Ruins of Ancient Dionysius Theatre Near Athens. Modern Theatre Construction by Edward Bernard Kinsila M Architect and Theatre Specialist Large Type Edition Forty-one Pages of Illustration and Copious Marginal Reference Notes Copyright in the United States, 1917 Copyright in Great Britain, 1917 Copyright in Canada, 1917 by Chalmers Publishing Company New York All Rights Reserved AC r\b PREFACE IN the preparation of this volume on "Modern Theatre Construction'' no claim is made that this is a wholly original work. The book is more a compilation of the best obtainable data on the subject, interspersed with original ideas. Nor has any attempt been made to produce a tech- nical treatise on the subject. This is rather a hand-book of practical suggestions intended primarily for the general reader, which may serve as a guide and reference for prospec- tive owners, managers, architects or builders in search of re- liable information on this type of structure. The collection of the necessary matter for proper presen- tation has entailed a considerable amount of painstaking labor, and the author has often found it desirable to adopt the matured thought and in some instances even the very expression of thought of competent writers. To these authorities grateful and appreciative thanks are extended. The absence of any serious or exhaustive published treat- ment of this important topic within the past quarter of a century, coupled with the present general tendency toward architectural uplift throughout this country, which aims at a simpler and truer form of art, renders the occasion opportune for the publication of such a volume as this. In illustrating or citing the work of other architects the writer disclaims any malicious intention in pointing out faulty features. He simply offers them as examples of defective construction to be avoided. Edward Bernard Kinsila. April, 191 7. PUBLISHERS' NOTE THE publishers are pleased to announce that they have concluded arrangements with the author for a con- tinuation of his interesting articles on theatre construc- tion, more especially motion picture theatre building, in the Moving Picture World. Mr. Kinsila will have charge of the Theatre Construction Department, and will gladly answer in its columns any inquiry addressed to him pertaining to this publication or the subject of theatre construction. < >> m ( 1 c i g c o S 1 2 z Q 1 ^ o j* 1 PU 1 VUl CHAPTER I A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEATRE SINCE the inception of theatres their mode of construction has undergone a gradual formative evolution, invariably influenced by the everchanging uses for which these edi- fices have been intended. The history of the theatre dates from time immemorial. *The early Greek theatre evidently had no prototype. It was enormous in size and exposed to the open air, with no roof covering of any kind. *Chinese tradition claims the establishment of the Oriental theatre centuries before the Greeks came into being, yet it is unlikely that the latter race knew of its existence, and much less likely that they copied its form. The Chinese, like the Greeks, have ever been disciples of true art, and it is not impossible that in these days of convenient inter- national intercourse many of the claimed innovations in advanced dra- matic art may have had their inception in this remarkable country, where' an older civilization has better borne the realization of true art. For centuries Chinese plays have been founded on noble legends, written in poetic language, and produced with the most artistic touches of suggestion, rather than mechanical realism. They portray the char- acters in the play by their dress and masks, as did the early Romans. Scenery and stage "properties" are generally regarded as accessories, although the author recalls seeing in China in 1890 essential exterior scenes represented by numerous folding screens, an idea afterward employed as an innovation by Gordon Craig. The writer also saw the stage of a Chinese theatre .flooded with actors pouring through the auditorium aisles and across temporary bridges from the balcony, a highly effective feature supposed to have been originated by Max Reinhardt, and at another Chinese theatre was witnessed the revolving stage patented in Germany years later by Herr Lautenschlager. The elaborate and costly costumes, too, of the Chinese players are very remindful of the brilliant coloring of the celebrated Russian Leon Bakst. 10 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Religious Character of Early Performances. In its first form the Greek theatre consisted of a circular dancing-place or "orchestra' ' marked out by a narrow margin of flat stones. This space was reserved for the use of those partici- pating in the exhibitions. The earliest perform- ances were developed from the songs and dances dedicated to Dionysius, the god of wine and vegetation, and were intensely religious in their character. They were presented during an- nual feasts lasting several days, and the whole city kept holiday. All business was abandoned, and even prisoners were liberated to participate in the universal merriment. Every day, from morn- ing until evening, was devoted without intermis- sion to the rendering of these plays, which con- sisted of dialogues between the "coryphaeus," or leader of the chorus, and the other bacchanalians, the "coryphaeus" declaiming his lines from a sacrificial platform. At first this- platform was located in the center of the orchestra, alongside the altar. Later, after its removal, it became the Greek stage. These sacred exhibitions were in- variably preceded by some divine sacrifice, usually that of a "trayos" or goat. The religious signifi- cance of these plays, however, gradually dimin- ished. The performances became more frequent, and the plays themselves came to be written more and more from a purely human point of view, and to the present day this motive remains the essential element of the drama. Thespis was the first to introduce professional A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEATRE 11 actors in place of the "coryphaeus." and to this Jj^tTcton 6 day actors are called "thespians." In the time of Thespis, the sacrificial table upon which he took his stand, surrounded by the choristers, was re- moved to a place immediately in front of the dressing booth erected just outside the orchestra, in which the actors changed their dress and masks. As the exigencies of the performances demanded, changes were made in the formation of the orchestra and stage building; the stage platform was widened and a proscenium built, with a series of dressing booths behind it. The loss of one-third of the original orchestra space to make room for the establishment of the sacrificial table had necessitated placing the fes- tival grounds at the foot of a hillside. Here the audience, seated one above the other like flights of steps in the space surrounding the orchestra, could have an unobstructed view of the perform- ance. These wooden seats or ' rather benches were arranged in a semi-circle with the two ends prolonged. Their fatal collapse later led to their being replaced by stone seats with solid founda- tions, a fact which suggests that even at that remote period the safety of the public was an essential element in the construction of theatres. Apparently the first stone theatre was the an- cient theatre at Athens, illustrated at the begin- ning of this chapter. It is today one of the most interesting ruins in the world. This edifice was probably erected near the middle of the fourth The First Stone Theatre. 12 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION century, and undoubtedly occupied the identical site of the old wooden structure that preceded it. In many ways it embodied in more permanent form the main characteristics of that historic building, in which the plays of Aeschylus, Soph- ocles and Euripides had been declaimed. An^piayl The vast importance of the religious plays en- acted in these ancient Greek theatres is indicated by the enormous expenditure of state money re-* quired for their production. These sums were raised by obligatory duties levied upon . the wealthy, like the income tax of the present day. Plutarch tells us that the expense of presenting a single play of Sophocles at Athens involved an extravagant sum equivalent to half a million dol- lars in American currency. THE ROMAN THEATRE. Centuries later, in the Roman era, the theatre came to be inclosed within boundary walls, but still without a roof. It had changed its form, and was now built more ornately and upon level ground. The exhibitions had become more sec- ular, the altar had been removed, and all per- formances, whether choral, musical or dramatic, were transferred from the orchestra to the stage. The orchestra, considerably reduced in size, was given up to seats for the spectators. The first recorded stone theatre in Rome was built by Pom- pey in 55 B. C. It consisted of three floors sepa- rated by ample corridors, and each corridor was A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEATRE 13 approached by broad staircases that enabled pa- trons to reach their respective places. Although the Roman theatre was quite open at the top, a canvas sheet was later stretched across the audi- torium, worked by means of pulley cords, to pro- tect the auditors from the heat of the sun. In the first century of the Christian era the Sfj&SSt* Roman theatre developed mime plays, a species of Theatres * true pantomime that was secular in its character. These unspoken plays and the gladiatorial games of that day were rivals for the public favor, ami the Church was not slow in denouncing this so- called prostitution of the religious stage. From that time began the decadence of the ancient thea- tre, and it lay dormant until its revival in the mediaeval period, centuries later. Just as the ancient theatre, originally designed for joyous display through the religious enthus- iasm of a devout people, and later assuming a more secular aspect that necessitated correspond- ing changes in architecture, so, too, has the thea- tre of a later civilization continued to advance with like physical changes to accommodate its new uses. It is not necessary to trace the history of the theatre through its various vicissitudes to the period of the housed-in theatre of mediaeval Europe, and thence onward, to demonstrate that the seating arrangement of an almost prehistoric generation dictated the ultimate conformation of the classic hemicycle now in use. 14 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION THEATRES OF MIDDLE AGES. The early days of mediaeval Europe witnessed the introduction of liturgical drama and miracle plays, founded on events chronicled in the New and Old Testaments. In England, as in France, the church became the cradle of the drama. Then followed mimed mystery plays that later devel- oped into secular pantomime. Following the ex- amples set by the early Romans, these religious pantomimes degenerated into licentious spectacles, and historical comedies and classic drama were introduced to offset them. R A a J T ^? t /i es Following the days of the ancient theatre and of the Middle & J Ages. U p f- t^ beginning of the seventeenth century all plays had been enacted by the elite of society in public halls or colleges. In that period real housed-in theatres as we now know them made their appearance in France. The most noted one of these was the Hotel de Bourgogne, a vast, low- ceilinged edifice that accommodated about two thousand persons. The stage of this theatre was of extraordinary depth, and it was divided in the middle by draperies when the scenes did not re- quire its full depth. Rows of candles, that re- quired constant snuffing, were placed along the front of the stage to aid in its illumination. Above the stage itself was suspended a chande- lier with four branches, each containing a long yellow candle. There were in the auditorium two superposed rows of boxes, each box fitted with wooden benches to hold some dozen spec- A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEATRE IS tators plunged in semi-obscurity. The pit, in which the audience stood or moved about at will, was no better lighted than the boxes. About the time that the Hotel de Bourgogne The Dawn of Good Drama and other real theatres were created in France in England, there appeared as an actor and playwright on the English stage that marvel of genius William Shakespeare, who later became the manager of the famous Globe theatre in London. The Globe theatre was merely a summer theatre, open for three or four months in the year. Judging from the vivid descriptions of the theatres of that peri- od the manners of theatregoers were extremely unconventional. Although an active interest in the drama pervaded all classes, respectable young girls were not allowed to attend the theatre in those days, the audience in the better parts of the house being mainly composed of the gay set. The women in the boxes wore velvet masks to hide their faces and smoked pipes during the perform- ance. The few seats in the theatre were stools, and people of quality brought their own stools. There stood in the Globe theatre of which Shake- speare was manager an immense stoup of English ale, from which every man could quench his thirst at will. The establishment of permanent theatres in Early English 1 Theatres. England dates from the latter part of the six- teenth century. This period marked the beginning of the Elizabethan drama. Female characters of the matronly type of Lady Macbeth were imper- 16 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Troubles of the Early European Theatres. sonated by men, and for the more delicate, maid- enly parts, such as Juliet and Imogen, recourse was had to the services of young men, who were remunerated in proportion to their beauty and dis- tinction. The first of these permanent theatres were erected in the fields outside of London, but under the jurisdiction of the Lord Mayor and City Council. Among these were "The Theatre," "The Curtain" and "The Blackfriars Theatre." They were inclosed within side walls, with the center space open to the air, while against the side and rear walls were arranged tiers of benches as in the ancient theatres. The stage was raised about four feet from the floor, and was separated from the pit by a balustrade. A big open room above the. stage was used by the actors to dress in, and a square roof protected this and the stage from the rain. Another narrow, circular roof covered the tiers of seats against the walls. A writer of that period says, in describing these theatres, that "seen from a distance they looked like enormous towers, outtopping the trees and houses that sur- rounded them." During the seventeenth century the theatre ex- perienced troublesome times in France through political intrigue. The celebrated Comedie Fran- chise and the equally famed Palais Royal were several times established and suppressed as na- tional theatres during that period. In the year 1660 there were but three great public theatres in A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEATRE 17 all Paris : the Hotel de Bourgogne, the Theatre du Marias and the Palais Royal, although theatres were held in high popular favor. In England, too, the same experience befell the theatre because of civil wars. During this period actresses for the first time were accepted with favor upon the Eng- lish stage. Painted scenery was introduced and oil lamps were substituted for candles. Up to that time scenery and "properties" had not been em- ployed on the stage, such accessories being de- scribed in the lines of the play, and uttered by the stage declaimer. THEATRES OF MODERN TIMES. The early theatres of a later period catered wholly to the cultured classes without regard to the masses. These were Court theatres, main- tained at the expense of the various sovereigns, and National and Municipal theatres, supported by the different governments. There were also subscription theatres whose cost was defrayed by private subscription instead of from the public purse. Naturally the sole aim of all such theatres was the advancement of art and education. Coming 1 to the private theatre, we observe the The Modem L ' Theatre a same tendency toward advancement in architec- Commercial J Undertaking. tural conformation. The private theatre of Con- tinental Europe is sometimes aided by subsidy, but whether so aided or built entirely from pri- vate funds, it is always designed with a manifest interest in art and architecture, while in English- 18 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Different Types of Private Theatres. speaking countries the theatre is regarded solely as a moneymaking institution. In these countries it. is built by a speculator, an investor or an am- bitious actor, who, for profit only, caters to the pleasure of sensation seekers usually devoid of any appreciation of architecture or art. There is no effort to emulate the worthy example set by the ancient Greeks, who were conservative in their art and strictly opposed to realism. Included in the general class of private thea- tres there are several distinct forms, each built on lines intended to serve best its peculiar use. These embrace the music hall or variety theatre, and the hippodrome or coliseum. The former is so like a regulation theatre, except, perhaps, for the addition of a restaurant or drinking pavilion, that it does not require special mention, and so few hippodromes are now built in this country that lengthy descriptions of them, as hippo- dromes, would unduly encumber these pages. However, as large central theatres devoted to the presentation of motion pictures on a grand scale they will receive due attention. The pioneer of the private theatre in Europe was the People's Theatre in Worms, Germany, founded when the city contained less than 25,000 inhabitants. It exists today and is a remarkable institution, comprising assembly rooms, a restau- rant and a winter garden. A diagrammed plan of this theatre is shown among the illustrations of the "Evolution of Theatres" (Pages 7 and 8). A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEATRE 19 The destruction by fire of the Ring Theatre, }**** in Vienna, on December 8, 1881, with the ap- palling loss of eight hundred lives, aroused all Europe to the necessity of devising a model safety plan for theatres, and many enterprising, archi- tects offered models that have had a lasting in- fluence upon theatre construction. Alfred Derby- shire, an English architect, designed a new model that was adopted by Henry Irving (later Sir Henry Irving) for the Lyceum Theatre, London, and which still stands, slightly altered, as a model of capacity and safety. Franz Roth of Vienna suggested another form, which was carried out in the Raimund Theatre of Vienna. Another and more unusual design was proposed in Germany, and afterward adopted for the erection of the famous Wagner Opera House at Bayreuth. At the present writing there appears to be a decided tendency toward a more general adoption of this form in European advanced theatres. AMERICAN THEATRES. There is very little recorded history of either the American drama or theatre before the Revo- lutionary period. "Androboros," written by Governor Hunter in 1714, is the single notable exception. Certain it is that the sentiment of those rebellious times exercised a potent influence on the development of both theatre and drama. In the few years preceding the Revolution thea- tres sprang up rapidly in New York, Philadel- H E 20 Raimund Theatre, Vienna Wagner Opera House, Bayreuth, Germany Model Safety Plans for Theatres 21 22 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Theatre Troubles in Revolutionary Times. First Real American Drama. phia, Annapolis and Newport, in open defiance of the religious opposition directed against the so- termed "profane stage plays" of that day. During the tumultuous days . preceding the Declaration of Independence, Lewis Hallam's English players, who had been presenting Shake- speare's plays with great success for the first time in this country, were forced to migrate to the British West Indies, not to return for many years. One or two theatres were torn down by enraged republicans, and other playhouses were seized by the British, who formed companies of players from among their soldiers and officers. Major Andre, besides being an actor in these companies, painted scenes for New York and Philadelphia theatres, never dreaming that they would be used later in Manager Dunlap's great production of "Andre," as scene drops to depict the place where Andre himself had been cap- tured as an English spy. The drama of that period dealt largely with the subject of the Revolution, pro and con. Will- iam Dunlap was the famous American producer of those days, and his influence extended well into the nineteenth century. The first real Amer- ican play was "The Contrast," a comedy con- ceived in 1787, based on the now well-worn com- parison between the native-bred American and the American who has become an Anglomaniac. An innumerable, number of Indian plays, glorifying the savage, also held the stage thereafter for A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEATRE 23 many years, partly as a result of Edwin Forrest's realistic interpretation of the Indian in John Augustus Stone's "Metamora." After this peri- od many tendencies were at work in our drama. With the coming of the Civil War, however, play acting again waned, and many theatres were closed. When the war was under way the theatre business again started and went through a period of extravagant farces, or burlesques, whose crudeness and indecency reflected the moral de- moralization then rampant. After the war was ended a reactionary element arose against this abuse, and a second creative period was instituted under the superior management of the eminent Augustin Daly. The greatest individual strides in American j. b. McElfatrick, 1 rr 1 1 -the Father of theatre construction have been effected through American Theatres. the personal endeavors of a single architect, Mr. J. B. McElfatrick, of New York City, who should be revered as the Father of American theatres. Thirty years ago theatres in this country were de- signed and constructed along the sames lines as their English prototypes. They had the same sub- division of the seating on the main floor: the American distinction between the parquet and parquet circles corresponding to the English sepa- ration into stalls and pit. They had the same lyre-shaped balcony, the same stage projection or apron, and the same extravagant and distracting ornamentation. Mr. McElfatrick, who had never visited Europe, changed all of this, and to him 24 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION A Great Impetus in Theatre Building was intrusted the designing of most of the new American theatres of his day. He perfected the sight lines, arranged the seating to be continuous from front to back on the main floor, and made the balconies flatter and deeper. The useless pro- jecting apron of the stage also disappeared in his design. Since the death of this genial old gentle- man theatre designing has not substantially ad- vanced in this country, except perhaps for a marked tendency toward simpler decoration. Theatres have multiplied in number, but they are all more or less replicas of the McElfatrick model. Before the advent of Mr. McElfatrick there w r ere fewer than ten theatres in the City of New York, and in other large cities throughout the country they numbered scarcely one to every 60,- 000 inhabitants. There is today no spot in the world that can boast of so many so-called "first class" theatres in so small an area as that narrow belt in New York City that is termed "Broad- way," and still the supply is inadequate to the demand. At the present writing there are more new plays clamoring for admittance and a hearing in New York than ever before in local histrionic history. The greatest impetus to theatre building throughout this country has come within a com- paratively recent period. Today the proportion in many cities runs as high as one theatre to every 10,000 persons. Theatres with large auditoriums and great seating capacity were in uni- versal demand a few years ago ; now smaller and A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEATRE 25 more intimate theatres are desired. Houses of great capacity are now being erected solely for popular priced variety theatres or picture houses This change from the large to the small thea- tre is no doubt due in a measure to the influence of the stage reform movement and the uniform success of comedies, farces and light dramas in small intimate theatres, as compared with the failure of similar plays in larger houses. This result has not failed to impress the mercenary theatrical manager. Aside from its seating facilities, the American Superiority of . the American auditorium in its form and construction is supe- Auditorium, rior to that of European countries, not ex- cepting England, where the accommodations for comfortable seating are excellent. European theatres, including those of England, often seat from eight hundred to a thousand persons on the main floor in unbroken rows of thirty seats without dividing aisles. This is an incon- venience in time of danger that would not be tol- erated by any building laws in this country. The seating superiority claimed for the English thea- tre lies entirely in its provision of space between the rows of chairs that permits patrons to reach in- terior seats without causing anyone to arise. The corrections now necessary to make the American auditorium superior to the auditorium of all other countries is an increase of only four inches in the dividing space between the rows of chairs and the substitution of comfortable low-backed chairs 26 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION for the high-backed variety now in general use, which induces a slouchy and dangerous posture. Sitting with the pressure of one's whole weight on the same bone at the base of the spine inter- rupts the blood circulation of the lower extremi- ties, and often produces fatal results. In addi- tion to these needed, changes in seating, the audi- ence hall would present a more cosy appearance if surrounded at the rear and rear sides with a foyer behind inclosed boxes. This arrangement would limit the area to be supplied with sound and would also improve the promenade facilities between the acts. of a Thea^r e rm ^e most re cent development in theatre evolu- tion is evidenced in the motion picture houses, of which there are now over 20,000 in the United States, representing an investment of nearly $500.- 000,000. Their productions appeal to the visual sense, and the success of this silent drama has been so remarkable that it has exercised a potent influence over the construction of regulation thea- tres. One of these influences is the elimination of the top gallery, originally designed for the patron- age of the poor. The merit and cheapness of moving picture entertainments have brought un- precedented success to its theatres and an average daily attendance of over ten million patrons, one in every ten persons in the total population of this country. 27 28 CHAPTER II CONTROLLING ELEMENTS IT has been demonstrated in the preceding chapter that certain elements have governed the theatre in the evolution of its conforma- tion. Many of the same elements that control it as an institution also exercise a subtle influence upon its physical construction. Baron de Meyer, a foreign critic of note, recently wrote in an article published in a leading American magazine that the people in this country who are respons- ible for the artistic development of the drama are for the most part entirely incompetent. He said that their productions lack the keynotes of mod- ern stagecraft: simplicity, suggestion and atmos- phere. Even where large productions have been im- inappropriate 43 x European ported from Europe, improper selections have spectacles been made. They have all seemed to the Baron imported, like glorified editions he thought impressive in his childhood days. "Sum'urun" is the one pro- duction of that master of stagecraft, Max Rein- hardt, that has been imported into this country, and although it has met with wonderful success here, no effort has been made .to introduce the more artistic and successful works of this con- summate artist, such as "The Miracle/' "Oedipus Rex," or any of his wonderful productions of the immortal Shakespeare. 29 30 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION The efforts of theatrical managers, in the Baron's opinion, have been falsely centered on the box-office. He did not deny that we have su- perior artists in America, such as Robert Jones and Joseph Urban, both capable men, whose tal- ents are not sufficiently employed in regular theatrical enterprises, and when so engaged are usually restricted under specific directions. Even Leon Bakst was commissioned to execute the stage settings of a portion of a production at the New York Hippodrome, without any visual knowledge of the immense stage proportions of that edifice, and the production, in consequence, fell far short of the usually marvelous artistic merits of this superior craftsman. P^sLargeiy Heywood Broun, the scholarly critic of the New York Tribune, upon being solicited for ad- vice by a reader of his newspaper on the follow- ing question: To which theatre could he safely take a select theatre party composed of about fifty respectable persons, where they could wit- ness an interesting play devoid of salacious lines or sex problems, and one that would not bring a blush to the face of any father or mother in the party? was forced to reply in the columns of his paper that out of over forty plays then showing in New York, only five would answer the pur- pose, and he was able to recommend only one of these for anything like superior merit. When one scans the names and traces the an- tecedents and history of those responsible for the CONTROLLING ELEMENTS 31 Bad Influence of the "Star System." kind of intellectual fodder that is supplied to thea tre patrons one is not greatly surprised that thea tre patronage has degenerated to its present standard. All manner of catch-penny devices have been employed to gather the glittering dol- lars, the chief among which has been the "star system," which is now apparently sinking into oblivion. False commercialism once dictated the employment of a star or stars in preference to the maintenance of a well balanced caste. Fine speeches and telling lines, important for lesser members of the company, have been appropriated by the star to the great detriment of the play, and more importance has been placed by the manage- ment on featuring the stellar attraction than upon the merits of the play itself. Unthinking com- petition and diligent press exploitation of stars have increased their salary demand beyond any managerial idea of profit, and a revulsion of feel- ing has now resulted. All of this might have been averted had less attention been accorded to the star and more to the playwright, for, after all, it is the play that really counts. At the present writing more thought is be- i^ t h\ P Punch. stowed upon the play .in this country than previ- ously, though it is not yet given the consideration it- deserves. There, is too little atmosphere and not enough suggestion. The spoken word is mere- ly an accessory of the drama, and not its heart. American plays are amateurish and suffer from a surfeit of strength. There is a Broadway term 32 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION in common use that exactly Expresses this qual- ity, "the play with a punch." The play with "the punch" is written solely for that "punch," and is a sensational dramatization of the violent mo- ments of life, dealing with surface aspects, rather than with underlying causes. Only an American audience with keen imagination would patiently endure the illogical and dull moments between and leading up to the thrills of that so-called "punch." SSSEtAit Stagecraft is a separate art in itself, that aims to inclose the drama in a f ramelike structure. The first principle of dramatic art is its primary de- pendence upon action, and the setting should be an unobtrusive background designed to concen- trate attention on that action, not to detract from . it. A certain American arch-apostle of stage realism has gone so far in his false naturalism as to make it a common practice to reveal in all his productions a completely furnished second- room beyond the scene of action, or perhaps to introduce with distractive accuracy of detail, through some opening, a perspective background. Nothing is left to the imagination, and every ef- fort, often in extremely bad taste, is made to dis- ] turb the continuity of interest in the play. Now ll Ne?ded ia Intense dramas with subtle beginnings, dra-j matically built up to an emotional climax, arel needed to win the return of intelligent audiences to the theatre. There has been too much resort J to cheap sensational methods ; too much desire! CONTROLLING ELEMENTS 33 to attain results by inappropriate comic relief and melodramatic turns; and not enough force that is strong, direct and well blended with subtlety. 'Too much credit has also been given to technical stagecraft in the production of these plays, and not enough to the merits of the play itself. Mis- taken attention to detail that fails in its true pur- j pose and diverts attention from the play has been too widely heralded as the highest form of dra- matic art. The American manager is too intent on imme- Mercenary diate profits and too much afflicted with blind Managen commercialism. He knows too well the tricks of the trade and has little or no conception of the art of the stage. As at present constituted, he is either incapable or persistently unwilling to per- severe in any endeavor to improve the public taste, and in consequence the more intelligent element of the community has been alienated from the theatre. Occasionaly, when some European suc- cess is imported into this country in its entirety and played at a suitable theatre, one observes a class of audience quite unfamiliar in the ordinary theatre. Edwin Bjorkman, the eminent Norwe- gian critic, has truthfully stated that the Ameri- can theatre was organized as a vast gambling business, and he opined that the professional gam- bler was the last man in the world to take a gen- uine risk. This statement, in a measure, accounts for the American managerial disposition to copy 34 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION European Tendency Toward Dramatic Art. German Theatre Specialists. things that have already succeeded rather than to undertake anything new. On the Continent of Europe there is a fast- growing inclination toward high art in every branch of play production. This tendency also highly influences the character of theatre decora- tion and construction, and the most advanced de- velopment in this direction is in German-speak- ing countries. The immense popularity of the playhouse, the dominant spirit of thoroughness, and the popular interest manifested in the drama have done much to give the German theatre a prominent position in social life. There the de- sire for playgoing, encouraged by the general op- portunity to subscribe for a series of perform- ances at reduced rates, have rendered the middle classes as competent critics of the drama as the more highly educated members of the community. In English-speaking countries, especially America, little material progress has been made by the thea- tre. Gordon Craig, an eminent English producer of the advanced school, says in his book "Toward a New Theatre," that "These countries are now building theatres sixty or seventy years behind the times," an indictment that, to a great extent, is true. Professor Max Littmann, a famous German architect, has done much to revolutionize ideas in theatre construction, and years before him came another German specialist, Gottfried Sempner, the originator of the radial system of planning, now CONTROLLING ELEMENTS 35 generally adopted throughout the world. To his memory belongs the credit for the formation of the recent school of theatre architecture. The Art Theatre of Munich and the Royal Theatre at Stuttgart, comparatively a small provincial town, are the product of Professor Littmann, and both present models of artistic utility. The advanced idea of the drama has led to the erection of many small theatres in Germany, modeled after the Art Theatre of Munich. The seating in these small theatres is confined to a single floor. They lack both orchestra wells and footlights, and have adjustable proscenium open- ings that expand or contract to meet the require- ments of the play. They are equipped with every modern device known to the theatre, and many of these innovations could easily be incorporated in newly built theatres in America, and several of the important ones by slight alteration in older theatres. The artistic design of these miniature structures is distinctively simple and is not more definitely expressed in the design of the larger and more pretentious advanced theatres. To the Amer- ican eye their interiors resemble public halls rather than theatres. This new spirit of experiment has to a great s c h hooL CW extent invaded Russia, France and England. Leon Bakst, the Russian painter and famous stage designer, and Constantin Stanislavsky, stage director of the Art Theatre, Moscow, Russia, are propagating the cause in that far distant land, 36 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION while Maeterlinck and Brieux are guiding its destinies in Belgium and France. In England the reform interest is made more manifest in ad- vanced playwriting, and to a lesser degree in logi- cal stage production. Closely following the ex- amples set by the Scandinavian trio, Ibsen, Strindberg and Bjornson; and the German dram- atists Hauptmann and Sudermann, contempo- raneous writers of the solid worth and brilliancy of George Bernard Shaw, John Galsworthy and J. M. Barrie are deeply concerned in presenting intense and sterling drama for the English-speak- ing stage, with the superior assistance of Gordon Craig and Granville Barker as artist stage pro- ducers. Many of the more successful plays of these writers have not yet been introduced in America. xncuhLton*' This idea of change has, in a lesser degree, af- fected America. What has been an achievement in Europe is only a substantial promise in Amer- ica. The emancipation of the superior class theatre from incompetent hands is already indi- cated ; the handwriting is upon the wall. It is to the amateur theatre or college that one now looks for experimental development and progress. These "dramatic incubators" are often situated in towns remote from theatrical centers; in towns like Madison, Lake Forest, Cambridge, Carmel, Wellesley and a dozen other similar places that are not indicated on the showman's map. In Incubators.' CONTROLLING ELEMENTS 37 most advanced American colleges dramatic art has been added to the curriculum. The Greek open-air theatre at Berkeley, Cali- fornia (see illustration preceding this chapter), is an excellent example of the type of theatre just referred to, in which experiment for the uplift of the drama is being carried on. In other centers of learning and culture similar efforts are being made by those interested in art for art's sake, and permanent homes for advanced dramatic art have been freely established, with more to follow. IXFLUEXCE OF OPEN-AIR THEATRES. The open-air theatre is one of the most prom- Beneficial ising influences in the dramatic world today. It Th?a P tre*s Air is a truly democratic institution that brings to- gether great numbers of people interested in the high motives of art and cements their friend- ship by a common artistic purpose. Because of the rank commercialization of the regular thea- tre the outdoor drama has proved a strong social factor in many communities. A word here as to the erection of such a theatre may not be amiss. In constructing an open-air theatre it should, if possible, face the east, and its plan should be symmetrical, with spacious approaches from the foreground through circular colonnades and de- scent to the auditorium by broad flights of steps that lead to each terrace. These auditorium ter- races should be bounded by balustrades, with ap- 38 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION propriate sculptured figures at intervals, and the orchestra plane should be semi-circular and capa- ble of being divested of seats when the occasion requires. The stage should have a straight front with a proscenium formed by pylons, surmounted on each side by iarge groups of sculpture. The rear of the stage should be formed by a colonnaded screen, through which vistas of trees and water may be seen by the audience. In the embellish- ment of the open-air stage there is little that the stage decorator can add to nature's background of trees and shrubs. The keynote for outdoor stage setting must be simplicity, and everything introduced into the setting should be massive in its character. Out-door productions, too, should be of a certain largeness and characterized either by classic dignity and severity or by idyllic loveli- ness and charm. As a rule pageantlike plays that delight the eye by rhythmic movement and color are the most successful in the open. The Liuie^ > u t it is not in the open-air theatre that the best work is being done. The most important innovations have been made in the little theatres created by amateurs throughout the country for the presentation of advanced plays. Many of these little playhouses, modeled after the Art Theatre of Munich and other little theatres in Ger- many, have been erected by American disciples of this new movement. These small theatres started in America with Maurice Browne's Little Thea- Art Theatres. CONTROLLING ELEMENTS 39 tre in Chicago, which seats only eighty-nine per- sons when crowded, and the Toy Theatre of Bos- ton. Maurice Browne at Chicago and Livingston Piatt, the stage director of the Toy Theatre, have always worked as artists and never as realists in the production of their plays. Mr. Piatt is a Har- vard disciple of the famous English stage pro- ducer, Gordon Craig. A more ambitious step toward advanced theatre construction has been made by Winthrop Ames, a Boston millionaire, in the erection of the Little Theatre in New York (pictured elsewhere in this volume). A host of small theatres in New York have followed this latter venture, each housing a superior company of players vitally interested in advanced dramatic art, who wholly produce their plays without recourse to the customary theatrical sources. The Punch and Judy Theatre, The Band Box Theatre, The Neighborhood Playhouse, The Nine o'clock Theatre and Bramhall's Playhouse are numbered among these and all have enjoyed marked success during their initial season at ad-, vanced prices, and in consequence more of these tiny theatres are being built. In Philadelphia there is also a Little Theatre, and elsewhere this type of artistic theatre is springing up with en- couraging rapidity. Enthusiastic reformers of the drama profess civic r ^ Theatres. to believe that in the success of these miniature theatres they see the promise of a great future for similar small houses throughout America. 40 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION They believe their advent means the realization of the much discussed "Civic Theatre." There is hardly a village hall throughout the country that with a few ingeniously contrived alterations, in- cluding a well-devised and colored proscenium arch, might not be employed to present effectively these advanced dramatic productions. The proper presentation of many advanced plays calls for shallow stages and ingeniously angled lighting, which causes the actors to stand out like figures on a bas-relief panel. All of these effects and many others would be easy to accomplish in such playhouses. sfettin r gs. Stage The stage settings could also be simplified to artistic advantage. Neutral-colored draperies or folding screens could be employed for back- grounds, and while the entire elimination of "flats" might be impossible there need be no per- spective lines painted on the "flats" used. All such lines should be substantial and stand out in plastic relief, so that the audience could perceive the same effect from any angle. The "proper- ties" employed upon the stage should also be real. Such scenery and "properties" need not be more difficult to transport than the present kind, and there is no good reason why the expressed hope of these ardent reformers should not be fully realized. Already Charles Edison, a son of the noted inventor, Thomas A. Edison, has equipped the double parlors of a brownstone residence at No. 10 Fifth Avenue, New York Necessary. CONTROLLING ELEMENTS 41 City, as a tiny theatre, which he calls "The Little Thimble Theatre/' In this small playhouse, seat- ing less than one hundred persons, modern plays of merit are successfully produced by Guido Bruno, an amateur stage director of the artistic type- Strangely enough, America has also neglected cwidVen f r one of the most important and fruitful uses of the theatre, namely, the amusement and educa- tion of children. There are no Marionette thea- tres here such as thrive all over Europe, nor have we regular theatres devoted to the presentation of children's plays like "Cinderella," "The Sleep- ing Beauty," "The Fairy Queen," or "The Pied Piper of Hamelin," and a host of similar plays to instill in the young a love for the beautiful and an active appreciation of all that is wholesome and pure. Performances of this kind would as- sure a future reflection of those ideals when the children have attained maturity. What America needs is a true sense of art to glorify its ideals. If Americans looked more to advanced ideals of art and less to the commercial element all would be materially benefited and in the end even monetary interest would be consider- ablv advanced. 42 CHAPTER III SITE SELECTION THE first and one of the most important essentials in the erection of a theatre is the selection of its site, which must be large enough to encompass the proposed scheme in its entirety. For architectural and other reasons an isolated site is preferable, and the more exposed the site the more imposing may be the finished structure. A corner site with attractive facades on two streets is next in desirability. Sentimental reasons are often greater than isolation of & Site Not structural reasons for the selection of a theatre Essential, site, yet structural restrictions to a location are neither so great nor so frequent as it is generally supposed. It is possible to construct a playhouse with proper regard to correct planning and the safety of the audience, where the site is only par- tially isolated or -even almost inclosed. The party wall without openings at the rear of the stage, for instance, very slightly adds to the risk from fire or panic, although close proximity to adjoining property might materially affect the architectural appearance of a theatre. In fact, there would be no serious objection to both the front and rear division walls of a theatre being party walls, pro- vided the side walls were left free for exits. So far as the convenience and safety of the audience are concerned such an arrangement, with a lobby 43 44 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Location for a Large Central Theatre. Site for a Neighborhood Theatre. in the rear and entrances at each side, with abun- dant exits on both sides of the theatre opening di- rectly on to the street, would be excellent and would permit of the theatre being emptied in rec- ord time in case of danger. Another important requisite is the location of the site. Much depends on the kind of theatre to be built. If it be a central or general theatre for the patronage of the masses, the site should be on a well lighted thoroughfare in a pop- ulous section of the community, and large enough to permit of the erection of a massive and im- posing structure of great capacity with all the al- leys demanded by law. The presence of street cars or other means of transit is a decided advan- tage. The size of the plot would be governed largely by the capacity required. A plot 120 feet wide by 175 or 200 feet in depth for the audi- torium and stage, with ample space on the street for a commodious lobby, would be sufficient for comfortably seating over 2000 people. The lobby section is the only part that need be located di- rectly on the street, so long as provision is made at all necessary points for numerous passages reaching the open streets. For a medium sized theatre intended for the patronage of a special class or neighborhood the site should be located in the busiest, best lighted street in that particular section. Its size, to seat about 1 1 00 to 1300 people, should be 100 feet by 120 feet for the auditorium and stage, with an SITE SELECTION 45 entrance space on the street of not less than 25 feet in width. Should a smaller form of theatre for the dis- litres, play of motion pictures or for other uses be de- sired, it would be well to choose a site of sufficient size on the busiest shopping promenade of the dis- trict to be exploited, large enough to accommodate a house of the requisite dimensions, with such alleys or courts as are demanded by law. Long and narrow plots should be avoided, as an audi- torium whose width approximately equals its length is more symmetrical and serviceable. Even where extraordinary length is demanded in a picture house to secure increased capacity a rec- tangular-shaped auditorium will not seriously matter, provided there be ample width. While the public will go anywhere to witness Good Location r . . Is Essential. a successful performance there is not the slightest doubt that given the same play, the same actors and the same management, the theatre in a good position must show considerably better financial results than a badly located house. The physical nature of a plot often seriously affects the plan of a playhouse. A steep surface incline of the premises will frequently influence the pitch of the floor and thus regulate the rela- tive position of the stage and entrance, provided a change of the location of these would not seri- ously affect the commercial or artistic aspect of the theatre. In the absence of streets, municipal regulations 46 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION usually permit the substitution of open courts or alleys; still an alley, however wide it may be, never affords the same opportunity as a street for a becoming building elevation, nor does it allow equal facilities for safety. sS?v e g yi^ hical A topographical survey of the plot should be Necessary. made before definite plans are prepared, indicat- ing in cross and longitudinal ten-foot sections the ground conformation and various levels, in order properly to determine the foundation and grade lines, and to estimate correctly in advance the depth for sewers and water connections. View of Model Neighborhood Theatre For Description and Diagrams See Pages 205-212 47 48 CHAPTER IV DESIGNING AND PLANNING GENERAL ARRANGEMENT FOR the reasons before stated, the designing and planning of theatres in this country have not exhibited the same general prog- ress as have the designing and planning of other types of buildings. Few theatres can compare with modern hotels, either in respect to beauty or in the provision of comforts for their patrons. None of our theatres compares, in architectural elegance, with the better class of our churches and public libraries, as very few theatre architects rise sufficiently high above the commonplaces of life to contemplate seriously the necessity of ar- tistic design in a theatre. The general demand appears to be for lavish and hideous ornamenta- tion. There are no definite rules or principles of de- No Rules for sign that may be laid down for planning a thea- tre. It should be the aim of the architect to exe- cute a design that will have an after-influence on theatre architecture, because from the stand- point of the effect upon public taste there is no other type of structure in which good designing is so essential as it is in the theatre. There are very few playhouses in America today that will serve as examples of theatre architecture worthy of perpetuation. 49 50 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Although England has furnished the pattern from which most of our theatres have been copied she has supplied few ideas that are either new or original. She has furnished several good theatre planners, but they have only catered to the tradi- tional instincts of the British people who, above all things, always demand comfort. France and Italy, also, have failed to furnish theatre architects of authority or originality. While it is true that there are in both of these Latin countries theatres in whose auditoriums the decorative treatment is wonderfully beautiful, this beauty, however, is confined principally to the ceilings, many of which are ornate masterpieces of unique design. Ge?ml rity f I* nas remained for German-speaking coun- tries to show superiority in theatre designing. It is in the departmentization and equipment of a theatre that these countries excel. The German theatre furnishes superior comfort and conven- ience for its patrons, as well as for its actors and employes. Special boxes with private stair- ways and entrances from the carriage concourse are provided for royalty and distinguished guests. While this may be a feature unnecessary in a democratic country like America, still other ad- vantages there provided, such as commodious foyers, fine restaurants, spacious parlors and re- tiring rooms, with ample cloakrooms, and even a well-equipped hospital for first aid, would surely appeal to the American playgoer. In the^ stage Theatres. DESIGNING AND PLANNING 51 section there are studios for designers, sculptors and scenic artists; workrooms for the carpenter, decorator, locksmith and blacksmith; and huge storerooms for scenery and properties, while in America, theatres are considered complete that have scene docks, storage rooms for properties and a workroom for the electrician and stage car- penter. The actors' quarters of a German theatre have well-equipped lounging and lunch rooms. Many of the dressing rooms are supplied with baths and showers, with separate sections for men, women and children. There are assem- bly rooms for the chorus and ballet and special hair dressers and costumers for each. Even a storage room is provided for the actors' bicycles, an unnecessary provision in this country, where most of the actors and actresses come to the thea- tre in their private automobiles. In the administration departments of these same theatres there are separate rooms for depart- ment heads and a cashier's office equipped with a payroom and vault. The musicians have a lounging room and storage space for their instru- ments. The firemen, too, have quarters of their own, furnished with sleeping accommodations so that firemen may always remain on the premises, and better safeguard the property from fire. Contrary to popular belief, the United States comfortable is poorly provided with superior and comfortable America 8 . in theatres. There are plenty of large theatres in America ; many too large. But there are very few Investment. 52 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION that are either strictly modern or comfortable, and hardly any that by their exterior design indi- cate the character of the performance within their walls, although it is a cardinal principle of archi- tecture that the exposed fagade shall be a visible expression of what is inside. ? s h an Theatre ^ ne ree diness of American managers has done much to retard advancement in theatre designing. Theatres in America, like their English proto- types, are primarily commercial undertakings, and consequently financial interests dominate them. The owner of a theatre, when not under- taking the production of the entertainment him- self, is usually able with a little discrimination to select a lessee fully capable of bringing him a proper return from his investment. The idea of promoting dramatic art never enters his mind. Although private theatres in Europe are some- times aided by subsidy, theatres in America are invariably erected as private moneymaking enter- prises, and very good investments they are as a rule. The writer has never heard of a well lo- cated theatre of the first or second class in this country, no matter how old, that has been with- out a paying tenant for three consecutive months. Still, he believes that if these same theatres were modernized and a higher ideal expressed in their design their rental value would be enhanced. Architects too often take- up theatre designing without regard to the intent or purpose of the venture; the consideration of dramatic art never DESIGNING AND PLANNING 53 affects them. It seems that many of those now en- gaged in designing theatres are at best merely good planners, good constructors or good busi- ness men. The chief qualification demanded of them by equally inefficient managers or owners is the abil- ity to construct theatres for a maximum audience at a minimum outlay, providing just enough com- fort to insure public toleration. Such considera- tions as ample seating space, accessible toilets, sufficient coat-hanging accommodation, all of which are most necessary comforts, are stinted or sacrificed to satisfy the managerial demand for more seats. In designing theatres they should be adequately a Helpful adapted to distinctive productions. So long as Board, the present competition and strife between the- atrical syndicates and managers persists the pub- lic will never enjoy the privileges of knowing beforehand just what sort of amusement to ex- pect at any particular theatre. An ideal step would be the creation, by legal enactment or mu- tual agreement, of an advisory board, to deter- mine in advance the theatre best suited to the re- quirements of each individual play. Then thea- tres might be better planned to meet the needs of special types of entertainment, and the sec- tion behind the curtain line could be properly pro- portioned and equipped for that kind of perform- ance. Such an arrangement would create an in- centive for designing the theatre exterior in a 54 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION manner to suggest, at least, the form of enter- tainment housed therein. The salient points of theatre designing can- not be mastered by even the most competent architect who is not a theatre specialist, through the aid of ordinary architectural or engineering- books, although this may be the case with other types of buildings. The architect should not be one who has built one or two theatres in his life time, but must be a specialist whose practice and energy has been devoted to designing theatres, and to whom the problem has become a perfectly clear and definite task, which will enable him to summarize the practicality of the type to be designed, the chief legislative requirements and the economic possibilities of the venture. Cor- rect theatre designing depends largely upon care- ful study and systematic correction of the faults in preceding theatre structures, and therefore is a subject requiring an intimate knowledge of theatre construction. The Need of Most of the theatre deficiencies in this country Specialists. are the result of a woeful lack of qualified spe- cialists in this line of work. Specialization is as needful in theatre architecture as in other branches of industry. It brings with it an expert knowl- edge of conditions and details that may always be employed to the owner's advantage. The need of specialists has been convincingly demonstrated by the unfortunate experience of a highly repu- table firm of architects who were commissioned , DESIGNING AND PLANNING 55 by a group of multi-millionaires to build the Cen- tury Theatre in New York City, and to spare no expense to make it a success. Although millions had been spent in its erection the theatre was a failure, largely through the firm's inexperience in theatre construction. A futile attempt had been made, probably at the demand of the pro- moters, to build it large enough to house prop- erly all classes of productions, from grand opera to light comedy. The result was an auditorium of such immensity that defective sight condi- tions and faulty acoustics were produced. The latter defect has been corrected by an acoustic specialist, but the theatre has, nevertheless, en- countered repeated failures because of its other faults, although vast sums have been often ex- pended for extensive alterations. Now it has been again remodeled as a music hall on conti- nental lines. The plan of this theatre is illus- trated on the page preceding Chapter I as the most recent development in theatre evolution. This, however, refers to the form. Whatever its other faults, the theatre has an excellently designed auditorium. After the site has been selected, the first con- size and Scale. sideration in laying out a theatre is that of size and scale, and this is a matter too often slighted in theatre planning. These are subjects that call for the utmost attention, not only from the archi- tect, but from the owner as well. 'The requirements for grand opera and dra- 56 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION matic productions are very dissimilar. The opera house for grand opera (not under consideration in this treatise) requires a special form of build- ing to accommodate the necessary tiers of pri- vate boxes and to furnish special acoustic prop-^ erties for singing. A spectacular or large musi- cal attraction also demands a building different in size and proportion from one devoted to light drama, comedy or farce. Aside from the relative proportions of the various types, the necessary differences in stage equipment must be consid- ered. The spectacular and large musical shows require an ample audience hall and an equally large or larger stage, especially equipped for each kind of performance, while light drama, comedy or farce demands a smaller or more evenly pro- portioned stage, not so elaborately equipped. The motion picture house necessitates still another form which will be considered in a later chapter, devoted to the motion picture theatre. No In connection with the size and the relative "Fussiness" . . . 1 1 in Design. proportions ot the various departments, the archi- tectural treatment of the building must be con- sidered. There should be no "fussiness" about a theatre design. All unnecessary ornament should be avoided, as tending to distract attention from the central or dominating motive, and every other feature should be likewise subordinated. When a single architectural idea is well expressed, the result is always simple and good. The exterior, while it should be inviting to the DESIGNING AND PLANNING 57 spectator, must be designed with sobriety and J^K,?' offer an outward appeal to the eye reflecting the ideals housed within. It should never excite ex- pectations that are to be dispelled by a display of "cramped meanness in the interior. If the theatre is to be devoted to spectacles or exhibitions on a grand scale, or designed for popular patronage at low prices, it should be impressive in style and massive in its proportions. If it be designed for light drama, comedy or farce, its design should be smaller and more intimate in character. If it is to be used for melodrama or musical shows, it should be constructed of medium size, with every evidence of refinement and comfort. In each instance great care should be exercised to proportion correctly the different departments. Whatever the size or character of the theatre, safety and Comfort. it should be suited in every respect to the recep- tion and comfort of its patrons. The element of safety is the most important in theatre con- struction. The building, together with its con- tents, should be practically fireproof, and the pub- lic must be carefully guarded against danger from fire or panics occasioned by alarms of fire. If it be possible to convey an impression of security by structural appearance, so much the better. Problems of construction, fireproofing, electricity, plumbing, heating and ventilation are not dif- ferent in a theatre than in any other building. The consideration of comfort, also, is essential. Both safety and comfort are treated separately 58 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION in later chapters. The question of acoustics, too, always a serious one in designing theatres for the spoken drama, will be taken up independently in a special chapter devoted to that subject. Proportions of the Theatre. Proscenium Opening. AUDITORIUM The design of the auditorium is a prime con- sideration in theatre planning. Its formation and decoration should tend to focus attention upon the scene pictured on the stage. The one proportion that regulates the dimensions of an auditorium is the width of the proscenium open- ing, or vice versa. The width of the opening should be slightly more than half the width of the audience hall. An audience hall forty feet wide should have an opening of about twenty-one feet ; a sixty-foot width of hall should have an opening of about thirty-two feet, and an eighty-foot hall an opening of forty-three feet. The height of the opening should be about equal to three-fourths of its width and the angle of the opening itself about 45 degrees. While a proscenium opening with a greater height than width might present to some eyes a better archi- tectural effect, the reverse proportion is more practicable and in the writer's opinion more ar- tistic. The manner in which the stage opening is framed usually determines the architectural treatment of the auditorium. Where the top of the opening is arched the ceiling of the room DESIGNING AND PLANNING 59 should be curved to correspond. If it be flat the ceilmg should be formed flat. An opening with a flattened elliptical top presents the best appear- ance and suggests a simple, effective design for the ceiling. With amply and properly curved coves for reflected indirect lighting, and with a well-devised central open dome for ventilation that can be opened to the sky in the warm sum- mer months, such a ceiling is ideal. The space immediately above the proscenium opening, us- ually termed the sounding board, should be low and curved outward to reflect better both sound and heat. There is no part of a theatre, within or with- out (not even the auditorium in which the old- fashioned style of defacing its walls with mean- ingless and inartistic plaster wreaths and ribbons still persists), that is so commonly overloaded with meaningless ornamentation as the prosce- nium opening. This frame, being the construc- tive feature closest to the action on the stage, has greater possibilities than any other place for dis- tracting attention from that action. It should, like the auditorium itself, be as simple, harmo- nious and unobtrusive as possible. The shape of the auditorium is at present un- shape of the c r Auditorium. dergoing many changes. The old-fashioned rectangular type of audience hall, with a lyre or horseshoe shaped balcony, has been superseded by the square auditorium with contracting paneled walls approaching the stage opening, curved rear 60 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION walls with well rounded corners, and a balcony whose front follows the seat line below. In ad- vanced theatres, stage boxes are eliminated for acoustic reasons, and to direct concentrated at- tention upon the stage. In a truly democratic country it is assuredly not necessary to provide conspicuous boxes for persons of superior rank or social distinction. It is possible, however, that this square-shaped auditorium may not long endure, as there is al- ready a tendency in Continental Europe toward the adoption of the fan-shaped form employed in the Wagner Opera House at Bayreuth, pic- tured on Page 21. This is a model affording the best sight lines and the safest means of escape in case of danger. The decoration of the auditorium should be chaste in its simplicity and subtle in the harmony of its coloring. Such effects are more conducive to a sense of contemplation than riots of mean- ingless ornament and brilliant coloring. The aim should be to foster a spiritual mood and to render the senses more susceptible to favorable impres- sion, sight Lines. One of the most important requisites in design- ing an auditorium is the establishment of correct sight lines. As no two theatres are exactly alike the sight lines for each building must be worked out separately. This, however, is a comparatively simple operation. Theoretically the spectators in the last row of DESIGNING AND PLANNING 61 seats underneath the balcony should be able to vFsfon?* see the top of the proscenium opening, and the angle of vision should never exceed 45 degrees. Errors in sight lines are one of the commonest mistakes in theatre construction. A recently built theatre in New York City, publicly pro- claimed a wonderful theatre, shows the result of this miscalculation. The mistake was discovered as the theatre was about to be opened, and an effort was made to correct it by lowering the main floor, a procedure that naturally had to be abandoned, as it meant the alteration and destruc- tion of correct sight lines from the already con- structed balcony. The first necessary step toward fixing sight lines is to establish a proper slope for the main floor. This pitch may depend somewhat upon local conditions. If the natural grade be lower at the stage end of the auditorium and slope up- ward toward the main entrances to a point equal with, or two or three steps above the sidewalk level, the problem is partly solved. Otherwise it may be necessary to reverse the slope of the audi- torium or raise the corridor entrance considerably above the ground level. If possible a proper slope must be given to the siopeof n . . , r . , Main Floor. mam floor without the necessity of risers by an incline made in the shape of a parabolic curve, as indicated by the diagrams on Page 68. The in- cline of the first few rows need not be great, as the eyes of the persons in these rows are. about 62 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION level with the stage floor, but it should increase perceptibly from about the fourth to the last row, and be so adjusted that each spectator can easily see over the head of the person in front of him. The old fashioned saucer-shaped main floor, with its seats curving upward on either side, had its commendable points. However, the building laws in many cities regulate the pitch of theatre floors. With the incline of the main floor established, experimental sectional lines to determine the bal- cony slope and the various sight lines should be drawn on the section of the plans, as follows : From a point corresponding to the position of the eye of a person seated in the last row of seats (about three feet above the floor level) draw a vision line underneath the balcony to the top of the proscenium opening. This vision line fixes the lowest possible vertical position of the under- side of the balcony. Risers! 7 A line drawn from the base of the stage at the intersection of the curtain line and main floor level through the top of the first riser to the top of the rear balcony riser will determine the various heights of intermediate risers. Then draw two vision lines from the eye points of persons seated in the first and last rows of the balcony (about three feet above the floor level) to a common point well below the front line of the stage. This will establish the balcony sight lines. If the balcony be a wide one with curved sides, DESIGNING AND PLANNING 63 additional sight lines should be drawn on both sight-Lines 1 r 1 1111 1 with wide sides, and from underneath the balcony on each Balconies. side as well, to fix the sight lines at these points. These additional lines may make it necessary to lower the balcony sides a trifle with a downward curve. Should the sight lines not prove satisfactory, a minor change in the slope of the main floor or the elimination of a single row of seats from the balcony will cause a considerable improvement. The correct pitch for a balcony should never be over fifteen and a half inches for each riser, or two steps of seven and three-fourths inches each. In designing stairways leading to balconies due stairways, regard must be given to employing the fewest possible number of steps, and where possible, the steps should be arranged between landing plat- forms in groups of not more than a dozen con- tinuous steps. If the balcony be a high one, there should be an intermediate mezzanine floor, with a broken pair of stairs on each side of the house, and continuous broken flights extending from this floor to the rear level of the balcony. The principal stairways from the different parts of the house should lead direct to the foyer or lobby, with runs that turn in one direction only. For an example of ingenious stairways see illustra- tion at the end of this chapter. From the mezzanine floor, pierce the balcony Balcony with entrance tunnels on each side of the house Tunadsf to the cross passage in the rear of the front tier 64 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION of balcony loggias. If the balcony be very wide ccmstruct in addition intermediate tunnels. Cloak- rooms and administration offices may also be placed on this mezzanine floor, which should be cut out and designed like a balcony for the foyer below. The Cantilever There should be no exposed posts to hold up Principle. ir r i the balcony. It should be supported on the canti- lever principle, either with or without cross trusses resting on columns imbedded in the walls. Sometimes it is possible to inclose a series of two-inch or three-inch Lally columns in the parti- tions between the boxes as additional support. The seating conditions will be discussed sepa- rately in the chapter devoted to "Comfort." Orchestra It is highly important that the lines encom- passing the orchestra well should be so arranged as to insure good acoustics and at the same time conceal all view of the musicians from the audi- ence. There is nothing more disturbing in a thea- tre than the heads of musicians bobbing into view above the orchestra rail during a performance. Soft strains of hidden music will give the effect of coming from a distance, and are far preferable to the blatant blasts of an exposed brass band. It is also of advantage to have a suitable sound- space underneath the orchestra well, and, if pos- sible, surrounding it. The Court Theatre at Wies- baden, Germany, has an arrangement whereby divisional platform sections of the orchestra well are mounted on hydraulic lifts, which may be ele- Well. DESIGNING AND PLANNING 65 vatecl to suitable heights or even to the level of the auditorium floor if desired. The orchestra well of the famous Wagner Op- era House at Bayreuth, a diagram of which is shown on Page 133, embodies an excellent ar- rangement for an orchestra well. Supplemented with hydraulic lifts and a sounding space, such an orchestra well would be ideal. COMMUNICATION. The communication of a theatre has reference to the vestibule, foyer, aisles, exits and stairways that intercommunicate between the various sec- tions of the playhouse. The first section of communication is the ves- vestibule, tibule or outer lobby, which should offer every facility for the entrance of the patrons. It should never show the same warrnth of decoration as the better parts of the house, but it should be a simply treated, inviting approach to the auditori- um. Its size should be such as to prevent any pos- sibility of congestion, even in time of panic, but it should not be so large as to waste space that might be put to better use. The location of the box office and a local man- Box office. ager's office within it is largely a matter of con- venience. There should, however, be two ticket windows in the box office, separated from one another by space sufficient to permit the sale of tickets for the present performance and those for future booking without confusion. The number 66 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Foyer. Exits. Aisles and Passages. and arrangement of. retiring rooms and toilets will be taken up later in the chapter devoted to "Comfort" Next in order of sequence is the foyer, the drawing room of a theatre. In England the foyer partakes of the character of a "lounge," and is generously provided with comfortable settees. This is a requisite feature where the foyer also becomes the promenade. For the sake of safety the lobby or foyer should be made common to all parts of the house. The semi-circular corridor, originally created by Gott- fried Sempner, and now universally used in good theatre designing, is a true idea for a foyer. The playgoer instinctively prefers to leave the theatre by the way he entered it, and in time of panic will employ only the means of escape with which he is thoroughly familiar. For this reason all exits and passages of communication should be so distributed and arranged that they are in constant use by the audience. While the average playgoer may not have a keen appreciation of the architectural treatment of a theatre, a clear plan and abundant means of quick exit will surely ap- peal to him and do much to popularize a play- house. The seating should be arranged in continuous rows, thirty-six inches from back to back (instead of thirty-two inches, the legal distance now em- ployed in America), with ample aisles radiating from the front of the auditorium to the rear. At DESIGNING AND PLANNING 67 the points opposite the side entrances from the foyer widened passages between rows should be introduced, extending to the middle or interme- diate aisles, as necessity may require. Where it is desirable the radiating aisles may turn at this dividing passage and extend parallel to the side walls to the rear of the auditorium; or if the cross passage be a liberal one, new aisles may be formed from it. There should never be more than fourteen Fourteen chairs between aisles in any single row, and if Maximum, one end of the row be blind and without an aisle, seven chairs should be the limit. ; Hit SilA^/Wl- l:>; ra 68 CHAPTER V THE STAGE SECTION. SPECIAL interest has been taken in the de- ? n e a u n ity . velopment and equipment of the German stage/ Yielding to the influence of art, Teu- tonic ingenuity is continually devising new mech- anisms and original effects, many of which, it is true, would be impracticable in American thea- tres so long as profit remains the determining factor in theatre construction. In America the relative size and equipment of the stage are usually overlooked in the mercenary anxiety to provide only for seating capacity, but the time may come when the architect will be asked by the manager or owner to enlarge the stage in correct proportion to the auditorium, in order properly to accommodate the productions that custom or public taste may demand as suit- able for that theatre. The main features of a German stage that would impress an American architect are its size, plan and mechanical contrivances, the unique de- vices for building up scenic effects, and the per- fect lighting arrangement. The dimensions of the New Deutche Opera House stage in Char- lottenburg, Berlin, are colossal. This stage meas- ures 249 feet in width by 170 feet in depth, being the largest in the world; larger even than the immense stage of the New York Hippodrome. 69 70 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION The scenic contrivances and lighting arrange- ments of modern German theatres are little short of marvelous. One idea only have the modern theatres of Europe adopted from America; the American level stage. The pitched stage previously em- ployed in Europe for the better vision of the audi- ence has been recently discarded for the artistic, constructive and technical advantages of a level stage. A few years ago scene changes were made in all theatres during intermission, but by recent in- novations that permit a prearrangement of set- ting to be used much time is now being saved in advanced playhouses and better effects are being obtained. These necessary devices have not yet been generally adopted in America, but the inevit- able importation of large stage productions from Europe will make necessary the correction of this serious fault in American stagecraft. Turn-Table j n 1896 Head Engineer Lautenschlager of the Residence Theatre at Munich, Germany, invented and first used the now famous revolving stage, which permits the simultaneous preparation of several scenes, each in its proper turn being pre- sented to the audience by revolving the turn-table so that the desired scene comes into view through the proscenium opening. This device is an ex- cellent one for use in comedies or light dramas, and has been already adopted in several Ameri- can theatres. THE STAGE SECTION 71 This turn-table stage, however, failed to fill the Reform stage, requirements of large productions, and two fur- ther general schemes were devised. In one of these there were side and rear stages consisting of huge movable platforms adjoining the slightly depressed actual playing stage. The different settings were built up on these auxiliary plat- forms and rolled into place, as desired, above this playing stage. This device was called the Re- form Stage and was originated by Stage Director Brandt of the Berlin Court Theatre, where it was first installed. In the other scheme the movable portions of Asphaiia r t Stage. the stage floor were so increased that the entire working stage became a series of hydraulic-lift platforms, capable not only of being raised and lowered but also of being propelled laterally. The scenes in this system are built up in the basement underneath the stage, wheeled into the desired po- sition, and raised to the stage level by hydraulic power. This stage was the invention of the As- phaiia Company of Berlin, and has been installed in the Hofburg Theatre in Vienna and the Wies- baden Theatre, at Wiesbaden, Germany. In both of these theatres this device is most remarkable, the working portion of the stage being divided into nine platforms mounted on hydraulic rams, which may not only descend to a sub-stage but there be interchanged. It is in the Paris Opera House and the Deutche Opera House in Charlottenburg, Berlin, that the The Revolving Stage 72 74 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Reform Stage has reached its culminating perfec- tion. Here these mammoth stages are so perfect mechanically that they may be rolled into posi- tion by one man, and frequently the scene changes are made with extreme realism in full view of the audience. For instance, when a garden scene follows an interior setting, the two are arranged in sequence and roll by as the actors are passing from the house into the garden. Originally built for hydraulic power, the first adopted substitute for hand power, these devices may now be oper- ated by electricity. The Horizon. While some of the newer German theatres still retain the loft space above the stage in which to hoist scenery, they have in addition a sus- pended horizon shaped like a quarter-sphere shell, also the invention of Herr Brandt. It curves outward at the top and sides, and upon its sur- face a stereopticon, mounted on a bridge above and inside the proscenium opening, projects real- istic cloud effects, either stationary or moving. The new Deutche Opera House at Charlotten- burg, Berlin, has this device mounted on a travel- ing crane, worked by electricity from a cab fixed on the traveler. The rear wall of the Dresden Theatre, too, has been built into a permanent horizon of this type, on the plan of a true ellipse, extending high above the proscenium. There is every evidence that the extra high scene loft, which has ever been a troublesome architectural feature, may be eliminated in the v THE STAGE SECTION 75 future American theatre as hanging room for scenery. The old style painted scenery with its "flats," "wings" and ugly "sky borders," is im- possible for artistic use, and is gradually giving way to modern plastic scenery, built up "in the round" to indicate better the true perspective. In most fine productions actual objects are now em- ployed on the stage in place of painted "proper- ties." The elimination of the extreme upper region Elimination of of the stage and the establishment of a sky-dome Loft, would truly comport with the presentation of natural appearing plastic scenery and permit a texture of reflected light from the cupola-horizon to give the effect of infinite distance. It has been suggested by Professor Wallace C. Sabine, of Harvard University, a recognized authority on acoustics, that this quarter-sphere form of hori- zon is neither necessary from the standpoint of illumination nor desirable from the standpoint of acoustics. He believes that a flatter back with a sharper curvature above and at the sides would be preferable for the purposes of both acoustics and utility. A stage innovation of the advanced theatre that may be readily adopted in American theatres with no appreciable loss of space is the inner ad- justable proscenium arch. This plainly designed frame is placed four or five feet inside the per- manent arch and by an ingenious arrangement is made to contract or expand to accommodate 76 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION the scene on the stage. Thus a ballroom can use the full expanse of the stage, and a bedroom a much smaller part to indicate the true size of a bedroom and thereby cause the actors' figures to appear natural in stature. This inner opening may be treated in neutral colors to harmonize both with the scene presented on the stage and the permanent decorations of the auditorium. For the information of those who contem- plate erecting theatres not intended for play pro- ductions but for the temporary housing of travel- ing attractions American stages are at present equipped with the scenery described in the table at the end of this chapter. EXISTING AMERICAN STAGES. sta d " ced ^he American stage floor is raised about 3 Aprons. f ee f- g j ncri es above the front section of the audi- torium floor, so as to fix the stage level just be- low the eyes of the people seated in the first rows. The newer types of theatres are built with straight narrow stage projections instead of old- fashioned stage aprons. The average depth of the stage is about equal to the width of its pros- cenium opening. The dressing rooms are usually arranged on both sides of the stage behind fire- proof walls. American stages usually have a storage space for properties, a separate workroom for the car- penter and electrician, and occasionally a room for the costumer. Many of the larger theatres THE STAGE SECTION 77 include a scene dock for the storage of scenery that is not in use. In theatres where large spec- tacles are presented there are also extra lighting galleries for the installation of calcium lights. Be- sides doors for actors and employes a large scen- ery door four or five feet wide and as high as the underside of the fly gallery is installed to admit scenery carried on end. This large scene door is often made in two sections, the upper section overlapping the under one to prevent rain from beating in on the stage. The front curtain in most American theatres Proscenium Curtain. is arranged to rise without rolling. The writer favors a front curtain that parts in the middle and loops upward on either side as it is being hoisted to those now in general use. When the ordinary curtain is being hoisted it shows the feet of the actors first, and is therefore inelegant and inartistic, unless the performance be a bur- lesque show. Aside from the regular front cur- tain there is provided for fire safety an asbestos curtain to cover the stage opening. The section of the stage seen through the pro- |** ge er scenium opening is called the stage proper, and is sub-divided into three divisions; the "center of the stage," the "prompt side," and the "opposite" or "O.P. side." The entire stage mechanism is operated from the "prompt side." Each side of the stage for its full depth is figuratively divided into "entrances," the first of which is termed the "the first prompt entrance," 78 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION on the prompt side, and "first O.P. entrance/' on the opposite side. These appellations hold good for the entire height of the stage. The Files. The section of the stage above the proscenium arch is termed "the flies/' or fly loft. Here hang the borders, those in use being exposed, while the others are hauled out of sight by means of pulleys rigged in the loft, together with the other scenery not employed on the stage. On both sides of this loft space are the fly galleries, which are equipped with apparatus for manipulating scenery and other devices. This fly gallery is usually constructed about forty feet in height so as to store properly all the hoisted scenery not in use, and its face should be from six to ten feet back from the sides of the pros- cenium opening to provide room for hanging drops or borders. Gridiron. The gridiron is another feature of this loft space. It is an open-latticed platform consisting of slats set three or four inches apart, through which the hanging scenery may freely pass sus- pended on three sets of lines. If the drops be over forty-five feet in width four sets of lines are advisable The gridiron may be supported on steel girders or suspended from the roof trusses and should b$ strong enough to support men walking on it. Access to the fly galleries and gridiron should be by means of steel ladders or a fire-proof stairway placed in some out-of- the-way corner. A few new theatres in America THE STAGE SECTION 79 operate the scenery from the stage level, without the use of the fly galleries, and thus obviate the necessity of men working in the super-heated at- mosphere of the sky loft. SCENERY. The scenic equipment for the usual American theatre is given in the tabulated list that follows. Excluded from this list are the front pieces Tormentors usually termed "the drapery/' "proscenium" and Draperies "working borders'' and "tormentor wings," all of tageous. which are usually out of keeping with appropriate stage scenery. The proscenium opening is intended to represent an imaginary fourth wall of the stage, through which the audience is privileged to view the performance. If the stage presents a forest scene, to preserve this illusion it should be deco- rated only with forest scenery; if an interior, only with scenery appropriate to such a setting. Scenery "tormentors" and "grand draperies" are foreign to nearly every scene presented on the stage and only serve to disillusion the spectator. The installation of an inner proscenium arch would effectively remedy this display of extrane- ous scenic drapings. The floor of the stage is usually covered with a painted canvas ground-cloth to correspond in tone with the scene on the stage. Economy may often be effected by painting the ground-cloth a different color on each side. The usual American stock settings are made 80 'Drops in One." MODERN 'THEATRE CONSTRUCTION in from eight to sixteen pieces, according to the size of the stage to be dressed. Modern interiors are built about 16 feet high and each wing about 5 feet 9 inches wide. Profiled doors are prefer- ably used instead of old-fashioned flapping can- vas doors. The "Drops in One," consisting of the picture sheet, conservatory, olio and street scene, are made a trifle wider than the proscenium opening. The object of "Drops in One," placed five or six feet behind the curtain line, is to allow the play to proceed without interruption in front of the drop while new scenery is being placed behind it. Grand Entrance Stairways, German Theatre, Vienna THE STAGE SECTION 81 AVERAGE SCENERY EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND PLACING. Front Pieces. Asbestos Curtain. Act Drop Curtain. Conservatory Drop. Olio. Street. Palace Interior. Back Drop. Cut Drop. Arched Borders. Profile Wings and Flippers. Leg Drops (instead of Borders or Wings. Balustrades. Light and Dark Fancy Interiors. Center Arch Piece. Arched Piece with Double Doors. Bay Wing. Door Wings. Jogs. Wings, including one with fireplace panel. Set Fancy Backings. Hanging Fancy Backing. Borders or Ceiling. Practical Fireplace. Fireplace Backings. Plain Chamber Interior. Arched Piece. Wings, including one with fireplace panel. Door Wings. Window Wing. Bay Window. Jogs. Set Backings. Hanging Backing. Borders or Ceiling. Practical Fireplace. Wood Interior. Light Wood Drop. Cut Wood Drops. 6 Profile Wood Wings with Flippers. 3 Foliage Borders. Foliage Leg Drops. Set House (with practical door and window). Porch. Platform and Steps. Rustic Cottage. Cut Tree Tap. Profile Set Tree. Garden Drop. Profile Statues. Profile Vases. . Rocky Pass Drop. Horizon Drop. Kitchen Interior. Window Wings. Window Pieces. Door Wings. Wings, including one with fireplace panels. Jogs. Set Kitchen Backings. Borders. Practical Fireplace. Prison Interior painted on back Kitchen interior. fa l=* 33 .~'\ v\ x 82 CHAPTER VI. LIGHTING. HIGH standard of excellence has been Concealed Indirect r\ reached in theatre lighting throughout the Lighting, world, but German progress in this field has been equal to Teutonic proficiency in other phases of theatre construction. It is now possi- ble by the aid of large tubular incandescent lamps imported from Europe to illuminate effectively a theatre auditorium by reflected light in such a manner that the source of illumination is un- noticeable. These tubes are made several inches in diameter so as to avoid overheating, and are about twelve inches in length, with half their in- terior diameter silvered on the inside to serve as reflectors. This inside silvering prevents any accumula- tion of dust on the reflector surface, and if these lights are installed closely together behind the lower cornice of a well rounded ceiling cove, the lights diffuse a continuous soft, warm glow, en- tirely free from the spotty effects produced by common incandescent bulbs. To the ordinary ob- server the source of light is completely hidden, for nothing is visible but a continuously illumi- nated cove that might be mistaken for brilliant decoration. With a regulation "dimmer" appa- ratus these self -reflecting tubes give any desired degree of illumination. 83 84 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Light Under the Balcony Illuminated Balcony Steps. Vacant Seats Lighted. There is no good reason why this same con- cealed lighting effect should not be carried out in all the public departments of the theatre, thereby lessening the cost of fixtures. Exposed fixtures, even the so-called indirect sort, are an unsightly nuisance and they gather dust, which gives off an offensive odor when heated. Reflected light intro- duces no shadows and presents a far more artis- tic and restful effect than glaring lights of any kind. The space underneath the balcony could be illuminated by reflected light through flush, trans- lucent glass panels, thus avoiding exposed fixtures. The Rialto Theatre in New York, a palatial pic- ture house recently opened, has a similar effect arranged in a most pleasing manner. The lights are automatically changed at timed intervals from pale blue to soft rose and vice versa. This auto- matic change of light easily may be introduced throughout the auditorium by the installation of parallel rows of differently colored tubes. Reflected lights, red or green, showing through flush glass panels set in the risers of all balcony aisle steps, should be introduced in every theatre to prevent patrons from stumbling in the dark. Another useful innovation that might be em- ployed in motion picture theatres is the installa- tion of tiny red or green bulbs, mortised in the top of the chair backs, which are lighted by the tipping of the empty seat and thereby indicate to the ushers vacant chairs. LIGHTING 85 EXTERIOR LIGHTING. There are so many modes of exterior lighting and so many new devices constantly being intro- duced that one hesitates to recommend any par- ticular kind. Here, too, the writer, a confirmed antagonist to glaring lights, would suggest some form of indirect lighting. This should be either by simple reflection or by brilliant reflection through colored, translucent or cathedral glass, for even the outline of lighted bulbs showing through the glass is inartistic. A brightly illu- minated window extending the entire height between pilasters situated on either side of the entrance, and lighted by reflected light through colored glass, would be an effective beacon for a picture theatre. STAGE LIGHTING. Great advancement has also been made in the Location of methods and principles of stage lighting. Even the location of the operator regulating the stage lighting has been changed in the advanced Euro- pean theatres. In these theatres the light switch- board is underneath the stage apron, adjacent to the orchestra well. From that point the operator, by lifting a small trap similar to the old-fashioned prompter's traps, may view perfectly his light effects and control them. Many theatres depend for their lighting upon storage storage batteries, because a steadier light and more realistic effects may be obtained in this man- Switchboard. Lighting. 86 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Fortuny System. Footlights Abandoned. ner. These, however, are generally used only in ordinary theatres for reserve or emergency pur- poses. An Italian painter named Fortuny has invented a system of indirect stage lighting that has met with such success that it probably will be uni- versally adopted. In this system the light is fur- nished by powerful lamps, stationed on the re- verse side of the hanging borders, and reflected from variously colored silk banners, whose posi- tion is changeable, placed behind these borders These indirect rays give a fuller and softer light and have the advantage successfully of dissolv- ing or mixing colors. This device is also em- ployed to illuminate without shadows the cano- pied horizon, to which allusion Has already been made. This innovation provides atmospheric en- veloping light, as contrasted with the old-fash- ioned direct light that struck objects on the stage and projected their shadows beyond. There can also be no doubt that illumination mainly by footlights is a passing phase in the ad- vanced theatre. Where footlights exist it is bet- ter to arrange three horizontal continuous rows of tubular incandescent lamps of red, white and blue, similar to those described for auditorium cove lighting, than to employ the ordinary tri- colored incandescent bulbs in common use. The method of projecting light from above, and from reflected side-lights, is now used in ad- vanced theatres to replace the glaring footlights. LIGHTING 87 In the same manner, stereopticons are employed to introduce storm or cloud effects on the canopied horizon, with realistic lightning flashes if desired. In most American theatres 40-watt lamps are used for footlights, arranged with eight lamps to the foot, and colored red, white and blue in regu- lar sequences of these colors, to produce single or combination effects. The footlight trough should be from two to three feet wide, and the exposed surface should be painted a dull black or dark green, so as not to reflect the glare of the foot- lights up into the balcony. Each theatre in America also has about six rows of border lights, encased in reversed gal- vanized iron troughs suspended by extension chains, and set six or seven feet apart. The bor- der lights for illuminating the stage should be at least two feet longer than the proscenium open- ing, the first row being about two feet shorter than that opening. Border lights are also arranged in three colors. Every stage should be provided with incandes- cent stage sockets in each entrance, right and left, and with several conveniently distributed arc pockets. There should also be a sufficient supply of bunch-lights and strip-lights, with con- nections, all arranged with interchangeable sockets for the introduction of colored bulbs. For the sake of increased protection from fire it is better to install all electric wiring according to the code prescribed by the National Board f Border Lights. 88 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Fire Underwriters, useful extracts from which are here included : NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITERS ELECTRIC CODE. Service. Stage. Footlights. All wiring, apparatus, etc., not specifically covered by special rules herein^given must conform to the standard rules and requirements of the National Electrical Code, and the term "Theatre" shall mean a building or that part of a building regularly or frequently used for dramatic, operatic, moving picture or other performances or shows, or which has a stage for such performances used with scenery or other stage appliances. Where supply may be obtained from two separate street mains, two separate and distinct services must be in- stalled, one service to be of sufficient capacity to supply current for the entire equipment of theatre, while the other service must be at least of sufficient capacity to sup- ply current for all emergency lights, where supply feed for emergency lights must be taken from a point on the street side of main service fuses. By "emergency lights" are meant exit lights and all lights in lobbies, stairways, corridors and other portions of theatres to which the pub- lic have access, which are normally kept lighted during the performance. Where source of supply is an isolated plant within the building, an auxiliary service of at least sufficient capacity to supply all emergency lights must be installed from some outside source, or a suitable storage battery within the premises may be considered the equivalent of such service. All permanent construction on stage side of proscenium wall, except as hereinafter provided, must be approved conduit or armored cable. Must be wired in approved conduit or armored cable, each lamp receptacle being inclosed with an approved out- let box, or the lamp receptacles may be mounted in an iron or steel box, metal to be of a thickness not less than No. 20 U.S. sheet metal gauge, treated to prevent oxidization, so constructed as to inclose all the wires. Wires to be soldered to lugs of receptacles. LIGHTING Borders and Proscenium Lights. Must be so wired that no set of lamps requiring more than 1,320 watts nor more than 24 receptacles shall be dependent upon one cut-out. 1. Must be constructed of steel to a thickness not less than No. 20 U.S. sheet metal gauge, treated to prevent oxidization, be suitably stayed and supported, and so de- signed that flanges of reflectors will protect lamps. 2. Must be so wired that no set of lamps requiring more than 1,320 watts nor more than 24 receptacles shall be de- pendent upon one cut-out. 3. Must be wired in approved conduit or armored cable, each lamp receptacle to be inclosed within an approved out- let box, or the lamp receptacle may be mounted in an iron or steel box, metal to be of a thickness not less than No. 20 U.S. sheet metal gauge, treated to prevent oxidization, so constructed as to inclose all wires. Wires to be soldered to lugs of receptacles. 4. Must be provided with suitable guards to prevent scenery or other combustible material coming in contact with lamps. 5. Cables for borders must be of approved type and suitably supported; conduit construction must be used from switchboard to point where cables must be flexible to permit of the raising and lowering of border. 6. For the wiring of the border proper wire with ap- < proved slow-burning insulation must be used. 7. Borders must be suitably suspended, and if a wire rope is used same must be insulated by at least one strain insulator inserted at the border. Must be of approved type, controlled from switchboard, each receptacle to be of not less than 35-ampere rating for arc lamps nor 15-ampere rating for incandescent lamps and each receptacle to be wired to its full capacity. Arc pock- ets to be wired with wire not smaller than No. 6 B. & S. gauge and incandescent pockets with not less than No. 12 B. & S. gauge. Plugs for arcs and incandescent pockets must not be * interchangeable. Where lamps are installed in scene docks they must be Scene Docks, so located and installed that they will not be liable to me- chanical injury. Must be of ironclad type and installed so as to conform to the requirements of the National Electrical Code. Stage and Gallery Pockets. Curtain Motors. 90 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Control for Stage Flues. Dressing Rooms. Portable Equipment. In cases where dampers are released by an electric device, the electric circuit operating same must be normally closed. Magnet operating damper must be wound to take full voltage of circuit by which it is supplied, using no resist- ance device, and must not heat more than normal for ap- paratus of similar construction. It must be located in the loft above the scenery, and be installed in a suitable iron box with a tight, self-closing door. Such dampers must be controlled by at least two stand- ard, single pole switches mounted within approved iron boxes provided with self-closing doors without lock or latch, and located, one at the electrician's station and others as designated by the inspection department having jurisdiction. Must be wired in approved conduit or armored cable. All pendent lights must be equipped with approved rein- forced cord, armored cable or steel armored flexible cord. All lamps must be provided with approved guards. Arc lamps used for stage effects must conform to the following requirements : 1. Must be constructed entirely of metal except where the use of approved insulating material is necessary. 2. Must be substantially constructed, and so designed as to provide for proper ventilation, and to prevent sparks being emitted from lamps when same are in operation, and mica must be used for frame insulation. 3. Front opening must be provided with a self-closing hinged door frame, in which wire gauze or glass must be inserted, except in the case of lens lamps, where the front may be stationary, and a solid door be provided on back or side. 4. Must be so constructed that neither carbons nor live parts will be brought into contact with metal of hood dur- ing operation, and arc lamp frames and standards must be so installed and protected as to prevent the liability of their being grounded. 5. Switch on standard must be so constructed that acci- dental contact with any live portion of same will be im- possible. 6. All stranded connections in lamp and at switch and , rheostats must be provided with approved lugs. 7. Rheostats must be plainly marked with their rated LIGHTING 91 capacity in volts and amperes, and, if mounted on stand- ard, must be raised to a height of at least 3 inches above floor. Resistance must be inclosed in a substantial and properly ventilated metal case which affords a clearance of at least 1 inch between case and resistance element. 8. A competent operator must be in charge of each arc lamp, except that one operator may have charge of two lamps when they are not more than 10 feet apart, and are | so located that he can -properly watch and care for both lamps. Must be substantially constructed of metal and must Bunches, not contain any exposed wiring. The cable feeding same must be bushed in an approved manner where passing through the metal, and must be properly secured to prevent any mechanical strain from coming on the connection. Must be constructed of steel of a thickness not less than Strips. No. 20 U.S. sheet metal gauge, treated to prevent Oxidiza- tion, and suitably stayed and supported and so designed that flanges will protect lamps. Cable must be bushed in a suitable manner where pass- ing through the metal, and must be properly secured to prevent serious mechanical strain from coming on the connections. Must be wired in approved conduit or armored cable, each lamp receptacle being inclosed within an approved outlet box, or the lamp receptacle may be mounted in an iron or steel box, metal to be of a thickness not less than No. 20 U.S. sheet metal gauge, treated to prevent oxidiza : tion, so constructed as to inclose all wires. Wires to be soldered to lugs of receptacles. Must be constructed so that no current carrying part Portable will be exposed and each receptacle must be protected by S lu x g e | ing approved fuses mounted on slate or marble bases and in- closed in a fire-proof cabinet equipped with self-closing doors. Each receptacle must be constructed to carry 30 amperes without undue heating, and the bus-bars must have a carrying capacity equivalent to the current required for the total number of receptacles, and approved lugs must be provided for the connection of the master cable. Must be of an approved type, so installed that the "fe- male" part of plug will be on live end of cable, and must be so constructed that tension on the cable will not cause serious mechanical strain on the connections. Pin Plug Conductors. 92 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Portable Conductors. Scenery Lights. Festooned Lights. Electrical Effects. Flexible conductors used from receptacles to arc lamps, bunches and other portable equipments must be approved' stage cable except that for the purpose of feeding a stand lamp under conditions where conductors are not liable to severe mechanical injury an approved reinforced cord may be used, provided cut-out designed to protect same is not fused over six amperes capacity. Where brackets are used they must be wired entirely on the inside, fixture stem must come through the back of the scenery, and end of stem be properly bushed. Wiring of same must be of approved type, joints to be properly made, soldered and taped, and staggered where practicable. Where lamps are used in lanterns or similar devices, approved guards must be employed. Where devices are used for producing special effects such as lightning, waterfalls, etc., the apparatus must be so constructed and located that flames, sparks, etc., result- ing from the operation cannot come in contact with com- bustible material. 93 94 CHAPTER VII MOTION PICTURE THEATRES THE most recently developed phase of the theatres is the photoplayhouse, devoted to the silent drama. Enthusiasts claim that the daily attendance at these theatres is ten mill- ions of people. Sceptics believe that not more than three millions form the daily attendance, but whether the disputed daily attendance be ten per cent of the total population of the United States or only three and one-third per cent/its influence as a social factor and a popular form of entertain- ment is most potent. The remarkable growth of the motion picture Growth of Motion theatre in the last fifteen years and its constantly Picture J * Theatres. increasing popularity have caused many changes in the business of the regular theatre. The aim of the photoplayhouse is to present motion pic- tures in an attractive manner to a discriminating public, and the better to serve this purpose count- less numbers of old theatres have been remodeled and many buildings erected. European countries countries in Asia, Africa, Australia, South America, Canada and Mexico, too, are seized with this same popular fever for the cinema. Universal success has crowned the photo stage. England, Germany and Russia oc- casionally surpass America in the construction of their cinematograph theatres, not in size per- 95 96 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION An Ingenious Plan. The Design and Plan. haps, but in their superior appointments and bet- ter arrangements for comfort. An enterprising Russian exhibitor named Khanjonkoff, anxious to increase the seating ca- pacity of a photoplayhouse he was erecting in a thickly populated section of Moscow, devised an ingenious plan of auditorium, combining three floors facing one screen. He constructed the house with a pit floor in the basement beneath the street for the cheaper patrons. On this floor he placed a large orchestra well directly in front of the screen, with the vacant space above it ex- j tending upward past the main floor and balcony. This arrangement permitted the utilization of nearly the entire depth of each floor for seating. The seats on the basement floor began at the edge of the orchestra well and extended back to the rear wall with a slightly downward pitch; these patrons being compelled to look upward to view I the screen. The main floor over it began at a point just above the fifth row in the pit, and in-i clined upward with the usual ground floor slope as it receded to the rear wall. The seats on this I floor were arranged in the usual manner. The balcony above the main floor began at a point about five rows back from the beginning point of the main floor, and ascended with the customary balcony risers to the rear of the theatre. The designing of photoplayhouses in America is yet in an experimental stage. Few architects understand or attempt to learn the requirements MOTION PICTURE THEATRES . 97 of this special type of building. The first prob- lem to be solved when planning a theatre of this class is its size in relation to its location. Or- dinarily a photoplayhouse must be located so as to attract the greatest number of patrons from the immediate neighborhood, unless, of course, a large photoplayhouse for general patronage be contemplated. In this case a central site on a busy thoroughfare should be chosen. Most cities have definite laws dividing motion Jjieatre Classification. picture theatres into several distinct classes. Us- ually if the house has a capacity of less than 300 persons ample frontage on the street, without al- leys on either side, is considered sufficient. Should the seating capacity be between 300 and 1000, there must be for less than 600 seats alleys at least five feet wide on each side of the auditorium, with six inches in width added for every 100 seats until 1000 is reached. These alleys must empty into a street either at the front or rear of the building. In some cities the passage may begin at the g xit Jr 3SS3gCS. exits and continue to the street or alley, except where the theatre has a balcony, in which case the alley must extend the entire length of the auditorium so as to connect with the balcony at its highest and lowest points. If a passage be neces- sary beneath the stage or any. other portion of the building a fireproof passage can usually be sub- stituted for an open one. If the theatre seats more than 1000 persons it must have, in addition 98 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION to the street frontage, alleys not less than ten feet wide on each side of the auditorium. If a popular-priced photoplay house on a grand scale is being planned for the patronage of the masses it should be palatial in design, of colossal dimensions, and arranged to seat the greatest pos- sible number of people. If a medium-sized neighborhood photoplayhouse be desired it should be located on the popular promenade in such a section and planned for a capacity of from 1200 to 1400 persons. The smaller theatres are rarely built at the present time except in local neighbor- hoods where the anticipated patronage is limited. HoSle 0f Desired After it has been decided to which class the proposed house belongs, the next thing to be con- sidered is whether it would be a good investment to utilize some of the front space for stores, of- fices, or both. Local ordinances should be care- fully studied in order to better comprehend their restrictions. Where there be an opportunity for decided improvement by transgression this sub- ject should be taken up with the proper authori- ties without delay, for the purpose of securing authoritative consent for the contemplated changes. Much good may result from persistent effort, especially where justice be on one's side. Extbrior Buildings devoted to a new kind of enterprise Appearance. t . should have a special architectural design of their own, instead of being mere modifications of ex- isting types. Such ideas of originality in design have not yet been developed in this country in MOTION PICTURE THEATRES 99 connection , with the motion picture theatre, al- though in these days, of keen competition every resource should be called upon to improve the character of the house and its program. The more appropriately designed house, presenting its pictures in the more artistic or unique manner, and treating its patrons with due consideration and politeness, is bound to have greater success than its competitor who continues in the beaten path. The decoration of the motion picture audi to- interior Decoration. num may be more ornamental than that of an ordinary theatre, the better to satisfy a more gen- eral taste. The exposed front and entrance lobby should, however, be the most striking feature in order to attract the attention of passers-by. For the same reason a conspicuous and well lo- cated ticket booth is also a decided advantage. Experience has taught that a ticket booth resem- bling a circular kiosk, placed near the front of the outer lobby, is the most practical. Each photoplayhouse should have its own in- dividual design, expressing as nearly as possible the purpose of the building. Suitable and genuine materials should be employed for the construction of its exterior, and not spurious imitations of other materials. The advertising or poster space, if possible, should be incorporated in the design, making it unnecessary afterward to mar the com- plete effect by separate signs or posters. Display of vulgar taste is always to be avoided, 100 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION as a carefully designed photoplayhouse is bound to draw patronage. Motion picture theatres, un- like regulation theatres, are too often degraded by illy-designed stock theatre fronts, that neither harmonize with nor enhance the design of the building, and they rarely ever save money for the owner. Auditorium. The motion picture auditorium presents prac- tically the same problems as does that of a regu- lar theatre, except that the sight lines in a mo- tion picture house must be truer. The proscenium opening must be wide enough to admit of a full view of the screen from the extreme sides of the audience hall, and the spectators in the last row of seats underneath the balcony must be able to see two or three feet above the top of the screen. In like manner those in the last rows of the bal- cony must have a full view of the screen under- neath the top of the proscenium opening. The stage. The motion picture theatre, whatever its form, requires a stage, not only for the purpose of pre- senting variety or musical numbers on its pro- gram when desired, but to obtain when the stage is darkened a shadow box effect that is most de- sirable. This shadow box arrangement affords relief to the eye by placing the picture farther from the spectator, and gives added depth to the picture itself. Aside from this, it permits the display of pictures in a fully lighted auditorium, provided no direct rays of light are permitted to reach the screen; a decided advantage in picture MOTION PICTURE THEATRES 101 presentation. A few cities foolishly prohibit the introduction of a stage in a motion picture theatre. Complete darkness, so common in motion pic- Darkness 1 ' r Undesirable. ture auditoriums in this country, rarely enhances the effect of a picture. This unnecessary gloom never pleases the audience and seriously inter- feres with the prompt seating of patrons. The showing of a comedy picture is assuredly better in a lighted auditorium than in a darkened room. Laughter is contagious, and when one sees his neighbor in paroxysms of laughter he laughs, too. Subdued light has a much less irritating effect on the eyes than complete darkness relieved only by reflected light from the screen, and a lesser degree of darkness is already one of the insistent public demands. Managers now realize that the soft amber and roSe tones of illumination employed in many higher class motion picture theatres add greatly to the attractiveness of the silent drama, and pa- trons are made more cheerful and have become more interested in the productions shown on the screen since the introduction of partial audito- rium lighting. In any event, it is certainly wiser to make provision that will permit the showing of pictures in any degree of light. It is also im- portant that picture theatres have dressing rooms for the accommodation of artists presenting ad- ditional acts on their program. The seating arrangement presents a far more 102 MODERN 'THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Seating. serious problem in a motion picture theatre than in a regulation theatre. In the latter persons aris- ing to permit the passage of others only obstruct the view of the stage for a moment, which is not always important, as one can usually hear the dia- logue, and continue to follow the thread of the story, but with a photoplay the same obstruction effectively breaks the continuity of thought and if continued is likely to ruin one's appreciation of the entire play. The agitation for a law limiting the number ot continuous chairs in a motion picture theatre row to eight seats, instead of twelve, thirteen or four- teen, because of this constant interference with the view, is not without reason, considering the present insufficient passage room between rows. The proper amount of space between rows, 36 inches instead of 32 inches, would permit the free passage of persons without the necessity of any- one rising, and would put an end to this agitation that threatens real loss of seating space. GROUND FLOOR THEATRES. Legal requirements, as well as site limitations, often radically affect the plan of a photoplay- house. Several states prohibit balconies in mo- tion picture theatres. In such states, of course, the auditorium must be confined to one floor. There are other cases where it is less expensive to plan the audience hall on the floor, if sufficient space can be secured. MOTION PICTURE THEATRES 103 Where the depth of the premises is not enough Ij^ neath or where economy of space is desired, ground- theSeats - floor picture houses may be planned with the rear section of seats sweeping high, like modified cir- cus seats. Then a low ceilinged lobby and even shops, if necessary, may be installed beneath the rear section of seats, as suggested in the plan displayed at the close of this chapter. Refer- ence to the illustration will show that the entrance should be through ramped tunnels to the middle of the auditorium with access to the rear rows up stepped aisles placed alongside each tunnel. In an auditorium thus planned the height of the ceiling at the rear might be gradually increased to good acoustical advantage. If singing or talking acts be desired as part of the program, considerable thought should be given to acoustics when designing long narrow houses, as sound propagation is usually imperfect in this form of building. Heavily curved ceilings, deep recesses and domes should also be carefully avoided. Additional comfort may be afforded by an eifi- Comforts, cient heating and ventilating system. Clean fresh air, introduced in proper quantities at the right temperature, is always appreciated by the public, either in winter or in summer, and this fresh air should penetrate the breathing zone instead of going direct to the floor and chilling the feet of the spectators. Other things being equal, the 104 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION house affording the best ventilation and most comfort will have the largest audiences. THE AIRDOME. The Airdome is a summer form of motion pic- ture theatre. Where there is sufficient width the side spaces of an airdome should be embellished with attractive flower beds, arranged in banks with white gravel paths winding about them. If possible the grounds should be inclosed within a green latticed fence or wall, decorated with quick growing vines, and topped with a string of small, vari-colored electric lights. Entertainments Where the depth of the lot is enough to per- mit an extension of at least fifty feet behind the screen, rear projection should always be employed, with the projection rays boxed in by a black-lined inclosure extending from the machine booth to the rear of the screen. This inclosure arrangement will produce an intensified light on the picture and allow good presentation in glaring daylight, if the screen frame be formed like a shallow shadow box as well. Airdome matinees for ladies and children at half-price would be a novel and attrac- tive feature that would substantially add to the revenue. seating. Slat-seated benches should be used so as to shed rain water freely, and they should be aligned in straight rows with a twenty-two inch space al- lowed for each seat. The necessary number of circular, woven-straw seat cushions commonly MOTION PICTURE THEATRES 105 used for such purposes should be freely distributed among the audience. In the exterior architecture of the airdome a touch of the bizarre and fantastic is by no means out of place. A design of the conventionalized Egyptian, Byzantine or Chinese styles would, of course, be preferable to a mistaken attempt at originality leading only to triviality or vulgarity. THE SCREEN. The screen and its position are controlling fac- tors in the planning of a motion picture theatre. Since the screen is the focal point for the audi- ence, the general design and decoration of the in- terior should aim to concentrate attention on that point. The position of the screen is largely influenced Position of by the quality of pictures desired. For ordinary front projection a screen should be located eigh- teen or twenty feet behind the proscenium open- ing to give a shadow box effect when the stage is darkened. The farther behind the opening the screen is placed the better, but great care should be taken not to install it so far back that specta- tors sitting on the extreme sides of the audi- torium would be deprived of a full view of the screen. Probably the best screen for use in a motion screen for Rear picture theatre where conditions will permit is a Projection, translucent screen for rear projection, where the picture is thrown from behind instead of from 106 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION the front. Rear projection requires a space of about fifty feet between the machine and screen for good effect, although some arrangement might be perfected for diminishing that distance by the use of an intermediate mirror for reflect- ing the picture between the machine and the screen. In the use of either front or rear pro- jection, the screen should be raised about two feet above the stage level so as to present a perfect view from every seat in the house. Any extraor- dinary lifting of the eyes to view a picture soon tires the optic nerve and produces drowsiness. Brilliant As regards visual requirements, the tendency Desirable. j s nQ w toward smaller and better lighted pictures. The size of a picture depends upon the distance of the throw and the amperage of light. A twelve-foot picture is considered "life size." A well lighted picture of this size should be the limit for a fifty-foot throw, a fifteen-foot picture for a seventy-five foot throw, and for a hundred- foot throw or longer any size that may be brill- iantly illuminated and that will not show living figures that appear from the rear seats much larger than normal The following table copied from Richardson's Motion Picture Handbook, an invaluable text book for managers and operators, will furnish a scale of relative widths and heights, together with the greater cost of producing larger pictures: MOTION PICTURE THEATRES 107 Light Table. forth Height Area Area increase Percentage of i feet. in feet. sq. ft. in sq. ft. increase area. 6 4.40 26.4 7 5.13 35.9 9.5 36 8 5.87 36.9 11.0 31 9 6.60 59.4 12.5 26 10 7.33 73.3 13.9 23 11 8.07 88.7 15.4 21 12 8.80 105.6 16.9 19 13 9.53 123.9 18.3 18 14 10.27 143.7 19.8 16 15 11.00 165.0 21.2 15 16 11.73 187.7 22.7 14 17 12.47 212.0 24.2 13 '18 13.20 237.6 25.6 12 19 13.93 264.7 27.1 11 20 14.67 293.3 28.6 11 While it may require a stronger light to pro- ject a picture through an indirectly lighted audi- torium the result is well worth it, especially with comedy pictures: Even with drama, darkness does not -really increase the interest, a dimmed light being preferable to none at all. Just so radically as the motion picture differs from the spoken drama, so must the manner of its presen- tation show innovations in stagecraft. There are many good and some bad screens Materials on the market today. There can be very little objection to a screen of hard plaster laid on metal lath and mounted on a frame of non-combustible material. Such a screen affords more rigidity than a cloth screen, which is susceptible to atmos- pheric disturbances. The above refers only to screens for ordinary front projection. The best For Screens. 108 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION screens for rear projection are made from ground glass, a rigid substance that permits of various surface treatments, screen There is, however, a great difference in screen Surfaces. ' & surfaces. Much depends upon the use to which the screen is subjected. The function of a screen is to reflect light, and light rays always travel in straight lines. If the screen has a matte or roughened surface, instead of a polished one, a decided advantage is obtained, as the light rays are slightly diffused in reflection and a better pic- ture is the result. For a wide house a special surface that will distribute the rays at a wider angle is desirable, while for a narrow house a more brilliant surface that concentrates the light is better. The ex- posed surface of all screens should be outlined with a dull black border to give better definition and impart a beneficial effect to the picture. This border should be painted with ordinary dry lamp- black mixed with a preparation of one-third lin- seed oil and two-thirds turpentine. THE PROJECTION ROOM. The proper location of the projection room is also a serious question in designing a motion pic- ture theatre, a factor of greater importance than is generally' imagined. Yielding to a tendency to imitate rather than originate, architects are generally inclined to copy blindly the bad exam- ples set by incompetent designers. Whatever MOTION PICTURE THEATRES 109 the distance of throw, the angle of projection should be as nearly level as possible, and ought never to exceed fifteen degrees. The flatter the throw, the better the projection. In Chicago and other Western cities projection rooms for- merly placed high are now being removed to the main floor. The center beam of light should strike the cen- pj|:* iono ter of the screen at a right angle. Any departure from this condition must produce a distortion that is made manifest in what is called a "key- stone effect." That is, when the beam of light comes from an altitude, the picture will resemble in appearance an inverted keystone, larger at the base than at the top. The higher the altitude the greater the degree of distortion. When the angle" of light is above fifteen degrees the distortion be- comes evident to the eye, and the screen must then be tilted backward to offset this defect. This again affects the view of the spectators in another way, for the screen will not appear to be plumb. Unless the tilting be artfully concealed, it is sure to be detected by the observant. Level conditions for a projection room are rarely feasible in front projection, unless the booth be placed on the main floor. This is not generally done because of its impracticability and the disfigurement that results from placing a pro- jection booth in the main foyer. Rear projec- tion is far preferable where the conditions make it possible. It admits of placing the projection 110 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Avoid High Projection Rooms. Size of Projection Room. booth, with all its heat, noise and danger, com- pletely away from the audience, and also saves the extra electric current required for projection through a lighted auditorium. Where the distance from the machine to the screen is about fifty feet, so that a four-inch E.F. objective lens, or even a larger one, may be used, rear projection is ideal. The projection rays may be confined in a horn shaped, black lined funnel, extending from the projection machine to the screen with the small end of the funnel attached to the projection machine. With rear projection, the film must be placed in the machine with the emulsion side toward it instead of toward the light, which is the practice in front projection. Where the balcony is deep and its rear too high the projection room may be placed on the mezzanine that forms the lower-balcony, with in- dependent means of entrance and exit. The lens and observation ports are then made to face an extra wide tunnel piercing the balcony. Other- wise it should be placed on the rear level of the balcony, with the lens openings sufficiently high to permit the free passage of the light rays eman- ating from these ports above the heads of passers- by. Unless the throw is unusually long the pro- jection room should never be placed like a con- ning turret, high above the rear level of the bal- cony, because of certain evident distortion. A projection room must not be less than forty feet distant from the screen, and, to accommodate Observation MOTION PICTURE THEATRES 111 two machines, should not be less than seven feet high and nine feet square. If three machines are to be employed, the width should be increased to twelve feet. The floor of the projection room must be fire-proof and absolutely rigid, to prevent vibration. Self-closing exit doors, preferably of the gravity sliding type, should be placed on each side of the room. If an ordinary hinged door be used it should swing outward, as usually re- quired by law for all exits. The lens and observation ports should be Lens and Observ** 1 equipped with automatic closing shutters. The Ports - law usually requires that these openings be oper- ated by fusible links to guard against fire. The writer has always entertained a prejudice against fusible links, on the ground that they may, or may not, burn at the critical moment. For this reason he favors an ingenious device em- ployed in Germany, that insures the constant at- tendance of an operator at his post. It is a spe- cial attachment linked to a depressible metal plat- form fitted in the floor, and upon which the operator stands to manipulate his machine. His weight depressing this plate acts through the linked connections as a pedal to hold the shutters open. The instant he abandons his post the re- lief of weight from the platform pulls the link and automatically closes the shutters. In case of sudden fire fright would impel the operator in- stinctively to jump off the platform and thereby 112 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION automatically "close the shutters before the audi- ence become aware of any danger. Where two machines are used, these platforms could be so connected that a person standing on one would depress the other and hold open both sets of ports. If the operator desired to dissolve one picture into another, his assistant, always present by legal requirement, might temporarily stand on one platform while the desired change was made. A Boston ordinance, recognizing the necessity of operators remaining constantly at their post, demands that the light control valve be always held open by an extension spring, so that a steady hand pressure is required to keep it closed and thereby to give light, observation Observation ports are usually designed too small, and at improper heights. To be at all use- ful, an observation port should be about twelve inches wide and six inches high, so that the oper- ator, standing at his machine, two or three feet back from the opening, may see the full screen without craning his neck. The height of the ob- servation port should conform to the height of the operator and the opening should be cut twenty- four inches high. This open space should be fitted with movable metal plates, working in grooves of similar material, one above the other, each six by twelve inches in size. In number, these metal plates should be one less than enough to cover the entire opening, .and a clear glass plate should be employed to cover the space left Ports. MOTION PICTURE THEATRES 113 vacant by the missing metal plate. Many oper- ators, in .addition to covering the observation ports, also cover the lens port with a clear glass plate. This, is, however, an unnecessary prac- tice, and it only provides another dirt collecting glass through which the picture must be pro- jected. The vent flue of the projection room should be Nectary, ample and lead direct to the open. It should be placed immediately above the machine, so as to carry off at once any fumes or smoke resulting from burning film. A flue above each machine would be preferable to a single flue over the en- tire group of machines. It is essential that the vent flue be composed of non-inflammable mate- rials for its entire length, as it is liable to become intensely hot if there should be a serious fire. Perhaps the safest plan would be to construct a double flue with a generous air space between the inner and outer tubes. In addition to the vent flues the projection Ventilation, room should have other ventilation. The operat- ing room is often located directly under a roof of tin or of other material quickly heated by the sun, and with the heat from the machines, the temperature often becomes unbearable. Its ven- tilation, however, should not come from the audi- torium, as that air is already vitiated and over- . heated. An extra fireproof room, directly adjacent to Rewinding the projection room, for rewinding film and for 114 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION other necessary mechanical operations, should also be installed. The exit doors from the pro- jection room should lead directly into and through this ante-room, and there should be exits from this outer room into a section outside of the audi- torium. Fire m Extin- Small chemical tanks should be attached to the guishers. ante-room side of the exit doors from the pro- jection room, with exhaust nozzles penetrating into the interior of the latter room. This will enable the operator in an instant to turn on. the cocks of these tanks and flood the projection room with a fire-extinguishing fluid in case of sudden fire. As a matter of fact, the careful operator should never have a film fire. Such a contingency will not occur if his machine is kept in good working- order clean and well lubricated. In case of an accident, however, there should be buckets well filled with clean sand, and a wet blanket readily at hand to beat out the flame. Main Floor Plan of Model Photoplayhouse (Egyptian) Longitudinal Section of Model Photoplayhouse (Egyptian) 115 ......... . . . . ... - ... Jllil MJJ 116 CHAPTER VIII SAFETY HE general arrangement of a theatre must General Arrangement. T conform to a design which will in every detail provide for the safety of the audi- ence. Safety should have at all times a predom- inance over all other considerations in planning a building of any kind, especially a theatre. In order to insure safety and to obviate tendencies that hinder safe construction four primary prin- ciples must be studied and maintained. First, the building must be completely isolated from other property. Second, the stage must be capable of instant isolation from the auditorium, by the clos- ing of the proscenium opening with a fire-resist- ing curtain. Third, the highest seat in the audi- ence hall must never be higher than the top of the proscenium opening, so that all seats will be as near as possible to the street. This is a con- dition adhered to in London theatre construction, by submerging the main floo* of the auditorium below the street level. Fourth, and last, every department of the theatre must have two inde- pendent exits, preferably one on each side or one at each end, communicating directly with the street. The exits from the .upper sections should have openings only at the top and bottom, with no intermediate doors to confuse patrons in time of danger. The entire plan of the house should 117 118 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Inadequate Fire Laws. Panic, Not Fire, the Real Danger. be simple and symmetrical, each section being separated from the other. Wherever possible, there should be visible signs of safety, not by printed notices that might alarm the^ timid, but by substantial construction designed to give a feeling of security. Where stability is secured thereby, simulation of stronger materials may be employed. For instance, the plastering of interior walls in imitation of solid blocks of Caen stone is effective, for, in addition to impart- ing a sense of security, such plastering is highly decorative. A quarter of a century ago most American cities were without definite laws regulating thea- tre construction. Since then, however, the fre- quency of theatre fires has frightened the authori- ties into forcing upon the American public every- where unjust and inadequate laws, that neither improve the theatre nor safeguard the public. These unwise laws are not only bad in them- selves, but they are usually badly administered by divided authority. A building department re- quires one thing, the health department another, the fire department still another, and a chaos of conflicting regulations is the result. It would be a far more satisfactory arrangement if all of these bodies were consolidated under some central authoritative control, whose dictum would be final. Fire is not the only danger to which theatre patrons are subjected. Experience teaches that in most theatre fire calamities the great majority SAFETY 119 of victims have perished from suffocation as a result of panic, without even having had their clothing scorched. Disregarding the poorly planned theatres with badly arranged or insuffi- cient exits and the theatres constructed with com- bustible materials, careful consideration should be given to the principal causes of theatre fires and panics. According to statistics, compiled by Edwin O. Sachs, a noted architect and an international authority on theatre construction, the average life of a theatre is about eighteen years. This same statistician says that the annual number of thea- tre fires in the United States almost equals the number of similar catastrophes in all of the Euro- pean countries together. Serious theatre fires have an uncanny custom of happening in batches of twos and threes within short periods of .each other. The statistics of Mr. Sachs further indicate Origin! that theatre fires are on the increase and the yearly average is now close to forty. They show that over fifty per cent of theatre conflagrations have . had their origin in or near the stage section, the immediate causes of these fires being defects in gas installation, careless or defective equipment for lighting with gas, unprotected gas lights, de- fects in the heating apparatus, presence of fire- works, explosions, faulty lamps, firing of guns, and errors in electric wiring. The introduction of electricity instead, of gas has not lessened ma- Most Fires. 120 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Avoid Openings to Adjoining Property. terially these causes, as faulty insulation and short-circuits have proved as dangerous as gas defects. Since the stage section is the point where the majority of theatre fires have their origin, it should receive the greatest amount of attention from the builders. The proper construction of the stage, its safe equipment, and the installation of the electric wiring thereon must receive the most thorough attention. No doors, windows or other openings should be allowed in stage walls adjacent to neighboring property, because of the danger of fire from with- out the premises. The same argument serves against the legalized open court with emergency exits leading to it. Emergency exits, being rarely used, are almost useless and likely to produce panic, and should a fire occur in an adjoining property, such exits would be a source of danger, and the open court would become a disadvantage. For this reason European theatres are entirely isolated from surrounding buildings, and open courts not equal to the width of a street are never allowed. In accordance with sane principles for stage construction the proscenium wall, protecting the auditorium from the stage house, should be con- structed absolutely fireproof. Notwithstanding the legal provision made in many states that this wall must be built of heavy brick, substantial hol- low building tile sufficiently heavy to withstand the high water pressure from fire hose is far SAFETY 121 better and safer. This is also true of other heavy walls. The large opening in this wall through which Fire Curtain, the spectators view the stage is now protected, in all theatres, by a fire curtain. The best of these fire curtains are made of sheets of perpen- dicular asbestos cloth, sewn together with pure asbestos sewing twine. The completed curtain should weigh not less than two pounds to the square foot. An asbestos curtain, because of its weight, must have to hold it unusually firm fastenings and brackets securely bolted to the proscenium wall, and the cables holding the curtain should run first over these brackets and then over a head- block to counter-weights that slide in a groove. These weights should be so balanced that the cur- tain may be easily manipulated from either the fly gallery or the stage level by a small manila hand rope. The curtain should overlap the pros- cenium opening on the inside at each end of the arch by not less than eighteen inches. It is a debatable question whether the asbestos Fusible Links curtain, controlled by a fusible link, as required by law, would or would not come down in case of fire. The fire curtain at the fatal Iroquois Theatre fire in Chicago, equipped in this manner, stuck at the critical moment, and allowed the gas and smoke to pour underneath the bottom of the partly closed curtain into the auditorium, asphyxi- ating most of the victims of this sad catastrophe. 122 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Emergency Door in Fire Curtain. Dressing Rooms. It is the conviction of competent authorities that if the lowering of the fire curtain depended upon an attendant rather than upon the automatic ac- tion of a fusible link, it would be far more certain of operation. It is better to have the asbestos curtain dis- guised by pictorial decoration, so as not to create alarm whenever it is lowered to test its working condition. A small fireproof door installed in this curtain is also most desirable, for should a panic occur and the curtain be dropped the immediate appearance of some responsible person on the stage would be of invaluable aid in quieting the audience. Anyone with sufficient presence of mind to use this door would be likely to have enough composure to demand the immediate at- tention of an audience and might by reassuring advice prevent a panic. The vast quantity of inflammable articles usu- ally assembled on the stage also increases the lia- bility of fire. Such articles should be thoroughly fireproofed, and where it is impossible to con- struct them of incombustible materials precaution should be taken that they are separated widely enough to prevent a general conflagration in case of a sudden blaze in one stage section. Carpen- ter shops, scene docks and storage rooms should also be separated from each other, and the boiler room should be isolated from the stage itself. For the sake of convenience dressing rooms are usually installed on the side or rear of the SAFETY 123 stage section behind fireproof walls. Although the laws of some cities forbid it, there is no rea- son why well ventilated dressing rooms should not be placed underneath an orchestra floor, if a safe mode of egress be provided. The skylights over the stage, controlled by the fjjjg of fusible links usually prescribed by law, are of very doubtful value. It would be far better to substitute large automatic ventilators in the stage roof for the escape of gas and smoke, as the ac- cumulation of gas generated by fire and its subse- quent explosion on the stage might blow the pros- cenium wall into the auditorium in an incredibly short space of time. If it be inconvenient or un- sightly to furnish similar ventilation in the audi- torium ceiling, vent-flues could be placed high above the stage opening in the proscenium wall to insure better air circulation. The air circulat- ing at this height would form a draught strong enough to clear the hall of gas or smoke in time of conflagration and in normal times serve as an ex- cellent means of ventilating the auditorium. Every theatre should be equipped with the most improved and modern devices for quickly detect- ing, suppressing or reporting fires, and each mana- ger should insist on a daily fire drill. Regular examinations by fire experts should also be made of all safety devices, fire alarms; standpipes, chemical tanks and ventilators; and the clearance of all exits and entrances should be strictly super- vised and enforced. f 124 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Escape for Actors Safety of Audience. Proper provision should be made for the safety of the actors and the stage personnel by the estab- lishment of ample and well-lighted passageways, with stairways and exits leading directly from the stage and dressing J*o0ms to the open on either side of the theatre. As a substitute for stairs a continuous slide, similar to those provided at amusement parks, would be an excellent innova- tion for the use of actors and stage hands, who could be easily rehearsed in its use. The fly galleries and rigging loft, too, should have iron ladders' or stairways on each side of the stage, leading therefrom as a means of pro- tection to the workmen there employed. Greater safety for the stage section can be secured by good planning and construction than by any other means. Where it is possible iron construction should take the place of wood, and the ventilating apparatus should be always kept in perfect work- ing order. EXITS. Although the auditorium- is less liable to fire, the safety of the audience, nevertheless, is of su- preme importance. The first problem to be con- sidered in this connection is that of exits. The exits of a theatre embrace all avenues of egress, including the entrance lobby, foyer, all passages and stairways, in fact, the various routes that the persons therein must travel to escape in time of danger. A theatre fire may become fatal SAFETY 125 within five minutes from the time of its discovery, and it is therefore vitally important that proper and sufficient means be supplied to provide speedy exit in such emergencies. Even if the alarm should prove to be false similar provision is necessary to prevent death and injury from panic. The distribution of exits depends entirely on Lobby and , . . Foyer. the plan of the theatre and the nature of its site. The problem of quick and safe departure rests largely on a proper sub-division of the various de- partments, each sub-division having direct inde- pendent means of egress on both sides of the building. In no case should exit passages meet or cross one another. The number and size of exits must be determined wholly by the seating capacity of the theatre. The principal avenue of escape is the entrance The Entrance lobby, which should be well arranged and free Foyen an from obstruction. An intermediate avenue, and the next in importance, is the foyer. The natural means of escape that a panic-stricken audience will seek is the one by which they entered and with which they are thoroughly familiar. This would be through the lobby and foyer. Accord- ingly, these should be planned large enough for such emergencies, and the most useful design in this connection for a foyer is that of a semi-cir- cular inclosed passage surrounding the rear and the rear sides of an audience hall. The foyer should be from eight to ten feet wide in the rear section and five or six feet in 126 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION width at the sides (depending on the capacity of the auditorium). This will afford ample room for the escape of a frenzied mob in time of panic and allow sufficient promenade space on normal occasions. The building laws of the city of New York demand a space sixteen feet wide behind the last row of seats on the main floor as a means of escape. Such an enactment was possibly prompted by a praiseworthy desire to give ample room for the patrons to pause in their flight and ponder over the best means of escape, though this is a most unlikely action on their part. The inclosing of the foyer passage will aid in excluding from it smoke or gas in time of fire and will also limit the sound area of the audi- torium during the performance. It will, in addi- tion, allow the passage to be independently lighted and ventilated, both desirable conditions in times of panic, width of The minimum width of an exit for 500 persons is usually five feet, with an additional twenty inches for each 100 persons in excess of that number. All exit doors should have panic bolts and swing outward, and each door should be plainly labeled so that no mistake can be made. Cloak room or toilet door should also be marked as such to avoid their being mistaken for emer- gency doors. In the opinion of the writer nar- rower exit doors and a greater number of them would be more desirable than wide exit doors. Two exits three feet wide are worth more than SAFETY 127 one exit six feet wide, as people are less likely to stumble in a narrow way and more people could pass through the two exits. All stairways should be direct and of ample stairways, width. They should not lead to other stairs, and where possible should have the same formation on both sides of the building. All stairs should have uniform treads and risers to prevent stumbling, and all balcony aisle steps should be illuminated in the manner described under the head of "Light- ing" for the same reason. The factory law in many of our states requires Anti-Smoke r i t 7 1 Towers. anti-smoke or fire towers in factories and schools, but no law has yet prescribed the same regulation for theatres. Such towers, having large doors equipped with panic bolts at each level, -would be far more efficient for a hurried escape than the open grille type of exterior fire escape now in general use. These towers, inclosed in fire-resist- ing walls, could easily be placed in the forward corners on both sides of the auditorium, in place of the unsightly stage boxes now in vogue, and provided with emergency stairs or even sliding chutes similar to those described for the escape of actors and stage employes. The remaining space might be devoted to convenient toilets, thus eliminating useless box recesses that produce im- perfect acoustics. The vista openings now used for stage boxes could then be covered by orna- mental wall panels that would artistically assist in focusing attention on the stage. 128 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION ALLEYS OR OPEN COURTS. The dark alleys or open courts usually required by law in no way insure safety for theatre patrons in time of danger. These alleys, except where they provide means of egress for actors and stage hands, are a waste of valuable space. Terror- stricken crowds only seek 'ways of escape with which they are familiar, and nothing in the his- tory of theatre fires gives assurance that these alleys are useful even for firemen. The question of open courts is also a serious \ one financially. With a plot ioo feet square, valued at $300,000, an alley 10 feet wide on either side reduces the productive area to 7200 square feet, and a space of 2800 square feet, valued in the same ratio at $84,000, is rendered absolutely unproductive. Fire Escapes. The open grille type of fire escape, which also \ was provided to satisfy a whimsical requirement of the law, is a frightful source of danger rather! than an aid to escape. Timid people balk at the risk of going on to its latticed platform in time of danger, and thus may create a temporary block- ade. In such a situation, should the high heel of a woman's shoe be caught between these iron slats (as it might easily do), a catastrophe might be precipitated. And the raw iron of which these firel escapes are composed is a rapid conductor and a lasting conservator of heat, that easily might be heated to a high degree without outwardly betray- SAFETY 129 ing its actual condition. The author recalls an instance of a victim of such a disaster, suddenly aroused from his sleep by an alarm of fire, who in a dazed effort to escape clambered through the bedroom window on to an open fire escape highly heated by intermittent blasts of flame from a win- dow below, and amid agonizing cries for help was barely rescued by the daring efforts of a heroic fireman from being grilled alive on this innocent appearing superheated gridiron. AUDITORIUM. The aisles of an audience hall should be ample and increase in width toward the exits. The rows of seats should be spaced sufficiently far apart (thirty-six inches from back to back) to insure free passage, and each seat should be firmly fas- tened to the floor. The main floor aisles should never have risers, but should be formed with a gradual incline.. Large balconies, if approached from the rear Balconies - of the auditorium, should be pierced by entrance tunnels leading from a mezzanine floor to the cross passage behind the front loggias. In addi- tion, the stairways should be continued from the mezzanine floor, on either side of the house, to the upper level of the balcony. In motion picture houses, the entrance to or exit from the machine booth should be independent of the auditorium. If conditions permit, a large circular or oval panel, divisible into two sections and capable of 130 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION being readily opened to the sky, should be in- stalled in the middle of the ceiling of the audi- torium as a decorative ornament. Otherwise, vent flues should be supplied in the roof of the stage house and connected with the auditorium by large ventilators. SPRINKLER SYSTEM. Patented Some adequate provision should be made to Sprinkler 111 1 t System. deluge the stage with water in case of an out- break of fire in that section. Should fire occur in the dressing or other rooms, chemical extin- guishing tanks are the best known aid in confined areas. The excessive cost of installing an elabo- rate so-called "patent" sprinkler system compels the serious consideration of a home-made substi- tute.. The regular sprinkler systems on the market works automatically by excessive heat melting an alloy composition sealing the sprink- ler heads, thereby releasing the water constantly held in the pipes. This sealing substance melts at a temperature of about 1 10 degrees Fahrenheit, and when the water is once released nothing but an exhaustion of the supply can arrest it. This automatic device has the doubtful advan- tage of working whether any one is present or not, although it is difficult to conceive of a theatre ever being without a watchman on guard. Should it go off by reason of heat generated under tin or glass roofs, or for other causes than heat from| SAFETY - 131 fire, irreparable damage might be done before the flood could be arrested. A home-made contrivance, consisting of two Home-Made . System. three-inch iron standpipes located on each side of the stage and embedded in the walls that will feed three parallel perforated one-inch pipes, sus- pended horizontally above the flies, would be cheaper and more reliable. These pipes should be kept empty except in times of fire, when water could be turned on from the stage, or from out- side the building by means of double valves pene- trating the exterior walls. For safety from interference, these valves could be installed in glass-fronted box inclosures, to be broken by a blow when necessary. If brass or bronze pipes are used for the overhead sprinkler pipes, five rows of small holes may be drilled in each, about three or four inches apart, without fear of corrosion. The. undermost row should be drilled perpendicularly through the pipe and the uppermost row at an angle of 45 degrees, the two intermediate rows being midway between the two first described rows, and drilled at corre- sponding angles. Such a distribution would afTord a wide and ample range of water spray from each pipe. If the pipes used are of iron they are subject to corrosion, and brass nozzles or some equally ef- fective sprinkler head must be employed to pre- vent the holes from clogging with rust. Similar sprinklers should also be provided for the large workshops and storage rooms. 132 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Disadvantages of Hose Installation. Water Curtain. In the absence of a sufficient local water pres- sure for such a system a standard automatic air- pressure water tank could be employed in pref- ence to erecting an unsightly gravity tank on the roof. These air pressure tanks are much cheaper to install than gravity tanks, and the air pressure that forces the water upward is easily replenished by a few weekly plunges of a hand pump or they may be automatically regulated by a small motor. The placing of hose on reels or racks for use in stage fires is without reason; first, because in the event of a sudden and serious fire the person to seek safety without waiting might be the very one relied upon to use the hose ; secondly, because pure rubber hose, the quality usually recom- mended, is quickly ruined by dry-rot after it has been hanging unusued for a short time. But if hose must be bought, it is best to purchase cot- ton hose, as this kind is the cheapest and most durable. In many theatre fires the hose has been discovered reposing undisturbed on its rack after the fire has been extinguished and the damage done. The city of Boston advocates the use of a patented fan-tail nozzle which, when attached to either a high or low pressure standpipe, spreads a huge fanlike spray that serves as a water curtain. With a fire-resisting roof, solid fireproof party walls, metal exterior doors and metal framed out- SAFETY 133 side windows glazed with wired glass, combined with a close observance of the foregoing precau- tions, any well planned and properly constructed theatre will be immune from fire calamities. Longitudinal Section Plan of Orchestra Well Model Orchestra Well at Wagner Opera House, Bayreuth View of Model Small Photoplayhouse with Lobby Underneath the Stage For Description and Diagrams See Pages 213-218 134 CHAPTER IX COMFORT MUCH of the comfort of a theatre is de- pendent upon the management. Since amusement is largely a psychological problem, neither the line read on the stage nor the scene there depicted is of primary importance. It is the impression produced upon the spectator's mind that is the underlying factor. A favorable impression can be made only when the mind is serene and receptive and not when it is preoc- cupied or distracted. It is therefore the duty of the manager to Low Prices J t as an Aid to cultivate mental receptivity in his audience. His Success, principal opportunity to do this is through the comfort he provides and the price at which he provides it. The public today is too wise to be deluded into a belief that increased prices of ad- mission are an assurance of the quality of a per- formance. On the other hand, an unfavorable mental bias is created by a high entrance fee. No one ever heard a complaint about the performance at a twenty-five cent circus, although the same show costing fifty cents might be termed vile. Uniforming each attendant, no matter what his A "oufd te Be ai in S position, is another advantage that will insure Uniform - courtesy in employes and thereby largely con- tribute toward the patrons' satisfaction. Proper heating and ventilation also help. 135 136 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Cloak Room Necessary. Convenient Toilets Essential. CLOAK ROOMS. In failing to supply ample and convenient cloak room space American theatre management is sadly at fault. Inadequate cloak-hanging space is usually supplied in some out-of-the-way corner with but one attendant, -or two at the most. In Germany it is legally required that there shall be one meter (39 inches) counter space for deposit- ing and receiving wraps for every twenty persons of the theatre's capacity and a separate hook for each seat in the house. These cloak rooms also must not interfere with exit passages. By the display of a little ingenuity ample pro- vision for cloak rooms could be easily made in America, with little or no loss of seating space. Spaces in the foyer underneath the balcony stairs and against the side walls afford excellent oppor- tunities for counter space, with coat-hanging con- veniences behind them. The attendance of suf- ficient maids, to obviate tedious waiting, is also necessary. TOILETS. Suitable and conveniently located toilets, though vitally necessary for the comfort of theatre pa- trons, are insufficiently provided in most Ameri- can theatres. These toilets should not be placed at the foot or the top of narrow flights of stairs, but in accessible positions. A most? convenient plan would be to install toi- lets in the space now occupied by stage boxes, Passage Space. COMFORT 137 alongside the emergency stairs of the anti-smoke tower; toilets for men on one side, and for wo- men on the other side. These toilets should be adequately equipped to meet the needs of the pa- trons, and the ladies' toilet should have the cus- tomary separate room with mirrors and other fa- cilities for arranging the hair and dress. Proper toilets should also be placed in the stage section for the use of actors and those engaged behind the curtain. SEATING. It is in the matter of comfortable seating that widened American theatres are most deficient. England, though lacking in aisle space, offers the most com- fortable seating in the world because of a legal provision for ample passage room between seat rows. The law in that country demands that all seats be spaced 36 inches from back to back, in- stead of the 32 inches which is the maximum width in this country. To add to that passage space low-backed chairs are employed similar to those indicated in the accompanying cut. It is therefore unnecessary for anyone to arise to per- mit the passage of a neighbor, and it is extremely doubtful if an Englishman's ideas of personal rights would allow him to stand merely to accom- modate a greedy management. This extra space allowance of four inches to each row would mean the loss of the last two rows of seats in an auditorium of twenty rows; a tri- fling decrease compared with the satisfaction and 138 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Low Backed Chair Better. increased patronage it would secure. Imagine the luxury of never having one's attention to an absorbing play disturbed by having to arise to permit the passage of a neighbor. The character of the seats themselves is also a matter of first importance. The diagram show- ing the increased space taken up by a high-backed chair that leans backward as compared with the low-backed and more comfortable one before re- ferred to clearly indicates that several inches are gained for each low chair used. Health also demands an erect posture, whether sitting, standing or walking, and every chair should be nearly upright and modeled with only a slight curve to fit the back and support the spine at its lumbar region. The high-backed chairs generally used in America invite a slouching, un- COMFORT 139 healthful attitude besides requiring additional space. There should be plenty of aisles for hasty exit Ample Aisles r J J Necessary. from the theatre, and no seat should have more than six other seats on either side intervening be- tween it and the aisle. The wider the seats the more comfortable they will be. Width of seats, however, is not so important as width between rows. With a mean width of from 20 to 22 inches side Boxeg. for each seat and an average. of four feet each for center or intermediate aisles, and three and one-half feet for side aisles, an ideal auditorium would be from seventy to seventy-five feet wide between the side boxes or about ninety feet be- tween walls without side boxes. When side boxes are installed only seven seats may be used in the extreme side sections, as the seats then abut against the box fronts and are consequently closed at that end. The use of side boxes transfers the side aisles to the space behind the boxes, where it should be widened to form an inclosed foyer. Wide auditoriums are preferable to narrow ones, as they allow more seating near .the stage and decrease the relative distance to be traveled to the exit doors in times of panic. Where it is possible the middle section of the auditorium, which is the one affording the best view of the stage, should be utilized for seats instead of for a middle aisle. Closed boxes in the rear of the audience hall 140 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION value of and sometimes at the rear of the balcony give a Inclosed t i Rear Boxes, more finished and cosey appearance to a theatre, and their inclosure helps to confine the acoustic space within better limits. Open loggias are also an excellent decorative feature for the front of a balcony; and they serve to popularize the really best seats in the theatre, especially in a picture house. Extra wide passages should be provided in the rear of these loggias so that patrons may enter them freely. Tip-up chairs, preferably with folding arms that close with the action of the seat and thereby grant extra space for thoroughfare, are most de- sirable. If upholstered in leather or a good imi- tation of leather they are cooler and more com- fortable than when covered with tapestry or plush. Close-woven cane chairbacks and seats are also sanitary and cool. Chairs upholstered in plush, besides being hot and uncomfortabe, har- bor disease germs and dirt. SANITATION. Besides good ventilation there are other fea- tures pertaining to health and aiming toward the comfort of theatre patrons that should have at- tention. The use of soiled or heavy carpets for floors, cloth -upholstered furniture, cloth wall cov- erings, or heavy draperies, in all of which dirt and disease-germs are , bound to lurk, should be avoided. The drainage and plumbing of a thea- tre, too, should always be of the best, and all COMFORT 141 refuse or. rubbish should be removed promptly and regularly. The theatre itself and every thing about it should be constantly kept clean and in a sanitary condition. As contributory to this end it would be well to institute a system of periodi- cal inspections that would promote the health and comfort of the patrons and staff. Model Plan of Schauspielhaus, Stuttgart, Germany CHAPTER X. HEATING AND VENTILATION. THESE two subjects are so inter-related and so dependent one upon the other that it is difficult to disassociate them. Perfection in both substantially adds to the comfort of those attending the theatre. Fresh air is a prime neces- sity of life. Man can live for days without wa- ter, and for weeks without food, but without air he cannot live more than a few minutes. A con- stantly renewed supply of air at the right tem- perature is therefore essential. Considering that good ventilation is the first rule of hygiene it is astonishing that hardly a theatre in America is equipped with any scientific method of ventila- tion, good, bad or indifferent, although there are many excellent systems on the market. In the discussion of these two subjects the first to be treated will be heat. Heat is not a substance ; it is a condition set up by an incessant movement among the restless tiny molecules that compose all matter. The demand for artificial heat de- pends largely upon climatic conditions and the habits of the people in the community. In Europe 59 degrees Fahrenheit is considered comfortable; in America the custom is to maintain about 70 degrees. The general requirements of a heating and ventilating plant for a theatre are: 142 HEATING AND VENTILATION 143 (i) Uniform distribution of heat, and the pre- vention of its waste by premature escape. (2) A thorough diffusion of fresh air through- out the zone in which persons breathe, and a provision for avoiding perceptible currents of either warm or cold air.> (3) A prompt removal of all foul air. The methods of heating now in vogue may be Methods of Heating. divided into two general classes direct and in- direct radiation. The one that we shall consider is direct radiation. There are three means of producing heat by direct radiation: by hot air, steam or hot water. To produce heat by hot air requires a special furnace, which is difficult to regulate and is not sufficiently reliable for thea- tres. Heating by hot water, while it costs more to install, because of the increased number of fittings, is a trifle cheaper to operate, but it is not suitable for theatres because of the likelihood of its freez- ing'in cold weather. Steam is therefore the only remaining system. The following table of the relative cost of each method may aid in the process of elimination: Hot Hot Air Steam Water Relative initial cost of apparatus 9 13 15 Relative cost of operation for five years 29^4 29 27 . It would appear from this table that direct steam steam heating is the best system to meet all the heating requirements mentioned before. The principal advantage is its ability to heat uni- 144 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION formly, regardless of wind action. It is the cheap- est and quickest and is also comparatively im- mune from freezing. Direct steam is broadly divided into two general classes, the gravity cir- culating system and the mechanical circulating system, the distinguishing characteristics being the manner in which the condensation water formed in the radiators is returned to the boiler. In the first type the condensate enters the boiler by gravity, and in the second type the condensate is returned to a receiver and is then forced into the boiler by a pump or return traps. Direct steam heating also lends itself to combination with other systems by means that will be considered later. The law usually requires: that heater rooms shall not be located under the auditorium, stage, lobby or exits of the theatre. Amount of To install a heating apparatus it will first be Required. necessary to ascertain the amount of heat required for a given building. To compute the number of feet of direct radiation required for a building, divide the cubic contents of the various rooms by the following factors : Divide by Dressing rooms, one side exposed 40 to 50 Dressing rooms, two sides exposed '. . .30 to 40 Auditorium 60 to 100 Where there are windows, doors or other ex- posures employ the lower divisor above quoted The heat in an auditorium should be consider- ably lessened or turned off completely after the audience is seated, except where mechanical pro- 146 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION vision is made for introducing fresh heated air to replace the heated foul air constantly being expelled. STEAM HEATING PLANTS. Steam heating plants are divided into three distinct parts; the boiler or steam generator, the radiators, and the supply and return pipes con- - necting the two. The best boiler is the tubular boiler. There are many varieties of this useful type of boiler, the horizontal and upright tubular boiler and the firebox type of tubular boiler. Horizontal tubular boilers are largely used for factories and power plants, and the upright tubu- lar boiler lacks the capacity of the fire-box type, which requires no brick setting and is cheaper to install than other forms of tubular boilers. The cast-iron sectional boiler in common use also has not the capacity nor stability necessary for heating a large theatre. For indications for setting a boiler, see the dia : gram on Page 145 showing the heating of a theatre. The following table, compiled by the Atlas Engineering Works, Indianapolis, Ind., may aid in the selection of the size of boiler re- quired : PROPORTIONS OF HORIZONTAL TUBULAR BOILERS: SHELL THICKNESS TUBES Nom. Heat Grate Rated Diam. Length Shell Heads Diam. Length Surf. Surf H.P. Inc. feet Inc. Inc. No. Inc. feet sq. ft. sq. ft 15 36 8 % H 26 3 8 214 5.8 20 36 10 Va H 26 3 10 266 8.3 25 36 12 Va Vs 26 3 12 318 9.5 HEATING AND VENTILATION 147 Nom. Rated H.P. Diam. Inc. Length Shell feet Inc. Heads Inc. Diam. No. Inc. Length feet Heat Surf, sq. ft. Grate Surf sq. ft. 30 40 12 Va H 34 3 12 404 .12 35 42 12 % 7-16 40 3 12 464 12.8 40 46 12 9-32 7-16 42 3 12 491 14.6. 45 48 12 9-32 7-16 48 3 12 551 15.3 50 48 14 5-16 7-16 40 3/2 14 630 16. 55 52 14 5-16 y 44 sy 2 14 693 16.7 60 54 14 5-16 'A 46 3/2 14 721 18. 70 54 16 5-16 y* 40 4 16 817 20.8 75 60 14 11-32 V2 62 3/2 14 940 21.5 85 60 16 11-32 A 52 4 16 1045 22.2 100 66 16 Vs V* 64 4 16 1265 25. 125 72 16 7-16 y* 82 4 16 1578 29.5 150 72 18 7-16 V2 82 4 18 1775 36.5 The size and location of the boiler pit and other minor details should be left to the discretion of the heating contractor.' CHIMNEYS. A necessary adjunct to the boiler will be the Chimney ,-.'-. . the Lungs chimney, which is required for two purposes : to of Building produce the necessary draught for the proper combustion of fuel and to furnish a means of discharging noxious products of combustion high in the air. In other words, the chimney is the lungs of the building. In countries like France and Germany, where waste is a social or com- mercial crime, no building may be erected with- out the height and area of the chimney being passed upon by an official board. There is no more important feature in a house, nor one that will cause greater loss than an improperly built chimney, or effect greater saving than a correctly 148 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION built one no matter what kind of heating de- vice or fuel be used. The burning coal must get the correct amount of air it decomposes in order to throw off the proper amount of heat. Fiue Area. The value of a chimney flue depends on its area and height. It is better to have a chimney flue generous in area and height, than to build it too small, for a flue can be choked down by dampers if the draught be too strong, but if it be too small it is always a failure. Improper draughts often may be corrected by a change of coal; large or coarse coal being employed to strengthen the draught and small coal to retard it. All chimneys should extend above the highest part of the roof and be topped with a shifting cowl that will turn the outlet away from the ad- verse air currents and thereby promote better draught. A round chimney is a better form than a square one, and a straight flue better than a tapering one. Most chimneys are built of brick, lined with vitrified flues. In constructing a chim- ney four feet or more in diameter it is cheaper to build it circular with a straight batter on the out- side. Chimneys of great height are not built uniform in size from top to bottom nor with a uniformly varying thickness of wall. Instead, the wall, heav- iest at the base, is reduced by a series of steps as it ascends. Large chimneys are built with an outer stack and an inner tube or core, indepen- dent of the outer one, with an air space between. HEATING AND VENTILATION 149 Many engineers extend the inside core, which is designed for fire safety, only to a height of forty or fifty feet. All chimney flues should be ample in size, should start at a point three or four feet below the smoke-pipe entrance, and should have clean-out doors at the bottom for the removal of dust and soot. The size of flue required may be calculated from the following table : Total contents Aver, of direct Size of Diam. Brick of building radiation in flues in of flues in cu. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft. round inside 10,000 to 20,000 200 to 400 8^x8^ 8 8x8 25,000 to 50,000 450 to 900 8^x13 10 8x12 60,000 to 100,000 1000 to 1600 13x13 12 12x12 100,000 to 150,000 1600 to 3000 18x18 16 16x16 FUEL. The value of fuel is estimated by the number Fel J Values. of heat units generated by its combustion. The fuels generally used in heating are composed of carbon, hydrogen and ash, with sometimes small quantities of other substances not materially af- fecting its value. Anthracite coal, when not freely mixed with ash, produces 14.70 heat units; semi- bituminous coal, 13.70 heat units, and soft coal, from 12 to 13 heat units. Slack, the screenings from coal, burned by means of a grate glower adapted for that purpose, is nearly equal in value of combustion to regular coal, but its percentage of refuse is greater. In reckoning the cost of fuel, it may safely be assumed that the intensity 150 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION of the fire will be nearly the same for all kinds of combustibles under like conditions. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING PLANT. Retum y pi e ^ single return pipe system, utilizing the same system. pjp e f or f re sh steam and its return to the boiler after condensation, may be cheaper to install, but it has the disadvantage of liability to sudden stop- page because of the steam and water constantly flowing through the same pipe in opposite direc- tions. Substituting for the one-pipe return sys- tem a two-pipe gravity system will assure more satisfactory results. In the latter system, steam flows from the boiler through risers and is con- veyed to the radiators by suitable steam branches, and the water formed by condensed steam travels back to the boiler by means of a small con- densation tube. The large branches conveying steam to the ra- diator are placed in a horizontal position, except where the radiator is a considerable distance from .the riser. In this case the branch is so inclined that the condensation water within it will flow to the radiator, at which point it is emptied by a small relief pipe into the return branch, to pre- vent water from accumulating in the radiator. The return pipe, through which all condensation- water is returned to the boiler, is so inclined that all water will flow back by gravity to the boiler, to be again converted into steam. Widely adver- tised exhaust and vacuum systems, utilizing the / HEATING AND VENTILATION 151 waste steam, are usually costly, as they entail the expense of installing high-priced patented appa- ratus. The gravity system just described will ire- quire pipe coils or radiators with piping, and piped connections for the steam mains and re- turns. Genuine wrought-iron pipe endures long- est and is by far the best material to employ. There are scores of good connections on the mar- ket, but valveless ones are the most desirable. The radiators in common use are made of cast-iron. Double column radiators -offer the most exposed heating surface and therefore give the most heat. A light-weight pressed-metal radiator that is easily attached to the wall, and, because of its smooth surface, easily cleaned, has recently come to notice, but sufficient time, however, has not elapsed to test thoroughly its durability. VENTILATION. Ventilation as applied to a theatre is the proc- ess of supplying an adequate amount of fresh air, warmed or cooled to a proper temperature, in such a manner that the air circulation will be constant and thorough in all parts of the audi- torium without the creation of draughts. The most important elements of ventilation are Motion and 1 1 1 r 1 i Coolness motion, coolness and a prcper degree of humidity Necessary and freshness. Cross ventilation, too, is essential whenever practicable. Air should never be al- lowed to become stagnant. Vitiated or overheated 152 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION air produces drowsiness and dullness of the men- tal faculties. While our respiratory organs are naturally developed for a life in the open air, advanced civilization has reversed this condition, and we are forced to provide artificial means to correct the evil effects produced by confined areas. Composition The primary object of ventilation is the re- moval of vitiated air and the substitution of fresh air, and this may be done by natural or mechani- cal means. The average person consumes in six- teen respirations about a cubic foot of air per minute. This air, at a temperature and humidity of 70 degrees, is composed of about one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. By the process of respiration about one-fifth, or twenty per cent, of the oxygen is lost in the formation of car- bonic acid gas. Air thus vitiated and constantly diffused throughout the auditorium is wholly un- . fit for use. Were it possible to expel the carbonic acid gas from the auditorium without taking large quanti- ties of otherwise pure air with it the problem of ventilation would be simplified.' Because of the rapid diffusion of carbonic acid gas it is neces- sary, in order to maintain a safe atmospheric value in the auditorium, to flood it with freshened air. Good country air contains about four parts of carbonic acid gas in every 10,000 parts. If a standard of double this amount, say about eight parts of carbonic acid gas in 10,000, could be HEATING AND VENTILATION 153 maintained in a theatre it would be considered fairly satisfactory. The amount of fresh air re- quired for a theatre is from 1500 to 2000 cubic feet per hour per person. The manner in which fresh air is supplied to JJ^jf^*} 1 an auditorium is more important than the amount i m po r * ant - of supply, as air that traverses a room without reaching the breathing zone is of no practical value. One thousand cubic feet of air well dis- tributed is worth ten times that amount intro- duced without mixing with the air in the breath- ing zone. Few theatre patrons realize that they inhale for about three hours the vitiated exhalations of those seated about them. Many of them are fastidious persons who insist upon drinking filtered water from sanitary cups, and yet they do not object to paying for seats in a germ-laden atmosphere often so foul that it gives off .an offensive odor. The importance of coolness in temperature is JfJgJJJSJ usually as little appreciated as the importance of motion. A water spray to cleanse the air before it is introduced into the auditorium has a bene- ficial effect on the comfort of theatre patrons, as it serves to extract dust from the air that may irritate the mucous membrane of the respiratory organs, making it susceptible to disease germs. A water spray also increases the amount of hu- midity in the air, thereby rendering it cooler in the warm summer months. If the water of the spray also be artificially cooled, the air passing Infiltration. Natural System for Small Houses. 154 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION through it will naturally be rendered still cooler, change of j n theatres heated by direct radiation, where freshened air is not mechanically supplied, there will be a natural change of air amounting to from one to three complete renewals per hour, because of air infiltration. The quantity of air thus in- troduced depends largely on the arrangement, character and location of the various openings. Small theatres may be reasonably well venti- lated by means of exhaust ventilators. For addi- tional ventilation in the winter months, a heavy galvanized-iron smoke flue, set like a core in the center of a large chimney, may be employed. The heat rising through the inner core will create an upward draught that will carry off the vitiated air through the outer space surrounding the core as rapidly as it is admitted through outlets from the auditorium. For larger theatres, or for per- fect ventilation in smaller ones, any so-called natural system of ventilation is about as good as no system at all. To understand properly ventilation a knowl- edge of air circulation is necessary. The effect of heat on air is to increase its volume and dimin- ish its density. Heated or vitiated air rises be- cause of this lessened density, and the simplest method of exhausting such air is by means of mechanical exhaust ventilators installed in the ceiling. There are many forms of these auto- matic ventilators, but the best in common use is the siphon type. A reliable means also in exhaust HEATING AND VENTILATION 155 ventilation is a propeller fan encased in a pent- house equipped with a shutter arrangement that closes and overlaps by gravity and opens with the force of the outgoing air current. If it be necessary to employ a duct to convey exhausted air from the blower or fan to the outside air the duct must be equal in diameter to the cross- section of the fan. As vitiated air is expelled from the auditorium by blowers or fans, a lower pressure is created in the audience hall than that which exists outside, and fresh air will naturally rush in through the doors, and fresh air openings to replace what is forced out. While this may be very satisfactory in the summer months, the draughts of cold air would be decidedly uncomfortable in the colder months. This in a measure may be corrected by the introduction of fresh air through a lobby heated by radiators or through fresh air inlets conveniently arranged behind wall radiators. However, the best system for heating and ven- The Plenum tilating a theatre is the one termed the plenum or forced-draught system, where the air is taken from the outside into an isolated chamber, there heated or cooled for use, and forced by blower fans into the auditorium. This chamber may be established either at the top of the auditorium, or in the basement under- neath as shown on the heating diagram on Page 145. Its adoption entails a modification of the direct radiation system, combined with other 156 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Washing the Air. methods, and provides heating and ventilation simultaneously. It also admits of a mechanical provision for- washing the air before it is blown into the auditorium. In such a system the fresh air is drawn from the outer air through a fresh air inlet, composed of louvers or shutters that may be closed by a damper, the opening itself being proportionate in size to that of the fan and the capacity of the theatre. It is better, if possible, to locate this inlet high enough above ground to prevent the outside dust from entering it. The air is then passed by suc- tion through an inclosed dry screen air filter to specially designed radiators in winter, and in sum- mer over an improvised ice box containing large cakes of ice. After being conditioned in this manner it is forced by the same paddlewheel fan into galvanized iron ducts that lead to the audi- HEATING AND VENTILATION 157 ence hall. In some systems the air is washed by a water spray, heated in winter and cooled in summer. To prevent draughts, the air is admitted into g'augh*?* the auditorium through tiny covered mushroom outlets installed beneath the seats. There are sev- eral large firms that install this air-conditioning outfit complete, but a home-devised arrangement of the description indicated on the before men- tioned diagram will answer the same purpose. To construct and equip this home-made plenum chamber, have a tinsmith make a correctly sized set of galvanized-iron shutters or louvers regu- lated by an ordinary damper, and install it, cov- ered by a coarse wire netting, in the outer wall at the point indicated in the diagram. Then partition off a space for the installation of an air filter. This consists of two rows of circular wood uprights placed five feet apart and secured to the floor and ceiling. Fasten from top to bottom a tightly stretched chicken wire netting in zig-zag fashion, the purpose of this netting being to support a removable cheesecloth screen of the same size tacked to the circular uprights. These cloth filters should be made of wide strips of cheesecloth sewn together, and are intended to lie tightly against the wire netting. The total area of the filtering space thus exposed should be about ten times the sectional area of the louver inlet. These cloth filter sheets should be removed 158 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION at intervals, and thoroughly cleansed and dried before being replaced. Provide two openings, one above the other, leading into the heating and cooling spaces, with a non-heat-conducting partition between the openings regulated by a damper arrangement. In the upper space place bent cast-iron heating coils made up in sections for the purpose of heat- ing the air by steam, and in the lower space place an ordinary zinc-lined wooden box with a drip pipe draining it. In the winter heat is admitted to any desired number of sections of heat- ing coils, to give a temperature of from 60 to 70 degrees to the filtered air. In the summer the filtered air is passed directly through the lower space over cakes of ice deposited in the ice box Should heat at any time be desired, a portion of the filtered air may be admitted through the space above, heated or not, as the conditions require, increasing If the humidity of the air is to be increased. the Humidity . J \ of the Air. a s is often desirable m cold weather, the heating engineer should attach to the top of a heater pipe, a long, shallow, open cast-iron receptacle filled with water to moisten the air by evapora- tion. The alternative is to install a standard humidifier, a costly fixture. At a temperature of 70 degrees humidity at from 40 to 50 degrees is most pleasant. After the air is properly conditioned and blown into the auditorium through parallel ducts and HEATING AND VENTILATION 159 the tiny mushroom outlets, it will circulate to- ward the stage, as shown on the diagram. Reach- ing the stage opening it will encounter a cooler current supplied for stage heating by direct radi- ation, and then will curve upward as indicated by the small arrows, and escape through ceiling ven- tilators or main outlets provided for that purpose. Care should be taken to regulate the tempera- Tlm Ul eratSre f ture introduced so that the air supplied on the stage will form a cooler air blanket than that furnished to the auditorium, thereby insuring a circulation of conditioned air in the audience hall. A proper distribution of mushroom floor vents on the main floor will prevent appreciable draughts, and horizontally-placed vents in the balcony risers will effect the same result in that section. No movement of air introduced into the auditorium should exceed two feet per second to be comfort- able to the patrons. Fig. 1 Fig. 4 Fig. 2 Fig. 5 Fig. 3 Fig. 6 and Two Series of Photographs of the Sound and Its Reflections in the New Theatre Figs. 1 to 3 Before, Figs. 4 to 6 After the Installation of the Canopy in the Ceil- ing. The Effect of the Canopy in Protecting the Balcony, Foyer Chairs, Boxes, and the Orchestra Chairs Back of Row L is Shown by Comparing Figures 5 6 with Figures 1 and 3 By Courtesy of Professor Wallace C. Sabine, Harvard University. 160 CHAPTER XL ACOUSTICS. FROM the early Greek days down to a com- paratively recent time the problem of thea- tre acoustics has been a perplexing one. Whether or not the Greeks were familiar with the theory and laws of acoustics is a much dis- puted question. That the Greek theatres had excellent practical acoustics there can be no doubt, but this may have been due to habitual adherence to primitive conditions logically de- veloped into grand form, rather than to any studied application of acoustic laws in their build- ing operations. Certain it is that the Greek thea- tre had no walls to reflect sound, although many authorities claim that inverted vases of varying size were used instead to intensify sound and in- crease its volume. Centuries later, Charles Gamier, the architect Definite who built the famous Paris Opera House, when Acoustics, questioned as to the manner in which he obtained such perfect acoustics, replied : "I just trusted to luck." Today, one need not trust to luck. Experts understand certain well-defined rules of acoustics, which, when properly applied, produce uniformly good results. The audibility of sounds depends upon the loudness, distinctness, and the quality of the ef- fect produced by them. There is always plenty 161 162 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION of sound in any auditorium, but the difficulty is to regulate it. Sound waves radiate from their source in all directions in the manner of a con- stantly expanding sphere. The tones strike the ceiling and walls solidly and rebound to the audi- tor within a small fraction of a second. If the auditorium be properly proportioned the reflected sound waves will be received almost simulta- neously and in audible unison with the direct sound. As a result, the audience, in what are usually considered the worst seats, hear quite as distinctly as those in the best seats. Given the size and shape of an auditorium and the materials of which its walls are composed it is now possible to determine accurately before- hand its acoustic value. The acoustic require- ments for an opera house and for a regular thea- tre differ greatly, because of their different for- mation. The auditorium of an opera house is larger and more open than an ordinary theatre, and has shallow tiers of boxes instead of one or two deep balconies. Human voice The problem to be considered here is that of Carries About x 75 Feet. the theatre. As the human voice is capable of projecting distinguishable words only about seventy-five feet without expansion, it is decid- edly important that the auditor iu mm be confined within that area, and as the downward waves are largely absorbed instead of being reflected, it follows that the height of the ceiling should be about half that distance. Sound naturally loses ACOUSTICS 163 in volume with each reflection, diminishing in its intensity until it crosses what scientists term the "threshold of audibility." The rapidity with which sound dies away depends upon the size of the room, its shape, and the materials employed for furnishings, walls and ceiling. In theatres the magnitude and distribution of the audience are also great factors in the propagation or ab- sorption of sound. The side walls of an auditorium should gradu- ally curve inward toward the proscenium open- ing, the rear wall following the curved line of the seats. The side walls should be coved at the top to meet the ceiling, and all walls should be made reflective and not absorbent in their quality. Science teaches that sound waves are reflected in exactly the same manner as light rays, the angle of incidence being equal to the angle of reflection, a fact that argues for an avoidance of deep recesses and curves. Irregular lines, sharp turns or abrupt curves, like the deep re- . cesses usually provided for stage boxes, should be avoided. High ceilings, too, are bad, as sound waves carry farther if not hampered by vacant space far above the audience. Experiments covering a number of years, made Brick or 1 fe J t Hollow Tile bv Professor Wallace C. Sabine of Harvard Uni- waiisBest Reflectors. versity, noted authority on acoustics, demon- strated that walls have either constructive, ab- sorbent or reflective power. Professor Sabine states that plastered brick or hollow tile walls 164 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION have proven the best, and are powerful reflectors of sound with very slight absorbing power. In this connection other authorities recommend a plaster composition of hydrated lime, slaked and prepared at the mills. Professor Sabine in dis- cussing the various conditions that offer natural' obstruction to the projection of the human voice, gives a comprehensive analysis of the problem in the following manner : Analysis of "The dissonant (interference) are those places the Problem t v J r of Acoustics, in which sound first uttered is carried up, strikes against the solid bodies above and, reflected, checks as it falls the rise of the succeeding sound. The circumsonant (reverberation) are those in which the voice spreading in all directions is re- flected into the middle, where it dissolves, con- fusing the case endings, and dies away in sounds of indistinct meaning. The resonant (echo) are those in which the voice comes in contact with some solid substance and is reflected, producing an echo and making the case terminations double. The consonant are those in which the voice is supported and strengthened, and reaches the ear . in words which are clear and distinct." Naturally one must lessen or obviate, so far as possible, all of the obstructions described in the first three explanatory phrases above quoted, and strive for the attainment of the conditions enumerated in the last one. The difficulties re- sulting from interference and reverberation never entered into the acoustic problem in the open ACOUSTICS 165 Greek theatre, with its large unobstructed area, nor was echo a serious consideration in these edi- fices, as there was but one doubling of the case endings. In modern theatres there may be many echoes, each arriving after the direct sound at a different interval of time, and less distinguish- able and therefore more disturbing. The Little Theatre in New York City, with Little Theatre J Specially an auditorium forty-eight feet long and forty- j^jf^ nine feet wide, and with a ceiling twenty-eight Acoustics, feet high in front and twenty-three feet high in the rear, is a fine example of a theatre especially designed to carry the delicate shades of modu- lated tone with unusual precision. In this thea- tre, the front walls on either side of the pros- cenium opening are symmetrically curved and paneled, and the rear walls follow the curved line of the seats. In order still further to reduce re- verberation, in each of the side walls are installed three 6 by 13 foot "acoustic felt" panels, and in the rear wall seven similar panels, two being 4 feet 5 inches by 13 feet; two 5 feet by 10 feet; two 2 feet by 4 feet, and one 8 feet by 7 feet. As will be seen by the illustration on Page 167 there are no stage boxes to lessen or destroy sound. Professor Sabine, in his experiments for reme- Photographing Sound Waves. dying the faults of the New Century Theatre, made photographic tests of its sound waves be- fore and after correction. (See illustrations pre- ceding this chapter. ) To make these photographs a small model of the theatre as used, the actual 166 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION sounds and their echoes being photographed by the Toepler-Boyes-Foley method as air disturb- ances passing through it. The reproductions of the original sound waves and the new sound waves after a remedial canopy had been installed in the ceiling visually illustrate the possibility of acoustic correction. This cano- py was oval in shape and somewhat larger than the ceiling oval which it replaced, and from which originally hung the central chandelier. It pre- vented disturbing sound reflections, and Profes- sor Sabine declares that since this correction there are few theatres of its size and capacity in Amer- ica as free from sound diffraction as this one. Presence of The presence of an audience in a theatre usually improves improves its acoustics. Within the inclosing walls Acoustics. L , of an auditorium, where the distance traveled is not tob great, the voice, rebounding directly from the ceiling oval which it replaced, and from which the ceiling and side walls, arrives almost simul- taneously with the direct sound, each spoken syl- lable being audibly strengthened as a single sound by the resulting "consonance." 167 U-vc 168 CHAPTER XII. CONSTRUCTION. THE correct construction of a theatre is a subject for serious reflection. Safety being the chief essential, only reliable fire-resist- ing materials should be employed. As the addi- tional cost of constructing a building absolutely fireproof is considerably less than ten per cent and usually not more than six per cent above erecting it non-fireproof, the rational procedure is clearly evident. The saving in fire insurance premiums alone will soon compensate an owner for the comparatively trifling addition to the ini- tial expenditure. Ignorance of the relative cost of structural materials and an inborn but mis- taken sense of the cheapness of wood have fos- tered an erroneous impression that rendering a building absolutely fireproof is expensive. THE STEEL WORK. In large or medium sized theatres a steel The steel t Framework. framework is not only desirable but necessary. With medium steel, the kind used for building construction, a force of 70,000 pounds is needed to break a rod one square inch in cross section, but its elastic limit will not stand a stress of more than 40,000 pounds. In designing steel framework a margin of safety must be allowed that will bring the weight and stress well within the elastic limit. 169 170 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION The services of a competent engineer will be necessary to compute this, but as an economic precaution the author would suggest that after the steel plan has been prepared, it should be checked and revised by an outside engineer on a contingent fee basis; the revising engineer re- ceives as his fee a percentage on any saving ef- fected without sacrificing either the strength or utility of the framework. No risk will be in- curred in such a procedure, as the various build- ing laws in this country more than amply provide for safe steel construction. This steel framework should include uprights and light roof trusses spaced from sixteen feet to twenty feet apart, center to center, with steel floor beams, balcony trusses and supports. Theo- retically the shorter the spacing of trusses the less will be the combined weight of truss and purlins per square foot of covered area, but on account of practical limitations in size of mate- rials and the greater cost per pound for manu- factured trusses than for beams or purlins the spacing is usually regulated as above stated. Cantilever Balcony trusses should be supported by an ap- plication of the cantilever principle and not by exposed posts or columns. Where the anchoring distance is not sufficiently long for a direct ap- plication of this principle a transverse truss sup- ported at both ends by columns imbedded in the walls should be employed to help support the overhang. A series qf small-diametered (2 or 3 CONSTRUCTION 171 Lally Columns. A Novel inch) steel Lally columns encased in the box par- titions often may be used as supports for the same purpose. Steel Lally columns are the simplest and cheap- est forms of steel construction known. Origi- nally they were covered by a patent that has since expired. They consist of various sized steel tubing (pipes) filled at the factory with a strong mixture, of concrete to give added strength. Steel Lally columns withstand intense heat even without extra covering, far better than do or- dinary fireproof -covered steel columns. An ingenious application of the cantilever principle is indicated in the diagram illustrated at su P po"t. the conclusion of this chapter showing the truss- ing and support of the balcony designed for a theatre with the auditorium reversed. Here the anchorage span between the rear wall and the transverse truss was not long enough to counter- balance the unsupported overhang of the balcony. It therefore became necessary to contrive some form of construction that would support the bal- cony without dependence upon the masonry walls. This could be done by imbedding and anchoring the balcony upright members in heavy founda- tions extending over an area equal to that of the structure to be supported. These reinforced foundations, arranged in longitudinal lections six feet wide and six feet deep beneath the base- ment floor, extend from the rear walls forward to a point immediately below the extreme front 172 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Substitute for Plentitude of Steel. Sliding Roof. of the balcony, and are spaced an equal distance from the side walls, and sufficiently far apart to receive the superior upright supports, thereby providing for the entire structure a solid base that could not be toppled over by any load that might be placed upon it. Where intermediate Lally columns are used a transverse foundation connecting the two main foundations should be employed. In the present condition of the market, with the price of steel more than doubled because of the universal engagement of American steel plants in the manufacture of munitions for the European war, it might be profitable to eliminate all steel uprights and thereby lessen the amount of steel framework, substituting for the uprights at bearing points, brick pilasters, concrete filled hollow tile, or stock Lally columns, and employ- ing only iron beams for floors, with individual detached balcony and roof trusses. If a sliding roof be adopted the trussed roof framing should provide for a clear opening and covering this opening there should be an independ- ent framework mounted on wheels and divis- ible in two sections. The construction of these movable sections should be light and arranged with a drip gutter around their base to carry off rain water in inclement weather. The exposed flat ends of each hemisphere of the sliding sec- tion and the side walls of the well formed by the permanent roof opening should be ceiled in a CONSTRUCTION 173 manner to conceal all structural features when the sliding roof is open. Before the excavation begins, the steel con- Award steel tract should be awarded to a reliable firm on a competitive basis, at a ton weight price including erection, with a provision that the total cost shall not exceed an expressed sum. Payment at a weight rate automatically regulates, the price in case of additions or omissions. A competent clerk of the works can easily check up the steel as it arrives, and the architect or a good super- intendent can supervise and pass upon its con- struction, thus eliminating all extra profits of a general contractor for a service he does not per- form. The American Institute of Architects advises "Quantity the awarding of all building contracts direct to contract the contractors who are to perform the work, and recommends that all such contracts be made on what is known as a "quantity basis." With such a contract the architect or a competent su- perintendent employed by the owner can properly safeguard his interests. This is the manner of contract universally employed throughout Europe, and it is the only one that is just to both owner and contractor. A "quantity basis" contract tends to eliminate so called "extras," which by many contractors are considered their sole source of profit. Under its provision all materials measurable are paid for on a measurement basis at so much per lineal, 174 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION square or cubic foot (as the case may be), when satisfactorily completed. , Articles not conven- iently measurable are paid for at fixed unit prices when installed complete. The Contractor fixes a limit sum not to be exceeded in his contract, and specifies a payment price on a measurement or. unit basis. Avoid Extra work or omissions due to changes in "Extras." & the plans are paid for according to these sched- uled quantity prices, thus eliminating so-called "extras." The maximum limit sum therefore can be affected only by gross additions made to the plans or specifications. Persons inexperienced in building are not likely to know that trade unions demand that all extra work required must be performed by the contractor already engaged on the job for that class of work. This is an im- perative rule that places the owner at the mercy of the contractor in fixing prices for extra work. EXCAVATION. The cheapest and best method is to award ex- cavating contracts to an excavator at a cubic yard price. Separate cubic yard prices should be arranged for rock excavation including blast- ing and for ordinary excavation, with various prices for carting away or depositing excavated material. By custom and usage all rock or other material excavated belongs to the contractor, un- less some contrary stipulation be made. Provi- sion must also be made for depositing enough CONSTRUCTION 175 excavated earth alongside the wall trenches for a refill upon completion of the walls. For ex- tensive excavations requiring special machinery there are firms who make a specialty of this class of work and have an elaborate equipment for performing it. FOUNDATION. The contract for the foundations, all concret- ing, construction of walls, floors, roof, and all plastering, should be given to a mason builder on the same "quantity basis." The foundations are the most important part of any building, and should be the most substantial. The object of the foundation is to distribute the weight of the structure evenly over the area upon which it stands and thus avoid likelihood of vertical settle- ments. For this reason the higher the building is to be, the wider and deeper the supports or footings for the foundation must be. If soft or yielding ground is encountered piling should be resorted, to in order to carry the weight of the building on a more solid basis. Footings may be of iron, timber, large flat build- Footings. ing stones laid directly on the ground or in a bed of concrete, or they may be concrete alone or concrete and stepped-up brickwork. For ordi- nary purposes good concrete, from one to two feet in thickness, laid in simple trenches dug in firm earth with the sides extending six inches beyond the lines of the foundation wall will an- 176 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Slope Footings. Spread Footings. Piles. swer. These footings should be a foot or two in thickness and sunk below the frost line four or five feet to prevent upheavals from extreme frost. Footing courses built on slopes, especially clay slopes, are always liable to slide, and should be formed in steps of as long sections as possible, great care being exercised to secure a perfect bond at the stepping places. Where the foundation walls rest partly on solid rock and partly on artificial footings great care should be taken to make all footings equally firm with the rock so as to prevent unequal sag- ging. It is often found that compressible soils, even alluvium and soft clay, will bear from one to two tons per square foot with but little settlement, yet under a steady load a uniform settlement will occur. It is often cheaper therefore to employ spread footings over a large area than it is to drive piles. These spread footings may be built either of concrete reinforced with tension rods or with I beams or old railroad iron imbedded in concrete as a base. Spread footings are thicker than ordinary footings and taper inward from the bottom as they ascend. If the ground be spongy or bad it may be necessary to drive piles in addi- tion, in which case an engineer should be con- sulted. All footings should be properly proportioned to the weight they are designed to carry, whether continuous as in a foundation wall or isolated as CONSTRUCTION 177 when divided into piers. The pressure on the soil per square foot should be equal where the soil is uniform, and if the soil be uneven in its bearing power the footings should be proportioned to the weight properly distributed to insure uni- form settlement. The foundation walls above the footing courses *^ s dation are usually stone, brick or concrete. The thick- ness of the foundation wall is usually controlled by building laws. For a twelve-inch wall, stone or brick foundation walls should be not less than sixteen inches thick. If the walls of the building are to be of twelve-inch hollow tile as recom- mended here, a twelve-inch concrete foundation wall will be sufficient, as the concrete will be denser in its composition than the building tile and therefore sufficient for sustaining the lighter walls above. Unless there is plenty of cheap building stone in the vicinity a concrete foundation wall laid in temporary wood forms will be the cheapest kind. The footings for such a wall will not require any forms, but may be formed by raw concrete dumped into smoothly dug trenches. An allowance is made by custom in wall meas- urement for doors, windows and other openings, This rule varies in different localities, being in some communities one-half and in others one- third of the covered area. 178 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION , EXTERIOR WALLS. The best known and cheapest fireproof mate- rial for outer walls is some form of hollow build- ing tile sufficiently heavy to withstand water shock from a high pressure fire hose. This build- ing tile is made in blocks of varying thickness, but the National Board of Fire Underwriters allow a preferential insurance rate for walls formed twelve inches thick. Blocks of this thick- ness measure twelve inches by twelve inches by twelve inches, and come plain or scored on one or both sides for the application of stucco or plaster. If this form of block is used it will be better for the sake of appearance to stucco the outer sur- face of the building either with a cheap rough splatter-dash coat or a smooth troweled surface. Stucco may be rendered any color by the addi- tion of coloring mixtures. The same deductions are made for stucco openings a* for wall openings. Textile. A finished-face tile known as "textile/' that requires no stucco, is also made by standard firms in twelve inch by twelve inch by six inch sizes. This block, when laid with rodded or raised mortar joints, presents a much better ap- pearance than brick and costs but a trifle more than the ordinary hollow tile scored for stucco. There is also a tapestry-finished block, made in another form, which may be used at about the same cost. CONSTRUCTION 179 All of these vitrified clay products are of the same composition as ordinary brick, except that in the process of manufacture they are baked in * an additional degree of heat to render them more fire resisting. Building tile is made somewhat larger than brick and has vertical hollow air chambers between its exterior surfaces. The size and lightness of hollow tile makes it easier to lay than brick, and its hollow cells form a dryer and warmer wall in winter and a cooler one in summer. Hollow tile can be laid much quicker than ^ ho brick and costs about half the price per square nl y- foot to lay. If care be taken to specify that only whole blocks be employed, with corner, jamb and lintel blocks where required, a good brick- layer can set 400 blocks or about 400 square feet of wall in a day. Ordinarily much time is lost in patching broken blocks where no such provi- sion is made, and 200 blocks are considered a good day's work. If the blocks be ordered on such specifications the block dealer will charge only for whole blocks, making full deduction for blocks arriving on the premises broken. Proving their fire-resisting qualities, whole rows of hollow tile building walls stood plumb and uninjured at the recent great Baltimore fire, while brick walls lay crumbled in ruins. So, too, like gaunt sentinels, stood scores of steel Lally columns, later knocked down by men presumably employed in the interest of steel manufacturers. 180 A Severe Test. Hollow Tile as Curtain Walls. MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Another striking test of the fire-resisting prop- erties of hollow tile was supplied by former Fire Chief Edward Croker of New York City, 1 a recognized authority on such matters. Mr. Croker erected a fireproof bungalow on Long- Island, with hollow tile walls and hollow tile floors, and invited a select coterie of friends to participate in a housewarming. The guests were served with the customary cocktail in a sitting room adjacent to the dining room before being ushered into the latter room for dinner. Once in 1 the dining room, the door between the rooms was closed, and the guests enjoyed undisturbed for over an hour the refreshments proffered. At the conclusion of dinner they were bidden by the host to return to the sitting room to partake of coffee. Imagine their surprise upon opening the door of ] the sitting room to find in that room nothing but a mass of charred ruins. While the guests had! been dining Mr. Croker's servant, acting upon directions previously given, had gone to the sit- ting room, saturated its contents thoroughly with kerosene and ignited them. The fire had con-j sumed the entire furnishings of the room and burned itself out while the people in the very next room remained entirely unaware of what had happened. In a steel-framed building the exterior walls are usually merely substantial curtain walls carry- ing comparatively light loads. In smaller thea- CONSTRUCTION 181 tres where no steel framing is employed, these hollow tiles may be set with their hollow cham- bers vertical, one above the other, and at all bear- ing points grouted or filled with a strong mix- ture of liquid concrete through these vertical cells to form concrete pilasters. When the concrete has set, monolithic concrete columns extending from the foundation base and capable of support- ing great loads are the result. The framework for the floors and balconies, or for any other structural object, may be inserted into and rest upon these concrete uprights. DIVISION AND PARTITION WALLS. Division w r alls should be laid with ordinary interior walls, scored six-inch hollow tile blocks of sufficient strength to withstand the ordinary water pres- sure from fire hose, and partition walls of six or four inch tile partition blocks, or even thinner blocks made from gypsum. Where long stretches of wall occur, gypsum blocks should be braced by occasional rods or angle irons extending from the floor to the ceiling. Gypsum blocks are some- what cheaper than tile partition blocks. Very light partitions may be built also of expanded metal or self-centered wire lath, covered with plaster on both sides. All of the above mentioned blocks will permit of the application of plaster direct. Deductions are also made in plastering contracts for openings. 182 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION FLOORS. Good floors may be laid in concrete slabs be- tween steel framing by any of the standard meth- ods, or by pouring liquid gypsum over squares of wire mesh. In each instance they must be top- finished with a hardening compound or with any one of a dozen different floor compositions. The stage floor of a theatre should be covered with comb-grained T. & G. North Carolina pine % inch by 2^ inch, and all traps should be lined underneath with asbestos boards to make them fireproof. Avoid stage - The better to preserve the stage floor from Screws in i 111 1 Floors. wear, scene braces and the like should not be screwed to the floor, but held in place by finishing- nails partially driven into the stage through metal hinges attached to the braces. Stage screws per- manently mar a finished floor, while finishing nails if not fully driven home may be quickly and easily extracted with the nail pulling clamp of a hammer. The safe live load for all theatre floors should be as follows : Lobby and Corridors 100 lbs. to the square foot Stairways 100 Auditorium 80 Balcony 80 Stage 200 ^ ^ ? Scene Docks 100 Property Room 150 Dressing Rooms 60 Gridiron 60 Roof 30 " " CONSTRUCTION 183 This table should be consulted before designing steel framing for the various floors and roof. Excellent and cheap roof structures can be Cheap Roofs, built of gypsum blocks laid on steel purlins. In the absence of gypsum blocks a four-inch con- crete slab may be used. With either material a "Barret specification" roofing may be employed as a covering, or if desired for appearance's sake a shingle roof may be nailed directly to the gyp- sum blocks. Emergency stairways indosed within fireproof stairways, walls should be composed of concrete, with steel tread pieces imbedded in the edge of each step. Elaborate open stairways for the lobby or else- where should have marble treads and risers with a marble balustrade, or an ornamental iron or bronze railing. If concrete trends be substituted for marble the steps should be covered with plain carpet. Ornamental stairs should be purchased from the manufacturer direct and installed by the mason-builder.- Exterior windows should be of steel, Hazed windows and 9 & m Doors. with wire glass. Steel windows come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and whether ordered directly from the manufacturer or not these windows should be installed by the mason-builder at a price agreed upon for each opening. All window sills should be brick, smoothly covered with con- crete. The door frames should be formed of steel channels, with or without a trim. It is r~\ optional with the owner whether hardwood doors 184 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION or steel floors be employed, for there is a wide range in the cost of different grades of doors. All doors and windows should be purchased com- pletely fitted. The great difference between the price of appropriate steel doors and equally well appearing hardwood doors and the slight liability of the latter to fire make the use of hardwood doors most excusable, especially where insurance rates are not materially increased by their use. Ceilings. The ceilings of a theatre auditorium should be hung as low as is compatible with the design, in order to secure good acoustics and to provide a material saving in heat. The basis for the ceil- ing of the audience hall and the horizon device on the stage should be of expanded metal or self- centered wire-lath suspended by heavy wires from the construction trusses. The plaster, whether ornamental or not, should be applied to the ex- panded metal after it has been fixed in place. The plastering of an ordinary interior and the stucco- ing of the exterior constitute part of the rough building and properly belong to the mason- builder. se 1 cia a iists f r -^11 work demanding special contracts, such as heating, ventilation and plumbing, should be awarded independently to specialists in this class of work rather than to a general contractor, who usually has nothing whatever to do with its in- stallation other than collect an additional profit. The architect or superintendent should be relied upon to check the work. In addition much of CONSTRUCTION 185 this work should be guaranteed by the individual contractors for a specified time. Unfortunately, trade union rules and customs governing several of the above classes of work prohibit the obtain- ing of prices on a "quantity basis," and the old undesirable system of "lump" sum bids must be adhered to in such contracts. Elevators, not generally regarded by law as exits, are frequently installed in theatres. These are put in running order by the various firms who manufacture them, and this contract should be given direct to the maker of the elevator instead of to a general contractor. The interior decorating of a fine theatre should ^oration be intrusted to a recognized firm of decorators in preference to the architect. An artistic deco- rator better understands the employment of art in detail than most architects, whose forte is the consideration of art in the mass. The artistic decoration of a theatre should not cost more than $5,000 to $6,000. The chairs also should be ordered direct from the manufacturers, and should be of low-backed, tip-up variety, with leather or imitation leather upholstery to match the decorations. The space allotted for construction in this vol- Seating, ume will not permit of exhaustive details, but the application of the above method of awarding contracts will lessen substantially the cost of the building. Theatre building under prevailing meth- ods costs entirely too much money, and for no 186 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION apparent good reason. It is difficult to conceive how a structure composed mainly of an empty shell should cost as much per cubic foot as a commercial building completely fitted with floors and partitions. Unique Application of Cantilever Principle CHAPTER XIII. EXAMPLES OF THEATRE ARCHI- TECTURE. EXISTING AND SUGGESTED MODELS. THIS chapter will be devoted to the descrip- tions of the interiors of three existing thea- tres and of three original models of various types, any and all of which may be adapted for the presentation of motion pictures. In order to differentiate the original models from the exist- ing ones each of the originals will be described as the first visit of an imaginary patron. NEW YORK HIPPODROME. The first to be described will be the interior inception of Building. of the New York Hippodrome, an existing thea- tre selected because of its large size and adapta- bility to the exhibition of motion pictures amid spectacular surroundings. The idea of the Hippo- drome had its origin in Blackpool, England, a workmen's watering place near Liverpool. The popular success of a replica of this Blackpool in- stitution that was built in London some years later prompted Fred Thompson of Coney Island fame to construct a similar structure in New York on a much larger scale. He secured the aid of private capital and erected the colossal edi- fice herein described. It is by far the largest building of its kind in the world, and was de- signed by J. H. Morgan, of New York. Its con- 187 r ;;.;.. : .v.."'- >'...: . "" "\;>:. ." : -,v,v : : ' " Exterior View New York Hippodrome 188 o o ^ u * 2 189 190 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Rapid Construction. Color Scheme. struction was begun July i, 1904, and five months, later it was ready for occupancy. Its front covers the full distance between two ordinary city blocks, 200 feet, and it extends back on the side streets 240 feet. . Its cost was $1,750,000. While the entire building is devoted to a single object, there are, as a matter of fact, two struc- turally independent portions; the auditorium and the stage, which are connected through the pros- cenium arch. The auditorium is 160 feet square, and five transverse trusses that span the structure carry the roof. These trusses are supported by four main columns at the corners of a 108 foot rectangle, the two end girders being connected directly to the columns and intermediate trusses by two large longitudinal members. The general color scheme is a Roman red back- ground with all structural features finished in ivory, gold and silver. The entire orchestra, bal- conies and galleries are carpeted with a fine grade of Royal Wilton covering, woven to order to match the dark crimson decorations, and the wall hangings, draperies, and upholstery are exe- cuted in Roman red velvet, enriched with heavy gold and silver embroidery and tassels. Some of these tassels weigh as much as 170 pounds each. The proscenium opening is 90 feet wide and 45 feet high. In front of the main proscenium is a false arch of terra cotta blocks extending to the ceiling, and between these two prosceniums EXAMPLES OF THEATRE ARCHITECTURE 191 there is a secondary gridiron used for suspending trapezes and like paraphernalia. The stage itself is 200 feet wide and extends back no feet to the rear wall. It stretches up- ward to the roof over 90 feet, its upper section be- ing employed as a fly loft. The semi-circular apron of the stage protrudes 60 feet into the auditorium, and is large enough to contain two regulation circus rings, 40 feet in diameter, in which two distinct performances may be given simultane- ously. Underneath this apron and stage is an immense water tank, 14 feet in depth, holding 400,000 gallons, in which aquatic spectacles and all manner of water sports may be shown. The construction of the stage is original and unique, and its possibilities are exhaustless. It may be lowered, raised and divided throughout at different periods of the performance, and great volumes of water made to flow under it, either hidden or open, as the master hand directs. The whole stage platform is virtually a system of huge elevators supported on mammoth plungers. Two sections of dressing rooms, five stories high, flank either side of the immense stage, behind fireproof walls. The imposing entrance, which is graced on both imposing sides by elaborate Corinthian porticos, opens into a reception lobby, liberal in its proportions, wains- coted in marble, with heavily beamed ceilings above. The side walls of the lobby, like those of the interior, are imitation Caen stone relieved 192 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION by rich illuminations of ornamental gold and sil- ver. Immense elephants' heads serve as capitals for the marble columns and pilasters. nisXution al ^he New York Hippodrome and its produc- tions have come to be .regarded by the American public as a national institution. For a brief period this colossally proportioned house was de- voted to the display of motion pictures on a grand scale, brightened during intermissions by elabo- rate spectacles and rich stage settings. ORIGINAL MODEL SUGGESTED FOR A GRAND CENTRAL THEATRE The second theatre to be described is an origi- nal model of a large theatre, similar in size to the Hippodrome just described, and intended for the spectacular display of motion pictures. The combination diagram of the floor plans of this building illustrated at the conclusion of this chap- ter shows the main floor division on the right side of the diagram and the balcony section on the left side. A patron entering this spacious lobby is im- J^e Lobby pressed with the plain paneled marble walls and the simple Greek Doric style of decoration. He purchases his ticket at one of the ticket windows and proceeds past the liveried door attendant into a spacious foyer, comfortably furnished with long upholstered settees that rest against the side walls. Hearing the blast of the orchestral band he approaches one of the five glass paneled doors between the groups of inclosed rear boxes that separate the foyer from the audience hall. These aisle doors lead into five broad passages Auditorium, that divide the great seating space of the main floor into six longitudinal divisions. At the ex- treme ends of these groups of boxes are also two glass paneled doors connecting with a broad transverse passage. This passage divides the seating space across the middle, leaving ten rows of low-backed chairs on each side of it. 193 194 ^f^i r\^ t- Hs *S* Combination Floor Plans of Model Grand Central Theatre 195 196 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION These chairs are separated in rows by ample pas- sage space, measuring three feet from back to back. Turning about the patron views the open fronts of the inclosed boxes extending in semi- circular form with flattened sides and rear, from one side exit to the opposite side exit. In the foyer, just outside these side exits, the toilets are arranged underneath, the space usually occupied for stage boxes. On one side is an accommoda- tion room for ladies and on the other side a smok- ing room and a toilet for men. Boxe S s! age The patron proceeds down the aisle and ob- serves on his right instead of a stage box a large terraced semi-circular music stand for the or- chestra, with a similar provision for a large chorus on the left side. The domed ceiling and side walls of both are smoothly curved and treated in the familiar manner of sounding-boards for park music stands. Between the arch columns of the outer broad proscenium is an opening some seventy-five feet in width. Before the curtain that divides the stage from the audience there is an open waterway in the space where one usually finds the orchestra. A wide arched bridge spans this waterway midway between the proscenium supporting columns, the front portion being ex- posed to view. Later, when the curtain rises the entire bridge extending back to the solid stage will be exposed, and underneath this bridge one will see splendid gondolas float, bearing gorgeously costumed gondoliers singing Italian songs. A GRAND CENTRAL THEATRE 197 Before taking his seat, the visiting spectator The Balcony, takes a sweeping look at the balcony above and behind him. He beholds a deep balcony fringed at the front with open loggias, each seat- ing ten persons. Back of these loggias are twelve rows of the same sort of low -backed chairs as those on the main floor, divided by four aisles that lead up from the passageway behind the loggias to a spacious standing space behind the last row of seats. He notices that each of these aisles split into two passages near the bot- torn to permit the entrance of a passageway that tunnels its way beneath the main balcony seats to the front row of loggias. He resolves to ex- plore further that section during the intermission. The patron, comfortably seated in his low- TheSfege backed arm-chair, now watches the great asbestos curtain as it slowly rises, and reveals behind it another proscenium opening, capable of expan- sion and contraction to any desired size. The curtain of this inner opening splits in the middle and gracefully folds back on both sides as it rises, revealing a stepped platform set a few feet back on the stage and surmounted by a great Roman arch. Upon the rigid white expanse within this arch the pictures are shown to the accompanying strains of appropriate music. Following the first picture comes the closing a Pictorial of the curtains of the inner arch and the singing Scene, of the choir accompanied by the music of the band. When the curtains are again separated 198 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION No One Enters During the Showing of a Picture. the scene on the stage has been completely changed by the simple turning of a large turntable plat- form fitted in the stage floor. This platform has arranged upon it at right angles to the screen in the Roman arch, another screen framed in a large deep golden molding, similar to that used in art galleries for framing pictures. On either side of it hang corresponding frames, within which are exposed brilliantly lighted groups of live fig- ures representing stationary art scenes. After a brief interval the lights of the living pictures are turned off, and the moving picture in the cen- tral frame is shown alone. The spectator notices small groups of people coming in the theatre during the interval, but not a single person enters during the showing of the picture. He is informed afterward that it is a rule of the house to detain latecomers in the spacious foyer until the pause between pic- tures. During the long intermission that divides the program the visitor leaves his seat and, going to the rear foyer, climbs one of the broken flights of stairs that lead to the mezzanine floor. Here he observes that this floor resembles a sort of bal- cony to the rear foyer, and is equipped with cloak rooms and offices between the tunnel passages that pierce the balcony. He traverses one of these and discovers that they are the same tunnels that he saw from below. Upon further investigation he discovers toilets at the ends of the balcony and A GRAND CENTRAL THEATRE 199 behind the spaces reserved for the orchestra and chorus. He also learns that from an entrance out- side, the auditorium a large projection room situ- ated on the floor above the rear balcony can be reached. This impresses him as an excellent idea in case of a sudden fire in that dangerous zone. If the room be fireproof and there be no open- ings into the auditorium a fire would burn itself out before being detected by the audience. He is also informed that the large dome that r^"^ adorns the center of the auditorium ceiling is a sliding roof, one hemisphere of which slides to one side while the other half slides to the other side by the pressure of a push-button, exposing a clear view of the sky in pleasant weather. This, too, is a most desirable innovation that has never come to his notice before. Wandering through the foyer corridor he is struck by the ample means furnished for the com- fort of patrons under normal conditions, and the completeness of the safety provision in case of danger. Distributed along the side walls of the foyer, where there are no racks for hanging coats, are settees where the tired may sit, leaving plenty of promenade space for those who prefer to walk. Here at last is a theatre with sufficient lounging space where patrons may wait in com- fort for seats to be vacated in the auditorium. In time of fire this same foyer will provide room for the congregation of frightened masses, and its isolation will make it safe from any gas or 200 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION smoke created in the theatre proper. Along the side walls are many exit doors that lead direct to the open, and in the interior audience hall it is possible to ventilate quickly the entire room by opening the immense dome that crowns the cen- ter of the hall. Real indirect The patron does not fail to notice that the en- Lightmg. tire auditorium, foyer and lobby are illuminated by continuous rows of incandescent lamps hidden behind cornices that reflect their rays from rounded coves surmounting the upper side walls, and look for all the world like a brilliantly painted band instead of a source of light. It is with a feeling of great satisfaction that he leaves the theatre. THE SCALA THEATRE/ LONDON. The third will be a brief description of the in- terior of an existing but rarely used theatre, "The Scala" of London. This is recognized as the most beautiful thea- tre in England, and at the time of its erection was probably the finest theatre of its kind in the world. It is the result of the munificence of a wealthy man, and although situated on a little known street in a comporatively poor quarter of London it is built and decorated in perfect taste. In fact, the magnificence of the building is mani- fest at its very threshold. The interior is of ex- quisitely designed marble ; the seats are luxurious, and the decorations classic and imposing. All about the interior of the auditorium are indica- tions of a distinct advance in the evolution of a modern play-house. Yet this wonderful edifice, boasting of its superior accommodations and no- ble decorations, stands idle today because of its unwisely chosen location. The side walls are of hewn blocks of unpol- Audience Hail, ished white marble, arranged in severely square panels, bordered with cunningly devised polished marble pilasters of a corresponding color and topped with burnished bronze capitals. As in most London theatres, the stalls or best seats are located below the street level in the front part of the main floor, yet they are readily accessible by open stairways with broken flights of steps 201 View of Scala Theatre, London, England 202 Another View Scala Theatre 203 204 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION that descend on either side of the house from the balcony level. The resting platform in the middle of the stairs is surmounted by an open Roman Doric arch, supported on ornamental columns of like design. In the upper niches of the space underneath these arches are installed comfortable state boxes. Balconies. There is a dress circle (balcony) and a family circle (second balcony) both comfortably fur- nished with roomy low-backed arm-chairs. The orchestra and pit, too, have chairs of this kind that aid in giving passage space between the rows. The proscenium opening is a model of sim- plicity, with its flatly curved top and severely draped front curtain. There is no stage projec- tion, and the orchestra well is buried out of sight beneath the stage front. Stately figures and ef- fective ornaments, with classic column bases and capitals of bronze, help to decorate the marble side walls, the dead white of which is relieved by the warmth of dark rich hangings and draperies. ORIGINAL MODEL FOR A NEIGHBOR- HOOD THEATRE. The next interior to be described is an original model of a Neighborhood theatre designed for a superior class of patrons. To assist the imagina- tion in the contemplation of this superior form of theatre we shall employ the same method of pardonable deception as that employed in reciting ' the features of the large central theatre, except that, because of the social character of the present edifice, the visiting patron shall be accompanied by his wife. When Mr. Pleasanton comes home after a Mr. and Mrs. Pleasanton hard day in his office he may feel in the mood to X isit i 1 ?* 5 J J New Theatre. enjoy a good evening's entertainment, but the ne- cessity of traveling a distance to the theatre is very likely to discourage him from going. When Mrs. Pleasanton, however, tells him of the new theatre so close at hand only five minutes' walk away he is glad to accept her suggestion that they visit it. Approaching the theatre they notice its two long narrow windows, the cathedral glass of which is brilliantly illuminated by indirect light- ing. Attracted first by this bright beacon, they both comment on the general beauty and chastity of the exterior design of the theatre and Mr, Pleasanton, ever practical, lauds the owners for their selection of so convenient a site. 205 Main Floor Plan of Model Neighborhood Theatre 206 Balcony Floor Plan of Model Neighborhood Theatre 207 208 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION The Foyer And Its Conveniences. The Auditorium Seating. "One never needs to prepare especially for a theatre so near home," he says. Impressed by the simple decoration of the in- viting and spacious lobby, the couple, after pro- curing their seats at one of the ticket windows that pierce the marble side walls, enter the foyer to be confronted by fresh surprises. Liveried attendants, in apparent profusion, politely relieve them of their wraps, which are deposited in con- venient receptacles underneath the stairs to the balcony. Madame's new picture hat is carefully placed in a separate cabinet, and she experiences a feeling of relief as she realizes that there is no danger of its being crushed by persons crowding past her in the cramped space between seats. Mr. Pleasanton also is delighted to learn that there is no extra charge for this much-needed atten- tion. Fortunately they arrive before the perform- ance has begun and are shown directly to their seats. To their utter astonishment the people al- ready seated remain undisturbed while they pass through to their seats. This accomplishment so pleasurably affects Mrs. Pleasanton that she re- marks in an undertone to her husband : "What a comfort it is to feel that we have not disturbed anyone in reaching our seats," and to this her husband dryly retorts : "And what a de- lightful contemplation to realize that no one will disturb us in crushing past to get in or go. out." Mr. Pleasanton further remarks that this pas- NEIGHBORHOOD THEATRE 209 sage without disturbance is made possible by a trifle wider spacing between the rows of seats and the installation of low-back chairs, adding that such an adoption must bring enough in- creased patronage to more than offset any small loss in the number of seats. Mrs. Pleasanton signifies her approval and ob- orch^st n r a en serves that the side walls and ceiling are of hewn Wel1 - stone, to which her husband replies that in his belief they are only plaster imitation of Caen stone, but that nevertheless they afford a feeling of security from fire risk. Mrs. Pleasanton, al- ways a lover of good music, comments on the sweetness of the strains of the overture, which seemingly comes from a distance. Mr. Pleasan- ton explains that this entrancing effect is pro- duced by submerging the orchestra in a space well beneath the stage apron and front rows of seats, supplementing his explanation with the remark: "Music apparently coming from a distance is alluring. I hate these blatant brass bands that blow their music directly at you in chunks, and in picture houses where they place the band in full view before your very eyes, as if purposely to distract your attention from the stage it is most distressing." Before Mrs. Pleasanton can voice her approval Patrons in a ctr Psychologic the curtain is up and their interest is shifted to Dream - the stage. Everything is metamorphosed into what seems to be the temple of a strange god, and the effect upon this captivated couple is such 210 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION A Mirrored View of the Audience. No Visible Lamp Fixtures. that they forget entirely their critical faculties. How astute has been the management that has so regulated everything as to render the minds of his patrons sensitive to the slightest impres- sion. Like children listening to an Arabian Nights' tale, they are fascinated by everything they see or hear, so wonderful has been the psychic effect of their surroundings. The act is too quickly over and the curtain falls. A large silvered ball, not unlike the huge mirror balls so popular in European gardens, slowly protrudes into view from the depths of the orchestra well. With suppressed "Ahs" the audience appreciate at once that this bright object gives mirrored reflection of the entire auditorium and all that it contains.. Mr. Pleasanton also re- alizes that this same ball, before being raised, must have served the musical conductor in fol- lowing the action upon the stage. With the turning up of the lights both Mr. and Mrs. Pleasanton discover that the auditorium is illuminated by some unseen source of light. There are no fixtures anywhere in view but merely an increased intensity of a bright light band that encircles the room at the cove juncture of the side walls and ceiling. Mr. Pleasanton, a student of technical magazines, explains to his wife that the absence of the usual "spotty" effect is produced by continuous tube lighting. The mirrored observation ball is lowered and the curtain again rises. Mr. and Mrs. Pleasanton NEIGHBORHOOD THEATRE 211 are at once plunged into an atmosphere of witch- ery. To them everything in the play pertains to magic. The elderly actors appear youthful, the callous sentimental, the stupid witty, the plain beautiful, and the commonplace romantic. It is a world of illusion in which the events presented are gauged by the mental barometer of the audi- tor. The low cost of admission, the chastity of decoration, the spacious foyer with its ample pro- vision for coat hanging, the comfortable seating, the concealed music, and the subtle lighting have all done their work well.,. There is another inter- mission, the curtain lowers and raises again, the performance is soon over, and the highly pleased couple rise from their seats to take their depar- ture. Facing about, they view the full interior of i^interior this magnificent playhouse. Transversely across the lower floor are aisled rows of low comfortable arm chairs from which gayly dressed people are arising. The audience hall is separated from a spacious foyer by groups of inclosed boxes cur- tained in royal purple. Two similarly draped cir- cular guests' boxes protrude from the side walls above the side foyer doorways, and back of them sweeps a deep broad balcony with open loggias in front and inclosed boxes at the rear. The walls are plain panels of imitation Caen stone, sur- mounted by a simple ceiling of the same material, with a large canopied' dome in the center for ventilation. The junction lines of the walls and 212 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION ceiling are adorned by a brilliantly illuminated cove that furnishes reflected light to the whole interior. The floors are carpeted in a solid gray and the dead whiteness of the walls and ceiling- is relieved by.the warm tones of purple hangings. The Foyer Passing through the foyer on their way out the Furnishings. . J J t couple wait but a moment to recover their outer garments. Plenty of courteous attendants are there to serve them. This short pause gives them an opportunity to view with admiration the de- lightful comforts of this broad promenade, with its marble stairways on both sides rising to the balconied mezzanine floor above, underneath which are the coat-hanging and hat-checking con- veniences. Against the side walls, between the numerous emergency exits, are long comfortable divans for use during intervals or for patrons waiting for admission until the termination of an act. The couple depart deciding to attend this won- derful house again at every weekly change of program. ORIGINAL MODEL WITH A REVERSED AUDITORIUM. The next form of theatre to be presented is of an original interior design. It is of the same size and general character as the one just de- scribed, except that its audience-hall is half a story higher and reversed, with entrances at the front instead of at the rear. The author em- ployed, for the first time, the same idea in con- structing the Nollendorf "Theatre in Berlin, Ger- many, said to be, when completed, the finest thea- tre in the world devoted to motion pictures. He was there confronted by the serious problem of restricted space. The ground had been secured and a theatre of sufficient capacity had to be erected upon it. To accomplish this with prac- tically a ground floor theatre seemed impossible, but necessity became the mother of invention. A theatre was devised with a stage and lobby in the same area, and an entrance that by two short broken flights of stairs delivered patrons into the auditorium half a story above the sidewalk under the impression that they were in a ground floor theatre. In order to picture more vividly the appearance p^nt"' of this theatre, we shall accompany our friends Theatte n ther Mr. and Mrs. Pleasanton on their initial visit to this new house. They approach the broad portals of the proportionately large lobby, where they purchase their tickets. 213 214 Combination Floor Plan Small Model Photoplayhouse " ^V * \Ay M \V Basement Plan Small Model Photoplayhouse 215 216 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Caen Stone Walls and Ceilings. The Lower Floor Seating. Before proceeding to the audience-hall they descend several steps into a spacious half-base- ment beneath the auditorium to deposit their wraps and wait for the finish of the picture then being shown in the main hall above. They take their seats in this waiting room at a small table where refreshments are served, and there view the pictured current events being shown on a large screen at the farther end of the small hall. A ringing bell announces that the picture in the hall above has been finished, and they with others who also have been waiting ascend the few stairs that lead to the main auditorium. This grand room has the same side walls and ceiling of Caen stone that distinguish the previous original models, the same illuminated cove extend- ing like a band of light beneath the ceiling, and with the same illuminated ventilating dome for a center. Transversely across the main floor are seven- teen double-aisled rows of low-backed, comfort- able arm-chairs, with a wide passage space be- tween that divides them nearly in half. As in the theatres devoted to motion pictures previously visited, the seats are filled with gayly dressed people bathed in a radiance mysteriously reflected downward from the continuous light tubes that lay hidden from view behind the ornamental cor- nice that crowns the inclosing walls of the audi- torium. They are intently listening to the distant strains of an orchestra concealed in a. hanging REVERSED AUDITORIUM 217 balcony above the stage opening. Behind these rows of chairs are three groups of inclosed boxes draped in rich hangings, and against the blackness beyond show dimly the outlines of the glass pan- eled doors that lead to the foyer. Out of consideration for the attentive gather- ing and to appreciate more fully the apparent simplicity of an interior decoration endlessly va- ried in material and style, the couple silently as- cend one of the heavily railed broad marble stair- cases that lead on both sides of the hall to the balcony where are located the best seats in a pic- ture house. Upon reaching the balcony, they are impressed The Balcony, by the apparent comfort of the row of open log- gias that decorate its front. There is a draped, canopied, circular guest box at each end of the balcony jutting from the wall above the landing platform on the stairs, under which they have passed in making their ascension. Behind the loggias are arranged the same aisled transverse rows of chairs, six in number, and the identical groups of inclosed boxes that give the main floor its appearance of coziness. Here, too, like dim shadows show the glass paneled doors that lead to the balcony foyer beyond. Taking their seats in one of the open loggias. Emergency Mr. and Mrs. Pleasanton view with keen interest the performance, which consists of several reels of an interesting drama. During an intermis- sion of the program the ventilator dome is opened, 218 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION This Pleased Couple Add This Theatre to Their Visiting List. affording a clear view of the starry blue sky above. The couple now ascend to the rear foyer of the balcony and take the broad inclosed emer- gency stairs to the basement. In the rear of the basement, where they have checked their gar- ments, they discover that other stairs lead to this same basement. A flight corresponding to the one they have descended leads to the other side of the rear of the basement, with an opening into an emergency alley on that side of the thea- tre. Two other stairways with entrances under- neath the stairs in the auditorium, that ascend to the balcony, also lead to the fore part of the base- ment. In the rear of this same basement, ad- jacent to the emergency stairs, are stationed the two toilets, on one side the men's and on the other side the ladies'. Mr. and Mrs. Pleasanton gladly vote this a unique and delightful theatre, as it provides, in addition to comfortable seating, spacious cloak rooms and a waiting room in the basement for patrons, where they -may be pleasantly entertained while waiting for the termination of a picture in the main auditorium. The two short broken stairways of a dozen steps all told make it prac- tically a ground floor theatre, and the convenient way of going directly to the lowest point in the balcony is far superior to the usual procedure of reaching the balcony at its highest point in the rear and then walking down again to one's seat. THE LITTLE THEATRE, NEW YORK. The next illustrative description will be that of the Little Theatre, New York, erected by Winthrop Ames of Boston, a wealthy disciple of the advanced theatre movement. This house, modeled on the plan of the small intimate thea- tres of Germany, was built for the express pur- pose of presenting with artistic precision all the minute gradations of facial expression and the subtle inflections of the voice. It has but one floor and seats but 300 persons. Crowded closely between two adjoining build- Exterior. ings, its Georgian design is in a manner accentu- ated. The materials used in the fagade are red brick and French limestone. The exterior wood- work is painted pure white with blind green shutters, and the iron work is a dull black. The vestibule reflects the best Georgian period and displays the artistic conception of the famous Adams brothers. The auditorium is illuminated by reflected Auditorium, lights and is constructed on lines totally different from anything previously attempted in America. It is elliptical in shape and devoid of either bal- cony or stage boxes. ' The polished birch side- walls, stained a deep walnut brown, present a suc- cession of flat panels. In these panels have been inserted clever reproductions of the famous Bouche tapestries. The ceiling is in Adams' style, decorated in plain hues which, with reflected light, 219 Exterior Little Theatre, New York City By Courtesy Mr. Winthrop Ames 220 THE LITTLE THEATRE, NEW YORK 221 bring out the brilliant colors of the costumes worn by the women in the audience. The principal illumination is by the indirect rays from two elaborate crystal ceiling candelabra. The cur- . tains are of blue and silver brocade with tapestry- borders, and the drop curtain is of Gobelin blue. The carpet is of mouse gray and the dark walnut seats are upholstered in brown leather. The stage equipment is probably the most mod- The Stage * ern in this country. It includes a revolving plat- form of the German turntable type, thirty feet in diameter, which permits of the setting of sev- eral scenes at once. The theatres which have just been described both those in existence and those whose designs are suggested by the author are presented as models embodying the principles outlined in this book. They should, and undoubtedly will, have a distinct and beneficial influence upon future American theatre construction. 222 5 W 223 APPENDIX. AN appendix reciting a few of the most necessary regu- lations may prove of service to the reader. These will include valuable extracts from the electric code of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. In addition the theatre ordinance purposed by the same authoritive body will be published, together with similar or- dinances recently enacted by the Borough of Manhattan (New York City), and the cities of Boston, Philadelphia. Chicago and San Francisco are governed by state laws, with some added local restrictions. The states of Mississippi, Kansas and Ohio also have state laws relative to theatres. The ordinance of the National Board of Fire Under- writers is not imperative except for the adjustment of insur- ance rates. Still it was drafted as a suggested model for municipalities, and is hereby given as such. An Ordinance Regulating the Construction and Equipment of Theatres. Buildings Covered. Every theatre or opera house or other building or parts of building intended to be used for theatrical or operatic purposes or motion picture shows, hereafter erected for the accommodation of more than three hundred persons on' all tiers shall be built to comply with the require- ments of this ordinance. No building hereafter erected not in accord- ance with these requirements may be used as a theatre, opera house, or by a motion picture show. Capacity. The Building Inspector shall determine the number of persons which every such building may accommodate. This determination shall i be based on the actual number of seats and an allowance of 3 square feet per person for all parts of the auditorium or galleries where "standing room" may be provided. By standing room is meant such space in which by law persons may be permitted to stand during any performance. Such measurements are to be exclusive of required aisles, passageways and lobbies. No more than the number so deter- 4 225 226 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION mined and certified by the Building Inspector shall be allowed in such structure at any one time. Alterations. No building which at the time of the passage of this ordinance is not in actual use for theatrical or operatic purposes within the meaning of this ordinance may be altered or added to for the purpose of con- verting the same into a theatre, opera house, or for use by a motion picture show, unless when altered or added to it is made in every respect to conform to the requirements of this ordinance. Present Buildings. The provisions of this ordinance shall not be construed to mean or be made to apply to theatres, opera houses or motion picture shows, within the meaning of this ordinance now erected or for which plans have heretofore been approved by the Building Inspector. Approvals of Building Inspectors and Fire Departments. No building hereinbefore described shall be opened to the public until the Building Inspector shall have approved the same in writing as conforming to the requirements of this ordinance, nor until the Chief of the Fire Department shall have certified in writing that all appliances for the extinguishing of fire conform to this ordinance and to the special requirements of the Fire Department, and are in a com- plete and satisfactory working condition. Fireproof Building Over Auditorium. Nothing herein contained shall prevent the construction of a thor- oughly fireproof building above a fireproof theatre, opera house or motion picture show, providing no part of such fireproof building shall be placed above that portion of any such building which is known as the stage section. The portion containing the theatre, opera house or motion picture show, including all passages, lobbies and other acces- sories connecting therewith, shall be cut off vertically from such fire- proof building by unpierced fire walls of solid masonry not less than 12-inch thick and horizontally by unpierced fireproof floors of strength to safely sustain a live load of 150 pounds per square foot on every superficial foot thereof. Roof Garden. A roof garden or open air auditorium (but no other place of public amusement) may be constructed above a fireproof building used for theatrical or operatic purposes or motion picture show built in con- formity with the requirements of this ordinance. Such roof garden or open air auditorium shall have not less than 60 per cent of its total floor area open to the sky without a roof, except that a cover of glass and metal skylight construction may be provided, and no part of its seating floor, or space upon which seats might be placed, shall be at greater height than 90 feet above the level of the curb in the street at the main entrance to the building. The total capacity of such roof APPENDIX ' 227 garden or open air auditorium shall not exceed 750 persons, figured on the same basis as that provided elsewhere in this ordinance for the cal- culation of capacity of theatres or opera houses. The construction of such roof garden or open air auditorium shall be fireproof and shall conform in every way to the requirements of this ordinance. The size of entrances and exits, corridors and stairs shall be 50 per cent greater than the corresponding requirements called for in this ordinance for theatres where the orchestra floor is at or about the street level. If an audience is to be assembled in the theatre, opera house or motion picture show at the same time as in the open air auditorium or roof garden constructed above the same, then the provisions for such entrance and exit herewith required for the latter shall be entirely dis- tinct from and in addition to the provisions for exits and entrances, corridors and staircases required for the structure below. If any structure is built over the ceiling or roof of any building used for a theatre, opera house or motion picture show, the girders, trusses or other metal members supporting said structure shall be pro- tected against fire by at least 4 inches of fireproof material with special provision to reinforce or support it. Occupancy Restricted. No portion of any building hereafter erected or altered, used or in- tended to be used as a theatre, opera house, or motion picture show, shall be occupied or used for any business dealing in any article or ma- terial dangerous to life in the opinion of the Building Inspector. The before-mentioned restrictions relate not only to that portion of the building which contains the auditorium and the stage, but apply also to the entire structure in conjunction therewith. Workshops and Property Storerooms. No workshop, storage or general property room shall be allowed in or under the auditorium, above the stage or under the same, or in any of the fly galleries, but such rooms or shops may be located in the rear of, or at the side of the stage, and in such cases they shall be separated from the stage vertically and horizontally by a brick or concrete wall not less than 12 inches in thickness or other equally efficient cut-off, and the openings leading into said portion shall have approved self-closing fire doors on one side of the wall. (See Rules and Requirements of the National Board of Fire Underwriters for Fire Doors.) No sleeping accommodations shall be allowed in any part of the building communicating with the auditorium or stage. Entrance Vestibules, Lobbies, Etc. Interior walls or partitions built of fireproof materials shall separate the auditorium from the entrance vestibule, and from any communicat- ing room or rooms over or under the same, also from any lobbies, corri- dors, refreshment or other rooms forming part of the theatre; and in all such walls the windows and door frames and all sash and doors shall 228 .' MODERN THEATRE. CONSTRUCTION be of incombustible construction, and the sash made stationary and glazed with wired glass not less than Y<\ inch in thickness and each pane or unit measuring not more than 720 square inches ; the doors shall be self-closing. Floors. All floor surfaces shall be of cement or other incombustible material and no wood boards or sleepers shall be used as a covering over these floors, seat platforms, aisles, steps, landings, passages or stairs. Trim. No combustible doors or trim shall be used in the auditorium, and none of the walls or ceiling shall be covered with wood sheathing, wood wainscoting, or other combustible material, but this shall not preclude the construction of a wood sounding board over orchestra pit when the same extends back of and below the overhang of the stage, provided the said wood sheathing be properly fire stopped by a 12-inch brick wall back of same, and also have a proper fireproof construction di- rectly under the overhang of the stage extending from the brick wall to the apron of stage. Tunnels of Cross Aisles. There shall be no more than 11 feet rise, measured vertically in any aisle in any gallery without direct exit, by tunnel or otherwise to a corridor or passage with a free opening to the gallery stairs or other direct discharge to the street. At such elevation of 11 feet or less an intervening or cross aisle leading directly to an exit may be substituted for the tunnel. No such tunnel or cross aisle shall be less than 4 feet wide in the clear. Gallery Platforms. No platforms in galleries formed to receive the seats shall be more than 21 inches in height of riser nor less than 32 inches in width of platform. No such platform shall be nearer than 8 feet from the ceiling. Aisles Width of. Aisles shall be not less than 3 feet wide at the beginning and all aisles shall be increased in width toward the exits and entrances at the rate of not less than 3 inches to 10 feet of run. Floors at Exits. Floors in auditorium at all exits shall be flush with adjacent inside floors and shall extend for an unbroken width of not less than 4 feet in front of each exit, but no step downward shall be nearer than 1 foot to the door opening. Steps in Aisles. Steps in aisles shall be the full width of the aisle. No risers shall be more than 9 inches in height, and no tread shall be less than 10 inches in width, and whenever the rise of seat platforms is 4 inches or less, the floor of the aisles shall be made as a gradient. Where / APPENDIX 229 steps are placed in passages they shall be grouped together and shall be clearly lighted. No stool, seat or other obstruction shall be placed in any aisle. Passages Width. The width of passages and hallways shall be computed in the same manner as that hereinafter provided for stairways, but no passage may be less than 5 feet in width. All passages, hallways, and stairways leading from any balcony or gallery in any direction shall permit of free passage to an exit, without returning. Passages Aggregate Capacity. The aggregate capacity of the foyers, lobbies, hallways, passages and rooms for the use of the audience, not including aisle space, shall on each tier be sufficient to contain the entire number to be accommo- dated on said tier, in the ratio of 150 superficial square feet of floor for every hundred persons. Entrances and Exits Definition. The term "exit" as used in this section refers to emergency exits only; the term "entrance" refers to all other traffic ingress or egress. Calculations. The combined width of entrances and. exits for each tier, likewise their stairs, shall provide 1 foot of width for each 20 persons to be accommodated in that tier. Entrances. A common place of entrance may serve for the orchestra floor of the auditorium and the first gallery, provided such entrance and the passages leading thereto are of the width required for the aggregate capacity of these two tiers. Separate places of entrance shall be provided for each gallery above the first. Exits Minimum, and -Fire Doors for. From the auditorium at least two exits remote from each other leading into open courts or streets shall be provided in each of both side walls of the auditorium on all tiers. Each exit shall be provided with approved fire doors. Entrance and Exit Doors Minimum Width. The minimum width of doorways shall be 5 feet in the clear except exit doorways, which may have a minimum width of 4 feet. Hanging of Doors. All entrance and exit doors shall open outwardly and be hung in such manner as not to obstruct any part of the required width of a doorway, passage or stairway. The fastenings of these doors shall be such as can readily be opened from the inside at all times without the use of keys or any special knowledge or effort. The use of draw bolts is prohibited. All such doorways shall be entirely unobstructed. 230 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Marking Exits. Every entrance and exit doorway opening from the auditorium shall have over the same on the auditorium side the word EXIT in- I scribed in legible letters not less than 6 inches high, or an illuminated sign with letters of the same height. Auditorium entrances and exits shall be numbered with figures not less than 6 inches high. No mirrors shall be so placed as to give the appearance of a door- way, exit or passage. There shall be no false doors or windows. Diagram of Exits. There shall be legibly printed on the program of each performance a separate diagram or plan of every tier. Each such diagram shall occupy a space not less than 15 square inches and shall show distinctly the entrances and exits from each tier and where they lead. Entrance Corridors. Where any entrance does not open directly on a street, the corridor or passage connecting it with the street shall be constructed of con- tinuous walls of brick or other fireproof material equally efficient. The roof construction of these corridors must be fireproof and of strength sufficient to safely sustain a live load of 150 pounds per square foot of every superficial foot thereof. The height of such corridors shall be not less than 10 feet throughout. No doors or windows shall be permitted in the side walls or roof. Stair Landings. When stairs return directly on themselves, a landing of the full width of both flights, without any steps, shall be provided. The outer line of landings shall be curved to a radius of not less than 2 feet; this provision, however, shall not apply to emergency exit stairs on out- side of buildings. Stairs turning at an angle shall have a proper landing. In stairs when two side flights connect with one main flight, the width of the main flight shall be at least equal, to the aggregate width of the side flights. No stairway shall ascend to a greater height than 12 feet without a level landing, and the length and width of such landing shall be not less than the width of the stairs ; no run of stairs shall consist of less than six risers between platforms. -Stair Rails. All stairs shall have on both sides strong hand rails. Where stairs are built between walls rails shall be firmly secured to the walls about 3 inches distant therefrom. All rails shall be about 3 feet above the center of the treads. This provision shall also apply to all steps in' side aisles of galleries. The width of all stairs must be measured be- tween hand rails. All stairs and landings between stories, when seven (7) feet and over in width, shall be provided with a center hand rail of metal, not less than 2 inches in diameter, placed at a height of about 3 feet above the center of the treads and landings. Such rails shall be APPENDIX 231 supported on wrought metal or brass standards securely bolted to the treads or risers of stairs, or both. At the head of the flight of stairs terminating at each story, the post or standard shall be at least 6 feet in height, to which the rail shall be secured. Number of Steps at Entrance. The entrance opening directly on a street shall not be on a higher level from the sidewalk than four steps of 724-inch risers each. Entrance Stairs Minimum Width. Where the number accommodated in a gallery exceeds two hundred, there shall be at least two separate and distinct entrances. No entrance stairs to any tier in the auditorium shall be less than 5 feet wide. Inclosures. All entrance stairways for the use of the audience (excepting those leading to the first gallery only, which may be open on one side), shall be inclosed with walls of brick or other fireproof materials, in the stories through which they pass. There shall be no communications above the street or court grade in any of said stairway inclosures ex- cept the communication from the tier for which the stairway is ex- clusively intended. No stairway from a gallery shall communicate with the basement or cellar. No door shall open immediately upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the door shall be pro- vided between such stairs and such door. Treads and Risers. All stairs shall have treads of uniform width and risers of uniform height throughout in each flight. In no case shall the risers in any stairs exceed 7^4 inches in height nor shall the treads, exclusive of nosing, be less than 9 T / 2 inches wide. No circular or winding stairs shall be permitted and no winders may be introduced in any stairs. Entrance Stairs, Stage Section. Entrance stairs and passages for the dressing rooms shall be at least 36 inches wide and extend independently to the street or court. No stairs in the stage section shall be less than 30 inches wide. At least 2 independent staircases, with direct exterior outlets at court or street grade, shall be provided for the service of all tiers in the stage section, and shall be located on opposite sides of the stage. Exit Stairs and Balconies. Exit stairs from each gallery shall be placed in smokeproof and fireproof towers, or in lieu thereof, an approved form of open air stair- way may be used. The minimum width of exit stairways shall be 4 feet, except that their width may be reduced fifteen per cent if located in a fireproof and smokeproof tower having no openings except to an out- side balcony and to court grade. Exit stairs shall have risers not ex- ceeding 7Y\ inches, and treads not less than 9^ inches exclusive of nosing. The stairs for the exits from each tier shall extend to the court 232 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION or street grade independently of the stairs or exits from other tiers. Outside balconies shall be at least as wide as the stairways which they serve, but in no case less than 6 feet. No riser shall be nearer than 1 foot to the door opening. Construction of Balconies and Stairs for Exits. All exit balconies and stairs shall be constructed of steel throughout or of other forms of incombustible construction approved by the Build- ing Inspector. Risers, treads, platforms and balconies must be solid, without slats, and the construction shall be of strength sufficient to safely sustain a live load of 100 pounds per square foot. Sheet metal or other suitable solid material shall be provided to a height of not less than 4 feet on the outer side of all these open air stairs, balconies and plat- forms. All open air stairs, balconies and platforms shall be covered with a metal hood or awning to be constructed in such a manner as shall be approved by the Building Inspector. There shall be no openings in any theatre wall between the outside balconies or stairways and their covers, except the required exits from the tier served by said stairs and balconies. No person of the audience must be obliged to pass alongside of more than one exit doorway after reaching an outside balcony to get to the ground. All exit stairs and balconies shall be kept free of obstructions of every kind including snow and ice. Exits from Stage Section and Dressing Rooms. At least two independent exterior exits shall be provided on a level with the stage for the service of the stage and floors below same. These exits shall be at opposite sides of the stage. Each tier of dressing rooms shall have an independent exit leading directly to a fire escape or to a court or street. No ladder fire escapes shall be permitted. The fly gal- leries shall be provided with adequate means of exit. All exits and fire escapes from the stage section shall be independent of the exits for the audience above the court or street grade. Stairs, if any, leading down from stage level shall be inclosed and protected by fireproof door. Street Fronts and Entrances Thereon. Every building used for theatrical or operatic purposes or motion picture shows shall have at least the front or one side wall bordering on a street, and not less than one-half of the openings required for entrance of the audience to the auditorium as hereafter specified shall be pro- vided in such 1 wall or walls. Emergency Courts, When Required. There shall be reserved for exit purposes an open court or space on the side or sides of the building as follows : In the case of a plot with streets on front, rear and both sides, or in the case of a double corner plot where both sides of the theatre border on the streets, no courts will be required. On a double corner, single APPENDIX 233 corner or inside plot when one side only of the building borders on a street, one court will be required located on the opposite side. On an inside plot where only the building front borders on the street, courts will be required on both sides. In buildings used for motion picture shows and having no stage, the exits and courts above required may be replaced by equivalent exits and courts at the rear if consistent with the adequate distribu- tion of the entire entrance and exit facilities. Court Width. The minimum width of open courts shall be 8 feet when the total capacity is 750 or less;' 10 feet when the capacity is between 750 and 1,000; and when the capacity exceeds 1,000 people the width of the courts shall be increased 1 foot for each additional 500 people or frac- tion thereof in excess of 1,000. Court Length. Said open court or courts shall extend at least from the line of the proscenium wall forward the length of the auditorium to the wall separating the same from the entrance' lobby or vestibule. This entire court area shall be open to the sky, except that stairs and smokeproof towers may occupy part of the court space if the required width of exit passageway is not obstructed. Court Corridors. Where said emergency courts do not open directly on a street a separate and distinct corridor or passage shall continue directly to the street, around the building or through such structure as may be or may have been built on the street, but no such passageway shall pass under any portion of the auditorium or stage. Said corridors ^or pas- sages shall be constructed fireproof all the way to the street in same manner as provided for the construction of corridors for entrances hereinbefore described. The corridor or passage leading from the court to the street shall be at least as wide as the court and there shall be no projections into the passage. The outer openings may be pro- vided with doors or gates opening outward. During the performance these doors or gates shall be kept open; at other times they may be closed and fastened by movable bolts. Entrances in Courts. If entrances open on emergency courts or corridors the said courts or corridors must be increased in width an amount at least equal to the width of the entrances which they serve. Courts and Corridors Kept Clear. The courts and corridors or passages shall not be used for storage purposes, nor for any purpose whatsoever except for exit and en- trance, and must be kept free and clear during performances 234 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Gradients. All courts and corridors at points of street entrance or exit must be flush with sidewalk. To overcome any difference of level in and between courts, corridors, lobbies, passages and aisles on the ground floor, gradients shall be employed of not over 1 foot in 10 feet, except that runs of not more than 10 feet in length may be 1 in 8. Proscenium Wall. A fire wall built of brick or concrete not less than 12 inches thick at any portion shall separate the auditorium from the stage and shall extend at least 4 feet above the stage roof, or the auditorium roof if the latter be higher. Any windows in the structure above the audito- rium which face over roof of stage section when within 100 feet of the stage roof must be protected with fire shutters or wired glass win- dows in metal sashes and frames. Above the proscenium opening there shall be a girder or other support of sufficient strength to safely carry the load. If a girder be used it shall be protected against fire by at least 4 inches of fireproof material with special provision to re- inforce or support it. Proscenium Curtain. The proscenium opening shall be provided with a rigid fireproof curtain, built in conformity with the following specifications, or their equivalent in efficiency when approved by the Building Inspector. The curtain shall have a rigid, rivet- jointed, steel framework. The front or audience side of the frame shall be covered with sheet steel of a thickness not less than No. 16 U. S. gauge. The back shall be covered with vitrified cellular asbestos boards at least 1 inch thick, or other material equally fire resisting. Both coverings shall be se- curely attached to the framework and the joints properly sealed. The curtain shall be designed to resist a wind pressure of 10 pounds per square foot of surface without flexure sufficient to interfere with its closing. The thickness of the curtain shall be not less than 3 inches where the width of the proscenium wall opening is 30 feet or less, and cur- tains for larger openings shall increase in thickness in proportion to the increase in width of opening they cover. An asbestos roll of a diameter not less than one-half the thickness of the curtain, shall be securely attached to the bottom of the curtain to form a smoke seal between the curtain and the stage. The curtain shall overlap the proscenium wall opening at least 12 inches at each side of the opening and not less than 2 feet at the top. The guide members at the sides shall be rolled steel shapes, none of which shall be less than Y% inch thick, and shall be of such char- acter as to form a continuous smoke stop from top to bottom, with a clearance of not over }i inch, except that 1 inch shall be allowed APPENDIX 235 at each edge of curtain to provide for lateral expansion. They shall be installed in such manner that in case of fire on the stage the pres- sure of heated gases against the curtain will act to close the guide joints tightly. Provision shall be made to prevent the curtain from getting out of the guiding channel into which it shall project at least 2 inches. The proscenium wall shall have an offset at each side of the opening, so located and of such thickness and height as to be suitable for the attachment of the curtain guides. The wall over the proscenium opening shall be smooth and plumb to approximately the top of the curtain when it is down, and shall then offset at least 4 inches for the rest of its height, thus leaving a bench along the line of the top of the curtain between which a smoke seal shall be formed. Such a seal may conveniently be provided by arranging for the edge of a rolled steel shape attached to the curtain to dip into a trough of sand resting on the bench. No part of a curtain or any of the curtain guides shall be supported by, or fastened to, any combustible material. The hoisting apparatus for the curtain shall be designed with a factor of safety of 8. The points for cUrtain suspension shall always be an even number, but never less than four. Two of the suspension points shall be located at the extreme ends of the curtain, and the others may be placed at such points as best suit the design, but in no case shall the distance between any two points of support exceed 10 feet. Half of the cables attached to these points shall lead to one set of counterweights and half to another. The curtain shall be operated by hydraulic or other mechanism approved by the Building Inspector. If hydraulic mechanism is used, the water may be taken from either the house tank or sprinkler tank supply. If from the latter, the supply pipe for curtain mechanism shall be so located in the tank that it cannot reduce the quantity of water below the amount necessary to fulfill the sprinkler requirements. The device for controlling the curtain shall be simple in design, and capable of convenient operation from both sides of the stage and from the tie galleries. The drop speed of the curtain shall be uniform and not less than 1 foot per second, but when the curtain is about 2^2 feet from the stage it shall automatically slow down so as to settle on the stage without shock. In addition to the regular operating mechanism, there shall be an emergency device which will cut off the power and allow the curtain to drop by gravity. This device shall be so arranged that it can be easily operated by hand from each side of the stage, under the stage, and in the tie galleries. The device shall also be so designed that its operation will be controlled by fusible links located at each of the above named points. 236 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION The audience side of the curtain may be decorated with a paint in which no oil is used. No combustible material shall be applied or attached to the curtain. Drawings for every such curtain shall be submitted to the Building Inspector, and be approved by him before it is erected. Counterweights. Where counterweights are used they shall be suspended at the ex- treme side or other walls of the stage section, and be inclosed by guards. Other Openings in Proscenium Wall. Openings between the stage and auditorium other than the pros- cenium opening shall not exceed 4 in number, 2 at the approximate stage level and 2 in the musician's pit; the size of any such openings shall not exceed 21 square feet. The openings at. stage level shall have an automatic standard fire door on one side of the wall and a self- closing fire door at the other side of the wall, and openings , of any, below the stage shall have a self-closing standard fire door; all of said doors shall be hung so as to foe opened from either side of the wall at all times. Stage Section, Overhang of Stage. All that portion of the stage extending from the stage side of the fireproof curtain and from the fireproof wall separating the space under the stage from the auditorium to the outer edge of the apron shall be fireproof ^ A wood finish floor without air space may be used in front of the curtain and on the stage. Openings in Exterior Walls. All openings in, exterior walls of stage section shall be protected by approved fire doors, shutters or wired glass windows in metal sashes and frames. Entrance Vestibules. All entrances to the stage from the streets, alleys or open courts must be vestibuled to protect the stage from draughts of air. Fireproof Stage Construction. All that portion of the stage which is not movable (excepting that part usually embraced between the proscenium jambs and from pros- cenium to rear wall) shall be of fireproof construction and designed to safely sustain a live load of not less than 100 pounds per square foot The non-fireproof portion of stage floor shall be of heavy timbers or steel beam construction with flooring not less than 1^4 inch finished thickness. Fly and Tie Galleries. The fly galleries and the tie galleries shall be of fireproof construc- tion designed to safely sustain a live load'' of 90 pounds per square foot. No wood boards or sleepers shall be used as covering over these floors. APPENDIX 237 Gridiron. The gridiron or rigging loft shall have a lattice metal floor capable of sustaining a live load of 75 pounds per square foot and be readily accessible by metal stairs. Scenery. All stage scenery, curtains and decorations made of combustible material, and all woodwork on or about the stage, shall be painted or- saturated with some non-combustible material, or otherwise rendered safe against fire. Ventilation in Stage Section. There shall be one or more ventilators constructed of metal or other incombustible material, near the center and above the highest part of the stage of every theatre, opera house or motion picture show, raised above the stage roof, and of a combined sectional area equal to at least 10 per cent of the floor area within the stage walls. The openings in such ventilators shall have an aggregate sectional area at least equal to that required for the ventilators. Detailed drawings showing the construction and operation of the ventilators must be approved by the Building Inspector before installation is begun. The entire equipment shall conform to the following requirements or their equivalent: The construction of the cover and its operating mechanism shall be massive and the cover shall open by force of gravity sufficient to effectively overcome the effects of neglect, rust, dirt, frost, snow or expansion by heat, twisting or warping of the framework. Glass if used in ventilators must be protected against falling on the stage. A wire screen if used under the glass must be so placed that if clogged it cannot reduce the required vent area or interfere with the operating mechanism, or obstruct the distribution of water from the automatic sprinklers. The cover shall be arranged to open instantly after the outbreak of fire by the use of approved automatic fusible links of the thinnest metal practicable; manual control also must be provided by a cord run down to the stage at a point designated by the Building Inspector. The link and cord must hold the cover closed against a force of at least 30 pounds excess counterweight tending to open the cover. Fus- ible links shall be placed in the ventilator above the roof line and in at least two other points in each controlling cord. No automatic sprinkler heads shall be placed in the ventilator space above the fusible links. Each ventilator cover shall be operated daily while theatre is in use by one of the cords. Skylights. If any skylight is placedj in a roof, it shall be installed in accordance with the specifications for skylights published by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 238 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Dressing Rooms Location. Actors' dressing rooms shall not be placed on or under the stage, or in or under the auditorium. They shall be placed in a separate section provided for that purpose. No dressing room ceiling shall be less than 4 feet, 6 inches above the level of street or court adjoining. Construction. The walls separating said section containing the dressing rooms from the stage or auditorium shall be of brick or concrete not less than 8 inches in thickness and each opening therein shall be protected with a self-closing fire door. The partitions dividing the dressing rooms, to- gether with the partitions of every passageway from the same to the stage shall be constructed of approved fireproof material not less than 4 inches in thickness. All doorways in any of said partitions shall be protected by self-closing fire doors. All dressing rooms shall be ven- tilated by wired glass windows in metal frames to a street or to a court not less than 24 square feet in area. Dressing Rooms Trim. All shelving and cupboards in every dressing room, property room or other storage rooms, shall be of incombustible material. Heating Apparatus Location. Steam boilers shall be located outside of the buildings, either under the sidewalk or in an extension, but in no case under or within any portion of the building, and the space allotted to the same shall be in- closed by walls of brick or concrete at least 12 inches thick on all sides, and the ceiling of such space shall be constructed of fireproof materials. Each doorway in said walls connecting with the building shall have an automatic fire door. Floor Registers. No floor register for heating, ventilating or other purposes shall be permitted in aisles, corridors or passageways. Blowers. All blowers used to circulate air through heating or ventilating pipes with openings to the auditorium shall be provided with a device to stop the blower automatically in case of fire. Fusible links for this purpose shall be located near the blower, both inside and outside the pipe lead- ing to openings in the auditorium. Radiators. No coil, radiator or pipe shallbe placed so as to obstruct any aisle or passageway. Any exposed radiator or coil shall be guarded. Lighting. The stage section and every portion of the building devoted to the uses or accommodation of the public, also all passages leading to streets, including the open courts and corridors shall be satisfactorily lighted APPENDIX 239 during every performance and until the entire audience has left the premises. Kind. Only electric light shall be used in the auditorium and stage section, except that gas fixtures having not larger than "one foot" burners may be used in dressing rooms. These shall have soldered to the fixture strong wire guards or screens not less than 10 inches in diameter, so constructed that any material in contact therewith shall be out of reach of the flames. Supplies. Where electric current from two separate street mains is available, two separate and distinct services must be installed ; one service to be of sufficient capacity to supply current for the entire equipment of the theatre, while the other service must be at least sufficient to supply current for all emergency lights, including the exit lights or signs, and all lights in outside courts, lobbies, stairways, corridors and other portions of the theatre which are normally kept lighted during the per- formance. Where only one supply from a street main is available the connection used exclusively for emergency lights must be taken from a point on the street side of the main service fuses. When the source of supply is an isolated plant on the same premises an auxiliary service at least sufficient to supply all emergency lights shall be connected with some outside source, or a suitable storage battery within the premises may be considered the equivalent of such service. Exit and Entrance Lights. Where illuminated signs are not provided there shall be at least one red light over each exit and entrance opening from the auditorium and stage sections. Lighting Controls. All "emergency lights" shall be controlled by a special switch located in the lobby and accessible only) to authorized persons. Stage Switchboard. The stage switchboard* shall have a metal hood over the top, running the full length of the board and fully protecting same from anything falling from above. Automatic Sprinkler Equipment. A standard wet-pipe system of approved automatic sprinklers shall be installed throughout the theatre, except in the auditorium, foyers and lobbies. Sprinklers will not be permitted over dynamos and switch- boards or above the fusible links immediately under the automatic ven- tilators over stage. Water Supply. There should be at least two independent water supplies to the auto- matic sprinklers. The following are approved sources of water supplies : 240 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION a. Public Water Works : The system to give not less than 25 pounds static pressure at all hours of the day at highest line of sprinklers. b. Pressure Tank : The tank shall be located approximately at the level of the highest line of sprinklers. The total capacity shall be not less than 5,000 gal- lons (3,300 gallons of water), and in any event the tank or tanks shall contain sufficient water to supply 25 per cent of the greatest number of sprinklers with an "area" for twenty minutes with an average dis- charge of twenty gallons per minute per sprinkler. c. Gravity Tank : A gravity tank shall contain an available quantity of water sufficient to supply 50 per cent of the number of sprinklers in one "area," to which it gives protection, for 20 minutes, with an average discharge per sprinkler of 20 gallons per minute, but tank shall not be less than 5,000 gallons available capacity. Elevation of bottom of tank above highest line of sprinklers on system which it supplies shall be not less than 20 feet. d. Fire Pump : Fire pump of not less than 500 gallons capacity per minute, and sufficient to supply 50 per cent of the number of sprinklers within an "area" with an average discharge per sprinkler of 20 gallons a minute. The pump is to be so located on premises as to be free from damage by fire or other causes. The pump room shall be readily accessible and easy of safe egress for attendant. Water shall be taken from an approved source, having sufficient capacity to supply pump for not less than 60 minutes, while pump is delivering its rated capacity. A surge tank of not less than 5,000 gallons capacity shall be provided when the supply from the street main is not sufficient. Power to drive pump, whether steam or electricity, shall be constant and properly safeguarded. Fire Department Connection. In addition to two of the above required supplies there shall be an approved Siamese Fire Department connection not less than 4 inches in diameter, placed on the outside of the building at each street front, installed in accordance with the requirements of the Fire Department and with suitable metal plate with raised letters securely attached to the wall near the connection reading "Automatic Sprinklers." Standpipes. Standpipes shall be provided not less than 4 inches in diameter of wrought iron or galvanized steel, with hose connections, located as follows : One on each side of the stage on each tier, one readily acces- sible from the property room, the carpenter shop, scenery storage rooms, lobbies and elsewhere as may be required by the Department having jurisdiction. These standpipes, together with fittings and connection, APPENDIX 241 shall be of such strength as to safely withstand at least 300 pounds water pressure to the square inch when installed and ready for service without leakage at joints, valves or fittings, and shall be provided with hose connections fitted with approved straightway gate valves at hose outlets. Water Supplies for Standpipes. Said standpipes shall be kept constantly filled with water under pressure, and shall be supplied by at least one of the following sources : Water works, gravity tank, pressure tank, or fire pump. The capacities and pressure shall be in accordance with the require- ments of the department having jurisdiction. Fire Department Connection. " In addition to one or more of the above required supplies there shall be an approved Siamese Fire Department connection placed on the out- side of building at each street front, installed in accordance with the requirements of the Fire Department, with suitable metal plate having raised letters securely attached to wall near the connection, reading "Standpipe." Hose. A sufficient quantity of approved linen hose, V/2, inches in diameter, in 50-foot lengths or enough to cover floor area, shall be kept attached to each hose connection ; 25-foot lengths will be permitted in fly gal- leries. Hose shall be placed on approved racks ano^ fitted with standard couplings at each end. Each line of hose shall be fitted with short play-pipe, with ^-inch smooth bore nozzle and provided with washers at both ends. Spanners shall be located at each hose connection through- out the building. Miscellaneous Fire Appliances. There shall be on each side of the stage two axes, one 20 foot, one 15 foot and one 10 foot hook, as designated by the Fire Department. On each side of the stage, under the stage, on each fly gallery, also in property and other store rooms and in each workshop, there shall be kept in readiness for immediate use one approved 2^-gallon hand chemical fire extinguisher and one 40-gallon cask filled with water, and 6 fire pails ; said casks and buckets shall be painted red and lettered "For Fire Purposes Only." There shall also be provided at least three ap- proved 2^-gallon hand chemical fire extinguishers for each tier of the auditorium. Fire Apparatus Under Control of Fire Department. All apparatus for the extinguishment of fire shall be installed in accordance with the rules of the Fire Department and be kept at all times in condition satisfactory to and under control of the Fire Depart- ment. BOROUGH OF MANHATTAN. ARTICLE 24. Motion Picture Theatres. (In Effect March 30, 1915.) Section 500 Plans. 501 Restrictions. 502 Construction. 503 Means of Egress. 504 Booth for Projecting-Machine and Film. 505 Application to Existing Theatres. 506 Open-Air Motion Picture Theatres. 500. Plans. Before the erection, construction or alteration of a building or part thereof, to be used as a motion picture theatre, as de- fined in paragraph 30 of chapter 3 of this ordinance, there must be filed with the appropriate superintendent of buildings complete plans and detailed statement of the specifications therefor, required by paragraph 3 of this chapter. The plans must show 1 clearly and fully the location and width of all aisles, passageways, exits, stairways and fire escapes; the arrangement of seats; the size of floor beams, walls and supports; the location and construction of apparatus; a diagram of the lot or plot upon which the theatre is to be erected or constructed, showing the outlets from all exits, and also such other statements, plans and details as may be required by the superintendent of buildings having jurisdiction. 501. Restrictions. No motion picture theatre, as defined aforesaid, shall be constructed in a frame building within the fire limits, nor in a hotel, tenement house or lodging house, nor in a factory or workshop, except where the theatre is separated from the rest of the building by unpierced fire walls and floors, and in no case shall such a theatre be constructed or operated above or below the ground floor of any building. 502. Construction. In all motion picture theatres, as defined afore- said, to be hereafter constructed, the following requirements shall be complied with, namely: 1. Ceilings. The ceilings of all theatres and of all rooms used in connection therewith shall be plastered with 3 coats of first-class plaster on wire mesh or metal lath, or covered with ^2-inch plaster boards, and plastered or covered with metal. If there be a basement or cellar, the ceiling under the floor of the theatre must be plastered with 3 coats of first class plaster on wire mesh or expanded metal lath, or may be covered with metal on ^2 -inch plaster iboards. 242 APPENDIX 243 2. Floor-loads. The flooring of that portion of the building de- voted to the uses or accommodation of the public must be of sufficient strength to bear safely a live load of 90 pounds per square foot. 3. Galleries and Stairways. A gallery may be permitted except in a theatre constructed on a lot less than 20 feet in width, but it shall not include more than 25 per cent of the total seating capacity of the theatre. Entrance to and exit from the gallery shall in no case lead to the main floor of the theatre, and the gallery shall be provided with a stairway or stairways equipped with handrails on both sides. Stairways over 7 feet wide shall be provided with centre handrails. The risers of the stairways shall not exceed 1Y\ inches, and the treads, excluding nosings, shall not be less than 9>2 inches. There shall be no circular or winding stairways. The total width of the stairways shall not be less than 8 feet in the clear where the gallery accommodated 150 people; for every 50 people less than 150, accommodated by the gallery, said width may be reduced 1 foot. Stairways shall be constructed of fireproof material, and such material and the bearing capacity of such stairways shall be approved by the bureau of buildings. 4. Gradients. To overcome any difference of level between corri- dors, lobbies and aisles in a theatre, gradients of not over 1 foot in 10 feet, or steps having a rise not over 8 inches and a width of not less than 10 inches shall be used. 5. Walls. If the walls of the theatre contain wooden studs they shall be covered either with expanded metal lath or wire mesh and plastered with three coats of first-class plaster, or with metal on ^-inch plaster boards, and all joints shall be properly filled with mortar. 503. Means of Egress. 1. Aisles. All aisles in a motion picture theatre or in a gallery thereof must be at least 3 feet in the clear. 2. Chair Space. All chairs in such a theatre, except those contained in the boxes, must not be less than 32 inches from back to back and must be firmly secured to the floor ; no seat shall have more than 7 seats intervening between it and an aisle, and the space occupied by each person shall be separated from the adjoining space by means of an arm or other suitable device. 3. Exits. A building to be erected or to be altered for use as a motion picture theatre must be provided, on the main floor thereof, with at least 2 separate exits, one of which shall be in the front and the other in the rear of the structure and both leading to unobstructed outlets to the street. Where the main floor of the theatre accommodates more than 300 people there shall be at least 3 such exits, the aggregate width in feet of which shall not be less than one-twentieth of the num- ber of persons to be accommodated therein. No exit shall be less than 5 feet in width, and there shall be a main exit, not less than 10 feet in 244 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION total width. All exit doors must be fireproof and made to open out- wardly, and foe so arranged as not to obstruct the required width of exit or court when opened. All doors leading to fire escapes must be not less than 40 inches wide in the clear, and shall be located at the opposite side or end of the gallery from other exit doors. 4. Exit Passageway to Street. In any such building, if an unob- structed exit to a street cannot be provided at the rear thereof as herein specified, either an open court or a fireproof passageway or corridor must be provided, extending from the rear exit to the street front, at least 4 feet in the clear for theatres accommodating 100 persons or less ; the width to be increased 8 inches for every additional 100 persons to be accommodated. Such passageway or corridor must be constructed of fireproof material and be at least 10 feet high in the clear. The walls forming such passageway or corridor must be at least 8 inches thick, and shall be constructed of brick or other approved fireproof material. If there be a basement, the wall on the auditorium side should either run 1 foot below the cellar bottom, or may be carried in the cellar on iron columns and girders properly fireproofed, according to paragraph 350 of this chapter. The ceiling of such passageway must be constructed as required by paragraph 352 of this chapter. If unob- structed rear exits or exits to a street are provided, they must be of the same total width required for court, passageway or corridor above mentioned. The level of the open court or passageway at the front of the building shall not be greater than 1 step above the level of the side- walk, and the grade shall not be more than 1 foot in 10, with no per- pendicular risers. 5. Fire Escapes. Galleries must also be provided with at least one line of fire escapes, leading to an open court, fireproof passage or street without re-entering the same or any other building. If the fire escape leads to a point in the court nearer the street than any exit, there must be a width of not less than 4 feet in the clear between the outer edge of the fire escape and the outer wall of the court. All fire escapes must have balconies, not less than 3 feet 4 inches in width in the clear, and not less than 4 feet 6 inches long, and from said balconies there shall be staircases extending to the ground level, with a rise of not over 7$i inches and a step of not less than 9 l / 2 inches, and the width of the stairs must not be less than 3 feet 4 inches. 504. Booth for Projecting-Machine and Films. Apparatus for pro- jecting motion pictures shall be contained in a fireproof booth or in- closure constructed as required by law. The booth in which the picture machine is operated shall be provided with an opening in its roof, or in the upper part of its side walls leading to the outdoor air, and with a vent flue, which shall have a minimum cross-sectional area of 50 square inches and shall foe fireproof. When the booth is in use, there shall be a APPENDIX 245 constant current of air passing outward through said opening or vent flue, at the rate of not less than 30 cubic feet per minute. The re- quirements of this section shall apply to portable booths and booths in open-air theatres, as well as to motion picture theatres. 505. Application to Existing Theatres. All the provisions of this article shall apply to existing places of entertainment where motion pictures are exhibited under common show licenses, in case the seating capacity be increased ; and, in case the seating capacity be not increased, all the provisions of this article shall apply, except the provisions of paragraphs 500, 501 ; subdivisions 1, 3 and 5 of paragraph 502 and sub- divisions 3, 4 and 5 of paragraph 503, but the commissioner of licenses shall have power in his discretion to enforce the provisions of sub- divisions 3 and 4 of paragraph 503, relating to exits and courts. An existing place of entertainment seating 300 persons or less, where motion pictures are exhibited in conjunction with any other form of entertainment, must comply, before a reissuance of its license, with the provisions of article 25 of this chapter, relating to theatres seating more than 300 persons. But, if such existing place of entertainment shall discontinue all other form of entertainment except the exhibition of motion pictures, it may be licensed in accordance with the provisions of first paragraph of this section. 506. O pen-Air Motion Picture Theatres. The seating capacity of each open-air motion picture theatre, as defined in paragraph 30 of chapter 3 of this ordinance, shall be such as shall be prescribed by the commissioner of licenses. All such theatres shall conform to the fol- lowing requirements : 1. Aisles. The number and width of all aisles shall be as pre- scribed by the commissioner of licenses, but no aisle shall be less than 4 feet wide; 2. Exits. At least 2 separate exits, remote from each other, shall be provided, and no exit shall be less than 5 feet in width ; for every 25 persons to be accommodated in excess of 300, the total width of exits shall be increased 1 foot. All exits must be indicated by signs and red lights, and doors must open outwardly; 3. Seats. Seats must be stationary, with backs 32 inches apart, and so arranged that no seat shall have more than 7 seats intervening be- tween it and an aisle. Chairs must be either securely fastened to a wood or concrete floor, or all chairs in a row must be fastened together, and at least 4 rows must be securely fastened to 1 frame; except that, where refreshments are served, tables and unattached chairs or benches used with them may be permitted; 4. Floors. The floor must be constructed either of wood, with sleepers, or concrete; it must extend at least 5 feet from the seats on 246 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION all sides; provided, however, that, in the discretion of the commis- sioner of licenses, a gravel floor may be substituted for wood or con- crete. In addition to the foregoing requirements, the provisions of sub- divisions 2 and 4 of paragraph 502 and paragraph 504 of this article shall apply to all open-air motion picture theatres. ARTICLE 25. Theatres and Other Places of Amusement. (In Effect March 30, 1915.) Section 520 Application of Article. 521 Buildings Must be Approved. 522 Auditorium Walls. 523 Dressing Rooms. 524 Fire-extinguishing Appliances. 525 Heating Plant. 526 Lights. 527 Means of Egress. 528 Partitions and Walls. 529 Proscenium Construction. 530 Protective Curtain. 531 Roof of Auditorium. 532 Seats. 533 Stage. 534 Miscellaneous Requirements. 535 Storage Rooms; Workshops. 536 Use and Occupancy. 537 Jurisdiction of Fire Comimissioner. 538 Saving Clause. 520. Application of Article. Every theatre or open house or other building intended to be used for theatrical or operatic purposes, or for public entertainment of any kind hereafter erected for the accommoda- tion of more than 300 persons, shall be built to comply with the require- ments of this article. No building which, at the time of the passage of this ordinance is not in actual use for theatrical or operatic purposes, and no building hereafter erected not in conformity with the require- ments of this section, shall be used for theatrical or operatic purposes, or for public entertainments of any kind, until the same shall have been made to conform to the requirements of this article. 521. Buildings Must Be Approved. No building described in the preceding section of this article shall be opened to the public for the- atrical or operatic purposes, or for public entertainments of any kind, APPENDIX 247 until the fire commissioner and the superintendent of buildings shall have approved the same in writing as conforming to the requirements of this article. 522. Auditorium Walls. Interior walls built of fireproofing. ma- terials shall separate the auditorium from the entrance vestibule, and .from any room or rooms over the same, also from lobbies, corridors, refreshment or other rooms. 523. Dressing Rooms. Dressing rooms may be placed in the fly galleries, provided that proper exits are secured therefrom to the fire escapes in the open courts, and that the partitions and other matters pertaining to dressing rooms shall conform to the requirements herein contained, but the stairs leading to the same shall be fireproof. All dressing rooms shall have an independent exit leading directly into a court or street, and shall be ventilated by windows in the external walls; and no dressing room shall be below the street level. All win- dows shall be arranged to open, and none of the windows in outside walls shall have fixed sashes, iron grills or bars. 524. Fire-Extinguishing Appliances. In every building described in paragraph 520 of this article there shall be provided: 1\ Hose. A proper and sufficient quantity of 2^-inch hose, not less than 100 feet in length, fitted with the regulation couplings of the fire department and with nozzles attached thereto, and with hose span- ners at each outlet, shall always be kept attached to each hose attach- ment as the fire commissioner may direct. 2. Sprinkler System. A separate and distinct system of automatic sprinklers, with fusible plugs, approved by the superintendet of buildings, supplied with water from a tank located on the roof over the stage and not connected in any manner with the stand pipes, shall be placed at each side of the proscenium opening and on the ceiling or roof over the stage at such intervals as will protect every square foot of stage surface when said sprinklers are in operation. Automatic sprinklers shall also be placed, wherever practicable, in the dressing rooms under the stage and in the carpenter shop, paint rooms, store rooms and property room. 3. Standpipes. Standpipes 4 inches in diameter shall be provided with hose attachments on every floor and gallery as follows, namely: One on each side of the auditorium in each tier, also on each side of the stage in each tier, and at least one in the property room and one in the carpenter's shop, if the same be contiguous to the building. All such standpipes shall be kept clear from obstruction. Said standpipes shall be separate and distinct, receiving their supply of water direct from the power pump or pumps, and shall be fitted with the regulation 248 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION couplings of the fire department, and shall be kept constantly filled with water by means oi an automatic power pump or pumps, of sufficient capacity to supply all the lines of hose when operated simultaneously, and said pump or pumps shall be supplied from the street main and be ready for immediate use at all times during any performance in said building. In addition to the requirements contained in this sec- tion, the standpipes shall also conform to the requirements contained in paragraph 581 of this chapter. 4. Miscellaneous. There shall also be kept in readiness for imme- diate use on the stage, at least 4 casks full of water, and 2 (buckets to each cask. Said casks and buckets shall be painted red. There shall also be provided hand pumps or other portable fire-extinguishing ap- paratus and at least '4 axes and two 25-foot hooks, two 15-foot hooks, and two 10-foot hooks on each tier or floor of the stage. 525. Heating Plant. Every steam boiler which may be required for heating or other purposes shall be located outside of the building. The space allotted to the same shall be inclosed by walls of masonry on all sides, and the ceiling of such space shall be constructed of fireproof materials. All doorways in the walls of boiler-rooms shall have fire- proof doors. No floor register for heating shall be permitted. No coil or radiator shall be placed in any aisle or passageway used as an exit, but all said coils and radiators shall be placed in recesses formed in the wall or partition to receive the same. All supply return or exhaust pipes shall be properly incased and protected where passing through floors or near woodwork. 526. Lights. 1. Adequacy. Every portion of the building devoted to the uses or accommodation of the public, also all outlets leading to the streets and including the open courts or corridors, shall be well and properly lighted during every performance, and the same shall remain lighted until the entire audience has left the premises. When interior gas lights are not lighted by electricity, other suitable appliances, to be approved by the superintendent of buildings, shall be provided. 2. Corridors and Passageways. All gas or electric lights in the halls, corridors, lobby or any other part of said buildings used by the audience, except the auditorium, must be controlled by a separate shut-off, lo- cated in the lobby and controlled only in that particular place. 3. Fireproofing. No gas or electric light shall be inserted in the walls, woodwork, ceilings, or in any part of. the buildings, unless pro- tected by fireproof materials. 4. Gas connections. Gas mains supplying the building shall have independent connections for the auditorium and the stage, and pro- vision shall be made for shutting off the gas from the outside of the building. APPENDIX 249 5. Nettings. All suspended or bracket lights surrounded by glass in the auditorium, or in any part of the building devoted to the public shall be provided with proper wire netting underneath. All lights in passages and corridors in said buildings, wherever deemed necessary by the superintendent of buildings, shall be protected with proper wire network. 6. Stage Lights. All stage lights shall have strong metal wire guards or screens, not less than 10 inches in diameter, so constructed that any material in contact therewith shall be out of reach of the flames of said stage lights, and must be soldered to the fixture in all cases. The footlights, in addition to the wire network, shall be pro- tected with a strong wire guard and chain, placed not less than 2 feet distant from said footlights, and the trough containing them shall be formed of and surrounded by fireproof materials. All border lights shall be constructed according to the best known methods, subject to the approval of the superintendent of buildings, and shall be suspended for 10 feet by wire rope. 7. Ventilators. All ducts or shafts used for conducting heated air from the main chandelier, or from any other light or lights, shall be constructed of metal and made double, with an air space between. 527. Means of Egress. 1. Exits to Streets. Every theatre accom- modating 300 persons shall have at least 2 exits; when accommodating 500 persons, at least 3 such exits shall be provided; these exits not referring to or including the exits to the open court at the side of the theatre. Every such building shall have at least one front on the street, and in such front there shall be suitable means of entrance and exit for the audience, not less than 25 feet in width. The entrance of the main front of the building shall be not on a higher level from the sidewalk than 4 steps, unless approved by the superintendent of buildings. Each exit shall be at least 5 feet in width in the clear and provided with doors of iron or wood; if of wood, the doors shall be constructed as hereinbefore prescribed in this chapter. All of said doors shall open outwardly, and shall be fastened with movable bolts, the bolts to be kept drawn during performances. 2. Exits to Courts. In addition to the aforesaid entrances and exits on the street, there shall be reserved for service in case of an emergency an open court or space in the rear and on the side not bordering on the street, where said building is located on a corner lot ; and in the rear and on both sides of said building, where there is but one frontage on the street as hereinafter provided. The width of such open court or courts shall be not less than 10 feet where the seating capacity is not over 1,000 people, above 1,000 and not more than 1,800 people 12 feet in width, and above 1,800 people 14 feet width. Said open court or courts shall extend the full length and height of the 250 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION building and across on each side and rear thereof where its sides or side does not abut on a street or alley, and shall be of the same width at all points, and exits hereafter specified shall lead into such open courts. From the auditorium opening into the said open courts or on the side street, there shall be not less than 2 exits on each side in each tier from and including the parquet and each gallery. The said open courts and corridors shall not be used for storage purposes, or for any purposes whatsoever, except for exit and entrance from and to the auditorium and stage, and must be kept free and clear during performances. 3. Doorways of Exits. Doorways of exit or entrance for the use of the public shall be not less than 5 feet in width, and for every additional 100 persons or portions thereof to be accommo- dated in excess of 500, an aggregate of 20 inches additional exit width must be allowed. All doors of exit or entrance shall open out- wardly and be hung to swing in such a manner as not to become an obstruction in a passage or corridor, and no such doors shall be closed and locked during any representation, or when the building is open to the public. 4. Foyers, Lobbies and Corridors. The foyers, lobbies, corridors, passages and rooms for the use of the audience, not including aisles spaced between seats, shall on the first or main floor, where the seating capacity exceeds 500 or more, be at least 16 feet clear, back of the last row of seats and on each balcony or gallery at least 12 feet clear of the last row of seats. The level of said corridors at the front entrance to the building shall be not greater than one step above the level of the sidewalk where they begin at the street entrance. During the per- formance the doors or gates in the corridors shall be kept open by proper fastenings; at other times they may be 'closed and fastened by movable bolts or blocks. 5. Aisles. All aisles on the respective floors of the auditorium shall be not less than 3 feet wide where they begin, and shall be increased in width toward the exits in a ratio oi l]4 inches to 5 running feet. 6. Gradients. Gradients or inclined planes shall be employed in- stead of steps where possible to overcome slight difference of level in or between aisles, corridors and passages. To overcome any difference of level in and between courts, corridors, lobbies, passages and aisles on the ground floor, gradients shall be employed of not over 1 foot in 12 feet, with no perpendicular rises. 7. Gallery Exits. Distinct and separate places of exit and entrance shall be provided for each gallery above the first. A common place of exit and entrance may serve for the main floor of the auditorium and the first gallery, provided its capacity be equal to the aggregate capac- ity of the outlets from the main floor and the said gallery. No passage APPENDIX 251 leading to any stairway communicating with any entrance or exit shall be less than 4 feet in width in any part thereof. From the auditorium opening into the said open courts or on the side street, there shall be not less than 2 exits on each side in each tier from and including the parquet and each and every gallery. 8. Staircase to Galleries. Where the seating capacity is for more than 1,000 people, there shall be at least 2 independent staircases, with direct exterior outlets, provided for each gallery in the auditorium, where there are not more than 2 galleries, and the same shall be lo- cated on opposite sides of said galleries. Where there are more than 2 galleries, 1 or more additional staircases shall be provided; the outlets from which shall communicate directly with the principal exit or other exterior outlets. All such staircases shall be of width proportionate to the seating capacity as elsewhere herein prescribed. Where the seat- ing capacity is for 1,000 people, or less, 2 direct lines of staircase only shall be required, located on opposite sides of the galleries, and in both cases shall extend from the sidewalk level to the upper gallery, with outlets from each gallery to each of said staircases. All inside stair- ways leading to the upper galleries of the auditorium shall be inclosed on both sides with walls of fireproof materials. Stairs leading to the first or lower gallery may be left open on one side in which case they shall be constructed as herein provided for similar stairs leading from the entrance hall to the main floor of the auditorium. But in no case shall stairs leading to any gallery be left open on both sides. No door shall be open immediately upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the door shall be provided between such stairs and such door. 9. Stage Staircases. At least 2 independent staircases, with direct exterior outlets, shall also be provided for the service of the stage and shall be located on the opposite sides of the same. 10. Stairways. All staircases for the use of the audience shall be inclosed with walls of brick, or of fireproof materials approved by the superintendent of buildings, in the stories through which they pass, and the openings to said staircases from each tier shall be of the full width of said staircase. All stairs within the building shall be constructed of fireproof material throughout. Stairs from balconies and galleries shall not communicate with the basement or cellar. All stairs shall have treads of uniform width and risers of uniform height throughout. Stairs from balconies and galleries shall not communicate with the basement or cellar. All stairs shall have treads of uniform width and risers of uniform height throughout in each flight. Stairways serving for the exit of 50 people shall be at least 4 feet wide between railings or between walls, and for every additional 50 people to be accommodated 6 inches must be added to their width. The width of all stairs shall be measured in the clear between hand rails. In no case shall the 252 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION risers of any stairs exceed 7 l / 2 inches in height, nor shall the treads, exclusive of nosings, be less than 10^ inches wide in straight stairs. No circular or winding stairs for the use of the public shall be per- mitted. When straight return directly on themselves, a landing of the full width of both flights, without any steps, shall be provided. The outer line of landings shall be curved to a radius of not less than 2 feet to avoid square angles. Stairs turning at an angle shall have a proper landing without winders introduced at said turn. In stairs, when 2 side flights connect with one main flight, no winders shall be introduced, and the width of the main flight shall be at least equal to the aggregate width of the side flights. All stairs shall have proper landings intro- duced at convenient distances. 11. Stairway Hand Rails. All inclosed staircases shall have, on both sides, strong hand rails firmly secured to the wall about 3 inches distant therefrom and about 3 feet above the stairs, but said hand rails shall not run on level platforms and landings where the same is more in length than the width of the stairs. All staircases 8 feet and over in width shall be provided with a centre hand rail of metal, not less than 2 inches in diameter placed at a height of about 3 feet above the center of the treads, and supported on wrought metal or brass standards of sufficient strength, placed not nearer than 4 feet nor more than 6 feet apart, and securely bolted to the treads or risers of stairs, or both, and at the head of each flight of stairs, on each landing, the post or standard shall be at least 6 feet in height, to which the rail shall be secured. 12. Fire-escapes. There shall be balconies not less than 6 feet in width in the said open court or courts at each level or tier above the parquet, on each side of the auditorium, of sufficient length to embrace the 2 exits, and from said balconies there shall be staircases extending to the ground level, with a rise of not over & l / 2 inches to a step and not less than 9 inches tread, exclusive of the nosing. ' The staircase from the upper balcony to the next below shall be not less than 48 inches in width clear, and .from the first balcony to the ground 4 feet in width in the clear where the seating capacity of the auditorium is for 1,000 people or less, 4 feet 6 inches in the clear where above 1,000 and not more than 1,800 people, and 5 feet in the clear where above 1,800 people and not more than 2,500 people, and not over 5 feet 6 inches in the clear where above 2,500 people. All the before-mentioned balconies and staircases shall be constructed of iron throughout, including the floors, and of ample strength to sustain the load to be carried by them, and they shall be covered with a metal hood or awning, to be constructed in such manner as shall be approved by the superintendent of buildings. Where one side of the building borders on the street, there shall be balconies and staircases of like capacity and kind, as before mentioned, carried to the ground. APPENDIX 253 13. Diagram of Exits. A diagram or plan of each tier, gallery or floor, showing distinctly the exits therefrom, each occupying a space not less than 15 square inches, shall be printed in black lines in a legible manner on the programme of the performance. Every exit shall have over the same on the inside the word "Exit" painted in legible letters not less than 8 inches high. 528. Partitions and Walls. The partitions in that portion of the building which contains the auditorium, the entrance and vestibule, and every room and passage devoted to the use of the audience shall be constructed of fireproof materials including the furring of outside or other walls. The wall separating the actors' dressing rooms from the stage and the partitions dividing the dressing rooms, together with the partitions of every passageway from the same to the stage, and all other partitions on or about the stage, shall be constructed of fireproof ma- terial approved by the superintendent of buildings. All doors in any of said partitions shall be fireproof. 529. Proscenium Construction. A fire wall, built of brick shall separate the auditorium from the stage. The same shall extend at least 4 feet above the stage roof, or the auditorium roof, if the latter be the higher, and shall be coped. Above the proscenium opening there shall be an iron girder of sufficient strength to safely support the load above, and the same shall be covered with fireproof materials to protect it from the heat. Should there be constructed an orchestra over the stage, above the proscenium opening, the said orchestra shall be placed on the auditorium side of the proscenium fire, wall, and shall be entered only from the auditorium side of said wall. The molded frame around the proscenium opening shall be formed entirely of fireproof materials; if metal be used, the metal shall be filled in solid with non-combustible material and securely anchored to the wall with iron. No doorway or opening through the proscenium wall, from the auditorium, shall be allowed above the level of the first floor, and such first floor, openings shall have fireproof doors on each face of the wall, and the doors shall be hung so as to be opened from either side at all times. 530. Protective Curtain. The proscenium opening shall be provided with a fireproof metal curtain, or a curtain of asbestos or other fire- proof material approved by the superintendent of buildings, sliding at each end with iron grooves, securely fastened to the brick wall and ex- tending into such grooves to a depth not less than 6 inches on each side of the opening. The proscenium curtains shall be placed at least 3 feet distant from the footlights, at the nearest point. Said fireproof curtain, shall be raised at the commencement of each performance and lowered at the close thereof, and be operated by approved machinery for that purpose. 254 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION 531. Roof of Auditorium. The roof over the auditorium and the entire main floor of the auditorium and vestibule, also the entire floor of the second story of the front superstructure over the entrance, lobby and corridors, and all galleries and support for the same in the audi- torium shall be constructed of iron and steel and fireproof materials, not excluding the use of wood floor boards and necessary sleepers to fasten the same to, but such sleepers shall not mean timbers of support, and the space between the sleepers, excepting a portion under the stepping in the galleries, which shall be properly fire-stopped, shall be solidly filled with incombustible material up to under side of the floor boards. 532. Seats. All seats in the auditorium, excepting those contained in boxes, shall be not less than 32 inches from back to back, measured in a horizontal direction, and firmly secured to the floor. No seat in the auditorium shall have more than 6 seats intervening between it and an aisle on either side. No stool or seat shall be placed in any aisle. All platforms in galleries formed to receive the seats shall not be more than 21 inches in height of riser, nor less than 32 inches in width of platform. 533. Stage. 1. Construction. All that portion of the stage not comprised in the working of scenery, traps and other mechanical appa- ratus for the presentation of a scene, usually equal to the width of the proscenium opening, shall be built of iron or steel beams filled in be- tween with fireproof material, and all girders for the support of said beams shall be of wrought iron or rolled steel. The fly galleries entire, including pin-rails, shall be constructed of iron or steel, and the floors of said galleries shall be composed of iron or steel beams, filled with fireproof materials, and no wood boards or sleepers shall be used as covering over beams but the said floors shall be entirely fireproof. The rigging loft shall be fireproof. 2. Skylights. There shall be provided over the stage metal sky- lights of an area or combined area of at least % the area of said stage, fitted up with sliding sash and glazed with double thick sheet glass not exceeding 1-12 of an inch thick, and each pane thereof measur- ing not less than 300 square inches and the whole of which skylight shall be so constructed as to open instantly on the cutting or burning of a hempen cord, which shall be arranged to hold said skylights closed, or some other equally simply approved device for opening them may be provided. Immediately underneath the glass of said skylights there shall be wire netting, but wire glass shall not be used in lieu of this requirement. 3. Scenery and Fittings. All stage scenery, curtains and decorations made of combustible material, and all woodwork on or about the stage, shall be painted or saturated with some non-combustible material or APPENDIX 255 otherwise rendered safe against fire, and thj finishing coats of paint applied to all woodwork through the entire building shall be of such kind as will resist fire to the satisfaction of the superintendent of build- ings having jurisdiction. 534. Miscellaneous Requirements. 1. Ceilings. The ceiling under each gallery shall be entirely formed of fireproof materials. The ceiling of the auditorium shall be formed of fireproof materials. 2. Ceiling Coverings. None of the walls or ceilings shall be covered with wood sheathing, canvas or any combustible material. But this shall not exclude the use of wood wainscoting to a height not to exceed 6 feet, which shall be filled in solid between the wainscoting and the wall with fireproof materials. 3. Fronts of Galleries. The fronts of each gallery shall be formed of fireproof materials, except the capping, which may be made of wood. 4. Lathing. All lathing, whenever used, shall be of wire or other metal. 5. Shelving and Cupboards. All shelving and cupboards in each and every dressing room, property room or other storage rooms, shall be constructed of metal, slate or some fireproof material. 535. Storage Rooms; Workshops. No workshop, storage or general property room shall be allowed above the auditorium or stage, or under the same or in any of the fly galleries. All of said rooms or shops may be located in the rearer at the side of the stage, but in such cases they shall be separated from the stage by a brick wall, and the openings leading into said portions shall have fireproof doors on each side of the openings, hung to iron eyes built into the wall. 536. Use and Occupancy. 1. Restrictions. No portion of any build- ing hereafter erected or altered, used or intended to be used for theatrical or other purposes as in this section specified, shall be occu- pied or used as a hotel, boarding or lodging house, factory workshop or manufactory, or for storage purposes, except as may be hereafter specially provided for. This restriction relates not only to that portion of the building which contains the auditorium and the stage, but applies also to the entire structure in conjunction therewith. No store or room contained in the building, or the offices, stores or apartments adjoining, as aforesaid, shall be let or used for carrying on any business, dealing in articles designated as specially hazardous in the classification of the New York Board of Fire Underwriters, or for manufacturing purposes. No lodging accommodations shall be allowed in any part of the building communicating with the auditorium. When located on a corner lot, that portion of the premises bordering on the side street and not required for the uses of the theatre may, if such portion be 256 MODERN THEATRE OBSTRUCTION not more than 25 feet in width, be used for offices, stores or apartments, provided the walls separating this portion from the theatre proper are carried up solidly to and through the roof, and that a fireproof exit is provided for the theatre on each tier, equal to the combined width of exits opening on opposite sides in each tier, communicating with bal- conies and staircases leading to the street in manner provided else- where in this section; said exit passages shall be entirely cut off by brick walls from said offices, stores or apartments, and the floors and ceilings in each tier shall be fireproof. 2. Above Theatre. Nothing herein contained shall prevent a roof garden, art gallery or rooms for similar purposes being placed above a theatre or public building, provided the floor of the same, forming the roof over such theatre or building, shall be constructed of iron or steel and fireproof materials, and that said floor shall have no covering boards or sleepers of wood, but shall be of tile or cement. Every roof over said garden or rooms shall have all supports and rafters of iron or steel, and be covered with glass or fireproof materials, or both, but no such roof garden, art gallery or room for any public purposes shall be placed over or above that portion of any theatre or other building which is used as a stage. 537. Jurisdiction of Pire Commissioner. The stand pipes, gas pipes, electric wires, hose, footlights and all apparatus for the extinguishing of fire or guarding against the same, as in this article specified, shall be in charge and under control of the fire department, and the fire commissioner is hereby directed to see that the provisions of this article relating thereto are carried out and enforced. 538. Saving Clause. The provisions of the foregoing article shall not be construed to mean or made to apply to any theatre, opera house or building intended to be used for theatrical or operatic purposes, lawfully erected prior to June 3, 1904. CITY OF BOSTON. THEATRES. Definition. Sect. 77. Every building hereafter erected so as to contain an audi- ence hall and a stage, with curtain, movable or shifting scenery and machinery, adapted for the giving of plays, operas, spectacles or similar forms of entertainment, and of a size to provide seats for more than 500 spectators shall be a theatre within the meaning of this act. No existing building not now used as a theatre shall be altered and used as a theatre, unless it conforms to the provisions of this act for a new theatre. Construction. Sect. 78. Every theatre hereafter built shall be of fireproof con- struction throughout, except that the floor boards may be of wood, and the steel work of the stage, of the fly galleries, and of the rigging loft need not be fireproofed. Open Courts. Sect. 79. Every theatre built in a block not on a corner shall have an open court or passageway on both sides extending from the pros- cenium line to the line of the street on the front, or, in case the building abuts on a street both in front and rear, these passages may extend from the line of the front of the auditorium to the line of the rear street. These passages shall be at least 6 feet wide throughout their length, and shall not be closed by any locked gate or doorway. They shall im- mediately adjoin the auditorium, or a side passage or lobby directly connected therewith. These passages shall be open to the sky opposite the whole depth of the auditorium, but may be carried out to the street front or rear through passages inclosed by brick walls or other fireproof material equally efficient, and covered by a solid brick vault at least 8 inches thick, each passage to be not less than 8 feet wide and 10 feet high throughout. Sect. 80. Every theatre built upon the corner of two streets shall have one inner court on the side of the building away from the side street, such court to be of the same description as the courts provided for in the preceding paragraph. Stores, Etc. Sect. 81. Nothing in this act shall be construed to prohibit the use of any part of a theatre building for stores, offices, or for habitation, provided that the parts so used shall be built with exits to the street entirely distinct from the rest of the building and shall be separated from the rest of the building by solid partitions or walls, without any openings in the same. 257 258 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Floor Levels. Sect. 82. In all theatres, the entrances shall be not more than one step above the level of the sidewalk of the main street, and the stage shall be not more than 5 feet above the said level. Proscenium Wall. Sect. S3. The stage of every theatre shall be separated from the auditorium by a wall of fireproof construction, which wall shall extend the whole width of the auditorium and the whole height to the roof of the portion occupied by the stage. There shall be no openings through this wall except the curtain opening, one doorway each side behind the boxes, and one doorway which shall be located at or below the level of the stage. The doorways shall not exceed twenty-one superficial feet each, and shall have standard fire-doors hung in a manner satisfactory to the commissioner. The finish or decorative features around the curtain opening of every theatre shall be of fireproof material. Curtain. Sect. 84. The proscenium or curtain opening of every theatre shall have a fire-resisting curtain reinforced by wire netting or otherwise strengthened. If of iron, or similar heavy material, and made to lower from the top, it shall be so arranged as to be stopped securely at a height of seven feet above the stage floor, the remaining opening being closed by a curtain or valance of fire-resisting fabric. Stage Floor. Sect. 85. The part of the stage floor, usually equal to the width of the proscenium opening, used in working scenery, traps or other me- chanical apparatus, may be of wood, and no flooring used thereon shall be less than V/% inch in thickness. Ventilators. Sect. 86. There shall be one or more ventilators near the center and above the highest part of the stage of every theatre, of a combined area of opening satisfactory to the commissioner, and not less than 1-10 of the area of the undivided floor space behind the curtain at the stage floor level. The openings in every such ventilator shall be closed by valves or louvres so counterbalanced as to open automatically, which shall be kept closed, when not in use, by a fusible link and cord reach- ing to the prompter's desk, and readily operated therefrom. Such cord shall be of combustible material, and so arranged that if it is severed the ventilator will open automatically. Skylight coverings for ventilators shall have sheet metal frames set with double-thick glass, each pane thereof measuring not less than 300 square inches, or shall be protected with wire glass. If wire glass is not used, a suitable wire netting shall be placed immediately be- neath the glass, but above the ventilator openings. Illuminating fix- APPENDIX 259 tures over the auditorium shall be suspended and secured in a manner approved by the commissioner. Glass on illuminating fixtures over the auditorium shall be secured from danger of falling as the commissioner shall require, but in no case shall any glass more than 6 inches in diameter or length be hung over the auditorium unless protected from falling by a wire netting or similar device satisfactory to the commissioner. Seats in Auditorium. Sect. 87. All seats in the auditorium excepting those contained in boxes shall be spaced not less than 30 inches from back to back, measured in a horizontal direction, and shall be firmly secured to the floor. No seat in the auditorium shall have more than six seats inter- vening between it and an aisle, on either side. The platforms for seats in balconies and galleries shall nowhere have a greater rise than 21 inches, nor be less than 30 inches from back to back. Aisles. Sect. 88. All aisles on the respective floors in the auditorium, hav- ing seats on both sides of the same, shall be not less than 30 inches wide where they begin and shall be increased in width toward the exits in the ratio of 1 inch to 5 running feet. Aisles having seats on one side only shall be not less than 2 feet wide at their beginning and shall increase in width, the same as aisles having seats on both sides. Changes in Level. Sect. 89. All changes in the levels of the floors of such buildings, except under stairways, from story to story and except the necessary steps in galleries and balconies rising toward the exits, shall be made by inclines of no steeper gradient than two in ten within the auditorium, and rising toward the exits, and one in ten for all others. Lobbies. Sect. 90. Preceding each division of the theatre there shall be foyers, lobbies, corridors, or passages, the aggregate capacity of which on each floor or gallery shall be sufficient to contain the whole number to be accommodated on such floor or gallery in the ratio of 1 square foot of floor room for each person. Stage Doors. Sect. 91. There shall be not less than two exit doors, each not less than 3 feet in width, located on opposite sides of the stage, and opening directly upon a street, alley, court, or courtway leading to a public thoroughfare. Room Exits. Sect. 92. All rooms in theatres for the use of persons employed therein shall have passages to at least 2 independent means of exit. 260 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION Doors to Open Outward. Sect. 93. All doors of exit or entrance shall open outward, and shall be hung so as to swing in such a manner as not to become an obstruction in a passage or corridor, and no such doors shall be fastened so as to be inoperative when the building is occupied by an audience. False Doors. Sect. 94. No mirrors shall be so placed as to give the appearance of a doorway or exit, hallway, or corridor, nor shall there be any false doors or windows. Main Floor and First Gallery Exits. Sect. 95. A common exit may serve for the main floor of the audi- torium and the first gallery, provided that its capacity be equal to the aggregate capacity of the outlets from the main floor and the said gallery; and provided that the lowermost run of any exit leading from a gallery shall not open directly at right angles with the central axis of a common exit unless there is a clear space or landing of at least 1*4 times the width of the exit between the foot of such exit and such center line or nearest exit doorway. Exits. Sect. 96. Two distinct and separate exits shall be provided for each gallery and balcony above the main floor ; and the same be lo- cated on opposite sides of the galleries. All gallery or balcony exits shall start with a width of not less than 4 feet at the uppermost gallery. Exits from balconies and galleries shall not communicate with the basement or cellar. Aggregate Width of Exits. Sect. 97. The aggregate width of all the exits previously described shall be estimated on a basis of not less than 20 inches for every 100 persons for whom seats are provided in the sections of the auditorium served by the respective exits. Emergency Exits. Sect. 98. In addition to the exits previously described there shall be one exit from each side of each gallery, balcony, and main floor. of auditorium, at least 5 feet wide, leading to exterior balconies not less than 4 feet wide and 20 feet long on each side of the auditorium. From such balconies there shall be staircases extending to the ground level, which may be counterweighted, with risers of not over 8^4 inches and treads of not less than 9^2 inches, exclusive of nosing. The aggregate width of these emergency stairs shall be not less than 10 inches for every 100 people served thereby, no single stairs being less than 30 inches wide. Tf counterweighted, these stairs shall be lowered dur- ing all performances. APPENDIX 261 Where all such stairs are in an interior court, each run shall be covered by a light awning of iron. Nothing herein shall prohibit the building of emergency stairs and exits inside the walls of the building, provided that they are surrounded by a fireproof partition not less than 4 inches thick separating the exits and stairways from the audience room or auditorium. Additional Requirements. Sect. 99. The commissioner shall have power to require a greater number or capacity of exits than is herein prescribed. In every theatre there shall be over every exit, on the inside, and over every opening to a fire escape, on the inside, an illuminated sign, bearing the word "exit" or "fire escape," respectively, in letters not less than 4 inches high. The lights for the exit signs, passages, stairs, lobbies, auditoriums, rear of auditoriums, balconies, galleries, and for the balconies and stairs outside the building, shall be so arranged that they can be turned on or off independently of the means provided on the stage or in any part of the building in the rear of the proscenium wall. Every exit sign shall be kept illuminated, and every outside balcony and fire escape shall be kept well lighted during the perform- ance, except outside exits during a performance before sunset. Plans showing the exits and stairways shall* be legibly printed so as to occupy a full page of every programme or play-bill. In said buildings there shall be such number of gas pipe outlets as the commissioner may require, fitted with no less than two gas burn- ers. Such burners shall be inspected and tried at least once in every three months by inspectors of the department, to ascertain if they are in proper working order. The inspector shall make a report of each visit, stating the condition of the burners and the action of the in- spector in regard to them. The commissioner shall have authority to order any defect in the working of such burners as are necessary for public safety to be remedied. So much of this section as applies to the inspection of gas burners shall appy to buildings now used as theatres. Stairs. Sect. 100. The cut of the stair stringers shall not exceed 7^ inches rise, nor be less than 1054 inches tread. There shall be no flights of stairs of more than 15 or less than three steps between landings. Landings of Stairs. Sect. 101. Every landing shall be at least 4 feet wide. When straight stairs return directly on themselves, a landing of the full width of both flights, without any steps, shall be provided. The outer 262 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION' line of landings shall be curved to a radius of not less than 2 feet to avoid square angles. Stairs turning at an angle shall have a proper landing without winders introduced at the turn. No door shall open immediately upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at least 2 feet wider than the width of the door opening shall be provided between such stairs and such door. When two side flights connect with one main flight, no winders shall be introduced, and the width of the main flight shall be at least equal to the aggregate width of the side flights. Hand-Rails. Sect. 102. All inclosed stairways shall have, on both sides, strong- hand-rails, firmly secured to the wall, about 3 inches distant therefrom and about 3 feet high above the stairs. All stairways 8 feet and over in width shall be provided with a central rail of metal or hard wood, not less than 2 inches in diameter, placed at a height of about 3 feet above the centre of the treads, sup- ported on wrought metal or brass standards of sufficient strength, securely bolted to the treads or risers of the stairs; and at the head of each flight of stairs, and on each side of the landing, the post or stand- ards shall be at least 6 feet in height, and the rail shall be secured to the post. Measurements for Width of Stairs. Sect. 103. The width of all stairs shall be measured in the clear between the hand-rails. No winding or circular stairs shall be permitted. Radiators Forbidden in Passageways. Sect. 104. No coil or radiator or floor register shall be placed in any aisle or passageway used as an exit ; but all such coils and radia- tors may be placed in recesses formed in the wall or partition to re- ceive the same. No boiler, furnace, engine or heating apparatus, except steam, hot water or hot air pipes or radiators, shall be located under the audito- rium or under any passage or stairway or exit of any theatre. Sprinklers and Standpipes. There shall be at least two 2-inch high-service standpipes on the stage of every theatre, with ample provision of hose nozzles at each level of the stage on each side, and the water shall be kept turned on during the occupation of the building by an audience. The said pipes shall in no case be sealed, and shall have two gates, one above the other, with a proper test or waste valve; the lower gate to be kept open at all times. The proscenium opening of every theatre shall be provided with a 2 J / 2 inch perforated iron pipe or equivalent equipment of automatic or open sprinklers, so constructed as to form, when in operation, a complete water curtain for the whole proscenium open- APPENDIX 263 ing, and there shall be for the rest of the stage a complete system of fire apparatus and perforated iron pipes, automatic or open sprinklers. Such pipes or sprinklers shall be supplied with water by high pressure service, and shall be at all times ready for use. Places of Public Assembly. Sect. 105. Every building hereafter erected with a hall or assembly- room to contain a public audience of more than 800 persons, or with more than one superimposed gallery or balcony, shall be of fireproof construction throughout; except that halls or assembly-rooms, the mean level of the main floor of which is not more than 5 feet above the grade of the adjacent street, may have roofs of second class con- struction. Every building hereafter erected with a hall or assembly-room to contain an audience of more than 600 persons, the main floor of which is raised more than 15 feet above the level of the principal street upon which it faces, shall be of fireproof construction throughout. The capacity of a hall or assembly-room shall be estimated on the basis of 6 square feet for each person. If several halls or assembly-rooms are provided in one building, their aggregate capacity shall be considered as determining whether or not the building shall be of fireproof construction, unless the several halls are inclosed by or separated from each other by fireproof walls, with fireproof doors in the same, in which case the building may be of second class construction. Xo existing building shall be altered to contain a hall or assembly- room exceeding the foregoing dimensions, unless the whole building as altered shall conform to the provisions of this act. All seats in places of public assemblage shall be spaced as herein- before provided, and, while such places of public assemblage are occu- pied by an audience, shall be secured in such manner as will be satis- factory to the building commissioner of the City of Boston. No tem- porary seats or other obstructions shall be allowed in any aisle, passage- way or stairway of a place of public assemblage, and no person shall remain in any aisle, passageway or stairway of any building during any performance. Every existing building containing a hall or assembly-room to which admission is not free, and to which the provisions of chapter 494 of the acts of the year 1908, relative to the licensing of public entertain- ments apply, shall have all the ways of egress from such building sufficiently lighted, and lighted in a manner satisfactory to the building commissioner, while the hall or assembly room is occupied by an audience. Moving Picture Shows. Sect. 106. All moving picture shows shall be subject to the pro- visions of chapter 176 and of chapter 437 of the acts of the year 1905, 264 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION and of any amendments thereof or additions thereto now or hereafter made. Exits, Etc. Sect. 107. Every building hereafter erected containing a hall or assembly-room shall conform to all the aforesaid requirements as to exits, stairways, exit lights, aisles, and seats, which apply to theatres; provided, that the same are necessary for the preservation of public safety and are specially ordered by the building commissioner. All orders of the building commissioner under the provisions of this sec- tion shall be subject to the authority of a majority of the Board of Appeal, which may annul or modify such orders. Roof Gardens. Sect. 108. Nothing herein contained shall prevent the placing of a roof garden, art gallery, or rooms for similar purposes above a theatre, provided the floor of the same forming the roof over such theatre shall be constructed of fireproof materials, and shall have no covering boards or sleepers of wood. Every roof over such garden or other rooms shall have all supports and rafters of steel, and, if covered, shall be covered with glass or fireproof material, or both. Exits from Roof Gardens. Sect. 109. Exits from roof gardens may communicate with stairs leading from the auditorium of the theatre, but they shall be at least 4 in number, not less than 4 feet 6 inches wide, and distinct and separate from each other from roof to street. Summer Theatres. Sect. 110. Summer theatres, if built without the building limits, and located 30 feet distant from any other building or structure or adjoining lot lines, and of no greater seating capacity than 750 persons, and not more than 1 story high, without balconies or galleries, may be constructed as follows : The auditorium, without a cellar or basement, with open sides of double the number of exits as hereinbefore provided, opening directly into the surrounding courts or gardens at the grade level, and the adjoining dressing-rooms, may be of wooden construction, but the stage shall be inclosed in brick walls not less than 12 inches thick, or shall be plastered on metal lathing throughout; provided, that the openings leading to the dressng-rooms shall be provided with fire doors. Otherwise, "all protective features and arrangements shall comply with all previous sections of this title. Existing Theatres. Sect. 111. All stairs of theatres shall have throughout proper hand- rails on both sides firmly secured to walls or to strong posts and balusters. APPENDIX 265 Stairways 12 feet or more wide shall have one or more intermediate rails not more than 8 feet apart and properly supported. No boiler, furnace, engine or heating apparatus, except steam, hot water or hot air pipes or radiators, shall be located under the auditorium nor under any passage or stairway or exit of any theatre. In every theatre shall be over every exit, on the inside, and over every opening to a fire escape, on the inside, an illuminated sign, bearing the word "exit" or "fire escape," respectively, in letters not less than 4 inches high. An emergency arc light or its equivalent shall be installed in the auditorium, which light or lights, exit lights, and all lights in halls, corri- dors or any part of the building used by the audience, except the general auditorium lighting, shall be fed independently of the stage lighting, and shall be controlled only from the lobby or other convenient place in the front of the house. Every exit sign shall be kept illuminated and every outside balcony and fire escape shall be kept well lighted during the per- formance, except outside exits during a performance in the daytime and before sunset. The exits and openings to fire escapes of all theatres shall open out- ward and have fastenings on the inside only. They shall be unfastened during every performance and shall be so arranged that they can easily be opened from within. Plans showing the exits and stairways shall be legibly printed so as to occupy a full page of every programme or play-bill. No temporary seats or other obstructions shall be allowed in any aisle or stairway of a theatre, and no person shall remain in any aisle, passageway or stairway of any such building during any performance. The proscenium or curtain opening of every theatre shall have a fire-resisting curtain of incombustible material, reinforced by wire netting, or otherwise strengthened. If of iron, or similar heavy mate- rial, and made to lower from the top, it shall be so arranged as to be stopped securely at a height of 7 feet above the stage floor, the re- maining opening being closed by a curtain or valance or fire-resisting fabric. The curtain shall be raised at the beginning and lowered at the end of every performance, and shall be of proper material, con- struction and mechanism. There shall be one or more ventilators near the centre and above the highest part of the stage of every theatre, of a combined area of opening satisfactory to the building commissioner, and not less than 1-10 of the area of the proscenium opening. Every such ventilator shall have a valve or louvre so counterbalanced as to open automati- cally, and shall be kept closed, when not in use, by a fusible link and cord reaching to the prompter's desk, or any other place easily reached from the stage level and readily operated therefrom. Such cord shall 266 MODERN THEATRE CONSTRUCTION be of combustible material, and so arranged that if it is severed the ventilator will open automatically. There shall be at least two 2-inch high-service standpipes on the stage of every theatre, with ample provisions of hose nozzles at each level of the stage on each side, and the water shall be kept turned on during the occupation of the building by an audience. The said pipes shall in no case be sealed and shall have a gate and check valve and shall have a test valve placed between the gate valve and check valve. The proscenium opening of every theatre shall be provided with a 2^-inch perforated iron pipe or equivalent equipment of automatic or open sprinklers, as the commissioner may direct, so constructed as to form when in operation a complete water curtain for the whole pros- cenium opening, and there shall be for the rest of the stage a complete system of fire apparatus and perforated iron pipes automatic or open sprinklers. Such pipes or sprinklers shall be supplied with water by high-pressure service, and shall be ready for use at all times. Index to Contents A Brief History of the Theatre 9 Controlling Elements 29 Site Selection 43 Designing and Planning 49 The Stage Section 69 Lighting 83 Motion Picture Theatres 95 Safety 117 Comfort 135 Heating and Ventilation 142 Acoustics . 161 Construction 169 Examples of Theatre Architecture 187 Appendix ,. 225 267 List of Illustrations Frontispiece Ruins Ancient Dionysius Theatre near Athens Evolution of Theatre Comparative Plans of Two Ancient Types. . vii Evolution of Theatre Comparative Plans of Two Modern Types. . viii Main Floor and Balcony Plans Lyceum Theatre, London 20 Model Safety Plans for Theatres 21 Nollendorf Theatre, Berlin 27 Open Air Greek Theatre of California University 28 Interior View of Neighborhood Playhouse, New York City 42 View of Model Neighborhood Theatre 47 Longitudinal Section Model Neighborhood Theatre 48 Sight Lines and Main Floor Slopes 68 The Revolving Stage 72 Brandt's Reform Stage with Three Movable Platforms 73 Grand Entrance Stairways, German Theatre, Vienna 80 Asphalia Stage and Fortuny System Indirect Lighting . ? 82 Interior View of Rialto Theatre, New York City 93 Model Small Photoplayhouse, Egyptian Design 94 Longitudinal Section of Model Photoplayhouse (Egyptian) 115 Main Floor Plan of Model Photoplayhouse (Egyptian) 115 Longitudinal Section of Model Photoplayhouse with Lobby under Rear Seats . . . : ; 116 Model Orchestra Well at Wagner Opera House, Bayreuth 133 View of Model Small Photoplayhouse. ... 134 Model Plan of Schauspielhaus, Stuttgart, Germany 141 Longitudinal Section of Heating Diagram 145 Diagram of Plenum Chamber 156 Photographs of Sounds in the New Theatre, New Yofk City 160 Interior View Little Theatre, New York City 167 Examples of Steel Balcony and Roof Trussing 168 Unique Application of Cantilever Principle 186 Exterior View New York Hippodrome 188 Interior View of Hippodrome 189 Longitudinal Section of Model Grand Central Theatre 194 Combination Floor Plans of Model Grand Central Theatre 195 View of Scala Theatre, London, England 202 Another View Scala Theatre 203 Main Floor Plan of Model Neighborhood Theatre 206 Balcony Floor Plan of Model Neighborhood Theatre 207 Longitudinal Section Small Model Photoplayhouse : 214 Basement Plan Small Model Photoplayhouse 215 Combination Floor Plan Small Model Photoplayhouse 215 Exterior Little Theatre, New Yoik City 220 Floor Plan Little Theatre 222 Section of Little Theatre .... 223 268 A Card from the Author The writer of this book, a widely traveled and experienced theatre specialist, is a member of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers and a firm believer in the essential doctrine advocated by that body, that the advancement, of motion picture engineering and its allied arts and sciences requires for complete efficiency and economy a standardization of the mechanism and practices employed therein, such as safer ma- chine booths, flatter projection and the remedying of similar technical defects that exist as the result of blind imitation in the absence of expert knowledge. The writer also believes that architectural elegance and structural economy in theater construction depend upon the individuality and sim- plicity of design ; and that the safety of the structure and its inmates are secured at a minor increase in the cost of construction by the entire employment of cheap, recognized fire-resisting materials and sane regu- lations. In a humble effort for artistic and practical improvement the writer volunteers to prepare and execute for prospective patrons who contem- plate the erection of a photoplay house a complete set of one-eighth scale preliminary plans of individual and characteristic design for one hundred dollars (barely the cost of production) with a carefully tabulated list of necessary building materials, said drawings to comprise six distinct plans : a front elevation or fagade, a side elevation and fagade, if the building be located on a corner; a longitudinal section of the entire struc- ture, a combination transverse section presenting a stage and balcony view of the auditorium, a main floor plan and a balcony plan indicating the seating arrangement. This sum of one hundred dollars is to be payable in two payments, half, or fifty dollars, in advance as a retainer, and the balance of fifty dollars upon delivery of the drawings. Where the proposed house is of the smaller type without balcony, requiring two plans less, the charge will be but seventy-five dollars, half payable in advance and the re- maining half upon delivery. A general description and a topographical survey of the site will be necessary before plans can be drawn. These plans will clearly show the size and character of the proposed building, and are amply sufficient with the building material list fur- nished with them for securing accurate estimates for builders' bids. Sincerely, EDWARD BERNARD KINSILA, 39-41 West Twenty-seventh Street, New York City. 269 14 DAY nsp Ri LOAN DEPT ect to immediate recall. c '* JUN 8 7981 1! JAW 2 2 7968 - fcOAN-BHWuJ. ^ JUN 22 1^73 SECciT^TTir JEHUD '3 73-] pm#3 ;: f '' ^ (H241si )476B L ^1A-S0m.li i ' 62 (D3279 S 10)476B '/nlfpnefal Library General Library 3 e '7 327. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY % *