IT'.)::. VALCARCEL, Joseph Anthony, a Spanish writer on agriculture, flourished about 1720-171)2. VALCARCKF, PlO Antonio, Count De I.una- res, a learned Spanish antiquarian, 1710-1800. VALCKENAER, Louis Casiuu, profc&sor of 1'Jo VAL \1 archeology at Leydcn, 1715-1785. His .tesma'n, 1759-1821. VALDEafAB. See Waldkmar. VALDES, Anthony, a Spanish statesman, who in 1796 yielded his office to Emmanuel Godoi, about 1735-1811. Cayetano, his nephew, a member of tlie Cortes 1832, executed 1826. VALDES, F.. I Spanish tactician, 16th century. VALDKS. VALDESSO, or VALDESIUS, Jcan, a S|>anish controversialist and reformer, lly claimed by the Socinians, died 1540. VALDES, I,. De, a Spanish painter, 1661-1724. VALDEZ, J. M., a Spanish poet, died 1817. VALDO, Petek, generally considered the founder of the Vaudois or Waldtntes, a body of Christians who separated themselves from the Church of Rome in the twelfth century, was born at Yau.w in Dauphiny, on the banks of the Rhone. He acquired a large" fortune by commercial pur- suits at Lyons; and when he resolved to retire from business, not only devoted himself to the spiritual instruction of the poor, but distributed his goods among them, and in all respects treated them as his children or his brothers. The only version of the Bible in use at that time, Mas the Latin Vulgate, but Valdo, who was a learned as well as a benevolent man, translated the four Gospels into French, this being the first appearance of the Scriptures in any modern language. The n of these books soon discovered to Valdo and his people that the church was never de- signed to be dependent on a priesthood, even for the administration of the sacraments; and his instruction, boldly followed by practice, became 80 obnoxious to the church, that he was first persecuted by the archbishop of Lyons, and at length anathematized by the pope. No longer Lyons, Valdo and his friends took refuge" in the mountains of Dauphiny and Piedmont; and there formed those communities which grew in peace, and flourished in rustic simplicity, — ' pure as a tiower amid Alpine snows.' From these mountain valleys the simple doctrine of Christianity flowed out in multiplied rivulets over all Europe ; Pro- vence, Languedoc, Flanders, Germany,— one after the other tasted of the refreshing waters, until in course of ages they swelled to a flood that swept over all lands. Valdo is understood to have travelled in Picardy, teaching his reformation : he finally settled in Bohemia, where he died in 1179; the same year in which his tenets were condemned by a general council. [E.R.] VALUORY, C, a French ascetic, 17th century. VALDBIGI, T.. an Italian jurist, 1761-1834. VALENCIENNES, Pbter Hembt. a French landscape painter, 1750-1819. VALEN8, Fi.,\vu>, nnperor of Constanti- n of a noble of Pannonia, was born in 32X. an.l eModatad in the Roman empire with his brother. Valentinian L, who abandoned the East to him, 864. He embraced Arianism, and in 376 allowed the Goths, whom he had previously sub- jugated, to settle in Thrace. This warlike people, were provoked to take arms again, and having defeated the troops of Valens, they burnt ror in his tent, 378. 1 i. us, a usurper of the Roman em - burned in the reitrn of Decius, and killed a few days afterwards in SSL VAL VALENS, Publius Valerius, a nephew of the preceding, killed bv his soldiers 261. VALENTIA, G., a Spanish ascetic, 1551-1598. VALENT1A, P. De, a Span, jurist, 1554-1620. VALENTIN, L. A., a Fr. surgeon, 1736-182;:. VALENTIN, M., a French painter, 1600-1632. VALENTIN, M. B., a Ger. natur., 1637- 1726, VALENTINE, B., an alchymist, 16th centurv. VALENTINIAN, three emperors of Rome :*— Valentinian (Flavius) I., elder brother of Valens, and son of Count Gratian, was born in Pannonia 321, and succeeded after the deatli of Jovian 364. He gave the Eastern empire to his brother, and having defeated the Alemanni and the Quadi, died in a fit of passion 375. Valentinian (Flavius) II., son and successor of the preceding, was proclaimed emperor by the troops, and his brother, Gratian, at once ceded Italy to him. The latter shortly after was vanquished by Maxi- mus, and Valentinian would also have lost Iris throne but for the timely help of Theodosius, em- neror of the East, who put Maximus to death, and left Valentinian master of the whole Western em- pire. He was strangled by order of his rebellious general, Arbogastes, 392. Valentinian (Pla- cidius) III., became emperor at the age of six in 425, under the regency of his mother, Placidia. He was assassinated in 455. VALENTINIANUS, founder of the sect of Gnosticsnamed Valentinians, was anative of Egypt, and became publicly known as a teacher of strange doctrines in 140, when he went to Rome. He was excommunicated 143, and died after boldly devot- ing himself to the spread of his tenets in Syria, 100. VALENTYN, F., a Dutch missionary,' 17th ct. VALERA, D., a Spanish historian, 15th cent. VALERIA, a Roman empress, daughter of Dio- cletian, and wife of Galerius Maximus, exiled and killed after his death, 315. VALERIAN, Publius LiciNius, a Roman em- peror, born about 190, was proclaimed after the death of Gallus 253. He was defeated in the East by Sapor, king of Persia, and supposed to have been flayed alive, 260. VALERIAN O BOLZANI, Pikrio, in Latin Vakrianm, a learned Italian, 1477-1558. VALE RI ANUS. See Valerian. VALERIUS, Lucas, an Italian mathematician, called the Archimedes of his age, died 1618. VALERIUS FLACCUS, Caius, author of a Latin poem, entitled Argonautics, 1st centurv. VALERIUS MAXIMUS, a Roman historian, who was in Asia with Sextus Pompeius, A.D. 14, besides which nothing is known of him. His work contains many valuable anecdotes and examples of moral excellence, and was one of the earlit^t printed after the revival of letters. VALERIUS PUBLICOLA, one of the founders of the Roman republic, 6th centurv B.C. VALESIO, J. L., an Italian painter, 16th cent. VALETTE, Jean Parisot De La, grand master of the order of St. John at Jerusalem, re- nowned for his defence of Malta in 1565, and founder of La Valette; died 1568. VALETTE, Simeon, whose proper name was FAOOV8, a French mathematician, 17194801. VALIERO, A., a Venetian savant, 1531-1606. VALINCOUR, Jean Baptists Du Trousset De, a miscellaneous French writer, 1653-1730. 796 VAL VALLA, Giorgio, an Italian professor of polite literature, known 1471-1486. VALLA, J., a learned theologian, died 1790. VALLA, Lorenzo, a distinguished Latin scholar, and one of the revivers of literature in the 15th century, horn at Rome 1406, died 1457. VALLA, N., a French jurisconsult, 16th cent. VALLANCY, Chakles, an English officer in a corps of engineers engaged in the survey of Ire- land, author of a ' Grammar and Dictionary of the Irish Language,' 1721-1812. VALLE, Pietro Della, surnamed II Pelle- grino, a famous traveller in the East, au. of an ac- count of his travels, written in Italian, 1586-1652. VALLE E, G., a French deist, hung 1574. VALLEE, J. La, a French writer, 1747-1816. VALLI, E., an Italian phvsician, 1762-1816. VALLIER, F. C., a French poet, 1703-1778. VALLIEKE, Jean Florent De, a French officer of artillery time of Louis XIV., 1667-1739. His son, Joseph Florent, 1717-1776. VALLIERE, Louise Francoise De La Baume La Blanc, Duchess De La, lady of hon VAN conjunction with Congreve, to prolong, in the be- ginning of the eighteenth century, the licentious cleverness that had characterized the comic drama in the reign of Charles II. He is said to have passed some years of his youth in France, and was afterwards, for a short time, an ensign in the army. His career as a dramatist belongs, like that of Wycherley, to a few of the earlier years of his manhood. Two or three of his six or seven plays deserve no record. The first of them, ' The Relapse,' appeared in 1697; and ' The Provoked Wife/ the best of the series, immediately afterwards. In 1706 his vigorous picture of rascality, caded l The Con- federacy,' was brought out at" the new theatre in the Haymarket, an unsuccessful speculation of Vanbrugh and Congreve. He left uncompleted, at his death, ' A Journey to London,' which was worked up by Colley Cibber into ' The Provoked Husband. He had, previously to the opening of this theatre, become eminent as an architect, by designing the magnificent pile of Castle Howard ; andLord Carlisle, being then Deputy Earl Marshal, appointed Vanbrugh to be Clarencieux king-at- our to Henrietta of England, and mistress of Louis j arms. The new herald's presumed ignorance of his science was indignantly complained of by his colleagues, and merrily jested at by himself. He was next chosen as the architect of Blenheim ; and, in the execution of this charge, in the midst of annoyances which (though vexatious in themselves) were sometimes as comic as anything in his plays, he produced the noblest monument of his striking though heavy architectural style. He died in 1726, having been liked as a good-natured man. and having lived more decently than he wrote. [W.S.J VANCE, G., an eminent surgeon, died 1837. VANCEULEN, or VANKEULEN, Ludolrii, a Dutch mathematician, who made a remarkable approximation to the true ratio which the cireum- ference of a circle bears to its diameter, died at Leyden 1610. VANCOUVER, George, the distinguished na- vigator, a pupil and successful imitator of Cook, entered the naval service in 1771, when only thirteen years old. He served as midshipman on Cook's second and third vovages, 1772-80. On his return home he was made lieutenant, and ap- pointed to the Martin sloop; and was variously employed in the public service for eleven years. In 1791 he received a command for the prosecution of maritime discovery. He was made captain, and appointed to the ship Discovery, again fitted out for an expedition. A small armed vtssel, the Chatham, 135 tons, Captain Broughton, sailed in company ; and the two ships left Falmouth on the 1st April, 1791. The objects, as laid down in the instructions, were to receive from tin- Span- iards the surrender of the settlement at Nootka, to survey the N.W. coast of N. America north- wards from lat. 30°, with a special view to water communications with the interior, which might facilitate the operations of the fur traders; to pass the winter in a survey of the Sandwich Islands; and, on the homeward voyage, to make a careful inspection of the western coast of South America. The first three objects were successfully accomplished; 9,000 miles of sea coast in North America were surveyed with scrupulous accuracy, after tin: manner of his great master, wbOM methods of preserving health also, he followed with XIV., was born in Touraine 1644. She had two surviving children by the king, Mademoiselle de Blois and the count of Vermandois, the latter of whom was legitimated in 1667. She was aban- doned for Madame de Montespan, and retired to the convent of Chaillot in 1671 ; died 1710. Her grand-nephew, Louis CiESAR De La Baume Ll Blanc, Due De La Valliere, was a celebrated bibliopole, flourished 1708-1780. VALLISNERI, Antonio, an eminent Italian phvsician and naturalist, 1661-1730. VALLOT, A., a French physician, 1594-1671. VALLOTTI, F. Antonio, an Italian musician and chapel-master in Padua, 1697-1780. VALMIKI, the most ancient and most cele- brated of the epic poets of India, author of the Ilam/iyan, translations of which were published in English and German at the beginning of the pre- sent century. VALMONT DE BOM ARE, James Christo- niKR, a French naturalist, 1731-1807. VALOIS, Henry De, in Latin Valesius, a learned philologist and critic, 1603-1676. Adrian, his brother, a philologist and historian, 1607-1692. Charles, son of the latter, an antiquarian wri- ter and historian, 1671-1747. VALOIS, L. Le, a French Jesuit, 1639-1700. VALOIS, Yves, a French Jesuit, born 1694. VALPERGA DE CALUSO, Thomas Des, a mathematician, and Oriental scholar, 1737-1815. VALPY, Richard, an eminent classical scholar and schoolmaster, born in Jersey 1754, died 1836. EDWARD, his brother, a classical editor and minis- ter of the Church of England, died 1832. VALSALVA, Antonio Maria, an Italian phvsician and anatomical discoverer, 1666-1723. VAN ACHEN, or AKEN, Hans, a German painter, dist. for his sacred subjects, 1552-1615. VANBRUGH, Sir John, was the grandson of a protestant refugee from the Netherlands, and the son of a wealthy sugar baker. He was pro- bably born in 1666. We know very little as to the history of his youth, or as to the training which enabled him not only to become one of the most celebrated amoDg English architects, but, also, in 797 VAN (inch success, that (luring his voyage of four years' duration, and through an arduous service, he lost but two men from both crews. The third object stated was but imperfectly attended to, owing to the hit.- WO, and the stormy character of the weather. On the outward voyage to the Sandwich Isles, however, Vancouver had carefully i the south coast of Australia, and a part of the shores of New Zealand. During his stay also • udwich tales, the native chiefs held a con- vocation, at which, alter a protracted and amicable n, it was resolved to place the islands under British protection. Four European nations were at this time known to them, and they were in a condition to judge which of the four was the most likely to be a disinterested and able protector. The result was no doubt owing to the respect and confidence which Vancouver inspired. The Dis- !y brought into the Shannon on the •tember, 1795. Her commander was now post-captain, the promotion having taken place the previous ve.ir. He was paid off on his return ; and, Lencefortli, occupied himself in preparing an account of his voyage, with charts exhibiting his surveys. The labour, however, which he had bestowed on this great work had undermined his constitution, and brought about a premature end. — He died in May, 1798, before his work was finished; the printing had proceeded as far as the 408th page of the third vol., and the charts had all been completed 6ome time before, under his own eye. The remain- ing part of the narrative was drawn up from his papers by his brother, John. [J.B.] VAN DALE, Anthony, a Dutch theologian and antiquarian, au. of ' De Oraculis,' 1638-1708. YAXDAMME, Dominique Joseph, count of Unebourg, one of Napoleon's generals who was attached to the division of Marshal Grouchy at the battle of Waterloo, and subsequently offered to de- fend Paris with the 80,000 troops he had kept together, 1771-1830. YAXDELLI, Domenico, r.n Italian physician and naturalist time of Linnaeus. VAXDERGOES. See Goes. VAHDEBHELST. See Helst. VANDERHEYDEN. See Heyden. VAXDERMOXDE, one of the moat famous of modern mathematicians, 1735-1796. YAXDERSK.ETEX, Ferdinand, a Flemish economist and publicist, 1771-1823. VAXDERVELDE, Charles Francis, the L modern novelist of Germany, 1772-1824. VANDEBVELDE, VANDENVELDE, or VAN VELDE, William, called ' the Old; a Dutch painter, skilled in the delineation of marine sub- jects, 1610-1693. His son, of the same name, called ' the Young,' regarded as the most eminent of all the marine painters, 1633-1707. There were three others of the name: — Isaiah, born at Ley- den about 1591 ; John, his brother, a painter and engraver, bom about 1598; and Adrian, who was a celebrated landscape painter, 1688-1672. VANDERYENNE,a Dutch painter, 1586-1650. VANDERWERFF, Adrian, a Dutch portrait and historical painter, 1659-1722. YAXDI, A. .!. I)., a Germ, chemist, died 1763. SeeDi DYCK, Antony, was born at Antwerp, ii the moit distinguished of M i h VAN all Eubens's numerous scholars. He lived with that great painter for four years, and by his advice visited Italy, in 1621, where he remained for five years, chiefly at Genoa, Venice, and Rome, and returned to Antwerp in 1626. A picture of the Crucifixion painted for the church of St. Michael, at Ghent, raised his reputation at once to the highest rank, and he attained equal distinction as a portrait painter. Vandyck visited this country a second time, 1630-31, but without attaining that notice which he had expected : he accordingly re- turned to Antwerp; but Charles I. having seen, by him, a portrait of Nicolas Laniere, his chapel- master, sent him an invitation to return to this country, and he was courteously received by tho king, who lodged him at BlackA-hrs' and conferred the honour of knighthood upon him the following year, 1633, with the title of painter to his majesty, snd a fixed salary of £200 per annum for life. These advantages fixed Vandyck in this country, and he justified the king's choice by a long suc- cession of the most magnificent portraits that had yet been produced out of Italy ; indeed, the por- traits of Vandyck are by some preferred to tfioso of Titian ; they have not the pictorial force of those- of the great Venetian, but they are more refined generally, and are distinguished for more careful drawing and a more elaborate finish ; the men of Titian, and the women of Vandyck, are superior. Vandyck died in London, December 9, 1641, at the early age of forty-one. Yet, notwithstanding his comparatively short life, such was his extraordinary success that he accumulated a large fortune for that time, about £20,000 sterling, though he lived in great style, keeping besides his town establish- ment, a country house at Eltham ; and he ' kept so good a table,' says Graham, 'that few princes were more visited or better served.' He was buried in the old church of St. Paul, near the tomb of John of Gaunt : his fortune was inherited by a daughter, his only child. — (Graham, Essay towards an English School; Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting, &c. ; Carpenter, Memoir of Sir Antony "andyck, &c, London, 1844.) [R.N.W.l VAN-DYK, H. S., a miscellaneous writer ana 798 poet, born in London 1798, died 1828. VANE, Sir Henry, a republican and religious zealot of the period of the commonwealth, was the eldest son of the baronet of that name, and was born at Hadlow in Kent in 1612. He was among the earliest of those whose religious opinions in- duced them to seek a home in America, and hav- ing gone to New England, in 1635, was appointed governor of Massachusets. Being far from popu- lar among his fellow-colonists, he returned to Eng- land the year after, married here, and entered parliament : by the interest of his father also he was appointed joint treasurer of the navy with Sir William Russell. The measures in which he now took part were the condemnation of Strafford and Laud, followed, in 1643, by the 'Solemn League and Covenant' of which he was one of the chief promoters, as healso was of the 'Self-Denying Ordi- nance.' He stood aloof from the king's trial, but on the establishment of the commonwealth, became one of the council of state : in this position he remained till Cromwell's dissolution of parliament in 1653. Sir Henry Vane was, from the first, a steady opponent of the authority assumed by the VAN army, his hope being that the Saviour would ap- pear and establish a fifth universal monarchy, or reign of a thousand years ; he was most obnoxi- ous to Cromwell, therefore, the staunchest repre- sentative and upholder of whatever authority could still be exercised in the state by human agency. On several occasions these two men were brought into personal contact, and while Cromwell ex- hibited the greatest antipathy to the dreamy expectations, and the plausible temperament of Vane, the latter showed no deficiency of courage in braving his resentment. After the restoration he was condemned for treason, and beheaded on Tower Hill, June 14, 1662. He wrote several works, chiefly religious, at least as he understood the matter, pointing to • The Total and Irrecover- able Ruin of the Monarchies of this World.' [E.R.] VAN-HELMONT. See Helmont. VAK-IIOECK, J., a Flemish painter of history, 1600-1650. Robert, believed to be his relation, also a painter, born 1609. VAN-HOOREBEKE, Charles Joseph, a Flemish botanist and pharmacopolist, 1790-1821. VAN-HUGTENBERG. See Hugtenburgh. VANIERE, James, a celebrated French Jesuit and Latin poet, 1664-1789. VANINI, Lucilio, a Neapolitan philosopher, burnt alive at Toulouse, 1585-1619. VANLOO, James, a Dutch historical and por- trait painter, 1614-1617. Louis, his son, excelled in design, died 1712. Jean Baptiste, son of the latter, who became a fashionable portrait painter in England, 1684-1745. Charles Andrew, called Carlo, brother of the preceding, a great historical and imaginative painter, the most popu- lar artist of his time, 1705-1765. Louis Michael, son and scholar of Jean Baptiste, first painter to the king of Spain, 1707-1771. His brother, Ciiari.es Amadeus, famed at Berlin as a history and portrait painter, born 1718. VAN-LOON, G., a Dutch numismatist, b. 1683. VAN MANDER, Charles, a Flemish painter and writer on antiquities, 1548-1605. VAN-MILDERT, William, bishop of Durham, grandson of a Dutch merchant settled in London, and a distinguished theologian, 1765-1836. VAN -NEVE, F., a Flemish painter, last cent. VAN NOORT, Oliver, was a native of Utrecht, lie is noted as the first Dutchman who circum- navigated the globe, 1598-1601. He went out by the Strait of Magellan and returned by the Cape. But the voyage was not made memorable by anv important discovery or other remarkable re- sult. [J.B.] VANNI, Carlos, a Neapolitan apostate, who betrayed the liberal cause in 1775, and put an end to his existence at Sorrento, 1799. VANNI, several Italian painters : — Fornio, a native of Pisa, 14th century. Francesco, skilled both as a painter and architect, 1565-1610. His son. Raffaelle, taught by Antonio Caracci, 1596-1655. Giovanni" Battista, best known as an engraver, 1599-1660. VANNUCHI, Andrea Del Sarto, a very celebrated painter of Florence, 1488-1530. VAN-OS, P. G., a Dutch painter, 1770-1839. VAN SCHOUTEN, or SCHOUThX, William Cornelisan, an able Dutch navigator, was a native of Hoorn in North Holland. He was sent VAS out in command of an expedition fitted up by some merchants of Amsterdam, who were Buffering under the oppressive monopoly which the Dutch East India Company had obtained, in virtue of their exclusive right to trade to India by the Cape and the Strait of Magellan. The object was to find another passage ; this Schouten successfully accomplished (February, 1616) by sailing to the south of Terra del Fueg'o. He named the extreme point of land after his native town ; and a strait passed through, Le Maire, after the largest contri- butor to the expense of the undertaking. [J.B.] VANSOMER, Paul, a Flemish portrait pain- ter, who acquired the highest distinction in Eng- land before the time of Vandyck, 1576-1621. VAN-SWIETEN, Gerard, a Dutch physician and commentator on Boerhaave, 1700-1772. VANUDEN, L., a Flemish painter, 17th cent. VAN-UTRECHT, Adrian, a Flemish painter, famous for flowers, fruit, shell- fish, &c, 1599-1651. VAN-VEEN, or VENIUS, Otho, a Duteh painter, distinguished for his graceful composi- tions and fine heads, 1556-1634. VAN-VITELLI, Gaspard, a Dutch painter, 1647-1736. His son, Luigi, an architect, 17U0-73. VARANDA, J., a French physician, 1620-58. VARATANES, the Greek form of the name of Barham, king of Persia. VARCHI, B., an Italian historian, 1502-1565. VARENIUS, A., a Ger. theologian, 1620-1684. VARENIUS, B., a Dutch geographer, 1610-80. VARGAS, A. De, a Span, painter, 1613-1674. VARGAS, F., a Spanish jurisconsult, 16th cent. VARGAS, L. De, a Span, painter, 1502-1568. VARGAS Y PONCE, Don Jose, a Spanish navigator and geographer, 1755-1821. VARIGNON, P., a Fr. mathemat., 1654-1722. VARILLAS, A., a French historian, 1624-96. VARIN, J., a French botanist, 1740-1808. VARIN, James, a celebrated medal engraver, 1604-72. Joseph, of the same family, 1740-1808. VARIN, T., a French historian, 1610-1668. VARIUS, Lucius, a Roman dramatic writer and epic poet, who is highly spoken of by his friends, Virgil and Horace. Hardly a fragment of his writings is now extant. VARLEY, J., an English artist, 1777-1842. VAROLI, C, an Italian anatomist, 1543-1575. VARON, C, a French writer, 1761-179(3. VARRO, M. T , consul of Rome, n.c. 216. VARRO, Marcus Terentius, a Roman states- man, and one of the most learned men of his age, was born at Rome B.C. 116, and died about 27. His learning and his actual writings were encyclo- paedic in extent, but of all his labours then- now only remains extant a portion of his De Lingua Latina, and his De Re Rustica, with son ments of his Satires. VARRO, Publius Terentiis Ata< Roman poet, and contemporary of the preceding. VARTAN, an Armenian prince, killed in action against the Persians 161. VARTAN, called Vertabied, the learned, an Armenian poet and historian of his country, 13th century. His 'Fables' ITWB published by Saint Martin; his history remains in MS. VARUS, consul of Rome, B.C. 12. VASARI, GlOBOIO, the celebrated author of the ' Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculp- 799 VAS 1 Architects,' of Italy, from the earliest vn to the year 1568, the date of the second edition of Ins wort, was born at Arezzo in 1512; 1 Florence in 1521, and there made the acquaintance of Michelangelo, Andrea del Sarto, and other mat artists of the time. Vasari dis- tinguished himself both as a painter and an archi- tect, but his great and immortal service in the : nt is his most elegant and comprehensive biographies above alluded to. This un- paralleled biographical scries, which Haydon ranked as the third book in the world, the Bible and Shakspeare holding the two higher places, can perhaps only be justly appreciated by the genuine lovers of their subject, and then only with diligent labour and study and considerable familiarity with the progress of modern art. It has gone through many editions in Italy , the first, or editio princeps, was published in Florence in 1550, in 2 vols. 8vo ; the second, also by Vasari, in 1568, in 3 vols. 4to, with woodcut portraits, coarse but full of character, and doubtless of much individual truth. The fol- lowing editions, and some other reprints, have appeared since Vasari's time: — one at Bologna, from 1647 to 1663 , one at Rome in 1759. with notes by Bottari ; another at Leghorn and Florence bv Bottari, in 1767-72 ; another at Siena in 1791- 94, by Delia Valle, reprinted afterwards in the Milan edition of the Italian Classics; another at Florence, in 6 vols. 8vo, in 1822-23, a reprint of the second edition of Vasari, without any notes of the commentators, and even without an index. In ie admirable German translation by Schorn and Forster was commenced, in 8 vols. 8vo, the la>t in 1849 ; and three good Italian editions have appeared within the last ten years or so ; the last commenced in 1846, in 12mo, by a society of young enthusiasts in the cause, is beyond all praise, the researches of Rumohr, Schorri, Gaye, and other foreign critics have been taken the utmost advan- tage of, many documents have been consulted, and it work is perhaps now as well illustrated as it is ever likely to be, except some very unex- pected treasures among the old records of Italy should be discovered to throw new light upon this interesting subject. The editors are Carlo and Gaetano Milancsi, and Carlo Pini, of Siena. The Vasari's Lives are naturally the Florentines, and those who lived nearer to his own time. The notices of the earlier artists and those remote from Florence, have not escaped errors and misrepre- sentations, which are, however, now remedied in the various notes and comments with which the work is now enriched. But under any view the col- lection constitutes a remarkable series, not only for its prodigious store of facts, but also for its ex- .uty, grandeur, and fascination of style. An English translation has been lately added" to - tandard Library. The following is the full title of the Italian edition recommended :— Le Vile tcetilmti J'ittori, t>cultort\ e ArchiteUL man: pubocata per cura di una i ainatori ddle arti belle. Flor., Felice Le Mounter, 1846-64, seqq. Vasari died at Flo- rence in 1"»74, and was buried in Arezzo, his native i of which one of the greatest of its glories, r of future time, will ever remain the cir- nce of its having given birth to Giorgio [ILN.W. j VAU VASCO DE GAMA. See Gama. VASI, J., an Italian designer, 1710-1782. VASQUES, Alphonso, an Italian painter, born of Spanish parentage, about 1575-1645. VASQUEZ, G., a Spanish casuist, 1551-1604. VASQUEZ DE CORONADO, Francesco, a Spanish navigator, time of Mendoza, 1540. VASSELIN, G. V., a Fr. historian, 1767-180L VATABLUS, J., a French Hebraist, died 1547. VATACES. See John. VATER, C, a German physician, 1651-1732. Abraham, his son, a great promoter of inocula- tion, author of several works, 1684-1751. VATER, John Severixus, a distinguished German Orientalist and theologian, 1771-1S20. VATTEL, Emmerich, a jurist and man of letters, was born near Neufchtitel, in 1714. He was originally educated for the church, but his studies turned to the direction of philosophy and literature, while he found employment in the petty diplomacy of the smaller central states. Thus ho was appointed, in 1746, minister from Poland to the Republic of Berne. The occasional petty dab- bling in diplomatic duties, accompanied by abun- dant leisure, which this office conferred, probably had considerable influence in the direction of his labours and the formation of his fame. Like all inhabitants of middle Europe, ambitious of literary fame in his age, he sought it in a study of French literature, and an imitation of French models. He wrote many works ; — some on light literature, such as ' Sur fa Natur d' Amour' — others on me- taphysics; but all alike forgotten. It was his fortune, however, to fill up a vacant space in the literature of jurisprudence, by systematizing and placing in lucid order the writings on interna- tional law, from Grotius downwards. His ' Droit de Gens' — ' The Law of Nations, or Principles of the Law of'Nature Applied to the Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns,' first published in 1758, has gone through many editions, been translated into several languages, and become a universal text-book. Vattefdied on 28th December, 1767. [J.H.B.] VATTIER, P., an Arabian scholar, 1623-1667. VAUBAN, Sebastian Leprestre De, the greatest military engineer and tactician of France, was born in Burgundy in 1633 ; and commenced his public career in the time of Mazarin. He took part in ail the campaigns of Holland and Flanders, and was created marshal in 1703. He constructed or improved an immense number of fortresses, directed as many as fifty-three sieges, and was present at one hundred and forty battles; He wrote twelve folio volumes on Strategv. Died 1707. VAUCEL, P. L. Du, a Jansenist, 1640-1715. VAUGELAS, Claude Favre De, a member of the French Academy, and chief employe of that body on the famous Dictionary, 1585-1650. VAUGHAN, Henry, author of poems, chiefly devotional, born at Newton, in Brecknockshire, 1621, died 1695. Thomas, his brother, author of some Rosicrucian works, written under the title of Eugenius Philalethes, died 1666. VAUGHAN, Sir J., a learned judge, 1608-74. ^ VAUGHAN, Sir J., a judge and privy coun- cillor, contemporary with Lord Lyndhurst, Wilde, and Denmnn, 1772-1839. VAUGHAN, W., a poet and transl., 1577-1640. 800 VAU YAUQUELIN, Nicholas Louts, a French chemist, instructed bv Fourcrov, 1763-1S30. VAUVENARGUES, Luc Du Clambbs, Mar- quis De, a moralist and elegant writer, author of ' Introduction to the Knowledge of the Human Spirit,' and ' Maxims,' 1715-1747. VAUVILLIERS, John Francis, a French sava?it, 1698-1766. His son, of the same names, a learned Hellenist and statesman, 1737-1801. VAUX, Nicholas, first lord, a brave officer and favourite of Henry VIII., descended from a French family, died 1530. His son, Tho^ias, an admired poet, 1510-1522. VAUX, Noel Jourdan, Count De, a marshal of France, dist. in the Flemish wars, 1705-1788. VAVASSOR, or VAVASSEUR, Francis, a French Jesuit, Latin poet, and philologist, 1605-81. VECCHIETTA, Lorenzo DePiero, an Italian sculptor, founder, and painter, 1482-1540. VECCHIO DI SAN BERNARDO, F. Mi.x- zocchi, called II, an Italian painter, 1510-1574. VEDRIANI, L., an Italian historian, 1601-70. VEEN, or VENIUS. See Van-Veen. VEGA. See Garcias. VEGA-CARPIO. See Lope De Vega. VEGA, G., a Germ, mathematician, 1754-1802. VEGETIUS, Flavius Renatus, a Roman ■writer on the military art, 4th centurv. VEGIO, Maffei, a Latin poet, 1406-1458. VEIGA, Euseeius De, a Portuguese Jesuit and astronomer, born in Coimbra 1718, died 1798. VEITH, L. F., a Germ, theologian, 1725-1796. VELASCO, F. De, a Span, general, died 1716. VELASQUEZ, Diego, a Spanish general, who accompanied Columbus in his second voyage ; was engaged in the conquest of St. Domingo, and founded the city of Havana in the island of Cuba. He sent out the expedition which discovered Yucatan and Mexico, and despatched Cortez to subdue the latter country; died 1523. VELASQUEZ CARDENAS Y LEON, Joa- quin, a Mexican astronomer, 1732-1786. VELASQUEZ DE VELASCO, Luis Jose, a Spanish antiquarian, 1722-1772. VELAZQUEZ, Don Diego Rodriguez De Silva Y, was born at Seville in 1599 ; he first tudied under Francisco Herrera, and afterwards with Pacheco, whose daughter he married. # He isited Madrid in 1622, and in 1623 was appointed court painter to Philip IV. of Spain. He visited Italy in 1629, and again in 1648, to make purchases )f works of art for the king. He died August 7, 1660. Velazquez has the reputation of being the reatest of Spanish painters ; he is chiefly distin- guished as a portrait painter, but he excelled also in history, landscape, and genre ; like the majority of the Spanish painters, he belongs to the naturalist chool, he painted life as he found it, with extra- irdinary farce, facility, and skill. His greatest works are still at Madrid. — (Cean Bermudez, Dic- cionarin Hislorico de Ins mas UuMres Prof-sores de las Bellas A rte$ in Etoana. See also the I'einiy Cvcloncedia, and Stirling's Annals of the Artists of VELDE. See Vantm.rvelde. VELEZ DE GUEVARA, Luif, a Spanish atirist and comic poet, died 1646. VEL1 EDA, a German prophetess, 1st century. VELLE1US. See Pati.ixulls. 801 VEN VELLEGUS, Andrew Sf.vf.utx, a Danish historian and councillor of state, 1542-1616. VELLUTI, D., an Italian historian, 1313-1370. VELLY, P. F., a French historian, 1709-1759. VELSER, or WELSER, Mark, in Latin Vel- senis, a Ger. historian and philologist, 1568-1614. VELTHEIM, Aug. Frederic, Count Von, a Germ, archaeologist and mineralogist, 1741-180L VELTWYCK, G., a Dutch poet, died 1555. VENANTIUS, a Christian poet, 6th centurv. VENCE, H. F. De, a Fr. ecelesias., 1676-1749. VENCESLAUS. See Wenceslaus. VENDOME, Cesar, Due De, eldest son of Henry IV. and of his mistress, Gabrielle D'Estrees, a refugee in England in the time of Richelieu, and minister of state under Mazarin, 1594-1665. Louis, his eldest son, viceroy of Catalonia, married a niece of Mazarin, and after her death took orders and became a cardinal, 1612-1669. Louis Joseph, son of the latter, successively Due de Penthievre and Due de Vendome, a famous general in the wars of Louis XIV., honoured for his services by admission to the honours of a prince of the blood royal, 1654-1712. His brother, Philip, prior of Vendome, and the last of his house, 1655-1727. VENEL, G. F., a French chemist, 1723-1775. VENEL, J. A., a French physician, 1740-1791. VENERONI, John, the Italianized name of Vigneron, a French grammarian, 17th century. VENETTE, J. De, a Fr. chronicler, 1307-1369. VENETTE, Nicholas, a French physician and physiologist, author of ' Tableau.de 1' Amour Con- jugal,' and other works, 1632-1698. VENEZIANO, Antonio, an Italian fresco painter, 1310-1384. Domenico, a painter in oils, 1420-1476. Agostino, an engraver, 1490-1540. VENIERO, three doges of Venice: — Antonio, reigned 1382-1400. Francesco, succeeded Marc Antonio Trevisani 1554, died 1556. Sebastiano, commander of the fleet at the battle of Lepanto, elected doge and died same year, 1571. VENIERO, Domenico, a distinguished Italian poet, 1517-1582. Francesco, his brother, a philo- sophical writer, died 1581. Lorenzo, a third brother, known as a poet, died about 1550. Maf- feo and Luigi, sons of the latter, dates unknown. VENINL Francesco, a Milanese ecclesiastic, mathematician, and poet, 1737-1820. VENINO, J., an Italian Jesuit, 1711-1778. VENIUS. See Van-Vkin. VENN, Henry, a minister of the Church of England, son of a divine named Richard Venn, au- thor of several religious works, 1725-1796. John, his son, author of Sermons, 1759-1813. VENNE. See Vandi kvi.sm . VENNER, T., an English physician, 1577-1650. VENNING, R., a nonconfor.' divine, 1620-1678. YENTKXAT, STKPHKH I'i.ti k, a distin- guished French botanist, member of the institute, and author of several useful works, 1757-1808. VENTIMIGLIA, GlUSEPPK, a Sicilian prince and supporter of the constitution. 1761-1814. VENTURE D? PAEADIS, Jeas Mi French Orientalist and diplomutic agent, 17 U -89. VENTUBI, GlAMBATUTA, an Italian plivsi- cian, statesman, and literary mvant^ I 1.1. P., an Italian Jesuit, 1693-1752. Vl.N'l I1.IM. .1. G. .1 ill is, a German offiftt nnd writer on tatties, 1772-1802. 3F VEH VEKUST1, M., an Italian painter, 1515-1570. II. K , an ItttL antiquarian, 1705-17G3. VEBBIEST, l'i i:niN.wn, a Flemish Jesuit, astronomer, and Cliinese missionarv, 1630--1688. i. .1. B. M..un Italian historian, 1739-95. VKKK, I.i.wAKD, carl of Oxford, a poet and hi of the age of Elizabeth, born about 1540, died 1604. He M on the trial of Mary Queen of Scots, in virtue of his office of lord higfi chamber- lain, and many traits of character, little to his honour, are recorded of him. VERS, Sin Francis, one of the most gallant of the commanders who distinguished themselves in the reign of Elizabeth, was born in 1554. He was the companion-in-arms of Prince Maurice in the Dutch war of independence, and defended Ostend with onlv 1,700 men against a Spanish army of Died 1608. VERE, Sin Horace, baron of Tilbury, younger brother and companion-in-arms of the preceding, shared in the glory of his principal actions in the Dutch war. His great achievement was an able retreat with 4,000 men before the great general, Spinola, who commanded 12,000. Died 1635. VERELIUS, Olaf, one of the most distin- guished antiquaries of Sweden, 1618-1682. VERELST, S., a Flemish painter, died 1710. VERGARA, Caesar Antonio, a Neapolitan ecclesiastic and numismatist, born 1680. Y ERGARA, J. De, a Spanish painter, 1726-99. YERGARA, N. De, called 'the Old; a Spanish painter of history, painter on glass, and sculptor, 1510-1574. His son, Nicholas, called * the Young; a sculptor and architect, 1540-1606. VEBGENNES, Charles Gravier, Count De, a French diplomatist and statesman, 1717-87. VERGERIO, Piero Paolo, professor of dia- lectic at Padua, and one of the restorers of litera- ture, 1349-1419. Another member of the family, bearing the same names, was at first a vigorous opponent of the reformation, but became a convert to protestantism, and died in Wirtemberg 1565. YKRGIER, J., a French pcet, 1657-1720. VERGNIAUD, P. V., one of the most eloquent leaders of the Girondin partv in the French revolu- tion, was born at Limoges m 1759, and was prac- l an advocate at Bourdeaux, when elected to the Legislative Assembly, 1791. He was one of the twenty-two Girondists condemned by the Jacobins of the revolutionary tribunal, and exe- cuted October 31, 1793. Y LRU FY DEN, F. P., a Dutch painter and sculptor, born at the Hague 1657, died 1711. VEBHEYEN, P., a Dut. anatomist, 1648-1710. VERHOEK, P., a painter and poet, 1633-1702. VEBMEIBEN. Acoustdt, a Flemish Carme- in verse, 1656-1703. vERMEULEN, Cornelius, a famous designer and (•! traits, 1614-1702. VEBMEYN. .!. (.'., a Dutch painter, died 1559. VEB1 I, a pastor of Geneva, known usseau, 1728-1790. i-ii, a French painter, is landscapes and marine sub- rly the latter, in which he ex- .:, called Carle, his son and pupil, famous fbr Mi battle-pieces, the celebrated painter, is ton of the latter, and was born 1789. VER VEBNET, J., a Gencvese theologian, 1698-1789. VERNEUIL, Catherine Henriette De Balzac D'Entraigues, Marquise De, n mistress of Henry IV., who acquired so much influence over him as to obtain a written promise of marriage, which it required all the firmness of Richelieu to annul: she conspired against the king after his marriage with Mary de Medici, 1583-1633. VERNIER, P., a Span, mathemat., 1580-1637. VERNIER, Theodore, a politician of the revo- lutionary period, afterwards a peer of France, 1731-1818. VERNIQUET, E., a Fr. architect, 1727-1804. VERNON, Edward, an English admiral, born in Westminster 1684. His father was secretary of state to William and Mary, and having givenhis son a classical education, was disappointed by his adoption of a seaman's career. He first served under Admiral Hopson, and was in the action at Vigo, in October, 1702. His name became histo- rical, however, in 1739, by the expedition to Porto- hello, the command of which was given to him, with the rank of vice-admiral of the blue. In 1741 he made an unsuccessful attempt upon Car- thagena, in conjunction with General Wentworth, the graphic details of which may be read in Smol- ett's Roderick Random. Died 1757. VERNON, Robert, the munificent founder of the Gallery of British Art, named after him, and now in the national collection, was born in 1774, and acquired his vast fortune by trading in horses. He was a liberal patron of the fine arts in his life- time, and his bequest to the nr.tion is said to have cost him £150,000. Died 1849. VERNON, T., a learned lawyer, died 1726. VERNY, C. F., a French poet, 1753-1811. VERON, F., a French Jesuit, 1575-1649. VERON, P. A., a French astronomer, 1736-70. VERONESE, Paul. See Cagliari. VERRIO, A., a Neapolitan painter, 1639-1707. VERROCHIO, Andrea Del, a Florentine pain- ter, sculptor, goldsmith, and architect, 1422-1488. VERSCHAFFELT, Chevalier P., called Pietro Fiammingo, a Flemish sculptor and archi- tect, 1710-1793. VERSCHURING, Henry, a Dutch painter of landscapes and cavalry actions, 1627-1690. VERT, C. De, a French liturgist, 1645-1709. VERTEGAN, Richard, an ingenious anti- quarian of Roman Catholic principles, born in Lon- don of Dutch parents, and settled at Antwerp ; author of 'Restitution of Decayed Intelligence concerning the most noble and renowned English Nation,' published 1605 ; died about 1635. VERTOT D'AUBCEUF, Rene Aubebt, Abbe De, a French Capuchin, author of works on the j Revolutions of Rome, Sweden, and Portugal, and a History of the Order of Malta, 1655-1735. VERTUE, George, an eminent English en- graver and antiquarian, born in London 1684, died] 1756. ^ His engraved works, consisting of portraits and historic prints, are very numerous., and in high J repute for their accuracy. In the course of his anti- quarian tours he took many sketches of churches,] ruins, and other monuments; his literary remainsl consist of historic notices of artists, and anecdotes] of painting. VERUS, ^Flius, grandson of Cejonius Commo-j dus, adopted son of Adrian, and consul of Rome, VER died 138. Lucius Verus, his son, joint emperor with Marcus Aurelius, whose daughter he mar- ried, flourished 130-169. VEKZOSA, J., a Spanish writer, 1523-1574. VESALIUS, Andreas, the greatest anatomist of his age, and the father of modern human ana- tomy, was horn at Brussels, either in April, 1513, or December, 1514, for the year of his birth is un- certain. He was descended from a family remark- able for the number of eminent medical men it had produced, and his father was attached in a medical capacity to the household of the archduke Charles, afterwards the emperor, Charles V. He devoted himself at an early period of life to human anatomy and dissection, studying under the most eminent masters of the day, and between the years 1535 and 1537 he served as a physician and surgeon with the troops in the Low Countries. In 1544 he was appointed chief physician to the emperor Charles \ ., and on his abdication in 1555 he was nominated to the same office by his son, Philip II. His opposi- tion to the Galenic doctrines, his habit of dissecting human bodies, then considered impious, and the great reputation he enjoyed at the Spanish court, raised him many enemies ; and a rumour that he had opened the body of a young Spanish nobleman whose heart showed symptoms of vitality, having got abroad, he was publicly accused of murder. The charge was taken up by the clergy and the medical faculty, to whom he was obnoxious, and also by the relations of the deceased ; and though he enjoyed the protection of the king, he was ob- liged to flee from the persecution by which he was assailed, and to travel into Palestine by way of expiation of his alleged guilt. When this voyage was undertaken is not exactly known, but in 1563 the senate of Venice invited him to return and till the chair of anatomy at Padua, then vacant by the death of Fallopius ; and having embarked for that purpose, he was shipwrecked on the island of Zante (the ancient Zacynthus), where he perished miser- ably of cold and hunger, on the 15th of October, 1564, and his body having been recognized by a goldsmith of Venice, it was honourably interred in the church of St. Mary's, in that island. He was the author of numerous works, but that by which he is best known is entitled, JJe Humana Corporis faMca. [J.M'C] VESLING, John, a German anatomist, and writer on the botany of the East, 1598-1649. VESPASIAN, whose full name in Latin was Tm s Elavil's Vespasfanus, emperor of Rome, was born of an obscure family in the territory of the ancient Sabines, in the year 9. He MM to ""stinction in the Roman army, during the reigns of Caligula and Nero; and was conducting the war in Judaea when he was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers, after the brief reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, 69. He then left the prosecution of the war to his son Titus; and reaching Rome about the middle of the year 70, entered upon his high functions without opposition. The expecta- tions that had been raised by his ability, his virtues, and his indefatigable application to busi- ness, were not disappointed ; but it is commonly believed, and the report is adopted by Gibbon, that he disgraced himself by a sordid parsimony. This is so incompatible with the generous qualities also attributed to him, that the explanation must VIC be sought in circumstances, not sufficiently con- sidered, — such as the dissatisfaction likely enough felt by the Praetorian guard, and by others who may have expected a more liberal distribution of the public money. The reign of Vespasian was marked by the pacification' of Gaul, which had been disturbed by the revolt of Claudius Civilus, and by Agricola's conquest of Great Britain : the destruction of Jerusalem also took place, as mentioned under the name of Titus. Died in the seventieth year of his age, 79. [E.R.] VESPUCCI. See Amerigo. VESTRIS, a family of dancers and theatrical performers: — Gaetano Apoline Baltiia/.ak, distinguished at the Parisian opera, 1729-1808. Anna Frederika, his wife, 1752-1808. M Augustus, a natural son of Gaetano, 1760-1838. Marie Rose Gourgand Dugazon, a sister-in- law of Gaetano, distinguished by her performance in tragic parts, 1746-1804. VETTER, L. R., a Ger. pathologist, 1765-1806. VETTORI, F., an Italian antiquarv, 1708-1778. VETTORI, F., an Italian physician, 1485-1528. VETTORI, Pietro, in Latin Victorius, a great promoter of literature in Italy, 1499-1585. VETTORI, V., an Italian poet, 1697-1763. VEZZOZI, Antonio Francesco, a learned Italian theatine and biographer, 1705-1785. VIANE, F. Van, a theologian, 1619-1693. VIANI, A M., an Italian painter, 16th century. VIANI, G., an Italian numismatist, 1762-1816. VIANI, Giuseppe, a painter of Bologna, 1636- 1700. Domenicho, his son and pupil, 1668-1711. VICARS, John, a presbyterian zealot of the commonwealth, author of several quaint works of a religious character, 1582-1652. VICARY, T., an English anatomist, 16th cent. VICENTE, G., a Portuguese poet, 1480-1557. VICENTE, J., a Castilian painter, last centurv. VICHMANN, B., a Rus. historian, 1786-1822. VICI, A., an Italian architect, 1744-1817 VICIANA, M., a Spanish historian, 16th cent. VICO, jEneas, an Italian antiquarian, engraver, and numismatist ; died about 1560. VICO, F., a Spanish historian, 17th century. VICO, Giovanni Battista, the first to pro- pose a philosophical method of considering human history, was born at Naples in 1668, and became professor of rhetoric in the university of that citv. His life was passed in comparative obscurity m studying the works of the ancients, and in bringing his vast acquirements in jurisprudence and criti- cism to bear on the problem of human destiny. The principal labour of his life is his work entitled ' Prinerpi di una Bcmbm Nuova,' first published in 1725, and which is, in fact, a philosophy of his- tory, recognizing the action ot Providence, and the divine intention continually working out in social events; in this view he has been followed by S( hlcgel, but with much less spirituality. What Yiro would demonstrate is the anal, and nation with another, as regards the su of events, and these PTOOMdhlt in a certain his- toric cycle, which he divides into three ages — the divine, the heroic, and the human l lie DMOt DM, t!i>re!ore, the interpreter of the mythical remains of antiquity, such as the HoUMrk poems, and dis- plivs. in his way, the reason of national manners and forms of government. The 'Universal His- VIC torv* of Bossnct, and the 'City of God' by Saint tin, were the 'only previous works that OMUd ba named in scries with this of Vico; since -besides Schlegel — Kant, Herder, Lessing, loreet, have each developed their own partieu! t« Vico, however, belongs the honour of opening out this new path through the philosophy. The highest recognition he I was his appointment as historiographer to the king of Naples in 1735. In 1743 he fell into cf insensibility which lasted fourteen months, in all which time he knew neither his friends nor children : he died thus in Januarv, 1711. [E.R.] YICQ D'AZYR. Felix, a French physician, famous as a naturalist and physiologist, author of valuable works, 1748-1794. VICTOR, several popes of Rome : — Victor I., bishop and saint, succeeded 185, and was martyred, according to some accounts, 197 ; he was succeeded by Zephyrinus. Victor II., the friend and rela- tion of "the emperor, Henry III., reigned 1055- \ 'h.tor III., succeeded Gregory VII., and died after a few months' pontificate, 1086-1087. Victor IV., an antipope, elected after Adrian IV. 11.39, and supported by the emperor in oppo- sition to Alexander III. ; died 1164. VICTOR AMADEUS L, duke of Savoy, was born 1587, son of Charles Emanuel I., and crowned 1630. He married the sister of Louis XIII., and in his latter years commanded the forces of that sovereisn in his Italian wars, d. 1637. VICTOB AMADEUS II., duke of Savoy, and first king of Sardinia, was born in 1665, and suc- ;.is father in the duchv 1675. He married Maria of Orleans, niece of Louis XIV., but en- tered, nevertheless, on a tortuous policy, which in- volved him in a war with that monarch. Having acquired Sicily, he exchanged that kingdom in 1717 for Sardinia, by treaty with the emperor. He died two years after his abdicating in favour of his son, 1732. VICTOR AMADEUS III., son and successor of Charles Emanuel III., was born in 1726, and ascended the throne in 1773. He founded the Academy of Sciences at Turin, and exhibited the utmost anxiety for the welfare of his subjects. His hostility to the revolution in France, provoked a contest with that country in which his throne fell by the arms of Buonaparte, 1796. K)B EMMANUEL, king of Sardinia, son of the preceding, Victor Amadeus III., born 1759, 1 his brother, Charles Emmanuel IV., 1 during a revolt 1821, died 1824. ' S, Marcus Aurelius, one of the • ho assumed the Roman purple in the time of Gallienus, killed by his troops 268. 3 i I'li/irk, a celebrated Italian philanthropist and charitable founder, 1379-1447 VICTOBI1 i tori. M \i;< o GlROLAMO, an Italian prelate itin poet, about 1490-1566. v n'M'' 1! '' ' l 1>roven V^ physician, 1741-1805. \ DAL, D., ■ Spanisb painter, born 1670. VIDAL, James, called f l>y Eoison. Galeazzo II., one of the amiablo rothers of the latter, died 1358. BajUTAI >. another of the brothers and associates, was poisoned by his nephew, Giovanni Galeazzo, in 1885. In this long interval of power he had shown bunitif a cruel and debauched prince, but he laid tlie foun- dation of the university of l'isa, and HUH steer his course through difficult times. C w.i - azzo, the^r** of this name with the title duke of Milan, having treasonably acquired tin- state in 1385, endeavoured to make himself king of Italy r he p-eatly increased the territory and the number of cities under his government ; died bin-.', (iio- vanni Mauia, eldest son and successor of the latter, being put to some trouble by the re his mother, made an attempt to poison her; his subjects soon after revolted, and he was assassi- nated by a natural son of I'.arnabo 1 112. PaOLO Mama! brother of Giovanni, secured his authority bv marrving the widow of the latter, ami romo- time after had her beheaded. He increased hU 807 VIS dominions by robbing the Swiss, and many valiant MM in Italian history were engaged in his wars; died 1417. The natural' daughter of the last named having married a Sforza/gave rise to a new dvnastv in Milan. ' Y1SC0NTI, Gaspard, of the same family as the preceding, a courtier and poet, 1461-1499. YIm'ONTI, Giovanni Batista, a learned antiquarian, successor of Winckelmann as com- missary of antiquities at Rome, and keener of the pontifical museum, 1722-1784. His eldest son, 1 1 n m is Quirinus, far exceeded him in ability and learning as an archaeologist, and his works are regarded as high authorities. The principal of them is a 'Description of the Pio-Clementine Museum, 1 and Greek and Roman Iconographies, compiled by desire of Napoleon. Born at Rome 1751, died 1818. VISCONTI, J., a liturgist, died 1633. VISDELOW, C., a French Jesuit and Chinese missionary, au. of a ' Hist, of Tartary,' 1656-1737. YISIMJMIXI, E., an Italian poet, 1550-1622. VISE, Joseph Donneau De, a French histo- riocrrapher and dramatic writer, 1640-1710. V1SETTI, J., an Italian poet, 1736-1813. VISSEHER, Rcemer, a Dutch poet, founder of a reunion of literary men, who contributed to restore the Dutch language, 1547-1620. Anne, his eldest daughter, called the Dutch Sappho, skilled in poetry, music, and painting, 1584-1652. Marie, her sister, also a dist. poetess, 1594-1649. VITA, J. De, an Italian archseologist, 1708-74. VITALIANUS, a pope of Rome, 657-672. VITALIS. See Orderic. VITELLIO, or VITELLO, a Polish mathema- tician, the first European in modern times to write anything valuable on optics, about 1254. VITELLIUS, Aulus, a Roman general, pro- claimed emperor in Germany at the time Vespasian was engaged in war with the Jews, a.d. 69. About the time he arrived in Rome, Vespasian was pro- claimed at Alexandria, and, on the latter arriving in Italy at the head of his hostile army, Vitellius was put to death. VITELLIUS, Erasmus, a Polish prelate and negotiator at the diet of Augsburg, 1470-1521. VlTIGES, successor of Theoda'tus as king of the Ostrogoths in Italy 526, taken captive by Belisa- '.'», died at Constantinople 543. VII lMN'CA, Campegius, a learned protestant divine and Hebraist, professor at Franeker, 1659- 1 lis son, Horace, a Hebrew critic, died in youth, 1680-1696. Campegius, his second son, a professor and theologian, 1693-1723. YlIKl'VirS POLLIO, Marcus, a Roman architect, the author of a well-known treatise on architecture in ten books, De Arckitecturd. The edilio princeps of this work was published at Rome 180, without date or name of printer, by i I.-rolt, in folio, and under the superintend- ence of Sulpitius : there have been many editions i the original Latin and in the principal language!: in English, by W.Newton, in 1771-91, with plates, folio, London; by W. Wilkins, l:.A, in 1812} 'The Civil Architecture of \ itruvius' in two parts, 4to, being a translation of 1th, 5th, anil Gth hooks only, and those <•; and by Joseph Gwilt, London, 1*-_>i;, in ruyal 8vo. Neither the time nor place of Vitru- VLA vius' birth are known, but as he dedicated his book to the emperor Augustus, when he was already old, he is supposed to have been born about 80 B.C. This treatise is a very important work as explaining the knowledge of the ancients on the matters treated. Vitruvius mentions the several ancient writers to whom he was chiefly indebted, all of whose works are lost. See a summary account of this treatise in the Penny Cyclo- pedia. [R.N.W.] VITBY, Edward De, a French Jesuit, disting. as a numismatist and philologist, 1670-1730. VITRY, J. De, a French historian, died 1244. VIVARES, F., a French engraver, 1709-1780. VIVENS, Chevalier Francis De, a French physician and economist, 1697-1780. VIVES, John Louis, it. Latin Ladovicus Vives, a classical scholar, and one of the revivers of literature in Spain; born at Valentia 1492, died at Brussels, where he had settled as a teacher of the Belles Lettres, 1541. Vives was one of the teachers of the Princess Mary Tudor, and was ob- liged to leave England ibr writing against the divorce of Catharine. VIVIAN, Richard Hussey, Lord, eldest son of John Vivian, Esq., of Cornwall, and distin- guished as an officer in the late war, was born in 1775. He entered the army in 1793, and com- menced active service on the coast of France under Lord Moira. His first distinctive achievement was in the desperate affair at Corunna, when he covered the retreat of Sir John Moore. At Water- loo he commanded the sixth brigade of cavalry. After the peace he took an active part in politics, was appointed master-general of the ordnance in 1835, and created a peer 1841. Died 1842. VIVIANI, Vincentio, an Italian mathemati- cian, taught by Galileo, and honoured by the grand duke of Tuscany with the office of chief engineer. We owe to him the restoration of the lost treatises of Aristaeus and Apollonius of Perga ; horn at Florence 1622, died 1703. VIVIEN, J., a French painter, 1647-1734. VIZZANI, jEneas, in Latin Vigianus, a physi- cian of Bologna, 1543-1602. Pompeio, an histo- rian of that city, died 1607. Carlo Emanuel, a philologist and classical commentator, 1617-61. VLADIMIR, four Russian princes: — Vladi- mir, called the Great, became master of the domin- ions of his father after assassinating his brother, Jaropolk, in 980, and commenced the civilization of Russia, and the foundation of the Christian reli- gion ; died 1005. Vladimir (the second, though not called by that title), eldest son of Yaroslaw, grand duke of Kief, became duke of Novogorod in 1038, conducted an expedition against Constan- tinople 1041, died 1052. Vladimir II., his great- grandson, commenced to reign 1113, and was distinguished for his humanity and wise adminis- tration ; he sustained a war with the Bulgarians, the Livonians, and the emperor Alexis Commenus, and was the first of the grand dukes who took the title of Czar, and assumed the characters of impe- rial dignitv; died 1125. Vladimir Andreio- witz, nephew of Ivan II., is remarkable for his re- j nunciation of the power offered to him, in favour 1 of his cousin, Demetrius, with the view of promot- i ing the establishment of a regular order in the i succession. This occurred in 1364, and Vladimir VLA afterwards distinguished himself in arms against the Tartars. Died 1410. VLADISLAS. See Uladtslaus. VLAMING, P., a Dutch poet, 1686-1733. YLASTA, a Bohemian amazon, who maintained a struggle for eight years in the endeavour to establish a state ruled 'by women, killed 743. VL1EGER, S., a Dutch painter, 17th century. VLIERDEN, Lambert De, a Flemish juris- consult and Latin poet, 1564-1640. VLIET, William Van, a Dutch historical and portrait painter, 1584-1642. VLIET, or VLITIUS, J. Van, a Dutch juris- consult, philologist, and poet, died 1666. VOEL, J., a French Jesuit, 1541-1610. VOET, Gisbert, in Latin Voetius, professor of divinity and Oriental languages at Utrecht ; born at Hensden 1593, died 1680. He wrote against the Arminians, and against the Cartesian philo- sophy, with much ill-feeling and personal bitter- ness. His son, Paul, was professor of law at Utrecht, and wrote several periodical works, 1619- 1667. Daniel, another of his sons, was professor of philosophy, and wrote on physiological and other subjects, 1629-1660. John, son of Paul, became a professor of law at Leyden, and is au. of a valu- able 4 Commentary on the Pandects,' 1647-1714. VOGEL, C, a German composer, 1756-1788. VOGEL, J. W., a Ger. mineralogist, 1657-1723. VOGEL, Rodolph, a German physician and chemist, compiler of a 4 Medical Library,' pub- lished between 1751 and 1771. VOGLER, J. P., a Germ, botanist, 1746-1802. VOGLI, J. H., an Ital. biographer, 1697-1762. VOIGT, G., a German theologian, 1644-1682. VOIGT, J., a Germ, bibliographer, 1695-1765. VOIGT, J. C, a German physician, 1725-1810. VOIS, A. De, a Dutch painter, born 1641. VOIS, R. De, a French ecclesiastic, 1665-1728. VOISENON, Claude Henry Fusee, Abbe De, a dramatic writer and wit, whose life presents a singular mixture of alternate devotion and licen- lioisness, born at the Chateau de Voisenon, near Melun, 1708, died 1775. The best of his ro- mances is entitled ' L'Histoire de la Felicite ;' some of his comedies were very successful. VOISIN, J. De, a rabbinical writer, 1620-1685. VOISINj or VOYSIN, D. F., chancellor of France during the Orleans regency, 1654-1717. VOITURE, Vincent, a poet and man of letters, advanced by Mazarin, 1598-1648. VOLANUS, A., a Polish protestant, celebrated for his controversy with the Jesuits, 1530-1610. Y< )L< KAMMER, J. C, a physician and botanist of Nuremberg, last century. YOU "KAMMER, J. G., a physician and botanist of Nuremberg, 1616-1693. VOLCKMANN, J. J., a native of Hamburgh, known as a translator, 1732-1803. VOLKOV, FCDOB GuKiouiKViTCH, a gv.at Lu^ian dramatist and actor, 1729-1763. YOLKYi:, NICHOLAS, secretary to the duke of Lorraine, and historian of Alsace, 16th century. VOLLENHOVE, J., a Dutch poet and pro- tectant theologian, 17th century. YOl.N"!.Y,<:<>:wiANTiNi;ClIASSJ-I'..- at Mctklenlcrg in 1701. He ttudied 811 vos under Heyne at Gottingen, and in 1809 was ap- jor at Heidelberg, in which office lie 16, In liis translations of Homer, and others ui the chief daisies, Voss is said to have preserved the metrical form of the original, the most minute iiid expressions of ideas, the epithets, and all the effective characteristics, with surprising tidelity. He has translated Shakspeare, but this endeavour is understood to be less successful. involved in many bitter controversies with Heyne, Stolberg, and Creurey. His own 'Idyls' bars the reputation of being charming additions to e literature of Germany. VOSSIUS, Gerard, a Roman Catholic theo- logian and learned editor, died 1609. VOSSIUS, Gerard John, professor at Leyden and Amsterdam, celebrated for liis extensive learn- ing as a theologian and philologist, was the son of a protestant minister, and was born near Heidel- berg 1577. Some of his works are still considered of great value. He was killed by falling from a ladder in his library 1649. His son, Isaac, also bears a great name among the learned, but he was sceptical of revelation; he settled in England and became canon of Windsor, 1618-1688. VOUET, Simon, an eminent Fr. painter, em- ployed in the Louvre and Luxembourg, 1582-1649. YOULTE, John, in Latin Vulitus, a Latin poet, bom at Rheims. about 1542. VOYER, a family of distinguished Frenchmen : — Rene, Seigneur D'Argenson, a soldier and diplo- matist, 1596-1651. His son and successor in the title, same name, a diplomatist and ambassador to Venice, 1623-1700. Marc Rene, son of the lat- ter, chancellor of France, minister of police, and a ereat promoter of Leltres de Cachet, 1652-1721. His eldest son, Rene Louis, Marquis D'Argenson, minister of foreign affairs, distinguished as a scholar and partizan of the philosophic doctrines. author of ' Essays,' 1694-1757. Marc PierreJ brother of the latter, successor of his father as lieutenant-general of police, and successor of M. de Bretuil as minister of war, was born in 1696. His name is a conspicuous one in the history of the Orleans regency : and having strenuously opposed WAD the system of William Law. he was out of favour till tne great financialist had fallen into disgrace. He was a patron of learned men, and D'Alembert and Diderot dedicated the Encyclopddie to him. He was disgraced through the influence of Madame Pompadour in 1757; died 1764. His son, Rene, a distinguished commander, flourished 1722-1782. VOYS, A. De, a Dutch painter, bom 1641. VOYSIN. See Voisin. VREE, or VREDIUS, Oliver De, a Flemish historian of his own country, 1578-1652. VRIES, Gerard De, a zealous Cartesian philo- sopher, flourished at Utrecht 17th century. VRIES, John Fredeman De, a Dutch pain- ter of architecture and perspective, 1527-1588. VRIES, Martin Gerritson De, a Dutch navigator, time of Van Diemen, 1642. VRILLIERE, Louis Phelipeaux, Marquis De La, secretary of the Orleans regency, 1672-1725. VROOM, or VROON, Henry Cornelius, a Dutch marine painter, from whose designs the tapestry in the House of Lords, representing the defeat of the Spanish armada, was executed to tho order of Admiral Howard, 1566-1617. VUEZ, A. De, a French painter 1642-1724. VUILLEMIN, or WILLEMIN, Jean, a French physician and Latin poet, 16th century. VUITASSE, C, a Fr. theologian, 1660-1710. VULCANUS, the Latinized name of Bonaven- ture de Smet, a learned Fleming, 1538-1614. VULSON, or WLSON, DE LA COLOM- BIERE, Marc De, a famous heraldic writer, who resided at Grenoble, till his domestic peace was destroyed, in the first half of the 17th century, and then took up his abode at Paris. He died in office at the court 1658. Among his works, which are of great value, may be mentioned ' Le Vrai Theatre d'Honneur et de Chevalerie,' 2 volumes in folio, ' La Science Heroique,' and ' De L'Office des Rois d'Armes, des Heraults et Poursuivauts.' VUOERDEN, M. A., Baron De, a French ad- ministrator, author of ' Historical Journals ' relat- ing to the history of Louis XIV., 1629-1699. VZESLAS, grand duke of Russia, rival of Isias- lav in their civil wars, 1068-1101. w WAAJEN, WAASEN, or WAEYEN, Jean V.\Ni>i;n, a Dutch theologian, who has the repu- tation of being one of the best controversialists of that country, and was counsellor to the prince of Orange, 1639-1701. His son, of the same names, who succeeded him as preacher to the university of l'raneker, died 1716. WAAL, or WALL, Lucas De, a painter of Ant- werp, taught by John Breughel, 1591-1676. Cor- . ids younger brother, 159-1-1662. WAGE, Of WAiCE, KoiiERT, an Anglo-Nor- man poet and chronicler, who was canon of Ba- yeux, and chaplain to Henry I. of England, 12th century. BTER, John OsOBGK, a learned Ger- man philologist and antiquarian, 1673-1757. WACKERBARTH, A. C. Oouirr Vox, an Austrian field-marshal and statesman, 1662-1734. »ING, or WADDING, Li ki. an Irish ho held a professorship at Salamanca, and afterwards resided at Rome, author of a ' History of the Order of St. Francis,' and editor of sevcral learned works, including Duns Scotus and Ca- laisio's Concordance, 1588-1657. WADDING, Peter, an Irish Jesuit, who be- came chancellor at the university of Gratz, in Styria, author of Latin works, 1580-1014. WADHAM, Nicholas, founder of the college that bears his name at Oxford, 153G-1G10. WADSTROM, or WADSTR(EM, Charles Bernard, a Swedish engineer, memorable as a promoter of African colonization and discovery, was bom in Stockholm 1746. He visited Africa in company with the botanist, Sparrman, and the mineralogist, Arrhenius, in 1787, and on coming to London was invited to give evidence before the privy council, in an inquiry tending to the aboli- tion of the slave trade. His pamphlet on the sub- ject led to the establishment of the English colony at Sierra Leone ; died at Paris 1799. Wadstrom 812 added some remarks upon the negro character to the work of Norris on Dahomey. WJEL, Lucas De, a Flemish painter, 1591- 1676. Cornelius, his brother, a painter of land- scapes and battle-pieces, 1594-1662. WAFER, Lionel, an English adventurer, who was originally a surgeon in the army, and sailed with Dampier. The latter having quarrelled with him, put nim ashore on the isthmus of Darien, where he remained some time with the Indians. | He published an interesting narrative on his return home in 1690. WAFFLARD, Alexis James Maria, a French dramatic author, 1787-182-i. WAGA, Theodore, a Polish jurist and histo- rian of his own country-, 1739-1801. WAGENAAR, John, historiographer to the city of Amsterdam, author of a ' History of Hol- land from the Earliest Times to 1751,' ' The Pre- sent State ot the United Provinces,' ' Description of the City of Amsterdam,' and ' The Character of John de Witt placed in its True Light.' The first of these works extends to 21 vols. 8vo, and the edition of 1752-1759 is embellished with engrav- ings, maps, and portraits, by Houbraken. Wage- naar was born in Amsterdam 1709, died 1773. WAGENAAR, Luke Jansen, a Dutch pilot and writer on navigation, died 1596. WAGENHARE, Peter De, a religious pro- fessor and Latin poet, born about 1599, died 1662. WAGENSEIL, John Christopher, professor of history and jurisprudence at Altorf, author of 4 Tela Ignea Satanae,' which is a collection and re- futation of all that the Jews have written against Christianity, 1633-1705. WAGER, Sin Charles, a brave naval officer, distinguished in the reign of Anne, 1666-1743. WAGHORN, Thomas, a lieutenant in the royal navy, whose name will long be held in remem- brance for his achievement of the Overland route to India. He was born at Chatham in 1800, and having seen much service by sea and land in the employ of the East India Company, commenced the execution of his great project in 1827. His exertions were crowned with success, but his means and his health were both exhausted, and be died soon after receiving a meagre instalment of the thankful recognition to which he was entitled, in 1850. WAGNER, B., a professor of philosophy, 16th c. WAGNER, Charles Christian, a German phvsician and professional writer, 1732-1796. WAGNER, C. L., a Ger. theologian, last cent. WAGNER, Gabriel, a German polemic and philosophical writer, professor of literature and poetry at Hamburgh in 1696. WAGNER, Godefroi, a German divine, and editor of several learned works, last century. WAGNEB, G. F., a German jurist, born 1631. WAGNER, J. G., a Ger. physician, died 1759. WAGNEB, J. J., a Swiss physician, author of n Natural History of his country, 1641-1695. WAGNER, Louis Frederic, a jurisconsult and numismatist of Tubingen, 1700-1789. WAGNER, Paul, ■ magistrate and jurist of Leipzig, 1617-1697. Christian, his son, a divine and learned writer, 1663-1698. Gotimmii., brother of the latter, a learned writer upon the origin of the Americans, 1652-1725. WAL WAGNER. Peter Christian, a learned Ger- man physician and naturalist, 1703-1761. \VA(iXER, Tobias, a learned theologian and counsellor at Tubingen, 1598-1680. WAGSTAFFE, Thomas, a learned divine of the party of nonjurors, who adopted the medical profes- sion after the revolution, and finally became a pre- late: besides his Sermons, he wrote some political tracts and a vindication of Charles I., 1645-1712. WAGSTAFFE, William, known as a humor- ous writer, physician to Saint Bartholomew's Hos- pital, born in Buckinghamshire 1685, died 1725. WAIILENBERG, George, an eminent Swed- ish botanist and geologist, 1784-1814.- WAILLY, Noel F. De, a French grammarian, 1724-1801. His son, Stephen Augustin, author of a Rhyming Dictionary, 1770-1821. CHABLSS, of the same family, a famous architect, 1729-98. WAILLY, P. J., a Fr. missionary, 1759-1828. WAITHMAN, John, an alderman and mem- ber of parliament of the city of London, well known as an advocate of popular rights; born in Den- bighshire 1765, died 1833. WAKE, Sir Isaac, an ambassador of the time of James I., born at Billing, in Northamptonshire, where his father was rector, about 1575, died 1632. He wrote several works, the principal of which is his 'Rex Platonicus,' of which six editions were published. WAKE, William, archbishop of Canterbury, a prelate of great learning and ability as a theolo- gian, was born at Blandford, in Dorsetshire, 1667, He became bishop of Lincoln in 1705, and arch- bishop in 1716. The most remarkable circum- stance in his history was his correspondence with the Jansenists, the end of which was to promote a union of the French and Euglish Churches. Died 1737. WAKEFIELD, Gilbert, a classical scholar and theologian, originally a curate in the Church of England, was born at Nottingham in 1756. He left the church to accept the situation of classical teacher at Warrington, from which, in 1790, ho removed to the dissenting college at Hackney. In less than a year this engagement was also brought to a close, and Mr. Wakefield gave himself up freely to opposition politics, and attacks upon the religious systems, especially of the Church of Bng* land. His 4 Letter to the Bishop of Llandaff' led to his prosecution and imprisonment for two years in Dorchester gaol. He was liberated in May, 1801, and died of typhus fever in the September following. He is author of several learned works, besides some of temporary interest WAKEFIELD, PbIBCXXAA, authoress of nume- rous works, designed to promote the education and moral improvement of the young, was ban of Qaeker parents, named Trewman, in 1 . died at Ipswich 1882. Her benevolent dispoeitioo was further shown by the foundation of saving's hanks, originally promoted by her for the ouiHl of the industrious poor. WAKEFIELD, Bobi bt. a distin. Hebi minister of the Church of England, died WALBAUM, -I. .1., a Ger. natm WALCH. A. <;.. .i German writer, L78i WAI.ciI, M. G., s German savant, 17- ■ \\ .\l.< I!. .1. '•., ■ German theologian and phfli - logist, lO'Jo-1775. His son, J. E. 1 •; KAMI i L, 813 WAI r. learned theologian and naturalist, 1725-1778. Out. W. Fkanvois, brother of the latter, an , . rlfWJMfVlll historian and theologian, 1726-1784. C PbkdbBIC, a third br., a jurisconsult, 1734-90. WALDAU, G. E., ■ German savant, born 1745. WALDEGBAVE, James, earl of, an eminent statesman, governor of the prince of Wales, son of George II., author of Memoirs, 1715-1763. WALDEMAR I., called 'the Great,' king of Denmark, born 1131, succeeded Eric V-, 1147. His reign was illustrated by expeditions against the pirates of the Baltic, and he compelled Mag- . king of Norway, to sign a humiliating iied 1181. Waldemar II., called 'the Victorious,' vounger son of the preceding, suc- ceeded his brother, Canute VI., 1202. He made many warlike expeditions into Sweden, Norway, and " Germany, created a powerful navy, and revised the laws of his kingdom ; died 1241. Wal- ]>i map. III., eldest son of the preceding, was re- gent from 1219 to 1231. Waldemar IV., third son of Christopher IL, was in Bavaria at the death of his father in 1333. In 1340-4 he recovered part of his kingdom by force of arms, and obtained some further successes against Sweden in 1353 and 1357; eventually, however, he was glad to obtain peace bv making some sacrifices; died 1376. WALDEXSIS, Thomas, a learned English Carmelite, born at Walden, in Essex, about 1367. He became the champion of the church against the reformers of the reign of Henry IV., and in that of Henry V., whose favourite he was, rose to be provincial of his order and a privy councillor. Henry V. died in his arms, and he himself de- parted this life while attending the youthful monarch, Henry VI., in France, 1430. WALDO, Peter. See Valdo. WALDIS, B., a German fabulist, died 1554. WALDKIRCH, John Rodolph De, a Swiss jurisconsult and historian, 1678-1757 WALE, Anthony De, a Flemish theologian and r.dversary of the remonstrants, 1573-1639. John, his son, a physician and anatomist, 1604-1649. WALES, William, an English mathematician, who accompanied Captain Cook on his second in the character of astronomer, and was iinally secretary to the Board of Longitude, author of several astronomical works, 1734-1798. WALINGFOKI), Richard, abbot of St. Albans, known as an astronomer and historian, 14th cent. WALKER, Adam, an experimental philosopher r.nd lecturer, was born in Westmoreland 1732, and brought up as a weaver, but devoting all his spare time to self-improvement, was early qualified' for a place in the intellectual world. He was settled m London as a professional man in 1778, and died there in 1821. Besides his works in experimental philosophy, he invented the Eidouranion, or trans- parent orrery, the revolving fights in the islands of Stilly, and several useful machines. His son, V, ii.i.iam, was also a lecturer on astronomy, and I 17W-1816. WALKER. 'u mi.nt, a presbyterian and poli- nter of the time of Cromwell, was born at ire, and educated at Oxford. I IS to the civil wars he was usher of the r, but at the commencement of those stir- • came, in 1640, member of parlia- r Wells. His 'History of Independency' WAL and ' Cromwell's Slaughter House,' were the occa- sion of his committal to the Tower in 1649, and he died there 1651. WALKER, Sir Edward, clerk to the privy council in the time of Charles L, known as a heraldist and historian, died 1677. WALKER, George, a dissenting minister and teacher of theology, better known as a mathema- tician by his ' Doctrine of the Sphere,' was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne about 1734. He was one of the ministers of the high pavement meeting in Nottingham, and, after that, theological tutor at a dissenting academy in Manchester. Died 1807. WALKER, George, famous for his defence of Londonderry against James IL, was born of Eng- lish parents at Tyrone, and became a minister in the Irish Church. He was killed at the battle of the Boyne shortly after his promotion to the bishop- ric of Deny, 1690. WALKER, John, a minister of Exeter, author of ' An Attempt towards Recovering an Account of the Numbers and Sufferings of the Clergy who were Sequestered in the Rebellion,' d. about 1730. WALKER, John, a well-known lexicographer, was born at Friern Barnet, in Middlesex, 1732, and lived by the profession of a schoolmaster and lecturer, having, however, first studied elocution with a view to the stage. His works are a ' Criti- cal Pronouncing Dictionary,' 'A Rhyming Dic- tionary,' ' Elements of Elocution,' ' Rhetorical Grammar,' ' Outlines of English Grammar,' and a ' Key to the Classical Pronunciation of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names.' Died 1807. WALKER, John, a physician and geographical writer, who, at the time of his decease, was head of the London Vaccine Institution ; born at Cocker- mouth, in Cumberland, 1759, died 1830. WALKER, Obadiah, a Roman Catholic divine and writer on education, 1616-1699. WALKER, R., a portrait painter, 17th centurv. WALKER, S., an English divine, 1714-1761." WALKER, T., an English actor, 1698-1743. WALKER, T., a humorous writer, Avho filled the office of a police magistrate, 1784-1836. WALKER, W., a learned divine, died 1684. WALL, Edward, belonging to an ancient Irish family, was the chief promoter of the rebellion in that country in 1641, and, after the death of Charles I., succeeded the marquis of Ormond as viceroy. He was defeated by Cromwell, and escaped to France, where he died 1651. WALL, John, a physician and medical writer, chiefly remarkable for his researches to discover materials proper for china ware, and the great promoter of that manufacture in Worcester. He also discovered the virtues of the Malvern waters : 1708-1776. His son, Martin, an eminent physi- cian, professor at Oxford, 1744-1824. WALL, William, vicar of Shoreham, in Sus- sex, author of a 'History of Infant Baptism,' and 'Critical Notes on the Old Testament;' died 1728. WALLACE, Sir William, the national hero of Scotland, is supposed to have been born about the middle of the thirteenth century. Like that of all men immortalized in the early history of nations as the vindicators of their independence, his life has been coloured and amplified by the ad- mixture of legendary poetry with fact. It has, however, to be remarked as to Wallace, that re- 814 WAL search in the documentary sources of history has tended to prove the main features of his career — that he gathered by his personal influence a large body of followers — that though of humble origin he became governor of Scotland — that he gained signal victories, and was the object of the special vengeance of the English monarch. He is gener- ally said to have been the son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie, near Paisley, a man of an- cient family, though not of high "rank. That he was himself knighted, and held the title of ' Sir,' or Sieur, is shown by the documents of the day. It is usual to speak of the higher Scottish nobi- lity of the period as basely deserting their country and leaving the national contest to be headed by the one man who was faithful among the faithless. But it must be remembered that the nobility were men of Norman origin, whose sympathies natu- rally were with the court of their national leader, the Norman king of England. The northern Scots, chiefly of Saxon origin, were now made to feel the regal and aristocratic oppression under which the Saxons of England had been governed since the conquest. It is natural to suppose that Wallace's family belonged to the old gentry, -who felt the ascendancy of the Normans, as Cedric the Saxon is so picturesquely made to do in Ivanhoe, and that the young man feeling his capacity for the task, became "the leader of his oppressed countrymen, while the Norman nobles stood aside until ambition opened up for some of them a pros- pect of dominion in the liberated country. His first conflict with the English power is attributed to a romantic origin. Engaged in a dispute with some soldiers m Lanark, the lady of his affections afforded him refuge. She was slain by the for- eigners, on whom the young lover in his turn took signal vengeance. Being thus fairly at feud with the invading power, he gathered around him a gradually increasing body of his countrymen, and was at last joined by such aristocratic leaders as Douglas, Murray, and young Bruce, when Edward •eat a force to quell them in 1297. These followers had not sufficient reliance on their leader, and with few exceptions made a separate submission. Wallace, however, still keeping together his hum- bler followers, attacked and defeated the English army on the plains of the Forth, near Stirling Bridce. The country appeared to be entirely liberated, and the successful leader carried his army across the border to make retaliation on Eng- land, a protection granted by him to the mon- astery of Hexham, dated 7th November, 1297, is one of the few documents relative to him which has been preserved. He assumed the title of re- gent of the kingdom, but the haughty nobles who had so few ties to Scotland, viewed his career with more jealousy than gratitude. Edward, who was absent during the reverses sustained by his ton ,.-, rwohred, with his accustomed energy, to strike a decided blow, and on the 22d of July, 1298, the English king in person gained over him the victory of Falkirk. For some time Wallace led a wan- dering life, and conducted a sort of guerilla war until the year 1303, when he was taken pri- soner. He was removed to London, and on the 23d of August, 1305, executed under the EnglMi treason law, with every circumstance of cruelty and ignominy that could be devised. The English WAL J)opulace sympathized with his fate as that of a ellow-countrvman rather than an enemv. [.1. 1 1. II. | WALLENBOURG, James Dk, an Austrian diplomatist and Orientalist, 1763-1806. WALLENSTEIN. Albert Wallf.xsti.in, duke of Friedland, born in 1583, was the most renowned German commander during the first half of the thirty TEAB8 1 Waii. He was of a noble family, and greatly increased his wealth and power by marriage. When the Danes took part in the struggle between the catholics and protestants in Germany, Wallenstein offered the emperor Ferdi- nand II. to raise and maintain an army of 50,000 men at his own expense, on condition that he was to have the uncontrolled command of them, and the privilege of indemnifying himself from the territories that they conquered. The emperor ac- cepted these terms, ana Wallenstein raised his army of volunteers, gained repeated victories over the Danes and their allies, and overran nearly the whole north of Germany, though he was checked by the heroic resistance of the town of Stralsund. But the violence of his proceedings, and his haughty demeanour, excited the jealousy of many of the catholic princes against him ; and the emperor deposed him from his command in 1629. Wallen- stein retired with calmness; relying on the pro- mises of a favourite astrologer that he would soon be gloriously restored. This actually took place in 1632. The Swedish hero Gustavns Adolphus had appeared in the meantime on the scene of war, and had crushed the imperialist armies. Tilly the emperor's favourite general had been killed in action with him ; and Ferdinand now trembling for his personal safety implored Wallenstein to resumo the command. Wallenstein consented, but on terms of even more haughty independence than before. Such was the confidence that the soldiery placed in him, and such was the magic of trie name, that the warlike youth of Germany crowded around his standard, and in a short time he encountered the Swedes at the head of a powerful and well- equipped army. He had the advantage over Gus- tavus and his'Saxon allies in the early part of the campaign. He recovered several provinces from them, and defeated (iustavus when the Swedish king attacked his camp at Nurnberg. WaHenstein afterwards lost the great battle of Lutzen (Nov. 10, 1632) in which Gustavus fell ; but \\ 'allcustcin re-organized his army in Bohemia, and w.is ex- pected by the Austrian court to press bard on the German protestants and Swedes now tli.it they were deprived of their great king. Wallenstein, however, remained inactive, and was aOCOSed by his enemies at Vienna of intriguing with the Swedes, with the view of making himself king of Lohemia. He was also hated on account of the comparative libera lit y of his religious opinions by the monks and Jesuits, who were nil powerful in the emperor's councils. He was — saattni 25, 1634, by an Irishman named Bntler, and somo other foreign officers in his army. His mnrdereri •v. re r e w a rded by the emperor, and the \ of the dnko were confiscated. Historians have differed as to the reasonable^ of the suspicions that were entertained of WaBenstein'i loyalty ; but there can he no differ- ence of opinion as to the deep atrocity of his tak- ing off. ' L 1 815 WAL WALLER. EDMDHDj whs one of the most fi- Enghah poets, for many years both before and after the Restoration •, and his celebrity was not completely eclipsed till, in the course of the pre- sent century, our ohler poetical literature came to be more justly appreciated, and strength of imagi- nation and feeling to be estimated more highly than elaborate correctness of form. Waller's works are verses of society and celebrations of public per- sonages and events, with a large number of love- Much inferior, not to Donne and Cowley only, but to several others of their class, both in imaginative force and in tenderness of emotion, he has a line grace of fancy and diction, a wise purity of taste, and greater skill and care than almost any other poet of his age in the finishing and rounding off of his smaller compositions. His versirication is exceedingly sweet; and he has un- questionable merit as a forerunner of Dryden in the improvement of the heroic couplet. — Waller, born in Hertfordshire in 1605, succeeded in child- hood to a large patrimonial estate ; and he added to his fortune by a wealthy marriage. It was be- fore a second marriage that he paid unsuccessful addresses to Lady Dorothea Sidney, commemorated in his poems by the name of Sacharissa. After having been a member of the House of Commons in early youth, he sat again on the reassembling of parliament by Charles I. in 1640. At first he took his position with the party of Hampden, who was his cousin, and through whom he was con- nected also with Cromwell. But his vacillating temper soon showed itself; and, on the breaking out of the civil war, though he continued to sit in parliament, he was active in opposition to the pro- ceedings of the house. In 1643 he was arrested for participation in a plot, said to have been in- tended for raising the Londoners on the king's behalf. Several of the plotters, and among them a brother-in-law of Waller's, were executed ; and he himself escaped only through abject submission, and the most cowardly betrayal of the secrets of his friends. He was heavily fined, and banished from the country : but after the establishment of the Protectorate, Cromwell allowed him to return from France ; and he took up his residence at a house he had near Beaconsfield, in Buckingham- shire. Poetical panegyrics on the Lord Protector now flowed freely from his pen ; and it was quite characteristic of the man, that, on the Restoration, these were followed by verses ' To the King, on his Majesty's Happy Return.' He sat repeatedly in parliament even in his extreme old age ; and, though he was neither trustworthy nor trusted, his liveliness of talk, and his felicitous readiness of wit, made him one of the favourite speakers of the house. He died in 1G87, and lies buried beside Edmund Burke. [W.S.] ^ WALLER, Snt Wiixiam, a famous general of the parliamentary army in the civil wars, born in Kent 1;">97, died 1688. His career was not unsus- pected by the independents, and at the restoration he became one of the members lor Middlesex, lie wrote a ' Vindication of his Character and Con- duct,' and ' Divine Meditations.' WALLERIUS,John i ioiisciiALK, an eminent Swedish naturalist, professor of chemistry, metal- kry, and pharmacy, WALLIN, <;., a'S.vedish Orientalist, 1636-1760. WAL WALLTS, Jonx, an eminent mathematici'iri, who held the office of archivist and Savilian pro- fessor of geometry at Oxford, born at Ashford, in Kent, 1616, died 1703. WALLIS, S., an English navigator in 1766-68. WALLIUS, or VAN DER WALLE, James, a Jesuit and Latin poet, French Flanders, 1599-1 ractice, was so pertinaciously denounced by popu- ar opinion, under the well-known ciy, 'Liberty, property, and no excise,' that he required to aban- don it. Among his good qualities may be counted his clemency towards his political opponents, and a desire rather to baffle them, than let them be involved in dangerous schemes. But on the other hand, there is no doubt that the charges of corrup- tion made against him are well founded. If he carried out his objects in government he cared not how this was done, and he did much to verity his own axiom, that every man has his price. His habits and manners were coarse as those of the fox-hunters of his day, and we find his son, Horace, in a party of ladies of the younger and more fas- tidious generation, nervously anxious lest his father should say things to drive them from the room. His first wife was a daughter of Sir John Hunter, 816 WAL lord mayor of London, but he afterwards married lis mistress, Miss Skerret, an event which the duchess of Marlborough loudly proclaimed, but which Coxe's elaborate biography does not men- tion. The fatal majority against him, which showed that his power was gone, was characteris- tically enough in an election case. It occurred on the 2d of February, 1742. On the 9th he was created earl of Orford, and on the 11th resigned. After three years of misery from unwonted ^mic- tion and painful disease, he died on 18th March, 1745. [J.H.B.] WALPOLE, Horace, born in 1717, was the third son of Sir Robert. On leaving Cambridge, ^e travelled on the continent with the poet Gray, '11 the sensitive man of letters and the supercilious man of rank quarrelled and parted. For more than a quarter of a century from 1741 he sat in the House of Commons ; but, though he made some speeches, he was neither a distinguished nor a useful member. Government sinecures conferred on him by his father made up his income to nearly four thousand a-year. Thus enabled to indulge is natural indolence, he spent his life in luxurious lounging; watching and satirizing his political and "ishionable contemporaries, coquetting haughtily with literature and literary men, with art and tists, building at Twickenham his Gothic toy- bouse of Strawberry Hill, and filling it with antiquarian and ornamental nicknacks. In his eventy-fourth year, by the death of his nephew, ie succeeded to the Earldom of Orford ; but the jeerage made no change in his habits. He died six years afterwards, in 1797. — Horace Walpole's iterary productions never rise above the character )f cleverness: but, in their several ways, all of hem are clever ; and the best of them are among he cleverest of their kind. Neither his 'Anec- iotes of Painting in England, 1 nor his ' Catalogue rf Royal and Noble Authors,' would suffice to pre- serve "the reputation which, professing to despise he really longed for vehemently. He attempted ;wice, with considerable success, the adventure of .imaginative composition ; in the romance of ' The Castle of Otranto,' (17G4), and the exaggerated agedy of 'The Mysterious Mother,' (1768). He as more at home in his ' Memoirs of the Reign of George II.,' and the 'Memoirs of the Reign of George III.,' the bitterness of which has some sxcuse in his just indignation at the ill-usage suffered by his father. Rut the permanence of his :elebrity rests on his ' Letters,' which offer a min- ature picture of society and public life for the greater part of his long life. They arc cynical and ll-minded in the extreme, but always full of keen iteration and lively description, and frequent n strokes of pointed wit; and the style, though •eallv formed by great labour, possesses a masterly and apparent ease. Both the Memoirs and the Letters were, by his own order, reserved from publication till after his death. 1 ^ A ) WALPOLE, Horatio, Lord, brother of Sir Robert, preceding article, was born in 1678, and held several offices under government Besides K* olitical pamphlets, he wrote an 'Answer to iolingbroke's Utters on History.' Died 1 . 6 . . WALSH, Eoward, an Irish physician and army surgeon, author of ' A Narrative of the Ex- pedition to Holland,' &c. ; died 1832. tra WAL WALSH, Petkr, an Irish priest and political writer, who became professor at Louvain, and on his return to Ireland persuaded many of the clergy to subscribe a declaration disclaiming the pope's temporal authority ; died 1687. WALSH, William, a gentleman of Queen Anne's household, known as a poet, 1668-1708. WALSINGHAM, SlB 1'kancis, one of Queen Elizabeth's eminent statesmen, was born at Chislehurst, in Kent, 1536. He was first em- ployed by Cecil as ambassador to the court of France in the period 1570-1577, and then became one of the secretaries of state, and received the honour of knighthood. In 1586, three years after he had gone as ambassador to Scotland, he formed one of the Commission for the trial of Queen Mary, and when he died, in 1590, was chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. While Walsingham was in France the massacre of St. Bartholomew took place, and his enmity to Mary Stuart was well grounded in his knowledge of the dark machinations of the Roman Catholics. Queen Elizabeth, who had a vein of humour in her com- position, and frequently addressed her ministers in a sportive manner, called him her moon, and in such a night as threatened Europe at that time, she had reason enough to congratulate herself on having a counsellor so honest and sagacious. He possessed political knowledge and foresight in a remarkable degree, and though it is said he was puritanically inclined, no mau could have drawn a more distinct line where he believed, rightly or wrongly, that the toleration of princes should cease. Walsingham deserves honourable remem- brance also for the steady fidelity to his principles which he displayed at the French court, and bit bold remonstrances with the king. His De- spatches are highly interesting, and may be con- sulted in the work of Sir Dudley Digges. [K.B.] WALSINGHAM, Thomas, a monk of St. Albans, historiographer-royal to Henry VI., about 1440, author of English chronicles. WALTER, John, late proprietor of the Times newspaper, and member of parliament, deserves honourable mention as the first to raise the cha- racter of the daily press, and bring the steam engine to its aid. He was born in 177.J, and under- took the exclusive management of the Times, \n the character of joint proprietor, in 1AM. The successful application of the steam arise in this enterpriee dates from 1814. Mr. Walter regre- s-nted Berkshire in parliament from 188? to 1887, and was returned for Nottingham in 1*11 ; d. 1M7. WALTER, JOHl (..•ui.oii.au eminent Prus- sian anatomist, 1731-1818. Fw M Rl< tus, his son, also an anatomical writer and pro- fessor, 1764-1886. WALTHE't, B., a German aetronofner, d. 1..01. WALTHKH, 7<. W \l TON Bill w I i : ■ .d editor of the London IN.Ivglott Bible, 1600-1" , -j, well-known writer on ang- 817 :;G WAM liiiL'. was born at Stafford in 1593. He died in i bough Ids education was not a remarkably good one, and though he made in after life no pre- [llouse of Izaac Walton.] tensions to learning, he yet became one of the most popular authors of the time in which he lived. He was originally a linen-draper in London, but ac- quiring a competency, he was enabled to retire from business and leave town. He was a pious man, of a thoughtful contemplative turn of mind, and during the time he was in business was exceedingly fond of fishing. The river Lea was his darling haunt (still a favourite spot for Cockney anglers), and there he spent as much of his time as he could spare from his shop, in angling and contemplation. In 1653 he published his famous work, 'Tne Complete Angler, or Contemplative Man's Recreation.' In this work he introduced a good deal of information upon the habits of fresh waterfishes, and figured with considerable accuracy many of the species of which he treats. The air of verisimilitude and unaffected benevolence which this work exhibits has made it the most popular book of its kind ever written ; a popularity which after the lapse of 200 years it still enjoys amongst the lovers of the ' gentle craft.' Walton was considered the most expert fisher of his time, and has been called the father of anglers. He spent a great part of his latter years in the so- ciety of eminent divines, and has left behind him several biographical memoirs which are still highly thought of. He lived to the age of ninety. [W.B.J WAMESE, J., a French jurisconsult, 1524-90. WANGENHEIM, F. A. J. De, a Prussian Orientalist and writer on forest botany, 1747-1800. WANLEY, Nathaniel, rector of Trinity Church, in Coventry, author of ' Self-Reflection,' 1633-1680. His son, Humphrey, a learned liter- ary antiquary, secretary to the Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge, and librarian to the earl of Oxford, 1672-1726. WANSLEBEN, or VANSLEB, John Michel, an Oriental scholar, and traveller in Abyssinia and Egypt, born in Thuringia 1635, died 1679. \YAKBECK, Perkin, or Peter, a pretender to the English throne, who assumed the character and title of Richard, duke of York, one »of the princes supposed to have been murdered in the lower. Being defeated in arms, he was executed in the reign of Henry VII., 1499. Some obscurity still remains about his history. WAR WARBURTON, Eeiot B. G., an English novelist and miscellaneous writer, died 1851. WARBURTON, John, a heraldist and antiqua- rian, author of 'Vallum Romanum,' 1682-1759. WARBURTON, Wm., D.D., a distinguished bishop of the English Church, was born at Newark in 1698. Having acquired the elements of education at the grammar school of his native town, he served an apprenticeship to an attorney, and after the expiry of his term, opened chambers as a legal practitioner. Tiring, however, of the law, he turned his views towards the church, and was admitted to deacon's orders in 1723. The legal studies of his early life exercised a powerful influence in moulding his habits of thought as well as his treatment of controversial subjects : and to the non-professional course of his preparation for the church, must be ascribed that dislike to the routine of the regular discipline, and that pride he took in confounding the adherents to the beaten paths of theology, which formed one of the marked peculiarities in his character. Naturally of a strong, domineering temper, his arrogant dogma- tism, united to great skill and power in wielding the} weapons of dialectic controversy, led him into the propounding and supporting paradoxes, which with all his great learning and acknowledged excellen- cies, rendered him an unsafe guide. By the force of his natural and acquired talents, however, he rose to distinction in the church. In 1726, he obtained, the vicarage of Greasley, and three years after, the; rectory of Brant Broughton. During his residence^ in this latter place, he prepared several works for the press; the principal of which are — Jnquiry into the Causes of Prodigies and Miracles, a Treatise* on the Legal Judicature of Chancery, and some Translations. These were soon followed by other* productions of a higher character — the Alliance] between Church and State, which was first pub-* lished in 1738, and the first volume of the Divine Legation, which appeared towards the close of the same year. Although both of these works contri- buted to establish his fame as a divine, it waav not to either of them directly, but to another pro* duction of his able pen that he was indebted for hi*' elevation to episcopal dignity. This was his l Vin-. dication of Pope's Essay on Man,' which not only I introduced him to an acquaintance with that poett'. but procured him the friendship of Mr. Allen of Bath, through whose influence he gained the patron- • age of the crown. He was successively appointed?! chaplain to the king, prebend of Durham, dean of.i Bristol, and bishop of Gloucester, in 1759. Ito the conduct of the controversial wars it was his i delight and pride to carry on, the temper of War- burton often presented a sad contrast to the meek«- ness of the Christian character. But with all these* palpable defects, he was a man of sincere and! habitual piety — of a tender conscience — of greats benevolence, and a reigning zeal, which has rareljtj been surpassed, for the propagation of ChristW anity, as the greatest blessing to the human race^ His death took place in 1779. [^R.J.l] WARD, Edward, au. of ' The London Spyjv and of a poetic version of Don Quixote, 1667-1731^ WARD, BERNARD, an Irish economist, settled] in Spain, and employed in the public service offl that country, 1750. WARD, John, a learned writer, professor qfc! 818 WAR rhetoric at Gresham college, was the son of a dis- senting minister, and was born in London 1679. He began life as an assistant schoolmaster, and having made himself known as a classical scholar and antiquary, was chosen professor in 1720 ; died 1758. His principal works are 'Lives of the Gresham Professors,' and ' A System of Oratory.' WARD, Robert Plumer, a miscellaneous and historical writer, best known as the author of 4 Tremaine,' was born in London 1765. He com- menced his professional career as a barrister, in 1790, and published his first work, an 'Inquiry into the Foundation and History of the Law of Nations in Europe,' in 1795. He entered parlia- ment in 1802, and became under-secretary for foreign affairs in 1805: afterwards he was succes- sively one of the lords of the admiralty, and clerk of the ordnance. He died in 1846, and the Hon. Phipps has since published his ' Memoirs and Literary Remains.' WARD, Samuel, Margaret professor of divinity, known as a learned controversialist, died 1643. WARD, Seth, bishop of Salisbury, eminent as a mathematician and astronomer, 1617-1689. WARD, T., a Roman Catholic divine, 1652-1708. WARDLAW, Henry, founder of the university of St. Andrews ; became bishop of that see in 1404, and was chiefly remarkable for his zeal in behalf of the Roman Catholic Church. He was a man of high character in other respects, but unscrupulous in his treatment of those he regarded as heretics, many of whom he sent to the stake. Died 1440. WARDLAW, Dr. Ralph, was born in Dal- keith, 22d December, 1779, a few months after which his family removed to Glasgow. Though bred in the principles of the Secession Church, he resolved to join himself to the Congregational larty, and was, in 1803, ordained by his friend Mr. Swing to be pastor in a chapel in Albion-Street : e afterwards removed to a larger place of wor- hip in George-Street. In 1811 lie was associated ith Mr. Ewing as one of the tutors in the Theo- ogical Academy. Dr. Wardlaw acquired a high putation as a theologian, and his professional nerits were acknowledged by an honorary degree )f D.D. His principal works are 'Discourses n the Socinian Controversy,' 'Sermons,' 'Man's esponsibility for his Belief,' ' Lectures Against Religious Establishments,' ' Lectures on the His- my of Joseph,' &c. He died 17th December, 1853, nd his funeral was a public procession. [R.J.J WARE, James, an eminent oculist, died 1815. WARE, Sir James, called 'the Camden of reland,' author of works on the history and anti- raities of that country, 1594-166G. WARGENTIN, P. W., a Swedish astronomer, ecretary to the Academy of Sciences, 1717-1783. WARHAM, Wm., archbishop of Canterbury .nd lord chancellor, was born at Okely, in 1 1 amp- hire, 1460, and in 1475 admitted a fellow of New College, Oxford. His public life commenced in 493, when Henry VII. sent him on an embassy o the duke of Burgundy; he became k he great seal in 1502, but resigned this office in 515, in consequence of the ascendancy of Wolscy, vho succeeded him ; died 1532. WARING, Edward, professor of mathematics t Cambridge, author of an ' Essay on the Prin- WAR ciples of Human Knowledge,' ' Properties of Alge- braic Curves,' and other works, 1734-1798. WARMHOLTZ, Charles Gustavls, a Swed- ish bibliographer, 1710-1784. WARNER. Ferdinando, a doctor and clergy- man of the Church of England, author of a great number of works, theological, biographical," and historical, 1703-1768. John, his son, a writer on prosody, and translator of the history of ' Friar Gerund,' from the Spanish. WARNKR, John, bishop of Rochester, distin- guished for his learning and munificence, and as a royalist at the period of the rebellion, 1585-1666. Among his charitable works may be mentioned the foundation of Bromley College, for twenty widows of royal and orthodox clergymen, and four scholar- ships in Baliol College for young Scotchmen. WARNER, J., an eminent surgeon, 1717-1801. WARNER, Richard, a botanist, 1711-1775. WARNER, William, an English scholar and poet, mentioned among the early writers to whom we owe the refinement of our language, 1558-1609. WARNERY, C. E., a French officer and writer on tactics, in the Polish service, 1719-1786. WARREN, C, a steel engraver, died 1823. WARREN, Sir John Borlase, an English admiral, employed in the expedition to Quiberon, destined to assist the Vendeans, was born at the seat of his family at Stapleford, in Nottinghamshire, 1754. After the Vendean expedition he joined the Brest fleet under Lord Bridport, and distinguished himself in 1798 by capturing the French squadron sent to invade Ireland. On the conclusion of peace he became a privy councillor, and was sent as ambassador to Russia; died 1822. WARREN, Sir Peter, vice-admiral of the red, was born in Ireland 1703, and won his laurels by the capture of Louisbourg, and the total defeat <>f a French squadron sent to recover it, 17 I In the autamn of the last-mentioned year his popularity occasioned his return to parliament .;s member for Westminster ; died 1752. WARSEWITZ. ( '. Stanislaus, a Polish states- man, historian, and Jesuit: died 1605. WARTON, JOSEPH and Thomas, were bro- thers, and very like each other in uywiitl and mental character. They share with Bishop Ren y the honour of having given the first perceptible impulse to that revolution in literary tut*, which dethroned Pope and the Didactic school of UUtUff, and led poets and critics to a renewed study both of nature and of Old Fnglish literal u: Wartons have a place, likewise, among our minor poets; but in this character even Thomas pos- sesses but small merit. They were sons ol gyman, who was professor of poetry at I and afterwards a vicar in Hampshire. Joseph was born in 1722, and lived till IHUO. Thonat* born in 1728, died in 1790 -Dr. J was the more active and bdaffOdttl thinker of the two; ami students of the prJTJ sjsja have, since his time, estimated, more justly than did his < ■ontempornrirs. the •value Of hi.t was same year Warton, a poor man during all the best period of his life, was diverted from systematic study and speculation by the toils of clerical duty, and after- 819 mn did his contemporaries ol MS Essay on the Genius and W as puhli-dieu, in separate parte, in L7ofl ( tho uneyearwi:h Parqra Rsfiqnw) ai WAR wards by those of teaching. He taught for nearly forty years in Winchester. School, of which for tweiitv- seven years he was head master — Dr. Thomas Wartofi, being content to remain in the celibacy of Trinity College, Oxford, was able to devote himself without interruption to his favourite pursuits. He held the professorship of poetry for the usual ten years from 1757; and in 1785 he was appointed poet-laureate and Camden professor of history. Besides writing a good deal of poetry, and several miscellanies and pieces of humour, he creditably edited Theocritus and one of the Greek Anthologies. But his really valual.de efforts were made in the criticism of Early English literature. His earliest performance of this sort was the ' Ob- servations on the Faerie Queene of Spenser,' pub- lished in 1752, and much enlarged in 1762. His great work, 'The History of English Poetry,' appeared in three successive volumes, in 1774, 1778, and 1781. He lived to write only a small portion of a fourth volume ; and the work closes abruptly near the beginning of Elizabeth's reign. It is ill-digested, desultory, and often very loose in reasoning: it contains many serious gaps, and very many positive errors, in detail. But even its mistakes and deficiencies are fewer than we might have expected from the first pioneer in so rugged a field ; and the value of the book makes it well worth the trouble which has been expended on it, in corrections and additions, by its recent editors, Price and Taylor. Its antiquarian learning is very great ; the poetical taste of the author is remark- ably fine; and the flowing and animated eloquence, which breaks out whenever the occasion permits, makes many parts of it as interesting as anything we have of the sort. t^.S.] WARWICK, a famous baronial name in Eng- land ; the principal of those who have borne it are — Guy op Beauchamp, commonly called Guy, earl of Warwick, a party to the league against Edward II., by which the favourite, Piers Gaves- ton, was beheaded, 1312. Richard, a favourite of Henry V., distinguished in the French wars, and regent in the time of his successor ; died 1439. Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, called the King Maker, slain at the battle of Barnet 1471. Edward, grandson of the latter, beheaded by Henry VII. 1499. WARWICK, Sir Philip, secretary to Charles I., and member of the long parliament, author of a l Discourse on Government,' and ' Memoirs of the King,' 1608-1682. WARWICK, Vibrand Vox, a Dutch naviga- tor, who prepared the commercial relations be- tween Holland and the Chinese in 1606. WASH II, Anna, a Swiss painter, 1679-1713. WASER, Gaspard, a learned Swiss Orientalist and antiquarian, 1565-1625. His son, John Hknp.y, h diplomatist, 1600-1669. WASER, H., a Swiss minister and economist, author of ' Chronologie Diplomatique,' 1742-1780. WASHINGTON, George, was born in West- moreland in the state of Virginia, on the 22d of February, 17*2. His father was affluent, but received merely the ordinary education of the young American colonist of the day, which was always meagre, unless when the ambitious E-ent a son to the home country. He had, owever, but scanty literary or artistic tastes, WAS and studied only the accomplishments which aided his practical views. Though it has been questioned if he knew any language but English, it is understood that he studied French after the responsibilities of command had fallen on him, for the purpose of holding communication with the auxiliaries sent from France to join the army of independence. On the other hand, his practical ac- quirements were precociously developed. When but sixteen years old he was emploved in survey- ing the vast wilderness assigned to*his connection, Lord Fairfax, in the district of the Allegany moun- tains. He pursued the profession of a surveyor, which in a country full of estates, utterly unknown in character and extent to their owners, was a lucrative one ; and he is said to have thus obtained an unconscious training for his subsequent warlike operations by acquiring a minute acquaintance with some parts of the country, and a knowledge of the general characteristics of' the whole. Before he was twenty years old he received an important command, as adjutant-general of one of the mili- tary districts into which Virginia was divided to resist the Indians, and his genius entitled him to more important command in the American war with France in 1754. In a mission across the frontiers to ascertain the objects of the French, he discovered by his extraordinary sagacity the views of aggran- dizement which led ultimately to the destruction of French power in America. He distinguished him- self in the war which then broke out, and as all this occurred before he was twenty-three years old, his history decidedly supports the theory that the faculty of the military commander is generally de- veloped early in life. It is believed, indeed, that many of the early calamities of that war might have been obviated if veteran British commanders had paid more respect to the sagacity of the young Virginian. In 1759 he married Mrs. Martha Cur- tis, a widow. She brought considerable property to add to Washington's large estates, and for some years his hands were as full of business, in the, management of private property and attendance on the provincial legislature, as they ever afterwards were when he was at the head of the Union. It was one of his peculiarities that he carried oufc small matters with the same articulate organization, as large. He slurred over nothing, and his house- hold books, of which fac-similes have been exten- sively circulated, would have stamped him as a pedantic trifler, had they not exemplified the samej rigid adherence to system and accuracv of detail with which he subsequently organized the govern- ment of a great nation. He took an unnoticeablft but active part in his own province, in the pre-«] parations for the assertion of independence. He: was appointed one of the delegates from Virginia to the first general congress in 1774, and had the command of the independent companies of the state.! Still, his position had never been brilliant or even] conspicuous, and it is perhaps the most remarkable instance of that common sense which characterized! the revolution, that the supreme command of thel army of independence should have fallen into his hands. He became commander-in-chief on 15tU June, 1775. To give his history from that period until, after completing the task assigned to him, he} resigned his command at the close of the yeaP 1783, would be to give a history of the American" . c \ WAS war of independence. It may be only generally re- marked of his career, that it was almost to the conclusion a struggle not onlv against the British force, but the turbulence and factiousness of those who were influential in the new states and their army. It cannot be said that the brilliancy of his achievements gave him his great influence, for he was often beaten, and it was by taking ad- vantage of what his troops learned in bardships and defeats, that he was at last able to accomplish the sagacious and deeply planned movement by which Comwallis was surprised and foutid it necessary to surrender. He was inaugurated as the first president of the United States, on the 30th of April, 1789. How he presided at the organization of a new empire, and regulated the enthusiasts, or self-seekers, who struggled for their peculiar objects, is, like his military career, matter of listory. On more than one occasion, if he could not with certainty have achieved life-long despotic power, he might have acquired the flattering title of king, but it was his great merit that he sought only as much power and greatness as enabled him to do his duty, and no more. He retired from public life in 1796, and died on the 14th of December, 1799, leaving a reputation without a stain. [J.H.B.] [Tomb of WmUnKMM J WASMUTH, M., a Danish Orientalist, 1625-88. WASSE, Cornelia Woutem. Baroness Von, a female writer of Brussels, 1739-1*112. WASSE, JOSEPH, a native of Yorkshire, dis- tinguished for his classical learning, 1672-1738. WASSENAER, N. J., a Dutch physician and historian of Europe, died 1632. WASSENBEBG, EVEHABD Vox, a German historian of the reign of Uladislaus IV., b. 1610. WATELET, Clauds Henry, a French j« 'in- ter and etcher, author of several critical works on art of considerable value, 1718-17HG. WATERHOl'SE, Fiavard, an English divine, known as a heraldist and miscell. writer, 1619*70. WA'l ERLAND, Daniki., a learned divine, and dignitary of the Church of England, was born at Wasclv or Waleslv, in Lincolnshire, 1' died 1740. His principal works are of a contro- WAT yersial character, written against Jackson and Tindal: a complete edition was published in 11 volumes 8vo, 1823, by Van Milderr. WATERLOO, Anthony, a Dutch landscape painter and etcher; born about 1618, died 1661. WATERLOO, G. B., a Latin poet, 1572-1597. WATRELOS, Lambert, a priest of Flanders, author of a Chronicle of Cambray, 1110-1172. WATS, Gilbert, an English scholar, d. 1657. WATSON, David, a learned Scotchman, best known for his version of Horace, 1710-1756. WATSON, Henry, a gallant East Indian officer and engineer, born at Holbeach about 1737. He distinguished himself at the siege of Belle Isle in 1761, and at the capture of Havannah 1762, but in a still more memorable manner by the works of Fort William ; died 1786. WATSON, James, a Scotch printer, author of a History of the Art in Scotland, died 1722. WAISQM, John, a minister of the Church of England, known as an antiquarian, and historical and miscellaneous writer, 1724-1783. WATSON, Richard, bishop of Llandaff, author of several learned works, was born at Heversham, near Kendal, in 1737. He first distinguished himself as a natural philosopher, and in 1764 succeeded Dr. Hadlev as professor of chemistry at Cambridge; in 1771 lie became professor of divin- ity. The theological works of Bishop Watson are, 1 An Apology for Christianity, in a scries of Letters addressed to Edward Gibbon, Esq.,' 'An Apology for the Bible,' in answer to Fame's Age of I and many miscellaneous Tracts and Sermons. His philosophical works are chiefly on Cheniistrv. Died 1816. WATSON, Robert, a Scottish historian and professor of the Belltx Letlre*, author of a ' His- tory of Fhilip II.,' born at St. Andrews about 173 l, died 17MI. Mr. Watson began a History of l'bilij) III., which was completed bv Dr. Thompson. WATSON, T., a nonconformist divine, d. 1690. WATSON, T., a catholic prelate, di.-d WATSON, T., a song-writer, d. 1591 or 1592. WATSON, Sir Wii.i.iam, a physician of Lon- don, eminent as a botanist and natural nbOoOO- phcr. OOpedaflj for his skill in electricity; born in Clcrkenwell 1715, died 17*7. WATT. JAMBS, the author of improvements in the application of steam as a motive power wtt h have identified his name with the steam en^ue. Directing the force of an original genius, w.irly «x- ardffd Ui pbilo.soj.hic.il research, to the improve- ment of the steam engine, he enlarged the resources of his country, increased the power of man, and rose to an eminent place among the illustrious followers of science and the real benefactors of tho world. Watt wax born at Qn fOn V , Ittfa January, 1736, the son of James Watt, twenty years town councillor, treasurer, and bailie of < Ji even in Infancy, says M. Arsg». of a deli, stitution, the early education of James Watt was in ,.;i.sure of * domestic character. His ill health >.ems to have led him to the cultr his intellect with unusual assiduity. It is said that when only six yesrs of sge, he was discowod drawing geometrical flgUrte OB the hearth with chalk, and other anecdotes related of hm. justify the lemark which was elicited br a friend on tho above occasion that he wu 4 a by ordW wean/ m WAT When about fourteen years of age he made an electrical machine, and there is a curious anecdote related by M. Arago, to the effect that his aunt, Mrs. Muirhead, who did not entertain the same opinion as his father of the powers of the boy, upbraided him one evening at the tea table for what seemed to her to be listless idleness ; — tak- ing off the lid of the kettle and putting it on again ; holding sometimes a cup and sometimes a silver spoon over the steam ; watching the exit of the steam from the spout, and counting the drops of water into which it became condensed. With the increased light imparted by a knowledge of his subsequent career, the boy pondering before the tea kettle, will, as observed by his French enthusiastic biographer, be viewed as the great engineer pre- luding to the discoveries that were to immortalize him. In 1755, Watt went to London, and placed himself under Mr. John Morgan, mathematical and nautical instrument maker, in Finch Lane, whose business it would appear lay chiefly in making and repairing the instruments made use of in the ex- periments in mechanics and natural philosophy. Shortly after his return from London, about 1757, when Watt had scarcely attained his twenty-first year, he endeavoured to establish himself in busi- ness in Glasgow, but owing to his not being a burgess he met with opposition from the corpora- tion of arts and trades, who refused to allow him to set up even the humblest workshop. To the great renown of the authorities of the university, which is not under city jurisdiction, Watt was offered an asylum within the precincts of the college, where he established a shop, and he was honoured with the title of mathematical instrument maker to the university. The great men of the day — Adam Smith, Dr. Black, Dr. Dick, Professor Anderson, kindly befriended young Watt, and the more intelligent students were his intimate com- panions. The revival of commercial and manufac- turing enterprise in Britain had about this time directed attention to steam as a motive power. As early as 1761 or 1762, Watt made some experi- ments on the force of steam. But the event to which his invaluable discoveries may be most dis- tinctly assigned took place in the session of 1763- 64, when Professor Anderson sent him a model of Newcomen's steam engine to repair. He soon repaired the model, which exists to this day in the museum of the natural philosophy class. While working at these repairs, he was led to detect the imperfections of the machine itself, and to investi- gate those properties of steam upon which its action depends. About this time he left the col- lege and took up his abode in the town previous to his marriage with his cousin, Miss Miller, the daughter of a ' freeman,' in the summer of 1764. It u not possible to enter here on the nature of Watt's improvements in the steam engine, or to estimate their economical advantages; we must refer to treatises on the steam engine for informa- tion on these points. Suffice it here to say, that Watt's invention of a separate condenser, and the • modifications of the arrangements of the mechanism of the engine, were in their main fea- mpleted as early as 1765. In 1768, the ■nt was applied for, and obtained 5th Janu- ary, 1769. Dr. John Roebuck, the founder of Carron Iron Works, who had aided Watt in pre- WAT paring his third working model, was a shareT in this patent. Roebuck's affairs got embarrassed in the summer of 1769, and Watt was for the time deprived of the means of prosecuting his inventions. He dedicated himself, however, with great credit to general engineering and surveying during the interval which elapsed before the opportunity presented itself of his finally devoting himself to the carrying out of his improvements in the steam engine. It was while engaged in the greatest en- gineering work undertaken by him, the surveying and estimating a line of canal between Fort Wil- liam and Inverness, since executed by Telford on a larger scale than was then proposed, that Watt, in 1773, having been bereaved of his wife, determined to accept an invitation from Matthew Boulton, the founder of Soho, to settle in England. Watt's con- nection with Boulton commenced early in the year 1774, and they remained in partnership till 1800, when Watt retired from business, but their friend- ship continued undiminished until Boulton 's death..* Of the spirited manner in which Boulton conducted^ the mercantile department of the establishment, some idea may be formed from the fact, that up- wards of £47,000 was spent before the patentees began to receive any returns ; but at length their remuneration began to pour in, and in no scanty stream. In Cornwall and other mining districts, especially where coal was not abundant, the new engines speedily replaced the old ; but down to 1794 the introduction of the steam engine into other three mining districts had been comparatively slow, and it has been stated, that at the expiration of the patent the aggregate power of the engines employed in London was not more than 650 nomi- nal horse power ; in Manchester about 450 horse power, and in Leeds about 300 horse power. As above alluded to, a volume would not suffice to ex- ] haust Watt's professional biography, and we must leave our readers to inquire into "this elsewhere. Of the private character of the great engineer a most pleasing account is given by Lord Jeffrey, who observes: 'Perhaps no individual in this age {assessed so much and so varied exact information, lad read so much, and remembered what he had read so accurately and well. He had infinite quickness of apprehension, a prodigious memory, and a certain rectifying and methodizing power of 1 understanding, which extracted something precious out of all that was presented to it.' In social con- ! versation he allowed his mind, like a great cyclo- j pasdia, to be opened up on whatever subject might best suit the taste of his associates ; and he made everything so plain, clear, and intelligible, that, it is remarked, scarcely any one could be conscious of any deficiency in their own capacity in his pre- sence. — Of a generous and affectionate disposition, j he was considerate of the feelings of all around him, and gave the most liberal assistance and en- couragement to all young persons who showed indications of talent, or who applied to him for'i patronage and advice. As his death approached, he was perfectly conscious of his situation, and calm in the contemplation of it, expressing his thankfulness for the length of days with which he had been blessed. He died at Heathfield, near Soho, Birmingham, on the 25th August, 1819. He was fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh; correspondent of the French lnsti- WAT tute, and an LL.D. of Glasgow university. By public subscription a monument was erected to him m 1824 in \\ estminster Abbey, one of the best of Chantrey's works. The countenance of this statue has been characterized as the • personification of abstract thought.' Other statues by Chantrey adorn George's Square, Glasgow, the University Museum, and the chapel at Handsworth, erected by Watt's only son, who survived him, and who is since dead. ' [L.D.B.G.] WATT, Robert, a Scotch physician, author of professional works, and of the well-known index of British and foreign literature, entitled ' Biblio- theca Britannica,' 1774-1819. WATTEAU, Anthony, an eminent French landscape painter, b. at Valenciennes 1684, d. 1721. WATTS, Isaac, D.D., was a native of South- ampton, where he was born on 17th July, 1674. His father was a dissenter, and living at a time when nonconformity was a crime, he several times suffered heavy penalties, both by fine and imprisonment. Isaac early displayed a remarkable precocity ; and his greatest delight while a mere child, consisted in reading simple story books. At the age of four he began to learn Latin, and at seven, had attracted no small attention by his alent for versifying. His proficiency in classical tudies was so much above the average scholarship of school boys, that some wealthy individuals, desirous of encouraging so gifted a youth, offered to bear the expenses of his education at one of the universities, if his father would have consented to his entering the established church. Prevented by conscientious scruples from accepting this generous offer, the father placed Isaac at a dissenting aca- demy, under the care of the reverend Mr. Rowe, an ndependent clergyman, eminent both for his piety and learning. At the age of twenty, his academic course was finished, but instead of commencing an ictive course of preaching, he resolved, with a rare xercise of humility, and distrust of hi3 fitness for _he pulpit, to return to his father's house, with a view of acquiring, during a season of religious •etircment, those higher qualifications for the duties >f the ministry, which no course of academic nstruction, however extensive or varied, can mpply. It was during this period that he first ;ried his poetic talents in the composition of sacred poetry; and so much were these sacred songs admired, that on their being collected and published in a little volume, they were unanimously adopted i the hymn-book of the independent chapel ■where his father worshipped.— After a retirement f two years under the paternal roof, he accepted n invitation from Sir John Hartopp, Bart, of Stoke-Newington, to undertake the office of tutor to his son. In this situation, he enjoyed ample opportunities for self-improvement; and while he wai most conscientious in attending to the interests of his youthful charge, he pursued his own studies at the same time, with indefatigable industry; increasing his familiarity with the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures,— perusing the works of the most eminent biblical writers and divines,— forming abridgments of many, and endeavouring to digest his acquired knowlege by the methods he afterwards id in his ' Improvement of the Mind, —in 1 698 Watts entered npon the duties of the ministry, as assistant to Dr. Chauncey, pastor of the inde- WEB pendent church, Mark Lane, London ; and on the death of that clergyman, was chosen to sueeeed him on 8th March, 1702. Under the auspices of this eloquent and fervid young preacher, the congregation rapidly increased, and continued for several years in the most flourishing condition, when an alarming illness, brought on by his vehement style of oratory, threatened to put a premature period to his life and usefulness. By due care and attention he recovered ; but his physical energies were so much impaired, that ne* was obliged, first, to employ an assistant, to relieve him of some part of his ministerial duties; and then afterwards, on the recurrence of a violent fever, which gave a severe shock to his enfeebled constitution, he had, at his own desire, Mr. Price associated with him as colleague in the pastoral charge of his congregation. Compelled soon after to resign his public office, he went on a visit to the house of his friend, Sir Thomas Abney, knight and alderman, at Abney Park, Stoke-Newing- [Abney Park, the residence of Isaac Watta.] ton ; and that visit, though designed at first to be for a few days, was prolonged to a residence of more than thirty years. In tliis hospitable man- sion he received 'all the tender and assiduous attention which his infirmities required; and which WCn sweetened bj the pleasures of cultivated society and Christian friendship. In 1738, the uiivcisities of Edinburgh and Aberdeen simul- taneously conferred on him the honorary ■ Doctor in Divinity. Seldom has such I tit !•■ MM i on one so worthy to n Watts' range of knowledge was almost nnl and although theology was of 000 subject of DM studv, he had mastered t: circle of the sciences. Dr. Watts holds ft respect- aide rank in the list of British i ts. His poetTJ is chiefly of a devotional cast, and in rega Dr. Johnson has pcoaouMod this high .-ulopum, 'That lor children he condescended to lay aside the scholar, the philoso] wit to write little poems, systems adapted to their wants and < died on 25th November, 1748, in the »cvcntT- fifth year of his age. ' WAYNli.i.ii .. William or, so called from his birth-place, in Lincolnshire, was the eldest son m WE A of Ri« -hard Patten or Barbour. Commencing his distinguished career as head master of Winchester k-IkhiI about 142H, he became provost of Eton, tben in course i>f foundation by Henry VI., 1442, of 'Winchester 1447, and lord high chan- cellor 1466. Be founded Magdalen College, Ox- ford, and. though a true Lancastrian, was highly honoured bv Edward IV. ; died 1486. WEAVER See Wi.ivkk. WEBB, F., an English writer, 1735-1815. WEBB P. ('., an antiquarian, 1700-1770. WEBBS. GbOBOB, a native of Wiltshire, who became bishop of Limerick, and died in the castle of that town, where the rebels had imprisoned him, in 1C41. He is the author of several religious works, the principal of which is entitled ' Practice of Quietness, directing a Christian to Live Quietly in this Troublesome World.' WEBRE, Samtkl, a great English musician and composer, was born in 1740. In his boyhood he was indentured to a cabinet-maker, but after the termination of his apprenticeship he devoted himself entirely to the study of music. At twenty- fix vcars old he gained a gold prize medal for the >n from the Catch Club, and from the years 1765 to 1792 he had no fewer than twenty-seven medals awarded to him from the same club for glees, canons, odes, and catches. It was for this club that Webbe composed the famous glee • Glori- ous Apollo.' His compositions of the class men- tioned amount to one hundred and seven. He composed, besides masses (he was a Roman Catho- lic) anthems. songs, &c, many of which are still Bong. He died in 1817. [J.M.] WEBBER, .John, an ingenious artist, who was appointed draughtsman in the last expedition of Captain Cook; born in London.1751, died 1793. WEBBER, /., a Dutch theologian, died 1697. WEBER, Ananias, a German theologian, preacher, and controversial writer, 1596-1765. WEBER, Caki. Mauia Von, one of the greatest of German musicians, was born at Eutin in Hol- stein, in December, 1786. In 1797 he was taken to Saltzburg and placed under the tuition of Michael Haydn, (brother of the illustrious com- poser), and here he published his first works. Soon after this he went to Munich, where he re- reived lessons in singing from Valesi, and in com- from M. Kalcher, under whose supervision music for an opera 'The Power of Love and \\ inc.' In 1800 his opera the ' Wood Maiden ' was brought out, in 1801 ' Peter Schlemihl,' and soon after 'Rubezahl,' which afterwards appeared "position of Rode. In 1802 he set out on a professional tour through Germany, and in 1806 he went by invitation to Carlsruhe," where he produced several symphonies and concertos. At •It he composed his 'Abon Hassan,' and L816 he was director of the opera at ' brought out at Berlin his greatest work, ' l).-r Freiechntz,' which produced an immense sensation in the north of Germany, • was performed. It was put on Ion on the 23d of duly, 1824. In er produced at Vienna his opera of 'Eiirymthe,' and in 1820 he accepted from Mr. Charles Kernble the offiv of £600 to compose an opera for the English stage. This opera was ' Oberon,' which was brought out at WEB Covcnt Garden theatre, conducted by Weber him- self, on the 12th of April, 1826. Soon after unmis- takeable symptoms of pulmonary disease presented themselves, and the health of the great composer sank rapidly, and his illustrious career closed on the 5th of June, 1826, when he was found lifeless in his bed. He was buried in the Roman Catholic chapel, Moorfields, permission to inter him in St. Paul's cathedral having been refused on account of his religion. [J.M.] WEBER, Emmanuel, r German historian, poet, and jurisconsult, died 1726. WEBER, G., a German savant, 1632-1698. WEBER, Henry William, a miscellaneous writer and archaeologist, was born at St. Peters- burg of German parents in 1783, and having been educated at Edinburgh and Jena for the medical profession, finally settled in Scotland as an author. His principal works are — 'Metrical Romances of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Cen- turies,' 'Explication of Northern Antiquities,' ' The Battle of Flodden Field,' and an edition of ' Beaumont and Fletcher.' Died 1818. 824 [Birth-place of Daniel Webster.] WEBSTER, Daniel, was born at Salisbury in the state of New Hampshire, on the 18th of Jan., 1782. He was a child of the wilderness, and but for the New England system of education, which pushed, even then, the means of instruction into remote solitudes, he would never have been en~ li abled to bring his great faculties to bear in public life. His acquirements were always scanty when compared to tne great intellectual force with which he could apply them. He studied for the law in the joint capacity of attorney and barrister after the American fashion, and in 1807 removed from the obscure village of Boscawen to a larger field of exertion in Portsmouth, the chief town of the state. He was a great forensic orator, and his career at the bar was connected with many leading cases of great public and constitutional interest. In 1812 he became a member of congress, and at once took 1 up a marked, though not a popular position, as he was opposed to the policy of the war with Britain. In connection with this struggle he was thrown J into a contest which, reappearing at interval! occupied more or less a great portion of his legis- lative exertion. The necessities of the war first suggested large projects for creating a state bank, and an expansive currency, which were opposed by Webster as likely to nourish the American failing WEB of reckless speculation. His policy of watching and adjusting the currency frequently saved the United States from monetary danger, and a remarkable instance of his wise strictness occurred, when by his exertion the payment of revenue in district paper, ever fluctuating, and sometimes 25 per cent, under its nominal value, was abolished, and pay- ments required in States currency. When the Jjuestion of the rechartering of the bank came back or discussion in 1832, he thought that changes in the constitution of the establishment, and in the wealth and population of the country, justified the measure, and he was ranged among its supporters. In 1826 he became a member of the senate, and was rechosen in 1833. From that time he filled for nearly twenty vears the state offices nearest to the highest. Tnat he should have been presi- dent, was the natural expectation of other nations, and his disappearance from the scene without having reached that distinction, is one of the in- stances which show that the Americans, perhaps wisely, are jealous of seeing very clever men in that powerful position. Webster died at Boston on the 24th of October, 1852. [J.H.B.] WEBSTER, John, an Engl, dramatist, 17th c. WEBSTER, Noah, the famous American lexi- cographer, was born in 1758, at West Hartford, and was descended from one of the earliest English settlers in that colony. Having studied for the law he was called to the bar in 1781, and devoted the whole remainder of his life to literary and pro- fessional avocations. Besides his ' Dictionary of the English Language,' a work of amazing indus- try and research, he wrote ' Sketches of American Policy,' 'The Grammatical Institute,' and other works. He also conducted one of the daily papers of New York. Died 1843. WEBSTER, Thomas, a native of the Orkneys, known as professor of geology in the London Uni- versity, and a writer on that science, 1773-1844. His ' "Encyclopaedia of Domestic Economy' may be considered the result of his acquaintance with Count Rumf'ord, in whose researches he participated. WEBSTER, Wii.i.iam, an English divine, edi- tor of the Life of General Monk, &c, 1G89-1758. WECKERLIN, G. R., a German poet and poli- tical negotiator, 1584-1651. WECKHERLIN, G. L., a publicist and miscel- laneous writer of Wirtemberg, 1739-1792. WEDDERBURN. See Rosslyn. WEDEL, C. H., a Prussian general, 1712-1782. WEDEL, Gbobok Wolfgang, a German physician and writer of many learned works, 1645- 1721. His son, STEPHEN Hknky, a physician, 1671-1709. J. Adoephus, brother of the latter, same profession, 1675-1748. John Woi.ic;\n<;, of tin- same family, a learned botanist, 1708-1757. WEDGWOOD", Josiaii, famous for his im- provement of the English pottery manufacture, was born at Newcastle-under-Lyne, where his father was engaged in that branch of business, in 1730. He was well versed in natural philosophy, and produced his valuable results after numerous experiments upon the various kinds of clay and colouring substances, joined to a taste for art. He was the benefactor of his country in many other important matters, more especially in the promo- tion of the grand trunk canal, engineered by Brind- ley, and of a road through the potteries, died 1795. WEI W 7 EENINX, or WCENIX, J. B., a Dutch pain- ter, remarkable for the versatility of his powers, 1621-1660. His brother, John, who excelled in hunting pieces and still life, 1644-1719. WEERDT, Adrian De, a Flemish landscape painter, flourished at Brussels, 16th century. WEERDT, Sebald De, a Dutch navigator, who was killed at the isle of Ceylon 1603. WEEVER, or WEVER, John, an industrious antiquarian, supposed to have been born in Lin- colnshire in 1576, died 1632. His work is the well-known ' Funeral Monuments of Great Bri- tain,' originally published in 1631. WEGELIN, James, a native of St. Gall, author of a ' Universal History,' and of a ' Memoir on the Philosophy of History,* 1721-1793. WEICHMANN, C. F., a German writer, author of ' The Unedited Poetical Productions of the Most Celebrated Writers of Lower Saxony,' died 1769. WEIDLER, J. F., a Germ, astron., 1691-1755. WEIGEL. Christian Eheenfkied, a German physician, distinguished as a botanist, last century. WEIGEL, Erhard, an eminent German as- tronomer and mathematician, 1625-1699. WEIGEL, V., a German theologian, 1533-1588. WEILLER, G., a German philosopher, d. 1826. WEIMAR, Anne Amelia, duchess of, daughter of the duke of Brunswick, distinguished by her patronase of literature, died 1807. WEINBRENNER, Frederic, a German archi- tect and friend of Lavater, distinguished as a man of taste and writer on science, 1766-1826. WEINREICH, V., a German savant, 1552-1622. WEISE, C, a German writer, 1642-1708. WEISHAUPT, Adam, a famous name in the history of secret societies, was a professor of canon law in the university of Ingoldstadt. He was born in 1748, and educated among the Jesuits, quarrelling with whom caused him to propose a counter association of the good and enlightened of all nations. The society organized in pursuance of this design, began working in 1776, and was finally known as the Society of llluminati. In its founda-* tion, an endeavour was made to combine all the working advantages and most striking symbols of' Freemasonry and Jesuitism ; from the latter, its statutes of implicit obedience, and its espionage was derived ; from the former its order and ritual, but modified by the revolutionary ends which its leaders really proposed. This society was sup- pressed by the elector of Bavaria in 17*.!, and Weishaupt, quitting Ingolstadt, went to j Jot ha, where he was honoured with the dignity of Aulio counsellor. He died in 1822, and left several works illustrating the history of the llluminati, and his views eoneeniing the progress of society, and ' Mo- ral Perfectibility.' The Abbe Banuel and Pro- fessor Robison wrote exaggerated reports of this and the many similar movement* of the period See further in the article Saint Maim in. f E.R. | WEISS, F. R., a Swiss statesman, 17."»1 1802. WEISSE, CHBMTlAa I i i i\. I iniMell.,,,. oi:s ( ieiinan writer and dramatic poet, author of -everal successful plays, and of tongs and odes which are highly spoken of by the German critics likewise acquired great popularity as a writer of works for youth, 1726- Levi. WEITZ, J., a Prussian philologist, 1571 WELCHMAN, Edward, a dignitary of the 825 WEL church, author of an ' Illustration of the Thirty June Articles,' and a ' Defence of the Church of En-land,' 1665-1739. WELD, Thomas, an English cardinal, whose father, of the same name, was founder of the Ro- man Catholic college at Stoneyhurst, 1773-1837. WELDON, John, an organist and distinguished composer of cathedral music, died 1736. WELLER DE MOLSDORF, Jerome, a Ger- man theologian, distinguished for his piety and his connection with Luther, 1499-1572. James, of the same family, an Orientalist and theologian, author of a Greek Grammar, 1602-1664. WELLESLEY, Richard Colley Welles- ley, marquis of, was born at Dublin on 20th June, 1760. He became in youth a very accomplished scholar and gave in early life greater promise of distinction than his renowned brother the duke of Wellington. He was an active member of the Irish House of Lords until the union, and at the same time had a seat in the English Commons. He was brought first into notice by his views on the regency question, which pleased George III. He received a British peerage as Baron Morning- ton, and the Irish title of marquis of Wellesley. It was in the year 1797 that the career in which he was destined to shine, was opened to him by his appointment as governor-general of India. It seemed at first no favourable prognostic of his career that just after the calamities which had occurred from intrusting a royal duke with the command for which he was unfit, and while a repetition of the same mistake was producing its fruits under the brother of the prime minister, Wellesley passing over veteran officers who had performed great achievements, should intrust high command to his young brother, Arthur. Whether fortuitous or wisely calculated, the result was for- tunate for the British rule in India at a very criti- cal time. The government of Wellesley and his brother's victories form the second great epoch after the operations of Clive and Hastings in the acquisition of the British Indian empire. Though he desired to return earlier, he was prevailed on to remain governor-general until the year 1803. He held several offices after his return, and was from 1821 to 1828 governor-general of Ireland. He died on 20th December, 1842. [J.H.B.] [Dangan Cartle, the birthplace of Wellington. WELLINGTON. Arthur Wellesley, afbr- WEL wards duke of Wellington, was born at Dangan Castle in Ireland, on May 1, 1769. — Marshal Ney, Goethe, and several of the greatest men of the age were born in the same year. His father was Lord Mornington, an Irish nobleman, but he was of Norman blood, being lineally descended from the standard-bearer to Henry II. in his conquest of Ireland in the year 1100. His elder brother, who succeeded to the family honours, was a man of great genius and capacity, who afterwards became governor-general of India, and was created Marquis Wellesley. Thus the same family had the extra- ordinary fortune of giving birth to the statesman whose counsel and rule preserved and extended our empire in the Eastern, and the hero whose invin- cible arm saved his country and conquered Napoleon in the Western world. Young Arthur Wellesley, after having received the elements of education at Eton, was sent to the military school of Angers in France to be instructed in the art of Avar, for which he already evinced a strong predilection. He received his first commission in the army in the 33d regiment, which to this day is distin- guished by the honour then conferred upon it. The first occasion on which he was called into active service was in 1793, when his regiment was ordered abroad, and formed part of the British contingent, which marched across from Ostend under Lord Moira, to join the allied army in Flanders. He bore an active part in the campaign which followed, and distinguished himself so much in several actions with the enemy, that though only a captain in rank, he came at length to execute the duties of major, and did good service in several well-fought affairs of the rear guard in which he bore a part. Though the issue of the campaign was unfortunate, and it terminated in the disastrous retreat through Holland in 1794, yet it was of essential service in training Wellesley to the duties to which he was hereafter to be called, for it was with an army at one time mus- tering 90,000 combatants that he had served ; and his first initiation into the duties of his profession was with the great bodies which he was afterwards destined to command, and his first insight into war was on a great scale, to which his own achievements were one day destined to form so bright a contrast. After the return of the troops from Holland, the 33d regiment was not again called into active service till 1799, when it was sent out to India, to reinforce the troops there on the eve of the important war, in which Lord Wel- lesley, his elder brother, who was now governor- general, was engaged with the forces of Tippoo Saib. Young Wellesley went with them, and on his way out his library consisted of two books, which he studied incessantly, the Bible, and Caesar's Commentaries. On landing, his regiment, of which he had now become lieut.-colonel, was BO conspicuous for its admirable discipline and the perfection to which the commissariat and all the arrangements connected with it had been brought, that it was specially noticed by General Harris, the commander-in-chief. Previous to the assault of Seringapatam, Tippoo Saib's capital, Wellesley was intrusted with the command of a nocturnal attack on an outwork which proved unsuccessful, from the troops missing their way in the dark and getting into a deep water-course which proved to 826 WEL be impassable. General Baird. however, the second in command, gave him next day an opportunitv of renewing the attack, which he did with entire success. His regiment was not engaged in the assault which followed on May 4, when the town was taken ; notwithstanding which, he was next day appointed governor of it, a promotion obvi- ously done to gratify the governor-general, and deservedly felt as an undeserved slight by the gal- lant hero who had conducted and beaded the assault. Whatever opinion may be formed on the merits of this appointment, one thing is perfectly clear, that Col. Wellesley immediately gave decisive proof of his entire adequacy to the discharge of the important duties to which he was called. Seringa- patam was soon put in a respectable position of defence, the disorders consequent on the storm arrested, and the administration of the new dominions acquired for the Company put on the best footing. Ere long he was called to more active duties. Doondiah Waugh, a noted free- booter, having collected 5,000 horse, the wreck of Tippoo's forces, had renewed the war in the upper provinces, and was levying contributions in all quarters from the inhabitants. Col. Wellesley, upon this, put himself at the head of 1,400 horse, partly European and partly native, with which he pursued the Mysore chief. After undergoing incredible fatigues he at length succeeded in com- ing up with him and bringing him to battle. The result was soon settled, Doondiah was defeated and slain, and the first intelligence his partizans received of his death, was by seeing his dead body wrought back lashed to a galloper gun. On this occasion, Col. Wellesley charged the Mysore horse in person at the head of the British dragoons. This brilliant achievement was the prelude only to still more important achievements. War having broken out in 1803 between the East India Com- pany and the Mahrattas, General Wellesley, to which rank he had now been promoted, received the command of one of the armies destined to operate against them. After having stormed the strong fortress of Achmednaghur, which lay on the road, he came up with tbe Mahratta force, 30,000 strong, posted at the village of Assaye. Wellesley's forces, at the moment, did not exceed 4,500 men, of whom only 1,700 were European ; and the half of his army, under Col. Stevenson, was at a distance, advancing by a different road, separated from his own by a ridge of intervening Bat justly deeming the boldest course in such critical circumstances the most prudent, he took the resolution of instantly attacking the cnemv with the small body of men under Ml to- mediate command. The result showed the wisdom as well as heroism of the determination. After a desperate struggle, in which he himself charged a Mahratta batterv at the head of the 74th regiment, the vast army 'of the enemy, which comprised 18,000 splendid horse, was totally defeated, all their guns, 97 in number, taken, and their army entirely dispersed. It need hardly be said that this great victory had a material effect in breaking the power of the Mahrattas, and compelling them to conclude a most glorious peace, which closed Marquis Wellesley's administration. General Wel- lesley was made a Knight of the Bath for this victory, and he returned to England Sir Arthur wn Wellesley. His next employment was at the ex- pedition under Lord Catncart to Copenhagen, in 1807, on which occasion he commanded a division of the army. He was not engaged in the but commanded a corps which was detached i a body of Danes, 12,000 strong, who had collected, in the rear of the British force, in the island of Zealand. They were dispersed without much dif- ficulty by a body of 7,000 men under Sir Arthur Wellesley. After the fall of Copenhagen he returned to England, and was nominated soon after to the command, in the first instance, of an expeditionary force of 10,000 men, which was fitted out at Cork, to co-operate with the Portuguese in rescuing their country from the tyrannic grasp of the French emperor. It was intimated to him, how< Sir Harry Burrard and Sir Hew Dalrymple would, as soon as thev arrived, supersede him in the com- mand ; and his friends urged him not to accept ft subordinate command after having commanded great armies in the East But Sir Arthur replied in a noble spirit:— 4 1 have, as we ssv in India, eaten of the king's salt; and I will serve his majesty in whatever situation he may be pleased to place me, be it supreme or inferior. The expe- dition set sail in June, 1808, and landed on the coast of Portugal when they were soon assailed by General Junot, who had marched out of Lisbon, with 19,000 men, to drive him into the ■ British force consisted of 16,000, and, as this was the first time the troops of the rival nat met in the peninsula, great interest was attached to the conflict. The French were defeated after a sharp action ; and Sir Arthur had made prepara- tions to follow up his victory by marching the same evening to Torres Vedras, where he would be l.etwr.n Junot and Lisbon, and would either drive him to a disastrous retreat or force him to surrender. But at this critical moment, wlnii the order had just been despatched n-r this decisive movement. Sir EL Burrard arrived and t<»..k tlio command.— He belonged to the old school, with whom it was deemed enough to fight one battle in one day, and he gave orders to halt. J consequence, hastened back to Torres Vedras, without losing an hour, and regained the capital. Sir 11 . I >alrvmplc soon afterwards arrived and con- dud, -i! the famous convention of Cintra, by which the French evacuated the whole of Portugal. That convention excited unbounded indignation in Eng- land at the time ; hut - *lry iurtly sup- ported it, for. wh.n the opportunity of cutting off Junot from Lisbon had been lost, it was the best thing that could be operations were undertaken, now been appointed to the - army in Portugal, landed at Lisbon on Aprd \> l.v hi* presence restored the confidence which tad been much weakened by the disartrons issue of cedine vesr. His first operation was to mova SImU B t. U. !.,! .d V ,...d in Oporto, with 20,000 vmui «d Ukenttat eJty. Bt a bold movement he effected the passage of tbe Tagus, under the very gw* <* "LZ"??*^ dnSetbe French to so rs«d * J^ *»** partook of the dinner wUch tad ^JT 1 ?; for Marshal Soult! The [re** geyra\ jg abandoning all his guns snd baggage, ended bis done. Next yesr, still more taken. Sir Arthur, who tad t„ tfcl Mb command d the i, li; „ LUM«aAp1l4pi WEL retreat into Galicia, but not without sustaining losses as great as Sir John Moore had done in the preceding year. He next turned towards Spain, and having effected a junction with the Spanish general, Cuesta, in Estramadura, their united forces. 60,000 strong, but of whom only 20,000 were English and Portuguese, advanced towards Mad- rid. They were met at Talavera by King Joseph at the head of 45,000 of the best French troops in Spain. A desperate action of two days' duration ensued, which fell almost entirely on the English and Portuguese, as the Spaniards, who were 38,000 in number, fled at the first shot. The French were in the end defeated with the loss of 8,000 men and 17 guns ; but the fruits of victory were in a great measure lost to the English by the arrival of Marshals Soult, Ney, and Mortier, with the whole forces in the provinces of Galicia, Leon, and Asturias in their rear, which forced them to retreat to the Portuguese frontier. But one last- ing good effect resulted from this movement, that these provinces were liberated from the enemy, who never after regained their footing in them. The year 1810 witnessed the invasion of Portugal by a huge French army, 80,000 strong, under Marshal Massena, which, after capturing the for- tresses of Cuidad Rodrigo, and Almeida, pene- trated into the very heart of that country. Sir Arthur, who had now been created Viscount Wel- lington, had only 35,000 men under his command, with which, it was impossible to prevent the fall of those fortresses. But he took so strong a posi- tion on the ridge of Busaco that he repulsed, with great slaughter, an attack upon it by two corps of the French army, and when at length obliged to retire, from his flank being turned after the battle was over, he did so to the position of Torres Vedras, thirty miles in front ot Lisbon, which, by the advantages of nature and the resources of art, had been rendered impregnable. Six hundred guns were mounted on the redoubts, which was defended by 60,000 armed men. After wasting five months in front of this formidable barrier, the French gen- eral was forced to retreat, which he did closely followed by Wellington to the Spanish frontier. There Massena turned on his pursuer, and he re-entered Spain with a view to bring away the garrison of Almeida, which was now invested ; but he was met and defeated at Fuentes d'Onore by Wellington, and forced to retire without effecting his object to Cuidad Rodrigo. The remainder of the year 1810 and the whole of 1811 passed over without any very important events, although a desperate battle took place in the latter year at Albuera, were Marshal Soult was defeated with the loss of 7,000 men by Marshal Beresford, in an attempt to raise the siege of Badajoz, which Wel- lington was besieging. He was compelled to desist from that enterprise after he had made great progress in the siege by a general concentration of the whole French forces in the centre and south of Spain, who advanced against hiin to the number of 60,000 men. But, though Wellington with- drew into Portugal on this occasion, it was oidy soon to return into Spain. In the depth of win- ter he secretly prepared a battering train, which he directed against Cuidad Rodrigo, when Mar- inont's army, charged with its defence, was dis- persed in winter quarters, and after a siege of six WEL days, took it by storm in January, 1812. No' sooner was this done than he directed his forces against Badajoz, which he also carried by storm, j after a dreadful assault, which cost the victors: 4,000 men. Directing then his footsteps to the north he defeated Marmont with the loss of 20,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, near Sala-. manca ; and advancing to Madrid, he entered that, capital in triumph, and compelled the evacuation of the whole of the south of Spain by the French 1 troops. He then turned again to the north, and advanced to Burgos, the castle of which he at- tempted to carry, but in vain. He was obliged again to retire, by a general concentration of the whole French troops in Spain, 100,000 strong^ against him, and regained the Portuguese frontier after having sustained very heavy losses during hif| retreat. The next campaign, that of 1813, was a continual triumph. Early in May, Wellington! whose army had now been raised to 70,000 men, of whom 40,000 were native English, moved forfl ward, and driving everything before him, came up with the French army of equal strength, whicB was concentrated from all parts of Spain in the Plain of Vittokia. The battle which ensued wa2 decisive of the fate of the peninsula. The French,! who were under King Joseph in person, were totally defeated with the loss of 156 pieces of can J non, 415 tumbrils, their whole baggage, and aid amount of spoil never before won in modern times! by an army. The accumulated plunder of five! years in Spain was wrenched from them at one] fell swoop. For several miles the soldiers literall y marched on dollars and Napoleons which streweS the ground. The French regained their frontien with only one gun, and in the deepest dejection! St. Sebastian was immediately besieged and taken after two bloody assaults, Pampeluna blockaded,] and a gallant army, 35,000 strong, which SouM had collected in the south of France to raise the blockade, defeated with the loss of 12,000 men! Wellington next defeated an attempt of the Frenclj again to penetrate into Fiance at St. Marcial, and] following up his successes, crossed the BidassoaJ stormed the lines they had constructed on the mountains, which were deemed impregnable, and] after repeated actions, which were most obstinately contested through the winter, drove them entirely! from the neighbourhood of Bayonne, and com«| pleted the investment of that fortress, while Soulfcj retired with 40,000 men towards Toulouse. ThitheH he was followed next spring by Wellington, whffi again defeated him at Orthes in a pitched battle, after which he detached his left wing, under Lord Dalhousie, which occupied Bourdeaux. The maiu ; army, under Wellington in person, followed SouM and brought him to action, in a fortified position of immeuse strength, on the heights of Toulouse! The battle took place four days after peace had been signed, but when it was unknown to the allies! it graced the close of Wellington's peninsular career by a glorious victory. Honours and emolul ments of all kinds were now showered upon the English general. He received a field-marshal's batoni from George IV. in return for Marshal Jourdan's] taken on the memorable field of Vittoria ; he wall made a duke on the conclusion of the peace ; re- ceived the thanks of both Houses of Parliament, and grants at different times to the amount of 828 WEL '500,000 to purchase an estate and build a palace, le was chiefly at Paris during the year 1814 con- ucting the "negotiations for peace; but on the eturn of Napoleon from Elba in March, 1815, he as appointed to the command of the united army f British, Hanoverians, and Belgians, 70,000 trong, formed in the Netherlands, "to resist the nticipated attack of the French emperor. The rench emperor was not long of making the antici- ited irruption ; on the 15th June, 1815, he crossed he frontier, and drove in the Prussian outposts, nth 130,000 men. Next day he attacked the russians, under Blucher, with 80,000 ; and dis- atched Ney with 30,000 against Wellington's rmy, which was only beginning to be concentrated. ^ desperate action ensued at Quatre Bras, in which he French were at length repulsed with the loss f 5,000 men ; and, on the 18th, Wellington hav- ig collected all his forces at the post of Water- >o, gave battle to Napoleon in person, who ras at the head of 80,000 men. His force was nly 67,000, with 156 guns ; whereas, the French ad 250, and of these troops only 43,000 were English, and Hanoverians, and Brunswickers, who ould be relied on, the remainder being Belgians, srho ran away the moment the action was seriously ngaged. Notwithstanding this great inequality, he British army maintained its ground with invin- ible firmness till seven o'clock, when the arrival f 50,000 Prussians, under Blucher, on Napoleon's lank, enabled Wellington to take the offensive, he result was the total defeat of the French army, vith the loss of 40,000 men and 156 guns. Na- wleon fled to Paris, which he soon after left, and surrendered to the English, and Louis XVIII. laving returned to his capital : his dvnastv, and vith it peace, was restored. The allies having letermined to occupy the frontier fortresses, with in army of 150,000 men during five years, the :ommand of the whole was bestowed on the duke if Wellington ; thus affording the clearest proof hat his was the master mind which had come to lirect the European alliance. This high and im- >ortant situation he held for the next three years, luring the whole of which time he discharged its irduous duties with the most consummate wisdom, ustice, and discretion. Not only did he retain the ^ntire confidence of the allied sovereigns and re- spect of their soldiers under his command, but he nterposed in so efficacious a manner to light ■ the •normous burdens laid by the treaty ot I France, as to earn the gratitude and receive the thanks of all well-informed persons in that coun- try. Mainlv owing to his powerful interCMMim the period of occupation of the fortress** w«* shortened from five to three years, and the amount f contributions paid for its support of course pro- portionally lessened. Wellington resigned his command, and with it his magnificent appoint- ments in October, 1818, and returned to England, to the retirement of a comparatively private terminating thus a career of unbroken military glory bv the yet purer lustre arising from IIMIIMf the difficulties and assuaging the sufferings of his vanquished enemies. In 1819 he wu ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the army, which situation he held during the whole MXiOt which followed, and by his able and fax-Mttag arrangements, contributed in an essential manner WEL to bring the nation without effusion of blood through the long years of distress which followed, vemher, 1817. he was, upon the dissolution Goderieh's administration, appointed prime minis- ter, which situation he held till displaced by a hostile vote of the House of Commons, m Novem- ber 30, 1830, when the nation was convulsed !>v the passion for reform. This terminated his life as apolitical leader; but he was again ap|minted commander-in-chief mm years afterwards, which situation he held till his death. The vigour of his intellect and sagacity of his counsels appeared in the uniform success which, during that period, attended the military operations in every part of the globe. He suppressed the Canadian molt in is;;: undismayed, the Afghanistan disaster in 1*11; arrayed the forces which again led our standard in triumph to Cabul in 1842 ; brought the Chinese war to a successful issue ; subdued the Sikhs and tribes of Scindia, and rooted out of their almost impregnable fastnesses the formidable Cafl'res of South Africa. During all this period his counsels, whether at the head of or out of the cabinet, were uniformly directed to one object, the preserva- tion of European peace, which, mainlv owing to his exertions, was preserved unbroken, save by domes- tic tumult, for forty years after his crowning vic- tory at Waterloo. And thus the most successful military commander which Europe has produced, put the key-stone to the arch of his MM, by directing his whole energies, after a brief period of energetic warfare, to the preservation of the bless- ings and cultivation of the virtues of peace. His long and honoured life, after having been prolonged beyond the usual period of human existence, at length drew to a close. He had, some years before his death, alarming symptoms in his head ; so often the consequence of long-continued intellectual effort; but by strict abstemiousness and perfect regularity of life, he succeeded in subduing the dangerous symptoms, and he was MtbM tinue and discharge his duties regularly at the Horse Guards till the time <>f his dtttfc, which took place on September IM, 1853, at the advanced hty-three vears. He was honoured with a public funeral, and buried in St. Pauls, in the moat magnificent manner, beside Nelson. The queen and all the noblest in the land were there lion of persons witnessed the nroccsaioi . went from the Horse Guards, by Apsley House, Picrauillv, and the Strand. «d not a head was covered, and few eyes dry, * procession appeared in the streets. Wellington was only once married. He left two sons, the eldest of" whom succeeded to bis titles and estates, the fruits of his transcendent abilities and great patriotic services. The leading feature of b»* intel- lect was wisdom and sagacity ; of his moral chai ter, a conscientious dischar. be was inferior to many, in foresight and ju crimination, to none. He was not rifted with the power of oratory, and had imiside mMo d l P cu st expressing bis opinions; but such was tin i of his judgment snd the strength of his standing, that what he said new failed to com- mand attention, and, for the hut twenty-fir* Tenro fa, be exercised an ondWed snoendeMy House of l»rda. In prfrete life be wee simplicity itself; bis habit* ware ragnkr, his life WEL abstemious ; he was punctual in keeping appoint- ments, :ind assiduous in the discharge of every duty. Without any habits of ostentation he could, on fitting occasions, exhibit a splendour becoming his rank ; and his simple habits enabled him to bestow innumerable sums on deserving objects, and relieve the distresses of great numbers of his brethren in arms. Without asserting that he was free from all the failings common to the children of Adam, it may safely be affirmed that, as he was the greatest general recorded in British, and one of the greatest in European story, so he was one of the most immaculate characters which has adorned the annals of his country. [A.A.] WELLS, Charles William, born of Scotch parents at Charlestown, in South Carolina, and settled as a physician in London, author of several physiological works, and of an Essay on Dew, the theory of which is now admitted, 1753-1817. WELLS, E., a learned divine, 1664-1727. WELSCH, C. J., a German philologist, 1624-78. WELSER. See Velser. WELSTED, Leonard, one of the heroes of Pope's Dunciad, known as a poet and miscellaneous wnter, born in Northamptonshire 1689, died 1747. WELLWOOD, Sir H. Moncreiff, an eminent divine and pastor of the Scottish Church, 1750-1827. WELLWOOD, Thomas, a Scottish physician, author of ' Memoirs of English Affairs from 1588 to the Revolution,' 1652-1716. WENCESLAUS, the name of several dukes and kings of Bohemia: — Wenceslaus I., duke, 907- 936. Wenceslaus II., succeeded his uncle, Con- rad, 1191, and was driven from the throne three months afterwards by Przemislas, died in prison 1194. Wenceslaus III., as duke, or the first as king, son of Przemislas Ottocar I., was born 1205, and associated in the government with his father in 1228. He began to reign alone in 1230, died 1253. Wenceslaus IV. or II., succeeded to the throne of Bohemia 1283, elected king of Poland in opposition to Uladislaus IV. 1300, and king of Hungary 1301. He ceded the latter dignity to his son, and died 1305. Wenceslaus V. or III., son of the preceding, became king of Hungary Avium twelve years of age 1301, and ceded that country to Otho IV., when his father's death called him to the government of Bohemia in 1305 ; assassinated WER 1306. Wenceslaus VI. or IV, king of Bohemia! and emperor of Germany, was the son of the em- peror Charles IV., and was born 1359. He suc-y ceeded to his father in 1378, but his cruelties and debaucheries desolated the kingdom and led, id! 1394, to his deposition. This time he succeeded in re-establishing his authority, but in 1400 he was solemnly deprived of the title of emperor, anil remained king of Bohemia only, till his death in 1419. It was towards the close of his reign that the wars of John Huss and Zisca broke out. WENCESLAUS, duke of Saxony, succeeded his brother, Rodolph II., 1370, killed 1388. WENDELIN, Godfrey, a German astronol mer, geometrician, and Latin poet, 1580-1660. WENGIERSKI, Andrew, the most celebrate* of four brothers, rendered famous by their zeal fori the spread of Socinianism in Poland, 1600-1649. J WENTWORTH. See Strafford. WENTZEL, J. C, a Ger. musician, 1659-17231 W : ENZEL, C. P., a German chemist, 1740-93.1 WEPFER, J. J., a German anatomist, 1620-961 WEPPEN, J. A., a Ger. dramatist, 1742-18101 WERDMULLER, John Rodolph, a Swisl landscape and flower painter, 1639-1668. WERDUM, Ulrich Van, a Dutch statesman and historical writer, died 1681. WEREMBERT, a monk of St. Gall, distin-l guished as a Latin poet and musician, died 884. j WERENFELS, S., a German divine, 1651-17401 WERF. See Vanderwekff. WERKMEISTER, Andrew, a German com-1 poser and writer on music, 1645-1706. WERNER, Abraham Gottlob, a distin^ guished mineralogist and geologist, was born afl Wehlau in Upper Lusatia, in 1750. He died hi 1817. His father was connected with an iron foundiy, and the young Werner, having minerals! given to him as playthings, became familiar withf-j their names from his earliest childhood.. He wal educated in the school of mines at Freyberg in] Saxony, and eventually became professor of min-^1 eralogy and inspector of the mineralogical cabinet! there. He has conferred great benefit on the sci- ence of mineralogy by introducing a preciseJ methodical language, well adapted for the descripJl tion of minerals, and has rendered much the samel service to it as Linnaeus did by his Terminology tol botany. As a geologist, he is the father of thai Neptunian theory, and however liable he is to thwl charge of very grave errors, he has done vast goodfj to the science by his causing it to be studied mordj systematically than it ever had been before. Fe\^| naturalists who have written as little as Werner, 1 ! have enjoyed a higher reputation. As a minera- ; Iogist, the late Dr. Murray of Edinburgh used to' 5 refer him to Haiiy. As a geologist, Professon ameson ranks him as one of the first that has ever appeared. His reputation appears to us on the present day much exaggerated. He lectured! with great zeal, assiduity, and success; and thougm he has left few works behind him, he had the plea^n sure of seeing a host of ardent pupils rising aroundl him, who by their writings and labours have exA tended his fame and spread a knowledge of thtj principles he taught throughout all Europe. A] mineral has been named in honour of him, Wer-4 nerite. [W.B.]] WERNER, J., a Swiss painter, 1637-1710. WER WERNER, Paul Von, a Prussian general, dis- inguished at the battles of Prague and Breslau, "07-1785. WERNER, Zacharias, the son of a professor n Konigsberg, was born there in 1768. The ill- egulated life of this eccentric man of genius falls nto two stages, surprisingly unlike each other, n the first, extending from his twenty-fifth year o his forty-third, he was, in alternate "fits, a man )f business, a dramatic poet, and a profligate : lie btained, and threw up, official appointments under he Prussian government : he married three times, nd was three times divorced. In 1811 he became Roman Catholic, received priest's orders, preached ith great applause at Vienna during the Congress f 1814, and, in spite of extravagant oddities, was a >opular orator in the pulpit till his death in 1823. — 3is Dramas have a gloomy impressiveness, both of magination and passion, which (for some of us at east) it is difficult to resist; but they are full of :oarse and hideous exaggeration, and of an am- bitious mysticism with which he invests alike •eligion and history, human conduct and his hobby )f freemasonry. In his works, indeed, as in the ;enor of his life, there is much that can hardlv be •econciled with the supposition of sanity. The nost popular and least ohscure of his works is his larrowing domestic tragedy, • The Twenty-fourth )f February.' In others he celebrates Attila, either, the Destruction of the Templars, and he Conversion of Pomerania by the Teutonic nights. [W.S.] Von, a His WERNHER, John Balthaser, Baron 3erman jurisconsult and publicist, died 1742. lephew, M. Godfrey, a jurist, 1716-1794. WERNICKE, C, a German poet, died 1720. WERNSDORFF, Gottlob, and his son of the iame name, distinguished as philologists, the for- ner 1668-1729, the latter 1710-1774. WKRNSDORFF, E. F., a second son of the acceding, a learned historian of Syria, 1718-1782. WESLEY, John, great grandfather of the nethodist leader, was a clergyman of the Church f England, in the reign of Charles II. He received lis education at New Inn, Oxford, and having listinguished himself by his piety, as well as his earning— especially his attammnnts in Oriental iterature— he secured the favour and patronage of )r. Owen, the vice-chancellor of the university, laving taken orders, he obtained the living of Jlandford, in Dorsetshire, and was ejected or nonconformity. Continuing still to preach, ie suffered imprisonment four successive times. -lis spirits being broken by the hardships and per- iecution to which he was subjected, he died at the •arly age of thirty-four, at the village ot I nd such was the spirit of the times, that the uthorities would not allow his body to be buned a the church of Preston. John Wesley nurned , niece of Thomas Fuller, the church historian. IK. J J WESLEY, Sam. -ei., father of the l**™*™ 'lerevman of that name, was a minister of the Jhur'eh of England, who held the livings of Spworth and Wroote, in Lincolnshire in liOO. [Ie was a devoted and very pious, as well as learned i The country town over which he was pointed, was noted for profligacy and vice £ and nd with which he perfomed his sacred duties so offensive to many of the wicked inhabitants, Be nan 10 DM WSfl that they long meditated some plan of revenge. At length they set fire to the r. with the greatest difficulty the family were r o s cn a d, and the first act of the pious father on finding his children assembled in safety on the green before the blazing edifice, was to kneel down in the ini.lst of the crowd, and give thanks to God %m the deliverance. Mr. Wesley had some strong |*cnli- arities of opinion-, amongst which we may mention as the chief, that he was a most tealou*" i of the revolution. His wife was a violent partisan of the Stuart family: and this opposition of send- , ment produced so much domestic discord, that Mr. Wesley left his family and parish for some years, till the reign of Anne brought about a reconcili- ation. On the accession of the Hanoverian family, the dissensions broke out afresh in the Epworth rectory, as Mrs. Wesley refused to acknowledge their right to the throne. And then there occurred an incident which produced an extraordinary sensation throughout the country in 1716, under the name of the Epworth ghost. It consisted of some strangely mysterious noises that were made when the family were at prayers, and especially when they came to the supplications for King George and the prince. It is now generally believed to have been a Jacobite trick, which the servants oi bours resorted to, in order to frighten old Wesley from his political allegiance. Mr. Wesley was the author of several works both in prose and poetry. The principal of these were Efl Terse, 4 The Histories of the Old and New Testaments ' in verse, 'Elegies on Queen Mary and Archbishop Tillotson,' and l Dissertations on the Book of Job.* He died April, 1734. [R-J.] WESLEY, Samuel, son of the former, was born at Epworth, 1692. Although he was four years old before he could speak, he displayed great quickness and aptitude for learning,— distinpish- ing himself to a very uncommon degree by his classical attainments, first at WestminM afterwards at Christ Church, < >xford. Kr Church he returned to Westminster, in the capacity of usher; and there took orders under the ] of Bishop Atterbury. Hai imbibed his mother's political opinions, he ansa administration of Sir Robert Walpole, with satirical abuse ; and rendered himself so obnoxioi: ministry, that when the office of under-master became vacant, and he was proposed as in all respects well qualified to fill it, the appointment was refused. Finding promotion at Wcat mtnstar hopeless, he accepted the mastership of Tiverton school. Samuel was a religious man, bnt of sound and sober judgment. He disapproved [ofmn« both in the sentiments and conduct of ha brotjara, and for many years they never met. He died in 1789, in firm and unalterable commnnion with the Church of Knghnd. [ •"• J the ereat ftmnder of the Arminian branch of methodiat*, was bora at Epworth, Uncolnshire, on 17th June, 17* father, the rector of that pfcwV***_ a -72J22! laMwM agar parishioner* Their Wicked purpose of setting in to tbe m*»TiJ 681 SStCTS „trdro>e them t<> the WES bnming. The domestic education lie received was ttrictly ofa religious chancier, and under the Ill- influence of his mother especially, his heart was earlv imbued not only with the know- Dl the Year of the Lord. Having received nts of classical education at Charter House school, he was entered at the age of seventeen a student of Christ's Church, Oxford. While at that s.-at of learning, he became member of a private soeietv umaiatilH ofa few young men of congenial pietv, whose number amounted to fifteen, and who attracted great notice by the austerity of their manners and the fervour of their piety. Their meetings for social prayer and religious converse were held in Wesley s chambers — they formed the purpose of partaking of the communion together once, as well as Easting twice a-week. From these of personal improvement, they ere long directed their views towards the religious enligh- tenment of the poor ; and for that purpose they divided the town into districts, each of the mem- Ikts charging himself with the voluntary duty of 1 awing domiciliary visits and maintaining a re- saperintendence of the sick and destitute inhabitants. The novelty of such proceedings ex- posed the young students to much satirical abuse, rmt they persevered through good report and bad report, wliile the ardour they displayed in the prosecution of their studies, together with the nonours that most of them gained, disarmed the college authorities of all grounds to complain that re spending their time in pursuits not strictly academic. On Wesley's completion of his university studies, steps were in the course of being taken by his friends to procure his appointment to be assistant and successor to his aged father in the parish of Kpworth. But for conscientious reasons, he declined the offer, and determined to remain at Oxford to diffuse his religious principles amongst the students. In 1735, being in London for the settlement of some family matters, he received from the trustees of the new colony at Georgia an invitation to go out to that settlement as missionary. Having consulted their mother, who advised their acceptance of the offer, John and Charles Wesley embarked for the Georgian settlement on 1 4th October, 1735. Several of their Oxford associates accompanied them as labourers in the missionary field, and in consequence, being too numerous for that place, Charles with one friend repaired to Frederica, while John settled at Savannah. There he soon gathered a large con- \ which continued to flourish for some years, till his vigorous and precipitate measures of discipline raised such a storm of indignation • the people, that he was forced to resign, •i gland, he settled in London, where he became acquainted with the famous Peter Bcehler, to whom Wesley himself ascribes the honour of being the agent in his conversion to rital Christianity. The date of this marked change in his rengjena character and views he fixes on 24th May, 1788. Whitfield having about • i England, Wesley joined his ■•' -n.cneed an active career of at Bristol, where also the first • fted, in 17:59. Wesley afterwards returned to London, where he per- formed regular public worship in a large building 832 WES in Moorfields. and that place, from its having been originally a foundry, was afterwards well known as the Foundry Church. Wesley's connection with Whitfield was broken by the irreconcileable differ- ence of their views on fundamental articles of faith, he espousing Arminianism, while Whitfield was steadfast in his adherence to the Calvinistic system. The rupture between these two great leaders gave a sliock to methodism, the effects of which remain to this day. But Wesley was as undaunted as he was indefatigable. He peram- bulated the country, forming new congregations in many parts; and being now untrammelled by the fetters of old or traditionary usage, he employed the services of lay preachers. The leading features of the ecclesiastical system he laboured to establish may be thus briefly described. The preachers were to itinerate, to depend on the gratuitous hospitality of friends to the cause, instead of being provided for by a fixed stipend — congregations were to be divided into classes — a vigilant inspection estab- lished over the morals of all — weekly meetings were to be held at which the members of any class might have an opportunity of expressing their wants or describing their religious state and feel- ings. He and his preachers, at the commence- ment of their itinerant labours, were exposed to maltreatment in a variety of ways, but they bore all annoyances, whether in the form of bodily in- jury or obloquy, with such fortitude and patience as ere long disarmed the violence of their oppo- j nents. Wesley was a man of eminent piety and ; devoted zeal, and yet in his character several j blemishes appeared, the principal of which were I ambition and vanity. He married late in life, \ and from the violence and caprice of the lady's temper, he seems to have made a wrong choice ; for it proved an unhappy union. Wesley while J preaching at Lambeth caught cold, which threw him into a fever, and his weakened constitution being unable to resist its ravages, he fell a victim 'i to this malady on the 2d of March, 1791, in thel eighty-eighth year of his age, and sixty-fifth of his ministry. [R.J.] WESLEY, Charles, third son of Samuel, andj brother of John Wesley, was born at Epworth, April, 1708. While at Westminster school, an] Irish gentleman of great fortune, of the name ofj Charles Wesley, though unknown to the family, wrote, proposing to make him his heir; and accord-] ingly, for several years the expenses of his edu-J cation were borne by his unseen namesake. In] course of time, a gentleman, supposed to be this Irish patron, waited upon Charles, and urged the youth to accompany him, and take up his residence > in Ireland. The family having left the young man - to act according to his own discretion, Charles! intimated his resolution to remain in England ; in consequence of which, the inheritance destined fo« him was given to another, who taking the name of] Wesley, or Wellesley, was the first earl of MorningJ ton, and grandfather of the duke of Wellington.! 1 Had Charles made a different choice,' says] Southey, ' there might have been no methodists, j — the British empire in India might still have! been menaced from Seringapatam, and the undisJ puted tyrant of Europe might have continued to insult and endanger our shores.' Charles went! with his brother John to Oxford, took an active] WES part in the meetings of their religious association at that university, and accompanied him on the missionary expedition to the Georgian settlement. At the Savannah, however, the" brothers took different courses. Charles parted with his brother there, and in company with Ingham, one of his Oxford comrades, repaired to Frederica. The rigid discipline, however, he established at that settlement, disgusted the people ; and although he laboured incessantly for their spiritual welfare, yet having pursued measures for which the people could only have been gradually reconciled, espe- cially concerning the observance of Sabbath, and the rule of admission into communion with the church, he was at length obliged to leave. Charles returned to England, and having become acquaint- ed with Peter Bcehler, the Moravian, an entire change was produced on his religious views and feelings. He dated his conversion on 24th May, 1738 : and that has ever been considered a remark - able day in the history of inethodism. Having established himself in London, he preached for a while to large congregations in Blackheath : but disorders and confusion occurred there as formerly at Georgia, and Charles now commenced a course of itinerant preaching. While itinerating in York- shire, he was taken up, on suspicion of being a Jacobite, but having satisfactorily proved that he had merely used some scriptural expressions in a spiritual sense, without the remotest reference to the Pretender, he was acquitted. But this accus- ation tended to increase the obloquy under which the methodist leaders lay ; and on several occasions, Charles and his friends were exposed to great trouble and danger. The history and public labours of Charles Wesley have been anticipated in the previous notice of his brother John. He married in the forty-first year of his age, Miss Sarah Guyune ; and after this event, he gradually discontinued his itinerating, to perform the duties, and enjoy the comforts of domestic life. Latterly, his opinions differed considerably from those of his brother, especially regarding the evil tendency of the band-meetings, and other parts of the metho- dist discipline. Charles had a warm, poetical fancv. ana wrote some beautiful hymns. He died in 1788. [R.J.] WESSEL, John, in Latin Wesselus, professor of philosophy and theology at Cologne, celebrated as an adversary of the Realists, and the forerunner of Luther, horn at Groningen 1419, died 1498. WESSELEY, Hartwig, a Jew of Copenhagen, famous for his Hebrew poetry, moral treatises, and commentaries on the Bible, 1723-1805. WESSELIXG. Peter, a distinguished German scholar and philologist, 1692-1764. WEST, Benjamin, P.R.A., was born at Spring- field in Pennsylvania, October 10, 1738. He commenced his career as a portrait painter at Philadelphia, he then removed to New York, and in 1760 visited Italy, where he remained about three years. In 1763 he visited England, and was induced to remain in this country, through the manv valuable connections which he formed here. West was introduced to George III. by Dr. Drum- mond, the archbishop of York, and he was almost 1 by the king from the year 1767 until iien he lost the patronage of the court through the illness of the king. He then com- WES menred his series of great religious pictures, to which he now chiefly owes his reputation. Of his earlier works, the ' Death of General Wolfe' is the most celebrated ; in this picture he introduced the sensible innovation of dressing men in their own clothes ; painters had previously as a rule, very absurdly used the Roman costume on all historic occasions, a custom not a whit less foolish than dressing the Greeks and Romans in the costume of modern times ; the latter absurdity may indeed, at least, rest on the plea of ignorance of the real cos- tume. To account for such a fact at present, as that Sir Joshua Reynolds should have endeavoured to persuade West to dress Wolfe in the uniform of a Roman general of 2000 years back, defies reason. West deserves the profoundest gratitude of pos- terity, if it be just to identify such a revolution from the absurd to the rational with his individual efforts. He succeeded Reynolds as president of the Royal Academy in 1792 ; he died March 11, 1820, in his eighty-second year, and was buried in St. Paul's. — (Gait, Life and Studies of Benjamin West. London, 1820.) [R.N.W.] WEST, Gilbert, a nephew of Lord Cobham, distinguished as a poet and miscellaneous writer, was born in 1706, and in 1752 appointed clerk of the privy council, after which he became treasurer of Chelsea Hospital. His principal works are his original Poems, a version of Pindar, and Observa- tions on the Resurrection. He was on intimate terms with Dr. Doddridge. Died 1756. WEST, James, a connoisseur in antiquities, whose collection of MSS. is now in the British Museum, president of the Royal Society from 1768 to his death in 1772. WEST, R., a learned lawyer, died 1726. WEST, Thomas, a Jesuit of Lancashire, author of a ' History of Furness Abbey,' 1716-1779. WESTALL, Richard, a famous water-colour painter and designer, was born in 1765, and ap- prenticed in London to an engraver of heraldry. He commenced his career as an artist in 1786, being then on intimate terms with Lawrence ; and at the close of his life gave lessons to her present majesty, then Princess Victoria. His celebrity rests on his beautiful illustrations of Milton, Shak- speare, and Moore's Loves of the Angels. Died 1836. William, his younger brother, also an artist, is distinguished by his numerous illustra- tions of the picturesque, supplied to the booksellers, and collected in his own tours, 1782-1850. WESTERBAAN, Jacob, a Dutch priest, trans- lator of the l'salms, and author of Poems, 17th c. WESTERMANN, F. J., a French officer, dis- tinguished in the army of Dumouricz and after- wards in La Vendee; executed with the Dan- tonists 1794. WESTON, Ei.i/.Ai'.i.Tii .Fank, an English lady settled at Prague in Bohemia, and ranked with the ii Latin scholars of the 16th Willi J. WESTON, Stephen, an Oriental scholar, who became rector of Manhead, in Devonshire, hut re- signed his living to devote himself to literary pur- suits, author of Translations from the dim Persian, a Chinese Dictionary, and several other works in philology, 1747-1830. \\ ESTON, l.,'a(omie actor, died 1776. Wl BTON, W., a kerned divine, died 1760. WESTPHAL, K. C, ■ German juribt, 1737-92 3 8H WES TIIAL, J., a Sana theologian, 1510-71. WETHERELL, Sib Charles, m eminent I— m, who became attoniev-general wider the stration of the duke of Wellington, was horn in 17T0. At the period of the Reform Bill, he held the office of recorder at Bristol ; and his opposition to that measure nearly cost him his life in the riots of 1881. His death, in 1846, was ned by concussion of the brain, produced hv falling from his carriage. ' WKTSTKIN, John Rodolph, a Swiss magis- tesman, and writer on diplomacy, 1594- llie second of the name, son of the preced- ing, a theologian and classical scholar, 1614-1684. The third, son of the latter, a theologian and Greek scholar, 16-17-1711. John Henry, a second son, a printer of classical editions, established at Am- sterdam, 1649-1726. C. Anthony, son of John Henry, a Dutch scholar and poet, 1743-1797. John Jamks Wetstein, a theologian and philo- atffl known for his labours on the New nt, was also a member of this family. His ' rmhjjmnuil' to a new edition of the Greek Tes- tament was published in 1730, and in 1751 the text itself was given to the world with every varia- tion that he had discovered, and his critical re- marks. Died in the sixty-first vear of his age, 1754. WETZEL, J. C. F., a Ger. flellenist, 1762-1810. WETZEL, J. G., a German writer, 1691-1755. WEWITZER, R., a comic actor, 1748-1824. WKYSE, Christopher Ernest Frederic, a famous musical composer, was born at Altona, in 1774, and died in 1842. He excelled chiefly in oratorios and sacred music ; but he composed a vast number of songs, which became highly popular among the Swedish peasantry. WEZEL, J. C, a German' novelist, 1747-1800. WH ALLEY, Peter, an English critic and divine, author of 'An Essay on the Method of Writing History,' 4 An Inquiry into the Learning of Shakspeare,' an edition of Ben Jonson, and a ' Vindication of the Evidences and Authenticity of nil from the Objections of Lord Boling- broke.' 1722-1791. WHARTON, G., an En*, astronomer, 1617-81. WHABTt )X, Henry, a learned divine, to whom we are indebted for valuable illustrations of our -tic.-tl history, 1664-1695. WHARTON, Thomas, an eminent physician and professional writer, b. in Yorkshire, 1610-73. WHARTOF, Thomas, marquis of, eldest son of Philip, Lord Wharton, distinguished as a stren- uous opponent of the court in the reigns of Charles II. and James IL, and as a Whig statesman under the administration of Lord Godolphin ; born about ,171ft. The revolutionary ballad of 'Lilli- bullero,' is attributed to him. His son, Philip, duke of Wharton, was an unprincipled politician] and turned about without seniple from the cause tender to that of Goofgt I. He was a ■;-, and wrote some poems and nraHiineous pieces which have been published WHATELT. W., a puritan divine, 1583-1639. WHEARE, I)., a Cornish historian, 1573-1647. ' I I.l-V. CHABLW, ■ vicar of Hereford- ihirc, au. of ' A Rational Illustration of the Book on Prayer,' and other works, 1686-1742. WHKATI.KY, Francis, a self-instructed por- WIII trait painter, who excelled also in the delineation of domestic scenes, 1747-1801. WHELER, or WHEELER, Sir George, a scholar and divine of the Church of England, who was born at Breda in Holland, where his parents were living in exile, 1650. After travelling in Greece and Asia Minor he entered the church, and obtained some rich preferments; the chapel known by his name in Spitalfields was built at his ex- pense on the estate belonging to him. His works consist of his ' Travels,' a highly valued produc- tion, ' The Protestant Monastery,' containing direc- tions for the religious conduct of a family, and ' An Account of the Churches and Places of Assembly of the Primitive Christians.' Died 1724. WHETHAMSHEDE, John, an abbot and chronicler of St. Albans, who lived to be more than a hundred years old; ordained 1382, died 1464. WHICHCOTE, Benjamin, a philosophical divine of great influence in his day, was born in Shropshire, 1610, and died at the house of hig friend, Dr. Cadworth, in 1683. He belonged to what is called the Latitudinarian party. Besides his Sermons, we possess his ' Observations and Apothegms,' published by one of his pupils in 1688., and ' Moral and Religious Aphorisms, which ap- peared for the first time in 1703. His Sermons were first given to the world by the earl of Shaftes-j bury. WHISTON, William, well known as a divine] and natural philosopher, was born at Norton in* Leicestershire, where his father was rector, in 1667. ] Having taken orders he became chaplain to the* bishop of Norwich, and in 1696 published his first work, entitled 'A New Theory of the Earth, from) its Original till the Consummation of All Things.' In 1698 he became rector of Lowestoft in Suffolk,! and in 1703 succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as pro- ; fessor of mathematics, but seven years later, was expelled the university on a charge of Arianism. He published several other works, and among others a translation of Josephus, and his own Memoirs. Died 1752. WHITAKER, Edward, a clergyman and schoolmaster of the Church of England, author of 'A General and Connected View of the Prophecies,** ' Family Sermons,' &c, born 1750. WHITAKER, John, a clergyman of Cornwall, well known for his learned writings on antiquarian and historical subjects; born at Manchester ahout 1735, died 1808. Among his works are a ' His? • tory of Manchester,' ' Genuine History of the Britons Asserted,' ' The Origin of Arianism,' ' The Real Origin of Government,' ' Mary Queen of Scot*, 1 * Vindicated,' 'Course of Hannibal over the Alps,' " ' The Life of St. Neot,' ' Histories of London and Oxford,' besides Sermons, Poems, and various cri-J tical papers. WHITAKER, Thomas Durham, rector of* Whalley and Blackburn, author of several anti- quarian works, and an edition of the Visions ofr Piers Ploughman, 1759-1821. WHITAKER, William, a Calvinistic divine of* great eminence, born at Burnley, in Lancashire, 1547. He was an active party to the religious* disputes of his age, and was called by Cardinal Bellarmine, the most learned heretic he had ever read. Died 1595. WUITBREAD, Samuel, son of the eminent;; WHI brewer of that name, distinguished as a politician, was born in 1758, and was married in 1789 to Elizabeth, eldest daughter of the first Earl Grew His career in parliament dates from 1790 to his death in 1815, and was marked by his impeach- ment of Lord Melville. He was a zealous Whig. He died in the year mentioned by his own hand. WHITBY, Daniel, a learned controversial divine, whose commentary on the New Testament is still held in high estimation, 1638- 1726. WHITE, Joseph Blajjco, a Spanish gentle- man of Irish descent, who became convinced of the eiTors of popery at the age of fifteen, while being educated as a" Roman Catholic priest. He came to England in 1810, and devoted himself to literature, chiefly through the magazines and peri- odical press, 1775-1841. WHITE, Rev. Gilbert, a good naturalist and pleasing writer, was born at Selborne in Hamp- shire, in 1720. He died in 1793. He was edu- cated at Oxford ; and was elected a fellow of Oriel College ; took his degree of M.A., and was ap- pointed one of the senior proctors of the university. He soon left Oxford, and possessing a quiet, unam- bitious disposition, a great love for the study of nature, and a particular attachment to the charms of rural scenery, he fixed his residence in his na- tive village of Selborne. Nor could any offers which were made to him of settling upon a college living, tempt him from his beloved retreat, hut here, in the enjoyment of competence and learned ease, he spent his days in serene tranquillity, be- loved by his neighbours and in correspondence with many of the most learned antiquarians and natur- alists of the day. In 1789 he published his Na- tural History of Selborne. The minute exactness of the facts contained in it, the good taste dis- 1)layed in their selection, and the elegance and the iveliness with which they are described, render this work exceedingly interesting and instructive, and make it one of the most generally popular books on natural history ever written. It has gone through various editions, and still holds its popu- larity with all who can relish accurate descriptions of the habits of domestic animals, birds, and insects, bv which they are surrounded. [W.B.J WHITE, Hknhy, a clergyman and literary character of Lichfield, died 1836. WHITE, Henry Kirke, one of those many lights that have been extinguished prematurely, is deeplv interesting on account of his early struggles and the amiability and piety of his character. If he had survived long enough for active usefulness, he might have been an invaluable clergyman ; but it is difficult to believe that he would ever have been ■ distinguished poet. He was born in 1785, at Nottingham, where his father was a butcher. His zeal for study in boyhood was not damped, either by a succession of manual employments, or by the drudgery of an attorney's desk, at which he was by and by placed. Contributions to small periodicals encouraged him to print, in 1803, a volume <.f IIOOWIO, which was severely reviewed, but made him favourably known to Soutliey ;md other men of eminence. His religious opinions and feelings had now taken a very serious turn ; and Mr. Simeon, with the aid of his friends, pro- cured for him a sizarship in St. John's College, Cambridge. In both of bis two years at the uni- 836 win versify, he distinguished himself eminently ; but the severity of the labour wore him out. He died in 1806, in his twenty-first year. Soutliey edited his 'Remains,' prefixing a very beautiful memoir. [W.S.] WHITE, James, a miscellaneous writer ana novelist, bora in Ireland, died 1799. WHITE, Jeremy, a nonconformist minister, and wr. in favour of universal restitution, d. 1707. WHITE, John, a barrister and political writer of the commonwealth period, conimonlv called Century White, from his principal publication ; this work bears the following expressive title, — 'The Eirst Century of Scandalous Malignant Priests, Made and Admitted into Benefices by the Prelates; or, a Narrative of the Causes for which the Parliament hath Ordered the Sequestration of the Benefices of Several Ministers Complained of before them, for Viciousness of Life, Errors in Doctrine, for Practising and Pressing Superstitious Innovations against Law, and for Malignancy against the Parliament.' Born in Pembrokeshire 1590, died 1646. WHITE, John, usually called ' The Patriarch of Dorchester,' was a puritan divine, highly esteemed for his eloquence and piety, 1574-1648. WHITE, or WHYTE, John, a catholic divine, created bishop of Winchester by Mary, 1511-1560. WHITE, Joseph, a divine" of the Church of England, in high repute as an Oriental scholar, was born at Stroud, in Gloucestershire, 1746, and died 1814. He obtained great credit and preferment for his Bampton lectures, which, it was afterwards discovered, had been composed principally by Mr. Badcock, once a dissenting minister, further aided by contributions in Greek literature from Dr. Parr. His other works are 'Observations on Certain An- tiquities of Egypt,' a ' Harmony of the Gospels,' A* WHITE, or VITUS, Richard, a Roman Catholic professor and canonist, author of a Latin History of the British Islands, died 1(112. WHITE, Rohert, an engraver, 1645-1704. WHITE, Thomas, an English Aristotelian philosopher and catholic, known as a friendly dis- putant with Hobbes and Descartes, died M0S. WHITE, Thomas, the founder of Zion College in London Wall, and other charities designed to promote learning, was a native of Bristol. He commenced his public career as vicar of St. Dun- stan's, Fleet-Street, in 1575, and died 1621. The college and alms-house were built on the site of Elsynge priory, then in ruins, £3,000 being left by Iiim for that purpose. WHITE, Sta Thomas, founder of St. .John's College, Oxford, was a rich citizen and I London. He was born at Reding in 1492. His mayoralty dates in the year of Wyatt's rebellion, and for his services at that crisis he receive 1 the honour of knighthood. Died 1566. WHITFIELD, Gkobob, founder o/tbaCalvnv istie inethodists, was a native of Gloucester, in the Bell Inn of which town, his father being ■ tavern- keeper, he was born 16th December, 1711. His father having died while QtOCM was yet v.. no-, the boy's education devolved solely on his mother, • ..us instructions and example h;id I powerful influence in imbuing his infant mind with strong religious impressions. Having rcsoKed to cultivate the superior talents with which she saw win George was endowed, she sent him to a classical school. At the age of fifteen he had distinguished himself bv the accuracy, extent of his knowledge, ■in Greek and Roman literature. But his mother not succeeding in the hotel, and becom- • poverty, the progress of George's education was stopped^ and being driven to under- take some menial place about the establishment, his manners ami morals were much injured by his :i with irreligious sen-ants. Happily his impressions revived, and having been confirmed ■ d for the first time the sacrament of is Supper. His mother's circumstances improving, she sent him to Pembroke College, Oxford, and there he joined in forming a small select society for mutual improvement in religious knowledge and personal piety along with the and a few college contemporaries of kindred spirit. Dr. Benson, bishop of Gloucester, who was acquainted with his rare talents and piety, resolved to grant him ordination, and the solemn ceremony was performed at Gloucester, on 20th June, 1736. His first sermon, preached on the following Sabbath, produced an extraordinary sensation. From Gloucester he went to London, where he preached alternately in the chapel of the Tower ana at Ludgate prison every Tuesday. In 1737 he joined his friends the Wesleys as a mis- sionary at the Georgian settlement. But he had only Deen four months resident there, when he returned to England both to obtain priest's orders and to raise subscriptions for erecting an orphan house in that settlement. On his arrival in Lon- ioa, lie found an outcry raised against him on account of methodism. Bishop Benson disregarded it, and ordained him a priest. But he was denied access to the pulpits of many old friends; and hence he commenced the practice of open-air preaching in Moorfields, Kennington, and Black- heath, and other quarters, where his ministrations were attended by vast crowds. Having raised a fund of £1,000 for his orphanage, Whitfield re- turned in 1739 to the American continent. At Sa- vannah immense crowds repaired to hear him, and extraordinary scenes of excitement were enacted. On 25th March, 1740, he laid the first brick of the orphan asylum, and when the building was com- • gave it the name of Bethesda. Although his ministry was very successful at Savannah, he sighed for his native land ; and accordingly in 1741, he returned once more to Britain, where he continued with indefatigable diligence to preach the gospel In prosecution of that object, he made a tour through England, Wales, and Scot- land, preaching in many places, and always in the open air, to immense crowds. While in Wales, he married Mrs. Jones, a widow to whom he had long cherished a warm attachment ; and shortly after his marriage, he repaired to London, where, it being winter, some of his admirers erected a wooden shed in which he preached. To this fragile structure, he gave the name of the taber- nacle, and it w of some extraordinary * w ** e ^ in g«- The journeys and voyages of this indefatigable minister amount to a number al- most incredible. Hfl has stated in his memo- randum book, that ' from the time of his ordina- tion to a period embracing tliirtv-fonr years, he Poached upwards of 18,000 sermons, crossed the WHI Atlantic seven times, travelled thousands of miles both in Britain and America;' and when his strength was failing, he put himself on what he termed 'short allowance,' viz., preaching only once in every day of the week, and three times on the Sabbath ! 'Whitfield was no common preacher. Parties of the most opposite character and prin- ciples, such as Franklin, Hume, and John Newton, have united in bearing testimony to the beauty and effectiveness of Whitfield's pulpit oratoiy. The death of this eminent and most useful servant of God was sudden, having been produced by a cold caught while preaching at Portsmouth, and fol- lowed by a severe attack of asthma, which put a period to the life and labours of one of the most devoted and successful ministers of Christ since the davs of the apostles. [R.J.1 WHITEHEAD, D., an eminent divine, d. 1571. WHITEHEAD, G., a eel. Quaker, 1636-1723. WHITEHEAD, John, a methodist physician, who attended Wesley in his last illness, preached his funeral sermon, and wrote 'Memoirs' of hia life, died 1804. WHITEHEAD, P., a satiric poet, died 1774. WHITEHEAD, William, successor of Cibber as poet-laureate, author of ' The Roman Father,' 'The School for Lovers,' ' Friendship,' and other ,j compositions of considerable merit; he was a friend of Mason, who wrote his life, 1715-1785. i WHITEHEART, John, a philosophical writer and maker of instruments, 1713-1788. WHITELOCK, Bulstrode, an eminent law- yer and friend of Cromwell, was the son of Sum James Whitelock, lord' chief justice of the King's! Bench, and was born in London in 1605. He ' was one of the managers of the trial of Strafford,! but took no part in that of Laud or the king. Int 1656, he was chosen speaker of the House of Cod mons, and in 1659 became president of the council of state, and keeper of the great seal. His histori- cal memoirs are highly valued, and Whitelock «£.■ greatly eulogized, as to personal character, by Lord Clarendon. He died after many years' retire- ment at Chilton Park, in Wiltshire, 1676. WHITGIFT, John, archbishop of Canterbury^, distinguished as a supporter of the Church of Eng- land, was born at Grimsby in Lincolnshire 1530, 1 or, according to some authorities, in 1533. He* was regarded as a great persecutor both of the' Suritans and papists, by their own partizans, but. looker and the episcopalians extol his moderation and proper firmness. He died in 1603, almost his I his last words being ' Pro Ecclesia Dei.' WHITLOCK, Eliz., a famous actress, sister of Mrs. Siddons and the Kembles, 1761-1836. WHITTINGHAM, Sir Samuel Ford, a Bri- tish officer, distinguished in the service of Spain during the peninsular war, died commander-in-W chief at Madras 1841. WHITTINGHAM, William, a puritan divinei who became dean of Durham in the reign of Eliza-4- leth. He destroyed or mutilated many of tliM! antiquities of the cathedral in his zeal against; popery, 1524-1589. WfllTTINGTON, Sir Richard, whose namflj' has been rendered popular by the legends current;" about him, the real truth concerning which lias never been ascertained, was a citizen and mercer of London. He probably rose from a humble sta- WHI tion, like so many others who have filled the magisterial chair. His last mayoralty dates 1419. WHITTINGTON, Robert, author of gram- matical works, long used in the English schools, flourished about 1480-1530. WHITWORTH, Charles, Baron, an ambas- sador from the English court to Peter the Great, author of an Account of Russia, 1670-1725. WHYTT, R., a Scotch physician, 1714-1766. WICHERLY. See Wycherley. WICKHAM. See Wykeham. WICKCLIFF. See Wycliffe. WICQUEFORT, Abraham De, a Dutch diplo- matist, author of Memoirs concerning ambassadors and their functions, 1598-1682. WIEGLER, J. C., a Germ, chemist, 1732-1800. WIELAND, Christopher Martin, a cele- brated German poet, dramatist, and novelist, of the last century. He has been called the German Voltaire. His works have been published in 51 volumes, and embrace essays, tales, poems, histories, and translations. ' Oberon,' a poetic romance in 12 cantos, is his best known production ; 1733-1813. WIELING, A., a German jurist, 1693-1746. WIER, John, in Latin Wierus, or Piscinarius, a Brabantine phvsician and writer on demonology and witchcraft, 1515-1588. WIFFEN, Jeremiah Holme, a Quaker poet, author of a translation of Tasso, and other popular productions in miscellaneous literature, including a History of the Russells, 1792-1836. WIGAND, John, a learned divine, 1523-1587. WILBERFORCE, William, Esq., a distin- guished British statesman and Christian philan- thropist, was born in 1759, at Hull. Educated at the grammar school of his native town, he was transferred in due time to Cambridge, where his distinguished position as a scholar and a gentle- man is sufficiently indicated by the fact of his being chosen whenever he attained majority, to represent Hull in parliament. For a considerable time he was content to remain a silent member of the House of Commons, while at the same time he was a most active and intelligent observer of the forms of that legislative assembly. Reserving him- self for some great and important occasion, he marie his debut as a parliamentary orator on the subject of the slave trade, and in his second session, he introduced a bill for the abolition of the inhuman traffic. The 12th of May, 1789, was the memorable day when that topic was first introduced ; and the journals of that period are unanimous in ascribing much of the interest connected with the movement to the powerful and affecting speech with which the bill was prefaced. Mr. Wilberforce was acknowledged both in and out of the house to have earned by that appear- ance, the reputation of one of the most eloquent orators of the age ; and the hearts of all good men in every part of the country implored blessings on the head of him who dared in the higbest places of the land to advocate the cause of outraged humanity. A most violent and determined opposi- tion was organized by interested parties. Never- theless in the following year Mr. Wilberforce renewed his motion, and on the plea of insufficient evidence, the opposing party succeeded in procur- ing a postponement of the" question. Many men would have been dispirited by these fruitless efforts, WIL and perhaps have relinquished their task in de- spair. But Mr. Wilberforce was not to be daunted. Having taken up his position on the ground of conscientious objection to all trafficking in slaves, he prosecuted the measure with that calm and unyielding determination which is al- ways the fruit of mature thought and strong prin- ciple ; and his patience was put to a severe trial ; for while he renewed his motion every session from 1792, he met with no better success than at first. In 1804, after a cessation for a few years, he brought the subject once more before the notice of a new parliament. But the public mind had made a prodigious advancement towards a better tone of feeling in regard to the slave trade, and the bill passed the third reading in the Lower House. In the Upper House, the consideration of the subject was postponed till the next session. A still more important step in advance was taken when the liberal cabinet in 1806 adopted the bill and threw all the weight of government influence into the scale. It was introduced into the Commons' House at the special request of Wilberforce under the auspices of Fox, and was passed by a majority of 114 to 15, and Lord Granville succeeded in carrying it through the Lords. But Mr. Wilber- force was universally regarded throughout the kingdom as the great champion of the cause — and the most gratifying expressions of public gratitude were poured in upon him from all parts of the country. Mr. Wilberforce has established claims to public notice and esteem of another and even higher kind. He had become a decided Christian, at a time and in circumstances when to make an avowal of evangelical sentiments and to act in accordance with the high principles of Christian morality was a much more difficult thing than it is happily in the present day. The publication of his l Practical View of Christianity,' a work in which he compared the defective notions of re- ligion that prevailed among the majority of pro- fessing Christians with the standard of the New Testament — formed an era in the religious his- tory of this country; and multitudes have trued to its perusal their first serious impressions of religion. The character of the distinguished author was a beautiful commentary on the prin- ciples developed in this book. Throughout a long life he sustained the character of a consis- tent Christian; and that was no easy attainment for one who moved in the highest circles, and was constantly mingled in all the changes of the politi- cal world. But although his position was isolated, such was the sincere and unaffected piety— such the prudent discretion that regulated his inter- course with general society, that he c omm anded the respect and esteem of all parties. Mr. Wilber- force terminated his honourable and useful lite on 28th July, 1833, and on his deathbed eniojed the comforts of that gospel in which he had his faith for so many years of his life. | k.F. ] W 1 1, BYE, J., a musical composer, 16th century. WILCOCKS, Josei-h, bishop of Rochester, promoted the erection of the west front i minster Abbey, M7S-175*. His son, Jon m. an ingenious antiquarian, author of ' Woman Con- versations,' and ' Sacred Exercises,' 17S8-179L Will), Hinkv, an Oriental scholar, born at Norwich, where he began life as a tailor about 817 WIL The date of his death is unknown, but in published ■ translation of Mohammed's tven. He was a man of irreproach- is to have suffered much from - various means of subsistence. WILD. 1!.. ■ divine and poet, 1009-1679. WILPBOKH. CiiAia.Ks, a self-taught mathe- m.itician and miscellaneous writer, died 1802. WILDENS, .!., a Finnish painter, 1584-1644. WILF< IRDj Pi w isa Cerman Orientalist, and officer in the British service, died 1822. WILFRED, a Saxon bishop and saint of the Roman calendar, who exhibited his architectural skill an 1 his taste in embellishments, by the im- provement of York cathedral and the erection of churches at Hexham and Ripon ; died 709. W1LHEM, \\ r . L B., founder of the popular sinking schools in France, 1779-1842. WILKES, JoHH, was born in London on the 17th of October, 1727. His father, an afflu- ent distiller, gave him a high education, of which his capacity enabled him to take full advantage. He was learned and witty, and his attractive con- versation, aided by his fashionable tastes and lavish habits made him popular with the juvenile aristo- • the day, both good and bail. His forbid- | earane'e has often been alluded to, but au- thentic original portraits, while they have a general resemblance to the expression in Hogarth's caricature, represent not a coarse rude demagogue, but the delicate sinister features of a sybarite and - profligate. He treated the mob for his own purposes much as his profligate companions of the Monk-monks' Club, who were so indignant at his becoming a demagogue, treated their female victims. It was in 1762 that, driven desperate by his extravagance, be commenced the North Briton. Fur a libel there printed, his house was searched under a general or indefinite warrant, and for this constitutional outrage he obtained a verdict for £1 0,01)11 against the secretary of state. The same event began his memorable conflict with the House ■ions. His expulsion in 1764 opened the question how far the majority of the house wa« entitled to deprive constituents of the pri- vilege of having their own representative, and he triumphed by the obnoxious resolutions being ex- a 1782. He had the art in all his strug- gfcl to keep not only on the popular, but the con- stitutional side. When no longer attacked he fell -nih'cance, which, perhaps, he did not dis- 1 some lucrative offices. He 27th December, 1797. [J.H.B.] WILKTK. Sin David, was bora in the parish of Cults in Fifcshire, November 18, 178*. In 1799 he attended the Trustees' Acadeinv at Edinburgh; entered as a student of the Royal Academy of Lon- don in 1806, and beettM at once a famous painter liibition of his 'Village Politicians Mn the following year. Eh became a member of the Roval Academy in 1811; visited the continent in 1825, for the sake of recruiting his health, and remained ire. When he returned he forsook '/enre painting to which he owed his great popu- ■> i substituted a loose sketchy style of ii, and devoted himself henceforth chiefly •• and portrait. The change proved to be unwwe : he bOed in portrait, and from being the M became only a vcrv WIL inferior painter of history. He was knighted in 1836 ; he had already been appointed limner to thj» king in Scotland, and painter in ordinary to his majesty. In an unlucky hour in the autumn of 1840, Sir David set out for a tour in the East ; he visited Constantinople, the Holy Land, and Egypt ; he complained of illness while at Alexandria, and expired suddenly on board the Oriental steamer, off' Gibraltar, June 1, 1841, and his body was com- mitted on the same day to the deep; the coffin was lowered into the sea in 46° 20' north 1st., and 60° 24' west long. — (Allan Cunningham, Life of Sir David WUkie, &c. London, 1843. 1 he Wilk'e. Gallery, &c. See also the Penny Cyclo-> pcedia.) [R.N.W.I WILKIE, William, a Scottish minister and professor of philosophy at St. Andrews, author of 4 The Epigomad,' an epic poem, 1721-1772. WILKINS, Sir Charles, called the 'father of Sanscrit literature,' was born at Frome, in Somer- setshire, 1749, and went to Bengal in the civil service 1770. He resided in India fifteen years, and in that period translated the Bhagavat Gita into English, and exhibited his mechanical skill in making the first Bengali and Persian types used in Bengal. On arriving in England he became] librarian to the Directors of the East India Com- j pany, and published in succession the 'Fables ofj Vischnou Sarma,' better known in Europe as the • Fables of Pilpay,' his ' Arabic Grammar,' an edi-'J tion of 'Richardson's Dictionary' enlarged, and.1 other works. Died 1836. WILKINS, David, rector of Hadleigh, in Suf- ] folk, and archdeacon of that county, known as an . antiquarian and Saxon scholar, 1685-1745. WILKINS, John, brother-in-law of Oliver! Cromwell, and bishop of Chester, was born inn Northamptonshire 1614. He was distinguished! for his learning, especially as a mathematician, and is the inventor of the perambulator or wheel! for measuring distances. Died at the house of hiss friend, Dr. Tillotson, in London, 1672. WILKINS, William, an architect and writef| on architecture, was bom at Cambridge, where his father was a builder, in 1778, and succeeded Sir* John Soane as professor at the Royal Academy inl 1837. The principal of his edifices are the London ] University, St. George's Hospital, the University J Club House, and the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square. His literary works are 'Remarks on thai Buildings and Antiquities of Athens,' and ' The Civil Architecture of Vitruvius.' Died 1839. WILL, G. A., a Germ, numismatist, 1724-1798. WILLiERTS, Adam, a Flemish marine painter, 1577-1640. His son, Abraham, born 1613. WILLAMOV, J. G., a Russian poet, 1737-77. 1 WILLAN, Robert, a physician of London, kn. as a professional and religious writer, 1757-1812. 1 WILLDENOW, Charles Louis, a distin-1 guished botanist, member of the Academy of Sciences and director of the botanic garden at Ber- lin ; he wrote several works on plants, and col- lected a Zoological Cabinet which he presented tol the museum, flourished 1765-1812. WII.LE, J. G., a German engraver, 1717-1807. WILLEMET, P. R. F., a French botanist and traveller in the East Indies, 1762-1790. WILLEMET, Renie, a French botanist, direc- . tor of the botanic garden at Nancy, 1735-1807. WTL ^ WILLEMIN, N. X., a French antiquarian, de- signer, and engraver, author of 'The Civil and Military Customs of Antiquity,' 1764-1833. WILLEMUR, L. De Penen, Count De, a Spanish general and statesman, 1761-1836. WILLKRMOZ, P. J., a French physician and chemist, 1735-1799. His son, P. C. Catharine, a physician and anatomist, 1767-1810. WILLET, Andrew, a learned divine of Cam- bridgeshire, author of works written against po- pery, and other theological subjects, born at Elv i:.<> : 2, died 1621. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. William I., king of England, was the illegitimate son of Robert duke of Normandy, by Arlotta, the daugh- ter of a tanner of Falaise." He was born in 1027. His father had no legitimate children; and when Duke Robert departed on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he persuaded his barons to swear allegiance to young William as his heir. Duke Robert died while returning from Palestine in 1035 ; and dur- ing the first years of William's dukedom, the ambitious feuds of the Norman barons and the aggressions of the king of France placed Normandy in a perilous state of anarchy and weakness. But as soon as William grew out of boyhood, he began to govern for himself; and after years of jeopardy and strife, he established a degree of order in his duchy, which was unknown in the rest of Europe, and he made himself universally known and respected among the princes of Christendom. William was related to Edward the Confessor king of England ; and he long watched anxiously for the time when the death of that childless sovereign should give him the opportunity for making himself king of this country. Edward died on the 5th January, 1066 ; and the Saxon Harold was chosen by the English to succeed him. But William speedily asserted his claims. Besides his relationship to the late king, he had been nominated, or he pre- tended that he had been nominated by the dying Edward as his successor : and he had in the pre- ceding year taken advantage of the temporary presence of his rival in Normandy, to make Han] partly by force and partly by fraud, swear to help him in obtaining the crown of England. As soon as King Edward was dead, William demanded the execution of this promise ; and, on Harold's refusal, he prepared to assert his rights by the sword. He assembled, for the invasion of England, a host which Mackintosh has rightly termed ' the most remarkable and formidable armament whi< h the western nations had witnessed.' He landed with this arniv in l'evensey Hay, 29th September, 1066, and on tne 14th of the next month he fought and won the decisive battle of Hastings, in which Harold and the bravest thanes of southern and central England perished. William advanced and occupied London, the Saxons generally submitting themselves to him ; and he was crowned king of England at Westminster on Christinas day, luilO. At first his rule was comparatively mild ; but the Saxon spirit chafed under the sense of foreign domination, and under the insolence of the Nor- man barons and prelates of the new king. Then came fierce local risings, with delusive partial suc- cesses over the foreigners, soon crushed by the disciplined troops and high military genius of the Conqueror. Then followed the revengeful cruelties m WIL of the king, the effects not so much of hasty anger, as of stern remorseless policy. He was n establish his dominion and his dynasty firmly in England ; and neither fear nor mercy "ever made Wiliiam pause in employing the most efficacious means to work out a settled purpose. The insur- rections of the Saxons were visited by him with confiscation, massacre, and devastation ; and it is computed that a third of the old Saxon population of England was swept from the land during his invasion and reign. But, terrible as are the aits of cruelty with which William's memory is asso- ciated, it would be unjust to let them blind us to the high qualities which he displayed, as a ruler, and as an ordainer of our institutions. He main- tained the strictest order and internal peace. His military renown checked the ambition and cupidity of the marauding Danes, who had infested the English coasts for more than two centuries. He organized the feudal system here, with changes from its development on the continent, so as to keep down the turbulent insubordination and law- less violence of the nobility. He retained (though with many important modifications) the .Saxon popular tribunals ; and altogether he may be truly said to have displayed a marvellous discernment of the two great principles of government, which re- quire centralized power in matters of imperial importance, and local self-government in matters of chiefly local interest. William the Conqueror died in 1087. It ought to be added that, like all the race of his great ancestor, Rolf the Ganges, who conquered Neustria 150 years before Wil- liam conquered England, he was eminent for his appreciation of intellect, science, art, and learning, and for liberality to all men of all nations by whom they were displayed. [E.S.C.1 WILLIAM II., king of England, second son of the preceding, was born in 1060, and succeeded Lis father in the absence of his elder brother, llobcrt, 1087. The latter also allowed him to acquire the dukedom of Normandy by purchase, and then joined the crusaders. William reigned nearly thirteen years, and was killed in the New Forest by an ac- cident, as commonly supposed, in 11 00. He via surnained Rvfus, the red or ruddy, and bears the reputation of an evil and avaricious man. WILLIAM III., kingof England, sta.ltbol.br 0* Holland, and prince of Orange, was the son of William II., stadtbolder of Holland, and of .Mary, daughter of Charles I. of England. lie was born November H, lo.">il. His father had died a little more than a week before the young prince's birth, and the party of aristocratic republicans among the Dutch, that was hostile to the ascendai the house of Orange, eagerly took this opportunity of curtailing its power ; ami prevented the i :"• of stadtbolder and captain-general, which the father had held, from being conferred M the infant son. The great wealth and hereditary total the prince of Orange, his connection with the: families of England and France, and the popularity of bis name and house among the common people, still made young William an object of anxiety to the leading* Dutch statesmen I and be grew up surrounded by the officers and spies of a jealous government, that watched his every potion and word, and every growing tendency of his disposi- riill pretended courtesy but real suspicion. WIL William thus earlv acquired, as a defence against the snares aronnd' him, the reserved manners, ami the habits of secrecy and self-reliance, that marked him throughout life. When he was twenty-one the disasters of the war against England and fa which the Dutch were then involved, ,1 movement among the mass of the people against the De Witts and the other aristo- cratic chiefs of the commonwealth. William was made stadtholder, and continued with this office and that of captain-general, and the other high Sowers which his ancestors had enjoyed. It is a eep blot on his fame that at this crisis of his life he neither exerted himself to prevent the murder of the De Witts by the infuriated people, nor did he take anv steps to bring the murderers to justice. Towards the country, that thus made him its chief at a time of unexampled distress and peril, Wil- liam did his duty nobly. He encouraged the Dutch to reject the degrading terms of peace which the hostile kings offered, and to defend their father- land, town by town, and inch by inch. Nay, he exhorted them, rather than submit, to embark on board their vessels and found a new free state in : Indies. He himself spurned with indig- nation the offers of Louis XIV. to bribe him by making him king of the United Provinces under the protection of England and France. When the French envoy pointed out to him the immense power of the invading armies, and that he was sure, if he rejected the proposals, to see both himself and Holland irretrievably ruined, William answered, 4 1 have thought of the means to avoid beholding the nun of my country : I can die in the last ditch.' His heroism had its just reward. The progress of the French armies over Holland was checked. The emperor of Germanv and other rowers combined against Louis XlV. Charles I. of England was compelled by his parliament and people to make peace with the Dutch ; and at last the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678, left Holland free and independent after a war, in which William, though he met with frequent reverses, had won the admiration of Europe as a general and as a statesman. In the same year he married the prin- ry of England, daughter of James II. by his rir.-t wife. William watched with the deepest in- terest the struggle of parties in this country. He felt that his own peculiar mission was to defend the cause of civil and religious liberty in Europe against the ambition and bigotry of Louis XlV. If England could be brought to fill her natu- ral place as a free and a protestant state in this rift William was confident of the result. hut Holland and her other allies were unequal to a continued contest against the power of France, nd, under her Stuart rulers, was to act again as the tool and accomplice of the hourbons. ■•■hen the English, in 1688, sought the William against the misgovernment H., William eagerly embarked in the teprin of his age. He landed in this country in the November of that year, and gained almost bloodless possession of the kingdom. The houses of parliament solemnly chose him king of by the bill of rights'. In Scotland and the .-uilierents of the abdicated monarch in arms, but were ultimately put down. William himself decided the Irish war WIL by the great victory of the Boyne, which he gained in person over James and his followers. William's reign over these kingdoms was disquieted by many jealousies between him and his new subjects. He was offended at the limitations on the royal power and revenue, which the English Whigs introduced ; and he was of course regarded with the bitterest animosity by the Jacobites, who cherished the fal- len cause of the Stuarts. The war also against France, which was the necessary consequence of the Revolution of 1688, brought many burdens on this country, and was attended with many losses in the field. The peace of Ryswick in 1697 was re- garded by all parties as no more than an armed truce ; and it was well known that Louis XIV. was scheming to unite the vast possessions of the Spanish crown to the dominion of France. Wil- liam sought to prevent this by two treaties between the principal European powers for the partition of the Spanish provinces on the death of the reigning king. But this only incensed the court of Madrid, and when the king of Spain died in 1700, it was found that he had bequeathed all his crowns to the grandson of Louis XIV., who forthwith repudiated the partition treaties, and prepared to seize this rich inheritance for the house of Bourbon. Wil- liam now applied all his energies to form a new league against France ; but in the midst of his. warlike preparations he died at Kensington, 8th March, 1702. William III. was unquestionably a great man, but he was one of those coldly great men, who rather extort our admiration from our ' reason, than raise the sympathy or enthusiasm of our hearts. His permission of the massacre of the j clan Macdonald, at Glencoe, is (like his conduct with regard to the De Witts,) a grievous stain on | his memory. But we must judge him by the i general character of his actions, and not by one or two culpable deeds. We must look to the circum- stances in which he was placed ; and we must con- sider what would have been the probable current of events in the latter portion of the seventeenth century, and in all after time, if the fraud, the ' rapacity, and intolerance of Louis XIV. and our own Stuarts had not been encountered by an opponent so resolute, so vigilant, so high-minded, and indo- mitable as William III. If we judge him thus, we shall feel that he deserves the imperishable gratitude of posterity, as the rescuer and preserver of our national independence, our constitutional liberties, and our rignt to worship according to u free conscience and a pure faith. [E.S.C.T WILLIAM (HENRY) IV., third son of George III., was born August 21, 1765, aud entered the navy as a midshipman in the fourteenth year of his age. He reached the rank of admiral in 1801. In 1818 he married the princess Adelaide, eldest I daughter of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen, who bore him two daughters, neither of whom survived their infancy. He became heir presumptive to the ■ throne by the death of the duke of York in 1827, and succeeded George IV. June 26, 1830; died j 1837. The great event of his reign was the achieve- ment of the Reform Bill, by which this country was saved from the verge of a revolution. He left ten j natural children, known as the Fitz-Clarknces. WILLIAM, Icing of Scotland, surnamed 'the Lion,' succeeded his brother, Malcolm IV., 1165, and died 1214. He was succeeded by Alexander II. 840 WIL WILLIAM, duke of Normandy, snrnamed ' Long Sword. 1 was bom in 900, and succeeded his father, Rollo, in 927. He was assassinated in 942. WILLIAM, sumamed 'Short Hose,' son of Ro- bert III., duke of Normandy, made a vain attempt to recover the estates of his father, of which he had been despoiled by Henry I. of England. He became count of Flanders in 1127, died 1128. WILLIAM, son of Henry I., king of England, invested by him with the duchy of Normandy, and perished by shipwreck 1120. WILLIAM, duke of Apulia, succeeded his father, Roger, son of Robert Guiscard, 1111, died 1127. WILLIAM, six counts of Holland, fonr of whom •were also counts of Hainault, and one emperor of Germany: — William I., who usurped the country on returning from a crusade to the prejudice of Ada, his niece, and died 1223. William II., grandson of the preceding, born about 1226, suc- ceeded his father 1234. In 1247 he was elected king of the Romans, and being proclaimed emperor by the papal legate in 1250, nad to dispute the crown with Conradin IV., till the death of that prince in 1254. He was soon after recalled to his hereditary estates by a revolt, and lost his life in a battle 1256. William III. of Holland and I. of Hainault, succeeded his father, John, in both countries 1304, and died 1337 : he was surnamed 1 the Good.' William IV. of Holland and II. of Hainault, son and successor of the preceding, perished in a battle fought with his revolted sub- jects 1345. He was succeeded by his sister, Mar- garet, and her husband, the emperor Louis of Bavaria. William V. of Holland and III. of Hainault, son of Margaret and Louis, usurped the authority of his mother 1349 ; he died miserably in a tower, to which he had been consigned for the murder of one of his gentlemen in 1377. William VI. of Holland and IV. of Hainault, succeeded his father, Albert, in 1404, died 1417. WILLIAM I. of Nassau, prince of Orange, the first leader in the Dutch war of independence, was born in 1533 of Lutheran parents, but descended from the ancient counts of that principality. Being trained to political employments at the court of Charles V., he conformed outwardly to Catholicism, and had become governor of the provinces of Hol- land, Zealand, and Utrecht, while the reformed doctrines were spreading and events were ripening for the revolt of the Netherlands. The leading circumstances of that great and glorious struggle, which lasted considerably more than half a cen- tury, were these. On the death of Charles V., who had made great efforts to keep the Nether- lands free from ' heresy,' he bestowed those pro- vinces on his son, Philip II., king of Spain. The latter appointed Margaret of Parma, a natural daughter of his father, stadtholderess, with the cardinal Granvella for her adviser, who began his caret r by prosecuting the protectants, and creating a vast number of bishoprics. The dark and re- solute despotism of Philip was shadowed forth in England in the reign of Man', called the 'bloody,' but" in tht; Netherlands he was M the tyrant of his own household, and so much the more MOM ru- pulous and persecuting. In 156-1 the cardinal, provoked by the opposition and hatred which he bad to encounter, departed for Spain, ami shortly afterward* preparations were making to introduce , French prelate and theologian, died lliJ. 841 WIL the inquisition, and this in the midst of a people already half Lutherans and Calvinists. In 1566 the nobles went in procession, and petitioned Mar- garet against this measure, and as they WON treated with contempt, their remonstrances were followed by popular commotions. On this Alva was sent, at whose approach a hundred thousand of the most industrious Flemings took refuge in foreign countries, chiefly in England. This was the crisis at which William of Orange came for- ward, and raised the standard of independence, and the desperate circumstances under which he called the people to arms, may be referred to in the article Alva. Though that monster of cruelty was recalled at the end of six years, 1574, and replaced by a milder ruler, the Dutch continued the war, and Holland was liberated by the relief of Leyden, which William effected by laying the whole country under water, 1575. He was now elected stadtholder, and Calvinism became the established religion, to the exclusion of Lutheranism as well as the Roman Catholic faith. By the ' Pacification of Ghent' in 1576, William united all the provinces in one confederation, but he found it impossible to heal these internal causes of disunion, and the Spaniards, taking advantage of them, were able to repossess themselves of the southern provinces, under the duke of Parma, whence arose the pre- sent distinction between Holland and Belgium. Philip had now set a price on William's head, and, in 1582, an attempt was made to assassinate him, but he recovered from the wound. A second at- tempt, in 1584, was but too successful. One Balthaser Gerard, being introduced to the stadthol- der on the plea of business, he suddenly drew a EistoL, loaded with three balls, and shot him in the ody. The prince expired almost instantly : his last words were, ' May God have mercv on me, and these poor people ! ' He was succeeded, and the war carried on successfully, by his second st-n. JJ AUM OT ok Nassau. [ E.Ii. ] WILLIAM, two kings of Holland, William (Frederick^ I., styled king of the Netherlands, grand duke ot Luxembourg, prince of Orange, and duke of Nassau, was bom at the Hague in 1772. He distinguished himself in the wars with the French republic, and became an exile with his father, the hereditary stadtholder of the Dutch republic, in 1795 ; after his father's death he suc- ceeded first to the duchy of Nassau, and joined the Prussian army against Napoleon. He became king of Holland by the settlement of affairs which followed the fall of Napoleon in 181 1, the countries united under his rule by the congress of Vienna being the old united provinces of Holland, the bishopric of Liege, and Belgium: the latter, however, was separated by the revolution He ah.iieate.l in 1840, anddicd in IMS. Wu ham II., son and successor of the preceding as king of Holland, was born in 1792, end distinguished him- self in the peninsular war under Lord Wellington; he also commanded the armv of the Netherlands at the hattle of Waterloo. Hu reign commenced from his father's abdication in 1H|D, and ! the revolution of March, 1MX. WILLIAM 01 Aim i i v, a Latin poet and his- torian of the 12 th century. WILLIAM OF AUYBBOKS, or m Talis, a WIL WILLIAM <.k Wykkham. Sec Wykeiiam. \\ ILI.IAMS. Anna, a miscellaneous and poet- ical writer, was the daughter of a Welch surgeon, whom she accompanied to London in 1780, and supported many years by the labour of her pen. In 174d she became blind from cataract, and then had recourse t<> her needle till she was admitted under the roof of Dr. Johnson, who was struck with admiration of her generous devotion. She died in his house, Holt Court. Fleet-Street, in the :ii rear of her age, 1783. WILLIAMS, 9m Chaki.ks Haxbury, a diplomatist ami man of letters, 1709-1759. WILLIAMS, Cooi'KK, a chaplain in the navy, and writer of voyages, Ac., 1767-1816. WILLIAM S, Daniel, many vears minister to a presbyterian congregation in Dublin, was born about 161 L at Wrexham, in Denbighshire. The latter part of his life was passed in London, and lie left his library in Redcross-Street, Cripplegate, for the use of dissenting ministers. Died 1716. WILLIAMS, David, founder of the 'Literary Fund,' was born in Cardiganshire, 1738 ; and after officiating some time as a dissenting minister, became a teacher of deism. This speculation not answering. Mr. Williams devoted himself to pri- vate teaching and literature, and at the close of his life was supported by the excellent institution he had himselt projected. His principal works :ire an edition of ' Hume's History,' ' Lectures on Education,' ' Lectures on Political Principles,' ' History of Monmouthshire,' &c. Died 1816. WILLIAMS, Eehraim, an American general, f»un far of the college named after him, died about IT'.'l. WILLIAMS, F., a creole writer, died 1770. WILLIAMS, (Jeikeith, bishop of Ossory, in Ireland, was born at Caernarvon, about 1589, and in the rebellion of 1641 became an exile from his see, which he recovered at the restoration. He wrote several religious works, and an account of the jtersecutions he had suffered. Died 1672. WILLIAMS, H. M., a female artist, 1759-1827. WILLIAMS, John, archbishop of York, and lord keeper in the reign of James I., was born at Aberconway in Carnarvonshire, 1582. He suc- J.'ird Bacon as chancellor in 1621, and was ■ of York in 1641. During the re- bellion he fortified and defended Conway castle in the interest of the king. Died 1650. WILLIAMS, John, a learned prelate, one of the olivines who were promoted after the revolu- 1688, b. in Northamptonshire 1634, d. 1709. W ILLIAMS, John, the martyr of Erromanga, WM born in a very humble rank/but being imbued with deep feelings of piety, early resolved to de- vote himself to missionary labours, and by his jring and zealous prosecution of his work, has obtained a name among the foremost of his a] contemporaries Having entered into : ndon Missionary Society, he was sent out in 1817 to their station 'in the South Sea Island* ; and the scene of his first duties there W "c • R** atf ' a— - tMe hirgest and most central -it Mated about one hundred from Tahiti. He afterwards removed ed the Herrey Group of Islands, and • <■ largest of the group, landed with a view to establish himself 812 WIL there. During eleven years he prosecuted the work of an evangelist on that island, and on re- viewing his course at his departure, could bear this wonderful and gratifying testimony: 'When I found them in 1823, they were entirely savages ; and when I left them, they had not only embraced the Christian profession, but I am not aware that there was a house in the island where family prayer was not observed every morning and even- ing.' — Burning with zeal to introduce the gospel into every island of the Pacific, this indefatigable missionary removed to another group— the New Hebrides, which lay far westward. Having been welcomed to the island of Parna, Mr. Williams prepared to make a similar attempt in Erromanga. On approaching it, he and his two companions hailed some of the natives who were sailing in a canoe, and found they spoke a different language — were of a darker complexion — shorter in stature — wilder in their appearance, and more jealous of the intentions of strangers, than the people in Parna. The missionaries tried to propitiate them bv offering them some bread, and requesting the chief to give them some water, which he speedily fetched. Encouraged by these appearances, they waded ashore ; but scarcely had they landed, when they ran in all haste back to the sea, being pursued with hostile weapons by the savages. Sir. Williams had reached the edge of the water, but the beach being rugged and steep, he stumbled and fell, when the native who pursued him., taking advan- tage of the fall, struck him repeated blows with a club. Others running up, completed the work of destruction, by piercing his body with arrows. Before his two companions could venture to make the slightest attempt to rescue him, the savages had dragged the mangled remains away with them. Thus perished, in the prime of life and usefulness, a missionary who was ' in labours abundant ; ' and whose 'Narrative'— full of the most interesting and delightful details, — has been beautifully and justly styled, ' A Modern Acts of the Apostles.' [R.J. ] WILLIAMS, Sir Roger, a native of Mon- mouthshire, dist. in the Flemish wars, died 1595. WILLIAMSON, Hugh, an American physi- cian, astronomer, and member of congress, author of a ' History of North Carolina,' and ' Observa- tions on the Climate of America,' 1735-1819. WILLIAMSON, Sir Joseph, a statesman and collector of manuscripts, born at Cumberland, where his father was a clergyman, about 1630. He began his public career as clerk of the council after the restoration, and became principal secre- tary of state in 1674; died 1701. WILLIS, Francis, a clergyman of the Church of England, whose attention to mental disorders led to his adoption of the medical profession, and to his appointment as physician to George III. : died 1807. WILLIS, Thomas, a distinguished English ana- tomist and physician, born at Great Bodwin, in Wiltshire, in 1622, and died at London in 1675, in the fifty-fourth year of his age. Willis belonged to the sect of Iatro-chemists, who resolved all the motions of the human body, in health and disease, into the chemical action and reaction of the solids and fluids of which it is composed. He was deeply involved in the controversies of his age, but the" work by which his name is known to posterity is that on the WIL Anatomy of the Brain and Nerves, Cerebri Ana- tame, cui occessit Nervorum descriptio fll Vim*. which was published at London in 1G64. Some of the opinions contained in this book are remarkable as being anticipations of the ideas on the functions of the brain long afterwards propounded bv (Jail, for he not only maintained that the cerebrum is the seat of the intellectual faculties, and the cerebel- lum of the involuntary movements, but that each part of the brain has its own separate functions. Another treatise on the sonl of brutes, De Anima Brutorum, published in 1672, involved him in irri- tating disputes with theologians of the time, which are thought to have shortened his days. [J.M'C] WILLOUGHBY, Sir High, commander in a voyage of discovery which sailed from London in 1553, at the instance of a company of merchants directed by Sebastian Cabot. The expedition, consisting of three vessels, was last heard of off Finmark, on the 30th July in that year, soon after which all must have perished. WILLUGHBY, Fkanm is, a famous naturalist and friend of Ray, who arranged and published his MSS. on icthyology, 1635-1672. WILLY. MOT, *W., an English clergyman, schoolmaster, and classical editor, died 1737." WILMOT, John-. See Rochester. WILMOT, John Eardley, chief justice of the Common Pleas, was born at Derby in 170'.'. and died 1792. He wrote ' Notes of Opinions,' which were published by his son in 1802. The latter, same names as his father, was born at Derby in 1748, and attained great eminence as a chancery lawyer. He died in 1815. WILSON', Alexanhkr, a celebrated ornitho- logist, was born in Paisley in 1766. He died in 1 813. His father was a man in poor circumstances, and Wilson himself was brought up to the trade of a weaver. His education was well attended to in early life, and he was possessed of an ardent poetic temperament of mind, accompanied with a strong predilection for the beauties of nature. He be- came disgusted with the drudgery of the loom; gave free vent to his poetical disposition, and for nearly three years he wandered over the country as a pedlar, selling muslins and poems. Both poetry and pedlary, however, turned out failure?, in h:> hands, and an unfortunate dispute between the journevmen and master weavers, in which he took an active part, rendering his residence in his Bative country extremely unpleasant to him, he emigrated to America. He arrived in that country in 1794, and for eight years he supported himself by weav- ing or perambulating the country with his pack, occasionally sun-eying land for the farmers, and latterly by "teaching. In 1802 he was offered an engagement in a seminary at Kingsessing on the Schuylkill, whither he immediately removed, and which fortunately procured him the pan some kind anil influential friends. Amongst the.-c was Mr. Lawson the engraver, who taught him drawing, colouring, and etching Previa coming to America he had never shown any taste fbr ornithology j but his application now to draw- ing seemed to develop his latent talent. His first attempts were not successful, but as soon as he commenecd the delineation of birds be made rapid seems to have tirst t . ..f his American Ornithology. Toaccom- WIL plish this work he undertook many jonrnevs through various parts of America, sleeping rot weeks in the wilderness alone with his gun and his pistols in hi- bosom, performing solitary voyages on the great rivers in I frail canoe, and collecting all the birds of the districts through which he tra- velled. He drew, etched, and coloured all the plates himself, and after many delays and disappoint- ments, he at last procured a publisher, ami pro- duced a first volume of his celebrated work. It far exceeded the expectations of the public, and eight volumes successively made their appearance. and procured him great and deserved reputation. Before he could finish his great undertakings, he was seized with a sudden and severe illi died at the age of forty-eight. Wilson's gfl was, to use liis own words, ■ to raise M beacon to show that such a man had lived;' and though his death was premature, he lived long enough to accomplish the object of his ambition. [ W.1L ) WILSON, Arthur, an English historian, who was secretary to Robert, earl of Essex, and steward to the earl of Warwick, 1596-1652. WILSON, Florence, a Latin scholar and pro- fessor of philosophy, born at Elgin in Scotland, about the beginning of the 16th century, died in Dauphiny, on his way home from Navarre, 1547. The work by which he is known is a dialogue, entitled ' De Tranquilitate Aninii.' WILSON, H., an English navigator, died 1810. WILSON, .Iamks, a navigator, who discovered the islands called Duff's group in 1796. WILSON, John, a composer of sacred music, born at Faversham in Kent, 1594, died 1673. WILSON, John, a Scotch vocalist, who at- tained great popularity by his manner of singing the beautiful lyrics of his native land. Ml 1800, died at Quebec in 1849, while on a pro- fessional visit to America. WILSON, John, better known for many years of his life by the soubriquet of Christopher North, was born in the town of Paisley in 1785, or, as some accounts say, in 1788. His father was an eminent merchant" there, and the paternal mansion in the High-Street of that ancient borough, still attests the wealth and dignity of the family by its stately urban magnificence. Wilson received the elements of hi I education, we believe, with the lute Mr. Peddie of Paisley, and afterwards nnd.-r tlm superintendence of the parish minister of Meanis; at the age of thirteen be entered the university of . and afterwards that of Oxford, in Mag- dalen College. From the latter source he donbtle.-s imbibed that familiar acquaintance with, and rich appreciation of the (lassie writers, which, in happy union with his other t( . f m drawing, was London by Sir Gworge Wynne, and placed with a portrait painter of the name of Wright. painter, and took to landscape first in Italy in 1749, by the advice of Zuccarelli and Vernet. Wilson returned to London in 1755, after an absence of six years, and acquired a great name in 1760 by his picture of ' Niobe.' He was one of the original thirty-six members of the Royal Academy, and succeeded Hayman as librarian in 1776. Towards the close of his life he came into possession of some property from a deceased brother, and he retired to the village of Llanverris, where he died in 1782. Wilson, admirable as his pictures are, was not suc- cessful, some of his works sold better than others, and these he accordingly frequently repeated, but generally with some slight difference. The figures of his pictures were frequently inserted by Morti- mer and Hayman ; his principal works are views in Italy ; many of them have been admirably engraved by Woollett. — (T. Wright, Some Account of the Life of Richard Wilson, R.A. London, 1824.) [R.N.W.l WILSON, Sir Robert, a British officer and politician, was bom in London 1777, and com- menced his military career in Flanders under the duke of York. He distinguished himself on many occasions during the wars against Napoleon, and was in Paris after his fall in 1815, where lie aided in the escape of Lavalette. He sat in parlia- ment as member for Southwark from 1818 to 1831, and in 1842 was appointed governor of Gibraltar. Died 1849. WILSON, Thomas, bishop of Sodor and Man, greatly distinguished for his pious and exemplary conduct, was born in Chester 1663, and educated at Dublin. He was appointed to his bishopric in 1697, and refused to leave his people when preferment was offered to him. He wrote a ' History of the Isle of Man' and some religious works, but is chiefly distinguished for his acts of practical benevolence ; died in 1755. — His only son, of the same name, born in 1703, was rector of St. Stephens, Wal- brook, for forty-six years. He rendered himself remarkable by his devoted admiration of the his- torian, Mrs. Macaulay, to whom he erected a statue in his church under the name of ' Liberty.' He wrote several works, among which are 'The Ornaments of Churches Considered,' ' A View of the Projected Improvements in Westminster,' and a pamphlet against distilled liquors. Died 1784. WILSON, Sir Thomas, a statesman and learned writer, age of Elizabeth, died 1581. WILSON, William Rae, a Scotch scholar, author of ' Travels in the Holy Land,' 1774-1849. WILTON, Joseph, a sculptor, 1722-1803. WILTZ, P., a French ascetic, 1671-1749. WIMPFEN, Felix De, a French officer and member of the estates-general, born 174"), pen- sioned by the first consul in 1799. died in the em- ploy of the state 1814. His brother, the Baron De Wimpfen Bornebourg, a general and writer on tactics, 1732-1800. WINCHESTER, T., rector of Appleton, in Berkshire, and a learned writer, known 1749-1773. WINCKELMANN, John, a German protestant theologian, 1551-1626. His son, John Justus, an historian, born at Gnessen 1620, died 1697. WINCKELR1EI), Arnold De, a Swiss peasant, who died gloriously fighting against the Austrians at Sempach, 1386. 844 WIN WIXCKLEMANN, John Joachim, a cele- brated name in sesthetical and art literature, was born in the duchy of Brandenburg 1718. He de- voted himself to the study of antiquities at Rome, where he obtained an appointment in the Vatican, and was murdered at Trieste on his way home- wards for the sake of some golden medals he pos- sessed, in 1768. His works on the history of art and ancient monuments have exercised the fiappiest influence on that description of literature, and are still invaluable as mines of information. WINCKLER, T. F., an archaeologist, 1771-1807. WINDER, Henry, a learned pastor of the nonconformists, author of a • Hebrew English Concordance,' and other works, 1693-1752. WINDHAM, Joseph, an artist and antiqua- rian, principal author of the ' Ionian Antiquities,' published by the Society of Dilettanti, 1739-1810. WINDHAM, William, a Whig statesman of the period of Pitt, was born in Norfolk, of an ancient family, in 1750, and made his first ap- pearance in parliament as member for Norwich in 1783. His talents caused him to be singled out by Burke as one of his coadjutors, and he always remained his constant friend and partizan. From 1794 to 1801 he was in office under Pitt as secretary at war. He became secretary again under Lord Grenville after the death of Pitt, and held office from 1806 to March 25, 1807; d. 1810. WINDHEIM, C. E., a German professor of philosophy and the Oriental languages, 1722-1766 WINDISCH, C. G., a Germ, historian, 1725-93. WING, Vincent, an astronomer, 17th century. WINGATE, Edmund, an eminent mathemat., lawver, and member of parliament, 1593-1656. W I X K E LMANN. See Winckelm ann. WINKLER, J. H., a German jurisconsult and philosopher of the school of Wolfe, 1703-1772. WINSLOW, Edward, the English governor of Plymouth, in North America, author of ' Good News from New England,' died 1655. WINSLOW, James, an eminent anatomist, born in the island of Funen, in Denmark, in the year 1669, and died at Paris in the year 1760, in the ninety-flrst year of his age. His system of ana- tomy was long the standard class-book of the schools, but in modern times it has been superseded by more perfect and more recent works upersedei fl.M'C. WINSOl!, Frederick Ai.bkkt, the projector of the present method of lighting the streets by gas, first adopted in Pall Mall, after some smaller experiments, in 1809. Died 1830. WIXSTANLEY, Wm., originally a barber, au- thor of several literarv compilations, d. abt. 1690. WINSTON, T., in Engl, physician, 1675-1666. WINTER, 6. S., a German veterinarian, 17th c. WINTER, John William I)k, I Dutch Nice- admiral, who entered the French service under Dumouriez as a partizan of the revolution, and was defeated in the Texel, at a later period, by Duncan. 1750-1812. WINTER, N. S. Van, a Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam, 1718. His wife, Lie kktia Wil- hllmina, a poetess, 1722-1795. Peter, son of Van Winter by a first marriage, author of poems and translations, beginning of the present century. WINTER, P. Von, I Gfir. musician, 1764-1636. WINTHROI', J., an American astron., 17 14-7'J. W1NTLE, T., a learned divine, 1737-1814. WOL WINTRINGHAM, Clifton, a physician and professional writer, died at York 1748. His sun, Sir Clifton, also a physician and wr., 1714-94. WINWOOD, Sir Ralph, a statesman and diplomatist, author of 'Memorials,' 1565-1617. WIRSUNO, C M a German physician, 1660- 1571. John George, an anatomist, assass. 1643. WIRTZ, J., a Swiss painter, 1640-1706. WIRTZ, J. C, a Swiss theologian, 1688-1769. WISE, F., a learned antiquary, 1695-1702. WISEMAN, R., a surgical writer, 17th century. WISHART, George, a martyr of the reforma- tion in Scotland, burnt alive 1546. WISHART, W., a Scotch divine. 1657-1727. WISHEART, George, chaplain to Montrose, period of the civil wars, author of an ' Account of the Wars in Scotland,' and a Biography of his patron, 1609-1671. WISTAR, Caspar, a professor of anatomy and physician at Philadelphia, author of professional works, and a 'System of Anatomy,' 1760-1818. WITCHELL, G., an astronomer, 1728-1785. WITEZOWITCH, P., a learned historian and antiquarian of Dalmatia, died 1773. WITHER, G., an English poet, 1588-1667. WITHERING, William, a physician and na- turalist, author of a 'Systematic Arrangement of British Plants,' born in Shropshire 1741, d. 1769, WITHERSPOON, John, a descendant of Knox, known as a divine in Scotland and America, born near Edinburgh 1722, died 1794. WITSIUS, or WITS, Herman, a Dutch divine, author of several learned works, 1636-1708. WITT. See De-Witt. WTTTE, E., a Dutch painter, 1607-1692. WITTE, G. De. a Flem. theologian, 1638-1721. WITTE, or WITTEN, Hennino, a German divine and biographical writer, 1634-1696. WITTICHIUS, Christoi-hkk, a pratwtant theologian and writer against Spinoza, lo2i WITTOLA, M. A., a Ger. theologian, 1766-67. WITTWER, P. L., a Ger. phvsician, 1766-92. WLOOSWICK, P. N. Baron Horn Van, a Dutch arclurologist, bom 1742, died in I'aiis 1609. WOBESER, E. W., a German poet, 1727-1795. WODHULL, M., a poet and translator of Euri- pides, born in Northamptonshire 1740, died 1616. WODROW, Robert, a Scottish ecclesiastical historian, born at Glasgow 1679, died 1764 WOEHNER, A. G., a Ger. Orient., 1696-1761 WOELFT. J., a German composer, 1779-1611. WOFFINGTON, Makuakkt, a celebrated actress of last centnry, whose society was highly valued bv the elite of talent and fashion, 1 WOIDE. C. <;., I Dutch Orientalist, 1726-90. WOKEN, I'., a German theologian, 168 WOLCOTT, John, commonly known by hi* assumed name of /' of preferment, but to the principal European | He aspired to the popedom at the ti;: Charles V. and Francis the first were competing with each other to succeed Maximilian as emperor of Germany. Hence each of them sought to secure the aid of Wolsey, by outbidding I in prospects of nssista: • rdin.d's great object, while be <>n bis part bad the MO ditlicult task of making u|> DM mind where to throw his influence, and ot acting for one party with as little prejudice as possible to his influence with the much to his mortification, the 1 1 which would bays grren him a :. for power than be had in England, and WOL he ever treated the emperor Chattel V. as one who . ived him. No churchman in England had -1 an amount of power and wealth M Wdaey, and, unfortunately for himself, fond of exhibiting it all to the world. He had a weakness for display, shown in the common tn ec do to about his having his portrait always taken in profile from one side, because the other w;is disfigured by a wart. The huge acquisitions made by fortunate prelates, and the ramifications of their influence by possessions all over Europe, were giving great alarm to thinking minds; and there is no doubt that the ostentation with which Wolsey displayed the offensive innovation hastened on the reformation. He had even given an im- pulse in the same direction by his enlightened projects for diverting some of the monastic pro- perty from its existing uses to the university of Oxford, and to other educational institutions. His qualities and defects are toid with matchless truth and beauty in the words supplied by Shak- speare to his faithful followers : — 'He was a scholar, and a ripe and pood one; Exceeding wise, flair spoken and persuading; Lofty and sour to them that loved him not. But to those men that sought him, sweet as summer. And t.'.ough lie was unsatisfied in getting, (Which was a sin), yet in bestowing, madam, He was most princely.' His enmity to the emperor inclined him to sanc- tion his sister's divorce from Henry, but as a high churchman he found it impossible to be the king's champion through the whole transaction. To justify his overthrow, charges were brought against him under the praemunire statute against enforcing bulls from Rome. The charge was one which with the royal favour he might have met, but when it was directed from that quarter it was irresistible. After being subjected to some capri- cious oscillations of favour, a warrant was issued to apprehend him for high treason. Attacked by si< kness, he sought refuge in the abbey of Lieces- ter with the mournful saving, — 'Father abbot, I am come to lav my bones among you.' He died there on the 28th November, 1530. [J.H.B.] [Lelce»ter Abbey ] CBOPT, Mart, wife of William God*™, an. of the 'Rights of Women,' 1759-97. WOLTHANK, C. L Db, a German historian and man of letters, 1770-1817. WOO WOLZOGEN, J. L., a Socinian wr., 1596-165*. WOLZOGEN, L Van, a learned Dutch theolo- gian and elocutionist, 1632-1690. WOMOCK, Laurence, bishop of St. David's, and a controversial writer, 1612-1685. WOOD, Anthony, author of the 'History ;md Antiquities of Oxford,' and the 'Athena 1 Oxoni- ensis,' was born in 1632, and educated at the uni- versity. His works were written with the inde- fatigable zeal of an enthusiast, and are often quoted. He died in his native place, where he had lived and laboured, in 1695. WOOD, James, the banker and millionaire of Gloucester, was born there in 1756, and died 1836. His only distinction is that of having scraped together, by indulging in every meanness, nearly a million sterling. There is not a redeeming trait recorded of his character, and nothing could entitle him to a place in our pages but the frequency with which the name of 'Jemmy Wood' is quoted by way of example. WOOD, Matthew, knight and alderman of London, was the son of a lace manufacturer at Tiverton, and was born in 1767. He acquired his standing in the city as a hop merchant, and was twice mayor, in 1815 and 1816; from the last named year also he had a seat in parliament, and was well known as a reformer. Died 1843. WOOD, Robert, an Irish scholar and archaeo- logist, au. of a ' Description of the Ruins of Bal- bec,' and those of 'Palmyra' or 'Tadmor,' 1716-71. WOODDESON, Richard, an English civilian, au. of ' Elements of Jurisprudence,' and ' A Sys- tematic View of the Laws of England,' 1745-1822. WOODFALL, William, a celebrated printer, whose name became famous from the prosecution to which he was exposed for printing the Letters of Junius. Died 1803. WOODHOUSE, Robert, an eminent mathe- matician and professor at Cambridge, author of 'The Principles of Analytical Calculation,' and other works, 1773-1827. VVOODHOUSELEE. See Tytler. WOODVILLE. See Elizabeth. WOODVILLE, Anthony, otherwise WYDE- VILLE, brother of Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV., and created by him Earl Rivers, was born in 1442. He made an unsuccessful attempt to crown the king's son, and was sent to the scaffold 1483. ' WOODVILLE, William, physician to the Middlesex Dispensary and Small-pox Hospital in London, author of ' Medical Botany,' and a ' His- tory of Inoculation,' 1752-1805. WOODWARD, Henry, a famous comedian, dramatic writer, and composer of pantomimes, born in London 1717, died 1777. WOODWARD, John, a physician and pro- fessor at Gresham College, distinguished as a naturalist and antiquarian, was born in Derby- shire 1665, and died 1728. His principal work is an ' Essay towards a Natural History of the Earth.' WOOLLETT, William, was born at Maidstone in Kent in 1735, and learnt engraving of John Tinney. He acquired early a great reputation as a landscape engraver ; his works of this class, after Wilson, are probably still unapproached. He en- graved also two of West's greatest works, the ' Death of General Wolfe,' and the ' Battle of the Hogue ;' which raised his reputation as an histori- 848 woo cal engraver almost on a par with his name in land- scape. He was appointed engraver to George III. ; and died in London, May 23, 1785. Woollett is great for his colour, and his skill in representing variety of texture, also for an extraordinary force in his prints, owing to the judicious combination of the three methods, with aquafortis, with the graver, and with the dry point. His works after Wilson constitute in themselves a delightful land- scape gallery, all unsurpassed as pictures or as prints. [R.N.W.] WOOLSTON, Thomas, a deistical writer, who was originally a minister of the Church of England, and wrote an ' Apology for the Christian Religion ;' at a later period, he was prosecuted for his 'Six Discourses on Miracles,' and his ' Defence ' of the discourses. Born at Northampton, 1669, d. 1732. WOOLTON, John, bishop of Exeter, known as a theological writer, 1535-1594. WORDSWORTH, William, was born at Cockermouth in Cumberland, on the 7th of April, 1770. His father was an attorney there, and he was the second of five children. Dorothy, the only daughter, was his most cherished friend and confidant during his life. The mother of the family died in William's ninth year ; and the father died five years afterwards, leaving to his children little fortune beyond a claim for law- agency on Sir James Lowther, afterwards earl of Lonsdale. This debt remained unsatisfied till 1802, when, on the accession of the next earl, £8,500 was paid in satisfaction of it. — In 1787, after hav- ing been educated chiefly at the endowed school of Hawkshead, near Esthwaite Lake, William was sent by his uncles to St. John's College, Cambridge. He had read much in boyhood, especially poetry, and had written English verses, in imitation (as lie says himself) of Pope's versification, ' and a little in his style.' One of these compositions presaged two of the most prominent features in the character of his mind. It was, says he, ' a long poem, running upon my own adventures, and the scenery of the country in which I was brought up.' The only considerable poem which he wrote while at the university, was 'The Evening Walk.' His vaca- tions were devoted to wanderings in the country ; and in the autumn of 1790 he spent nearly three months in a tour on the continent, visiting France, Switzerland, some of the Italian lakes, and the Rhine. He disliked the system of the university, and attended little to the studies of the place. Indeed, it is to be observed that, through life, Wordsworth was as little of a student as any literary man ever was. Except in poetical litera- ture, his knowledge of books seems to have always been very slight. And if he was disinclined to read, he was quite as much disinclined to writing: he had weak eyes, and great indolence. In his mature years, he composed most frequently in the course of his walks, without setting down a word ; and many of his poems would certainly have been lost, had not the ladies of his family been at hand to record them. He has himself said, that, if he had been free to choose his course of life, he would have spent his days in travelling. To the adoption of a profession he was never able to make up his mind. The church was proposed to him, but speedily rejected. His religious belief never was such as to prevent his taking orders; but his WOR opinions on the state of society, during his early manhood, would not easily have been reconcileable with the position of a clergyman in the Church of England. For several years after the outbreak of the French revolution, he was an ardent republi- can. In 1791 he took his degree of B.A., and quitted Cambridge. — In the close of the same year he went to France, where he spent nearly twelve months; and there he wrote the poem called ' Descriptive Sketches,' which betrays, yet more than ' The Evening Walk,' the poetic strength with which he was endowed. These pieces were pub- lished in 1793. In that year, also, ' The Female Vagrant' was written, tor some years he wan- dered about, gradually satisfying himself that he was justified m regarding poetry as his true voca- tion. He planned a monthly miscellany, which was to have been 'republican but not revolutionary ;' and he attempted to find employment in writing for the London newspapers on the opposition side. In 1795 he received a legacy of £900 from his friend and contemporary, Raisley Calvert. This generous and seasonable bequest fully answered the inten- tion of the donor : it enabled the poet to devote himself to study till the settlement of his father's affairs. — In the autumn of 1795 Wordsworth began to live with his sister, their first residence being at Racedown in Dorsetshire. He commenced, but abandoned, a poetical imitation of Juvenal ; and in this year and the following, he made his first and last attempt in a kind of poetry very uncongenial to the cast of his genius, by writing the Tragedy of ' The Borderers,' Refused at Covent Garden, this piece remained in manuscript for nearly half a century. — About this time, likewise, were written a good many of the earliest of those fine passages, which were afterwards dovetailed into ' The Excur- sion.' This is a fact particularly deserving atten- tion. The poet's blank-verse compositions, with their solemn tone of meditation, their purely dig- nified diction, and their sweep ot rotund melody, were made known to the world only when he had passed middle age ; and they were treated by his critics as the fruits of improved skill and enlarged experience and purified taste. But he actually Bad at his command, and was continually expressing, this his highest mood of poetry, from his twenty- fifth year. Coleridge, with whom Wordsworth made acquaintance while in Dorsetshire, always indited that his friend's first business ought to be, the completion of the Philosophical and Autobiographi- cal Poem, of which these fragments were desi as parts. But Wordsworth was never at all disposed to pay deference to the opinion either of affectionate friends or of hostile critics. With him, as with most of us, ' the boy was father of tho man.' He had always been quietly self-willed ; ami his character in manhood possessed the feature which he attributes to his early boyhood when he says: — • Possibly from some want of judgment, in punishments inflicted, I had become perverse ;md obstinate in defying ehaetuement, and rather proud of it than otherwise.' At this time, Indeed, U it has been remarked by his nephew, the whole t of his opinions led him to dissatisfaction with things existing; and his politieal creed ( perhaps in part through the shock which events on the con- tinent were beginning to give to it) affected his creed in literature. He perceived, with great 849 31 WOR clearness, two or three deep-rooted faults in the recent poets of England ; tin* artificial stamp of their diction ; their general inattention to external nature; their want of sympathy with ordinary nd with the feelings of mankind at large. lie felt that he possessed the power of producing in which these faults should be avoided, lint, in the meantime, tempted partly by deliberate error in theory, partly by incidental eccentricities ami judgment natural to a self-trained ami uncommunicative muser, he rebelled, not only against the false canons of literature, but against several that are really true. In the poems with which he chose to make his first effort towards the reformation of the public taste, there are many points of thought, of sentiment, and of expression, which, as the most judicious of his admirers allow, would not have appeared if those poems had been written even a few years afterwards. Some things, tnrieed, especially "the oddest and boldest of the C'llxpiial words and idioms, were silently altered in the later editions. But the eccentricity of judg- ment lingered, in a great degree, to the last, I !>y the self-brooding solitude to which he devoted himself. — The ' Lyrical Ballads,' to which chiefly these observations are applicable, made rapid progress in Wordsworth's next place of abode. This was Nether-Stowey in Somersetshire, where he lived for a year, removing to the place in August, 171*7, in order to be near Coleridge. In the next year he wrote ' Peter Bell ;' and in autumn he published, in one volume, the twenty poems which [with three by Coleridge) make up the first edition of the ' Lyrical Ballads.' The poet was now in his twenty-ninth year. Immediately afterwards he went "to Germany with his sister and Coleridge ; and, the party separating, Miss Wordsworth and her brother spent the winter of 1798-99, very un- comfortably, and seemingly with little advantage of any kind, at Goslar in Hanover. Here were written several beautiful pieces, among which were 1 bray/ and the fragments of blank-verse beginning 'There was a Boy' and 'Wisdom and Spirit of the Universe.' A beginning was also made with that first part of the great Poem, which Wordsworth's friends entitled ' The Prelude.'— Wordsworth's long residence among the lakes of his native district began soon after his return to England. In the end of 1799 he settled with his ■Cter in a small house at Grasmere, which he con- tinued to occupy for eight years. In 1800 were written 'The Brothers,' 'The Pet Lamb,' 'Ruth,' 'Michael,' and 'Hart-Leap Well;' and, in the close of the year these and other poems made up a second volume of the ' Lyrical Ballads,' which appeared with a reprint of the first. To 1802 belong, among other pieces, « The Rainbow,' ' The Leech-gatherer,' 'Alice Fell,' 'Intimations of Immortality,' and the two Sonnets on Buonaparte. Then, also Wordsworth wai working on < The Excursion ' which at that time bore the name of ' The Pedlar' In that year, he married Mary Hutchinson of Pen- nth, to whose amiability his poems pay warm and beautiful tributes. In 1803 he made a tour of some Scotland, being guided at Melrose by '■d he now became acquainted with inmost whose name appears often n his writings. In 1805 he suffered the grief of loiing his brother, Captain Wordsworth, who WOR perished by shipwreck. In this year were written 'flic Waggoner' and the 'Ode to Duty;' and ' The Prelude' was finished, and consigned to the poet's desk for forty-five years. In 1807 were printed two volumes of poems, composed since 1800. They contain, besides several very fine bal- lads, and many other small poems, the ' Sonnets Dedicated to Liberty,' and the 'Memorials of a Tour in Scotland.' These volumes were the objects of some of those critical censures, (severe but very far from being groundless,) under which, with all his outward apathy and real self-esteem, the poet, as his letters show, smarted very severely. — In 1808 he removed to Allan Bank at the head of Grasmere Lake, where he lived for three years. In 1809 he contributed to the 'Friend' of Cole- ridge, who was then living with him ; and published his indignant and very eloquent pamphlet on the Convention of Cintra. His political opinions had now settled pretty much into the form they ever afterwards held, a kind of speculative Toryism, heightened by his church opinions, but balanced by many notions really democratic. In 1810 be 850 [Rydal Mount.] printed, as an introduction to a set of Views of the district, his Observations on the Scenery of the^ Lakes, the most interesting of all things of the sort, In this year was born the last of his five children two of whom died two years afterwards. — In th< spring of 1813, after one temporary change o dwelling, he took up his abode at Rydal Mount two miles from Grasmere, which was his home fo: thirty-seven years, and the scene of his death Then, too, by the interest of Lord Lonsdale, he wa appointed distributor of stamps for Westmoreland an office which was executed by a clerk, and yieldej about £500 a-year. — A second tour in Scotland early in 1814, gave birth to a few poems ; and i summer was published 'The Excursion,' the greate part of which had been written at Allan Bank This edition, consisting of five hundred copies, wa not exhausted for six years. ' Let the age,' wrol the poet to Southey, ' continue to love its ow darkness ; I shall continue to write, with, I trust the light of Heaven upon me.' In the design this remarkable poem, it is difficult to discover any thing that can justify commendation, whether w look to it as an independent work, or regard it forming a part in that gigantic poem, which tl author so long contemplated executing iu whole WOR But if 'The Excursion ' is to be judged by its best passages, hardly any poem in our language is equal to it. Some of its scenes, extending through hundreds of lines ; many passages of smaller ex- tent, but yet considerable; and innumerable verses, and phrases, and words; are among the most exquisite things to which any poetic mind ever gave expression.— In 1815 appeared 'The White Doe of Rylstone,' a work instinct with a dreamy loveliness, and estimated bvits author very highly. But it evinces, more plainfy than any of his pre- ceding works, his incapacity to plan or conduct a sustained narrative; and it is characterized, even more than the ' Lyrical Ballads,' by that which Coleridge had publicly pronounced to be one of his friend's besetting sins ; namely, the prevalence of 'an intensity of feeling disproportionate to such knowledge and value of the objects described, as can be fairly anticipated of men in general, even of the most cultivated classes.' — Within a year or two before and after the publication of this work, the poet, in his usual fashion, proved his power of poetizing in a very different key, by composing several of those small pieces, whose elaborate re- finement, both of sentiment and of diction, has drawn forth the lively admiration of readers the most adverse to the peculiarities of his system. Such were ' Laodamia,' ' Dion,' the ' Ode to Lycoris,' and ' Artegal and Elidure.' In 1816 was composed the ' Thanksgiving Ode,' and a rhymed translation of Three Books of the ^Eneid. In 1819 appeared ' Peter Bell,' which was rather popular, and the ' Waggoner,' which was much the reverse. I'o that year belong the series of Sonnets on the River Duddon. In 1820 Wordsworth, with his wife and sister, made a tour of four months on the continent, of which ' Memorials ' were published some time afterwards. Tn that year, too, a visit ;o Sir George Beaumont gave occasion to the very ine series of Sonnets called 'Ecclesiastical Sketches.' -Wordsworth was now fifty years old, had written ill his best works, and had laid most of them before he world. But, though the thirty years during riiich his life was still prolonged were unprolific )f great performances, they witnessed very extra- ■rdinary changes in the reputation of the author, 'oets were already familiar with his works, and icknowledged him as the chief in a new develop- nent of the art; but ordinary readers, taking what ;hey found of him in the periodicals, knew as yet mly a few of his best passages and a great many )f his worst. The Edinburgh Review, supported ifterwards by the Quarterly, had hitherto guided he public opinion as to his writings ; a turn was now given to the tide, by the eloquently vehement meeyrics which began to be showered on him in Jlackwood's Magazine, about the year 1820. Witli- mt taking account of minor points, we may cor- ■ectly consider Wordsworth's principal critics as aoking at the functions and duties of poetry from wo opposite points of view. Jeffrey paid regard nainly to the perfection or imperfection of the •esult ; Wilson and his friends were content with •xamining the state of mind out of which the result s generated. The former, severely pure in taste, icmanded an elaborate work of art, symmetrically lesigned, and executed with care and dignity ; the atter sought for nothing beyond such proof of jenius as might be furnished in a few striking pas- 851 WOR sages, and held native endowment as more than suffi- cient to atone for imperfect execution. Scrutinized in the first of these aspects, all the brilliant poetrv which arose in England during the first generation of our century was seriously defective; and that of W ordsworth, with all his deliberation and slowness of performance, was, through the natural character of his mind, still more open to exception than the effusions of Scott and Bvron had been made bv carelessness and haste. Even those who, having formed a competent acquaintance with Words- worth's works, felt themselves compelled to adopt this view, could not be, and were not, blind to the admirable beauties of detail, which, when blazoned forth by the pen of Christopher North, speedily made the poet's name to be a word of honour, even with those who knew none of his poems but in fragments, or who were wearied or repelled by the inanimateness and the disproportionate design of ' The Excursion.' The fame of the Poet of the Lakes grew yet wider, when his influence had shown itself decisively in that new school of poetry which had its beginnings with Keats and Shelley! For a good many years before his death, Words- worth was not only acknowledged, and justly, to be really the greatest English poet of his time, but was regarded with a reverence allowing no possi- bility of faults. Symptoms of a wiser and more dis- criminating judgment have shown themselves of late ; and, in no long time, the world will estimate justly and correctly the works of one of the greatest, as well as purest and most blameless, of the poets who have enriched and enlarged the domain of English literature.— The period extending from Wordsworth's fiftieth year to his eightieth requires no minute notice. He lived among his beloved mountains, travelled much, suffered a good deal and wrote little. Two visits to Scotland, in the former of which (in 1831) he saw Scott just before he left Abbotsford for the last time, provided many of the materials for a volume, published in 1835, ' Yarrow Revisited, and other poems.' The finest of these are the meditative pieces entitled ' Evening Voluntaries.' About this time the poet was deeply affected by political events ; and he felt yet more keenly the declining health of his sister, who became a confirmed invalid. In 1837 he made, for nearly six months, a tour in Italy, which suggested several pieces, printed, in 1842, in a volume called ' Poems, chiefly ot Early and Late Years.' In it was inserted the Tragedy of 'The Borderers.' In tha year, being now seventy-two years of age, he re- signed his distributorship in favour of one of his two sons, and received from Sir Robert Peel a pension of three hundred a-year. In 1843, on the death of Southey, the same ministry appointed Wordsworth to be Poet-Laureate ; an office which he accepted only on the assurance, that it was to be entirely nominal and honorary. In 1847 he had to witness the death of his accomplished daughter, Mrs. Quillinan. He died on the 23d of April, 1850*, being exactly the day of the month which closed the life of Shakspeare. His remains rest in tin churchyard of Grasmere. fW S I WORGAN, J. D., an English poet, 1790-1819. WORLRIDGE, T., a portrait painter and en- graver of etchings after Rembrandt, 1700-1766. WORM, Ola us, in Latin Wormius, a Dutch physician and antiquarian, 1588-1654. WOR WOKOXZOW. M. Laiuonowttz, Count De, a uian and favourite of the empress Elizabeth, disgraced under Catharine, 1710-1767. WOBSDALE. James, a dramatic writer and painter, taught by Sir G. Kneller, died 1767. \\'( )i;sI.KV. Sin RlCHABD, the historian of the Isle of Wight, was born there in 1751. He became governor of the island, comptroller of the royal household, and member for Newport. In addition to his historical work, he publisned a magnificent catalogue of his marbles and other antiques, under the title of ' Musaeum Worsleianum.' Died 1805. WoKTHIXGTON, John, rector of Ingoldsby in Lincolnshire, author of religious works, &c, 4 The Doctrine of the Resurrection,' 1618-1671. W< >RTHINGTON, Thomas, a Roman Catholic theologian, died in exile about 1626. WOIITH1XGTOX, William, vicar of Llarr- hayader in Denbighshire, and a dignitary of the church, was born in Merionethshire 1703, and educated at Oxford. Died 1778. His principal works are an ' Essay on the Scheme of Redemp- tion,' 'The Scripture Theory of the Earth,' 'On the Historical Sense of the Mosaic Account of the Fall,' and an ' Inquiry into the Case of the Gospel Demoniacs.' WOTTON, Edward, a physician and na- turalist, time of Henry VIII., 1492-1555. WOTTON, Sir Henry, a well-known states- man, diplomatist, and political writer, born in WRE Kent 1568, died 1639. He went as an ambassador to Venice, the United Provinces, and several of the German courts in the reign of James I. His works are ' The States of Christendom,' ' Parallels between Essex and Buckingham,' 'Elements of Architecture,' ' Characters of the Kings of Eng- land,' and Poems, &c. \V< >TTON, William, a clergyman of the Church of England, remarkable for his precocious know- ledge of the sciences and Oriental languages, author of ' Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learn- ing,' a ' History of Rome, from the Death of Anto- ninus Pius to the Death of Alexander Severus,' ' Memoirs of the Cathedrals of St. David's and Llandaff,' and other works of less note. Born at Wrentham in Suffolk 1G66, died 1726. W« >UTEBS, F., a Flemish painter, 1614-1659. V. OtTV E UMAX, Philip, was born at Haarlem in 1020, when he died in 1668, aged only forty-eight. Though one of the most masterly of painters, he is said to have been disappointed. His works became very valuable soon after his death, and have increased in value since, but according to D'Argenville, who rather contradicts Houbraken, he was so supremely disgusted with the encouragement he received, that shortly before his death he burnt all his draw- ings and studies, in case they should encourage his son to follow the profession of a painter : he seems to have worked chiefly to have enriched the dealers even during his own lifetime. Wouverman's sub- ject^ are generally road-ride, travelling, hunting, ••r plundering scenes, and such as admit of horses, which he constantly introduced in his : it is a common belief that he never ta picture without a white or a gray horse, 'lit this is doubtless an exaggeration. He painted '. small with unrivalled skill; indeed, his pertinent of painting is per- fectly extraordinary, and his colouring is always i and transparent. All the works, however, ributed to Philip Wouverman, are not his ; many rich attributed I were doubtless the productions of his brother, Peter Wouverman, who survived Philip many years ; a second brother, John, was a good land- scape painter. — (Houbraken. (Jroote Schouburgh, &c.) [R.N.W.] WRANGEL, Hermann, a Swedish general, rewarded with a marshal's baton by Gustavus Adolphus, 1587-1644. His son, Charles Gus- tavus, greatly distinguished in the Gennan war and in the councils of his sovereign, 1613-1676. WRAXALL, Sir N. W., an indefatigable tra- veller and historical writer in the civil service ot the East India Company, 1751-1831. WRAY, D., an archaeologist, 1701-1783. WREDE, Charles Philip, Prince, a Bavarian officer and statesman, who served as the ally ot Napoleon from 1805 to 1813, and in the two 'fol- lowing years joined the coalition, 1767-1839. WREN, Sir Christopher, was born at East Knoyle, Wilts, October 20, 1632 ; his father was rector of the parish. He was educated at West- minster school, and showed great mechanical ability at a very early age. In 1646 he went to Oxford, and entered as a gentleman commoner at Wadham College; he took his bachelor's degree in 1650, became a fellow of All Souls, and a master of arts in 1653 ; and in 1657, then only in his twenty-fifth year, was chosen professor of astro- nomy in Gresham College, London, and in 1661, Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, when he also took his degree of doctor of civil law. In the following year he was the chief mover in pro- curing the foundation of the Royal Society, which had already existed some few years as the Philoso- phical Club, and he became its president in 1680. Such were the preliminary studies of England's greatest architect, but he had already commenced his great career in 1661 as assistant to Sir John Denham, the surveyor of the royal works, who was himself incapable of the duties of the office. Wren's first work in this capacity was a new hall for the public meetings of the university, a com- mission intrusted to him by Archbishop Sheldon, the chancellor of the university, since celebrated as the Sheldonian Theatre ; it was completed in 1668. About the same time he built a new chapel for Pembroke College, Cambridge, for his uncle the bishop of Ely. In 1665 he visited Paris. In 166U he succeeded Sir John Denham as surveyor of the royal works, with a salary of £100 per annum, and as surveyor-general of the repairs of' St. Paul's, In 1672 he submitted plans for a new church instead of attempting to repair the old one, which had been completely destroyed by the fire ; s commission was appointed for the execution of the work in 1673, and Wren having given up his pro- fessorship at Oxford, was appointed architect oi the cathedral, and was knighted by the king on the occasion. This great work, in style the Italiar renaissance, occupied nearly forty years; it was completed in 1710 ; Wren receiving only £20C a-year as architect of St. Paul's, but he executed many other churches and public buildings in Lon- don at the same time, as 'The Monument,' Temple Bar, &C, besides some others in the country, Oxford, and Cambridge, Winchester, Greenwich, Hampton Court, &c. Of all his great works, the 852 WRE towers of Westminster Abbey are alone discredit- able ; he was, however, not very successful in his palaces, as for instance, the additions to Hampton Court, and Marlborough House, in both of which the apartments are of mean proportions, contrast- ing strongly even with the hunting boxes of many German princes. The cartoon gallery at Hampton Court is deplorably ill suited to its purpose. Sir Christopher never visited Italy ; his mastery of the Italian renaissance he owes probably mainly to the example of Inigo Jones ; he has in St. Paul's achieved something more than a worthy rival of St. Peter's ; though on so much smaller a scale, it has internally through its so far more judicious proportions even a vaster effect than St. Peter's at Rome ; the interior, however, is painfully cold, but this is no fault of Wren's, it is the general want of colour and other decoration. The original design was more like St. Peter's than that carried out. In 1684 Wren was appointed comptroller of the works at Windsor, and in 1685 he was returned to parliament as one of the members for Plympton ; he sat also in following parliaments for Wind- sor and for Weymouth. In 1717, after the death of Anne, he lost the favour of the court, and was re- moved from his office of surveyor-general. He retired to Hampton Court, where he died February 25, 1723.— (Parentalia, 1750 ; Elmes, Life of Wren ; Allan Cunningham, Lives of the Painters, &c. ; Penny Cyclopaedia.) [R.N.W.] WREN, M., a learned prelate, 1585-1667. WRIGHT, Abraham, an English theologian, 1611-1690. His son, James, an antiquarian and historian of Rutlandshire, 1644-1715. WRIGHT, Edward, a mathematician, who is said to have discovered the true method of dividing the meridian line, about 1560-1615. WRIGHT, Joseph, a painter of versatile ability, commonly called ' Wright of Derby,' and particu- larlv skilled in landscapes, and scenes in which the effects of fire-light is introduced, 1734-1797. WRIGHT, S., a nonconform, divine, 1683-1746. WRIGHT, W., a Jesuit and theologian, d. 1639. WRIGHT, W. R., president of the Court of Appeal at Malta, author of ' Horse Ionicas,' a work describing the Greek isles, died 1826. WRISBERG, H. A., aGer. anatom., 1739-1808. WUCHERER, F., a Ger. theologian, 1682-1737. WULFER, J., a Germ. Orientalist, 1651-1682. WUNSCH, C. E., a Prussian astronomer, physi- cian, and naturalist, bora about 1730. WUNSCH, J. J. De, a Prus. general, 1717-88. WURMBRAND, John Wilmam, Count, an Austrian statesman and antiquarian, 1670-1756. WURMSER, Dagobert Sigismond, Count, an Austrian general who distinguished himself in the wars with the French republic; bora in Alsace 1724, died soon after he had been compelled to surrender Mantua 1797. WURSTEISEN, C, a mathematician and histo- rian of the city of Bale, 1544-1588. WURTZ, F., a Swiss surgeon, 16th century. \V I in Z, (1. C, a French physician, 1756-1823. Wl'RTZ, J. W., a Ger. controversialist, d. 1826. WURTZ, Paul, Baron De, a general in the service of Sweden and the United Provinces, d- 16<6. WURTZBURG, Conrad De, one of the ballad- singers of Germany, 13th century, author of the 'Nibelungen,' published 1757-1784. WTO WYATT, James, a metropolitan architect, builder of the Pantheon in Oxford-Street and of Fonthill Abbey, 1743-1813. WYATT, R. J., a scnlptor of considerable emi- nence, was bora in London, 1795 ; and instructed in his art by Charles Rossi, of the Royal Academy. In 1821, he went to Rome, and continued to reside there till his death in 1850. He was an indefati- gable worker, and produced some groups and statues which are much admired. The greatest of the latter is his ' Penelope,' which he was com- missioned to execute for the queen in 1841, at which period he visited England. WYATT, Sir Thomas, a courtier, statesman, and poet, who enjoyed the favour of Henry VIII., and was employed by him in several diplomatic missions ; born at Alhngton castle, in Kent, 1503, died 1541. His poetical works, which consist of love elegies and odes, have been greatly admired, and were first published with those of Lord Surrey. He was twice tried for sedition, but acquitted. — His son, of the same name, was a zealous protes- tant, and was beheaded by Queen Mary in 1554. WYCHERLEY, Wm., was the oldest of those Comic Dramatists, whose licentiousness throws on the period succeeding the Restoration a disgrace not to be wiped away by the brilliant cleverness of their works. Less witty than Congreve, less gay than Farquhar, and inferior to Vanbrugh as a pain- ter of character, he has a vigour and good sense, and an ingenuity in the invention of lively incidents, not reached by any of these his contemporaries. He was the son of a Shropshire gentleman, and [Birth-place of Wychertojr.J bora about 1640. He was sent in Ins youth to France, where he learned the fashionable morality, and conformed to the fashionable religion by btOMB- ing a Roman Catholic, At the Restoration lie was placed at Oxford, where he returned to the Church of England. The whole of liis after lift was tlt.it (.fan improvident and debauch, -d man of pleasure The dates at which his four comedies apj-ea red mgl from 1669 to 1678; but the two earliest of tln-m were, by his own account, written befbfi of age, and the other two a considerable time before they were acted. 'The I'laiu Dealer,' ■ Mol'n but unpleasing adaptation of M thrope, was oompoied wl.cn ho was twcntv-tivo years old; and at thirty-two lie wrote Ids lively and unprincipled comedy, 'The Country Wile.' 853 WTO About 1CS0 he married a young widow, the coun- Drogheda, whose jealousy of her rakish husband ni-ule him uncomfortable, and whose of her fortune to him served only to plunge him into lawsuits at her death. He lay for seven vears in the Fleet prison for debt ; and even alter his release, which is said to have been pro- uired by King dames, he continued to be a needy man. When he was certainly above seventy years old, he married a young woman, being desirous, it i-> said, to disappoint a nephew whom he disliked. But he survived his marriage only eleven days, dving in December, 1715. [W.S.] WYCK, Thomas, called 'the Old,' a Dutch painter and engraver, 1G16-1686. WYCLIFFE, WICKLYFFE, or W1CLIF, JOBS Dk. was born at Wycliffe, near Richmond, iu Yorkshire, about a.d. 1324. In early youth he was a commoner of Queen's College, Oxford, but Boon removed to Merton, of which he became a fellow. His favourite studies were metaphysics and theologv. One of his earliest public appear- ances was in 1360 against the mendicant monks, with whom the university had a resolute quarrel. In 1361 he became master of Baliol, and was pre- sented to the lectory of Fillingham, in the diocese of Lincoln, which he afterwards exchanged for that of Ludgershall. Four years afterwards he was installed warden of Canterbury Hall, then recently founded by Archbishop Islep. In 1367, Langham, archbishop of Canterbury, expelled him from the wardenship, on which he appealed to the rban V., and a decision, after a delay of three years, was given against him. In 1372 he took his degree of D.D., and read lectures in divinity w ith great applause. He was sent soon altenvards as a commissioner to the papal embassy at Bruges, where he remained two years, and de- tected more narrowly the workings of the mystery of iniquity. On his return he was presented to the prebend of Aust, and the rectory of Lutterworth, through the patronage of the duke of Lancaster. Three hundred of his parochial sermons have been preferred. He had for some time been loud and bitter in his remonstrances against the idle and vicious clergy, and his vehemence and fidelity i with his years. The enraged prelates summoned him before the convocation, but his powerful patrons saved him. In 1376 the monks drew up nineteen articles against him, taken from Lis prelections and sermons. These charges show that Wycliffe preached a species of protestantism —denying transuhstantiation and the supremacy of the pope, and severely condemning the abuse of her temporalities on the part of the church. Dur- ing the next year the pope sent to England five bulls against "the reformer. But the king died lafore they arrived, and the universities would not i be prelates, however, cited Wycliffe to tore them in London. In the meantime parliament was in a dilemma on a question of . whether it were lawful to refuse the pope's demand that treasure should be sent out m. The matter was referred to mee decided that parliament He then, attended by the duke of Lancaster and the lord marshal, Karl Percy, ap- piscopal tribunal, and after Some altercation, left the court in safety. He WYC was summoned to appear again at Lambeth in 1378, but the process was suddenly stopped by the queen-mother. In 1381 he published twelve theses against transuhstantiation, and the archbishop of Canterbury formally pronounced the majority of them dangerous and heretical. Wyc- liffe left Oxford in 1382, and retired to Lutter- worth. There he laboured without intermission, and neither tongue nor pen was idle in the cause of evangelical truth and freedom. He had been threatened with paralysis a year or two previous, but in 1384 he was seized in the pulpit with a sud- den stroke, and soon after expired. Wycliffe'fl rWycliffe'B chair.] works are very numerous, and are chiefly of a pole- mical and practical nature, induced by the spirit of the age in which he lived. His English translation of the Latin Bible, or Vulgate, was a work of great merit and necessity, for it unlocked the Scriptures to the multitude, or as his antagonist, bewailing such an enterprise, worded it, 'the gospel pearl was cast abroad and trodden under foot.' The papal schism that happened on the death of Gregory XL, stirred him up to compose a famous tract, 'The Schism of the Popes.' His essay on 'The Truth and Meaning of Scripture,' contains strik- ing statements on the perfection and clearness of the Bible alone as the rule of faith. The English style of the reformer is wonderful for his age, and is clear and homely in its structure. Our present tongue was then beginning to raise itself into eminence and popularity. Chaucer's poetry and Mandeville's prose were evidence of its flexibility and power. Wycliffe's style is more common than theirs, for it sneaks to the people in their own vernacular. Wycliffe will ever be remem- bered as a good and a great man, an advocate of ecclesiastical independence, an nnquailing foe to popish tyranny, a translator of Scripture into our mother tongue, and an industrioxis instructor of the people in their own rude but ripening dialect. May he not be .justly styled the 'morning star of the reformation?' So much impression was made by his works that one of his enemies complains — ' that a man could not meet two persons on the road but one was a Wickliffite.' A convocation held at Oxford in 1408 prohibited the reading and diffusion of the reformer's version. At the council of Constance in 1415, the dead Wycliffe was de- nounced as a heretic, and his bones were ordered 854 WYC to be exhumed from consecrated ground. Thirteen years afterward the decree was enforced by Pope Martin V., and Fleming, bishop of London, was ordered to see it done. His grave was opened, the bones taken out and burned, and the ashes cast into the stream that passes near the church of Lutterworth. As Thomas Fuller adds in his own style : — This river took them ' into the Avon, Avon into the Severn, Severn into the narrow seas — they into the main ocean, and thus the ashes of Wyc- litfe are the emblems of his doctrine which is now- dispersed all the world over.' [J.E.] WTDEVILLE. See Woodviixe. WYDRA, S., a Polish mathemat., 1741-1804. WYERMANN, or WEYERMANN, J. Campo, a Dutch painter and writer, 1679-1747. WYKEHAM, William of, bishop of Win- chester, and lord high chancellor of England, was born at Wykeham in Hampshire 1324. He was promoted to his see after distinguishing himself in several state employments in 1366, and held the high office of chancellor, from 1367 to 1371. He promoted the formation of Winchester school and New College., Oxford. This eminent prelate died in 1404, and was buried in his own oratory in Winchester cathedral, where a costly monu- ment is erected to his memory. WYNANTS, John, a Dutch landscape painter, the teacher of Philip Wouvermans, 1600-1670. WYNANTZ, Godwin, Count, a jurisconsult and statesman of the empire, 1661-1732. W VXD HAM, H. P., an antiquarian writer and member of parliament for Wiltshire, 1736-1819. WYXDHAM, Sir William, an eloquent par- liamentary speaker and statesman of the period of Queen Anne, was born at Orchard Wyndham in Somersetshire 1687, and entered parliament as knight of the shire for his native county ._ In 1710 he was made secretary at war, and in 1713 chan- cellor of the exchequer. On the death of the queen he became a distinguished member of the opposi- tion, and in 1715 was committed on a charge of being implicated in the Scotch rebellion; died 1740. Having married a daughter of the duke of Somerset, his eldest son, Sir Ciiaim.es Wynd- ham, inherited the title of earl of Egremont, from his uncle. He died in 1763. XEN WYXN, Charles Watkins Williams, an experienced member of the House of Commons, having represented Montgomeryshire from 1797 to his death in 1850. He became secretary at war under Earl Grey from December, 1834, to April, 1835, but is chiefly memorable for the honourable constancy of his public and private conduct during this long career. He was a liberal supporter of the Welch school in London, and deserves to be named among the friends of literature. WYNNE, Edward, author of ' Dialogues on the Laws and Constitution of England,' 1784-84 WYNNE, John Huddleston, a native of Wales, who settled in London as an author, and wrote 'A History of the British Empire in Ame- rica,' and ' A History of Ireland,' 1743-1788. WYNTOUN, Andrew, a Scottish rhyme- chronicler, prior of the monastery of St. Serf's Inch on Lochlomond, died about 1420. WYON, William, R.A., a distinguished Eng- lish medallist, 1795-1851. WYRWICZ, Charles, a Polish Jesuit, histo- rian, arid geographical writer, 1716-1793. WYSS, the name of several Swiss writers : — Bernard, author of a history of events from the time of Rodolph of Hapsburg, still in MS., about 1463-1525. Nicholas, achronicler of events connected with the reformation, killed in the battle of Cappeler, 1531. Hans Henry, author of a ' History of the Canton and City of Zurich,' pub- lished 1783. Fklix, professor of theology at Zurich, 1596-1666. Gaspard, brother of the latter, a Greek scholar, dates unknown. WYTFLIET, Cornelius, a Flemish historian, and secretary to the senate of Brabant; date of his works 1598-1607. WYTHE, George, an American statesman and champion of independence, 1726-1806. WYTTENBACH, Daniel, a learned scholar and critic, born in 1746 at Berne, and professor from 1771 at Amsterdam and Leyden. He pub- lished an edition of the moral works of Plutareh, Historical Selections from Ancient Authors, and other works. Died 1820. WZABECZ, \\ i.n< t.>i. Ai-s .I<».\( him, professor of surgery at Prague, author of several practical works on "surgery, 1740-1804. XACCA, E., a Sicilian poet, born 1643. XAINTONGE, Anne and Francis De, sis- ters of Dijon, who each founded a religious house of the Ursuline order, the former loG7-1621 ; the latter died 1639. XA1NTRAILLES, Jean Poton, Seigneur De, a commander in the army of Charles \ II. at the period of the expulsion of the English, died 1 ML XANTHLS ok Lydia, a Greek historian, some fragments of whose writings, published in the connections of Creuser and Muller, are all that remain, flourished in the 6th or 5th century B.c. XANTUTE, whose name has passed into a proverb for a scolding wife, was the spouse of Socrates the philosopher, and notwithstanding her ill temper was deeply attached to him. Ihe date of her death is unknown. XASTIITUS, an Athenian general, 5th c. u.c XANTIPPUS, a Lacedaemonian general who defeated the Romans under Regulus, B.O. 265. \ Al'I'I, J., a French ecclesiastic, 1688-1778. \AY1K1:. Sec Francis. XAVIER, Jerome, a Jesuit and missionary, ot the same familv as the saint, died 1617. XENOCLES. ■ Greek tragedian, 4ta cent, n.<\ XENOCRATES, I Creek philosoober of thn Platonic school, employed as a diplomat Ut by I'hilip, king of Macedon, and remarkable fa Lis integrity, b.c. 400-814. \1. \'< Hi; A I BS, a Creek physician, 1st cent. XENOl'IIANKS. flourished between 640 and . an Ionian by birth; iftenrardl settled in Italy. From the few almost or:i(iil;ir\ei ms,i t \eno- phanes that ban reached us, we may still form ■ tolerably adequate conception of the nature of tliat important place, in the History of Creek Pnttg|| m XKN Jrtiv, which unquestionably belongs to him. Indif- etent to the search of the Ionic School after a pri- mal nhvsical element; neither sympathizing with the higher aim of Pythagoras— his mind was MNttoa by the direct question concerning the Arid his conclusions seem to have been as follows. Rejecting utterly the Gods of the Poets, and every modification of "Anthropomorphism— he declared" because he felt, that something — being, realitv— is: but he denied that man can reach its nature, or ever apprehend its attributes. Man can learn or conceive only what is like himself, or what is placed before him by the senses. Be- ing, is not discernible bv sense; neither can it be similar to Man. Essentially then it is incomprehensible, inscrutable, unknown, and un- knowable. Xenophanes, was not afraid to ascer- tain that he could see nothing, in the awfulness which is beneath visible Life. But he was no sceptic— he believed that God is.— These rever- ential and most pregnant thoughts, fill a large space in all subsequent Modern as well as Greek speculation. [J.P.N.] X KXOPHON, the Athenian historian and philo- sopher, was the son of Gryllus, a native of the Attic borough Ercheia. The time of his birth and death is not mentioned by any ancient writer, but it has been with very considerable probability inferred that he was born about B.C. 444; and Lucian states that he attained to above the age of ninety. He began life as a soldier, and was pre- sent at the battle of Delium (b.c. 424\ In the flight which ensued he fell from his horse, and owed his safety to Socrates, on whose shoulders he was carried to a place of security. Having by this incident become known to the great philosopher of the age, he cherished for him ever after the warmest affection, and derived from him all his moral and philosophical principles. Nothing worthy of notice is known respecting him till B.C. 401, when, on the invitation of his friend Proxenus, he was induced to join the expedition of Cyrus the younger against his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, king of Persia. Before deciding, he asked the advice of Socrates, who recommended to him to consult the Delphian oracle ; but Xenophon. who had previously deter- mined to go, merely asked the oracle to what gods he should sacrifice m order to insure success ; and, having performed the required rites, proceeded to Sardis, where he arrived in time to join the expe- dition. Attaching himself to the army, without any military appointment, he accompanied it in its tedious march, and was present at the battle of Cunaxa in which Cyrus fell. On the death of their leader the barbarian troops fled, and left the Greeks alone in the plains of Mesopotamia. Cle- archus, whom they invited to take the command, and also others of the Greek generals were soon met massacred by the treachery of the Persian Satrap, Tissaphernes. In this emergency Xeno- phon came forward, and, with the consent of his countrymen, took a prominent part in conducting the famous ' Retreat,' of which he has left a minute and graphic account in the Anabasis. Not darinc to attempt a return by the route by which they had advanced, they proceeded along the course of the Tigris, and across the high lands of Armenia to Trap.-zus (Trebizond), a Greek colony on the south-east coast of the Black Sea, and thence XEN found their way to Chrysopolis, which is opposite to Byzantium {Constantinople). On their arrival here the Greeks were in great distress, and they therefore readily accepted the invitation of Seuthes, king of Thrace, to aid him in recovering the sovereignty. They performed their promise ; but the Thracian chief declined to pay the stipulated reward, and it was with great difficulty that Xeno- phon got from him part of the sum agreed upon. Being still very poor, the Greeks next made an expedition into the plain of the Caicus ; and seiz- ing the house and property of a wealthy Persian, thereby replenished their empty pockets. Of this spoil Xenophon obtained his due share. In con- sequence of his connection with the expedition under Cyrus, Xenophon was banished from Athens about B.C. 399 ; and, as he remained in Asia, pro- bably joined Agesilaus, king of Sparta, during his expedition into that country in b.c. 396. When Agesilaus was recalled, Xenophon accompanied him to Greece, and was with him in the battle against his countrymen at Coronea, B.C. 394. After the battle he returned with Agesilaus to Sparta, and soon after settled at Scillus, in Elis, not far from Olympia, on a spot presented to him by the Spartans, where he was joined by his wife and children. In this secluded retreat he spent his time in hunting, entertaining his friends, and writ- ing the works which have immortalized his name. After a residence of more than twenty years, he was expelled from Scillus by the Eleans, and re- tired to Corinth, where he is believed to have died. The sentence of banishment against him had been previously recalled ; but Xenophon never revisited his native city. The extant works of Xenophon may be divided into four classes : — 1. Historical — the Anabasis, an account of the expedition ot Cyrus the Younger, and the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, a model of perspicuous and interesting narrative ; the Hellenica, or Grecian Histories, a continuation of the History of Thucydides as far as the battle of Mantineia (b.c. 362); the Cyropaedia, an historical or philosophical romance, founded on the real events of the early life of Cyrus; and the Life of Agesilaus. 2. Didactic — the Hippar- chicus, a treatise on Horsemanship ; and the Cynegeticus, a treatise on Hunting. 3. Political — two Treatises on the Constitutions of Sparta and Athens, and a Treatise on the Revenues of Attica. 4. Philosophical— the Memorabilia of Socrates, a faithful record of the doctrines and sayings of the philosopher ; the Apology of Socrates, which pro- fesses to contain the substance of Socrates' ad- dress to his judges ; the Symposium, an account of a festive meeting, at which Socrates was present ; the (Economicus, a discussion on the duties of domestic life ; and the Hiero, an imaginary con- versation between the tyrant of Syracuse and Simonides. It is impossible in our limited space to analyze the character of Xenophon as an historian, a politician, a philosopher, and a general. It is not detracting from pre-eminent merit to allege that his continuation of the History of Thucydides falls short of the original ; that, in depth and philosophical acumen, he must yield to Plato, while he is a more faithful exponent of the doctrines of their common instructor ; and that his conducting of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand presents many of the qualities of a great com- 856 XER mander. His style exhibits the Attic dialect in its purest and most perfect form ; clear, simple, and devoid of ornament. [G.F.] XERES, F., a Spanish historian of the con- quest of Peru, where he accompanied Pizarro. XERXES, king of Persia, was the son of Darius and of Atossa, daughter of Cyrus. He succeeded his father B.C. 485, to the prejudice of his elder brother, Artazabanes. Four years previously the forces of Darius had been defeated by the Greeks under Miltiades at the battle of Marathon, and the interval had been passed in preparing for a second expedition. These preparations Xerxes continued on a scale of magnificence, almost in- credible, and in the spring of 480 B.C. he com- menced his inarch from Sardis : his army was moved forward with great deliberation, and being numbered on its arrival in Europe was found to muster 1,700,000 foot, and 80,000 horse ; besides camels, chariots, and ships of war. These num- bers, and the undisciplined crowds who must have attended them, to supply their necessities, are per- fectly bewildering to the imagination ; and they become still more so when their varied costumes, the silken and gilded tents, the standards, the costly armour, and the variety of national weapons are considered. One of the political parties of Greece, it must, be borne in mind, were in league with the Persian court, and the terror of the country verged upon despair of maintaining their liberties. Themistocles, however, while the pass of Thermopyla3 was defended by Leonidas ana his Spartans, succeeded in rallying his countrymen, and having created a navy, defeated Xerxes at the battle of Salamis. This great event took place in the year of the expedition B.C. 480. The Persians were allowed to retreat in such order as they could, but Mardonius, one of the principal commanders, reserved a more manageable army, the best he could pick from the flying host, and with these he was defeated by the combined Greeks the year following. Xerxes was assassinated by Artabanus, one of the great officers of his court, who aspired to found a new dvnasty in Persia, B.C. 465. [E.R.J XERXES, the second of the name, king of Persia, succeeded his father, Artaxerxes Longi- manus, B.C. 424, and was assassinated 423. XIMENES, Augustin Maria, Marquis De, a French poet, and friend of Voltaire, 1726-1817. YDE XIMENES, F., a Spanish painter, 1598-1666. XIMEN'KS, Francis, one of the Spanish mis- sionaries who introduced Christianity into Mexico, au. of a description of Mexican zoology and botany. XIMENES, Francis, known in Spanish his- tory as Cardinal Cisneros, from the territorial title of his family, was born at Torrelagnna in 1487. A great portion of his time was spent in obscurity and hard study. In 1492 he was made confessor to Queen Isabella, and in 1494 was made arch- bishop of Toledo. In 1507 he received the cardi- nal's hat. Along with his high dignities, he was Jiossessed of vast revenues, but his influence arose rom his discountenance of the luxurious and grasping habits of the higher priesthood, and his adopting the rigid discipline of the new order of St. Francis, with which he identified himself. He thus prepared the way for such internal reform as the Romish Church "received. He was a great patron of letters, and by his exertions and expendi- ture produced the earliest edition of a polyglott Bible, known as the Complutension, from its publication at Complutum. The political career of Ximenes was a struggle for the establishment of the power of the crown above the nobles, and somewhat anticipated the policy of Richelieu in France. He died on 8th Nov., 1517. [J.H.B.] XIMENES, J., a Spanish poet, 16th century. XIMENES, J. A., a Spanish theolog., 1719-74. XIMENES, Leo, a geometrician, astronomer, and engineer, of Sicilian birth, 1716-1786. XIMENES, L., a French ascetic, 13th century. XIMENES, Roderic, archbishop of Toledo, and author of Spanish histories, died 1247. XIMENO, V., an Italian biographer, 17th cent. XUARES, Gaspard, born in a district of Par- aguay, distinguished as a naturalist, 1731-1804. XUARES, or SUARES, Roderic, a Spanish jurisconsult, time of Ferdinand and Isabella. XYLANDER, the Graecised name of William Hoj/tzemann, a Germ, philologist, born at Augs- burgh 1532, d. professor at Heidelberg, 1576. He translated the works of Plutarch and Tryphiodorus. XYPHILIN, John, a patriarch of Constanti- nople, sprung from a noble family of Trebizond, and famed for his virtues and great learning, (Bra 1078, after a patriarchate of twelve years. His nephew, of the same name, author of an abridg- ment of Dion Cassius, first published in 1551. XYSTUS. SeeSixTUS. YAHIA AL BARMEKI, Anou Am, an Ara- bian vizier of the Barmecide family, who played a conspicuous part in the reign of Haroun al Ras- chid, and was put to death in 803. YAKOUT, Scheau Eddyx Aiiuam.ah, an Arabian biographical writer and geographer, of Greek origin and birth, 1178-1229. YALDEN, or YOULDING, Thomas, successor of Atterbury as preacher at Bridewell hospital, known to fame as a poet and miscellaneous writer, 1671-1736. The best known of his productions is his ' Ode to Saint Cecilia's Day.' YANEZ DE LA BARBUDA, a Portuguese commander, who attempted the conquest of i, and perished in the field, 1374. YANEZ, F., a Spanish painter, died 1560. YART, A., a French poet, 1710-1791. YATES, Frederick Hknky, h popular Eng- lish actor, and manager of the Adelphi theatre, was born in 1797, and made his first appeu aim- on the stage in 1817. His abilities were extremely versatile, ranging from the exhibition of the deepest pathos tO the humour of broad f.irce ; died L843. YATKS, RicHAitn, a comic actor, who kept the stage several years in such characters as ' Fondle- wife' in the ' Old Bachelor;' died 1796. His wife, Malia. a ti died 1787. FDELEZ, Mmiiin, a priest of Franehe- Comtd, who devoted himself to the service of the 1 sick poor, and wrote on the plague, 1581. 857 YEA YE ISSLEY, Anne, known as a poetical and dramatic writer, was originally a milk-woman, and was !><»m at Bristol about 1756. She was encou- pnblisfa tiy Hannah More, and the profits of bflf works enabled her to engage in a more con- genial occupation as mistress of a circulating lib- rary; died 1806. YEATES. Thomas, an Oriental scholar, whose literarv labonrs were devoted to the Bible as a translator and editor, 1768-1839. YEATS, T. P., an entomologist, died 1782. YEBRA, M. De, a Spanish ascetic, 16th cent. YELVERTON, Sir Henry, an English judge, author of ' Reports of Special Cases,' 1566-1630. YEPEZ, Antonia I)', a Spanish Benedictine and historian of his order, died 1621. YEI'EZ, Diego D\ bishop of Tarragona, and a learned historian, 1559-1613. YEREGUI, Jose De, a pious and learned ecclesiastic of Guvapuscoa, 1734-1805. YGLESIAS, J. De, a Spanish poet, 1753-1791. YMBISE, or IMBESE, Jean D\ a magistrate of Ghent, who endeavoured to free his country from the Spanish yoke, and was executed 1584. TON, St., in Latin Ionius or (Eonins, a martyr of Christianity in France, 290. YORK, the house of, rival to that of Lan- caster, and possessor of an elder right to the crown, derived its claim from Richard, son to the duke of Clarence, who was the second son of Edward III. The line of Lancaster claimed from John of Gaunt, his third son. Richard, duke of York, succeeded the duke of Bedford as regent in France, during the minority of Henry VI. His claim to the crown was first asserted about 1450, after the rebellion of Cade, and he first took arms in defence of it bv raising an army of 10,000 men ta 1452. Thus hegan the wars" of the red and white roses, which deluged England with blood. The duke was defeated at the battle of Wake- field, by Qmen Margaret, and killed in the action, 24th December, 1460. It is questionable whether big son, Clifford, was murdered as generally under- stood. The last chief of the white rose was his son, Richard III. [E.R.] YORK, Frederick, duke of, commander of the British army in the Low Countries at the period of the Erench revolution, was the second son of George III., and was born August 16, 1763. He studied military tactics at Berlin ; and in 1791 married the eldest daughter of the king of Prussia. He died, involved in debt, occasioned by his pas- sion for gaming, on January 5, 1827. A vindica- tion of his command in Flanders has been recently published by his military secretary. YORKE, SlH Jo>i;im'i Siknky, an admiral and member of parliament, perished in Stoke's Bay on returning from Spithead with all his ship's com- pany, IftL YORKE, Philip, first earl of Hardwicke, was born at Dover in 1690, and educated for the law. He was appointed chief justice of the King's Bench, and raised to the peerage in 1733. From 1 i 56 he held the office of lord chancellor, and retired with the duke of Newcastle; died 1764. IE, PHILIP, second earl of Hardwicke, son of the preceding, was born in 1720. In 1738 he was appointed one of the tellers of the exchequer, and, in 1764, succeeded his father in the eari- YOU dom. His distinction is that of a man of letters. He was joined by his brother, the Hon. Chaiu.ks Yoiikk, in publishing the 'Athenian Letters, or the Epistolary Correspondence of an Agent of the King of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponne- sian War.' His other works are ' The Correspon- dence of Sir Dudley Carleton,' and ' Miscellaneous State Papers.' Died 1790. YORKE, Philip, third earl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles Yorke, was bom in 1757. He held several public offices, and from 1801 to 1805 was lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Died 1834. YORKE, Philip, of the same family as the preceding, known as a genealogist and historian, was born about 1743, and died, after a life of literary leisure, in 1804. His work on ' The Royal Tribes of Wales,' contains much curious and authentic matter. YOUNG, Sir Aretas William, a peninsular officer, who was successively protector of slaves in Demerara 1826, and lieut. -governor of Prince Edward's Island, 1831 Died 1835. YOUNG, Arthur, a native of Norfolk, who became rector of Bradfield in Suffolk, and prebend of Canterbury. He wrote 'An Historical Disserta- tion on Idolatrous Corruptions in Religion.' Died 1759. His son, of the same name, born at his father's rectory in 1741, is well known as an agri- cultural writer and rural economist, and was secre- tary to the Board of Agriculture. Died 1820. YOUNG, Edward, was born at his father's parsonage, near Winchester, in 1684. From 1708 he held a fellowship at Oxford. In 1710 part of his poem, ' The Last Day,' was inserted in the Tatler; and the whole was published in 1713. Eor many years from the latter of these dates, he continued to produce poems of various kinds. The most successful, and hy much the best of them, till the appearance of his last and most popular work, were his Satires, which, appearing in separate pieces, were collected in 1728, under the name of ' The Love of Fame, the Universal Passion.' His tragedy of ' Busiris ' was acted successfully in 1719 ; ' The Revenge,' the only one of his tragedies that is now ever acted, appeared in 1721 ; and the ' Brothers,' while in rehearsal, in 1727, was with- drawn by the author, who, after having long hesi- tated between professions, had just taken orders. In 1730 his college presented him to the rectory of Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, valued at three hun- dred a-year; and this was the highest preferment he ever obtained, notwithstanding very frequent solicitations, which were continued when he was very old. In 1731 he married a widow, the daughter of the earl of Lichfield. Lady Elizabeth Young died in 1741 ; and her husband is supposed to have begun, soon afterwards, the composition of the 'Night Thoughts.' The publication of the poem, taking place in sections, was completed in 1746. With its want both of individual interest, and of genuine poetic imagination, this work could not have gained the permanent celebrity it has, were it not for the rarity of good religious poetry, and the readiness with which serious persons welcome any work of the sort. In its antithetical turn, and its perpetual ingenuity of strained analogies, not un- relieved by snatches of fine fancy, it reminds us ot the metaphysical poetry of the seventeenth cen- tury. But the appearance of a work, so solemn 858 YOU and elevated in tone, at a time like that in which the 'Night Thoughts' came forth, was really a fact hardly less encouraging for the prospects of literature, than was the appearance of the exqui- site 'Seasons' of Thomson a few years earlier. Young survived till 1765. [W.S.] YOUNG, Matthew, an Irish prelate and mathematician, author of 'An Analysis of the Principles of Natural Philosophy,' and 'The Method of Prime and Ultimate Ratios.'" Born in Roscom- mon 1750, died 1800. YOUNG, Thomas, born at Milverton, Somer- setshire, 18th June, 1773, died in London, where he had long practised as a physician, on 10th May, 1829. If extent of acquirement, originality in conception, and positive contributions to knowledge of highest importance, should ever give enduring fame, the claim might well have been made by Young. Some men, however — almost through in- explicable causes — appear formed to be unfortunate; and unhappily Young lived and died in compara- tive obscurity. It is probable that his acceptance in 1818 of" the Secretaryship of the Board of Longitude, and the connected editorship of the Nautical Almanac, contributed to this unhappy result. It cannot be denied that he was not ex- actly fitted for either office, and that his adminis- tration of them, laid him open to the successful and very eager attacks of persons who had no respect for his genius, nor for any man's, — who, in truth had neither the power nor the inclination to appre- ciate genius of any kind. Young's chief teats are two. First, he successfully contests with Fkesxel the glory of founding the Undulatory Theory of Light. The idea of propagation by 1 ndulations, in opposition to Newton's conception of propagation by Emission, had been started long before Young's time ; but to him unquestionably belonged the privilege of originating the explana- tion of all those more delicate phenomena of Light, by his doctrine of Interference. This view had not the advantage of FresneVs ; he had no willing auditory- : in England, at the time, the superstition with which we have hitherto been inclined to invest every illustrious insular name, had not been cleared away from that Immortality which belongs of right Co HKWTOV. Young's other capital discovery dis- pelled the mists from another sphere : — it was he who primarily detected the kev to phonetic Hiero- glyphics. Previous to his time, the old Egyp- tian symbols had been regarded simply M pictorial representations — real pictures, or real, through analogy. And, although some thought it probable that the inscriptions also concealed an alphabetic writing, no conception had been formed of the way in which pictorial representations could pass into phonetic ; and no key discovered therefore, to the contents of Egyptian records. Aided by the Ro- tetta stone, Young divined the secret, — clearly preceding Chami'ollion, and in theory penetrat- ing farther than even that acute and most deserving Frenchman ventured to go. — We believe that if the merits of our remarkable Countryman were made to rest even on those two memorable discoveries, injustice would be done to him. His mind teemed with new and profound conceptions, and he has left numerous other hints, that will probably yet start out into unexpected importance. Young was buried in Fumborough ; but lie has a 859 YVE monument — among the motley crowd — in that National Mausoleum, where great men alone ought ever to have been permitted to repose — the Abbev of Westminster. [J.P.N.J YOUNG, Sir William, a miscellaneous writer and member of parliament, born near Canterbury 1750, died, governor of Tobago, 1815. YOUSOUF, the last governor of Spain for tho Oriental caliphs, killed in battle 759. YPSILANTI, three Greek princes who distin- guished themselves in efforts to achieve the inde- pendence of their country. Constantixk. bean at Constantinople about 1760, became, in 1799, hospodar of Moldavia, and, in 1802, of Wallachit. He was deprived of this dignity, and after the treaty of Tilsit, 1807, resided in Russia; died 181ti. Ai.kxaxder, the most distinguished of the three, was son of the preceding, and was born in 17;»_'. He attained military rank in the Russian army, and, in 1820, became chief of the JJetair, (a, .in association of Greek patriots. He began the war of independence by crossing the Pruth, attended with only a few followers, in March, 1821, but after repeated defeats was obliged to abandon the cause and take refuge in Vienna, where he died in 1828. His brother, Demetrius, also headed the insurgents, and died 1832. YRALA, or IRALA, Domixgo Maktixkz Dk, one of the Spanish conquerors of America, com- panion of Mendoza, died 1567. YRIARTE, I., a Spanish painter, 1635-1685. YRIARTE, Don Jv ax Dk, a learned arcbsaoJo- gist, keeper of the Royal Library at Madrid, and chief author of the Improved Orthography and Punctuation of the Spanish Language, 1708-1771. His nephew, Domixgo, a diplomatist, L746-1795. Thomas, brother of the latter, a famous poet, comedian, and fabulist, editor of the Mercury of Madrid, 1750-1791. YSABEAU, Alexander Clement, a cele- brated character of the French revolution, bora about 1750. Being sent as a deputy to the con- vention he became the colleague of Tallieii, and a participator in his cruelties at Kourdeaux. Eta mtf subsequently a member of the directory and the council of elders; died 1823. YSAURE,orISAUi;K. I i tWXCE,! lady who instituted the floral games at Touli me, was bora there, shortly before the expulsion of the Knglish, about 1466. " Her lover being slain in battle, she consecrated her life 'to the Virgin 1 and to the culti- vation of poesy. She left a considerable rerenoe for the celebration of the floral ga \ and for prize* given to n ii festival wai ! annually, in May, till 1806, when it was Its history was written by 1'oitcvin. WAN. See Ivan. YVAN, Antojnk, founder of the religious order of Mercy flourished in Pn 'i \ a'i: T. .1 A. Yii roa, in igrkultnral writer, .ailed 'The Arthur Young of I ranee,' 17' YVKI:. .1 , .i French novelist, loth century. ST., a monk of St. I who left bii order and became eekhrad in Faiis as an oculist, 1667-1788. ^ \ IS. St., ;t theologian and canonist, appointed bishop of Chartrea in L691, died in... V\ l.TAiA. \ M ..•' i r in. . I ranch scholar and poet, tutor to Louis XIII., 1000-1649. YVO YVON, Peter, a controversial writer and pro- selvte of Labuii'iL', from about 1640. ) 70N, P. C, a French physician, 1719-1811. F-YN, one of the greatest statesmen produced in China, was born "about 1770 B.C. He was ZAN minister for thirty-three years to Tai-Kia, whose reign was rendered, by him, one of the most happy and brilliant in the Chinese dynasty. He Uvea to be nearly one hundred years old, and died in an honourable retirement. ZABAGLIA, Nicholas, an Italian mechanician and architect, to whom the method of transferring fresco paintings is attributed, 1674-1750. ZABAN, or ZABANIUS, Isaac, a Hungarian philosopher, and writer in favour of the atomic theory, born about 1670, died 1699. ZABARELLA, Francesco, cardinal and arch- bishop of Florence, a learned canonist and writer -iastical polity, 1339-1417. Bartolom- meo, his nephew, also archbishop of Florence, and professor of law, 1396-1442. Jacopo, a descen- dant of the preceding, a professor of philosophy and commentator on Aristotle, 1553-1589. ZABOROWA, James, a Polish publicist, em- ployed under the direction of the chancellor, in collecting the laws, 1502-1506. ZABUESING, J. C, a Ger. writer, 1747-1795. ZACCARIA, Francesco Antonio, a learned Venetian Jesuit, historian of Italian literature, and a defender of the papacy, 1714-1795. ZACCHIAS, Paolo, an Italian physician and man of letters, born at Rome 1584, died 1659. ZACH, Clara, countess of, daughter of a Hun- garian noble, executed for assassinating Casimir, king of Poland, who had outraged her, 1330. ZACH, F., a German astronomer, 1754-1832. ZACHARIA, D., a French alchymist, 16th cent. ZACHARIA, G. T., a Ger. Orientalist, 1729-77. ZACHARIA, Justus Frederick William, a German poet, professor at Brunswick, 1726-77. ZACHARIAH, a king of Israel, B.C. 784. ZACHARIAH, one of the Jewish prophets, flourished in the reign of Darius, 6th century B.C. ZACHT-LEEVEN, or SAFT-LEEVEN, Her- mann, a Dutch painter, 1609-1685. His brother, Cornelius, a painter of drunken frolics, 1606-73. ZACUTO, Abraham, in Latin Zacutus Lusi- lanus, a Portuguese Jew, known as a physician and professional writer, 1575-1642. /AGO, O., an Italian engineer, 1654-1737. ZAUN, J., a Germ, mathematician, 1641-1707. ZAIDOUN, Aboul Walid Ahmed Ibn, a Spanish Arabian poet, 1003-1070. ZAIXER, G., a German printer, 1430-1478. ZAIONCZEK, Joseph, a Polish general, who defended the cause of independence till 1814, and then became a partizan of Russia, 1752-1826. ZAKREZEWSKI, Ignatius Wygsygota, a member of the Polish diet, and one of those who distinguished themselves in 1794 in the cause of their country's independence, 1774-1802. ZAUX'CUS, a Greek philosopher, renowned as the legislator of the Locrians, 500 B.C. ^ ZAI. LINGER, J. B. Di: Tiiakn, a Tyrolese Jesuit and botanist, 1731-1785. James Antony, of the same family, a Jesuit, philosopher, and canonist, 1735-1812. F. Seraphin, a Jesuit and '.' ian, 1743-1805. ZALLWELN, <;., ■ German canonist, 1712-66. ZA I.l'SKI, Andrew Chrysostome, a prelate, diplomatist, and grand chancellor of Poland, 1655- 1711. His nephew, Andrew Stanislaus, grand chancellor, distinguished as a patron of letters, died 1758. J. Andrew, brother of the latter, bishop of Kiev, collector of a great library, destroyed at the capture of Warsaw by Suwarrow, 1701-1774. ZALUZANSKI, Adam, a physician and botanist of Bohemia, 1 6th century. ZALYK, Gregory Georgiades, a Greek of Thessalonica, secretary of embassy, and author of a French and modern Greek Dictionary, 1785-1827. ZAMAGNA, B., a Latin poet, 1735-1820. ZAMAKHSCHARI, Aboul Cassem Mah- moud Al, an Arabian poet, 1074-1144. ZAMBECCARI, F., a Venetian poet, 15th cent. ZAMBECCARI, Count Francesco, an Italian aeronaut, born at Bologna 1756, perished in mak- ing one of his experim. in balloon navigation 1812. ZAMBECCARI, Joseph, an Italian physician, distinguished in comparative anatomy, 17th cent. ZAMBERTO, B., a Venetian author, one of the first to translate Euclid, 15th century. ZAMBONI, B., an Italian author, 1730-1797. ZAMET, Sebastian, a celebrated Italian finan- cier and court intriguant, time of Marie de Medici, whom he accompanied to France, born at Lucca about 1549, died 1614. His son, John, baron of Murat and camp-marshal, distinguished in the religious wars, died 1620. Sebastian, his second son, chaplain to Marie de Medici, bp. of Langres, and protector of the Port- Royal savants, died 1655. ZAMORA, A., a Spanish physician, 1570-1640. ZAMORA, Bernard De, a learned Spanish ecclesiastic and philologist, 1720-1785. ZAMORA, Gaspard De, a Spanish Jesuit, author of a Scripture Concordance, 1546-1621. ZAMORA, L., a Spanish poet, died 1614. ZAMOSKI, John, nephew by marriage to Stephen, king of Poland, distinguished as a war- rior, diplomatist, and patron of literature, called the ' Defender of his Country and Protector of the Sciences,' di-d 1605. ZAMPI, F. M., an Italian poet, died 1774. ZAMPIERI, C, an Italian poet, 1701-1784. ZAMPINI, Matteo, an Italian jurisconsult and partizan of the league, author of works on French history, 16th century. ZANARDI, N., an Ital. theologian, 1570-1 (111. ZANCHI, Basilio, in Latin Zanckius, an ele- gant Latin poet, born at Bergamo 1501, died in prison 1558. Girolamo, his cousin, a celebrated protestant and friend of Peter Martyr, was com- pelled to leave Italy and become a professor at Heidelberg. He was born at Alanzo, in the terri- tory of Bergamo, 1516, and died, some time after losing his sight, in 1590. His works form eight volumes, and one of them, on Predestination, has been translated into English by Dr. Toplady. The father of Girolamo, F. T. Zanchi, is known in Italian literature as an historian and Latin poet. 860 ZAN ZAKE, J., a Venetian poet, 1529-1560. ZANETTI, Antonio Maria, Count, a Vene- tian antiquarian who contributed to the perfection of wood engraving, 1680-1766. J. Francesco, of the same family, an archaeologist and learned editor, 1713-1782. Ai.essandro, his brother, an art-writer and librarian of Saint Marc, 1716- 1778. Bernardo, a theologian and historian of the Longobardi, 1690-1762. Gutdo, a learned numismatist, keeper of the museum of antiquities at Ferrara. 1741-1791. ZANETTINI, J., an Italian jurist, 1430-1493. ZANIBONI, A., an Italian poet, died 1767. ZANNICHELLI, J. Girolamo, an Italian physician and natural philosopher, 1662-1729. ZANNONI, J. B., an Ital. archaaol., 1774-1832. ZANOLINI, A., an Ital. Orientalist, 1693-1762. ZANONI, A., an Ital. agriculturist, 1696-1770. ZANONI, Jacopo, a botanical writer, director of the botanic garden at Bologna, 1615-1682. ZANOTTI, J. P., an Italian painter and poet, secretary of the Clementine academy, 1674-1765. Ercolo, his brother, a poet and writer on sacred subjects, 1684-1763. F. Maria, a third brother, distinguished as a philosopher by his labours in popularizing the systems of Descartes and Newton in Italy, 1692-1777. Eustachius, nephew of the preceding, an astronomer, 1709-1782. ~ ZAPF, G. W., a German savant, 1747-1810. ZAPF, N., a German Hebraist, 1600-1672. ZAPPI, Giambatista, a philosophical writer of Italy, born at Imola about 1540. His grand- son, Giambatista Felice, a lawyer and poet, author of Odes and Sonnets, remarkable for purity of style, 1667-1719. Faustina, the wife of the latter, was a daughter of the famous Carlo Maratti, and like her husband was skilled in poetry. ZARAGOZA, Jose De, a Spanish Jesuit, dis- ting. as a mathematician and astronomer, 1627-78. ZARATE, Augustin De, a Spanish historian of the discovery and conquest of Peru, 16th cent. ZARATE, F. L. De, a Spanish poet, d. 1658. ZARCO, John Gonzales, a Portuguese navi- gator who discovered the islands of Porto Santo and Madeira, the former in 1417, the latter in 1419. He become governor of Madeira, and was the founder of Funchal. ZARLINO, J., a distinguished musician, com- poser, and theologian of Chioggia, 1519-1599. ZAROTTI, C, an Italian physician, 17th cent. ZASE, Ulric, a Swiss councillor ; although a catholic, he had a great admiration for Luther, whom he styled the Phoenix of Theologians. Many of his works were, consequently, put by the pope in the index ; 1461-1535. ZAVARONI, AngelOj an archaeologist and biographer, born in Calabria 1710, died 1 t 67. ZAVAVI, Aboul Hassan, an Arabian gram- marian, author of a poem on Syntax, 1168-1296. ZAWADOWSKI, Peter Vassilievitch, Russian minister of instruction time of Alexan- der, father of the present emperor, 1738-1812. ZAYAS Y SOTOMAYOR, Makia De, a Spanish ladv, celebrated by her writings, last cent. ZAZIUS, Ulric, professor of law at rnburg, and author of several learned works, 1461-1535. His son, John Ulric, 1521-1570. ZEA, Don Francisco Antonio, a botanist and statesman, was born in New Grenada 1770, ZEN and received the appointment ot director of the botanic cabinet at Madrid. On the abdication of Charles IV. he became minister of the interior, and on the retreat of the French went to South America, where he aided in founding the republic of Columbia, of which he became vice-president. In 1820 he came to England as a diplomatic agent to that government and died here in 1822. ZEECHI, J., an Italian physician, 1533-1601. ZECCHI, Lelic, an Italian theologian, juris- consult, and canonist, died 1610. ZECCHINI, P., an Ital. physiologist, 1739-1793. ZEGERS, H., a Flemish painter, 17th centurv. ZEGERS, T. N., a Flemish ascetic, died 1559' ZEIBICH,C.H.,aHung. theologian, 1717-176:?. ZEID-BEN-THABET, one of the secretaries of Mahomet. He greatly contributed to dissemi- nate the new doctrine, and made, by order of the caliph, Abou-Bekr, a complete copy of the Koran, which alone came to be considered as authentic. ZEIDLER, C. S., a Ger. historian, 1719-1786. ZEIDLER, J. G., a German poet, died 1711. ZEIRI-BEN-MOUNAD, called Al Taclani, chief of the Zeirites-Sanhadjites. He conquered the whole of the countrv extending from Alp. is to Tripoli, and presented it to Obeid-Allah. He rendered great services to the Fatimites, and was killed at the battle of Mansourah 971 Hifl BOO, Y«. i -ss.il f-Balkin, founded the dynasty of the Zeirites-Sanhadjites. ZEKY-KHAN, Mohammed, half-brother of Kcrvm-Khan, king of Persia, on whose death in 1779 he seized the throne. He was distinguished for nothing but his cruelty, and was put to death by his soldiers shortly after his assumption of power. ZELADA, F. X., an Italian cardinal, secretary of state, and librarian of the Vatican, 1717-1801. ZELLER, J. G., a Ger. physician, 1666-1761 ZELOTTI, Battista, an Italian painter, the fellow-student of Paul Veronese, under Antonio Badile, uncle of the latter, 1532-1592. ZELTER, C. F., a Ger. composer, 1758-1832. ZELTNER, Gustavcs G., a German philologist and historian, 1672-1738. His brother, J, KAi>. also a learned writer, 1687-17'J(i. ZENDRINI, Bernardo, a celebrated mathe- matician and hydraulic engineer, employed by t In- Venetian and Austrian governments in important public works, author of several treatises, 1679-1747. ZENO. There were three celebrated Zenoa, ZniOOf F.u.A, the pupil and expound. I menides; Zeno of Citthm, in Cyprna, founder of the school of the Stoics ; and , . i i:i an. who lived in the times bad the honour of teaching that Qlnstriou I Philosopher, and Bt«tC«MI, The two first alone, demand notice here. ZENO Of Ki.k.a, in Magna Grana, horn about : 500 b.c. Xenophanea bad found, or rather divined IMi T, in the Idea of an unknown i\,rmcnides took a dilieimt fi identified the Unity we seek, with the Im in other words, he asserted it to be wholly su!.- Zcno followed his : ; and it we rightly Interpret enigmatical traditions con- cerning him, it appears that he must have ad- rerj far. lie is said to bare denied the existence of Space, of Motion, and of u hoi ZEN tions: the verv absurdity of the stories Ml afloat respecting his doctrines, evinces how much he must have been misunderstood — not by hia contemporaries perhaps, but by later writers. I lu re is no clue to the foregoing statements, save one. His scheme must have corresponded almost exactly with Kant's: he had separated subjective laws from objective reality, and proclaimed that over the chasm between, he could discern no bridge. It is indeed sufficiently strange to detect. • the illustrious German Thinker, at the far end of two thousand three hundred years ! That, our interpretation is most probably true, further from Zeno's great and undeniable achieve- ment. The existence of a Science of Logic, was discerned by him first of all; and he laid down many of its Laws. Logic, be it remembered, is the Science which explores not the qualities or order of external Things, but the conditions under which the Mind moves, as it determines and judges; and what more likely, than that the reality of such a Science should be earliest seen by the Philosopher, who first of all recognized the dis- tinctiveness of Subjective Laws? [J.P.N.] ZKNO of Cittium, in Cyprus, lived about 250 years before Christ. The" external incidents of Zeno's life were in no wdse remarkable ; his im- portance and fame rest on his being the founder of the sect of the Stoics, — (named, because Zeno chose to teach under the Porch, or 2re«) — a sect of greater and wider influence than any other that sprung up during the latter days of Greece, for it took root within the soil of Rome, and obtained sway over the Jurisprudence as well as the Morals of the Republic. The foundations only, of Stoic- ism, were laid by Zeno, who seems to have been indebted for his chief maxims to Antisthenes the Cynic: it was perfected as a philosophical scheme by the more vigorous genius of Chrysippus of Soli, who reached the year 210 B.C. — Stoicism is not a system of Morals alone ; it had its Logic and Theory of Nature besides. Its doctrine of the Human Understanding, or regarding the origin and nature of Knowledge, is surprisingly similar to John Locke's. Assuming Sensation as the source and foundation of whatever can be discerned in the mind, the Stoic claimed for Mind the power of acting on its sensations, comparing them, group- ing them, and judging so concerning them. In this way, a Judgment is formed by a synthesis of Sensations., — what they termed a comprehensive representation, by a synthesis of individual Judg- ments; and finally, that ultimate and universal synthesis, which is Science. The critical student will not fail to observe that every trace of the profound philosophy of Plato had already dis- appeared. — Next, as to Stoic Physiology. This is a Necessity, a Fatalism pure and simple. They .speak indeed of God. They speak of Providence. And of the beauty and perfection of the order of the World, in which each atom has its harmonious place ; symmetry the most unchallengeable reign- ing through all, and the wisest economy also, seeing there is nothing useless — not a solitary molecule that can be called superfluous, neither one, unnecessary. To closer scrutiny, however, 1 of the Portico, appears an existence de- void of personality and self-consciousness : the name is applied to an hypothetic germ or seed, ZEN from whose necessary and determinate develop- ments, Nature and all the varieties of hieing have sprung. There is no God distinct from the material Universe : there is but one substance, which, considered in its forms, is Natukk — in its essence, Goo. Assuredly also a powerful declen- sion from the Theism of the greater Times! — Neither can we speak, in less qualified terms, of the vaunted Morality of Stoicism. With much sem- blance of nobleness, and undoubtedly containing wherewithal to nourish a noble nature, it is yet false through exaggeration, and that vicious ex- clusiveness which always characterizes the decay of Science. It is verily a maxim to be engraven on every soul — 'Be strong and free!' But the question recurs, what is strength t Is it the power to regulate passion and desire, to enthrone Reason as the judge or umpire over the tendencies in- separable from our complex nature: or the ambitious, the unnatural, the vain effort to extir- pate passion and desire, so that ceasing to be Men we may rival the Gods ? No philosophy worthy the name of Ethical, ever failed to recognize it as Man's primal duty, to curb the appetites, ex- tinguish evil passions, and so govern the soul; but the Stoic's conception of Order, is not govern- ment, it is extinction : just as the blind despot destroys the freedom he cannot rule, and names his solitude Peace ! History never offers a more certain indication of decrepitude of Thought and defect of true Manliness, than the acceptance of exaggerations like these. Speaking scientifically, they involve an omission of many of the essential elements of the problem whose solution is aimed at : and under another view, they more than indi- cate the prevalence of practical insincerity: — no Human Being can get beyond the position of a Max ; and he who pretends to do so, universally sinks below it. It is a singularly instructive fact, that this ' complete liberty ' of the Stoic, was often held consistent with the worst excesses. Having triumphed, the disciple held that no crime could stain him : like multitudes of Mystics, he had achieved salvation ; and neither worldliness, nor meanness, nor crime, could suffice to disturb his sanctimoniousness, or effect his Fall ! — It is easy to see that out of such a doctrine, Men in themselves great, might extract much to augment their For- titude. But if Stoicism aided in producing a Scipio, a Thraseas, an Epictetus, or Marcus Aurelius ; it also evolved and justified that most disastrous record in the annals of Rome — the issue of the almost maniac ferocity of Marcus Brutus. [J.P.N.] ZENO, called the /saurian, emperor of the East, was a chief of the Isaurian guard who obtained the favour of Leo I., and married his daughter, Ariadne. He exercised the imperial power from 464 to 491, when he found himself in the midst of dangers, from which he sought the escape of obli- vion in debauchery. Four days after his suspicious death, Ariadne married Anastasius. ZENO, ArosTOLO, called ' the father of the Italian Opera,' was born at Venice in 1669, and became famous by a periodical work entitled ' The Giornale de Litterati,' which he commenced in 1779. As a dramatic writer he is compared with Comeille, and his works form 11 volumes, pub- lished in 1744. Died 1750. 862 ZEN ZENO, C, a Venetian admiral, 1334-1418. ZENO, Nicolo and Antonio, brothers of the preceding, are celebrated in the history of naviga- tion, by then- alleged discovery of America prior to the voyage of Columbus. It is considered probable that they reached Greenland. The former died in 1395, the latter 1405. Caterigo, grandson of Antonio, went as ambassador to Persia, and wrote a narrative of his mission, 1472. Nicolo, of the same family, a man of letters, and member of the council of ten, 1515-1565. ZENOBIA, Shptoixa, a princess of Arabian descent, who became queen of Palmyra in the desert, after the murder of her husband, Odenatus, in 267. The latter was killed by his nephew at a festival, and Zenobia, who acted with great energy, Besomed the title of queen of the East. She was deprived of her dominions by the emperor Aurelian in 272, and died in a private retirement near Rome. The celebrated critic Longinus acted as her secretary, and was put to death by the Romans. ZENOBIUS, a Greek sophist, 2d century. ZENODOBUS, a tyrant of Syria, d. B.C. 20. ZENODORUS, a Greek sculptor, 1st c en tau ry . ZENTGRAVE, J. J., a Ger. theolog. 1643-1707. ZERERXICK, C. F., a Ger. jurist, 1751-1801. ZEPHIRINUS, a bishop of Rome. 197-217. ZERBE, P. De, an Ital. missionary, 1712-1716. ZEBBIS, G. De, an Ital. anatomist, died 1505. ZEBMEGH, J., a Hungarian histor., 16th cent. ZKRNITZ, C. F., a German poet, 1717-1744. ZEROLA. T., an Italian canonist, 1548-1603. ZESEN, P. De, a German poet, born 1619. ZEUNE, J. C., a Ger. philologist, 1736-1788. ZEUXIS, one of the most celebrated painters of antiquity, was born at one of the ancient towns of Heraclea, probably in Macedonia, about 460 B.C. Zenxis was at the height of his reputation in the time of Archelaus, king of Macedon, 413-399 B.C.; he painted the palace of this king at Pella, for which he was paid 400 minae, about £1,600 sterling. Much concerning Zeuxis has been preserved in ancient writers ; nearly every notice reflecting upon him the very highest praise, not only in the shape of popular anecdotes, but in the positive and cir- cumstantial statements of art criticism: and some of the facts recorded concerning this painter, show how similar must have been the ways of art among the Greeks upwards of 2,000 years ago, to what they have been during their great epoch in Europe in modern times. The naturalist development of art as compared with its condition the generation before, in the time of Polygnotus is clearly demonstrated in the various accounts of Zeuxis, both as to subject and its treatment, at the same time combined with the ideal or principle of selection ; art was no longer merely representative, but thoroughly dramatic. l'Mlvgnotus, Zeuxis, and Apelles represent well the three great phases of Greek painting, the essential, the dramatic, and the refined, in which the techincal qualities attained their utmost per- fection, and like most clevernesses obscured or superseded more essential qualities. Amongst the most remarkable works of Zeuxis, and they were many, are mentioned particularly the celebrated 4 Ben of Croton,' and a 'Family of Centaurs.' The former was painted from five l>eautiful virgins of the city, and was one of the most celebrated <>f all the Greek pictures, and it has for ages been the ZIM theme of poets of all countries. Zeuxis himse't subscribed on the picture the three lines from Homer which speak of Helen's beaut v ■ — 'No wonder such celestial charms lor nine lonjr years have set tlie world in amis! v hat winaing graceel waal majestic mien! She moves a goddess, and she looks a Queen ' Tope, 11. iii . : Lucian says that Zeuxis seldom or never exerted his powers upon such vulgar or hackneved subjects as gods, heroes, or battles. His characteristics have been described as a grand style of form, com- bined with a high degree of execution, and power- ful effect of light and shade ; for Appollodorus, the Athenian painter, who may be termed the Greek Rembrandt, complained that Zeuxis had robbed him of his art. To all these fine qualities we must add his highest, his dramatic power of composition ; in expression Aristotle tells us that he was inferior to Polygnotus. There are several stories told about illusive pictures painted by Zeuxis and Parrhasius of Ephesus: the only value of these ia to show that illusion was one of the qualities of Greek painting, which will acquire it a higher con- sideration in some minds than any other quality; — (Wornum, EpochsofPmmtmg Ckaraettrittd, &c. and Penny Cyclopcedia, Art. Zeuxis.) [R.N'.W . ZEVECOT, J., a Flemish poet, 1604-1 ZH IN'GA, Baxdi, a queen of Angola, who main- tained a struggle for 28 years with the rortagmee, and after performing prodigies of valour was despoiled of the larger part of her dominions. She then submitted to be baptized as a means of pre- serving the remainder, 1581-1663. ZICHEN, E. De, a Flemish contro., 1482-1538. ZIEGELBAUER, Cakachord, a German Benedictine and historian of his order, 169f>-17.ji>. ZIEGENBALG, Bautiioi.o.mkw, a Gennan philologist and missionary to the East Indies, 1683-1719. ZIEGLER, C. J. A., a Ger. physician, 1785-66, ZIEGLER, G., a German jurist, 1621-1680. ZIEGLER, J., a Latin dramatic writer and bio- grapher of Bavaria, 1620-1564. ZIEGLER, J., a Bavarian theologian, mathema- tician, and geographical writer, 1480-1649. ZIEGLER, W. C. L., a Ger. theol.. 17<;3-1809. ZIEGLER, St. Ki.iiiiiai siun H. Anselmk De, a poet of Saxon v, 1608-1690. ZILIOLI, A., a Venetian historian. 16th cent. /.IMARA, M. A., an Ital. physician, 11' ZIMISCES, emperor of the Bast s.c John. ZIMMERMAN'S. Ei:i -khaki. At <.i -in sWn - iiam Y<>.\, professor of natural philosophy at Brunswick, author of political works and treatises in natural history, 1743-1815. ZIMMERMANN". II i .m:y, author of m, of the third voyage of Captain Cook, with whom he sailed in the lh*oovtxy y 177f>. ZIMMKRMANN, .Jo'hann Gi -.n<; \ ■ one of" the most eminent of continental pi in the eighteenth century, both sk a practitioner and as a professional writer. His BMoelhmWM writings also were numerous; and one of kbaat, his striking but not very philosophical essay * On Solitude,' is now, indeed, quite fagotti in Rut- land, but was once tery popular among us. It was first printed, as a sketch, in 1766, and after- wards in its complete shape in 1786.- 2 863 ZIM mann was born in 1728, at Bragg, in the canton of Hern. After having studied at Gottingen, be practised medicine successively at Bern and in his native town. His tendency to hypochondria ■bowed itself even thus early, but did not disqualify him from either active practice or from zealous and miscellaneous studies. * His professional cele- britv gained him, in 1768, the appointment of royal physician at Hanover ; after the second ap- pearanee of his work ' On Solitude,' he was invited t<> St. Petersburg; and the year after he attended Frederick of Prussia in his last illness. His writ- mm after this were chiefly gossiping collections, and expressions of the horror with which he re- garded the revolutionary principles that were becoming prevalent. His melancholy continued to increase; and he was completely deranged for some time before his death, which took place in 1795. [W.S.] ZIMMERMANN, John James, a Swiss theo- logian, professor at Zurich, 1685-1756. ZIMMERMANN, John James, an eloquent German preacher, generally regarded as a disciple of Bcehmen and Brouquelle, whose doctrines he rendered highly popular; born in the duchy of Wurtemberg, 1644, died at Rotterdam, 1693. Zimmermann made many proselytes in Germany and the United Provinces, and at the moment of his death was about to depart for America to escape the persecution to which he had been sub- jected. For some years he was professor of ma- thematics at Heidelberg. The most notorious of his works is entitled a ' Revelation of Antichrist.' ZIMMERMANN, Joseph, a Swiss officer, poet, and militarv writer, 17th century. ZIMMERMANN, Matthias, a learned theolo- gian of Hungary, 1625-1689. ZIMMERMANN, William, a German pastor and controversial writer, 16th century. ZIMOROWICZ, Simon, a Russian poet, about 1G04-1629. A brother of his, named Bartholo- mew, was a biographical writer. ZINCKE, C. F., a German painter, 1684-1767. ZINGARELLI, Nicolo, an Italian musician, known at the court of Napoleon in the earlier years of the empire, and afterwards chapel-master at the Vatican, born at Naples 1752, died 1837. He is the author of several operas. ZLNKE, G. II., a Germ, economist, 1692-1769. ZINKGREF, J. G., a German poet, 1591-1635. ZINN, J. G., a German anatomist, 1727-1759. ZINZENDORE, Nicholas Louis, Count Von, founder of the Herrnhuters, or Moravian Brethren, was born at Dresden in 1700. According to his own account (in his ' Natural Reflections on Various Subjects'"), he aspired to form a society of believers from his boyhood. On coming of age h] 1721, he settled, with this object in view, on his estate at Bertholsdorf, in Upper Lusatia, and was there joined by several proselytes from Bo- hemia. By 1732 the numbers who had flocked around him amounted to six hundred, and all •re subject to a species of ecclesiastical discipline, or monastic despotism, which brought them in spirit and body, or was intended so to do, under the most absolute control of their leader. From an adjacent hill, called the Ihdh-berq, was the name of the colony Iluth des Ilerrn, contracted to Herrnhutt, the name of the sect ; — ZOC the apellation of Moravian Brethren was assumed for his party by Count Zinzendorf, for the sake <»t connection with the separatists of Bohemia and Moravia, partly derived from Valdo, the forerunner of Luther : some of these, indeed, were among his colonists. Zinzendorf assumed various titles as the chief of the Herrnhuters, all of which really pointed to a pontificate as his function. From 1733 his missionaries began to spread, not only over parts of Europe, but in Greenland and North America — even Africa and China were not forgot- ten. To him, in fact, Wesley was directly indebted for both his religious organization and his mission- ary plans, which became so eminently successful ; that indefatigable labourer having passed some time with Count Zinzendorf at Herrnhuth. The interference of the government with the Count's projects, can hardly be regarded as a measure oi Sersecution, as secret doctrines were undoubtedly eld by him, and thus motives given to his fol- lowers, and objects sought, of which, whether good or evil, the established authorities could take no cognizance. The history of the sect is curious and interesting: next to their organization in classes, the use of singing, which furnished the Weslevs with a valuable hint, is one of its most remarkable characteristics; under this head some singular details might be given. Something might be said also on the connection of a certain marriage rite with the theory of regeneration, the efficacy of which was probably tried by the Herrn- huters in common with the Quakers. Count Zin- zendorf died amongst his people on the 9 th of June, 1760. [E.R.] ZINZENDORF, Philip Louis, Count Von, an Austrian statesman, by whom the wars with Turkey and France were decided, chancellor in the reign of Joseph I., 1671-1742. His son, of the same names, a cardinal, 1699-1747. ZINZERLING, J., in Latin Jodicus Sincervs, a philologist of Thuringia, 1590-1618. ZIRARDINI, Antonio, a learned Italian juris- consult and archaeologist, 1725-1784. ZISKA. The real name of this renowned leader in the early wars of religion in Germany was John Trocznow. He acquired the name of Ziska (which means one-eyed,) from the loss of an eye in battle. He was bom about 1380. He was of one of the noblest families in Bohemia, and was brought up in the court and camp of the emperor. Like the greater number of his Bohe- mian fellow-countrymen, he embraced the tenets of John Huss; and when that reformer was cruelly and perfidiously put to death by the council of Constance, the Bohemians flew to arms to revenge their leader's martyrdom, and to protect themselves from the persecution with which they were menaced by the bigotry and tyranny of the emperor Sigis- mond. They elected John Ziska their general ; and in a few months he raised and disciplined a for- midable army, and organized a war of indepen- dence throughout Bohemia. The emperor invaded Bohemia, but Ziska attacked and utterly defeated him, 11th July, 1420. A negotiation and tempor- ary pacification followed ; but the war soon broke out again with redoubled violence, each side being exasperated against the other by religious fanatic- ism, and by the thirst for retaliation for deeds of atrocious cruelty. Ziska was everywhere victori- 804 ZIZ |us. He invaded Austria and Hungary, and lost is remaining eye at the siege of Raab. Though ow entirely blind he continued to command the Bohemian armies, and gained a victory over Sigis- lond at Arssig, which placed the Austrian domin- jus at his mercy. Ziska's ferocity was equal to is military skill; and his followers spread the lost fearful and indiscriminating ravages where- ver they marched. The emperor now earnestly ought terms of peace, and a treaty, most humi- iating to Austrian pride, was concluded by Ziska's j nfluence over the Bohemians. Ziska was on his xy to meet the emperor when he died of the >las:ue, 11th October, 1425. There is a legend that y his dying orders his skin was, after his death nade into a drum, and used by the Bohemians in heir subsequent wars with the emperor. [E.S.C.] ZIZIANOFF. Paul Demetrievitch, a Geor- gian prince in the service of Russia, assassinated it the instance of Khan Ibrahim, 1805. ZOBOLI, A., an Italian astronomer, 17th cent. ZOCCOLI, Carlo, an architect, engineer, and urisconsult of Naples, 1718-1771. ZOE, a mistress of Leo VI., emperor of Con- stantinople, who was married by him after she lad defeated a conspiracy, and died in less than ;wo years after her elevation to the throne, 893. She is said to have poisoned her first husband. A. second Zoe was successively flie mistress and wife of the same emperor : she condescended to the Former character, in order to test the probability of her supplying Leo with a successor, and was crowned three days after the baptism of her son, Constantine VII., in 905. The latter succeeded to the throne in 911, and Zoe exercised the sovereign uthority some time : she was at length exiled, and died in obscurity, 919. ZOE, empress of the East, was the daughter of Constantine IX., and became the wife of Romanus III. in 1028, when she was in the forty-eighth year of her age. She was a debauched woman, and became the murderess of her husband, in order to place her lover on the throne, who reigned under the title of Michel IV. The latter dying, was suc- ceeded by his nephew, Michel V., who was deposed by the people, and Zoe and her sister, Theodora, proclaimed joint sovereigns. She displayed great ability and firmness in the government; and in 1012 married in third nuptials Constantine Mono- machus. She continued to reign till her death at the age of seventy-four, in 1052. iA, George, a Danish archaeologist, cele- brated for his labours in Egyptian philology and antiquities, 1755-1809. ZOES, H., a French jurisconsult, 1571-1627. ZOHEIR, an Arabian poet of the period of Mahomet. The work of his which has come down to the present time celebrates some of the Arabian princes, and was published at Leipzig in 1792, with a Latin translation and Notes. ZOILUS, a Greek critic and rhetorician, author of works against Homer, B.C. 283-247. Z< »LA .1.. a Venetian theologian, 1739-1806. ZOLK1EWSKL, Stamulaus, hetman of the Polish armies under Sigismond III., was engaged in many important battles against the Russians, and died gloriously fighting against the Turks, 1547-1620. ZOLL, H., a German jurisconsult, 1643-1725, ZOU ZOLLIKOFER, George Joachim, a Swiss pastor, famous for his amiable character and elo- quence as a preacher, author of ' Devotional Km r- cises' and Sermons, which have been translated into English, 1730-1788. /.( »N ARAS, John, a Greek historian and ascetic writer of the* 12th centhrv. /.( |NBOV, the last favourite of Catharine II. of Russia, He was made commander of the artillery, and realized an immense fortune from his exac- tions. Excited by Paul I., he took part in his assassination ; died 1817. ZONCA, VICTOR, an Italian architect, author of several curious mechanical inventions, of which he has written an account, published 1607. ZOPELLI, J., a' Venetian poet, 1639-1718. ZOPF, J. H., a German historian, 1091-177o\ ZOPPIO, Girolamo, an Italian dramatist, died 1591. His son, Melchior, a dramatic writer and philosopher, 1544-1634. ZOPPO, P., an Italian painter, died 1515. ZOPPO DI LUGANO, the commonly name of J. B. Discepoli, an Italian painter of the Milanese school, 1590-1660. ZORG, Hkxky, whose proper name was Kok.es, a Dutch painter of interiors, 1621-1682. ZORN, J., a German botanist, 1739-1799. ZORN, P., a German philologist, 1682-1746. ZOROASTER, or ZERDUSHT, the founder, or rather, as we believe, the Reformer of the Religion of the Parsees ; born at Urmia, in Azerbijan, about 589 ]•..< ., in the reign of Darius Hrstasp i. wa shall not speak here of the fables concerning Zoroaster, nor seek to follow him during the twenty years he is reported to have spent in medi- tation among the awful solitudes of inaccessible Elbrooz. It is of chief moment to recognize him as the earliest systematic expounder of that solu- tion of the Mystery of Evil, which may be termed Spiritual Dualism. He imagined two mighty spirits in contest — Oionzu and Ahkiman — God aad the I'i.yii.; and in this, as we have said, he most probably reproduces an older mytho- logy of the Parsee race. In Rngliah, we have the doctrine of Zoroaster in the immortal verse of Milton; nor indeed did the Hehn any notion of Dualism, until after their intermix- ture— during times of captivity— with the farther East. Omiu/.d, iraa conceited by Zoroaster, ■vm- bofised by Light. The Sun a visible type of Him ; and Fire t « of hii energy. Fir—wor- ship spread, extensively through India an Asia; but, as usual, it became a sup Schism followed on the death of Zoroaster, who, anymore than other greatest Men, had no true [.l.l'.X. ZORZL, Almsakdbo, in Latin Georgtm, a Venetian theologian, 1717-1779. ZOSUiUS, a Greek historian of the 5th con- temporary with Honorina and Tl theyouiiL- ; - i* ■' history of th . reaching to the year 470, and la &TOOT- irUtianity. It was transl list under the title of 4 The New History i ZOSIM1 S. H7-418. ZOU< II. i ■• / "' CHE, several works in Latin 00 civil, military, .«■ time jurisprudence, was born at Anstcy, m \\ llt- 865 8K zou shire, about 1590, and was admitted a fellow at rd in ltiU9. He whs afterwards a member of parliament, and Admiralty iudge. Died 16G0. ZOUCBU Thomas, born lit Satidal, near Wake- field, in Yorkshire, in 1737, became rector of Wveliffe in that county, and prebendary of Dur- ham. In 1808 he declined the bishopric of Car- lisle on account of his advanced age, and died in 1816. He wrote ' The Crucifixion,' a Seaton prize poem, ' An Inquiry in^ the Prophetic Character of the Romans, ' Illustrations of the Prophecies,' I ' Memoir of Sir Philip Sidney,' and other works. ZRINGI, N., a Hungarian poet, 17th century. ZSCHOKKE, Heinrich, born at Magdeburg in 1771, inherited in childhood a moderate patri- mony, which enabled him during his youth and early manhood to gratify his desire of adventure and of various knowledge. After having been a family tutor, the literary man of a troop of players, and a student in the university of Frankfort-on- the-Oder, he was licensed as a candidate of theology, or preacher, in the Reformed or Calvinistic church, and was within a little of becoming pastor of a con- gregation in his native town. He next returned to Frankfort, and lectured there on various branches of philosophy and theology. Failing, however, to obtain a professorship, he settled, in 1796, at Reichenau in the Grisons, where he established very successfully a boarding-school for boys. The Solitical disturbances, spreading into Switzerland, rove him within two years to seek refuge at Bern. His administrative ability, with his political opin- ions, recommended him to employment under the central government of the Helvetic Republic. In 1802 he settled near Aargau, the chief town of the canton of Aargau ; and there he resided for the remainder of his long life. Attaching himself in politics to that which may be regarded as having been the moderately democratic party, he held in succession several public offices, and distinguished himself by his activity in promoting social reforms, especially such as bore on the education of the poor. He died in the summer of 1848. — Zschokke's published writings, filled, when collected, more than forty volumes. Their kinds were various ; and he was far from being successful in some of these, especially his attempts at poetical and dra- matic composition. His most: ambitious works wen, his ' History of the Bavarian Nation and its Princes,' and his ' History of Switzerland for the Swiss People.' The latter, first published in 1802, be- came exceedingly popular, and is authoritative and excellent, though held not to be impartial. In his interesting ' Autobiography,' written in old age, he declared himself the author of the ' Hours of De- votion ' (Stunden der Andacht), which was origi- nally a Sunday periodical, designed for ordinary families. It became, on being collected, a great favourite throughout protestant Germany; where its shortcoming in orthodoxy was held no serious drawback on its fervour of sentiment, its advocacy of unlimited tolerance, and its zealous inculcation of practical duty. — The best known, however, of Zschokke's works are his Novels, which are very numerous, while some are of considerable length. I successful of them are those which take the form of historical romances : he wanted the rtrength of imagination and the depth of feeling requisite for recreating the past. The best are ZUM those in which he paints reality and familiar li and in these there is a very agreeable mixture broad humour with a light and cheerful Bentimei ality ; while the grotesquencss of charactcrizati is supported by much originality in the invent i of comic incidents. A considerable number these comic tales, as well as several of the serio ones, are avowedly didactic. In some of them t author aims at teaching religious lessons, mu like those of the ' Stunden ;' as in the dissertati story of ' Alamontade,' and the serio-comic no\ of ' Jonathan Frocko.' In others he represent much in the manner of Mrs. Hamilton or Mi Edgeworth, attempts at domestic and social forms among the poor: such are 'The Goldmaker Village,' 'The Millionaire,' and 'The Hole i Elbows.' Several of the best are lively and strih ing embodiments of the weak points in social inst: tutions, especially as these appear under absolut governments. Instances of the kind are these the tale, ' Who Governs ? ' in which a Europea war is traced to the freak of a French chamber maid ; ' Small Causes,' in which the history of tw> individuals is followed through a succession of trifl ing accidents; and 'The Adventures of a Nev Year's Night,' in which a prince and a policeman ex change places, and throw a petty court into confu sion before morning. A good many of Zschokkc'; smaller novels li^ve appeared in English periodicals and one or two of them, as well as his ' Autobio- graphy,' have been translated separately. [W.S.~ ZUALLART, J., a German traveller, and au ; thor of descriptive works, 16th century. ZUAZO, H., a Spanish jurisconsult, died 1527. ZUBER, M., a Latin and Greek poet, 1570-1623, ZUCCARDI, U., an Italian jurist, 1480-1541. ZUCCARELLI, or ZUCCTIERELLI, Fran- cesco, an Italian painter and engraver, taught by Morandi, distinguished for his landscapes, in which he introduced small figures, 1712-1788. ZUCCARO, or ZUCCHERO, Taddeo, a pain- ter, after the Roman school, born at Urbino 1529, died 1566. His younger brother, Fedekigo, I painter and sculptor, prince of the academy ol Saint Luke, famous for his gigantic figures adapted to dome painting, 1542-1609. ZUCCHERELLI. See Zuccarelli. ZUCCHI, B., an Italian writer, 1560-1631. ZUCCHI, Giovanni, an Italian painter, taught by Vasari, died 1590. Francesco, his brother, famous for his mosaic work, died 1620. ZUCCHI, M. A., an improvisator, died 1764. ZUCCHI, N, an Italian Jesuit, 1586-1670. ZUCCOLO, L., an Italian moralist, 16th cent. ZUCCOLO, L., an Italian jurist, 1599-1688. ZUCCONI, J., a Venetian poet, 1721-1754. ZUCKERT, J. F., a Ger. mineralogist, 1737-78. ZUICHEM D'AYTA, Vigilius, a Flemish jurisconsult, and president of the council, 1507-77. ZUINGLIUS. See Zwingli. ZUMALACARREGUY, Thomas, general in chief of the Spanish army, was born in 1789, and became a devoted partizan of Don Carlos, on the death of Ferdinand VII., which took place in 1822. He was the most redoubted opponent of the armies of Christina and Donna Maria, and pos- sessed qualities which gained him the respect even of his enemies. Zumalacarreguy died of wounds received at the siege of Bilboa, 25th June, 1835. 866 ZUM ZUMBO, Gaetano Julio, a famous Sicilian artist ; he learnt, without the assistance of a teacher, the principles of sculpture, and, after hav- ing profoundly studied anatomy, he gained great reputation by his figures in a coloured wax, the preparation of which he kept secret ; 1656-1701. ZUMSTEEG, J. R., a Germ, comp., 1760-1802. ZUMGA, Don Diego Ortiz De, historian of the civil and ecclesiastical affairs of Seville, 17th ct. ZURBARAN, F., a Spanish painter, 1598-1662. ZURITA, J., a Spanish historian, 1512-1581. ZURLA, P., an Italian antiquarian, 1769-1834. ZURLAUBEN, Latour Chatillon Dl ., an ancient Swiss family, which produced many dis- tinguished warriors, from the 12th to the 16th centuries. The best known is Beat Fidele An- toine Jean Dominique, Baron Latour Chatillon de Zurlauben, who became lieutenant-general, and devoted his latter years to literature. His works are a ' Military History of the Swiss in the French Service,' a ' History of the Swiss and their Allies,' a ' Picturesque Tom* in Switzerland,' and various memoirs ; bora at Zug 1720, died 1795. ZURLO, Joseph, Count, a Neapolitan states- man, born 1759, and named finance minister 1798. In this capacity he ventured on reforms which led to his dismissal, but he became minister again under Murat in 1809, and in the fresh circumstances of 1820. On the latter occasion the influence of the Carbonari deprived him of power. Died 1828. ZUSTRIS, L., a Dutch painter, died 1600. ZUZZERI, Bernardo, an Italian Jesuit and missionary in Croatia, 1683-1762. J. Luc, of the same family, a celebrated numismatist, 1716-1746. ZWAXZIGER, J. C, a Hungarian philosopher and opponent of Kant, 1732-1808. ZYYEERS, Jerome, a Dutch poet, 1627-1696. His grandson, Cornelius, a dramatist, died 1774. ZWELFER, J., a German chemist, 1618-1668. /WICKER, Daniel, a theologian of Dantzic, chief of the Tolerants, 1612-1678. ZWIXGER, Theodore, a German physician and philosophical writer, flourished at Basle, 1533- 1588. His son, James, a physician and Hellenist, 1569-1610. Theodore, son of the latter, a theo- logian and superintendent of the churches at Bale, 1597-1654. John, son of Theodore, a theologian and bibliographer, 1634-1696. Theodore, son of John, a physician, anatomist, and botanist, 1658-1724. John BodoLPH, their nephew, a physician and founder of a scientific society, 1692- 1777. Frederic, his brother, a physician and naturalist, 1707-1770. ZWINGLI, or Zl'INGLIUS, Ulrick, the great Swiss reformer, was born at Wildhausen, in the canton of St. Gall, in 1484. His early education was carried on at Basel, and afterwards at Bern*. The Dominican monks, in this place, attracted by his talents and rising reputation, sought to entrap him into their order, but his father, in order to remove him from the scene of temptation, sent him off to Vienna. In 1502, and being eight' of age, the young scholar returned home, and Boon repaired again to Basel and took his master of arts. Under the teaching of Witl who had been acting along with the famous Reu- chlin, his mind received the first MfflM of free inquiry — those seminal truths, which, in his quick and genial mind, soon ripened into harvest. He ZW1 preached his first sermon in 1506, and was chosen pastor of Claris. Here he remained ten years. and during that period he mingled in the strife of arms against the French. The young pastor, at the same time, devoted himself to the study of Greek and Hebrew, gradually made the Scriptures his sole and supreme rule of authority, ami pub- licly expounded the Gospels and the Epistles, In 1516 he had been chosen preacher to the Abbey of Einsidlen, a famed spot of popish pilgrimage and superstition, and the year following he removed to a similar position in the cathedral of Zurich. The effect of his honest preaching of the gospel soon became apparent in the city and country, and his general character and opinions produced a deep and universal sensation. While this state of tran- sition was so marked, the crisis was hastened, in 1518, by the arrival of Samson, the seller of indul- gences. The traffic in these ' Roman wares ' roused the indignation of Zwingli and led to a keen ex- posure and a successful resistance. Luther's writings were, at the same time, largely circulated at the recommendation of the reformer. The plague broke out, and, during its continuance, though weak himself from exhaustion, he assidu- ously tended the sick and dying. His zealous labours grew in number and results, the simpli- city of the gospel was more distinctly apprehended by him ; but the friends of the popedom were en- raged, and Zwingli was tried, in January. l.Vj.".. on a charge of heresy. Rome gained nothing by the trial. Zwingli presented 67 propositions, and de- fended them from Scripture. 1 he reformer gathered courage with growing difficulties, and, in 1534, the council of Zurich remodelled the public worship ac- cording to the views and wishes ot Zwingli. Pictures, statues, and relics were removed from the churches. and mass was abolished. Opposition to the reformed doctrines was meanwhile gathering in tin- other cantons. The question arose, whether each canton was free to choose its own form of religion, or whether the confederation should interfere; Zurich contended for its individual lihertv and indepen- dence, but was opposed by the Wahlstcttes, or the primitive democratic cantons ofSehwvl/. wald, Urzug, and Lucerne. The triumph of the reformation at Berne, and other places, threw those forest cantons into wilder commotion, and, in consonance with their views of their federal polity, they took up arms for Rome. Ziirich, encouraged by Zwingli, called out its troops and put itself into a posture of defence. Effort.-, were made t.» main- tain peace, but it was of no long duration, and after various diplomatic negotiations, hostilities finally commenced. Ziirich bad also lost some- what' of its earlier evangelical purity, while the neighbouring states were conspiring for In the awful emergency, when ths trabhc mind was alarm ed by a series of omens ami ■i.aintained tranquillity. The war began. Ziirich was cowardly, dilatory, and (at from bafflf prep ar ed, but the horn of the enemy m bosd among their hills, and the devoted Zwingli mounted bfi caparisoned horse, took farewell ■ i children, and went lorth as a patriot and to share in the common danger. The / marched to mcel the Waldntettea, hut were de- • Cappd with great slaughter, 11th Oeto- L Zwingli was I lb* hattle, lying 867 ZWI on his buck and his eyes upturned to heaven, with his helmet on his head, and his battle-axe in bis hand. He had been struck near the commence- ment of the engagement, and then as he fell and reeled, b< 1 times pierced with a lance. \ing when discovered in the evening; but the infuriated fanatics soon despatched him. Next dav his dead body was barbarously quartered and burnt. Thus perished this hero-martyr. The contests of Zwingli and Luther on the nature of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper are well known, but the Swiss proved himself freer from early prejudice and traditional teaching than his great German antagonist. It is needless to discuss the relative merits of the two illustrious reformers, their position and sphere of influence being so very different. The fame of Luther has overtopped that of Zwingli, yet the Swiss divine had perhaps more ZYR caution and sagacity, and certainly more learning and refinement than the Saxon. He was also earlier alive to the errors of Rome, and though be died a young man, yet in his narrower circle of action he carried out the reformation farther than Luther did. The works of Zwingli were published in four folios, Tiguri, 1581 ; and in eight octavos, edited by Schuler and Schultess, Zurich, 1828- 1842. [J.E.] ZYTH, A. Van, a Dutch theologian, 17th cent. ZYLL, Otho Van, in Latin Zylius, a Dutch poet and professor of rhetoric, 1588-1656. ZYPE, Francis Van Den, in Latin Zypceus, professor of anatomy at the university of Louvain, author of a work published 1683. ZYRLIN, or ZIERLIN, G., a Swiss pastor and Latin poet., 1592-1661. An explication of the pro- phet Abdias, written in German, is ascribed to him. GLASGOW. PRINTED BY BELL AMD BAIX, ST. ENOCH SQUARE.