THE 
 
 CONCISE 
 
 KNOWLEDGE 
 
 LIBRART 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY 
 
THE CONCISE KNOWLEDGE LIBRARY 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 BY 
 
 R. LYDEKKER, 
 
 B.A., F. R. S., V.P. G. S. 
 
 W. F. KIRBY, 
 
 F. L. S., F. E. S. 
 
 B. B. WOODWARD, 
 
 F. L. S., F. G. S. 
 
 R. KIRKPATRICK, 
 R. I. POCOCK, 
 
 R. BOWDLER SHARPE, 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 W. GARSTANG, 
 
 M.A., F. Z. S. 
 
 F. A. BATHER, 
 
 M.A., F.G. S. 
 
 H. M. BERNARD, 
 
 M. A., F. L. S. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 1897 
 
HOLOGY LBBfcAB* 
 
 Authorized Edition. 
 
 (SIFT 
 
BIOLOGV 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 THIS work aims to be a concise and popular Natural 
 History, at once accurate in statement, handy in form, 
 and ready of reference. 
 
 The several departments of Zoological science are 
 treated by specialists, all of whom are distinguished as 
 authorities and as original investigators ; and the text 
 is illustrated by upwards of five hundred original draw- 
 ings made and reproduced expressly for the work. 
 
 A concise systematic index precedes the work, 
 and a full alphabetical index which contains about ten 
 thousand references is given at the end. Great pains 
 have been taken to render these both accurate and 
 complete. 
 
 M710175 
 
TABLE OF AUTHORS 
 
 MAMMALIA (Mammals) 
 AVES (Birds} - 
 REPTILIA (Reptiles] - 
 AMPHIBIA (Frogs, Toads, &*c.) 
 PISCES (Fishes) 
 
 CYCLOSTOMATA (Lampreys, &c.} 
 PROTOCHORDA (Lancelet, &*c.) 
 HEMICHORDA (Balanoglossus} 
 ARTHROPOD A (Insects, &*.) - 
 MoLLUacA (Snails, &c?) 
 BRACHIOPODA (Lamp Shells, &c. 
 ECHINODERMA (Star Fish, &c.) 
 BRYOZOA (Moss Animals} 
 VERMES (Worms) 
 
 COELENTERA (Corals, 
 
 PROTOZOA (Animalcules) 
 
 R. LYDEKKER, F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. 
 R. BOWDLER SHARPE, LL.D., &c. 
 R. LYDEKKER, F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. 
 R. LYDEKKER, F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. 
 R. LYDEKKER, F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. 
 R. LYDEKKER, F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. 
 W. GARSTANG, M.A., F.Z.S., &c. 
 W. GARSTANG, M.A., F.Z.S., &c. 
 W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S., F.E.S , &c. 
 B. B. WOODWARD, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c. 
 F. A. BATHER, M.A., F.G.S., &c. 
 F. A. BATHER, M.A., F.G.S., &c. 
 R. KlRKPATRlCK (British Museum). 
 R. I. POCOCK (British Museum). 
 H. M. BERNARD, M.A., F.L.S., &c. 
 H. M. BERNARD, M.A., F.L.S., &c. 
 
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM L VERTEBRATA. 
 
 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS of Vertebra* es 
 Distinctive Features of Mammals 
 Geographical Distribution 
 Order I. Primates. 
 
 Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs .. 
 Ord.r II. Chiroptera. 
 
 ^ The Bats 
 
 Order III. Insectivora. 
 
 Insect-eating Mammals . 
 Order IV. Carnivora. 
 
 Flesh-eating Mammals ... 
 Order V. Rodentia. 
 
 Mammals that Gnaw ... 
 
 MAMMALS. 
 
 Page 
 I 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 42 
 50 
 
 Page 
 118 
 
 Order VI. Ungulata. 
 
 '1 he Hoofed Mammals ... 
 Order VII. Sirenia. 
 
 The Manatis and Dugongs ... 165 
 Order VIII. Cetacea. 
 
 Whales Porpoises, and Dolphins 169 
 Order IX. Kdentata. 
 
 S!o hs, Ant-eaters, and Armadillos 181 
 Or :er X. Effodientia. 
 
 Aard-varks and Pangolins ... 188 
 Order XL Marsupialia. 
 
 Pouched Mammals 190 
 
 Order XII. Monotremata. 
 
 Egg-laying Mammals 214 
 
 CLASS II. AVES. 
 
 Bird Structure and Development 
 
 SUB-CLASS SAURUR^E. 
 
 Order Archseopteryges. 
 The Archseopteryx 
 
 SUB-CLASS RATIT^E. 
 
 Order Rheiformes. 
 
 The Rheas : 
 
 Order Struthioniformes. 
 
 The Ostriches 
 
 Order Casuariiformes. 
 
 The Emus and Cassowaries 
 Order Dinornithiformes, Lie. 
 
 The Extinct Moas 
 Order Apterygiformes. 
 
 The Apteryges ... 
 
 B1K 
 218 
 
 220 
 
 221 
 222 
 
 223 
 22 4 
 22 4 
 
 DS. 
 
 CARINATE BIRDS. 
 
 Order Tin ami formes. 
 The Tinamous 
 Order Gall i formes. 
 The Game-birds 
 Order Pterocletes. 
 The Sand-grouse 
 Order Columbiformes. 
 Pigeons . . 
 
 ... 225 
 ... 2-6 
 ... 241 
 
 2A2 
 
 Sub-order Didi, 
 The Dodo, Etc, 
 Order Opisthocomiformes. 
 The Hoatzini 
 Order Ralliformes. 
 The Rails 
 Order Podicipedidiformes. 
 The Grebes 
 
 ... 245 
 ... 247 
 ... 248 
 ... 253 
 
 IX 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Pa 3 e 
 
 B I KDS continued. 
 
 
 
 
 Order Colymbiformes. 
 
 
 Order Phoenicopteriformes. 
 
 
 The Divers 
 
 254 
 
 The F'amingoes ... 
 
 ... 283 
 
 Order Sphenisciformes. 
 
 
 Sub-order Pa'amedeae. 
 
 
 The Penguins ... 
 
 255 
 
 The Screamers ... 
 
 ... 290 
 
 Order Procellariiformes. 
 
 
 Order Anseriformes. 
 
 
 The Petrels 
 
 256 
 
 Geese, Etc. 
 
 ... 290 
 
 Order Alciformes. 
 
 
 Sub-order Anseres. 
 
 
 The Auks 
 
 259 
 
 Ducks, Etc 
 
 ... 292 
 
 Order Lariformes. 
 
 
 Order Pelecaniformes. 
 
 
 The Gulls 
 
 26l 
 
 The Pelicans, Etc. 
 
 ... 298 
 
 Order Charadriiformes. 
 
 
 Sub-order Sulae. 
 
 
 The Plovers and Bustards 
 
 264 
 
 The Gannets 
 
 ... 299 
 
 Sub-order Attagides. 
 
 
 Sub-order Phalacrocoraces. 
 
 
 The Seed-snipes ... 
 
 266 
 
 The Cormorants ... 
 
 ... 299 
 
 Sub-order Charadrii. 
 
 
 Sub-order Pelecani. 
 
 
 The Plovers 
 
 266 
 
 The Pelicans 
 
 ... 301 
 
 Sub-order Glareolse. 
 
 
 Sub-order Fregati. 
 
 
 The Pratincoles 
 
 272 
 
 The Frigate Birds 
 
 33 
 
 Sub-order Cursorii. 
 
 
 Order Cathartidiformes. 
 
 
 The Coursers 
 
 272 
 
 The Turkey Vultures .. 
 
 54 
 
 Sub-order OZdicnemi. 
 
 
 Order Accipitriformes. 
 
 
 The Stone- plovers 
 
 273 
 
 Birds of Prey 
 
 ... 304 
 
 Sub-order Otides. 
 
 
 Sub-order Serpentarii. 
 
 
 The Bustards 
 
 273 
 
 The Secretary Birds 
 
 35 
 
 Order Grui formes. 
 
 
 Sub-order Accipitres. 
 
 
 The Cranes 
 
 274 
 
 The True Birds of Prey... 
 
 35 
 
 Sub-order Grues. 
 
 
 Sub-order Pandiones. 
 
 
 The True Cranes 
 
 274 
 
 The Ospreys 
 
 ... 320 
 
 Sub-order Arami. 
 
 
 Sub-order Striges. 
 
 
 The Liinpkins 
 
 275 
 
 The Owls 
 
 ... 320 
 
 Sub-order Rhinochetides. 
 
 
 Order Psittaciformes. 
 
 
 The Kagus 
 
 276 
 
 The Parrots 
 
 ... 325 
 
 Sub-order Mesitides. 
 
 
 Order Coracii formes. 
 
 
 The Madagascar Kagus 
 
 276 
 
 r lhe Picarian Birds 
 
 332 
 
 Sub-order Eurypygse. 
 
 
 Sub-order Steatornithes. 
 
 
 The Sun-bitterns 
 
 276 
 
 The Oil-birds 
 
 332 
 
 Sub-order Psophise. 
 
 
 Sub-order Podargi. 
 
 
 The Trumpeters 
 
 277 
 
 The Frog-mouths 
 
 333 
 
 Sub-order Dicholophi. 
 
 
 Sub-order Leptosomati. 
 
 
 The Seriamas 
 
 277 
 
 The Kiroumbos ... 
 
 335 
 
 Order Stereornithes. 
 
 
 Sub- order Coraciae. 
 
 
 The Extinct Birds of Patagonia 
 
 2 7 8 
 
 The Rollers 
 
 335 
 
 Order Ardeiformes. 
 
 
 Sub-order Halcyones. 
 
 
 The Herons, Etc. 
 
 2 7 8 
 
 The King-fishers 
 
 ... 336 
 
 Sub-order Ciconii. 
 
 
 Sub-order Bucerotes. 
 
 
 The Storks 
 
 2 7 8 
 
 The Hornbills ... 
 
 339 
 
 Sub-order Scopi. 
 
 
 Sub-order Upupge. 
 
 
 Hammer-headed Storks 
 
 28l 
 
 The Hoopoes 
 
 ... 340 
 
 Sub-order Balaenicipitide-. 
 
 
 Sub -order Meropes. 
 
 
 Shoe-billed Storks 
 
 2?2 
 
 The Bee-eateis 
 
 ... 340 
 
 Sub-order Herodiones. 
 
 
 Sub-order Momoti. 
 
 
 The Herons 
 
 282 
 
 The Motmots 
 
 - 341 
 
 Sub-order Platalese. 
 
 
 Sub-order Todi. 
 
 
 The Spoon-bills, Etc. ... 
 
 286 
 
 The Todies 
 
 ... 342 
 
MAMMALS. 
 
 xi 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Page 
 
 BIRD s con tin ued. 
 
 
 
 
 Sub-order Caprimulgi. 
 
 
 Sub order Rhamphastides. 
 
 
 The Nightjars 
 
 ... 342 
 
 The Toucans 
 
 - 352 
 
 Sub-order Cypseli. 
 
 
 Sub-order Capitones. 
 
 
 The Swifts 
 
 345 
 
 The Barbels 
 
 352 
 
 Sub-order Trochili. 
 
 
 Sub-order Indicatores. 
 
 
 The Humming-birds 
 
 .. 347 
 
 The Honey-guides 
 
 ... 353 
 
 Sub-order Colii. 
 
 
 Order Piciformes. 
 
 
 The Colics 
 
 ... 348 
 
 Woodpecker-like Birds ... 
 
 - 353 
 
 Order Trogones. 
 
 
 Sub-order Pici. 
 
 
 The Trogons 
 
 349 
 
 The Woodpeckers 
 
 ... 353 
 
 Order Coccyges. 
 
 
 Sub-order Buccones. 
 
 
 Cuckoo-like Birds 
 
 ... 349 
 
 The Puff-birds 
 
 - 355 
 
 Sub-order Cuculi. 
 
 
 Order Eurylsemi. 
 
 
 The Cuckoos 
 
 349 
 
 The Broad-bills 
 
 ... 356 
 
 Sub-order Musophagi. 
 
 
 Order Passeriformes. 
 
 
 The Touracoes ... 
 
 351 
 
 The Perching Birds 
 
 .- 357 
 
 Order Scansores. 
 
 
 
 
 The Climbing Birds 
 
 35 2 
 
 
 
 CLASS III. REPTILIA. 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 Characteristics of Reptiles 
 Classification of Reptiles .. . .... 
 
 Order I. Crocodilia. 
 
 Crocodiles, Alligators, Garials .., 
 Order II. Chelonia. 
 
 Tortoises and Turtles ... ... 
 
 Sub-order i. Cryptodira. 
 
 Land Tortoises, Etc. ... 
 Sub-order ii. Pleurodira. 
 
 Fresh- water Tortoises ... 
 Sub-order iii. Trionychoidea. 
 
 The Soft Tortoises 
 
 377 
 378. 
 
 378 
 383 
 385 
 392 
 394 
 
 Order III. Sqnamata. 
 
 Scaled Reptiles 395 
 
 Sub-order i. Lacertilia. 
 
 The Lizards ... ... ... 396 
 
 Sub-order ii. Rhiptoglossa. 
 
 The Chamseleons ... ... 411 
 
 Sub-order iii. Ophidia. 
 
 The Snakes ... ... ... 412 
 
 Order IV. Rhynchocephalia. 
 
 The Tuaiera 429 
 
 CLASS IV. AMPHIBIA. 
 AMPHIBIANS. 
 
 Characteristics of Amphibians ... 431 
 Order I. Ecaudata. 
 
 Frogs and Toads 435 
 
 Sub-order i. Finnisternia. 
 
 Typical Frogs, Etc 436 
 
 Sub-order ii. Arcifera. 
 
 The Toads, Etc 440 
 
 Sub-order iii. Aglossa. . 
 
 The Surinam Water-toad, Etc. 444 
 Order II. Caudata. 
 
 Newts and Salamanders ... 445 
 
 Order III. Apoda. 
 
 The Csecilians 453 
 
xii 
 
 S YSTEMA TIC INDEX. 
 
 CLASS V. PISCES. 
 FISHES. 
 
 Page 
 456 
 458 
 
 Characteristics of Fishes ... 
 The Classification of Fishes 
 
 SUB-CLASS I. DIPNOI. 
 
 Lung-fishes 459 
 
 SUB-CLASS II. HOLOCEPHALI. 
 The Chimaeroids ... ... ... 461 
 
 SUB-CLASS III. TELEOSTOMI. 
 
 Bony Fishes and Ganoids 462 
 
 Order I. Actinopterygii. 
 
 The Fan-finned Teleostomes ... 463 
 Sub-order i. Acanthopterygii. 
 
 The Spiny-finned Fishes, Etc. ... 463 
 Section Perciformes. 
 
 The Common Perch, Etc. ... 463 
 Section Scorpseni formes. 
 
 The Micropus, Etc. ... ... 467 
 
 Section Berychiformes. 
 
 The Slime-heads 467 
 
 Section Curtiformes. 
 
 The Indian Curtis, Etc. ... 468 
 
 Section Polynemiformes. 
 
 The Poly nemus, Etc 468 
 
 Section Sciaeniformes. 
 
 The Meagre, Etc 468 
 
 Section Xiphiiformes. 
 
 The Sword-fish ... 469 
 
 Section Trichiuriformes. 
 
 The Scabbard Fish, Etc. ... 470 
 
 Section Cotto-Scombriformes. 
 
 The Surgeons, Etc. ... ... 470 
 
 Section Gobiiformes. 
 
 The Lump-suckers, Etc. ... 476 
 
 Section Blenniiformes. 
 
 Marine Band-fishes, Etc. ... 477 
 
 Section Mugiliformes. 
 
 The Barracuda-pikes, Etc. ... 478 
 Section Scombresociformes. 
 
 The Flying-fish, Etc. ... ... 479 
 
 Section Gastmsteiformes. 
 
 The Sticklebacks, Etc 480 
 
 Section Centrisciforme?. 
 
 The Bellows-fish, Etc. 482 
 
 Section Gobioesociformes. 
 
 The Sucker-fishes, Etc. ... ... 482 
 
 Section Channiformes. 
 
 The Serpent-heads, Etc. ... 482 
 
 Page 
 Section Labyrinthici. 
 
 The Climbing-perch, Etc. ... 483 
 Section Lophotiformes. 
 
 The Unicorn-fish ... ... 484 
 
 Section Tseniiformes. 
 
 The Riband- fishes 484 
 
 Section Notacanthiformes. 
 
 The Thorn-backs ... ... 485 
 
 Section Pharyngognathi. 
 
 The Coral-fishes, Etc 485 
 
 Sub-order ii. Lophobranchii. 
 
 The Pipe-fishes, Etc 487 
 
 Sub-order hi. Plectognathi. 
 
 The Spine-clad Globe-fishes ... 488 
 Sub-order iv. Anacanlhini. 
 
 The Common Cod, Etc. ... 490 
 
 Sub-order v. Physostomi. ... 493 
 
 Section A. Apodes. 
 
 The Eel-tribe 493 
 
 Section B. Nematognathi. 
 
 The Cat-fishes 496 
 
 Section C. Plectispondyli. 
 
 The Common Carp, Etc. ... 497 
 
 Section D. Haplopomi. 
 
 The Common Pike, Etc. ... 501 
 
 Section E. Scyphophori. 
 
 The Gymnarchus, Etc. ... ... 53 
 
 Section F. Isospondyli. 
 
 The Salmon, Etc. 503 
 
 Sub-order vi. ^Etheospondsli. 
 
 The Bony Pikes, Etc ... 509 
 Sub-order vii. Protosp ndyli. 
 
 The Bow-fin 510 
 
 Sub-order viii. Chondrostei. 
 
 The Sturgeons 510 
 
 Order II. Crossopterygii. 
 
 Fringe-finned Ganoids 512 
 
 SUB-CLASS IV. ELASMOBRANCHII. 
 
 Sharks and Rays ... 513 
 
 Order Selachii. 
 
 Sharks, Dog-fishes, Etc. ... 515 
 
 Sub-order i. Asterospondyli. 
 
 The Blue Shark, Etc 515 
 
 Sub-order ii. Tectospond\ li. 
 
 The Saw-fish ... .'.. ... 519 
 
ARTHKOPODA, 
 
 xiii 
 
 CLASS VI. CYCLOSTOMA. 
 LAMPREYS AND HAG-FISHES. 
 
 Characteristics of Cyclostoma 
 
 Page I 
 523 I Lampreys and Hag-fishes ... 
 
 Page 
 5 2 4 
 
 CLASS VII. PROTOCHORDA. 
 
 SUB-CLASS I. CEPHALOCHORDA. SUB-CLASS II. UROCHORDA. 
 
 The Lancelet ... ... ... 526 J The Common Sea-squirt, Etc. ... 527 
 
 CLASS VIII. HEMICHORDA. 
 
 Hemichorda or Enteropneusta ... 528 | The Balanoglossus ... 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM II. ARTHROPODA. 
 
 CRUSTACEA, INSECT A, 
 
 CLASS I. CRUSTACEA. 
 
 Characteristics of Arthropoda ... 529 
 Edible Arthropoda, Etc. ... ... 530 
 
 SUB-CLASS I. ENTOMOSTRACA. 
 
 The Smaller Crustacea 531 
 
 Order I. Phyllopoda. 
 
 The Water-flea, Etc 531 
 
 Order II. Ostracoda. 
 
 The Ostracoda 532 
 
 Order III. Copepoda. 
 
 The Cyclops, Carp-lice, Etc. ... 532 
 Order IV. Cirripedia. 
 
 Barnacles, Etc. ... ... ... 533 
 
 SUB-CLASS II. MALACOSTRACA. 
 
 The Higher Crustacea 533 
 
 Order L Arthrostraca. 
 Sub-order i. Isopoda. 
 
 Wood-lice, Etc 534 
 
 Sub-order ii. Amphipoda. 
 
 The whale-louse, Etc 534 
 
 Order II. Thoracostraca. 
 Sub-order i. Cumacea. 
 
 Marine Parasites, Etc. ... .. 535 
 
 Sub-order ii. Stomatopoda. 
 
 Squilla Mantis, Etc. ... ... 535 
 
 Sub-order iii. Schizopoda. 
 
 Shrimp-like Crustacea 536 
 
 Order III. Decapoda. 
 Sub-order i. Macrura. 
 
 Shrimps, Lobsters, Crayfish, Etc. 536 
 Sub-order ii. Anomura. 
 
 Robber Crabs, Hermit Crabs, Etc. 537 
 Sub-order iii. Brachyura. 
 
 The Spicier Crab, Etc. ... ... 537 
 
 SUB-CLASS III. GIGANTOSTRACA. 
 Order Xiphosura. 
 
 The King-crabs 538 
 
 SUB-CLASS IV. PYCNOGONIDA. 
 Order Pycnogonida ... ... 539 
 
 CLASS II. ARACHNIDA. 
 SPIDERS, SCORPIONS, AND MITES. 
 
 Order I. Scorpionidea. 
 The Scorpions, Etc. 
 
 540 
 
 Order II. Solpugidea. 
 Galeodes Arabs, Etc. 
 
 541 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 ARACHNIDA continued. 
 Order III. Pseudoscorpionidea. 
 
 Book-scorpions 
 
 Order IV. Pedipalpi. 
 
 False Scorpions ... 
 Order V. Phalangiida. 
 
 Harvest-men, Etc. 
 Order VI. Araneida. 
 
 Spiders ... 
 
 Page 
 
 541 
 
 54i 
 
 542 
 
 Order VII. Acarina. 
 
 Mites and Ticks .. 
 Order VIII. Tardigrada. 
 
 Moss Mites, Etc. 
 Order IX. Linguatulida. 
 
 Worm-like Parasites 
 
 CLASS III. MYRIOPODA. 
 CENTIPEDES AND MILLEPEDES. 
 
 Order Chilopoda. 
 Centipedes 
 
 548 
 
 Order Chilognatha. 
 Millepedes 
 
 CLASS IV. PROTRACIIEATA. 
 Order Pcripatidse 550 | Peripatus luliformis 
 
 Page 
 
 545 
 547 
 548 
 
 549 
 
 CLASS V.- 
 
 Classification of Insects 551 
 Order Coleoptera. 
 Beetles c c i 
 
 -INSECTA. 
 
 Order Lepidoptera. 
 Butterflies and Moths ... ... 
 Order Hemiptera. 
 Bugs and Frog-hoppers... 
 Sub-order Heteroptera. 
 Bugs, Etc. 
 Sub-order Homoptera. 
 Frog-hoppers, Plant-lice, Etc. ... 
 Order Anoplura. 
 The True Lice 
 Order Diptera. 
 The Flies... 
 
 Order Orthoptera. 
 Crickets, Locusts, Etc.... 
 Order Neuroptera. 
 Lace-winged Insects 
 Order Trichoptera. 
 Caddis Flies, Etc. 
 Order Hymenoptera. 
 Bees, Wasps Ants, Etc. 
 
 ... 562 
 ... 568 
 ... 572 
 
 573 
 
 581 
 
 594 
 595 
 598 
 602 
 602 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM III. MOLLUSCA. 
 
 WHELKS, OYSTERS, SNAILS, &c. 
 CLASS I. AMPHINEURA. 
 
 Characteristics of Mollusca ... 610 
 
 Classification of Mollusca ... 615 
 
 Order I. Polyplacophora. 
 
 Chitons, Etc 615 
 
 Order II. Aplacophora. 
 
 (Worm -like Mollusca) 616 
 
 Sub-order i. Neomeniina. 
 
 Neomenians ... ... ... 616 
 
 Sub-order ii. Choetodermatina. 
 
MOLL USCABRACHIOPODA . 
 
 CLASS II. PELECV 
 
 Page 
 
 Characteristics of the Pelecypoda... 616 
 Order I. Protobranchiata. 
 
 Nutshells, Etc 620 
 
 Order II. Filibranchiata. 
 Sub-order i. Anomiaceae. 
 
 The Saddle Oyster, Etc. ... 621 
 
 Sub-order ii. Arcacea. 
 
 Noah's Ark Shells, Etc. ... 621 
 
 Sub-order iii-. Trigoniacea. 
 
 The Trigonia 621 
 
 Sub-order iv. Mytilacea. 
 
 The Marine Mussel, Etc. ... 621 
 
 Order III. Pseudolamellibranchiata. 
 
 The Oyster, Etc. 622 
 
 Sub-order i. Aviculacea. 
 
 Swallow Shells, Etc 622 
 
 Sub-order ii. Ostreacea. 
 
 Oysters ... ... ... ... 622 
 
 PODA (BIVALVES}. 
 
 Page 
 
 Sub-order iii. Pectinacea. 
 
 Scallops, Etc. ... ... ... 622 
 
 Order IV. Eulamellibranchiata. 
 Sub-order i. Submytilacea. 
 
 Fresh- water Mussels ... ... 623 
 
 Sub-order ii. Tellinacea. 
 
 Sunset Shells, Etc. ... ... 624 
 
 Sub-order iii. Veneracea. 
 
 The Venus Shells, Etc 625 
 
 Sub-order iv. Cardiacea. 
 
 The Cockles, Etc. ... ... 625 
 
 Sub-order v. Myacea. 
 
 The Mya or Gaper, Etc. ... 626 
 
 Sub-order vi. Pholadacea. 
 
 The Piddock and Ship-worm, Etc. 627 
 Sub-order vii. Anatinacea. 
 
 Pandora, Etc. ... ... ... 627 
 
 Order V. Septibranchiata. 
 
 Poromyidae, Etc. .., ... 628 
 
 CLASS III. SCAPHOPODA. 
 
 Scaphopoda or Solenoconcha ... 628 | The Elephant's-tooth Shells 
 
 628 
 
 CLASS IV. < 
 
 SUB-CLASS A. STREPTONEURA. 
 Order I. Scutibranchiata. 
 
 The Limpets, Etc. 
 Sub-order i. Docoglossa. 
 
 The Common Limpet, Etc. 
 Sub-order ii. Rhipidoglossa. 
 
 The Keyhole Limpet, Etc. 
 Order II. Pectinibranchia'.a. 
 
 (The Marine Gastropods) 
 Sub-order i. Gymnoglossa. 
 
 (Parasitic Mollusca) 
 Sub-order ii. Ptenoglossa. 
 
 The Purple Sea-snails, Etc. 
 Sub-order iii. Taenioglossa. 
 
 The Cowries, Etc. 
 Sub-order iv. Rachiglossa. 
 
 The Dog-periwinkle, Etc. 
 
 631 
 631 
 631 
 
 032 
 
 633 
 633 
 633 
 
 637 
 
 GASTROPODA. 
 
 Sub-order v. Toxoglossa. 
 
 The Cone Shells, Etc 638 
 
 SUB-CLASS B.- EUTHYNEURA. 
 Order I. Opisthobranchiata. 
 Sub-order i. Tectibranchiata. 
 Group A. Bulloidea. 
 
 The Bulla, Etc 640 
 
 Group B. Aplysioidea. 
 
 The Sea-hares, Etc. ... ... 640 
 
 Group C. Pleurobranchoidea. 
 Sub-or>!er ii. Nudibranchiata. 
 
 The Sei-slugs .. ... ... 640 
 
 Order II. Pulmonata. 
 
 Land Mollusca ... ... ... 641 
 
 Sub-order i. Basommatophora. 
 
 Pond-snails, Etc. ... ... 641 
 
 Sub-order ii. Stylommatophora. 
 
 Land-snails, Eic. 
 
 CLASS V. CEPHALOPODA. 
 
 Order I. Tetrabranchiata. 
 
 The Nautilus , 
 
 Order II. Dibranchiata. 
 
 6 45 
 
 | Sub- order i. Dec i pod a. 
 
 The Cuttle-fish, Etc. 
 
 Sub-order ii. Octopoda. 
 
 The Argonaut, Etc. 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM IV. BRACHIOPODA. 
 
 LAMPSHELLS, &c. 
 Characteristics of Brachiopods ... 649 | Lampshells, Etc. ... 
 
 642 
 
 646 
 647 
 
 649 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM V. ECHINODERMA. 
 
 STAR-FISH, SEA-URCHINS, &c. 
 
 Page Page 
 
 Characteristics of Echinoderma ... 6,3 
 Class Asteroidea. 
 
 Star-fish 656 
 
 Class Ophiuroidea. 
 
 Brittle-stars, lite. 658 
 
 Clas> Echinoidea. 
 
 Sea-.urchins 
 Class Holothuroidea. 
 
 Sea-cucumbers 
 Class (_ rinoidea. 
 
 Sea-lilies 662 
 
 659 
 660 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM 
 
 VI. BRYOZOA [POLYZOA]. 
 
 MOSS ANIMALS. 
 
 SUB-CLASS I. INFUNDII;ULAT.\. 
 Order Chilostomata. 
 
 Lip-mouthed Bryozoa ... ... 665 
 
 Order Cyclostomata. 
 
 Circular-mouthed Bryozoa ... 668 
 
 SUB-KIN 
 
 Characteristics of Worms ... 
 Class Annelida. 
 
 The Ringed Worms, Etc. 
 Sub-class Chaetopoda. 
 
 Bristle-footed Worms 
 Order Polychseta. 
 
 Marine Worms 
 
 Sub-order Sedentaria. 
 
 Tube-making Worms 
 Sub-order Errantia. 
 
 The Predacious Sea-worms 
 Order Oligochaeta. 
 
 The Earth-worms, Etc. ... 
 Sub-class Hirudinea. 
 
 The Leeches 
 
 Order Ctenostomata. 
 Comb-mouthed Bryozoa 
 
 GDOM VII. VERMES. 
 
 THE WORMS. 
 ... 670 Class Gephyrea. 
 
 The Gephyrein Worms., 
 ... 671 Class Nematohelminthes. 
 
 The Thread- worms 
 ... 671 Class Rotifera. 
 
 The Wheel-animalcules . 
 ... 671 Class Nemtrtmea. 
 
 Nemertine Wo ms 
 ... 672 Class Platyhelminthes. 
 
 The Flat- worms ... 
 Etc. 672 Sub-class Turbellarin. 
 
 The Phnarian Worms . 
 674 Sub-class Cestocla. 
 
 The Tape-worms 
 ... 675 Sub-class Tremaioda. 
 
 The Fluke-worms 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM VIII. COELENTERA. 
 
 SPONGES, CORALS, &c. 
 Characteristics of Coelentera ... 690 Section i. The Hydrozoa. 
 
 Group I. Porifera. The Zoophytes, Etc. 
 
 The Sponges ... ... ... 690 | Section ii. The Scyphozoa. 
 
 Group II. The Cnidaria. Sea-anemones and Corals 
 
 The Stinging Coelenterates ... 694 ; Section iii. Ctenophora. 
 
 The Comb-bearers 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM IX. PROTOZOA. 
 
 ANIMALCULE. 
 
 713 : Section iii. The Heliozoa 
 
 713 ! Section iv. The Radiolaria 
 
 7H 
 
 714 
 
 715 
 
 Characteristics of Protozoa 
 Group I. The Monera ... 
 Group II. The Rhizopoda 
 Section i. The Amoeba ... 
 Section ii. The Foraminiiera 
 
 Group III. The Flagellata 
 Group IV. The Grrgnrinae 
 Group V. The Infusoria 
 
 668 
 
 SUB-CLASS II. LOPHOPODA. 
 Fiesh- water Bryozoa, Etc. ... 668 
 
 ... 677 
 
 ... 678 
 
 ... 682 
 
 ... 683 
 
 ... 685 
 
 ... 685 
 
 ... 686 
 
 , 688 
 
 694 
 700 
 711 
 
 716 
 716 
 
 718 
 720 
 720 
 
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM I. VERTEBRATA. 
 CLASS I. MAMMALIA. 
 
 BY R. LYDEKKER, B A .. F R S . V P G.S , &c. 
 
 IT is a somewhat carious deficiency in the English language that it has no 
 word of its own that will include all the animals forming the class known to 
 zoologists as the Mammalia. It is true that the term Beasts properly belongs 
 to the great majority of the members of the class, but it has also acquired 
 another meaning, and expressly excludes man. Even more objectionable is 
 the term Quadrupeds, since not only does this exclude man and the higher 
 apes, but etymologically includes crocodiles, lizards, and turtles. Accord- 
 ingly, as neither of these two words are suitable to designate the class as a 
 whole, naturalists have long been in the habit of using an Anglicised version 
 of its scientific designation, and at the present day the term " Mammals " has 
 come so widely into use that no apology for its employment here is called for. 
 Mammals, then, are tho highest of the Vertebrata, and thus of all animals, and 
 take their name from the general presence of prominent udders, furnished 
 with teats, in the female, for the secretion of the milk, by which the young are 
 invariably fed during the earlier stages of their existence, such udders being 
 situated in the higher types on the breast, although in many of the lower 
 forms they are abdominal in position. In the very lowest members of the class 
 there are, however, no distinct teats, the milk-glands discharging by means 
 of a number of small apertures in the skin of the lower surface of the body. 
 It is thus the presence of these milk-glands, and the suckling of the more or 
 less helpless young, that are the prime essential features of the class. 
 
 Before glancing at certain others of their distinctive features, a few words 
 may be said in regard to the Vertebrata, which form a sub-kingdom, including 
 the five classes of Mammals (Mammalia), Birds (Aves), Rep- 
 tiles (Reptilia), Amphibians (Amphibia), and Fishes (Pisces). ^ f vertebrates 8 
 And here it may be noticed that certain low forms, such as 
 the lampreys and lancelet (Amphioxus), commonly classed among Fishes, are 
 now regarded as forming a portion of a lower group known as the Protochor- 
 data. Vertebrates take their name from the general presence of the struc- 
 ture termed the vertebral column, or backbone, although in some of the lower 
 forms this is represented merely by a cartilaginous rod. Whether this struo 
 
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 ture be merely such a rod, or whether it be divided into the numerous bony 
 segments known as vertebrae, it is invariably situated on the dorsal aspect of 
 the body, or that from which the limbs are turned away. On that side of 
 the primitive backbone lying nearest to the back, there runs a tube or canal, 
 formed by arches of bone or cartilage arising from the bodies of the vertebrse, 
 and containing the great nervous cord commonly spoken of as the spinal 
 marrow or cord. This cord in the adult state of the higher forms being thus 
 included within what are called the arches of the vertebrse. On the side of 
 the primitive backbone opposite to that occupied by the spinal marrow is a 
 much larger chamber, containing the heart and digestive organs ; so that, in 
 cross-section, the body of a Vertebrate consists of a smaller nerve-tube lying 
 above the primitive backbone, and of a much larger tube, containing the 
 heart and digestive organs below the latter. Throughout the Vertebrates the 
 limbs never exceed two pairs, and are always turned away from that aspect 
 of the body containing the nerve-tube ; and the two jaws are upper and 
 lower, and work against one another in a vertical plane. 
 
 In addition to the presence of milk-glands, and the suckling by the young 
 of the fluid they secrete, the following structural features may be noticed as 
 distinctive of the Mammalian class. A highly important 
 * eafcure is the mode of articulation of the lower jaw to the 
 Mammals skull proper, or cranium ; this being effected by means of a 
 prominence, or condyle, at the higher portion of the hinder ex- 
 tremity of the lower jaw, articulating with a special cavity the glenoid cavity 
 in the cranium. On the other hand, in the lower Vertebrates this articulation is 
 effected by means of a special separate bone the quadrate articulating above 
 with the cranium, and below with the lower jaw ; this quadrate, as such, 
 being absent in the Mammalia. Another peculiarity connected with the 
 lower jaw is that it consists of a right and left branch connected at the chin 
 by a bony or cartilaginous union each of which is formed of but a single bone; 
 whereas in the inferior Vertebrates several distinct bones enter into the com- 
 position of the two branches. Externally, Mammals are further characterised 
 by the possession of hair on the skin, although this may be represented 
 merely by a few bristles in the neighbourhood of the mouth during the earlier 
 stages of existence. Internally, that portion of the great body-cavity con- 
 taining the heart and lungs is completely shut off from the chamber in which 
 are placed the digestive organs by means of a transverse partition, known as 
 the midriff or diaphragm. Existing Mammals, at any rate, have also a higher 
 type of brain than the inferior classes, an especial feature being the presence 
 of a transverse band of tissue on its lower surface, connecting together the 
 main lateral halves or hemispheres. 
 
 Such are some of the leading characters by which the Mammalia may be 
 distinguished from the whole of the other Vertebrates. From both Birds 
 and Reptiles the class differs by the circumstance that the skull is movably 
 articulated to the first vertebra of the neck by means of two knobs, or con- 
 dyles, situated one on each side of the lower part of the aperture, or foramen, 
 through which the spinal cord passes into the skull to join the brain, Two 
 condyles are, however, present in the Amphibians (frogs and salamanders), 
 which differ from Mammals in their cold blood. A second distinction from 
 Birds and Reptiles is to be found in the structure of the ankle joint ; the 
 movable joint in Mammals being situated above the ankle, whereas in the 
 other groups it is placed in the middle of the same. In common with Birds, 
 Mammals differ from the three lower classes of the Vertebrata in having 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 warm blood, driven by a four- chambered heart through a double circalatory 
 system ; one portion of the blood being propelled through the lungs for the 
 purpose of re-oxygenation, while a second portion is sent through the body 
 by means of the general circulation. Whereas, however, in Mammals, the 
 aorta, or great vessel, by which the blood passes from the heart to the body, 
 crosses the left branch of the windpipe, in Birds it crosses the right. At no 
 stage of their existence do Mammals ever breathe by means of gills ; lungs, 
 even in the aquatic forms, being the sole respiratory agents. Neither do 
 they ever pass through any kind of metamorphosis, such as takes place in the 
 Amphibia. As a general rule, the young are born in a living, and frequently 
 in a more or less helpless condition ; but in the very lowest members of the 
 class the female lays eggs. 
 
 With but very few exceptions, Mammals have seven vertebrae in the neck, 
 and thereby present a remarkable contrast to Birds and Reptiles, in which 
 the number is exceedingly variable. In all the terrestrial forms the two 
 pairs of limbs are fully developed ; but in the marine Cetaceans and Sirenians 
 the front pair are modified into paddles, and all external traces of the hinder 
 ones completely lost, while the body has assumed a fish-like form. In the 
 Bats alone are the fore limbs structurally modified to subserve the purpose 
 of true flight, like that of Birds. 
 
 As in the following pages reference is often made to various bones of the 
 skeleton, this part of the subject cannot be passed over without brief mention. 
 The fully developed skeleton, as shown by the accompany- 
 ing diagram, comprises a skull (1), a jointed breast-bone, or 
 sternum (6), a still more numerously jointed backbone, the ribs (2), the limb- 
 bones, and the girdles by which they are suspended to the backbone and its 
 neighbourhood, and a pair of collar-bones, or clavicles (c). As already men- 
 tioned, the skull proper, or the skull without the lower jaw, is termed the 
 cranium ; this consisting of a number of (mostly paired) bones, articulated im- 
 movably together at their edges. The hinder portion of the cranium encloses 
 the brain ; while the front part, or facial region, contains the mouth and organs 
 of smell. Of especial importance are the bones forming the upper jaw, which 
 comprise in front a pair of premaxillse, containing the front or incisor teeth ; 
 behind which are the maxillae, containing the tusks and cheek-teeth. The lower 
 jaw has been already mentioned sufficiently. In the backbone the cervical, 
 or neck -vertebrae are recognised by having no ribs attached to them ; behind 
 these follow the dorsal vertebrae, each carrying a pair of movable ribs, of 
 which the more anterior are connected with the breast-bone ; and these in 
 turn are succeeded by the lumbar, or loin-vertebrae, to which no movable 
 ribs are articulated. Behind the lumbars comes the solid mass of several 
 united vertebrae, known as the sacrum, to which are firmly articulated the 
 haunch-bones, or ilia (), forming the upper part of the pelvis (3). Behind the 
 pelvis are the bones of the tail, or caudal vertebrae, which may be either very 
 few or very numerous. In the higher Mammals the shoulder-girdle proper 
 is formed only by the two blade-bones, or scapulas, which overlie the anterior 
 ribs without any attachment to the backbone, and have at their lower end a 
 shallow cavity for the reception of the head of the uppermost bone of the 
 arm or fore-lirnb. When fully developed, the collar-bones are articulated by 
 one extremity to the blade-bones, and by the other to the upper segment of 
 the breast-bone. Certain other bones entering into the composition of the 
 shoulder-girdle of the lowest representatives of the class, will be noticed 
 under that group. In the skeleton of the fore-limb, or arm, we have the upper 
 
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 Fig, 1. HUMAN SKELETON. 
 
 arm-bone, or humerus (4), articu- 
 lating to the blade-bone. The foro- 
 arm (/) comprises two bones, the 
 radius (5) anteriorly, and ulna (6) 
 posteriorly, both articulating with 
 the lower end of the humerus, and 
 the upper end of the latter form- 
 ing the prominence of the elbow. 
 At the lower end of the radius and 
 ulna comes the wrist joint, or car- 
 pus (7), consisting of an upper and 
 lower row of small massive bones, 
 frequently having a central bone 
 between them. To the upper row 
 of bones, counting from the side 
 of the thumb to the little finger, 
 the names of scaphoid, lunar, and 
 cuneiform are applied. When these 
 three bones directly overlie the 
 bones of the lower row, the carpus 
 is said to be of the linear type ; 
 but when they overlap, it is said 
 to be an alternating carpus. The 
 wrist is followed by the metacarpal 
 bones (8), which never exceed five 
 in number, and' these again by the 
 phalanges, or bones of the digits ; 
 such digits (9) being likewise never 
 more than five in number. Where- 
 as in the first digit, or thumb, there 
 are but two phalanges, in the other 
 digits there are normally three. 
 The pelvic-girdle (3), or that by 
 which the hind-limb is sup- 
 ported, differs essentially from 
 the shoulder-girdle, in that it is 
 immovably fixed t;/ the backbone 
 at the sacrum. r j.'he pelvis, as the 
 whole structur3 is called, is di- 
 vided into a right and left inno- 
 minate bone. In the higher Mam- 
 mals, each innominate consists of 
 a single bone, although it primar- 
 ily consists of three distinct ele- 
 ments. The uppermost of these, 
 and the one by means of which 
 the attachment to the sacrum is 
 made, is called the haunch-bone, 
 or ilium (a), and corresponds to 
 the scapula in the fore-limb. In- 
 feriorly there are two elements, 
 of which the first is the pubis, and 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 the second the ischium. Each innominate bone on its outer side contains a 
 cup-shaped cavity (into the composition of which enter alike the ilium, pubis, 
 and ischium) known as the acetabulum ; and with this articulates the femur, or 
 thigh-bone (10), representing the humerus of the fore-limb. Toward the middle 
 of the hinder surface of its shaft this bone frequently bears a bold projecting 
 crest termed the third trochanter. As the humerus articulates with the two 
 bones of the fore-arm, so the thigh-bone articulates with the two bones of the 
 lower leg, of which the larger is known as the tibia (12), and the smaller as tho 
 fibula (13). Following these comes the ankle-joint, or tarsus (14), which, like the 
 carpus, is formed of an upper and a lower row of small massive bones ; the two 
 uppermost bones being respectively known as the huckle-bone, or astragalus ; 
 and the heel-bone, or calcaneum. Inferiorly the tarsus is succeeded by the 
 metatarsal bones (15), corresponding to the metacarpals in the fore-limb, 
 these being followed by the phalanges of the toes (16), which are similar to 
 those of the front limb. To the first toe of the hind foot the name hallux 
 is often applied. It may be added that when (as in the ruminants) there 
 are only two metacarpals, or metatarsals, which are completely joined 
 together so as to form a single bone, or when (as in the horses) there is 
 originally but a single metacarpal or rnetatarsal, such bone, whether of dual 
 origin or primarily single, is called a eannon-bone. The knee-cap, or patella 
 (11), is a bone in the tendon of the great muscle of the thigh. 
 
 With regard to the teeth, it has been already stated that in the upper jaw 
 
 
 JPifif. 2. Side View of Upper and Lower Human Dentition, with the sides of the jaw removed to 
 show the rests of the teeth. The three lower teeth with branched roots are the molars ; in front of 
 these are the two premolars, then comes the canine, and, finally, the pair of incisors. 
 
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 the teeth implanted in the premaxillary bones, which are always of a com- 
 paratively simple type, with single roots, are termed incisors. In the great 
 
 Fig. 3. UPPER JAW OF THE GORILLA. 
 majority of Mammals, there are 
 
 Fig. 5. PALATE OF THE GORILLA. 
 In the palate the three hindmo-t teeth 
 are the molars, in advance of which are 
 the two premolars ; the si::gle large tooth 
 on each side is the tusk, or canine, in front 
 of which are the two pairs of incisors. 
 
 Fig. 4. LOWER JAW OF THE GORILLA. 
 
 not more than three pairs of these teeth, 
 although there may be four or five pairs in 
 the Pouched Mammals. The first tooth 
 in the upper jaw, which is implanted in 
 the maxillary bone, and is very generally 
 long and tusk-like, is termed the canine ; 
 this tooth being also of simple type, and 
 generally with a single undivided root. 
 Behind this come a series of, at most, four 
 pairs of cheek-teeth, which have gener- 
 ally, except the first, two roots each, and, 
 in ordinary Placental Mammals, are pre- 
 ceded (as are the incisors and canine) by 
 milk-teeth in the young. To these teeth, 
 which may be reduced to a single pair, is 
 applied the term, premolars. Behind 
 these come the true molars, which have 
 generally broad complex crowns and 
 branching roots, and are not preceded by 
 milk-teeth. In Placental Mammals there 
 are but seldom more than three pairs of 
 molars, but in Marsupials the ordinary 
 number is four. In the lower jaw the 
 tooth biting in front of the upper canine 
 is the lower canine, in front of which are 
 the incisors. In. the Placental Mammals 
 these do not exceed three pairs, and are 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 generally numerically the same as the upper incisors ; but in the Marsupials, 
 where there may be four pairs, they are generally less numerous than the 
 upper. Behind the lower canine come the premolars, which are followed by 
 the molars, the latter being distinguished from the last premolar by having 
 no deciduous predecessors. 
 
 A very important subject connected with the study of Mammals is their 
 geographical distribution on the surface of the globe, but to understand this 
 thoroughly, it is essential to have a knowledge of the extinct _ 
 forms, and to be acquainted with the changes in the form of j^gf ^ t' 
 the continents and islands which have taken place during 
 earlier epochs of the earth's history. Every traveller is aware that the 
 Mammals of different regions of the globe differ more or less markedly, but 
 this difference is by no means co-extensive with the distance of the various 
 regions from one another. Thus, whereas the Mammals of Japan are very 
 similar to those of Europe, while there is a marked resemblance between the 
 former and those of North America, when we pass from the Malayan Islands 
 to Australia, there is a very sudden and remarkable change. 
 
 As a whole, Mammals are a comparatively modern group, which have only 
 attained their present great development during the Tertiary, or latest epoch , 
 of the earth's history. It is true that they existed during the preceding 
 Secondary Epoch, or the one in which the chalk, oolites, lias, etc., were de- 
 posited ; but all the forms were then small, and occupied a subordinate posi- 
 tion in the fauna of the world, the continents being then peopled by various 
 strange, and frequently gigantic, kinds of Reptiles, while, in the oceans, the 
 place of the modern whales, porpoises, and Sirenians was taken by the 
 Reptilian Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs, It is in consequence of this com- 
 paratively late development that the geographical distribution of Mammals 
 differs widely from that of Reptiles and Amphibians, although it coincides to 
 a certain degree with that of Birds, which are likewise a relatively modern 
 group. 
 
 From the evidence of Mammals alone, the globe may be divided into three 
 main zoo-geographical realms, two of which may be further sub-divided into 
 regions. These three primary divisions are respectively named the Notogaeic, 
 Neogaeic, and Arctogaeic realms, or Notogaea, Neogsea, and Arctogsea. The 
 first of these includes Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and the islands 
 as far east as New Ireland and New Caledonia, together with Celebes, 
 Lombok, and the islands between these and Australia. From Borneo and 
 Java, Celebes and Lombok are separated by a deep channel, and whereas all 
 the islands to the west of this channel, which is known as Wallace's 
 line, have their Mammalian fauna of an Oriental or Indian type, and 
 are without any Marsupials, those on the west of the same show a 
 more or less marked Australian type, Marsupials making their first 
 appearance in Celebes, and becoming more numerous as we approach 
 Australia and Papua, where that group is the dominant one. 
 
 The Austro-Malayan islands, as Celebes and the adjacent islands may be 
 called, form, indeed, a transition, so far as Mammals are concerned, between 
 the regions to the west and Australia arid New Guinea, although it is on the 
 whole most convenient to include them in the Notogaeic realm. The typical 
 part of that realm, as represented by Australia, New Guinea, and the 
 adjacent islands, is characterised by the great preponderance of Pouched 
 Mammals, or Marsupials, while it is here only that the Egg-Laying Mammals, 
 or Monotremes, are met with. In Australia itself, in addition to Bats, which 
 
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 here and elsewhere need not claim our attention, the only Mammals except 
 Marsupials and Monotremes are a certain number of Rodents belonging to 
 the family Muridce, and the Australian wild dog, or dingo. New Guinea, on 
 the other hand, possesses a pig, which may possibly, however, have been 
 introduced. 
 
 When Celebes and the other Austro-Malayan islands are reached, Mono- 
 tremes are absent, and Marsupials form only a small moiety in the fauna. 
 This realm is the sole home, not only of the Monotremes, but likewise of the 
 typical Diprotodont Marsupials, 1 while the only other part of the world where 
 Marsupials are now found is America, where they are represented among other 
 forms by the opossums, which are quite unknown in Australia. As Marsupials 
 of extinct types inhabited the Northern Hemisphere during earlier epochs, it 
 is evident that the Notogseic realm received its Marsupial and Monotremes 
 fauna at a date when such creatures were the dominant forms in South-Eastern 
 Asia, which was then populated by but few other types of Mammalian life. 
 When these ancestral Marsupials and Monotremes had effected an entrance 
 into Australia and New Guinea, with the adjacent islands, they became more 
 or less completely cut off from the rest of the world, and were enabled to 
 develop apart from the competition of the higher forms of life. It is note- 
 worthy that some of the Australian Rodents present a marked similarity to 
 these of the Philippines, showing that the immigration has been from the 
 northward. Notogsea may be divided into several regions. One of these is 
 the New Zealand region, characterised by the absence of all terrestrial 
 Mammals, and the abundance of flightless birds, nearly all of which are now 
 extinct. Under the title of the Australian region may be included Australia, 
 Tasmania, New Guinea, the Am Islands, New Caledonia, New Britain, etc. ; 
 this region being characterised by the preponderance of Marsupials and the 
 presence of Monotremes. The Austro-Malayan region, which includes the 
 islands mentioned above, has, on the other hand, only a small number of 
 Marsupials among a preponderance of Placentals, so that this region forms a 
 transition between Notogsea and Arctogsea. 
 
 Nearly as distinct from the rest of the world as the last, is the Neogaeic 
 realm, comprising South and Central America, together with the West 
 Indian Islands. Now, however, the distinction of this realm, as a primary 
 region, is much obscured by the union of South with North America, which 
 has allowed many essentially Northern types to migrate into South America, 
 while a certain number of Southern forms have penetrated into the Northern 
 half of the continent. There is evidence that during the Cretaceous Period, 
 or latest division of the Secondary Epoch, what is now Mexico was a sea, while 
 in the Middle, or Miocene division of the Tertiary Epoch, the same was the 
 case with Central America. It is thus evident that at two distinct periods, 
 North and South America were disconnected ; although it is quite possible 
 that during some other part of the Tertiary Period antecedent to the Miocene, 
 there may have been a temporary connection either by way of the Isthmus of 
 Darien, or by Florida and the West Indies. At the present day the Neogseic 
 realm is practically the sole home of the Edentates, 2 of the New World 
 monkeys (Cebidce) and marmosets (Hapcdidce), as well as of many peculiar 
 types of Hystricomorphous Rodents, such as the viscacha (Lagostomiis), coypu 
 (Myopotamus), carpincho (Hydroclicerus), cavies (C'avia), agutis (Daryprocta), 
 
 1 This and other terms are fully explained in the sequel. 
 * A few of these and other groups range into Texas. 
 
MAMMALIA. 
 
 pacas (Ccdogenys), etc , etc., several of them belonging to families which are 
 confined to this realm. Here also the Marsupial opossums (Didelp^yida 1 ) 
 attain their maximum development, only a couple of species ranging into 
 North America ; while the camel-like llamas (Lama) are restricted to this 
 realm. The peccaries (Dicotyles\ again, are mainly South and Central American 
 while among the Carnivora the coatis (Nasua) are exclusively so. In addi- 
 tion to the llamas and peccaries, the only other Ungulates are deer, mostly 
 belonging to the American genus Cariacus. True deer (Cervus) are totally 
 wanting, as are all Insectivora. 
 
 Here, it must be mentioned, that during the Pleistocene Period, or latest 
 division of the Tertiary Epoch, South America was populated by a much 
 more wonderful fauna. Among these were horses and mastodons (allies of 
 the elephants), together with a giant Ungulate (Toxodon) typifying a distinct 
 sub-order (Toxodontia) by itself, together with a second, known as the 
 Macrauchenia, which is likewise the type of a sub-order (Litopterna.) Here 
 also flourished the gigantic Glyptodonts, which are extinct allies of the 
 armadillos of the present day. Deer, llamas, peccaries, coatis, and various 
 cats were also present at the period in question. When, however, we go 
 back to a still earlier era the Lower Miocene horses, peccaries, deer, llamas, 
 coatis, and cats were entirely absent ; and the fauna consisted solely of 
 monkeys, marmosets, various peculiar extinct groups of Ungulates, arid 
 Hystricomorphous Rodents, together with certain peculiar extinct Mar- 
 supials, and some other groups which need not be mentioned. When 
 this fauna flourished, Neogsea must have been quite isolated from the rest 
 of the world. It is, however, clear that (although the Edentates may have 
 originated there) the Ungulates and Hystricomorphous Rodents must have en- 
 tered from other regions, although how they got there is at present a mystery, 
 seeing that none of the latter occur in the earlier Tertiary strata of North 
 America. At the close of the Miocene Period, South America became con- 
 nected with North America, from whence it received its extinct horses, to- 
 gether with its existing deer, llamas, peccaries, mice, coatis, cats, dogs, etc. ; 
 while, at the same time, a certain number of essentially Neogseic types obtained 
 a footing in North America. 
 
 Although fuller details would be necessary to make this very complicated 
 subject clear, it is thus evident that previous to its latest and existing union 
 with North America, Notogsea possessed a very peculiar and characteristic fauna 
 which entitles it to form a primary realm by itself ; but that this original 
 distinction has been greatly obscured by later emigrations and immigrations. 
 Of this primitive fauna the Edentates, monkeys, marmosets, Hystricomorphous 
 Rodents, and certain Marsupials, are now remnants ; while the coatis and 
 llamas, which are at the present day confined to the realm, do not properly 
 belong to it at all. 
 
 Arctogsea includes the whole of the rest of the world, and may be char- 
 acterised by the absence of Monotremes, Diprotodont Marsupials, and 
 Edentates, 1 and the presence of Insectivora ; Marsupials occurring only in 
 North America. This vast tract may be divided into a number of regions. 
 First and most distinct comes the Malagasy region, including Madagascar 
 and the Comoro Islands, which is specially characterised by the abundance of 
 its lemurs, civet-like Carnivores, and Insectivora, coupled with the absence of 
 
 1 The pangolins and aard-varks are here separated as a distinct order (Effodientia), 
 The few Edentates straggling into North America may be disregarded. 
 
10 MAMMALIA ORDER /. PRIMATES. 
 
 all Ungulates except an African type of pig, and the paucity of Rodents, which 
 are represented only by the rat tribe (Muridce). Next in importance is the 
 Ethiopian region, comprising Africa south of the Tropic of Cancer and 
 Southern Arabia. Here one of the most distinctive features are the number 
 of large Ungulates, among which the zebras, a host of antelopes, hippopotami, 
 wart-hogs, and the giraffe are now peculiar ; while deer are absent, and sheep 
 and goa^s very scarce, and only represented in the northern portion of the 
 region. Gorillas and chimpanzees are now solely Ethiopian, as are practically 
 the dog-headed baboons (Papio\ while certain other genera of monkeys are 
 confined to the region. Elephants and rhinoceroses also occur, although these 
 are markedly distinct from their Oriental cousins. Aard-varks are now 
 solely Ethiopian ; while pangolins are common to this and the Oriental 
 regions. Bears are practically wanting. 
 
 Although in many ways nearly related to the Ethiopian, the Oriental region, 
 which comprises India, Southern China and the Malayan countries as far as 
 Wallace's line, is markedly distinct, having no hippopotami, giraffes, or 
 wart-hogs, while its antelopes are far less numerous, and also generically dis- 
 tinct from those of Africa south of the Tropic. Instead of chimpanzees and 
 gorillas, there are orangs and gibbons ; dog-faced baboons are wanting, and 
 there are several peculiar genera of monkeys, while the lemurs are quite 
 distinct from those of Africa. True pigs, as distinct from bush-pigs, are 
 abundant, as are also bears and deer, the latter mostly of a peculiar sub- 
 generic type. There are no aard-varks, although pangolins are common : 
 and the rhinoceroses and elephant are widely different from those of Africa. 
 The region may be sub-divided into several sub-regions, which need not be 
 mentioned here. 
 
 With the exception of Southern North America, the whole of the remainder 
 of the Arctogaeic realm may be included in the Holarctic region, which is 
 characterised by the absence of man-like apes, lemurs, elephants, and rhino- 
 ceroses, the paucity of monkeys, the abundance of goats and sheep, and the 
 presence of the two species of bison ; marmots and beavers being also char- 
 acteristic of this region, while pangolins are practically wanting. Finally, 
 we have the Sonoran region, including Southern North America, to about 
 as far north as latitude 45 deg., and especially characterised by being the 
 home of the prong-buck (Antilocapra) and the family of pocket-gophers 
 (Geomyidce.) 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 ORDER I. PRIMATES. 
 APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 
 
 THE first ordinal group of Mammals is the one named by the great Swedish 
 naturalist Linnaeus, Primates, and includes not only apes, monkeys, baboons, 
 and marmosets, but likewise man himself, as well as the infinitely lower 
 creatures commonly designated lemurs, which differ from all the others in 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. II 
 
 their expressionless, fox-like faces. Were the latter animals (as they not 
 unfrequently are) separated as a distinct ordinal group, the Primates would 
 be much easier of definition than is the case when they are included ; but as 
 there is little doubt that the latter arrangement is the proper one, it is essen- 
 tial that it should be followed. 
 
 In the great majority of the members of the order, the hand, which is 
 always a grasping organ, is furnished with five fingers, generally provided 
 with more or less flattened nails, but in certain cases the thumb is wanting. 
 The thumb itself in the higher forms is completely opposable to the other 
 digits, but in certain of the lower representatives of the order its power of 
 opposition is bub very limited. In the five-toed hind-foot, except in man, the 
 great-toe is similarly opposable to the other digits. With the exception of the 
 second, or index finger of the lemurs, the terminal joints of the fingers and 
 toes are expanded to form a support for the broad and flattened nails. In 
 both the fore and hind-limbs all the component bones are separate from one 
 another ; and perfect collar-bones or cavicles are invariably present. All the 
 Primates are further characterised by the sockets, or orbits, of the eyes being 
 surrounded by a complete bony rim. As regards the teeth, the molars have 
 broad, flattened crowns, surmounted either by tubercles or a pair of transverse 
 ridges, and are thus admirably adapted for the mastication of the fruits, 
 leaves, or other vegetable substances on which the majority of these animals 
 subsist. In number, the molar teeth form three pairs in each jaw, save only 
 in the marmosets ; these teeth being always more complex and larger than the 
 premolars. 
 
 The latter are reduced to two pairs in each jaw in all the higher forms, 
 with the exception of one family of American monkeys ; and even among the 
 lemurs no existing species has more than three pairs of these teeth. More- 
 over, in all the apes and monkeys the incisor teeth, which in many other 
 animals form three pairs, are reduced to two pairs in both jaws ; but among 
 the lemurs the number of these teeth is subject to a considerable amount of 
 variation. Save in the aberrant lemur known as the aye-aye, there are at 
 least two teats on the breast of the females. 
 
 As a rule, the members of the order are forest-dwelling animals, inhabiting 
 tropical and sub-tropical countries, although a few range into regions where 
 in winter the boughs of tha trees are enveloped in snow; but it is only in the 
 hottest and dampest tropical forests that the largest members of the order are 
 met with. Although many apes and monkeys are able to assume the upright 
 position, ifc is very few that habitually use it ; and even when they do, the 
 aid of the arms is necessary to maintain the balance in walking. 
 
 The Primates may be divided into two great subordinal groups ; the first 
 (Anthropoidea) including man, apes, baboons, monkeys, and marmosets, 
 whilst the second (Lemuroidea) embraces only the lemurs. 
 
 The first and highest group of the Primates includes the so-called man-like 
 apes, such as the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and gibbons, collectively con- 
 stituting the family Slmiidcv. That these apes are our ft 
 nearest cousins is well known ; but the degree and extent Man-like 
 of this relationship, as well as the characters by which it is Apes. Family 
 displayed, are probably less familiar. In the first place, it imiidce. 
 will be noticed that we speak of this relationship as one of 
 cousinship, and not of ancestry ; and it is well that the reader snould free 
 himself from any idea that there is any vestige of direct ancestral kinship 
 between these, for the most part, hideous creatures and mmself. Such 
 
12 MAMMALIA ORDER /. PRIMATES. 
 
 relationship as does exist is of a comparatively distant kind ; and the 
 common ancestor must have lived ages before the mammoth roamed over 
 England, since at that cfate man was as distinctly differentiated from the 
 apes as he is in the present century. Whether this " missing link " will ever 
 be found, or in what country it is most likely to have lived, are questions 
 impossible to answer ; but from the extreme rarity with which fossil remains 
 of man-like apes are found in countries where they are known to have existed 
 for long ages, and from the probability that the distributional area of the 
 aforesaid "link" was extremely limited, there is not much hope that the 
 researches of palaeontologists will ever be rewarded by such a discovery. 
 
 From their large bodily size, coupled with that hideous caricature of the 
 human face and form characterising the more typical representatives of the 
 man-like apes, no one would have any difficulty in distinguishing these crea- 
 tures from their lower relatives. There might, however, be some hesitation 
 with regard to the long-armed gibbons, and it is, therefore, essential to point 
 out how the members of the man-like group may be distinguished as a whole 
 from other monkeys. 
 
 Among the sub-order Anthropoidea there is an important distinction be- 
 tween the Old and New World forms. The whole of the Old World repre- 
 sentatives of this division of the order are characterised by having teeth 
 agreeing both in number and arrangement with those of man. Thus in all 
 cases in each jaw there are two pairs of incisors, a single pair of tusks, or 
 canines, and five pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the last, or " wisdom-tooth/' 
 is frequently very late in making its appearance (see fig. 5). Of these five cheek- 
 teeth the first two on each side are simpler than the three hinder ones, p.iid are 
 preceded in the infant by milk-teeth, whereas the latter have no such pre- 
 decessors. It is accordingly the custom to call the two simpler teeth 
 premolars or bicuspids, and the three more complex ones molars. If, now, 
 we examine an ordinary American monkey, we shall find six check teeth on 
 each side of both the upper and lower jaws, of which half are premolars and 
 half molars ; while in the marmosets, which constitute a second American 
 family, although the total number of cheek-teeth is the same as in the Old 
 World forms, yet the proportion is different, there being chree premolars 
 and two molars. It may, therefore, be stated that all American monkeys 
 differ from their Old World cousins in having three instead of two pairs of 
 premolar teeth, whence it may be inferred that they belong tc a lower and 
 more generalized type, there being a universal tendency throughout tho 
 higher Vertebrates to a diminution, or disappearance of the teeth with the 
 advance of specialisation. In the marmosets the loss of the last molar is 
 unique in the higher division of the order, and is, indeed, a somewhat re- 
 markable peculiarity to occur in a herbivorous Mammal, among which the 
 reduction is usually confined to the front and premolar teeth. 
 
 As the teeth serve most readily to differentiate the Old World monkeys 
 from their American allies, so the man-like apes are sharply distinguished 
 from their, relatives by the conformation of the same organs. Thus the 
 molar teeth of the man-like apes closely resemble those of man, having the 
 angles of their crowns rounded off, and carrying on their grinding-surfaces 
 four very blunt tubercles, placed alternately to one another, as well as a 
 somewhat smaller tubercle at the hinder end. On the other hand, in the 
 lower monkeys the molar teeth are oblong in form, and carry four very 
 prominent tubercles arranged in pairs at the two extremities of each tooth, 
 and each pair being connected so as to form a couple of more or less well- 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 13 
 
 defined transverse ridges extending right across the crown. Vhen, again, 
 whereas in the man-like apes the last molar, or " wisdom-tooth," in the lower 
 jaw is similar in form to the two teeth in front of it, in the great majority of 
 tbe Old World monkeys this tooth has a large projecting heel at its hinder 
 end. These dental characters afford very important evidence of the close 
 kinship of the man-like apes to man himself, and undoubtedly outweigh the 
 difference in the form of the whole dental series now to be noticed, which is 
 largely due to adaptation. In both the upper and lower jaws of man the 
 teeth are arranged in a regular horse- shoe series, with scarcely any interrup- 
 tion to the continuity by the tusks, which are but little taller than the other 
 members of the series. On the other hand, in the adults (and especially the 
 males of the larger species) of the man-like apes the cheek-teeth are arranged 
 in a nearly straight line, and form a more or less angulated junction with the 
 line of the incisors ; the large canines, or tusks, occupying the angle between 
 the two series, and thus forming a marked break in continuity. Jn these 
 respects the man-like apes resemble their inferior kindred. If, however, a 
 young individual of the larger man-like apes, and especially the chimpanzee, 
 be examined, it will be found that the teeth, owing partly to the imperfect 
 protrusion of the tusks, form a less interrupted and more regularly curved 
 series. Indeed, with the exception that the whole jaw is longer and narrower, 
 and the partially-protruded tusks are proportionately larger, the characters 
 of such specimens make a marked approximation to the human type ; and 
 the jaw of a chimpanzee at this stage may be regarded as almost intermediate 
 in structure between that of man and that of an adult male gorilla. More- 
 over, in this juvenile state the bony union of the two branches of the lower 
 jaw partakes of the short and rounded form characterizing that of man ; 
 whereas in the adult it becomes longer and more deeply channelled, like that 
 of the lower monkeys. In many respects the teeth and jaws of the gibbons, 
 or smallest representatives of the present group, conform to the intermediate 
 type. Not only are the human characteristics most developed in the teeth 
 and jaws of the young of the larger man-like apes and the gibbons at all 
 ages, but the same is true with regard to the skull of the former. The skull 
 of the young gorilla, for instance, lacks the beetling crests over the eyes and 
 the prominent ridge down the middle of the crown, which give such a for- 
 bidding and repulsive aspect to the cranium of tho full-grown male. This 
 loss of human resemblances is due to specialisation taking two difficulty lines 
 in man on the one hand, and in the larger man-like apes on the other ; the 
 development in the one case tending to increased size of brain, coupled with 
 no marked increase in the size of the tusks, while in the other the brain 
 grows at a less rapid rate, and the skull and tusks (more especially in the 
 male) assume characters approximating them to those cf the inferior animals. 
 Both in men and apes the young condition may accordingly be regarded as 
 the most generalised. 
 
 Among the other features in which the man-like apes differ from the lower 
 monkeys and resemble man, are the absence of dilatable pouches in the 
 cheeks for the storage of food, and the total loss cf the tail, as well as the 
 flattened, instead of laterally compressed, form cf the breast-bone ; the 
 gibbons alone retaining the naked patches on the buttocks so characteristic 
 of the monkeys, but only in a much reduced condition. The gcriila and 
 chimpanzees further differ from the other members of the group, and thereby 
 resemble man alone, in the loss of the so-called central bone cf the wrist a 
 bone occupying a nearly central position between the upper and lower rows 
 
I 4 MAMMALIA ORDER /. PRIMATES. 
 
 of small bones of which that joint is composed. What may be the object of 
 the disappearance of this bone, it is not easy to say ; but the fact that it is 
 wanting in the two genera of apes just mentioned is very significant of their 
 close structural affinity with man. In one respect the man-like apes stand 
 apart both from the human and the monkey type, namely, in the great 
 relative length of the arms as compared with the legs, the disproportion 
 being most strongly marked in the gibbons, which are actually able to 
 walk in the upright posture with their bent knuckles touching the ground. 
 
 So far, indeed, as their bodily structure is concerned, the man-like apes 
 seem undoubtedly more nearly related to man than they are to the lower 
 monkeys ; and they constitute a family (Simiida) by themselves, which may 
 be regarded as intermediate between the one (Cercopithecidw) including the 
 lower monkeys, and that represented by man himself.- While at present the 
 " missing link " between man and the apes is wanting, extinct forms tend to 
 connect the latter very closely with the monkeys. For instance, a fossil ape 
 (Dryopithecus) from the Miocene Tertiary strata of France has the bony 
 union between the two branches of the lower jaw much longer than in any 
 existing man-like ape, although it is approached in this respect by the gorilla; 
 while from the corresponding beds of Italy another extinct form (Oreopithecus) 
 appears to be in great part intermediate between the man-like apes and the 
 lower monkeys. 
 
 The present distribution of the anthropoid apes clearly points to the exist- 
 ing species being the last survivors of a group which was once widely spread 
 over the Old World, when warmer climatic conditions prevailed over what we 
 now call the temperate regions. The gorilla, for instance, is confined to 
 Western Equatorial Africa ; where it is accompanied by the two species of 
 chimpanzee, one of which ranges eastwards across the continent as far as 
 Uganda. The orangs, of which there are probably two species, on the other 
 hand, are confined to the great islands of Sumatra and Borneo ; while the 
 numerous species of gibbons have a wide range in South-Eastern Asia, attain- 
 ing their maximum development in the Malayan Archipelago and the adjacent 
 regions. This distribution is remarkably discontinuous, but the little known 
 of the past history of the group tends somewhat to consolidate the present 
 scattered distributional areas. For instance, a chimpanzee once inhabited 
 Northern India ; while it is most probable that an orang also was a contem- 
 poraneous dweller in the same country. This suggests that India may have 
 been the original home of the larger man-like apes, from whence the chim- 
 panzees and gorillas migrated south-westwards to Equatorial Africa, while the 
 orangs travelled in an easterly direction to find a last home in the tropical 
 islands to which they are now confined. 
 
 Of the four existing genera of the man-like apes, the chimpanzees (Anthro- 
 
 popithecus) are those which come nearest to man, this being especially shown 
 
 by the shortness of the bony union between the two branches 
 
 Chimpanzees of the lower jaw, the form and mode of arrangement of the teeth 
 
 (Anthropopitke,- (especially in the young), the relatively small development of 
 
 CMS). the tusks of the male, the absence of the enormous bony 
 
 crests on the skull so characteristic of the gorilla, and the 
 
 slight difference in the size of the two <exes. The chimpanzees and the 
 
 gorilla alone resemble man in having seventeen vertebrae between the neck 
 
 and the sacrum, and likewise in the absence of the central bone in the wrist, 
 
 although they differ in the comparatively unimportant feature of possessing 
 
 an additional pair of ribs. It will be unnecessary to give a full description of 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 
 
 Fig. 6. COMMON CHIMPANZEE 
 
 (AnthropopWiecus troglodytes). 
 
 these animals, and it will suffice to say that the common species (A. troglo- 
 dytes), which ranges across Tropical Africa from the Gabun to Uganda, has 
 
 the face, ears, hands, and feet, dark reddish flesh-colour, or more rarely 
 
 blackish brown, while the general colour of the hair is wholly black, except 
 
 on the lips, where it is short and white, and 
 
 on the buttocks, where it has a dash of red- 
 dish brown. There has been some difference 
 
 of opinion as to whether the so-called bald 
 
 chimpanzee (A, calvus) of the West Coast of 
 
 Africa is entitled to rank as a distinct species, 
 
 but recent researches tend to show that it has 
 
 no such claim. In size chimpanzees are much 
 
 smaller animals than the gorilla. In walking, 
 
 the palm of the hand can be applied to the 
 
 ground, and the same is the case with the sole 
 
 of the foot ; but although chimpanzees can 
 
 stand or walk erect on the soles of their feet, 
 
 they much prefer to progress in a stooping 
 
 posture, supporting themselves on their bent 
 
 knuckles. 
 
 In some districts living to a great extent on 
 
 the ground, chimpanzees are more arboreal in 
 
 their general habits than the gorilla, although 
 
 much less so than the orang. They feed on 
 
 wild or even cultivated fruits, and generally 
 
 associate either in family parties or in small communities, although the 
 
 males and females pair for life. For the 
 protection of the female and young a kind 
 of nest or resting-place is built in some 
 tree, where they pass the night, the male 
 remaining on ground below. In the early 
 morning and evening, and less commonly 
 during the night, chimpanzees give vent 
 to a series of unearthly shrieks and howls ; 
 Dr. Pechuel-Losche observing that " since 
 they are really accomplished in the art of 
 bringing forth these unpleasant sounds, 
 which may be heard at a great distance, 
 and are reproduced by the echoes, it is im- 
 possible to estimate the number of indi- 
 viduals who take part in the dreary noise, 
 but often we seemed to hear more than a 
 hundred." 
 
 The hideous creature forming the sole 
 representative of the genus Gorilla differs 
 from the chimpanzees in 
 the great development of Gorilla, 
 the tusks of the male as 
 well as in the large size of the bony crests 
 on the skull above the eyes, and likewise 
 
 by the male being very much larger than the female. There are also certain 
 
 differences in the conformation of the cheek-teeth, and the brain has a more 
 
 Fig. 7 THE GORIT.I.A 
 (Gorilla stwagei). 
 
i5 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER I. PRIM A TE S. 
 
 oval contour, thereby approximating to the human type. In height the male 
 gorilla (G. savagei) may exceed six feet, although the female does not measure 
 more than four and a half feet. The general colour of the animal is black or 
 blackish, the whole skin of the face being glossy black, scattered over with a 
 few hairs. The geographical range of this gigantic ape is exceedingly limited, 
 being confined to that part of the West Coast of Equatorial Africa lying between 
 the Camerun mountains and the Congo River. Like chimpanzees, gorillas 
 live in family parties, although these do not combine to form communities ; 
 and they are likewise stated to construct arboreal resting-places for the femala 
 and young. They walk in a shuffling manner somewhat similar to that 
 
 adopted by chimpanzees, but as their arms are 
 longer they are not compelled to stoop so 
 much, and the open hand, in place of the bent 
 knuckle, is stated to be put on the ground 
 in this mode of progression. The yell of 
 the male gorilla is described as a terrific 
 sound ; and these animals appear to be not 
 only ferocious, but likewise extremely courag- 
 eous, always advancing boldly to meet a foe, 
 and never running away like a chimpanzee. 
 As in all the man-like apes, the female pro- 
 duces but a single young at a birth, which is 
 nurtured with tender solicitude, and defended 
 to the last extremity. When at rest, the 
 gorilla generally assumes a squatting posture, 
 with the arms folded across the breast ; and 
 in sleep lies stretched out at full length either 
 on the back or on one side, with an arm 
 under the head. Extremely delicate in con- 
 stitution when removed from its native 
 haunts, this ape rarely survives captivity long 
 even in Africa, while the climate of Europe soon puts an end to its existence. 
 The first skeleton of the gorilla which reached England was presented to 
 the Royal College of Surgeons by Captain Harris in 1851. This was followed 
 in 1858 by an entire gorilla preserved in spirits, which was sent from the 
 Gabun to the Bntish Museum. Of the few live specimens which have 
 reached Europe, none seem to have survived more than fifteen or eighteen 
 months. The earliest to reach England appears to have been one which, in 
 1860, was the property of an itinerant showman, who mistook it for a chimpan- 
 zee, and did not discover his mistake until after the animal's death. Fifteen 
 years later a young male gorilla was procured from the natives by the 
 German Loango Expedition, and taken to Berlin. This animal was fed on fruits 
 and goat's milk, and under kindly treatment became so tractable that he was 
 allowed to wander about the ship with little or no restraint. He showed some 
 cunning and a tendency to mischief, but no evil propensities. He would pay 
 surreptitious visits to the store-room on occasion, and slyly help himself to 
 the dainties he affected, making off with unmistakable signs of guilty con- 
 sciousness when disturbed or caught in the act. Arrived at Berlin, he was 
 placed in the Aquarium, where for fifteen months he was the object of much 
 attention. He died of consumption, as did his successor, who arrived at 
 Berlin in 1883, and died the following year. A young gorilla which reached 
 the Zoological Gardens, London, a few years a^o, lived but a few months. 
 
 Fig. 8. THE ORANG-UTAN 
 (Simia satyrus). 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 17 
 
 The reduction of the number of vertebrae between the neck and the sacrum 
 to sixteen, together with the retention of the central bone in the wrist, the 
 great length of the arms, which in the upright posture 
 reach to the ankles, and the peculiar upward prolongation of Orang-Utan 
 the vertex of the skull, serve at once to show that the (Simia.) 
 orang (Simia) stands on a lower evolutionary platform 
 than either of the preceding representatives of the family. Externally it is 
 further distinguished by the rudimentary condition of the great- toe, the 
 peculiarly flattened form of the almost dish-like leaden-hued face of the 
 adult, and the red tinge of the long and shaggy hair, the latter being in 
 marked contrast to the black hue of the gorilla and chimpanzees. Although 
 in possessing only a dozen pairs of ribs the orang differs from both the latter 
 and resembles man, yet this resemblance is greatly outweighed by the differ- 
 ence in the number of the vertebrae. 
 
 It is now generally admitted that there is but a single species of orang- 
 utan (Simla satyrus), which is confined to the great islands of Sumatra and 
 Borneo, and is known to the Dyak inhabitants of the latter by the name of 
 Mias. A peculiar characteristic of the adult male is the presence of a large, 
 smooth, soft, tumour-like, flexible expansion of the skin of the sides of the 
 face, giving the remarkable breadth and flatness so characteristic of the whole 
 countenance. In size, orangs are subject to considerable variation, large 
 males reaching from four feet two inches to four feet six inches ; the females 
 being much smaller. 
 
 The orang is a much more truly arboreal animal than either of the other 
 large apes, and is likewise a solitary creature, the sexes only corning together 
 at the pairing season. Females are generally to be seen accompanied by 
 their young, sometimes only a single one, but in other instances with those 
 of two births. The young cling with remarkable tenacity to the body of the 
 mother as she climbs from tree to tree. Although most excellent climbers,, 
 orangs are exceedingly slow and deliberate in their movements, and are thus 
 quite unlike the gibbons. 
 
 Mr. Brooke of Sarawak says, " The orangs, so far as I have been able to 
 observe them, are as dull and as slothful as can well be conceived, and on no 
 occasion, when pursuing them, did they move so fast as to preclude my keep- 
 ing pace with them easily through a moderately clear forest ; and even when 
 obstructions below (such as wading up to the neck) allowed them to get away 
 some distance, they were sure to stop and allow us to come up. 1 never 
 observed the slightest attempt at defence ; and the wood, which sometimes 
 rattled about our ears, was broken by their weight, and not thrown, as some 
 persons represent. If pushed to extremity, however, the pappan could not 
 be otherwise than formidable ; and one unfortunate man, who with a party 
 was trying to catch one alive, lost two of his fingers, besides being severely 
 bitten on the face, whilst the animal finally beat off his pursuers and escaped. 
 When hunters wish to catch an adult, they cut down a circle of trees round 
 the one on which he is seated, and then fell that also, and close before he 
 can recover himself, and endeavour to bind him. The rude hut which they 
 are stated to build in the trees would be more properly called a seat, or nest, 
 for it has no roof or cover of any sort. The facility with which they form 
 this seat is curious ; and I had an opportunity of seeing a wounded female 
 weave the branches together, and seat herself in a minute. She afterwards 
 received our fire without moving, and expired in her lofty abode, whence it 
 cost us much trouble to dislodge her. The adult male 1 killed was seated 
 3 
 
1 8 MAMMALIA ORDER I. PRIMATES. 
 
 lazily on a tree ; and when approached, only took the trouble to interpose the 
 trunk between us, peeping at me and dodging as I dodged. I hit him on 
 the wrist, and he was afterwards despatched." 
 
 The last members of the family are the gibbons (Hyloba.tes) which are 
 restricted to the warmer parts of South-Eastern Asia, and are especially 
 abundant in the Malay Peninsula and islands. They are 
 Gibbons (Hylo- the lowest and smallest representatives of the man-like apes, 
 bates). and although agreeing with those above described in the 
 
 absence of a tail and cheek-pouches, and by the circumstance 
 that their grinding-teeth are constructed on precisely the same plan as those 
 of ourselves, they approximate to the lower monkeys in possessing small 
 naked callosities on the buttocks. In habitually walking in the upright 
 position, frequently with the assistance of their enormously elongated arms, 
 they are peculiar in the ape world. This peculiarity, coupled with their 
 apparently human-like skulls, might lead the uninitiated to suppose that 
 these creatures were the most man-like of all apes. A moment's reflection 
 would, however, show that in such highly-organised animals, a small 
 species, in order to be able to carry on the functions necessary to its exis- 
 tence, must have a proportionately larger brain than its bigger relatives ; 
 and a large brain implies, of course, a large skull. Moreover, in small and 
 purely arboreal animals like the gibbons, there is no reason why the skull 
 should be strengthened by the enormous frontal ridges which give such a 
 repulsive aspect to the physiognomy of the male gorilla. Accordingly, we 
 see that the somewhat human-like form of the skulls of the gibbons does not 
 in any way indicate that they are more nearly related to ourselves than their 
 larger kindred ; while the callosities on their buttocks, and several features in 
 their anatomical structure, show that they are decidedly less so. 
 
 Although in the confined space of a cage in the "Zoo" the gibbons have 
 but little opportunity of displaying the marvellous activity by which they 
 
 are characterised in their native woods, 
 yet even there their engaging manners 
 cannot fail to attract attention ; and 
 many show the gentleness and docility 
 so distinctive of these apes in a most 
 marked manner. In the more congenial 
 climate of Calcutta, which admits of 
 gibbons being placed in the open air, 
 their movements are, however, far 
 more like those of the wild state ; and 
 one of these creatures in the local 
 "Zoo"showedits lightning-like activity 
 by actually catching birds while on the 
 wing. Not only is this bold activity 
 Fig 9, A GIBBOK (Hylobates), characteristic of the gibbons, but they 
 
 likewise exhibit a wonderful delicacy 
 
 of touch. For instance, many gibbons display a marked penchant for spiders, 
 which are captured with the long slender fingers ; but before devouring their 
 prizes these animals will not unf requently play with them for hours, allowing 
 them to descend by spinning a thread from one of their captor ; s fingers, and 
 then suddenly jerking them upwards into their hands. Not less noteworthy 
 than their active movements are the loud, unearthly cries of the gibbons, in 
 imitation of which the hulock (H. hulock) of Assam, Burma, etc., derives 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 
 
 its name. These wailing cries, which are uttered hour after hour in the 
 morning, and again, although less continuously, in the evening, may be heard 
 for miles when a whole drove are shouting in concert ; and even those of a 
 solitary individual in the Calcutta Gardens made themselves audible at least 
 a mile off. 
 
 Out of a total of eight species of the genus, the siamang (H. syndactylus) 
 of Sumatra is the largest, measuring more than a yard in length ; and it 
 differs from all the rest by having the second and third toes of the hind foot 
 united by a web as far as their terminal joints. In colour, the siamang is 
 uniformly black throughout, and in this respect it agrees with the Hainan 
 gibbon (H. hainanus) \ whereas, in all the other species there is a white band 
 across the forehead. Among these latter, one of the best known is the 
 hulock (H. hulock) from Assam and the countries immediately to the east. 
 Writing of the cries of another species (H. leuciscus), Mr. H. O. Forbes 
 observes that it " makes its presence known to the traveller in Java, when 
 he reaches its upland forest-districts. In the evening just about sundown, 
 and more especially in the early morning, commencing before sunrise and 
 finally ceasing when the sun is above the tops of the trees, he will be surprised 
 by a sudden outbreak of what appears to be now the plaintive wailings of a 
 crowd of women, now the united howling of a band of castigated children." 
 
 The whole of the remaining monkeys and baboons of the Old World form a 
 second family, which, while agreeing with the man-like apes in the number 
 
 of their teeth, differ by the crowns of the molars 
 being surmounted by a pair of transverse 
 ridges, each formed by the 
 coalescence of two sub-conical 
 tubercles. All the members 
 of the family have naked cal- 
 losities on the buttocks, and 
 cheek-pouches are very gener- 
 ally present. The breast-bone differs from 
 that of the man-like apes in being laterally 
 compressed and narrow, instead of broad and 
 flattened from back to front. The tail, which 
 may be either- wanting, short, or very long, is 
 never endowed with the power of prehension ; 
 and the partition between the two nostrils is 
 narrow. Eight existing genera are included 
 in the family, some of which are Oriental, 
 while others are confined to Africa south of 
 the Sahara. None are known from Mada- 
 gascar, New Guinea, or Australia, the eastern 
 limits of the group being formed by Celebes 
 and the Philippine Islands, 
 
 The most ludicrous in appearance of all the tribe is the well-known 
 proboscis-monkey (Nasalis larvatus) of Borneo, easily distin- 
 guished from all its kin by the extraordinary length of its nose. 
 This monkey, together with the two following genera, con- 
 stitutes a sub-family characterised by the absence of cheek- 
 pouches for storing food, the complex and sacculated 
 structure of the stomach, the great length of the tail, and also by the front 
 limbs bein<* shorter than the hinder pair. _ All these monkeys feed largely or 
 
 Old World 
 
 Monkeys. 
 
 Family 
 
 Cercopithecidce. 
 
 Fig, 10. PROBOSCIS-MONKEY 
 (Nasalis larvatus). 
 
 Proboscis- 
 Monkey 
 (Nasalis). 
 
20 MAMMALIA ORDER I. PRIMATES. 
 
 chiefly on young shoots or leaves ; and it is in adaptation to this diet that 
 their stomach is specially modified and cheek-pouches are wanting. The 
 constitution of all the tribe is very delicate, so that these monkeys are ill- 
 adapted to stand captivity. 
 
 The peculiar structure of the nose is sufficient to differentiate the proboscis- 
 monkey from all its allies ; but to this may be added the circumstance that 
 the tail is shorter than the head and body. 
 
 The numerous species of langurs, which are nearly thirty in number, are 
 confined to the Oriental countries, where one species ranges as far north as 
 Kashmir, while a second is peculiar to the highlands of 
 Langnrs Eastern Tibet. All these monkeys have thin and slender 
 (Semnopithecus). bodies, elongated limbs, and a very long and whip-like tail ; 
 the head being rounded, and the muzzle short and thick. 
 The thumb is rather short, but the great-toe well developed; and the cal- 
 losities on the buttocks are relatively small. The hair is abundant, and 
 generally long, soft, and frequently glossy ; while there is usually a fringe of 
 long, stiff hairs projecting over the eyes. Grey is the predominant hue in 
 the pellage ; but the face, hands, and feet are perfectly black. 
 
 The best known of all the group is the Hanuman, or sacred langur 
 (Ssmnopitheciis entellus) of India, which ranges from the Deccan northwards 
 to the south bank of the Ganges, and is held sacred by the Hindus. Of this 
 monkey a writer in the Graphic gives the following interesting account : 
 
 'Among the thousand or more temples and shrines with which the holy 
 Hindu city of Benares is endowed, visitors generally find the great temple 
 dedicated to the worship of the goddess Durga one of the most interesting. 
 It is known to Europeans as the monkey-temple, because in and around its 
 precincts many hundreds of sacred monkeys roam about without interference. 
 The temple was erected during the last century by the Rani Bhawani of 
 Natre in honour of Shiva's wife, the goddess who is supposed to delight hi 
 death and slaughter, and of whom the believers in the various attributes of 
 the deities, comprising the Hindu Pantheon, stand in the greatest dread. 
 The Durga Kund is conspicuous in this city of temples for the grace and 
 simplicity of its architecture. It adjoins a tank which is the finest in Benares, 
 and occupies the central portion of a quadrangle, the walls being stained red 
 with ochre. The sacred portion of the temple consists of twelve finely-carved 
 pillars standing on a marble platform, and supporting a heavy roof. This 
 platform is about 4 ft. from the ground, and is ascended by a flight of low 
 steps "*on each side of the square. The temple is well provided with the 
 necessary instruments for creating the frightful noises which emanate from 
 these abodes of idolatry all over India. Drums of huge dimensions, gongs, 
 bells, and tom-toms are all at the service of the priests in performing the 
 rites required of them. But the antics of the monkeys which make this 
 temple their home are, next to its architecture, the most attractive feature 
 of the place. The goat's blood with which the walls are sprinkled, and the 
 sacrifices that are known to take place here to appease the wrath of Shiva 
 and his terrifying spouse, are rather revolting to a Christian ; but the grotesque 
 play of the monkeys, their importunate begging, the pranks they enact 
 on one another, and the graceful agility they are constantly displaying, supply 
 a perpetual source of amusement which one is apt to think must prove rather 
 distracting to the devout Hindus who come here to worship. A few years 
 ago, as no one dared molest these animals, they not only increased rapidly in 
 numbers, but, growing to be extraordinarily bold, developed alarming thiev 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. zi 
 
 ing propensities. The annoyance they caused amounted to a public nuisance, 
 for no house in the place was safe from their depredations. At last the 
 trouble grew so serious that some reduction in the number of these adept 
 thieves became a necessity, although the prejudices of the people were against 
 any such steps being taken. In the end the Government was requested to 
 interfere, and, waving aside all other considerations but that of public polity, 
 the authorities had many hundreds report says thousands captured and 
 sent away. Nevertheless there are plenty of them left, and they certainly 
 constitute one of the sights of a city that is probably in many respects the 
 most interesting in the world." 
 
 In Africa south of the Sahara the place of the langurs is taken by the 
 guerezas, of which there are nine species, easily distinguished by the total 
 absence of the thumb. In the true guereza (Colobus guereza), 
 ranging from Somaliland to the Niam-Niam country and Guerezas 
 Mount Kilima-Njaro, the hair of the back is developed into a (Colobus}. 
 beautiful, long silky mantle hanging down on the sides of the 
 body, and likewise by the extremely bushy tail ; the mantle and tail, as well 
 as a ring round the face, being pure white, while the rest of the fur is jetty 
 black. The pellage of this species is extensively used by the natives of 
 Africa ; while that of all the long-haired kinds is largely imported into 
 Europe for manufacture into muffs and other articles of dress. 
 
 The guenons, or typical representatives of the family, which include con- 
 siderably over thirty species, are likewise exclusively confined to Africa 
 south of the Sahara desert. In common with the remaining 
 members of the family, they constitute a sub-family dis- Guenons 
 tinguished from the last by the presence of cheek -pouches (Cercopithecus). 
 and the simple structure of the stomach. Their food is 
 more varied than that of the langurs and their allies, and consequently these 
 monkeys are much better adapted for captivity than are the latter. The 
 guenons are specially characterised by. the relative slenderness of their build, 
 the more or less shortened muzzle, the moderate size of the callosities on the 
 buttocks, and the long tail, From the two following genera they may be 
 readily distinguished by the circumstance that the last molar tooth in the 
 lower jaw has no projecting heel at its hinder end, but consists simply of two 
 transverse ridges, like the teeth immediately in advance of it. Among the 
 better known species may be mentioned the green monkey ( Cercopithecus 
 callitrichus), the Diana monkey (C. diana), so named from the white fillet 
 above the eyes, and the mona monkey (C. mona) ; all these being from 
 West Africa. 
 
 Differing from the guenons solely in the presence of the aforesaid heel to 
 the last lower molar, the mangabeys, or white-eyelid monkeys, ]y[ an g a fc e y s 
 likewise form a genus confined to Africa, where they are /^ ercoce i jus \ 
 represented by only half-a-dozen species. They form a group 
 intermediate between the preceding and the following one. 
 
 In the Oriental countries this group of monkeys is represented by the 
 macaques, of which there are rather less than a score of 
 species. The macaques resemble the mangabeys in the struc- Macaques 
 ture of the last molar tooth, but are readily distinguished (Macacus). 
 by the considerable production of the muzzle, in which the 
 nostrils are not terminal. While the cheek-pouches and the callosities 
 on the buttocks are always well developed, the tail may be either long, short, 
 or absent. Although these monkeys are mainly Oriental, one species, the 
 
22 MAMMALIA ORDER I. PRIMATES. 
 
 Barbary ape ( Macacus inuus), is found in North Africa and on the rock of 
 Gibraltar ; and one of the Asiatic species ranges as far north as Eastern 
 Tibet, while a third is found in Japan. In the Barbary ape the tail is want- 
 ing, in the common Bengal monkey (M. rhesus) it is about half the length of 
 the head and body, and in the crab-eating macaque (M.-cynomolgus) it is con- 
 siderably longer. The well-known Indian lion-tailed monkey (M. silenus) 
 takes its name from the presence of a large terminal tuft to the tail ; the 
 head and neck being also furnished with a mane. Many of these monkeys 
 are of comparatively large size, and are very savage in disposition, biting 
 fiercely when annoyed. 
 
 The black ape (Cynopithecus niger) of the island of Celebes is the sole re- 
 presentative of a genus forming a connecting link between 
 Black Ape the preceding and the following, the muzzle being more pro- 
 (Cynopithecus). duced than in the macaques, and the fore part of the skull 
 bearing longitudinal ridges, as in some of the dog-faced 
 baboons. This monkey, which takes its name from the dark colour of the hair, 
 has the tail reduced to a mere fleshy tubercle concealed among the fur. It is 
 also found in the island of Batchian, in the Molucca group, where it has 
 probably been introduced by the Malays. 
 
 Two species of baboons, the one (Theropithecus gelada) from Southern 
 Abyssinia, and the other (T. okscunus) from North-Eastern 
 Gelada Baboons Africa constitute a genus differing from the next by having 
 (Theropithecus). the nostrils placed on the sides of the long muzzle, as in the 
 macaques, instead of being terminal and opening on its trun- 
 cated extremity. The true gelada is a most extraordinary-looking creature, 
 having a long crest of dark brown hair above the eyes, and a mantle-like 
 mane of the same descending from the neck and shoulders to the loins, and 
 also reaching on the arms as far as the elbows ; the chin, and a patch on the 
 throat, as well as another on the 
 chest, being bare, and, as are all 
 the other naked parts, black in 
 colour. In size this baboon mea- 
 sures 29 inches to the root of the 
 tail ; the latter appendage, inclu- 
 sive of the tuft at the tip, being 
 upwards of 32 inches. 
 
 The remaining members of the 
 family Cercopithecidfe are all in- 
 cluded in the genus 
 Dog-faced Papio, and are corn- 
 Baboons (Papio). monly known as 
 
 dog-faced baboons ^ _ A DOG . FACED BABOON 
 
 on account of the great elongation (Papio). 
 
 of the muzzle, in the truncated ter- 
 mination of which are pierced the nostrils in the same manner as in a dog. 
 The callosities on the buttocks are very large and frequently brilliantly 
 coloured; the muzzle is greatly swollen and often marked by longitudinal 
 flutings ; and the tail is more or less shortened. The dog-faced baboons, 
 of which there are eleven different species, include the largest and most 
 repulsive-looking members of the entire family ; and are now confined to 
 Africa south of the Sahara and Southern Arabia, although during the later 
 geological periods they were represented in India. 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 23 
 
 The largest and most hideous of the tribe is the mandril (Papio maimon) 
 of the forests of Western Equatorial Africa, remarkable for its robust build, 
 stump-like tail, highly swollen and fluted muzzle, and the brilliant tints of 
 blue and scarlet with which the naked portions of the face and buttocks of 
 the adult males are decorated. In South Africa the genus is represented by 
 the chacma (P. porcarius), which is a more soberly-coloured species, with a 
 tail equal in length to half the body ; while the yellow baboon (P. babuin) 
 of West Africa may be taken as an example of species in which the tail is 
 still longer. Although found in the upland forests of Mount Kilima-Njaro, 
 the dog-faced baboons are more generally inhabitants of open, rocky districts, 
 where they go about in large parties, inflicting severe damage on the products 
 of the cultivated lands, and fiercely attacking all intruders on their domains. 
 In their diet they are well-nigh omnivorous, feeding not only upon fruits and 
 cereals, but likewise devouring large numbers of lizards and insects, in 
 search of which they turn over stones with their fingers. The late Sir R. 
 Burton wrote that in the jungles of Usukuma these baboons "are the terror 
 of the neighbouring districts ; women never dare to approach their haunts ; 
 they set the leopard at defiance, arid, when in a large body, they do not, it is 
 said, fear the lion." 
 
 As already stated on page 12, the monkeys of the New World differ from 
 their Old World cousins in having three in place of two 
 pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw ; the number of molars New World Mon- 
 being the same in both. In consequence of these and other keys. Family 
 differences, the New World monkeys, which do not range to Cebida. 
 the north of tropical America, are referred to a separate 
 family group, under the name of Cebidce. These monkeys are further charac- 
 terised by the absence both of cheek-pouches and of naked callosities on the 
 buttocks, while the tail, when long, is frequently, although by no means in- 
 variably, prehensile. The thumb is quite incapable of being opposed to the 
 other digits, but all the fingers and toes have flattened nails. In the nose 
 the partition between the two nostrils is very broad, so that the nostrils 
 themselves are widely separated, and frequently diverge to a great extent 
 from each other. The upper molar teeth have very short crowns, with the 
 four tubercles arranged obliquely, and the external surfaces of the outer pair 
 flattened and fluted, while the inner ones are distinctly crescent-shaped. 
 
 So different, indeed, are the American monkeys which attain their maxi- 
 mum development in the tropical forests of Brazil from the Old World forms, 
 that it is quite possible they may trace their origin to a totally independent 
 source. They may be divided into ten genera, some of which comprise a 
 very large number of specific representatives. 
 
 The half-dozen species commonly called, from their loud nocturnal cries, 
 howlers constitute a genus characterised by the massive, un- 
 wieldy body, the pyramidal head, long and somewhat dog-like The Howlers 
 muzzle, the massiveness of the angle, or hinder part of the (Alouatta). 
 lower jaw, and a remarkable thickening of the throat due to 
 the enlargement of the so-called hyoid bones into a thin bony capsule of 
 large size. It is owing to the development of this capsule that the howlers 
 are enabled to utter the discordant yells with which they make night hideous 
 to all travellers in the forests of Tropical America. All the species have a large 
 beard and whiskers, but the colour of the hair is subject to great specific 
 variation. In the red howler (A. seniculus), for instance, the head, neck, 
 limbs, and tail are dark chestnut-brown, and the back and_ sides of the 
 
2 4 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER L PR I MA TES. 
 
 body golden yellow ; whereas in the black howler (A. nigra) the whole of 
 the long hair is deep black. 
 
 All the howlers are surly in disposition, and feed chiefly on fruits and 
 leaves. When howling, two or three take up their position on the topmost 
 branches of the forest trees, and commence their chorus. Mr. O. iSalvin 
 writes that their wonderful cry is certainly most striking, "and I have some- 
 times endeavoured to ascertain how far this cry may be heard. It has taken 
 me an hour or more to thread the forest undergrowth from the time the 
 cry first struck my ear to when, guided by the cry alone, I stood under the 
 tree where the animals were. It would certainly not be over-estimating the 
 distance to say two miles. When the sound came over the Lake of Yzabal 
 unhindered by the trees, a league would be more like the distance at which 
 the cry may be heard." 
 
 Agreeing with the howlers (which form a sub-family by themselves) in hav- 
 ing the lower incisor teeth placed vertically, the capuchins, 
 
 Capuchins together with several allied genera, differ by the absence of 
 
 (Cebus). any inflation of the hyoid bone. In all the group the tail is 
 
 long and prehensile ; although in some species, when its tip 
 
 is haired, instead of bare and sensitive, the grasping power of this organ is 
 
 much less well marked than in the rest. The thumb may be either present 
 
 or wanting. 
 
 The capuchins, or typical representatives of the entire family, are some- 
 what stoutly-built monkeys, with the limbs of moderate length, the fur not 
 woolly, the thumb fully developed, and the lower surface of the extremity of 
 the tail covered with hair. Although the various species of capuchins are 
 extremely difficult to distinguish, about eighteen different kinds are now re- 
 cognised by naturalists ; their range extend- 
 ing from Mexico to Paraguay. In constitu- 
 tion these monkeys are exceedingly hardy, 
 and as they are easy to train, and gentle in 
 disposition, they are more commonly carried 
 about in England and other European coun- 
 tries by peripatetic organ-grinders than any 
 other of their kindred. From its completely 
 haired tip, the tail of the capuchins does not 
 act so thoroughly as a fifth hand as it does 
 in the spider-monkeys. The white-throated 
 capuchin (Cebus hypoleucus) is a well-known 
 representative of the genus. 
 
 Nearly allied to the capuchins, the two 
 
 species of woolly monkeys take their name 
 
 from the peculiar texture of 
 
 Wo u y their fur, which forms the 
 
 , Donkeys mogt c i iaract eristic feature of 
 
 (Lagothnx}. ^ genug to which they fee _ 
 
 long. In addition to this character, these 
 monkeys are distinguished by the clumsy build of the body, the rounded 
 head, the much flattened muzzle in which the nostrils are circular, but not 
 approximated and by the naked lower surface of the tip of the tail. The 
 two species are both inhabitants of the forests of Amazonia, the best known 
 being Humboldt's woolly monkey (Lagothrix humboldti). The barrigudos, as 
 these monkeys are called by the Brazilians, live exclusively on fruits, and are 
 
 Fig. 12. A WOOLLY MONKEY 
 (Lagothrix). 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 
 
 of larger size and less active habits than the capuchins. They suffer con- 
 siderably from the cold, and even at Bahia I have seen them on a wet day 
 fall into a torpid condition, when they were relentlessly thrown into the sea 
 by their captors. Mr. Wallace remarked that from their gentle disposition 
 they are " most frequently seen in confinement, and are great favourites from 
 their grave countenances, which resemble the human face more than those of 
 any other monkeys, their quiet manners, and the great affection and docility 
 they exhibit. 
 
 The woolly spider-monkey (Brachyteles arachnoides), which is now con- 
 sidered to be the sole representative of its genus, is in many respects inter- 
 mediate between the woolly monkeys and the true spider- 
 monkeys, having the dense woolly pellage of the former, Woolly Spider- 
 coupled with the long and slender limbs of the latter. The Monkey 
 thumb is rudimental, and the nails of the other digits are (Brachyteles). 
 compressed and pointed. These monkeys, which are con- 
 fined to the dense forests of South-Eastern Brazil, from Cape San Roque to 
 Rio Grande do Sul, appear to be very rare, and little is consequently known 
 of their habits. ' 
 
 The last genus of this sub-family includes the half-score species of true 
 spider-monkeys, constituting a genus distinguished from 
 the preceding by the fur not being of a woolly nature, Spider-Monkeys 
 the complete absence of the thumb, and the slight com- (Ateles). 
 pression of the nails. Both the tail and limbs are greatly 
 elongated. These monkeys have a wide range, extending from Mexico to 
 Paraguay ; the variegated spider-monkey (Ateles variegcitus) being one of 
 the most familiar. In it the prehensile tail reaches its perfection. It is a 
 remarkably sensitive organ, answering the 
 purpose of a "fifth hand," being capable of 
 use " for any purpose to which the hand could 
 be applied," and for hooking out objects from 
 pi ices " where a hand could not be inserted." 
 They wrap their tails about them to protect 
 themselves from cold, to which they are very 
 sensitive, and hold on by them to the branches 
 of trees with such tenacity that they remain 
 suspended after death. The prehensile part 
 of the tail is naked and of extreme sensi- 
 bility. The tail is also used to preserve 
 balance when walking erect, for which pur- 
 pose it is thrown up and curled over. The 
 appearance of these monkeys, as they leap 
 from branch to branch in their native woods, 
 swinging by their tails, and often hanging 
 on to those of each other, until a living 
 bridge is formed from tree to tree, is ex- 
 ceedingly picturesque. Although they lack 
 the extreme agility of the Oriental gibbons, 
 the spider-monkeys are by far the most active members of the family 
 to which they belong. Mr. Belt writes that he has often seen two or three 
 together on the lower branches of the forest trees, "holding on to each 
 other, and to the branch with their fore-feet and long tail, whilst their hind- 
 feet hang down, all the time making threatening gestures and cries. Some- 
 
 Fiq. 13. A SPIDER-MONKEY 
 (Ateles). 
 
26 MAMMALIA ORDER L PRIMATES. 
 
 times a female would be seen carrying a young one on its back, to which it 
 clung with legs and tail, the mother making its way among the branches, 
 and leaping from tree to tree, apparently but little encumbered by its 
 baby." 
 
 The beautiful little squirrel-monkeys are the first representatives of a third 
 sub-family of the Cebidce, which, while agreeing with the last in the vertical 
 position of the incisor teeth, and the normal conforma- 
 Squirrel- tion of the hyoid bone, are distinguished by the tail, which 
 Monkeys is long, having no power of prehension. In all the thumb 
 (Chrysothrix). is well developed. From the allied forms the squirrel- 
 monkeys, or sairniris, are specially distinguished by the 
 soft, close, and erect fur, and the backward production of the head ; the 
 face beingf relatively small, the eyes very large and set close together, the 
 partition between the nostrils very wide, and the rather long tail covered 
 with comparatively short hair. There are four species of the genus, of 
 which the common squirrel-monkey (Chrysothrix sciureus) is the type. 
 These monkeys are some of the commonest of their tribe in America, where 
 they range from Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia. In habits they are 
 diurnal, feeding chiefly upon insects, although they will also kill and eat 
 the smaller birds. 
 
 The eleven representatives of this genus form a group which is to a 
 considerable extent intermediate between the squirrel-monkeys and the 
 under-mentioned douroucoulis. From the former the small 
 Titis head is distinguished by not being produced backwards, and 
 
 (Catttthrix). the small size of the eyes ; but the nostrils are similar in the 
 width of the partition by which they are separated, and the 
 fur has the same close and soft texture. The tail is, however, bushy, and 
 the canine teeth are relatively small, while the angle, or hinder extremity, 
 of the lower jaw is expanded somewhat after the same fashion as in the 
 howlers, although to a smaller degree. The titis range from Panama to the 
 southern limits of the great forests ; a well-known species being the white- 
 collared titi (Callithrix torquatci). In habits, they are very similar to the 
 squirrel-monkeys ; insects, eggs, and small birds constituting their chief 
 nutriment. 
 
 From both the preceding genera the small monkeys commonly known as 
 douroucoulis are distinguished by their nocturnal habits and the great size of 
 the eyes, which are only separated from each other by a very 
 Douroucoulis narrow partition. The head is rounded, and the nostrils 
 (Nyctipithecus). are placed closer together than in either of the allied genera; 
 the moderately long tail being bushy, and the fur soft and 
 close. In colour the eyes are yellowish, and they have a peculiar stare, com- 
 municating, in conjunction with their large size, a somewhat owl-like expres- 
 sion to the whole face. There are five species of the genus, several of which, 
 like the three-striped douroucouli (Nyctipithecus trivirgatns\ have three more 
 or less distinctly defined longitudinal dark stripes running down the forehead. 
 The range of the douroucoulis extends from Nicaragua to the Amazoa and 
 Eastern Peru. During the daytime, these somewhat lemur-like monkeys 
 remain snugly coiled away in the holes or among the branches of trees, and 
 only issue forth at night in search of prey. When on the prowl, they give 
 vent to loud howls or cat-like cries ; and their food includes insects, birds, and 
 fruits. In constitution they are extremely delicate, only surviving capture 
 for a brief period. 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 27 
 
 The last group of the family is formed by the uakari and saki monkeys, 
 which constitute a sub-family distinguished from all the foregoing by the 
 lower incisor teeth being inclined obliquely forward, some- 
 what after the manner of those of the lemurs, and separated Uakaris 
 by an interval from the canines. The tail, which may be (Uacaria). 
 either long or short, is never prehensile, and the thumb is well 
 developed. Usually the nostrils are widely separated, and the ears are large. 
 
 The uakaris, of which there are three species, each with a very small dis- 
 tributional area, are readily distinguished from all other American monkeys 
 by the extreme shortness of the tail. The bald uakari (Uacaria calva) from 
 the Rio Negro, and the red uakari (U. rubicunda] from the Upper Amazon, 
 have a brilliant scarlet face, contrasting strongly with the long silky white 
 hair of the body, whereas the black-faced species ( U. melanocephala) has a 
 dark countenance. All are timid, gentle creatures, of so delicate a constitu- 
 tion that it is almost impossible to keep them in confinement. 
 
 The sakis, of which there are five species, are readily distinguished from 
 the last by the long bushy tail and the thick beard adorn- 
 ing the chin. In the lower jaw the angle is expanded in a Sakis 
 manner approaching that of the howlers. A familiar type (Pithecia). 
 is the black saki (Pithecia satanus) of the Lower Amazon ; 
 and while in some species, like the hairy saki (P. monacJtus), long hair clothes 
 the he;id, body, and tail, in others this is confined to the region of the head. 
 In habits these monkeys appear to be very similar to the vakaris. 
 
 The beautiful and delicate little creatures from Tropical America, commonly 
 known as marmosets, form a family agreeing in many respects with the last, 
 but distinguished by having only two pairs of molar teeth in 
 each jaw, and also by the fingers and toes, with the excep- The Marmosets, 
 tion of the shortened great-toe, terminating in carved com- Family 
 pressed claws, instead of flattened nails. The long thumb Hapalidw. 
 lies parallel to the other digits, to which it is incapable of 
 being opposed, so that the fore-limb terminates in a paw rather than a hand. 
 The skin of the face is naked, the ears are large 
 and frequently surmounted by a fringe of long 
 hairs, and the long and bushy tail has no prehen- 
 sile power. The family, which is represented by 
 a large number of species, mostly inhabitants of 
 the forests of Equatorial South America, has been 
 divided into two genera according to the length 
 of the lower canine teeth. Those forms in which 
 these teeth are not longer than the incisors are 
 known as true marmosets (Hapale\ whereas those 
 in which the former considerably exceed the 
 latter have been termed tamarins (Midas). Mar- 
 mosets vary considerably in colour, some having 
 "the fur mottled with grey, brown, and black, 
 whereas in others it has a more or less uniformly 
 golden or silvery tint. Marmosets are essentially Fi 3- 14 ;~ A MARMOSET 
 
 forest animals, feeding chiefly on insects and 
 
 fruit, and are so delicate that it is difficult to keep them alive out of the 
 tropics. They are exceedingly gentle in disposition, and soon become 
 tame and affectionate. In. their organisation they are the lowest of the 
 monkey tribe. 
 
28 MA MMA LI A ORDER I. PRIM A TES. 
 
 The typical lemurs, which attain their maximum development in the island 
 
 of Madagascar, and are now found elsewhere only in Africa and the Oriental 
 
 countries, are the first of three existing Old World families, 
 
 Tlie Typical collectively forming the second great division of the Prim- 
 Lemurs. ates, technically known as the Lemuroidea. From the first 
 Family subordinal division, or Anthropoidea, the Lemuroids are dis- 
 Lemuridce. tinguished by the following features. In the first place, 
 their faces, instead of being more or less mobile and rounded, 
 are long, fox-like, and quite devoid of expression ; but in this respect they 
 are not very different from the marmosets. More important are certain 
 differences in the structure of the skull and the soft internal organs, but as 
 these require a certain amount of anatomical knowledge on the part of the 
 reader for their proper comprehension, they may be passed without further 
 notice. A distinctive character of the group is to be found in the circum- 
 stance that the second toe in the hind-foot always terminates in a long 
 curved claw. The thumb and great-toe are invariably present, but the 
 second or index finger of the fore-paw may be wanting. With the exception 
 of the aberrant aye-aye and tarsiers, which respectively form a family by 
 themselves, the middle pair of upper front or incisor teeth are separated 
 from one another by an interval or gap, whereas in all the monkeys they are 
 in contact. 
 
 In appearance the various kinds of lemurs differ remarkably from one 
 another, some looking not unlike monkeys, while others are characterised by 
 their very long and slender limbs, enormous eyes, and somewhat ghostly form. 
 Whereas some are furnished with long tails, others are devoid of these append- 
 ages ; and the ring-tailed lemur of Madagascar differs from the rest in its tail 
 being ringed with black and white. This species is, moreover, an exception 
 in that it lives among rocks, whereas all the others are arboreal in their habits. 
 None of the living lemurs/ire of large size, the length of the head and body in 
 the largest being only about two feet, and many are not larger than a rat. All 
 are excellent climbers, and the majority spend the day in sleep, either in the 
 hole of a tree, in a nest, or rolled up in a ball and hanging to a bough. Their 
 food comprises leaves, fruits, birds and their eggs, reptiles and insects, and, 
 in one case, sugar-cane ; and the majority rarely descend to the ground. 
 Some of the larger Malagasy kinds are, however, an exception in this respect, 
 as well as in their diurnal habits, and they may at times be seen jumping 
 across the open spaces separating one wood from another in search of fresh 
 feeding-places. The structure of their brains shews that lemurs are creatures 
 of low organisation, and the existing forms are probably not very remotely 
 related to the ancestral stock which gave rise both to monkeys and lemurs. 
 Geologically the group is an ancient one ; and the living forms attain their 
 maximum development where they have been free from the competition of the 
 larger and more highly organised Mammals. 
 
 In the typical lemurs constituting the family under consideration there are 
 two pairs of upper incisor teeth separated from one another by a gap in the 
 middle line ; while there are three pairs of lower incisors inclined almost 
 horizontally forwards. There are three pairs of molars in each jaw, but the 
 premolars may be either two or three on each side, and in the lower jaw the 
 first of these teeth assumes a tusk-like form, and thus plays the part of a 
 canine. The family may be sub-divided into four sub-families, most of which 
 contain a considerable number of genera. 
 
 The first and highest sub-family, which is restricted to Madagascar and 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 29 
 
 contains the largest existing representatives of the group, is characterised 
 by possessing thirty teeth in the adull, by the length of the 
 hind-limbs, the normal structure of the ankle-joint, the large Endrina 
 size of the opposable great-toe, and the union of the other (Indris). 
 toes by a web which extends as far as the end of their first 
 joints. In the female two teats are on the breast. 
 
 The endrina (Indris brevicaudata), which is the sole representative of its 
 genus, is the largest of the living lemurs, measuring about two feet in length, 
 It may be easily recognised by its rudirnental tail, large ears, and moderately 
 elongated muzzle ; its coloration being usually black with whitish spots and 
 patches, but in some cases almost or entirely white. Like the sifakas, this 
 lemur is diurnal in its habits. 
 
 Nearly allied to the last are the three species of sifakas, easily recognised 
 by the long tail, the rather short muzzle, and the partial con- 
 cealment of the ears by the fur. The species are extremely Sifakas 
 variable in coloration, and while some inhabit the dense (Propithecus). 
 forests on the eastern side of Madagascar, others frequent 
 the sparsely wooded, arid tracks on the west. Writing of the habits of the 
 sifakas, Mr. Foster observes that " they live in companies of six or eight, 
 and are very gentle and inoffensive animals, wearing always a most melan- 
 choly expression, and, as a rule, being morose, inactive, and more silent than 
 other lemurs. They rarely live long in captivity. In their native state they 
 are most alert in the morning and evening, as during the heat of the day 
 they conceal themselves amid the foliage of the trees. When asleep or in 
 repose, the head is dropped on the chest and buried beneath the arms, the 
 tail rolled up on itself and disposed between the hind-legs. The sifakas live 
 exclusively on vegetable substances leaves, fruits, and flowers their diet 
 not being varied, as in the other groups, by small birds, eggs, or insects. 
 Their life is almost entirely arboreal, for which the muscles of their hands 
 and feet, as well as the parachute-like fold of skin between their arms and 
 bodies,- and their peculiarly hook-like fingers are most fitted. The young 
 one is carried about by its mother on her back, its hands grasping 
 her arm-pits tightly. The sifakas are held in great veneration or fear 
 by the natives of Madagascar, and are never intentionally killed by 
 them." 
 
 The third and last generic representation of the sub-family is the woolly 
 avahi (Avahis laniyera), distinguished from the last by the 
 greater length of the tail, the short muzzle, and the total Avahi 
 concealment of the ears by the fur, which is of a soft, (Avahis). 
 woolly nature. 
 
 The second sub-family of the Lemur idee, which is likewise confined to 
 Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, is typically represented by the true 
 lemurs. It is distinguished from the last by the presence 
 ot 36 teeth in the adult, the shorter relative length of the True Lemurs 
 hind-limbs, and the free hind-toes ; all the former having long (Lemur). 
 tails. As a genus the true lemurs are characterised by the 
 elongated muzzle, the conspicuous, tufted ears, and the separation of the 
 upper incisor teeth both from one another and from the canines ; the 
 two teats of the female being situated on the breast. The genus 
 contains eight species, among which the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur cattci) 
 is peculiar on account of the character from which it takes its name, and 
 likewise from its dwelling among rocks instead of in trees. Strictly noc- 
 
MAMMALIA ORDER I. PRIMATES. 
 
 Fig. 15. THE EING-TAILEB LEMUR 
 . (Lemur cutia.) 
 
 turnal in habits, these lemurs feed on a mixed diet; and the females 
 carry their offspring singly transversely across the lower part of their 
 bodies. 
 
 The two species of gentle lemurs are separated from the last on account of 
 their short, truncated muzzle, small and hairy ears, the small size of the 
 
 upper incisor teeth, which 
 Gentle Lemur are in contact with one 
 (Hapalemur). another, and with the can* 
 ine on each side, and like- 
 wise by the presence of four teats on the 
 breast of the female. 
 
 A third generic group, with several species, 
 
 is separated on account of the small size or 
 
 absence of the upper incisor 
 
 Sportive Lemur teeth, the bald ears, and the 
 
 (Lepidolemur). more elongated muzzle ; the 
 
 females having four teeth. 
 
 One species (Lepidolemur cauiceps) is by 
 
 some referred to a genus apart, under the 
 
 name of Mixocebm. 
 
 The galagos, which are confined to the 
 forests of the warmer parts of Africa, are 
 the typical representatives 
 Galagos of a third sub-family, readily 
 (Galago}. distinguished from the fore- 
 going by the great elongation of two of the bones of the 
 ankle-joint. The galagos themselves are characterised by the large naked 
 ears being capable of folding at the will of their owner; the long tail being 
 generally bushy, and the females having two teats on the breast and two on 
 the abdomen. 
 
 Galagos vary in size from that of a rat to that of a small cat. In habits 
 they are nocturnal and omnivorous ; and when they descend to the ground, 
 their progression is by hops, for which the structure of their hind-limbs is 
 specially adapted. The Senegal galago (Galago senegalensis), which goes 
 about the forest either singly or in pairs, makes a nest in the fork of a tree, 
 and in the daytime either retires to that resort, or reposes on a branch, with 
 its tail folded across its body and round its neck ; always being unwilling to 
 move, and staring with its great eyes at passing travellers. 
 
 The mouse-lemurs, which by many writers are divided into the genera 
 Chirogale, Microcebus, and Opolemur, although here all included under the 
 former name, are the Malagasy representatives of the 
 Mouse-Lemurs galagos, and include a large number of small-sized species. 
 (Chirogale). From the galagos they may be distinguished by the large 
 ears being hairy at the base, and incapable of folding. None 
 of these lemurs exceed a rat in size, and several of the species pass the dry 
 season in a state of torpor, which they are enabled to endure by previously 
 accumulating a large store of fat at the root of the tail. Such sleeps usually 
 take place in hollow trees, where the little animals carefully build a comfort- 
 able nest of grass and fallen leaves. 
 
 The remaining members of the Lemuridce form a fourth sub-family, agree- 
 ing with the typical one in the number of the teeth, but distinguished by 
 the second or index finger of the fore-paws being either very short or rudi- 
 
APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 31 
 
 mental. While the fore and hind-limbs are of nearly equal length, the ankle- 
 joint is not specially elongated, the thumb and great-toe L 0r i s j 
 diverge widely from the other digits, and the tail is short or , y . , 
 rudimental. In the female there are only two teats, which and .Z/o/v',$) 
 are situated on the breast. So great is the divergence of the 
 great-toe that it is commonly directed backwards. None of these lemurs are 
 found in Madagascar. 
 
 The lorisis, or slow lemurs, which are confined to the Oriental countries, 
 and have no external tail, but a perfect, although small, index finger, are 
 divided into the two genera Nycticebus and Loris ; the former being char- 
 acterised by the inner pair of upper incisor teeth being considerably larger 
 than the outer, and the comparative stoutness of the limbs ; whereas in the 
 latter both pairs of incisors are very small and of equal length, and ttoe 
 limbs are very long and slender. The slow lorises, as the members of the 
 first genus are called, range over the Malayan countries to Cochin-China, 
 while the slender loris is confined to Southern India and Ceylon. Both types 
 are small creatures, with very large eyes, slow in their movements, omnivor- 
 ous in their diet, and purely nocturnal. 
 
 In West Africa the lorisis are represented by two nearly allied animals 
 known as pottos, in which the index finger is reduced to a mere tubercle 
 without a nail ; the tail being sharp or rudimental. The 
 larger of these is the true potto (Perodicticus potto), the , p v 1 . ? . 
 awantibo (P. calabarensis) of Old Calabar being a rather ( 
 smaller and more delicately made animal, with the index finger and tail more 
 rudimental than in the former. In their movements the pottos are even 
 slower than the lorises. 
 
 The second family of the Lemuroids is constituted by the two or three 
 species of tarsier, all of which are included in the single . _ 
 
 genus Tarsius, and range from the Malayan countries to family 
 Celebes and the Philippines. Rather smaller than an Tarsiidcs 
 ordinary squirrel, the tarsiers may be recognised by their 
 enormous eyes and ears, long, thin, and 
 tufted tail, and long, slender limbs, in which 
 the ankle-joint is greatly lengthened. They 
 have 34 teeth ; and their dentition differs 
 from that of the typical lemurs in that the 
 first pair of upper incisor teeth are in con- 
 trast with one another in the middle line, 
 and that the anterior lower premolar is not 
 tusk-like. Tarsiers live on insects and 
 lizards, in search of which they may be 
 seen on moonlight nights hopping on the 
 boughs of trees in a curiously frog -like 
 manner. Fi Q- 16 -~ TARSIER (Tarsius spectrum) 
 
 The last of the existing lemurs is the remarkable aye-aye (Chiromys 
 madagascariensis ) of Madagascar, which likewise constitutes 
 a family by itself. It is about the size of a cat, and is dis- Aye-Aye. Family 
 tinguished from all the rest of its tribe by the structure of its Chiromyidce. 
 teeth, which are singularly like those of the Rodents ; each 
 jaw having a single pair of chisel-like incisors in front, followed after an 
 interval by the blunt cheek-teeth. The fore-paws are very large, with all the 
 fingers long and slender, but the middle, or third one, much more attenuated 
 
MAMMALIA ORDER I.PRIMA TES. 
 
 than the rest ; and in the hind-foot all the digits except the great-toe have 
 curved claws. The ears and eyes are large, the tail is bushy, and the two 
 teats of the female are abdominal. The aye-aye feeds both upon sugar-cane 
 
 and large wood-boring caterpillars ; both its 
 teeth and the slender third finger being em- 
 ployed to extract the latter. 
 
 ' At the present day, the lemurs of Madagascar 
 may be compared in point of size to small or 
 medium-sized monkeys, the largest of them the 
 short-tailed endrina not measuring much more 
 than two feet in length. The investigation re- 
 cently carried on by various explorers in the 
 island have, however, revealed the fact that up to 
 a very late period Madagascar was the home of a 
 lemur vastly exceeding in size any of the exist- 
 ing representatives of the group, and which in 
 this respect may be compared to the great West 
 African baboon known as the mandril. This 
 giant \Qm\iY{Me,galadapis, as it is called) is known 
 by the somewhat imperfect skull and lower 
 jaw, which are about three times the dimensions 
 of those of the endrina. The interest of this 
 animal is, however, by no means confined to its comparatively gigantic pro- 
 portions, since while its skull and teeth conform in their general structural 
 features to those of the existing members of the group, they are specially 
 modified in a manner altogether peculiar. The most strik- 
 ing peculiarity connected with the skull is the extreme 
 slenderness of the hinder portion containing the brain in 
 comparison with the great elongation of the face ; the latter 
 seeming out of all proportion to the former. In this respect, 
 indeed, the skull presents a curious resemblance to the dog-faced baboons of 
 Africa ; as it also does in the strongly-marked ridges it bears for the attachment 
 of powerful muscles. Such resemblances, however, it is almost needless to 
 observe, are merely superficial, and must by no means be taken as indicative 
 of any genetic relationship between the two groups ; and if a young skull 
 were forthcoming, it is probable that we should find this much less unlike 
 ordinary lemurs. Another peculiarity of the giant lemur is to be found in 
 the more lateral position and wider separation of the sockets of the eyes, 
 which are also relatively smaller than in existing forms, thus indicating that 
 the habits of the animal were less completely nocturnal than those of the 
 latter. The molar teeth of the upper jaw are characterised by the presence 
 of only three tubercles on the crown, owing to the fusion of the two inner 
 ones of the four-columned molars of ordinary lemurs ; a few of the smaller 
 existing species having, however, teeth of a nearly similar type. Although 
 in the type skull the front teeth are wanting, the form of their sockets shows 
 that they must have been very similar in general form to those of living 
 lemurs. In many respects the skull shows a marked resemblance to that of 
 the European Tertiary lemur known as Adapis, a feature of especial interest 
 in regard to the origin of the Malagasy fauna from that of the Eocene Period 
 in Europe. 
 
 The remains of the giant lemur were discovered in the great marsh of 
 Ambolisatra, and their slightly mineralised condition indicates their com- 
 
 Fi(f. 17. THE AYE-AYE 
 (Chiromys mactayascariensis). 
 
 Giant Extinct 
 Lemur 
 
 (Megaladapis). 
 
THE BATS. 33 
 
 paratively recent age. Indeed, there is but little doubt that the creature 
 has been killed off within the human period, and in his history of Madagascar, 
 published in 1658, De Flacourt writes in the following terms of an animal 
 then inhabiting the island, which, if not actually the giant lemur, would 
 appear to have been a closely allied form. He writes that "the Tretretretre 
 or Tratratratra, is an animal of the size of a two-year-old calf, with a rounded 
 head and human-like face ; both fore and hind feet being like those of a 
 monkey. It has the hair wavy, the tail short, and ears like those of a 
 man. It resembled the Tanache described by Ambroise Pare*. It was seen 
 by the tank of Lipomani, in the neighbourhood of which was its abode. It 
 is a solitary creature, held in great terror by the natives, who flee when- 
 ever it comes in sight." With the exception of the rounded head and the size 
 (which is doubtless exaggerated), this description accords remarkably with 
 the giant lemur, and when the head was covered with fur, it is probable that 
 it would appear much less elongated than does the bare skull. 
 
 ORDER II. CHIROPTERA. 
 THE BATS. 
 
 THE second ordinal division of the Mammalia is that of the bats, or Chiroptera, 
 w r hich is the one most easily defined of all, seeing that in no other members 
 of the class are the limbs similarly modified for the purposes of flight, while 
 it is in these animals alone among the class that the power of true flight is 
 found. By true flight is meant the capacity of sustaining the body in the 
 air for an indefinite period by the shortness of the wings ; this being markedly 
 different from the spurious flight of such creatures as flying-foxes, whose pro- 
 gress through the air is due merely to a leap from a height aided by para- 
 chute-like expansions of the skin of the limbs and the sides of the body. 
 
 In the fore-limb or wing of a bat, the humerus or upper-arm bone is only 
 moderately elongated, but in the fore-arm the single bone corresponding to 
 the human radius has become greatly lengthened ; and this lengthening is 
 much more strongly marked in the case of the bones of the fingers, exclusive 
 of the thumb, all of which assume the form of very long and slender rods. 
 The thumb, which terminates in a hooked claw used for climbing and sus- 
 pension, remains free ; but the other four fingers are connected together by 
 the delicate, naked, leathery membrane of the wing, and mostly have neither 
 claws nor nails at the tip ; the longest of the whole five digits being the third 
 or middle finger. The membrane of the wing, or, as it is often called, pata- 
 gium, is continued up the arm and along the sides of the body to the hind- 
 legs, down which it extends ; while the two hind-legs are also connected by 
 another extension, which may embrace a considerable portion of the tail. 
 The membrane of the hind-legs is usually supported by a peculiar spur pro- 
 jecting from the foot ; but the toes, which are of normal proportions, remain 
 perfectly free from one another. Owing to the connection of the hind-limbs 
 with the membrane of the wings, the knee-joint is directed backwards instead 
 of forwards in the manner characteristic of all other terrestrial Mammals, and 
 this structure renders the movements of these animals on the ground so awk- 
 ward and shuffling. Bats always have very large and roomy chests, with 
 4 
 
34 MAMMALIA ORDER ILCHIROPTERA. 
 
 well-developed collar-bones ; but the hind-quarters are feeble and weak. In 
 many bats the delicate sense of touch, by which they are enabled to avoid 
 coming into collision with objects when flying in the dark, appears to be 
 mainly situated in the wing-membranes and in the delicate skin of the fre- 
 quently large ears, the latter often having an inner earlet, or tragus. 
 In a large number of species there are, however, expansions of the skin in 
 the region of the nose ; these nose-leaves sometimes merely taking the form 
 of a triangular single or double plate standing up above the muzzle, whereas 
 in other cases they assume a marked appearance, covering a greater portion 
 of the face. These organs appear to be entirely sensory in function ; and it 
 is quite possible that bats may possess some special sense of which we have 
 no cognizance. 
 
 Ordinary bats have teeth very similar to those of the order Insectivora (the 
 next in the series), and there is no doubt that these animals are derived 
 from some early members of the latter group which have gradually become 
 adapted for true flight ; the transition having probably been effected by the 
 development of a parachute-like expansion of the skin of the sides of the 
 body and limbs. In habits all bats are nocturnal, and the majority are 
 insectivorous, although a few have taken to blood-sucking. There is, how- 
 ever, one important group the fruit-bats which are entirely frugivorous, and 
 in these the teeth have quite lost the cusped structure distinctive of ordinary 
 bats, and have assumed an altogether peculiar conformation. All the fruit- 
 bats are of comparatively large dimensions ; and in this group are included 
 the largest representatives of the entire order. A certain number of bats 
 have acquired the habit of licking out the honey from the corollse of flowers, 
 and for this purpose their tongues have become modified into elongated 
 protrusile organs, frequently terminating in a bush-like expansion of delicate 
 filaments. 
 
 Although one bat, at least, extends as far north as the Arctic circle, the 
 members of the order obtain their maximum development in tropical arid 
 subtropical countries ; and it is to such regions of the Old World that the 
 fruit-bats are confined, that group being entirely unknown in America. 
 
 The number of bats known to science is between four and five hundred, 
 which are arranged in rather more than eighty genera, distributed under six 
 family-groups. As bats are Mammals with which the ordinary student has 
 but little to do, this large assemblage will be treated much more briefly than 
 most of the other orders ; such genera as are mentioned not having separate 
 paragraphs to themselves. 
 
 Popularly known by the highly inappropriate title of flying-foxes, the 
 
 fruit-bats form not only a family by themselves, but likewise a subordinal 
 
 group differing from a second one, in which are contained all 
 
 Fruit-Bats. the members of the order. From other bats this group of 
 
 Family Ptero- Megachiroptera, as it is called, is chiefly distinguished by the 
 
 podidce. characters of the molar teeth, which have low, rounded 
 
 crowns, elongated in the antero-posterior direction, and 
 
 divided by a distinct longitudinal ridge ; such teeth being far better adapted 
 
 for fruit-eating than are the cusped molars of ordinary bats. From other 
 
 bats, fruit-bats are also distinguished by the structure of the wing, in which 
 
 there are three joints in the second or index finger, whereas in the other 
 
 members of the order the number of such joints is reduced to two, or even 
 
 one. Another peculiarity of the group is to be found in the complete circle 
 
 formed by the base of the conch of the ear ; while the tail, if present, is 
 
THREATS. 35 
 
 short, and situated below the membrane between the hind-legs, with which it 
 may have no connection. In all cases the ears are small, and unprovided 
 with an inner tragus. Fruit-bats are confined to the warmer parts of the 
 Old World. 
 
 The common fruit-bats, or fox-bats (Pteropus\ forming the typical re- 
 presentatives of the family, are characterised by their 
 long and fox-like faces, the presence of 34 teeth, f ~~^- 
 ihe absence of a tail, and the thick coat of woolly 
 fur on the neck ; all being of large size. These bats 
 inhabit the Oriental countries, Madagascar, New 
 Guinea, and Australia, but are unknown in Africa. 
 The long lines in which they wend their way to 
 their feeding-grounds at evening are well known to 
 all resitlenters in tropical countries. From this genus 
 the tailed fruit-bats (Xantharpyia) may be distinguished 
 by the presence of a short tail, which is connected with 
 the membrane between the legs, as well as by their 
 smaller size, duller colours, and the absence of any 
 difference between the fur of the neck and that of the 
 body. These bats are common to the Oriental countries, 
 Syria, Africa, and Madagascar. In Africa south of the 
 Sahara the place of the common fruit-bats is taken by 
 the epauletted fruit-bats (Epomophorus), so called from 
 the tufts of long hair on the shoulders of the males. Their large and elon- 
 gated heads have a bluntly conical or truncated muzzle, large, flabby, and 
 extensive lips, and a tuft of white hair on the margin of each ear. While 
 some are tailless, others have a short tail, unconnected with the leg-membrane. 
 The tufts of hair on the shoulders of the males arise from long pouches oil the 
 sides of the neck. These bats are most abundant on the West Coast, where the 
 single species of the allied genus Scotonycteris is also found. 
 
 Another genus is formed by the short-nosed fruit-bats (Cynopterus), 
 ranging from India to the Philippine Islands, and distinguished by the short 
 and rounded muzzle, marked by a vertical groove, the reduction of the 
 teeth to 32 or 30, and their small size. Most of them have a short tail 
 connected with the membrane between the legs. Very curious are the two 
 species of tube -nosed fruit-bats (Harpyia), inhabiting the islands of 
 Celebes, New Guinea, North Australia, and New Ireland, and taking their 
 name from the production of the nostrils into a pair of tubes reaching a short 
 distance in advance of the blunt muzzle. Even more interesting is the cusp- 
 toothed fruit-bat (Pteralopex) of the Solomon Islands, since the cusps in its 
 molar teeth serve to indicate that all the fruit-bats have been derived from 
 insectivorous members of the order. Another group of the family, compris- 
 ing seven genera, among which Carponycteris may be selected as an example, 
 is distinguished by the great length of the extensile tongue, which terminates in 
 a number of papilla, and is probably employed for licking out the soft contents 
 of tropical fruits. Save that one species is found in West Africa, these bats 
 are confined to the Oriental and Australasian countries. They are all of com- 
 paratively small size, and have long and pointed faces, and the narrow molar 
 teeth scarcely projecting above the surface of the gums. 
 
 This exclusively Old World family is the first group of the ordinary bats, or 
 Microchiroptera, in which the molar teeth are usually surmounted by a number 
 of sharp cusps, and the food generally consists of insects. The other leading 
 
36 MAMMALIA ORDER ILCHIROPTERA. 
 
 characteristics by which the sub-order is distinguished from the fruit-bats 
 
 have been already noticed under the heading of the latter. As a family, the 
 
 Khinolophidce ^are characterised by the presence of a weli- 
 
 Horse-shoe and developed nose-leaf surrounding the nostrils, which are 
 
 Leaf-nosed Bats, placed in a hollow on the muzzle, as well as by the large size 
 
 Family of the ears, in which an inner tragus is wanting, and which 
 
 Rhinolophidce. are generally quite separate from one another at the base. 
 
 The greater horse-shoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrum-equiuum) is 
 
 a familiar British representative of a very widely-spread genus, in which 
 
 there are 32 teeth, and the nose-leaf consists of two portions, namely a 
 
 horse-shoe-like moiety immediately over the nose, and a pointed one behind. 
 
 In the leaf-nosed bats (Hipposiderus), which 
 have, likewise, a wide range, and are repre- 
 sented by a large number of species, the 
 hinder portion of the nose-leaf is not 
 pointed, and there is no median portion 
 concealing the nostrils ; while the teeth 
 are reduced to 30 or 28 in number. 
 There are no European representatives of 
 the f e A bats which range over Africa, Asia, 
 and Australia. The most curious member 
 of the whole family is the flower-nosed bat (Anthops oriiatus) of the Solomon 
 Islands, in which the whole front of the face, save the eyes and lips, is 
 covered with a complex and ornate membrane, forming a complete mask to 
 the countenance. 
 
 The so-called false vampire bats (Megaderma) form one of two genera con- 
 stituting a family distinguished from the last by the presence of a large inner 
 tragus in the very long ears. In this genus, which is 
 False Vampire common to the Oriental countries and Africa, the muzzle is 
 Bats. Family surmounted by a rather tall nose-leaf ; whereas in the allied 
 NycteridcK. genus Nyctiris this appendage is almost wanting, and the 
 ears are not joined together to nearly such an extent as is 
 the case in the former, where their union extends nearly half their height. 
 With the exception of one Javan and Malayan species, and a second from 
 Egypt, all the members of the second genus are confined to Africa south of 
 the Sahara. 
 
 The typical bats form an extensive family, with a large number of genera 
 and species, ranging over botli the Eastern and Western Hemispheres; and it 
 is to this family that all the British bats, with the exception 
 Typical Bats. of the two species of the genus Rhinolophus, and likewise 
 Family Vesper- the majority of those inhabiting Europe generally, belong. 
 tilionidce. In this family the nose-leaf is wanting, so that the nostrils 
 form simple crescentic or circular apertures at the end of 
 the muzzle ; the comparatively long tail is included in the membrane join- 
 ing the hind-legs, and extends to its free edge, and the ear has a distinct 
 inner tragus. In the upper jaw the incisor teeth, of which there may be 
 either one or two pairs, are of small size, and separated by a gap in the 
 middle line ; but, with one exception, there are three pairs of the corre- 
 sponding lower teeth. Over one hundred and fifty species are known. The 
 long-eared bats (Plecotus), of which there is one species from the northern 
 portion of the Old World, and a second from North America, constitute a 
 genus characterised by the great length of the delicate ears, which are united 
 
THE BATS. 37 
 
 for a short distance above the forehead, and the presence of grooves, re- 
 presenting an incipient nose-leaf on the muzzle just behind the nostrils. 
 When at rest, the long ears are folded 
 back, leaving the tragus alone standing 
 upright. In the allied genus (Synotus), of 
 which the barbastelle is the British repre- 
 sentative, .there are also only two species, 
 one of which is European and the other 
 Asiatic. They may be easily distinguished 
 from the long-eared bats by the shortness of 
 the ears, which are united for some distance 
 basally, and likewise by the reduction in the 
 number of the teeth from 36 to 34. 
 
 The pipistrelle, or common bat (Vesperugo pipistrellus), together with the 
 much larger noctule (F. noctula) and serotine (V. serotinciis), are British repre- 
 sentatives of a third genus, differing in several particulars from the two pre- 
 ceding. There are, for instance, no traces of grooves or foldings in the skin of 
 the nose, and the small ears are completely separate from each other. The 
 genus, which apparently contains a greater number of species than any other 
 in the order, has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, but is one somewhat 
 difficult to define, as some of its representatives approximate more or less to 
 other genera ; the number of teeth being either 30, 34, or 36. The more 
 typical kinds may be recognised by the relatively stout body, the broad, flat- 
 tened head and blunt muzzle, and the broad, short, and triangular ears, in 
 which the tragus is generally thickened and somewhat inclined outwards. 
 As a rule, the hind-legs are short, and the membrane connecting them with 
 the tail nearly always has an additional portion on the outer side of the spur on 
 the heel. Omitting notice of the genera Nycticejus and Chalinolobus, mention 
 must be made of the American genus Atalapha, of which the hoary bat (A. 
 cinerea) of the United States is a familiar representative. All members of 
 this genus have but a single pair of upper incisor teeth, and are further char- 
 acterised by the membrane between the hind-legs being more or less hairy. 
 Like other bats living in cold climates, the hoary bat hibernates during winter ; 
 this species selecting caves, to which it resorts in large numbers for the period 
 of torpor. Many European bats prefer, however, church-towers and roofs, or 
 outbuildings, while some select hollow trees, and it is a curious fact that in 
 the case of certain species the males and females associate in separate colonies. 
 An unusually warm day, even in mid-winter, will generally cause a certain 
 number of bats to awake from slumber and issue forth, after which they again 
 fall into the same torpor as before. 
 
 Among the numerous genera of this family, the tube-nosed bats (Harpyio- 
 cephalus), from hilly districts in the Oriental countries, Tibet and Japan, 
 deserve special mention, on account of the remarkable similarity be- 
 tween the structure of their nostrils and those of the tube-nosed fruit- 
 bats. In the present genus the tubes into which the nostrils are pro- 
 longed are, however, shorter and much more divergent than in the last- 
 named group. 
 
 Of the typical genus (Vespertilio}, which is only second in point of numbers, 
 there are four British representatives, among which Daubenton's bat (V. dan- 
 bentoni) is one of the best known. Those bats differ from the members of the 
 family already noticed in having upwards of 38 teeth, there being two pairs 
 of incisors in the upper jaw ; and they are specially distinguished by the circum- 
 
38 MAMMALIA ORDER ILCHIROPTERA. 
 
 stance that these latter are so fixed in the jaw as to diverge from one another, 
 as well as by the cheek-teeth (that is to say premolars, and molars together) 
 forming three pairs in each jaw. A further distinctive feature is to be found 
 in the minute size of the second upper premolar tooth, while the ear has a 
 characteristic elongated oval form, and its inner tragtis is remarkably narrow. 
 The genus has a wide geographical distribution, being spread over the tem- 
 perate and tropical regions of both hemispheres. A bat belonging to this 
 genus (F. welivitschi) from West Africa, closely allied to the British Bechstein's 
 bat (F. bechsteini}, is remarkable for the circumstance that the wing-membranes 
 are coloured orange and black; the Indian F. hodyamii also having a very 
 similar type of coloration. Another Indian bat with black and orange wings 
 belongs to the genus Cerivoula, distinguished from Vespertilio by the upper 
 incisor teeth being vertical instead of divergent. A fourth peculiarly coloured 
 species is the West African Nycticejus albofuscus, belonging to a genus closely 
 allied to Vesperugo, and having the outer portions of the wing-membranes 
 dazzling white. In these abnormally coloured bats it appears that those in 
 which black and orange obtain are in the habit of reposing among the fruit 
 and leaves of various tropical trees, in which an orange ground is frequently 
 relieved by black spots. 
 
 Schreibers' bat (Miniopterus schreibersi), ranging from Germany to Japan 
 and Australia, is the only member of a genus differing from all those hitherto 
 noticed by the great elevation of the crown of the head above the face ; the 
 same feature also characterises the South American and West Indian 
 bats forming the genus Natalus. Two very curious bats belonging to this 
 family, and each forming a genus by itself, are remarkable for having 
 the feet furnished with adhesive discs, by which they are enabled to climb 
 smooth, polished surfaces. One of these is the tricolor bat (Thyroptera 
 tricolor) of Brazil, in which the suckers form circular discs on the lower 
 surface of the thumb and the sole of the hind-foot ; the second being the 
 golden bat (Myxopoda aurita) of Madagascar, in which the sucker on the 
 thumb is in the form of a horse-shoe, while those on the feet are of smaller 
 size. Both these bats are distinguished from all the other members of the 
 family by having three joints to the Miird or middle finger of the wing, 
 thereby resembling the undermentioned family Phyllostomatidce. 
 
 In the preceding families of the Microchiroptera the tail is enclosed in the 
 membrane connecting the two hind-legs, but in the two families of this group 
 still remaining for consideration, this appendage, when pre- 
 Free-tailed Bats, sent, generally either perforates the membrane in such a 
 Family manner that its free extremity appears on the upper extrem- 
 Emballonuridce. ity of the latter, or is produced considerably beyond the free 
 hinder margin of the same. Another feature is that- the 
 inner, and frequently the only, pair of upper incisor teeth, are of large size 
 and placed close together in the middle line ; and a third characteristic is to 
 be found in the circumstance that when the wing is at rest, the first joint of 
 the third finger is folded back upon the supporting metacarpal bone instead 
 of being extended forwards in the same line. In two species, each repre- 
 senting a genus by itself, the last-named characteristic is, however, wanting. 
 Only a single species cf these two families is met with in Europe, the second 
 family being exclusively American. In the members of the family Em- 
 ballonundce there are but two joints in the third finger of the wing, and 
 there is no distinct nose-leaf ; but, as a rule, the ear is furnished with a 
 small inner tragus, and there is but a single pair of upper incisor teeth, 
 
THE BATS. 
 
 39 
 
 which are inclined towards one another. An oblique truncation of the 
 extremity of the snout causes the nostrils to project more or less in advance 
 of the extremity of the lower jaw. These bats are most abundant in the 
 zone lying thirty degrees on each side of the Equator ; and among them are 
 the only two indigenous Mammals found in New Zealand. Both in this 
 and the next family only a small proportion of the more interesting types 
 out of a very large number of genera will be noticed in this place. 
 
 The typical representatives of the family are the sheath-tailed bats 
 (Emballonura\ ranging from the Malayan countries to the Philippine Islands, 
 and also found from Madagascar to the Navigator group. They belong to a 
 group of several genera in which the free extremity of the slender tail 
 perforates the membrane between the legs, while the legs are relatively long, 
 and the upper incisor teeth are weak ; two pairs of these teeth being present 
 in this particular genus. Further distinctive characteristics of Emballonura, 
 are that there are 34 teeth, that the muzzle is more or less distinctly pro- 
 duced, the top of the head flat, the ears completely separate from each other, 
 and their tragus somewhat oblong and expanded above. Tropical America 
 is the home of the allied pouch-winged bats (Saccopteryx), all of which are 
 small-sized creatures, with only a single pair of upper incisor teeth, and a 
 peculiar glandular pouch on the under side of the wing in the neighbourhood 
 of the elbow- joint. These pouches, which are rudimental in the females, 
 appear to have a sexual function, and in one species a white frill of skin 
 protrudes from the aperture of each. 
 
 The tomb-bats (Taphozous) form another large genus, with representatives 
 in Africa, the Oriental countries, and Australia, and differ from other 
 members of the group in having only two pairs of lower incisor teeth, and 
 also in the shedding of the single upper pair in the adult condition. The 
 males, and in some cases also the females, of many species have glandular 
 pouches beneath the chin ; and some forms which hibernate for a long period 
 accumulate large deposits of fat about the root of the tail before retiring for 
 their torpor. The typical representative of the genus is found in large 
 numbers in the ancient tombs of Egypt. 
 
 The two species of white bats (Diclidurus) from Tropical America are worthy 
 of notice, on account of the yellowish or creamy-white colour of the tips of the 
 fur. Closely allied to the tomb-bats, they differ in having three pairs of lower 
 incisor teeth, while they are distinguished from all other bats by the presence 
 of a pouch on the under surface of the membrane between the hind-legs. 
 Two other bats from the same region, known as the hare-lipped bats (Noctilio), 
 take their name from the curious resemblance of their folded upper lips to 
 those of the Rodents, while one species is remarkable on account of its diet, 
 which consists mainly, if not exclusively, of small fish. Another peculiar 
 member of the same sub-family is the long-tailed bat (Rhinopoma microphyl- 
 lum\ ranging from North-Eastern Africa through India to Burma, and is 
 easily recognised by the very long, whip-like tail, which projects far beyond 
 the hinder margin of the extremely short membrane joining the hind-legs. 
 
 The mastiff-bats (Molossus), so named on account of their very broad and 
 wide-mouthed muzzles, are the first representatives of a second sub-family of 
 the JEmballonuridce characterised by the thickness of the tail, which, save in 
 one species, is produced a considerable distance beyond the free margin of the 
 membrane joining the legs. All have short, strong legs, very broad feet, and 
 callosities at the base of the thumbs, while there is only a single pair of incisor 
 teeth in the upper jaw. The hind-feet have no attachment to the wings, the 
 
40 MAMMALIA ORDER ILCHIROPTERA* 
 
 membranes of which can be folded away between the arms and legs, while the 
 membrane joining the hind-legs can be drawn upwards along the tail ; and it 
 appears that all the members of the sub-family are better adapted for crawling 
 than are any other bats. The mastiff-bats are confined to Tropical and Sub- 
 Tropical America, and generally have 26 or 28 teeth, with two pairs of lower 
 incisors. The large ears, in which there is generally a small tragus, are 
 united at their bases ; the lips, in common with those of two allied genera, 
 are very large, and often thrown into pouches ; while the wings are remark- 
 ably long and narrow. 
 
 The large Malayan naked bat (Chiromeles torquata) takes its name from the 
 thick and puckered skin being almost entirely naked ; and is further peculiar 
 in that the large first hind-toe can be opposed to the other digits. But the most 
 curious feature about the animal is the presence of a large pouch on the under 
 surface of the body below the armpits, in which the young are carried during 
 the period of suckling. The object of this special development is sufficiently 
 apparent, since, owing to the absence of fur, the young would be quite unable 
 to cling to the body of the parent in the usual bat fashion. The muzzle of 
 this curious bat is remarkably long and pig-like ; and the rather large ears 
 are widely separated from one another. Although most abundant in Africa 
 south of the Sahara, the wrinkled - lipped bats, constituting the genus 
 Nyctinomus, are the most widely spread, and, at the same time, the most 
 numerously represented group of the present sub-family, being found in 
 India and Burma, China, Australia, New Guinea, Tropical America, and 
 Madagascar ; while a single species (N. cestoni) is found in Southern and 
 Central Europe, where it is the sole representative of the entire family. 
 Closely allied to the rnastiff-bats, the members of the present genus may be dis- 
 tinguished by the gap dividing the upper incisor teeth in the middle line, and. 
 likewise by the greater development of the wrinkles on the full, fleshy lips. 
 
 The last member of the family that will be mentioned is the New Zealand 
 bat (Mystacops tuberculatus), distinguished by having three joints to the 
 third finger of the wing, the first of which, when at rest, is folded back 
 beneath the metacarpal bone, instead of above it, as in the other members of 
 the family. Owing to a peculiarity in the structure of the wings, this species 
 is better suited for crawling than any other bat. The other species of bat 
 inhabiting New Zealand (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) belongs to a genus nearly 
 allied to Vesperugo, and is also found in Australia. 
 
 The great family of vampire-bats is exclusively confined to Tropical 
 
 America and the West Indies, and bears nearly the same relation to 
 
 the preceding family as is presented by the horse-shoe bats 
 
 Vampire-Bats. to the typical bats. In addition to the features common to 
 
 Jamily Phyllo- the Emballonuridce, all have three joints to the middle 
 
 stomatidce. or third finger of the wing, while there is either a well- 
 developed nose-leaf, or folds and warts are present on the 
 chin. A distinct tragus in the moderately-sized ears will always serve to 
 distinguish the numerous representatives of this family which have a nose- 
 leaf from the horse-shoe bats, without the necessity of counting the number 
 of joints in the middle finger of the wing. Vampire-bats are exceedingly 
 numerous, both as regards genera and species, so that only a few of the 
 former can be referred to here. All are strong flyers; but the various groups 
 present great differences in the nature of their food, some devouring insects 
 and fruits alike, while others are wholly frugivorous, and others again have 
 taken to a blood -sucking habit. 
 
THE BA TS. 41 
 
 In two small genera of the family (Chilonycteris and Mormops) the nose- 
 leaf is wanting, and its place supplied by two or more lappets of skin hanging 
 from beneath the skin. One of these 
 chin-leafed bats (M. blainvillei) is remark- 
 able for its bright orange fur, and like- 
 wise for the extremely fragile structure 
 of the whole head and body. The harm- 
 less vampires (Vampirus) belong to a 
 group of genera in which the tail, when 
 present, perforates the membrane between 
 the legs, while the nose-leaf is spear- 
 shaped. The largest is the great vampire 
 (F. spectrum), from Brazil, in which the 
 expanse of wing is upwards of 28 inches ; 
 the tail being wanting. Apparently these 
 bats feed exclusively on fruits. Nearly Fig. 21. VAMPIRE-BAT (Desmodus rvfus). 
 allied are the three species of javelin-bats 
 
 (Phyllostoma), which may be distinguished from the harmless vampires by the 
 shorter and broader form of the muzzle, as well as by the reduction in the 
 number of the lower premolar teeth from three to two pairs. There is some 
 degree of doubt whether any of the javelin-bats are addicted to blood-sucking 
 propensities. 
 
 More remarkable than any of the family are the long-tongued vampires, 
 which are referred to several genera, such as Glossopkaga, Chceronycteris, 
 Phyllonycteris, etc., easily recognised by the narrow muzzle and the long, 
 slender, extensile tongue, tipped at the extremity with aensile papillse, and 
 capable of being protruded a long distance in advance of the tongue. Like 
 the javelin-bats, these vampires have a small spear-shaped jiose-leaf rising 
 vertically from the muzzle immediately between the nostrils. The tongue 
 appears to be used both to scoop out the soft interior of fruits, and likewise 
 to extract small insects from tubular flowers. 
 
 Another well-marked assemblage is formed by the short-nosed vampires, 
 of which there are no less than nine genera, and among which Artibeus and 
 Stenoderma may be mentioned by name. All these bats, which are for the 
 most part frugivorous in their diet, are distinguished by the extreme short- 
 ness of their muzzles, which are generally very wide, and are provided with a 
 short nose-leaf ; the fore-part of the latter being in the form of a horse-shoe, 
 and the hinder moiety spear-shaped. One of these species (Artibeus per- 
 spicillatus) is very common in the plantations of Jamaica, where it feeds on 
 mangoes, bread-fruit, etc. 
 
 The last representatives of this extensive family are the blood-sucking 
 vampires, of which one species alone constitutes the genus Desmodus, 
 while the latter represents another genus named Diphylla. Both these 
 bats are characterised by the short and conical form of the muzzle, 
 which carries a small nose-leaf, the shortness of the membrane be- 
 tween the hind-legs, the absence of a tail, and the small number and 
 peculiar structure of the teeth. In the first-named genus the total number 
 of teeth is 20, molars being wanting ; but in the second it is 22, owing 
 to the presence of a pair of rudimentary molars in the upper jaw. Both 
 have a single pair of broad chisel-like incisor teeth in the upper jaw, 
 which fill up the whole space between the tusks ; and the two pairs of 
 upper, and three pairs of lower premolars have sharp cutting edges. In 
 
42 MAMMALIAORDER IILINSECTIVORA. 
 
 correlation with the nature of their diet, the stomach of these bats 
 is narrowed and elongated into a tube-like organ. The common vampire 
 (Desmodus rufus), ranging from Central America to the south of Brazil, 
 measures about three inches in length, and has reddish-brown fur on the 
 upper parts. The second species (Diphylla ecaudata) is rather smaller, and 
 confined to Brazil. These bats attack animals by shaving away the upper 
 layer of the skin from some bare part with their incisor teeth, and then suck 
 up the blood as it oozes from the capillary vessels. 
 
 ORDER III. INSECTIYORA. 
 INSECT- EATING MAMMALS. 
 
 THE third order of Mammals comprises a large number of mostly small-sized 
 insectivorous species, structurally nearly allied to the bats, but with the fore- 
 limbs of normal structure. With the exception of the tree-shrews and a few 
 aquatic species, they are all more or less completely nocturnal in their habits ; 
 but the group as a whole is one by no means easy of definition. As a rule, 
 they have five toes to each foot, all of which are furnished with claws, and 
 neither the thumb nor the great toe is capable of being opposed to the other 
 digits. In walking the whole sole of the foot is applied to the ground, in 
 what is termed the plantigrade manner. The crowns of their short upper 
 molar toeth are surmounted by a number of minute, sharp cusps, which may 
 be arranged either in the form of a W or a V ; and the incisor teeth, of which 
 there are not less than two pairs in the lower jaw, are never chisel-like, but 
 the first pair is often larger than the others. The canines, or tusks, are very 
 generally not distinctly larger than the other teeth ; and there is never a 
 pair of scissor-like cheek-teeth like those characterising the terrestrial 
 Garni vora. Except in one or two species, perfect collar-bones are developed ; 
 and the lobes of the brain are nearly smooth, thus indicating very low 
 mental powers. Externally, Insectivores very generally have long slender 
 and narrow snouts, with the muzzle projecting considerably beyond the ex- 
 tremity of the lower jaw ; and while many of them are coated with fur, 
 which may be harsh and rough, others have a covering of spines, or spines 
 mingled with fur. 
 
 As regards their geographical distribution, these Mammals present some 
 very curious features. In the first place, they are totally wanting in South 
 America, where their place is taken by the Marsupial opossums ; but they 
 are represented by a peculiar family, with one genus, in the West Indian 
 Islands. A more or less closely allied family occurs in Madagascar, where 
 there are also other peculiar types ; and the order is distributed over North 
 America and all the great continents of the Old World, although absent from 
 Australia and Papua. From geological evidence, coupled with its abundance 
 in Madagascar, the order is evidently an ancient one ; and its existing members 
 have probably been enabled to survive either by their small size and nocturnal 
 habits, their protective armour of spines, or from dwelling in countries 
 where the larger Carnivora are either absent or but few in number, or by having 
 taken to a subterranean mode of life. Whereas the majority of the Insectivora 
 are terrestrial, the flying-lemurs are arboreal, and able to take flying leaps 
 
INSECT-EATING MAMMALS. 
 
 43 
 
 from tree to tree ; the tree-shrews are also arboreal ; the moles and some of 
 the shrews, on the other hand, are burrowers ; and the desmans, certain 
 shrews, and the African / otamogale are aquatic in their habits. 
 
 From all other members of the order the so-called flying-lemurs, or cobegos, 
 are at once distinguished by the presence of an expansion of the skin of the 
 sides of the body connecting the fore and hind -limbs, and _. 
 
 also by the toes of both feet being webbed right up to the Flvinff Lemurs 
 sharp and curved claws. The hind-legs are likewise con- Family 
 nected together in a similar manner ; the connecting skin Galecpithecidce . 
 involving the whole of the long tail. Another remarkable 
 feature is to be found in the conformation of the incisor teeth, which in both 
 jaws are flattened from back to front, the upper ones being cusped, while 
 the lower ones differ from those of all other 
 Mammals in being of a comb-like structure. 
 
 The cobegos, of which there are two species 
 belonging to the single genus Galeopithecus, 
 range from Tenasserim through the Malayan 
 Peninsula and Islands to the Philippines and 
 Siam. Unlike the ordinary members of the 
 order to which they are assigned, they subsist 
 mainly on leaves and fruits. During the day- 
 time they hang head-downwards in a bat-like 
 manner from the boughs or stems of trees ; 
 but at dusk and during the night pass from 
 tree to tree in long flying leaps, supported 
 by the parachute, such leaps being at times 
 as much as seventy yards in length. In size, 
 the common Malayan species may be com- 
 pared to an ordinary cat. Owing to their 
 great structural differences from the other 
 members of the order, the cobegos are regarded as forming a sub -order 
 by themselves, under the name of Dermoptera; all the other forms con- 
 stituting a second subordinal group known as the Insectivora Vera. 
 
 The tree-shrews, or tupaias, of the Oriental countries, are the first of a 
 group of five families characterised by having broad upper molar teeth, upon 
 the summits of which the numer- Tree _ S i lreWB _ 
 ous small cusps are arranged more Family 
 or less in the shape of the letter TupaiidcB 
 W. In appearance the tree- 
 shrews, except as regards their long, pointed 
 muzzles, are so like small squirrels, that they 
 might easily be mistaken for those animals ; 
 and this resemblance, together with their arboreal 
 habits, is one of the features by which they 
 are most easily recognised. From the next 
 family they may be distinguished by the socket of 
 the eye being completely surrounded by bone in 
 the skull, and likewise by the metatarsus, or upper 
 portion of the hind-foot, being of normal propor- 
 tions. They are all animals of small size, with thick fur, short ears, and 
 the long tail either bushy throughout or with a pen-like expansion near the 
 end. Tree-shrews subsist on both insects and fruit, taking the latter in 
 
 Fig. 22. THE FLYING-LEMUR 
 ( Galeopithecums volans). 
 
 Fig. 23. TREE-SHREW 
 (Tupaia tana). 
 
44 MAMMALIA ORDER IILINSECTIVORA. 
 
 their fore-paws and sitting up to devour it in a squirrel-like manner. 
 Although chiefly arboreal, they at times seek their food on the ground. 
 
 The typical tree-shrews (Tupaia), which range from India to the Philippines, 
 and are represented by a large number of species, have the long tail bushy 
 throughout, although the longer hairs are arranged on the upper and lateral 
 surfaces, the under side being short-haired. Two species, of which one is 
 from Borneo and the other "from Siam, have been separated as Dendrogale, 
 although this scarcely seems necessary. Very distinct is, however, the beauti- 
 ful little pen-tailed shrew (PtUocercus lowi) of Borneo and some of the 
 adjacent islands, in which the exceeding long tail is evenly short-haired for 
 the greater portion of its length, although towards its extremity it bears a 
 double row of long hairs, arranged like the vanes of a feather. This little 
 creature measures between five and six inches to the root of the tail, which 
 is considerably longer than the head and body. 
 
 In Africa south of the Sahara the place of the tree-shrews is taken 
 by the terrestrial jumping-shrews, one species of the typical genus 
 ranging into Northern Africa. From the tree-shrews these 
 Jumping 1 - Shrews, animals differ not only by their terrestrial habits, but also 
 Family by the elongation of the rnetatarsal segment of the hind-foot, 
 Macroscdididce. which enables them to take the leaps from which they derive 
 their name ; and likewise by the bony rim of the socket of 
 the eye being incomplete behind. The tail also is not bushy. In the typical 
 genus the snout is elongated so as to form a short proboscis, on which 
 account the name of elephant-shrew is applied to these 
 creatures. 
 
 In the typical jumping-shrews (Macrosceddes) the 
 number of teeth is usually 42, and there are five toes 
 on the fore-foot and generally the same number on the 
 hind-foot ; while the ears are large, and the tail is naked 
 and rat-like. In one species (M. tetradactylus\ from the 
 Mozambique Coast, there are, however, but 40 teeth, 
 while the number of toes on the hind-foot is reduced to 
 four ; and on this account the animal is generically sepa- 
 rated by some as Petrodomus. A very distinct genus is 
 formed by the long nosed jumping-shrews (Rkynchocyon) 
 Fig. 24. A JUMPING- from the East Coast of Africa, in which there are only 
 SHREW (Macroscelides). 33 ^^ and bufc four toes fco b()th the _f ront and hind . 
 
 feet. The hind-legs are also relatively shorter. Unlike the tree-shrews, the 
 members of this family are nocturnal in their habits. 
 
 In the three remaining families of the group with the cusps on 
 
 the upper molars arranged in the form of the letter W, the brain-cavity is 
 
 relatively smaller than in the two preceding families, and 
 
 Hedgehog Tribe, the union of the front portion of the lower part of the 
 
 Family pelvis in the middle line of the body either shorter or 
 
 ErinaceidcB. altogether wanting, while not only has the socket 
 of the eye no complete bony ring, but even the post- 
 orbital process found in the jumping-shrews is totally absent. Although 
 the hedgehogs themselves are easily distinguished from the other members 
 of the group by their spiny covering, this is not the case with their more 
 rat-like allies the gymnuras ; and accordingly other characters have to be 
 sought in order to define the family Erinaceidce. In all save one species the 
 feet are five-toed and furnished with claws adapted for digging ; while the 
 
INSECT-EATING MAMMALS. 45 
 
 first and second upper molar teeth have five distinct cusps, the central one of 
 which is minute. and connected with the two inner ones by oblique ridges. 
 The family is confined to the Old World. 
 
 The hedgehogs (Erinaceus) are sufficiently distinguished by the coat of 
 spines covering the upper surface and sides of the body, and their power of 
 rolling themselves up into a ball as a defence against attack, and are likewise 
 such familiar animals, that but little in the way of description is neces- 
 sary. The tail is extremely short ; and the total number of teeth is 36. 
 Hedgehogs are distributed over the greater part of Europe and portions of 
 Africa and Asia, although unknown in the countries lying east of the Bay of 
 Bengal, and likewise in Madagascar. The European species (E. europceus) 
 differs from all the others by the coarser nature of the fur between the spines, 
 and by the upper canine tooth being inserted by one instead of two roots. 
 In habits, all hedgehogs are nocturnal and omnivorous, their diet comprising 
 insects, molluscs, eggs, voles, fruits, and roots. In cold countries they hiber- 
 nate in a nest made of leaves and grass, and well concealed among bushes. 
 
 The shrew-hedgehogs, which may be compared to large, coarsely-haired 
 shrews, replace the hedgehogs in Burma and the Malay countries. They 
 differ from the latter by being covered with 
 coarse hair instead of spines, as well as in 
 having 44 teeth. There are two species, 
 of which Raffles' s shrew-hedgehog (Gymnura, 
 rafflesi) is by far the commoner, and con- 
 siderably the larger, measuring 12 or 14 
 inches to the root of the tail, which is long 
 and rat-like. The smaller shrew-hedgehog 
 (Hylomys suillus\ on the other hand, measures 
 less than 5 inches, with a tail of only an inch 
 in length, and has the third upper premolar .-- 
 
 tooth much smaller than in the first species. (Gymnura rafflesi). 
 
 The range of both is nearly co-extensive. 
 
 The numerous representatives of this extensive family are mouse-like or 
 rat-like creatures, with soft, short fur, long and pointed snouts, rounded 
 ears, closely pressed to the sides of the head, and a very 
 peculiar type of dentition. From ordinary rats and mice The Shrews. 
 they may be distinguished by their typically insectivorous Family 
 
 snouts ; but it is remarkable that a peculiar rat recently dis- Soricidce. 
 covered in the Philippines is curiously like a shrew in this 
 respect, although it retains the characteristic rodent incisor teeth, which are, 
 however, reduced to an exceedingly small size. As regards their dentition, 
 shrews are specially characterised by the first pair of upper incisor teeth being 
 long and generally sickle-shaped, with a more or less distinct projecting basal 
 cusp on the hinder border, while those of the lower jaw are long, and projecting 
 forwards, in some cases with an upward curve at the tip. With the excep- 
 tion of one African species, there are only six pairs of lower teeth. A pecu- 
 liarity of the skull of the shrews is the absence of the bony zygomatic arch 
 running beneath the socket of the eye, although the same deficiency is found 
 in one species of hedgehog. The upper molars of the shrews lack the fifth 
 cusp found in the first two of these teeth in the hedgehogs. 
 
 The shrews are not only more numerous in genera and species than any 
 other family of the order to which they belong, but have likewise a much 
 wider geographical distribution, being found over the greater part of Europe. 
 
46 MAMMALIA ORDER III.INSECTIVORA. 
 
 as well as in the temperate and tropical portions of Asia and North America, 
 and also in Africa, although they are represented in Madagascar only by a 
 single species, which is not improbably introduced. Although the majority 
 of the shrews are terrestrial and nocturnal in their habits, a few have taken 
 to an aquatic mode of life. They are all very shy and retiring, which is prob- 
 ably their chief protection ; and their food is entirely composed of insects, 
 worms, molluscs, and such like. Many shrews exhale a strong, musky odour ; 
 and at certain times of the year many of these animals are found lying dead 
 in the open, the cause of this mortality not being at present clearly ascer- 
 tained. Although it may seem a trivial character, the circumstance of the 
 teeth being stained reddish-brown, or simply white, serves to divide the 
 shrews into two groups. 
 
 The typical shrews, or those forming the genus Sorex, belong to the group 
 with reddish teeth, and are specially characterised by having 32 teeth, the ear 
 well-developed, and the long tail covered with hairs of equal or nearly equal 
 length. The range of the genus includes North America, Europe, and Asia 
 north of the Himalaya ; its British representatives being the common shrew 
 (S. arauens) and the lesser shrew (S. pygmceus). Although shrews hibernate, 
 specimens have been occasionally seen running over the snow in mid- winter. 
 The Oriental shrews (Soriculus), which are the only representatives of the 
 red-toothed group in that region, are nearly allied ; but they have generally 
 only 30 teeth, and the first upper incisor has an inner cusp. Nearly allied 
 are two Mexican species constituting the genus Notiosorex, and characterised 
 by having only 28 teeth and no inner cusp to the first upper incisor, the tail 
 being also shorter. A larger American genus is Blarina, which is mainly 
 confined to the northern part of that continent, although a few forms descend 
 into Central America. Here the number of teeth varies from 30 to 32, while 
 the ear is truncated above and the tail short, the other characters being the 
 same as in Soriculus. The water-shrews (Crossopus), which are the last repre- 
 sentatives of the red-toothed section, have 30 teeth, small, non-truncated ears, 
 the long tail fringed on its lower surface with elongated hairs, and the feet 
 also fringed. The single species (C. fodiens) is thoroughly aquatic, and ranges 
 from England to the Altai Mountains. 
 
 Certain shrews from Africa constituting the genus Myosorex are the first 
 representatives of the white-toothed section, and are specially characterised 
 by having well-developed ears, a long tail clothed with nearly or quite equal 
 hairs, and either 30 or 32 teeth, one minute species being unique in having 
 seven pairs of lower teeth. More numerous are the well-known musk-shrews 
 (Crocidura), differing from the last in having 28 or 30 teeth, and the long 
 tail covered with a mixture of long and short hairs. These shrews range from 
 South and Central Europe to Africa and Asia, reaching as far east as Amurland, 
 and being represented by one species in Madagascar. Out of some 80 species 
 one of the best known is the Indian musk-shrew (C. c<xrulea\ commonly 
 known as the musk-rat, of which the odour is so strong that every article of 
 food is rendered uneatable by the mere passage over it of the animal. The 
 Kirghiz shrew (Diplomesodon pulchellus) alone represents a genus differing 
 from the last by the shorter tail, the hairy soles of the feet, and the presence 
 of only 26 teeth. The two mole-shrews (Anurosorex), of which one is from 
 Assam and the other from Tibet and China, are peculiar in being of fossorial 
 habits, and may be distinguished by the absence of the external conch 
 of the ear, the short tail, the naked soles of the scale-covered feet, and the 
 velvety fur. The two remaining genera are aquatic, and thus occupy in this 
 
INSECT-EATING MAMMALS. 47 
 
 section a position similar to that held by the water-shrew in the red-toothed 
 division of the family. Of these, the swimming shrews (Cfiimarroyale) are 
 represented by one species from the Himalaya, the hills north of Burma, and 
 the mountains of North Borneo, and by a second from Japan. They have 
 28 teeth, the long tail with a fringe of elongated hair beneath, small ears, and 
 the toes free. On the other hand, the web-footed shrew (Nectogale elegans) 
 of Tibet, while agreeing with the last in the number of its teeth, differs in the 
 absence of external ear-conches, its webbed toes, and in the development of the 
 pads on the soles of the hind- feet into adhesive suckers, the tail being longer 
 than the body. Probably this shrew is more completely aquatic than any 
 other member of the family. Its eyes are very minute, and the dark velvety 
 fur of the upper parts displays a beautiful iridescent lustre. 
 
 Although the common mole is sufficiently distinct from a shrew, other 
 forms so closely connect the Talpidce with the Soricidce that internal char- 
 acters have to be relied on to distinguish the two families. The 
 present family may, however, be differentiated from the last The Desmans and 
 by the presence of a bony zygomatic arch in the skull, and Moles. Family 
 likewise by the development of a distinct auditory bulla in Talpidce. 
 the same, as well as by the conformation of the teeth. The 
 eyes are always small, and may be covered by the skin ; the short ears are 
 buried in the dense fur ; the fore-limbs are generally modified either for dig- 
 ging or swimming ; there is no median union of the pubic portion of the 
 pelvis on the under surface of the body ; in the lower leg the tibia and 
 fibula are welded into a single bone ; and the first pair of incisor teeth in 
 each jaw are of simple structure, and the lower pair do not project forwards. 
 Thf- range of the family includes the temperate portions of Europe, Asia, and 
 North America, two moles only occurring south of the Himalaya. A few 
 species are cursorial, and the desmans are aquatic, but the majority of the 
 family are fossorial in their habits. 
 
 The two species of desman (Myogale) are the typical representatives of a 
 section of the family in which the collar-bones and humerus or upper arm 
 bone, are moderately elongated, and the front 
 paws have no additional sickle-shaped bone. 
 As a genus, the desmans are specially distin- 
 guished by the possession of 44 teeth, their 
 webbed feet, the long, trunk-like snout, 
 which projects far in advance of the upper lip, 
 and the long scaly tail. The Russian desman 
 (M. Moschata), which measures about 16 
 inches in length, has a compressed tail ; 
 whereas in the much smaller Pyrenean species 
 (M pyrenaica) the tail is cylindrical, and the 
 snout relatively longer Both inhabit the ^.-RUSSIAN DESMAN 
 
 banks of rivers and lakes, are excellent (Myogale moschata). 
 
 swimmers, and live on water-insects and snails. 
 
 The shrew-moles, of which there are two genera, form a connecting link 
 between the moles and shrews. In Urotrichus, of which there is one 
 Japanese and one North American species (the latter being separated by 
 some as Neurotrichus), there are 36 teeth, and the broad fore-paws are adapted 
 for digging ; whereas in the single Tibetan species of Uropsilus there are 
 34 teeth, the fore-paws are narrow, and the tail is naked and scaly. 
 
 The North American web-footed moles (Sccdops) belong to the second 
 
48 MAMMALIA ORDER IILINSECTIVORA. 
 
 division of the family, in which the collar-bones and humerus are very short 
 and wide, and the fore-paws are furnished with an additional sickle-like bone 
 next the thumb. In this genus the tip of the snout is simple, the hind-foot 
 webbed, the tail short and nearly naked, and the first upper incisor tooth 
 longer than the second. Curiously enough, in spite of their webbed hind- 
 feet, these animals are not aquatic, but subterranean in their habits, burrow- 
 ing after the manner of the ordinary mole. The two North American hairy- 
 tailed moles (Scapanus) differ in having 44 teeth, and the tail hairy. Having 
 the same number of teeth as the last, the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) 
 of North America is sufficiently distinguished by the curious star-like ring of 
 appendages surrounding the extremity of the muzzle. The tail is nearly equal 
 in length to the body ; and the front-paws are less powerful than in the true 
 moles, and have no cleft in the bones of their terminal joints. 
 
 From all the American representations of the section the true moles 
 (Taipei) of the Old World may be at once distinguished by the first pair of 
 upper incisor teeth scarcely exceeding the second in size. As a rule, 
 there are 44 teeth, and the fore-paws are characterised by their extra- 
 ordinary width and power ; the tail being very short, and in a Nepalese 
 species (T. micrura) concealed by the fur. With the exception of the 
 common mole (T. enropwa), the eyes are covered by a membrane; and in all 
 they are functionally useless. The appearance and habits of the moles are 
 too well known to need description. The common species, although un- 
 known in Ireland, ranges from England to Japan, and a second European 
 species (T. cceca) is found to the south of the Alps. The other seven species 
 are exclusively Asiatic, two only occurring to the south of the Himalaya, one 
 of which inhabits Nepal and Assam. By some the Tibetan musk-mole 
 (T. moschata) is generically separated as Scaplochirus. The only other member 
 of the family is the yellow-tailed mole (Scaptonyx fuscicaudatus) of Eastern 
 Tibet, which differs from the true moles in having only two pairs of lower 
 incisor teeth, and also in the narrower fore-feet, thus approximating to the 
 shrew-moles. 
 
 Two very remarkable Insectivores, the one from Western Africa, and the 
 other from Madagascar, differ from all the preceding, and agree with the 
 following families in having narrow upper teeth, with their 
 Family Pota- cusps arranged in the form of the letter V ; this section 
 mogalidce. being apparently less specialised than the one in which they 
 form a W. In the skull the zygomatic arch is wanting, and 
 the auditory bulla is represented by a simple ring ; collar-bones are want- 
 ing; and the pubic portion of the pelvis is united inferiorly only by ligament. 
 
 The African Potamogale is a thoroughly 
 aquatic creature, measuring about two 
 feet in length, with 40 teeth, a long 
 cylindrical body, long and compressed 
 tail, short legs, unwebbed feet, and the 
 nostrils with protecting valves. In colour 
 it is dark brown above, with violet re- 
 flexions, and whitish below. Very differ- 
 ent is the small mouse-like Geogale of 
 Madagascar, which has oidy 34 teeth, and 
 Ftg.W.-Potamogalevelox. ^ differg in having fche l ower en ds of 
 
 the tibia and fibula in the leg separate, although it is not known whether 
 collar-bones are present. 
 
INSECT-EATING MAMMALS. 49 
 
 Two curious Insectivores, one inhabiting Cuba and the other Hayti, form 
 the genus Solenodon, which alone represents a family agreeing in the general 
 characters of the teeth and skull with the last, but differing 
 in that there is a short bony union between the pubic por- Family Solen- 
 tion of the pelvis ; and also in that the teats are situated on odontidce. 
 the buttocks. These animals have a very long cylindrical 
 snout, with the nostrils opening on its sides, a long naked tail, feet adapted 
 for walking, and the fur long and coarse. They resemble Potamogale in 
 having the second pair of lower incisor teeth much larger than the first, but 
 are peculiar in that the crowns of the former are deeply excavated. These 
 animals probably feed on flesh as well as on insects. 
 
 The tenrecs of Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, of which there are 
 five genera and a considerable number of species, constitute another closely 
 allied family, mainly distinguished from the last by the teats 
 being situated on the breast and abdomen. The true tenrec The Tenrecs. 
 (Centetes ecaudatu&\ which is the largest member of the Family 
 order and the sole member of its genus, is characterised by Centetidce. 
 the absence of a tail, and the possession of 40 teeth, among 
 which there are four pairs of upper molars the latter feature being almost 
 unique among Mammals other than the Marsupials. The adult males differ 
 from most Insectivores in possessing large 
 tusks in both jaws ; and while the young have 
 long rows of white spines along the back, 
 these disappear in the adult. The total length 
 of a full-grown specimen varies from 12 to 16 
 inches. The number of young produced at a 
 birth is very great, upwards of twenty-one 
 having been recorded in one instance. Nearly _. 
 allied are the two species of streaked tenrecs ,** *-*> (Centetes ecaudate). 
 (Hemicentetes), distinguished by having three in place of two pairs of upper 
 incisor teeth, and probably only three of upper molars, as well as by the 
 smaller dimensions of the canines, which scarcely exceed the incisors in size. 
 In these animals, which may be compared in size to a mole, the rows of 
 spines on the back are permanently retained. The small animals known as 
 hedgehog-tenrecs (Ericulus) take their title from their resemblance to minia- 
 ture hedgehogs, although it is probable that they are incapable of rolling 
 themselves into such a complete ball-like form as are the latter. The whole 
 of the back and sides are protected by a coat of parti-coloured short spines ; 
 and these animals are further distinguished by the possession of a short tail. 
 While in one species (E. setosus) the number of teeth is 36, in the 
 second (E. telfairi) it is reduced to 34. By some the latter is made 
 the type of a distinct genus, under the name of Echinops. The two mouse- 
 like long-tailed tenrecs, forming the genus Microgale, differ from all tho 
 foregoing in the absence of spines in the fur at all ages, and likewise by the 
 extraordinary length of the tail, which in one of the two is double that of 
 the head and body. The number of teeth is 40. Lastly, the two mole- 
 like rice-tenrecs (Oryzorictes), while agreeing with the preceding genus in the 
 absence of spines among the fur, differ by the shortness of the tail and 
 their burrowing habits. Whereas in one species (0. hova) the fore-foot 
 has the usual five toes, in the other (0. tetradactylus) the number is 
 reduced to four, of which the three inner ones are armed with strong 
 digging claws. These animals do much harm to the rice crops in Mada- 
 5 
 
50 MAMMALIA-ORDER IV. CARNIVORA. 
 
 gascar by burrowing beneath the roots of the plants in search of insects 
 and grubs. 
 
 The last family of the Insectivora is represented by the golden or Cape 
 
 moles (Chrysochioris)) which take their name from the iridescent golden, 
 
 green, and purple metallic tints adorning the fur; and all of 
 
 Golden Moles, which are restricted to South and East Africa. From the 
 
 Family preceding families of the present section of the order the 
 
 Chrysocliloridce. golden moles are distinguished by the possession of a bony 
 
 zygomatic arch and auditory bulla in the skull; and their 
 
 triangular molar teeth are remarkable for the height of their crowns. In 
 
 form, these animals are shorter and thicker than ordinary moles, with the 
 
 head deeper, and the muzzle much more blunt. The eyes are covered with 
 
 skin, and the ears completely buried in the 
 fur. The fore-feet are modified into special 
 digging instruments, and have but four 
 toes, of which the middle pair are provided 
 with large and powerful triangular claws. 
 Usually there are 40 teeth, although in 
 some species the number is reduced to 
 
 Fig. 29.-CAPE GOLDEN MOLB 86 > in 3, to **". loss * th ant erjor 
 
 (Chrysochloris). premolars in eacli jaw. I he golden moles 
 
 x burrow in much the same manner as the 
 
 European mole, but their runs are made so little below the surface that the 
 earth is raised as a continuous ridge, and no hillocks are thrown up, Like 
 the common mole, they feed almost exclusively on earth worms. 
 
 ORDER IV. CARNIYORA. 
 
 FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 
 
 THIS great and important order of Mammals includes all the terrestrial beasts 
 of prey, together with the aquatic seals and walruses. Although their car- 
 nivorous propensities form one of the most distinctive features of the 
 majority of the members of the order, ifc must not be assumed that by any 
 means all the Garni vora are exclusively flesh-eaters, many of the bears feeding 
 largely on fruits and roots, while some of the smaller forms subsist largely 
 on insects. Whether the typical Carnivora are more highly organised animals 
 than the Primates, is a matter regarding which different views may be 
 entertained ; but it is certain that for their particular mode of life these 
 animals have attained the highest development of which the Mammalian type 
 is capable, and the beauty of form and coloration of the larger cats, as well 
 as their extreme agility, cannot but draw forth the admiration of all. A 
 striking feature of Carnivora in general is the wide geographical range of 
 families, genera and species, and the large number of specific types by which 
 the former are represented ; the order presenting in this respect a most 
 marked contrast to the Insectivora, in which, as shown above, most of the 
 families and genera have an exceedingly limited distribution, while the 
 number of species contained in a genus is usually very small. The reason 
 of this is obvious. Carnivora are enabled to obtain suitable prey in every 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 51 
 
 part of the globe, and there is, in consequence, practically no limit to tho 
 range over which a species may extend itself ; while being dominant forms, 
 the number of species in a genus has naturally multiplied to a great extent. 
 As might be expected in such a case, the different species of many large 
 genera display a marked tendency to variation, so that there is frequently 
 much difficulty in deciding as to what constitutes a species, and what a mere 
 variety ; this being remarkably exemplified among the great groups of the 
 cats and foxes. 
 
 Although certain extinct forms, of which no further mention will be made 
 in this volume, tend to connect them with the Insectivora, the modern Car- 
 nivora form a tolerably well-defined group, which would, however, be easier 
 of definition were the seals and walruses referred to a separate order. 
 Throughout the group the number of toes is very generally five, and never 
 falls below four on each foot ; and in all cases these toes are armed with 
 claws, which are usually curved and sharp, and bear no resemblance to nails. 
 Neither the equivalent of the thumb or the great toe of the Primates can be 
 in any way opposed to the other digits. Very frequently collar-bones are 
 wanting, and in no instance are they complete ; that is to say, they never 
 connect the blade-bone, or scapula, with the breast-bone, as they do in the 
 Primates and Insectivora (except the Potamogalidce). The teeth, which are 
 divisible into the ordinary four series, are generally well-developed ; the 
 number of incisors being usually three on each side of both jaws, and the 
 outer pair, especially in the upper jaw, is considerably longer than either of 
 the other two. The canines almost invariably form large tusks ; and the 
 more anterior, or the whole of the cheek-teeth have compressed and pointed 
 crowns, frequently consisting of one large central cone, supported by a 
 smaller cusp in front and behind. In the terrestrial Carnivora the last 
 premolar in the upper, and the first molar in the lower jaw, are 
 specially modified to bite against one another with a scissor-like action, 
 and are accordingly spoken of as the carnassial, or sectorial teeth. 
 These teeth attain their maximum specialisation and perfection among 
 the cats : whereas in the bears and some of the raccoon family their 
 sectorial character is much less marked, although it is still noticeable. On 
 the other hand, in the seals and walruses all the cheek-teeth are nearly alike, 
 and are generally cusped and sharp -pointed throughout the series, although 
 blunt in the latter family. The modification of the limbs into flippers affords, 
 however, an easy method of distinguishing the whole of the seal group from 
 other Mammals. As a rule, when the number of cheek-teeth is reduced below 
 the normal, the reduction takes place at the hinder, or molar end of the series, 
 whereas in most other Mammals it is the anterior premolars that tend to 
 disappear. 
 
 In the skull of all Carnivores the lower jaw is articulated by a transversely- 
 extended sub-cylindrical condyle, clasped in front and behind by two over- 
 lapping processes from the skull itself, which are sometimes so prominent as 
 (in the badger) to prevent the dislocation of the lower jaw without fracturing 
 the bone. Very generally, the socket of the eye is freely open behind, al- 
 though in certain cats and the mungooses it is surrounded by a complete bony 
 ring. The zygomatic arch, so frequently absent in the Insectivora, is almost 
 invariably well developed in the present order. A peculiarity in the wrist- 
 joint of all the Carnivora is that the two bones known as the scaphoid and 
 lunar, forming the inner and upper elements of the upper row of this part 
 of the skeleton in other Mammals, are here fused together to form but a 
 
MAMMALIAORDER IV. CARNIVORA. 
 
 single bone. Moreover, the central bone of the wrist, which is present in all 
 the Primates, save man and some of the man-like apes in the Carnivora, is 
 invariably lacking. From the Insectivora the Carnivora are further distin- 
 guished by the numerous convolutions on the surface of the large hemispheres 
 of the brain. 
 
 In common with the three following families of the terrestrial Carnivora, the 
 cats are distinguished from the other members of the order by certain very im- 
 portant structural features connected with the hinder part of 
 The Cat Tribe. the base of the skulL In all these families that chamber of 
 Family Felidcu. the inner ear known as the auditory bulla forms a thin blad- 
 der-like expansion, divided (except in the hyaenas) into two 
 compartments by a vertical bony partition ; while the bony auditory meatus, 
 or tube, leading into this bulla, is remarkable for its shortness. From their 
 allies, existing cats are distinguished by the strong development of the canine 
 teeth, by the molar teeth never exceeding one pair in both the upper and 
 lower jaws, and also by the three pairs of incisors occupying the same trans- 
 verse line, instead of the middle pair being pushed up above the level of the 
 other two. The single upper molar is a flat functionless tooth, with its 
 crown considerably wider than long, and placed on the inner side of the 
 upper carnassial, which consists of three distinct lobes. The lower molar, or 
 carnassial, is a highly specialised tooth, usually consisting solely of a two-lobed 
 cutting blade, although in a few species a small ledge on its hinder surface 
 represents the large heel characterising the same tooth in most other members 
 of the order. There are three upper and two lower premolars ; the last in 
 the upper jaw being the carnassial, and the first small and functionless. The 
 skull, in conformity with the shape of the head, is characterised by the short- 
 ness of its facial portion and the great width of the zygomatic arches. The 
 general form of the cats is too well known to need description ; but it may 
 be mentioned that the fur is generally thick and close, and that its markings 
 usually take the form either of dark transverse stripes, spots, rosettes, or 
 dark-margined cloudings on a lighter ground. As a rule, the tail is long, 
 cylindrical, and tapering ; while it is very frequently marked with dark and 
 light rings. In the extreme elongation of the body, a few cats, like the 
 South American eyra, approximate to the civet-tribe ; but, in most cases, the 
 body is of moderate length, and the limbs by no means remarkably short. All 
 cats have five front and four hind toes, the first front toe being raised- above 
 the others. They walk on the tips of their toes, in the digitigrade manner ; 
 and in the great majority the claws are capable of complete retraction within 
 hollow horny sheaths, by specially arranged muscles, and are thus always kept 
 sharp and fit for use. In the hunting-leopard this, however, is not the case, 
 and thab animal is accordingly referred to a genus apart from the one con- 
 taining the whole of the other species. The tongue cf cats is remarkable 
 for the rough rasping papillae with which its upper surface is coated ; and in the 
 eye the pupil, when contracted, frequently assumes the form of a vertical slit. 
 
 With the exception of New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand, cats have 
 a world- wide distribution, and inhabit all climates and stations, save the ex- 
 treme north. 
 
 The typical cats (Ftlis\ which include about forty-six different species, and 
 have a distribution co-extensive with that of the family, are characterised by 
 the claws being capable of withdrawal into the aforesaid protecting sheaths, 
 and likewise by the presence of a distinct tubercle on the inner side of the 
 upper carnassial tooth. The largest and most powerful members of the genus 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 53 
 
 are the lion (F. Zeo), common to Africa, Persia, and India, although rapidly 
 disappearing from the latter country ; the tiger (F. tigris), ranging from 
 India to China and Siberia, although unknown in Ceylon ; the leopard or 
 panther (F. pardus\ also common to Asia and Africa ; the snow-leopard, or 
 ounce (F. undo) of Central Asia ; the jaguar (F. onca) of South and Central 
 America ; and the puma (F. concolor), which has the widest range in latitude 
 of any animal, extending from the south of Patagonia to the Great Slave 
 Lake. Of these, the lion and puma are uniformly tawny -coloured species, 
 although showing traces of spots in the young state and sometimes in certain 
 lights even in the adult ; the male lion being distinguished from all other 
 members of the genus by the large mane (which may be dark coloured), 
 covering the head, neck, and shoulders, and the tuft at the tip of the tail, 
 in which is a small horny claw of unknown function. The tiger has 
 double transverse black stripes on an orange or tawny ground ; while all 
 the other species named are marked by dark rosettes or rings on a light 
 ground. In both the leopard and jaguar the central portion of the rosette 
 is darker than the general ground colour of the fur ; but whereas in 
 the former the rosettes form simple rings, in the latter there is one or more 
 solid black spots in the centre. On the head and limbs the spots are solid, 
 and the tail is ornamented with rings. In the ounce the fur is much longer 
 than that of the ordinary leopard, and the Siberian variety of the tiger differs 
 in the same manner from Indian examples. Although the lion is a much 
 noisier animal than the tiger, in power, size, and habits, the two are very 
 similar. It would be out of place to enter into any detailed discussion as to the 
 dimensions of either lions or tigers, as this has been fully investigated in 
 other works. In regard to tigers, it may, however, be mentioned, that it is 
 now generally admitted that males do occasionally reach, or even slightly 
 exceed 12 feet in total length, measured along the curves of the body in what 
 is termed sportsman's style ; 
 one shot by Colonel Boileau 
 in 1861 being slightly over 12 
 feet, while General Sir C. 
 Reid's tiger, exhibited in 
 London stuffed in 1862, is 
 recorded to have measured 
 12 feet 2 inches as it lay 
 on the ground. Further in- 
 formation is required as to 
 the maximum weights at- 
 tained by male tigers. Sander- 
 son gives the weight of a 
 well-grown male shot by him- 
 self as 350 pounds; while Fi. 30. -THE LION. 
 Elliot has recorded examples 
 respectively weighing 362 and 380 pounds. The late Captain J. Forsyth has, 
 however, estimated the weights of tigers killed by himself at from 450 to 
 500 pounds, and these large weights have been confirmed of late years by 
 Mr. Hornaday, who, in his work, " Two Years in the Jungle," records a tiger 
 of 9 feet 11 inches in length, which weighed upwards of 495 pounds ; while 
 the Maharajah of Cuch Behar has given weights varying from 540 to 481 
 pounds, and a tiger killed by Mr. F. A. Shillingford, measuring 9 feet 10 
 inches, weighed 528 pounds, One killed by Sir Samuel Baker weighed 437 
 
54 
 
 MAMMALIA-ORDER IV.-CARNIVCRA. 
 
 pounds after losing about a gallon of blood, so that its whole weight was 
 probably about 447 pounds. Of course, much depends upon how fat the 
 animal is at the time of its death. Sir S. Baker estimating that, while a very 
 fine tiger in average condition will weigh some 440 pounds, the same animal, 
 when unusually fat, will scale 500 pounds. If, however, a tiger just under 
 10 feet in length will weigh about 500 pounds, it may be safely assumed that 
 an 11 or 12 feet example in similar condition will considerably exceed this 
 weight, and it is, therefore, probable that the maximum weight attained by 
 the tiger has yet to be recorded. It is accordingly earnestly to be desired 
 that sportsmen will not only measure, but will likewise weigh any unusually 
 large tigers they may have the good fortune to kill. 
 
 Those who have the opportunity of seeing an attack by a tiger on large 
 animals like buffalo or gaur, which he is unable to overthrow, will do good 
 service if they can throw any light on the mode of attack in those instances 
 where the prey is hamstrung. Mr. Blanford considers that in this occasional 
 mode of attack the hamstringing is probably effected by a blow from the 
 claws, and states that he has known two instances where buffaloes were left 
 hamstrung by tigers. This mode of attack being apparently very rare, will 
 of course be seldom seen by European eyes, so that should it come under 
 notice a record will be of extreme value. 
 
 As a rule, however, it is believed that a tiger seizes large animals by the 
 fore -quarters, throwing one paw over the shoulder, and attacking the throat 
 with the jaws ; a sudden upward wrench, during which the destroyer often 
 springs to the opposite side of his victim, serving to dislocate the neck. On 
 the other hand, some writers are of opinion that the tiger first seizes the 
 animal by the back of the neck. Thus Sir S. Baker writes that " the attack 
 of a large tiger is terrific, and the effect may well be imagined of an animal of 
 such vast muscular proportions, weighing between 400 and 500 pounds, spring- 
 ing with great velocity and exerting its momentum at the instant that it 
 seizes a bullock by the neck. It is supposed by the natives that the tiger, 
 
 when well fastened upon the 
 crest, by fixing its teeth in the 
 back of the neck at the firsh 
 onset, continues its spring, s<? 
 as to pass over the animal 
 attacked. This wrenches the 
 neck suddenly round, and as 
 the animal struggles, the dis- 
 location is easily effected ; the 
 tiger then changes the hold 
 to underneath the throat, and 
 drags the body to some con- 
 venient retreat, where the meal 
 may be commenced in security. 
 With very few exceptions, the 
 tiger breaks the neck of every 
 animal it kills." 
 
 Another observer, Mr. Mervyn Smith, who had the good fortune to see two 
 buffaloes killed by a tiger, writes as follows : " The animals, when first seen 
 by me, were about a hundred yards off, and a little to my left front. There 
 was a distance of perhaps ten yards between them. I noticed the farthest 
 buffalo suddenly stumble and fall, as I thought, but it did net rise again ; its 
 
 Fig. 31. THE TIGER. 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 55 
 
 mate looked up and gazed in the direction of its companion, and then turned 
 its head as if to flee, but before it could do so a dark object rose out of the 
 ground, as it were, and seized it by the throat, and flung it on its side. My 
 horse had also caught sight of the dark object, and instinct told him at once 
 what it was, for he galloped like mad, and never stopped till he got to the 
 bungalow. It was fully an hour before I could assemble the villagers and 
 return to the spot, where we found both buffaloes stone dead. In both cases 
 the bite was on the under part o'f the throat, so as to close the windpipe and 
 prevent the animal making any cry. The necks also appeared to have been 
 broken by a sudden wrench of the head to one side, by the tremendously 
 powerful fore-arm of the tiger. There appeared to have been very little 
 struggle, and death must have been almost instantaneous. Now, what I 
 would particularly like to draw attention to, is the stealthy method of attack. 
 There was absolutely no noise no roar, scarcely a rustling of the bushes 
 when the second animal was struck down and very little of the tiger to be 
 seen. Had not my eyes been on the buffaloes at the time, I hardly think I 
 should have been disturbed at all. In fact, I should not have known that the 
 buffaloes had been killed by a tiger within a few yards of me. I scarcely saw 
 the tiger at all only his head, which appeared to rise up out of the ground and 
 seize the second buffalo by the throat." A tiger almost invariably commences 
 his meal on the hind-quarters ; and neither this animal nor the lion are by 
 any means averse to carrion. Both have a very similar roar, although that of 
 the tiger is but rarely uttered ; and both differ from the majority of cats in 
 their inability to climb trees. In common with cats in general, lions and tigers 
 go about either singly, in pairs, or in small family parties, and although a few 
 may, it is said, combine to drive their prey to one another, they never hunt in 
 packs after the manner of dogs. The stealthy manner in which cats stalk, 
 with their body elongated to its utmost extent and almost touching the ground, 
 and the rigid tail occasionally twisting nervously, is well known to all. 
 
 Among the smaller species of the genus, the clouded leopard (F. nebidosa) 
 and the marbled cat ( F. marmorata), of the Oriental countries, may be cited 
 as excellent examples of the clouded type of coloration. The Bornean Bay 
 cat (F. badia) is one of the few uniformly-coloured species ; a second being 
 the South American eyra (F. eyra\ which is more remarkable on account of 
 its elongated and weasel-like form. One of the most variable of all is the 
 Oriental leopard-cat (F.bengalensis). The African serval (F. served) is a long- 
 legged and short-tailed species, in which the dark spots are solid ; while the 
 caffer cat (F. caffra) of the same country is generally regarded as the ancestral 
 stock of the domestic cats of Europe, although there has probably been a 
 considerable amount of crossing with the wild cat (F. catus\ which has led 
 to the prevalence of the tabby type of coloration. In South America the 
 very variable ocelot (F. pardalis) exhibits a modification of the clouded type 
 of coloration, while the tiger-cat (F. tigrina) is more distinctly spotted ; the 
 pampas cat showing a striped pattern. The jungle-cat (F. chaus\ which is 
 common to India and Africa, together with certain allied Asiatic species, 
 forms a transition from the more typical cats to the lynxes, the latter being 
 characterised by the long pencils of hairs terminating the ears and the 
 moderately long or short tail. In the caracal (F. caracal), which is a uniformly- 
 coloured species common to India and Africa, and connecting the jungle-cat 
 with the true lynxes, the tail is of considerable length ; but in the latter 
 group, all the members of which are confined to the Northern Hemisphere, 
 it is very short, and the pellage is always spotted, at least during some 
 
MAMMALIA ORDER IV. CARNIVORA. 
 
 portion of the year. Whether the Canadian lynx (F. canadensis) is distinct 
 from the common lynx (F. lynx) of Europe and Northern Asia is a moot 
 point ; but the Spanish lynx (F. pardina) is a well-marked form. 
 
 The slender-bodied and long-limbed cat, known as the hunting-leopard 
 (Cynwlurus jubatus), is referred to a genus apart from the other members of 
 
 the family on account of the claws be- 
 ing only partially retractile, although 
 their extremities are protected by 
 sheaths ; while a further point of dis- 
 tinction is to be found in the rudi- 
 mental condition of the tubercle on 
 the inner side of the upper carnassial 
 tooth. The hunting-leopard, which 
 is found both in India and Africa, has 
 the fur marked with solid black spots. 
 In habits it differs somewhat from the 
 true cats two individuals hunting 
 together, and making a simultaneous 
 sudden rush when their prey comes 
 within striking distance. These animals are kept for hunting in India. 
 
 The nearest allies of the cats are the great tribe of civets, palm-civets, 
 mungooses, etc., all of which differ from the Felidce in that the auditory 
 bulla of the skull is marked by a transverse external con- 
 striction, indicating the position of the internal bony 
 septum, while the middle pair of lower teeth are raised 
 above the level of the other two, as in all other land Carniv- 
 ora. From the living Felidce the Viverridce are further dis- 
 tinguished by the more numerous series of teeth, the number of premolars 
 varying from three to four on each side of the jaws ; while there are generally 
 two pairs of molars in each jaw, although occasionally these may be reduced 
 to a single pair in the upper, and very rarely also in the lower jaw. The 
 toes, which may be either digitigrade or plantigrade, are generally five in 
 number on each foot, although they may be reduced to four in either the 
 front or hind pair, or even in both. Considerable difference obtains in regard 
 to the retractibility of the claws, and likewise as to the extent to which the 
 sole of the hind-foot is clothed with hair. From ordinary cats civets differ 
 externally in the more elongated form of the body, the longer head and 
 sharper muzzle, and the shorter legs ; although in these respects they are 
 approached by the eyra. In coloration they are generally striped, spotted, 
 or blotched ; some of them having distinct longitudinal stripes, which are 
 never seen in the cats. The family is strictly confined to the Old World, 
 exclusive of Australia and Papua, and attains its maximum development in 
 Africa and the Oriental countries Europe having only a couple of species 
 in its southern districts. Madagascar is the home of several peculiar genera. 
 Upwards of twenty-three distinct generic types are now recognised. 
 
 The most aberrant of all is the fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox) of Madagascar, 
 
 which in the number and structure of its teeth approaches the cats, and is 
 
 regarded by many authorities as entitled to constitute a 
 
 Fossa (Crypto- family by itself. In the form of the auditory bulla of the 
 
 procta). skull this animal is somewhat intermediate between the 
 
 civets and the mungooses ; and each foot has five toes, with 
 
 completely retractile claws. There are four pairs of premolar teeth, of 
 
 - 32. SPANISH LYNX (Fdls pardina). 
 
 Civet Tribe. 
 
 Family 
 Viverridce.. 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 57 
 
 which the first is shed at an early period, and a single pair of molars, 
 which are cat-like in form, the lower one having only a small pos- 
 terior ledge, as in the lynxes, and 
 no inner cusp. The nose and upper 
 lip have a median groove ; and the 
 feet are sub-plantigrade, the tarsus 
 and metatarsus being naked. The fossa 
 measures about five feet in total length, 
 and is nearly uniform sandy brown in 
 colour. 
 
 Together with several allied genera, 
 the true civets (Fwerrtt) are character- 
 ised by the conical form of the auditory 
 bulla of the skull, in which the hinder 
 border is broad, truncated, and nob 
 everted, while in front it is narrow and Fi ^ I^7 FossA (C ryptoproctafvrox). 
 compressed, with the anterior chamber 
 
 small. Usually there are highly odoriferous glands in front of the scrotum ; 
 and the curved claws are generally more or less retractile. In . . 
 form and number the teeth come very close to those of the * 
 dogs, there being always four pairs of premolars in each jaw. The blade of 
 the upper carnassial tooth differs from that of the cats in consisting of only 
 two lobes, and there is a well-developed tubercle on the inner side of the 
 same tooth ; while the lower carnassial is composed of an anterior cutting 
 blade, and a long posterior tuberculated heel. In shape, the upper molars 
 are triangular ; the first of the two being placed behind the carnassial tooth, 
 and not on its inner side. 
 
 From the allied genera the true civets are distinguished by the folioing 
 characters. A vertical groove divides the middle of the upper lip : the rather 
 long tail is ringed dark and light ; the feefc are completely digitigrade, with 
 the tarsus and metatarsus fully haired ; and there are no tufts of hair on the 
 ears. The upper molar teeth are two in number on each side ; a black gorget 
 ornaments the throat ; an elongated crest of erectile hairs usually runs down 
 the back ; and the whole hair is loose and long. The rather short and blunt 
 claws can be only partially retracted ; and the pupil of the eye contracts to 
 a circular form. There are five species of civet, one of which (Viverra civetta) 
 is African, while the other four are Oriental. Four are of nearly equal size, 
 and may be compared in this respect to a large cat ; but the rasse (Viverra 
 malaccensis), which differs somewhat in the structure of the skull from the 
 four others, and is referred by many writers to a distinct genus, under the 
 name of Viverricula, is a much smaller animal. An inhabitant of India, 
 China, and the Malayan countries, it has been introduced into Madagascar. 
 All civets have comparatively short, stout, and rather compressed bodies, 
 with the limbs proportionately longer than in the allied genera. Their 
 coloration takes the form of black or blackish-brown streaks and blotches 
 on a greyish ground. Most of them are non-arboreal ; and all are strong- 
 smelling creatures, one of their secretions being used in perfumery. For the 
 purpose of collecting the perfume, tame civets are kept in cages by the 
 Malays, and their secretion periodically scraped from the pouch with a 
 wooden spoon. Daubenton's civet (Fossa daubentoni) of Madagascar closely 
 resembles the above-mentioned rasse in general characters, but differs from 
 all the species of Viverra in the presence of two small bare spots on the 
 
58 MAMMALIAORDER 1V.CARN1VOKA. 
 
 under surface of the metatarsus and the scent-pouch is apparently wanting. 
 The limbs are slender ; and there is neither a dark line down the back, nor 
 a black gorget on the throat. Nearly allied to the civets are the six species 
 of genets (Genetta), five of which are exclusively African, while the ordinary 
 genet is common to Northern Africa, Southern Em ope, and Syria. From 
 both Viverra and Fossa they may be distinguished by the presence of a bare, 
 longitudinal strip along the lower surface of the metatarsus ; a hairy space 
 dividing this naked strip from the foot-pads. The absence of a scent-pouch 
 forms a further distinction from Viverra, while the presence of a dark stripe 
 down the back constitutes another difference from Fossa. All the genets 
 are comparatively small animals, which live chiefly on the ground, where 
 they prey upon small rodents, birds, and eggs. None have a black gorget 
 on the throat, although there may ba a short crest of erectile hairs down the 
 back. 
 
 The beautifully-coloured Oriental viverroids known as linsangs (Linsangs) 
 have the under surface of the tarsus and metatarsus as fully clothed with 
 hair as in the true civets, but differ in possessing only a single pair of upper 
 molar teeth. All the three sp.cies are very long-bodied and short-limbed 
 animals, with the claws of the five-toed feet almost as retractile as in the cats ; 
 and the fur remarkably short, close, and erect, resembling, in fact, velvet- 
 pile. There are no scent-glands corresponding to those which yield the per- 
 fume in the civets. Upon a white or greyish-white ground-colour the fur 
 is beautifully marked with black or dark brown patches, such patches form, 
 ing either a small number of large, dark areas extending transversely across 
 the body, or being broken up into smaller quadrangle spots. Dark longi- 
 tudinal streaks, some of which may break up into spots, traverse the neck 
 and shoulders, while there are smaller ones on the head ; and tho long 
 cylindrical is marked with alternate dark and light rings of considerable 
 length. When contracted, the pupil of the eye is circular. The skull and 
 teeth are very similar to those of the genets, but the heel of the lower 
 carnassial tooth is relatively smaller. In West Africa the linsangs are re- 
 presented by the closely allied Foiana poensis, distinguished by having a 
 naked strip on the under surface of the metatarsus, as in the genets. Lin- 
 sangs are good climbers, feeding chiefly on small birds. They produce two 
 litters in a year, giving birth to a pair of young at a time. 
 
 The two Malayan species of Hemigale differ from all the preceding mem- 
 bers of the group except Fossa in the absence of distinct rings on the tail, 
 except, at most, near the root ; while they are further distinguished by the 
 front of the auditory bulla of the skull being pointed instead of blunt. The 
 carnassials are also relatively smaller and of a less trenchant type, A dis- 
 tinctive feature of the genus is the concentration of the pads of the hind-foot 
 to form a naked space on the metatarsus, ending in a sharp point behind ; 
 the tarsus being fully haired. The hair on the back of the neck is peculiar 
 in being directed forwards ; and when there are any dark markings on tho 
 back they take the form of uninterrupted transverse bands. The claws on 
 the five-toed feet are strongly curved ; and the nose and upper lip, as in ail 
 the preceding genera, are grooved. Numerically, the teeth are the same as 
 in Viverra. Hardwicke's hemigale (H. hardwickei), from the Malay Peninsula, 
 Sumatra, and Borneo, measures about 15 inches to the root of the tail, and has 
 dark transverse bands on the back ; whereas H. hosei, from the mountains of 
 North Borneo, is uniformly dusky. 
 
 Tht palm QITGCS form three nearly allied genera, one of which is African, 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 
 
 59 
 
 Fig. 24. PALM-CIVET 
 (Paradoxurus). 
 
 while the other two are Oriental. The two species of African palm-civets 
 (Naudinia), one of which is from the west, and the other from the east side 
 of the continent, agree with Hemigale in the form of the naked area on the 
 metatarsus, but differ in the incomplete ossification of the auditory bulla of 
 the skull. Otherwise the genus is very similar to the true palm-civets, the 
 marking taking the form of spots, and the tail being ringed. The two species 
 of small-toothed palm-civets (Arctogale\ from Burma and the Malayan 
 countries, differ from the preceding genus in the uniformly-coloured tail ; 
 and are further distinguished by the relatively small size of the teeth, the 
 narrow palate, which is produced far behind the last rnolar, and the ossifica- 
 tion of the bulla of the skull. The dark markings take the form of longi- 
 tudinal rows of stripes or spots on the back. Represented by ten species, the 
 true palm-civets (Paradoxurus) range 
 throughout the Oriental countries from 
 India to the Philippines and Celebes, 
 and are distinguished from the last by 
 their larger teeth, the less prolonga- 
 tion of the palate backwards, and the 
 presence of a naked glandular area in 
 front of the scrotum of the males, and 
 in a similar position in the females. 
 Like Arctogale, they have the whole of 
 the metatarsus and a considerable por- 
 tion of the tarsus bare, tho hair ex- 
 tending in an evenly curved line across 
 the hinder part of the heel. The claws 
 of the five-toed feet are as curved and 
 retractile as in the genets ; the tail is long and generally not ringed ; the 
 markings are usually in the form of elongated streaks, although more rarely 
 spots, but some species are uniformly coloured ; and the pupil of the eye 
 contracts to a vertical slit. The teeth are numerically the same as in Viverra, 
 but the carnassials relatively shorter and less trenchant. In size these 
 animals may be compared to an ordinary cat. Palm-civets are essentially 
 
 nocturnal and arboreal creatures, feed- 
 ing upon small birds, mammals, eggs, 
 and lizards , and frequently taking up 
 their abode among the leaves of palm- 
 trees, From their habit of drinking 
 the palm- juice, or toddy, from the vessels 
 suspended from the trees for its recep- 
 tion, they are termed toddy-cats. 
 
 From all other members of the family, 
 the binturong (J.rcfo'c is binturong), rang- 
 ing from the Eastern Himalaya to the 
 Malayan countries and Siam, differs 
 by its prehensile tail and tufted ears, 
 as well as by the tarsus and meta- 
 tarsus of the plantigrade hind-feet being completely naked. The ears are 
 short, the short claws only partially retractile, the hair very long, coarse, and 
 loose, and the long tail very bushy ; the general colour being black. The 
 binturong, which may be compared in size to a cat, is a thoroughly nocturnal 
 and arboreal creature. 
 
 Fig. 35. THE BINTUKONG 
 (Arctictis binturong). 
 
60 MAMMALIA ORDER 1V.CARN1VORA. 
 
 The last member of the sub-family is the peculiar Bennett's civet (Cynogale 
 bennetti) from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, which is a grizzled 
 grey animal, readily distinguished from all the foregoing by the absence of a 
 groove on the nose and upper lip, the short tail, the partially webbed feet, 
 and by the under surface of the metatarsus and tarsus being somewhat 
 less naked, In size it may be compared to the larger civets, the length of 
 the head and body being about 32 inches. Its habits are believed to be 
 partially aquatic. 
 
 With the exception of the fossa, which forms a sub-family by itself, the 
 whole of the foregoing members of the family constitute the sub-family 
 FttJcrritME, characterised by the features noticed above. 
 The Mungoose The mungooses, or ichneumons, are the first representatives 
 Group. of a second sub-family (Herpestince) presenting the following 
 
 distinctive characters. The auditory bulla of the skull is 
 pear-shaped, and its hinder margin distinctly everted, with the so-called 
 paroccipital process not projecting beyond, but spread over it, and in the 
 adiilt becoming merged in its hinder surface. The claws are long and non- 
 retractile ; and there are no glands in front of the scrotum. As a genus, the 
 mungooses may be distinguished from their allies by the presence of five 
 toes to each foot, a vertical groove on the nose, and usually four pairs of 
 premolar teeth ; the molars being, as usual, two in each jaw. The muzzle is 
 sharply pointed, the body long and weasel-like, the legs very short, the ears 
 short and rounded ; and the tail generally long and tapering, with loose, 
 elongated hair. The feet are plantigrade ; but there is much variation in 
 the extent of the bare portion of the soles of the hind ones ; in some species 
 this area extending back to the heel, while in others the lower surface of the 
 tarsus is hairy. The coarse and lofcse fur has a peculiar speckled appearance, 
 owing to the nresence of dark and light rings on the hairs, and the tail is 
 never ringed. The sharp cusps of the cheek-teeth are in marked contrast to 
 the bluntly-cusped ones of the palm-civets ; and the skull is remarkable for 
 a sharp constriction behind the sockets of the eyes, and likewise for the cir- 
 cumstance that the latter generally have a complete bony ring. Mungooses 
 range over Africa and the Oriental countries as far as the Philippines, the 
 Egyptian species (H. ichneumon) entering Southern Europe. All these 
 animals are terrestrial, and very active in their habits, generally living in 
 holes. They are deadly enemies to rats and other Rodents, as they are to 
 snakes. The most venomous serpents are attacked without hesitation, the 
 immunity of the mungoose from harm in such encounters being apparently 
 due to its extreme activity and watchfulness. From the majority of species 
 of Herpestes, the Africa'i small mungoose (Helogale parva) differs in 
 having only three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw ; the first of these 
 being approximated to the canine, and thus distinguishing the genus 
 from the few species of Herpeses with a similar number of teeth, in all of 
 which there is a gap between the canine arid the first tooth of the premolar 
 series. 
 
 Africa is the home of several peculiar generic types of mungooses. First, 
 there are the three species of four-toed mungooses (Bdeoyale), distinguished 
 by having but four toes to each foot ; the soles of the hirid-f eet being hairy. 
 The South African pencilled mungoose (Cynictis penicillata) is the sole 
 member of another genus with five front and four hind toes ; but more easily 
 defined by the presence of a hole in the centre of the peculiarly-shaped 
 auditory bulla of the skull, the soles of the hind-feet being hairy. A third 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 6l 
 
 genus is represented by the large red Heller's mungoose (Rhynchogale 
 melleri)), easily distinguished from all the preceding members of the sub- 
 family by the absence of a vertical groove on the nose and upper lip. Each 
 foot is furnished with five toes, there are four pairs of premolar teeth in each 
 jaw, and the under surface of the tarsus and metatarsus is hairy. The fourth 
 African genus (Crossarchus) contains the five species of cusimanses, which 
 while resembling the last in the absence of a groove on the muzzle, differ by 
 having only three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, the flat bony palate of 
 the skull, and the naked soles of the hinder portion of the hind-feet. 
 Several of the species, such as C. 
 fasciatus, have a number of dark trans- 
 verse bands across the back. Lastly, 
 the pretty little meerkat (Suricata 
 tetradactyla) of South Africa differs 
 from all the other smooth-nosed mun- 
 gooses in having only four toes to each 
 foot, and is further characterised by 
 possessing three pairs of upper, and 
 four of lower premolars, as well as by 
 the naked under surface of the whole 
 of the tarsus and metatarsus. The 
 muzzle is sharp, the front claws are 
 
 very long, and the profile of the face is *-^ D > MOTOQM 
 
 convex. Ihe general colour of the fur (Crossarchus fasciatus). 
 
 is light grizzled grey, with black bands 
 
 across the hinder part of the back, and a black ring round each eye. 
 Meerkats measure from 14 to 15 inches to the root of the tail ; and are viva- 
 cious little animals, living in holes in colonies, and coming out to air them- 
 selves in the sun, when they survey passers-by with a peculiarly inquisi- 
 tive expression. 
 
 The Island of Madagascar is inhabited by four peculiar genera of mun- 
 gooses, three of which are more or less closely related to the Herpestitue, 
 while the fourth certainly forms a sub-family by itself. From 
 all other members of the Viverridce, the two species of Madagascar 
 striped mungoose are distinguished by the numerous con- Mungooses. 
 tinuous dark stripes running down the whole length of the 
 back and sides. They have but three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, the 
 first of which is placed close to the canine ; and the canines themselves are 
 of large size. The five-toed feet have longer claws than in the typical mun- 
 gooses ; the muzzle is grooved inferiorly; the tail is covered with elongated 
 hairs; and the under surface of the tarsus is bare. From the last, the elegant 
 mungoose (Galidia eleyans) may be distinguished by the smaller size of the 
 lower canine teeth, the presence of short sparse hairs oh the lower surface 
 of the tarsus and metatarsus, the uniform coloration of tlie body, and the 
 ringed tail. The two species of brown-tailed mungoose (Hemigalidia) differ 
 from the preceding by the presence of four pairs of premolars in each jaw, 
 the larger size of the second upper molar, the uniformly-coloured tail, the 
 more pointed form of the muzzle, and the smaller degree of curvature of the 
 claws. 
 
 Finally, there is the small-toothed mungoose (Eupleres goudoti), distin- 
 guished from all other mungooses by the non-eversion of the hinder border 
 of the auditory bulla of the skull, and from the rest of the family by its very 
 
62 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER IV.CARN1VORA. 
 
 The Aard-Wolf. 
 Family 
 
 Proteleidce. 
 
 remarkable dentition. The canines are minute, and like the first three 
 premolars, whicl are widely separated from one another, and the molars 
 are but little different from the premolars. Indeed, the whole dentition 
 is strikingly like that of an Insectivore, and there can be little doubt 
 that this highly modified mungoose subsists entirely or chiefly on 
 insects. 
 
 A peculiar hysena-like animal from Africa, known to the Dutch as the aard- 
 wolf, and scientifically as Proteles cristatus, is regarded as representing a 
 family by itself, distinguished by having the auditory bulla 
 of the skull divided by a septum into two chambers, and by 
 the small and degraded characters of the cheek-teeth, among 
 which there is but a single pair of molars in each jaw. In 
 the fore-feet there are five toes, but in the hinder pair the 
 number is redu?ed to four ; their claws being strong, blunt, and non- 
 retractile. In appearance, the aard- 
 wolf is curiously like a small striped 
 hysena, with a more pointed muzzle, 
 longer ears, and a thick mane of elon- 
 gated erectile hair along the neck and 
 back. Common in South Africa, this 
 animal has also been recorded from 
 Angola and Somaliland. It feeds on 
 carrion, grubs, and white ants. 
 
 From the two preceding families the 
 hyaenas, of which all the three existing 
 species may be included in the single 
 genus Hycena, differ by the absence of 
 any internal partition in the auditoiy bulla of the skull. In the living 
 species there is only one pair of molar teeth in each jaw, 
 the upper one being small, and placed on the inner side of the 
 carnassial. The latter tooth resembles the upper carnassial 
 of the cats in having three distinct lobes to the blade ; and 
 the lower carnassial has a bi-lobed blade and a very small 
 All the teeth are very strong and powerful ; the anterior 
 premolars being in the form of blunt cones ; and the skull, in which the 
 sockets of the eyes are freely open behind, is remarkable for the great height 
 of the crest on the middle of the upper part. The limbs are somewhat 
 elongated, especially the front pair ; the tail is relatively short ; and the fur 
 is loose and long. 
 
 In appearance, hysenas are the most ungainly of all Carnivora, and thereby 
 present a marked contrast to the cats. They are nocturnal, gregarious, and 
 cowardly, feeding chiefly on carrion and carcases ; and being generally 
 unable or indisposed to kill the larger animals for themselves, feast on the 
 remnants of carcases left by lions and tigers. For cracking the bones of such 
 derelicts their powerful teeth and strong jaw-muscles are most admirably 
 adapted. 
 
 .The striped hynana (H. striata) of India, South-West Asia, and North and 
 East Africa, is easily recognised by its transversely striped pellage, long fur, 
 which forms a mane on the shoulders and back, and large pointed ears. The 
 teeth are characterised by the relatively large size of the upper molar and 
 by the lower carnassial having a heel of considerable size, and a cusp on 
 the inner side of the blade. The brown hysena (H. brunnea) of South 
 
 Fig. 37. AARD-WOLF (Proves cristatus). 
 
 The Hyaenas. 
 
 Family 
 Hycenidce. 
 
 posterior heel. 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 63 
 
 Africa, although nearly allied, has some points of resemblance to the third 
 species. The largest and most powerful of all is the spotted hysena 
 (H. crocuta), now confined to South 
 Africa, and characterised by the spot- 
 ted coloration of the body, smaller 
 proportionate length of the fore- 
 limbs, large head, with moderate- 
 sized and rounded ears, the pre- 
 sence of a mane on the neck and 
 back, and the smoother and shorter 
 tail. The last upper molar tooth is 
 very small, or even wanting, and 
 the lower carnassial has no inner 
 cusp and a very small poste- * 
 
 rior heel, thus closely approach- F fo ^.-SPOTTED 
 
 ing the corresponding tooth of the (Hycena crocuta). 
 
 cats. 
 
 As regards the auditory bulla and adjacent regions of the skull, the Dog Tribe 
 are in many respects intermediate between the preceding group of families and 
 those which follow. The bulla itself is inflated and bladder- 
 like, but has no internal partition; and the paroccipital The Dog Tribe. 
 
 process, although in contact with the bulla, is prominent, Family Canidce. 
 and not applied to it, as it is in the cats and civets. Another 
 distinctive feature of the group is the presence of a long and coiled coecum, 
 or blind appendage, at the junction of the large and small intestine ; that 
 appendage being either very small or absent in the preceding families. The 
 crowns of the upper molar teeth are triangular in shape ; and these teeth, 
 which are nearly always two in number, are situated behind the carnassial. 
 The latter tooth, as in the civets, has two lobes to the blade ; and the lower 
 carnassial generally has a large tubercular heel behind the blade, and a well- 
 developed cusp on its inner side. In most cases there are three lower molars 
 (of which the carnassial is the first), whereas in the civets there are never 
 more than two of these teeth ; and there are always four pairs of premolar teeth 
 in each jaw. Dogs, under which title may be included wolves, jackals, and 
 foxes, have a cosmopolitan distribution, and differ markedly in their habits 
 from the cats. Although a few will run up the stems of sloping trees, none are 
 climbers ; and many consort in packs to hunt their prey by scent. Many form 
 burrows in the ground ; and while they are more or less carnivorous, some 
 will supplement a flesh diet with fruits, insects, or garbage. All walk on the 
 tips of their toes, and are thus digitigrade ; and the claws are short, blunt, 
 slightly curved, and non-retractile. 
 
 By far the great majority of the members of the family may be included in 
 the genus Cants, which has a geographical distribution equal in extent to that 
 of the former. It is characterised by the general presence of 
 42 teeth, and there are five front and four hind toes. The Typical Genus. 
 tail is of moderate length or long, and generally more or 
 less bushy ; and the pupil of the eye may contract either to a vertical 
 slit or a circle. The general form is too well known to require descrip- 
 tion. The genus may be divided, from the characters of the skull, into two 
 primary series, the first typified by the wolves, and the second by the foxes. 
 
 This series includes the wolves, jackals, and wild dogs, together with the 
 domesticated breeds, and is best characterised by the circumstance that 
 
64 MAMMALIA ORDER IV.CARNIVORA. 
 
 the postorbital process of the frontal bone, that is to say the one forming 
 the hinder boundary of the socket of the eye, has its superior surface 
 smooth and convex, and its free extremity bent downwards. 
 Wolf-like Series. In this group the wolves are the largest wild representa- 
 tives ; the common wolf (G. lupus) ranging over the northern 
 portions of both the Old and New Worlds. There are no wolves either in 
 Africa or South America, although it is curious that the so-called Antarctic 
 wolf (C. antarcticus) of the Falkland Islands appears to belong to the group. 
 In Asia there are several wolves, although none are found in the countries to 
 the east and south-cast of the Bay of Bengal, and there is some difference of 
 opinion as to their relationship to the common wolf. With regard to the 
 
 wolf inhabitingthe plains of India, 
 most persons not specially versed 
 in the mysteries of zoology would 
 probably be unable to distinguish 
 it from its European cousin, un- 
 less specimens were placed side 
 by side, and even then would find 
 some difficulty. It appears, how- 
 ever, that there are certain differ- 
 ences in the habits of the two 
 animals, which suggest the pro- 
 bability of their specific distinct- 
 ness from one another. For in- 
 stance, the Indian wolf is re- 
 markable for its silence, only very 
 Fig. 39. -COMMON WOLF. rarely, if ever, uttering the well- 
 
 known howl of the common 
 
 species ; although it is stated that it will occasionally bark, after the manner 
 of a pariah dog. Then, again, Indian wolves, although sometimes found in 
 small family parties of half-a-dozen or so, are never known to collect in the 
 enormous packs which make the European species so dreaded in winter. It 
 is probable that these differences in habits would net by themselves alone be 
 regarded as sufficient to establish the right of the Indian wolf to rank as a 
 distinct species. When, however, it is found that there are in addition 
 certain points by which the two animals can be distinguished from one 
 another, these differences in habits become of importance in adding to 
 their distinctness. The Indian wolf is, indeed, a somewhat smaller and 
 slighter animal than the European species, the average difference in the 
 length of the two animals being about six inches. Then, also, the hair 
 is rather shorter, and there is little or no under-fur ; while the colour is 
 generally rather more inclined to brown than in the common wolf. The 
 absence of under-fur in the Indian wolf might, we think, be well explained 
 by the hotter climate in which it dwells ; but, in spite of this, naturalists 
 are probably right in regarding it as a distinct species, under the name of 
 Canis pallipes. 
 
 The Indian wolf does not range into the Himalaya, neither is it found to 
 the westward of the Indus, or in Ceylon. That island seems, indeed, to 
 enjoy a happy immunity from the presence of several of the larger Indian 
 Carnivora, as it has neither wolves, wild dogs, hyaenas nor tigers. In the case- 
 of the tiger it has been attempted to account for this absence by the sugges- 
 tion that this animal is but a comparatively recent immigrant into India from 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 
 
 Fig. 40. INDIAN WOLF (Cam's pallives). 
 
 the north, and had not reached that country at the time Ceylon was united 
 with the mainland. If this were so, it would seem, however, that the same 
 explanation ought to hold good for hyaenas and wolves ; but as both the 
 latter are known to have been well represented in India in the later 
 geological epochs, some other reason must apparently be sought, at least, in 
 their cases. 
 
 It is difficult to leave the Indian wolf without referring to the subject of 
 v.-olf-nurtured children. Many of the stories relating to these have been 
 brought together by Professor V. 
 Ball, in his "Jungle Life in India," 
 where it is related that in all the 
 recorded instances the children 
 were boys, and that the greater 
 number of cases have occurred in 
 Oude. Many persons refuse to 
 attach any credence to such 
 stories, but Mr. Ball strongly 
 urges a suspension of judgment 
 until further evidence be attained. 
 If such stories be really based on 
 fact, we can only look to Euro- 
 peans who are stationed or travel- 
 ling in the wilder parts of India 
 to bring to light decisive evidence 
 in support of any new cases that 
 may occur. 
 
 It has been already mentioned that the Indian wolf does not extend west- 
 ward of the Indus ; and in Sind, Baluchistan, and Gilgit its place is taken by 
 the European wolf, which not improbably may also range into the northern part 
 of the Punjab. Large wolves, distinguished by their long soft hair and pale 
 colour, are common on the farther side of the snowy range in Ladak and 
 Tibet, where they are known to the natives by the name of Changu. These 
 Tibetan wolves have been generally regarded as a distinct species, described 
 as Canis laniger or chanco, and considered to be more nearly allied to the 
 Indian than to the European wolf. It seems, however, that this view is in- 
 correct, and that the Tibetan wolf is nothing more than a pale-coloured and 
 woolly-haired variety of the common wolf. Occasionally long-haired black 
 wolves are met with in Tibet, which have been regarded as indicating yet 
 another species (C. niger). There is, however, no doubt but that these are 
 merely varieties of the ordinary Tibetan wolf, similar to the dark variety of 
 the short-haired wolf of Europe. It is to a considerable extent for the pur- 
 poses of protecting their flocks against the ravages of wolves that Tibetan 
 villages and encampments are guarded by the huge mastiffs, which not un- 
 frequently make themselves so extremely unpleasant to the European visitor. 
 
 The following interesting account of the habits of wolves in Norway, where 
 these animals are still abundant, is given by a writer in the Asian newspaper 
 of August 19th, 1893 : 
 
 " The pairing-season occurs in February, and in nine weeks the female 
 brings forth her young. When the time of birth approaches, the mother 
 retires to the most remote and unfrequented parts of the forest, where in 
 some cleft or cave in the rocks, surrounded by close undergrowth, she con- 
 ceals her offspring. These remain blind for ten or eleven days, and for six 
 
66 MAMMALIA ORDER 1V.CARN1VORA. 
 
 or eight weeks are nourished by the mother, but when only a month old they 
 leave the den for short distances, and play about with one another like 
 puppies. The she-wolf is a good mother, and as long as her young are small 
 she never goes any great distance from them, and they remain with her till 
 the pairing- season comes round again, when they themselves are capable of 
 procreation. At first they are dark coloured, the end of the tail being black, 
 but after they have got to be about a couple of feet in length they are of a 
 yellowish-grey, of a darker shape on the back, and have a black muzzle. 
 
 "During the summer months wolves are partial to extensive woodland 
 solitudes, especially those interspersed with mossy tarns and streams. In 
 winter, on the other hand, especially during severe cold and rough weather, 
 they tend towards the more inhabited and open districts. Wolves always 
 make their excursions at night, and between sunset and sunrise they 
 frequently cover great distances ; while during the day they rest in close 
 covert. When pressed by hunger, in extreme cold, when they leave or are 
 returning to their young, or when they have been deprived of these, they 
 send forth long-drawn and melancholy howls. In woods, arid generally speak- 
 ing, in narrow surroundings, wolves are cowardly and cunning ; while on ex- 
 tensive plains or tracts of ice, where they can see about them, they are much 
 more courageous, especially when in company ; but even under such circum- 
 stances they rarely assume the offensive towards man. In districts frequented 
 by these animals they have certain paths which they almost invariably follow, 
 and so closely do they keep in one another's tracks it is difficult to say that 
 more than one has passed. In going to and from the place where the young 
 are concealed they invariably follow the same route, and so a regular beaten 
 track is formed. Only when in droves will they attack the larger animals, 
 such as the elk; at first they steal as near their victim as possible, and 
 endeavour to seize it by making long bounds ; failing in this, they set 
 about running it down, two or three following the hunted beast closely, the 
 rest trying to cut it off, or by lying in wait and springing at its throat. If 
 captured when quite young, wolves remain comparatively tame for some time, 
 but their savage nature generally breaks out ere long, and they cannot be 
 depended on." 
 
 Of other species, the North American coyote (C. lairans] is a smaller form, 
 with very long hair, which appears to connect the true wolves with the 
 jackals. The latter animals are really nothing more than small wolves, and 
 usually have the bushy tail equal to about one-third the length of the head 
 and body. The common jackal (C. aureus) extends from Burma and India 
 through South -Western Asia to South-Eastern Europe and North Africa ; 
 but is replaced in Africa south of the Sahara by several allied forms, such as 
 the side-striped jackal (C. adustits) and the handsome black-backed jackal 
 (C. inesomelas). The dingo (C. dingo) of Australia is generally reckoned as a 
 domesticated species, but there is considerable evidence that it existed in 
 Australia previous to the advent of men. 
 
 Most sportsmen who have shot in India, whether in the plains or in the 
 hills, are probably more or less familiar with those animals commonly known 
 as wild dogs. Although they are not often seen actually hunting their prey, 
 yet they may not unfrequently be met with when shooting in or near forests ; 
 while in the hills the frightened and disturbed condition of ibex and other 
 large game will often indicate their presence in a district where it would 
 otherwise be unsuspected. Like many of the colloquial names applied to 
 animals, the term wild dogs by which these creatures are generally known is 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 67 
 
 an exceedingly inappropriate one, because it is just this particular group of 
 dog-like animals which differs more from ordinary dogs than do most others 
 of the larger Canidie. It would indeed be far better if wolves and jackals 
 were spoken of as "wild clogs," since it is those members of the family 
 which come closest to our domestic dogs, of some of which they are probably 
 the parent stock. In such cases, however, it is utterly hopeless for the 
 naturalist to attempt to fight against popular usage, and we must accordingly 
 be content to accept the ordinary names for the animals under consideration. 
 
 All who have ever seen an Indian wild dog, whether in the flesh or stuffed, 
 will not be likely to mistake it for any other member of the canine family. 
 In size it is somewhat larger than a jackal of average dimensions, and is 
 characterised by the generally ruddy colour of the hair, and especially by the 
 black tip of the moderately long and bushy tail. Moreover, the muzzle 
 and legs are relatively rather short in comparison with the size of the head 
 and body ; while the profile of the face differs from that of other canine 
 animals by being slightly convex instead of concave or straight. 
 
 The reader may ask whether such characteristics as the above offer any 
 justification for the objection to the term wild dog as applied to these ani- 
 mals; and if it were these alone on which naturalists rely, he would be 
 perfectly justified in so doing. To obtain, however, any true ideas as to the 
 relationships of an animal, we are compelled not only to study its colour and 
 proportions, but likewise to take into consideration its skeleton and other 
 parts of its organisation. Now, if we take the skull of a wild dog and com- 
 pare the number of teeth in the lower jaw with those of a wolf, jackal, or 
 fox, we shall find an important point of difference. In the lower jaws of all 
 the three animals last mentioned, and also in those of domestic dogs, we 
 shall find that there are 11 teeth on each side ; the eleventh being the 
 smallest of all those situated behind the tusk. If, on the other hand, we 
 examine the lower jaw of any wild dog, we shall find that the small eleventh 
 tooth is wanting, so that there are only 10 lower teeth. A wild dog has, 
 indeed, only 10 teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, where- 
 as in dogs, wolves, jackals, and foxes there are 10 upper and 11 lower 
 teeth. We have here, therefore, an easily recognised point of distinction 
 between a wild dog and most other members of the family. There are, how- 
 ever, two African and one South American representatives of the family, 
 which, while differing from the ordinary type as regards the number of their 
 teeth,- have no intimate connection with the wild dogs. A difference of one 
 tooth more or less in the lower jaws of different members of the family may 
 not appear a very important one and to a certain extent it is not so. But 
 it at any rate serves to show that wild dogs cannot possibly be the parents of 
 any of our domestic breeds of dogs, since it is a well ascertained fact that 
 when once a tooth has been lost in any group of animals it never reappears 
 (unless it may be as an occasional abnormality) in their descendants. An- 
 other point of distinction between wild dogs and other members of the family 
 is that there are either 12 or 14 teats in place of the usual 10. 
 
 Relying on the two points of difference last noticed, many naturalists have 
 considered that wild dogs ought not to be included in the same genus as 
 wolves and jackals, and the former have accordingly been described under a 
 separate generic title, as Cuon, or more correctly Cyon, from the Greek name 
 for a dog. Such a distinction appears, however, unnecessary, and it is pre- 
 ferable to include wolves, jackals, foxes, and wild dogs under the common 
 title of Caw's. 
 
63 MAMMALIA ORDER 1V.CARNIVORA. 
 
 As regards their distribution, wild dogs are found in India, Burma, Siam, 
 and the Malayan Peninsula and islands ; while in Central Asia they 
 extend as far northwards as the Altai Mountains, which divide Mongolia from 
 Siberia, and as far westwards as Amurland, and the Isle of Saghalien in the 
 Sea of Okhotsk. It is, however, somewhat curious that, so far as our informa- 
 tion goes, these animals are quite unknown both in Northern China and 
 Japan. Wild dogs are, therefore, at the present day exclusively confined to 
 Asia, where they do not appear to extend eastwards of the longitude of the 
 Ural Mountains. This distribution wijl, however, only hold good for the 
 present epoch, since there have been found in the caves of various parts of 
 Europe lower jaws of canine animals agreeing with those of living 'wild dogs 
 in having 10 instead of 11 teeth ; and we shall, therefore, "DC justified in 
 considering at or about the time when the mammoth flourished that wild dogs 
 hunted over Europe as they do at the present day in Asia. The circum- 
 stances of the occurrence at a former epoch in Europe of a group of animals, 
 now confined to Asia is by no means an isolated one, since there is evidence 
 that at stiil earlier periods of the earth's history deer, like the muntjac and 
 spotted deer of India, and long-snouted crocodiles akin to the garials of the 
 Ganges and Borneo, flourished in various parts of Europe. All these facts 
 in distribution seem, indeed, to point to the conclusion that Asia has served 
 as a kind of refuge for groups of animals which, for some reason or another, 
 were unaole to exist any longer in Europe. 
 
 Naturalists have long been exercised as to whether the wild dog of the 
 Himalaya was identical with that of the plains of India, and also whether one 
 or both of these could be distinguished from the wild dog of Burma and the 
 Malayan islands. In many works the wild dog of India and the Himalaya 
 will be found alluded to by the name of Cyon rutilans a name properly be- 
 longing to the Malayan form. These writers probably derived their informa- 
 tion from the late Dr. Jerdon, who in his " Indian Mammals" included the 
 Malayan, Indian, and Himalayan forms under this single name. Colonel 
 Sykes had, however, long before separated the Indian wild dog under the 
 name of C. dukhunensis, while for the Himalayan form Hodgson proposed the 
 name of C. primawis. Mr. Blanford, who states that he can find no difference 
 between the wild dog of the Himalaya and that of the plains of India, con- 
 siders that these are probably distinct from the kind found in Burma and 
 the Malayan region. The difference between the two is, however, very slight ; 
 but the Himalayan and Indian species (C. deccanensis) is a rather larger and 
 stouter animal, with longer hair, and a woolly under-fur, and the general 
 colour varying from a ferruginous red to tawny ; while the Burmese and 
 Malayan species (C. rutilans) is smaller and slighter, with shorter hair, no under- 
 fur, and a brighter colour. The Indian species extends to the north-west as 
 far as Gilgit and Hunza, from whence it ranges eastwards through Ladak into 
 Tibet. Curiously enough, it is found that this wild dog is quite distinct 
 from the species inhabiting the Altai (C. alpinus) which has much larger 
 upper molar teeth. This, as Mr. Blanford well observes, is a most remark- 
 able feature in distribution, for whereas most of the animals of the Himalaya, 
 like the ibex and the great Tibetan sheep, are either identical with or closely 
 related to those of the Altai and adjacent regions, here we have a case where 
 the Himalayan form is identical with one inhabiting the plains of India, and 
 perfectly distinct from the one found in the Altai. This may, however, be 
 explained by the greater facility with which the Carnivora can adapt them- 
 selves to different surroundings, owing to the circumstance that wherever 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 69 
 
 they go they are sure to meet with herbivorous animals, on which they can 
 prey. Herbivorous animals, on the other hand, are generally more or less 
 completely dependent on one or more particular kinds of plants for susten- 
 ance, and are consequently unable to exist in regions where such plants do 
 not grow. 
 
 In the same series with the wolves and jackals are included a number of 
 South American species, commonly spoken of as foxes, which they much 
 resemble in external aspect, although having wolf -like skulls. Among these 
 are Azara's dog (C. azarce) and the crab-eating dog (C. cancrivorus). A much 
 larger South American form is the so-called maned wolf (C. jubatus) a large 
 reddish-coloured animal. The so-called raccoon-dog (C. procyonides), which 
 has been generically separated as Nyctereutes, is distinguished by its long loose 
 fur, short ears, and abbreviated bushy tail, its general colour being dusky. 
 
 Probably every Englishman thinks he knows a fox when he sees it ; and it 
 is not unlikely that he would be disposed to resent the suggestion that he 
 could not distinguish between foxes and certain other 
 members of the canine family, or that there could be any Fox-like Series, 
 hesitation in deciding whether any foxes he might be shown 
 were or were not specifically identical with the common English kind. 
 Nevertheless, it is by no means easy to determine from external characters 
 alone whether a given canine animal is or is not a fox ; while the difficulty of 
 deciding whether many of the larger foxes of Asia and America should be re- 
 garded merely as varieties of the common fox, or as distinct species, has long 
 exercised the minds of naturalists. Indeed, the latter question has only 
 recently been decided by the leading zoologists of England in favour of the 
 former view ; and we are by no means sure that their opinions are accepted 
 by all American zoologists. 
 
 Probably most people would say that a fox is sufficiently characterised by 
 his slight build, elongated body, short limbs, long ears, sharp muzzle, and 
 long bushy tail, of which the length always considerably exceeds half that of 
 the head and body. So far, indeed,, as they go, these characteristics are ex- 
 cellent, and they will serve to distinguish a fox from a wolf or jackal. The 
 whole of them are, however, not applicable to all foxes, the Arctic fox having 
 comparatively short ears, while they will not serve to distinguish foxes from 
 the above-mentioned South American representatives of the family, such as 
 the so-called Azara's dog. The latter animals have, indeed, the general 
 build and appearance of foxes, their muzzles being sharp, their ears long, and 
 their tails of great length and thickly haired. The naturalist says emphati- 
 cally, however, that they are not true foxes, and it is, therefore, evident 
 that he has certain characteristics to rely on which are not included among 
 those just mentioned. 
 
 A more careful examination of a fox will show that the pupil of the eye 
 forms merely a narrow vertical ellipse when seen in a strong light, whereas 
 that of wolves, jackals, and dogs is circular. Unfortunately, however, even 
 this character will not serve to distinguish foxes from the above-mentioned 
 South American species. Of more importance is the circumstance that 
 vixen foxes have but 6 teats, whereas the females of wolves, jackals, and 
 dogs generally have 10, but occasionally only 8 teats, while in the 
 Indian wild dogs the number is increased to 12 or 14. As usual, how- 
 ever,' when he wants to find a feature which shall be absolutely 
 characteristic, the naturalist has recourse to the skull in order to definitely 
 separate foxes from all other members of the family. If, indeed, we examine 
 
70 MAMMALIA ORDER IV.CARNIVORA. 
 
 the skull of any kind of domestic or wild dog, of a wolf, or a jackal, we shall 
 not fail to observe, as noticed above, that the triangular bony projection 
 from the middle of the skull which forms the hinder border of the upper 
 part of the socket of the eye hence known as the postorbital process is 
 highly convex, and curves from above downwards. On the other hand, in 
 the skull of any species of fox, the same process has a very distinct hollow on 
 its upper surface, and it does not curve downwards in the smallest degree. 
 A further examination will also show that in a dog, jackal, or wolf the 
 middle portion of the skull is considerably elevated above the level of the 
 extremities of these two processes ; whereas in a fox the whole surface of 
 this part of the skull lies nearly in a horizontal plane. If we were to make a 
 vertical section of the two skulls, we should find that in the skulls of the 
 dog, jackal, and wolf the bone forming the roof was honeycombed by a 
 number of cells, whereas in the fox it is solid ; and it is the presence, 
 or absence, of these cells which causes the great difference in the contour of 
 the skulls of a dog and a fox. 
 
 The above feature absolutely distinguishes the skulls of all species of 
 foxes from those of all other members of the family, and we are accordingly 
 now able to give a much more satisfactory definition of a fox, which will be 
 somewhat as follows, viz. : A long -bodied, short-limbed member of the 
 canine family, with a long and bushy tail exceeding half the length of the 
 head and body, generally long ears, a sharp muzzle, elliptical pupils to the 
 eyes, 6 teats, and the forehead of the skull not honeycombed by cells, and 
 with the postorbital processes hollowed above. From these important 
 differences some writers are inclined to separate the foxes from the genus 
 Canis under the name of Vulpes. 
 
 There has been much discussion as to whether foxes and dogs will breed 
 together. Thus, Mr. Bartlett, the superintendent of the Zoological Society's 
 Gardens, whose wide experience entitles him to rank as a high authority on 
 the point, writing in 1890, says that, " So far as my experience goes, I have 
 never met with a well-authenticated instance of a hybrid between a fox and 
 a dog, notwithstanding numerous specimens of supposed hybrids of this sort 
 which from time to time have been brought to my notice." Since that date, 
 several writers in Land and Water have, however, asserted the existence of 
 such hybrids, but further evidence is still desirable on the subject. And if 
 such a hybrid be proved to exist, it would be very desirable that the form 
 of the pupils of its eyes, and the number of its teats, should be care- 
 fully recorded during life, while after death an examination of its skull 
 by a qualified observer would be of the highest interest. 
 
 Turning to the numerous varieties of the common fox and their distribu- 
 tion, it is almost needless to observe that in England the fox is of a bright 
 reddish-brown colour on the upper-parts, with the under-parts and the tip of 
 the brush white, and the back of the ears and the lower portions of the limbs 
 black. There are, however, some local or individual variations even in this 
 country, which have given rise to the names of greyhound, mountain, and 
 bush foxes ; but all these are, at the most, of trivial import. Occasionally 
 English foxes are killed with the tip of the brush grey or black, and 
 there is one instance on record of a white English fox. Of far more im- 
 portance is the circumstance that ome time previous to 1864 an im- 
 mature fox was killed in Warwickshire with all the under-parts of a greyish 
 black hue. Now, as a general rule, the foxes of Northern and Central 
 Europe are similar in colour to the ordinary English form, but in Southern 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 71 
 
 Europe they are all paler above, with the under-parts dusky. There can, 
 however, be no question but that these are all of one species, and it is there- 
 fore very interesting to find one instance of the occurrence of the Southern 
 variety assuming that the Warwickshire specimen was not an imported 
 animal in this country. 
 
 Proceeding eastwards into Asia, we find two large foxes differing very 
 markedly from the ordinary English form. The first of these is the yellow 
 fox of Central Asia, formerly regarded as a distinct species under the name of 
 C. flavescens, and characterised by its general pale and yellowish colour, and 
 the large size of its magnificent brush. It has, however, still the dark ears 
 and white brush-tip of the English fox, arid there can be no doubt that 
 modern writers are right in regarding it merely as a pale variety of the 
 latter. This variety inhabits open country, and lives in burrows, or among 
 rocks or bushes. 
 
 The handsome animal known as the mountain-fox (the so-called C. 
 montanus) of the Himalaya, although nearly allied to the last, is frequently 
 so strikingly different, when in its winter dress, from the ordinary English 
 fox, that most sportsmen would regard it as a distinct species. The fur of the 
 back varies in colour from chestnut to iron-grey, and the shoulders are often 
 marked by a conspicuous dark transverse stripe, while the under-parts, and 
 especially the throat, are more or less dusky. The black outer surfaces of the 
 ears and the white tip to the brush proclaim, however, the affinity of this fox 
 to the southern variety of the European fox ; and it appears to be merely 
 another variety of the latter. This Himalayan fox differs from the Central 
 Asian variety in that it does not excavate burrows, but lives in thickets or on 
 cultivated land. When we add that the so-called Nile fox (C. niloticus) is but 
 another variety of the same species, it will be evident that if he can but obtain 
 a pack of hounds and suitable ground, the sportsman may hunt one and 
 the same species of fox, whether he be in England, in the South of Europe, on 
 the banks of the Nile, in the deserts of Central Asia, or in the vale of Kashmir. 
 
 This is, however, by no means all, for if the fox-hunter cares to cross the 
 Atlantic he may again hunt the common fox in Virginia and other parts of 
 North America. It is true, in- 
 deed, that these large North 
 American foxes have been con- 
 sidered distinct species, underthe 
 names of the red fox (C. fulvus) 
 and the cross-fox (C.pennsyhani- 
 cus). The cross-fox is, however, 
 obviously but a variety of the red 
 fox, distinguished by the presence 
 of a more or less distinct dark 
 stripe across the shoulders ; and 
 since both forms have the black Fig. 41. THE COMMON Fox. 
 
 ears and white tail-tip of the 
 
 European species, there can be little hesitation, in spite of their variation in 
 colour, in regarding them merely as local races of the same widely-spread form. 
 
 Again the so-called silver or black fox (C. argentatus) from California and 
 the Western United States, so valued on account of its beautiful fur, is only a 
 melanistic (dark) variety of the red fox, and is therefore merely another race 
 of Canis vulpes. The silver fox, we may observe in passing, is a comparatively 
 rare animal, of which perfectly black skins, with only the characteristic white 
 
72 MAMMALIA ORDER IV.CARNIVORA. 
 
 tip of the tail, are so scarce that they fetch from 50 to 70 in the market. 
 It thus appears that an animal may vary in colour from foxy-red above, with 
 white under-parts and tail-tip and black limbs and ears, to one in which the 
 whole of the fur is black save the tip of the tail, and yet belong to one and 
 the same species. 
 
 No account of the distribution of the common fox would be complete with- 
 out some reference to the fact that it is one of the very oldest of our British 
 Mammals, its fossilised remains having been dug up in the topmost beds of the 
 so called red crag of the Suffolk coast. These deposits far ante-date the river 
 gravels and cavern-mud in which occur the remains of the mammoth and other 
 gigantic extinct Mammals ; and it will thus be evident that this extreme 
 antiquity of the British fox will readily account for its present unusually wide 
 geographical distribution. 
 
 Before taking leave of the common fox and its numerous varieties we may 
 refer to the circumstance that there has been much discussion as to whether 
 badgers are hurtful to young foxes. As the result of these it appears that the 
 charge against the badger has been effectually disproved, more than one 
 writer recounting instances where fox and badger-cubs have been brought up 
 in amity as inhabitants of the same earth. In spite, however, of this, it 
 appears that there is still, at least in some districts, war waged by sportsmen, 
 against the unfortunate badger. 
 
 With regard to North American foxes, it may be observed that in addition 
 to the red and cross-fox, the so-called grey fox or Virginian fox (C. mrginianus) 
 is largely hunted with hounds in some parts of the States. This fox is much 
 smaller than the European species, the length of its head and body being 
 only about 19 inches, in place of some 24 inches. It is further distin- 
 guished by its relatively shorter muzzle, and also by the presence of a ridge 
 of long stiff hairs running along the middle of the upper part of the tail. 
 The general colour of this fox, as its common name implies, is some shade of 
 grey ; but there is considerable individual variation in this respect, and some 
 specimens show a more or less marked reddish tinge. If an English hunts- 
 man were to see his quarry suddenly rush straight up the trunk of a tree in 
 the midst of a run, his astonishment would certainly be great, yet we are 
 assured by American writers that tree-climbing is a frequent habit of the grey 
 fox. Thus Dr. EHzey writes in Shields' "Big Game of North America," that 
 " whether the greys ever climb trees in pursuit of prey I am uncertain ; but 
 they take to a tree as readily as a cat, when hard run by hounds. I think it 
 nearly certain that they climb for persimmons, grapes, and berries. Red 
 foxes never climb trees under any circumstances ; when hard run they go to 
 earth." If the above explanation of this curious habit is the trus one, it 
 would seem that grapes are not sour to the grey fox. Grey foxes alFord but 
 a poor run in comparison with the common species, their course only holding 
 for a short distance, and that accompanied by many doublings ; while the run 
 usually terminates either by the capture of a fox within an hour, or by the 
 animal either climbing a tree or taking refuge in a hole of the same. On the 
 other hand, the American red fox runs as strongly as his European relative ; 
 his course, it is said, generally taking the form of a large parallelogram. The 
 cubs of the grey fox have been compared to small black puppies, and are thus 
 very different in appearance from those of our own species. A second North 
 American species is the kit-fox (C. velox), which is still smaller than the 
 grey, its brush being only about 11 inches in length, against 1G inches in 
 the latter. Above. thi fox is light grey, with an admixture of long white 
 
FLESH-EA TING MAMMALS. 73 
 
 hairs, while the flanks are yellowish and the under-parts white, the brush 
 having no white tip. This species lives in burrows, and takes its name from 
 its extreme speed. Whether it is commonly hunted with hounds I am un- 
 aware. More distinct than either of the above is the long-eared fox ((/. 
 macrotis), of California, in which the ears are nearly as large as in the under- 
 mentioned fennecs. Its general colour above is grizzled grey. South 
 America has no true foxes. 
 
 In India the place of the common fox is taken by two small species the 
 Indian desert-fox (C. leucopns) and the Bengal fox (C. bengalensis). The 
 former, which is somewhat the larger of the two, agrees with the common 
 species in the white tip to the brush, and also in the dark brown or black out- 
 sides to the ears ; while the latter has a black tip to the brush and greyish 
 ears. The desert-fox, as its name implies, inhabits sandy wastes, and has a 
 considerable turn of speed ; Jerdon stating that it " gives a capital run 
 sometimes, even with English dogs." 
 
 The Bengal fox, which only measures about 20 inches from the tip of 
 the snout to the root of the tail, is found in more or less open country over 
 the greater part of India, and may not unfrequently be seen by residents in 
 Calcutta playing about the Maidan near Fort- William. Jerdon writes that 
 "this fox is much coursed with greyhounds in many parts of India, and with 
 Arab or country dogs, or half-bred English dogs it gives a most excellent 
 course, doubling in a most dexterous manner, and if it is within a short 
 distance of its earth, racing the dogs. Its numerous earths prevent in general 
 much sport being had in hunting it with foxhounds, and its scent is poor." 
 Another small Asiatic species, with a dark tip to the brush, is the Corsac fox 
 (C. corsac), whose habitat extends from the shores of the Caspian through the 
 Russian steppes to Mongolia. The skin of this species is an article of con- 
 siderable commercial importance, an average of about 50,000 coming annually 
 into the market. There are several other allied species of foxes inhabiting 
 Asia, such as the Japanese fox (C. japonicus) and the Tibetan fox (C. ferrilatus\ 
 but as they are mostly but little known in Europe, it is unnecessary to make 
 further allusion to them on this occasion. Mention must, however, be made 
 of the Arctic fox (0. lagopus), characterised by its short ears, extremely 
 bushy brush, and the long hair clothing the soles of the feet. As a rule, this 
 fox is bluish-grey in summer (when it is known as the blue fox), but changes 
 to pure white in winter ; although in some cases, more especially in Iceland, 
 the dark tint is retained throughout the year. This species is practically 
 circumpolar, and on an average from 25,000 to 60,000 skins annually find 
 their way into the market. The Arctic fox, in order to provide a supply of 
 food for the long and dreary winter of its native habitat, is in the habit of 
 laying up stores of lemmings and other small animals concealed in holes and 
 fissures of the rocks. 
 
 South and Central Africa is the home of an entirely different group of 
 small foxes, known as fennecs (C. zerda, C. famelicus, and C. cania), and 
 characterised by the enormous length of their ears. These fennecs are more 
 or less sandy-coloured animals, with a dark tip to the tail, and differ from 
 the European fox in their social habits, dwelling together in small companies. 
 A skin of an apparently allied species has been obtained from Afghanistan. 
 
 The Cape hunting-dog (Lycaon picius) is the sole living representative of 
 a genus differing from Canis in having but four toes to each foot. Its skull 
 approximates to that of the wolves, but is somewhat shorter and broader, and 
 there is a slight difference in the form of the teeth. This animal is of large 
 
74 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER IV.CARNIVORA. 
 
 size, and marked with unsymmetrical blotches of white, yellow, and black, 
 the distribution of which shows considerable individual variation, lumbers 
 combine in packs to hunt their prey. A second well-marked 
 Other Genera, genus of the Canidce is formed by the bush-dog (Idioyon 
 venations) of British Guiana and Brazil, which is a dark- 
 coloured animal not larger than a fox, with a short, sparsely-haired tail, 
 short limbs, very small ears, close hair, and a very aberrant dentition. In 
 the first place, the number of molars is reduced to one pair in the upper and 
 
 two in the lower iaw, while the 
 lower carnassial has no cusp on the 
 inner side of the blade, and its 
 posterior heel is secant instead of 
 tubercular, so that practically the 
 entire tooth is reduced to a cutting 
 blade. The last member of the dog 
 family is Lalande's fennec (Otocyon 
 mcyalotis) of South Africa, which, 
 while agreeing in many respects 
 with the true fennecs, has very 
 much larger ears, but is specially 
 distinguished by having four pairs 
 ' *%.42.-CAPE HUNTING-DOG of lower molar teeth, and either 
 
 (Lycaon pictus). three or four pairs of the same in 
 
 the upper jaw, the total number of 
 teeth thus being either 46 or 48. Its habits are like those of the fennecs. 
 
 In the three remaining families of the terrestrial Carnivora the auditory 
 bulla of the skull possesses a simple undivided septum, and its bony external 
 tube, or meatus, leading to the outer ear, has its lower 
 The Bear Tribe, margin considerably produced, while the triangular paroc- 
 Family cipital process stands quite apart from the bulla. In the in- 
 Ursidce. testine the blind appendage or coecum is entirely absent. The 
 bears themselves are specially characterised by the broad, flat, 
 tuberculated crowns of the molar teeth, of which there are two upper and three 
 lower pairs ; and likewise by the rudi- 
 mentary development of the first three 
 pairs of premolars in each jaw, which are 
 in many cases entirely lost. The upper 
 carnassial is very short and triangular, 
 and both this tooth and the lower car- 
 nassial have but little resemblance to the 
 true sectorial type, as shown in the cats 
 and dogs. In the skull the auditory bulla 
 is very flat, and scarcely at all inflated. 
 The large feet are furnished with five toes 
 
 each, and are completely plantigrade ; j^ 43._Busn-Doo 
 
 while their long and slightly compressed (Iciicyon venations). 
 
 claws are non-retractile. The body is 
 
 very stout, the tail short, the ears moderate, the hair generally long and 
 loose, and the gait clumsy and shambling. Bears go about either in 
 pairs or in small family-parties, and are all excellent climbers. Most 
 of them eat roots, fruits, and other vegetable substances, although they 
 will also consume the flesh of dead animals and carrion; and in cold 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 75 
 
 countries all hibernate during the inclement season, their hiding-places 
 being frequently caverns, the clefts of rocks, or hollow trees. The typical 
 genus UrsiiSj in which there are 42 teeth, and some of the premolars are de- 
 ciduous, includes all the existing members of the family except two. Of 
 these the polar bear (U. maritimus) of the Arctic regions stands apart from 
 the rest on account of its relatively smaller head, small and narrow molars, 
 more hairy soles, and creamy white colour. Its food consists mainly of flesh. 
 The brown bear (U. arctus) is a very widely-spread species, ranging all over 
 Europe and Northern Asia, and represented in Syria by one variety (U. 
 syriacus), in the Himalaya by the pale isabelline bear (U. isabellinus), and in 
 North America by the grizzly bear (U. horribitis) and the American black 
 bear (U. americanus), both of which are now considered merely as varieties of 
 the European species. The Himalayan black bear ( U. torqnatus), with shaggy 
 black fur and a white gorget, is a very distinct species ; as is also the small 
 Malayan bear(t7. malayanus), rang- 
 ing from North-Eastern India to 
 the Malayan countries, and dis- 
 tinguished by its long extensile 
 tongue and short black fur, with a 
 light gorget on the throat. Another 
 well-marked form is the spectacled 
 bear (U. ornatus) of the Chilian 
 Andes. With the exception of U. 
 crowther, of the Atlas range, which 
 may be only a variety of the common 
 species, Africa has no bear. The 
 Indian sloth bear (Mclnrsns iwsmiw) m 44b _p ARTIK!OMIUWa) BEAK 
 
 differs in having only two pairs of (^Elm-opus mdanoieucus'). 
 
 upper incisor teeth, small molars, 
 
 large extensile lips, and a deeply hollowed palate ; the black fur being very 
 long, loose, and harsh, and the throat marked by the usual light gorget. It 
 feeds chiefly on ants, other insects, fruit, flowers and honey. More different 
 than all is the parti -coloured bear (JEluropu-s mdanoieucus) of Tibet, with a 
 total of 40 teeth, the premolars large and, except the first, two-rooted, arid 
 the first upper molar broader than long, instead of longer than broad, as in 
 other bears. In colour it is black and white, with black rings round the eyes. 
 Mainly American, the raccoon tribe includes small carnivores with two 
 pairs of molars in each jaw, which may be either many-cusped or tuber- 
 culated, a short and broad upper carnassial tooth, planti- 
 grade feet, and the tail ringed. The single Old World form Eaccoon Tribe, 
 is the panda or cat-bear (/Elurus fulgens) of the Eastern Family Pro- 
 Himalaya, which is a reddish-coloured animal, of the size of cyonidce. 
 a cat, with .a long, ringed tail. It has a total of 38 teeth, 
 very broad many-cusped upper molars, and a curiously rounded and vaulted 
 skull. The face is cat-like, the .ears are moderate and rounded, and the 
 limbs stout, with large partially retractile claws. The panda is a good 
 climber, and feeds chiefly upon vegetable substances. The American raccoons 
 (Procyon) have 40 teeth, broad and tuberculated molars, and three lobes to 
 the blade of the upper carnassial. The body is stout, the head broad, with 
 a sharp muzzle, the whole sole of the foot not applied to the ground in 
 walking, and the toes capable of being widely spread, with sharp non-retractile 
 claws. The tail is rather short and ringed, and the fur thick and soft. 
 
7 6 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER Il\ CARNIVORA. 
 
 F r g. 45. THE PANDA (^wru*- fulgens). 
 
 Raccoons are almost omnivorous animals, obtaining much of their food along 
 the banks of lakes and streams, and swimming well. Much of their time 
 is, however, spent in trees, in hollows of which the young are brought forth ; 
 
 and in North America they hibernate dur- 
 ing the cold season. The cacomistles 
 (Bassariscus), represented by one species 
 from the Southern United States and Mexico 
 and another from Central America, form 
 a closely allied genus, distinguished by the 
 more slender build, sharper nose, longer 
 tail, and less completely plantigrade feet. 
 Another genus is Bassaricyon, of Central 
 America, which has raccoon -like teeth, but 
 an external form very like that of the 
 kinkajou. The coatis (Nasua), which range 
 from Central America to Paraguay, are easily 
 recognised by the prolongation of the 
 muzzle into a long and somewhat upturned 
 mobile snout ; the long and tapering tail 
 being ringed. The dentition is similar to 
 that of the raccoons, with the exception that 
 the upper canines are longer and more pointed, and the molars smaller. 
 Coatis are arboreal animals, going about the forest in small parties, and 
 feeding chiefly on birds, eggs, insects, lizards, and fruits. Lastly, the 
 kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolwdus) differs from all the rest in its long and 
 taper tail being prehensile ; the number of teeth being 36. It is a pale 
 yellowish-brown animal, of the size of a cat, entirely nocturnal, and arboreal 
 in its habits. 
 
 The last family of the land Carnivora is the large and widely-spread one of 
 the weasels, which includes the otters, badgers, shunks, etc. Except in the 
 
 ratels (where there is 
 Weasel Tribe. but a single pair in each 
 Family Muste- jaw), the members of 
 lidce. this family may be dis- 
 
 tinguished from the two 
 preceding ones by having one pair of 
 upper, and two of lower molars, and 
 by the inner portion of the upper molars 
 being longer from back to front than 
 the outer blade. The auditory bulla 
 of the skull is but little inflated. 
 
 The otters (Lutra) form an aquatic 
 group characterised by the short and 
 rounded feet, the webb- 
 Otters. ed toes, tho small, curv- 
 
 ed, and blunt claws, 
 
 and the broad and flattened head. The jaws are short, with large, closely 
 packed teeth ; the upper molar being especially large, quadrangular in form, 
 and its inner tubercular portion much expanded from back to front ; and 
 all the cheek teeth sharply cusped. The body is very elongated, the ears 
 are short and rounded, the limbs short, the tail long, thick, and tapering 
 rapidly, and the fur very short and close. In certain species the claws 
 
 Fig. 46. CACOMISTLE (Bassariscus astutus). 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 77 
 
 may be rudimental or wanting. With the exception of Australia and New 
 Guinea, otters are cosmopolitan in their distribution, the largest species 
 being the Brazilian otter. They are expert divers and swimmers, feeding 
 entirely on fish, for the capture and 
 retention of which their powerful and 
 sharply-cusped teeth are admirably 
 suited. The total number of teeth is 
 30. Nearly allied to the otters is the 
 sea-otter (Latax lutris), distinguished by 
 having only 32 teeth, among which the 
 lower incisors are reduced to two pairs, 
 the blunt and rounded tubercles of the 
 molars, and the flipper-like hind-feet, in 
 which the toes are flattened, as in the 
 seals, and the fifth toe is the longest 
 and stoutest. The head is rounded, the 
 ears very small, the tail short and Fig. 47. CoA.ii(Nasuaritfa). 
 
 bushy, and the pellage with a beautiful 
 
 under-fur. The total length of the animal is about four feet. Natur- 
 alists have hitherto believed that the sea-otter when on land has the 
 hind-toes turned forwards, but Mr. Snow, of Yokohama, states that this is 
 incorrect, and that they are really doubled backwards, beneath the soles. 
 The southern range of the sea-otter extends as far as Southern California and 
 Mexico. On the Asiatic side, it occurs at the Komandorski Islands, Kam- 
 schatka, and the Kurile Islands. As a rule, only one is produced at birth, but 
 occasionally two. Mr. Snow has seen two smajj. pups with their mother, and 
 has taken two from the inside of an otter he killed. It is not absolutely 
 known at what age the otter arrives at maturity. Mr. Snow believes that it 
 does so in the third year. Crabs and sea-urchins are the usual contents of 
 the stomach, but occasionally small fish and spawn are also found. The 
 crabs are crushed by the strong molar teeth, it being impossible that the 
 crushing is produced by the striking of two shells together, as the form of 
 the fore-feet will not allow of anything being grasped. The otter dives for 
 its food, and returns to the surface with the prey held between its two fore- 
 paws, in which it continues to hold it while eating it. On many occasions 
 Mr. Snow has seen schools of from 10 to 50 or more otters together some 10 
 or 15 miles from any land, but not of late years. The mode of capture 
 adopted by Europeans is to "run" the sea-otter with three boats, each 
 manned by four or five men, a hunter being in the bow armed with a rifle. 
 When an otter is " raised " (as it is called), the boats proceed to surround it, 
 lying some 500 to 600 yards apart in the form of a triangle. The boats are so 
 manoeuvred that the otter is kept between them. Every time the animal 
 makes its appearance above the water, it is shot at, until it is secured. When 
 the sea-otter is netted, it becomes entangled in the meshes and drowned. 
 The long white hairs of the fur are its chief beauty. They are not removed 
 when it is prepared for use. A skin has sold for upwards of 225. 
 
 The skunks of America are the first representatives of a second sub-family 
 in which the feet are elongated, with straight toes, and non-retractile, slightly 
 curved, somewhat compressed, and blunt claws, which are of 
 very large size in the hind-foot ; the form of the upper Skunks, 
 molar being variable. The typical skunks (Mephitis), which 
 are confined to North and Central America, are easily recognised by their 
 
78 MAMMALIA ORDER IV.CARNIVORA. 
 
 black fur, relieved on the back with broad longitudinal stripes of white, and 
 the busliy black and white tail, which is generally carried over the back. They 
 
 have 34 teeth, and are provided with 
 special glands for the secretion of the 
 noisome fluid to which they owe their 
 name. The little skunk (Spilogale puto- 
 rius) of the Southern United States and 
 Central America isamuchsmalleranimal, 
 and the only member of thegroup that can 
 climb. The South American skunk (Con- 
 cpatus mapurito), ranging from Texas to 
 Patagonia, differs in having only 32 teeth, 
 and also in its heavier build, and by the 
 nostrils opening do wnwardsand forwards, 
 instead of on the sides of the muzzle. 
 Mr. Aplin, writing of this species, ob- 
 serves that " the scent-gland cannot be 
 
 Fig. 48. -COMMON SKUNK (Mephitis P ened U ^ 6SS the taU is afc a right angle 
 
 mephitica). or something near it, with the line of 
 
 the body ; and that therefore when 
 
 held by the tail the weight of the skunk's body keeps the tail more 
 or less in a line with it, and the skunk is unable to discharge its vile 
 secretion. To perform this operation it is of course necessary to catch 
 the skunk asleep, or otherwise deeply occupied (digging roots, for instance), 
 and to run the risk of its waking up or turning round and seeing you. I be- 
 lieve I could have easily done it myself, as I have more than once seen a 
 skunk lying curled up asleep in the daytime. Indeed, while looking for a 
 parrot 1 had shot among some bushes, I very nearly stepped upon one 
 which was curled up on the ground ; and there it remained until I put a re- 
 volver bullet through its body. However, I never cared to risk the loss of 
 useful garments, it having been proved, I believe, that clothes once well 
 dosed at close quarters may as well be burnt. The skunk passes the day- 
 time in sleep, \\hen undisturbed. In Soriano I used to find them laid up in 
 holes and under clefts in the granite boulder rocks, in desertec? ant-nests, 
 among paja grass, or in the crown of a big hassock of this, and in one or two 
 cases on the ground among bushes. In the latter case it lies on its side 
 curled round. When roused in a hole by a dog, it presents a rather diaboli- 
 cal appearance as it pops its little vicious head out. Notwithstanding 
 demonstrations of this kind, I have only once seen a skunk use its teeth. In 
 this case one fastened on to Jim's flanks, and the old dog walked about with 
 it hanging on for half a minute, looking round at it in much astonishment at 
 this unusual and unseemly behaviour the fact being that he could not get 
 hold of his enemy, which turned with him. The skunk seems to be an om- 
 nivorous feeder. Its long strong claws are well adapted for digging, and 
 places where they have been scratching are to be seen all about the camp. 
 They probably feed on small mammals, reptiles, and insects, as well as 
 roots, and are always credited with robbing hen-roosts. With regard to the 
 distance at which you can smell a skunk, I cannot give an opinion ; but you 
 " often smell them when you cannot see them, and just about sunclown the 
 smell is a usual and familiar one about the camp ; at night, too, a strong 
 whiff of it as you sit or stroll in the patio is a very common occurrence. At 
 a hundred yards to leeward, with the slightest breeze the smell of a discharge 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 79 
 
 would be very pungent. The smell is said to be a good remedio for the 
 headache." Although skunks are essentially nocturnal animals, they may 
 occasionally be seen walking about on the open Argentine pampas in broad 
 daylight. 
 
 The next group of the sub-family includes the badgers, of which there are 
 likewise several genera, none of which are found in South America. Of 
 these the sand-badgers ( A rctonyx\ of the Oriental countries, 
 form a genus characterised by having 38 teeth, of which the Badgers, 
 lower incisors project forwards, the anterior premolars are 
 often rudimental or wanting, and the upper molar is much larger than the 
 carnassial, and longer than broad. The naked mobile snout is pig -like, the ears 
 are minute and rounded, the eyes small, the feet digitigrade when walking, 
 the tail moderately long and tapering, and the fur bristly, with a soft under- 
 f ur. The Indian species is rather larger than the ordinary badger. Nearly 
 allied is the Malayan badger (Mydaus meliceps), from Java, Sumatra, and 
 Borneo, which is a small burrowing animal, distinguished from the last by 
 the nostrils being inferior, instead of terminal in position, and by the 
 extreme shortness of the tail, which is clothed with rather long bushy hair. 
 In the true badgers (Meles) the number of the teeth is also 38, but the first 
 premolar in each jaw is minute, and often shed at an early age, while the 
 very large upper molar is quadrangular, as broad as long, and much surpass- 
 ing the carnassial in size. Moreover, the lower law is so firmly articulated 
 to the skull that it cannot be separated without fracture. The skull differs 
 from that of the sand-badgers, and thereby resembles the Malayan badger, 
 in that its bony palate is only produced a comparatively short distance 
 behind the last pair of teeth. The muzzle is pointed, the body stout and 
 broad, the ears and tail very short, and the limbs short and strong, with 
 partially plantigrade feet. The coloration of the common badger is too well 
 known to need description. The genus includes only a few species, 
 which are confined to Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya, one kind 
 inhabiting Persia and another Japan. Badgers are nocturnal, omnivorous, 
 and burrowing animals, producing three or four blind young at a birth. In 
 North America the group is represented by the American badgers ( Taxidea), 
 in which the first upper premolar appears to be always wanting, and the 
 upper carnassial is nearly as large as the molar, and the tubercular heel of 
 the lower carnassial relatively 
 smaller than in the Old World 
 badgers. The stout body is de- 
 pressed, and the tail very short. 
 Nearly allied to the badgers are 
 the ratels (Mellivora) of India and 
 Africa south of the Sahara, which 
 differ from all other members of 
 the family in having but a single 
 pair of lower molars, and are fur- 
 ther distinguished by the limbs 
 and under surface of the body Fig. 49. COMMON BADGER. 
 
 being black, while the upper-parts 
 
 are greyish. In this genus the upper carnassial is a large tooth, with its inner 
 tubercle at the front end, as in the remaining genera of the sub-family ; the 
 upper molar being short from back to front, with its inner portion much 
 expanded. In the lower carnassial the posterior heel is very minute. Ex- 
 
So MAMMALIA ORDER ir. CARNIVORA 
 
 ternally, the ratels have a stout body, a flattened head, rather pointed nose, 
 rudiment*! ears, stout and short limbs, and a very short tail. They subsist 
 chiefly on honey-comb, which they dig out with their powerful claws. The 
 so-called ferret-badgers (Helictis), from the Oriental countries, some of which 
 are remarkable for their brilliant coloration, form a very distinct genus. 
 They have 38 teeth, a long head, with a sharp naked muzzle, obliquely 
 truncated at the tip, small ears, elongated body, short limbs, and a rather 
 short or moderate bushy tail. All are small animals, climbing well, and sub- 
 sisting on a mixed diet. The last genus of the sub-family is typified by the 
 Cape polecat (Ictonyx zorilla) ; another species occurring in Egypt, and, it is 
 said, Asia Minor. These animals have a dentition and bodily form very 
 similar to those of the true polecats, from which they may at once be 
 distinguished by their coloration, which is very similar to that of the 
 skunks. 
 
 The last sub-family of the Mustelidce comprises the true weasels and their 
 allies, and is characterised by the toes being short and partially webbed, the 
 claws also short, sharp, compressed, curved, and frequently 
 Weasels, etc. partially retractile ; while the upper molar is of moderate 
 size, and wide transversely. The first genus is Galictis, of 
 which there are two well-defined South American species, locally known as 
 the grison and the tayra. Both these have 34 teeth, among which the molars 
 are small but stout, while the upper carnassial has 
 its inner tubercle near the middle of its length, 
 and the lower carnassial has a minute posterior 
 heel, and either a very small or no inner cusp. 
 The head is broad and flattened, the body 
 elongate, the limbs short, with plantigrade feet, 
 in which the claws are non-retractile and the soles 
 naked, while the tail is long or moderate. Both 
 s P ecies are found as far south as the Argentine 
 WEASEL. pampas, and are noted for their savage disposition. 
 
 In the typical genus Mustela may be included not 
 only the martens, but likewise the smaller polecats and weasels. In the two 
 latter the dentition is numerically the same as in Galictis, but in the former 
 the number of teeth is increased to 38, owing to the presence of the first pair of 
 premolars in each jaw, on which account these animals are frequently referred 
 to a genus by themselves, under the name of Putorius. From Galidis they 
 are ail readily distinguished by the inner tubercle of the upper carnassial 
 tooth being situated close to its front edge, instead of in the middle. All 
 these animals have the characteristic long and slender weasel-body, short, 
 digitigrade limbs, rounded feet, short toes, with sharp, compressed, and parti- 
 ally retractile claws, and the long or moderate tail more or less bushy. The 
 larger forms, or martens, are restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, one 
 species occurring as far south as Sumatra. They are all mainly carnivorous 
 and arboreal, and generally produce from four to six young at a birth. The 
 best-known species are the pine-marten (Mustela martes), ranging from Britain 
 across Northern Europe and Asia ; the beech-marten ( M. foina), extending 
 from Central and Southern Europe to the Himalaya and Turkestan ; the 
 sable (M. zibellina) of Siberia and Kamschatka; the closely-allied North 
 American marten (M. americana) ; the very distinct Indian or yellow- 
 throated marten (M. flavigula), ranging from India to Sumatra, China, and 
 Amurland ; and the large Pennant's marten (M. pennanti) of North America. 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 
 
 Si 
 
 Of the forms with only three pairs of premolars and no inner cusp to the lower 
 carnassial tooth, the largest are the nertz (M. lutreola) of Eastern Europe, 
 and the nearly related North American mink (M. visori). Next come the five 
 species of polecat, as typified by the common European polecat (M. putorius); 
 while the smaller forms include the true weasels and stoats. Of these, the 
 stoat or ermine (M. erminea) and the weasel (M. mdgaris) are common to 
 Europe, North and Central Asia, and North America, while the assogue (M. 
 Mbernica), which is intermediate in size and coloration between the other two, 
 is restricted to Ireland, being the only Mammal peculiar to the British Islands. 
 The South African Poecilogale albinucha, which has a coloration similar to 
 that of the Cape polecat (Ictonyx), has been referred to a distinct genus, on 
 account of there being only two pairs of premolar teeth in each, and by the 
 lower molars being generally reduced to a single pair. The name Lyncodon 
 has been proposed for a Patagonian weasel, in which the dentition is numeri- 
 cally the same as in the preceding. 
 
 The last genus of the mustelines is represented solely by the wolverene or 
 glutton (Gulo luscus) of the northern districts of both hemispheres. In this 
 comparatively large animal, which is an inhabitant of forests, there are 38 
 teeth, all of which are very stout and strong*; the upper molar being much 
 smaller than the carnassial, the lower carnassial large, with no inner cusp, and 
 a small posterior tooth, and the third upper incisor so large as to resemble a 
 second tusk. The form is more like that of a bear than a weasel, the body 
 and limbs being stout, the latter long, with large, partially plantigrade feet, 
 the small ears almost buried in the loose, coarse fur, the eyes, the tail short, 
 thick, and bushy, and the soles of the feet covered with bristly hairs. 
 The dark fur has a light saddle-shaped mark on the back. The wolverene is 
 a good climber, and lives on large birds and mammals, killing animals even as 
 large as the reindeer. It has a curious habit of carrying off and collecting 
 articles for which it can have no possible use. 
 
 The fur-seals, or eared-seals, are the first of three families of the aquatic 
 Carnivora, all the members of which are modified for an aquatic life, and 
 collectively constitute the sub-order Pinnipedia. In all these 
 animals the upper-arm and fore-arm, and the corresponding Eared-Seals. 
 segments of the hind-limb, are abnormallytehortened, and to Family Otariidce. 
 a great extent enclosed in the skin of the body, whereas the 
 feet, and more especially the hinder pair, are elongated and expanded into 
 large flippers, with the toes 
 widely separated and completely 
 united by webs. Five toes are 
 present, of which the first and 
 fifth in the hind -limb are 
 stouter and usually longer than 
 the three middle ones. The 
 incisor teeth are always reduced 
 below the typical number of 
 three pairs in one or both jaws ; 
 and the cheek teeth, which 
 usually consist of four pairs of 
 premolars and a single pair of 
 molars, are nearly alike, and 
 lack the specially modified car- 
 nassiala characteristic of the land Carnivora. The body is of a tapering, 
 
 Fig. 51. SEA-LION. 
 
32 MAMMALIA ORDER IV.CARNIVORA. 
 
 pyriform shape, admirably adapted for progression through, the water, pass- 
 ing 1 almost imperceptibly into the tail, which is always short. On land 
 seals are awkward animals, progressing with a series .of ungainly iumps, and 
 most of them spend the greater part of their time in the water, although all 
 come ashore for the purpose of breeding. The great majority are marine, 
 although a few inhabit inland seas and lakes. Most feed on fish, crustaceans, 
 and other marine animals. 
 
 'J he eared-seals, all of which may be included in the single genus Otatia, 
 are distinguished as a family by the circumstance that when on land the hind- 
 flippers are turned forwards beneath the body, and likewise by the presence 
 of small external ears ; the under surfaces of both flippers being naked. 
 They have either 36 or 34 teeth, according to the presence or absence of the 
 second pair of upper molars ; and there are three pairs of upper, and two of 
 lower incisors. The cheek teeth are sharp and compressed, consisting of one 
 large central cusp, flanked by two much smaller ones. The head is separated 
 from the body by a distinct neck, and the claws, especially those of the first 
 and fifth toes, are small or rudimental. Many species have a very dense 
 under-fur, constituting the "sealskin " of commerce, and these -are known as 
 fur-seals ; while others, in which there is no under-fur, are termed hair-seals. 
 Although absent from the shores of the North Atlantic, the eared-seals have 
 a wide geographical distribution. Among the better-known forms may be 
 mentioned the southern sea-lion (0, jubata) of the Falkland Islands and 
 Patagonia, which differs remarkably from all the rest in the structure of its 
 skull ; the large northern sea-lion (0. stelleri) of the North Pacific, which 
 may attain as much as 10 feet iu length ; Gillespie's sea-lion (0. gillespii) 
 from California and Japan ; the sea-bear (0. ursina) from the Pribyloff 
 Islands and other parts of the North Pacific ; 0. pusilla of South Africa ; and 
 O.fosteri from Australia and New Zealand. All the eared-seals are peculiar 
 for their habit of spending a long period on land during the breeding-season, 
 where they form the well-known "rookeries." Here the males arrive first, 
 and proceed to take up fixed stations, where they collect as many females as 
 they are able to capture ; and it is not a little remarkable that during their 
 whole sojourn on shore, which may extend to a period of three months, they 
 undergo a complete fast. 
 
 The following account of seals and sealing in Japanese waters is from the 
 consular report on the trade of Hakodate, as given in the Times of May, 
 1895. The writer states that in the island of Yezo the "conditions, as 
 regards space and time, are very similar on both sides of the ocean. The 
 Russian rookeries of the Commander Islands are the exact counterpart 
 (though smaller) of the American rookeries of the Pribyloff Islands ; the two 
 face each other, in about the same latitude, from the opposite sides of 
 Behring Sea. From these centres the seals, after their four or five months 1 
 summer sojourn, start southwards for their immense swims in the Pacific, 
 extending on the American side as far down as San Francisco, and on the 
 Asiatic side as far down as Sendai Bay, and even the entrance of Yedo Bay. 
 But there is one noteworthy difference between the two cases. While, on 
 the American side, owing to the long sweep and turns of the coast-line, the 
 range of the swim is quite 3,200 miles, on the Asiatic side it is a nearly straight 
 run of less than half that distance. Hence the seal-herd, though larger, is 
 more dispersed on the American side ; and it is probable that hunters 
 choosing the Asiatic side gain more through the concentration of the herd 
 than they lose through its inferiority in numbers. Indeed, the effective 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 83 
 
 hunting range at all events, for the first stage of the hunting season is not 
 much more than 800 miles long, extending from Sendai Bay to Nemuro, the 
 most easterly point of Yezo Island. On reaching Nemuro the seals suddenly 
 disappear about the end of June, and no sealing craft as yet has followed 
 them up, keeping them in sight, between this point and the rookeries on 
 Behring and Copper Islands, or the still smaller rookery of Robben Island in 
 the Okhotsk Sea. The explanation of this sudden acceleration of the seal's 
 pace may be, as the hunters think, merely the quickening of the natural 
 instincts, on the eve of the breeding-time. But it may also be due to a 
 falling off in the food supply along the line of the Kurile archipelago. The 
 fact, however, is undoubted that, beyond Nemuro, the schooners lose sight 
 of the seals about the end of June, and this check of their pursuit serves as 
 a mark to divide the hunting season into two distinct stages. 
 
 " The schooners, as a rule, leave Victoria or San Francisco at the end of 
 December or early in January, and, after a two months' voyage across the 
 Pacific, strike the Japanese coast about the latitude of Yokohama, where 
 some of them put in to victual and refit. They begin hunting about the 
 middle or end of March, first meeting large clusters of seals in about latitude 
 38 deg. N. off Sendai Bay, from about 30 to 250 miles off the shore. The 
 seals are then proceeding northwards at a leisurely pace, travelling during 
 the night and feeding and sleeping in the daytime, especially in bright, 
 sunshiny weather. * Sleepers,' as the hunters call them, are the easiest to 
 shoot ; ' travellers ' are more difficult. A schooner with six or seven boats 
 can take, on the average, close on 1,000 skins in the four months, 
 March to June. That closes the first stage of the season, and they then 
 either tranship their catches at sea into a collecting ship from Victoria and 
 San Francisco, or else put into Hakodate and prepare their skins for shipment 
 to London or America. This done, after a short stay and revictualling in 
 port, they start northwards for the second stage of the hunting on the western 
 side of Behring Sea and in the Okhotsk Sea. This part of the hunting 
 season, lasting from the end of July till the end of October, yields a very 
 much smaller catch than the first stage, arid, with a protective zone established 
 round the rookeries, the sealers will probably find it hardly worth while to 
 continue it. At the rate at which the pelagic sealing schooners are increasing, 
 and in the absence of more effective measures for the protection of the herd 
 on the rookeries, no less than at sea, the industry cannot last long. The 
 Canadian sealing fleet engaged in hunting on the western side of the Pacific 
 has increased even more rapidly than on the American side. In 1891 only 
 one schooner, in 1892 11 or 12, and in 1893 at least 30 hunted in Asiatic 
 waters. In the first place, the advantage, as compared with the American 
 side, of the shorter range and greater concentration of the herd, is now well 
 known to the sealers. Secondly, the close season, and the limits prescribed 
 by the award of the Behring Sea arbitrators, are sure to drive many to the 
 western side. And, lastly, the fact that there is a considerable saving in 
 freight and charges when the skins are packed in Japan and shipped via the 
 Suez Canal to London, as compared with the charges and freight from the 
 American side, will tell in the same direction." 
 
 Of the Alaskan seal-herd, Mr. H. W. Elliott writes, that " the fighting 
 between the old males for the cows is mostly or, rather, entirely done 
 with the mouth. The opponents seize one another with their teeth, and 
 then, clenching their jaws, nothing but the sheer strength of the one, and 
 the other tugging to escape, can shake them loose, and that effort invariably 
 
MAMMALIA ORDER IV. -CARNIVORA. 
 
 leaves an ugly wound, the sharp canines tearing out deep gutters in the skin 
 and furrows in the blubber, or shredding the nippers into ribbon-strips. The 
 bulls generally approach each other with comically averted heads, just as 
 though they were ashamed of the rumpus which they are determined to 
 precipitate. "When they get near enough to reach one another, they enter 
 upon the repetition of many feints or passes before either the one or the 
 other takes the initiative by gripping. The heads are darted out and back 
 as quick as a flash ; their hoarse roaring and shrill piping whistle never ceases, 
 while their fat bodies writhe and swell with exertion and rage ; furious lights 
 gleam in their eyes ; their hair flies oft' into the air, and their blood streams 
 down. All this combined makes a picture so fierce and so strange that, from 
 its unexpected position and its novelty, this is one of the most extraordinary 
 brutal contests man can witness." 
 
 The walrus or morse (Trichechus rosmarus) of the polar seas, although 
 differing remarkably in its dentition from both, presents in many respects a 
 connecting link between the preceding and following families. 
 The Walrus. It agrees, for instance, with the Otariidce in having the hind- 
 Family flippers turned forwards beneath the body when on land, 
 Trichechidce. but resembles the Phocidce in having lost all external traces 
 of ears. As regards the dentition, the upper canines are 
 developed into enormous tusks, projecting far below the lower jaw, but the 
 whole of the other teeth are small, simple, and single-rooted, the molars 
 
 having rounded, flattened 
 crowns. The walrus is one of 
 the heaviest and most bulky 
 of all seals, old males not un- 
 frequently measuring from 10 
 to 11 feet in length, while 
 much larger examples are on 
 record. In form the head is 
 round, with rather small eyes, 
 and the short, broad muzzle 
 furnished with a tuft of stiff 
 bristles on each side. The hair 
 of the rest of the body is short 
 and closely pressed to the skin, 
 its general colour being yellow- 
 
 Fig. 52. WALIIUS (Trichechus rosmarus.) 
 
 ish. The tail is rudimental ; in the front-flippers the toes are nearly 
 equal in length, and furnished with small, flat nails, but in the hind- 
 pair the nails of the three middle digits are large, and those of the two mar- 
 ginal ones minute. There is some difference of opinion as to whether the 
 walruses of the Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans belong to the same or to 
 distinct species, but, in any case, the difference between them is extremely 
 slight. Walruses are social animals, collecting on the ice-fields in herds of 
 considerable size, and being often found on detached ice-floes. The females 
 produce one, or occasionally two calves in the spring or early summer, for 
 which they display the most marked affection. Their food consists almost 
 entirely of two species of bivalve molluscs, which are raked out of the mud 
 with the tusks, and easily crushed by the flat molar teeth. Whether the 
 tusks are also employed to drag the animals out of the water by being 
 hitched on to the ice, is a disputed point. The cry of the walrus is a loud 
 roar, which, when many are together, can be heard for a long distance. 
 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 
 
 The true or earless seals constitute the last family of the fin-footed Car- 
 nivora, and are those best adapted for a thoroughly aquatic life, the hind- 
 flippers being permanently directed backwards alongside of the tail, and ex- 
 ternal ears totally wanting. A further difference from the 
 
 eared-seals is to be found in the circumstance that the under True Seals. 
 
 surface of the feet is hairy ; and in no case is there any under- Family Phocufa. 
 fur, the ordinary fur being short and closely pressed to the 
 skin. All the species have five pairs of cheek teeth in each jaw, but the 
 number of incisors is variable. Oil land, most of the true seals advance by a 
 jumping movement, produced by the muscles of the body, assisted only by 
 the front-flippers. 
 
 The common grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), of the coasts of the whole 
 North Atlantic, is the type of the sub-family Phwidce, characterised by having 
 three pairs of upper, and two of lower incisor teeth, well- developed claws on 
 all the toes, and the hind-toes of 
 nearly equal length, with the webs 
 not reaching beyond their extremi- 
 ties. In the grey seal the cheek- 
 teeth, except the last one or two 
 in the upper, and the last in the 
 lower jaw, are single-rooted, and 
 consist generally of a single com- 
 pressed cusp, although additional 
 cusps may be present in the two 
 hinder pairs in the lower jaw. 
 The typical seals (Phoca), all of 
 which are confined to the Northern 
 Hemisphere, differ from the last in 
 that all the cheek teeth are of smaller size, and, with the exception of the first 
 pair in each jaw, are inserted by double roots, and have accessory cusps to 
 their crowns. As examples of this genus may be cited the bearded-seal 
 (P. barbata\ Greenland seal (P. grcenlandica), common seal (P. vitulina), the 
 Caspian seal (P. caspica) from the Caspian and Sea of Aral, and P. sibirica 
 of Lake Baikal. Like other members of their tribe, these seals resort to the 
 coast to bring forth their young, which may be either one or two in number ; 
 and not the least remarkable fact in their life-history is the circumstance 
 that the offspring have to be taught by their parents to enter the water. 
 They usually congregate in large herds, and are especially fond of lying bask- 
 ing in the sun like so many pigs. Seals are regularly hunted for the sake of 
 their hides and blubber, the latter yielding a valuable oil. 
 
 A second sub-family of the Phocidce. is typified by the monk-seal of the 
 Mediterranean and adjacent portions of the Atlantic, which, with the nearly 
 extinct West Indian seal, constitutes the genus Monachus. In this sub-family 
 there are but two pairs of incisor teeth in each jaw, the cheek teeth, with 
 the exception of the first pair, are inserted by two roots, and the first and 
 fifth toes of the hind-flippers much exceed the three middle ones in length, 
 and have their claws rudimental or wanting. The monk-seal is characterised 
 by the possession of 32 teeth, and by the crowns of the cheek teeth 
 being hollowed on the inner side where there is a strongly marked basal 
 ledge arid their front and back accessory cusps very small. The first cheek 
 tooth in both jaws, as well as the last in the upper, are considerably smaller 
 than the rest ; and all the claws are rudimental. The four other generic 
 
 Fig. 53. COMMON SEAL (Phoca vitulina). 
 
86 MAMMALIA-ORDER IV.CARNIVORA. 
 
 representatives of the sub-family Monachince are restricted to the southern 
 seas ; each genus including only a single species. First among these comes 
 the beautifully spotted leopard-seal (Ogmorhinus leptonyx), in which all the 
 cheek teeth, have three large cusps; the central one being the largest, 
 with its apex curved backwards, while the tips of the others incline towards 
 the middle one. Writing of the seals of this and other species seen during a 
 voyage undertaken in 1892-93, Mr. W. S. Bruce observes that from December 
 to February they "are to be found on the pack-ice, where, during the day, 
 they bask in the sun, digesting the meal of the previous night. Their food 
 consists of fish or shrimp-like crustaceans, and sometimes of penguins. 
 Stones, which were probably first swallowed by the penguins, may also be 
 found in their stomachs. They become so lazy with sleep that a man may 
 dig them in the ribs with the muzzle of his gun, and wondering what it is 
 disturbing their slumbers, they raise their head, which quickly falls pierced 
 with a bullet. There may only be one seal on a piece of ice, which is usually 
 the case with the leopard-seals, but the smaller kinds lie in half-dozens and 
 tens, and as many as forty-seven were seen on one piece during the recent 
 cruise. On one occasion several seals were found upon a tilted berg ; so high 
 was the lowest edge above the surface of the water that the boat's crew with 
 difficulty clambered up and secured their prey. Yet the seals must have 
 made a leap from the water on to this their last resting-place. December 
 seems to be their mating-season : about that time they are in very poor con- 
 dition, and very much scarred. The females appear to be as freely scarred 
 as the males. It was also noted that the seals were most numerous where 
 the water was bluest and clearest this in all probability meaning that they 
 were more numerous on the outside of the pack, since the muddy olive-brown 
 colour of the water, due to diatoms, seen so frequently in the south polar 
 seas, seems to indicate proximity to the main pack. The males appear to be 
 as numerous as the females, and, in the case of the leopard-seal and Weddell's 
 seal at least, the males are perhaps rather smaller than the females. They 
 move swiftly through the water, and can throw themselves eight or nine feet 
 above the surface, covering distances of fully 20 feet. Their moaning in 
 the gloaming of a calm grey day comes as a weird sound through the haze, 
 and makes the icy solitude more lonely, adding awe to a scene already full of 
 fascination. They seem to wonder at man, and not recognising him as an 
 enemy they allow him to approach, only to be laid low with club or bullet. 
 It "is a matter of great regret that they should be so indiscriminately 
 massacred ; there is no regard for sex or age, and even females heavy with 
 young do not escape. If fleets of sealers continue to visit the south, there 
 should be some law of protection, otherwise there is no doubt that, like the 
 southern fur-seals at the beginning of the century, these Antarctic seals will 
 be exterminated." 
 
 The second genus is represented by the still more beautiful Antarctic white 
 seal (Lobodon carcinophaya}, distinguished from the last by the much com- 
 pressed and elongated cheek teeth having one chief recurved cusp, with one 
 anterior, and from one to three much smaller but distinct posterior cusps. 
 Of this lovely seal Mr. Bruce writes that " its coat is of a beautiful creamy 
 white, resembling that of the polar bear, but short-haired, the colour be- 
 coming somewhat more intense along the back. Looking at the animal face 
 to face, its coat appears silvery, and the dorsal stripe almost vanishes ; but 
 when looked at from behind it assumes a deeper cream colour, and the broad 
 stripe along the back becomes quite prominent. The full-grown animal may 
 
FLESH-EA TING MAMMALS. 87 
 
 attain a length of about seven feet. The sea-leopard is a very striking animal, 
 and, with the exception of the elephant-seal, is the largest of true seals. In the 
 recent Antarctic expedition (1892-3) some were met with that measured over 
 13 feet in length. Their coat is a dark brown-grey and mottled, be- 
 coming paler grey below, and in some cases almost black on the back. A 
 rather striking and not altogether inappropriate name was given to these 
 seals by the sailors in the recent cruise ; they called them ' serpents,' and they 
 do really often look very serpent-like with their long necks and green eyes." 
 Less common is Weddell's seal (Leptonychotes weddelli), in which the cheek- 
 teeth are small, with simple, somewhat compressed, conical crowns, carrying 
 a broad basal ledge, but no distinct fore-and-aft cusps. These seals are nearly 
 as large as the leopard-seal, but of less graceful make, having a thicker coat 
 of blubber, and the fur more woolly, and dark brownish-grey in colour. The 
 last member of the sub-f imily is the rare Ross's seal (Ommatophoca rossi), 
 characterised by the small size of all the teeth , the small posterior, and still 
 smaller anterior cusps of those of the cheek series, and the very large size of 
 the sockets of the eyes, as well as by the small size of the claws on the front-, 
 flippers, and their absence in the hinder pair. It is described as a beautiful 
 animal, with large, affectionate-looking eyes, and resembling the white seal 
 in form and size, but with a mottled grey pellage, darker above than below. 
 
 The third and last sub- family is represented solely by the hooded or 
 bladder-seal (Cystophora crisiata} of the Arctic Seas, and the gigantic elephant- 
 seal (Macrorhiuus leoninus) of the Southern Ocean and the coast of California. 
 In this group the incisor teeth form two pairs in the upper, and one pair in 
 the lower jaw, the total number of teeth thus being 30, in place of the 32 
 characterising the preceding sub-family ; and as a rule the cheek-teeth are 
 implanted by single roots. In the males the nose is surmounted by an 
 appendage capable of being inflated at will ; and the first and fifth toes of the 
 hind-flippers are much longer than the others ; all these toes having the claws 
 rudimental or absent, and webs projecting beyond their tips. The hooded-seal 
 takes its name from the large loose sac of skin over the nostrils of the full- 
 grown males, which, when inflated with air, looks somewhat like a hood. 
 Rudimental nails are present on the hind-feet ; and the last molar in each 
 jaw is generally implanted by two roots. In the elephant-seal, on the other 
 hand, the old males have a kind of trunk-like prolongation of the nose, which, 
 although ordinarily limp, can be distended under the stimulus of excitement. 
 All the teeth are relatively small, those of the cheek series being all simple 
 and single-rooted, and nails are totally wanting on the hind-flippers. The 
 elephant-seal is the largest of all seals, the males attaining the enormous 
 length of 20 feet, and the females about one-third less. Mr. Bruce 
 writes that "the males are said to come ashore on the South Shetlands about 
 the end of August and beginning of September, and in the first part of 
 October are followed by the females. The males are very fat when they first 
 arrive, but get lean towards the end of December, when they leave the 
 islands. Another herd was said to visit the islands about the middle of 
 January when they renew their hair and still another in March ; by the 
 end of April all returning to the sea. They are very difficult to kill, but, like 
 the other species, allow themselves to be approached even with a club. This 
 seal used to be highly valued for its blubber ; in 1821 and 1822 alone as much 
 as 940 tons of sea-elephant oil was taken from the South Shetlands ; and it 
 may here be mentioned that during these same two years at least 320,000 
 fur-seals were also taken from these islands." 
 
83 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 ORDER V. RODENTIA. 
 MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 
 
 NEXT to the Bats, the order of Mammals most easily defined is the one 
 including the Rodents or Gnawing Mammals, all of which have a very similar 
 and peculiar type of dentition specially adapted for rasping and gnawing 
 hard vegetable substances. The order comprises a large number of families 
 and genera, many of which are exceedingly numerous in species, so that the 
 total number of its members is greater than that of any ordinal group in 
 the whole class. As common and well-known examples of the Rodent order 
 may be cited squirrels, dormice, marmots, beavers, rats, voles, porcupines, 
 and hares and rabbits, all of which are characterised by possessing a pair of 
 chisel-shaped teeth in the front of each jaw, which are worn by use into a 
 sharp, cutting, transverse edge, and grow continuously throughout the life of 
 their owners. It is with these chisel-like front or incisor teeth that the 
 Rodents perform that gnawing action (so markedly developed in the beavers 
 and porcupines) from which they derive their name ; and it is owing to the 
 circumstance that the front of each tooth is faced with a plate of hard 
 enamel, while the remainder consists of soft ivory, that these beautiful in- 
 struments maintain their cutting-edges. These two pairs of front teeth aro 
 absolutely characteristic of all Rodents; and in by far the greater majority 
 of the order there are no other teeth in this region of the jaw. As if, how- 
 ever, for the purpose of hinting how these animals were originally related to 
 Mammals provided with a fuller set of teeth, the hares and rabbits, together 
 with their near allies the picas or tailless hares, have a minute pair of some- 
 what similar teeth placed immediately behind the large pair in the upper 
 jaw. Being perfectly useless to their owners, this second pair of upper front 
 teeth evidently comes under the category of rudimental or vestigiary struc- 
 tures. Behind the front teeth of all Rodents comes a long gap in each jaw, 
 after which is the series of grinding or cheek teeth, which are never more 
 than six in number, and are frequently reduced to four, or even three. Con- 
 sequently, no member of the order ever has canine teeth. Were it not that 
 there are two groups of animals with a dentition of a similar type, these 
 peculiarities in the teeth would absolutely distinguish Rodents from all other 
 members of the Mammalian class. Of the groups in question, the one con- 
 tains the wombats of Australia, which are broadly distinguished by the 
 presence of a pouch for the young, while the second group is represented 
 solely by the curious aye -aye of Madagascar, which agrees in its internal 
 anatomy with the lemurs, and is accordingly assigned to that group. With 
 these exceptions the dentition is absolutely characteristic of the Rodent 
 order ; and as the student is not likely to confound with them either of the 
 creatures named, he may rely on the nature of the teeth in identifying the 
 members of the order. A curious feature in the anatomy of Rodents is that 
 the mouth is divided into two chambers communicating by a narrow orifice ; 
 the first containing the incisors, and the second the cheek teeth, and the 
 hair being continued inwards behind the former. The object of this arrange- 
 ment ia evidently to prevent the intrusion of foreign objects into the 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 
 
 mouth. As a rule collar-bones are well developed, although they may 
 be wanting. There are generally five toes to the fore-feet, but in the 
 hind-feet the number may be reduced to four, or even three ; the claws 
 being usually sharp and curved. A single species of Spermophilus has a 
 ringed tail. 
 
 The order has a cosmopolitan distribution, being fairly well represented 
 even in Australia, New Guinea, and Madagascar ; but it is in South America 
 that it attains its maximum development, the number of family types peculiar 
 to that region being very large. In size, Rodents vary from that of a rather 
 small pig to that of the smallest shrew, the harvest-mouse being one of the 
 most minute of Mammals. The carpincho (Hydrochcerus capivara) of South 
 America is the largest of the Rodents. As regards habits, all feed almost ex- 
 clusively upon vegetable substances 
 (except perhaps one rat from the 
 Philippines, and a second from South 
 America), but in other respects they 
 present great diversity. The flying- 
 squirrels, for instance, are flying, 
 arboreal, and nocturnal, whereas 
 the ground-squirrels are terrestrial. 
 Others again, such as the marmots, 
 form large colonies, the members of 
 which live in burrows, and are to a 
 great extent diurnal ; while others, 
 like the beaver and coypu, have Fig 54 ._ TlIE CARPINCHO 
 
 taken to an aquatic life. In struc- (Hydrochosrus capivara). 
 
 ture, Rodents are so much alike that 
 
 somewhat obscure osteological characters have to be relied upon in order to 
 divide them into groups. 
 
 Agreeing with the great bulk of the order in the possession of only a single 
 pair of upper incisor teeth, the members of this and the three following 
 families constitute a group (Sciuromorplia) chiefly charac- 
 terised by certain peculiarities in the structure of the skull. African Flying- 
 In this portion of the skull the cheek or zygomatic arch Squirrels. 
 (that is to say the long slender bar of bone running along Family 
 
 the lower border of the socket of the eye) is chiefly formed Anomalurida;. 
 by the bone known as the jugal, which is not supported by 
 a backwardly-directed process from the upper jawbone, or maxilla ; postor- 
 bital processes arising from the frontals to define the hinder margin of the 
 sockets of the eyes may or may not be developed ; and in the lower jaw 
 the hinder, or angular portion arises from the socket of the lower incisor 
 tooth. 
 
 Although flying-squirrels are abundant in the Oriental countries, in Africa 
 south of the Sahara their place is taken by a separate family, comprising two 
 distinct genera. These African flying-squirrels differ from their Asiatic 
 cousins in that the parachute, by means of which they take their long flying 
 leaps, is supported in front by a rod of cartilage projecting from the elbow, 
 instead of from the wrist ; and an additional peculiarity is the presence of a 
 row of overlapping horny scales on the under surface of the tail, which are 
 believed to be of use in climbing. The typical representatives of the family 
 are the short-tailed flying-squirrels (Anomalurus), most of the species in- 
 habiting West Africa, although one is found in Equatoria, and a second near 
 
90 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 Zanzibar. The smallest is the equatorial flying-squirrel (^4. pusilliis), in 
 which the length of the head and body is 11 inches, arid that of the tail 
 just over five inches. The second genus (Idiurus) is represented only by a 
 single species from the Cameruns district, which is not larger than a small 
 house-mouse, the length of the head and body being only just over two and 
 a half inches, and that of the tail four inches. Agreeing with the ordinary 
 African flying-squirrels in the general form and mode of support of the para- 
 chute, as well as in the presence of rows of scales 
 on the under surface of the tail, this species 
 is at once distinguished by the short, knob-like 
 nose, and the thinly-haired tail ; the latter ter- 
 minating in a pencil of hairs, and being nearly 
 double the length of the head and body, instead 
 of shorter. In place of being uniformly and 
 thickly covered with fur, the tail is short-haired 
 on its upper surface, with three longitudinal rows 
 of elongated sparse hairs, while beneath it is 
 naked, with three rows of scales near the base. 
 An important difference is also to be found in 
 the structure of the fore-foot, in which the thumb 
 is reduced to a mere knob-like rudiment, while 
 in the hind-foot the first toe is much smaller 
 
 , - i i -i e i i 
 
 than the other four, which are of approximately 
 equal length. There are likewise structural 
 differences in the skull, into the consideration of which it will be un- 
 necessary to enter on this occasion. In colour, the fur of the back and 
 upper surface of the parachute is pale whitish-brown, the hairs being 
 blackish-grey at the base ; while on the under surface the general hue 
 is a mixture of yellowish and dark grey, with a tinge of silver-grey on 
 the parachute. 
 
 Writing of the habits of Pel's flying-squirrel (Anomalurus pell} of West 
 Africa, Mr. W. H. Adams observes that " these squirrels come out of their 
 holes in the trees some hours after sunset, returning long before daybreak. 
 They are only to be seen on bright moonlight nights, and, in fact, the natives 
 s:ty they do not come out at all in stormy weather or on very dark nights. 
 They live on berries and fruits, being specially fond of the palm oil-nut, 
 which they take to their nests to peel and eat. They pass from tree to tree 
 with great rapidity, usually choosing to jump from a higher branch to a lower 
 one, and then climbing up the tree to make a fresh start. The temperature 
 on the hills varies considerably. During the time I was there the rainy 
 season, from the middle of April to the middle of June it was never very 
 hot, one night the thermometer going down to 44 deg. on the ground. Of 
 course, in the dry season it is much hotter, but the natives say these animals 
 are much more plentiful in the rains, and that the rainier the season the 
 more they see. They litter twice a year, once about September, the young 
 remaining in the nest for about nine weeks, during which they are fed by 
 the old ones on such food as shoots and kernels ; they do not attempt to 
 jump till the end of that period, extending the length of their jumps with 
 their growth. I do not know the other time of breeding, or whether they 
 have a regular season. The hunters told me that two or three were usually 
 born at one birth, and never more than four." 
 
 This extensive family includes not only ordinary squirrels, but likewise 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 91 
 
 the typical, or northern fly ing -squirrels, together with marmots, chipmunks, 
 etc. The family is distinguished from the last by the absence of scales on the 
 bushy tail, and the presence of postorbital processes defin- 
 ing the hinder border of the socket of the eye ; while if a Squirrel Tribe. 
 parachute is developed, it is supported by a cartilaginous Family 
 
 rod arising from the wrist. The palate is broad, and there Sciuridcu. 
 are usually two pairs of upper and one of lower premolar 
 teeth, although the first pair in the upper jaw, which are always small, may 
 be shed at an early age, or even wanting. The cheek teeth are rooted, and 
 in the young always bear tubercles on their crowns, although in the adult 
 these may be converted into deep plates separated by clefts extending par- 
 tially across the crown. With the exception of Madagascar and Australasia, 
 the family has a cosmopolitan range. 
 
 The first genus is represented only by the large groove-toothed squirrel 
 (Rhithrosciurus) of Borneo, easily recognised by the numerous vertical grooves 
 on the upper incisor teeth. Next come the Ethiopian spiny squirrels (Xerus\ 
 typically characterised by the coarse spiny fur, the small size or absence of 
 external ears, and the comparatively straight and long claws ; while they are 
 further distinguished by certain features of the skull and teeth. This group 
 ranges all over Africa from Abyssinia southwards. The numerous species of true 
 squirrels (Sciurus) differ from the last by the shortness of the skull, in which 
 the postorbital processes are more elongated. The tail is very long and bushy ; 
 the ears are generally large, and in some instances tufted ; there are only 
 four functional toes to the fore-feet ; the claws are long, curved, and sharp ; 
 and the females have either four or six teats. The cheek teeth have low 
 tuberculated crowns. The genus has a very wide distribution, but attains its 
 maximum development in the Malayan countries. Whereas, with the excep- 
 tion of the muzzle and chest, the common squirrel ($. wdgaris) is nearly 
 uniform brownish-red, the little Indian palm-squirrel (8. palmarum) is marked 
 with longitudinal dark and light stripes on the back, and many species have 
 two or three conspicuous bright-coloured and white bands oil the flanks, 
 while one American form is peculiar among Mammals in assuming a special 
 brilliant breedir.g-dress. A.11 the squirrels are arboreal, but their habits are 
 too well known to need special mention. From the true squirrels the 
 ground-squirrels, or chipmunks (Tamias), of the northern portions of both 
 hemispheres, differ by having pouches inside the cheeks for the storage 
 of food ; and are also characterised by the presence of distinct white or 
 greyish-white longitudinal stripes bordered by black bands on the sides, or 
 sides and back. Chipmunks, which are among the most common of North 
 American Rodents, are terrestrial in their habits, and chiefly remarkable 
 for the accumulations of food which they collect for winter use ; such 
 supplies being carried to the place of storage in the capacious check 
 pouches. 
 
 The susliks, or gophers (Spermophihis *), which have a geographical distri- 
 bution nearly similar to that of the chipmunks, although most of them are 
 found in desert regions where the latter never go, are readily characterised 
 by their somewhat slender and squirrel-like form, the presence of cheek 
 pouches, and therudimental first toe of the fore-foot, which may, however, be 
 provided with a nail. In the skull the first upper premolar is larger than in 
 the true squirrels, and the two series of cheek teeth are nearly parallel. 
 The ears may be either minute, or relatively large and tufted ; and the tail 
 1 The earlier name Anisonyx is used by American authors. 
 
92 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 may be either of medium length, or reduced to a stump. The coloration, 
 which is never like that of the chipmunks, may be either uniform or striped. 
 In habits, the susliks are social and burrowing animals, selecting dry sandy 
 soil for their underground habitations ; and in the colder portion of their 
 range hibernating during the inclement months of the year. The common 
 American species is the striped gopher ($. tridecemlineatus). Susliks agree 
 with the two following genera in that the incisor teeth lack the compressed 
 form characterising those of the squirrels and their immediate allies, and also 
 in the simple structure of their molars. The prairie-marmots, or prairie- 
 dogs (Cynomys) of North America form in some respects a connecting link 
 between the susliks and the true marmots, being intermediate in size between 
 the two, and having stouter bodies than the former. Their ears are small, and 
 the tail is generally short, while their cheek pouches are less capacious than 
 those of the susliks, and the first toe of the fore-feet is well developed, and 
 carries a large claw. The massive skull has the large postorbital processes 
 directed nearly outwards, and the stout molar teeth, which form two series 
 converging behind, differ from those of both the susliks and marmots in 
 having three, in place of two grooves, on their crowns. In habits the prairie- 
 marmots very closely resemble the true marmots, but the mounds of 
 earth they throw up from their burrows have a very distinct crater-like 
 form. 
 
 From the prairie-marmots the true marmots (Arctomys) may be distin- 
 guished by their stouter form, the absence of cheek pouches, the rudimental 
 
 first toe of the fore-foot, which carries only a 
 small flat nail, and the above-mentioned 
 differences in the form and direction of the 
 upper molar teeth. Marmots are common to 
 the northern half of both the Old and New 
 World, ranging as far south as the Pyrenees, 
 Alps, and Himalaya. They are among the 
 larger members of the order, the common 
 Alpine marmot measuring more than 20 
 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. In 
 appearance they are stoutly built, with short 
 legs, powerful claws, a broad and short head, 
 small and rounded ears, and a bushy tail, usually 
 less than half the length of the body. Their 
 fur is moderately long, and somewhat stiff ; 
 while their colour exhibits various tints of 
 Fig. 56.-C OMM o N MARMOT g lden ? r reddish-brown, shading, more or 
 
 (Arctomys mannotta). less markedly into black along the back and 
 
 tail, the tip of the latter being always 
 
 blackish. As regards their habits, marmots live in extensive societies, their 
 large and deep burrows forming warrens, and communicating with one 
 another underground. All the regions they inhabit experience a very severe 
 winter climate, during which the marmots hibernate securely in the depths 
 of their burrows, only waking from their long sleep at the melting of the 
 snows. Those that dwell in the mountains of Europe and Asia generally 
 select open valleys or uplands, where the soil is more or less sandy, for the 
 construction of their burrows, the neighbourhood of water being essential. 
 In Russia and Siberia they inhabit the open and barren steppes. Extreme 
 wariness, especially where they dwell on frequented routes, is characteristic 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 93 
 
 of all marmots. During the daytime they may be seen playing around their 
 burrows, at the mouths of which they sit upright when the least alarmed. 
 In this situation, the moment they catch sight of a suspicious object, they 
 throw themselves down their burrows, which are often situated at the root 
 of a rhubarb plant, with the well-known shrill scream, at the sound of which 
 any other animal that may be in the vicinity immediately takes alarm. It is 
 almost superfluous to observe that, in order to secure them when thus sitting, 
 it is necessary to shoot marmots dead ; for, even with the slightest kick left 
 in them, they will often manage to tumble into their holes before they can 
 be seized. When disturbed for the first time, they will usually reappear 
 after a short interval ; but after a second fright they generally sulk, and 
 seldom show again. Wishing to secure a number of skins for rugs, the 
 writer and his party, after much toil, once succeeded in turning a small 
 rivulet into a marmot warren on one of the plateaus of Little Tibet, but, to 
 their dismay, were unable to "bolt " a single marmot the whole colony pre- 
 ferring to perish miserably by drowning in their burrows rather than face 
 their foes in the open. 
 
 In Europe there occur two species of marmot namely, the Alpfna marmot 
 (A. marmotta) and the somewhat smaller bobac (A. bobac}. The former is an 
 exclusively European form, only found in the three disconnected mountain 
 chains of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpathians, at elevations varying be- 
 tween 5,000 and 1,000 feet, where it meets with a climate suitable to its exist- 
 ence. The second species, in which the head and body measure about 
 15 inches in length, has its western limit on the German frontier, and thence 
 ranges eastward through Galicia and Poland, right across the steppes of 
 Southern Russia, and thence to Amur, Kamschatka, and Siberia the climate 
 of these regions lacing sufficiently rigorous to admit of the existence of these 
 animals at ordinary elevations. It is noteworthy that marmots do not extend 
 to the north-westward either into Lapland or the Scandinavian peninsula, 
 where the country does not present the character of the Russian steppes, 
 which in summer are scorched by a burning heat, and in winter form a track- 
 less expanse of snow. The southern limits of the bobac do not appear to be 
 yet definitely known. When, however, we reach the mountains of Yarkand 
 and other parts of Turkestan, and thence proceed southwards to the northern 
 districts of Ladak in Western Tibet, we meet with a very similar, although 
 somewhat larger, short-tailed species known as the Himalayan marmot 
 (A. himalayanus}, the range of which appears to extend eastward into Tibet 
 proper, where this species has been described under other names. The 
 Himalayan marmot is another species which, at all events in the southern 
 portion of its range, can only find a suitable climate at great elevations, the 
 height at which it is usually found in Ladak and Turkestan varying between 
 12,000 feet and something over 17,000 feet. Another species is also met 
 with in the neighbourhood of Yarkand and the Pamir, at elevations of about 
 13,000 feet, known as the golden marmot (-4. aureiis), and is distinguished 
 from the last by its more golden colour, and shorter and thicker tail. 
 Examples of this species were also obtained in Turkestan during Przewalski's 
 expeditions. To the south-west the writer, when crossing the elevated 
 plateau of Deosai, or "Devil's Plains," situated between the town of Skardo 
 on the Indus in Western Tibet and the mountains north of Kashmir, the 
 elevation of which is between 12,500 feet and 13,000 feet, found marmots 
 exceedingly abundant, although he was unable to determine to which of the 
 two preceding species they belonged, or whether they were more nearly 
 
94 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 allied to the Cabul species to be immediately mentioned. The Deosai 
 plateau, it may be mentioned, is one of the most desolate and dreary regions 
 that can well be imagined, consisting of rolling hills and dunes of sand and 
 gravel, with a sparse coating of vegetation, where almost the only living 
 things to be seen are marmots and mosquitoes. The climate is most 
 rigorous ; the sun's rays beating down with terrific power through the dry 
 and rarified atmosphere during the day in the summer months, but the tem- 
 perature rapidly falling, and often sinking below the freezing point after 
 sunset. In winter this region is absolutely impassable ; so that its climate 
 may be regarded as an intensification of that of the steppes. 
 
 The Cabul marmot. ( A. dichrous), which is also met with in Turkestan, is a 
 smaller species than the golden marmot, from which it is further distinguished 
 by its duller coloration, and the absence of any black on the back. The 
 regions whence it is obtained have a climate of the general character men- 
 tioned above. The last species to be mentioned is known as the red or long- 
 tailed marmot (A. caudatus). This appears to be the largest of all those 
 found in the Old World, attaining a length of nearly two feet, exclusive of 
 the tail, which measures about one foot. It is readily recognised, not only 
 by its size and long, bushy tail, but also by the full rufous tinge of the hair, 
 and the large extent of black found on the back of many individuals, the 
 skins being handsomer than those of any of the other kinds. 
 
 The distribution of this Himalayan marmot is extremely interesting as 
 showing that these animals can only exist in an arid climate more or less 
 nearly approaching that of the steppes or of Tibet. To understand this, it 
 must be mentioned that the immense mountain-barrier lying to the north- 
 ward of the valley of Kashmir, the lowest gap in which has an elevation of 
 11,500 feet, cuts off almost completely the clouds coming up from the plains 
 of India from the more or less arid regions to the northward. Now, whereas 
 marmots are totally unknown on the great range of mountains south of the 
 Kashmir valley, where the rainfall is excessive, directly the traveller reaches 
 the summits of the passes of the northern range, and thence far down on the 
 northern side, the shrill cry of the red marmot strikes his ear. This is very 
 noticeable in travelling on the Central Asian high road up the Sind Valley, 
 when he crosses the Zogi Pass into the Tibetan area. This marmot may like- 
 wise be met with on crossing the passes leading to our distant frontier 
 station of Gilgit ; and it also appears to range into many parts of Ladak, 
 although its exact limits are not yet accurately defined. It is thus evident 
 that marmots now exist only at such elevations or in such regions as possess 
 an extreme continental climate that is to say, one where the summers are 
 hot and the winters excessively cold. It has been shown that in Europe the 
 Alpine marmot inhabits three distinct and isolated ranges, separated from 
 one another by low-lying areas possessing a climate entirely different from 
 the type above referred to ; and it is thus clear that it could not have crossed 
 these unsuitable low areas while the climate of Europe was the same as at 
 the present day. That there must have been at some time or other a direct 
 communication between these isolated marmot areas is, therefore, self- 
 evident. 
 
 The next section of the Sciuridce is formed by the true, or northern flying 
 squirrels, of which there are three well-marked generic groups. In all these 
 animals the parachute is supported by a rod of cartilage projecting like a 
 yard-arm from the outer side of the wrist, and there is another expansion of 
 skin connecting the fore-limbs with the neck, while there may be a third 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 95 
 
 between the hind-legs and the root of the tail. The whole of these flying- 
 squirrels are characterised by the complex structure of their molar teeth ; 
 and as their skulls differ considerably from those of other members of the 
 family, they must be regarded as constituting a sub-family group by them- 
 selves. 
 
 Flying-squirrels of this group have existed since a comparatively early 
 epoch in the Tertiary period, and it is consequently impossible to affiliate 
 them with any of the genera of ordinary squirrels ; so that it is quite likely that 
 they have originated from a totally extinct genus or genera. Hence, it is 
 impossible to say whether the three genera into which they are divided have 
 all taken origin from one non-volant form, or whether the power of flight 
 has been separately evolved in each of the three generic groups. Of the 
 three genera, the one known as Sciuropterus includes the lesser flying-squir- 
 rels, all of which have the crowns of their molar teeth comparatively low, 
 and the parachute of moderate width, and not including any portion of the 
 tail. Having one representative in North America, and a second in North- 
 Eastern Europe and Siberia, the lesser flying-squirrels are mainly characteristic 
 of India and the Malayan countries. While some of the larger kinds measure 
 as much as 12 inches from the nose to the root of 'the tail, in the pigmy 
 flying-squirrel of Cochin-China and Arakan the length of the head and body 
 scarcely exceeds five inches. These squirrels collect in numbers in hollow 
 trees, where they remain in slumber during the daytime, to issue forth at 
 night for the purpose of feeding. Climbing to a coign of vantage on some 
 tree, they take their flying leaps to the bough or trunk of another at n 
 lower level, not unfrequently covering a distance of some 30 or 40 yards. 
 The length of the leap is, however, still greater among the members of the 
 next genus, reaching from 60 to nearly 80 yards. The larger flying- 
 squirrels (Pteromys) form an exclusively Asiatic group, represented by some 
 ten species, and extending from the Malayan countries as far north as Eastern 
 Tibet. In addition to their superior dimensions, these flying-squirrels are 
 distinguished from the preceding group by the greater width of the parachute 
 along the sides of the body, and the enclosure of the base of the tail in the 
 portion connecting the two hind -legs. The tail itself is, moreover, completely 
 cylindrical, instead of slightly compressed ; and the molar teeth have 
 rather taller and more complex crowns than in the lesser flying-squirrels. 
 In some of the larger species the head and body may measure as much 
 as 18 inches in length, while the tail may reach to 24 or 25 inches. 
 The last member of the sub-family is the woolly flying-squirrel (Eupetannts) 
 a large species from the neighbourhood of Gilgit, distinguished by the 
 very tall molar teeth, which have flat, instead of ridged, masticating 
 surfaces. 
 
 Finally, the five species of pigmy squirrels (Nannosciurus), of which 
 one is West African, a second from the Philippines, while the other 
 three are Bornean, constitute another sub-family, c aracterised by cer- 
 tain peculiarities in the skull and the complex structure of the molar 
 teeth. 
 
 An unimportant family is constituted by two North American Rodents 
 known as sewellela (Haplodon), which differ from the U 1 
 
 Sciuridce by the absence of postorbital processes in the Pam'lv S 
 
 skull and the rootless molars. According to Dr. Merriam, Haplodontid(K 
 they are aquatic in their habits. 
 
 The last family of the squirrel-like group of the order is represented only 
 
MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 The Beavers. 
 Family 
 
 Castoridce. 
 
 Fig. 57. BEAVER (Castor fiber). 
 
 by the beavers (Castor), easily distinguished by the broad, flattened, and 
 scaly tail. The skull is massively made and devoid of postorbital processes, 
 with the angle of the lower jaw rounded ; the cheek teeth 
 do not develop roots, and have their crowns marked with 
 re-entering folds of enamel ; the premolars are limited to a 
 single pair in each jaw ; and the hind-feet are webbed. 
 Beavers, which are the largest Rodents in the Northern 
 Hemisphere, and are thoroughly aquatic in their habits, are confined to cer- 
 tain parts of that hemisphere, being found only in Europe, Northern Asia, 
 and North America. The actual extent of their range in the Old World 
 is not so clearly defined as could be wished. There is, however, ample 
 
 evidence that this range originally 
 extended from the British Islands 
 in the west, to France, and perhaps 
 Italy, Spain, and Greece, in the 
 south, thence eastward to Asia 
 Minor, and possibly Persia, and to 
 the north-eastward as far as the 
 Yenesei and Lena in Siberia, and 
 thence to Amur, Scandinavia, and 
 Hussia ; but there does not appear 
 to be any good evidence as to the 
 eastern limits of beavers in the 
 direction of Northern China, al- 
 though it may not be improbable 
 that in this region these animals 
 only inhabited the rivers flowing northwards into the Caspian Sea and the 
 Arctic Ocean. On the Continent, beavers were finally exterminated in Holland 
 in 1825. In France a number of names, such as Bievre, Beuvron, and Beu- 
 vray, or Beuvry, as well as the ancient Bibrax and Bibracte, point to the 
 originally wide distribution of beavers. Fossil remains of these animals occur 
 in many places, such as Abbeville, in the valley of the Somme, the neigh- 
 bourhoods of Paris and Clermont, and the cavern of Lunel-Viel, in Herault. 
 The Hhone and its tributaries, especially the Gardon and the Cese, appear to 
 have been the great stronghold of these creatures within the historic period. 
 Even, however, in the last century they had become exceedingly rare, owing 
 to the incessant persecution to which they had been subjected. Still, they 
 have been met with at intervals even up to the present day. Thus Gervais 
 records the capture of a specimen in 1846, close to the port of Avignon, and 
 mentions having seen two others near Aries. The floods of 1840 doubtless 
 led to the destruction of a considerable number, so that after this date they 
 were much more rare than formerly. The circumstance that the monks of a 
 monastery on the right bank of the Rhone at Villeneuve-les-Avignon in- 
 cluded beavers among their plats maigres, indicates that in earlier days they 
 were probably abundant. M. St. Hilaire, in the Bulletin de la Societe 
 d* Acclimatation for 1888, records the capture of three specimens during that 
 year in the Rhone, and a recent writer concludes that from 25 to 30 beavers 
 are still annually killed in that river and its tributaries. There does not 
 appear to be evidence that these animals linger in any other of the French 
 rivers. 
 
 It is mentioned in some of the old writers that beavers occur rarely in 
 Italy, Spain, and Greece, but ib is difficult to find on what evidence these 
 
MAMMALS THA T GNA W 97 
 
 statements rest ; but since remains of the existing species are found in the 
 superficial beds in the neighbourhood of Rome, there is a considerable likelihood 
 that its alleged occurrence in Italy within the historic period may be based on 
 fact. The lake-cities or " phalbauten " of Switzerland afford evidence of the 
 abundance of beavers in that country during the pre-historic period, and in 
 the last century a few were still to be found in the Aar, Limmat, Reuss, and 
 other tributaries of the Rhine. That some lingered on into the present 
 century is proved by a specimen from the Rhine exhibited in the Jardin des 
 Plantes in 1829 ; and there is evidence of their presence in the early part of 
 this century both in the Rhine and the Rhone basins. 
 
 In Germany fossil remains of beavers are found in several of the great 
 caves, more especially in that of Gailenreuth in Franconia. As late as the 
 closing decades of the last and the early ones of the present century, colonies 
 of these animals were abundant on many of the German rivers, remnants of 
 which still exist here and there up to the present time. In North- Western 
 Germany the Moselle and the Maas were formerly noted habitats of these 
 animals, although we have no record of the date of their disappearance, even 
 if this has yet taken place. The Lippe, which, like the Moselle, is a tribu- 
 tary of the Rhine, was likewise a well-known haunt. Thus at Ketlinghausen, 
 and still higher up the river afc Padderbun, beavers were abundant, and 
 formed regular colonies, like their Canadian cousins, at the beginning of the 
 present century, and it is probable that some few still exist. Proceeding 
 northward to the basin of the Elbe, the account by Meyernick, published in 
 1829, of a colony on one of the tributaries of this river near Magdeburg, is 
 too well known to need repetition. Lower down the river at Wittenberg, 
 and also at Kahnert, they were also comparatively abundant in 1801 ; and at 
 the former locality there is evidence of their occurrence in 1848, and again 
 as late as 1878, when no less than eight individuals were observed in an old 
 river channel. Again in Bohemia, the valley of the Moldau, with its numer- 
 ous affluents, which forms the upper reaches of the extensive basin drained 
 by the Elbe, abounded in beavers up to the year 1848, since which date, in 
 spite of strict precaution, they have probably been greatly reduced in num- 
 bers. The basin of the Danube, in South-Eastern Germany, is, however, 
 probably the greatest stronghold of German beavers at the present time. In 
 1837 the small river Amper, a tributary of the Isar, situated some distance 
 to the north of Munich, was occupied by several colonies, which were pre- 
 served as a valuable commercial property. There is also good evidence of 
 the existence of the last-named colonies, as well as of others on the Isar, 
 Iller, and Salzach tributaries of the Danube up to 1846, since which date 
 I have been unable to come across any records of them. 
 
 There is a dearth of information with regard to the presence of beavers 
 lower down the Danube valley in Austria-Hungary and Turkey ; but it is 
 certain that they did, or do still, exist in the former regions ; and they have 
 also been recorded from the Lower Danube on well-authenticated evidence. 
 That beavers may have existed, or still exist, in other parts of European 
 Turkey, is suggested by the fact of their appearance in Asia Minor. They 
 have been recorded in the upper Euphrates valley by Heifer in a book 
 published in 1879 ; while Eichwald long since mentioned their occurrence in 
 the rivers of the Caucasus; and Smarda included them in his list of the 
 Mammals of Mesopotamia. Messrs. Danford and Alston observe that trust- 
 worthy authorities at Kaisariyeh (a town in Rumelia, on the Kizil river, 
 flowing into the Black Sea) stated " that in the marshes between that place 
 8 
 
98 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 and Sudjesu there existed an animal like an otter, but which had a broad, 
 hairless tail." And there can be no reasonable doubt that these authors are 
 right in identifying this creature with the beaver. The possible eastward 
 extension of the beaver into Persia is suggested by Mr. Blanford. 
 
 From the Caucasus the ranger of the beaver may be traced through Russia, 
 Poland, and Livonia, to Lapland, and thence to the Scandinavian Peninsula. 
 Immediately to the north of the Caucasus, Oken recorded their abundance 
 in the valley of the Tereck in 1842. In Central Russia there is no definite 
 evidence of their occurrence, but in the Baltic provinces of Livonia the 
 record is again ample. Many places in this district take, indeed, their 
 name from beavers, and about the middle of the last century these animals 
 appear to have had populous colonies on most of the streams of the country. 
 In 1724, so common were they, that their dams were a serious inconvenience 
 to the district, owing to the floods caused by them. It appears, however, 
 from the researches of Loewis, that beavers are now completely exterminated 
 from Livonia, the last specimen having been shot in 1841. In i 889 the exist- 
 ence of a few beavers in the river Svislotch, Government of Mink v and also 
 in the Dnieper, was recorded. In North Russia the rivers Dwina and 
 Petchora, flowing respectively into the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean, 
 were the resorts of beavers as late as 1842, but it is probable that they 
 are now completely extinct. Passing eastward into Silesia, there is evidence 
 of the former wide distribution of these animals, it being stated that they 
 extended as far as Amur. In the basin of the Obi, in Western Siberia, they 
 appear to be extinct in the valley of the Irtsh, where they "were formerly 
 abundant ; but at least up to 1876 they continued to be found in the small 
 affluent of the Obi known as the Pelyin. Beavers have long since completely 
 -disappeared from the Yenesei, in Eastern Siberia, but information is still 
 required with regard to the more easterly valley of the Lena. In Poland 
 and Lithuania beavers may still linger on ; but, as already observed, there is 
 a want of evidence as to the limits of their original range in the region lying 
 eastward of a line connecting the Baltic with the Black Sea. Reverting to 
 the neighbourhood of the White Sea, and pursuing a course towards the 
 north-east, it appears that Lapland lost its beavers early in the present 
 century. The skull of the last specimen known to have been killed in 
 these regions was obtained about 1830. 
 
 In Scandinavia, although beavers were widely distributed in the last and 
 early part of the present century, it appears that they have now totally dis- 
 appeared from Sweden but still exist in at least three remote spots in 
 Norway. The number of specimens living in the latter country in 1880 was 
 estimated at not more than 60 ; but Collett placed their number at about 
 100, and, as they were strictly preserved, he did nut consider that they were 
 decreasing. Completing this survey of the range of the European beaver 
 with Denmark, evidence of its former existence -is found in the shape 
 of skulls and bones from the mosses and turbaries, while it is also known 
 to have lived there within the historic period. As to the precise date of its 
 extermination, there appears no definite record. 
 
 With regard to the range of the American beaver, few words will suffice. 
 It may be observed, in the first place, that, although some writers are indis- 
 posed to regard this beaver as specifically distinct from the European one ; 
 yet, from the constant difference in the form of the bones of the nasal region 
 of the skull, it seems to be a valid species, the proper name of which is Castor 
 canadensis. The earliest epoch of its occurrence is in the Pleistocene 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 99 
 
 deposits of South Carolina, New Jersey, Tennessee, and other localities, as 
 well as in the cavern-deposits of Virginia and Pennsylvania. Within the 
 historic period its range extended from Alaska and the Hudson Bay terri- 
 tories in the north, along the Atlantic seaboard as far south as Georgia and 
 Northern Florida, and thence along the Gulf of Mexico as far as the Rio 
 Grande in Texas, and for some distance into Mexico itself, while on the 
 Pacific Coast it is known to have extended as far south as California and 
 Arizona. In the interior of the continent beavers were naturally confined to 
 the neighbourhood of the great lakes and river valleys. Writing in 1877 of 
 the American beaver, Dr. Allen observes that " its present range, however, 
 is much less extended, very few being found east of the Mississippi River 
 south of the great lakes, and it is everywhere less numerous than formerly. 
 Some still remain in Northern Maine and in the Adirondack region of New 
 York, and probably some still survive thence southward in the sparsely 
 settled districts to Alabama and Mississippi. A recent article states that 
 they are still abundant in portions of Virginia. Their existence in great 
 abundance throughout the Atlantic States, and thence westward to the 
 Pacific, is thoroughly attested. They having been less persistently hunted 
 during recent years than formerly, they are reported to be slowly on the 
 increase in most localities where they still remain." 
 
 The dormice are the first representatives of the second section of the 
 Rodents, or Myomorpha, which presents the following characteristics. In 
 the skull the zygomatic arch is slender, and usually has the 
 jugal bone extending but little forwards, being supported by The Dormouse 
 a long backwardly directed process of the upper jaw-bone, Tribe. Family 
 or maxilla. There are no postorbital processes defining the Myoxidw. 
 hinder border of the socket of the eye ; and, except in one 
 sub-family of the 8palacidce, the angle of the lower jaw takes origin from the 
 inferior surface of the sheath of the lower incisor. All the members of the 
 section differ from the Sciuromorpha in that the tibia and fibula, or bones 
 of the lower leg, are welded together. 
 
 Resembling the true squirrels in shape and habits, the dormice form an Old 
 World family of small arboreal Rodents characterised by their long hairy tail, 
 the large size of the ears and eyes, and the shortness of the fore-limbs. 
 There is but one pair of premolars in each jaw, and the molars are rooted 
 with transverse re-entering foldings of enamel on their crowns. The dormice 
 may be divided into two main groups, according to the structure of the 
 stomach. In Myoxus, as typified by M. glis of continental Europe, the 
 stomach is simple, but the different species, which have been arranged under 
 several generic heads, differ considerably in other respects. In the typical 
 species the bushy tail has the hairs arranged in a row on each side, while the 
 molars are large, with flat crowns and complex enamel-foldings. In a second 
 group (Eliomys), typified by the European M. nitella, and extending over 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa, the tail has the hairs arranged in two rows, but is 
 tufted at the end, while the molars are small, with concave crowns, and the 
 folds of enamel indistinct. The third group of the genus (Graphiurus) is 
 solely African, and is distinguished by the tail being short, cylindrical, and 
 tufted, while the enamel-foldings on the small molars are almost wanting. A 
 West African form (Claviglis) differs by the shorter and more distinctly tufted 
 tail. On the other hand, the common dormouse of England and the rest of 
 Europe (Muscardinus avellanarius') differs from all the foregoing in the 
 thickened glandular walls of the anterior portion of the stomach ; the 
 
zoo MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 molars having flat crowns, with complicated foldings of enamel, and the 
 somewhat bushy tail being cylindrical. The more northern repre- 
 sentatives of the family take their name from the long winter torpor they 
 undergo. 
 
 From the Myoxidce, the very extensive and cosmopolitan family of the 
 Muridce, which includes rats, mice, and voles, may be distinguished by the 
 
 total absence of premolar teeth in both jaws. The group is, 
 
 The Mouse Tribe, however, better characterised by the structure of the skull, 
 
 Family Muri- in which the frontal bones are markedly constricted, while 
 
 dee. in the zygomatic arch the short and slender jugal bone is in 
 
 most cases reduced to a small splint connecting a back- 
 wardly-directed process from the upper jaw-bone, or maxilla, with a forward 
 projection from the Bquamosal bone at the hinder end of the skull. Still 
 more characteristic is the expansion of the lower part of the first-named pro- 
 cess into a large, flattened descending plate ; and in most cases the large 
 aperture in the skull for the passage of nerves situated beneath the anterior 
 root of the zygomatic arch is elevated, and much wider above than below. 
 The first toe of the fore-foot is rudimental, and in most cases naked and 
 scaly. This family, which includes more than a third of the members of the 
 entire order, is the only one among the Rodents represented either in 
 Madagascar or in Australia. Although a few species are aquatic, and some 
 arboreal, the great majority of the Muridce are terrestrial, a considerable 
 number of them living in burrows. Some fifty genera have been described. 
 
 The first sub-family is confined to Australia, New Guinea, and the island 
 of Luzon, in the Philippines, where it is represented by three genera. In 
 
 this group the molars, which are frequently reduced to two 
 
 The Australasian pairs in each jaw, develop roots, and have their crowns 
 
 Group. divided into alternating oblique lobes, partially splitting up 
 
 Sub-Family into tubercles. In the typical genus Hydromya, of Australia 
 
 HydromyincE* and New Guinea, the molars are J:wo in number, and the 
 
 external form is modified for the needs of an aquatic exist- 
 ence, the feet being webbed, the tip of the muzzle thickly clothed with hairs, 
 by means of which the nostrils can be clothed ; while the skull differs from 
 that of other members of the family in that the aperture beneath the socket 
 of the eye is nearly circular, instead of pear-shaped, and the descending 
 vertical plate at the front of the zygomatic arch is absent. In habits the two 
 species of this genus resemble water-voles. The genus Chrotomys, of which 
 there is one species from Luzon, differs from the other two in having three 
 pairs of molars ; its skull being intermediate between that of the first and 
 third genus, and its external form mouse-like, the toes being devoid of webs, 
 In JTeromi/s, which occurs typically in Australia, but is taken to include a rat 
 from Luzon, the molars resemble those of Hydromys in structure and number, 
 l;ut the skull and external form are nearly similar to those of an ordinary 
 mouse. _ In size this species is not larger than the common mouse, whereas 
 the other members of the group are much bigger. 
 
 The second sub-family is represented only by the beautiful little Malabar 
 
 spiny mouse (Platacanthomys lasiurus) of Southern India, 
 Malabar Spiny which is an arboreal form easily distinguished by the long 
 Mouse (Plata- bushy tail, which exceeds the head and body in length, and 
 canthomyince). also by the presence of flattened spines mingled with the 
 
 hairs. The rooted molars have their crowns divided into 
 
 complete transverse laminse. 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 101 
 
 The beautiful little large-eyed marines, known as gerbils, typify a third 
 sub-family, characterised by the narrowness of the incisors, the sub-division 
 i>t the crowns of the molars into transverse laminee, the 
 generally large size of the auditory bulla of the skull, and The Gerbil 
 the elongation of the hind-limbs. From the other genera, Group 
 
 the gerbils (Gerbillus), which range over Southern Europe, (Gerbillince). 
 Asia, and Africa, are distinguished by the deeply grooved 
 upper incisors, and the circumstance that the first molar has one, the second 
 two, and the third three transverse laminae ; the long tail being tufted at the 
 tip Gerbils are inhabitants of desert districts, where they burrow in tho 
 sandy soil. Some writers separate certain species as Merioncs. The short 
 and club-like form of the fleshy tail, as well as the very large size of tho 
 auditory bulla of the skull, serve to distinguish the African genus Pachy- 
 uromys, in which the narrow incisors are faintly grooved. Three other small 
 genera from Africa, namely, Mystromys, Otomys, and Dasymys, differ from 
 the gerbils and from one another in the structure of the molars ; they are all 
 typically South African, but the second has also been recorded from East 
 Africa and the Congo. A fifth genus (Malacomys), represented by a single 
 species from the Gabun, connects the gerbils with the rats, having the teeth 
 and limbs of the former, but the long scaly tail of the latter. 
 
 Two genera of very large long-haired rats from the Philippine islands 
 represent a sub-family in which the incisors are very broad, the molars divided 
 into transverse laminre, and the claws large. In Phlceomys, 
 of which there is but a single well-defined species, the ears The Philippine 
 are small and hairy, the tail moderate and sparsely haired, Rats (Phlceo- 
 and the auditory bulla very small ; the first molar having myince). 
 three, and the others two laminae. The second genus 
 (Crateromys) includes one very large greyish species from Luzon, which may bo 
 compared in size to a small marmot, and has a totally different type of molars. 
 
 This group, which is confined to Africa south of the Sahara, is typified by 
 the two species of Dendromys, and is characterised by the convexity of the 
 incisors, the rooted and tuberculated molars, hairy ears, and 
 long claws. The members of the typical genus have tho The Tree-Mice 
 habits of dormice & slender build, grooved incisors, and a (Dtndromyince.) 
 long, scaly, thinly-haired tail. Steatomys also has grooved 
 incisors, but of stouter form, and a rather short, thickly-haired tail ; while 
 Lophuromys differs by its smooth incisors, and the fine flattened bristles 
 which replace the hair. ^The fourth genus is Limacomys. 
 
 The large, generalised, and almost cosmopolitan group of the cricetine 
 Muridcs is characterised by the rooted upper molars carrying two longitudinal 
 rows of tubercles. It is typified by the hamsters (Cricetus) 
 of the Old World, which are confined to Europe and Asia, Cricetine Group 
 arid are characterised by having six tubercles on the first (Cricetince}. ' 
 upper molar, large cheek pouches, and a very short tail. 
 The true hamster (C. frumentarius) is a burrowing species, well known on the 
 Continent from the large amount of food it accumulates in its subterranean 
 dwelling. The white-footed mice (Sitomys) of the New World form a very 
 large, closely allied group, in which cheek pouches may be present or absent. 
 They are divided into a number of sub-genera, according to habits, bodily 
 form, dentition, etc., which have been named Rhipidomys, Oryzomys, Calomys, 
 Vesperimus, Onychomys, Scapteromys, Phyllotis, Acodon, and Oxymycterus. 
 S. hydrobates is peculiar oil account of its fringed feet and aquatic habits j 
 
102 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 while another species has spines mingled with the fur. The Brazilian genus 
 Holochilus, which includes the largest American rats, differs by the relatively 
 larger last upper molar and the stouter skull. Another allied type are the fish- 
 eating rats (Ichtkyomys) of South America, characterised by the webbed and 
 fringed hind-feet, and their aquatic and probably fish-eating habits, while 
 Nectomys is another allied Peruvian form. The rice-rat (Siymodon hispidus), 
 ranging from the United States to Ecuador, -differs markedly iromSitomys in 
 the pattern of the tubercles on the molar teeth. Writing of these rats, 
 Mr. G. Lincecum, in the American Naturalist for 1872, states that they 
 dwell together on the prairies of Texas in families in much the same manner 
 as the prairie-marmot. '* They prefer light sandy soil on the prairie, where 
 the shivered limy sandstone crops out ; but where the prairie is enclosed and 
 cultivated they take possession of the fencing, and burrowing under the 
 bottom rail, excavate sufficient cells, and construct their copious grassy beds 
 there. Out on the prairie, in the wild state, they make one principal burrow, 
 in front of which they pile up the earth that comes from all their subter- 
 ranean galleries. They rarely extend their main burrow more than eight or 
 nine inches in depth, while their underground passages are seldom more 
 than four or five inches below the surface. They also construct several 
 secret outlets, opening 10 or 12 inches from the main hole, which opening 
 they very ingeniously conceal by strewing a few grass blades over it ; and so, 
 when the rat-hunter attacks the citadel, the inmates escape through some of 
 the concealed passages. Eight or nine inches deep, and turned a little to one 
 side in the main hole, is a cavity, seven or eight inches in diameter, filled 
 with fine, soft grass blades, which must be quite warm and pleasant, serving 
 the family for winter-quarters. During the hot months they construct nice 
 grass beds in a basin-like cavity, which they dig out under the sides of tufts 
 of grass, or heaps of bush." From all the above the South American genus 
 Rhithrodon, with five rat-like species, and the North American Rhithrodont- 
 omysj containing three species of the size of large mice, differ in their 
 grooved upper incisors. Another well-marked type of the group is pre- 
 sented by the North American wood-rats (Neotoma), in which the molars 
 simulate the prismatic pattern characteristic of the voles. Certain species in 
 which the tail is very bushy have been separated generically as Teonoma ; 
 while N. alleni has been referred to a distinct genus under the name of 
 Hodomys. The next five genera of cricetines are confined to the island of 
 Madagascar, where they are the sole representatives of the Rodent order. Of 
 these, Hypogeomys is a large fawn-coloured rat, with large ears and feet and 
 a long tail ; Nesomys includes two long-haired rufous species ; Brachytarsomys 
 contains a single rat with velvety fawn-coloured fur, short feet, and a long tail ; 
 the single species of Hallomys differs from Nesomys by the much longer hind 
 feet ; while the two dormouse-like representatives of Miurus are easily recog- 
 nised by the short and nearly naked ears, and by the long tail being bushy, 
 except on its basal third, where it is scaly. The last representative of the sub- 
 family is the crested rat (Lophiomys imhausi) of North-Eastern Africa, so 
 named on account of the crest of long hair running along the back. This very 
 large rat, which is arboreal in its habits, differs from all other members of the 
 family in the first toe of the fore-foot being opposable, the rudimental collar- 
 bones, and by the bony roof covering the muscles of the hinder part of the 
 skull. All the hair is long, the long tail bushy, and the colour black and 
 white. The animal has quite unnecessarily been made the type of a distinct 
 family. 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 103 
 
 Closely allied to the cricetines, of which they may be regarded as a 
 specialised branch, the large group of voles are distinguished by their gener- 
 ally rootless, or imperfectly rooted molars being composed 
 of two longitudinal rows of alternating triangular prisms. The Vole Group 
 Externally they differ in most cases from the typical rats (M'icrotinct'). 
 and mice by their heavier and less elegant form, less active 
 movements, smaller eyes, blunter muzzle, smaller ears, and shorter limbs and 
 tail. They are restricted to Europe, Asia north of the Himalaya, and North 
 America. An annectant form between the cricetines and typical voles is the 
 North American genus Phenacomys, in which the molars develop roots. The 
 typical genus Microtus, which includes nearly half a hundred species ranging 
 over Europe, Northern Asia, and North America, is sufficiently characterised 
 by its rootless molars and the naked soles of the feet ; the British forms being 
 the water-vole (M. amphibius), the field-vole (M. agrestis), and the red, or 
 bank-vole (M, glareolus). Each of these is the representative of a distinct 
 sub-generic group, severally characterised by the number of prisms in the 
 molar teeth, and to which the names Pal-udicoia, Agricola, and Evotomys have 
 respectively been applied, The extraordinary hordes in which some species 
 of land voles make their appearance ab certain seasons, and the damage they 
 then inflict on agricultural produce, arc matters of common knowledge. The 
 round tailed musk-rat of Florida, which has been regarded as constituting a 
 genus (Neofiber) by itself, is considered by Dr. Merriam to be not more than 
 a sub-genus of Microtus. Nearly allied 13 the true musk-rat, or musquash 
 (Fiber zibethicus), of North America, which is the largest member of the 
 group, and measures nearly a foot in length to the root of the tail. Heavily 
 built, it is characterised by its broad head which joins the body without any 
 well-defined neck, short limbs, small eyes, ears nearly concealed in the thick, 
 beaver-like fur, and the ruclimental first toe of the fore- foot : the Jong tail 
 being laterally compressed, scaly, and sparsely haired, The general colour is 
 dark brown, tending to black on the back, arid grey on the under- parts. 
 Both sexes have a gland secreting the musky substance from which the animal 
 derives its name. Although its toes are nob webbed, the musk-rat is an 
 aquatic creature, feeding on a mixed vegetable and animal diet, Its fur is of 
 considerable value ; and the skull is very similar to that of Microtus. Another 
 distinct generic type is presented by the groove-toothed vole (Synapiomys) of 
 the United States, in which the upper incisors are grooved, while the external 
 form resembles that of the true voles, and the molars are like those of the 
 lemmings ; The latter Rodents (Myodes\ of which there is one Old World 
 and one North American species, differ from the voles by their heavier 
 build, the blunt convex head, very short tail and ears, the hairy soles of 
 the small feet, the bevelled upper incisors, and the pattern of the molar 
 teeth. 
 
 The common lemming (M. lemmus), which measures about five inches in 
 length, and has yellowish-brown fur with darker spots, is remarkable for the 
 periodical migrations undertaken by its countless swarms ; these hordes pass- 
 ing over every obstacle in their course till they finally reach the sea, in 
 which they perish. Nearly allied to the last genus, the circumpolar 
 banded lemming (Cuniculus torquatus) may be easily distinguished by the 
 absence of external ears, the shortness of the feet, which are thickly 
 haired beneath, the rudimental first toe of the fore-foot, and the great 
 length of the claws of the third and fourth toes of the same. The molars 
 approximate to those of the voles, but the first in the upper jaw difiers 
 
104 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 from that of all the other members of the sub-family in having seven 
 prisms. 
 
 Although frequently regarded as representing a sub-family by themselves, 
 the mole-voles, of which there are two genera, may be considered merely as 
 voles specially adapted for a subterranean existence ; the limbs and tail being 
 very short, and the body somewhat mole-like, while the eyes are small. In 
 the genus Mlobius, with one species from Russia, and a second from Afghan- 
 istan, the claws are short, whereas in Siphneus, of which there are several 
 representatives from Central and Northern Asia, those of the fore-feet are 
 enormously powerful. 
 
 In the typical rats and mice and their allies, forming the murine group of 
 the family, the molars are rooted and tuberculated, with three rows of 
 tubercles on at least the anterior ridge of the first one in the 
 Typical Group upper jaw. Indeed, with one exception, there are three longi- 
 (Murince). tudinal rows of tubercles on all the upper molars ; while, save 
 in one genus, there are two such rows in the corresponding 
 lower teeth. The whole group is restricted to the Old World, being re- 
 presented in Australia and New Guinea, but unknown in Madagascar. The 
 great majority of forms are very similar in external appearance, their build 
 being light, their eyes large and bright, their tails long and scaly, their 
 movements active, their coloration sombre, and their habits generally 
 burrowing and nocturnal. 
 
 The least specialised member of the family is a small mouse from the 
 Congo Valley, known as Deomys, which differs from all the others in that only 
 the first ridge of the anterior upper molar has three rows of tubercles, the 
 other two ridges of this tooth and all those of the other molars having but 
 two such rows, as in the cricetines. On the other hand, Berdmore's rat 
 (Hapalomys berdmorei\ from Burma, appears to be the most specialised of 
 all, the lower as well as the upper molars having three longitudinal rows of 
 tubercles. Another peculiar genus (Vandeleuria) is represented by a species 
 extending from India to Yunnan, and characterised by having flat nails on 
 the first and fifth digits of both feet, as well as by the great length of the tail. 
 North-Eastern India and some of the countries to the east of the Bay of 
 Bengal are the home of the pencil-tailed tree-mouse (Chiropodomys), dis- 
 tinguished by having flat nails on the first digit of both feet, whereas all 
 other members of the family, except one species of Mus, have a flat nail only 
 on the first to'e of the fore-foot. The next for notice are three genera re- 
 stricted to the mountains of Luzon, in the Philippine group, two being 
 represented only by a single species. By far the most remarkable of these 
 is the shrew-rat (Rhynchomys), distinguished by the shrew-like prolongation of 
 the muzzle, the short and feeble incisors, and the reduction of the molars, 
 which are very small, to two pairs in each jaw. Not improbably this species, 
 which is of the size of the black rat, and of a uniform olive-grey coloration, 
 subsists on insects or larvse, as the incisors appear too weak for gnawing. 
 The second genus, Carpomys, is represented by two somewhat dormouse-like 
 rats, with thick, woolly fur, and the long tail well haired ; while the single 
 species of Batomys differs by the hind-feet being wider and shorter, and the 
 fore-feet more elongated. 
 
 The true rats and mice constitute a genus (Mus) having a distribution co- 
 extensive with that of the sub-family, and including nearly 150 species. In 
 these Rodents the incisors are narrow and smooth, the molars of the typical 
 murine structure, the foramina at the anterior end of the bony palate 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 105 
 
 elongated, both the eyes and ears large, the extremity of the muzzle naked, 
 the fur soft, occasionally mixed with spines, a flat nail on the first toe of the 
 fore-foot, the long and nearly naked tail covered with overlapping rings of 
 scales, and cheek pouches absent. The species found in Britain are the 
 common rat (M. decumanus), which appears to have been originally a native 
 of Western China, but has now been introduced into all parts of the habitable 
 globe ; the smaller and sharper-nosed black rat (M. rattus), which is likewise 
 an Eastern form ; the conxmon house -mouse (M. tnusculus), also hailing from 
 the East ; the wood-mouse (M. sylvaticus), together with a larger variety 
 known as M. flavicollis ; and the tiny harvest-mouse (M. minutus). The 
 latter, it is well known, builds small globular nests between several corn- 
 stalks, and is itself able to ascend a single one of such stalks, aided in 
 climbing by its partially prehensile tail. It will be unnecessary here to refer 
 to the habits of mice in general, but some reference may be made to the so- 
 called "singing" and "waltzing mice." Singing mice are ordinary house- 
 mice, which, owing to some disease of the vocal organs, are enabled to pro- 
 duce musical notes. Waltzing mice are a Japanese product, of which the 
 following account is given by Mr. E. R. Waite : "At first," he writes, " a 
 visitor probably regards the mice as mere colour varieties of the common 
 white race. A moment's observation reveals the peculiarities of the breed, 
 and attention is riveted by their strange performances. Early in life they 
 exhibit the tendency which has earned for them the name above employed. 
 When a nursling leaves the nest its gait consists of an evident attempt to 
 proceed in a straight line ; this is frustrated by a tremulous movement of the 
 head, which is nervously shaken from side to side. Shortly, a tendency is 
 exhibited to turn ; this develops into a rotatory motion, performed with 
 extraordinary rapidity, which constitutes the peculiarity of the waltzing 
 mouse. The ordinary routine of daily life is constantly interrupted by this 
 mad disposition to whirl, frequently indulged in for several minutes, and, 
 with an occasional stoppage of a few seconds, continued for hours. The floor 
 of one cage being somewhat rough, the mice actually reduced their feet to 
 stumps before it was noticed. Like ordinary mice, they sleep during the 
 day, 'but apparently waltz the whole night long. If, however, they are dis- 
 turbed during daylight, they leave their bed and work off some superfluous 
 energy. The rotation is so rapid that all individuality of head and tail is lost 
 to the eye, only a confused ball of black and white being recognised. Very 
 often they spin in couples, revolving head to tail at such a speed that an un- 
 broken ring only is perceived. . . . An individual generally spins in one 
 direction only, and the majority turn to the left." Although probably due 
 in the first instance to brain-disease, the peculiarity, like the " tumbling " of 
 tumbler-pigeons, is now hereditary in the breed. 
 
 The longitudinally-striped Barbary mouse (M. larbarus\ together with 
 certain other more or less variegated African species, are frequently separated 
 from Mus as a distinct genus, under the name of Arvicanthis. Nearly allied 
 are the numerous species of bandicoot-rats (Nesocia\ ranging in Southern Asia 
 from Palestine to Formosa, and from Ceylon to Kashmir, but also extending 
 into Turkestan and the Lob-nor district of Central Asia. They differ from 
 the typical genus by the wider incisors and molars ; the tubercles on the 
 latter being partially connected by transverse ridges so as to produce a semi- 
 laminated type of structure. The two species of groove-toothed mice 
 (Golunda), one of which is Indian and the other African, are easily dis- 
 tinguished by having a groove down each of the front incisors. In addition 
 
ie6 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODEXTIA. 
 
 to having a species of M us, Australasia is the home of four peculiar genera of 
 the sub-family. Of these, the mosaic-tailed mice (Uromys), ranging from the 
 Aru Islands to Queensland, may be distinguished from Mus by the scales on 
 the tail being united by their edges so as to form a mosaic-like pavement, 
 instead of overlapping. The prehensile-tailed mouse (Chiruromys), of which 
 there is but a single species inhabiting the mountains of New Guinea, is 
 characterised by the naked tip of the tail being endowed with prehensile 
 power ; the scales of the rest of the tail being arranged in diagonal rows. 
 The upper molars have their tubercles very numerous, and arranged in a 
 complex manner ; while there are several peculiarities connected with the 
 structure of the skull. The numerous Australian species of jerboa-rats 
 (Conilurus) are easily recognised by their elongated hind-limbs, and long ears 
 and tail. They are inhabitants of desert districts, where they hop after the 
 manner of jerboas. The fifth genus (Mastacomys) is known only by a single 
 Tasmanian species, and differs from Mus by the great width of the molars, 
 and the reduction of the number of teats to four ; the fur being noticeable 
 for its length and softness. Differing remarkably as regards the latter feature, 
 the spiny-mice (Acomys], of which there are about seven small-sized species, 
 take their name from the fur being almost entirely replaced by flattened 
 spines, The skull and dentition are very similar to those of the type genus, but 
 the ascending process of each branch of the lower jaw is much smaller. 
 These mice range from Syria through East Africa as far south as Mosambique, 
 generally frequenting deserts, where some, at least, feed on bulbs. The long- 
 nosed rat (Echinothrix) of Celebes takes its name from the elongation of the 
 face, and is further characterised by the faint grooving of the incisors, and 
 the thick admixture of spines among the fur. The small blind-mouse (Typh- 
 lomys) of China is sufficiently characterised by the minute size of the eyes t 
 which are almost concealed by the long lashes. Except that it has smaller 
 ears, it is otherwise very similar in appearance to a house-mouse. The 
 African pouched rats (Cricetnmys and Saccostomus) differ from all the other 
 members of the sub-family in being provided with cheek pouches, the single 
 West African species of the former having grooved upper incisors, while in 
 the two representatives of the latter these teeth are plain. The last member 
 of the family is a mouse from Sumatra and Java, described as Pithechirus, and 
 presenting a considerable external resemblance to Chiropodomys. 
 
 The mole-rats constitute a small family confined to the Old World and 
 characterised by their generally mole-like build, cylindrical bodies, short 
 
 limbs, furnished with large claws, small or rudimental eyes 
 
 The Mole-Kats. and ears, usually short or rudimentary tail, large incisors, 
 
 Family and rooted molars with re-entering enamel-folds on their 
 
 Spalacidce. orowns. Premolars, varying in number, are present in 
 
 some forms but wanting in others ; the palate is narrow ; 
 and the anterior part of the zygomatic arch of the skull lacks the descending 
 vertical plate so characteristic of the Muridcp,. The great mole-rat (Spalax 
 typhlus) of South-Eastern Europe, South- Western Asia, and North-Eastern 
 Africa, which is the sole member of its genus, is the type of a sub-family 
 characterised by the angular portion of the lower jaw arising from the lower 
 part of the sheath of the incisor in the manner characteristic of the 
 Myomorpha generally ; and also by the absence of premo^rs. It is a sub- 
 terranean animal, driving tunnels in the earth in search of the bulbs which 
 form its food, and has the eyes completely covered by skin, and rudimental 
 ears and tail. In the nearly allied bamboo-rats (Rhizomys), of which there 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 107 
 
 are several species from the Oriental countries, Tibet, and Abyssinia, the 
 minute eyes are open ; there are small naked external ears, and the short 
 tail is partially covered with hair. The other 
 four genera, all of which are confined to 
 Africa south of the Sahara, differ from other 
 Myomorpha, and thereby resemble the under- 
 mentioned Hystricomorpha, in that the angle 
 of the lower jaw arises from the side of the 
 sheath of the incisor. Of these, the great 
 sand-mole (Bathyergus maritimus) of the 
 Cape, which attains a length of 10 inches, has 
 grooved upper incisors, a single pair of pre- 
 molar teeth in each jaw, no external ears, 
 and extremely powerful claws. In the allied Georychus and Myoscalops the 
 incisors are smooth; the members of the former genus usually have a single 
 pair of premolars, and the single species of the latter three pairs of these 
 teeth in both jaws, while the second toe of the hind-foot is the longest. In 
 both, the first pair of premolars may be absent. The curious little naked 
 sand-rats (Heterocephalus), of which the two species are confined to Somali- 
 land, are degraded forms, with no premolars, either two or three- pairs of 
 molars, an almost completely bare skin, small eyes, no external ears, a tail 
 of moderate proportions, and a pair of large pads on the powerful fore- 
 feet. These tiny little animals make shallow tunnels in the hot sand of 
 the desert, throwing up at intervals small heaps resembling miniature vol- 
 canic craters. 
 
 This comparatively small family is exclusively confined to North and 
 Central America, where it ranges from the plains of the Saskatchewan, in 
 Canada, southwards to Costa Rica, although attaining its 
 maximum development in the Western United States and The Pocket- 
 Mexico, and being unknown in the region east of the Gophers. 
 Mississippi, save the Gulf States. The essential characteris- Family 
 
 tic of these Rodents is the possession of large pouches open- Geomyidce. 
 ing externally on the cheeks at the sides of the mouth. In 
 addition to three pairs of molars, they have a single pair of premolar teeth in 
 each jaw; all the cheek teeth in the more typical forms being rootless, and con- 
 sisting of simple prisms, without any unfolding of the enamel. The pre- 
 molars consist of a double prism, but all the molars, with the exception of 
 the last pair in the upper jaw of some species, comprise but a single prism, 
 whose summit presents an oval disc of ivory bordered by a ring of enamel. 
 
 "All the members of the family," writes Dr. Merriam, " spend their entire 
 lives underground, and their whole organisation is modified in accordance 
 with the needs of a subterranean existence. The species, though numerous, 
 are very much alike externally They are short-legged, thick-set animals, 
 without any appreciable neck, without noticeable external ears, and with 
 very small eyes. The feet are largely developed for digging. The fore-paws 
 in particular are very strong, and armed with long curved claws, and the 
 sides of the toes are lined with rows of bristles that evidently serve in pre- 
 venting the dirt from passing between the fingers, thus completing a more 
 effective arrangement for keeping the tunnels clean, and for pushing the 
 earth out of the openings of the burrows. The tail, which is of moderate 
 length, is thick, fleshy, and usually devoid of hair, and is endowed with 
 tactile sensibility. 
 
io8 ' MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 u The pocket-gophers in working their way through the earth in the 
 construction of their tunnels, use the powerful upper incisors as a pick to 
 loosen the ground. At the same time the fore-feet are kept in active opera- 
 tion, both in digging and in pressing the earth back under the body, and the 
 hind-feet are also used in moving it still further backwards. When a suffi- 
 cient quantity has accumulated behind the animal, he immediately turns in 
 the burrow, and by bringing the wrists together under the chin with the 
 palms of the hands held vertically, forces himself along by the hind-feet, 
 pushing the earth out in front. When an opening in the tunnel is reached, 
 the earth is discharged through it, forming a little hillock that resembles in 
 a general way the hills thrown up by moles. In many species there is a 
 naked callosity over the front half of the nose, which must be of great 
 assistance in the construction of the tunnels. When this callosity 
 is largely developed, the nasal bones underneath are highly arched or 
 inflated." 
 
 The same writer then goes on to objei ve that he was much surprised to 
 see a captive example of one of the species run as rapidly backwards as for- 
 wards. " This method of progression was particularly noticeable when the 
 animal was in his own quarters, where he could follow a runway or an accus- 
 tomed route. When carrying food to one of his store-houses he rarely turned 
 round, but usually ran backwards to the place of deposit, returning for more, 
 and repeating the operation again and again, the to-and-fro movement 
 suggesting a shuttle on its track." 
 
 The cheek pouches, which are clothed internally with fur, according to the 
 same author, * ' are used exclusively in carrying food, and not in carting dirt, 
 as often erroneously supposed. They reach back as far as the shoulder, and 
 are so attached that they cannot be completely averted without rupture of 
 their connections." Writing of a tame specimen, Dr. Merriam observes that 
 *' the manner of eating was peculiar and interesting, and showed an ability 
 to use the huge fore-feet and claws in a way previously unsuspected. After 
 satisfying the immediate demands of hunger, it was his practice to fill one or 
 both cheek pouches. His motions were so swift that it was exceedingly diffi- 
 cult to follow them with sufficient exactness to see just how the operation 
 was performed. If a potato was given him, or a piece too large to go into 
 the pouch, he invariably grasped it between the fore-paws, and proceeded to 
 pry off a small piece with the large lower incisors. He would then raise 
 himself slightly on his hind-legs and hold the fragment between his fore- 
 paws while eating, for he usually ate a certain quantity before putting any 
 into the pouches. If small pieces were given him he took them promptly, 
 and passed them quickly into the pouches. Some pieces were thus disposed 
 of at once ; others were just trimmed by biting off projecting angles. As a 
 rule, one pouch was filled at a time, though not always, and the hand of the 
 same side was used to push the food m. The usual course is as follows : A 
 piece of potato, root, or other food is seized between the incisor teeth, and 
 immediately transferred to the fore-paws, which are held in a horizontal 
 position, the tips of the claws curving toward one another. If the food 
 requires reduction in size, the trimming is done while held in this position. 
 The piece is then passed rapidly across the side of the face with a sort of 
 wiping motion which forces it into the open mouth of the pouch. Some- 
 times a single rapid stroke with one hand is sufficient ; at other times both 
 hands are used, particularly if the piece is large. In such cases the long 
 claws of one hand are used to draw down the lower side of the opening, 
 
MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 109 
 
 while the food is poked in with the other. It is obviously impossible for 
 the animal to pass food from the mouth to the pouches without the aid of its 
 fore-claws. The most remarkable thing connected with the use of the 
 pouches is the way they are emptied. The fore-feet are brought back simul- 
 taneously along the sides of the head until they reach a point opposite the 
 hinder end of the pouches ; they are then pressed firmly against the head 
 and carried rapidly forward. In this way the contents of the pouches are 
 promptly deposited in front of the animal. Sometimes several strokes are 
 necessary, I am not prepared to say that the animal cannot empty the 
 pouches by means of the delicate investing muscles ; but I have never seen 
 them emptied in any other way than that here described." 
 
 According to American writers, the typical members of the family may be 
 divided into no less than nine genera ; but by English zoologists they have 
 hitherto been included in only two. Of 
 these, Geomys, as typified by the common 
 pocket-gopher (G. bursarius), is charac- 
 terised by having either one or two 
 grooves on the upper incisors. In the 
 typical species there are two of these 
 grooves, and the same is the case with 
 another form which has been separated 
 as Zygogeomys ; the latter being peculiar 
 in that the jugal, or cheekbone, does not 
 enter into the formation of the upper F[g 59._p OCKET _ G opHER 
 
 border of the zygomatic arch. In all the (Geomys bursar ius). 
 
 other forms, which have received the 
 
 names of Pappogeomys, Orthogeomys, Cratogeomys, Platygeomys, Heterogeomys, 
 and Macrogeomys, there is but a single groove on each incisor ; the groups 
 being distinguished by the conformation of the skull, and the extent 
 to which the cheek teeth are covered with enamel. From the above 
 the species of Thomom.ys are distinguished by the upper incisors being 
 either perfectly smooth, or marked only by a single fine streak on the 
 inner side. 
 
 The kangaroo-rats (Dipodomys), together with the two following genera, 
 are referred by American writers to a different family, and are distinguished 
 by their narrow incisors, moderate or large ears and eyes, and the elongated 
 hind-limbs and tail. In the kangaroo-rats the molar teeth are rootless ; the 
 typical forms having four toes, whereas others, which it has been proposed 
 to separate as Perodipiis, possess five. These small Rodents inhabit open 
 sandy districts, and have habits very similar to those of jerboas. From the 
 foregoing, the genera PerognatJws and Heteromys differ by their rooted 
 molars ; the latter being distinguished by the admixture of flattened spines 
 in the fur, and having species ranging into South America. All the forms are 
 small and mouse-like ; the common D. phillipsi being from South Mexico. 
 
 The jerboas and their allies form a small, widely-distributed family, by no 
 means easy of definition. Usually there is a pair of upper premolars, the 
 incisors are narrow, the molars are divided by transverse 
 folds of enamel into laminae, the vacuity in the skull below Jerboa Tribe, 
 the anterior root of the zygomatic arch is large and rounded, Family 
 and the hinder part of the auditory bulla is very large. The Dipodidce. 
 rat-like Rodents of the genus Sminthus, which range over 
 Eastern and Northern Europe, Central Asia, Kashmir, and Kansu, differ 
 
MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENT1A. 
 
 Fig. 60. A JERBOA 
 (Dipus). 
 
 from the other members of the family in the equality of the length of the 
 fore and hind-limbs ; the upper jaw having a single pair of premolars, while 
 there are none in the lower. The North American jumping-mice (Zapus) 
 are distinguished by the elongation of the hind-limbs, and the presence of a 
 pair of premolars in both jaws ; the hind-feet being furnished with five toes, 
 and the metatarsal bones separate from one another. The common species 
 ranges from Hudson Bay to Colorado. Agreeing with the last in their elongated 
 hind-limbs, the next four genera differ in having only 
 three functional hind-toes, and by the union of the 
 metatarsal bones of the hind-foot. Of these four 
 genera Dlpus has only three hind- toes, while Eucho- 
 retes, Alactaga, and Platycercomys have five, of which 
 the first and fifth do not touch the ground. The first 
 three of these have a long, cylindrical and tufted tail ; 
 Dipus being distinguished from the other two by 
 its grooved incisors, and the frequent absence of 
 premolars. Euchoretes is represented only by the 
 Yarkand jerboa, characterised by its elongated muzzle 
 and large ears ; while Platycercomy^ of which there 
 are several species, ranging from Siberia to Nubia, 
 differs by its flattened and lancet-shaped tail, and the 
 invariable absence of premolars, the incisors being 
 smooth. The true jerboas (Dipus), of which there are 
 several species, extend from Algeria through Egypt and North Arabia to 
 Eastern Persia and Central Asia. Alactaga is 
 best known by the Kirghiz jerboa (A. decumana) 
 of the Kirghiz steppes. All the jerboas are 
 essentially desert-haunting animals, living in 
 the open, and progressing by long leaps. The 
 last and largest member of the family is the 
 so-called Cape jumping-hare (Pedetes caffer\ 
 ranging from the Cape to Angola and Mozam- 
 bique, and differing from all the other genera 
 in having rootless molars. The hind-limbs 
 are elongated, the metatarsal bones separate, 
 and the hind-feet furnished with four toes ; 
 while the ears are long and narrow, and the 
 very long tail is clothed with elongated hair. 
 
 With the exception of the hares and picas, 
 which form a group by themselves, the whole of 
 the remaining members of the order are in- 
 cluded in a section known as the Hystrico- 
 morpha, which embraces six families. As a whole, this section is charac- 
 terised by the stoutness of the zygomatic arch of the skull, in which the 
 jugil bone forms the whole of the central portion without 
 any support from a process of the maxilla, while the angle 
 of the lower jaw arises from the outer side of the bony 
 sheath of the socket of the incisor. The collar-bones may 
 be either complete or imperfect ; in the lower part of 
 the hind-leg the fibula is distinct from the tibia ; and there is almost 
 always a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. The members of 
 this section are particularly characteristic of Central and South America 
 
 ^_ 
 
 Fig. 61, CAPE JUMPING- 
 HARE (Pedetes coffer). 
 
 Octodont Tribe. 
 
 Family Octo- 
 
 dontidce. 
 
MAMMALS THA T GNA W. 1 1 1 
 
 (including the West Indies), the whole of the six families being represented 
 there, while four are confined to these countries, and one is met with else- 
 where only in Africa. 
 
 By far the largest of these families is that of the Octodontida, which has 
 some representatives in Africa, although the majority of the forms are con- 
 fined to South and Central America and the West Indies. All have complete 
 collar-bones ; the vacuities in the front of the bony palate of the skull are 
 greatly elongated ; the crowns of the molar teeth are marked by infoldings 
 of enamel on both sides ; there are generally five toes to each foot ; and 
 the teats, are placed high up on the sides of the body. In form, these 
 Rodents are usually more or less rat-like, arid most are terrestrial in their 
 habits. 
 
 The first group of the family is African, and is represented by two genera, 
 both easily distinguished by having the two inner toes of the hind-foot fur- 
 nished with a horny comb and bristles for the purpose of cleansing the fur. 
 Each genus has but a single species. The gundi, Ctenodadylus, is an inhabi- 
 tant of North Africa, near Tripoli, and is peculiar among the family in having 
 no premolars, the tail being reduced to a stump ; whereas in Pectinator, of 
 Somaliland, premolars are present, and the tail is moderately long and bushy. 
 Both are about the size of a water-vole. 
 
 1 he second group comprises six genera, five of which are South American, 
 and the other African. They have partially rooted or rootless molars, with 
 simple enamel-folds and soft fur. The typical form is the degu (Octodon) of 
 Chili and Peru, which is a rat-like animal, with a rather long brush-tipped 
 tail, medium-sized ears, and the upper and lower molars alike. Other species 
 of the same genus inhabit Bolivia, which is also the home of the two species 
 of Habrocoma, characterised by the lower molars being more complex than 
 the upper, the large ears, and the extreme softness of the fur. Nearly 
 related are the burrowing tuco-tucos (Ctenomys) of South America, deriving 
 their popular name from the bell-like cry uttered underground. They have 
 broad incisors, kidney-shaped crowns to the rootless molars, small eyes, 
 moderate ears, long claws, and bristles on the hind-feet. The one species of 
 the genus Aconczmys, from the Southern Andes, differs from the last by its 
 larger ears and shorter claws, and is further characterised by the enamel- 
 folds of the upper molars meeting in the middle. 
 
 From Ctenomys, the two Chilian species of Spalacopus differ by their rudi- 
 mental ears ; they are noticeable on account of their laying up a winter store 
 of food. The very similar African genus Petromys* may be distinguished 
 from the last by its harsher fur, the shortness of the first toe of the fore- 
 foot, and more thickly-haired tail. 
 
 The coypu, or nutria (Myopotamus), of South America, which is the only 
 member of its genus, is the typical representative of the last sub-family, 
 which has one African and ten American genera. In this group the molars, 
 which may be rootless or partially rooted, have deep and curved folds of 
 enamel, more or less harsh fur, which may be mingled with spines, and 
 the tail generally long. As a genus, the coypu, which attains a length 
 of about two feet, has very large red incisors, two inner and two outer 
 enamel-folds in the upper molars, and three inner and one outer in the lower 
 ones, moderate-sized ears, a rather long, scaly, and sparsely haired tail, and 
 webbed hind-feet. Mr. Aplin writes that in Uruguay " it inhabits the larger 
 permanent lagunas. I have heard it stated that if a laguna is inhabited by 
 1 Some writers place this genus in the first sub-family. 
 
112 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 nutrias it is a sign that it never dries up in a drought. But during the 
 drought which prevailed during the time I was in the country, some places 
 
 inhabited by nutrias did dry up, but it 
 was probably many years since they had 
 done so previously. In the steep banks 
 of the lagunas the nutrias make drives, 
 the mouths of the tunnels being half in 
 and half out of the water when it is at its 
 normal height. The nutria is not a very 
 shy animal. Some of them inhabited a 
 little water-course by the side of which 
 the sheep-dipping place was situated ; 
 they were probably attracted by tho 
 
 Fig. e2.-Covru(Myopotamv,coypu'). head of water kept up by a small dam. 
 
 The nutria swims with hardly a ripple, 
 
 and disappears noiselessly in the dive at the water-line. The body is dull 
 brown, muzzle greyish, and there is a little warm brown on the side of the 
 head. It swims with the nose, tho top of the head, and a narrow line of 
 the back out of water, all on a dead level, or almost so ; the nostrils being 
 very high up in the line of the skull, they are kept out of the water without 
 the nose being poked up towards the sky. A half -grown one brought to me 
 alive ate green maize readily." 
 
 In the West Indies the family is represented by the large arboreal Rodents 
 known as hutias, most of which are included in the genus Capromys, although, 
 on account of the more complex structure of its molars, one species from 
 Hayti and Jamaica is separated as Plagiodon. 
 They may be compared to gigantic rats, one of 
 them measuring 22 inches to the root of the 
 tail. Their incisors are narrower than those 
 of the coypu, the first genus having one inner 
 and two outer folds of enamel in the upper 
 molars. From both the above the two species of 
 cane-rat (Thrynomys) 1 from Southern Africa 
 are at once distinguished by the presence of 
 three deep grooves in each of the upper 
 incisors. The small American forms consti- 
 tuting the genera Echinomys and Loncheres are sufficiently characterised 
 by generally having flat, lance-shaped spines intermingled with the fur ; 
 most of the species being inhabitants of Brazil and Guiana, although one of 
 the second genus is found in Central America. The South American 
 Mesomys differs from Loncheres in having a short, curved claw on the first toe 
 of the fore-foot, as well as in the absence of spines. The single and rare 
 species of the Brazilian genus Dactylomys is characterised by its short ears, 
 long scaly tail, the rudimental first toe of the fore-foot, the very long third 
 and fourth toes of the same, which are furnished with short, convex nails, 
 the flat incisors, and the division of the molars into two complete lobes, 
 each of which has a single enamel-fold, forming a fork-shaped grinding 
 surface ; as well as by the two series of upper cheek teeth converging so 
 much as to meet in front. A smaller Brazilian form known as Canna- 
 bateomys differs by the union of the two lobes of the molars by means of a 
 bridge of enamel, and the slight convergence of the teeth. Another South 
 1 To replace the preoccupied name Aulacodus. 
 
 Fig. 63. HUTIA (Capromys). 
 
MAMMALS THA T GNA W. 113 
 
 American genus is Carterodon, which includes small rat-like animals differing- 
 from all the other members of the family inhabiting the same country in its 
 broad and grooved upper incisors ; the upper molars having one inner and 
 two outer enamel-folds, and the lower ones the reverse of this arrangement. 
 Lastly, the South American Cercomys differs from the foregoing by its 
 pointed muzzle and smooth incisors. 
 
 The number of long, sharp spines with which the skin of .** the fretful 
 porcupine" and its allies are protected sufficiently distinguish the Hystricidce 
 from all other Rodents. These animals are of stout build 
 with the fore and hind-limbs of nearly equal length, the Porcupine Tribe, 
 front portion of the skull very short and broad, and the Family 
 molars, which may be either completely or partially rooted, Hystricidce. 
 with folds of enamel on both sides. The family may be 
 divided into two groups, one of which is confined to the New World, and the 
 other to the Old. In the American porcupines the molars are fully rooted, 
 the collar-bones complete, the upper-lip undivided, the soles of the hind- 
 f jet covered with rough tubercles, the first digit of the fore-foot wanting, 
 and numerous long hairs mixed with the spines; while the females have only 
 four teats. The numerous species of tree-porcupine (Synetheres) are con- 
 fined to the forest districts of tropical America, and are specially characterised 
 by their long, prehensile tails, short, many-coloured spines, light build, and 
 the presence of only four toes to the hind-feet ; these toes grasping against 
 a fleshy pad on the inner side of the foot. In habits these porcupines are 
 thoroughly arboreal, and also less nocturnal than their Old World allies. A 
 Brazilian species (Chwtomys) is generically distinguished on account of the 
 different conformation of its skull and more complex pattern of its molar 
 teeth. The Canadian porcupine (Erethizon) forms a kind of connecting link 
 between the New and Old World members of the family, the build being 
 heavy, and the tail stumpy and non-prehensile. The spines are almost 
 buried in the long hairs, and there are four toes in front and five behind. 
 
 In the three Old World genera of the family, the molars are only partially 
 rooted, the collar-bones incomplete, and the soles of the hind-feet smooth, 
 while there is a rudimental first toe to the fore-foot, and the female has six 
 teats. In no case is the tail prehensile. The true porcupines (Hystrix\ 
 which are spread over the w r armer parts of Europe and Asia, as well as Africa, 
 are best characterised by their large size, highly inflated and convex skull, 
 and the short tail, terminating in a number of hollow quills, which produce a 
 rattling noise when the creatures move. These porcupines are burrowing 
 and nocturnal in their habits. The brush-tailed porcupines (Atherura), of 
 which one species is Malayan and the other two West African, differ by their 
 inferior size and long tails, the latter surmounted with a tuft of flattened 
 spines. A third genus (Trichys) is represented by a single Bornean species, 
 differing from the last in the structure of the skull ; the spines being also 
 shorter, and the bristles on the tail narrower and parallel-sided. 
 
 This and the following families of the group are exclusively confined to 
 South and Central America and the West Indies. In the present family the 
 hind-limbs are elongated, the tail is bushy, the fur extremely 
 short, the collar-bones complete, the bony palate of the skull Cb.incb.illa Tribe, 
 narrowed in front and deeply excavated behind, the incisors Family- 
 short, and the molars separated into isolated transverse Lagostomatidce. 
 laminae by continuous folds of enamel. This family is 
 typically represented by the beautiful little chinchillas (Eriomys) of the 
 9 
 
114 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENTIA. 
 
 Andes, so much esteemed on account of the marvellous softness of the pearly- 
 grey fur, and characterised by having five toes in front and four behind, as 
 well as by the bushy tail. The larger Cuvier's chinchilla (Lagidium), which 
 is likewise an inhabitant of the Andes, has only four toes both in front and 
 behind ; whereas in the viscacha (Lagostomus), of the Argentine pampas, 
 there are but three toes to the hind-feet; the fore-feet having the same 
 number as in the last genus. 
 
 As regards its external appearance, the viscacha may be not inaptly com- 
 pared in point of form and size to a marmot, although its hind-limbs are 
 proportionately longer, and the head is inordinately large. The tail, which 
 is bushy throughout, is about one-third the length of the head and body, 
 which varies from about 19 inches to 23 inches ; and the short ears are dis- 
 tinctly notched behind. Almost as soft as that of the chinchilla, the fur 
 (which is unfortunately useless for commercial purposes) is of a greyish hue 
 above, with some dusky mottlings and black markings on the upper-parts, 
 while beneath it is white, or white tinged with yellow, the tail being blackish- 
 brown. The head has some very characteristic markings, which render the 
 animal so conspicuous from a distance. Thus a blackish stripe extends 
 across each cheek from the muzzle, while above this is a broad white stripe, 
 ending in front of each eye, this being followed by a third band of a dark 
 colour across the lower part of the forehead. Essentially burrowing and 
 nocturnal in their habits, and seldom issuing from their hiding-places before 
 dusk, viscachas live in companies numbering from about 20 to 30 head. The 
 viscacheria forms a dome-shaped elevated mound on the pampas, perforated 
 here and there by the numerous apertures of the burrows. The burrows 
 themselves are excavated for a great depth in the soft black mould of the 
 pampas ; and as they frequently diverge near their extremities, or open out 
 into a large common chamber, it may be easily imagined that the task of 
 digging out a warren in ordinary circumstances is an almost impossible one. 
 Carefully cleared of all vegetation, the mound of the viscacheria is kept 
 scrupulously clean ; but the viscachas have the curious habit of collecting on 
 this spot not only the debris of their food, but likewise any objects they may 
 come across in their wanderings. Consequently the summit of the mound is 
 littered over with bones of cattle and ostriches, thistle-stalks, maize-cobs, 
 clods of earth, and masses of the hard calcareous rock, locally known as tosca. 
 Moreover, if a passer-by happen to lose any of his smaller belongings, such as 
 a knife or a watch, he will be pretty sure to come across it by searching all 
 the viscacherias in the neighbourhood. The object of this remarkable habit 
 it is almost impossible to conjecture, although it is probably analogous to that 
 of the Australian bower-birds. For some distance round the viscacheria the 
 grass of the camp, through continual nibbling, is much finer than that of the 
 pampas in its original condition ; and before the introduction of sheep, and 
 the consequent refining of the turf, the viscachas were undoubtedly in this 
 respect of service to the farmer. When about to issue from their holes, or 
 when driven in by the intrusion of a visitor after they have come forth, vis- 
 cachas make a most unearthly growling and snarling deep down in thnir 
 holes the sound, which may be best compared to the booming of a bear in 
 its lair, giving the impression to the uninitiated that the dwelling is tenanted 
 by animals of much larger size and fiercer disposition than is really the case. 
 In spite of the refining of the herbage already alluded to, viscachas are an 
 unmitigated pest to the farmer, not only on account of the large area covered 
 by their burrows, but likewise by the enormous quantity of fodder consumed 
 
MA MMALS THA T GNA W. 115 
 
 by the animals themselves, which in former days absolutely swarmed on the 
 pampas. Consequently for years the estancieros have waged incessant war 
 against these Rodents, with the result that in the parts of Argentina which 
 have been longest under cultivation one may ride for miles without coming 
 across a warren. 
 
 The two genera of this South and Central American and West Indian family 
 include a small number of relatively large, terrestrial Rodents, characterised 
 by the fore and hind-limbs being of nearly equal length, and 
 having their toes furnished with hoof-like claws, by the Agutis and 
 short or rudimental tail, the very imperfect collar-bones, the Pacas. Family 
 broad palate, long incisors, and the partially rooted molars, Dasyproctidce. 
 in which the foldings of enamel form notches on the two 
 sides of the crowns. The agutis (Dasyprocta) are rather delicately built 
 animals, with long limbs and three hind-toes, ranging from the confines of 
 Mexico to Paraguay, and represented by 
 a single outlying species in the West 
 Indies. On the other hand, the pacas 
 (Ccdogenys), which are found from Ecua- 
 dor to Brazil and Paraguay, are larger 
 and more heavily-built animals, with five 
 toes to the hind-feet, arid further char- 
 acterised by the longitudinal rows of 
 light-coloured spots on the fur, arid the 
 enormous hollow, bony capsules formed 
 by the expanded bones of the cheeks. 
 Branick's paca (Dinomys), of which only Fifft 64,-AGUTi (Dasyprocta). 
 
 a single specimen from Peru has hitherto 
 
 been obtained, is distinguished from the Dasyproctidce by the cleft upper-lip, 
 somewhat long and bushy tail, the presence of four toes to each foot, and the 
 complete collar-bones ; and is accordingly regarded as the representative of a 
 separate family. 
 
 The next of these South American families is that of the cavies, and includes 
 large or small heavily-built Rodents, with four front and three hind-toes, 
 rudimental or short tails, and the cheek teeth divided by 
 transverse folds of enamel into a number of thin plates The Cavies. 
 lying parallel to one another. The typical representatives Family Caviidce. 
 of the family are the true cavies (CVivia), of which the 
 guinea-pig is a domesticated descendant, having assumed a coloration quite 
 different from the uniform olive-brown tint characteristic of its wild ancestors. 
 Quizes, as these animals are called in the Argentine, may be found not only 
 among aquatic plants in marshy districts, and skulking in the tufts of coarse 
 grass on the pampas, but also in the neighbourhood of human habitations, 
 where they will not unfrequently take up their residence under the floors of 
 outbuildings, whence they issue forth to feed at night. All the true cavies 
 are small arid short-legged creatures, with no tail, and short ears ; but the 
 Patagonian cavy, representing the genus Dolichotis, is a much larger and 
 taller animal, measuring nearly a yard in length, and standing over a foot at 
 the shoulder, with tall ears and a short tail. An inhabitant of the open dis- 
 tricts of Patagonia and Argentina, the mara, as it is called by the natives, 
 much resembles a hare in its movements. Unfortunately, the spread of 
 cultivation has well-nigh exterminated this handsome Rodent from most parts 
 of the Argentine. Largest, not only among South American Rodents, but 
 
ii6 MAMMALIA ORDER V.RODENT1A. 
 
 in the order, is the aquatic carpincho or capivara (Hydrochcerus), figured on 
 p. 89, and attaining a length of four feet. The most remarkable peculiarity 
 of this animal is the large size and complex structure of the last molar tooth, 
 which in the upper jaw may have as many as twelve plates, and is comparable 
 in structure to the corresponding tooth of the Indian elephant. The carpincho 
 is an inhabitant of the more tropical districts, not extending southwards of 
 Uruguay. Writing of the habits of the carpincho, Mr. Aplin observes that 
 " a favourite locality is a broad laguna in the river, furnished with open 
 water, and also beds of 'camelotes,' a sloping, open, grassy bank on one side, 
 where the carpinchos can lie in the daytime in the cooler weather, sleeping 
 and basking in the sunshine ; on the other a low, shelving bank, clothed with 
 'sarandi' scrub growing out into the black, reeking mud and shallow water 
 beyond. The stems of the sarandi in the festering mud have a gloomy 
 appearance, sometimes brightened in spring by the large, pink flower of a 
 convolvulus climbing up the stems. In one or two places of this description, I 
 could almost always make sure of seeing some carpinchos sometimes a herd of 
 a dozen or fifteen together, for they are sociable. You might meet with them 
 at any part of the rivers where there was plenty of water, or in the monte on 
 the banks, and I have put one up in thick dry grass fifty yards or more from 
 a river. At night they are said to wander for some distance to visit maize- 
 fields. When alarmed, they snort violently, and rush impetuously into the 
 river with a great splash and noise. It is said that a frightened carpincho 
 making for the river will not turn out of its way for anything, and that if you 
 are between them and the river they will knock you over. The paces of the 
 carpincho are a walk and a hurried gallop, reminding one of that of a pig; 
 but most likely differing little in character from that of a guinea-pig, which 
 the carpincho resembles in shape and make. Probably their habit of rushing 
 impetuously into the rivers is the reason why some horses are so frightened 
 at these animals ; the horses may have been scared when they went down to 
 drink, or perhaps even charged by two or three lumbering brutes. Some- 
 times carpinchos are much more tame than at others. If they are on the 
 opposite side of a small river, they often take no notice at all ; and I have 
 watched them in the autumn sitting up on their haunches like dogs, sunning 
 themselves, or lying asleep on their bellies, with their fore-paws stretched 
 out in front of them, and their heads in some cases laid on their paws, a little 
 on one side. I have also on more than one occasion walked up within half a 
 dozen yards of them. Sometimes when you approach a little herd of them, 
 they sound their alarm and merely watch you, walking slowly down to the 
 water as you get nearer. At other times they rush impetuously into the 
 water at the first sign of danger. They are said to be much wilder on the 
 larger rivers, the Rio Negro for instance, probably because they are less 
 accustomed to seeing any people except those who hunt them. No doubt the 
 protection they were afforded in the Santa Elena camp contributed largely to 
 their tameness there, but I always noticed-they were less tame on the Arroyo 
 Grande than on its tributary the Saiice. When disturbed and rising to their 
 feet, carpinchos get upon their fore-legs first. The hair of the carpincho is 
 scanty, not much more plentiful than some pigs' bristles, which it greatly 
 resembles. Their colour varies from dull brown to bright chestnut, and this 
 irrespective of age, or size, or season either, for I have noticed all colours 
 from spring to late autumn ; smaller animals are, however, generally of the 
 dull brown colour, and vice versa. Their skins tan into splendidly thick, soft 
 leather, which is used for belts, slippers, saddle-covers, etc. Like other 
 
MAMMALS THA T GNA W. 117 
 
 thick-skinned animals, they like to wallow in mud. They work out 
 hollows in the ground, in which they wallow ; these are known as carpincho- 
 baths. The carpincho does not go to ground, but lives on the banks of the 
 rivers in such cover as it can find. It is capable of remaining under water 
 and of proceeding for some distance under the surface ; but when a herd has 
 been disturbed at a laguna, the members probably lie low by putting just 
 their noses above water under the shelter of a bed of camelotes orother 
 water-plants. I am puzzled to say how many young they have at a birth. 
 On the 8th May I saw two females, each with a young one, about 18 inches 
 long, at her side. I have never seen more than one young one with a female, 
 but this I have often seen ; the young one keeps close to its mother's side, 
 and they plunge into the water together. I am aware that the supposition 
 that the carpincho has only one young one at a birth is contrary to what has 
 been written about this animal ; but I merely give my own observations for 
 what they are worth." 
 
 The two last families of the order, constituting the group Lagomorpha, 
 differ from the rest in having a small second pair of upper incisors behind 
 the large ones of the upper jaw ; the latter being also 
 
 peculiar in that the coating of enamel, instead of being con- Picas. Family 
 
 fined to the front surface, extends round to the back. Lagomyidce. 
 Young animals have three pairs of upper incisors. The 
 small Rodents known as picas, or tailless hares, all of which are included in 
 the single genus Lagomys, are characterised by the equality in the length of 
 the limbs, the absence of a tail, the 
 short ears, complete collar-bones, and 
 rootless molars, divided into transverse 
 laminae by complete folds of enamel. 
 The living species have two pairs of 
 premolar teeth in. each jaw, and the 
 skull has no postorbital processes. Re- 
 presented by about a dozen species, 
 the picas are chiefly inhabitants of the 
 Himalaya and the highlands of Central 
 and Northern Asia, although one out- 
 lying form inhabits South - Eastern Fig. 65. A PICA (Lagomys). 
 Europe, and a second the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. These little creatures dwell in the chinks and crevices of rocks, from 
 which they dart out with remarkable celerity, uttering at the same timo 
 their peculiarly shrill cry. 
 
 From the picas, the hares and rabbits (Lepus) are at once distinguished by 
 their elongated hind-limbs, long ears, short, upwardly-bent tail, arid imper- 
 fect collar-bones ; while the skull differs in possessing large 
 postorbital processes, and there are three pairs of premolar Hares and 
 teeth in the upper jaw and two in the lower. Whereas Rabbits. 
 there are five toes to the fore-limbs, the hind pair has but Family 
 
 four, and the soles of all four are as fully haired as the rest Lcporidce. 
 of the limbs ; the inside of the cheeks being also hairy. 
 There are rather more than a score of species belonging to the genus, which 
 has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, although more numerous in the 
 northern hemisphere than elsewhere, being absent from Madagascar and 
 Australasia, and represented only by a single species in South America. All 
 are very much alike in external appearance. Of the European species, the 
 
ii8 MAMMALIA ORDER VL UNGULATA. 
 
 common hare (L. europcp.us), distinguished by the very long ears and hind- 
 legs, inhabits the whole of Europe with the exception of Northern Russia, 
 Scandinavia, and Ireland. In the latter countries its place is taken by the 
 mountain hare (L. timidus), which ranges eastwards to Japan, and is found 
 on several of the mountain ranges of Southern Europe, namely the Pyrenees, 
 Alps, and Caucasus. Smaller than the common hare, it has shorter ears and 
 hind-legs ; and in the colder portions of its habitat changes to pure white in 
 winter, with the exception of the black tips to its ears. The rabbit 
 (L. cuniculus) is a smaller and shorter-limbed form, with the black tips to 
 the ears much reduced in size, or absent ; it was originally a native of the 
 countries bordering the western half of the Mediterranean, but has been 
 introduced into Northern Europe and many other parts of the world. It 
 differs from the hares in its burrowing habits. 
 
 ORDER VI. UNGULATA. 
 THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 
 
 THIS extensive order, which includes hyraces, elephants, horses, rhinoceroses, 
 oxen, antelopes, pigs, etc., is one by no means easy of definition, although 
 its existing members are characterised by having the toes enclosed either in 
 hoofs, or furnished with broad, flattened nails. The number of toes varies 
 from five (in the elephants) to one (in the horses); in the fore-arm the radius 
 and ulna may be united ; in the wrist the scaphoid and lunar bones (united 
 in the Carnivora) are always separate ; collar-bones are wanting in all the 
 existing forms ; and the condyle, or knob, by which the lower jaw articulates 
 with the skull, is always more or less elongated transversely, and never from 
 before backwards in the manner characteristic of the Rodents. The cheek teeth 
 have broad and flattened crowns often interpenetrated by deep foldings of 
 the enamel from the summits and sides adapted for grinding ; and when 
 these teeth are reduced below the typical number of seven, the reduction 
 always takes place from the anterior portion of the series, or, in other words, 
 in the premolars, so that there are constantly three pairs of molars in each 
 jaw. The limbs are always adapted for terrestrial progression, so that there 
 is no power of supining the fore-foot ; and when the first toe is present it 
 has no power of opposition to the others. 
 
 Although a few are omnivorous, the great majority of the Ungulates sub- 
 sist entirely on a vegetable diet; and, with the exception of these sufficiently 
 protected by their great bodily size, most depend upon their swift- 
 ness of foot to escape their enemies. While a small number are not larger 
 than hares, the great majority of the members of the order are animals of 
 large size, and they include among them the most gigantic of all existing 
 terrestrial creatures. The living Ungulates may be divided into four well- 
 marked subordinal groups, while there are others which are now extinct. 
 
 The Proboscidea or first subordinal group of the Hoofed Mammals, is now 
 represented solely by the two existing species of elephants, both of which 
 are included in the genus Eleplias. In addition to their huge bodily size, 
 elephants differ externally from all other animals by the production of the 
 nose into a long, flexible proboscis, or trunk, and likewise by the large tusks 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 119 
 
 normally present in the males, and often in both sexes. Their huge and 
 massive limbs are less enveloped superiorly in the skin of the body than 
 is the case with the great majority of Ungulates; and their component long- 
 bones are remarkable in being placed almost vertically one 
 above the other, so as to form straight columns for the The Elephants. 
 support of the body. From all other living members of the Family 
 order elephants differ in having five perfect toes to each foot ; Elephantidce. 
 while they are further distinguished from all, except the little 
 hyraces, by the arrangement of the bones of the wrist-joint in the fore-foot. 
 In this joint the two horizontal series of quadrangular bones are placed 
 almost directly over one another, and likewise above the supporting meta- 
 carpal bones, in such a manner that the whole foot could be completely 
 cleft in twain between the third and fourth toes. The rounded feet are 
 supported on large, flat cushions, on the front edge of which the position 
 of the toes is indicated by large, broad nails. As regards the teeth, the 
 upper tusks correspond to one of the three pairs of incisors characterising 
 more typical Mammals ; but there are no other incisors, nor any traces of 
 canines. The tusks always remain open at the base, and grow continuously 
 throughout the life of their owners. The cheek teeth, of which there are 
 six pairs in each jaw, are peculiar in that they are not all in use at the same 
 time, the small anterior ones coming into use first, and being in turn shed 
 as they are worn out and replaced by the larger hinder ones, which make 
 their appearance in the jaws in an arc of a circle, so that very old individuals 
 are left with only a single huge molar on each side of each jaw. Equally 
 peculiar are these teeth in structure. They consist of a great number of tall, 
 parallel, thin, transverse plates growing from a common base, and consisting 
 of a core of comparatively soft ivory, covered with a thin layer of flint-like 
 enamel ; the interspaces, or valleys, left between the plates being filled up 
 with a still softer substance known as cement. When such a tooth is worn 
 by grinding against its fellow in the opposite jaw, the summits of the enamel- 
 covered plates are cut through so as to expose elongated ellipses of ivory ; 
 and the roughened, flat surface thus produced is made of vertical transverse 
 layers of three substances, arranged in the order of cement, enamel, ivory, 
 enamel, cement. Since each of these constituents differs in hardness, it will 
 be sufficiently apparent that the millstone-like apparatus formed by the teeth 
 is admirably adapted for triturating vegetable substances of all kinds to a 
 pulp. 
 
 Of the two existing species, the Indian elephant (E. indicus) is best dis- 
 tinguished by the structure of the molar teeth, in which the constituent plates 
 are very numerous and very thin, with their investing enamel, which is also 
 thin, thrown into a number of fine crimpings. Tusks are usually present in 
 the male sex only, and may even be wanting in that. The ears are relatively 
 small ; and the finger-like process on the upper margin of the tip of the 
 trunk is much more developed than the one on the lower edge. As a rule, 
 there aro four nails on the hind-foot, and five on the front. The Indian 
 elephant is an inhabitant not only of the country from which it takes its 
 name, but likewise of Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Cochin-China, 
 Sumatra, and Borneo, although it may have been introduced into the island 
 last named. Associating in herds of variable size, it is fond of cool, shady 
 forests in the neighbourhood of water, avoiding as much as possible the full 
 glare of the sun, and feeding chiefly upon leaves, fruits, and small branches. 
 So much has been written on the subject of the habits of this species that this 
 
120 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 may be passed over here ; but as much misapprehension obtains as to the 
 height attained by the animal, a somewhat full notice may be given. 
 
 With all his large experience of Indian elephants, the late Mr. Sanderson, 
 in his "Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India," stated that the 
 largest male he had at that time ever seen measured 9 feet 10 inches at the 
 shoulder ; while two others with which he was acquainted touched 9 feet 8 
 inches. He adds, " There is little doubt that there is not an elephant 10 feet 
 at the shoulder in India." Next comes Sir Samuel Baker, who, after men- 
 tioning in "Wild Beasts and their Ways" that the well-known African 
 elephant " Jumbo" measured 11 feet at the shoulder, and weighed 6 tons, 
 
 declared that no Indian ele- 
 phant approaches these dimen- 
 sions. It is further set down 
 in the same book that " 9 feet 
 at the highest portion of the 
 back is a good height for an 
 Indian male, and 8 feet for the 
 female, although occasionally 
 they are considerably larger. 
 There are hardly any elephants 
 that measure 10 feet in a direct 
 perpendicular." Later on Mr. 
 Sanderson was forced to admit 
 that his statement as to there 
 being no elephants of 10 feet 
 in height in India required 
 modification, for he himself 
 subsequently measured a male 
 
 standing 10 feet 7J inches. Those dimensions are, however, reported by 
 Colonel D. Hamilton to have been exceeded in a male killed in 1863 
 by the late Sir Victor Brooke, of which the height is given as 11 feet, 
 or the same as that of "Jumbo." Moriom Kelaart, whose observations 
 are generally most trustworthy, records having seen an elephant in Ceylon 
 of upwards of 12 feet in height. That such a stature may occasionally 
 be reached by a few giants of the tribe seems to be supported by an 
 enormous skeleton of a tusker mounted in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, 
 which, as now articulated, stands 11 feet 3 inches at the shoulder, thus 
 indicating a height of about 12 feet when in the flesh. This skeleton is 
 believed to have belonged to the tusker of a small herd that haunted the 
 district to the north of the Raniganj Coal Field from Soory and the southern 
 spurs of the Rajmehal Hills to Jamtara. In our opinion this skeleton is cor- 
 rectly mounted, so that its height would appear to be truly 12 feet, although 
 it has been stated that the thigh bone is not perceptibly larger than one be- 
 longing to an elephant known to have been less than 10 feet in height. The 
 elephant of 10 feet 7| inches measured by Mr. Sanderson is, however, still 
 the tallest actually known with absolute certainty ; although we by no means 
 venture to assert that Colonel Hamilton's estimate of the height of the one 
 shot by Sir Victor Brooke may not be perfectly accurate. Be this as it may, 
 it is certain that the Indian elephant is, on the average, a considerably smaller 
 animal than its African cousin ; and individuals attaining a height of even 10 
 feet are so rare that each case is deserving of record. That elephants vastly 
 exceeding 10 feet in height formerly lived in India is proved by the occurrence 
 
 ig, 66. INDIAN ELEPHANT. 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 12 1 
 
 in the gravels of the Narbada Yalley of limb bones beside which those of the 
 skeleton last mentioned appear almost puny, many of these fossil bones being 
 exhibited in the geological galleries of the. Calcutta Museum. These elephants 
 belonged, however, to an extinct species. 
 
 From the height of the Indian elephant we turn naturally to the largest 
 dimensions and weight of its tusks. Mr. Sanderson states that the largest 
 tusks he ever obtained measured 5 feet along the curve, with a circumference 
 of 16 inches at their junction with the gum ; while the weight of the pair was 
 74^ pounds. The single perfect tusk of the elephant shot by Sir V. Brooke, 
 to which allusion has been made, measured 8 feet, with a maximum girth of 
 16*9 inches, and weighed 90 pounds. Mr. Blanford mentions, however, that 
 a somewhat shorter tusk weighed upwards of 100 pounds; and two pairs 
 from the Garo Hills, mentioned in The Asian newspaper in October, 1888, are 
 stated to have been respectively of 155 and 157 pounds weight. The tusks of 
 the large skeleton in the Calcutta Museum have unfortunately been removed, 
 but the size of their sockets indicates that they must have been immense. All 
 these dimensions are, however, comparatively small when set against those of 
 unusually large African elephants ; Sir Samuel Baker referring to single 
 tusks of that species, which weighed respectively 149, 172, and 188 pounds ; 
 while Sir E. G. Loder has a tusk of 184 pounds in weight. Huge as are the 
 tusks indicated by such weights, they must, however, have been small by the 
 side of those of an extinct Indian elephant from the Siwalik hills, of which 
 the skull is preserved in the British Museum. The tusks of this monster 
 have a total length of about 12 feet 9 inches, with a girth of 26 inches near 
 the base ; and the weight of each in the living state may be safely estimated 
 at considerably over 200 pounds. While on the subject of elephants' tusks, 
 we may take the opportunity of mentioning that, as we learn from Mr. 
 Sanderson's book, there appears to be a widespread belief that elephants have 
 no milk or deciduous tusks. ^Nevertheless, such tusks are developed in all 
 young elephants, and may be seen in place in skulls of suitable age. They 
 may be at once distinguished from the permanent tusks by the circumstance 
 that their lower extremities are completely closed, whereas those of the latter 
 always remain open. These milk-tusks are, however, so small, and are shed 
 at such an early age, that their fall is not likely to be noticed by the mahouts, 
 even when they have under their charge animals sufficiently young for this 
 change to take place. 
 
 In India, elephants, as a rule, do not breed in captivity, but in Burma 
 they not unfrequently do so ; and a writer in The Asian newspaper of April, 
 1895, states that in the Chindwin division, there were kept a male and "five 
 female elephants ; four out of the five female elephants have calved since last 
 September, and these calves will go and suck any elephant they like without 
 the elephant objecting. I have seen two calves go and suck one elephant 
 at the same time, then go off to another and suck her. Elephants, without a 
 calf, will allow another's calf to suck them. This I noticed down in Pyin- 
 maria, where one of the elephants calved ; the calf used to go round and suck 
 three of the females. Again, with the elephants up here, one calved in Sep- 
 tember, another in October, a third in February, and the fourth in March. 
 The calf that was born in September used to regularly suck the elephant that 
 calved in October, and this before her calf was born ; in fact, it used to follow 
 the one that had not calved more than it did its own mother, and the female 
 seemed to be as fond of the calf as if it had been her own. When No. 2 
 calved in October it did not make any difference, both the calves sucked either 
 
122 MAMMALIA-ORDER VL UNCULATA. 
 
 No. 1 or No. 2 just as they liked, and they invariably sucked the same 
 elephant at the same time ; then they used to go off and suck the other two 
 that had not calved then. These six elephants have now been in the Forest 
 Department for at least six years to my knowledge, and how long they were 
 in it before I don't know. It shows how absurd it is people in India saying 
 elephants will not breed in captivity ; here, in Burma, our elephants are 
 always fettered and turned out into the forest to graze, and elephants in 
 better condition it would be hard to find ; our elephants get no flour, paddy, 
 or any other kind of rations, and no tree-fodder. After the day's work is 
 done, they are hobbled and turned out to feed themselves ; when they are 
 not wanted, they remain out in the jungle, the mahout going and seeing them 
 once or twice a day. In this way they can eat just what they like." The 
 teats of the female elephant are placed between the hind legs ; and the young 
 calf sucks with its mouth, and not with its trunk. 
 
 There are many methods by which elephants are captured, among which 
 the following, as detailed in The Asian newspaper, may be selected for notice : 
 u Elephant-capturing operations by the pit-fall systems were set in work- 
 ing order in the locality of the forest station at Mount Stuart on the Anaimalai 
 Hills in the season of 1890. For the past five years, during each of the 
 working seasons which commence in June and end in December, elephant- 
 captures have been attempted. Places were selected in the known runs of 
 the elephants, and the pits were dug in groups of three. To commence with, 
 about 21 pits were dug in different parts, all, however, being within 
 a two-mile radius of the Mount Stuart forest station. Since 1890, some 
 20 pits more have been dug out. The dimensions of the original pits 
 were 12 feet by 9 feet, with a depth of 10 feet. These are too large, and a 
 pit 10 feet by 10 feet by 10 feet is amply big enough. The sides of the 
 pits were made vertical and not sloping downwards, as are the pits in Malabar; 
 and some 2 or 3 feet of brushwood was placed in the bottom of each to act 
 as bedding to break the fall of the animal. The pits were then covered by 
 means of bamboos placed across them, and on these were spread grass, leaves, 
 etc. The pits are visited every morning by a forest-guard or watcher deputed 
 for the purpose, and these report to their superior officers whenever a fall 
 takes place. During the first year, one animal, to which the name of Juno 
 was given, was captured. This subsequently died. In the second year, 1891, 
 four animals were captured, two of which subsequently died, and two of 
 which are now living. In the third year, 1892, two extraordinary falls took 
 place by which seven animals were captured in five pits. Out of these seven 
 animals, four are still living. During 1893 two animals were captured, and 
 during the present year, 1894, four animals have been caught, all of which 
 fire living. Out of a total of 17 captures, 12 are now living. It may be re- 
 marked, moreover, that the casualties took place amongst the first three 
 years' captures, when the attendants, who are local hillmen, called Mulcers, 
 were entirely inexperienced concerning elephants. During the last two years 
 the bed of brushwood has been increased considerably so as to reach to with- 
 in 4 feet of the top of the pit. The results speak for themselves : not a 
 single animal has since been injured in the fall, although two of the latest 
 captures are the largest animals caught since operations were commenced. 
 The removal of a capture to the kraals, which are within two or three miles 
 from the pits, is a very simple matter, provided everything is in readiness 
 beforehand. The size of the animal's neck is estimated, and a peg is put in 
 the rope so as to prevent the noose going smaller than the neck-size as 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 123 
 
 estimated. This noose is then thrown over the elephant's neck and pulled 
 tight to the peg, the end of the rope being bound round a neighbouring tree ; 
 next, one of the elephant's hind-legs is noosed, and the end of this rope, for 
 the time being, bound round a neighbouring tree. The neck-rope at the 
 peg then has to be tied with twine or fibre to prevent the noose being loosened 
 by the elephant. This operation is, taking it all round, the most risky one 
 connected with the capture. But if proper care is taken there is nothing to 
 fear. The pit is then filled up by means of billets of wood being thrown in, 
 and as the animal rises nearer the surface of the ground, the two ropes fasten- 
 ing him are pulled tighter around the trees. Eventually he gets out of the 
 pit somewhat fatigued ; the ropes which secure him are then fastened to two 
 tame elephants, and the animals are marched in single file (the captured one 
 being of course in the middle) to the kraal, and all the ropes are removed. 
 He is watered three times a day, and soon made tame by kindness, given 
 sugarcane, etc. Somewhat large animals are generally in the kraal three 
 months before they can be taken out ; the little ones of 4 feet or 5 feet 
 high are, however, removed within three weeks of capture. The work of 
 capturing elephants is an exceedingly interesting one, and only needs care 
 and constant supervision to render it successful ; and certainly the more one 
 has to do with these animals the more one is bound to recognise what in- 
 telligent, useful beasts they are." 
 
 The African elephant (E. africanus), which, as already stated, is a larger 
 animal than the Indian, has large tusks in both sexes, and is broadly dis- 
 tinguished by the structure of the molar teeth, in which the plates are fewer 
 and lower, with the ivory-spaces wider and more lozenge-shaped, and the enamel 
 thicker and only slightly crimped. The finger-like processes on the upper 
 and lower edges of the tip of the trunk are more nearly equal in size ; the 
 ears are enormous, forming large flaps extending over the shoulders, and 
 there are only three nails on the hind-foot. As in the Indian species, the 
 rugged, naked skin bears only a few sparse hairs, but there are a number of 
 stout bristles on the edges of the end of the tail. Until decimated or exter- 
 minated in many districts by human greed, this species ranged over the 
 whole of Africa south of the Sahara, and frequently occurred in enormous 
 herds. It is less impatient of the sun than its Indian cousin, and subsists 
 largely on the soft roots of trees, which are dug up by the tusks ; one tusk 
 being generally employed in this service, and thus more rapidly worn away 
 than its fellow. 
 
 The second sub-order of the Ungulates the Hyracoidea is formed by the 
 small Rodent-like animals known as hy races, all of which are confined to 
 Africa and Syria, and may be comprised in the single genus 
 Procavia. In the structure of the wrist-joint of the fore- The Hyraces 
 foot these animals resemble the elephants, from which they Family 
 differ in having only three toes on the hind-foot, and but Procaviidos. 
 four functional ones in the fore-foot, where the first is rudi- 
 mental, as well as in the characters of the dentition. As regards their front 
 teeth, the hyraces make a curious approximation to the Rodents, the upper 
 jaw having a single pair of curved incisors, which grow throughout life, and 
 are separated by a long gap, without the intervention of a canine, from the 
 cheek-teeth. In the lower jaw there are, however, two pairs of the former 
 teeth, in place of the single pair characterising the Rodents, while the upper 
 incisors differ from those of the latter in being sharp-pointed instead of 
 chisel-shaped, and also in their triangular section, two of their surfaces 
 
124 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER VI. UNGULA TA. 
 
 Fig. 67. A HYRAX (Procavia). 
 
 The Tapirs. 
 
 Family 
 Tapiridce. 
 
 being coated with enamel. The cheek teeth, which include four pairs of 
 premolars and four of molars in each jaw, are singularly like those of the 
 rhinoceroses, and thus quite different from those of the Rodents. With the 
 
 exception of the second toe of the hind-foot, 
 the toes are protected by short, broad nails ; 
 and the tail is remarkable for its extreme 
 shortness. In general appearance, hyraces 
 (which are the conies of Scripture) are very 
 like large cavies. While the majority live in 
 colonies among the cracks and crannies of 
 rocks, some of the African species are arboreal 
 in their habits, climbing the sterns arid larger 
 branches of trees, and sleeping in their holes ; 
 in this respect they are unique among the 
 Ungulate order. 
 
 The primitive and ancient group of animals commonly known as tapirs are 
 the first representatives of the third sub-ordinal section of the Ungulates, 
 technically termed the Perissodactyle section. The essential 
 feature of the members of this section is to be found in the 
 structure of the feet, in which the toe corresponding to the 
 third or middle digit of the human hand or foot is always 
 larger than the one on each side of it, and symmetrical in 
 itself ; the total number of toes on the hind-foot never exceeding three, and 
 on the front-foot four. It is in consequence of this special development of 
 the third toe that the group is spoken of as the Odd-toed or Perissodactyle 
 Ungulates. In addition to this essential feature, the Perissodactyla differ 
 from the two preceding sub-orders in the structure of the wrist-joint of the 
 fore-foot, in which the two horizontal rows of small bones not only interlock 
 with one another, but are likewise not disposed in vertical lines immediately 
 above the supporting metacarpals. Hence in these animals it would be im- 
 possible to cleave the foot between any two of the toes without cutting through 
 solid bone. A further difference from the elephants is to be found in the 
 
 circumstance that the huckle-bone, 
 or astragalus, of the ankle-joint of 
 the Perissodactyles is a vertically 
 elongated bone terminating above 
 in a deeply grooved, pulley-like 
 surface for articulation with the 
 larger bone of the leg, instead of 
 being shallow, with a flat upper 
 surface. All these animals walk 
 in the digitigrade fashion on the 
 summits of their toes, which are 
 more elongated than in the ele- 
 phants. At the present day the 
 Perissodactyla are represented by 
 only three families, each containing a comparatively small number of species ; 
 but in former epochs of the earth's history they were much more numer- 
 
 Fig. 68. MALAYAN TAPIR (Tapirus indicus). 
 
 From the other members of the sub-order, tapirs, which are some what pig-like 
 and antediluvian-looking animals, are readily distinguished by the production 
 of the muzzle into a short, mobile snout, and the presence of four toes on the 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 125 
 
 front-feet, the hind pair having three. They have low-crowned cheek-teeth ; 
 the upper molars having an outer wall formed by the union of two conical 
 tubercles, from the inner side of which a pair of transverse crests run obliquely 
 across the grinding surface of the crown. In the lower molars there is simply 
 a pair of transverse ridges to each ; the total number of teeth being 42. The 
 skin of all the tapirs is sparsely haired ; and in size these animals may be 
 compared to a large donkey. 
 
 The whole of the five living species of tapirs may be included in the single 
 genus Tapirus, to which special interest attaches on account of its remarkable 
 geographical distribution. Thus, whereas one of the five species is found in 
 the Malayan countries, the whole of the other four are restricted to the forest- 
 region of Tropical America, some of the latter ranging high into the Andes. 
 This, however, is by no means all, sinee the Malayan species is much more 
 nearly related to two of the American species than are the latter to their 
 compatriots. Had we the existing forms alone to deal with, this discontinuous 
 distribution would be very difficult to explain ; but we learn from geology 
 that these animals were formerly widely spread over the Northern Hemi- 
 sphere, whence they have migrated southwards to their present isolated 
 habitats. 
 
 The Malayan species (T. indicus), which is the largest of the five, differs 
 from all the others in having the middle of the body white ; the remainder 
 of the skin being uniformly black, as is the whole of that of the American 
 species. In all the five kinds the skin of the young is, however, striped and 
 spotted with white. As regards their mode of life, tapirs are essentially shy, 
 harmless, and nocturnal forest animals, always frequenting the neighbourhood 
 of water, in which they often swim. 
 
 The rhinoceroses, which include by far the largest representatives of the 
 Perissodactyle sub-order, may be best distinguished from the tapirs by the 
 form and number of their teeth. These are always numeri- 
 cally less than 42 in the living species ; and the upper molars The 
 differ from those of the tapirs in that their outer surface forms Rhinoceroses. 
 a continuous wall, undivided into lobes, while the grinding Family 
 surface, although consisting primarily of two oblique trans- Rhinocerotida. 
 verse ridges, presents a much more complicated pattern. In 
 the lower molars, the ridges, instead of being simply transverse, are curved 
 into crescents. Another point of distinction, so far as the existing kinds are 
 concerned, is the presence of only three toes on both the front and hind-feet. 
 Rhinoceroses derive their name from the presence of either one or two horns 
 arising from the middle line of the fore-part and middle of the head ; these 
 horns consisting entirely of an agglutinated mass of hair- like substances, having 
 no connection with the bones of the skull. 
 
 In appearance, rhinoceroses are huge, ungainly brutes, with an enormous 
 head, much elevated and expanded posteriorly, short, massive limbs, large, 
 tubular, upright ears, often fringed with hairs, a moderately long, tapering 
 tail, and very thick skin, which is generally but sparsely covered with hair, 
 and may be thrown into a number of massive folds. They have always 
 the full number of seven pairs of cheek teeth; but canines are wanting, 
 and the incisors, if present at all, are reduced below the typical number of 
 three pairs. 
 
 Rhinoceroses are restricted to the Oriental countries and Africa ; but there 
 is some difference of opinion whether they should be divided into several 
 genera, or all included under the single generic term Rhinoceros. Adopting 
 
126 MAMMALIA ORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 the latter alternative, the five existing species may be arranged in two 
 divisions, of which one includes the three Oriental forms, and the other the 
 two African. The Oriental rhinoceroses are characterised by possessing 
 
 incisor teeth in both jaws, 
 one (or the only) pair in the 
 lower jaw forming sharp, tri- 
 angular, projecting tusks, cap- 
 able of inflicting terrific gashes 
 when their owners charge. By 
 far the largest of these is the 
 great Indian rhinoceros (R. 
 unicornis\ which is confined 
 to the great grass- jungles of 
 North-Eastern India, and is 
 characterised by its massive 
 Fig. 69. INDIAN RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros unicornis). but short, single horn, the 
 
 large bosses on the deeply- 
 folded skin, the numerous pleats round the neck, and the complicated 
 structure of the upper molar teeth. The Javan rhinoceros (R. sondaicus), 
 which is a much smaller animal, ranging from Eastern Bengal and the 
 Sandarbans to Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of Sumatra, 
 Borneo, and Java, differs in the arrangement of the folds of the skin, 
 which lacks the great bosses of the larger species, and likewise by the lower 
 and simpler crowns of the upper molar teeth. The third representative 
 of the Oriental group of the genus is the Sumatran rhinoceros (R. suma- 
 trensis), which ranges from Assam, Chittagong, and Burma, to the Malay 
 Peninsula, Siam, Sumatra, and Borneo, and is the smallest of the three. 
 Having upper molar teeth of the same type as those of the Javan species, it 
 differs from both that and the Indian rhinoceros in having two horns on the 
 head, the foremost of which is often much larger than the single one of either 
 of the other Asiatic species. 
 
 The two species of African rhinoceroses differ in that the incisors of the 
 adults are rudimental or wanting in both jaws, and likewise in the absence of 
 foldings in the skin, which covers the body uniformly ; both having two 
 horns. The largest of these is the square-mouthed, or Burchell's rhinoceros 
 (R. simus), frequently inappropriately spoken of as the white rhinoceros. 
 This animal, which was formerly met with in enormous numbers to the north 
 of the Orange River, but is now well-nigh exterminated, if, indeed, it be not 
 actually extinct, takes its name from its square and truncated upper-lip. In 
 addition to this, it is characterised by the tall and complex crowns of the 
 upper molar teeth, which present a pattern very similar to that obtaining in 
 the Indian species, as well as by the great length of the front horn, which is 
 frequently found with its tip obliquely abraded, on account of having been 
 pushed along the ground as its owner walked. The general colour of the 
 skin is slaty-grey. On the other hand, the common African, or so-called 
 black rhinoceros (R. bicornis), has the prehensile lip characteristic of the 
 other members of the genus, while its front horn does not attain the enor- 
 mous length reached in R. simus, and the upper molars are of simpler struc- 
 ture. This rhinoceros ranges from Abyssinia to the Cape, and differs 
 considerably in habits from the other African species. Possibly a third 
 species may exist in North-Eastern Africa. 
 
 The third and last family of the Odd-toed Ungulates is that of the horses, 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 127 
 
 under which title are included not only horses proper, but also zebras and 
 asses, all of which may be comprised in the single genus 
 Equus. From all other living Mammals the members of The Horse Tribe. 
 this genus differ by the reduction of the number of toes to -Family 
 
 a single one in each foot ; but as there are certain extinct Equidce. 
 
 horses provided with three perfect toes on each foot, we 
 learn that this essential peculiarity of the existing forms is a feature of com- 
 paratively late acquisition. Indeed, evidence of this descent from a three- 
 toed ancestor is afforded by the so-called splint-bones which are found in the 
 horse, lying on each side of the upper half of each cannon-bone, and corre- 
 spond to the metacarpals and metatarsals of the second and fourth digits of 
 the typical five-toed foot, the cannon-bone representing the third or middle 
 one. In the case of such well-known animals as the horses, it would be 
 quite superfluous in a work of the present nature to describe them in any 
 detail, and it will accordingly suffice to point out a few of the features which 
 indicate that they form a family by themselves. More important than the 
 single digit of the feet is the peculiar structure of the molar and premolar 
 teeth, which form tall quadrangular prisms, in which the enamel is thrown 
 into a number of deep foldings and plications, the intervening depressions 
 and flutings being completely filled with cement. Although the resemblance 
 is at first not very easy to make out, a careful study of the pattern on the 
 crowns of the upper molar teeth of a horse will show that it is really essen- 
 tially the same as in the rhinoceroses, of which it may be regarded as a 
 specialised modification. The upper premolar teeth, which are generally 
 three in number, although occasionally a small anterior one is present, are as 
 complex as the molars, and are peculiar in being larger than the latter ; 
 similar features occurring in the lower jaw. There are thus normally six 
 pairs of cheek teeth in each jaw ; the total number of teeth in the adult male 
 being 40, although in the female it may be reduced to 36, as the canines, or 
 tusks, which are always rudimental in that sex, are in some cases altogether 
 wanting. The canines occupy the centre of a long gap between the pre- 
 molars and the incisors ; the three pairs of the latter forming a semi-circle 
 at the extremities of the jaws. The incisors of the horses are peculiar 
 in having the summits of their crowns deeply infolded, like the finger of 
 a glove with the tip pushed in ; and it is according as to how much of this 
 infold, or "mark," remains in the teeth of a horse that its age is approxi- 
 mately determined. The skull of a horse, which is of an exceedingly elon- 
 gated form, differs from that of either a tapir or a rhinoceros in having the 
 socket of the eye completely surrounded by a ring of bone ; and in the limbs 
 the bones known as the ulna in the front pair, and the fibula in the hind, are 
 incomplete, and respectively united with the radius and the tibia. A special 
 feature of the horses is the great elongation of the cannon-bone (metacarpal 
 and metatarsal) in each foot, which gives them their characteristic length and 
 slenderness of limb, and enables the upper parts of both the fore and hind- 
 legs to be enclosed in the skin of the body. It is almost superfluous to 
 observe that the so-called knee of a horse represents the human wrist, and 
 the hock the ankle ; the whole of the limbs situated below these joints corre- 
 sponding to the middle finger or toe of the human hand or foot, with the sup- 
 porting metacarpal or metatarsal bone. The toe of each foot is enveloped in 
 a solid hoof, which is broader in the front than in the hind-limb ; and the 
 inner sides of the fore-limb always has a naked wart-like callosity above the 
 wrist-joint, while there may be a similar pair of callosities on the hind-limb. 
 
128 MAMMALIA ORDER VI.UNGULATA. 
 
 The ears are elongated ; the long and tapering tail may be either long-haired 
 throughout its length, or only at the tip ; and the neck is ornamented with 
 an upright or flowing mane. Horses are now restricted to the Old World, 
 although they formerly existed both in the northern and southern halves of 
 the New World. 
 
 The common or true horse (Equus caballus) is now best known in a domes- 
 ticated or half-wild condition, although it is probable that the wild horses, 
 or tarpans, of the Russian steppes, are the direct descendants of the original 
 primitive stock, and have never been domesticated. From the other species 
 of the genus the horse is distinguished by the tail being covered with abun- 
 dant long hair from root to tip, by the presence of a warty callosity on each 
 hind-leg, just below the inner side of the ankle-joint, the longer and pendant 
 mane, snorter ears, more elongated limbs, smaller head, and wider hoofs. 
 Some doubt exists whether the horse from Central Asia described as E. 
 prezevalskii is a valid species ; but if it be, it appears to be intermediate 
 between the horse and the asses, having callosities on both limbs, an erect 
 mane, no forelock, small ears, and the upper part of the tail short-haired. 
 
 The zebras of Africa south of the Sahara form a group closely allied to 
 the asses, but distinguished by th.eir more or less completely striped colora- 
 tion. Of these the true, or moun- 
 tain zebra (E. zebra) formerly in- 
 habited the mountains of the Cape 
 Colony in large herds, but is now 
 greatly reduced in numbers. It is 
 a rather small species, standing 
 about four feet at the withers, with 
 rather long ears, the lower part of 
 the tail somewhat thinly clothed 
 with long hairs, and a short mane ; 
 the ground colour being white, with 
 broad, black, transverse stripes, ex- 
 tending over the whole skin, except 
 that of the under-parts and the inner 
 surface of the thighs, and the lower 
 Fig. TO.-BURCHELL'S ZEBRA (Eqiius burchelli). part of the face chestnut brown. 
 
 On the hind-quarters short trans- 
 verse stripes extend from the longitudinal one running down the spine 
 towards or to the oblique ones of the haunches. Grevy's zebra (E. grevyi), 
 of the Galla country, differs by the much narrower and more numerous 
 stripes, especially those of the head, the spine-stripe being disconnected 
 from the others. More distinct is the larger BurchelPs zebra (E. burchelli), 
 from the open plains to the north of the Orange River, characterised by the 
 pale yellowish-brown ground-colour of the hair, and the broad brown or 
 black stripes ; a dark stripe, to which the lateral stripes may be united, 
 traversing the middle line of the under-surface of the body, and the spinal 
 stripe being isolated from the uppermost haunch-stripe parallel to it. Very 
 generally faint stripes occupy the middle of the broad intervals between the 
 dark stripes of the haunches ; and the limbs and tail may be either fully or 
 partially striped, or uniform. Upon such variations several nominal species 
 have been established, but it appears preferable to look upon all these in the 
 light of mere varieties of a single variable species. Many attempts have 
 been made, with more or less marked success, to break this zebra to harness. 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 129 
 
 According to a n3wspaper report, recent experiments in the Transvaal have 
 been "successful, in so far as the training is concerned, but the trials with these 
 animals have wofully disappointed those who fancied they might be advan- 
 tageously utilised for draught purposes. Most people in South Africa, in 
 districts where zebras abound, have hitherto regarded these animals as im- 
 pervious to that human control that would be necessary to render them 
 reliable between the shafts or in traces, and it is only lately that efforts 
 have been directed towards their domestication. Teams of them, compris- 
 ing ten or more, have been broken in and ' inspanned J to coaches and other 
 vehicles, by way of testing their amenability to the bit and the whip, and 
 their behaviour in harness has been in some respects most satisfactory and 
 promising, though their peculiarities sometimes rather out-mule the mule, 
 their shyness being particularly pronounced, and their disinclination to starb 
 gently another characteristic, resulting often in jumps out of harness, or 
 other antics, such as those practised by a jibbing or highly-nervous horse. 
 These faults, however, cure themselves in time, simply by the punitive 
 lessons they teach the zebras ; but the stamina of the animals is not of a 
 nature to stand the strain of either the lessons so acquired, or the burden of 
 the draught for any length of time, and looking at the conformation of the 
 zebra one is hardly surprised. Resembling the mule in many points, he yet 
 lacks that essential inherited by the latter from both his progenitors tough- 
 ness of bone and muscle, prescribed by generations of usage as a beast of 
 burden. It is admitted by all who have seen zebras in harness that, from a 
 spectacular point of view, they are worth the trouble spent upon their train- 
 ing, and as mounts for children they are certainly more respectable-looking 
 and dignified than the donkey, and in chaises, too, they would probably be 
 found equal to very light work. As draught animals, in the ordinary sense 
 of the term, however, they are not successes. Whether a breed could be 
 manufactured from the zebra, in the same way as the mule has been, and 
 whether with similar success, are questions that an intermingling of blood at 
 the present time might satisfactorily answer in the future." 
 
 The fourth species is the quagga (E. quagga) of South Africa, which forms 
 a connecting link between the others and the asses, having the head, neck, 
 shoulders, and the middle of the body striped, but the hind-quarters, tail, 
 and limbs uniformly coloured. This animal always had a very restricted dis- 
 tribution, and is now nearly, if not quite, exterminated. 
 
 The leading characters by which the uniformly-coloured asses differ from 
 the horse have been already pointed out. The Asiatic wild ass (E. hcmionus) 
 is a variable species, of an isabelline rufous tint, with a dark, longitudinal 
 stripe down the spine, but none across the withers, and comparatively small 
 ears. Its three leading varieties are the Syrian wild ass, the onager of Persia, 
 Baluchistan, the Punjab, Sind, and Kach, and the kiang of Mongolia and 
 the Tibetan highlands, which is the largest and most horselike of the three. 
 All these wild asses inhabit more or less completely desert districts, and are 
 exceedingly fleet of foot, passing over the roughest ground at a gallop. The 
 African wild ass (E. asinus), from Abyssinia, Nubia, and Somaliland, differs 
 from the preceding by its greyer coloration, much longer ears, and the general 
 presence of a dark stripe across the withers. It is evidently the ancestor of 
 the domestic breed, but its speed and endurance must not be judged by those 
 of the latter. The late Sir Samuel Baker wrote that "those who have seen 
 donkeys only in their civilised state can have no conception of the beauty of 
 the wild or original animal. It is the perfection of activity and courage. It 
 10 
 
130 MAMMALIA ORDER VI.UNGULATA. 
 
 has a high-bred tone in his deportment, a high-actioned step when it trots 
 freely over the rocks and sand, with the speed of a horse when it gallops over 
 the boundless desert. The specimens now in the Zoological Gardens will 
 enable any one to perceive the character of the animal as it was before being 
 altered by generations of captivity." The bray of the Abyssinian is identical 
 with that of our common ass, and Darwin notes the marked aversion to walking 
 across a brook, which characterises the domestic donkey, as indicating its 
 derivation from a desert-haunting animal ; as also does its pleasure in 
 rolling in the dust. The Somali ass differs from the ordinary African 
 form in its more greyish colour, the absence of the cross-stripe over the 
 shoulders, the very slight indication of the spinal stripe, and more especially 
 in the numerous black markings on both front and hind-legs. Jt has, like- 
 wise, smaller ears and a longer mane. It may be a matter of doubt whether 
 these differences are of specific value, but they probably only indicate a 
 variety. Of this form Mr. Lort Phillips writes that "on March 22, 1884, 
 when about 20 miles to the west of Berbera, we fell in with a small herd of 
 wild asses. After a long and tedious stalk I succeeded in bagging one, which 
 turned out to be of quite a new species to me, having no mark whatever on 
 the body, which was of a beautiful French grey colour. On its legs, however, 
 it had black stripes running diagonally. I have, unfortunately, lost the book 
 in which I put its measurements, but it was a superb creature, and stood 
 quite 14 hands at the shoulder j our Berbera horses looked quite small in 
 comparison." 
 
 The two species of hippopotamus, both of which are now confined to Africa, 
 and may be referred to the genus Hippopotamus, bring us to the fourth and 
 last sub-ordinal division of the Hoofed Mammals, which far 
 The Hippopot- outnumbers the whole of the other three put together, both 
 ami. Family as regards families, genera, and species. From the fact that 
 Hippopotamidte the two toes corresponding to the third and fourth digits of 
 the human hand and foot are of equal size, and symmetrical 
 to a vertical line drawn between them, this group has been appropriately 
 named the Artiodactyla, or Even-toed Ungulates. Whereas, however, in 
 some species, such as the giraffe, only these two digits are present ; in others, 
 like the hippopotami, there are four functional digits ; while in yet others, as 
 the oxen, the middle *pair alone are functional, and the lateral ones much 
 reduced in size, and of no functional importance. In the peccaries the hind- 
 foot is unique among the sub-order in having only three toes. Although the 
 structure of the feet forms the prime distinction between the Artiodactyla 
 and Perissodactyla; there are many other points of difference between the 
 two groups, a few of which may be mentioned. As regards the teeth, 
 the premolars of the Artiodactyla are almost invariably of simpler structure 
 than the molars ; while the last lower molar is nearly always composed 
 of three transverse lobes, whereas in all the living representatives of the 
 Perissodactyla it is two-lobed. The femur or thigh-bone of the latter 
 group is always provided with a large projecting process in the upper 
 half of the shaft known as the third troehanter, which is invariably absent 
 in the one under consideration. Again, in the ankle-joint the huckle-bone, 
 or astralagus, of the Artiodactyla has its lower articular surface divided 
 into two nearly equal facets, whereas in the Perissodactyla such surface is 
 single. There are many other minor points of difference, but those given 
 are amply sufficient to distinguish between the two sub-orders. 
 
 The hippopotami are the most primitive and least specialised of the existing 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 
 
 Fly. 71. COMMON HIPPOPOTAMUS 
 (Hippopotamus amphibius). 
 
 members of the Artiodactyla, and are characterised as a family by the follow- 
 ing features. Having a very bulky, clumsily-built body, and short limbs, 
 these animals possess a very broad and obtuse muzzle ; the feet are short 
 and broad, each having four toes of nearly equal size, invested in rounded 
 hoofs, and all applied to the 
 ground in walking ; the incisor 
 teeth, which grow throughout 
 life, are curved downwards in the 
 upper jaw, and project straight 
 forwards in the lower ; and the 
 canines, which also grow con- 
 tinuously, are very large and 
 curved, those of the upper jaw 
 being directed downwards. The 
 molar teeth are tuber culated, and 
 have four columns, the summits 
 of which show trefoil - shaped 
 surfaces of ivory, bordered by a 
 broad rim of enamel, when worn 
 by use. In the head, the great 
 elongation of the face causes the 
 small eyes and still more minute 
 ears to be situated very far back- 
 wards ; the legs are so short that the lower surface of the body is scarcely 
 raised above the ground in the standing posture ; and the round tail is likewise 
 extremely short. The thick skin is almost entirely naked. The common 
 hippopotamus (H. amphibius) is an animal too well-known, both as regards 
 form and habits, to require any detailed description ; its most distinctive 
 feature being the possession of two pairs of incisor teeth in each jaw. On 
 the West Coast of Africa there exists, however, in Liberia, a second species of 
 the genus, known as the pigmy hippopotamus (H. liberiensis), differing not 
 only in size, but likewise in habits, from the one with which all are 
 familiar. In place of attaining a total length of about 11 feet, mea- 
 sured in a straight line, and weighing probably some three or four 
 tons, the pigmy hippopotamus is not larger than a good-sized wild 
 boar, although it has the short and stout limbs of its gigantic cousin, 
 with which it also agrees to a certain extent in the relatively large 
 size of its head. As regards its mode of life, this species differs, how- 
 ever, in toto from the common one. Instead of passing at least as much of its 
 time in the water as on the land, and never living away from rivers or lakes, 
 the pigmy hippopotamus is an inhabitant of the dense tropical forests of that 
 part of Western Africa which is its home, where it apparently leads a life very 
 similar to that of wild pigs, wallowing in swamps after the manner of those 
 animals, but apparently not habitually frequenting rivers, though it is doubt- 
 less, like almost all Mammals, able to swim well when th necessity arises. 
 Moreover, in place of associating in large herds after the manner of the 
 common species, and never moving far from one particular locality, the 
 Liberian hippopotamus is a comparatively solitary creature, going about at 
 most only in pairs, and wandering long distances through the woods. It 
 differs essentially from the common species in usually having only a single 
 pair of lower incisors, on which account it has been generically separated by 
 some under the name of Chozropsis. Specimens are, however, occasionally 
 
J32 MAMMALIA ORDER VI.UNGULATA. 
 
 met with having two pairs of these teeth on one side of the jaw. If fossil 
 species be taken into consideration, other variations will be found in the 
 number of these teeth ; but before proceeding farther, it is necessary to 
 remark that, since in ordinary Mammals the typical or full complement of 
 incisor teeth consists of three pairs, it is natural to suppose that one pair has 
 been lost in the common species. That such is the case is demonstrated by 
 the extinct Siwalik hippopotamus (H. sivalensis) of the Himalaya, in which, 
 between the two large tusks, there are three pairs of incisors, differing from 
 those of the common species in being all of nearly equal size ; and if we were 
 to examine the upper jaw, we should find the same number of teeth. In the 
 presence of these three pairs of incisors the Siwalik hippopotamus resembles 
 the pig, from which it departs less widely than does the common species, in 
 that these teeth are relatively smaller, and also of nearly equal size. The 
 Siwalik hippopotamus must accordingly be regarded as a less specialised 
 species than either of its living cousins ; and since, together with an allied 
 species from Burma (H. iravaticus), it is the oldest representative of the 
 genus, its generalised features are precisely what evolutionary considerations 
 would have led us to expect. There is, however, yet another point in con- 
 nection with these teeth demanding notice. From the evidence of the 
 common species, it is impossible to determine which of the three pairs of 
 lower incisors found in the Siwalik hippopotamus have dissappeared in the 
 former ; but in the gravels of the Narbada Valley in Central India, there are 
 found two extinct members of the genus, H. namadicu-s and H. pal&iiidicitg, 
 in the former of which the lower incisors are similar in size and number to 
 those of the Siwalik species ; but in the latter, while the inner and outer 
 pairs are very large, there occurs on each side between them a minute and 
 rudimentary tooth, squeezed out from the general line to the upper margin 
 of the jaw, and evidently about to disappear altogether. There is thus evi- 
 dence that the missing pair of lower incisor teeth in the common hippopota- 
 mus is the second ; and a complete transition can be traced, as regards the 
 number of these teeth, from the Siwalik species through the common one to 
 the Liberian hippopotamus. While it is quite possible that the African hip- 
 popotamus may have been derived from the Siwalik species, it is clear that 
 the pigmy hippopotamus is not the descendant of its giant existing cousin. 
 
 With regard to the geographical distribution of the genus, while there is 
 no evidence that the pigmy species ever ranged beyond its present habitat of 
 Liberia, the case is very ditFerent with regard to the range of the common 
 species. At the present day this animal is found from the Cape Colony 
 northwards to the cataracts of the Nile, and it extends westwards to Senegal; 
 but while for several centuries it has been very seldom met with on the 
 Nile below the entrance of the Atbara and Blue Nile, there is abundant evi- 
 dence that in the time of the Pharaohs it was common in Egypt, where in 
 the temple of Edfu, as well as several other buildings, there are frescoes re- 
 presenting the mode in which it was hunted and speared. That the hippo- 
 potamus is the animal indicated in the book of Job under the name of 
 behemoth is undoubted, but there is no evidence that the Jews were 
 acquainted with it otherwise than during their sojourn in Egypt. It is true 
 it has been suggested that its range may have extended eastwards as far as 
 Palestine, but this is conjecture, and, had the creature ever lived there, some 
 of its remains should have been found. In the superficial deposits of Southern 
 and Central Europe there occur, however, numerous remains of a hippo- 
 potamus which cannot be specifically distinguished from the existing African 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS: 133 
 
 form, although it was generally of rather larger size. This difference in size 
 was once thought to indicate that the fossil form was a distinct species, but 
 the discovery of a half-fossilised jaw in the alluvium of the Nile near 
 Kalabshi, in Nubia, showed that in former times the African hippopotamus 
 attained dimensions as large as the European form. In England the hippo- 
 potamus ranged at least as far north as Leeds, and it is a remarkable 
 circumstance that in many places its remains have been found in association 
 with those of the reindeer. In Algeria, where the genus is now unrepre- 
 sented, a small species (H. hipponensis) flourished during the Pleistocene 
 period ; this being distinguished by having three pairs of lower incisor teeth, 
 which differed from those of other members of the genus in having their 
 enamel smooth and their extremities somewhat expanded, thus approximat- 
 ing to the corresponding teeth of the pigs. Equally noteworthy is the 
 occurrence of another species (H. lemerlei) in Madagascar, where its remains 
 are common in the great marsh of Ambulisatra. Somewhat intermediate 
 between the common and the Siwalik species, this rather small hippopotamus 
 had sometimes three and sometimes two pairs of incisors in the lower jaw. 
 One or two small species, which may have been partially terrestrial in their 
 habits, dwelt in. Italy, Malta, and some of the other Mediterranean islands 
 in past times. 
 
 From the hippopotami the members of the great pig tribe, all of which 
 are confined to the Old World, are at once distinguished, not only by their 
 lighter build and longer limbs, but likewise by the peculiar 
 form of the snout, which always terminates in an oval, fleshy The Pig Tribe. 
 
 disc, in which are perforated the nostrils. The feet, al Family Suidce. 
 
 though severally furnished with four toes, are also different 
 in that they are much narrower, and that the middle pair, which are alone 
 functional when the animals are walking on firm ground, are much larger 
 than the lateral ones, and have flat adjacent surfaces, so as to form a 
 so-called divided hoof. In the teeth, the incisors, which are somewhat vari- 
 able in number, are rooted, and thus only grow for a brief period, while the 
 canines are rootless, and distinguished by the upper pair being directed more 
 or less markedly outwards or upwards. The molar teeth, which are tuber- 
 culated, do not wear into the distinct trefoils characterising the correspond- 
 ing teeth of the hippopotami. 
 
 The true pigs (tins) differ from all the other members of the family in 
 having the typical number of 44 teeth, although in certain African represen- 
 tatives of the genus the anterior premolars are frequently shed in the adult. 
 The canines of the upper jaw are curved outwards and upwards, and in the 
 males are very large, and project far beyond the lips; they are worn on their 
 outer convex surfaces to a sharp edge by the attrition of the longer and more 
 slender lower tusks. In the upper incisors, which are directed downwards, 
 the first' is considerably larger than the second, which, in turn, succeeds the 
 third in size ; and the three pairs of lower incisors are directed almost 
 horizontally forwards. The skull is characterised by the great elevation of 
 its hinder or occipital portion. The external form of the pigs is too well 
 known to need anything in the way of description ; but it may be remarked 
 that whereas in many of the domesticated breeds the skin is nearly naked, in 
 the wild boar it is covered with a thick coat of bristly hair. Whereas the 
 adults of all the species are more or less uniformly coloured, the young of 
 the wild breeds are longitudinally striped and spotted with yellow or white. 
 The typical representative of the genus is the wild boar (S. scrofa) of Europe, 
 
134 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER VLUNGULA TA. 
 
 Fig. 72. BUSH-PIG (Sus africanus). 
 
 North Africa, Asia Minor, and Central Asia, replaced in India by the closely 
 allied S. cristatus. India is the home of the smallest species, the pigmy hog 
 (<S. salvanius) of the Bhutan terai, which scarcely exceeds a hare in size. 
 Numerous species inhabit the Malayan countries and islands as far east as 
 Celebes and the Philippines, while one, which may, however, have been in- 
 troduced, is found in New Guinea. Africa south of the Sahara has but one 
 of the more typical representatives of the genus, which inhabits the Senhaar 
 
 districts. Elsewhere in that con- 
 tinent, as well as in the adjacent 
 island of Madagascar, the place of 
 the typical swine is taken by the 
 bush-pigs, which are frequently re- 
 garded as representing a distinct 
 genus, under the name of Potamo- 
 chcerus. The bush-pigs have long, 
 pencilled ears, and tend to lose the 
 anterior premolar teeth in both jaws, 
 while their molars are of simpler 
 structure than those of the other 
 members of the genus. Of the two 
 African species, africanus, ranging from South to Central Africa, has grey 
 hair, whereas in the West African S. porcus the colour is red, and tho 
 pencilled ears are of great length. 
 
 The other two genera of swine differ from the foregoing in having uniformly 
 coloured young, both being remarkable for the extraordinary development of 
 the tusks of the males. This feature attains its maximum in the babirusa 
 (Babirusa alfurus) of the island of Celebes, in the males of which the upper 
 tusks pierce the skin of the face, and curve backwards over the eyes in a 
 manner recalling the horns of the chamois. The lower tusks, which are 
 equally long and slender, curve 
 backwards in a somewhat similar 
 manner, but do nob wear against 
 the upper pair. There are but 
 two pairs of upper incisors, and 
 only two pairs of premolars in 
 each jaw. In appearance, the 
 babirusa is a rather short-bodied 
 and long-limbed pig, with small 
 ears, a very wrinkled skin, and 
 the upper edge of the extremity 
 of the snout overhanging the 
 lower. By far the most hideous 
 and repulsive-looking members of 
 the family are the two African 
 species of wart-hogs (P/i-acoc/icer- 
 iis), characterised by large conical warty growths projecting from the sides 
 of the face. The whole head is much flattened and expanded, and the 
 muzzle very broad. The huge tusks, which are nearly as large in the 
 sows as in the boars, curve upwards, outwards, and forwards ; the upper 
 ones, which are tipped with enamel only at the apex, being of great thick- 
 ness, and abraded on their convex surfaces by the more slender lower 
 pair. In the adult there is but a single pair of upper incisor teeth, 
 
 Fig. 73. WART-HOG (Phacochoerus cethiopicus). 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 135 
 
 although, as in all the pigs, the normal three pairs of these teeth are 
 retained in the lower jaw. The premolars are reduced to three pairs 
 in the upper, and two in the lower jaw ; but in aged animals not only 
 all these teeth, but likewise the first two pairs of molars, are generally 
 shed, so that there is only the last pair of molars left in each jaw behind 
 the tusks. These last molars are of great size and very peculiar structure, 
 being composed of a number of narrow cylindrical columns arising from 
 a common base, and closely packed together, so as to form a long, 
 narrow, tall crown. Different as such a tooth looks at first sight from the 
 corresponding molar of an ordinary pig, a closer inspection will show that 
 it is nothing but a highly specialised modification of the same general 
 type. 
 
 All pigs are more or less nocturnal in their habits, associating in droves, or 
 " sounders," of variable size, and inflicting much damage on crops by their 
 habit of grovelling in the soil in search of roots with their snouts. In diet 
 they may be said to be omnivorous, scarcely anything edible coming amiss to 
 them. The females produce a large number of young at a birth, and thereby 
 differ very remarkably from the ruminants, in. which the number very 
 seldom exceeds two, and is more generally one. Boars attack with their 
 lower tusks, and the wounds inflicted by these formidable weapons are 
 terrific, a horse being not unfrequently ripped open by one sweep from the 
 tusk of a charging boar. 
 
 Although nearly allied to the pigs of the Old World, with which they 
 appear to be still more intimately connected by means of certain ex- 
 tinct types, the small American swine known as peccaries 
 (Dicotyles) are generally regarded as indicating a family Peccaries. 
 group by themselves. They are specially distinguished by Family 
 
 the circumstance that the canine teeth of the upper jaw Dicotylidce. 
 have their points directed downwards in the ordinary 
 manner, with their hinder edges sharpened to a cutting edge ; and likewise 
 by the toes on the hind-feet being reduced to three. In the skeleton the 
 third and fourth metacarpal and metatarsal bones are united at their 
 upper ends. Another peculiarity is to be found in the circumstance that the 
 last premolar in the upper jaw is as complex as the first molar, its crown 
 carrying four distinct tubercles. The stomach also is of a more complicated 
 construction than that of the true pigs ; and the back is provided with a 
 peculiar gland, from which these animals derive their scientific title. The 
 total number of teeth is 38, there being only two pairs of incisors in the 
 upper jaw, and three pairs of premolars in each. Peccaries, which range 
 from the Red River of Arkansas to the Rio Negro of Patagonia, much 
 resemble small blackish pigs in general appearance. They are forest-haunting 
 animals ; and although of small size individually, the large droves in which 
 they collect render them foes by no means to be despised by the lonely 
 traveller in the Brazilian or Paraguayan forests. 
 
 The three preceding families of the sub-order Artiodactyla constitute a 
 sectional group known as the Suina, and are collectively characterised by the 
 tuberculate molar teeth and the circumstance that the third 
 Camel Tribe.-- and fourth metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the feet (that 
 Family is to say those corresponding to the third arid fourth digits 
 
 Camelidce, of the human hand and foot) are never completely united 
 together, and are in most cases entirely separate. The re- 
 maining members of the sub-order are divided into three other sections, all 
 
136 MAMMALIA ORDER VI.UNGULATA. 
 
 of which differ from the Suina, and agree with one another in that the 
 molar teeth, instead of being simply tubercular, have the columns on their 
 crowns bent into the form of crescents, of which there are four in those of 
 the upper jaw. Technically, this type of tooth is known as the selenodont; and 
 all the animals possessing it are characterised by their power of ruminating, 
 or chewing the cud. Moreover, in all cases the third and fourth metatarsal 
 bones of the hind-feet are completely fused together to form a cannon-bone, 
 terminating inferiorly in two pulley-like surfaces, or trochleae, which carry 
 the two middle toes ; the same condition also obtaining in the corresponding 
 metacarpal bones of the fore-foot, except in one species of chevrotain. All 
 these animals are thus more specialised than the Suina ; the tubercular type 
 of molar, and the separate metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the foot, being 
 evidently the more primitive type. 
 
 The first section of these selenodont Artiodactyles is known as the Tylopoda, 
 or cushion-footed group, and includes only the single family of the Camelidce, 
 now represented by the camels of the Old World and the llamas of South 
 America. Having selenodont molars and complete cannon-bones in both 
 feet, the camel tribe are specially distinguished by retaining incisor teeth in 
 the upper jaw, and by the lower canines being tusk-like and separated from 
 the incisors, which always form three pairs. The limbs are long, with the 
 thigh of the hinder pair less enclosed in the skin of the body than is the case 
 in the following families ; while the feet have but two toes, which are em- 
 bedded in a large pad-like cushion, and have only small nails on the upper 
 surface of their extremities. In the cannon-bones the two trochlese of 
 the lower extremity are widely divergent, and lack the median longitudinal 
 ridge found in all other members of the sub-order. The neck of these 
 animals is long and flexible, and its component vertebras present a peculi- 
 arity unknown in any other living Mammals. As regards their soft internal 
 parts, the camels have a less complex stomach than the true Ruminants ; 
 two of its chambers having special honeycomb-like cells for the retention of 
 water. 
 
 From their allies the llamas, the two species of camel (Camelus) are readily 
 distinguished not only by their much larger bodily size, but likewise by the 
 presence of one or two fatty humps on the back, which diminish or increase 
 in size according to the physical condition of the animal. The head is large, 
 with relatively short and rounded ears ; the broad feet have the toes very 
 slightly separated ; the moderately long tail terminates in a tuft ; and the 
 nearly straight hair is not woolly. Adult camels have a total of 34 teeth, 
 with but one pair of upper incisors, although in the young there are three 
 pairs of the latter. The camels are among the few animals of which there 
 are now no wild representatives ; the so-called wild Bactrian camels of 
 Turkestan being now pretty conclusively proved to be the descendants of a 
 domestic race which escaped long ago from captivity. Of the two species, 
 the Arabian camel (0. dromedarius), which is found in a domesticated state 
 from Africa to India, is characterised by the single hump ; while in the stouter- 
 built and more shaggily-haired Bactrian camel (C. bactrianus) there are two 
 of these excrescences. The latter species is kept as a beast of burden from 
 the Crimea to Turkestan and Pekin, From the large loads they are capable 
 of carrying, as well as their power of enduring deprivation from water 
 for a considerable period, camels are invaluable as a means of transport in 
 dry countries, where the roads are not too rocky. They are, however, 
 best suited for traversing sandy deserts; but where the ground is wet, 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 
 
 137 
 
 Fig. 74. THE ARABIAN CAMEL. 
 
 especially on inclined roads, they are almost useless. The Bactrian camel, 
 which is doubtless a native of Asia, is much better suited for traversing high 
 mountains and enduring cold than the Arabian species. Regarding the two- 
 humped camels of the neighbourhood of Yarkand, it has long been a disputed 
 point whether these are 
 really wild, or whether 
 they are the descendants of 
 an originally domesticated 
 race. Something towards 
 clearing up this question 
 has been done by Major C. 
 S. Cumberland, who had 
 the good fortune to shoot 
 one of these animals. Its 
 skin and skull were sub- 
 mitted to Mr. Blanford, 
 who reports that they be- 
 longed to a two-humped 
 camel, in which the humps 
 were represented by large 
 tufts of hair. The skull 
 agreed fairly well with 
 
 that of a domestic Bactrian camel (C. badrianus), and differed from that of the 
 
 Whether, however, such 
 indicative of the exist- 
 ence of a distinct race, the materials at hand were insufficient to deter- 
 mine. In regard to these camels in their native home, Major Cumberland 
 writes as follows : " The Habitat of the wild camel is the Gobi steppe from 
 Khotan to Lob-Nor. Except when snow lies on the ground, these animals 
 
 may be met with here and there 
 along the old bed of the Yarkand 
 and Tarim Rivers, which they 
 frequent for the pools of brackish 
 water that are to be found here 
 and there. But as soon as the 
 snow falls they move off into the 
 desert, as if then independent 
 of the water-supply. They pre- 
 fer the snow, I imagine, as 
 being less salt than the water, 
 although it also is impregnated 
 to a certain extent soon after 
 it falls. The camel is very shy 
 
 single-humped Arabian camel (C. dromedarius). 
 differences, as presented by the former, were 
 
 Fig. 75. THE BACTKIAN CAMEL. 
 
 in its habits, and, so far as 
 could ascertain, has never been 
 caught or domesticated. The 
 natives told me that no horse in 
 
 the country could catch the camels in the deep sand of the region they 
 frequent. They appear to me to be distinct from the Bactrian camel ; 
 they are less stumpy in build, the hair is finer, closer, and shorter. They 
 vary in colour, like the domestic species, from dark brown to lightish 
 dun. Their origin has yet to be traced. I take it that they have sprung 
 
133 MAMMALIA ORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 from camels wlien the district known as Takla Makan was "buried in a great 
 sandstorm some centuries ago. Tradition relates that no human beings 
 survived, but it is likely enough that some of the camels and horses did so, 
 and that this was the origin of the wild camels and ponies that are found in 
 this district." 
 
 Camels have "been successfully introduced into North America ; and for 
 some years, according to a writer in The Asian newspaper, have been largely 
 employed as a means of transport in South Australia and Queensland, while 
 recently the Swan River colonists have followed the example there set them; 
 a large number of superior Rajputana camels, which had been marched down 
 from Bikanir to Calcutta, having been shipped to Western Australia to be 
 used in carrying supplies from Perth to the newly discovered gold fields at 
 Coolgardie. The utility of the camel being thoroughly recognised in the 
 Antipodes, the fact that an agitation against the animal is being raised in 
 Queensland is rather a surprise. " Such, however, is the case, as a petition 
 was recently presented by the residents of the Charleville district to the 
 Governor of Queensland, praying that something should be done to prevent 
 the introduction of camels into the colony. In it the petitioners pointed 
 out the urgent need that some constitutional means should be adopted to 
 prevent an imminent and dangerous invasion of Western Queensland by 
 camels, as their employment would tend to deprive the present carriers of 
 their means of livelihood. It was stated that the rates of carriage were low, 
 the teams plentiful, and that the carriers were willing to travel on all roads, 
 while the low standard of living among the camel-drivers must result in loss 
 of trade to the district. It was further said that many of the Western 
 carriers were settlers on the land, and the colony would suffer if such a class 
 of men were forced to emigrate ; that the value of the Western lands would 
 be depreciated, and the welfare of the community injuriously affected. In 
 reply the Premier, to whom the petition was forwarded by the Governor, 
 expressed the opinion that the agitation against the camels was rather hasty. 
 The cause of their presence in the colony was the drought in the South- 
 Western districts. It was impossible for teams to travel at all times, and as 
 the Warrego Rabbit Board could not get their netting brought by the ordi- 
 nary methods, an officer was sent to South Australia, and the required 
 quantity of netting carried to its destination by camels. Then a squatter 
 in the district, whose wool could not be taken away by the carriers in con- 
 sequence of the want of water on the route to be travelled, had had it for- 
 warded by the camels to Charleville. The forty camels carried altogether 
 eighty bales of wool two bales to each animal or just about the quantity 
 that is sometimes taken by one team of bullocks." 
 
 Although the name llama properly belongs only to the domesticated forms, it 
 is commonly applied to all the South American representatives of the family, 
 which differ from the camels by their greatly inferior size and lighter build, 
 the want of any hump, the longer and more pointed ears, the short and bushy 
 tail, the narrower feet, with more distinctly separated toes, and the long and 
 woolly hair. They have two teeth less than the camels, owing to the upper 
 premolars in the adult being reduced from three to two pairs. Of the two 
 wild species, the vicuna (Lama vicuna) is the smaller and more lightly-built 
 animal of the two, and is restricted to the high Andes of Peru, Ecuador, and 
 part of Bolovia, where it associates in large herds in th3 coldest and most 
 inhospitable districts. On the other hand, the guanaco (L. guanacus) ranges 
 from the Peruvian Andes through the open pampas of Argentina to Pata- 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 
 
 139 
 
 Fig. 76, GUANACO (Lama guanacus). 
 
 gonia and Tierra del Fuego ; although it has now been, exterminated from 
 most parts of the pampas. In size it may be compared to a red-deer ; 
 and its fur is of beautiful, light fawn-brown colour. The llama and alpaca 
 are domesticated varieties of the guanaco, kept by the inhabitants of the 
 Peruvian highlands; the former 
 and larger of the two being 
 employed as a beast of burden, 
 while the latter is bred for the 
 sake of its valuable wool. All 
 these animals have a peculiar 
 cry, with some resemblance to 
 the neigh of a horse ; and in 
 the domesticated state they are 
 disagreeable associates, on ac- 
 count of their unpleasant habit 
 of spitting, apparently as a 
 means of defence. Extinct 
 members of the family are 
 common in the Tertiary rocks 
 of North America, while fossil 
 camels occur in Northern India ; 
 and it is by these lost types 
 that we are enabled to account for the present anomalous geographical dis- 
 tribution of the group, which is evidently of northern origin. 
 
 Among the smallest of all Ungulates are the graceful little Oriental 
 animals commonly known as chevrotains, or mouse-deer, which in coloration, 
 form, and habits, more nearly resemble the Rodent agutis 
 than ordinary Hoofed Mammals. Together with a nearly- The Chevrotains. 
 allied African genus, these animals constitute a third section Family 
 of the selenodont Artiodactyles, known as the Tragulina. Tragulidce. 
 From the camel tribe they differ in the total absence of 
 incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and also by the circumstance that in the lower 
 jaw the canines are approximated to the incisors, which they resemble in 
 form, as well as in the structure of the feet. From the true Ruminants they 
 may be distinguished by the stomach having only three in place of four dis- 
 tinct compartments, as well as by the fibula, or outer and smaller bone of the 
 lower half of the hind-leg, being complete and quite distinct from the larger 
 bone, or tibia. Another point of distinction is to be found in the form of the 
 so-called odontoid process projecting from the lower part of the front surface 
 of the second vertebra of the neck, which in the present group is conical, 
 whereas it is spout-like in the true Ruminants. A resemblance to the latter 
 group, and at the same time a distinction from the camel tribe, is to be found 
 in that the two bones of the ankle-joint, respectively known as the cuboid 
 and the navicular, are welded together to form a single bone. As in the true 
 Ruminants, the toes are enclosed in solid hoofs ; four complete toes being 
 developed in each foot. 
 
 - The smallest representatives of the family are the true or Oriental 
 chevrotains (Tragulus), of which there are four or five species, ranging from 
 India and Ceylon through the Malayan countries, as far east as the island of 
 Palawan in the Philippine group. They have a total, of 34 teeth, arid aro 
 mostly uniform in coloration. The somewhat larger West African chevro- 
 tain (JJorcatherium) differs by the shorter and stouter feet, and the separation 
 
140 MAMMALIA ORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 of the third and fourth inetacarpal bones ; the latter feature distinguishing ib 
 from all other selenodont Artiodactyles, In colour, it is deep brown, with 
 
 longitudinal white stripes on the flanks, 
 spots of the same on the back, and a white 
 chest and throat. Both in this animal and 
 the true chevrotains the upper canines of 
 the males form tusks projecting below the 
 lip. In appearance they are very like minute 
 deer, having moderate-sized ears and a short 
 ta ^' kut tne nea d nas no bony or horny ap- 
 pendages. 
 
 The deer tribe is the first of four families 
 Fig. 77. A CHEVROTAIN (Tragulus). constituting the true Ruminants, or Pecora. 
 
 andincluding the whole of the remaining mem- 
 bers of the order. They derive their name of Ruminants from their power of 
 chewing the cud a feature which they possess in common \vith the camel tribe 
 and chevrotains ; and they agree with the latter group in 
 The Deer Tribe, lacking upper incisors, and in having the lower canine ap- 
 Family proximated to and resembling the lower incisors as well as 
 CervidcK. in the union of the cuboid and navicular bones in the ankle- 
 joint, and in the covering of the toes taking the form of 
 horny hoofs. From the chevrotains they may be distinguished by the stomach 
 being divided into four distinct compartments, by the anterior, or odontoid 
 process of the second vertebra of the neck assuming the form of a spout, or 
 half-cylinder, and by the fibula of the hind-leg being reduced to a mere 
 nodule representing the lower extremity of the complete bone, and articu- 
 lated to the tibia. Another point of distinction is that the lateral metacarpal 
 and metatarsal bones of the feet are never complete, but are represented 
 only by their upper or lower ends. Very generally the skull is provided 
 with a pair of laterally placed appendages, which may be either unbranched, 
 covered with horn, and permanent, or branched, bony, and deciduous. 
 When such appendages are present, the upper canines are generally small or 
 wanting ; but when the former are absent, the latter are frequently large. 
 As a source of food, the true Ruminants are by far the most important of 
 all animals to the human race. Unknown in Australia and New Guinea, 
 
 World the only members of 
 
 As a family, the deer tribe are generally distinguished by the heads of the 
 males being ornamented with the branching deciduous appendages properly 
 known as antlers, although often wrongly termed horns ; these when fully 
 developed consisting simply of lifeless bone, and being nearly always shed 
 annually, to be reproduced in a somewhat more complex form the following 
 season. Both sexes usually have well- developed upper canines, which may 
 attain very large dimensions in the males, especially in the few instances 
 where antlers are wanting. The face is always provided with the so-called 
 larmiers, or tear-pits, below the eyes ; and the underlying region of the 
 skull always has a very large unossified vacuity. As a general rule, both 
 fore and hind-feet carry four toes ; and very often the lower ends of the 
 lateral metacarpal and metatarsal bones persist. With the single exception 
 of the musk-deer, the liver is provided with a gall-bladder. 
 
 It would require too much space to describe the mode in which antlers ara 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 141 
 
 formed and subsequently shed, but it may be mentioned that the annual 
 formation of such an enormous amount of bone as is contained in the antlers 
 of the wapiti, for instance, is one of the most extraordinary phenomena to be 
 met with in the whole animal kingdom. As regards their distribution, it is 
 remarkable that deer are totally absent from Africa south of the Sahara, as 
 they are from Madagascar. Although the more northern deer inhabiting the 
 New World are either generically or specifically identical with Old World 
 forms, the majority of the American forms, and all those inhabiting South 
 America, are perfectly distinct from those of other regions. 
 
 The most aberrant members of the family are the well-known musk-deer 
 (Moschus) of Asia, which constitute a sub-family by themselves, and are 
 represented by one species (M. moschi- 
 ferus) ranging from the Himalaya and 
 Cochin-China to Siberia, and by a 
 second (M. sifaniciis) from Kansu, in 
 North-Western China. One of the 
 peculiar features of these deer the 
 presence of a gall-bladder in the liver 
 has been already referred to ; a second, 
 although less peculiar character, is the 
 absence of antlers in both sexes. To 
 compensate for this deficiency, the 
 upper jaw of the male is provided with 
 a pair of long scimitar-like tusks, which 
 may project as much as three inches Fig. 73. MUSK-DEER (Moschus moschiferus). 
 below the margin of the lips. The 
 
 musk-deer has moderately long and somewhat pointed ears, a short tail, very 
 large lateral hoofs to the feet, and the fur of a peculiarly coarse and brittle 
 nature, its general colour being a speckled brownish-grey. The most peculiar 
 feature about the animal is, however, the presence on the abdomen of the 
 male of a large gland, discharging by a small orifice, and secreting the highly 
 odoriferous substance known as musk, which is much used in perfumery, and 
 commands a high price in the market. For the sake of obtaining this pre- 
 cious product, musk-deer are regularly hunted by the natives of the countries 
 they inhabit ; one plan being to drive them against nets. In the Himalaya 
 they are met with either singly or in pairs ; and during the early spring may 
 be seen traversing the snow-clad birch and pine forests. 
 
 Of the more typical deer, the first group is that of the Oriental muntjacs 
 (Cervulus), all of which are comparatively small species characterised by the 
 short antlers arising from long bony pedicles on the skull, which rapidly 
 converge as they descend the face. From this peculiarity these animals 
 are often called rib-faced deer. The males have large tusks ; and the 
 antlers consist of a beam, or shaft, with a small tine at the base. In the 
 lateral toes all traces of the bones have disappeared. There appear to be 
 three well-marked species of muntjacs, the range of the genus extending from 
 India to Eastern Tibet and China. In common with most of the deer of the 
 Old World , the muntjacs are characterised by the retention of the upper ex- 
 tremities of the lateral metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the feet. Nearly 
 allied to the muntjacs are two small deer from China and Eastern Tibet, 
 constituting the genus Elaphodus, and commonly known, from the presence 
 of a tuft of hair between the antlers, as tufted deer. They differ from the 
 muntiacs in that the pedicles of the antlers converge, instead of diverging, as 
 
142 MAMMALIA ORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 they ascend on the face ; while the very small and simple antlers have no basal 
 knobs representing a brow-tine. The males have large upper canines, and the 
 hairs are coarse and almost quill-like. 
 
 By far the greater number of the deer of the Eastern Hemisphere belong 
 to the typical genus Cervus, of which the most familiar examples are the red- 
 deer and the fallow-deer. From the 
 muntjacs and their allies all these 
 deer are easily distinguished by the 
 absence of the bony ridges which form 
 the bases of the long pedicles of the 
 antlers of the former. As a rule, the 
 antlers, which, as in most members 
 of the family, are confined to the male 
 sex, are of large size, considerably 
 exceeding the whole skull in length, 
 and they do not branch in the re- 
 gular forked manner characteristic of 
 
 Fig. 79. MUNTJAC (Cervulus muntjac), the American deer. While, in the 
 
 majority of the species, the antlers 
 are rounded, or slightly flattened, in a few they are flattened, or palmated. 
 Unlike those of the muntjacs, the upper canine teeth are of comparatively small 
 size, and in the lateral digits of the feet the bones are present. Although 
 the genus is mainly confined to the Old World, it is represented in North 
 America by the magnificent wapiti. In the main, deer are forest-haunting 
 animals, the old bucks going about with several does during the breeding 
 season, which they have obtained by driving away younger competitors, or 
 by vanquishing rivals of their own age. Generally but a single offspring is 
 produced by the hinds at a birth, and these, as is the case with almost all 
 Ungulates, are able to run by the side of their dam in the course of a few 
 days. Whereas the adults may be either uniformly coloured, or spotted with 
 white for a portion or the whole of the year, the young are very generally 
 spotted, although those of the Indian sambar are usually an exception in 
 this respect. Many of the uniformly coloured species of the genus display 
 a conspicuous white blaze on the buttocks, and in all the muzzle is naked 
 and narrow, while the antlers of the males arise at a sharp angle to the 
 middle line of the face. The European species are very regular in their 
 times of feeding and repose ; and, like other members of the family, the 
 males during the breeding season utter a peculiar " belling " cry, which is 
 both a challenge to rivals of their own sex, and likewise a call to the female. 
 The genus may be divided into several more or less well defined groups 
 according to the form of the antlers, and other structural features. 
 
 Of these the first for consideration is the Rusine group, which is ex- 
 clusively confined to the Oriental countries, ranging as far eastwards as the 
 Philippine Islands. In this group the antlers are rounded and frequently 
 marked by strong vertical grooves, while they lack the so-called bez-tine (the 
 one arising immediately above the first, or brow-tine), and the upright and 
 slightly curved beam terminates in a simple fork, so that the number of points 
 to each antler is only three. The brow, or basal-tine, rises close to the 
 thickened rugose ring forming the base, and known as the burr, and makes 
 an acute angle with the beam, or main shaft. In the more typical forms, the 
 colour is uniformly brown, the tail is of medium length in all, and the neck 
 is generally maned. The largest and best known representative of this 
 
THE HOOFED AlAMMALS. 143 
 
 group is the eambar (C. im&oZor), which stands nearly five feet in height, and, 
 with its numerous varieties, ranges from India and Burma., through the 
 Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Samatra to China. As a rule, the young are 
 not spotted. Jn Formosa there is the nearly allied C. swinhoei, while C. 
 philippiwis and C. alfredi are smaller forms inhabiting the Philippine Islands, 
 the last being distinguished by its spotted coat. Still smaller is the Indian 
 hog-deer (6. porcinm), easily distinguished by the absence of a distinct mane 
 on the neck, and the comparatively simple antlers, the young being spotted 
 till they attain an age of about six months. A second Oriental assemblage is 
 the Rucervine group, typically represented by tho Indian swamp-deer 
 (C. du'vauceli\ and the closely allied C7. schomburgki of Siam. In these the 
 beam of the antlers is rather flattened and more curved than in the first 
 group, while the large brow-tine arises at an obtuse angle from the beam, 
 with an upward curvature. To the same group belongs the remarkable Eld's 
 deer, or tameng (C, eldi) of Burma, Cambodia, and the Island of Hainan, in 
 which the whole antler forms a continuous curve from its extreme summit to 
 the tip of the brow-tine. In all the three species the tail is sharp, and the 
 neck provided with a mane, the young being spotted. David's deer 
 (C. davidianus) of Northern China may be regarded as representing a third 
 group by itself, the antlers rising straight from the brow, and then giving off 
 a long back-tine. Each antler is forked at the summit, but the prongs of the 
 fork may again divide. The brilliantly coloured axis, or spotted deer 
 (C. axis) of India, in which the coat is permanently spotted with white, like- 
 wise forms a group by itself. It has antlers of the same general type as those 
 of the Rusine group, the brow-tine usually arising at an acute or right angle 
 from the beam, but it differs in the absence of a mane on the neck, and the 
 greater length of the tail. The molar teeth are characterised by the great 
 height of their crowns. The pretty little Japanese deer (C. st'ca), which has 
 been successfully introduced into several English parks, is the typical repre- 
 sentative of a small assemblage of species, chiefly from North-Eastern Asia, 
 which constitute the Pseudaxine group. When fully developed, the antlers 
 have a brow and trez-tine (the second, or bez-tine, being absent), and 
 terminate in a fork, of which the hinder-tine is the smaller, so that the total 
 number of points on each is four. In summer the coat is spotted, but it be- 
 comes uniformly coloured in winter ; the tail is of medium length, ,and the 
 neck slightly maned. . 
 
 The typical or elaphine group, which includes the red-deer (C. elaphus) of 
 Europe, and the North American wapiti (C. canadensis), is characterised by 
 the presence of a second, or bez-tine, to the antlers, when these attain their 
 maximum development ; the beam of each antler being rounded, and near its 
 summit splitting up into a larger or smaller number of points, which in some 
 species form a cup. The tail is short, and included within a large light- 
 coloured patch on the buttocks ; the remainder of the body being uniformly 
 brown. The red-deer, which ranges over Europe, Western Asia, and North 
 Africa, has the antlers, when fully developed, as in a " royal hart," forming a 
 distinct cup at the summits. The deer of Northern Asia, from the Caucasus 
 to Siberia, and thence to North China, has been separated as C. xatithopygus; 
 but its right to specific distinction seems rather doubtful. Other members of 
 this group are the Persian maral (C. tnaral); the Kashmir stag or hangul (C. 
 cashmirianus), represented by a variety in Yarkand; the shou (C. affinis) of 
 Tibet; Thorold's deer (C, thoroldi), which is also a Tibetan form, easily dis- 
 tinguished by its white muzzle ; the great Thian Shan stag (C. eustephanus); 
 
144 MAMMALIA ORDER VI.UNGULATA. 
 
 and tha closely-allied wapiti (C. canadensu) of North America. In all these 
 species, which include the largest members of the genus, the antlers do riot 
 form a distinct cup at the summit. The Barbary variety of the red-deer does 
 not develop the bez-tine, 
 
 The common fallow-deer (C. dama), whose native home appears to be the 
 Mediterranean countries, and the Persian fallow-deer (C. mesopotamicits), are 
 the sole existing members of the last, or Damine, group of the genus, charac- 
 terised by the palmation of the antlers, and by the fur being generally 
 spotted, although there is a uniformly brown variety of the common species. 
 These deer have no upper canine teeth, and the tail is of moderate length. 
 To this group may be referred two very fine species, which have only become 
 extinct comparatively recently. Since the year 1697, when certain of its 
 remains were described by a Dr. Molyneux in the Philosophical Transactions 
 of the Royal Society of London, the gigantic extinct deer of the Irish peat- 
 bogs had been known to science ; while the magnificent proportions attained 
 by its antlers have given it a notoriety not shared by most other animals of a 
 past epoch. Although found more abundantly, and generally in a better 
 state of preservation, in the bogs of Ireland than elsewhere, the Irish deer is 
 by no means confined to the island from which it takes its name. On the 
 contrary, its remains have been obtained from many of the caverns and 
 superficial deposits of both England and the Continent, and its continental 
 range extended from Italy in the south to Russia in the north. In popular 
 language, this deer is generally spoken of as the Irish elk ; but, as is the 
 case with a number of popular terms, this is a misnomer, the animal really 
 being a true deer, referable to the genus Cervus. It is true, indeed, that its 
 broad, palmated antlers present a superficial resemblance to those of the elk; 
 but this no more indicates any close affinity with that animal than do the 
 somewhat similarly palmated antlers of the fallow-deer. Like many other 
 animals, both living and extinct, the Irish deer rejoices in a number of scien- 
 tific names ; but its proper title is Cervus giganteus. It is almost superfluous 
 to mention that the antlers of this magnificent deer are larger than those of 
 any other known species, having a span in some cases of over 11 feet from tip 
 to tip. In form, the antlers have a short and nearly cylindrical beam, given 
 off in a nearly horizontal plane at right angles to the axis of the skull. Near 
 their origin from the skull, there arises a descending brow-tine, which is flat- 
 tened, and generally forked. As soon as the beam expands, it gives off from 
 the front, or lower edge, a trez-tine, nearly opposite to which is a third, or 
 posterior tine on the hinder or upper margin, both these tines being seen 
 fully from the front. Beyond these tines, the antlers expand to their fullest 
 width, and usually terminate in five or six snags, of which the topmost are 
 directed nearly upwards. The second of the extinct species is Ruff's deer 
 (C. ruffi}, hitherto only found in Germany. In place of the outward hori- 
 zontal extension characteristic of the Irish deer, the antlers of Ruff's deer 
 are directed upwards and outwards, nearly after the fashion of a fallow-deer, 
 so that their innermost terminal snags are separated only by a comparatively 
 small interval-. That this deer is closely allied to the Irish deer, and has no 
 such close kinship with the fallow-deer, is, however, proved by the flattened 
 and expanded form of the brow-tine. A further difference from the ordinary 
 Irish deer is exhibited by the different position of the plane of the expanded 
 portion of the antlers. Thus, whereas in the former the whole of their inner 
 surface and the entire trez and posterior tines are visible from the front, in 
 Ruffs deer we see, instead of the inner surface, the front edge and a part of 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 
 
 Fig. 80. REINDEER (Rangifa tarandus). 
 
 the outer surface, while only the tips of the posterior tines are visible, and 
 
 the trez-tine (which is much longer than in the normal form) is foreshortened. 
 
 The position of the plane of the expanded portion of the antlers is another 
 
 point in which Ruffs deer approximates to the fallow-deer. 
 
 The reindeer (Rangifer), together with all the remaining members of the 
 
 family, differ from the foregoing in that the lateral metacarpal bones of tho 
 
 fore-feet and the corresponding me- 
 
 tatarsals in the hind-limbs are re- 
 
 pre'-mted by their lower, instead of 
 
 their upper, extremities. From all 
 
 other deer, the reindeer are at once 
 
 distinguished by having antlers in 
 
 both sexes ; these being very large, 
 
 with the cylindrical beam suddenly 
 
 bent forwards near the middle of 
 
 its length, and having a brow-tine 
 
 which is generally branched and 
 
 pal mated on one side, and simple 
 
 on the other. Above the brow-tine 
 
 comes a large bez-tino. In form, 
 
 reindeer are heavily-built animals, 
 
 with short limbs, in which the main 
 
 hoofs are widely separable, and the lateral pair unusually large, the muzzle 
 
 being broad and hairy. The young, like their parents, are uniformly 
 
 coloured. The ordinary reindeer (R. tarandus} ranges from Norway and 
 
 Sweden over the northern regions of the Old World ; and it is probable that 
 
 the North American variety known as the caribou is not specifically distinct. 
 
 The uses to which reindeer are put by the Lapps and the inhabitants of other 
 
 northern countries are too well known to require mention. 
 
 The largest of all living deer is the elk or moose (Alces machlis), which 
 
 is the only living member of its genus, and has a circumpolar distribution, 
 
 ranging in the Old World as far south as 
 Prussia and the Caucasus. It is a long- 
 legged, ungainly-looking animal, with 
 the large, overhanging, broad muzzle 
 covered with short hairs, except a small, 
 naked triangular spot below the nostrils. 
 The tail is rudimental, and the hair of 
 the young uniformly coloured. In tho 
 males the enormous antlers arise from a 
 cylindrical beam directed at right angles 
 to the middle line of the skull, and then 
 expand into a huge basin-shaped mass, 
 consisting primarily of an upper and 
 lower moiety, and having the free edge 
 bordered by a number of irregular snags. 
 Elk feed chiefly upon the leaves and twigs 
 of trees ; and during the winter collect 
 in small parties, keeping open a small 
 patch of ground by continually trampling 
 down the snow. Frequently the hind 
 
 Fig. 81. -ELK (Alces machlis). gives birth to a pair of fawns. The ant- 
 
 11 
 
146 MAMMALIAORDER VI.UNGULATA. 
 
 lers may weigh as much as sixty pounds. The two remaining genera of Old 
 World deer are represented by small forms. Of these, the roe-deer (Capre- 
 olus) have comparatively short cylindrical antlers with three tines each ; the 
 front tine rising from the front of the upper half of the beam and inclining 
 upwards. There are no upper canines, the naked portion of the muzzle is 
 small, and does not extend below the nostrils, the tail is very short, and the 
 fur of the young spotted. In addition to the common roe (G. caprea) of 
 Europe and Western Asia, a second species (C. pygargus) inhabits Turkestan 
 and the mountains dividing Russia from China, while a smaller variety is 
 found in Manchuria. Roe-deer usually inhabit more or less open country, 
 and go about in pairs. From all other members of the family except the 
 musk-deer, which it resembles in the long tusks of the males, the small 
 Chinese water-deer (Hydropotes inermis) differs in the absence of antlers from 
 both sexes. The muzzle has a rather large naked portion, and the young are 
 spotted. As in the roes, there are large glands in the hind-feet, and small ones 
 in the front pair. In form, these deer have long bodies and short limbs, and 
 they are remarkable for producing from three to six fawns at a birth. 
 
 Agreeing with the genera just described in the structure of the metacarpal 
 and metatarsal bones, the American deer, exclusive of the wapiti, reindeer, 
 and elk, are, with two exceptions, included in a genus (Cariacus) characterised 
 by the antlers, when fully developed, dividing in a more or less regularly 
 fork-like manner. Whereas, however, in some species the antlers are large 
 and branching, in certain of the smaller forms they form simple spikes. The 
 muzzle resembles that of Cervus, the tail is of variable length, and the fur of 
 the adults is uniformly coloured. The genus ranges over almost the whole 
 of the American Continent, but attains its maximum development in the 
 ^south. The brockets, of which the red brocket (C. rufus) is a well-known 
 example, are a southern group, easily recognised by their unbranched, spike- 
 like antlers. They have a tail of moderate length, and the fawns are spotted. 
 The Costa Rica deer- (C. clavatus) of Central America differs from the 
 brockets in having the hair of the face directed upwards, instead of radiat- 
 ing from two points. The Andes is the home of two species (C. chilensis and 
 C. antisiensis) known as guemels, and characterised by their simply forked 
 antlers, of which the front prong is the longer. There are tusks in the upper 
 jaw, and the young are uniformly coloured. The pampas-deer (C. campestris) 
 is the typical representative of another South American group of the genus, 
 in which the antlers are regularly forked, with the hinder prong, and occa- 
 sionally also the front one, again forking. There are no upper canines, the 
 tail is very short, and the coloration of the fawns is uniform. The last 
 group of the genus is typified by the Virginian deer (C. virginianus), and 
 comprises not only the largest species, but likewise all those inhabiting 
 North America. In this group the antlers are very large and complex, and 
 distinguished by the presence of a larger or smaller basal snag near the base 
 of the front surface. Upper tusks are absent, arid the fawns are spotted. 
 Whereas in the Virginian deer the basal snag is very large, and directed up- 
 wards, in the large-eared mule-deer (C. macrotis) of North America it is much 
 smaller. Of the former Mr. Parker Gilmore writes, that "this splendid animal 
 has still a very wide habitat. Its boundaries, however, originally were from 
 the Atlantic Ocean to the Rockies, and from the Gulf of Mexico to about 47 
 N. latitude, and although eagerly sought by everyone deeming himself a 
 hunter, it can be found in greater or less numbers near the oldest settle- 
 ments. As an article of food the meat of this deer is unsurpassed, especi- 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 
 
 The Giraffe. 
 Family 
 
 GiraffidcR. 
 
 ally when the animal has fattened upon Indian corn. For grace and contour 
 of outline they are incomparable. Their horns have a most peculiar and 
 graceful outline, receding at first backwards from the burr, then coming for- 
 ward with a bold sweep It is extremely timorous and wary, bub if wounded 
 and unable to escape it will fight gallantly for its life. In such encounters 
 its horns are not, in my experience, so much to be dreaded as its fore-feet." 
 Finally, the two pudu-deer (Pudua) of the Chilian Andes and Ecuador, al- 
 though nearly related to the brockets, differ sufficiently to form a genus by 
 themselves. In size they scarcely exceed a hare ; and they have a pair of 
 very minute simple antlers rising from the middle of the forehead, while they 
 exhibit certain peculiarities in the structure of the skull and ankle-joint. 
 
 The African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis\ which is the sole existing re- 
 presentative of its g^nus and family, enjoys the proud distinction of being 
 the tallest of all Mammals, and is easily recognised by its 
 extremely elongated neck and limbs, as well as by its dappled 
 coloration. In many respects intermediate between the 
 deer and the hollow-horned Ruminants, although more nearly 
 allied to the former than to the latter, it is chiefly entitled 
 to form a family by itself on account of the peculiar structure of the append- 
 ages on the skull, which, properly speaking, come under the designation neither 
 of antlers nor horns. Between the large ears are a pair of short horns, as they 
 may be called, which are completely covered 
 with skin, and are formed of bones, which in 
 the young state can be easily detached from the 
 skull. Lower down on the forehead is a single 
 median dome-like bone, which is likewise de- 
 tachable in the young. In general conforma- 
 tion the skull of the giraffe is very like that 
 of the deer ; but the cheek teeth have very 
 short crowns, and a peculiarly rugose enamel. 
 There are no upper tusks ; the lateral hoofs 
 are totally wanting in both limbs ; the tail is 
 long and tufted at the end ; and there is 
 generally no gall-bladder to the liver. In 
 colour, the South African giraffe differs from 
 the North African variety by the darker tint 
 and larger size of the chestnut blotches, and 
 the narrower buff lines by which they are 
 divided. The giraffe, however, has attained 
 its towering stature without any important de- 
 parture from the general structure characteris- 
 ing its nearest allies, and thus preserves all the 
 essential features of an ordinary quadruped. 
 It owes its height mainly to the enormous 
 elongation of two of the bones of the legs, 
 coupled with a corresponding lengthening of 
 the vertebrae of the neck. As in all its kin- 
 dred, the lower segment of each leg of this 
 animal forms a cannon-bone, the nature of 
 which has been explained above, and in the fore-limb it is the bone 
 below the wrist (commonly termed the knee), and the radius above the 
 latter, which have undergone an elongation so extraordinary as to make 
 
 Fig. 82.- THK GIRAFFE. 
 
J4S MAMMALIA ORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 them quite unlike, as regards proportion, the corresponding elements in the 
 skeleton of an ordinary Ruminant, although retaining precisely the same 
 structure. Similarly, in the hinder-limb, it is the cannon-bone below the 
 ankle-joint, or hock, and the tibia above, which have been thus elongated. 
 To one unacquainted with anatomy, it might appear that a giraffe and a hip- 
 popotamus would differ greatly in regard to the number of vertebrae in the 
 neck ; but, nevertheless, both conform in this respect to the ordinary 
 Mammalian type, possessing only seven of such segments. 
 
 Other noticeable features in the organisation of the giraffe are the large size 
 and prominence of the liquid eyes, and the great length of the extensile 
 tongue ; the former being designed to give the creature the greatest possible 
 range of vision, while the extensibility of the latter enhances the capability 
 of reaching the foliage of tall trees afforded by the lengthened limbs and 
 neck. In comparison with the slenderness of the neck, the head of the giraffe 
 appears of relatively large size ; but this bulk, which is probably necessary 
 to the proper working of the long tongue, is compensated by the extreme 
 lightness and porous structure of the bones of the skull. Somewhat stiff 
 and ungainly in its motions the small number of vertebrae not admitting of 
 the graceful arching of the neck the giraffe in all its organisation is admirably 
 adapted to a life on open plains dotted over with tall trees, upon which it 
 can browse without fear of competition by any other living creature. Its 
 wide range of vision affords it timely warning of the approach of foes ; from 
 the effect of sand-storms it is protected by the power of automatically closing 
 its nostrils ; while its capacity of existing for months at a time without 
 drinking renders it suited to inhabit waterless districts like the northern part 
 of the great Kalahari desert. Although capable of withstanding the want of 
 water for a long period during the summer, the giraffe, when opportunity 
 offers, will drink long and frequently ; but it is certain that for more than 
 half the year, in many parts of Southern Africa at least, it never takes water 
 at all. In certain districts, as in the Northern Kalahari, this abstinence is, 
 from the nature of the country, involuntary ; but according to Mr. Bryden, 
 the giraffes living in the neighbourhood of the Botletli River their only 
 source of water never drink therefrom throughout the spring and winter 
 months. When a giraffe does drink, unless it wades into the stream, it is 
 compelled to straddle its fore-legs far apart in order to bring down its lips to 
 the required level, and the same ungainly attitude is perforce assumed on the 
 rare occasions when it grazes. 
 
 Absent from the countries to the north of the Sahara, as well as in the great 
 forest regions of the west, which are unsuitable to its habits, the giraffe at 
 the present day ranges from the North Kalahari and Northern Bechuanaland 
 in the south, through such portions of Eastern and Central Africa as are 
 suited to its mode of life, to the Southern Sudan in the north. Unhappily, 
 however, it is almost daily diminishing in numbers throughout a large area 
 of Southern and Eastern Africa, and its distributional area as steadily 
 shrinking. Whether it was ever found to the south of the Orange River and 
 in the Cape Colony may be doubtful, although there are traditions that it 
 once occurred there. Apart from this, it is definitely known that about the 
 year 1813 these animals were met with only a little to the north of the last- 
 named river ; while as late as 1836 they were still common throughout the 
 Transvaal, and more especially near the junction of the Marico with the 
 Limpopo River. Now their last refuge in these districts is the extreme 
 eastern border of the Transvaal (where only a few remain), and the district 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 149 
 
 lying to the north of Bechuanaland and known as Khama's country, or 
 Bawangwato, together with the Northern Kalahari. Even here, however, 
 their existence is threatened, as there is a proposal to put down tube-wells in 
 the Kalahari, which, if successfully accomplished, will open up the one great 
 stronghold of the animal to the hunter. Unless, therefore, efficient and 
 prompt measures are taken for its protection, there is much reason to fear 
 that the giraffe will ere long be practically exterminated from this part of 
 Africa, although it will doubtless long survive in the remote districts of the 
 Sudan and Kordofan. 
 
 Although closely allied to the typical hollow-horned Ruminants, the prong- 
 buck, or prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra americana) is regarded as repre- 
 senting a distinct family, on account of the circumstance 
 that not only are the sheaths of the horns branched, but The Prongbuck. 
 that they are annually shed, and their place taken by new Family 
 sheaths, which have been growing up beneath the old ones. Antilocapridce. 
 In size, the prongbuck may be compared to a fallow-deer, 
 although its form is lighter and more elegant. It has no lateral hoofs ; the 
 horns are present usually only in the males; the ears are -rather long and 
 pointed ; and the tail is short. There is a thick mane of long hair on the neck, 
 and the general colour is chestnut ; but there is a white patch on the rump, 
 and white bars on the throat, while the lower portion of the flanks, to- 
 gether with the under-parts, are likewise white ; the compressed and 
 scimitar-like horns being black. Prongbucks are inhabitants of the open 
 plains of Eastern-Central North America, where they associate in herds, 
 which may frequently be of large size. 
 
 The last, and at the same time by far the largest family group cf the 
 Ungulates, is that of the hollow-horned Ruminants, or Eovidce; under which 
 title are comprised antelopes, goats, sheep, oxen, etc. 
 Almost the whole of the members of this great assemblage Hollow-horned 
 are inhabitants of the Old World, the only American forms Ruminants. 
 being the Rocky Mountain goat, the bighorn sheep, musk- Family llovidw. 
 ox, and American buffalo, and all these confined to the 
 northern half of that continent. Indeed, there is little doubt that the 
 ancestors of at least three of these were immigrants from the Eastern Hemi- 
 sphere ; and there is no evidence 
 that South America was ever the 
 home of any member of the 
 group. The essential feature 
 of the hollow-horned Ruminants 
 is the presence, in one sex at 
 least ot all the existing forms, 
 of a pair of unbranched horns on 
 the upper part of the head, com- 
 posed of an underlying core of 
 bone, covered with a hollow, 
 horny sheath, which is never 
 shed. None of these animals 
 ever have upper canine teeth ; 
 and the lateral metacarpal and fig, 33, PRONGBUCK (Antilocapra americana). 
 metatarsal bones of the feet are 
 
 invariably absent, although lateral hoofs are not un frequently present. In 
 many cases the tear-pits, or larmiers, so characteristic of the deer, are 
 
150 MAMMALIAORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 absent from the face ; and in such cases the underlying region of the skull is 
 fully ossified, while, when those glands are developed, the unossified space 
 in the skull below each eye is generally of less extent than in the Cervidtv. 
 
 The first and least specialised 
 group of the family includes the 
 animals commonly known as 
 antelopes, which are arranged, 
 under a very large number of 
 genera, and pass imperceptibly 
 into the goats. Although no 
 definition can be given of an 
 antelope, as a rule these animals 
 have comparatively long necks, 
 and are of more or less light 
 and graceful build, while their 
 bony horn-cores are generally 
 solid throughout. By far the 
 great majority of antelopes in- 
 habit the open plains of Africa 
 
 Fig. 84 BUBALINE ANTELOPE (Bubalis) south of the Sahara, but there 
 
 are none in Madagascar, while 
 
 Burma and the Malayan countries only possess a few forms, which may be 
 regarded as intermediate between the true antelopes and the goats. The 
 well-known hartebeests (Bubalis), so remarkable on account of their long, 
 solemn-looking faces, are the typical representatives of a section comprising 
 two genera, all of which, with the exception of one species of hartebeest, which 
 is Syrian, are confined to Africa, and mostly to the regions lying south of 
 the Sahara desert. All are of comparatively large dimensions, and generally 
 have the withers considerably taller than the rump. Horns of moderate 
 length are present in both zones, and are either lyre-shaped or recurved, 
 with their bases more or less closely approximated ; the muzzle is naked; 
 there is a small, tufted gland below each eye; and the tail is comparatively long. 
 In the skull there are no large pits in the forehead, nor any unossified spaces 
 below the eye-sockets ; and the upper molar teeth have very tall and narrow 
 crowns. The typical hartebeests, of which there are several species, ranging 
 from Syria and Algeria to the Cape, are characterised by the great height of the 
 withers, the great length of the head, which has the horns placed on a kind 
 of crest at its summit, and the sudden backward flexure of the extremities 
 of the horns. The horns themselves are compressed and ringed at the base; 
 the muzzle is narrow, and the tail hairy. In certain other species the above- 
 mentioned features are less strongly developed ; and in the blesbok 
 (B. albifrons) and bontebok (J5. pygargus) the horns are lyrate, the crest on 
 the top of the head much less strongly marked, and the withers lower. In 
 consequence of these differences many writers separate the latter animals 
 under the name of Damaliscus. The strange-looking wildebeests, or gnus 
 (Connochcetes), differ from the hartebeests by their shorter head and broad and 
 bristly muzzle, as well as by the heavily-maned neck, and in the conforma- 
 tion of the horns. The latter, which are situated on the vertex of the skull 
 and approximated at their bases, are nearly smooth and cylindrical, and curve 
 outwards, or outwards and downwards, with their tips bent upwards. The 
 hoofs are remarkable for their extreme narrowness, and the elongated 
 sweeping tail is clothed with a mass of long hairs. Whereas the females of 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 151 
 
 the hartebeests resemble sheep in having but two teats, those of the wilde- 
 beests agree with cows in possessing four. The two species of wildebeests 
 are chiefly remarkable for the strange gambles and antics in which they 
 indulge, especially when the herd is approached by travellers. They are 
 frequently found in company with zebras. 
 
 The African duikerboks (Cephalophus), most of which are exceedingly 
 diminutive and graceful little creatures, although two species from the west 
 coast are of much larger dimensions, form the typical representatives of the 
 second section. In all these the horns are short and simple, without ridges, 
 and are developed only in the males. There is a more or less elongated 
 gland beneath each eye ; the muzzle is large and naked ; the tail is short ; and 
 the teats of the females are always four in number. The tipper molar teeth 
 have broad, square crowns ; and in the skull there are no pits on the fore- 
 head, and no fissure beneath the socket of the eye, although there is a deep 
 depression in the bones of this region. The duikerboks are characterised by 
 having a tuft of long hairs between the small horns, which are situated far 
 back on the forehead, the gland below the eye taking the form of a- narrow 
 slit or a row of pores, and the tail being very short. The nearly allied four- 
 horned antelope (Tetraceros quadricornis) of Peninsular India is sufficiently 
 distinguished by the males generally carrying two pairs of horns, of which 
 the front ones are very minute. 
 
 More numerously represented is the Cervicaprine group of antelopes, 
 which comprises several genera, with species of large or medium size, confined 
 to Africa south of the Sahara. In these the horns are confined to the males ; 
 the gland below the eye may be either large, rudimental, or wanting ; the 
 muzzle is either hairy or naked ; the tail is short ; and the upper molars are 
 narrow. There is usually a large unossified space in the skull below the eye, 
 and also distinct pits on the forehead. 
 
 According to the recent classification of Messrs. Sclater and Thomas, a 
 number of small African antelopes generally included in the Cermcaprince are 
 entitled to form a section by themselves (Nanotragince). Of these the six 
 species of the genus Madoqua among which the Abyssinian Salt's antelope 
 (M. saltiana) has been longest known are very small antelopes characterised 
 by the production of the hairy muzzle into a more or less marked proboscis, 
 and the presence of a tuft of hair on the crown of the head. In three of 
 the species, among which is the one named, the last lower molar has no 
 third lobe at its hinder end, and the proboscis is relatively short. Nearly 
 allied is the royal antelope (Nanotragus pygmceus) of Guinea, the smallest 
 member of the entire family, sufficiently distinguished by the smooth crown 
 of the head, the presence of a small naked area on the muzzle, and the 
 minute horns. Another genus, which includes the Zanzibar steinbok 
 (Nesotragus moschatux') and JV. livingstonianus, differs from the last by the 
 larger horns. The true steinbok (Raphiceros campestris) agrees with the two 
 last genera in the absence of lateral hoofs and of tuf fcs of hair on the knees, 
 but differs by other characters which are regarded as entitling it to form a 
 genus apart. More distinct is the South African oribi (Oribia scoparia), 
 which has both lateral hoofs and tufts of hair at the knees. From all these 
 the well-known klipspringer (Oreotragus saltator\ which ranges along the 
 east coast from the Cape to Abyssinia, and has the habits of a chamois, differs 
 in the form of the skull, the thick, brittle hair, resembling that of the musk- 
 deer, and the clumsy hoofs. In the skull of both genera there is a deep pit 
 below the eye. Among the typical Cervieaprines, the rehbok (Felea cdpreola) 
 
152 MAMMALIA ORDER VL UNGULATA. 
 
 of South Africa is a larger uniformly-coloured animal, with small, compressed, 
 upright, and scarcely diverging horns placed over the eyes, a large bare part 
 to the muzzle, and no depression in the skull below the latter. It is an in- 
 habitant of open, sandy districts, and may be compared in size to a fallow- 
 deer. Still larger is the handsome water-buck and its allies, constituting 
 the genus Cobus, characterised by the long sub-lyrate horns of the males, 
 which are ringed nearly throughout their length, the large portion of the 
 muzzle that is devoid of hair, the deep hollow in the forehead of the 
 skull and the absence of a depression below the eye, the gland being 
 rudimental. The tail is long, ridged with hair above, and tufted at the end ; 
 and the colour of the fur uniform. In most species the hair is long and 
 coarse ; and all frequent the neighbourhood of water. The three representa- 
 tives of the allied genus Cervicapra may be distinguished by the short and 
 bushy tail ; and also by the circumstance that the premaxillary bones, which 
 from the extremity of the muzzle, do not extend upwards to join the nasals. 
 The best known of these is the South African reitbok (C. arundineum), which 
 stands nearly a yard at the withers, and is of grizzled ochre colour. 
 
 The typical, or Antilopine, section is also a large one, and includes the 
 gazelles and certain allied forms which are mostly inhabitants of sandy or 
 desert districts. The horns, w r hich are usually restricted to the males, are 
 generally either compressed and lyrate or recurved, or cylindrical and spiral, 
 with well-marked rings on their lower portion. The muzzle is covered with 
 short hairs ; the short or moderate tail is compressed arid hairy on its upper 
 surface ; and the upper molars are narrow, and resemble those of the sheep. In 
 the skull there are generally large pits in the forehead, and a depression below 
 the eye. Perhaps the handsomest member of the group is the Indian black- 
 buck (Antilope cervicapra), which is the sole representative of its genus, and 
 easily recognised by the deep blackish hue of the back and head of the adult 
 males, and the beautiful spirally-twisted and ringed horns ; the gland below 
 the eye being very large. The pala (dEpyccros) and its other African allies 
 have the horns compressed, widely divergent, and ringed only at the base ; 
 and differ from the black buck by the absence of a gland on the face, and of 
 lateral hoofs to the feet. A clumsily-built and somewhat sheep-like antelope 
 from the Asiatic steppes, known as the saiga (Saiga tatarica\ is one of two 
 genera characterised by the large and puffy muzzle, this feature being most 
 developed in the present form, in which the nostrils open downwards. 
 There is a small gland on the face, lateral hoofs are present, and the female 
 lias four teats. In the males the horns are short, lyrate, ringed, and yellow 
 in colour. The Tibetan chiru (Pantholops hodysoni) differs from the last in 
 the nostrils opening anteriorly, and in the form of the horns ; the latter 
 being very long, erect, compressed, sublyrate, and ringed in front for two- 
 thirds in length, while their colour is deep black. There is no gland on the 
 face, and the female has only two teats. These beautiful antelopes are found 
 in herds on some of the most elevated regions in the world. The largest 
 genus of the group (Gazella) is represented by the beautiful gazelles, which 
 are mainly confined to the desert regions of Africa and Asia, although the 
 aberrant springbok is found on the plains of the Cape Colony and adjacent 
 districts. All the gazelles are noticeable for their elegant build, and their 
 more or less sandy coloration, while the majority differ from the foregoing 
 members of the section in that horns are developed by both sexes. Nearly 
 all the species are characterised by having a white streak, bordered by a dark 
 line, running down the face from each horn to the nostril, so as to isolate a 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 153 
 
 dark central patch on the muzzle. The gland below the eye is small and 
 concealed by hair, and the knees generally carry tufts of long hair. The 
 springbok (Gr. evfhore), remarkable on account of its habit of taking leaps in 
 the air, and also from the enormous herds in which it was formerly found, 
 differs from all the rest of the gazelles in having an erectile crest of long, 
 stiff, white hair running down the back. Clarke's gazelle (Ammodorcas 
 clarkei), from Northern Somaliland, is distinguished by the regular upwards 
 and forwards curvature of the horns of the males, which are ringed in part at 
 the base ; the females being hornless. The skull is intermediate between that 
 of the preceding and following genus. Waller's gazelle (Lithocranius walleri), 
 which is an East African form ranging from the Kilimanjaro district to 
 Somaliland, represents another genus by itself. The females are hornless, 
 but in the males the horns are erect and curved forwards in a hook-like 
 manner ; while both are characterised by the extraordinary neck, which 
 gives to the animal almost the appearance of a small giraife. The genus is, 
 however, best characterised by the solid structure of the skull. The small 
 Somali Dorcatragus seems to be another aberrant gazelle. 
 
 The next group of antelopes, which are common to Africa and Arabia, are 
 best characterised by the upper molar teeth being structurally similar to 
 those of the oxen. In these teeth the crowns are very tall and broad, 
 so as to form an almost square section, while, on their inner side, they 
 have a narrow additional column superadded to the four large normal cres- 
 centic ones. All these antelopes are of very large size, and both sexes are 
 provided with long horns, which are placed immediately over or behind 
 the eyes, and are recurved, straight, or subspiral in form. The muzzle 
 is hairy, there is no gland below the eye, and the long, cylindrical 
 tail is tufted at the extremity. In the skull there are no distinct pits on the 
 forehead, there is no depression below the eye, and only a very small 
 unossified slit in the same region. The handsome recurved horns, rising 
 vertically from a crest above the eyes and sweeping backwards in a scimitar- 
 like sweep at an obtuse angle to the profile of the face, serve at a glance 
 to distinguish the sable-antelope (Hippotragus niger} of South Africa and 
 its near ally the roan antelope (H. 
 equinus). In both these large and 
 splendid animals, as well as in a 
 kindred species from the Sudan, the 
 horns are ringed nearly to their tips, 
 the sable-antelope being one of the 
 few members of the tribe which have 
 the whole upper-parts, save some white 
 streaks on the face, a deep, full black. 
 In all these antelopes the neck is 
 furnished with an erect or curving 
 mane, and the tip of the tail is strongly 
 tufted. The gemsbok of South Africa 
 is the type of an allied genus (Oryx\ 
 ranging not only over the whole of .Ffy. 85. -SABLE-ANTELOPE 
 
 Africa south of the Sahara, but also (ffippotragus niger). 
 
 found in Syria and on the shores of the 
 
 Persian Gulf. Here the horns are long, slender, and ringed at the base, bub 
 may be either straight or somewhat curved backwards, although in all the 
 species they arise behind the eyes with their direction at first iu the plane of 
 
154 MAMMALIA ORDER VI.UNGULATA. 
 
 the face. The mane on the neck is shorter and the tail longer and more 
 hairy than in the last genus. The general hue of the hair in the oryx is grey 
 or tawny, with black markings on the face and legs ; and, although somewhat 
 ungainly in build, they are all decidedly handsome animals, the typical 
 species standing about 4 ft. at the withers, and its horns often exceeding a 
 yard in length. Oryxes are inhabitants of open sandy plains, where they 
 associate in small herds. The third genus of the group is the addax (Addax 
 nasomaculatus) of the deserts of North Africa and Arabia, which differs from 
 the last by the horns being subspiral and lyrate, and also by the heavy mane 
 of long hair on the neck and throat, and the presence of a tuft of hair on the 
 throat, the general colour of the hair being whitish. 
 
 The last, or Tragelaphine, section of the true antelopes comprises several 
 genera of large-sized forms, all of which, save one, are inhabitants of Africa 
 south of the Sahara. The horns, which are usually confined to the male sex, 
 are not ringed, but have a ridge at least on the basal portion of the front 
 surface, and are generally twisted in a spiral, with the front ridge curving 
 outwards from the base. The muzzle is naked, and there is a small gland 
 below each eye. The skull has a small unossified fissure, but no depression 
 below the eye, arid there is very generally a pair of pits on the forehead. 
 The upper molar teeth are broad, but may have either tall or short crowns. 
 A very characteristic, although by no means universal, feature of the group 
 is the marking of the body by vertical white stripes. In India the group 
 is represented solely by the well-known nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), 
 characterised by having the hind limbs much shorter than the front pair, 
 the short horns which are placed behind the eyes ridged and triangular at 
 the base, and nearly straight, the naked portion of the muzzle large, the 
 ears small, and the upper molars tall, with an additional column on their 
 inner sides ; the body being uniformly coloured. Nilgai, which may be 
 found either in jungle or open country, generally associate in small herds, 
 although the bulls are often found singly. In all the other members of the 
 group the fore and hind limbs are of approximately equal length ; the horns 
 are long, ridged throughout, and twisted into a spiral; while the naked 
 portion of the muzzle is of small extent, and the size of the ears large. The 
 molar teeth are short-crowned, and the body is generally striped. Perhaps the 
 handsomest of all are the two African species of kudu, constituting the genus 
 Strepsiceros, in which the horns of the males are situated behind the line of the 
 eyes, rising in the form of an open spiral, with their front ridge very strongly 
 marked, at an obtuse angle to the plane of the face. The neck is fringed with 
 a mane, the tail relatively short, the body marked with vertical white streaks 
 descending from a spinal stripe of the same colour, and the hoofs short. In the 
 skull there is a deep hollow, with pits, on the forehead, and a large unossified 
 space below each eye. Of the two species, the true kudu (S. kudu) ranges 
 from South Africa to Abyssinia, while the much smaller, lesser kudu (S. 
 imberbis) is confined to Somaliland and the Kilimanjaro district. Of the 
 former splendid animal, Mr. Bryddon, in the Asian newspaper of November, 
 1894, writes as follows : '* The kudu bull stands 5 ft. or a little more at the 
 withers. Its general colour varies from rufous grey to almost blue, and 
 especially in the older animals this bluish colouring will be found predominat- 
 ing. Along the spine runs a white streak, and from this thin white stripes 
 extend transversely across the body towards the belly. Just under the eye 
 on either side is a clear white band which meets on the front of the face ; 
 while upon the cheeks two or three circular white spots are to be found. The 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 155 
 
 head is neat, game-like, and altogether beautiful, and is surmounted by tall 
 spreading spiral horns of great weight and size, which diminish in corkscrew- 
 like formation to sharp points. The greatest recorded length of a kudu's 
 horns appear to be 3 ft. 9| in. in a straight line > over the curve 5 ft. f in. 
 The greatest length of the horns of a lesser kudu in a straight line is 
 2ft. Ijin. ; over the curve 2ft. 7in. There are often great and striking 
 differences in the spread of kudu horns. Fine specimens will sometimes 
 spread between the tips as much as nearly 3 ft. 9 in. Other and equally fin.o 
 horns will only spread a little over 2ft. But whether widespread or closer in 
 growth, the effect of these magnificent spiral horns is equally grand. The 
 eyes are large and very beautiful. The ears are of a light brown colour, and 
 very large and spreading. The hearing of this antelope is marvellously acute, 
 and the great, yet delicate, ears are manifestly exactly fitted for the arrest of 
 the slightest vibration of sound. The senses of smell and sight are also 
 excessively fine, and, united to its preternaturally sharp hearing and general 
 suspiciousness, render the kudu usually a very difficult animal to approach or 
 surprise. The neck of the male is strong, shapely, and well fitted to support 
 the weight of the immense horns. The chin is white. From the throat to 
 the dewlap extends a long and handsome fringe of white and blackish-brown 
 hair, which adds not a little to the handsome appearance of the antelope. 
 The neck also is slightly maned. The legs are strong yet slender, clean, and 
 beautifully formed, terminating in shapely feet, which give a dainty spoor t 
 shaped like the ace of hearts. The kudu spoor is, indeed, one of the most 
 perfect imprints of all African beasts of chase. In length this animal 
 extends some 9 ft. The withers, as in so many other examples of African 
 game, are high ; the body is stoutly formed, and in general contour not 
 unlike that of a Highland stag. The hair is, however, much closer and 
 finer than the red deer's. The tail is about 2 ft. long, terminating in a point. 
 The general port and demeanour of this antelope is exceedingly noble ; and 
 the magnificent carriage of the head, surmounted as it is by the great spiral 
 horns, is one of the finest things in nature. The female, lacking as she is in 
 horns, cuts a much poorer figure than her lord ; and her ears, unrelieved by 
 the fine spiral horns, appear far more prominent and remarkable. The 
 calves are beautiful little creatures, of a bright rufous colour, strongly lined 
 with white. The cows have only one calf at a time, usually between 
 September and November the favourite calving period with most South 
 African antelopes. The kudu feeds more upon the young leafage and 
 sprouting greenery of bushes, shrubs, and trees, than upon grass. Its 
 favourite browsing-ground is bush and woodland, the stony slopes of hills, 
 and well-bushed mountain-sides. In these haunts this antelope is difficult of 
 approach, and offers very excellent stalking. In countries not much shot 
 over, however, the kudu may be occasionally surprised at quite close 
 quarters. In woodland and bushy country the pace of the kudu, considering 
 the weight and size of its horns, and the difficulties and obstacles of covert, 
 is surprising. In hill country it is wonderfully active and will jump magnifi- 
 cently ; upon open ground, however, where it occasionally strays, it may be 
 ridden down without much trouble, and upon the flat its gait is laboured and 
 somewhat slow. This antelope is gregarious, and runs usually in parties of 
 from five to eight ; occasionally, however, larger troops, numbering as many 
 as twenty individuals, are encountered. In the dense forest south of the 
 Botletli river, while hunting giraffe, I startled a troop of fifteen upon one 
 occasion. The hide of the kudu is one of the most valuable of all South 
 
156 MAMMALIAORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 African antelopes ; it commands a high price and is much sought after. 
 From it are manufactured velschoens (shoes), leather thongs, whip-lashes, 
 and even harness. The hide is thinnish, but excessively tough. I have 
 seen a complete set of Cape cart harness made of kudu hide, which was 
 smart-looking, serviceable, and of everlasting wear. The flesh is excellent 
 and well-tasted, and the marrow bones are esteemed a very great dainty by 
 hunters and natives in the interior. The kudu is widely distributed. Its 
 range extends beyond the Zambesi into Central Africa, and it is found as far 
 north as Somaliland and even Abyssinia. It has a variety of native names 
 even in South Africa. The Bechuanas call it tolo ; the Matabele, e-bala- 
 bala ; the Makalakas, e-zilarwa ; the Makobag, unzwa ; the Masarwa bush- 
 men, dwar ; the Mashunas, noro. In North-east Africa the Somali name is 
 godir ; while upon the Lower Zambesi it is goma." 
 
 Nearly allied to the kudus are the numerous African species of harnessed 
 antelopes ( Tragelaphus), most of which are distinguished by the smaller number 
 
 of spiral turns in the horns, although 
 one species comes so close in this 
 respect to the kudus, that it may be a 
 question whether all should not be 
 included in a single genus. The 
 harnessed-antelopes take their name 
 from the white stripes or rows of 
 spots with which the bodies of nearly 
 all are adorned, some of them being 
 remarkable for the extreme brilliancy 
 of their coloration. Whereas the 
 splendid T. euryceros of West Africa, 
 conspicuous for the brilliant chestnut 
 ground colour of its coat, is only 
 Fig. SC. HARNESSED- ANTELOPE second in size to the kudu, the guib 
 
 (Tragelaphus angasi). (T. scriptus) does not exceed a goat in 
 
 height. Two of the species, one of 
 
 which is the well-known sitatunga or nakong (T. spekei) of South Central 
 Africa, have their hoofs remarkably elongated, and spend their time in 
 marshy situations, where they will conceal themselves by submerging the 
 whole body except the tip of the muzzle. The largest of all antelopes are 
 the two African species of eland (Orms), which differ from the other members 
 of the present section by having horns in both sexes, while they are further 
 distinguished by the close, corkscrew-like spiral of these appendages. 
 Although in one variety of the common species they are fairly well marked, 
 as a rule the white stripes on the body are indistinct or absent. There are few 
 handsomer antelopes than a large eland bull, with its fine dewlap, full tuft 
 of dark brown hair on the forehead, slight mane, and generally pale tawny 
 hair. 
 
 The well-known chamois, gemze, or izard (Rupicapra tragus\ which in- 
 habits all the higher mountain ranges of Europe, and is locally known by the 
 above-mentioned names, is the typical representative of a section of the 
 hollow-horned ruminants, in many respects intermediate between the true 
 antelopes and the goats. Accordingly, they are often spoken of as the 
 caprine, or goat-like antelopes. As a rule, the horns, which are nearly equally 
 developed in both sexes, and rise behind the line of the eyes, are short arid 
 wrinkled at their bases, and conical or somewhat compressed in form, with a 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. i$7 
 
 more or less divided backward curvature. Although it may be much reduced 
 in size, there is generally a gland beneath each of the eyes ; the short and 
 tapering tail is well-haired above, the hoofs are relatively large, and the 
 whole build is heavy and clumsy. In form the molar teeth resemble those 
 of the goats ; and the skull generally has a depression, but no fissure, below 
 each eye. From its allies, the chamois is readily distinguished by the 
 peculiar hooked form of the horns, which rise close together almost vertically 
 from the forehead, and then curve suddenly back in the well-known hook. 
 The muzzle is hairy, and the gland beneath the eye small. In height, a 
 chamois does not stand more than a couple of feet at the withers. Chamois 
 are inhabitants of the high Alpine regions immediately below the snow-line ; 
 and although they were formerly met with in large herds, in most of their 
 habitats their numbers have been greatly reduced by constant persecution, 
 while from some districts they have completely disappeared. Their mar- 
 vellous powers of leaping are familiar to all. In the Himalaya, Malay 
 countries, parts of China, and Japan, the place of the chamois is taken by 
 the allied but larger and more clumsily-built animals known as serows 
 (Nemorhcedus), of which there are several species. From the former they 
 are readily distinguished by the finely-wrinkled and sharply-tapering black 
 horns having no distinct hook at the extremities. The ears are large, the fur 
 is coarse and long, and the gland below the eye small. The Himalayan 
 species is found in thick bush at moderate elevations, and is a marvellous 
 adept at getting over the roughest ground at a rapid pace. Nearly allied are 
 the smaller animals known as goral (Cemas\ of which the typical representa- 
 tive is met with in the outer ranges of the Himalaya, while other forms 
 occur in Eastern Tibet, Northern China, and Amurland. They differ from 
 the serows in lacking a gland beneath the eye, and also in the conformation 
 of the skull. One of the most remarkable members of the group is the 
 takin (Budorcas taxlcolor) of the Mishmi Hills in Assam, and Eastern 
 Tibet, which may be compared to a very large, rough-haired, and reddish- 
 coloured serow, with greatly developed smooth horns, whose size and curva- 
 ture strongly recalls those of the gnus. Scarcely anything is known of 
 these animals in a wild state, although they are probably sufficiently common 
 in their native haunts. Another nearly allied form is the so-called Rocky 
 Mountain goat (Haploceros montanus) 
 of North America, which is one of 
 the very few American representa- 
 tives of the hollow-horned ruminants. 
 Ifc is likewise one of the few animals 
 which are permanently white at all 
 seasons of the year, its coat being very 
 long and shaggy, and forming a mo^t 
 striking contrast to the jet-black horns 
 and hoofs. The horns, which are set 
 close together and curve somewhat 
 backwards, are distinctly compressed Fig. 87. .-ROCKY MOUNTAIN -GOAT 
 
 at their bases ; the ears are small, and (Uaploceros montanus). 
 
 there is no gland below the eyes. The 
 
 most remarkable structural peculiarity about the animal is, however, the 
 extreme shortness of the cannon-bones in both the fore and hind feet, which 
 in this respect are quite unlike those of any other ruminants. 
 The next group of the Bovidce is formed by the goats and sheep, wnich are 
 
IS8 MAMMALIA ORDER VI. UNGULATA. 
 
 BO nearly allied that it is very difficult to distinguish between them. In this 
 Caprine section both sexes are provided with horns, but those of the females 
 are much inferior in size to those of the males. They are usually compressed, 
 triangular in cross section, and marked with bold, transverse ridges or 
 wrinkles, while they may either curve backwards or outwards, or may be 
 spirally twisted. The muzzle is usually completely covered with hair ; the 
 gland below the eye is either very small or totally absent ; the tail is 
 generally short and flattened ; and glands are often present between the 
 hoofs. With the exception of one species of goat, the females have but a 
 single pair of teats. The molar teeth are characterised by the great height 
 of their crowns, those of the upper jaw having only four crescentic columns. 
 In the skull a depression below each eye may or may not be developed. 
 In the true goats, constituting the genus Capra, the long horns are laterally 
 compressed, and either curve backwards in a bold sweep, with an outward 
 inclination at the tips, or are spirally twisted. There is neither a gland 
 beneath the eye nor a depression of the skull in the same region ; the chin 
 is more or less distinctly bearded ; the males emit a powerful and 
 characteristic odour ; and, if glands are developed between the hoofs, these 
 are confined to the fore feet. The true goats are mainly confined to the 
 mountains of Europe and Asia, although sparingly represented in Abyssinia, 
 Egypt, and Palestine. In Europe there are two species, viz., the ibex (G. 
 ibex) and the Spanish ibex (G. pyrenaica), of which the former was confined 
 to the Alps, but is now extinct in its pure form, although a half-breed 
 between this and the domestic goat exists in certain districts. The ibex is 
 easily recognised by the bold transverse ridges or knobs on the front of its 
 scimitar-like horns, whereas in the Spanish ibex these are much less 
 developed, and the curvature tends to become spiral. Mr. A. Chapman writes 
 that this goat survives in some of the secluded valleys on the Spanish side of 
 the Pyrenees, and finds a congenial home in the elevated Cordilleras of 
 Central Spain, especially in the Sierra de Gredos the apex of the long 
 range which forms the watershed between the Tagus and the Douro, and 
 continues to Portugal as the Sierra de Estrelha. In the south of Spain the 
 ibex occurs in the Sierra Morena, and especially in the Sierra Nevada, as 
 well as the Sierra Bermeja, which runs parallel with the Mediterranean ; 
 but examples from these localities differ somewhat from those of the northern 
 and central ranges, and Schimper distinguished the southern race as Capri 
 hispanica. In the Gredos and Nevada ranges the ibex leave the vicinity of 
 the snow, or, at least, the most rugged and inaccessible ground, after sunset 
 only, when they descend to feed ; and under no circumstances are they 
 found, even in winter, amongst forest or covert of any kind ; but in the 
 lower ranges of the Bermeja and Palmitera, which do not exceed 4800 feet 
 in height, and where the scrub and even pine trees attain the summit, they 
 are found comparatively low down, and may be hunted over ground that 
 looks far more suitable for roe-deer. But wherever found, the races have 
 one habit in common : they take refuge on the narrowest ledges, 
 where it seems hardly possible that their bodies can pass, and still 
 further avail themselves of crevices and recesses in the wall of rock. 
 In the Caucasus there are at least two species of goats, one known 
 as C. cylindricornis, in which the horns in curvature, smoothness, and 
 colour are so like those of certain wild sheep as to render it almost 
 impossible to draw any valid distinction between the two groups. 
 Of wild goats five well-defined species are recognised from India, four of 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 
 
 159 
 
 which are not found southwards of the Himalaya. Three out of these are 
 included in the genus Capra ; while the other two have much shorter horns, 
 and are referred to a second genus. The pasang or Persian wild goat 
 (C. cegagrus) is a western form only extending into India on its western side, 
 where it is met with in Baluchistan and Sind. It is easily recognised by the 
 sharp edge of its scimitar-like horns ; and is considered to be the ancestral 
 stock from which the domesticated breeds of goat have been derived. The 
 Himalayan ibex is generally regarded as identical with the ibex of Siberia and 
 the Thian Shan (G. sibirica), although it has been thought that it may be dis- 
 tinct. It differs from the pasang by the front of the horns of the bucks being 
 flattened and marked by bold knots. Further information is required about 
 a dark-coloured ibex from Baltistan, which has been considered to be merely 
 the common species in its winter dress, but this is not yet ascertained with 
 certainty. There is also much uncertainty 
 about an ibex of which three specimens 
 have been obtained probably from the 
 upper Kishanganga Valley in Kashmir ter- 
 ritory characterised by the marked out- 
 ward curvature of the horns, and the ab- 
 sence of knobs except near their tips. The 
 markhor ((7. falconeri) is easily recognised 
 by its spirally twisted horns ; and zoologists 
 are now satisfied that, in spite of the great 
 difference in the form of the spiral of their 
 horns, all the varieties belong to a single 
 species. The two remaining Indian wild 
 goats are the Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus 
 jemlaicus) and the so-called Nilgiri ibex 
 (Hemitragus hylocrius). Both differ from 
 the true goats by their comparatively short 
 horns; and they are further distinguished 
 by having a small naked area at the end of 
 the muzzle. The Nilgiri wild goat differs 
 from the tahr by having the outer side of its 
 horns convex, and not passing into a sharp 
 ridge in front; while the latter is distinguished from all other goats and 
 sheep by the presence of four teats in the females. A third species of the 
 same genus inhabits the Muscat district of Southern Arabia. The sheep 
 ( Ovis) are connected with the sheep-like goats, such as Capra cylindricornis of 
 the Caucasus, by means of the bharal of Tibet and the North African arui, or 
 Barbary sheep, both of which differ from the more typical representatives of 
 their genus by the absence of a gland below the eye. and their smooth, olive- 
 coloured horns; although they resemble other sheep in having glands between 
 the hoofs of both the fore and hind feet. As a group, sheep are character- 
 ised by the massive horns of the rams curving backwards and downwards in 
 a bold sweep, with the tips generally turned inwards, while they are usually 
 marked with more or less prominent transverse ridges. Except in the 
 two species named, their colour is brownish, and there is a small gland 
 on the face below the eye, with a corresponding shallow depression in the 
 skull. All the feet have glands between their hoofs ; the chin is devoid of 
 a beard, although there may be a ruff of long hair on the throat ; and the 
 rams have not the unpleasant odour characteristic of the males of the goats. 
 
 Fig. 87. THE MARKHOB 
 ( Capra falconeri). 
 
160 MAMMALIA ORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 Sheep are mainly inhabitants of Central and North-Eastern Asia, one 
 species just entering the Punjab. In Europe two or three kinds are found 
 in the Mediterranean regions, and there is one in the north of Africa, but 
 no other throughout the whole extent of that continent ; while a single 
 species inhabits North America. The largest and finest of the group are 
 
 the argalis of Central Asia, and 
 amongst these the most magnificent 
 is the Pamir-sheep (0. poll), whose 
 horns are characterised by their 
 double twist and outward direction. 
 In the true argali (0. ammon) of 
 the Altai, and the closely-allied O. 
 hodgsoni of Tibet, the horns, al- 
 though more massive, are shorter, 
 and form bub a single curve. In 
 these species the wrinkles on the 
 horns are strongly marked, but in 
 the bighorns, of which one species 
 (0. canadensis) inhabits the high- 
 lands of western North America, 
 Fig, 89 -PAMIR-SHEEP (Ovispoli). while the second (0. nivicola) is 
 
 found on the opposite side of 
 
 Behring Straits in the Kamschatkan Peninsula, these wrinkles are much 
 less developed, and the depression below the eye in the skull is less deep. 
 Another group, in which the horns, although well wrinkled, are smaller than 
 in the argalis, is represented by the sha (0. vignei) of the inner Himalaya, 
 Persia, and certain ranges of the Punjab (where it is known as the urial), as 
 well as by the Armenian sheep (0. gmelini) of Asia Minor and Persia, the 
 smaller but closely allied 0. ophion of the island of Cyprus, and the mouflon 
 (0. musimon) of Sardinia and Corsica, easily distinguished by the saddle- 
 shaped mark on the back ; the three last-named kinds being further 
 characterised by the absence of horns in the ewes. The two remaining 
 species, as already said, differ from all the foregoing in their comparatively 
 smooth and olive-coloured horns, and the absence of a gland below the eye 
 and a depression in the skull for its reception. Of these the bharal (O. 
 nahura) is a Tibetan form, with short, bluish-grey fur ornamented with black 
 markings ; while the arui (0. tragelaphus) of the mountains of Northern 
 Africa differs from all the others in possessing a fringe of long hair on the 
 fore-quarters, and likewise by the greater length of the tail. It is a 
 remarkable fact that nearly all the wild sheep are short-tailed animals, and 
 have fur instead of wool ; but, although it is difficult to explain the origin of 
 the long tail of the domesticated breeds, it is noteworthy that certain African 
 races have the fleece partaking more of the nature of fur than of wool. In 
 habits sheep much resemble goats, the young males and females associating 
 in large flocks, from which the old males often disassociate themselves, 
 except during the breeding-season. Both groups are exceedingly wary 
 animals, and both are inhabitants of mountain regions ; but whereas goats 
 always restrict themselves to rocky and more or less precipitous districts, 
 wild sheep may be often found on open, undulating, grassy ground like ~the 
 Pamirs. 
 
 Nearly allied to the sheep is the somewhat larger ruminant commonly 
 known as the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus), which may be compared roughlv 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 161 
 
 in point of size to Highland cattle, although its coat is still more shaggy. 
 The musk-ox is now restricted to Arctic America and the north of Green- 
 land, although in a past epoch it ranged over northern Asia and Europe 
 as far south as Britain. With the 
 sheep this ruminant agrees in its 
 hairy muzzle and the general struc- 
 ture of the molar teeth ; but the 
 horns are quite peculiar, those of the 
 adult males being greatly flattened 
 and expanded at their bases, where 
 they almost meet in the middle line 
 of the forehead, after which they bend 
 downwards by the sides of the face, 
 and then curve sharply upwards. 
 While they are whitish and fibrous at Fig. 90- MUSK-OX (Ovibos moschatus\ 
 
 the base, at the tips they are smooth 
 
 and black, with a nearly circular section. The small and pointed ears are almost 
 buried in the long hair ; the general colour is brown, and the short and sheep- 
 like tail is completely lost among the hair. In winter a woolly under-fur is 
 mingled with the long hair to form an efficient protection against the intense 
 cold of the regions inhabited by this animal. A peculiar feature of the feet 
 of the musk-ox is that the two hoofs of each are not symmetrical ; these being 
 partially covered with hair on the lower surface. In general habits musk- 
 oxen much resemble sheep, collecting in flocks of considerable size, among 
 which the proportion of old rams is comparatively small. The musky odour 
 from which the animal derives its name does not appear to be due to the 
 secretion of any special scent-gland. 
 
 The last, or bovine section of the family, is represented by the buffaloes, 
 bison, and oxen, all of which may be included in the single genus Bos. All 
 are animals of very massive build, with a short neck, and the head carried 
 nearly in the line of the back, the largest members of the whole family being 
 included among them. From the sheep, the oxen, as the group may be 
 collectively termed, are markedly distinguished by the conformation of the 
 tall crowns of the molar teeth. In the upper jaw these have a nearly square 
 cross section, with a well-defined additional fifth column on the inner side, 
 and the whole of the valleys and clefts completely filled up with cement. 
 r \ he horns, which are massive, arid nearly as large in. the females as in the 
 males, are placed on the summit of the skull with their bases far apart, and 
 may be cylindrical or triangular in section, their -direction being at first more 
 or less outwards, after which they turn upwards at and near the tips. They 
 always lack the transverse knobs of the goats and the wrinkles of those of 
 the sheep, so that the surface is comparatively smooth, the colour being 
 dark. Internally the bony cores of the horns, like those of the goats and 
 sheep, are much honeycombed. In all cases the broad muzzle, in which the 
 nostrils are placed wide apart, is more or less completely naked and moist ; 
 there is no gland beneath the eye, and consequently no depression in this 
 region of the skull ; the bulls usually have an ample dewlap beneath the 
 throat, the long and tapering tail is generally tipped with a large bunch of 
 long hair, and there are no glands between the hoofs of either foot. The 
 udders of the cows are provided with four teats. As in the sheep and g-oats, 
 small lateral hoofs are retained. The majority of the oxen are confined 
 to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, but one species of bison 
 12 
 
162 MAMMALIA ORDER VLUNGULATA. 
 
 inhabits North America, and a small aberrant form is found in the Island of 
 Celebes. 
 
 The latter species, which is known as the anoa (B. depressicornis), is the 
 smallest and most antelope-like member of the whole group, having the 
 short angulated horns directed nearly upwards from the forehead, and the 
 colour black, with a few white spots on the hind quarters. Another small 
 but more buffalo-like form (B. mindorensis) inhabits the Philippine Islands, 
 where it is locally known as the tamarao, but it is not certain whether this 
 miy not prove to be a hybrid between the anoa and the Indian buffalo 
 The true buffaloes are characterised by their more or less angulated horns 
 and convex forehead. Of these, the Indian buffalo (B. bubalus) has its home 
 in the Oriental countries, but has been introduced as a domesticated animal 
 into Egypt and the South of Europe. Ib is a huge, ungainly brute, with the 
 long horns flattened and angulated throughout their length ; those of the 
 bulls being very thick and curving upwards in a crescentic form, while those of 
 the cows are slender and directed more immediately outwards. In their 
 habits these buffaloes are essentially marsh-haunting animals, loving to 
 wallow in the soft, warm mud of such situations. The skin of old animals is 
 almost devoid of hair. The Cape buffalo (B. caffer) is a very different- 
 looking animal, with a shorter 
 ekull and horns than the Indian 
 species ; the bases of the horns 
 
 growing together in a kind of 
 helmet-like mass on t 
 
 the fore- 
 head, where they nearly meet in 
 the middle line ; these append- 
 ages curving downwards at their 
 origin from the skull, and then 
 taking an inward direction, while 
 their tips are almost cylindrical. 
 The black skin is nearly naked, 
 but the ears are margined with a 
 fringe of elongated hairs. la 
 certain forms from Central 
 Fig. 90. CAPE BUFFALO (Bos ca/er Africa the hairs on the skin are 
 
 reddish in colour, and the horns 
 
 smaller and less expanded and approximative on the forehead. This form 
 grades almost imperceptibly into a smaller variety or species known as 
 B. pumilus, in which the small horns are very widely separated from one 
 another at their bases. 
 
 The bisons differ from the buffaloes by their cylindrical horns, which are 
 placed rather low down on the forehead ; the latter being very wide and 
 convex, and the whole skull comparatively short and wide. In the skeleton 
 the number of pairs of ribs may be either fourteen or fifteen. In place of 
 the nearly-naked or sparsely-haired hide of the buffaloes, the bisons have an 
 abundant coat of short, thick, crisp, curly brown hair over the greater part 
 of the body, while the head, neck, shoulders, and fore limbs are clothed 
 with a massive mane of longer and darker hair, almost hiding the ears, and 
 concealing the bases of the horns, as well as shading the eyes. The great 
 elevation of the withers, as compared with the hind quarters, gives the 
 appearance of a large hump behind the neck. Of the two species, the 
 European bison (B. bison) is now confined to the Caucasus, Lithuania, and 
 
THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 163 
 
 some of the adjacent districts, running completely wild in the former area, 
 but artificially protected in the latter. It-appears to be essentially a forest- 
 haunting animal. The American bison (B. americanus), locally known as the 
 buffalo, is very closely allied, but is of rather smaller dimensions, with lower 
 and weaker hind-quarters, but a stronger and more massive sho'ulder, a 
 greater abundance of long hair on the fore-quarters, and a rather shorter 
 tail. The range of this splendid animal extended from a short distance 
 north of the Gulf of Mexico to beyond the Saskatchewan in Canada, and 
 probably reached almost from the Atlantic to the Pacific sea-board. For 
 seventy years, at least, the Mississippi may, however, be regarded as its 
 extreme eastern boundary. The countless millions in which bison formerly 
 roamed over the open prairies are known to all ; but incessant pursuit 
 and the opening up of the country by railroacjs, slowly, but too surely, 
 tended to its complete extermination from the open country. According, 
 however, to Mr. Theodore Rooseveldt, there are still, and always have been, 
 small numbers of bison inhabiting the Rocky Mountains northwards from 
 Colorado, and the depths of the great forests in the sub-Arctic regions beyond 
 the Saskatchewan River, and these, though locally called mountain-buffalo 
 or wood- bison, are only a variety of the bison of the plains. For some 
 years there have been reports of a small herd of bison inhabiting the remote 
 corner of Val Verde county, Texas, near the Rio Grande border ; and some 
 time ago a shepherd came upon the herd and counted it to comprise fifty 
 individuals. Commenting on this, a writer in the Asian newspaper of June 
 15th, 1895, observes that, "when we consider the enormous area of the 
 country and the sparse population in the more mountainous and wooded 
 districts, we find no difficulty in believing that the animal survives in small 
 numbers, as a denizen of the forest, varying, in accordance with his new con- 
 ditions of life, from the bison which roamed the prairies in tens of thousands 
 a quarter of a century ago. And when we consider the physical peculiarities 
 of the animal, there is reason to think that in the woods the species may hold 
 its own against man and other enemies with better success than it did on the 
 plains. His eyesight is not keen a defect gravely against hioi in the open, but 
 for obvious reasons of much less consequence in the forest. His acute hearing, 
 of little service on the plains, is invaluable in the woods; and his excellent nose 
 is equally serviceable in either case. It would seem as though the bison had 
 been primarily designed for a sylvan existence. Mr. Rocseveldt observes 
 that the so-called mountain-buffalo or wood-bison is rather heavier in 
 body and shorter of limb than his brother of the prairie ; but in regard to 
 this we have to remember what a recent writer has said of the prairie-bison 
 in his latter days. Living in a state of perpetual flight from mounted 
 hunters he became specialised with wonderful rapidity. His heavy body 
 became lighter, his legs developed in length, and his whole appearance 
 acquired a certain 'ranginess,' indicative of the effort of nature to adapt her- 
 self to changed conditions ; flight was the refuge of the bison in the last days 
 of his existence as a beast of the plains, and his formation in a few genera- 
 tions underwent the change compelled by the struggle for life. It is possible 
 that Mr. Rooseveldt, when comparing the bison of the Rockies with that of 
 the plains, may have had in mind this latterly specialised animal ; but, 
 nevertheless, we can well believe that forest existence, more sedentary than 
 prairie life even in its past peaceful days, is calculated to develop greater 
 weight of body and brevity of limb. There is no good reason for believing 
 that the bison ow dwelling in the Rockies, sub- Arctic regions, Texas, and, 
 
MAMMALIA ORDER VI. UNGULA TA. 
 
 we venture to hope, elsewhere, in inaccessible corners of the continent, 
 varies very markedly from the prairie form. There always have been wood 
 land-dwelling members of the species. Bison were indigenous to the tract 
 of country known as the Yellowstone Park, when it was proclaimed a 
 national reserve. The park is admirably adapted for a sanctuary. Embracing 
 an area of some 3300 square miles, and forming, roughly speaking, an oblong 
 of about 70 miles by 50, not less than 84 per cent, of the whole is forest-clad 
 mountain, valley, and plateau. The central portion forms a plateau varying 
 from 7000 to 8500 feet in elevation, and averaging 8000 feet. Here the 
 indigenous bison finds comparative security, and is steadily increasing in 
 numbers. In 1884 the bison population of the Yellowstone Park was 
 estimated at 200 ; in the winter of 1891-92 a snow-shoe party, exploring for 
 the purpose, found various small herds, which by actual count gave nearly 
 300 animals, each herd containing a proportion of well-grown calves." ' 
 
 Somewhat intermediate between the bison and the true oxen is the 
 Tibetan yak (B. grunniens), so invaluable to the inhabitants of the highlands 
 of the inner Himalaya as a means of transport across those arid and inhos- 
 pitable regions. While the horns are not unlike those of the bison in form 
 and position, and the general conformation of the skull is also similar in the 
 two groups, the yak has the long hair disposed as a fringe from the fore legs 
 along the flanks to the hind limbs, the tail being also invested with similar 
 elongated hairs from root to tip. The ribs are fourteen in number ; and 
 the colour of the wild race is uniformly blackish-brown, although many of 
 the hybrid domestic breeds are more or less variegated with white. The 
 male lacks the distinct dewlap characteristic of almost all the other oxen. 
 Another peculiarity of the yak is to be found in the strange grunting cry 
 from which its scientific name is taken. 
 
 Three species of oxen confined to the Oriental countries constitute what is 
 termed the Bibovine group. These are characterised, like the true oxen, by 
 possessing only thirteen pairs of ribs, but are peculiar in having a more or less 
 well-marked ridge running down the anterior half of the back, produced by 
 the unusual height of the spines of the vertebrae in that region. The horns, 
 which occupy the highest portion of the skull, are somewhat flattened, more 
 especially at the base, and after inclining outwards for some distance are 
 then directed upwards. The tail is relatively short, not reaching below the 
 hocks ; the lower portions of the legs are white, and the general colour of 
 the males is blackish, and those of the females either amber or blackish- 
 brown. The largest and handsomest of the three species is the well-known 
 gaur (B. gaums) the bison of Indian sportsmen which inhabits hilly 
 forests throughout India, and is also found in the Malay peninsula. The 
 most characteristic feature of this splendid animal, which attains a height of 
 fully six feet at the withers, is the large, convex, and forwardly-curving 
 crest between the bases of the horns, communicating a concave profile to 
 the forehead. The ridge on the back is very strongly developed, and stops 
 very sharply with a sudden step-like descent ; and the colour of the female 
 is nearly similar to that of the male. As in the other members of the group, 
 the thick coat of hair is short, fine, and remarkably sleek. From thio 
 species the gayal, or mithan (B. frontalis), differs by the straight line formed 
 by the ridge of the skull between the widely-sundered horns, and the conse- 
 quently straight profile of the forehead. The horns differ from those of tho 
 gaur in being shorter, rounder, and less curved, their tips having no distinct 
 inward curvature, while their colour is uniformly black, instead of being 
 
THE MAN ATI S AND DUGONGS. 165 
 
 of a greenish tinge afc the base. In the males also the dewlap is more 
 developed, while in both sexes the limbs are relatively shorter and the 
 colour is blacker. Gayals are kept in a semi-domesticated state in Assam, 
 Chittagong, and other parts of north-eastern India, but occur wild in the 
 interior of the Tenasserim provinces of Burma. From both the above, the 
 smaller animal from Burma, Java, Balli, and Lombok known as the 
 banteng (B. banting), differs by the more rounded horns, the slight develop- 
 ment of the ridge on the back, the white patch on the rump of both sexes, 
 and the reddish-brown colour of the body of the cows. 
 
 Lastly, the true, or Taurine oxen are represented by the common ox 
 (B. taurus) and the Indian humped cattle (B. indicus), both of which are now 
 known only in the domesticated state, although ifc is possible that the half- 
 wild cattle of certain British parks may be the more or less modified direct 
 descendants of the old English aurochs, as the wild ox was originally called. 
 In this group the spinal ridge characterising the gaur and its allies is absent; 
 the horns are cylindrical, with their tips inclined backwards, and are placed 
 at the very extremity of the highest ridge of the skull ; while the forehead is 
 flat, and the whole skull much elongated. The tail also is larger, reaching 
 below the hocks ; and the hoofs are large and rounded, instead of being 
 narrow and pointed. Probably the original colour of the aurochs was 
 reddish. 
 
 ORDER YIL SIRENIA. 
 
 THE MANATIS AND DUGONGS. 
 
 THIS and the following order of mammals, differ from all those hitherto 
 described in that all their members are adapted for a permanently aquatic 
 life that is to say, they never voluntarily leave the water, as do the seals 
 during the breeding-season. Accordingly, their bodies have assumed a more 
 or less completely fish-like form, with little or no traces of a distinct neck ; 
 while the fore-limbs are modified into paddle-like flippers, the hind-limbs 
 are completely wanting externally, and the tail forms a flattened paddle lying 
 horizontally in the water. Structural evidences clearly show that both groups 
 are descended from terrestrial mammals ; and as these creatures have to 
 come to the surface periodically for the purpose of breathing, the horizontally- 
 expanded form of the tail-fin is sufficiently obvious ; such an organ being 
 admirably adapted, by means of a few powerful strokes, to bring its owner 
 rapidly to the surface. In fishes, on the other hand, which breathe the 
 atmospheric air contained in water by means of their gills, there is no 
 necessity for such periodical visits to the surface, and the tail-fin is accord- 
 ingly expanded in the vertical direction, thus forming a most efficient 
 propeller for progression in a horizontal plane. 
 
 The manatis and dugongs, forming the present order, constitute a very 
 small group of mammals, all of which may be included in the single family 
 Manatidce. Having the general fish-like bodily conformation alluded to above, 
 the sirenians, as members of the present group are collectively termed, 
 differ in many important respects from the whales and porpoises. One 
 marked point of distinction is to be found in the circumstance that the body, 
 
166 MAMMALIA ORDER VILSIRENIA. 
 
 instead of being laterally compressed, is flattened from above downwards. 
 The head, again, is of an ordinary type, being relatively small in comparison 
 to the body, with the nostrils placed at the extremity of the muzzle, and the 
 summit rounded. To meet the exigencies of an aquatic life, external ears 
 are, however, wanting, and the nostrils are capable of being closed at will 
 by means of tightly- fitting valves, so as to prevent the ingress of water. In 
 no case is the back furnished with a fin ; and the fore flippers may retain 
 traces of nails, although the whole of their toes are enveloped in a common 
 skin, while the skeleton of these parts contains no more than the normal 
 complement of bones to the toes that is to say, each toe, except the first 
 (where there are but two), has three joints. The backbone, or spinal column, 
 differs from that of land mammals, in that none of the vertebrae in the 
 region of the haunches are welded together to form a sacrum, such a struc- 
 ture being unnecessary in an animal devoid of hind limbs, while its presence 
 would hinder the supple movements of the body so essential in purely aquatic 
 creatures. From those of whales and porpoises, the vertebrae of existing 
 sirenians differ by the absence of thin bony plates at the extremity of each 
 end of the body, or lower portion of the same ; although these were well 
 developed in certain extinct members of the order. The manati is remark- 
 able for the circumstance that the seven vertebrse of the neck, which are so 
 remarkably constant in the class, are reduced to six. Neither of the genera 
 have collar-bones, or clavicles, but in all the members of the group the bones 
 of the skeleton are remarkable for the extreme solidity and denseness of 
 their structure. Great variability is displayed in regard to the dentition ; the 
 recently extinct species from Behring Strait having no teeth at all ; whereas 
 in the manatis there is a very full series of masticating organs, which present 
 a certain resemblance to the molars of the hippopotamus. In no case do the 
 teeth resemble those of the toothed cetaceans ; and although in the recent 
 forms milk-teeth are not developed, rudiments of these have been detected, 
 and in certain extinct kinds such teeth were functional. Similarly, nasal 
 bones, or those roofing the cavity of the nose in ordinary mammals, have 
 disappeared in the existing representatives of the group, although they were 
 well developed in the earlier forms. From these peculiarities it is evident 
 that the existing sirenians are specialised creatures evidently derived from 
 land mammals of a more ordinary type. To fit them for long periods of sub- 
 mergence, both manatis and dugongs have the lungs much elongated, and 
 extending almost the whole length of the back ; while the blood-vessels are 
 expanded in certain parts of the body into net-like structures, known as 
 retia mirabilia, in which pure blood can be held back for a considerable time, 
 instead of immediately passing onwards to the heart. 
 
 As regards their mode of life, the sirenians are inhabitants of large rivers, 
 estuaries, sheltered bays, and shallow seas generally ; never ploughing 
 through the water of the open ocean in the manner so characteristic of the 
 whales and porpoises ; and seldom, indeed, wandering out of sight of shore. 
 Moreover, instead of having the carnivorous habits so characteristic of the 
 cetaceans, all the sirenians are exclusively vegetable feeders ; tearing up the 
 sea-weed and tangle when in the ocean, and other aquatic plants when they 
 frequent fresh- waters, and masticating them after the manner of a pig either 
 by means of their powerful molar teeth, or, when these are wanting, with 
 the aid of horny plates which then invest the surface of the mouth. Both 
 manatis and dugongs produce but a single offspring at a birth, which is 
 tended with great care and affection by the mother. When suckling, the 
 
THE MANATIS AND DUGONGS. 167 
 
 young is held between the flippers of the female parent and pressed close to her 
 breast, upon which are situated the single pair of teats ; and as both parent 
 and offspring hold their rounded and somewhat human-shaped heads above 
 water, there is no reasonable doubt that it is these animals that have given 
 rise to the old legends of mermaids and mermen. The representatives of 
 both the existing genera are usually found associating in small herds, their 
 range including the coasts of the warmer portions of the Atlantic Ocean, the 
 Red Sea, Indian Ocean, parts of the Bay of Bengal, and the seas of Australia. 
 The northern sea-cow was, however, an inhabitant of colder regions, being 
 only found in Behring Strait. 
 
 The manatis (Manatus\ of which there appear to be three well-defined 
 species from the tropical coasts of the Atlantic, are chiefly fluviatile creatures, 
 seldom venturing into the ocean, but ascending long distances 
 up the larger rivers, and being especially abundant in the Manatis. 
 Amazon. They grow to a length of about twelve feet, and 
 are heavy, ungainly-looking creatures, with the thick and almost bark-like 
 skin traversed by a number of fine wrinkles. Although in old age the skin 
 may be nearly naked, in early life it is sparsely covered with soft hairs. 
 Externally these animals are specially distinguished by the position of the 
 nostrils at the extremity of the muzzle, the rounded form of the rudder-like 
 tail, -and the usual retention of three rudimental nails on each of the flippers. 
 In the front of the jaws no incisor teeth are visible, although in the young 
 state rudiments exist beneath th0 horny plates investing this region ; but 
 the cheek-teeth, of which eleven pairs are developed in each jaw, are fully 
 developed and approximate in structure to those of the hippopotamus. As 
 a rule, however, only six pairs of the latter teeth are in use at any one time, 
 the anterior ones falling out before those at the hinder end of the series have 
 cut the gums. In the skeleton the extremity of the skull and lower jaw are 
 comparatively short and bub slightly bent downwards, while, as already 
 mentioned, there are only six vertebrae in the neck. 
 
 The triangular muzzle of the manati is remarkable for the circumstance 
 that the extremities of the upper lip are developed into a pair of large fleshy 
 flaps, which can be either brought into apposition with one another or 
 widely separated, so that the animal can, when they are in the former 
 position, seize and retain a leaf between them. Commercially, manatis are 
 valued for their thick hides and the abundant supply of oil yielded by their 
 fat ; and they have in consequence of late years been greatly reduced in 
 numbers. 
 
 The dugong (Hallcore dugong), which ranges from the Red Sea along the 
 Indian and Malayan coasts to Australia, may be distinguished externally 
 from the manatis by the nostrils being situated on the 
 superior aspect of the muzzle, the concave hinder border Dugong. 
 of the tail, and the total disappearance of all traces of nails 
 from the flippers. In the skull the front extremity of both of the upper 
 and lower jaws are extremely massive and deep, with a very marked and 
 sudden downward flexure, while the dentition is of a totally different type 
 from that of the manatis. None of the teeth develop roots, and consequently 
 grow throughout the life of their owner ; the number in the adult condition 
 including a pair of upper incisors and five pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw. 
 In the males the upper incisors take the form of large downwardly-directed 
 tusks, partially invested with enamel ; but in the female these teeth never 
 pierce the gums. The cheek-teeth, which are quite devoid of enamel, and 
 
MAMMALIA ORDER VILSIRENIA. 
 
 Fig. 92. DUGONG (Haticore dugong). 
 
 equally developed in both sexes, form simple cylinders, increasing in size from 
 the first to the last, the latter being more complex than those in advance, 
 and consisting of two cylinders united by a narrow bridge. Although usually 
 
 measuring from 5 to 7 feet in 
 length, dugong grow to as much 
 as from 8 to 9 feet. In colour 
 they are generally bluish -grey 
 throughout, but in some examples 
 the under-parts are more or less 
 decidedly lighter. The essential 
 difference between the dugong 
 and manatis in tihe matter of 
 habits is that the former is essen- 
 tially a marine animal which 
 never attempts to ascend rivers, 
 and its food consequently con- 
 sists entirely of seaweed of 
 various kinds. In former days 
 dugong were met with in herds 
 comprising hundreds of individuals, which were remarkable for their extra- 
 ordinary tameness and fearlessness of man. Human greed has, however, done 
 the usual work, and now their haunts are tenanted only by solitary individuals 
 or pairs, which are shy and difficult of approach. Dugong oil is valued for 
 its extremely limpid character ; and in Timor-Laut these animals are hunted 
 by the natives for the sake of their tusks, from which ear-rings and other 
 ornaments are manufactured. 
 
 To their comparatively wide geographical distribution may be attributed 
 the escape of the manatis and dugong from complete extermination ; but the 
 rhytina, or northern sea-cow (Hhytina gigas\ which, at the 
 Northern time of its discovery in 1741, existed in numbers on the 
 Sea-Cow. shores of the Commander group of islands in Behring 
 Strait, soon fell a victim to the persecution of man. In- 
 deed, it appears that within less than thirty years from the date when its 
 haunts were first invaded by Behring's pirty, the rhytina had ceased to 
 exist ; and it is now known to us only by certain descriptions and a number 
 of more or less well-preserved skeletons which have been disinterred from 
 its former haunts. In size the northern sea-cow vastly exceeded all its 
 allies, being stated to attain a length of between 20 and 30 feet, with 
 a weight in some cases of upwards of eight thousand pounds. It was 
 evidently the most specialised member of the group, teeth being entirely 
 wanting, and their function discharged by horny plates on the surfaces of 
 the mouth, while the extremities of the flippers were blunted, and the bones 
 of the digits apparently wanting. The head was small in proportion to the 
 size of the body, and the tail was more deeply forked than in the dugong. 
 So rough and ragged was the thick epidermis of the naked skin, that it has 
 been compared to the bark of an oak tree, and could only be cut by an axe. 
 While one account states that the colour of the skin was generally uniform 
 brown, although occasionally flecked with white, a drawing taken from life 
 shows alternate dark and light transverse bandings. 
 
WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 169 
 
 ORDER VIII. CETACEA. 
 WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 
 
 BEFORE the doctrine of the adaptation of animals to their natural surround- 
 ing had become understood, no creatures were a greater puzzle to naturalists 
 than the cetaceans, under which title are included whales, sperm-whales, 
 porpoises, and dolphins. Their fish-like form and marine habits seemed 
 indicative of their fish-like affinities ; whereas their internal structure, 
 breathing, and mode of reproduction proclaimed their mammalian kinship. 
 The latter features ought to have shown at once what their real position in the 
 zoological scale really was ; but, nevertheless, they long occupied a place 
 among the fishes. We read, for instance, in an abridged English edition of 
 Buffon's "Natural History," published in the year 1821, that all these 
 creatures "resemble quadrupeds in their infernal structure, and in some of 
 their appetites and affections. Like quadrupeds, they have lungs, a midriff, 
 a stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, bladder, and parts of generation ; their 
 heart also resembles that of quadrupeds, with its partitions closed up as in 
 them, and driving red arid warm blood in circulation through the body ; and 
 to keep these parts warm, the whole kind are also covered between the skin 
 and muscles with a thick coat of fat or blubber. As these animals breathe the 
 air, it is obvious that they cannot bear to be any long time under water. 
 They are constrained, therefore, every two or three minutes, to come up to 
 the surface to take breath, as well as to spout out through their nostril for 
 they have but one that water which they sucked in while gaping for their 
 prey. But it is in the circumstances in which they continue their kind 
 that these animals show an eminent superiority. Other fish deposit their 
 spawn, and leaye the success to accident ; these never produce above one 
 young, or two at the most, and this the female suckles entirely in the manner 
 of quadrupeds, her breasts being placed, as in the human kind, above the 
 navel. Their tails also are different from those of all other fish ; they are 
 placed so as to lie flat on the surface of the water ; while the other kinds have 
 them, as we every day see, upright or edgeways. This flat position of the tail 
 enables them to force themselves suddenly to the surface of the water to 
 breathe, which they are continually constrained to do." 
 
 With such a generally admirable account of the leading features of their 
 organisation, it is marvellous how naturalists could have failed to recognise 
 the true affinities of the cetaceans, and continued to class them among 
 fishes, instead of transferring them to mammals. Indeed, almost the only 
 error in the foregoing account is the portion relating to the " spouting " of 
 cetaceans ; this error being by no means extinct among non-zoological per- 
 sons even at the present day. Instead of the water thrown up in the air 
 when a whale "spouts" having been taken in at the mouth and expelled 
 through the nostrils, it is mainly the condensed vapour from the creature's 
 breath, although when a whale commences to spout or blow before it has 
 quite reached the surface, a certain quantity of the superincumbent water 
 is thrown up with the breath. 
 
 Cetaceans, then, are neither more nor less than highly specialised mammals 
 which have assumed a fish-like form in correlation with the needs of a purely 
 aquatic mode of existence. Although a few are found in large rivers, the 
 
170 MAMMALIA ORDER VIILCETACEA. 
 
 majority are thoroughly pelagic in their habits, never coming to shore 
 even for the purpose of breeding, and, in consequence, their fish-like 
 characters are even more pronounced than is the case with the sirenians. 
 The tail, or "flukes," which is always more or less distinctly forked, is, how- 
 ever, as we have seen, expanded in a horizontal, instead of in a vertical, 
 plane, and in place of the two paired fins of most fishes, cetaceans have 
 only a single pair of flippers, corresponding to the fore limbs of ordinary 
 mammals. Although these flippers are completely invested in a continuous 
 skin without any nails or external traces of digits, internally they contain 
 the same skeletal elements albeit, highly modified as their terrestrial 
 kindred. There is, however, the important exception that the bones of the 
 digits are greatly more numerous than in other mammals, although the 
 number of digits themselves never exceeds the normal five ; this peculiarity 
 offering an important distinction between cetaceans and sirenians. Like 
 fishes, many members of the present order have a back-fin ; although 
 this differs from that of the former group in lacking an internal 
 skeleton. Unlike most fishes, cetaceans have, however, a perfectly naked 
 skin ; although the general presence of a few scattered bristles, especially in 
 the young state, around the mouth, proclaims their origin from fully haired 
 mammals. And here may be mentioned the very remarkable circumstance 
 that certain extinct members of the order were furnished with a bony 
 armour, somewhat comparable to that of crocodiles ; although this does not 
 permit of our saying that all cetaceans are descended from armoured 
 ancestors. In coloration, whales and porpoises resemble most fishes 
 inhabiting the surface of the sea, such as mackerel and herrings, in that the 
 upper surface of the body is dark, and the lower light this being obviously 
 a protective resemblance, as the dark upper surface, when viewed by 
 reflected light, harmonises with the dark waves ; while the light under 
 surface, when viewed from below by transmitted light, must be ,arcely 
 distinguishable from, the bright sky above. As in the sirenians, the external 
 conchs of the ears are totally wanting, and the aperture of the ear itself is 
 extremely minute. The e es also are relatively small, and placed far back 
 on the sides of the head, which is always large in proportion to the size of the 
 body. An important difference from the sirenians is to be found in the 
 position of the nostrils, which may open externally by either a double or a 
 single aperture ; these being invariably situated on the very summit of the 
 head, and thus enabling the creatures to commence breathing the very 
 moment they reach the surface, without altering their normal horizontal 
 position. To prevent the ingress of water while beneath the surface, the 
 nostrils can be completely closed by a valve or valves. Reference has already 
 been made to the essential difference between the skeleton of the flipper of a 
 cetacean and a sirenian ; and it may be added that the vertebree of the 
 former have the terminal plates, or epiphyses, which are practically or 
 entirely wanting in the existing members of the latter group, very strongly 
 developed. The coat of fat, or blubber, lying beneath the skin, so charac- 
 teristic of all cetaceans, has been already alluded to ; but it must be also 
 mentioned that these animals have net-works retia mirabilia of blood- 
 vessels for the retention of oxygenated blood during their descent, which 
 can be used gradually, and thus enable them to stay below for a longer 
 period than would otherwise be the case. The two teats of the female differ 
 from those of the sirenians in being placed far back on the abdomen. 
 Although none of the porpoises and dolphins attain very large dimensions, 
 
WHALES, POXPOISES, AND DOLPHIN'S. 171 
 
 and some of them are comparatively small creatures, the cetacean order 
 includes not only the largest of all mammals, but likewise of all living 
 animals. That they trace their origin back to terrestrial mammals may be 
 considered beyond all doubt, although from what particular group they are 
 descended cannot at present be determined. As a rule, the various pelagic 
 representatives of the order enjoy a very wide geographical range, although 
 certain species, such as the Greenland- whale of the Arctic Ocean, and the 
 pigmy-whale of the Southern Seas, are confined to a relatively small area^ 
 Almost all cetaceans are carnivorous. 
 
 Cetaceans are divisible into two great divisions, or sub-orders, known as 
 the whalebone-whales (Mystacoceti), and the toothed whales (Odontoceti) j the 
 former group comprising only the single family (Balcenida), 
 whereas the latter is divided into three families. As their Whalebone- 
 names imply, the most obvious distinction between these two Whales, 
 groups relates to the absence or presence of functional teeth ; 
 the absence of teeth in the first group being compensated by the develop- 
 ment of the peculiar substance known as whalebone, or baleen. In the 
 young of the whalebone-whales, rudiments of true teeth are, however, 
 developed beneath the roots of the incipient whalebone, although these sub- 
 sequently wither without having ever cut the gum. As the nature and struc- 
 ture of whalebone is a matter of some interest and importance, a small space 
 must be devoted to its consideration before entering upon the leading charac- 
 teristics of the Mystacoceti. Whalebone, then, is a horny substance attached 
 to the roof of the mouth, from which it hangs by a broad, transversely-arched 
 base, in the form of a series of parallel, narrow, elongated triangular plates, 
 placed transversely to the long axis of the mouth, with their external edo;e3 
 firm and straight, but the inner ones frayed out into a kind of fringe. The 
 longest plates of whalebone are situated near the middle of the jaw, from 
 which point the length gradually diminishes towards the two extremities, 
 where they become very short. Whereas, however, in the Greenland-whale 
 the length of the longest plates varies from some 10 to 12 ft., and the total 
 number of plates in the series is about 380, in the great rorquals or fin-whales, 
 the length is only a few inches, while the number of plates is considerably 
 less. To accommodate the enormous whalebone- plates of the Greenland- 
 whale, the bones of the upper jaw are greatly arched upwards, and the 
 slender lower jaw is bowed outwards, thus leaving a large space both in the 
 vertical and horizontal directions the transverse diameter of which is much 
 wider below than above. When the mouth is closed, the plates of whalebone 
 are folded obliquely backwards, with the front ones lying beneath those be- 
 hind them ; but directly the jaws are opened, the elastic nature of this 
 substance causes it to spring at once into a vertical position, and thus form a 
 sieve-like wall on both sides of the mouth, the thin enas of the plates being 
 prevented from pushing outwards by the stiff lower lip which overlaps them. 
 By elevating its enormous fleshy tongue within the cavity thus formed, the 
 whale causes the enclosed water to rush out between the plates, leaving such 
 small creatures as it contained lying dry on the surface of the tongue ready 
 for swallowing. In structure, whalebone, which, although black in the 
 Greenland- whale, is white in some of the other species, is of a horny nature, 
 and grows from transverse ridges on the mucous membrane of the roof of 
 the mouth ; being, in fact, nothing more than an extreme development of 
 the ridges on the palate of a cow, hardened and lengthened by an excessive 
 growth of a horny superficial or epithelial layer. The whole of this vast 
 
172 MAMMALIA ORDER VIII.CETACEA. 
 
 horny growth takes place, however, after birth, young whalea having smooth 
 palates, with no trace of the horny plates. 
 
 Apart from the presence of the distinctive and characteristic whalebone, 
 the members of the present group have the following characteristic features 
 in common. In the first place, the nostrils open externally by two distinct 
 longitudinal slits, or " blow-holes;" while the internal region of the nose 
 retains traces of an organ of smell this, by the way, being another proof 
 that cetaceans are descended from terrestrial mammals. Distinct, although 
 small, nasal bones partially roof over the nose-cavity of the skull ; and the 
 whole region of this part of the skull retains the normal symmetry. In 
 order to accommodate the whalebone, the two branches of the lower jaw are 
 curved outwards in a bow-like form ; while at their front extremities they 
 are only loosely connected together by ligament. The breast-bone, or 
 sternum, consists of only a single piece, to which but one pair of ribs 
 articulate ; and all the ribs have but a slight connection with the vertebra), 
 articulating only with the horizontal transverse processes, and not touching 
 the bodies of the vertebrae. Although the whalebone- whales are represented 
 by a comparatively small number of species, all these are of large bodily 
 dimensions, the smallest of them the pigmy -whale attaining a length of 
 some 20 ft. 
 
 The most specialised representatives of the sub-order and family are the true, 
 or right-whales, constituting the genus Balcena, of which there appear to 
 be two well-defined species. Externally, the right-whales are easily recog- 
 nised by the enormous relative size of the head, the perfectly smooth throat, 
 the absence of a back-fin, and the moderate length of the flippers. Their 
 whalebone, which is black in colour, is proportionately longer and more 
 elastic than that of any other species, with the exception of the pigmy-whale ; 
 and for its accommodation the palate of the skull is much narrower and more 
 highly arched than in other whales, while the branches of the lower jaw are 
 more bowed outwards. The skeleton of the flippers contains five fully- 
 formed digits ; the vertebrre of the neck, which are reduced to the condi- 
 tion of thin plates, are completely welded together into a solid, immovable 
 mass, and the tympanic bone of the internal ear is squared. In conformity 
 with the arched form of the skull, the margin of the lower lip runs high up 
 on the sides of the head and is highly convex ; while the size of the opened 
 mouth is enormous. In spite, however, of the huge dimensions of this 
 cavity, the calibre of the throat is so small that it is a common saying among 
 sailors that a herring is sufficient to choke a whale. Of the two existing 
 species, the Greenland-whale (B. mysticetus) of the Arctic seas is the more 
 specialised, the head being larger and the whalebone longer than in its 
 southern cousin. The latter (B. australis) is commonly known as the 
 southern right-whale, and although formerly abundant in the Atlantic, is 
 nowadays a rare creature. From the right-whales the single species of 
 pigmy-whale (Neobalcena\ from the South American and Australasian seas, 
 differs in having a small, hooked back-fin, as it does in its white whalebone. 
 Whereas the Greenland species grows to a length of from 45 to 50 ft., the 
 pigmy- whale does not appear to exceed 20. A connecting link between the 
 right-whales and the under-mentioned rorquals is afforded by the great Pacific 
 grey-whale (Rhachianectes), in which the throat has a single fold, and the 
 back is devoid of a fin, while the whalebone is even shorter and more coarse 
 than in the rorquals, the palate showing but a slight degree of vaulting, and 
 the head being relatively small, and the body elongated. The vertebrae of 
 
WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 
 
 173 
 
 the neck are thicker than in the right-whales, and mostly free from one 
 another. In length the female varies from 40 to 44ft., but the male is rather 
 smaller. 
 
 The other members of the family are the humpback (Megaptera) and the 
 rorquals or finners (Balcenoptera), in both of which the skin of the throat is 
 marked by a number of longitudinal flutings or grooves, while the back carries 
 a fin ; the whalebone being short and coarse, and usually of a yellowish colour. 
 The vertebrae of the neck are of considerable thickness, and totally separate 
 
 Fig. 93. A FIN WHALE (Balcenoptera)- 
 
 from one another ; and the tympanic bone of the internal ear is much more 
 rounded and globular than in the right- whales, its shape somewhat recalling 
 that of a large cowri shell. In the skeleton of the flippers the number of 
 digits is reduced to four ; and the head is comparatively small in proportion to 
 the body, with the palate bub slightly arched, and the branches of the lower 
 jaw little bowed outwards. Another character of the group, as compared with 
 the right- whales, is the smaller degree of expansion of the tail-fin or flukes. 
 From the finners, the single species of humpback (Megaptera boops) is dis- 
 tinguished by the relative shortness a.nd depth of the body, which rises above 
 the level of the back-fin behind the shoulders, and likewise by the extra- 
 ordinary length of the flippers, which is nearly one-fourth that of the entire 
 animal. In length the female is about the same as the Greenland-whale. 
 As a rule humpbacks have the flippers of a pure glistening white ; and when 
 one of these animals is gambolling, as they often do, it will frequently lie on its 
 side just below the surface of the water, so that the whole body is concealed. 
 In this position one white flipper will be seen sticking straight up some 9 or 
 10 ft. above the water, and when first viewed from the deck of a passing 
 vessel appears a most extraordinary object, which may well puzzle the 
 beholder. 
 
 The rorquals, or finners, on the other hand, are characterised by the 
 elongation and slenderness of the body and the comparative shortness of 
 tne flippers, which are pointed at their extremities. The largest member of 
 the group, as indeed it is of all whales, is the blue, or Sibbald's rorqual 
 (Baloenoptera sibbaldi), commonly known to the American whalers by the 
 
174 MAMMALIA ORDER V12I.CETACEA, 
 
 name of " sulphur-bottom," which reaches the enormous length of from 80 to 
 84 ft. The common rorqual (B. musculus), frequently stranded on the British 
 coasts, is also a huge animal, frequently measuring from 65 to 70 ft. ; but the 
 other two species are of inferior dimensions, the smallest being the lesser fin- 
 whale (B. rostrata), of which the length does not exceed from 30 to 35 ft, 
 While some of the species feed largely on cod, others subsist chiefly on cuttle- 
 fish. 
 
 On account of the length and elasticity of the whalebone, and the abundance 
 of oil yielded by their blubber, from a commercial point of view, the right- 
 whales are of far greater value than the humpback and finners ; while their 
 inferior speed, as compared with the latter, renders them far more easy to 
 overtake, and capture. The southern right-whale was, however, long ago 
 practically exterminated from the Atlantic by the old Basque whalers ; and 
 incessant persecution has so diminished the numbers of the Greenland-whale 
 that comparatively few are now to be met with on the old whaling-grounds. 
 Consequently, whalers have been compelled to turn their attention to the 
 less valuable finners and humpback ; and the use of steam vessels and 
 explosive harpoons fired from guns has rendered their capture far less 
 difficult than in the days of rowing-boats and harpoons and lances thrown by 
 hand. Till recently the "fishing" has been mainly carried on in the 
 northern and sub-tropical seas, but a few years ago four ships were fitted out 
 for whaling in the Antarctic ; and the following account of what was observed 
 13 condensed from a newspaper report. It is there stated that the right- 
 whales always come north to the grounds eastward of New Zealand early in 
 October, and remain till near the end of December. Then they collect in 
 "schools," and stirt on a south-east course with a speed of about five knots an 
 hour night and day. Several ships have followed them in this course until 
 they met with the ice-drift in lat. 50 deg. south and long. 160 deg. west, 
 where the chase was abandoned. The whales always arrive on the ground 
 in schools of ten or fifteen, and then separate and pair off or at most one 
 bull and two cows. It is not thought that the whales, with the exception of 
 the humpbacks, come north to calve, as they are never seen with any young. 
 Of late years right-whales have been seen north of 35 deg. 30 min. south lat. 
 Finners and humpbacks are always to be found on the "ground," apparently 
 travelling in a south-easterly direction. The humpbacks come up from the 
 southward along both the east and west sides of Australia and New Zealand 
 about the end of May, and continue their course northerly to about lat. 18 
 deg. south, when they disperse. About the first week of October they begin 
 to work their way back south until lost amidst the ice. Experienced whaling- 
 masters are of the opinion that there must be some place to the southward, as 
 yet unknown, where the whales assemble in large numbers. A vessel fitted 
 with an auxiliary screw, it is stated, could follow the whales to their destina- 
 tion without danger of being blocked by the ice. The right-whale, according 
 to men who are engaged in the trade at the present time, must be very 
 numerous in the Antarctic Ocean, as the fishery has never been carried on 
 there with any constancy and vigour ; whereas in the Arctic Ocean the 
 whales are looked upon as almost extinct. The southern-whale is not so 
 large as the Greenland, only yielding from 800 Ibs. to 1200 Ibs. of bone 
 the length of which varies from 8 ft. to 15 ft. valued at 1600 to 1800 a 
 ton, while the oil, averaging from 8 to 14 tons, brings 28 per ton. The 
 humpbacks are very numerous off Norfolk Island of late. These whales 
 measure from 60 to 70 ft. in length and yield from 50 to 70 barrels of oil. 
 
WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 175 
 
 The Australians interested in the success of the trade are confident that a 
 large industry in whale and seal-fishing could be developed in the Antarctic 
 seas by auxiliary screw- whalers, which could be fitted out at the comparatively 
 small cost of 6000 each. 
 
 The essential characteristic of the toothed-whales, or Odontoceti, is a 
 negative one, and consists in the entire absence of whalebone. Very generally, 
 indeed, teeth are developed, at least in the lower jaw, but 
 these may be reduced to a single pair, or even in the male Toothed Whales, 
 narwhal to a solitary tooth, while in the female of the latter 
 species there are none of any functional importance. Another very well- 
 marked point of distinction is the single external aperture of the nostrils, 
 which very frequently takes the form of a transverse crescentic slit, closed by 
 a flap-like valve. Then, again, the skull is always more or less unsymmetrical 
 in the region of the nostrils, and in the existing members of the sub-order the 
 nasal bones are reduced to mere rounded nodules, taking no share in roofing 
 the nasal cavity. In certain extinct forms, however, these bones are of more 
 normal character, and partially cover the chamber of the nose. No trace of 
 an organ of smell is retained by any of the toothed-whales. In the skeleton 
 the breast-bone, or sternum, is usually composed of several distinct portions, 
 to which the extremities of several of the ribs are articulated by the interven- 
 tion of cartilages ; and a certain number of the anterior ribs are articulated at 
 their upper ends to the bodies of the vertebrse, as well as to the transverse 
 processes of the same. The lower jaw of a toothed-whale may always be 
 distinguished from that of a whalebone-whale by the two branches being 
 nearly straight, of great depth at the hinder extremity, and in front uniting 
 with one another by a bony union of larger or smaller extent. In all the 
 members of the group the skeleton of the nippers exhibits five complete 
 digits. Throughout the sub-order the teeth are always of a simple structure, 
 having conical or compressed crowns and undivided roots ; and only a single 
 series is ever developed, the replacement of the anterior teeth, so common 
 among mammals, being wanting. In number the teeth of many species greatly 
 exceed the ordinary mammalian series. Observations on foetal cetaceans 
 have indeed shown that rudiments of a second series of teeth are developed 
 in the gums, which serve to show that the functional teeth correspond in the 
 main to the milk-series of ordinary mammals. 
 
 Although in the development of whalebone and the loose articulation of the 
 ribs to the backbone the whalebone-whales are clearly more specialised than 
 the toothed-whales, yet as regards the single nostril and the structure of the 
 nasal bones the latter group is decidedly more aberrant than the former. 
 Hence it may be inferred that neither of the two sub-orders is derived from 
 the other, but that both have grown up side by side quite independently. 
 Ib has generally been considered that they are divergent branches from a 
 common ancestral stock ; but it is possible that they have no sort of genetic 
 affinity with each other, and have respectively originated from two totally 
 distinct mammalian groups. More decisive evidence than any yet adduced 
 h, however, required before the latter view can be definitely accepted. 
 
 The largest of all the toothed-whales is the gigantic sperm-whale (Physeter 
 macrocephalus), the sole member of its genus, and the typical representative 
 of a family (Physeter idee) characterised by the absence of teeth in the upper 
 jaw of the adult, and the variability, both as regards size and number, of those 
 of the lower jaw. In all the members of the family the hinder portion of the 
 skull is much elevated, so as to form either a semi-circular wall, or a pair of 
 
1 7 6 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER VIII. CE TA CEA. 
 
 crests behind the nasal aperture. All these cetaceans are entirely pelagic in 
 their habits, and feed exclusively or chiefly on cuttles and squids. In the 
 sperm-whale the number of teeth in the lower jaw varies from twenty to 
 twenty-five pairs ; the teeth themselves being of large size, with pointed 
 and somewhat curved crowns, upon which there is no trace of enamel. The 
 head is of enormous dimensions, measuring about one-fourth the total length 
 
 Fig. 94. TUB SPERM-WHALE (Physeter macrocephalus). 
 
 of the animal, and characterised by the abrupt truncation of the enormous 
 muzzle, the S-like form of the blow-hole, which is situated somewhat to the 
 left of the middle line, and the long mouth opening below, and somewhat 
 behind, the extremity of the muzzle. The fik ull behind the nostrils has an 
 enormous cavity, bounded behind by a pemi-circular wall of bone of several 
 feet in height, and containing during life the oily substance which yields, 
 when refined, the valuable spermaceti. An even more precious product of 
 this cetacean ia ambergris, which, although generally found floating on the 
 surface of the ocean, is really a concretion formed in the intestines of the 
 sperm-whale. It is an amber-coloured substance, generally containing a 
 number of the horny beaks of the squids on which sperm-whales feed. 
 Although the female is a much smaller animal, the male cachalot, as the 
 sperm-whale is often called, grows to a length of between 50 and 60 ft. In 
 the sperm-whale the two branches of the lower jaw are united in front for 
 about half their length, but in the much smaller and somewhat porpoise like 
 animal known as the lesser sperm-whale (Cogia Ireviceps) the union between 
 the two branches of the lower jaw is less than half the total length of the 
 JHW, and the number of lower teeth is reduced to from nine to twelve pairs. 
 This whale attains a length of about 10 ft., and differs from the cachalot 
 in carrying a large back-fin. The flippers, moreover, which in the sperm- 
 whale are remarkably small in proportion to the si^ze of the body, are here 
 relatively longer. It is interesting to notice that fos&il sperm-whales 
 (Physodon) have been discovered possessing a full series of enamel-capped 
 teeth in both the upper and lower jaw. 
 
 Nearly allied to the preceding are the bottled-nosed and beaked-whales, 
 belonging to a group distinguished by the reduction of the lower functional 
 teeth to a single pair, the others being rudimentary and con-cealed in the 
 gum. None attain a large size, and all are pelagic, subsisting almost 
 
WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 177 
 
 exclusively on squids and cuttle-fish. The bottle-noses, as typified by the 
 common Hyperoodon rostratus, so frequently stranded on the British coasts, 
 take thair name from the extreme convexity of the crown of the head in the 
 adult male, which rises abruptly above the base of the short beak. They have 
 but a single pair of teeth in front of the lower jaw, but even these are in- 
 visible in the living state ; and the back, like that of the beaked-whales, 
 bears a fin. Although the common bottle-nose, which has a very wide 
 geographical distribution, does not exceed about 30 ft. in length, ft is 
 valued not only on account of its oil, but likewise for the spermaceti con- 
 tained in the head. In addition to the large overhanging and unsymmetrical 
 crests above the nostrils, the skulls of old males have another pair of longi- 
 tudinal crests on the sides of the base of the beak, which come almost into 
 contact, and have their front surfaces broad, flat, and rugose. Cuvier's whale 
 (Choneziphius* cuvieri] differs from the bottle-nose in possessing a pair of large 
 forwardly and upwardly directed teeth at the .extremity of the lower jaw. 
 From both the preceding the beaked-whales (Mesoplodon) are readily dis- 
 tinguished by the production of the anterior portion of the skull into a long 
 cylindrical beak, composed of massive, ivory-like bone ; while they are further 
 characterised by the pair of lower teeth being generally situated near the 
 middle of the jaw. These teeth are generally of large size, and more or less 
 compressed latterly. In one species (M. layardi) they are enormously 
 developed, and of a strap-like form, curving over the beak to such an ex- 
 tent as in some cases actually to prevent the mouth from being fully opened. 
 The beaked-whales appear to be solitary creatures, avoiding the neighbour- 
 hood of the coasts, and thus but seldom stranded. During the Pliocene epoch 
 they must, however, have been abundant in the English seas, as their solid 
 fossilised beaks are of common occurrence in the so-called crag deposits of the 
 East Coast. Arnux's whale (Berardius arnuxi), from the seas of New Zealand, 
 which is the last member of the family, differs from the true beaked-whales 
 in possessing two pairs of lower teeth. Whereas the beaked whales usually 
 measure about 15 or 16 ft. in length, this species reaches as much as 30 ft. 
 
 A small family of the Odontoceti known as the Platanistidce is represented 
 solely by three small species, two of which are exclusively freshwater, while 
 the third is an estuarine form. While resembling the 
 members of the next family in the possession of a numerous Freshwater- 
 series of teeth in both the upper and lower jaw, they are Dolphins, 
 distinguished by the length of the bony union between the 
 two branches of the latter, and likewise by the mode of articulation of the 
 ribs with the backbone. None of the vertebrae of the neck are welded 
 together. The typical member of the group is the well-known susu, or 
 Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica}, which may often be seen sporting in 
 the Ganges, Indus, or Bramaputra. This species usually attains a length 
 of 7 or 8 ft., and is characterised by the long and compressed beak, in 
 which are crowded a very numerous series of sharply-pointed teeth, the 
 rudimental back-fin, the fan-shaped flippers, the slit-like form of the blow- 
 hole, and the minute size of the eye, which is perfectly useless as an organ 
 of vision. The skull may be recognised by the enormous curving longitudinal 
 crests arising from the base of the beak, and almost meeting above it. The 
 food of the susu appears to consist almost exclusively of prawns and bottom- 
 
 * This name originally applied to an allied fossil form is used by Cope to replace 
 , on account of the pre-occupation of the latter. 
 13 
 
I 7 8 MAMMALIA ORDER VIILCETACEA. 
 
 haunting fish, which are raked up from the mud by the long beak. The other 
 two existing members of the family are South American. One of these is 
 the inia or Amazonian dolphin (Inia geoffroyensis), inhabiting the upper 
 
 portions of the river-system from 
 which it derives its name, and being 
 more porpoise-like in form than the 
 last. The long cylindrical beak has 
 a number of sparse bristly hairs ; 
 and its numerous teeth have a 
 tubercle at the base. Unlike the 
 susu, the eye is fairly large, and the 
 flippers are not fan-shaped. Seven 
 feet is the maximum length of the 
 
 Fia, 95.-GANQETIC DOLPHIN male inia > and fche g eneral colour is 
 
 (Platanista gangetica). blackish above and reddish beneath. 
 
 From both the preceding the small 
 
 La Plata dolphin (Stenodelphis blainvillei), from the estuary of the Rio de La 
 Plata, may be at once distinguished by its uniformly buff coloration, which is 
 admirably suited to harmonize with the colour of the stained water of the Plate 
 river, and at once proclaims that the species is not of pelagic habits. In size, 
 this dolphin seldom, if ever, exceeds 5 ft., and is often considerably less. 
 Unlike both the other species, it has a well-developed back-fin, and the beak 
 is of great length, and furnished on each side with from fifty to sixty teeth ; the 
 number in the other genera being about thirty. Another distinctive feature 
 is to be found in the form of the blow -hole, which forms a transverse crescent, 
 instead of a longitudinal slit. At certain seasons of the year enormous 
 numbers of these elegant little cetaceans are captured in the Bay of Monte 
 Video by the fishermen, who detest them on account of the large quantities 
 of fish they consume. 
 
 The whole of the remaining members of the order are included in the 
 single family Delphmidce. The majority of the species are of comparatively 
 
 small size ; and while most are found in the neighbourhood 
 
 Porpoises, of coasts where they frequently ascend tidal rivers, a few are 
 
 Dolphins, etc, of exclusively fluviatile habits. Many of the genera are 
 
 very closely allied, and distinguished mainly by the structure 
 of the skull, so that in a popular work it is by no means easy to indicate their 
 distinctive peculiarities. While the majority resemble the Plitanistidce in 
 possessing a numerous series of teeth in each jaw, in two species this is not the 
 case. From that family they maybe distinguished by the shorter union between 
 the two branches of the lower jaw, and also by a difference in the mode of 
 articulation of the ribs to the backbone. In all cases the blow hole is in the 
 form of a transverse crescent, with the two horns pointing forwards ; and 
 very generally from two to four of the anterior vertebrae of the neck are 
 welded together into a solid mass. One of the most aberrant, and at the 
 same time one of the most beautiful, members of the family is the spotted- 
 narwhal, or sea-unicorn (Monodon monoceros), the males of which carry the 
 well-known spirally-twisted "horn," or tusk, from which several of the 
 names of the species are derived. Exclusively confined to the Arctic seas, 
 where it associates in small "schools," the narwhal belongs to a group of 
 dolphins characterised by the blunt and rounded form of the head and the 
 total absence of a beak. There is no back-fin ; the wide and rounded 
 flippers are short ; and the colour is dusky, with dark-grey mottlings. The 
 
WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 179 
 
 single tusk of the males is always the left one, the right remaining, as a rule, 
 undeveloped in the gum ; but occasionally specimens are found with two 
 tusks. Besides these tusks there are no other functional teeth in the males, 
 and the females are toothless. The length of the head and body varies from 
 12 to 16 fb. and that of the tusk between 7 and 8ft. Allied to the narwhal is 
 the beautiful white-whale or beluga (Delphinapterus leucas\ which is likewise 
 a northern form, and also the sole representative of its genus. It may be 
 recognised by its pure glistening white skin, the absence of a tusk, and the 
 presence of numerous teeth in the front of the jaws. The beluga, which 
 congregates in troops of considerable s ; ze, is regularly hunted for the sake of 
 its hide, blubber, and flesh ; the latter being dried and eaten by the Green- 
 landers and Eskimos, as well as by the sledge-dogs of the latter. 
 
 In ordinary language the term porpoise is applied to many of the members 
 of the present family, but in a scientific sense it is confined to the members 
 of the small genus Phocoena, all of which are comparatively small-sized ceta- 
 ceans, characterised by possessing from sixteen to twenty-six pairs of small, 
 short, somewhat spade-shaped teeth. In the common porpoise (P. communis) 
 of the European seas the back is furnished with a well-developed fin ; but in 
 the Indian species (P. phocoenoides) this appendage is wanting. Porpoises 
 are the most common and familiar of all cetaceans, their rolling gambols 
 being well known not only to all those who have made a voyage, but likewise 
 to visitors to the sea-side. The allied genus Ceplialorliynchus is typified by 
 Heaviside's dolphin (C. heavisidei), and includes four species from the Southern 
 seas. They have a conical head, without any distinct beak, and from twenty- 
 five to thirty-one pairs of small and sharp teeth. The back-fin is triangular 
 or ovate ; and in three out of the four species the nippers have a characteristic 
 elliptical shape. Externally their most distinctive feature is the coloration, 
 the upper-parts being black, and the under surface of the body white, with 
 the white area terminating on the under side of the tail in a trident, the 
 lateral prongs of which run obliquely upwards on the flanks a little behind the 
 back-fin. The Irawadi dolphin (Orcella fluminalis), of which a variety, or 
 perhaps an allied species, occurs in the Bay of Bengal and some of the 
 neighbouring seas, represents a genus distinguished by the globose, beakless 
 head, and the small size and number of the teeth, the latter occupying nearly 
 the entire length of the jaws, and including from thirteen to seventeen pairs 
 in the upper, and from twelve to fifteen in the lower jaw. They are set close 
 together, and are conical arid pointed in shape, those in the front of the jaws 
 of the adult males being inclined outwards. The moderate-sized flippers are 
 broad at the base, and of a subovate contour ; while the back-fin is small and 
 hooked. From 7 to 7 ft. is the usual length of these dolphins, which are 
 either blackish or slaty in colour. 
 
 From all the preceding the large and strikingly-coloured cetaceans known 
 as killers, or grampuses (Orca), differ by the. large size of their powerful 
 conical teeth, which are crowded together, and usually form twelve pairs in 
 each jaw. And they are further characterised by the great vertical height of 
 the back-fin. As regards colour, the upper-parts and flippers are black and 
 the lower surface whitish ; the white area ending on the under side of the 
 tail in a trident, very nearly the same as in the above-mentioned genus 
 Cephalorhynchus. Above and behind the eye is a white streak, and there 
 is a purplish band across the back behind the fin. Killers, of which 
 there is but a single well-defined species, grow to a length of at least 20 ft., 
 and enjoy an almost cosmopolitan distribution, They derive their popular 
 
i8o 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER VII L CE TA CEA. 
 
 Fig. 96.^KiLLER (Oreo, gladiator). 
 
 name from their rapacious habits, and are the only cetaceans which prey on 
 other members of their own order. One killer has been known to swallow 
 Several entire seals one after the other ; and not unfrequently several 
 
 individuals combine forces to 
 attack and kill one of the larger 
 whales, hunting with the per- 
 severance of a pack of hounds. 
 \\ hen swimming near the sur- 
 face of the water, killers may 
 be easily recognised by the great 
 size of the nearly vertical back- 
 fin. The lesser killer ( Pseudorca 
 crassidens), which is also cosmo- 
 politan, and attains a length of 
 about 14 ft., differs from its 
 larger relative by the smaller 
 size of the back-fin, the pointed 
 flippers, and the cylindrical 
 (instead of angulated) roots of 
 the teeth, as well as by the 
 uniformly black colour of the 
 skin. There are generally eight pairs of upper and ten of lower teeth. 
 
 Although the name of black-fish would apply equally well to the foregoing, 
 it is given to the cetacean known scientifically as Globiocephalus melas. 
 The black-fish is characterised by the extremely short and rounded head, the 
 almost uniformly black colour of the skin, and the presence of from eight to 
 twelve pairs of small conical teeth in the front portion of the jaws. The 
 back-fin is long, low, and thick, and the flippers are relatively long and 
 narrow. Generally there is a lance-shaped white patch on the throat. In 
 length, the black-fish, or, as it is often called, pilot-whale, grows to a length 
 of 20 ft. Whether there is more than one species is somewhat uncertain ; 
 but, at anyrate, a form inhabiting the Bay of Bengal is distinguishable by the 
 reduction in the number of the teeth. As regards habits, this cetacean is the 
 most sociable of its order, and since all the members of a herd always blindly 
 follow their leader, enormous numbers are frequently slaughtered at a time. 
 The last of the beakless group of the family is the rare Risso's dolphin 
 (Grampus griseus), which differs from all the other DelphinidcE, save the female 
 of the narwhal, by the absence of upper teeth, while the lower jaw carries 
 only from three to seven small teeth towards its anterior end. In general 
 appearance this species is very similar to the black-fish, although the head is 
 less decidedly globular, and the flippers are rather shorter. It is easily 
 recognised by the peculiar grey striping and mottling of the skin ; scarcely 
 any two individuals being quite alike in this respect. This species is almost 
 cosmopolitan, specimens being stranded from time to time on the British 
 coasts. 
 
 Intermediate, between the beakless and beaked members of the family, ia 
 a genus known as Lagenorhynchus, which includes the various species of 
 short-beaked dolphins. Noticeable on account of their strongly-contrasted 
 black and white coloration, the short-beaked dolphins are characterised as a 
 whole by the short, ill-defined and somewhat ploughshare-like beak of the 
 skull, the moderate size of the back-fin and flippers, and the distinct ridges 
 on the tail. The teeth vary considerably both in size and in number ; but, 
 
SLOTHS, ANT-EATERS, AND ARMADILLOS. 181 
 
 as in the black-fish, the bony union between the two branches of the lower 
 jaw is short. The sides of the body are always marked by two light- coloured 
 areas, between which is a band, or a series of streaks of black. 
 
 The second group of the family includes the true dolphins and their allies, 
 in all of which there is a distinctly defined beak, generally exceeding the 
 brain-cavity in length, and marked off from the hinder portion of the head by 
 a V-shaped groove. By sailors dolphins are indifferently spoken of either as 
 porpoises or bottle-noses, which frequently leads to a confusion between them 
 and either true porpoises or the bottle-nosed whales. They are divided into 
 numerous genera, according to the number of the teeth, the relative length 
 of the beak, and the conformation of the bones of the palate. They are all 
 comparatively small animals, but few exceeding a length of about 10 ft.; 
 and while most of them are marine, some ascend the larger rivers temporarily, 
 and others are permanent inhabitants of fresh- waters. Fish of various kinds 
 constitute the usual prey of dolphins, but it is believed that one species of 
 the genus Sotalia from the Cameruns district subsists on sea-weed. In the 
 true dolphins (Delphinus), of which there are several species, the beak is of 
 considerable length ; the flippers and back-fin are long and slightly hooked ; 
 there are from about forty to sixty-five pairs of sharp teeth in each jaw, 
 which have an oval section at the base; and the union between the two 
 branches of the lower jaw is short. In the bottle-nosed dolphins (Tursiops) 
 the beak is shorter and more tapering, and the number of teeth less, there 
 being generally from twenty-two to twenty-six pairs. A third genus is 
 typified by the rough-toothed dolphin (Steno frontatas), from the Atlantic 
 and Indian Oceans. Here the beak is greatly elongated, and the bony union 
 between the two branches of the lower jaw very long ; the rather large teeth 
 varying from twenty to twenty-five pairs, and being often marked by rough 
 groovings. Nearly allied are the long-beaked river-dolphins forming the 
 genus Sotalia, which may be distinguished by their fluviatile or estuarine 
 habits, and the smaller number of vertebrae in the backbone : the teeth being 
 always smooth, and the base of the flippers very wide. Several of the 
 species inhabit the Amazon-system, while one is found in some of the Chinese 
 rivers, and another in the estuaries and rivers of the Cameruns district. 
 
 ORDER IX. EDENTATA. 
 
 SLOTHS, ANT-EATERS, AND ARMADILLOS. 
 
 THE three families of mammals named above, all of which are practically 
 confined to South and Central America, although one or two wander as far 
 north as Texas, are the representatives of an order in which all the existing 
 forms are devoid of front teeth, while the cheek-teeth have no external 
 coating of enamel, but consist solely of ivory, or of ivory with a layer of 
 cement. In consequence of this poor development of the teeth, the group is 
 known by the name of Edentata. To the same group have been commonly 
 referred the pangolins of the warmer parts of the Old World and the aard- 
 varks of Africa, but it is nearly certain that these cannot rightly be included 
 in the same order, and they are accordingly referred here to a group by 
 themselves. It is rather difficult to give many other characters in addition 
 
1 82 MAMMALIA ORDER IX. EDENTATA* 
 
 to the absence of front teeth common to all members of the order, but fir may 
 be stated that the cheek-teeth grow throughout life and thus never develop 
 roots; while it is but very rarely that milk-teeth are present, and in only a 
 single instance do these cut the gum. With the exception of the sloths, in 
 which they have probably been lost, the hinder vertebra) of the trunk have 
 additional articular surfaces. In their whole organisation the edentates 
 display a low type, as is exemplified by the generally small size of their 
 brains, in which there are usually but few convolutions on the surface. 
 
 The sloths, or Bradypodidce, form a small family of edentates specially 
 characterised by their adaptation to an arboreal life, and differing from nearly 
 
 all other mammals by their habit of hanging back-downwards 
 Sloths. from the branches of the trees on which they dwell. They 
 
 are comparatively small, slenderly-built animals, with a 
 peculiarly rough, shaggy coat, a short, rounded, and almost sperical head, 
 and inordinately long and slender limbs especially the fronfc pair 
 terminating in huge, hook-like claws. The small ears are completely buried 
 among the long fur covering the head ; and the tail is rudimental. The 
 cheek-teeth, which comprise five pairs in the upper and four in the lower 
 jaw, form short cylinders, of which the external layer is harder than the 
 central core, so that by use their grinding surfaces become slightly cupped. 
 \Vhereas, however, in the three-toed sloths the whole of the teeth are of 
 this simple type, in the two-toed species the first pair in each jaw are taller 
 than the rest and assume a somewhat tusk-like form, with their summits 
 obliquely bevelled by mutual wear. In the limbs the narrow and curved 
 feet are reduced to the condition of little more than hooks ; the three-toed 
 forms having three claws on each foot, whereas in the other group 
 the number of claws in the fore feet is reduced to two. Although 
 admirably adapted for suspending the animal back downwards from a 
 branch, the feet of the sloth are but poor instruments for progression on the 
 ground, and when walking, a sloth advances awkwardly and slowly, with the 
 soles turned inwards. Externally the fur of the sloth is of a dull brownish 
 or ashy colour, the individual hairs having a fluted outer surface. The most 
 extraordinary feature about the fur is, however, the growth of a vegetable 
 substance on the surface of the hairs, thus increasing the resemblance of the 
 animal, when hanging at rest from a bough, to a rough lichen-clad knot. 
 Beneath the outer coat of long grey hairs is a finer under-fur marked by 
 longitudinal stripes of chocolate-brown and orange ; a patch of this under-fur 
 being frequently exposed in the middle of the back by the habit these 
 creatures have of rubbing or resting this part of their bodies against the 
 trees. In conformity with the shape of the skull, the soft tongue is very 
 short. The female has the single pair of teats situated on the breast. 
 Internally sloths are specially characterised by the complexity of their 
 stomachs, and a peculiar folding of the windpipe. Sloths are divided into 
 two distinct generic groups. Of these, the three-toed sloths (Bradypus) are 
 characterised by having three toes to each foot, and all the teeth short and 
 cupped, whereas in the two-toed sloths (Cholcepus), there are only two toes on 
 the fore feet, and the front pair of teeth in each jaw are taller than the 
 others and obliquely bevelled at the summits. Very exceptional among 
 mammals are the sloths in regard to the number of vertebrte in the neck. 
 Thus, whereas in one of the two-toed kinds there are the normal seven, in a 
 second the number is reduced to six ; while in the three-toed group there are 
 invariably nine of these segments. 
 

 SLOTHS, ANT-EATERS AND ARMADILLOS. 183 
 
 By the natives of the tropical forest-regions of South and Central America, 
 where sloths are alone found, the three-toed kinds are spoken of as ai', while 
 the name of unau is applied to the mem- 
 bers of the two-toed group. Mainly 
 nocturnal in their habits, sloths appear 
 to be sluggish creatures, passing the 
 daylight hours curled up with the head 
 safely tucked between the fore-limbs, 
 and at night wandering about slowly 
 in search of food, which consists solely 
 of leaves and other vegetable sub- 
 stances. Caution is a great character- 
 istic of their movements, a fresh branch 
 being firmly seized before hold is 
 relaxed of the one they are about to Fig. 97 THREE-TOED SLOTH 
 
 leave. They are usually found either (Dradypus tridactylus). 
 
 singly or in small family parties ; and 
 
 the females produce but. a single offspring at a birth, which is fully 
 developed, except in the matter of size, when it makes its appearance in the 
 world. 
 
 The second family of the edentates is formed by the South American or 
 true ant-eaters (Myrmecophagidce), of which there are three species, referable 
 to as many genera ; one of these being strictly terrestrial, 
 while the other two are more or less arboreal in their habits. Ant-Eaters, 
 So unlike are these creatures, both as regards external 
 character and the structure of their skeleton, to the sloths, that it is at first 
 sight difficult to believe that there is any very intimate relationship between 
 the two groups. And, indeed, were it not that in the superficial deposits of 
 South America there occur remains of certain extinct edentates known as 
 ground-sloths (of which the gigantic Megalotherium is a familiar example in 
 our museums), forming to a great extent a group intermediate between the 
 sloths and the ant-eaters, it would be difficult even for zoologists to fully 
 realise how intimate this relationship really is. Taking the existence of 
 these extinct connecting links for granted, it may be noticed that in place of 
 the short and rounded head of the sloths, the ant-eaters have the head and 
 skull more or less elongated and narrow, while the slender jaws are entirely 
 toothless, and the tongue is long, cylindrical, and capable of being protruded 
 far in advance of the lips. The degree of elongation of the skull is, however, 
 by no means the same in all the members of the group, the maximum 
 development in this respect being exhibited in the case of the great ant- 
 eater. Still more striking is the difference in the structure of the feet in the 
 two groups. In the great ant-eater, for instance, the fore-foot is furnished 
 with five complete toes, the middle one of which is much larger and more 
 powerful than the rest ; and all but the fifth, or outermost, are furnished 
 with strong claws. In this genus there are also five toes to the hind-feet ; 
 but in the third representative of the family there are only four claws to each 
 foot. When the great ant-eater is walking, only the extreme outer side and 
 part of the upper surface of the fore-foot is applied to the ground ; but 
 in the hind-foot, which has the fourth toe the largest, and claws to all 
 five, the whole of the short and wide sole touches the ground in 
 the ordinary manner. An important point of distinction from the sloths 
 is that the bones of the terminal joints of the fore-feet have a longi- 
 
184 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER IX.EDENTA TA. 
 
 tudinal slit in the middle of the upper surface ; and in all cases the 
 limbs are relatively short and stout. Unlike the sloths, the ant-eaters 
 have a very long and powerful tail, which in two of the species is endowed 
 with the power of prehension, as indeed is the case with so many of the 
 animals inhabiting the dense forest - regions of tropical America. In 
 correlation with their insectivorous habits, the stomach of the ant-eaters is 
 perfectly simple in structure, and the brain is more convoluted than in the 
 sloths. Two out of the three species have the fur of the body marked by 
 dark and light longitudinal bands or patches, and it is noteworthy that 
 this type of coloration approximates to that obtaining in the under-fur of 
 the sloths. In order to procure their insect-food, which mostly comprises 
 ants and termites, the long worm-like tongue, which can be protruded with 
 great rapidity from the tubular mouth, is provided with a viscid secretion. 
 
 The largest and most specialised member of the family is the great ant- 
 eater, or tamahoa (Myrmecophaga jubata), which is terrestrial in its habits, 
 
 and is easily recognised by the 
 exceedingly long and slender 
 head, passing almost imper- 
 ceptibly into the neck, the 
 minute ears, the fringe of long 
 hair clothing the fore-limbs and 
 flanks, and the huge mass of 
 still more elongated hairs cover- 
 ing the tail. This ant-eater, 
 which attains a length of about 
 4 ft. to the root of the tail, is 
 distributed over the whole of 
 the tropical districts of South 
 and Central America, fre- 
 quenting either damp swampy 
 forests or the margins of 
 rivers. Like the other species, it is strictly nocturnal in its habits, and but 
 a single offspring, which is carried for some time on the back of its parent, 
 is produced at a birth. Next in point of size is the lesser ant-eater, or 
 tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla), which scarcely attains half the dimen- 
 sions of its larger cousin, and is distinguished by the uniformly short fur, 
 shorter head, the much longer ears, and the cylindrical prehensile tail, 
 which is naked both at the tip and along the whole of the lower aspect. In 
 the fore-feet the claw of the fifth digit is rudimental and concealed 
 beneath the skin, while that of the third is much larger than either 
 of the others, the hind-foot being generally similar to that of the 
 larger species. The tamandua has approximately the same geographi- 
 cal distribution as the latter, from which it differs in being mainly 
 arboreal in its habits. The most sloth-like, and at the same time the 
 most diminutive member of the group is the two-clawed ant-eater (Cydoturus 
 didactylus), which does not exceed a rat in size, and has the sloth-like habit 
 of hanging back downwards from the boughs of trees, to which it clings by 
 its long, hook-like claws. In the shortness of the head this species likewise 
 presents a decided approximation to the sloths. While the front paws have 
 four toes, only the first and second of these that is to say, those correspond- 
 ing to the index and middle fingers of the human hand are furnished with 
 claws ; but the four toes of the hind- foot are all clawed, and as they are 
 
 Fig. 98. GREAT ANT-EATER (Myrmecophaga 
 jubata). 
 
SLOTHS, ANT-EATERS, AND ARMADILLOS. 185 
 
 placed close together and the claws are of nearly equal length, they 
 collectively form a hook-like organ not unlike the foot of a sloth. Prom the 
 other ant-eaters this species differs in the uniformly foxy-red hue of the short 
 silky fur. In its skeleton it differs from the other two members of the group 
 in possessing collar-bones, in which respect this species once again 
 approximates to the sloths. In other ant-eaters the ribs are unusually 
 broad, but in the present species this character is so exaggerated that they 
 almost come into contact with one another, and thus nearly enclose the 
 body in a solid bony casque. Thoroughly arboreal in its mode of life, and 
 furnished with a highly prehensile tail, the two-clawed ant-eater is restricted 
 to the hottest regions of America, ranging from Northern Brazil through 
 Peru and the Guianas to Central America. 
 
 The development of a bony shield composed of isolated plates welded 
 together by their edges, or overlapping like tiles on a roof over moro or less 
 of the upper surface of the body, serves to differentiate the 
 armadillos and their tiny relative the pichiago not only Armadillos, 
 from all other existing edentates, but likewise from other 
 mammals. All these animals collectively constitute the family Dasypodidce, 
 which is sufficiently distinguished by the aforesaid bony armour. In ordinary 
 armadillos the armour is divided into two solid shields, one of which pro.- 
 tects the shoulders, and the other the haunches, while between these are a 
 variable number of movable transverse bands, permitting the animal to bend 
 its back to a smaller or greater extent, and in one case even allowing the 
 assumption of a completely ball-like form. Both in the front and hind 
 shield the constituent plates are polygonal in form, and articulate with one 
 another immovably by their edges ; but in the movable bands they are tile- 
 like and overlapping. The fixed shields and movable bands collectively 
 constitute the carapace. The component plates are marked by a characteristic 
 sculpture, which varies much in the different genera, and may consist either 
 of raised pustules or minute punctures ; and each plate is overlaid by a thin 
 horny shield. More or less abundant hairs grow from the skin at the junction 
 of the plates of the carapace ; and occasionally these are so abundant and 
 luxuriant as practically to conceal the latter from view. A small shield 
 of polygonal bony plates, with their edges in apposition, serves to 
 protect the upper surface of the head ; while the tail is usually 
 defended by a similar type of armour, which may either take the form of 
 oblique rows of plates or tubercles, or of a series of rings of gradually 
 decreasing diameter, severally composed of the same plates. Irregular bony 
 plates likewise protect the short and powerful limbs, of which the front pair 
 are provided with strong claws adapted for digging. In the fore-limbs the 
 claws may vary in number from three to five, whereas the much smaller and 
 weaker ones of the hind-foot are always the latter number. Armadillos 
 have moderately long and more or less depressed heads, sharply pointed 
 in front, and armed with a rather small number of simple peg-like teeth. 
 They have long tails, fully developed collar-bones ; and the bones of the 
 arm and fore-arm are specially expanded and modified for the purpose 
 of digging. Their tongues, although relatively long, have not the extreme 
 elongation characterising the ant-eaters. Armadillos have a much more 
 extensive geographical range than either of the preceding families of edentates, 
 ranging from Patagonia to Central America, and one species at least reaching 
 as far northwards as Texas. Although different species or genera are confined 
 to different localities and situations, members of the group are to- be met with 
 
i86 MAMMALIA-ORDER IX. EDENTATA. 
 
 alike on the grassy pampas of Buenos Aires, the sandy plains of Mendoza, 
 and the tropical forests of Brazil. While a few are diurnal, the majority are 
 nocturnal in their habits, and all are burrowers. In many districts the Argen- 
 tine pampas is perfectly honeycombed with the long burrows of various kinds 
 of armadillos. Armadillos live chiefly upon insects, worms, and molluscs, but 
 one species at least feeds largely upon carrion, although this is probably an 
 acquired habit, due to the large number of carcases of horses and cattle which 
 nowadays strew the pampas. In their movements they are extremely swift, 
 starting off with a tremendous rush when disturbed while feeding at night, 
 and requiring a good dog to keep pace with them. Whereas some species 
 run on the tips of their claws, with the body raised high above the ground, 
 others carry the carapace lower. The rapidity with which an armadillo will 
 bury itself in the soft ground of the Argentine pampas must be witnessed to 
 be credited. Most of the true armadillos have medium-sized or rather large 
 ears, placed far apart from one another ; the first and second claws of the 
 fore-foot are, if present at all, slender ; and the breast of the female bears a 
 single pair of teats. 
 
 The first genus (Dasypus) includes the typical armadillos, of which the six- 
 banded species (D. sexcinctus) of Brazil, and the Argentine peludo, or hairy 
 
 armadillo (D. mllosus), are well-known 
 examples. These animals have from 
 six to eight movable bands in the 
 carapace, which is more or less 
 depressed with strongly serrated 
 margins. The ears are small or 
 moderate, and the head is very broad 
 and much depressed, with the muzzle 
 comparatively blunt. The tail, which 
 
 Fig. *>,- . 
 
 viliosus). is plated with distinct rings near the 
 
 root. In the fore-foot the first toe is 
 
 the slenderest of all, and the second the longest. The teeth, which 
 are relatively large, are generally nine above and ten below, the first 
 upper pair being usually implanted in the premaxillary or anterior jaw- 
 bones. Some of the species are of considerable size, the head and body in 
 the typical one measuring as much as 16 inches. In the Argentine the peludo 
 is now mainly nocturnal, and feeds largely upon the carcases of cattle, 
 beneath which its burrows are frequently formed. The much smaller pichi 
 (D. minutus) of the same districts is, however, chiefly a diurnal animal. In 
 spite of having but two teats, the female produces from two to four 
 young, which are born blind, with the armour already developed, but in a 
 soft and flexible condition. The second genus, of which the broad armadillo 
 or tatouay (Lysiurus unicinctus) of Brazil, Paraguay, and Surinam is the 
 typical representative, differs from the last by the greater number of 
 movable bands in the carapace, which are either twelve or thirteen. The 
 teeth, of which there are either eight or nine pairs in each jaw, are relatively 
 smaller than in the first genus, and in the upper jaw do not extend so far 
 backwards on the sides of the palate. The tail, also, is almost devoid of 
 bony plates, of which it has only a few on the under side and near the tip. 
 The chief characteristic of the fore-foot is the great size of the curved claw 
 borne by the third toe ; the fourth and fifth toes having similar but smaller 
 claws, while those of the first and second are long and slender. In the hind-foot 
 
SLOTHS, ANT-EATERS, AND ARMADILLOS. 187 
 
 the claws take the form of short and blunt nails. The plates of the carapace 
 are ornamented by an indistinct granular sculpture. In size the tatouay is 
 intermediate between the six-banded armadillo and the next species. 
 The great number of the teeth of which there are from twenty 
 to twenty-five pairs at once serves to distinguish the giant armadillo 
 (Priodon giyas) of Brazil and Surinam from all its relatives. It is 
 also the largest living member of the family, the head and body measuring 
 about 3 ft. in length. The number of movable bands in the carapace is 
 thirteen ; and in the anterior and posterior shields of the carapace the plates 
 are arranged in rows very similar to those of the movable bands which they 
 resemble in sculpture. Structurally the feet are very similar to those of 
 Lysiurus, but the claw of the third toe in the front foot is relatively larger, 
 while that of the fifth is very small. The tail, which is nearly equal in 
 length to the carapace, is, however, of a totally different type, being 
 completely invested with large plates arranged in spiral rows. Very 
 different are the three small species of three-banded armadillos (Tolypeutes), 
 in which the fore and aft shields of the carapace are very greatly developed 
 and the movable bands reduced to three. The plates on the carapace are 
 small and tuberculated, the shield on the head is very large and flat, and the 
 extremely short tail is covered with prominent tubercles. As the borders of 
 the carapace, which are smooth, are much produced on either side of the fore 
 and hind limbs, these animals are enabled to roll themselves up into a 
 complete although somewhat flattened ball ; the shield of the head, by one 
 side of which lies the tail, almost completely filling up the front and hinder 
 notches in the carapace. The head is long and narrow, with the rather large 
 ovate ears placed somewhat low down ; while the jaws carry eight or nine 
 pairs of upper and nine of lower teeth, which are of relatively small size and 
 reach backwards to the hinder end of the palate. In the fore-foot the third 
 claw is more developed than in any other species, the claws of the first and 
 fifth toes being either rudimental or absent. The common species grows 
 to a length of about fifteen inches, and is found in the pampas of Argentina, 
 where, however, it now seems extremely rare. Trusting to their impassive 
 power of defence, all the armadillos of this genus are diurnal and non- 
 burrowing animals, generally lurking in the large tussocks of pampas-grass. 
 When running they go on the extreme tips of their claws, and scuttle along 
 at a great pace. The last genus of the true armadillos is represented on the 
 Argentine pampas by the mulita (Tatusia hybrida), and there are other 
 species in different parts of the continent, one of which ranges into Texas, 
 while another from Peru is remarkable for the thick coat of fur which 
 entirely conceals the carapace. These pretty little armadillos differ from the 
 whole of the foregoing by the close approximation of the long mule-like ears 
 (whence the name of mulita for the Argentine species), as well as by the 
 presence of an additional pair of teats on the abdomen of the females, and 
 also by the development of a set of milk-teeth. The seven or eight pairs of 
 permanent teeth are very minute, and do not make their appearance till 
 comparatively late in life. The long and narrow head is produced into a 
 cylindrical and obliquely-truncated, somewhat pig-like snout. Extreme 
 elongation and compression is the leading characteristic of the carapace, 
 which has from seven to nine movable bands ; the plates of the latter being 
 marked by a V-shaped line of punctures, while the smaller ones of the solid 
 shields have an elevated oval central area surrounded by an incomplete ring 
 of small tubercles. The tail is surrounded by a series of bony rings, 
 
1 88 MAMMALIA ORDER X.EFFODIENTIA. 
 
 decreasing in size from root to tip, and thus recalls a partially opened 
 telescope. In the fore-feet there are four long claws, of which the innermost 
 are the largest ; while in the five-clawed hind-feet the third is the longest 
 and the fourth and fifth the shortest. About 11 in. is the average 
 length of the head and body of the mulita, but another species is somewhat 
 larger. The mulita may be often found skulking among the tussocks of 
 pampas-grass during the daytime, when, with the aid of a dog, it can 
 generally be captured before it has time to make good its escape into its 
 burrow. Not unfrequently when a Gaucho captures a mulita he crops its 
 ears and turns it loose, such crop-eared specimens being at first rather a 
 puzzle to the naturalist. In spite of the circumstance that carrion forms a 
 considerable portion of the diet of these animals, roasted mulita is a favourite 
 dish in the Argentine. 
 
 Quite different from the true armadillos are the beautiful little pichiciagos, 
 or fairy pink armadillos, of which one species (Cklamydophorus truncatus) is 
 locally distributed over the sandy districts of Western Argentina, while the 
 second (G. retusa) is from the Bolivian highlands. From the armadillos 
 these tiny little creatures differ by having the upper surface of the head and 
 body covered by a continuous mantle, formed of quadrangular horny shields 
 underlain by thin bony plates, and gradually widening from the front of the 
 head to the hinder end of the body, where it is abruptly truncated. In the 
 Argentine species this mantle is attached to the body only along the line of 
 the backbone, its under surface being hairy ; but in the Bolivian form (which 
 is referred by some writers to a separate genus, under the. name of Bur- 
 meisteria) it is joined to the skin throughout its whole extent. The 
 truncated hinder end of the body is protected by a solid bony shield with 
 overlying horny scales ; the short tail protruding through a notch in its 
 lower border. The whole of the rest of the body is covered with long silky 
 hair, which in the Argentine species is pure glistening white, while the 
 mantle is pinkish. The minute ears are completely concealed "by this fur ; 
 and both fore and hind feet have five claws, the front toes being connected 
 to the J>ase of the latter, while those of the hinder pair are free. In length 
 the Argentine species measures only about 5 in., but the Bolivian form 
 is somewhat larger. Pichiciagos inhabit sandy districts, where they excavate 
 burrows with marvellous rapidity ; and it is believed that the hinder shield 
 is used as a rammer to close the burrow when tenanted, the creatures 
 apparently making their exit by digging a fresh passage. 
 
 ORDER X.EFFODIENTIA. 
 
 AARD-VAKKS AND PANGOLINS. 
 
 ALTHOUGH, as stated above, the animals known as aard-varks and pangolins 
 are generally included among the Edentata, they have little in common with the 
 typical representatives of that order. Hence they are assigned to a distinct 
 ordinal group termed the Effodientia. That group is typified by the aard- 
 varks, and is only provisionally regarded as comprising the pangolins, 
 which are perhaps entitled to constitute an order by themselves. The 
 Effodientia resemble the Edentata in never having front teeth ; but differ 
 
AARD- VARKS AND PANGOLINS. 189 
 
 from all the latter in the absence of additional articular facets to the hindei 
 trunk-vertebrae. More definitely they may be distinguished from the 
 edentates as follows. When teeth are present these are of a totally different 
 type to those of the latter, and when teeth are absent the hinder trunk- 
 vertebrse lack the aforesaid additional articulations which are present in the 
 toothless edentates. 
 
 Theaard-varks, or ant-bears (Orycteropodidce), forming the typical members 
 of the order, are now represented by two closely allied species of the genus 
 Ory .teropus, both of which are confined to the Ethiopian 
 region. There is, however, evidence that during the Aard-Varks. 
 Tertiary period aard-varks existed in the south of Europe. 
 The existing forms are uncouth and strange-looking animals of large size, 
 with the skin nearly naked, or 
 sparsely covered with bristly hairs. 
 The long and narrow head is fur- 
 nished with greatly elongated, 
 slender, and pointed ears, and 
 terminates in a somewhat pig-like 
 Bnout, in which are perforated the 
 circular nostrils, while the mouth 
 is tubular. The neck is short, the 
 fore-quarters are comparatively 
 short, the back is much arched, 
 and the tail, which is nearly as 
 
 long as the body, is thick, cylin- . .^^_ 
 
 drical, and tapering. In the short Jfy.ioo Aj&v-VinL(Orycteropuscapensis). 
 but powerful fore-limbs, he four 
 toes are furnished with medium-sized strong nails ; while the hind- feet have 
 five nearly equal toes, each bearing a nail. When walking, the entire soles 
 are applied to the ground. Adulb aard-varks usually have five pairs of 
 cheek-teeth in each jaw, although from eight to ten pairs of upper teeth, and 
 eisrht of lower ones are developed. Of these all but the last three have milk- 
 predecessors, which never cut the gum. These teeth have no enamel, and 
 are composed of a number of adherent polygonal denticules, traversed by a 
 series of radiating tubes ; such a structure being quite unparalleled in the 
 mammalian class. The tongue is cylindrical and extensile. In total length 
 these animals may measure as much as 5 ft. In habits, aard-varks are 
 nocturnal, burrowing, and insectivorous, feeding chiefly on ants and termites. 
 Their powers of digging are very great, and in South Africa their burrows 
 are generally constructed in the neighbourhood of termite hills. 
 
 Very different both in external appearance and internal structure are the 
 pangolins, or scaly ant-eaters, of the warmer parts of the Old World, constituting 
 the family Manidce, and all included in the single genus Manis. 
 The most peculiar and striking feature of the animals is the Pangolins, 
 investiture of the head, body, tail, and limbs in a complete 
 coab of overlapping horny scales, so that the general appearance is much 
 like the cone of a spruce-fir. Teeth are wanting ; and the skull is long, 
 conical, and devoid of a zygqmatic or cheek- arch, with a very slender lower 
 jaw. The eyes are minute, and the external conchs of the ears rudimental. 
 A few bristly hairs often occur between the scales, and the latter do not 
 extend on to the under surface of the body, or the inner sides of the limbs. 
 The long and worm-like tongue can be protruded a great distance in front 
 
MAMMALIA ORDER XLMARSUPIALIA. 
 
 of the tubular mouth. Each of the limbs is furnished with five toes, 
 terminating in long powerful claws, of which the supporting bones are 
 longitudinally split at their extremities ; the front claws being much 
 larger than the hinder ones, and the third toe in each foot superior in size to 
 the rest. In walking, the front claws are bent beneath the soles, so that the 
 weight of the body is mainly borne on the upper and outer sides of the third 
 
 and fourth digits ; but in the hind-limbs 
 the whole sole of the foot is applied 
 to the ground in the ordinary manner. 
 The tail may be either long or medium. 
 Collar-bones are wanting in the skeleton. 
 Pangolins are confined to south-eastern 
 Asia, and Africa south of the Sahara ; 
 the largest species, which measures up- 
 wards of 6 ft. in total length, being an 
 
 ._. _. ^ inhabitant of West Africa. They resemble 
 
 ""** the aard-varks in feeding on ants and 
 
 Fig. 101. A. PANGOLIN- (Manis). termites, which are licked up by the 
 
 extensile tongue, after their hillocks have 
 
 been laid open by the powerful claws of these animals. They are likewise 
 nocturnal, and have the power of rolling themselves up into a ball, when 
 they are completely secure from most enemies. Some of the African forms 
 are more or less arboreal, but all the rest are purely terrestrial. 
 Apparently only a single young is produced at a birth, for the nourish- 
 ment of which the breast of the female carries a pair of teats. 
 
 ORDER XL MARSUPIALIA. 
 POUCHED MAMMALS. 
 
 THE whole of the ten mammalian orders treated of above are collectively 
 characterised by the circumstance that, during intra-uterine life, the blood- 
 vessels of the foetus are connected with those of the parent by means of a 
 vascular organ known as the placenta. And it is due to this communication 
 between the foetal and maternal circulations that the young are born in the 
 more or less highly- developed state characteristic of the whole assemblage. 
 Collectively, the whole ten orders form a sub-class, known indifferently as 
 the Eutheria or Placentalia. On the other hand, in the mammals forming 
 the subject of the present section, a placenta is never developed, and there 
 is consequently no direct connection between the circulatory systems of the 
 parent and offspring, so that the young are produced in an exceedingly 
 imperfect state of development. To this group, which forms a second sub- 
 class, the name of Metatheria, or Implacentalia, is applied, while it is 
 sometimes known as the Didelphia, on account of the completely double 
 uterus or womb, and thereby contrasts with the Eutheria, in which the 
 uterus is either single, or its two branches are united at their outlet. 
 Hence the name Monodelphia is not unfrequently given to the first of the 
 two sub-classes. 
 Whereas the Placentals, as already indicated, are split up into the ten 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 191 
 
 orders described above, no such division seems practicable in the case of the 
 Implacentals. Consequently the whole of them may be included in the single 
 order Marsupialia, which may be popularly known either as Marsupials or 
 Pouched Mammals. 
 
 Both the technical and popular names of the group are derived from the 
 very general presence of a more or less fully-developed pouch on the 
 abdominal surface of the body of the female, into which the imperfectly- 
 developed young are transferred at birth, and where they remain until 
 sufficiently advanced to take care of themselves. This pouch is, however, 
 by no means universally present in the order, and cannot, therefore, be 
 taken as its distinctive character. The imperfect state of development of the 
 young at birth is, howevej, absolutely distinctive of all Marsupials ; and when 
 born the foetuses resemble helpless and nearly motionless sacs of flesh, which 
 are extremely small in proportion to the size of the parent, those of the large 
 kangaroos being no larger than a man's thumb. These helpless little abortions 
 are transferred by their parent immediately after birth to her teats, which 
 are always situated within the pouch whenever that appendage is developed. 
 Of course such ill-developed creatures can do nothing in the way of sucking 
 by themselves, and Nature has accordingly provided a special arrangement 
 by means of which their wants can be supplied. This arrangement takes the 
 form of special muscles surrounding the milk glands of the female, which by a 
 spontaneous contraction compress the glands, and thus force the nourishing 
 fluid down the throats of the immovable, naked young. In order to prevent 
 the helpless young from being choked as they hang to the teats of the mother, 
 the upper part of the larynx, or superior extremity of the windpipe, is so elon- 
 gated as to project through the fauces, or hinder apertures of the mouth, and 
 thus reach the internal nostrils. In consequence of this arrangement a closed 
 passage is formed from the nostrils to the lungs, so that the foetus can 
 breathe while the milk flows down its throat. The young Marsupials thus 
 nourished hang on to the nipples of the mother until their bodies and limbs 
 are sufficiently developed to enable them to move about by themselves ; but, 
 as in the case of the kangaroos, they frequently resort to the pouch as a haven 
 of refuge from danger for a long time after they have made their appearance 
 in the outer world, and it is by no means uncommon for the pouch to be 
 tenanted by helpless foetuses and half-grown young. Except in the thylacine, 
 where they are reduced to a rudimental condition, the pouch is supported by 
 a pair of marsupial or epipubic bones attached to the front edge of the lower 
 part of the pelvis ; these bones being also present in the male. 
 
 In all the Pouched Mammals the brain is characterised by its propor- 
 tionately small size, and the slight development of the convolutions on its 
 surface. As already mentioned, the womb or uterus is double throughout 
 its entire length ; and in most cases the lower border of the angle, or hinder 
 extremity of the inferior margin of each branch of the lower jaw is more or 
 less strongly bent inwards. Although there is great variation, both numeri- 
 cally and structurally, in the dentition, yet there is one feature in regard to 
 the teeth characteristic of the order generally. This relates to the mode of 
 succession and replacement of the teeth. Whereas in the great majority of 
 terrestrial Placentals the whole or the greater number of the teeth 
 in advance of the true molars (which in that group are typically three in 
 number on each side of each jaw) are preceded by milk or baby-teeth, in the 
 Pouched Mammals only one tooth on each side of the jaws has such deciduous 
 predecessor, and even this is not invariably developed. Regarding the 
 
192 MAMMALIA ORDER XLMARSUPIALIA. 
 
 dental succession in the order, the writer may quote the following passage 
 from a^work he has devoted to the group : "The tooth thus replaced has 
 been hitherto generally regarded as corresponding to the last or fourth milk- 
 molar of the higher mammals, while the apparently replacing tooth has con- 
 sequently been identified with the last or fourth pre-molar of the same. 
 Recent researches have, however, tended to show that this is not a case of 
 true replacement at all, and that the tooth, which makes its appearance late 
 in life, is really a retarded pre-molar, which will consequently be the fourth 
 of the full series, while the apparently replaced tooth is really the fifth. Be 
 this as it may, the mode of succession is peculiar and unique ; and it may be 
 still convenient to speak of the replacing tooth as the fourth pre-molar, and 
 the one it replaces as the fourth milk-molar." It should be added that some 
 authorities consider the whole of the teeth of a Marsupial in advance of the 
 molars as corresponding to the milk-series of the Placentals ; and also that, 
 when the full series is developed, there are four pairs of molars in each jaw 
 in the present order. 
 
 That the Pouched Mammals are inferior in their organisation to the 
 Placentals, is admitted by all; and they are also, as shown by their history 
 in past times, among the oldest, if not actually the oldest, representatives 
 of the entire class. Tnere is, however, some difference of opinion among 
 zoologists as to whether this group includes the ancestors from which the 
 higher mammals have originated. 
 
 In regard to their geographical distribution, the Marsupials present some 
 very curious features. At this present day their head-quarters are the 
 Notogfeic realm, comprising Australia, Papua, Celebes, and the other islands 
 lying to the eastward of Wallace's line. And it is here that they attain their 
 maximum development. Whereas, however, they form the great bulk of the 
 mammalian population of Australia and Papua, in Celebes and the adjacent 
 islands they constitute only a small minority of the fauna. Elsewhere, 
 Pouched Mammals are found only in America, where they are represented by 
 the opossums and selvas ; and here they are chiefly restricted to South and 
 Central America, constituting the Neogreic realm, only a single species, which 
 is evidently an immigrant from the south, inhabiting the northern half of 
 the continent. During the Secondary epoch of geological history, Marsupials 
 of extinct generic types were abundant in the northern hemisphere, while in 
 the succeeding Tertiary epoch opossums flourished in Europe and North 
 America. It is thus evident that the ancestral Marsupials were driven from 
 the northern hemisphere by the incoming of the higher forms of mammalian 
 life to find a secure refuge in southern islands. And it further appears that 
 while in South America they have had to compete with numerous types of 
 Eutherians, in Australasia they have had the land pretty much to them- 
 selves, and have there been enabled to attain the wonderful development so 
 especially characteristic of that region. 
 
 The kangaroos and their immediate allies form a large family 
 
 (Macropodidce) belonging to the first of the two great subordinal divisions 
 
 of the Pouched Mammals, technically known as the 
 
 Kangaroo Diprotodontia. This division, which is mainly confined 
 
 Tribe. to the Notogseic realm, is specially characterised by the 
 
 number of the front or incisor teeth, of which there are 
 
 never more than three pairs ; the usual complement being three pairs in the 
 
 upper jaw and one in the lower. The innermost, which are in some cases 
 
 the only pair of incisors in both jaws, are always large, with sharp, cutting 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 193 
 
 edges, while generally the upper canines, if present at all, are small, and 
 the lower ones are absent. Among the cheek-teeth, the four pairs of 
 molar-teeth have .broad, quadrangular crowns, generally surmounted either 
 by a pair of transverse ridges or by four blunt and rounded tubercles. 
 Such a type of dentition is adapted for a vegetable diet, which is charac- 
 teristic of the diprotodonts generally. 
 
 From the allied families the kangaroo tribe are specially distinguished by 
 possessing rooted teeth, among which are three pairs of upper and one of 
 lower incisors, the upper incisors being nearly vertical, while the large lower 
 pair project nearly horizontally forwards, and in some cases are capable of 
 working against one another like the blades of a pair of scissors. A small 
 upper canine may or may not be present. The five-toed fore-limbs are in 
 general much shorter and weaker than the hinder pair, while the latter are 
 generally four-toed, and have the digit corresponding to the fourth of the 
 typical series of five greatly developed at the expense of the other three, 
 and forming the sole axis of support for the limb. Of the smaller toes, the 
 second and third, or those on the inner side of the enlarged digit, are enclosed 
 in a common skin, from which feature the hind-foot of this family is termed 
 syndactylous. The great relative size and strength of the hind- limbs of the 
 more typical members of the family is correlated with the upright position of 
 the body, and the mode of progression is by enormous leaps. In repose the 
 body is swung on a kind of pivot supported by the thigh-bones, the feet 
 resting on the ground, and the large and thick tail serving to form the third 
 leg of a tripod. Among the smaller forms the tail may be prehensile ; and 
 there are a few arboreal types in which the disproportion between the fore 
 and hind limbs is very much less strongly marktd than is the case with the 
 typical kangaroos. All feed entirely on grass or leaves ; and the stomach, as 
 is so frequently the case with vegetable feeders, is of a somewhat complex 
 type. In the females the opening of the pouch is forwards, so that when it 
 contains young, these are in an upright, position. The members of the 
 family are confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, with some of 
 the neighbouring islands, such as the Aru group ; the true kangaroos, which 
 generally associate in large herd, or "mobs," and frequent either open 
 grassy plains or timbered districts, being the largest existing members of the 
 order. 
 
 The true kangaroos and wallabies, constituting the genus Macropus, are 
 the typical representatives of a sub- family (Macropodince) characterised by 
 the sub-equality of the claws of the fore-feet, which are never very large, 
 and the generally elongated and pointed ears. In the dentition the last 
 upper pre-molar is placed either immediately in the line of the molars, or is 
 at most but slightly everted ; and the molars, which increase regularly in 
 size from the first to the fourth, are transversely ridged. As a rule, the 
 upper canine is either very small or wanting, and the central pair of upper 
 incisors are but slightly larger than the other two. From the other members 
 of the sub-family the numerous species contained in the genus Macropus 
 have the nose naked, the ears large, and the fur on the nape of the neck 
 nearly always directed downwards. The disproportion between the length 
 of the fore and hind limbs is very strongly marked ; and the large claw of 
 the hind-foot is always larger than the naked terminal pad on the sole of 
 the same. The tail is thick, tapering, and evenly haired throughout ; 
 and there are four teats in the pouch of the females. There are upwards of 
 twenty-three species included in the genus, which may be arranged under 
 14 
 
194 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER XI.MARSUP1ALIA. 
 
 the heading of kangaroos proper, and larger and lesser wallabies. While 
 the great grey kangaroo (M. giganteus) has the stature of a man, some of the 
 smaller wallabies are no bigger than a rabbit. The great majority of the 
 
 species are confined to Australia and Tas- 
 mania, but the agile wallaby (M. agilis) is 
 common to Australia and New Guinea, 
 while the Aru Island wallaby (M. brnnii) is 
 restricted to the Aru and Kei Islands, and 
 the sombre wallaby (M. browui) is common 
 to New Guinea and the New Britain group. 
 From the true kangaroos the larger wal- 
 labies differ by their more brilliant coloration, 
 and the presence of a longitudinal external 
 bridge connecting the anterior ledge of the 
 molars with the first of the two transverse 
 ridges, coupled with the absence of a median 
 longitudinal bridge between the same ledge 
 and ridge. The habits of kangaroos and 
 wallabies have been so often described as 
 to render a repetition unnecessary. 
 
 From the preceding genus the six species 
 of rock -wallabies (Petrogale) are distin- 
 guished by the shortness of the large claw 
 of the hind-foot, which only slightly exceeds 
 the naked pads on the sole in length, and 
 by the long cylindrical tail being thinner, 
 more thickly haired, and tufted at the tip. 
 These wallabies are restricted to the Australian mainland, and differ from the 
 true wallabies by inhabiting rocky districts instead of open plains. Their 
 climbing and leaping powers are highly developed ; but the tail is employed 
 solely as a balancing organ, and never as a support to the body. The 
 presence of a horny spur or nail of unknown function at the tip of the long, 
 tapering, and short-haired tail is a sufficiently distinctive feature of the three 
 nail-tailed wallabies constituting the genus OnychogaU. In addition to this, 
 these animals have the nose hairy (with the exception in some cases of the 
 base of the partition between the two nostrils) ; while the large claw of 
 the hind-foot is long, narrow, compressed, and sharply pointed. There is 
 also a difference in the form of the upper incisor teeth. Like the rock- 
 wallabies, the members of this genus are restricted to continental Australia. 
 The same is the case with the three species of hare-wallabies (Lagorchestes), in 
 which the nose is entirely or partially covered with hair, the large claw of the 
 hind-foot is long, stout, and not concealed by hair, while the rather short tail 
 is evenly haired throughout its length. In some respects forming a con- 
 necting link between the genus Macropus and the under- mentioned tree- 
 kangaroos, the three species of dorca kangaroos (Dorcopsis) are confined to 
 New Guinea, and present the following distinctive features. The excess in 
 the length of the hind over the fore-limbs is much less strongly marked than 
 in the true kangaroo and wallabies ; there is a large and broad portion 
 of the nose completely naked ; the head is long and narrow, with small ears ; 
 the fur on the nape of the neck is entirely or partially reversed, so as to 
 be directed forwards towards the head. In both jaws the fourth pre-molar 
 is a compressed cutting tooth, greatly elongated, from before backwards, and 
 
 Fig. 10 2. -BENNETT'S WALLABY 
 (Macropus ualabatus). 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 
 
 195 
 
 having its surfaces marked by upright grooves, and a distinct ledge on the 
 base of the inner side. The direction of the two series of cheek-teeth is 
 nearly parallel. Although it is known that they are not arboreil, nothing 
 definite has been ascertained in regard to the habits of these rather small 
 kangaroos. 
 
 More remarkable than all are the tree-kangaroos (Dendrolagus\ of which 
 three species are known from New Guinea, and two from Queensland. 
 In general build these animals are of fairly 
 normal proportions, and quite unlike ordinary 
 kangaroos, the fore-limbs being strong, stout, 
 and nearly equal in length to the hinder pair. 
 The naked portion of the nose is broad and 
 covered with sparse hairs ; and the fur on the 
 nape of the neck is reversed, as is sometimes 
 also that of the back. In the broad hind-foot the 
 two united inner toes are not very markedly 
 smaller than the other two ; while the stoub 
 and strong claws of the latter are nearly as 
 curved as those of the fore foot. The elon- 
 gated tail is thickly and evenly haired. One 
 of the species measures 26 in. to the root 
 of the tail. Regarding the habits of one of 
 the Queensland species, Mr. E. R. Waite, 
 writing in the "Proceedings of the Linnsean 
 Society of New South Wales," observes that 
 "the native name is mapi, and the animals 
 are difficult to procure, as the blacks esteem 
 them as a delicacy, and only surrender their 
 captures when compelled. When a mapi is 
 discovered, a fence 5 or 6 ft. in height and several feet in diameter is 
 built of rattan and bushes round the tree. Some of the blacks enter the 
 enclosure, ascend the tree, and drive the animal down. It usually jumps to 
 the ground, often from a height of 20 ft. Should it elect to descend 
 ths trunk, it does so tail- foremost. On reaching the ground the animal 
 is eventually caught by the men surrounding the enclosure, generally 
 by the tail, which member is dragged through the fence, the unfortunate 
 mapi being despatched with blows from a nulla-nulla. The blacks will not 
 venture within the fence on account of the dread in which they hold the 
 powerful claws of the animal. The natives who hunted for Dr. Lumholtz 
 [the discoverer of the first example of this species made known to science] 
 called the animal bungary, and adopted a somewhat different method of 
 capture." Regarding the second Queensland species of the genus (Z>. 
 bennettianus), a correspondent wrote to Mr. Waite as follows : "The 
 native name of the climbing kangaroo is charibeena. The blacks hunt them 
 with dogs and are very fond of the flesh. I had often heard the blacks 
 talking about them, but though I have been here nearly ten years it was 
 only about three years ago that I succeeded in obtaining one. In the 
 daytime they are found among the top branches of the trees and come down 
 in the evening to feed upon creepers, ferns, and fruit. I have found several 
 down on the flat land, but as a rule they seem to be most numerous on or 
 near the top of the hill ridges here, which are about 1500 to 2500 ft. high. 
 When found in the daytime, the animals generally sleep with the heads 
 
 Fig. 103. -TREE KANGAROO 
 (Dendrolagus). 
 
196 MAMMALIA ORDER XI.MARSUPIALIA. 
 
 hanging on the breasts between the fore-limbs, and the tail is used as a 
 balancing pole. At first I could not induce the blacks to catch any of the 
 charibeenas, as they said that a full-grown one would show fight, but when 
 I went with them and caught the first one myself with a lasso they saw how 
 easy it was, and have since always caught them in this manner, except when 
 o'ut of reach ; in this case they make the animal jump; as soon as it reaches 
 the ground one boy holds its head down with a forked stick while another 
 passes a bag over its hind-quarters and slips it over its head. The best time 
 to hunt them is early in the morning while the scent is fresh. A dingo, or 
 mongrel the former preferred is used, and follows the scent to the foot of 
 the tree which the kangaroo has climbed to camp for the day. If the 
 tree be a low one, it is tolerably easy to find the animal, but it often 
 happens that they go from one tree to another before they find a suitable 
 'camp,' and then it becomes necessary for a native to ascend a high tree in 
 the vicinity so as to be able to look down on the surrounding trees, as the 
 kangaroo sits right out in the sun and is more easily seen from above than 
 from below. If one approaches quietly, it is quite easy to catch the animal 
 by the tail and slip it into a bag while up the tree ; but the least noise rouses 
 them, and it is surprising how quickly they can travel, jumping sometimes 
 20 to 30 ft. from one tree to another, and I have seen one jump 
 fully 60 ft, from a high tree to the ground and not hurt itself at all. 
 When jumping it seems always to land on its fore-feet, and though I have 
 repeatedly shaken them down from great heights, I have never seen one 
 injured, as they always, like a cat, fall on their feet. The tail is never used 
 to hang by, only to balance with, though I have often seen one bend its tail 
 over a branch while it reached down below the branch upon which it was 
 sitting to secure some berries. These kangaroos can stiffen the tail so that it 
 stands straight out like a rod. When caught and kept in captivity they soon 
 become quiet and take readily to eating bread, sweet potatoes, apples, 
 oranges, mangoes, and the rinds of sweet potatoes and yams ; also the leaves 
 of several of the eucalypti, white cedar, and many other trees, the names of 
 which I do not know. In the scrub they seem to have a partiality for the 
 bird's-nest fern, the moustera, and a small climber like the pepper-plant, and 
 eat almost any of the wild fruits which are so plentiful here. The males are 
 very pugnacious, and if two of them be put into an enclosure together will 
 often fight until one is killed. They spar with the fore-paws in quite a 
 scientific manner, uttering grunts all the time, till one sees an opportunity of 
 closing with the other, when -he makes straight for the back of the neck, and 
 if he succeeds in getting a grip with his teeth, he shakes the other like a dog 
 does a rat. Some of the old males have quite a harem, and keep their wives 
 from straying apart, and do not let any other males go near them. I have 
 found several of these families numbering from three to five females and one 
 male. The young males, and also the very old ones, are generally found by 
 themselves, or two or three of them together without any females. I think 
 they breed twice a year, and have only one young one at birth. The 
 kangaroos are most plentiful among rocky hills, where the scrub is thick and 
 stunted, and though they feed both on the ground and in the trees and 
 among rocks, I fancy that they feed mostly in the two latter places." With 
 the single species of banded-wallaby (Lagostrophus fasciatus) from Western 
 Australia, we again come to a genus in which the general build is the same 
 as in Macropus; the nose being naked, the hind-feet covered with long 
 bristly hairs by which the claws are completely hidden, and the back marked 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 197 
 
 by dark cross-bands. The banded-wallaby is a comparatively small species, 
 measuring only about 18 in. to the root of the tail. 
 
 Still smaller are the rat-kangaroos, of Australia and Tasmania, of which 
 there are several distinct generic types, collectively constituting the sub- 
 family Potoroince. Of this group the distinctive characteristics are as 
 follows : In size all the forms are small, and may be compared to hares or 
 rabbits, the ears being usually small and rounded. In the fore-feet the 
 claws are greatly elongated, those of the three middle toes being dispro- 
 portionately larger than those of the other two ; as in the MacropodincR, 
 there are only four toes to the hind-foot ; and the long tail is hairy. In the 
 dentition the upper canines are invariably present and generally well- 
 developed ; the central pair of upper incisors have taller crowns than either 
 of the other two ; the fourth pre-molar, which is a compressed and trenchant 
 tooth of great antero-posterior length, may either be set in the same line as 
 the molars, or somewhat bent outwards in front ; and the molars, which 
 decrease in size from the first to the fourth, have tuberculated crowns. The 
 three species of typical rat-kangaroos forming the genus Potorous vary 
 somewhat in size, and have the nose naked, the ears very short and rounded, 
 the front claws long and somewhat slender, the hind-limbs nob very much 
 larger than the front ones, the hind-feet very short, with naked and coarsely- 
 granulated soles, and the tapering hairy tail devoid of a crest. In the 
 dentition the fourth pre-molar has from two to four vertical grooves. These 
 rat-kangaroos, which generally inhabit scrub-jungle, have their leaping 
 powers much less strongly developed than in the allied genera. In running, 
 both fore and hind limbs are brought into action. Nearly allied in external 
 character is the South Australian plain rat- kangaroo (Caloprymnus campestris), 
 which is an animal of comparatively large size, with the nose and ears as in 
 the typical genus, the front claws long and strong, the hind-feet relatively 
 long, with coarsely-granular soles, and the tail thin, cylindrical, and covered 
 evenly with short hair. While the last pre-molar is similar to that of the 
 preceding genus, the skull is generally like that of the next. The four species 
 of prehensile-tailed rat-kangaroos (Bettongia) are sufficiently distinguished 
 by the feature from which they take their popular name. The hair on 
 the tail is long, and forms a more or less distinct crest ; the last pre-molar 
 is much elongated, with from seven to fifteen distinctly-marked, oblique 
 grooves on the sides ; and the squared molars, of which the fourth is much 
 the smallest, carry four tubercles. These little animals are completely 
 terrestrial and nocturnal, using their prehensile tails solely for the purpose 
 of carrying bundles of grass and twigs to their nest ; such bundles being held 
 by the tail being bent down over and round them. Three of the species are 
 Australian, and the fourth Tasmanian. The last member of the sub-family 
 is the rufous rat-kangaroo (dEpyprymnus rufescens) of New South Wales, in 
 which the nose is partially hairy, the ears are somewhat elongated, the hind- 
 feet long, with narrow, granulated soles, and the tail evenly-haired. The 
 long and narrow last pre-molar has from seven to eight vertical grooves, but 
 no inner ledge ; and the molars are oblong, with the tubercles less distinct 
 and tending more to form ridges than in the other genera, while the decrease 
 in size from the first to the last is less marked. Like the other members of 
 the group, this animal is nocturnal, but it is remarkable for its speed and 
 the great length of its leaps when disturbed. 
 
 Of especial interest is the tiny musk-kangaroo (Hypsiprymnodon moschatus) 
 of Northern Queensland, since it forms a connecting link between the 
 
198 MAMMALIA ORDER XI.MARSUriALIA. 
 
 kangaroo tribe on the one hand, and the phalangers on the other. Indeed, 
 it is chiefly owing to the presence of a pocket like pit on the outer side of 
 the hinder part of the bone of the lower jaw that it is referred to the 
 present rather than to the following family. It is regarded as representing 
 a distinct sub-family (Hypsiprymnodontince) of the Macropodidce, characterised 
 by the small, weak, and nearly equal-sized claws, the presence of five toes in 
 the hind foot (the first of which can be opposed to the rest), the naked and 
 scaly tail, and the oblique position of the short last pre-molar tooth. In size 
 this creature is very small, with a rat- like bodily form, a completely bare nose, 
 large, thin, and naked ears, the hind and fore limbs of nearly equal length, 
 and adapted for walking, the first toe of the hind-foot elongated and without 
 a claw, the fourth toe of the same not abnormally large, and the tail cylin- 
 drical and tapering, with some hair at the root. The musk-kangaroo is a 
 partially arboreal animal, which is mainly diurnal, and frequents scrubs on 
 the banks of rivers and in the coast-range. Either one or two young are 
 produced at a birth ; and the characteristic musky odour is more pronounced 
 in the female than in her partner. 
 
 Owing to the intermediate characters presented by the musk-kangaroo, 
 the differentiation of the phalanger tribe (Phalangeridce) from the Macropodidce 
 
 is by no means so easy as would be the case were that 
 
 Phalanger creature non-existent. There are, however, two leading 
 
 Tribe. features which may be regarded as absolutely distinctive of 
 
 the former group. In the first place, each branch of the 
 lower jaw-bone lacks the deep pocket-like pit on the outer side of its hinder 
 extremity so characteristic of the kangaroo tribe ; and, secondly, the 
 aperture of the pouch of the female is directed backwards instead of forwards. 
 Among other more or less distinctive features, the following may be 
 enumerated : Five toes are present in both the hind and fore feet, those of 
 the latter being usually of nearly equal size ; while in those of the former the 
 second and third are syndactylous, the fourth is the largest, the fifth but 
 little smaller, and the first large, opposable to the rest, and terminating in a 
 broad, clawless pad. With the exception of the koala, the tail is long and 
 generally prehensile ; and the stomach is simple. The dentition is extremely 
 variable, owing to the frequent presence of a number of small functionless 
 teeth in the front portion of the jaws. It may be said, however, that, as a 
 general rule, there are three pairs of upper, and one of functional lower 
 incisors, and that the latter never have the scissor-like action characteristic 
 of the kangaroos. The last of the two or three pre-molars usually present is 
 generally furnished with a rather sharp-cutting edge, and is placed obliquely 
 to the line of t.he molars, with its front edge everted ; and the molars, of 
 which there are usually four pairs, have either blunt tubercles, or sharp- 
 cutting crests. The family includes not only the animals properly known as 
 cuscuses and phalangers (the mis-called opossums of the Australian colonists), 
 but likewise the flying-phalangers, the koala or native bear, and the long- 
 snouted pouched mouse. The geographical range of this extensive family 
 includes not only Australia, Tasmania, and Papua, but likewise Celebes, and 
 some of the other Austro-Malayan islands. The koala and long-snouted 
 pouched mouse are, however, exclusively Australian. All are essentially 
 arboreal and nocturnal in their mode of life, most using their prehensile tails 
 to assist in climbing, while a few are enabled to take (like the flying squirrels) 
 long flying leaps by the aid of parachute-like expansions of skin from the 
 sides of the body. The great majority of the phalanger tribe are vegetable 
 
rOUC HE D MAMMALS. 
 
 199 
 
 feeders, subsisting mainly on fruits and leaves ; but a few consume insects, 
 which form either the whole or a portion of their diet, and some are 
 carnivorous. 
 
 The peculiar animal known as the koala (Phascolarctus cinereus), which 
 presents some external resemblance to a small bear, is the sole representative 
 of a sub- family (PhascolarctinoR) characterised 
 by the following distinctive features: The tail 
 is absent, the muzzle fhort and broad, the 
 tongue non-extensile, the cheeks furnished 
 with pouches for the storage of food, the 
 intestine provided with a ccecum, or blind 
 appendage, the teeth relatively large, and only 
 a single pair of pre-molars in the upper jaw. 
 In size the koala is a rather large animal, 
 measuring about 32 in. in length. Its build is 
 stout and clumsy, and the thick woolly fur is 
 generally greyish above and whitish below. The 
 large ears are thickly haired and ragged at the 
 edges ; the front toes are sub-equal in length, 
 the fourth being the longest and the first the 
 shortest, while both the first and second can be 
 opposed to the other two. The strong claws 
 are thick and sharp, and in both the fore and 
 hind limbs the soles of the feet are simply 
 granulated, and have no striated pads. The 
 female has a single pair of teats. In the 
 skeleton there are eleven pairs of ribs, and the 
 upper molar teeth have short, broad, and squared crowns, bearing curved 
 longitudinal crests, of which the convexity is directed outwards. The 
 koala, which is confined to Eastern Australia, is a dull, sluggish creature, 
 addicted to crawling on the stems and branches of gum-trees in a deliberate 
 lazy manner, and feeding mainly on leaves and flowers. During the day- 
 time it generally lies asleep in the hollow of some forest giant, but at night 
 prowls among the topmost branches in search of food, the females carrying 
 their offspring securely perched on their backs, where the woolly fur affords 
 them a secure foothold. Only a single young one is produced at a birth, 
 and the adults seem to be more or less completely solitary animals. 
 
 The second sub-family (Phalangerince), which includes all the other 
 members of the family save one, may be defined as follows: The tail, 
 which is always well-developed, is generally prehensile, the muzzle is short 
 and broad, the tongue is incapable of extension, there are no cheek-pouches, 
 the intestine has a csecum, the stomach is simple, and the teeth are compara- 
 tively large. The first and typical genus (Phalanger) is represented by the cus- 
 cuses, of which there are five species, ranging from Celebes and the Moluccas 
 to Australia and New Guinea. They are rather large, or medium-sized, 
 somewhat cat-like animals, of stout build, with thick and woolly fur, which 
 may be either coarse and wiry, or fine and silky, and moderate-sized or small 
 ears. In the fore-feet the toes are nearly equal in length, their relative 
 lengths being in the order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1. The long claws of all the feet are 
 stout and curved, and the naked soles are striated, with large and ill-defined 
 cushion-like pads. The prehensile tail is stout and strong, with its ter- 
 minal portion naked, and either smooth or granulated. Two pairs of 
 
 Fig. 104. KOALA (Phascolarctus 
 cinereus). 
 
200 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER XL MARSUriALIA. 
 
 teats are borne by the female. Cuscuses are slow and sleepy animals, 
 completely arboreal and mainly herbivorous in their habits, passing the 
 day curled up asleep among the densest foliage of forest trees, and only be- 
 coming active as the shades of evening 
 approach. A great amount of varia- 
 tion obtains in the coloration of the 
 different sexes and individuals of the 
 same species, while there is frequently 
 some difference in the teeth. \\ hereas 
 in the black cuscus of Celebes (P. 
 ursinus) both sexes are of a uniformly 
 dark blackish brown colour ; in the 
 widely distributed spotted cuscus (P. 
 maculatus) the sexes are generally 
 different, and the coloration takes the 
 Fig. 105. -SPOTTED Ccscus (Phalanger form of various combinations of white, 
 
 maculatua). rufous, and black, the females being 
 
 generally grey and black, while the 
 
 smaller males are usually spotted, although occasionally they resemble an 
 ordinary grey female, save for a few indistinct whitish spots on the flanks and 
 back. Nearly allied to the cuscuses are the true phalangers (Trichosurus) 
 the opossums of the colonists of which the two species are restricted to the 
 Australian mainland and Tasmania. These also are large, stoutly-built cat- 
 like animals, with thick, woolly fur, and short or medium ears. The front 
 toes may be -distinguished from those of the cuscuses in that relative lengths 
 follow the order 4, 3, 2, 5, 1 ; the claws being large and strong, and the soles 
 of the hind-feet densely haired beneath the heel, but elsewhere naked, and 
 furnished with low, rounded, ill-defined pads. In the powerful pre- 
 hensile tail the terminal third or half ia bare infcriorly, and the 
 extreme tip devoid of hair all round. A peculiar gland is situated 
 in the centre of the chest. Among the teeth, the molars have four 
 cusps, tending to unite into a pair of transverse ridges ; and the last 
 pre-molar, which closely approximates to the corresponding tooth of 
 Hypsiprymnodon, is large, placed obliquely, and marked by vertical groov- 
 ings. The common phalanger (T. vulpinus) takes up its habitation in the 
 branches of the tallest red and blue 
 gum-trees of the Australian and Tas- 
 manian forests, passing the day in 
 slumber, and wandering forth at night 
 to brouse on their leaves, bulbs, and 
 seeds. In climbing, they are much 
 aided by their highly prehensile tails ; 
 and on the rare occasions when they 
 descend to the ground, it is probably 
 for the purpose of drinking. In the 
 breeding season, and less commonly at 
 other times, phalangers utter a loud 
 cry ; and, as a rule, but one offspring 
 is produced at a birth, although there 
 may occasionally be a pair. More numerous, and at the same time more 
 widely distributed than the preceding, are the ring-tailed-phalangers 
 (Pseudochirus), of which there are eleven specific representatives, whose 
 
 Fig. 106. COMMON PHALANGER (Trichosurus 
 vul^inus). 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 201 
 
 geographical range includes New Guinea, as well as Australia and Tasmania. 
 While some are as large as the true phalangers, others are considerably 
 smaller ; but all possess short and rather woolly fur, and stout and medium 
 sized ears, which are well haired on the hind aspect. The relative lengths of the 
 toes of the fore-foot hold the same order as in the cuscuses ; but the first and 
 second toes resemble those of the koala in being markedly opposable to the 
 other three. In both feet the claws are of moderate length, and the bare 
 soles are provided with large striated pads. The long and tapering tail has 
 the lower surface of the extremity devoid of hair for a variable distance, 
 and is highly prehensile. Four teats are present in the female. The upper 
 molars are large and oblong, with the tubercles modified into sharp cusps, 
 from which proceed crescentic ridges ; the corresponding lower teeth having 
 a nearly similar structure. In habits the common ring-tailed-phalanger 
 differs from the true phalangers in that it prefers the so-called tea-scrub to 
 the gum-trees ; and also in that it generally associates in small colonies. 
 These animals construct small nests, not unlike the drey of a squirrel ; and 
 whereas usually but a single young one is produced at a birth, occasionally as 
 many as three may be found in the pouch. Nearly allied in the structure of 
 its skull and teeth to the preceding genus is the taguan flying-phalanger 
 (Petauroides volans\ which is the first of three genera provided with a para- 
 chute for the purpose of taking flying leaps from tree to tree. This species 
 is of comparatively large size, measuring about 17 in. to the root of the tail, 
 while the latter is about 20 in. in length. The fur of the body is remarkable 
 for its long, soft, and silky character ; the unusually large ears are oval in 
 form, and bare internally, but hairy on the outside ; and the skin of the 
 flanks is expanded to form a parachute. The long claws are much curved 
 and sharply pointed ; and the tail is long, cylindrical, and evenly covered 
 with bushy hair, its extreme tip being prehensile and destitute of hair on 
 the lower surface. The habits of this and the other flying-phalangers are 
 very similar to those of the flying-squirrels ; and in Australia these animals 
 are commonly known by the latter name. The present species is confined to 
 Eastern Australia. 
 
 Two species of rather small phalangers, ranging from Northern Australia to 
 New Guinea and the Aru Islands, constitute a genus (Dactylopsila) distinguished 
 by the great elongation of the fourth digit of the front paws, and the conspicuous 
 black and white longitudinal striping of the fur of the body. In these striped- 
 phalangers, which are devoid of a parachute, the oval ears have nearly naked 
 tips. In the front paws the length of the digits follows the order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1, 
 the inequality in their lengths, as in the hind-feet where the fourth and fifth 
 a-re much elongated being very marked. A prominent soft pad is situated 
 on the wrist ; and the claws are long. The long and cylindrical tail is evenly 
 bushy throughout, except the under surface of the tip, which is bare. The 
 oblong molars bear four simple tubercles. Some degree of doubt exists as 
 to the reason for the elongation of the fourth digit of the fore-paws. The 
 suggestion has, indeed, been made that the elongation is for the purpose of 
 extracting insects and grubs from beneath the bark and from crevices in 
 trees, and consequently that these phalangers are largely, if not exclusively 
 insectivorous ; but other writers consider that they subsist on leaves. From 
 the striped-phalangers the little Leadbeater's-phalanger (Gymnobelideus lead- 
 beateri) of Victoria, which measures only 5 in. to the root of the long tail, 
 differs by the normal proportions of the toes ; the length of those of the 
 fore-feet following the order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1. The claws are rather short ; the 
 
2O2 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER AY. MARSUPIALIA. 
 
 Fig. 107. FliYINO-PHALANQBR 
 
 (Petaurus breoiceps). 
 
 large ears entirely naked and untufted ; and the tail, which exceeds the 
 head and body in length by about an inch, is cylindrical and bushy. With 
 the exception of the last, which is triangular, the upper molars are square, 
 with rounded corners, and carry four tubercles. 
 Several peculiarities cnaracte-rise the skull. 
 From their similarity in cranial and dental 
 characters to the last, it is believed that 
 the three species of flying - phalangers form- 
 ing the genus Petaurus have been evolved 
 either from an ancestral form of G ymnolelideus, 
 or some nearly allied type. Ihese animals, 
 which are of small or medium size, have a 
 soft and silky fur, rather large, oval, and almost 
 naked ears, and a broad parachute-like expansion 
 of the skin of the flanks. In the fore-foot the 
 toes gradually increase in length from the first, 
 the fifth attaining the maximum elongation in 
 the largest species, and the fourth in the two 
 smaller ones. The claws, which are longer than 
 in the preceding genus, are strong, sharp, and 
 highly curved ; and the long tail is evenly 
 bushy throughout. Both the chest and the 
 crown of the head bear a gland. The range of the genus includes New- 
 Guinea and part of Australia, extending from Victoria to the islands of the 
 Halmahera group. All the three species are inhabitants of Australia ; a 
 variety of one (P. breviceps) being peculiar to New Guinea, New Britain, the 
 Halmahera group, and certain other islands. Writing cf one of the species, 
 Bennett observes that " it retires either between the forked branches or in 
 the hollow cavities of the trees during the day to sleep, and at night passes 
 from one to another by flying leaps, aided by its parachute-like membrane, 
 descending to the ground only from unavoidable necessity, such as when the 
 trees are so far apart as to render it impossible to traverse the space by 
 leaping. " 
 
 With the pretty little dormouse-phalangers (Dromicia), of which there are 
 four species, ranging over New Guinea, Western Australia, and Australia, we 
 revert to a genus unprovided with a parachute. In addition to this feature 
 and their small dimensions, the dormouse-phalangers are characterised by 
 their large, thin, and almost naked ears ; the normal proportions of the toes, 
 which in the fore-limb follow the order 3, 4, 2, 5, 1, as regards relative 
 length ; and the short and rudimental fore-claws. The cylindrical tail is 
 well furred only near the root, being elsewhere scaly and sparsely covered 
 with short hairs, except at the extremity, where it is roughened and completely 
 naked beneath, and endowed with the power of prehension. With the ex- 
 ception of the last, which may be wanting, the molars have regularly rounded 
 crowns, carrying four tubercles each. These little animals, one of which is 
 rather smaller than the British dormouse, are purely nocturnal creatures, 
 living on fruits, honey, and insects, and hiding during the daytime in the 
 hollows, or beneath the dead strips of bark which han-g down from the stems 
 of gum-trees. One species undergoes a partial hibernation during the colder 
 months of the year. A curious resemblance is presented by the pretty little 
 pen-tailed-phalanger of New Guinea (Distcechurus pennatus) to the pen-tailed 
 tree-shrew (Ptilocercus) among the lasectivora described on page 44, in that 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 203 
 
 both have the long hairs of the elongated tail arranged in two opposite 
 lateral rows like the vanes of a feather. Whereas, however, in the shrew 
 these vanes occupy only the terminal portion of the tail, in the phalanger 
 they extend uninterruptedly throughout its length. In addition to this very 
 important feature and the absence of a parachute, the pen-tniled-phalanger is 
 characterised by its rather short and thinly-haired ears, which have several 
 tufts near the base, the normal length of the toes, and the sharp and curved 
 claws. The molars, of which there are invariably but three pairs, are small 
 and rounded, with smooth, unridged cusps, and the last pre-molar is very 
 small in the upper jaw, and wanting in the lower. Only a single pair of teats 
 is present in the female. The third genus in which a parachute is developed 
 is Acrobates, comprising the two species of pigmy-flying-phalangers, one of 
 which is Australian and the other Papuan. And since these beautiful little 
 animals, although considerably smaller, resemble the pen-tailed-phalanger, 
 not only in the structure of their skulls and teeth, but likewise in their 
 vaned tails, it is pretty evident that they are derived from the same ancestral 
 stock. The pigmy-phalangers have moderate-sized ears, a narrow para- 
 chute-like expansion of skin along the flanks, and the toes which are of 
 normal proportions terminating in a broad striated pad. In the fore-foot 
 the length of the digits follows the general order of 4, 3, 5, 2, 1, and the 
 claws, although not very prominent, are sharp and well developed. 
 Additional differences from Distcechurus are to be found in the larger size of 
 the upper pre-molar, and the presence of the corresponding tooth in the 
 lower jaw, and likewise in the existence of two pairs of teats in the pouch 
 of the female. The Australian species, which measures 3 in. to the root of 
 the tail, is a far less brilliantly-coloured animal than its Papuan ally. It is 
 commonly known as the flying-mouse, and was formerly abundant about 
 Port- Jackson, but nothing very definite has been ascertained in regard to its 
 mode of life. 
 
 The last sub-family (Tarsipedinoe) of the tribe under consideration is repre- 
 sented only by the elegant little long-snouted -phalanger (Tarsipes rostratiis) of 
 Western Australia. The sub-family is characterised by the elongation of the 
 tail, the long and slender muzzle, the extensile tongue, the absence of a caecum, 
 or blind appendage to the intestine, and the minute size and rudimental 
 character of the cheek-teeth. As a genus, the animal, which measures about 
 3 in. to the root of the tail, may be characterised as follows : The size is 
 small and the form light and graceful ; while the long and narrow head is 
 furnished with ears of moderate size, which are but thinly covered with hair ; 
 and the soles of the feet are naked and granulated. With the exception of 
 those of the united second and third toes of the hind-foot, the claws are 
 rudimental ; and the tail, which exceeds the head and body in length by 
 about an inch, is thinly haired and prehensile. Four teats are present in the 
 pouch of the female. Although the upper canine and the lower incisor teeth 
 are fairly well developed, there are at most but three pairs of molars, and the 
 
 E re-molars are reduced to a single pair in the upper jaw. A remarkable 
 mature is the absence of any inflection of the angle of the very slender 
 lower jaw. The long-snouted-phalanger appears to be an exceedingly rare 
 animal, inhabiting flowering shrubs, from the blossoms of which it extracts 
 honey by the insertion of its highly extensile tongue. 
 
 The three species of wombat, all of which are confined to Tasmania 
 and Australia south of the tropics, and are included in the single genus 
 Phascolomysy are the sole representatives of the third and last family of 
 
204 MAMMALIA ORDER XI.MARSUPIALIA. 
 
 Australian diprotodont marsupials (Phascolomyidce). They are clumsily-built 
 animals, differing from all the members of the group hitherto mentioned 
 
 by their burrowing habits ; and they may be regarded as 
 Wombats. occupying among the Australian fauna the position held in 
 
 other regions by the burrowing rodents. Curiously enough, 
 they also approximate to the latter order in the nature of their dentition, 
 the incisors being reduced to a single cutting pair in each jaw, behind which 
 comes a long gap, without any canines, till the cheek-teeth are reached. 
 Stout and clumsy in form, the wombats have a short and broad muzzle ; 
 thick, short, and strong limbs of nearly equal length in front and behind ; 
 the fore-feet with five nearly sub-equal and powerfully-clawed toes ; the first 
 hind-toe short and clawless, the remaining toes of the same foot having strong 
 and curved claws, and the second and third imperfectly united by a common 
 skin ; and the tail rudimental. Internally, the stomach is simple, and the 
 intestine is furnished with a caecum. The teeth are rootless throughout life ; 
 the large, curved, and chisel-like incisors having enamel only on the front 
 and sides ; and the five pairs of cheek-teeth are strongly curved, the molars 
 consisting of two lobes, but the pre- molars with only one. As regards their 
 habits, it will suffice to say that wombats are harmless, inoffensive animals, 
 burrowing deeply in the ground, and subsisting on the roots which they thus 
 disinter. They are entirely nocturnal, never issuing from their holes till 
 evening, and returning to them with the first rays of morning. 
 
 A distinct family (Epanorthidce) is now represented solely by two small rat- 
 like South American animals, which, from the estate where the second 
 
 example was obtained, may be known as the selvas. One was 
 Selvas. originally described and referred to the present order under 
 
 the name of Hyracodon fidiginosus, in the year 1863, upon 
 the evidence of a specimen obtained in Ecuador ; but the description was 
 so insufficient that naturalists had no clue to its affinities. In the autumn 
 of 1895 a second example was obtained from Colombia, which showed that it 
 indicated a type of marsupial hitherto known only from fossil forms occurring 
 in the Tertiary rocks of Patagonia, which have been described under the 
 names of Epanorthus, Abderites, etc. As the name Hyracodon had been 
 previously employed for an extinct genus of mammals, the selvas were at 
 the same time re-christened Ccenolcstes. 
 
 The selvas have an elongated skull somewhat like that of the Australian- 
 bandicoots, with four pairs of upper incisor teeth and a large pair of canines, 
 and thus resemble the Polyprotodont type. In the lower jaw there is, 
 however, a single pair of horizontally- projecting lower incisors, not unlike 
 those of the kangaroo, behind which are several pairs of small functionless 
 teeth representing the other incisors, canine, and earlier pre-molars. In 
 both jaws the four pairs of molars are oblong teeth, with four blunt cusps, 
 and thus totally unlike the corresponding teeth of the opossums and other 
 members of the Polyprotodont sub-order. The feet are of normal type, with 
 five toes each, of which the first appears to be opposable in a limited degree 
 to the others ; and the rat-like tail is partially prehensile towards the 
 extremity. Externally, the selvas look very like small, blackish rats, with 
 a sharp nose. 
 
 In all probability, these animals and their extinct allies are descendants from 
 a group of Polyprotodont Marsupials whose remains are found in the Tertiary 
 deposits of Patagonia, and whose ancestors reached South America by means 
 of a land connection perhaps by way of the Antarctic continent with 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 205 
 
 Australia. Unlike the opossums, which are comparatively recent immigrants 
 from the North, the selvas, like the edentates, belong to the original primitive 
 fauna of South America, which was first developed when that country was 
 completely cut off from North America by a sea occupying the site of the 
 Isthmus of Panama and Mexico. 
 
 The bandicoots (Peramelidce) are the first representatives of the secotid 
 great subordinal division of the pouched mammals, technically known as the 
 Polyprotodontia. This name is assigned from the circum- 
 stance that these animals differ from the preceding group Bandicoot 
 by the larger number of incisor teeth, of which there are Tribe, 
 
 never less than three pairs in each jaw, while more generally 
 there are four or five pairs of these teeth in the upper, and three or four in the 
 lower jaw. These incisors are always relatively small and of subequal size, 
 and they are flanked by large, tusk-like canines, close behind which are the 
 anterior cheek-teeth. Nearly always the cusps of the molars are numerous 
 and sharp ; and the whole dentition is of a markedly carnivorous type. In 
 all their characters, the Polyprotodonts are a less specialised group than the 
 Diprotodonts ; and they have at the present day a wide geographical 
 distribution, being represented not only in the Notogseic realm, but likewise 
 in South America, and, more sparingly, in North America. They were also 
 living in various parts of the world during the Tertiary and Secondary epochs. 
 In Australasia, and to a certain extent in South America, the members of the 
 present group all of which are either flesh or insect eaters take the place 
 of the Carnivora and Insectivora of other parts of the world. 
 
 From the other three families included in the sub-order the bandicoots are 
 broadly distinguished by the circumstance that the second and third toes of 
 the hind-foot are reduced in size, and enclosed in a common skin in the same 
 manner as among the Diprotodonts. In addition to this very striking and 
 characteristic feature, the members of the present family have the hind-limbs 
 markedly longer than the front pair ; in the fore-limbs the three middle 
 toes, or occasionally only two, are long and furnished with claws, the others 
 being rudimental or wanting ; and the hind-foot has either four or five toes 
 of very unequal lengths, the first toe being rudimental or absent, the second 
 and third small and united, and the fourth, the stoutest. As in the 
 phalangers, the opening of the pouch of the female is directed backwards. 
 Internally, there is a caecum to the intestine ; and in the skeleton collar- 
 bones are lacking. In the upper jaw there may be either four or five pairs 
 of incisor teeth, whereas in the lower jaw there are invariably three. The 
 tail, which is always relatively long, is never prehensile. Bandicoots are 
 restricted to Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and certain of the adjacent 
 islands, such as the Aru, Kei, and Duke of York group. In habits they are 
 mainly fossorial and insectivorous, although a few are more or less completely 
 omnivorous. Among the more aberrant forms are the rabbit-bandicoots 
 (Peragale\ of which there appear to be two species, both restricted to the 
 A ustralian mainland. Their most distinctive feature, and the one from which 
 they derive their name, is the great length of the ears. In form these animals 
 are light and delicate, with a long and narrow muzzle. The three middle 
 toes of the fore-foot are long and furnished with stout, curved claws, and in 
 the hind-foot all trace of the first toe is wanting externally. The hind-limbs 
 greatly exceed the front ones in length ; the soles of the hind-feet are hairy ; 
 and there is a distinct crest of hair on the upper surface of the terminal half 
 of the tail. The upper jaw carries five pairs of incisor teeth; and the 
 
206 MAMMALIA ORDER XI.MARSUP1ALIA. 
 
 molars have a quadrangular or rounded section. In size and habits, these 
 bandicoots, which are omnivorous, may be compared to a rabbit, which 
 they resemble in their habit of constructing burrows in places where the soil 
 is suitable. The true bandicoots (Perameles), of which 
 there are about a dozen different species, are com- 
 paratively small animals, ranging over Australia, 
 Tasmania, Papua, and some of the neighbouring 
 islands. While some are heavy and ungainly, and 
 others light and elegant in bodily form, all have long 
 and pig-like snouts, but the length of the ears is 
 variable. The three middle toes t>f the fore-foot are 
 nearly equal in length, and furnished with strong, 
 curved claws ; while in the hind-foot there is a 
 clawless first toe, the second and third digits having 
 flat twisted nails, the fourth exceeding all the rest in 
 length, and carrying a stout pointed claw, and the fifth 
 being similar but smaller. The tapering tail may be 
 either clothed with short hair or almost bare ; and 
 there are three pairs of teats in the pouch of the 
 Fig. 108. A BANDICOOT female. In the dentition there are usually five pairs 
 (Perameles). of upper incisors ; and the upper molars, which may be 
 
 either squared or triangular in form, carry sharp cusps. 
 
 They are exclusively terrestrial and nocturnal in their habits ; and apparently 
 feed chiefly on earth-worms, although they also consume insects, grubs, bulbs, 
 roots, and fallen berries and fruit. Bandicoots make sleeping-nests of dried 
 grass, leaves, and sticks ; and, in spite of ridding them of worms and insects, 
 do much harm to gardens and corn-fields. The third and last genus of the 
 family is represented only by the pig footed bandicoot (Chceropus castanotis) 
 of Australia, which, although allied to Gunn's bandicoot (Perameles gnnni), 
 is clearly distinguished by "the very peculiar structure of the feet. In the 
 fore- foot, the first and fifth toes are absent, the fourth is rudimental, while the 
 second and third are alone fully developed and furnished with long, slender 
 claws. Considerably different is the structure of the hind-foot, in which the 
 first toe is wanting, and the fifth rudimental, the fourth being very large. 
 Of a grizzled grey colour, and measuring about ten inches to the root of the 
 tail, the pig-footed bandicoot is an animal of light and slender build, with a 
 short and narrow muzzle, long and slender ears, and a short, cylindrical tail, 
 slightly crested on its upper surface. There are five pairs of upper incisors ; 
 and the pouch of the females contains eight teats. In its habits this animal 
 closely resembles the other members of the family, burrowing holes in the 
 ground, and being omnivorous in diet, although feeding chiefly upon insects. 
 In spite of the number of its teats, the female only produces two young ones 
 at a birth. 
 
 The second of the four families of the Polyprotodonts is characterised by 
 
 having a simpler type of foot-structure than obtains in the PeramelidcK, the 
 
 second and third digits of the hind-foot being completely 
 
 Dasyure Tribe, separate. Hence, it is probable that the Dasyuridce (as the 
 
 present family is termed) constitute the original stock from 
 
 which the Peramelidce have branched off. In addition to this primary 
 
 feature in the structure of the limbs, it may be noticed that there are five 
 
 toes to the fore-foot, and that in the hind-foot the first toe is either small or 
 
 wanting, while the other four are pretty equally developed. The long and 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 
 
 207 
 
 Fig. 109 T ASM ANI AN- WOLF 
 (Thylacinus cynocefhalus). 
 
 hairy tail is never prehensile ; and the pouch, "when developed, opens 
 forwards and downwards. Internally, the stomach is simple, and the 
 intestine devoid of a blind appendage. There are four pairs of incisor teeth 
 in the upper jaw, and three in the lower ; the entire dentition being of an 
 essentially carnivorous type, the 
 upper molars having more or less 
 distinctly triangular crowns bear- 
 ing a number of sharp cusps. 
 Indeed, although a few of the 
 smaller kinds are more or less com- 
 pletely insectivorous, the present 
 family includes all the truly flesh- 
 eating Australian Marsupials, as 
 it does the largest members of the 
 entire sub-order. Geographically, 
 the range of the group embraces 
 Australia, Tasmania, and New 
 Guinea, together with many of 
 the adjacent islands, exclusive of 
 the Austro-Malayan group. 
 
 Its large size, generally wolf-like form, and striped body are sufficient 
 to distinguish at a glance the thylacine or Tasmanian-wolf (Thylacinus 
 cynocephalus) from all its kindred. This animal, which measures about 
 44 in. to the root of the tail, has a large wolf-like head, with moderate-sized 
 ears, a long and slender muzzle, and the elongated jaws armed with very 
 powerful teeth. The long tail is covered with close, short hair. All the 
 feet are markedly digitigrade, the five toes of the front pair being armed 
 with short, thick, conical claws, while the hind-feet have but four 
 toes each. The back is marked with transverse black bands on a 
 tawny ground. Only four teats are present in the pouch of the 
 female, and the marsupial bones are rudimental. The full marsupial 
 number of three pairs of pre-molar teeth are present. Although this 
 ferocious animal appears to be now restricted to Tasmania, the genus was 
 
 represented at a comparatively recent 
 epoch on the Australian mainland. 
 It is a nocturnal creature, inhabiting 
 caves and hollows among rocky fast- 
 nesses ; and, if seen abroad by day- 
 light, is dull and sluggish. It never 
 hunts in pack, and its sole cry appears 
 to be a dull guttural growl. At the 
 present day sheep are the chief prey 
 of the thylacine, as these are both 
 more numerous and easier to capture 
 than the diprotodont marsupials upon 
 which it formerly lived. Four is the 
 number of young produced in a litter. 
 Although but little more than half its 
 size, the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus 
 ursinus) is an even more sanguinary and destructive creature, killing sheep 
 and fowls, apparently for the mere pleasure of slaughter, long after its 
 appetite is satiated. In form this animal is very stout and powerful, having 
 
 Fig. 110. TASMANIAN-DKVIL 
 (Sarcophilus ursinus). 
 
208 MAMMALIA ORDER XLMARSUPIALIA. 
 
 a short and broad muzzle, wide and rounded ears, an evenly-haired tail of 
 medium length, and plantigrade feet, in the front pair of which the toes are 
 armed with strong, curved claws ; while in the hind pair the first digit is 
 absent, and the naked soles lack well-defined pads. In colour the body is 
 blackish, flecked with white. As regards the dentition, this differs from 
 that of the thylacine in that there are only two pairs of pre molars in each 
 jaw ; while the upper molars, with the exception of the fourth pair, are 
 strong, triangular, and much shorter and wider. The distribution of the 
 Tasmanian devil, both now and in the past, is precisely similar to that of its 
 cousin the thylacine. 
 
 Under the common title of native cats are included, in Australia, a number 
 of considerably smaller predaceous marsupials, usually showing a slender, 
 
 weasel-like form of body, although a 
 few are more stoutly built. These 
 constitute the genus Dasyurus of zoolo- 
 gists, of which the leading character- 
 istics are as follows : The ears are 
 elongated and narrow ; the bare nose 
 is marked by a deep, vertical groove 
 running down to the upper lip ; the 
 long tail is uniformly and thickly 
 haired throughout its length ; the feet 
 are plantigrade, with sharp, curved 
 Fig. Ill SPOTTED-DASTURB claws, the first toe in the hinder pair 
 
 (Dasyurus viverrinus). being either rudimental or absent, and 
 
 the partially or wholly naked soles of 
 
 the hind-feet are granulated. In all cases the body is marked with spots. 
 The pouch, which opens vertically downwards, contains either six or eight teats. 
 The teeth are numerically the same as in Sarcophilus, but much less strongly 
 developed. Dasyures are found alike in Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, 
 and some of the neighbouring islands. They differ from the two preceding 
 genera, in that the majority are more or less completely arboreal in their 
 habits ; and they feed not only on flesh, but likewise on insects, being 
 especially destructive to birds and their eggs. The largest among the six 
 species is the spotted-tailed dasyure (D. maculatus), from east and south-east 
 Australia, and Tasmania, which may be compared roughly in size to a cat, 
 and differs from the rest by having the tail, as well as the body, spotted. It 
 is further characterised by having well-defined, transversely striated pads 
 on the soles of the feet, from which it may be inferred that its habits are 
 largely arboreal. The pouched-mice (Pkascologah), of which no less than 
 thirteen species are recognised, are smaller animals, differing from the 
 dasyures in the absence of spots on the fur, and the practical want of the 
 pouch in the female. In all, the form is slender and graceful ; the ears 
 are rounded ; the tail is long, but may be either bushy, crested, or 
 nearly bare, and the broad and short feet terminate in sub-equal 
 toes furnished with sharp, curved claws. In the hind-foot the first toe 
 is, however, short and clawless, and the soles of the feet are naked 
 and smooth, with five transversely striated pads, the first toe frequently 
 having its pad divided. Except in one species, where the first lower pair 
 are wanting, there are three pairs of pre-molars in each jaw. The pouched- 
 mice, which range over Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, the Aru Islands, 
 etc., are thoroughly arboreal animals, feeding exclusively on insects, and 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 209 
 
 thus taking the place of the tree-shrews of the Oriental region. Whereas 
 the largest is not bigger than an ordinary rat, the others are considerably 
 smaller. In all the Australian species the fur of the back is uniformly 
 coloured, and the same is the case with a few of the forms inhabiting Papua, 
 although the majority from that area are longitudinally striped. Four 
 nearly allied animals, which may be known as the narrow-footed pouched- 
 mice, and constitute the genus Sminthopns^ are easily distinguished 
 from the foregoing by the narrow feet which are either partially haired 
 or naked, with the bare portion granulated, and with or without pads, the 
 latter, when present, being either smooth or but faintly striated. These 
 pouched-mice are restricted to Australia and Tasmania, and differ from 
 the members of the preceding genus in being strictly terrestrial, so that in 
 this respect they are comparable to ordinary shrews. More markedly 
 distinct is the long-legsred pouched-mouse (Antezhinomys laniger), from the 
 interior of New South Wales and southern Queensland, which is a mouse- 
 like, leaping animal specially characterised by the great elongation of the 
 hind-limbs and the loss of the first toe in the hind-foot. The fur is 
 uniformly coloured, the tail is long and tufted, and the ears are of large 
 size. These little creatures, which subsist exclusively on insects, inhabit 
 open sandy districts. As the members of the two preceding genera 
 respectively represent the tree-shrews and ordinary shrews, so the present 
 form may be likened to the African jumping-shrews. 
 
 One of the most remarkable of all the pouched mammals is the banded 
 ant-eater (Myrmecobius fasciatus) of south and west Australia, which presents 
 a curious approximation in the number 
 and structure of its teeth to some of the 
 extinct Secondary marsupials of Europe. 
 By many writers it is regarded as the 
 representative of a distinct family by 
 itself, and it certainly constitutes a sub- 
 family (Myrmecobiince) of the Dasyuridce, 
 which may be distinguished from the 
 whole of the foregoing genera (Dasy- 
 urince) by the following features : In 
 
 place of being of normal proportions, the _ BANDED ANT . EATER 
 
 tongue is long, cylindrical, and extensile ; , (Myrmecobius fasciatus). 
 
 the nose is naked and grooved below ; 
 the pointed lower lip projects in advance of the teeth; and there is a gland 
 on the chest opening on the exterior by means of several apertures. The 
 cheek-teeth are small and delicate, the molars forming more than four pairs, 
 and being separated from one another by intervals, while those of the lower 
 jaw have their inner cusps larger than the outer ones. In general appear- 
 ance the banded ant-eater is a graceful squirrel-like animal, with the hinder 
 part of the back marked by a series of narrow white stripes on a bright 
 lufous ground. The ears are rather long and narrow, and the tail is elon- 
 gated and bushy. All external trace of the first toe of the hind-foot is 
 wanting, and all the functional toes are armed with claws adapted for digging; 
 the soles of the fore-feet being partially naked, while those of the hinder 
 pair are completely so, their pads being small and granulated. The pouch is 
 obsolete, and the number of teats appears to be four. The cheek-teeth 
 usually comprise three pairs of pre-molars and five of molars in each jaw, 
 but occasionally there is a sixth pair of lower molara. As a rare abnormality, 
 15 
 
210 MAMMALIA ORDER XI.MARSUPIALIA. 
 
 four pairs of lower incisors may be developed. The banded ant-eater feeds 
 mainly on ants, which are licked up by the tongue, but it will also consume 
 insects of other kinds. It proceeds in a series of hops, with the tail uplifted ; 
 and when pursued, or for sleeping, retires to a hollow log or tree. It is 
 stated to produce from seven to nine young at a birth, although it is 
 difficult to reconcile this with the alleged presence of only four teats. After 
 birth, the young are protected solely by the long hair on the abdomen of 
 the mother. 
 
 A separate family (Notoryctidce) of polyprotodont marsupials is repre- 
 sented solely by the curious marsupial mole (Notoryctes typhlops), from the 
 sandy deserts of central South Australia. Among the 
 Marsupial essential characteristics of the family the following are the 
 Mole. most important : There are only three pairs of incisor 
 
 teeth in each jaw, and there are neither ear-conchs or eyes 
 visible externally. The limbs, which are sub-equal in length, are stout, strong, 
 and each furnished with five toes ; the hind-foot having a clawed first toe, 
 not opposable to the other digits which are of unequal size. Collar-bones 
 
 are present ; and the under surface of the 
 skeleton of the tail carries the so-called 
 chevron- bones so commonly present in 
 reptiles. The upper molar teeth have 
 triangular crowns bearing three cusps only. 
 Externally, the marsupial mole is a some- 
 what peculiar-looking animal, of a pale 
 golden -red colour, and measuring about 
 
 J^~ fjjj&jj&$j\ . 5 in. to the root of the stumpy tail. 
 
 s "~ fc jVrZ / ^ h ar( ^ horny shield, divided into two 
 Fig. 113 MARSUPIAL HOLE parts by a transverse ridge, serves to protect 
 
 (Notoryctes typhlops). the upper surface of the blunt muzzle ; and 
 
 the apertures of the ears are well-nigh 
 
 hidden by the fur. In both feet the four inner toes are clawed, but the 
 fifth carries a short, broad nail ; the claws of the third and fourth front toes 
 are very large and powerful, while those of the corresponding hind toes 
 curve outwards and backwards, the toes of these feet decreasing in size from 
 the second to the fifth. In both pairs of limbs the soles of the feet are 
 naked and covered with a tough leathery skin. The short, stumpy tail 
 is also hard and leathery, decreasing rapidly in diameter from the base, and 
 terminating in a blunt, knob-like extremity. The pouch opens backwards, 
 and contains only two teats. The creature spends most of its time 
 burrowing in the sand of the Australian deserts in search of its insect-food, 
 occasionally making its appearance on the surface. Its enormously-powerful 
 front claws enable it to bury itself in the sand with extraordinary rapidity. 
 
 The last family of the marsupials is an American one, and is represented 
 
 solely by the opossums (Didelphyidce). In spite of the remoteness of their 
 
 habitat, these animals are very closely allied to the 
 
 Opossums. Dasyuridce, from which they may be distinguished by having 
 
 four (instead of three) pairs of lower incisors, and by the first 
 
 hind toe being opposable to the other digits. There is no claw to the first 
 
 hind toe ; and the number of pairs of upper incisor teeth is five, or the same 
 
 as in the Dasyuridce. As a rule, the tail is long, scaly, naked, and prehensile, 
 
 although rarely it may be short, and more or less covered with hair. 
 
 Internally, the stomach is simple, and the intestine has a blind appendage. 
 
PO UCHED MAMMALS. 2 1 1 
 
 In most species the pouch is wanting, although it may be represented by two 
 lateral folds of skin, while more rarely it is complete. There are three pairs of 
 pre- molar teeth in each jaw. The females have from five to twenty-five teats. 
 Opossums, which vary in size from that of a cat to that of a mouse, include 
 more than a score of species, all but two of which are restricted to the 
 Neogseic realm, whence the northern forms are probably comparatively 
 recent wanderers. With the exception of the water-opossum, the members 
 of the family are mainly arboreal animals, although some of the smaller kinds 
 are more or less terrestrial. Arboreal species have, however, extended 
 their range to the open Argentine pampas. Whereas the larger kinds 
 are very destructive to poultry, the smaller species subsist exclusively on 
 insects. In those opossums in which the female has no pouch, the young 
 are borne on the back of their parent, generally curling their own tails round 
 that of the latter, which is purposely bent forwards over the back and head. 
 Nearly all the species may be included 
 in the typical genus Didelphys, which 
 may, however, be split up into several 
 sub-generic groups. The first of these 
 is represented solely by the common 
 opossum (D. marsupialis), with its 
 numerous varieties, which is four 
 to five times the dimensions of any 
 other kind, and may be compared, 
 in this respect, to a cat. Its range 
 extends* from the United States to 
 Chili, South Brazil, Uruguay, and 
 Argentina, and it is the only species 
 entering North America above Mexico. 
 As the representative of a sub-genus, p; g . 114 -COMMON OPOSSUM 
 
 it may be characterised as follows : (Dideiphys marsupial-is). 
 
 The very long tail is naked, scaly, and 
 
 highly prehensile ; elongated bristle-like hairs are mingled with the fur ; and 
 the fifth hind toe is much shorter than the fourth, which is of nearly the 
 same length as the first and second. The female has a well-developed pouch 
 for the reception of the young, which at birth are extremely minute. They 
 develop, however, very rapidly, and soon become as large as mice, when 
 they leave the pouch, although returning for the purpose of sucking, or in 
 order to escape from impending danger. Of the habits of this species Mr. 
 C. Lincecum, in the American Naturalist for 1872, writes as follows : 
 "They dwell in hollow logs, stumps, and in holes at the roots of the trees. 
 They do not burrow or prepare dens for themselves, but find such as are 
 ready-made. I have seen them carrying into their holes, at the approach tf 
 cold weather, considerable bundles of dry leaves rolled up in their tail ; they 
 understand the signs of the coming spells of bad weather, and they prepare 
 for it by making for themselves good comfortable beds. They do not 
 hibernate, but are found out hunting in frosty weather. They possess but 
 little caution. Hence they are often found in the poultry-houses, chicken- 
 coops, smoke-houses, and even in our dining-rooms, rustling about for 
 something to eat. I have often seen their tracks in the roads and 
 piths where they had travelled three or four miles to a farmyard, to 
 which they had no doubt been attracted by the crowing of the roosters. 
 They will catch a grown hen and carry her off squalling at the top 
 
212 MAMMALIA ORDER Xl.MARSUriALIA. 
 
 of her voice, and will not abandon her till the dogs, which have been 
 aroused by the uproar, have overtaken them and commenced cracking their 
 bones. They will eat bacon, dry beef, can ion, any kind of fowl, rabbits, any 
 sort of small game, almost all the insects, and fruits of every variety. They 
 voraciously devour the musk-melon, and several species of mushrooms ; 
 in short, they are nearly omnivorous. The only case in which the opossum 
 manifests any respectable degree of cautiousness is when it is hunted at 
 night in the forest ; on hearing the din and noise of the hunters it with 
 some difficulty makes shift to climb a small tree or sapling, where, wrapping 
 the naked, rasp-like tail round some convenient limb, it quietly awaits the 
 approaching dogs and hunters. By many people the flesh is considered 
 delicious. Its flavour resembles that of the flesh of a young hog, but is 
 sweeter, less gross, and is, no doubt, a more healthy food for man. A dog 
 will starve sooner than eat the flesh of an opossum ; negroes and many other 
 persons are exceedingly fond of it. During their breeding season, the males 
 are very ram pant ^nd belligerent. Numbers will collect round a female and 
 fight like dogs. Twenty or thirty years ago I witnessed a fight myself in 
 the forests of Mississippi. The female was present ; there were three males ; 
 two of them were fighting, while the third one was sitting a little distance 
 off, looking as though he felt he had seen enough. They were fighting 
 hard, and had been, from the signs in the wallo wed-down grass, for three 
 or four days, kicking over the female, who immediately went into a spasm 
 when I examined the pouch. Opossums are exceedingly tenacious of life. I 
 have many times seen the dogs catch them and chew and crack, seemingly, 
 all the bones in their skin, leaving them to all appearance entirely lifeless ; 
 and, going out the next morning for the purpose of removing the dead 
 thing, would find that it had left its death-bed, and putting the dogs on its 
 track, trail him a mile or more before overtaking him. He would, to be 
 sure, be found in a bad fix, but at the same time he lacked two or three 
 more bone-crackings of being dead. They cannot, like the raccoon, be so far 
 domesticated as to form any attachment for persons or their houses, though 
 I have two or three times found them under the floors of dwelling-houses, 
 where they had been for some time, and had evidently taken up winter- 
 quarters, but they did not remain there long." Of the South American 
 variety known as Azara's opossum, Mr. Aplin, in the " Proceedings of the 
 Zoological Society for 1894," observes that in Uruguay, "where it is known 
 by the name of Comadreja, this opossum lives in a nearly treeless country, 
 the river monte in South Soriano being the only natural wood (composed of 
 low thorny trees and big willows), and the Comadreja preferring to live on 
 the higher camp, where it lies up in clefts and holes among the granite 
 boulder-rocks ; among these a few low thorny bushes are found ia some 
 cases. I have never seen a Comadreja in the monte or up any native tree, 
 but have no doubt they often climbed the trees at the estancias, which they 
 are all well able to do. Yet this animal has a very prehensile till, nakud 
 and scaly. Having hauled one out of a cleft by the tail, I found that it 
 twined the latter tightly round my fingers, the muscular power being 
 considerable. They run up the boulder-rocks with great agility. At bay, 
 whether in rocky holt or old ants'-nest, laid up in a soft bed of dead grass, 
 or drawn and facing a dog with arched back and grinning teeth, they make a 
 snarling, grunting growl and a hiss. It is necessary to kill those taking up 
 their quarters near houses, but they are often very difficult to kill. I have 
 hammered one with a stick and thrown its heavy body against a rock time 
 
POUCHED MAMMALS. 213 
 
 after time, and then, after carrying it by the tail for some distance, 
 discovered that it was still alive. Much of the difficulty arises from their 
 habit of shamming. Once I smoked out a female and two one-third grown 
 young ones. A young one came first and was apparently laid out with a 
 blow from my stick ; I had to run round the rock after the next, and when 
 I came back (in less than half a minute) the first had come to life again and 
 departed. An old buck, worried by a dog and finished off with a shot in the 
 head from a collecting-gun and left for dead, was found an hour or so after 
 partly recovered. A fema^ was brought in with ten young, naked, pink, 
 and blind ; head and body 2 in., tail 1 in. long. Inside the mother's pouch 
 were nine teats only.'' 
 
 As a representative of the second sub-genus (Metachirus) may be mentioned 
 the quica-opossum (D. opossum), ranging from Mexico to the Argentine. 
 The three representatives of this sub-genus are medium- sized species, with the 
 relative lengths of the hind-toes the same as in the common-opossum that 
 is to say, the three middle toes are sub-equal in this respect, and considerably 
 exceed the outermost. The fur is short and straight, without any admix- 
 ture of bristles ; and the pouch may be either well developed or rudimental. 
 Of the thick-tailed-opossum (D. crassicaudata) from Guiana, South Brazil, 
 Uruguay, and Argentina, which is another member of the same sub-genus, 
 Mr. Aplin writes as follows: "The Comadreja-colorada, as this species is 
 called, is rare in the part of Soriana where I was living, only one having been 
 killed there during my stay so far as I know. It is said by the residents to 
 be excessively savage for so small an animal. Responding to a suggestion, I 
 inquired whether the female had a pouch capable of carrying her young, and 
 one rather sharp and observant puesteru's boy declared that it had. Although 
 the adults are so savage, a lady of my acquaintance had a young one, taken 
 from the body of its dead mother in the camp south of the Rio Negro in 
 February, which was perfectly tame. It unfortunately shared the fate of so 
 many ladies' pets and was slain by a large cab belonging to a house at which 
 she was staying on her way to the coast, a day or two before I went over 
 there. The fur of this animal is very beautiful. It is of a warm, light chest- 
 nut, paler and yellower on the sides and lower parts. The upper-parts have 
 a flush on them of what can only be described as crimson." As a matter of 
 fact, this species has no pouch, which in a fully developed condition is 
 present only in the common and quica-opossums. The third sub-genus 
 (Philander) is represented by two South American species of medium size, 
 in which the fourth hind-toe is the longest, while the third and fifth 
 are about equal and next in size, and the second is somewhat the 
 shortest of the four. In both the pouch is rudimental, while externally 
 these species are characterised by their woolly fur arid the presence of a dark 
 longitudinal stripe down the middle of the face. A considerable number of 
 small-sized opossums from Central and South America constitute the sub- 
 genus Micoureus, in which the form is slender, the fur generally straight, 
 although occasionally slightly woolly, and there is no dark face-stripe. The 
 relative lengths of the hind-toes are generally the same as in the last group, 
 but in some cases the fifth digit is not longer than the second. A pouch is 
 always wanting, and the tail is generally longer than the body, and highly 
 prehensile. In the velvety-opossum (D. velutina) the tail is, however, much 
 shorter, and thereby serves to connect this group with the following one. 
 In the last group (Peramys), which is likewise confined to South and Central 
 America, and contains about eight very small species, the tail id generally 
 
2i 4 MAMMALIA ORDER XILMONOTREMATA. 
 
 only about half the length of the head and body, and more or less covered 
 with short, fine hairs, while it has but little or no prehensile power. In the 
 hind-foot the fifth toe is considerably shorter than the second, and the third 
 
 and fourth digits are equal, and but little 
 longer than the latter. From the absence 
 of prehensile power in the tail, it has been 
 inferred that these tiny little opossums 
 are mainly terrestrial in their habits. A 
 small opossum recently described from 
 Chiloe Island, off the coast of Central 
 Chili, is regarded as representing a 
 separate genus under the name of 
 Dromiciops. A third genus contains only 
 the water-opossum, or yapock (Chironectes 
 minimus), ranging from Guatemala to the 
 south of Brazil, and distinguished by its 
 parti - coloured fur and aquatic habits. 
 Fig. 115. *-~YAFOCK (Chironectes minimus). Structurally it is characterised by the 
 
 presence of a projecting tubercle on the 
 
 inner side of the fore-foot, giving the appearance of a sixth digit ; and 
 likewise by the webbing of the hind-toes as far as their terminal pads, 
 whereby the first digit is much less opposable than in other opossums. In 
 size the yapock may be compared to the common-opossum. 
 
 ORDER XII. MONOTREMATA. 
 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS. 
 
 THE third and last sub- class of mammals variously known as the Proto- 
 theria, or Ornithodelphia, and containing only the single order Monotremata 
 differs much more widely from the other two than do the latter from one 
 another, and thereby approximates to the lower vertebrates. These strange 
 mammals, which are confined to the Notogseic >realm, are especially 
 characterised by laying eggs, after the manner of birds and reptiles ; although 
 the young subsequently developed from sucn eggs are nourished by milk from 
 the mammary glands of the female parent. Instead, however, of opening 
 into teats, these milk-glands discharge their secretion upon the porous skin 
 of the inside of a more or less developed temporary pouch by means of 
 numerous small apertures. After hatching, the head of the young, which 
 develops a special suctorial mouth, is thrust Into the pouch, and the milk 
 forced into its mouth by the contraction of special muscles. Structurally, 
 the milk-glands of the Monotremes correspond to the ordinary sweat glands 
 of other mammals, and not to their milk-glands. From the other two sub- 
 classes of mammals, Monotremes differ in that the hinder extremity of the 
 body possesses but a single orifice, from which are discharged both the 
 waste-products and the reproductive elements ; the two egg-passages, or 
 oviducts, opening into the extremity of this cloaca, as the single excretory 
 passage is termed. In these respects the egg-laying mammals resemble 
 biids and reptiles* Similar resemblances are presented by the portion of 
 
EGG- LAYING MAMMALS. 215 
 
 the skeleton known as the shoulder-girdle, or that serving for the support and 
 articulation of the bones of the tore-limb. In all the higher mammals, with 
 the exception of some of the Edentates (where the coracoids may be distinct), 
 the shoulder-girdle comprises, at most, only a pair of collar-bones (clavicles) and 
 two shoulder-blades (scapulce), of which the latter bear a so-called coracoid 
 process at the lower extremity. On the other hand, in the egg-laying mammals, 
 as in lizards, an unpaired additional T-shaped bone known as the inter- 
 clavicle overlies the collar-bones and breast-bone (sternum)] while the coracoid 
 processes are represented by a pair of separate coracoid bones situated on the 
 lower surface of the chest, and connected with the blade-bones to form the 
 articular cavity for the head of the upper arm bone, or humerus. Behind 
 these, on the same aspect of the body, are a second pair of bones known as 
 the meta-coracoids, and representing the bones commonly called coracoids in 
 birds, which are articulated inferiorly to the breast-bone. The brain is also 
 of a lower and simpler type than in the higher mammals; the same being 
 also the case with the small bones of the internal ear. Another feature 
 (which at present appears to have been verified only in the first of the two 
 families) indicative of inferior organisation is the low temperature of the 
 blood as compared with that of other mammals, 
 
 In both the families of Monotremes the males are furnished on the 
 inner surface of the heel with a perforated horny spur, connected with a 
 gland behind the thigh ; and it is not improbable* that during the breeding 
 season this gland may secrete a poisonous fluid which flows into any 
 wound inflicted by the spur. As in the Pouched Mammals, the Monotremes 
 have a pair of marsupial bones affixed to the front edge of the lower part 
 of the pelvis. Both families have the skull produced into a beak, which 
 may be either cylindrical or flattened ; and in the adult state at least, teeth 
 are wanting. There are no traces of external ear-conchs ; the two pairs of 
 limbs, which are of nearly equal length, are modified for burrowing or 
 digging ; and the tail is either rudimental or short and wide. As in the case 
 of the Edentates, there is no clue to the origin of the Monotremes, but there, 
 can be no doubt that the existing forms are highly modified and specialised 
 descendants from some extremely ancient stock. 
 
 The strange Australian creature, known as the duck-bill or duck-mole 
 (Ornithorliynchus anatinus), is thesole representative of the firstfamily (Ornilho- 
 rhynchidce) of the Monotremes. As distinctive of the family, 
 the following features appear the most important : In the Duck-bill, 
 head the muzzle is produced and expanded to form a broad, 
 depressed bej,k, covered with a delicate sensitive skin, which, in the dried 
 state, assumes the appearance of horn. The tongue is of normal proportions, 
 and non-extensile. In the fur there is no mixture of spines ; the tail, although 
 short, is broad and flattened ; and the feet are large and wide, with the toes 
 webbed, and the soles bare and without pad*. In the young and adolescent 
 condition, each jaw bears three pairs of many-cusped molars, of which the 
 first is the smallest in the upper jaw, and the last in the lower ; but in the 
 adult these teeth are shed, and their functions discharged by horny plates 
 growing up around and beneath them. In the male the horny spur on the 
 hind-foot is very large ; while in the female the pouch is rudimental. The 
 brain has smooth hemispheres. The duck-bill has a somewhat elongated 
 and depressed body, covered with dark-coloured fur of two kinds. In both 
 limbs the five-toed feet have long claws to all the digits, although those on 
 the fore-feet are broad and blunt, while those behind are compressed and 
 
216 
 
 MAMMALIA ORDER XII. MONO TRE MA TA. 
 
 Fig. 116 -DUCK-BILI. 
 ( Orn ithorhynchus a natinus). 
 
 pointed. The beak is smooth, short, and evenly-rounded in front, with a 
 flap of skin marking its junction with the head ; and the cheeks have 
 pouches for the storage of food. In length the adult male measures about 
 
 18 in. to the root of the tail, which is one- 
 third the length of the head and body ; but the 
 female is considerably smaller. The duck-bill 
 is confined to the fresh- waters of Tasmania 
 and Australia, where it especially frequents 
 still and deep pools in rivers with banks 
 suitable for the construction of its long and 
 tortuous burrows ; these burrows generally 
 having two entrances, the one situated above, 
 and the other below the level of the surface of 
 the water. In length a burrow may be as 
 much as 20 ft., and at its extremity it expands 
 into a capacious chamber, which is lined at the 
 breeding season for the reception of the white 
 eggs usually two in number. Here in due 
 course they are hatched, the female sitting 
 upon them in the same manner as a bird, since 
 the pouch is not sufficiently large for their 
 reception. When first hatched, the young 
 are completely naked and helpless, and are fed 
 with milk in the manner indicated above. As soon as they are able to feed, 
 they are supplied with fresh-water snails and insects such as form the chief 
 nutriment of their parents. Duck-bills are mainly nocturnal animals, 
 passing the day rolled up asleep in their burrows. 
 
 Very different, both in appearance and their mode of life, to duck-bills are 
 the echidnas, or spiny ant-eaters, constituting the family Echidnidce. In 
 place of being aquatic, these Monotremes are terrestrial and 
 Echidnas. nocturnal in their habits, while the sexes lack that discrep- 
 ancy in size which forms such a marked feature in the 
 preceding group. In place of the duck-like beak of the Ornithorhyiichus, 
 the muzzle of the echidnas forms a long, slender beak, which is completely 
 devoid of teeth at all ages, and is suited to the long, extensile, worm-like 
 tongue characteristic of all ant-eating mammals. The fur is so thickly inter- 
 mingled with short and stout spines, not unlike those of the hedgehogs, that 
 sometimes little more than the latter are visible. The tail is quite rudi- 
 mental ; the short, sub-equal limbs have unwebbed toes, furnished with 
 broad, powerful, nail-like claws, and, although the soles of the feet are 
 provided with soft, fleshy cushions, there are no pads. A peculiar feature 
 connected with the mouth is the presence of spines on both the palate and the 
 tongue. During the breeding season the pouch of the female is much more de- 
 veloped than in the duck-bill ; and the hemispheres of the brain differ from 
 those of the latter in being well convoluted. The smooth surface and bird-like 
 form of the skull is very characteristic of the family, and the lower jaw is 
 remarkable for its extreme slenderness. These animals subsist exclusively 
 on ants, which are dug out by the powerful claws and licked up by the 
 extensile tongue. The large size of the pouch enables the female to carry 
 about with her the two eggs, which in due course are hatched by the heat of 
 her body. The echidnas have a wider geographical distribution than the 
 duck-bill, and are represented by two genera, one of which ranges from 
 
EGG-LAYING MAMMALS. 217 
 
 south-eastern New Guinea to Australia and Tasmania, while the second is 
 exclusively Papuan. All the echidnas have stout and depressed bodies, 
 which when the creatures are in repose rest flat on the ground, although in 
 walking the legs raise the body some 
 distance above the surface. In the 
 typical genus of which there appears 
 to be only one very variable specific 
 representative (Echidna aculeata}, the 
 whole of the five digits of each foot are 
 furnished with claws, which in the 
 fore-feet are broad, slightly curved, 
 and directed forwards, while in the 
 hinder pair they are more slender, and 
 curved outwards, the second, or the 
 second and third, considerably exceed- Fig. 117. FIVE-TOED ECHIDNA 
 
 ing the fourth and fifth in length, (Echidna aculeata). 
 
 and that of the first toe being short, 
 
 blunt, and rounded. The beak, which is of about the same length as the 
 rest of the head, may be either straight or slightly curved upwards ; and the 
 tongue tapers at the tip, and has the spines confined to its basal portion. 
 Of this species there are three well-marked local races or varieties. The 
 ordinary or typical form, which is confined to the Australian mainland, is of 
 medium size, measuring about 17 in. to the root of the tail. Next comes the 
 variety from south-eastern New Guinea, measuring only about 14 in. in 
 length, and with the spines of the back shorter. The largest and most dis- 
 'tinct of all is the Tasmanian form, which grows to 20 in., and has the fur so 
 long as almost to conceal the spines, while the claw of the third toe of the 
 hind-foot is almost as much elongated as that of the second. In Australia 
 the common echidna is generally met with in sandy or rocky districts and is 
 especially abundant in the mountains. When on level ground, it proceeds 
 with an unsteady, shuffling gait, the short and broad front feet being turned 
 outwards, and the claws of the hind-feet bent outwards and backwards in 
 such a manner as to cause the inner border of the sole to rest on the ground. 
 These animals do not venture abroad till evening, but during the night they 
 are very active, burrowing with great activity in search of their favourite 
 ants. When suddenly attacked or surprised, echidnas roll themselves up into 
 a ball-like form, but if time be allowed, they invariably endeavour to make 
 their escape by burrowing. 
 
 The second genus of the family (ProecJiidna *) is distinguished by the feet 
 usually carrying only three claws each, although the first and fifth toes are 
 represented by two or more joints, and may occasionally be clawed. The 
 length of the claws of the hind-foot diminishes regularly from the second to 
 the fourth toe ; and the beak, which is markedly curved downwards, is much 
 longer than in the typical echidna, being nearly as long as twice the length of 
 the remainder of the head. In the Arfak mountains of north-western New 
 Guinea the genus is represented by Bruijn's echidna (P. bruijni), which meas- 
 ures about 19 to 20 in. in length, and has dense woolly fur, with but few 
 spines. In western New Guinea it is replaced by a larger form with stouter 
 limbs, shorter claws, and longer, more sparsely distributed, and more hairy 
 fur, but whether it is anything more than a local variety may be doubtful. 
 
 1 It has recently been proposed to substitute the name Zaglossus, which is stated to 
 be earlier. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM I. VERTEBRATA. 
 
 CLASS ILAVES. 
 BY R. BOWDLER SHARPE, LL.D., F.L.S., &c. 
 
 STRUCTURALLY the skeleton of a bird differs very remarkably from that of an 
 ordinary mammal, although it is considerably less unlike that of the egg-laying 
 mammals. In all the features in which the bird's bony framework departs 
 from the mammalian type, it approximates to the reptilian conformation in 
 general features. Still, it must not be supposed that in this respect birds 
 are exactly like any living reptiles. Although in their general structural 
 plan their skeletons are similar, that of the bird has become modified and 
 specialised from the original type, which renders it markedly different from 
 that of either a crocodile or a lizard. O$e of the chief points in which the 
 skeleton of a bird resembles that of a lizard, and thereby departs from the 
 mammalian type, is the mode in which the skull is articulated to the first 
 joint of the backbone. Whereas in a mammal the articulation takes place by 
 means of a pair of knobs on the hinder part of the skull, which are received 
 into corresponding cups in the first joint of the backbone, in the bird and 
 reptile there is but a single knob, or condyle, fitting into a cup in the first 
 vertebra. Then, again, while in the mammal the lower jaw articulates 
 directly with the solid wall of the true skull, or cranium, in the bird and 
 reptile there is on each side an intervening separate bone, known as the 
 quadrate. A third feature in which the skulls of birds and reptiles re- 
 semble one another, and differ from those of mammals, is the complex 
 structure of each branch of the lower jaw each branch consisting in the 
 two former groups of several distinct bones, whereas in the latter it is 
 formed of a single bone. 
 
 In order to give strength to the back in flying, the vertebrae of the hinder 
 part of the backbone are fused together into a solid mass, forming the so- 
 called sacrum, which is much more extensive than in mammals. To either 
 side of this sacrum are firmly attached the bones of the pelvis, all of which 
 are very unlike the corresponding bones of mammals, and of which the upper 
 elements, or ilia, are by far the largest. In all living birds the bones of the 
 tail are aborted, and terminate in a triangular piece known as the "plough- 
 share bone." In ail birds the ribs are few in number, and in most cases these 
 differ from the mammalian type by the presence of an oblique process on the 
 hinder border. These uncinate processes, as they are called, are met with in 
 some reptiles. 
 
 Perhaps the most extraordinary feature in the skeleton of an ordinary 
 flying bird is the excessive development of the bones of the breast, which 
 in some cases cover almost the whole of the under surface of the body. By 
 far the largest of these elements is the breast-bone, or sternum, correspond- 
 ing with the element similarly named in mammals. Whereas in flying birds 
 this sternum is strongly keeled, in order to afford a firm basis of origin 
 for the pectoral muscles, in the ostrich and its kindred it is flattened. At the 
 sides the sternum is attached to the true ribs by the intervention of so-called 
 sternal ribs. Superiorly it bears a pair of bones commonly known as cora- 
 
 218 
 
BIRD-STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT. 219 
 
 coids, but more properly termed metacoracoids. Superiorly these metacora- 
 coids join the scimitar-like scapulae, or shoulder-bones, and at their junction 
 form the cavity for the reception of the head of the upper wing-bone, or 
 humerus. Joining the upper ends of the metacoracoids, and extending 
 downwards towards the sternum, is the well-known merry-thought, or 
 furcula ; although in this modification peculiar to birds, the furcula really 
 represents the united collar-bones, or clavicles, of man. In ordinary 
 mammals there are no separate representatives of the metacoracoids ; but 
 such occur in the egg-laying mammals, although differing widely from those 
 of birds. Before leaving this region of a bird's skeleton, it is important 
 to mention that in the backbone at least in the neck the individual 
 joints, or vertebrae, are articulated together by saddle-shaped surfaces, 
 such a mode of articulation being unknown, in any other class of vertebrate 
 animals. 
 
 As regards the structure of the bones of the wing, very few words will 
 suffice. The two upper segments of this part of the skeleton are essentially 
 similar to the same part in mammals. The bones of the wrist, or carpus, are, 
 however, reduced to two in number; while those of the metacarpus and 
 fingers are flattened and otherwise modified, the number of digits never ex- 
 ceeding three. The three digits respectively represent the thumb, index, and 
 middle fingers of the human hand. Of these, the thumb has either one or 
 two joints, the index two, and the third digit one. The metacarpals of the 
 index and third fingers are united together by a thin plate of bone, which 
 may be perforated. 
 
 In a bird's leg the general plan of structure is a specialised modification of 
 that obtaining in reptiles. The grand distinction between the leg of a reptile 
 and that of a mammal, lies in the fact that, whereas in the latter the ankle-joint 
 occurs at the top of the two rows forming the ankle, or tarsus, in the former 
 the joint is situated between the two rows. A bird's leg is formed on the 
 latter plan, but has undergone the further modification that the two rows of 
 tarsal bones are respectively welded to the bones above and below them. We 
 have first of all the thigh-bone, or femur ; next comes the tibia (with the 
 aborted fibula at its upper end), to the lower extremity of which are attached 
 the upper row of tai-sal^ones, thus forming a tibio-tarsus. Below this comes 
 a compound bone, formed by the lower row of tarsal bones and the three 
 middle metatarsal bones of the typical five-toed foot, this compound bone 
 being termed the tarso-metatarsus. Usually this bone terminates below in 
 three pulley-like surfaces, to which are attached the bones of the toes ; but 
 in the ostrich there are only two of these pulleys, and likewise only two toes. 
 When the first toe, or halhex, is present, it is attached to the hinder surface 
 of the lower end of the tarso-metatarsus. No trace of the fifth toe ever re- 
 mains. Whereas in mammals each of the toes, save the thumb, has three 
 joints, in a bird (as also in a reptile) the number of these joints increase from 
 the second to the fourth toe. 
 
 The chief character which distinguishes the class Aves from the other 
 classes of vertebrate animals is the possession of feathers. The production of 
 the young from an egg is not confined to the birds, but is shared by some 
 mammals and reptiles ; nor is the power of flight a sole prerogative of the 
 birds, but their feathery covering is a really distinctive characteristic. 
 
 That birds existed on the earth in very remote times is undoubted, and 
 that they were very different in form and structure from those which we 
 have around us now, is equally certain. As the special character of the class 
 
220 A VES. 
 
 Aves is the possession of feathers, the earliest creature which can be 
 determined to have possessed this special prerogative of the birds is the 
 Archceopteryx. The remains of this curious animal were first discovered 
 in the sand-stone formation of Solenhofen in Bavaria, whence comes the 
 bulk of the stone used for lithographic purposes in the present day. The 
 original slab containing these priceless remains is now in the British 
 Museum, and with it we commence the study of the class Aves. The head 
 is, unfortunately, missing in this specimen, but the imprint of the tail is 
 clear enough, and shows a structure quite different from that which is to 
 be seen in any bird of modern times. It is longer than the body of the bird 
 itself, and, instead of the feathers being placed side by side, and capable of 
 being spread like a fan, we find in the Archceopteryx the tail consisting of a 
 series of vertebrae, upon which the feathers were disposed laterally, while 
 there must evidently have been quills upon the wings. The digits of the 
 latter terminated in little claws or hooks, a condition which exists in some of 
 our present-day birds, though the exact structure is modified. A second 
 specimen of an ArcJiceopteryx was afterwards discovered in the same forma- 
 tion at Solenhofen, and has passed into the possession of the Berlin Museum. 
 In this individual the head has been preserved, and shows ua a reptilian- 
 looking skull with actual teeth. Thus we know that ArchcKopteryx possessed 
 teeth and feathers, but of a kind unlike those of any bird of modern times. 
 It introduces the first sub-class of birds, viz., the Saururce. 
 
 Among the numerous other members of the class Aves, which we shall 
 have to pass in review, will also occur several birds with teeth ; but these will 
 all be found to belong to a much earlier age than our own, so that we may 
 safely say that at the present day no really toothed bird exists. 
 
 At the same time, there are found on the earth to-day many types of birds 
 which must be considered to be the survivors of very ancient bird-life ; and if 
 these do not belong exclusively to one type, or to any single order or family 
 of existing birds, we shall yet have little difficulty in assigning to most of them 
 their proper position in the natural system. The idea that all toothed birds 
 must belong to one group is now held to be erroneous, and the notion that 
 the diving Hesperornis of the New World was allied to the Archceopteryx of 
 the Old World, simply because they both possessed teeth, is not admitted at 
 the present day. 
 
 Granting, however, that our Passerine birds are the highest development 
 of the Avian form at present existing, it naturally follows that we must look 
 to a totally different type if we desire to connect the bird-life of the present 
 day with that of the past ; and the flightless birds, the ostriches, and their 
 kin, are admitted by all ornithologists to be the modern survivors of ancient 
 forms. Like the huge mammals and reptiles, which were the fore-runners of 
 the modern representatives of these classes, the birds of the Struthioue order 
 of Madagascar (^Epyornis) and the Moas of New Zealand were enormous. 
 A singular interest attaches to the ancient Struthiones, which were immensely 
 larger than their descendants of our own epoch. Thus the moas of New 
 Zealand attained a huge size, and, as far as recent researches carry us, they 
 must have been alive on the earth not so very long ago. The moas live in 
 the traditional history of the Maories ; specimens have been unearthed with 
 the skin still attached to the bones ; moa-feathers have been found in some 
 number ; and much controversy has been excited as to whether they have 
 become extinct within the last hundred, or five hundred, years. That they 
 were living within historic times is certain. Of the <&pyemis of Madagascar 
 
SUB- CLASS RATITE ORDER RHEIFORMES. 
 
 we know less, but though its bones are not so often discovered as those of 
 the moa, its eggs, unearthed from the tombs of buried chiefs, are not un- 
 frequently found 
 
 The Ratite Birds, as these great flightless creatures of the ostrich tribe are 
 usually called, derive their name from the fact that they have a ' ' ratite " or 
 " raft "-like breast-bone. On the latter there is no keel, to which a pectoral 
 muscle may be attached for the purposes of flight, and they have now no 
 mechanism by which they can propel their huge bodies through the air like 
 ordinary birds. That ostriches and their allies will ever fly is simply im- 
 possible, as their numbers are being annually decreased, and the necessary 
 ages requisite for them to develop the means of flight as an escape from their 
 enemies will never be allowed to them, as man, with his spreading civilisation 
 and his deadly rifle, gradually encircles the poor birds in their last havens of 
 rest. The probability is, judging from the well -developed wings of the early 
 Archceopteryx, that ancient birds could fly, and that the ostriches and moas 
 are the descendants of birds perfectly capable of flight, but which from the 
 lack of natural enemies in ancient times, have gradually lost their power of 
 flying, and ultimately developed into the flightless birds of the present day, 
 wherein safety is secured by their excellent power of running, or by their 
 nocturnal habits, where concealment and swiftness of foot play the most 
 important part in their preservation. 
 
 The Struthious or Ratite Birds (Sub-class Ratite} may, therefore, be divided 
 into six Orders, viz. the Rheas (Rheiformes), the Ostriches (Struthioniformes), 
 
 the Emus and Cas- 
 sowaries (Casuarii- Sub-class 
 formes), the extinct Jlatitce. 
 Moas (Dinornithi- 
 formes and ^Epyornithiformes), and 
 the Apteryges (Apterygiformes). Of 
 these the moas are extinct, but 
 members of the other orders still 
 survive. 
 
 The ostriches maybe distinguished 
 by having only two toes instead of 
 three. The moas had three toes, 
 and, therefore, they belonged to the 
 great group of three-toed Struthious 
 Birds, of which so many have per- 
 ished. Of those that survive, the 
 rheas (Rheiformes) are distinguished 
 by the following characters : the 
 absence of any keel to the breast- 
 bone, no hind-toe, and three toes in 
 front. They are to all intents and 
 ' (Ihealme) purposes ostriches, and generally go 
 
 by the name of the "South American 
 
 Ostrich," as they are entirely confined to the South American Continent. Of 
 the rheas, four species are recognised. One of these may be considered an 
 unknown species as yet, as Rhea nana (Lydekker) has only been character- 
 ised from its egg, which is remarkably small, and on this evidence, which is 
 certainly self-evident, Mr. Lydekker has separated the small Patagonian species 
 as distinct. The common rhea,~(Rhea americana) is the best-known species, 
 
222 AVES ORDER STRUTHIONIFORMESTHE OSTRICHES. 
 
 and the most widely distributed, being found from Southern Brazil and 
 Paraguay to the province of Matagrosso, westwards to Bolivia, south to the 
 Rio Negro in Patagonia, and even beyond. In the provinces of Bahia and 
 Pernambuco it is replaced by the great-billed rhea (R. macrorhyncha\ and 
 in Chili and Patagonia by Darwin's rhea (E. darwini), which is said to range 
 north of the Rio Negro, where it may be coterminous with the range of JR. 
 americana. 
 
 The nandu, as the rhea is called in Argentina, is, according to Mr. "W. H. 
 Hudson, doomed to speedy extinction, the republican governments of South 
 America apparently being too much occupied in other business to trouble 
 their heads about bird protection, which appears to be only an outcome of 
 extreme civilisation. Mr. Hudson, the recorder of so much that is interest- 
 ing in the habits of the birds of Argentina, has given the results of his 
 acquaintance with the rhea, and we regret that space forbids us 
 to quote more than a brief extract. It seems that the male takes upon him- 
 self the duties of incubation, and Mr. Hudson's story is as follows : " In the 
 month of 'July the love season begins, and it is then that the curious 
 ventriloquial bellowing, booming, and weird-like sounds are emitted by the 
 male. The young males in the flock are attacked and driven off by 
 the old cock-bird ; and when there are two old males, they fight for 
 hens. Their battles are conducted in a curious manner, the com- 
 batants twisting their long necks together like a couple of serpents, 
 and then viciously biting at each others' heads with their beaks ; mean- 
 while, they turn round and round in a circle, pounding the earth with 
 their feet, so that where the soil is wet or soft, they make a circular 
 trench where they tread. The females of a flock all lay together in a natural 
 depression of the ground, with nothing to shelter it from sight, each hen 
 laying a dozen, or more, eggs. It is common to find from thirty to sixty 
 eggs in a nest, but sometimes a larger number, and I have heard of a nest 
 being found containing one hundred and twenty eggs. If the females are 
 many, the cock usually becomes broody before they finish laying, and he 
 then drives them away with great fury, and begins to incubate. The hens 
 then drop their eggs about the plains ; and from the large number of wasted 
 eggs found, it seems probable that more are dropped out of, than in, the nest. 
 The egg when fresh is of a fine golden yellow, but this colour grows paler 
 from day to day, and finally fades to a parchment-white. 
 
 " After hatching, the young are assiduously tended and watched over by the 
 cock, and it is then dangerous to approach the rhea on horseback, as the bird, 
 with neck outstretched and outspread wings, charges suddenly, making so huge 
 and grotesque a figure that the tamest horse becomes ungovernable through 
 terror. Eagles and the large caracara are the enemies which the rhea most 
 fears when the young are still small ; and at the sight of one flying overhead, 
 he crouches down and utters a loud, snorting cry, whereupon the scattered 
 young birds run in the greatest terror to shelter themselves under his 
 wings." 
 
 Although at present only to be found in Africa and Arabia, there is no doubt 
 
 that in former times the range of the ostrich was much more extensive. It 
 
 is now practically extinct in Mesopotamia and in Syria, but, 
 
 The Ostrich. - according to Mr. Lydekker, fossil remains of an ostrich have 
 been found in North Western India, while an egg, supposed 
 to belong to one of these birds, has been described from Southern Russia. 
 
 Three species of ostrich are recognised in Africa, of which the common one, 
 
ORDER CASUARIIFORMESTHE EMUSTHE CASSOWARIES. 223 
 
 Struthio camelus, and the South African form, S. australis, have flesh-coloured 
 thighs, whereas the Somali-land ostrich, S. molybdophanes, has black thighs. 
 It is not a little vexatious that no one has yet determined how many species 
 of ostrich really exist at the present day. Their plumes are classified by 
 dealers, and those of the Barbary form are supposed to be different from 
 those of the South African form, but at present no museum contains a series 
 which illustrates the life history, or the 
 number of species existing of these well- 
 known birds. 
 
 The ostriches have only two toes, the 
 first and second being absent. The quills 
 and tail-feathers are well-developed for 
 this class of bird, but no after-shaft is 
 present. The male is larger than the 
 female, and he undertakes the care of 
 bringing up the family after he has 
 hatched out the eggs. He especially looks 
 after the nest at night, and broods over 
 the eggs, though in many tropical countries 
 the latter are covered over with sand, 
 and left to the heat of the sun during 
 the day. The cock-bird has more than 
 one wife, generally three or four, who 
 make common cause in the laying of the 
 eggs, and deposit them in the same nest, 
 sometimes as many as twenty eggs being 
 found together. 
 
 These birds comprise the order Casuariiformes, with two sub-orders, 
 Dromeos (Emus) and Casuarii (Cassowaries). Both are inhabitants of the 
 Australian region, the cassowaries being confined to the 
 Papuan sub-region of the latter. Of the emus, three species The Emus, 
 are known, and it is quite possible that a fourth existed 
 within recent times, as the Tasmanian emu was apparently distinct from the 
 Australian form, but is now quite extinct. The small black emu of Kan- 
 garoo Island is known only from two specimens in the Paris Museum, and 
 is also extinct. Thus we have but the common emu (D. novce hollandice) and 
 the spotted emu (D. irroratus), the former inhabiting Eastern and the 
 latter Western Australia. The birds of this sub-order all have three toes, 
 and are further distinguished from the ostriches by their rudimentary wings 
 and apparent absence of a tail, while the body feathers have an after-shaft, 
 which is as long as the actual plume itself, so that the latter appears as if it 
 were a double feather. 
 
 The habits of the emu can now be studied in parks and public menageries 
 in this country, where they not unfrequently nest. The bird is said by 
 travellers to be good eating. As with the other Struthious Birds, constant 
 persecution is making it rarer year by year, and it has now entirely disap- 
 peared from haunts where it once was quite numerous. The female is smaller 
 than the male, and on the latter devolves the principal part of the duties of 
 incubation. It has a curious note, which Gould has described as follows : 
 " The note of the emu is a low booming or pumping noise, which we know to 
 be produced in the female by means of the expansion and contraction of a 
 large membranous bag, surrounding an oblong opening through the rings of 
 
 Fig. 2. THE OSTRICH 
 (Struthio camelus). 
 
324 AVES ORDER APTERYG1FORMES THE KIWIS. 
 
 the trachea." The nestlings are beautifully striped little creatures. The egg 
 is of a rich dark green, but this colour fades in course of time, and gives 
 place to a dull black. 
 
 These are curious birds, which commence their life in a mottled 
 plumage, with no visible casque on the skull, and grow to an adult black 
 plumage with an elevated casque of varying shape and 
 The Cassowaries, generally some highly coloured wattles on the throat and 
 neck. Eleven species are known, all of them met with in 
 the Papuan group of islands, with the exception of one species, the 
 Australian cassowary, which occurs in the Cape York Peninsula and extends 
 as far south as Rockingham Bay. Most of our information regarding these 
 curious flightless members of the class Aves is derived from the study of 
 specimens sent alive to Europe, and many of us are familiar with the great 
 turkey-like heads and black bodies of the cassowaries, with their five 
 spiny quills in lieu of wings, their helmets and ornamental throat- wattles. 
 LikQ the emus, the long after-shaft to the body-feathers gives these the 
 appearance of being a double plume. Some of the New Guinea species 
 apparently inhabit the same districts of that great island, while others are 
 peculiar to Ceram, the Arn Islands, and New Britain respectively. The 
 colour of the eggs of the cassowaries is dark green, and the young are brown, 
 when full grown, and have no casque. As in the case of the other Struthious 
 Birds, the duties of incubation fall upon the male, who looks after the young 
 ones when they are hatched. 
 
 Extinct forms, allied to the emus and cassowaries, have been found in 
 Australia (Dromornis\ in India (Hypselornis) ; while the moas of New Zealand 
 (Dinornithidce) and Madagascar (^Epyornis) belong to the same group. 
 
 Although the kiwis are recognised as belonging to the Struthious Birds, 
 they are decidedly aberrant members of the sub-class, and are very like gigantic 
 
 rails in their ways, being ex- 
 The Kiwis. cellent runners and chiefly noc- 
 turnal in their habits. Like the 
 emus and their kindred, they are great hands 
 at kicking, and at a meeting of the British 
 Ornithologists' Club, when the Hon. Walter Roths- 
 child exhibited living specimens of every known 
 species of kiwi, the birds made known their 
 resentment by vigorous and lightning-like kicks 
 on the walls of their cages, some assaulting the 
 wires front- ways, and some kicking backwards. 
 
 These curious birds will, doubtless, become ex- 
 tinct within a short period. There are only five 
 species of kiwi now to be met with in New 
 Zealand, though there is no doubt that the genus 
 Apteryx was more widely distributed over the 
 southern lands in past times. The kiwis have four Fig 3. THE APTERYX 
 
 toes, but there is no visible wing, and the nostrils (Apteryx australis). 
 
 are placed near the tip of the long bill. There is 
 
 no tail visible, and the long after-shaft of the emus and cassowaries is absent. 
 In the kiwis the hind toe, or hallux, is present, so that all four toes are 
 represented. The egg is white, and may be considered enormous for the size 
 of the bird which lays it. There is no marked difference in the size of the 
 sexes, but the female appears to be slightly larger than the male. The 
 
CARINATE BIRDS ORDER TINAMIFORMESTHE T1NAMOUS. 225 
 
 observations on the ways of the kiwis in a state of nature are singularly 
 deficient, and it is to be feared that the* members of the genus Apteryx 
 will disappear from the face of the globe without their life-history being 
 thoroughly recorded. The eggs, judging from those laid in captivity, 
 never appear to exceed two in number, and they are incubated in true 
 Struthious manner by the male. Those which have been kept in our 
 zoological gardens in this country have been seldom seen in daylight, as they 
 go to sleep all the day and conceal themselves in the straw of their dens. 
 When taken out, they run round in a dazed manner, and quickly return to 
 their concealment. It is even said that when poked with sticks they will 
 not rouse themselves, and quickly go to sleep again. An extinct form of 
 Apteryx has been discovered in New Zealand (Pseudapteryx, Lydekker). 
 
 All the rest of the birds belong to the order Carittatce, or birds 
 with a keeled sternum. Thus they ought to be all 
 capable of flight, but as a matter of fact there are many Carinate Birds. 
 exceptions, and there are not a few which have lost this 
 power. The vast majority, however, have a deep keel or ridge to the 
 breast-bone, which distinguishes them from the Ratitce, of which we have just 
 spoken. The nearest allies to the Apteryges, in a natural series, would be, 
 in our opinion, the rails (Rallidce\V>\it we are bound to take notice of the curious 
 partridges of South America, the tinamous, because they possess a remarkable 
 palate, the bones of which are very like those of the Struthious Birds, and 
 hence we commence our study of the Aves Carinatce with the order Tinami- 
 formes. In general appearance they resemble partridges, and 
 they have much the habits of the latter birds, excepting the The T^amous. 
 fact, that many of them are inhabitants of the forests, where- Tinamiformes 
 as the partridges are, essentially birds of the open country. 
 Sixty-five species of tinamous are enumerated by Count Salvadori in his recent 
 treatise on the order, and they are all inhabitants of the neo-tropical region, 
 i.e. Central America, south of Mexico, and South 
 America generally. Some of them are of large 
 size, as big as an ordinary hen, but with the 
 feathering much closer set, and with very little of 
 the tail visible. The most remarkable feature 
 of the tinamous is, perhaps, the colour of their 
 eggs, which varies from a purplish brown or red 
 to a bluish green, but whatever the colour may 
 be, the eggs are always remarkable for their gloss. 
 As Count Salvadori observes, they are " curiously 
 unlike those of other birds, and the shell looks 
 like highly burnished metal, or glazed porcelain, 
 presenting also various colours, which seem to 
 be constant in the particular species, varying 
 
 from pale primrose to sage green or light ^,. 4 _ THK G , EAT TmAMO 
 indigo, or from chocolate brown to pinkish (Rhynchotus rufescens). 
 orange." 
 
 The species of tinamou vary very much in size, some being no larger 
 than an ordinary quail, while others are as big as a good-sized fowl. The 
 plumage of many of them is mottled and barred, and none exhibit any 
 decorative ornament beyond the occasional presence of a chestnut breast. 
 While some of them inhabit the open pampas, others are strictly forest birds, 
 and the conclusion forced upon us is that tinamous are struthious partridges, 
 16 
 
226 AVES ORDER GALLIFORMES. 
 
 Game-Birds of the partridge type, 'which have retained some of the osteo- 
 logical characters of their s truth ious ancestors. Of the great tinamou 
 (Rhyiichotus rufescens) of Argentina, Mr. W. H. Hudson writes :" This 
 species is solitary in its habits, conceals itself very closely in the grass, and 
 flies with the greatest reluctance. I doubfc if there is anywhere a bird with 
 such a sounding flight as a tinamou ; the whirr of its wings can only be com- 
 pared to the rattling of a vehicle driven at great speed over a stony road. 
 From the moment it rises until it alights again, there is no cessation in the 
 rapid vibration of the wings ; but, like a ball thrown from the hand, the 
 bird flies straight away with extraordinary violence until the impelling force 
 is spent, when it slopes gradually to the earth, the distance it is able to 
 accomplish at a flight being from 800 to 1,500 yards. This flight it can 
 repeat when driven up again, as many as three times, after which the bird 
 can rise no more." 
 
 , This is a very large order of birds, and may be divided into four big sub- 
 orders, viz. the Meyapodii, or mound-builders ; the Graces, or curassows ; 
 
 the Phasianiy consisting of the grouse, pheasants, partridges, 
 
 The Game-Birds. guinea-fowls, and turkeys ; and, lastly, the bustard-quails, or 
 
 Order Galli- hemipodes (Hemipodii). Everyone is familiar with the ap- 
 
 formes. pearance of an ordinary Game-Bird, such as the common fowl, 
 
 or the, turkey, the pheasant, the partridge, or the grouse. 
 The mound-builder, the curassow, and the bustard-quail are less known, 
 because in Great Britain we have no representative of these sub-orders, 
 though occasionally examples of each of them may be seen in captivity. The 
 palate in the Game-Birds is cleft, or, as it is usually called, " schizngnathous," 
 and another peculiar character is the perforation of the episternal process of 
 the breast -bone, or sternum, so that the feet of the coracoid-bones meet 
 through the opening thus afforded. 
 
 These curious birds have a somewhat remarkable distribution, as they 
 extend from Australia throughout the Malayan Archipelago to the Island of 
 
 Labuan and the Philippine Archipelago. They are not 
 
 The found in Java or Sumatra, but have recently been discovered 
 
 Mound -Builders, in the Kangean group of islands; and a species is also known 
 
 Sub-Order from the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. Thus it will 
 
 Megapodiv. be seen that the distribution of the megapodes is restricted 
 
 to the south-east of Asia and Australia. 
 
 Professor Huxley separated the megapodes of the Austro-Malayan sub- 
 region and the curassows of the neo-tropical region into a sub-order, Perlstero- 
 podes, in contrast to the Alectoropodes, or true Game-Birds, because they have 
 a smaller inner notch of the sternum, this inner notch being less than half 
 the length of the entire sternum, whereas in the ordinary Game-Birds the 
 inner notch of the sternum is more than half the length of the entire sternum. 
 Again, in the megapodes and curassows, the hallux, or hind-toe, is on the 
 same level as the other toes, whereas in the Alectoropodes the hallux is 
 raised above the level of the other toes. Of the mound-builders there 
 are seven genera, of which the most striking types are the true mound- 
 builders (Megapodius], the brush-turkeys (Talegallus), and the maleo-bird 
 (Meyacepha lum) . 
 
 The maleo is confined to the Island of Celebes, and is the only one of this 
 dull-coloured group of Game-Birds which shows any pretension to colour. Ib 
 has a breast of a delicate pink, and an ornamental bare knob on the crown, 
 but is otherwise of a dusky colour like the rest of the group. Dr. A. R. 
 
THE MO UND-B UILDERS THE BR USH~ TURKE YS. 227 
 
 Wallace, during his celebrated expedition to the Malay Archipelago, found 
 the maleo practising all the usual nesting devices of the mound-builders. 
 The female lays eggs at intervals, and he says that the size of the latter 
 precludes the female bird from having more than one fully-developed egg at 
 the same time. The eggs are', therefore, laid at an intervening period of ten 
 or twelve days, and are deposited in a mound of loose, hot, black sand. "In 
 the months of August and Septem- 
 ber," he writes, "they come down in 
 pairs to the nesting-place, and scratch 
 holes three or four feet deep, just 
 above high-water mark, where the 
 female deposits a single large egg, 
 which she covers over with about a 
 foot of sand, and then returns to the 
 forest." Each female is supposed to 
 lay six or eight eggs during the 
 season, the male assisting her in 
 
 making the hole, coming down and _^_^ 
 
 returning with her Many birds, Fig 5 _ THE MALEQ (Megacephalum 
 
 according to Dr. Wallace, lay in the maleo). 
 
 same hole, as a dozen eggs are often 
 found together. 
 
 Some of these birds gain their name of brush-" turkeys " from the wattle 
 which is seen on the base of the neck in the genera Catheturus and dEpypodius. 
 Though devoid of these fleshy wattles, which are turkey-like, 
 the remaining genus, Talegallus, is of large size, and, in a The 
 
 country which possesses no real Game-Bird of the kind, Brush-Turkeys, 
 might pass for a near approach to a turkey in size and 
 general appearance. Of the habits of the Australian brush-turkey (Catheturns 
 lathami), Gould gives the following account: "At the commencement of 
 spring, this species scratches together an immense heap of decaying vegetable 
 matter as a depository for its eggs, and trusts to the heat engendered by the 
 process of fermentation for the development of its young. The heap em- 
 ployed for this purpose is collected by the birds during several weeks previous 
 to the period of laying ; it varies in size from that of two to that of many 
 cart-loads, and in most instances is of a pyramidal form. The construction of 
 the mound is either the work of one pair of birds, or, as some suppose, the 
 united labours of several ; the same site appears to be resorted to for several 
 years in succession, the birds adding a fresh supply of materials each succeeding 
 season. The material composing these mounds is accumulated by the bird's 
 grasping a quantity of earth in its foot and throwing it backwards to one com- 
 mon centre, the surface of the ground being so completely scratched over, that 
 scarcely a leaf or a blade of grass is left. The mound being completed, arid 
 time allowed for a sufficient heat to be engendered, the eggs are deposited in 
 a circle at the distance of nine or twelve inches from each other, and buried 
 more than an arm's depth, with the large end upwards ; they are covered up 
 as they are laid, and allowed to remain until they are hatched. I have been 
 credibly informed, both by natives and by settlers living near their haunts, 
 that it is not an unusual event to obtain half a bushel of eggs at one time 
 from a single mound. Some of the natives state that the females are con- 
 stantly in the neighbourhood of the mound about the time when the young 
 ones are liable to be hatched, and that they frequently uncover and cover 
 
228 AVES ORDER GALLIFORMES 
 
 them up again, apparently for the purpose of assisting those that may have 
 appeared ; while others have informed me that the eggs are merely deposited, 
 and the young allowed to force their way out unassisted. One point, how- 
 ever, has been clearly ascertained, viz. that the young, from the hour they 
 are hatched, are clothed with feathers, and have their wings sufficiently 
 developed to enable them to fly on to the branches of trees, should they need 
 to do so to escape from danger ; they are equally nimble on their legs. In 
 fact, as a moth emerges from its chrysalis, dries its wings, and flies away, so 
 the youthful brush-turkey, when it leaves the egg, is sufficiently perfect to be 
 able to act independently and procure its own food." 
 
 Of the habits of the Papuan and Moluccan genera, Taleyallus and 
 dEpypodius, little is known ; but the ways of the species of Lipoa and Meya- 
 podius have been more carefully studied. Ealipoa from the Moluccas has 
 but one species, E. wallacii, with a more rounded wing than in the ordinary 
 megapodes, and further remarkable for its brighter colours. Of the 
 ocellated megapode (Lipoa ocdlata} Sir George Grey sent to Mr. Gould a 
 most interesting account of the habits, from which it appears that the birds 
 tirst scratch a hole in the sand, fill it up with dead leaves and grass, and then 
 build a mound of dried grass, etc., over it. The hole is then opened and an 
 egg deposited in the sand, and as many as eight are placed at intervals, an 
 egg being deposited every day, or at least every few days; and the male bird 
 helps the female to uncover the hole. The eggs are p laced upright, and 
 several mounds are found within a short distance of each other, each being 
 the property of a single pair of birds. All the megapodes are very shy birds, 
 and escape to the trees when pursued, roosting in these during the heat of 
 the day, and being then apparently stupid birds they can be shot down 
 in succession without attempting to fly, so that the whole party is soon 
 cleared off. 
 
 The true megapodes (Meyapodius) are the most widely distributed of any 
 of the group, but are best known from the studies which have been made of 
 the habits of the Australian species, M. tumulus. Gilbert found many nests 
 of this bird in the Cobourg Peninsula, and dug out a young bird, which he 
 kept alive for a few days. It was, however, very wild and intractable, and 
 made its escape ; but it is interesting to learn that this little chick employed 
 its time in continually scratching up sand, for which purpose it only used 
 one foot. Eggs were taken by Gilbert from a depth of six feet in the mound, 
 but as the holes ran down obliquely from the centre, towards the outer slope 
 of the hillock, the eggs might be six feet deep from the summit but only two 
 or three feet from the side of the mound. One mound that Gilbert found in 
 Knocker's Bay in a thicket was fifty feet in height and sixty feet in circum- 
 ference ; and the late Mr. Davison met with a mound of the Nicobar mega- 
 pode (M. nicobariensis) which was eight feel) in height and quite sixty feet 
 in circumference. Mr. John Whitehead, in the course of his famous explora- 
 tions in the Malay Archipelago, visited the Island of Palawan, and there 
 made the acquaintance of Cuming's megapode (Meyapodius cuminyi), which 
 he found nesting from June to August. The note of this species is a most 
 doleful " mew," exactly like that of a cat in distress, and is heard many 
 times towards evening, adding to the melancholy of the forest. The nest 
 he describes as a most wonderful structure, and no doubt the result of the 
 labour of several pairs of birds. The eggs were placed so deep that it was 
 impossible to reach them, and he says that he dug out a young bird so far 
 grown that it looked like the adult of another species, and yet, although 
 
THE CURASSOWTHE GROUSE. 
 
 229 
 
 fully feathered and able to fly well, he was convinced that it had never seen 
 daylight. 
 
 The curassows form the second sub-order of Professor Huxley's Peristero- 
 podes, and like the megapodes have the hind-toe not elevated, but on the same 
 level as the other toes. They have also a tufted oil-gland, and 
 their whole appearance is more like that of the pheasants and ^ e Curassows. 
 true Game-Birds, and quite different from that of the mega- 
 podes. The wind-pipe is long and convoluted. They like- 
 wise nest in trees and lay two white eggs, and the nestlings have a patterned 
 downy stage, like that of true Game-Birds. Mr. Ogilvie-Grant, who has 
 made a special study of all the Gallinaceous Birds, 
 recognises eleven genera of curassows, and he 
 divides them into two sections, the true curas- 
 sows with a very deep bill, and the guans with 
 
 Sub- Order 
 
 Oraces. 
 
 a more elongated and widened bill, the tipper 
 mandible being broader than it is high. Very 
 little has been recorded of the habits of the curas- 
 sows in their wild state, but they are often to be 
 seen in menageries, where they walk about like 
 great turkeys, or sit on the branches of the trees 
 provided for them. 
 
 Ono of the most curious of the curassows is 
 Lord Derby's guan (Oreophasis derHanns\ or the 
 Derbyan mountain-pheasant, as it is also called. 
 It has the top of the head almost bare, and an 
 elevated kind of cylindrical casque on the crown, 
 situated between the eyes. This remarkable bird 
 is found only in Guatemala, where it is apparently 
 restricted to the forests on the Volcan de Fuego. Fig. 6. THE CRESTED CURAS- 
 Here Mr. Osbert Salvin found it feeding on fruits in 
 
 the higher branches of the forest-trees in the early morning, and descending to 
 the underwood as day advances, remaining there all the day-time, basking or 
 scratching among the leaves. This, says Mr. Salvin, is pretty much what the 
 curassows and guans of the lowlands do. The Indian name for the mountain- 
 guan is " khannanay," and it is apparently very rare even on the mountain 
 which is its sole habitat. 
 
 All the rest of the Game-Birds, comprising by far the greater number of 
 known species, belong to the sub-order Alectoropod.es, and have the hind-toe 
 elevated, and raised above the level of the other toes. Mr. Ogilvie-Grant 
 recognises two large families, the Tetraonidce or grouse, and the Phasiandce. or 
 pheasants and partridges. In the grouse the nostrils are hidden by feathers. 
 The toes are mostly feathered, and there are never any spurs on the legs. 
 
 Eleven genera are recognised as constituting the family Tetraonidce, 
 and among them are the genera Lagopus, Lyrurus, and 
 Tetrao, which are represented in Great Britain by our red 
 grouse and ptarmigan, the black grouse, and the caper- 
 cailzie. 
 
 The willow-grouse or " Ripa " of Scandinavia (Lagopus lagopus) is the 
 most wide-spread of all the group, for it inhabits the northern regions of 
 both hemispheres, varying slightly in different localities, so that many races 
 are recognised by modern ornithologists. These forms, however, all belong 
 to one type, and they are characterised by a common character, the as- 
 
 Tlie Grouse. 
 Family 
 
 Telraonidce. 
 
230 
 
 AVES ORDER GALLIFORMES. 
 
 sumption of three different styles of plumages, in summer, autumn, and 
 winter respectively, their plumage thus varying in accord with the colour of 
 the country which they inhabit. Thus, in summer, when 
 The True their surroundings are darkest, the plumage is of a dark 
 Grouse. colour ; in autumn, when the tint of the country is grey, they 
 become grey ; and, lastly, when the land becomes white from 
 its covering of snow, the willow-grouse again changes its plumage into snowy 
 white. In our red grouse (Lagopus scoticus), which is an insular form of the 
 "Ripa," the changes of plumage are quite different, and the bird always remains 
 dark-coloured throughout the year, the necessity for change on the ground of 
 protective resemblance to its surroundings having become removedin our island 
 climate. It is to be noticed as a curious fact that the willow-grouse, through- 
 out its changes, never loses its white wings. The nest of the red grouse is always 
 
 upon the ground, and the birds are subject to 
 the attacks of many enemies, of which the 
 carrion and hooded crows are perhaps the 
 most active. Unlike some of the other grouse, 
 our British species has but one mate, and is 
 monogamous, the nesting season being in 
 April and May, though sometimes lasting into 
 the early days of June, as grouse are much 
 affected by the mildness or inclemency of the 
 season, and when the latter is wet, the number 
 of eggs laid is much smaller than in favourable 
 summers. The red grouse is essentially a bird 
 of the rnoors, and its place on the higher moun- 
 tains is taken by the ptarmigan (Lagopus 
 midus), which also inhabits the higher moun- 
 tains of Scotland and Europe generally as far 
 east as the Urals. 
 
 The black grouse (Lyrurus) are represented 
 by two species only, one of which, L. tetrix l 
 is our British species, and extends in suitable 
 localities across Europe and Northern Asia to Eastern Siberia, being repre- 
 sented in the Caucasus by a second species, the Georgian black grouse 
 (Lyrurus mlokosiewiczi). 
 
 These woodland grouse are the largest representatives of the family, and 
 
 rank, indeed, among the largest of Game-Birds. They are peculiar to the 
 
 Old World, where they inhabit the pine-forests of Europe 
 
 The and Asia. Four species are known, our British capercailzie 
 
 Capercailzies. (Tetrao urogallus) inhabiting certain parts of Scotland and 
 
 extending its range through the pine-covered mountains of 
 
 Europe and Asia as far as Lake Baikal. In the Ural Mountains it is 
 
 replaced by T. uralensis, and again in Eastern Siberia by T. parvirostris, 
 
 which is represented in Kamtchatka by T. kamtchaticus. They are woodland 
 
 birds, and our own species feeds on the tender shoots of larch and spruce, 
 
 as well as on various ground-fruits, in pursuit of which it sometimes 
 
 quits its favourite fir- woods for the more open country. Like the black 
 
 grouse, the capercailzie has several wives, and desperate fights take place 
 
 amongst the males, who, at the commencement of the nesting season, are 
 
 often shot by the hunter, as they are engaged in "laking," as it is called. 
 
 The male resorts to some particular spot to utter his love-song, and becomes so 
 
 Fig. 7. THE BLACK GROUSE 
 (Lyrurus tetrix). 
 
THE PARTRIDGES. 231 
 
 absorbed in his "spell" as to be utterly oblivious to anything going on 
 around him. 
 
 In America several peculiar forms of grouse are found, the dusky caper- 
 cailzies (Dendmgapus) having a naked air-sac on the sides of the neck, which 
 they are able to inflate at will. Mr. Gale describes the nesting habits of 
 D. obscurus in Colorado, and says that the male, during the nesting season, 
 performs some curious evolutions. " If," he says, "you are anywhere near 
 the haunts of a pair, you will surely hear the male, and most likely see him. 
 He may interview you on foot, strutting along before you, in short, hurried 
 tacks, alternating from right to left, with wide-spread tail tipped forward, 
 head drawn in and back, and wings dragging along the ground, much in the 
 style of a turkey -gobbler. At other times you may hear his mimic thunder 
 overhead again and again in his flight from tree to tree. As you walk along, 
 he leads, and this reconnoitring on his part, if you are not familiar with it, 
 may cause you to suppose that the trees are alive with grouse. He then 
 takes his stand upon a rock, stump, or log, and distends the lower part of his 
 neck, opens his frill of white, edged with the darker feather tips, showing in 
 the centre a pink narrow line, describing somewhat the centre of a circle ; 
 then with very little apparent motion he performs his growling or groaning, I 
 don't know" which to call it, which has the strange peculiarity of seeming 
 quite distant when quite near, and near when distant ; in fact, appearing to 
 come from every direction but the true one." The pinnated grouse (Tym- 
 panuchus) have an elongated tuft of feathers on each side of the neck, as well 
 as an air-sac. These and the ruffed grouse (Bonasa) are also North American, 
 being replaced in Europe and Northern Asia by the hazel-hens (Tetrastes), 
 which inhabit hilly and wooded districts. 
 
 In the family Phasianidce, which includes all the partridges, quails, and 
 pheasants, we meet with the most typical of the Game-Birds. Mr. Ogilvie- 
 Grant proposes to divide them into three sub-families 
 partridges (Perdicince\ pheasants (Phasianince}, and Odonto- The 
 
 phorinw, or American tooth-billed partridges. The latter Partridges, 
 may be at once distinguished by having the cutting edge of 
 the lower mandible serrated or toothed. The partridges may be recognised 
 by their short and stumpy tails, which never exceed the length of the wing, 
 and there are other minor differences, which the above-mentioned author has 
 pointed out. Unfortunately for the classification of the Game-Birds, many 
 forms are intermediate, while the characters assigned to the partridges hold 
 good only to a certain extent, the character which should separate par- 
 tridges from pheasants, viz. the proportion of the primaries and the 
 secondaries, breaks down, as Mr. Ogilvie-Grant has pointed out, in the 
 important genus Phasiaum, which has the wing of a partridge, but the long 
 tail of a pheasant. Thus the two groups, the partridges and the pheasants, 
 to outward appearance so different, appear to be inseparably connected, and 
 it is difficult to find any line of demarcation between them. Pheasant-like 
 partridges and partridge-like pheasants fill the gap between the true partridges 
 and the true pheasants. 
 
 The snow-partridges of the Himalayas are represented by the genus Lenva, 
 which has the upper half of the tarsus covered with feathers, indicating an 
 inhabitant of high elevations. Thus we find the genus 
 Lerwa only in the upper ranges of the Himalayan system, Part !. id ^ es 
 from Koteghur to Sikkim, and again in Moupin and the Genug 
 mountains of Szechuen in Western China, It is found near 
 
232 
 
 A VES ORDER GALL/FORMES. 
 
 The 
 
 Snow- Cocks. 
 Genus 
 
 Tetraoyallus. 
 
 the snow-line in summer, and is somewhat local in its distribution, inhabiting 
 rocky situations, where its plumage blends with its surroundings, and makes 
 the bird difficult to identify. It nests in the Himalayas at an elevation of 
 from 12,000 to 15,000 feet, and is very tame, probably on account of its 
 habitat being only reached by a most adventurous sportsman, whose visits 
 are few and far between. 
 
 These large and handsome birds are readily distinguished by their large 
 size and by the number of their tail-feathers, which are 20 or 22 in 
 number. The snow-cocks, or snow-pheasants as they are 
 called (Tetraogallus), are the largest of the partridge-group, 
 and are only found in high ranges, from the mountains of 
 Asia Minor, the Caucasus, and Persia, to the Himalayas, 
 Turkestan, the Altai, and the higher hills of Moupin and 
 North- Western China. In the Himalayas, the snow-pheasant (T. himalayensis) 
 is an inhabitant of the snowy ranges, from which it only migrates to some- 
 what lower altitudes on the approach of the winter sno\V. These birds are 
 generally found in packs of from five to ten, but sometimes twenty or thirty 
 are in a single flock ; and even during the nesting-season a good many are 
 found in company. Snow-pheasants are birds of the open, rocky hill-country, 
 frequenting grass-lands, and never entering the forest or perching on trees. 
 They are, therefore, evidently gigantic partridges in their ways, and it is a 
 mistake to call them snow-" pheasants,'' as is so often done. 
 
 The red-legged partridges differ from the true partridges in having only 
 14 feathers in the tail. They are also easily recognisable by the beautiful 
 barring of red, grey, and black of the sides of the 
 body. The most familiar of all the group is the red- 
 legged partridge of England (Catcalls rufa), which is 
 confined to South-Western and Western Europe. In 
 North- West Africa, Sardinia, and Southern Spain 
 it has a near ally in the Barbary red-legged partridge 
 (C. petrosa), while the rock red-legged partridge (C. 
 saxatilis) takes its place in the mountains of Southern 
 Europe, from the Pyrenees to the Balkans. A paler 
 form, known as the Chukar or Greek partridge (C. 
 chukar), extends from Greece through Central Asia to 
 China, and is a well-known bird in the Himalayas. 
 In Tibet and Kokonoor a large species, Prjevalskfs 
 red-legged partridge (Caccabis mayna), is met with ; 
 but the largest of all is the black-headed red-legged 
 partridge (C. melanocephala\ which lives in Southern 
 Arabia, and is a very fine bird, approaching even 
 some members of the genus Tetraogallus in size. The 
 distribution of these species of Caccabis is most interesting, and there is no 
 doubt that climate exercises considerable influence on their plumage, those 
 which inhabit dry and sandy localities being paler than those of the more 
 cultivated country. This is especially true of the chukars ; but considerable 
 variation in tint is also seen in the common red-leg from different areas. The 
 
 Fig. 8 THE RED- 
 
 LGGED PARTKIDOJ 
 
 (Caccabis rufa). 
 
 chukars inhabit dry and stony situations, and never go into the forests, pre- 
 ferring in the Lower Himalayas the grassy hill-sides to the cultivated fields. 
 In summer they are met with in pairs, or in small parties ; but in winter 
 they assemble in loose, scattered flocks, sometimes to the number of forty or 
 fifty, or even a hundred. 
 
THE FRANCOLINS. 233 
 
 In the bare portion of the countries between North- Western India, Persia, 
 and North-Eastern Africa, is the home of the see-see partridges (Ammoperdix), 
 of which two species, A. bonhami and A. heyi, are known ; and then we leave 
 the true partridges for the francolins, which are a very large group, princi- 
 pally African. They may be divided into two genera, Francolinus and 
 Pternistes. Both these genera have 14 tail-feathers ; but the former has a 
 feathered throat, while in Pternistes the throat is bare. More than forty 
 species of francolin are known, of which all but four are peculiar to Africa. 
 They inhabit all kinds of country : some the open grass-lands, some bare and 
 desert situations, while others are found in forest-lands. 
 
 This interesting species (F. francolinus) has now been practically exter- 
 minated in its former haunts in Sicily and other parts of Southern Europe, 
 but is still found in Cyprus, Palestine, and Asia Minor, 
 whence it extends eastwards to the Indian Peninsula, as far The Common 
 
 as Assam and Manipur. It is familiarly known as the black Francolin. 
 
 partridge, by Indian sportsmen, and is a favourite Game- Bird F. francolinus. 
 in the north-west provinces of India, though it is much less 
 common in many places than it was formerly. This is partly owing to the per- 
 secution it receives, while from the accounts published by Mr. Allan Hume 
 and his friends, the francolin is not a prolific breeder, and the young birds 
 suffer from the depredations of stoats, jackals, etc. It is, like most of its kind, 
 a ground bird, but Mr. Greig says that the cock will at times get on to a stump 
 or ant-hill, when calling, and he has even seen them high up in fir-trees. 
 The natives are very fond of keeping the francolin as a pet, and numbers are 
 netted by them. Some of the African species are quite small, scarcely larger 
 than a quail, whilst others are of large size and heavy build, and they are 
 sometimes so disinclined to fly, that after being flushed a second time, they 
 will allow themselves to be taken with the hand rather than rise again. 
 
 These birds have all the appearance of francolins, but differ from them in 
 having the throat naked. Nine species are known, and they are all peculiar 
 to the Ethiopian region. Pternistes swainsoni is one of the 
 best-known species, -and is the "pheasant" of Matabeleland. The Bare- 
 Mr. T. E. Buckley says that the coveys are extremely throated 
 difficult to flush, and they prefer to escape by running. In Francolins. 
 the day-time they come out into the open, and frequent the Genus Pternistes. 
 neighbourhood of small streams ; they pass the night in the 
 brushwood, and roost on trees. They feed on bulbs, seeds, berries, and 
 insects. The eggs of Swainson's bare-throated francolin are six or more in 
 number ; they are rounded in shape, of a pinkish cream-colour, finely speckled 
 with chalky-white. 
 
 In the Malayan Archipelago the francolins of Africa and India are re- 
 presented by the genus Rhizothera, distinguished by its long bill. The 
 typical species, the long-billed francolin (R. longirostris\ is an inhabitant 
 of .the southern portion of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and the lowlands 
 of Borneo. In the highlands of the latter island,- on Mount Dulit, at an 
 elevation of 4,000 feet, it is replaced by Hose's long- billed francolin 
 (Rhizothera dulitensis). 
 
 Of these birds our common partridge (P. perdix) is the type, and the best- 
 known species. In illustration of the curiosities of bird-life, especially in 
 species the most familiar to us, I may mention that Mr. Ogilvie-Grant, 
 who has made the game-birds his special study, has recently discovered 
 diflerences in the coloration of the sexes of the partridge hitherto unrecorded. 
 
234 AVES ORDER GALLIFORMES. 
 
 The male, as might be believed, has a large horse-shoe shaped mark 
 of chestnut on the breast. This is either feebly developed or entirely 
 
 absent in the adult female, which can always be recog- 
 
 Tlie True nised by the barred Aving-coverts, of which the ground 
 
 Partridges. colour is black, with widely set buff cross-bars. Young 
 
 Genus Perdix. birds of both sexes can be told by the pointed, not 
 
 rounded, end to the first primary, while the yellowish horn- 
 colour of the feet is also a distinguishing character. Then comes the curious 
 fact that the young female has a horse-shoe mark on the breast, which is not 
 seen in the immature male. Many ornithologists recognise certain races of 
 the common partridge in Europe, and a small form, supposed to inhabit the 
 higher ground in summer and to descend to the lower ground in winter, is 
 known as Perdix damascena. A still more curious hill race from the 
 mountains of Lorraine, which crops up occasionally in certain parts of 
 England, is the mountain partridge (Perdix montana), a bird almost entirely 
 rufous, with a creamy buff head. It cannot be considered more than a 
 variety of the ordinary partridge, but at first sight would seem to be a 
 perfectly distinct species. 
 
 In Eastern Siberia our common partridge is represented by the bearded 
 partridge (P. daurica), which has tufts of feathers on the throat, forming a 
 kind of " beard. 3 ' In Tibet and Kansu two species of true partridge are 
 encountered, P. hodgsonice and P. sifanica, both of which have sixteen tail 
 feathers, instead of eighteen, as in our common species. 
 
 Passing by several small genera of bush quails (Margaroperdix of Mada- 
 gascar, Perdicula and Microperdix of India), we come to the tree partridges 
 
 (Arboricola) which inhabit the hill ranges of the Himalayas, 
 
 The Tree Assam, and the Burmese provinces, and those of Sumatra, 
 
 Partridges. Java, Borneo, Hainan, and Formosa. This distribution is in- 
 
 Genus teresting as snowing the Himalayan element in the mountain 
 
 Arboricola fauna of the last-named islands. In the lower hills of Burma, 
 
 Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo occurs the allied genus 
 Tropicoperdix, which contains a couple of species very like those of Arboricola, 
 but distinguished by the absence of the supra-orbital chain of bones, which is 
 one of the features of Arboricola. Closely allied to these tree-partridges are 
 the genera Hcematortyx of Mount Kina Balu, in North-Western Borneo, re- 
 markable for its three-spurred leg and crimson head, and Caloperdix, the 
 latter genus containing three species, inhabiting respectively the mountains 
 of Tenasserim and the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java, and North-Western 
 Borneo. The crested wood-partridges (Rollulus\ which have a tuft of long 
 hair-like bristles on the middle of the forehead, are represented by a single 
 species (jR. rouloul\ which is found in the Indo-Malayan sub-region from 
 Southern Tenasserim and the Malay Peninsula to the Sunda Islands. It is 
 accompanied in the greater part of its range by the black wood-partridge 
 (Melanoperdix nigra). 
 
 These little birds are only found in the Old World, the common or migra- 
 tory quail (Coturnix coturnix) being found in Europe and Northern Asia in 
 
 summer, and migrating in vast hosts. The numbers which 
 
 The Quails. appear in the winter quarters of the species, in Northern 
 
 Genus Coturnix. Africa, in Egypt, and, above all, in North-Western India, 
 
 are sometimes incredible. Colonel Tickell, in one of his 
 shooting experiences, speaks of them as like locusts in number. In South 
 Africa our European quail is replaced by the Cape quail (Coturnix capensis), 
 
QUAILS PHEASANTS. 235 
 
 which extends northwards to the Azores, and the Canary Islands; and in Japan, 
 Mongolia, and China, G. japonica replaces C. cotumix. The female of C. japonica 
 is bearded, which is a curious fact, when one remembers that a bearded 
 partridge of Siberia replaces our own western partridge (P. perdix). In 
 India, Africa, and Australia are peculiar species of the genus Coturnix, and 
 New Zealand formerly possessed a species of its own (C. novae, zealandm). 
 The New Zealand quail is now extinct, and specimens are valued at nearly 
 100, and yet fifty years ago it was so common that twenty brace in a day's 
 shooting was not considered a large bag ! If the sportsmen of those days 
 had known of the impending extinction of the species, and had preserved 
 the skins of the birds they shot for the table, a small fortune might have 
 been their lot. 
 
 These small birds are peculiar to the Australian region, inhabiting 
 Australia, New Guinea, and the islands of Timor and Flores. They closely 
 resemble the true quails, and only differ in their short grey 
 axillaries. The eggs, however, are not so boldly marked as The Swamp and 
 in those of the quails, and are of a pale bluish white, with a Painted Quails, 
 number of light brown spots. The painted quails (Excal- 
 factorla) are birds of small size, but of many colours. They inhabit India, 
 the Indo-Chinese countries, and the entire Malayan Archipelago to Australia, 
 while one species, E. adansonij is found in Africa. 
 
 Under this sub-family are also included the turkeys and the guinea-fowls, and 
 it contains the most widely distributed and the most highly decorated of the 
 Game-Birds. The bamboo-pheasants and the spur-fowl of the 
 Indian region have rather the aspect of partridges than true The Pheasants. 
 pheasants. Another intermediate form between the two Sub-Family 
 sub- families is seen in the blood-pheasants (Ithagenes) of the Phasianince. 
 Himalayas and the allied chains of mountains in North- 
 Western China. They are forest birds, living at a great altitude near the 
 snows, affecting the clumps of mountain-bamboo, and feeding at some seasons 
 on the tops of pine and juniper, when their flesh is somewhat rank to eat, 
 and at others on seeds and small fruits, when their flesh is quite palatable. 
 
 These splendid birds, generally called " Argus " pheasants by Indian 
 sportsmen, on account of their white-spotted plumage, are found in the 
 Himalayas and the hills of Assam and South-Eastern China. 
 They are remarkable for the adornments of the males, which The Horned 
 have fleshy horns and a bare gular lappet of bright colours. Pheasants. 
 The latter is displayed during the breeding-season, but is Genus Trayopan. 
 scarcely distinguishable in the winter, when the birds aro 
 most easily observed, as they descend to the lower grounds and are often 
 snared by the natives. In summer they frequent the forests near the 
 snow-line. 
 
 The moonals or impeyan pheasants are some of the handsomest of all 
 known birds, their plumage being metallic, and of divers colours of green, 
 purple, and blue, and they carry a crest of light spade-shaped 
 plumes or curled feathers. They inhabit the higher ranges The Moonals. 
 of the Himalayas and the mountains of Assam and Western Genus 
 
 China, descending to lower elevations as the winter comes Lophophorus. 
 on. Mr. Hume, speaking of the common moonal, says : 
 " There are few sights more striking, where birds are concerned, than that 
 of a grand old cock shooting out horizontally from the hillside just below 
 one, glittering and flashing in the golden sunlight, a gigantic rainbow- 
 
2 3 6 
 
 AVES ORDER GALLIFORMES. 
 
 Fig. 9. LOBED PHEASANT (Lobiophasis 
 bulweri). 
 
 tinted gem, and then dropping stone-like, with closed wings, into the abyss 
 below. " 
 
 The fire-backed pheasants (Acomus and Lophura) arc inhabitants of the 
 mountains of the Indo-Chinese provinces and the Malayan Peninsula and 
 Islands. On the high mountains of North- Western Borneo, on the La was River 
 and the region of Mount Dulit occurs one of the most remarkable of all game 
 
 birds, the lobed pheasant (Lobiopha- 
 sis), which has no less than thirty- 
 two feathers in the tail, which, as Mr. 
 Ogilvie-Grant says, is "by far the 
 largest number of tail-feathers in the 
 Phasianidce. One of the eared phea- 
 sants (Crossoptilum aiiritum) has 
 twenty-four, and the smallest num- 
 ber occurs in the painted quails 
 (Excalfactoria), which have only 
 eight ! " The female of the lobed 
 pheasant, however, has twenty- 
 eight feathers only. The horns and 
 wattles on the head show some sort 
 of likeness to the naked ornaments 
 
 found in the tragopans, but the style of plumage is in other respects entirely 
 different. Like the tragopans, the lobed pheasant inhabits the mountains, 
 but does not extend beyond 2,000 feet, and, according to Mr. C. Hose, it lives 
 in the forest, and has the ways of a jungle-fowl. 
 
 In these birds, which are remarkable for the long white tufts on the side of 
 the head, whence the name of "eared" pheasants, the sexes are alike in 
 colour. They are large birds, inhabiting the high mountains 
 of Tibet, Western China, and Manchuria. They live in the 
 woods at high elevations, and assemble in large flocks. 
 
 The best-known species of Gennteus is the silver pheas- 
 ant, so often seen in aviaries. The kalijes inhabit the 
 Himalayas and the hills of Assam and Burmah. Jn the 
 Himalayas they are found at different elevations, from 1,000 up to 
 9,COO feet. They are easily reared in captivity, and large numbers are snared 
 by the natives. The black-backed kalij is described by Mr. 
 The Kalij Gammie, a well-known Himalayan naturalist, as being very 
 Pheasants. tame when it is found away from its native forests, which it 
 Genus Gennceus. does not often quit. He says : " In fine weather, the male 
 often makes a sharp, drumming noise by beating his wings 
 against his sides, somewhat after the style of the wing-flapping of a domestic 
 cock, preparatory to crowing from some elevated place ; but instead of the 
 cock's few leisurely flaps, the kalij strikes oftener and smarter, producing a 
 sound more like drumming than flapping. This noise is heard at all seasons 
 of the year, but most frequently before the setting in of the rainy season ; 
 at other times just before a fall of rain. Hence the natives look on the 
 drumming of the kalij as a sure sign of approaching rain." The Himalayan 
 kalijes, even in a wild state, interbreed, while in the species from the 
 Burmese provinces, intermediate forms also occur, which render it difficult to 
 draw the line between the different species. 
 
 The koklass or pucras pheasants (Pucrasia) are found in the Himalayan 
 chain from Afghanistan eastwards to Tibet, and the mountain ranges of 
 
 The Eared 
 
 Pheasants. 
 
 Genus 
 
 Crossoptilum. 
 
PHEASANTS. 
 
 237 
 
 The Common 
 Pheasant. 
 
 colchicus. 
 
 Southern China to Fokien and Manchuria. They are birds of the forests like 
 the kalijes, and of a somewhat retired and solitary disposition, according to 
 Mr. F. Wilson, who writes of P. macrotephct : "In the 
 remote forests of the interior of the Himalayas, on the report The Koklass 
 of a gun, all the koklass pheasants within half a mile or so will Pheasants. 
 often crow after such a report. They will also crow after a clap Genus Pucrasia. 
 of thunder or any loud or sudden noise, and this peculiarity 
 seems to be confined to those which live in the dark shady woods of the interior, 
 as I never noticed them acting thus in the lower hills. The food of the koklass 
 pheasants is varied, like that of the kalijes, and consists, according to Mr. 
 Wilson, of leaves and buds, roots, grubs, acorns, seeds, berries, moss, and 
 flowers. The nest of P. macrolopha is described as a hole scraped in the 
 ground, and sheltered by a tuft of grass, or a bush, or rock. The species is 
 found nesting at an elevation of from 5,000 to 11,000 feet in the Himalayas." 
 To the genus Phasianus belong the birds which we all know familiarly as 
 pheasants, and it is interesting as representing one of the few types peculiar 
 to the Palsearctic region. There are a great many species 
 of the genus Phasianus scattered through Europe, Central 
 Asia, and China, most of them being of the form and general 
 coloration of our common pheasant (P. colchicus), which is 
 supposed not to be a native of Western Europe, but to have 
 been imported from the Caucasus or from Asia Minor. 
 Recent discoveries of fossil remains, however, tend to prove that pheasants 
 of some kind were ancient inhabitants of the western Palsearctic region, 
 and it is quite possible that the pheasant of our own day is a descendant of 
 these old forms, and that the story of its introduction into England by the 
 Romans is a myth. At the present 
 time it is very difficult to find a pure- 
 bred pheasant in the British Islands, 
 as by far the greater number of 
 those birds killed in the autumn 
 have white rings round their necks, 
 owing to the introduction of the 
 Chinese ring-necked pheasants, with 
 which our native birds have freely 
 crossed. The genus Phasianus is 
 one of the few typical forms of birds 
 peculiar to the Palsearctic region, 
 for in the Himalayas it is repre- 
 sented by the cheer pheasant 
 (Catreus ivalliehii). Thus the true pheasants are found in temperate Europe, 
 where P. colchicus is the only representative species of the genus, to Central 
 Asia and China, where the species are many, though in these countries the 
 pheasants have either white rings on their necks or white patches on the 
 upper part of their wings. Of P. colchicus there are several representative 
 races, as for instance P. talischensis, from Talisch, on the south-western border 
 of the Caspian Sea ; P. persicus, from the south-eastern shores of the Caspian ; 
 and P. principally from North-Western Afghanistan. Thence in the Oxus 
 Valley, Zarafshan, and other localities in Central Asia, our common pheasant 
 is represented by various species and races, for a description of which 
 students must search the writings of Mr. Ogilvie-Grant and others. The 
 ring-necked pheasants are found from Turkestan to Kuldja, Eastern Siberia, 
 
 Fig, 10. THE COMMON PHEASANT 
 (Phasianus colchicus). 
 
2 3 8 AVES-ORDER GALLIFORMES. 
 
 China, and the island of Formosa. In Japan a splendid species is resident, 
 P. versicolar, remarkable for its dark green breast, and in the same country are 
 found the copper pheasants (P. samimeringi and P. scintillaus), birds of a 
 different type altogether from our ordinary pheasant. The finest of all, 
 however, is Reeves' pheasant (Phasianus reevesi), which lives in China, and 
 is remarkable for its white crown and the length of its tail, which, in fully 
 adult birds, attains to the dimensions of five feet ! 
 
 The barred-backed pheasants (Callophasis) are represented by two species 
 only, C. ellioti, from the mountains of South-Eastern China, and C. humice, 
 from the Shan States and the Lushai Hills and those of Manipur. 
 
 The best-known species of the genus Chrysolophus is the golden pheasant 
 
 (C. pictus), and the name is commonly used to designate the genus, and is 
 
 m perfectly appropriate to the golden pheasant, but is a mis- 
 
 Tne Ca P a nomer for the Lady Amhersts' pheasant, which has no 
 
 Genus' golden colour on its neck, but carries a "cape" of white, 
 
 Chrysolophus barred with steel-blue. The golden pheasant inhabits 
 
 Southern and Western China to Kokonoor, and C. amherstice 
 
 replaces it in the mountains of Western China and Eastern Tibet. 
 
 These birds have a special interest, as it is from them that all our breeds 
 of poultry have been derived, although it is difficult to believe that a cochin- 
 china, a dorking, or n Spanish fowl can have originated in 
 The Jungle- these spangled, many-coloured denizens of the forests of the 
 Fowl. Genus East. The nearest approach to the wild stock that domestic 
 Gallus. variation produces is found in the "Game" fowl, and a 
 
 very interesting group is to be seen in the Natural History 
 Museum of some birds shot wild in the Fiji Islands by Mr. E. L. Layard, 
 C.M.G. In the early voyages in the Pacific by Captain Cook and other 
 navigators, fowls were turned loose on some of the islands, to provide 
 food for any unfortunate sea-faring folk who might be shipwrecked on 
 them. At the present day these birds have taken to their original habits 
 as jungle-fowl, and have to be hunted and shot. They have, moreover, 
 reverted to the plumage of true jungle-fowl, and though the cocks still show 
 traces of a domestic strain, the hens, as well as some of the cock-birds, have 
 assumed once more the coloration of the wild stock from which they were 
 originally derived. The true jungle-fowl are found at the present day in 
 the Indian Peninsula and Ceylon, the Indo-Malayan region to Cochin-China 
 and the island of Hainan, south to the Philippines, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, 
 Celebes, and other islands of the North Moluccas. 
 
 These are birds of grey coloration, but remarkable for the metallic green, 
 purple, or blue spots or "eyes' 1 which adorn their plumage. Five species 
 are known, inhabiting the Himalayan system of mountains 
 Ph + e from Sikkim to Tenasserim and Cochin-China, and thence 
 Genus 3 through the Malayan Peninsula to Sumatra, Borneo, and the 
 
 Polypectrum i s l an< i f Palawan in the south of the Philippine Archipelago. 
 They are found from the lowlands up to 6,000 feet in Tenas- 
 serim. They seem to affect forest country, feeding on fruit, insects, worms, 
 and small land-shells. The call of P. chinquis, the Himalayan species, is said 
 by Mr. Clark to be something like a laugh "ha ha ha ha." Mr. John 
 Whitehead says that in Palawan he found the species of the island, P. 
 nclpoleonis, very local, and his specimens were all collected in one district of 
 the forest. It is not known for certain whether the peacock pheasants are 
 polygamous, and Mr. Whitehead inclines to the idea that they are not ; but 
 
ARGUS PHEASANTS PEA-FOWL., 239 
 
 Mr. Clark once came across a party of four, consisting of one male and three 
 female birds. In Palawan Mr. Whitehead found that Napoleon's peacock 
 pheasant had a "showing-off" ground, like that of the argus pheasants, a 
 bare space cleared in the forest, kept scrupulously clean, " with a small hump 
 of earth in the middle, where, no doubt, the male birds show off their splendid 
 plumage, and perhaps do battle. ' ; He adds that the fights, if they have any, 
 must be very short and decisive, as the double spurs of the cocks would be 
 sufficient to cut his adversary into bits. In the Himalayan species, P. 
 chinquis, which ranges into Cachar and Tenasserim, as many as four spurs 
 are sometimes found on the legs of the male. 
 
 Of these extraordinary pheasants, three species are known : the com- 
 mon argus (A. argus) of the Malay Peninsula, Gray's argus (A. grayi) 
 of Borneo, and A. bipunctatus, the habitat of which is at 
 present unknown. In Tonquin the crested argus (Rhein- The Argus 
 hardius ocellatus) occurs. The argus pheasants are remark- Pheasants. 
 able for "the hundred metallic eyes" on the wings, the Genus 
 
 feathers of which are prolonged in an extraordinary Aryusiamis. 
 manner, while the tail-feathers exceed in length the 
 dimensions of any of the Game-Birds. Like the giraffe, which most 
 people would think to be incapable of threading its way through jungle, 
 the apparently clumsy argus makes its escape by darting into the 
 thicket, and it is one of the most difficult of birds to force into flight. 
 So says the greatest of modern collectors of birds, the late Mr. W. R. 
 Davison, who spent years in the jungles of Tenasserim and the Malayan 
 Peninsula, engaged in forming that wonderful collection of Oriental birds 
 presented to the nation in 1885 by Mr. Allen Hume, C.B. In Tenasserim he paid 
 great attention to the habits of the argus, and is perhaps the only white man 
 who has seen the bird in its native haunts. He" found them extremely shy 
 and difficult of observation, never rising, but seeking safety in running away 
 through the thick jungle. The males themselves do not seem to engage in 
 combat, though they will answer each other's call. The note is " how-how," 
 repeated ten or a dozen times, though the report of a gun in the neighbour- 
 hood, or the passing of a troop of monkeys, will set every male calling. The 
 cry of the female is different, " how-o-woo," repeated ten times or more. 
 The males clear an open space in the forest, which Mr. Davison believed to 
 be a " dancing-ground," though he never caught a bird inflagrante delicto. Not 
 a leaf is allowed to soil the hallowed spot, though occasionally a male of the 
 fire-back pheasant will intrude, and take a savage delight in driving the 
 argus from his carefully-prepared " arena." 
 
 Two kinds of pea-fowl are known, the common Paro cristatus of India 
 and Ceylon, and P. muticus of Indo-China and the Malayan Peninsula. 
 These birds do not ascend the mountains, as a rule, but are 
 plentiful in the plains of North- Western India, and in The Pea-Fowl. 
 Rajputana they are held sacred by the natives. Near Jey- Genus Paro. 
 pur, for instance, the number of pea-fowl is very large, and 
 they can be observed from the windows of the passing train, walking alout 
 in the grass near the sides of the line, or perching on the fences. They are 
 very well-known birds in confinement, and the "train" of eyed plumes, 
 formed by the elongated upper tail-coverts of the male bird, is one of the 
 most extraordinary developments of plumage in the Class Aves. 
 
 Two very aberrant forms of guinea-fowl, Phasidus and Agedastes, inhabit 
 West Africa, from Liberia to the Congo ; but the true guinea-fowls (Numida) 
 
240 
 
 AVES- ORDER GALLIFORMES. 
 
 are found over nearly the whole of Africa, to which continent and Mada- 
 
 gascar they are peculiar. Seven species are recognised, each with a kind of 
 
 horn or helmet on the head, and they are all birds of the 
 
 The Guinea- open country, in contradistinction to the crested guinea- 
 
 Fowls. fowls, which are forest-haunting birds. The true guinea- 
 
 Genus fowls (Numida) go in flocks, and frequent the scrubby 
 
 Numida. bush on the borders of streams. They escape by running, 
 
 but when hotly pursued by a dog, they take to the 
 
 trees, and are so occupied with taking stock of their canine pursuer, 
 
 that they can be shot down, one after the other. That they can be 
 
 easily tamed is proved by the way in which they are domesticated in nearly 
 
 every country. In Damara Land, the late Mr. C. J. Anderssnn says that he 
 
 has seen a thousand together. When the birds assemble in search of water, 
 
 and when a pool is discovered, the first-comers act in a most civilised manner, 
 
 approaching and drinking their fill, and retiring in an opposite direction, that 
 
 the next in order may have room to file in and slake their thirst. 
 
 Of the crested guinea-fowls(6ritera) four species are known, all inhabitants 
 of the bush-country and forests. One of them is peculiar to West Africa 
 (G. cristata\ one to South-East Africa (G. edouardi), and one to East Africa 
 (G. pucherani). Like the ordinary guinea-fowls, when hunted with a dog, 
 they take to the trees, and are easily shot. One of the most beautiful of the 
 group is the vulturine guinea-fowl (Acryllium mdtnrinum), with a bare head 
 like a vulture, whence its name, and remarkable for the bright cobalt-blue 
 colour on the wings and flanks. The bare portions of the head and neck are 
 also" cobalt-blue. It is an inhabitant of Eastern Africa, from the Pangani 
 River to Somali Land. 
 
 The common turkey of our farmyards is descended from the Mexican turkey 
 (Meleagris gallopavo). Many races of wild turkeys are known in tho Southern 
 ' United States 
 
 h 
 
 each of which 
 has a separate and definite 
 range ; but the most beautiful 
 species of all is the Honduras 
 turkey (M. ocellata). Though 
 they feed on different kinds of 
 seeds during the day, the tur- 
 keys betake themselves at night 
 to the trees to roost. They 
 even ascend the mountains to a 
 height of 8,000 to 10,000 feet, 
 descending to the lower valleys 
 in autumn, when they con- 
 gregate in great flocks. They 
 are polygamous, and the male 
 
 Fig. 11. THE TURKEY (Meleagris gallopavo). 
 
 leaves to the female the entire duty of rearing the young. 
 
 These are all birds of the New World, and are remarkable for having the 
 
 The T 6C ^ e ^ *k lower mandible serrated and toothed. They are 
 
 Partridges 6 - a somewuat large group, and include all the colins and 
 
 Sub-family tu ^ed and painted partridges. Two of the best known 
 
 Odontophorhinx. s P ec ^ es are the Californian quail (Lophortyx californiana) 
 and the Virginian quail (Ortyx viryinianus). 
 
HEMIPODESSAND- GRO USE. 24 1 
 
 At the end of the series of Game-Birds are found some tiny birds, which 
 look like dwarf partridges. These are the bustard-quails or hemipodes, 
 which were formerly associated with the true quails (Cotur- 
 nix). The differences between the hemipodes and the The Hemipodes. 
 Game-Birds are chiefly osteological, and need not be detailed Genus Turnix. 
 here ; but the absence of the hind-toe distinguishes the 
 genus Turnix at a glance, though the Australian genus Pedionomus has four 
 toes like an ordinary Game- Bird. One of the most curious facts connected 
 with the hemipodes is the superior size and colour of the female. In some 
 cases she is nearly twice the size of her mate, and on the latter devolves the 
 duty of hatching the eggs out and taking care of the young. It is curious 
 that these little birds should have such an ostrich-like peculiarity, but there 
 is otherwise nothing struthious about them, for the hemipodes have the bones 
 of the palate more like those of Passerine-Birds than those of Game-Birds. 
 They frequent the open plains and grass-country, but are also found in 
 some places on the outskirts of cultivation. Hemipodes are entirely birds 
 of the Old World, and are distributed over Africa, Madagascar, India, and 
 China, and extend throughout the Malayan Archipelago to Australia. 
 
 The sand-grouse are peculiar birds, half Pigeons, half Game-Birds, of which 
 the English people are not ignorant. Although the sand-grouse are birds of the 
 desert, and are found throughout Africa, Central Asia, India, Th S d 
 
 and the Tibetan and Mongolian plateaux, there is one G ? ~ 
 
 species, Pallas' sand-grouse (Syrrhoptes paradoxus), which Pterodetes 
 makes regular irruptions from its Eastern home in the 
 Kirghis deserts into Western Europe, and at times visits England in swarms. 
 Doubtless these immigrations have occurred for ages at regular intervals, 
 but in the Middle Ages our ancestors were too much occupied in fighting and 
 cutting each others' throats to notice a swift-flying bird like the sand-grouse, 
 which their weapons would have been powerless to capture. And thus 
 it happens that our first great record of the occurrence of Pallas' sand-grouse 
 in England took place in 1863, 
 and then again in 1888 another 
 great irruption took place, when 
 not only a large number were seen 
 in Western Europe, but they actu- 
 ally stayed and even nested in 
 Great Britain. In some places the 
 flocks were protected by intelligent 
 land-owners ; but they ultimately 
 disappeared, having apparently mi- 
 grated back to their Eastern home. 
 
 The sand-grouse are certainly 
 desert birds, their very plumage 
 being of a sandy colour, and assimilating to their surroundings. In many of 
 their osteological characters they resemble the pigeons, but in the digestive 
 organs they resemble Game-Birds, so that their natural position is as a dis- 
 tinct order between these two well-marked groups. They have feathered 
 legs, but never carry a spur like Game-Birds, and they have either three 
 toes, or, if the fourth toe is present, it is only rudimentary. The egg is, 
 however, peculiar, being neither white like that of the pigeons, nor uniform 
 like that of the pheasants and partridges, nor richly mottled like that of the 
 grouse, but double-spotted, with brown spots mostly in evidence, and under- 
 17 
 
242 A VES ORDERS PTEROCLETES AND COLUMBIFORMES. 
 
 lying spots of pale purple. The eggs are, moreover, oval in shape, but 
 equally rounded at each end. 
 
 Although the sand-grouse are not often observed during the day-time, they 
 are to be obtained in the mornings and evenings, when they assemble at the 
 water-pools to drink. Of Pallas' sand-grouse the late General Prjevalski 
 writes : ' At the drinking-places, as well as at the feeding-places, these birds 
 never settle on the ground without first describing a circle, in order to assure 
 themselves that there is no danger. On alighting, they hastily drink and 
 rise again ; and, in cases where the flocks are large, the birds in front get up 
 before those at the back have time to alight. They know their drinking- 
 places very well, and very often go to them from distances of tens of miles, 
 especially in the mornings between nine and ten o'clock, but after twelve at 
 noon they seldom visit these spots." Sometimes the sand-grouse are driven 
 south by an unexpected fall of snow, and by clearing the snow from a patch 
 of ground, Swinhoe tells us that the natives sometimes manage to net an 
 entire flock of birds. It may be such a sudden snow-storm that forces the 
 sand-grouse of Central Asia to make the unexpected invasion into Western 
 Europe to which we have referred. 
 
 The Pigeons are a large order of birds, and are divisible into two sub- 
 orders, viz. the Columbce or True Pigeons, and the Dodos (Didi). Pigeons 
 
 have a swelling of the bill near the tip, similar to the bill of 
 
 The Pigeons. the plovers, which we shall discuss presently. At the base of 
 
 Order the bill is a soft bare skin, or cere, which is very prominent 
 
 Columbiformes, in some of the fruit-pigeons, and is generally of a bright colour. 
 
 The osteological and anatomical characters which separate 
 them from the Game-Birds (which some of the ground pigeons greatly 
 resemble) are numerous, the chief one, perhaps, being that the fore-part of 
 the sternum or breast-bone is never perforated to receive the feet of the 
 coracoids, as is the case in the Game-Birds. The nest which pigeons build 
 is one of the simplest structures known among birds, for it consists of a slight 
 cradle of sticks, and is generally placed in a tree. The eggs are white, and 
 two in number, though there are many species which lay but a single egg, 
 and in this order of birds we meet with the great exception to the rule in 
 the Class Aves, viz. that birds which lay white eggs usually nest in holes 
 or burrows, so that the eggs are concealed from view. Not only, however, 
 are the eggs of the pigeons white, but the frail platform on which they are 
 placed renders them easily visible from above, and often from below. The 
 young are hatched naked, but after a little while become clothed with hairy 
 down ; they remain helpless in the nest for a long time after they are 
 hatched, and are fed by the old birds. 
 
 The True Pigeons, of which our ring-dove or wood-pigeon, and the ordinary 
 dove-cote pigeons may be taken as representatives, constitute the order 
 Columbw, and they are divided by Count Salvador!, the latest monographer of 
 the order, into five families. 
 
 The first family of the pigeons consist of the fruit-pigeons (Trerontda) with 
 three sub-families, Treronince, or green fruit-pigeons, painted fruit-pigeons 
 
 (PtHopodin(K\ and true fruit-pigeons (Carpopliagince). The 
 
 The Fruit- green fruit- pigeons are found in Africa, India, and the Indo- 
 
 Pigeons. Family Chinese sub-region, through the Malayan sub-region to the 
 
 Treronidce. Molucca Islands. All the members of the sub- family 
 
 Treronince have the tarsus short, exceeded in length by the 
 middle toe, and the tail feathers vary from 12 in number to 16, while the 
 
PAINTED PIGEONS FRUIT-PIGEONS. 24? 
 
 chief peculiarity is the broadening of the toes beneath, and having the skin 
 expanded on the soles, as Count Salvadori has pointed out. The green fruit- 
 pigeons are accustomed to assemble in flocks of comparatively large size, 
 and feed, as a rule, on small fruit. 
 
 The Ptilopodince include some of the most beautiful birds of the world 
 among their number. Although they are mostly birds of small size, the 
 exquisite blending of their bright coloration renders their 
 combination of plumage extremely beautiful, and there is no The Painted 
 more wonderful bird in the world than the golden fruit- Pigeons. 
 pigeon of the Fiji Islands (Chryscenas victor}. Sub-Family 
 
 The true painted pigeons (Ptilopus) are nearly all highly- Ptilopodince. 
 coloured birds, and have generally the first primary narrowed 
 to a slender point. They are among the smallest of all the pigeons, many of 
 them scarcely exceeding the bulk of a thrush, but they are ornamented, as a 
 rule, with a patch of bright colour on the fore part of the crown, which may 
 be rose-colour, pink, or even pale lavender. Very little has been written 
 about their habits, but of the allied genus, Megaloprepia, which has not the 
 attenuated ending to the first primary-quill, and has a somewhat longer and 
 more rounded tail than Ptilopus, we learn from Gould that the magnificent 
 fruit-pigeon (Megaloprepia magnified) is found in the bushes of the interior 
 of South-Eastern Australia, where it feeds on wild figs and the nut-like 
 fruit of the large palms. It is a shy bird, and is not easily discovered, unless 
 it betrays its presence by the hoarse, loud, and monotonous note, which is 
 frequently uttered by the male during the pairing season. The note is so 
 extraordinary, and so unlike that of any other bird, that it causes the utmost 
 surprise and wonderment as to what it can proceed from, in the minds of 
 persons who hear it for the first time. Five species of Megaloprepia are 
 known, ranging from the Northern Moluccas to New Guinea and to South-East 
 Australia ; whereas no less than 75 of the painted pigeons (Ptilopus) are 
 known. They are distributed over the Malayan Archipelago, from the 
 Malay Peninsula to Australia, and even to the Pacific Islands. In Mada- 
 gascar and the neighbouring islands they are represented by the species of 
 wattled fruit-pigeons (Alectrcenas), of which four kinds only are known, that 
 from Mauritius, A. nitidissima, being now extinct. 
 
 In this sub-family are found some of the largest of all the existing pigeons, 
 and many of them are beautifully ornamented with bright patches of colour. 
 Even where ornamental plumage does not obtain, the tones 
 of rufous and grey and bronzy-green render them very lovely The Large 
 birds. Some have a fleshy knob at the base of the bill, as in Fruit-Pigeons. 
 the genus Globicera ; others carry a conspicuous crest, as Sub-Family 
 in Lopholaimus. They are found from India and the Indo- CarpophayincK. 
 Chinese countries throughout the entire Malayan Archipelago 
 to Australia. One of these great fruit-pigeons, Carpophaga cenea, is a 
 very well-known-bird in certain parts of India and Burma. In the last- 
 named province Mr. Eugene Gates says that the imperial green fruit-pigeon, 
 as he calls C. ainea, is generally distributed throughout the forests and well- 
 wooded parts of the country, wherever, in fact, there are trees which yield 
 edible fruits. It is entirely arboreal, going about in parties, and occasionally 
 in couples, and feeding on fruits. It makes its nest in thickets and bamboo 
 bushes, and lays but one egg, though in India two young birds have been 
 found in a nest. 
 
 In the true pigeons, of which our wood-pigeon and rock-pigeon may be 
 
244 AVES ORDER COLUMBIFORMES. 
 
 considered the types, the tail is always composed of twelve feathers. The 
 soles of the feet are not so broad as in the fruit -pigeons, and, according to 
 Count Salvadori, only the hind-toe has any expansion on the 
 The True sides. Only four genera of Columbidce are admitted by the 
 Pigeons. above-named author, viz. Gymnophaps, represented by a 
 Family single species from South-Eastern New Guinea, G. albertisi, 
 
 Columbidce. named after the famous Italian naturalist, D'Albertis, who 
 discovered it ; Columba, with fifty-eight species and a cosmo- 
 politan range ; Nescenas, from Mauritius, with its single species, JV. mayeri; 
 and Turturozna, peculiar to Africa, with five species. 
 
 It is not necessary to dilate on the characteristics of the ordinary pigeons, 
 In the woods, the wood-pigeon or ring-dove is, in many parts of its range, the 
 mildest and shyest of birds, but in confinement it makes the tamest of pets, 
 and can be fed by children in the gardens of Paris, and is now so civilised 
 that it is one of the features of St. James' Park in London. The stock- 
 dove (C. cenas) is a more retiring bird, and nests in holes of trees or of old 
 buildings, while the rock-dove (C. lima) frequents caves on the sea-coast. 
 From the latter are believed to have sprung all our numerous forms of do- 
 mestic pigeon. All the species of the African genus Turturcena are some- 
 what rare, and little is known of their habits. 
 
 All these are Eastern birds, with a very long tail, exceeding the wing in 
 length. Only four genera are known : Turacceiid, of Celebes and Timor ; 
 Mdcropygia, the dominant form, with about thirty species, 
 The Long-Tailed mostly of a rufous coloration, with many bands ; Rein- 
 Pigeons. wardtcenas, with its three species, inhabiting the Moluccas 
 Sub-family from Celebes, south to the Bismarck Archipelago ; and 
 MacropyyiincK. lastly, Coryphcenas of the Solomon Islands. Both the latter 
 
 genera have short and somewhat hooked bills. 
 
 The Macropygice are commonly called cuckoo-doves, on account of their 
 barred plumage. They are forest-birds, feeding on fruits, and building a 
 slight nest, in which two eggs are laid. 
 
 This sub-family is peculiar to North America, and only one species (E. 
 
 migratoria) is known. It has occasionally visited Great Britain. In its native 
 
 country it is remarkable for the enormous flocks which pass 
 
 The Passenger- on migration, and occupy a breeding area of great extent. 
 
 Pigeons. One observer states that he saw a flight of these pigeons five 
 
 Sub-family miles long and a mile in breadth, while their nests were found 
 
 Ectopistince. j n nearly every tree for a distance of twenty-eight miles. As 
 
 with the Carolina parrot, however, constant persecution is 
 
 rapidly diminishing the numbers of this interesting bird, and its nesting-area 
 
 is no longer so widely extended as in former times. 
 
 This family of pigeons has rather a longer leg than those we have been 
 previously discussing, the length of the tarsus. being equal to, or exceeding, 
 that of the middle toe. The tail-feathers vary in number 
 The Ground- from 12 to 20, according to the different genera. The 
 Pigeons. Zenaidince are exclusively American, the Peristerince are 
 Family American and African ; the Geopeliiiue are American, Aus- 
 Peristeridce. tralian, and Indo-Malayan; while the Phabince, GeotrygoninoR, 
 and Ccdcenadince are Malayan and Australian. There is no- 
 thing very peculiar about the habits of these ground-doves, but the remaining 
 sub-family Turturince, or turtle-doves, is one of the largest in the whole family 
 of pigeons, and contains about thirty species, of which our British turtle-dove, 
 
CRO WNED P1GE ONS TO THED-PIGE ONSD OD OS. 
 
 245 
 
 (T. turtur\ and the cream-coloured turtle-dove (T. risorius) so often kept in 
 cages, are the best-known examples. The sub- family Calcenadince is repre- 
 sented by the single genus Catenas, the Nicobar pigeons, as they are called, 
 remarkable for their metallic plumage and the long hackles on the neck, like 
 those of a fowl. The crowned pigeons (Goura) which are only found in the 
 Papuan Islands, are remarkable for their beautiful crests of diffused plumes. 
 Six species are known, all of them inhabiting different areas of the great 
 island of New Guinea, or the islands immediately adjacent to it. 
 
 This interesting form of pigeon, repre- 
 sented by a single genus only, Didun- 
 culus, is an inhabitant 
 of Samoa or the Navi- The Tooth- 
 gator's Islands. It has Billed Pigeons. 
 a large hooked bill, Family 
 
 which has also some Didtmculidce. 
 notches or toothed ser- 
 rations near the tip of the lower man- 
 dible. It is remarkable for the similar- 
 ity of its form to that of the dodo, 
 though, of course, it is on a much 
 smaller scale. Hence the name Didun- 
 culus, or little dodo, of which the single 
 species, D. strigirostris, was, a short time 
 ago, threatened with the same extinc- 
 tion as that which has overtaken its larger 
 relative. The dodo, not having wings 
 capable of flight, was unable to save 
 itself when danger threatened ; but the 
 Didunculus, though a ground-bird, and 
 formerly nesting on the ground, so that 
 it was fast diminishing in numbers, 
 owing to the attacks of wild cats, appears suddenly to have resumed its 
 arboreal habits, and now both roosts and nests in trees, so that of late years 
 its numbers have greatly increased. 
 
 The sub-order, Didi, consists of two genera, Pezophaps and Didus, both 
 now extinct, but living on the earth less than three hundred years ago. 
 The solitaire (Pezophaps solitarius) inhabited the island of Rodriguez, and 
 was about the size of a turkey. The old traveller, Leguat, has given a 
 description of the bird as follows: "They never fly; their wings are too 
 little to support the weight of the bodies ; they serve only to beat themselves 
 and flutter when they call one another. They will whirl about for twenty or 
 thirty times together on the same side during the space of four or five 
 minutes. The motion of their wings makes a noise very like that of a 
 rattle, and one may hear it two hundred paces off. The bone of their wing 
 grows greater towards the extremity, and forms a little round mass under 
 the feathers as big as a musket ball. That and its beak are the chief defence 
 of this bird. Some of the males weigh forty-five pounds. The females are 
 wonderfully beautiful, some fair, some brown ; I call them fair, because they 
 are of the colour of fair hair. They have a sort of peak, like a widow's, upon 
 their breasts (lege beaks), which is of dun colour. No one feather is 
 straggling from the other all over their bodies, they being very careful to 
 adiust themselves, and make them all even with their beaks. The feathers 
 
 Fig. 13. THE CROWNED PIGEON (Goura 
 coronata). 
 
246 
 
 AVES SUB-ORDER DIDI. 
 
 on their thighs are round like shells at the end, and being there very thick, 
 have an agreeable effect They have two risings on their craws, and the 
 feathers are whiter than the rest, which lively represents the fine neck of a 
 beautiful woman. They walk with so much stateliness and good grace, that 
 one eannot help admiring and loving them ; by which means their fine mien 
 often saves their lives. We find in the gizzards of both male and female a 
 brown stone, of the bigness of a hen's egg ; 'tis somewhat rough, flat on one 
 side, and round on the other, heavy and hard. We believe that this stone 
 was there when they were hatched, for let them never be so young, you 
 meet with it always. They have never but one of 'em, and besides, the 
 passage from the craw to the gizzard is so narrow, that a like mass of half 
 the bigness could not pass. It served to whet our knives better than any 
 other stone, whatsoever." 
 
 The dodo lived in Mauritius, and more is known of its appearance than of 
 the solitaire, as several drawings of it were made from life, and now exist in 
 
 various libraries. A foot 
 of the bird is in the British 
 Museum, and another is in 
 the Ashmolean Museum at 
 Oxford, along with a head, 
 these being the last relics 
 of an embalmed specimen 
 which was destroyed by 
 the authorities at Oxford 
 in 1855. Another head of 
 the dodo is in the Museum 
 at Copenhagen, but the 
 actual remains of the body 
 of this wonderful bird are 
 very few, and the species 
 is principally known from 
 the skeletons which have 
 been unearthed during the 
 last few years. The heavy 
 body of the dodo, with its 
 feathery tail, and wings 
 represented by a few 
 plumes only, have led some authorities to consider it as a kind of struthious 
 bird, from the similarity of its wings to those of an ostrich, but recent re- 
 searches have shown that the dodo was a gigantic pigeon. 
 
 We have now followed the Class Aves from the Ratitse, through the 
 Tinamous to the Game-Birds, and thence through the Sand- Grouse to the 
 Pigeons. We now come to a sudden stop in the continuity of the series of 
 orders of birds, and take up the thread of connection a little further back, 
 it being absolutely impossible to follow a direct linear arrangement in 
 a scheme of classification. 
 
 The hoatzin has the appearance of a Game-Bird, and especially of a guan. 
 Like the latter birds, it is an inhabitant of South America, where it is found 
 on the Amazon and the rivers of Guiana, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, 
 Peru, and Bolivia. For all its guan-like appearance, the bird is more of a 
 rail than a Game-Bird, and its curious nest, suspended in the branches over- 
 hanging the water, is like that of a rail, while its eggs greatly resemble those 
 
 s - * 
 
 Fig. 14. THE DODO (Didus ineptus). 
 
HOATZINS. 
 
 247 
 
 of the Rallidce. Many of its anatomical characters, its osteology, and the 
 peculiarities of the young birds, show that the genus Opisthocomus is an 
 isolated form, probably the survival of some ancient stock of birds, of which 
 it is the only survivor. Fossilized remains of a bird like the hoatzin have 
 been found in France, so that the type may have been far more widely 
 spread in ancient times, and have been distributed over certain portions of 
 the Old World. 
 
 One curious feature about the hoatzin is the size of its crop, which is situ- 
 ated in a deep cavity in the upper half of the pectoral muscles. It occupies 
 the upper part of the chest, and is so enormous 
 as to distort the f urcula and sternum. The nest- 
 ling is hatched naked, and has a well-developed 
 claw on the pollex and index fingers of the wings, 
 so that it is able to crawl about by their means. 
 Mr. J. J. Quelch, the Director of the Museum at 
 Georgetown in British Guiana, has written a 
 most interesting account of the hoatzin, from 
 which w r e have extracted the following notes : 
 ' ' Soon after the hatching of the eggs, the nest- 
 lings begin to crawl about by means of their 
 wings and legs, the well-developed claws on the 
 pollex and index being constantly in use for hold- 
 ing and hooking on to the surrounding objects. 
 If the birds are drawn from their nest by means 
 of their legs, they hold on firmly to the twigs 
 both with bill and wings ; and if the nest be 
 upset by means of a rod pushed up from below, 
 they hold on to all objects with which they come 
 in contact by means of bill, feet, and wings, mak- 
 ing considerable use of the bill, not only to reach objects above them, but 
 also with the help of the clawed wings to raise themselves to a higher level. 
 One curious feature noticed with a nestling which had been upset in the 
 river, was its power of rapid swimming and diving when pursued. As soon 
 as the hand was placed close to it, it rapidly dived into the dark water, in 
 which it was impossible to see it, and would rise at distances of more than a 
 yard away. Owing to this power, the little creature managed to evade all my 
 attempts to seize it, taking refuge eventually under the bushy growth, where 
 it was impossible to pursue it. The prolonged immersion which a nestling 
 will thus instinctively and voluntarily undergo, or which an adult bird will 
 bear in an attempt to drown it, seems to me to be quite remarkable. 
 
 "The nestlings, when resting on the bare sticks of the nest, are observed 
 to rest the weight of the body, as in the adult birds, on the bare and 
 thickened integument of the carina sterni, the toes being spread out and the 
 wings generally drawn up to the side." 
 
 The food of the adult hoatzin consists of leaves or fruit, and the birds 
 after death have a very unpleasant odour, which prevents them being eaten 
 as food. They are incapable of sustained flight, and in this fact we see 
 another rail-like characteristic. Mr. Quelch observes : " Whether from the 
 fact of their occupying situations where they are but seldom disturbed, or 
 but little likely to be pursued, or from a natural weakness of wing, the birds 
 are but seldom seen in flight ; and when they take to the wing during dis- 
 turbance, they do so for but a very short distance a very exceptional flight 
 
 Fig. 15. THE HOATZIN 
 (Opisthocomus cristatus). 
 
248 AVES ORDERS OPISTHOCOMIFORMES AND RALLIFORMES. 
 
 being once observed of a length of about 40 yards, with the wind, across a 
 creek, from a high growth on one bank to a lower level on the other. 
 Usually they rise almost with a jump from the branch, seldom in a straight 
 line, but with a marked convex curve to the point where they alight. The 
 flight of the birds, in spite of their great expanse of wings, in relation to the 
 weight of the body, is thus extremely awkward, and the body presents a 
 peculiarly humped appearance. During their longer courses, the wings are 
 rapidly and violently flapped. The apparent awkwardness in placing them- 
 selves when they alight, is chiefly due, I believe, to the smallness of the 
 branches on which they usually settle, and which they are unable firmly to 
 grasp with their long toes, balancing themselves meanwhile by the expanded 
 wings and tail ; but it is also attributable, I think, though to a much less 
 degree, to a certain weakness in their legs even though they are thick and 
 apparently strong-looking since when they alight on a thick limb, a certain 
 amount of instability is still manifest. 
 
 " This weakness of limbs seems to be still more evidenced by the method 
 of perching characteristic of the birds. At any time during the heat of the 
 day they will be found resting on the branches, two or more together, the 
 body directly applied to the wood, and supported on the bare, thickened, 
 and hardened patch of skin which covers the flattened and broadened surface 
 of the posterior determination of the carina sterni." 
 
 From the game-like rail, or rail-like Game-Bird Opisthocomus, we now pass 
 
 to the true rails. Only one family can be admitted, which bears the name 
 
 of Rallidce. At first sight it would seem more natural to 
 
 The Rails. divide the rails into three families true rails (Rallidcv), 
 Order water-hens (Gallinulidce), and coots (Fulicidce) ; but after a 
 
 Ralliformes. prolonged study of the family, we have come to the conclusion 
 that there is no separation to be drawn between these appar- 
 ently natural groups, and the most that can be done is to recognise two sub- 
 families, rails and water-hens (Rallince), and coots (Fulicincn\ the latter having 
 lobate webs on the toes like the grebes. 
 
 That the rails are birds of an ancient origin is undoubted. Their feeble 
 powers of flight are compensated for by their swiftness of foot and power of 
 concealment, and at the present day there are many flightless rails, de- 
 scendants of an ancient stock. At the same time there are species, like our 
 corn-crake (Crex crex\ which are capable of long migrations, as are also others 
 of the crakes ; but, as a rule, the rails are stay-at-home birds, and do not 
 care for long journeys across the seas. With the exception of the blue water- 
 hens (Porphyrio), they are birds of rather sombre coloration. 
 
 Numerous fossil species of rails have been described from the Miocene and 
 Eocene formations, and in America extinct forms (Tdmatornis) have been 
 found in the Cretaceous. 
 
 Fifty-three genera of rails have been admitted by me in the twenty-third 
 volume of the " Catalogue of Birds," and the following are the most remark- 
 able, and call for special notice. The Rallidce may be divided into three 
 great groups true rails (Rallincti), crakes (Crecwct), and coots (Fulicittce). 
 As before mentioned, on account of their lobed toes, the coots may be even 
 further separated from the rails and crakes. 
 
 In the rails the bill is long and slender, so as to exceed in length the 
 middle toe and claw. The crakes have a shorter and stouter bill. The 
 true rails may be divided into two groups, water-rails and wood-rails. Of 
 the former four genera are recognised, and our English water-rail is the 
 
WA TER-RAILS WOOD-RAILS. 
 
 249 
 
 type of this section. The water-rail is certainly not a bird to be observed 
 every day. It is the impersonification of shyness and retiring habits. A 
 coot or a moor-hen is often seen in the open, and may 
 
 be observed from the windows of a railway train, swimming The Rails. 
 
 about on lakes or pools of water, the coot easily discernible Sub-Family 
 by its waxy-white shield on the forehead, the moor-hen by Rallince. 
 its red frontal shield and the bright red garter above the 
 hock, which is easily in evidence as it swims. The water-rail, on the con- 
 trary, is never seen, nor can its voice be heard, like that of the noisy corn- 
 crake. It is a bird of the reed-beds and the marshes, and is so disinclined 
 for flight, that even when pursued by a dog, it will double and turn and 
 twist, rather than fly, and is often caught by the dogs before it can bring 
 itself to use its wings. The eggs are numerous, from seven to eleven in 
 number, of a creamy white, double-spotted, with 
 reddish - brown overlying spots and ashy -grey 
 underlying ones. The nest is well concealed 
 among coarse herbage, of which it is composed, 
 and the young are covered with black down, and 
 can take care of themselves soon after they are 
 hatched, swimming and diving, and managing to 
 conceal themselves from danger in a marvellous 
 manner. 
 
 The water-rails are found all over the New 
 World, and also in the Old World, except in the 
 Irido-Malayan sub-region and the whole of the 
 Australian region, where their place is taken by 
 the barred rails (Hypotcenidia). In the tropical 
 regions of South America, Limnopardalus replaces 
 the genus Rattus, and in the islands of the Aus- 
 tralian region, the dusky rails (Cabalus) are one 
 of the most curious forms of bird-life. In the 
 Chatham Islands is, or rather was, found C. 
 dieffenbachii, now believed to be extinct, and in these islands also occurs C. 
 modestus, a dusky-brown species, which cannot fly, and is also on the verge of 
 extinction, while a third species, C. sylvestris, is peculiar to Lord Howe Island. 
 
 These are birds of the bush and forest, though showing considerable likeness 
 to the water-hens. They are found in both hemispheres, and one genus at 
 least, Megacrex, from Southern New Guinea, is incapable of 
 flight. The black wood-rail (Habroptila wallacii) was dis- The Wood-Rails, 
 covered by Dr. A. R. Wallace in the island of Halmahera 
 in the Moluccas, and when sent home by him, the species was described and 
 figured in the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society," as an ordinary rail 
 standing in the water. Consequently, when the Dutch travellers received 
 instructions from Professor Schlegel to be sure and find Habroptila, they 
 searched for the bird in the marshes, but ultimately discovered it in the 
 bush. It is altogether a curious form, black like a water-hen, and having a 
 small frontal shield. 
 
 Perhaps one of the most interesting genera of this group of rails are the 
 wood-rails of the iieo-tropical region (Aramides), which have a somewhat 
 ornamental plumage of rufous and grey, with a bright yellow bill and red 
 legs. Of late years they have been seen in the aviaries and zoological 
 gardens of Europe, and have even been known to nest in captivity. 
 
 Fig. 16 WATER-RAIL 
 (Rallus aquaticus). 
 
2 50 A VES RDER RALL I FORMES. 
 
 Of the ypecaha wood-rail of Argentina (Aramides ypecaha) Mr. Hudson, 
 the biographer of Argentine birds, has given many amusing details, and ho 
 credits the species with considerable intelligence, repudiating the idea that 
 this wood-rail is to be considered an ideal member of what has been 
 called a "stupid family" of birds. He writes : "On spying an intruder, 
 it immediately utters a powerful cry, in strength and intonation not unlike 
 that of the pea-fowl. This note. of alarm is answered by other birds ab a 
 distance as they hastily advance to the spot whence tho warning was 
 sounded. The cry is repeated at irregular intervals, first on one side, then 
 oil the other, as the birds change their position to dog the intruder's steps 
 and inspect him from the reeds. I have surprised parties of them in an open 
 space, and shot one or more ; but no sooner had the survivors gained their 
 refuge, than they turned about to watch and. follow me, sounding their power- 
 ful alarm the whole time. I have frequently been followed half a mile 
 through the rushes by them, and by lying close and mimicking their cries, 
 have always succeeded in drawing them about me. But the ypecaha's loudest 
 notes of alarm are weak compared with the cries he utters ab other timesj 
 when, untroubled with a strange presence, he pours out his soul in screams 
 and shrieks that amaze the listener with their unparalleled power. These 
 screams, in all their changes and modulations, have a resemblance to the 
 human voice, but of the human voice exerted to its utmost pitch, ar,d ex- 
 pressive of agony, frenzy, and despair. A long piercing shriek, astonishing 
 for its strength and vehemence, is succeeded by a lower note, as if in. the 
 first one the creature had well-nigh exhausted itself. The double scream ia 
 repeated several times ; then follow other sounds, resembling, as they rise 
 and fall, half-suppressed cries of pain and moans of anguish. Suddenly the 
 unearthly shrieks are renewed in ail their power. This is kept up for some 
 time, several birds screaming in concert ; it is renewed at intervals through- 
 out the day, and again at set of sun, when the woods and marshes resound 
 with the extravagant uproar. I have said that several birds unite in scream- 
 ing ; this is invariably the case. I have enjoyed the rare pleasure of 
 witnessing the birds at such times, and the screams then seem a fit accom- 
 paniment to their disordered gestures and motions. A dozen or twenty 
 birds have their place of reunion on a small area of smooth, clean ground 
 surrounded by reeds ; and by lying well concealed and exercising some 
 patience, one is enabled to watch their proceedings. First one lf>ird is heard 
 to utter a loud metallic-sounding note, three times repeated, and somewhat 
 like the call of the guinea-fowl. It issues from the reeds, and is a note of 
 invitation quickly responded to by other birds on every hand as they all 
 hurriedly repair to the customary spot. In a few moments, and almost 
 simultaneously, the birds appear, emerging from the reeds and running into 
 the open space, where they all immediately whirl about and begin the exhibi- 
 tion. Whilst screaming, they rush from side to side as if possessed with 
 frenzy, the wings spread and agitated, the beak wide open and raised 
 vertically. I never observed them fight or manifest anger towards each other 
 during these performances ; and, knowing the pugnacious spirit of the 
 
 ypecahas, and how ready they are to seek a quarrel with birds of other 
 species, this at first surprised me, for I was then under the mistaken im- 
 pression that these gatherings were in some way related to the sexual instinct. 
 Whilst watching them I also remarked another circumstance. When con- 
 cealing myself amongst the rushes I have been compelled to place myself so 
 diaadvantageously, owing to the wet ground, that any single bird straying 
 
CRAKES. 251 
 
 accidentally into the open space would have discovered my presence im- 
 mediately ; yet the birds have entered and finished their performance with- 
 out seeing me, so carried away are they by the emotion that possesses them 
 during these moments. But no sooner has the wild chorus ended than, 
 aware of my presence, they have fled precipitately into the reeds. " 
 
 These are rails with a stout bill, the culmeii being shorter than the middle 
 toe and claw. They may be divided into two sections, distinguished by the 
 presence or absence of a bare frontal shield. Those which 
 possess the latter characters are the moor-hens. The Crakes. 
 
 Among the largest of the crakes are the weka rails of New Sub-Family 
 Zealand (Ocydromus), of which there are three species. These Crecince. 
 birds are remarkable for their pugnacious disposition, and 
 also for the tameness with which they will wander from their homes in the 
 bush, even entering camps and houses. They are heavy-bodied birds, with 
 feeble wings, which are insufficient to carry them through the air, and they 
 are consequently incapable of flight. Like their distant relative, the Apteryx, 
 they serve themselves by running only, and are also protected by their 
 crepuscular habits, being more lively at night than in the day, and calling 
 throughout the dark hours. These birds evince a curious antipathy to any- 
 thing of a red colour, and this is the more interesting as remains of extinct 
 forms of weka rails have been found in the Mascarene Islands, one of which 
 is known as Erythromachus, "the fighter of red." The former distribution 
 of forms of flightless rails in New Zealand and the Chatham Islands, almost, 
 if not absolutely, identical with each other, has given rise to some very in- 
 teresting speculations as to whether there was an ancient continuation af 
 land area between these two portions of the globe. Certainly the discovery 
 of the remains of an extinct genus, Aphawi-pteryx, in Mauritius and in the 
 Chatham Islands, is very remarkable. 
 
 Of these, the most typical form is our corn-crake or land- rail (Crex crex\ 
 whose harsh voice is heard in the hay-fields during the summer, often far into 
 the night. Like all of its kind, the corn-crake loves seclu- 
 sion, and is seldom seen on the wing, except during the The SmaUer 
 shooting season, when the birds are driven up by the dogs. Crakes. 
 
 Even then they only take short flights, and drop into cover 
 again. Everything points to the wing-power of the corn-crake being of the 
 feeblest description and yet we know that it must be a bird capable of cover- 
 ing considerable distances, as it reaches South Africa on its winter migration. 
 The little crake (Zapornia parva), the spotted crake (Porzaua porzana), and 
 Baillon's crake (Porzana intermedia), are all species which visit England, and 
 the genus Porzana may be said to be cosmopolitan in its range. In the 
 Sandwich Islands were found two curious flightless crakes of small size, 
 Pennula ecaudata and P. sandivichensis, and" in the island of Kushai also lived 
 till recently a small black crake (Aphanolimnas monasd). All these interest- 
 ing little birds are now believed to be extinct, and as they could not fly, they 
 were doubtless exterminated by cats and rats. In the island of Laysan in 
 the Pacific, however, there still exists one of these curious little crakes, 
 Porzanula palmeri. 
 
 Numerous genera of small crakes are known, of which space does not per- 
 mit us to give a detailed description ; but the distribution of the white- 
 winged crakes (Ortygops) is deserving of special mention. There are four 
 species, each of 'which is peculiar fur having some white quills, which are 
 very conspicuous when the bird flies. The distribution of the four species is 
 
252 A FES ORDER RALLIFORMES. 
 
 very interesting. One, 0. novcboracensis, is only found in North America ; a 
 second, 0. exquisita, in Eastern Siberia and China ; a third, 0. notata, in 
 Uruguay ; and a fourth, 0. ayresi, in South-Eastern Africa. 
 
 Passing from the crakes to the water-hens, we find many varied forms, 
 some of them flightless, as Pareudiastes ^acificus, the black water-hen of 
 Samoa, and the isolated water-hens of Tristan d'Acunha (Porphyriornis 
 nesiotis) and of Gough Island (P. comeri). All rails, isolated on any island, 
 appear to become rapidly incapable of flight. They seem to be birds which 
 are always averse to taking wing, and doubtless for this reason the power of 
 flight soon disappears ; but they are, as a rule, perfectly able to take care of 
 themselves by running, or by concealing themselves in the grass. 
 
 The water-hens are found all over the world, and are all very similar to our 
 own species, the " moor-hen," as it is frequently called (Galliuula chloropus). 
 They are birds of black plumage, and have a bare red shield 
 The Water-Hens, on the forehead. The most brilliant of all the rails are 
 Genus the blue water-hens (Porphyrio), which are found all over 
 Galliuula. the Old World, from the Mediterranean over Africa, and 
 from India and China to Australia, They are very hand- 
 some birds, with bright red bills and red legs, contrasting with their blue and 
 green plumage, and in many places they are kept in confinement as orna- 
 mental fowl ; they are, however, somewhat destructive and mischievous. 
 The largest of the blue water-hens is the famous Notornis of New Zealand, 
 which is a giant form, incapable of flight, and believed to have become ex- 
 tinct during recent years. A fossil form of rail, Aptomis, also from New 
 Zealand, was at first believed to be a small kind of moa, which will give some 
 idea of its large size. 
 
 These birds are remarkable for their stout bodies, bare frontal shield of 
 ivory-white or yellow, and, above all, for their curiously lobed toes. They 
 
 are found in nearly every 
 The Coo.ts. part of the globe, and several 
 Sub-family species are met with in South 
 Fulicina. America. One of the most 
 curious of the ancient forms 
 was the extinct Leguatia gigantea of Mauri- 
 tius. 
 
 These curious birds are intermediate be- 
 tween the rails and the grebes, and are chiefly Fig 17 _ THE FIN FOOT. 
 
 remarkable for their lobed (Heiiomis fulica). 
 
 The Finfeet. toes, which in the South 
 
 Family American finfoot (Heliornis fulica) are banded with black and 
 
 Hdiornithidce. yellow. Whereas all the rails, as well as the water-hens 
 and coots, have the nestlings clothed in black down, the young 
 finfoot is said to be hatched naked. At present very little is known about 
 these birds and their habits, and the above statement may turn out to be 
 incorrect. It certainly, seems to be very unlikely that birds so obviously 
 connected with the rails and grebes should have anything but downy young. 
 There are three genera of the Heliornithidce Podica from Africa, Heliopais 
 from Burma and Malacca, and Heliornis from South America. All the species 
 are very shy and difficult of observation. The Senegal finfoot (Podica sene- 
 galensis) was found by Mr. Biittikofer in Liberia, and his is apparently the 
 only record of the habits of the birds. They swim about in pairs, and do not 
 seek to escape by diving, like the rails or grebes, but simply by concealing 
 
ORDER PODICIPEDIDIFORMES GREBES. 
 
 253 
 
 The Grebes. 
 Order 
 
 Podicipedidi- 
 formes. 
 
 themselves in the foliage on the banks. When flying, which they seldom do, 
 they go heavily, striking the water with their bill and feet. 
 
 These birds are familiarly known on account of the use made of their 
 beautiful white breasts for muffs or the trimming of dresses, but in a wild 
 state they are not easy to observe, as they are among the 
 shiest of birds. Although the species are not very numerous, 
 there is scarcely a portion of the globe which grebes do nob 
 inhabit. The feet are lobed, and there is never any visible 
 tail, the broad rectrices of other birds being represented 
 in the grebes by a tuft of downy plumes. 
 
 The Sclavonian Grebe is one of the most beautiful of the order, and is an in- 
 habitant of the northern portions of both hemispheres. It is not an unfrequent 
 visitor to Great Britain in winter. The great-crested grebe 
 (Podicipes cristatus) is almost cosmopolitan in its range, and is The Sclavonian 
 the largest of the British species. It is still to be found nesting Grebe (Podicipes 
 on some of the Norfolk broads and inland lakes of England, auritus). 
 building, like all grebes, a nest of the dampest description, 
 composed of weeds and rushes. The eggs are at first white, but become 
 stained in a very short time, as the bird generally 
 covers them up with weeds on leaving the nest. 
 All the grebes are splendid divers, and even the 
 little nestlings take to the water soon after they are 
 hatched, a.nd escape either by diving or by hiding 
 themselves in the weeds and rushes. The nestlings 
 are very pretty little creatures, covered with soft 
 down of a zebra-like pattern in streaks of white and 
 black or brown. 
 
 There are not many genera of the grebes, most of 
 the species belonging to the genus Podicipes, but in 
 America the thick-billed grebe belongs to a distinct 
 genus, Podilymbus, while on Lake Titicaca, in 
 Bolivia, is found a large form, Centropelma, which 
 has such small wings that it is apparently incapable 
 of flight. 
 
 The dabchick of our English waters (Tachybaptes 
 flumatilis) is one of the smallest grebes, and is dis- 
 tributed over the greater part of the Palsearctie region, but is replaced by an 
 allied species in Africa (T. capensis], and in India by 7'. albipennis. 
 
 In the summer the dabchick frequents rivers, lakes, and even ponds 
 and small sheets of water, where it builds a nest of weeds, which are 
 always in a moist condition, and the nest always resembles a small heap of 
 refuse more than anything else. A dabchick is a pretty object to watch, but 
 it is so shy a bird that a near approach is impossible, and it is only at a dis- 
 tance that they can be seen swimming about on the water. On the first sign 
 of danger, it disappears like magic, and comes to the surface again for a 
 second, only to dive again out of sight on the instant. If one of them be sur- 
 prised in the open, it will dive immediately, and if there be a bed of reeds or 
 other shelter, it makes for them under the water, and one never knows at what 
 distance its head will reappear. Twenty and thirty yards is by no means an 
 uncommon dive for a dabchick to make, and it uses its lobed feet as propellers 
 and steerers, not making much use of its wings, which are held close to the 
 body, the stumpy and soft tail being of no sort of use to it as a steering apparatus. 
 
 Fig, is. THE SCLAVONIAN 
 GREBE (Podicipes auritus). 
 
254 
 
 A VES ORDER COL YMBIFORMES. 
 
 The downy nestlings are striped, and in the first plumage the dabchicks are 
 brown above. In the autumn they are to a certain extent migratory, and are 
 shot in our tidal harbours ; but in mild winters they do not desert their native 
 homes. In summer, both sexes don a nuptial plumage, with a yellow patch 
 on the bill and a black breast, against which the rufous colour of the face and 
 neck forms a striking contrast. In all the 
 grebes, the brighter colours and the ornamental 
 tippets and crests are dropped during the winter 
 season. 
 
 The divers are birds of the Northern Hemi- 
 sphere, few in number and arctic in habitat. 
 Four species are known, all of 
 The Divers. which are found in Great Bri- 
 Order tain, two of them nesting within 
 
 Colymbiformes. our limits. The red -throated 
 diver (Colymbus septentrional is) 
 is one of them, and the black-throated diver (C. 
 arcticus) is the second. The great northern 
 diver (C. glacialis) is a more or less frequent 
 visitor in winter, and the white-billed diver 
 (C. adamsi) has occurred a few times. 
 
 This is chiefly known as an inhabitant of 
 North America and Iceland, as the great north- 
 ern diver which breeds in the 
 Old World will probably be 
 found to be C. adamsi. The 
 
 habits of all the divers are much the same. On the water 
 they are at home, swimming about and diving with the great- 
 est of ease ; but on land they are very awkward, and the 
 backward position of their legs seems to make it impossible for the birds 
 ever to stand upright. In fact, they seem to shuffle along the ground with a 
 
 The Great 
 Northern Diver 
 
 (Colymbus 
 glacialis) . 
 
 Fig. 19. THE LITTLE GKEBE OR 
 
 DABCHICK 
 (Tachylaptes Jluviatilis). 
 
 snake-like motion, and never walk. They excel all the grebes in their power 
 
 of flight, though, as a rule, they trust 
 to their swimming and diving powers 
 to escape from danger, and are often 
 to be seen swimming in the sea far 
 away from land ; and they are also able 
 to submerge their bodies, so that only 
 the head and neck is exposed, and 
 they can remain under water for an 
 astonishing time, the great northern 
 diver having been known to remain 
 below the surface for eight minutes. 
 The nesting-place is on some inland loch 
 or secluded lake, and the nest is a 
 poorly constructed affair. The eggs are 
 two in number, of a russet-brown or olive-brown colour, with black spots and 
 fainter block underlying markings. 
 
 The divers differ from the grebes in having webbed feet and a well-developed 
 tail. The young birds are covered with down, and are able to dive and shift 
 for themselves shortly after they are hatched. The sexes are alike in plum- 
 age, and they have a distinct summer and winter dress, as with the grebes. 
 
 Fig. 20. THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER 
 (Colymbus glacialis). 
 
PENGUINS. 
 
 255 
 
 The penguins are birds of the Southern Hemisphere, the most northerly 
 ranging species occurring in the Galapagos Islands, off the coast of South 
 America. They are chiefly remarkable for their close-set 
 plumage, unlike that of any other birds, and the flipper-like Tlie Penguins. 
 character of their wings. The feathers, which are harsh and Order 
 
 scaly, and generally devoid of barbs, are distributed over Sphenisciformes. 
 the whole body, so that there are no bare spaces between the 
 feather-tracts, as in most birds. Penguins are found in astonishing numbers 
 in the Southern Seas, especially at their breeding- 
 places, which are selected on rocky islands, 
 such as Kerguelen, Tristan d'Acunha, the islets 
 round New Zealand, and the Falklands. As they 
 cannot fly, great havoc is worked among them 
 on their island homes during the nesting 
 season, when thousands are killed for the sake 
 of their oil. 
 
 The penguins vary very much in size, 
 from the diminutive Eudypiila minor to the 
 gigantic emperor and king penguins (Apteno- 
 dytes patachonica) of the Antarctic Seas. They 
 always walk or hop in an erect position, 
 and they are assisted in the support of 
 their heavy bodies by the unusual strength 
 of their tarsi, the metatarsal bone being 
 very shorb and wide. The scapular bone 
 is also of unusual width for a bird. The 
 nestlings are covered with dense down, which 
 is retained for a considerable period, until, in 
 fact, the birds are nearly full-grown. 
 
 The habits of all the penguins are very similar, and the following account 
 of the "Johnnie" (Pygoscelis taniata), by the Rev. A. E. Eaton, who 
 observed the species on Kerguelen Island, during the <k Transit of Venus 
 Expedition," is very characteristic of the order, and we therefore give the 
 following extracts : 
 
 "It builds in communities, some of only a dozen, others from 70 to 150 
 families. A more populous colony was visited by six officers from the ships, 
 who estimated the number of nests in it to amount to 2,000 or more. 
 These larger communities are approached from the sea by regular paths, 
 conspicuous at a distance, like well-worn sheep tracks, which lead straight up 
 the hill from the water. Their formation is due to the penguins being very 
 particular about where they land and enter the sea. A small party of the 
 birds occupied a position upon the neck of a low promontory within an hour's 
 walk of Observatory Bay. Their nests were nearest to the farther side of 
 the isthmus ; bub when they were approached, the male birds used to run to 
 the water, not by the shortest route where it was deep close to the rocks, bub 
 by the longest to a place where the shore was shelving. It was amusing to 
 see them start off in a troop as fast as their legs could carry them, holding 
 out their wings and tumbling headlong over stones in their way, because as 
 they ran they would keep looking back instead of before them, and to hear 
 their outcries. Panic and consternation seemed to possess them all ; bub 
 the females (possibly because they could nob keep up with their mates) 
 seldom went far from their nests, and, if the intruder stood still, soon 
 
 Fig. 21. THE KING PENGUIN 
 (Aptenodytes longirostris). 
 
256 AVES ORDER SPHENISCIFORMES. 
 
 returned and settled down again upon their eggs. Not many weeks had 
 passed before a change was effected in their conduct. The young were 
 hatched, and now the mothers anxiously endeavoured to persuade them to 
 follow the example of their fathers, and run away to sea. But the nestlings 
 preferred to stay in their nests ; they did not mind if the stranger did stroke 
 them, although their anxious mothers ran at him with open mouths whenever 
 he dared to do so. Only a few of the older chicks could be prevailed upon 
 to stir, and they, after waddling a few yards, became satisfied with their 
 performance, and turned to go home again. The mothers, who had straggled 
 to a greater distance, began to return too. It was now that the more tardy 
 youngsters began to experience the ills of life. Every penguin that had 
 reached its place before them aimed blows at them as they passed by towards 
 their own abodes. One of the little birds certainly did seem to deserve 
 correction. It saw its neighbour's nest empty, and sat down in it. The old 
 female Johnnie, the rightful occupier, presently returned in company with 
 her own chick, to whom, having put her head well into his mouth, she began 
 to administer refreshment after his run. Seeing them so pleasantly engaged, 
 the small vagrant, thoughtlessly presuming upon her generosity, went nearer 
 and presented himself to be fed also, as if he had a right to her attention 
 and care. She looked at him while he stood gaping before her with drooping 
 wings, unable for the moment to credit what she saw. But suddenly the 
 truth flashed upon her, and, provoked by his consummate audacity, she gave 
 vent to her indignation, pecked his tongue as hard as she could, chased him 
 out of the nest, darting blows at his back, and croaked ominously after him 
 as he fled precipitately beyond the range of her beak, leaving trophies of 
 down upon the scene of his unfortunate adventure. The whole of this 
 community of penguins was subsequently boiled down into 'hare soup 3 for 
 the officers of H.M.S. Volage, and very nice they found it. The nests were 
 composed of dried leaf-stalks and seed-stems of pringlea, together with such 
 other suitable material as happened to be at hand. There were two eggs in 
 every nest, and one of them was invariably larger than the other. Most 
 likely the birds hatched from the larger eggs are of the opposite sex to those 
 which are produced from the smaller. Whether the big or the little egg is 
 the first to be laid was not ascertained. 
 
 ' ' As is the case with many other kinds of birds, Johnnies are very regular 
 in their habits. Every afternoon at nearly the same time they repair to the 
 shore when they have done fishing, landing in small parties at their 
 accustomed places at the heads of shallow inlets. On issuing from the 
 water they dispose themselves to rest, seldom proceeding beyond the verge 
 of the shore. Those which are inclined to sleep put their heads behind their 
 flippers ; the others stand amongst them with their neck shortened so as to 
 bring the head down close to the body, with the beak slanting upwards and 
 forwards, somewhat in the manner of a very young thrush during repose. 
 Their eyes present a rather tearful appearance, and resemble bits of dull 
 black glass set in their heads, perhaps the nictitating membrane may be 
 kept drawn over them. At frequent intervals a kind of watery fluid is 
 
 ejected from their mouth by a shake of the head." 
 
 The Petrels. The petrels are also often called the Tubinares, on account 
 
 Order Pro- of their tubular nostrils. They are generally associated with 
 
 cellariiformes. the gulls, but there is really little in common between the 
 
 two groups, beyond the fact that they are both marine orders 
 
 of birds. The petrels differ from the gulls in many important anatomical 
 
PETRELS. 257 
 
 and osteological characters, but we need go no further here than to specialize 
 their peculiar nostril and bill, the covering of the latter consisting of several 
 horny pieces separated by deep grooves. 
 
 The albatroses are the largest of the petrels, and, indeed, possess a 
 wider spread of wing than any known bird. On the other hand, some 
 of the storm-petrels are hardly larger than a swallow. All of them have 
 a peculiar odour, a sort of musky smell, which clings to the person after 
 handling a number of these birds. The eggs, too, are impregnated with 
 this smell, which adheres to them for years after they have been in a 
 cabinet. 
 
 The petrels lay but one egg, and this is generally concealed under a rock 
 or boulder, the nest being of the flimsiest description, though the albatroses 
 make a rough nest in the open. The young are covered with down, and re- 
 main helpless for some time in the nest ; the down is generally of a sooty 
 colour, but is white in the case of some of the larger albatroses. Mr. Osbert 
 Salvin, in his recent work on the group, recognises four families Pro- 
 cellariidce or storm-petrels, PuffinicU'e or shearwaters, Pdecanoidce or diving- 
 petrels, and Diomedeidce or albatroses. 
 
 There are two sub-families of the Procellariidte, the short-legged petrels 
 (Procellariince), and the long-legged petrels (Oceanitince). In the former we 
 find the storm-petrel of the British coast (Procellaria pelagica), which is the 
 typical form of the group. Jt inhabits the North Atlantic Ocean as far south 
 as West Africa, and enters the Mediterranean Sea. At the nesting time it 
 visits the islands and western coasts of 
 Great Britain, but has not been found 
 breeding on the east coasts of England 
 or Scotland. Another well-known member 
 of the storm-petrels is the fork-tailed or 
 Leach's petrel, which is found throughout 
 the North Atlantic, and also occurs in the 
 Japanese Islands. It is a larger bird than 
 the storm-petrel, and is easily known by its 
 forked tail. It breeds on some of the 
 Outer Hebrides and also on the islands off 
 the coast of Kerry. A curious instance of 
 the way in which petrels are distributed over the ocean, and how very little 
 we really know of their range, has lately been noted in England, where in 
 December, 1895, a specimen of the Canarian fork-tailed petrel was obtained 
 for the first time, at Littlestone in Kent. It is only fourteen years ago that 
 this species was described by Mr. Ridgway from the Sandwich Islands in 
 the Pacific, to which it was believed to be confined. In 1895 Mr. Ogilvie- 
 Grant discovered it on the Salvage Islands in the Atlantic, and now the 
 British Museum contains specimens from Madeira and the Desertas group, 
 as well as from St. Helena. It has also been recently discovered as an in- 
 habitant of the Galapagos Islands off South America. Another remarkable 
 case occurred a few years ago, when a petrel from the Fiji Islands and the 
 New Hebrides, (Estrelata brevipes, one of the rarest of all petrels, turned up 
 unexpectedly in Wales. It had never been heard of before away from the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 This family is numerously represented in all the great oceans of the world, 
 with the exception of the Indian Ocean, where there are not so many species. 
 The British Islands are visited by several species of PiiffmuSy and one, the 
 18 
 
258 A VES ORDER PROCELLARIIFORMES. 
 
 manx shearwater, is resident and breeds on St. Kilda, as well as in other 
 places in the west of Europe. Like all other members of their family, the 
 shearwaters are birds of rapid flight, and may be seen in 
 The Shearwaters flocks far out at sea, apparently revelling in the rough 
 and Fulmars. weather. 
 
 Family The fulmar-petrels (sub-family Fidmarince) are also very 
 
 Puffinida!. widely distributed over all the oceans, and some of them 
 
 are as large as gulls, one species, Ossifraga yiyaulea, 
 
 from the Southern Seas, being as large as some of the albatroses. The 
 
 common fulmar - petrel (Fulmanis glacialis) is a well-known inhabitant 
 
 of the seas of Arctic Europe, and nests on St. Kilda and the Shetland 
 
 Islands. 
 
 The diving-petrels (Pelecnnoididie) are curious little birds from the Southern 
 Seas, which have much the appearance of the little auk (Mergulns alle) of 
 the Northern Hemisphere. Mr. Eaton says that, like that species, the diving- 
 petrels have a hurried flight, and dive into the sea without any interruption 
 of the action of their wings; both also emerge from beneath the surface fly- 
 ing, and they both swim with their tails rather deep in the water. This 
 resemblance, he says, does not extend to other particulars of their habits. 
 The little auk, when breeding, usually flies and fishes in small flocks of six or 
 a dozen birds, and nests in communities of considerable size, which are ex- 
 ceedingly noisy. Diving-petrels, on the other hand, are more domestic in 
 their mode of living, fishing and flying for the most part in pairs or alone, 
 and nest sporadically. Their burrows are about as small in diameter as the 
 holes of bank martins or kingfishers. They are made in dry banks and 
 slopes where the ground is easily penetrable, and terminate in an enlarged 
 chamber, on the floor of which the egg is deposited. There is no specially 
 constructed nest. Some of the burrows are branched, but the branches are 
 without terminal enlargements, and do not appear to be put to any use by 
 the birds. 
 
 The family of albatroses or Diomedeidce contains three genera, Diomedea 
 with nine species of true albatroses, Thalasso(jero)i,<>?cu\m'ina,ted albatroses, with 
 
 five species, and Pluebetria, or 
 sooty albatroses, with a single 
 species. Most of the members 
 of this family are birds of wide 
 range, whence the common 
 species gets its name of "wan- 
 dering." They are remarkable 
 for their wide extent of wing 
 and their graceful and sus- 
 tained flight. At certain periods 
 of the j'ear they resort to the 
 islands in the Southern oceans 
 to Dreec ^ an( l the gatherings 
 which take place are some- 
 
 times incredible. Thus on the 
 
 Fig. 23.-THK WANDERING ALBATROS island of Laysan, in the Pacific, 
 
 (Diomedea exulans). thousands upon thousands of 
 
 eggs of the white albatros 
 
 (Diomedea immutcibilis) are collected. Mr. Palmer, who visited this island 
 on behalf of the Hon. Walter Rothschild, says that the birds literally covered 
 
ALB ATROSES AUKS. 259 
 
 the surface of Laysan, the young in some places being as thick as they could 
 stand. He writes : " It is very curious to watch the love-making antics of 
 the birds. First they stand face to face, then they begin nodding and bow- 
 ing vigorously, and then rub their bills together with a whistling cry ; after 
 this they begin shaking their heads and snapping their bills with marvellous 
 rapidity, occasionally lifting one wing, straightening themselves out, and 
 blowing out their breasts ; then they put their bill under their wings or toss 
 it in the air, with a groaning scream, and walk round each other, often for 
 fifteen minutes at a time. They are quite fearless, and do not move out of 
 the way. When Mr. Freeth was going to the guano-field on his tram- 
 way-line, he had to send a boy ahead to clear the tracks of the young 
 albatroses." 
 
 Mr. D. le Souef gives a very interesting account of a visit to Albatros 
 Island in Bass' Straits, Australia : " The nests of the cautious albatros 
 (Thalassogeron catitus) are situated at varying distances one from the other, 
 from a foot upwards, some on the ground, and others again on the uneven 
 side or top of a point of rock. Some of the birds had come on shore to rest 
 only, while a few of them had their heads turned back and partially under 
 their wings, and were asleep. When one wished to fly it had to walk to the 
 edge of the cliff, and go off with a downward sweep ; but when the wind was 
 blowing very strong the bird could then rise, facing it, from a point of rock. 
 One bird 1 found in a depression about 60 feet across and 30 feet deep, with 
 steep sides, and as it could neither climb or fly out I caught it and climbed 
 up the bank with the bird under rny arm, and took it back to the " rookery. ' 
 On approaching very close to the birds, they would partly stand up on their 
 nest, leaning backwards and apparently resting the tail on the edge of the 
 nest, and then facing the intruder. When one was within two feet of them, 
 they would utter a loud cackling noise, shaking their heads up and down, 
 and opening and shutting their beaks rapidly. A considerable noise was 
 made by the mandibles coming together, and at the same time a strong- 
 smelling oily secretion was thrown up. In order to secure an egg, the beak 
 of the bird was caught hold of with one hand and the egg taken up with the 
 other, and on stepping back the beak was let go again. The bird would then 
 sit or stand on its nest for some time afterwards. The birds often had diffi- 
 culty in alighting on a particular spot, when the wind was blowing strongly 
 on to their breeding-ground from the sea, as they always flew against the 
 wind when desiring to alight, and I have watched them sometimes try 
 seven or eight times before they could successfully accomplish their object. 
 They came up with considerable force, holding their heads well back, and 
 stretching out their expanded feet at the same time, and the fact of 
 having their win^s half -closed gave them a very ungainly appearance when 
 alighting." 
 
 The auks are birds of the Northern Seas. They form a peculiar group, and 
 are usually associated with the gulls, from which birds, however, they differ 
 in many important characters, though in their osteology the 
 two orders have many points in common. Externally, how- The Auks. 
 ever, the differences are apparent at a glance. The gulls are Order Alcce. 
 splendid flyers, but are no great divers, while diving is one 
 of the chief features of an auk's economy. Again, the gulls make a nest of 
 some sort, the auks seldom or never, for the latter birds select a bare ledge 
 or cleft of a cliff, or the broken rocks, on which to lay their egg, the colour 
 and markings of which are entirely different from those of any gull or tern. 
 
260 
 
 AVES ORDER ALCIFORMES. 
 
 Fig 24. THE GREAT AUK 
 (Pldutus impennis). 
 
 One of the most interesting of all the Alcce is the great auk, which was a 
 kind of gigantic razorbill, but possessing such diminutive wings that the 
 power of flight was denied to it. It has become extinct during the first half 
 of the present century, and specimens of the bird and the egg fetch large 
 prices whenever they come into the market. The great auk, as Professor 
 Newton has pointed out, owes its extinction entirely to the agency of man, 
 who hunted the bird to its destruction. It seems to have had a compara- 
 tively limited range, having been abundant in 
 Newfoundland and the adjacent shores of North 
 America and Iceland, ranging in smaller num- 
 bers to the Hebrides and the shores of 
 Northern Britain. 
 
 The razorbill ( Aha torda) and the guillemot 
 (Uria troile) are well-known British birds, 
 which breed in vast numbers on our coasts, 
 the best-known nesting colonies being on the 
 cliffs of Flam borough and on the Fame Islands, 
 Here large numbers of the eggs are taken every 
 year, those of the guillemot presenting an end- 
 less variety of colour and marking. The black 
 guillemot (Uria yrylle) nests in the Arctic 
 regions, and in the north of Scotland and Ire- 
 land, and the rotche or little auk (Mergidus 
 alle) is a winter visitor to Great Britain, being 
 often driven far inland by stress of weather. 
 The breeding-places of the little auk have 
 been described as tenanted by countless thou- 
 sands, Admiral Beechey having stated that he saw a column of these birds 
 on the wing at one time which he estimated at four millions ! 
 
 Our English puftin, or sea-parrot, is a representative of the group of the 
 auks which are most numerous in the North Pacific Ocean, where several 
 crested species are found. They are re- 
 markable for the coloration of the bill, 
 which is grooved in a curious fashion, 
 and exhibits bright colours, while there 
 is also a blue excrescence above the eye. 
 These ornamental features of the bird's 
 bill are a sign of the breeding-season, 
 and are shed as by a moult in the winter, 
 to be resumed in the following spring. 
 The birds of the year have quite a small 
 bill, without any of the grooving or 
 coloured ornamentation which character- 
 ises the adults. Puffins differ from the 
 other auks in their nesting habits, the 
 egg, which is white, with occasionally a 
 few indistinct markings, being placed in a rabbit burrow, or in a hole 
 tunnelled by the birds themselves. 
 
 The gulls are divided into two families, the true gulls, or Laridce, and the 
 skuas, or Stercorariidce. The general appearance of gulls is too well known 
 to detain us long with the characters which define the order, which is admitted 
 to be closely related to the order Charadriiformes, the great group of plovers 
 
 Fig. 25. THE PUFFIN (Fratercula 
 arctica). 
 
GULLS TERNS. 
 
 261 
 
 and snipes, with which the Gulls possess many anatomical characters in 
 common, though they differ from the plovers and their allies in having 
 webbed feet. The Laridce, or true gulls, differ from the 
 
 skuas in having no " cere ' J on the bill, which is a feature The Gulls 
 
 in the latter family. The cere is a wax-like bare space at Order 
 
 the base ot the bill, a common characteristic of Hawks and Lariformes. 
 Parrots, but rare in every other order of birds, and it is 
 decidedly interesting that it should reappear in a family of gulls, especially 
 as it is combined with a decidedly rapacious disposition in the skuas. 
 
 The family Laridce is divided by Mr. Howard Saunders into three sub- 
 families: the terns, or sea-swallows (Sternince) ; the skimners (Rhynchopince) ; 
 and the gulls (Larince). 
 
 The sea-swallows are found all over the world, from the high north to the 
 extreme south. They are mostly marine, but many of them are birds of the 
 marshes, especially during the nest- 
 ing season, while others frequent 
 rivers and inland lakes. It is, 
 however, on the sea that these 
 graceful birds are generally seen 
 to the greatest advantage, as they 
 hover over the water, or glide along 
 above its surface, occasionally drop- 
 ping down to capture some small 
 fish or other prey. They often 
 follow shoals of small fry, and we 
 remember seeing a flock of large 
 terns in the Red Sea, evidently 
 engaged in decimating a shoal of fig. 26. ARCTIC TERN (Sterna mqcrtfra). 
 
 fish on the surface of the water, 
 
 and keeping up such a cackling all the time that they could be heard at least 
 a mile off. 
 
 In the British Islands we have thirteen different kinds of terns, five of 
 which breed with us, the best known being the common tern (Sterna flumatilis), 
 the arctic tern (S. macrura), and the lesser tern (S. minuta). The sandwich 
 tern (S. cantiaca) now only nests in a few localities ; and a few pairs of the 
 beautiful roseate tern (S. dougalli) are believed to still breed in one or two 
 places off our coasts. Among the visitors to the British Islands are the 
 three species of marsh tern, belonging to the genus Hydrochelidon, which 
 have only moderately forked tails, the outer feather or " streamer " not 
 being prolonged, as in most of the terns. The black tern (H. nigra) is the 
 commonest of the three species which visit England, the white-winged black 
 tern and the whiskered tern bein** of very rare occurrence. These marsh 
 terns nest in swamps and marshes throughout temperate Europe, Asia, and 
 North America, and they are plentiful in the marismas of Southern Spain 
 and the Danube. The nests are made of weeds, and are placed on tussocks, 
 or on floating vegetation. 
 
 The largest of the terns is the Caspian tern (Hydroprogne caspia), a large 
 red-billed species, which measures nearly two feet in length, and is found 
 over the greater part of the globe. The common and Arctic terns are species 
 which breed in colonies on many parts of the British coasts, laying their 
 eggs on the shingle, and making scarcely any attempt at a nest. The eggs 
 have a great resemblance to those of some of the plovers, and, like the latter 
 
262 A VES ORDER LARIFORMES. 
 
 are difficult to distinguish on the ground. This is especially the case with 
 the eggs of the lesser tern (Sterna minuta). 
 
 One of the rarest visitors to Britain is the sooty tern (Sterna fuliginosa). 
 This is the species which breeds in such enormous numbers on certain islands, 
 such as Laysan in the Pacific, and Ascension Island in the Atlantic. In the 
 latter the assemblage of these birds is known as " Wideawake Fair." On 
 Ascension, according to Mr. Howard Saunders, the sooty terns lay but one 
 egg, and this was also found to be the case by Mr. Palmer on Laysan, the 
 birds being perfectly fearless, and not moving off their nest, but pecking and 
 biting at anyone that approached them. As many as two hundred dozens of 
 eggs have been collected on Ascension Island in the course of a morning, 
 and this will give some idea of the numbers frequenting that spot. 
 
 In the tropical islands of the southern oceans is found a curious form of 
 tern, snowy-white in plumage, with a pointed black bill. This is the snowy 
 tern (Gyyis alba), which possesses a very wide range over the islands of the 
 Pacific and South Atlantic. It lays but a single egg, which is placed carelessly 
 among the rocks or scrub, but is also often found in a cavity of a branch or 
 on the fork of a tree. 
 
 These curious river terns are called scissor-bills, on account of the remark- 
 able disparity in the length of the two mandibles of the bill and their 
 extreme sharpness of the ridges, which is compressed like the 
 The Skimmers. blade of a pair of scissors. The name given to the American 
 
 Sub-family species by one of the old writers in 1731 is "cut-water," 
 RhynchopinoR. a very good title for the bird, as these scissor-bills fly along 
 the top of the water, cutting the latter with their blade-like 
 under mandible, which is considerably longer than the upper one. The 
 skimmers frequent rivers in the tropical countries of the Old and New 
 Worlds, being found nesting as far north as Virginia in North America, and 
 Egypt in the Old World. The eggs, which resemble those of the true terns, 
 are laid on sand-banks in the rivers frequented by the birds. Five species 
 are known, each with a separate range, Hkyncliops niyra, being found in the 
 Southern United States to Central America, _R. intercedens in Brazil, and .B. 
 melanura in the northern part of South America. R. flai'irostris is an in- 
 habitant of Africa, and R. albicollis of India. 
 
 Their heavy build and square tails, as a rule, distinguish gulls from terns, 
 
 but it must be remembered that some of the gulls are small, and many are 
 
 not so big as the Caspian tern, for instance. The forked tail 
 
 The Gulls. of the terns is seen in one genus of gulls, Xema, which con- 
 
 Sub-family tains two species, Sabine's gull (X. sabinii), and the large 
 
 Larince. fork-tailed gull (X. furcata). The former is an inhabitant 
 
 of the Arctic Seas, but sometimes straggles as far as the coasts 
 
 of Britain, while X. furcata is only known from the Galapagos and the coasts 
 
 of Western America. Ross's gull (Wiodoxtcthia rosea) is another Arctic 
 
 species, which on rare occasions visits Europe, but is one of the rarest of all 
 
 the gulls, and is remarkable for its wedge-shaped tail and the beautiful rosy 
 
 blush on its white breast, which is like that seen in the roseate tern. 
 
 Of the true gulls (Larus), of which the common gull (L. camts) may be 
 considered the type, there are more than forty species known, and these are 
 distributed , like the terns, throughout the greater part of the globe, from the 
 Arctic regions in the north to the extreme south. The gulls may be divided 
 into two groups, those with a hood and those without. The hooded gulls 
 comprise such species as our black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus) and its 
 
GULLS-SKUAS. 
 
 263 
 
 Fig. 27. THE COMMON GULL 
 (Larus canus). 
 
 allies, another British species being the little gull (L. miwitus). The other 
 gulls with which we are familiar in this country, such as the greater black- 
 backed gull (L. mariwis), the lesser black-backed gull (L. fuscus), the her- 
 ring gull (L. anie.ntatus\ have white heads and white tails. The habits of 
 gulls are much the same all the world over. They feed mostly on fish ; but 
 some of the larger kinds are not only 
 greab robbers, but will eat almost 
 anything, and will devour young birds 
 and even sickly mammals. The little 
 black-headed gull, on the other hand, 
 is a most useful bird, as it frequents 
 and breeds in inland districts, where it 
 often follows the plough, and devours 
 large numbers of grubs and insects. 
 The other gulls breed on the rocky 
 coasts, mostly in the north, sometimes 
 in* vast numbers together. This is 
 especially the case with the kittiwake 
 (Rissa tridactyla), which is separated 
 from the true gulls on account of the absence of a hind toe. 
 
 The skuas are often called the parasitic gulls, from their habit of robbing 
 the smaller gulls of their food, instead of catching it for themselves. They 
 differ from the true gulls in having a cere, or bare wax-like 
 base, to the bill. The latter is very strongly hooked at the 
 tip, and in the posterior portion of the sternum, or breast- 
 bone, there is only a single notch, instead of two, as in the 
 gulls. 
 
 Four species of the great skuas are known, of which one, M. catarrhactes, 
 is an inhabitant of the North Atlantic, where it breeds in a few scattered 
 
 localities, such 
 
 as Iceland, the The Great Skuas. 
 Faeroes, and Genus 
 Norway, and a Meycdestris. 
 few pairs still 
 
 nest in the Shetland Isles, where 
 great pains are now taken to 
 preserve them, as they had be- 
 come nearly extinct there. They 
 nob only feed 011 fish and car- 
 rion, bub rob other gulls of 
 their prey, and even kill and 
 eat some of the smaller species. 
 The eggs are two in number, 
 and the birds become very bold 
 in defence of their nests. A 
 second species of great skua 
 (M. chilet^is) inhabits both the 
 Atlantic and Pacific coasts of 
 South America, from Peru on the west, to Southern Brazil on the east. 
 From the New Zealand seas to Kerguelen, and thence to the Falkland islands, 
 occurs M. antarctica, while in Victoria Land and the frozen countries of the 
 Antarctic Continent is found a peculiar pale form of great skua, M. 
 
 The Skuas. 
 Family 
 
 Stercorariidce. 
 
 Fig. 28. BUFFON'S SKUA (S'crcorarius parasiticus) 
 
264 AVES ORDER CHARADRIIFORMES. 
 
 cormicki. The long-tailed skuas (Stercorariiis) differ from the members of 
 the preceding genus in having more or less elongated central tail feathers, 
 these being developed in some of the species to a great length. The 
 members of the genus Btercorarius are three in number, all of them breeding 
 in the high north, and visiting more southern localities in winter. With the 
 exception of the Pacific coast of South America, where only the pomatorhine 
 skua (S. pomatorhinus) has been known to occur, the whole of the other 
 Southern oceans appear to be visited by these skuas. They all nest on the tundra 
 of the Arctic regions, and the pomatorhine skua and Buffon's skua are only 
 winter visitors to the British Islands, but Richardson's skua (S. crepidatns) 
 nests in the Orkneys and Shetland Isles, as well as in some of the Hebrides 
 and on the north-west of Scotland. Like their larger relatives, these smaller 
 skuas live principally by robbing the terns and smaller gulls of the fish they 
 capture. They will also devour young birds and eggs, as well as lemmings 
 and small rodents, Crustacea, etc., while the young of Buffon's skuas are said 
 to be fed on crowberries in the summer. 
 
 As has already been mentioned, there are many characters which the 
 
 Charadriiformes, or Limicoline birds, as they are often called, share with 
 
 the gulls, the principal one being the cleft, or schizognathous 
 
 The Plovers palate. The nostrils are almost entirely schizorhinal, or in 
 
 and Bustards. the form of a slit, though there are exceptions to this in the 
 
 Order Ghara- seed-snipes, the bustards, and the thick-knees. The eggs of 
 
 driiformes. most of the Charadriiformes are peculiar to the group, being 
 generally pear-shaped, four in number, and double spotted, 
 having the overlying markings black, arranged in lines, blotches, or spots, 
 and the underlying spots grey. The young are covered with down, and 
 can take care of themselves very shortly after their birth, running with 
 great swiftness, and being able to escape capture by their protective colora- 
 tion, which effectually conceals them in the midst of their natural sur- 
 roundings. 
 
 There is but a single species to represent this sub-order, and it is one of the 
 
 most peculiar of birds. While possessing anatomical characters which show that 
 
 it is an aberrant kind of plover (though many observers have 
 
 The Crab- considered it to be rather an aberrant kind of tern), it 
 
 Plovers. differs from all gulls and plovers in laying a pure white egg. 
 Sub-order Its nesting habits are in fact altogether peculiar. Not only 
 
 Dromades. does it lay a white egg, but only one, and that is placed in a 
 tunnel hollowed out in the sand, as described below. The 
 crab-plover is a handsome black and white bird, the mantle being black, and 
 having the plumes elongated, so as to form a swallow-tailed patch when the 
 bird is flying. It is long-legged, like a thick-knee or stone-plover, and 
 inhabits the coast-land of Eastern Africa and Arabia, the Persian Gulf, and 
 the eastern shores of the Indian Ocean, as far as Ceylon, reappearing in the 
 Andamans arid the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It probably 
 breeds in most of the above localities, but the headquarters of the species 
 seem to be in the Persian Gulf, and the coasts of Arabia and Mekran. Mr. 
 Nash, who visited one of the islands off Bushire, found that the birds bur- 
 rowed into the sand-hills to the distance of about four feet, and in the shape 
 of a bow, the passage being about a foot below the surface of the ground, and 
 the entrance usually near or under tussocks of grass or low shrubs, the single 
 egg being laid on the bare soil at the end of the hole, without any sign of a 
 nest. The birds nest in colonies, and the young, which are covered with 
 
SHEATHBILLS. 
 
 265 
 
 greyish down, remain in the holes during the day, like youno- petrels and 
 they are apparently night-feeders. 
 
 Like Dramas, the sheathbills are very aberrant members of the Limicoline 
 group, and are only found on the islands of the Atlantic, such as the 
 Crozettes, Kerguelen, Marion Island, and the Falklands. 
 The species of the latter islands is Chionis alba, the yellow- The Sheathbills 
 billed sheathbill, which is also found in Southern Patagonia, Sub-order 
 and extends to the island of South Georgia and the land of Chionides. 
 the Antarctic Continent. The species inhabiting Kerguelen 
 and Marion Islands is Chionarchus minor, which has a black bill, and does 
 not exhibit the wattles on the face found in Chionis alba. The form of the 
 sheath is also somewhat different, though 
 both show a tube-like opening on the 
 base of the bill, something like that of a 
 petrel. In the bird from the Crozettes 
 (Chionarchus crozettensis) this petrel-like 
 opening to the sheath is absent, and the 
 bird is smaller than G. minor, and has 
 darker legs. 
 
 The Rev. A. E. Eaton gives an amusing 
 account of the habits of the sheathbills in 
 Kerguelen Island during the visit of the 
 "Transit of Venus Expedition to that f . 29 _ THE YEIjLow . BILLED SHEATH . 
 place. I hey were common where the BILL (Chionis alba). 
 
 coast was rocky and sheltered, and were 
 
 seen in flocks of as many as thirty, but during the breeding season they were 
 met with only in pairs. They were very tame and inquisitive, and suffered 
 considerably in consequence during the stay of the expedition, as they could 
 often be knocked on the head with a stick. Mr. Eaton writes . "They 
 were also very assiduous in their attendance on the colonies of shags and 
 crested penguins, whose eggs they greedily devoured. The sitting birds 
 stretched out their necks and croaked at the sheathbills sauntering past their 
 nests ; but the marauders, keeping just out of reach of their bills, paid uttle 
 regard to them, and proceeded in a business-like manner to eat up the first 
 eggs they chanced to find unguarded. It occasionally happened that while 
 an old shag was gesticulating violently at a Chionis in front of her, his friend 
 pecked from behind at the eggs, which, in the excitement of the moment, 
 were not completely covered by her. When she found out what was taking 
 place she drove him away with a croak, and, true to her sex, affected to have 
 won her point in the affray. Reseating herself upon the nest with great 
 dignity of deportment, and gently replacing with her bill the broken eggs 
 under her feathers, she resigned herself to the task of trying to hatch them. 
 Some time after the sheathbills have gone away the broken eggs are in- 
 spected, and if there is only a small hole pecked in each of them they are 
 kept in the nest. Their appearance and manner of caressing one another 
 led the blue-jackets to call sheathbills * white pigeons.' In their gait and 
 flight they closely resemble ptarmigan; and like these they utter i heir cry 
 when starting on the wing, as well as during flight. After they have attained 
 a fair rate of speed, they sail along from time to time with outstretched 
 wings. On alighting at their destination they often greet one another with 
 a gentle chuckle, nodding their heads the while." 
 
 The eggs of the sheathbills are plentifully marked, and resemble those of 
 
266 A VES ORDER CHARADRIIFORMES. 
 
 oyster-catchers .among the plovers. The nest is a rough affair, placed in a 
 hole behind or between rocks, sometimes an old burrow of a petrel being used 
 and enlarged by the sheath bill. Enough has been said to show that the 
 sheathbill is a very remarkable form of bird. Its inquisitiveness and tame- 
 ness reminds us of the weka rails, while its habit of devouring eggs is also 
 one of the bad propensities of the larger rails. In some other respects, as 
 Mr. Eaton remarks, it resembles a ptarmigan, and that it is a bird of con- 
 siderable power of flight is proved by a specimen in the British Museum, 
 which was shot whilst flying round a ship 200 miles from land. 
 
 These birds are only found on the Andes and in the southern portion of 
 
 South America, from Argentina to Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands 
 
 on the east, and from Chili to Ecuador on the west. There 
 
 The Seed Snipes, are but two genera, Attacjis and Thinocorus, the former birds 
 
 Sub-order being as large as grouse, the latter of the size of a quail. 
 
 Attaffidex, Despite their game-like plumage, they are allied to the 
 
 plovers, though they differ from these in having a palate 
 
 much like that of a passerine bird, while the nostrils are holorhinal, not 
 
 schizorhinal. The nest is a mere depression in the ground, sometimes lined 
 
 with a few blades of grass, and the eggs are pale stone-colour, very thickly 
 
 speckled with light and dark brown. 
 
 This is a very large group, and contains all the plovers, snipes, and 
 
 sandpipers. The palate throughout is cleft or schizognathous, the nostrils 
 
 split or schizorhinal, basipterygoid processes are present, 
 
 The Plovers. and the spinal feather tract is forked on the upper back. 
 
 Sub-order The eggs are nearly always pear-shaped, four in number, 
 
 Charadrii. and are deposited point to point. The plovers and snipes 
 form one large family, Charadriidce, but there are no less than 
 ten sub-families. 
 
 These are small Arctic birds, which exhibit certain grebe -like characters, 
 
 for they have the toes lobed, swim well, and have also a serrated edge to the 
 
 hinder margin of the planti tarsi) the hind portion of the 
 
 The exposed leg being exactly as in the grebes. The phalaropes are 
 
 Phalaropes. likewise remarkable for their bright coloration, in which the 
 
 Sub-family female excels the male, and is the handsomer bird of the 
 
 Phalaropincn. two ; she is also larger than the male, and does all the court- 
 ing. There are three genera of phalaropes, each containing 
 a single species Crymophil-us, with the grey phalarope (C. fulicarius) ; 
 Phalaropus, with the red-necked phalarope (P. hyperboreus) ; and Steyanopus, 
 with Wilson's phalarope (S. tricolor), as the representatives of the three 
 respective genera. The two former breed in the Arctic regions of both 
 hemispheres, but Wilson's phalarope inhabits temperate North America. 
 All of them migrate far south in winter, and are found off' the coasts of South 
 America as well as in the Indian and Australian seas. 
 
 Some of the details of the nesting habits of phalaropes, as observed by Mr. 
 E, W. Nelson in Alaska, are very amusing. Speaking of the red-necked 
 phalarope (P. hyperboreiis), he remarks : " As the season comes on, when the 
 flames of love mount high, the dull-coloured males move about the pool, 
 apparently heedless of the surrounding fair ones. Such stoical indifference 
 usually appears too much for the feelings of some of the latter to bear. A 
 female coyly glides close to him and bows her head in pretty submissive- 
 ness, but he turns away, picks at a bit of food, and moves off ; she follows, 
 and he quickens his speed, but in vain ; he is her choice, and she proudly 
 
SNIPES-PAINTED SNIPES. 267 
 
 arches her neck, and, in mazy circles, passes and repasses close before the 
 harassed bachelor. He turns his breast first to one side, then to the other, 
 but there is his gentle wooer ever pressing her suit before him. Frequently 
 he takes flight to another part of the pool, all to no purpose. If, with 
 affected indifference, he tries to feed, she swims along side by side, almost 
 touching him, and at intervals rises on wing above him, and, poised a foot 
 or two above his body, makes a half-dozen quick, short wing-strokes, produc- 
 ing a series of sharp whistling noises in rapid succession. In the course of 
 time, it is said, water will wear away the hardest rock, but it is certain that 
 time and importunity have their full effect upon the male phalarope, and 
 soon all are comfortably married, while materfamilias no longer needs to use 
 her seductive ways and charming blandishments to draw his notice. About 
 the first of June the dry rounded side of a little knoll, near some small pond, 
 has four dark heavily-marked eggs, laid in a slight hollow or whatever lining 
 the spot affords, or, more rarely, upon a few dry straws and grass-blades, 
 brought and loosely laid together by the birds. Here the captive male is 
 introduced to new duties, and spends half his time on the eggs, while the 
 female keeps about the pool close by." 
 
 Snipes and sandpipers differ from plovers in having a long bill, with no 
 "dertrum." The latter name is applied to the swelling of the end of the 
 bill, which makes this portion higher than the middle or the 
 basal part. Similar swellings are seen in pigeons. The bill The Snipes. 
 in many of the snipes is widened at the tip and is pitted, but Sub-family 
 it is not deeper at the end than at any other part of its Scolopaeimx. 
 length. The nasal groove or depression in which the nostrils 
 are'placed is continued through nearly the whole line of the bill. The snipes 
 and sandpipers, moreover, differ from the 'Totanince or Tatters in having 
 their long toes cleft to the bases, without any connecting web between the 
 basal joints. 
 
 The sub-family Scolopaeinw may be divided into two main groups, the 
 snipes and woodcocks, which have the eye placed far back in the head, 
 almost on the ear-opening, while the sandpipers have the 
 eye placed as in other ordinary wading birds. One of the The Painted 
 most curious genera belonging to this sub-family is that of the Snipes. 
 painted snipes (Rostratnla), which contains three species, one, Genus 
 
 ti. semicollaris, being confined to South America, while R. Rostratula. 
 capensis is found in Africa and India as far north as Japan, 
 li. australis taking its place on the Australian continent. In these painted 
 snipes, which resemble ordinary snipes in their habits, we meet with the 
 same peculiarity as in the phalaropes, viz. that the female is handsomer in 
 plumage than the male. The latter is a grey bird, with rounded spots of 
 golden buff on the wing-coverts and quills, while the female is not only 
 larger, but has chestnut on the hind neck, and in the hen of R. capensis on 
 the throat also. The South American JR. semicollaris, however, does nofc 
 differ in the plumage of the sexes. In Chili and Peru occurs the curious 
 Phefjornis mitchelli, which has a chestnut neck like lihynchwa, but has no 
 hind toe. 
 
 The true woodcocks (Scolopax) are only two in number, our own well-known 
 species, and a dark form resident in the mountains of Java and New Guinea, 
 called S. saturata. In North America, however, there is a small form called 
 Philohela minor, which is distinguished by its attenuated outer primaries; and 
 in the island of Bourou, in the Malay Archipelago, occurs a peculiar woodcock 
 
268 A VES ORDER CHARADRIIFORMES. 
 
 Neoscolopax rochusseni. All the woodcocks differ from the snipes in having 
 
 successive broad bars of black and buff on the hinder head and neck, whereas 
 
 the snipes always have a buff band down the centre of the crown. They are 
 
 likewise birds of the woods and forests rather than the 
 
 The Woodcocks, open marshes, which the snipes love to frequent. The 
 
 Genus jack snipe (Limnocryptes gallinula) differs from the true 
 
 Scolopax. snipes in having four notches in the hinder margin of the 
 
 sternum instead of two. 
 
 The true snipes (Gallinago), of which our common snipe (G. gallinago) is 
 the type, differ from the woodcocks in having much more pointed wings, 
 the long inner secondaries equalling the primaries in length, while the 
 markings on the head are longitudinal, not crosswise. They are lovers of 
 the marshes, as a rule, but some of them occur only on the high lands, and 
 appear to have the habits of woodcocks. Such are the wood-snipe (G. 
 nemoricola) of the Himalayas, and the imperial snipe (G. imperialis) of the 
 Andes of Colombia, and Jameson's snipe (G. jamesoni) from the Andes of 
 Ecuador in South America. In the Auckland and Chatham Islands are 
 found peculiar tawny -coloured species (G. aucklandica and G. pusilla), which 
 run like rails, and do not take to flight, unless very hard pressed. With the 
 
 exception of these few resident species, 
 snipes are migratory birds, nesting in 
 the temperate and sub- Arctic regions of 
 the north, and going to the far south in 
 winter. Thus Latham's snipe (G. aits- 
 trans') nests in Japan and winters in 
 Australia, and the North American 
 Wilson's snipe wanders south to British 
 Guiana and Brazil, and the great snipe 
 (G. major), which breeds in the north 
 of Europe, winters in South Africa. 
 
 Fig. 30.-THE COMMON SKIPE 
 
 (Gallinago gallinago). of the tail- feathers, our own snipe hav- 
 
 ing only 14, though sometimes it is 
 
 found with 16, but in the wire-tailed snipes, G. stenura and G. megcda, as 
 many as 26 and 20 are found. These two species nest in Eastern Siberia, 
 and visit India and China in great numbers on migration. The outer tail- 
 feathers in G. stenura are reduced to wire-like plumes, the eight feathers on 
 the outside measuring less than 0'2 inch in width. The largest of the snipes 
 are G. gigantea from Southern Brazil, and G. undulata of British Guiana, 
 which are from 15 to 20 inches in length. 
 
 A curious habit of the common snipe during the nesting season is known 
 a^ " drumming." "The male may then be seen," says Mr. Seebohm, " in broad 
 daylight, high in the air, wheeling round and round in enormous circles, arid 
 flying diagonally upwards with rapid beats of the wings, then swooping down 
 an imaginary inclined plane with half-expanded and visibly-vibrating wings, 
 but with outspread tail-feathers, uttering a sound which is technically called 
 'drumming.'" The sound is heard only when the bird is descending, but 
 some observers assert that they have heard it proceeding from a snipe on the 
 ground or perched on a dead branch. It has been likened to the bleating of a 
 goat, and bears some resemblance to the suppressed gobble sometimes heard 
 from a turkey. Many naturalists believe that the sound is produced by the vi- 
 bration of the wings or the action of the air on the outspread tail ; but others, 
 
SANDPIPERS X UFFS. 
 
 269 
 
 Mr. Seebohm among the number, believe that it is effected, by the vocal 
 organs. 
 
 The sandpipers differ from the snipes in having the position of the eye 
 normal, and not reaching to the ear-opening, as in the snipes and woodcocks. 
 In this group of the sub-family Scolopaeinw we find some of the most in- 
 teresting of the waders, the purple sandpipers (Arquatella), the dunlins 
 (Pelidna), the knots (Trintja), the curlew sandpipers (Ancylochilus\ the 
 stints (Limonites), and the sanderlings (Calidris). They are mostly birds 
 which breed in the Arctic regions, and go to the southern continents of the 
 globe to pass the winter. Of the curlew sandpiper no egg has yet been 
 found; of the knot no really authentic egg is known; and of the sanderling 
 but very few. In this group of sandpipers occurs the spoon-billed sandpiper 
 Eurynorhynchiis pyynueus), a little stint with a spoon-shaped bill, which nests 
 in the arctic regions of Eastern Siberia, where Nordenskjold met with it 
 during the voyage of the Veya, and passes along the coasts of Japan and 
 China to winter on the shores of Burma. 
 
 These birds are very closely allied to the foregoing, but are distinguished 
 by having the outer toes connected with the middle one by a web at the 
 base. In the TotaniiuK are included all the curlews and 
 whimbrels (Numeniui^ the god wits (Limosa), the tatlers The Tatlers. 
 (Totanust\ the green sandpipers (Helodromas), the summer Sub-family 
 snipes (Tringoides\ the wood sandpipers (Rhyacophtius), and Totanince. 
 the ruffs (Pavoncella). They are mostly birds which build 
 in northern climes and in the temperate portions of the Palrearctic and 
 Nearctic regions. The nest is usually placed in a marsh, the eggs being pear- 
 shaped and four in number, laid with the pointed ends directed towards each 
 other; the green sandpiper (Helodromas ochropus), however, nests in trees, 
 utilising the old nest of a thrush or some other bird in which to deposit its 
 eggs. The tatlers frequent the sea-shores on their journey south, arid their 
 musical notes enliven the dreary expanse of mud-flats on many parts of the 
 British coasts during the autumn. In the breeding season many of the 
 stints have a musical trill or song, which they utter as they mount into the 
 air above their nests. 
 
 One of the most remarkable of the tatler group is the ruff, no two males 
 of which are alike in plumage. The female, called the reeve, is smaller 
 than the male, and of a plainer 
 brown plumage. In winter both 
 sexes don a plain-coloured dress, 
 much like that of any other tatler, 
 and the male can only be distin- 
 guished from the hen by his larger 
 size. On arriving at their breeding- 
 places in Europe and Siberia, the 
 males have a large ruff or shield on 
 the neck, and a tuft of occipital 
 plumes on each side of the head. 
 These ruffs are sometimes plain with- 
 out bars, and may be white, rufous, 
 or black, while every kind of varia- 
 tion is seen in the colour of the 
 ruffs and occipital ornaments. Some- 
 times they are white barred with black, or rufous with black bars ; in fact, 
 
 /- 31. THE RUFF (Pavoncella pugttux). 
 
270 AVES ORDER CHARADR1IFORMES. 
 
 the variation is endless. They are pugnacious birds, and fight for the 
 females, before whom they dance and pirouette, always ending by placing the 
 bill on the ground, so as to display the beauty of the ruff to the chosen lady. 
 
 Close to the true curlews comes the pearl-grey curlew (Ibidorhynchus 
 struthersi), which is found on the inland streams of the mountains of China, 
 Central Asia, and the Himalayas. It is the sole representation of the sub- 
 family IbLdorhynchwice, and has a curlew-like bill, but differs in having the 
 metatarsus reticulated both in front and behind. In outward appearance it 
 much resembles the small ibises, but an examination of the skull shows that 
 it is really an aberrant Limicoline bird. 
 
 These birds are remarkable for their long legs and for the shape of their 
 
 bills. In the stilts (Himantopiis) the bill is slender and straight, arid the 
 
 legs are extremely long, and when the birds are flying these 
 
 The Stilts and are carried out behind them, "and from their bright red 
 
 Avocets. colour are very conspicuous. The stilts are mostly black 
 
 Sub-family and white birds, distributed through the marshes of the 
 Himantopodince. temperate and tropical portions of both hemispheres, 
 while a completely black species (H. melas) is found 
 only in New Zealand. 
 
 The avocets have the bill upturned, and the lower edge of the under 
 mandible is broad and flattened, the bird using it to scoop aside the sand in 
 search of food. The range of the avocets is very similar to that of the stilts, 
 and though they pass southwards in winter, they nest in Africa and India in 
 places suitable to their marsh-loving habits. One species, Ilecurmrostra an- 
 diua, is only known from the Andes of Chili, and in Australia the chestnut- 
 breasted avocet is found (Cladorhynchus leucocephalus), a bird with webbed 
 toes and devoid of a hind toe like the avocets, but with a very slightly up- 
 curved bill, and with longer and more stilt-like legs. 
 
 The sub-family PeUohyatince is represented by a single genus, Peltohyas, 
 which again has but one species, P. austrcdis. This bird has usually been 
 considered to be a kind of dotterel, and it has a dertral swelling towards the 
 end of the bill, as in these birds, Lut the tarsus has transverse scutes both in 
 front and behind, and the species is more like a courser in appearance. I 
 fully expect that an examination of its osteology and general anatomy will 
 prove that it is allied rather to the latter birds than to the plovers. 
 
 In this sub-family we find the majority of the plovers, which are dis- 
 tinguished by having both aspects of the tarsus covered with hexagonal scales. 
 They may be divided into two groups, the lapwings and the 
 The True dotterels, the former with broad and rounded wings, mostly 
 
 Plovers. resident in the countries they inhabit ; the latter with sharp 
 
 Sub-family and pointed wings, with the secondaries nearly as long as 
 
 GharadriincK. the primaries, and accustomed to long migrations. Some of 
 
 them are known, like the American golden plover (Chara- 
 
 driiis dominicus), to be capable of immense flights, such as from Labrador to 
 
 the Bermudas, without touching land. 
 
 Two genera have longer bills than any of the rest, TJiivornis and 
 Anarhynchns of New Zealand. The latter is known as the wry-billed plover, 
 and has its bill twisted to the right. Then comes the long array of dotterels, 
 such as JEyialitis, of which our common ring-dotterel is the type. The 
 members of the genus jEgialitis are found nearly over the whole world, and 
 perform long migrations to the South in the winter. Their four pear-shaped 
 eggs are laid in a little depression in the sand or shingle, and the nestlings 
 
WATTLED PLOVERS OYSTER-CATCHERS. 
 
 271 
 
 are difficult to capture, on account of their resemblance to the surroundings 
 iu which they are hatched ; the same may be said of the eggs, which closely 
 resemble the adjacent shingle. Some of the other dotterels, such as the 
 members of the genus fohthodromitB, are handsome birds, with a chestnut 
 collar across the chest. The true dotterels (Eudromias) are mountain-breeding 
 birds, and our English species, E. morinellus, is the only one of the group 
 with any black on the belly. This, however, is not assumed as a breeding- 
 dress, as is the case with the grey and golden plovers. 
 
 The latter birds have a spangled plumage, and don a black breast in 
 summer, passing into a white-breasted livery in winter. The grey plover 
 (Squatarola helvetica} differs from the golden plover (Charadrms pluvialis) 
 in having a hind toe. It nests on the tundra or barren grounds in the 
 Palrearctic and Nearctic regions beyond the limit of forest growth, and 
 until recently its eggs were amongst the rarest in collections. Mr. See- 
 bohm and Mr. Harvie Brown, however, have obtained them on the Lower 
 Petchora River, and Mr. Trevor-Battye and Mr. H. J. Pearson on Kolguev 
 Island. * 
 
 Another group of the broad- winged lapwings is represented by our common 
 pewit (Vauelbis vaiie-llus), which has no wattle on the face or spur on the 
 wing, like many of the other genera of 
 the Charadriin&j such as the spur-winged 
 plovers of Africa (Hoploptcriis), which have 
 a formidable spur on the bend of the wing, 
 with which they fight. II. splnosus is said 
 to be the species which attends on the cro- 
 codile, find enters its mouth to clean the 
 teeth of the monster. Some of the other 
 genera of this group of plovers have a 
 facial wattle, but no spur on the wing, 
 while in the genus Xipliidioptcrus we 
 have two species, one Javan, and the other 
 West African, which have a large wing- 
 spur and a conspicuous facial lappet as 
 well. 
 
 All the wattled plovers (sub-family Lolnvanellince) have the metatarsus trans- 
 versely scaled in front, but reticulated behind. They are nearly all broad- 
 winged birds like the pewits or lapwings, and most of them have spurs on 
 the wings, and wattles or lappets on the face. 
 
 We now come to a group of the Charadriinte, where there is no swelling 
 at the end of the bill, and in this section of the plovers are the oyster- 
 catchers (Hiematopodinw) and the turnstones (Arenariince). 
 
 All the oyster-catchers have the metatarsus reticulated both in front and 
 behind, and the angle of the lower mandible is placed very far back, the end 
 of the bill being compressed, and having a somewhat sharp 
 ridge. Twelve species of oyster-catchers are known, most of 
 them being black or black and white in plumage. They are found 
 
 Fig. 32. THE COMMON LAPWING 
 ( Vandlus va nellus). 
 
 in all parts of the globe, but do not extend very far north. 
 They breed on the 
 
 The Oyster- 
 catchers. 
 Sub-family 
 ffcemctiopodince. 
 
 shores and on the sandy beds of rivers, 
 and the nest is a little depression in the sand or moss. The 
 eggs are not unlike those of the stone-plovers or thick-knees, being of a clay- 
 brown with blackish spots or scribblings. 
 
 Only one genus, Arenaria, represents this sub-family of plovers, which is a 
 
272 
 
 A VES ORDER CPIA RA DRI1FORMES. 
 
 Fig. 33 THE COMMON TURN-STONE (Arenaria 
 interpres). 
 
 very distinct one. There is no dertral swelling to (he end of the bill, and the 
 
 metatarsus is transversely sealed in front, but reticulated 
 
 Tlie Turn-stones, behind, while there is no connecting web between the toes, 
 
 Sub-family as in the oyster-catchers. Two species of turn-stone are 
 
 ArenariincK. known. 
 
 The common turn-stone (A. interpres) is one of the most 
 cosmopolitan of birds, nesting in the Arctic regions of both hemispheres, and 
 ranging south almost as far as land extends. The male is a very handsome 
 bird in the nesting plumage, though 
 the females and young birds are 
 not so brightly coloured. It gains 
 its name of w turn-stone" from its 
 habit of turning over stones, often 
 of considerable size, in order to 
 reach the insects underneath. A 
 second species is found in Western 
 North America, the black turn-stone 
 (A. melanocephcda). 
 
 These are curious birds, peculiar 
 to the Old World, where they are 
 found from South- 
 The Pratincoles, era Europe and 
 Sub-order Central Asia to 
 Glareolce. China, south to 
 India and Aus- 
 tralia. They have all long wings and a swallow-like flight, and they nest in 
 companies, laying eggs which are unlike those of plovers or snipes, being so 
 thickly scribbled over that the ground-colour is almost invisible. One of 
 them, the common pratincole (Glareola pratincola), has occurred in England 
 on a few occasions. The pratincoles have the claw of the middle toe pectinated, 
 as in the coursers, from which they are distinguished by their long wings. 
 
 Although allied to the plovers and pratincoles, and, like these birds, pos- 
 sessing slit or schizorhinal nostrils, the coursers differ from them in having no 
 
 basipterygoid pro- 
 The Coursers. cesses, and they may 
 Sub-order be differentiated from 
 Cursorii. the former by their pec- 
 tinated middle claw. 
 They have both aspects of the meta- 
 tarsus transversely scaled. Of true cour- 
 sers (Cursorius) there are five species, 
 the best-known of which is the cream- 
 coloured courser (0. gatticus), which 
 has occasionally wandered to England, 
 though its natural habitat is the desert 
 country to the south of the Mediterranean, where it is found from the 
 Azores and the Canary Islands eastwards to North-Western India. On 
 the island of Fuerteventura it breeds in large numbers, and the eggs, till 
 lately very rare, are now in the collection of every oologist. Two eggs only 
 are laid, on the bare ground, without any attempt at a nest ; they are stone- 
 coloured, with numerous dots and scribblings of brown, and are scarcely 
 distinguishable from the surrounding soil. Three species are found in 
 
 Fig. 34. THE CREAM-COLOURED COJRSEB. 
 (Cursorius gallicus). 
 
STONE- CURLE WSB USTA RDS. 
 
 The Stone - 
 Plovers. 
 Sub -order 
 (Edicnemi. 
 
 Africa, and one, the coromandel courser (0. coromandelicus), is plentiful in 
 the Indian Peninsula. Of the allied genus Rhinoptilus, eight species are 
 known, all Ethiopian, excepting one, K. bitorqiiat'us, which is a bush- 
 frequenting species in a restricted area of Central India. 
 
 These birds, with their great yellow eyes and stout legs, form the connect- 
 ing group between the plovers and the bustards. They have holorhinal 
 nostrils like the latter, and in many anatomical characters 
 are more like the latter sub-order than the Charadrii. They 
 are found throughout the temperate and tropical portions of 
 the Old World, and re-occur in Central and South America. 
 
 The common stone-curlew, thick-knee, or Norfolk plover, 
 is found on barren wolds and shingly portions of the coast 
 in many parts of England. It occurs in similar situations throughout Central 
 and Southern Europe, as far east as India. It 
 is a particularly shy bird, and on the approach 
 of danger, it sinks its body on the ground, and 
 lies quite flat, with its neck stretched out. The 
 little nestlings, which are clothed with greyish- 
 buff down, also endeavour to conceal themselves 
 in like manner. The eggs, two in number, are 
 laid on the bare ground, without any attempt at 
 a nest, and are stone-coloured, with brown 
 and grey markings, and so closely resemble 
 stones that they are very difficult to find. Of 
 the seven other species of stone-curlew known, 
 four are African and three American. In 
 Australia the long-legged thick-knee (Burhiuus 
 grallarius\ and in India and the Malay Archi- 
 pelago two gigantic species, Esacus recurvirostris, 
 and Orthorhamphus maginrostris, occur. 
 
 Like the stone- curlew, the bustards have holorhinal nostrils, as well as a 
 split or schizognathous palate. The breast-bone has two notches on its 
 posterior margin, there is no oil-gland, and the feathers 
 have a distinct after-shaft. In the males of some of the The Bustards. 
 species there is a gular pouch, and the throat is capable of Sub-order Otides. 
 being inflated to an enormous extent. 
 
 The bustards differ very much in size, some of them being scarcely larger 
 than stone-curlews, though they are always heavier in build. The male of 
 the great bustard measures more than three feet and a half in length, and 
 the great kori bustard of Africa is over four feet in length, while some of the 
 small forms, such as the crested bustards of Africa (Lophotis), only measure a 
 foot and a half in length. 
 
 They are all birds of the deserts and open wolds, and are strictly confined 
 to the Old World, the larger number being found in Africa, which is the 
 home of six genera out of the twelve which are known. India has two genera 
 of florikins, Houbaropsis and Sypheotis, while the genus Otis, of which the 
 great bustard is the type, and Tetrax, containing the lesser bustard (T. 
 tttrax), are found only in Europe and Northern Asia. 
 
 The great bustard (Otis tar da} is now extinct as a British species, but was 
 
 one of our indigenous birds in the early part of the present century, inhabiting 
 
 Salisbury Plain and other open wolds in England from the borders of Scotland 
 
 to Dorset. It now occurs only as a rare visitor, and it is not known 
 
 19 
 
 Fig. 35. THE STONE-CURLEW 
 ((Edicnemus udicnemus). 
 
274 AVES ORDER GRUIFORMES. 
 
 whether the native British bustards occurred in former times as migrants or 
 were resident in this country. The former supposition is probably correct, 
 as the species is known to be migratory to most of the European countries in 
 which it still breeds. In the nesting season it retires to the fields of tall 
 grass and corn, where it is able to conceal its great bulk, and it is said that 
 at this season of the year the birds moult their quills, and are unable to fly. 
 
 The male of the great bustard is much larger than the female, and has, 
 besides his brighter coloration, more conspicuous whiskers. His method of 
 showing off, when courting the female, is one of the most curious sights in 
 the whole of nature. He commences by shivering his wings and lowering 
 his quills, and his next action is to turn up his tail and lay it flat on his back, 
 so that the snow-white under tail-coverts form a sort of frill. Across the 
 flattened tail he disposes his primary quills so that the ends of these cross 
 each other, and keep the tail out of sight, the whole proceeding being hidden 
 by ruffling up the scapular feathers till nothing can be seen of the tail or the 
 primary quills. The act of crossing the latter across the back naturally 
 brings the fore-part of the wing into an extended position, and the inner 
 secondaries, which are pure white, are thrown up as a frill on each side of 
 the back, while all the wing-coverts are more or less inverted, as if the bird 
 were trying to turn himself inside out, the long parapteral wing-coverts being 
 thrown back, so as to secure an uninterrupted view of the white frill caused 
 by the elevation of the inner secondaries and the halo of the under tail-coverts. 
 The bird then lays its head deep down between the shoulders, so that the 
 whiskers stand up on each side, and then proceeds to inflate his throat and 
 chest, which become distended to an enormous degree. He then shows 
 himself to his lady-love, and paces slowly in front of her, now and then 
 springing round to exhibit the white under tail-coverts. This curious per- 
 formance was witnessed in the Zoological Gardens by Mr. Pickhardt, who 
 has mounted the group of bustards for the gallery in the Natural History 
 Museum. 
 
 The eggs of the bustards are two or three in number, of an olive-brown 
 colour, spotted or blotched with brown, the underlying spots being grey, the 
 eggs being never very strongly marked. No nest is made. 
 
 In this assemblage we have birds of very varied form and the Cranes 
 were considered in former times to be allied to the herons. The differ- 
 ence in the structure of the palate, however, shows that 
 The Cranes. they are not really related, as the herons have a bridged 
 Order or desmogriathous palate, whereas in the cranes and their 
 
 Gruiformes. allies the maxillo-palatine bones do not coalesce with each 
 other or with the vomer. The young, likewise, are hatched 
 covered with down, and can take care of themselves soon after leaving the 
 egg, while the nestlings of herons have to remain for a long time helpless, 
 and are fed by the parent birds in the nest. There are also many other 
 anatomical and osteological characters which separate the cranes. 
 
 They are stately birds, with long legs and generally some bright orna- 
 mental colour on the head, while the inner secondaries are developed into 
 handsome drooping plumes. With the exception of South 
 The True Cranes. America, cranes are found in every part of the world, and 
 
 Sub-order Africa possesses three out of the nine known genera. The 
 
 Grues. sarus cranes (Antigone) are found in India and Burma, and 
 
 one species, the well-known "native companion" (A. 
 
 austmlasiana), in Australia. This is a peculiar and interesting distribution, 
 
CRANES LIMPKINS. 
 
 275 
 
 as there is a large Indian bustard (Eupodotis edwardsi), which has its nearest 
 ally (E. australis) in Australia. As a rule, however, the cranes are Northern 
 birds, five species nesting in the Palrearctic region. In many of them the 
 trachea is convoluted, and enters a cavity in the fore-part of the sternum. 
 
 The common crane (Grus grus) is now only an occasional visitor to Great 
 Britain, but there is no doubt that it formerly bred in England, before the 
 drainage of the meres deprived it of its favourite 
 breeding haunts, and the discovery of fossil re- 
 mains in Ireland shows that it was once still more 
 widely distributed in the British Islands. The 
 nesting-home of the crane is at present in the 
 forest morasses of North and Central Europe, 
 and in the marshes of Southern Spain. It is 
 a summer visitor to Europe, and sometimes 
 large numbers of cranes are observed on migra- 
 tion, flying in a V or Y formation, and trumpet- 
 ing loudly. Colonel Irby records that he must 
 on one occasion have seen, at least, four thousand 
 pass overhead near Gibraltar. The food of the 
 crane consists of corn and seeds of all kinds, as 
 well as lizards and frogs, and in India the cranes, 
 which arrive from the North to winter, do great 
 damage to the water-melons. The eggs are two 
 in number, brown, with a few spots or smudges of 
 darker brown and underlying spots of grey. The 
 nest is often a large structure, as much as five 
 feet across, and is built among sedge and rushes, 
 sufficiently short to enable the bird when standing up to catch sight of any 
 intruder. 
 
 The limpkins are long-billed birds, having the appearance of large rails, of 
 a brown colour, spotted with white. In osteological characters, however, they 
 most resemble the cranes, and, like the latter birds, they 
 have no notches in the hinder margin of the sternum. The The Limpkins. 
 wings are rounded, and the secondaries are as long as the Sub-order 
 primaries, the first of the latter quills being sickle-shaped, Arami. 
 narrowed and incised for the basal two-thirds, with the tip 
 spatulate. Two species of the genus Aramus are known, the Florida limpkin 
 (A. picbus) extending from Southern Florida to Central America and the 
 West Indian Islands, while the South American limpkin (A, scolopaceiis) is 
 found from Paraguay to Guiana and Venezuela. Mr. W. H. Hudson, the 
 chronicler of bird-life in Argentina, says that the limpkins, or caraus, as 
 they are called in that country, are more nocturnal than the rails, and take 
 wing more readily, as they have greater powers of flight. In their gestures 
 and motions on the ground they resemble rails, but differ strikingly from all 
 Ilalline birds in their habit of flying, when disturbed, to some open place, 
 where they walk about conspicuously, watching the intruder. "By day," 
 writes Mr. Hudson, " the carau is a dull bird, concealing itself in dense reed- 
 beds in streams and marshes. When driven up he rises laboriously, the legs 
 dangling down, and mounts vertically to a considerable height. He flies 
 high, the wings curved upwards and violently flapped at irregular intervals ; 
 descending, he drops suddenly to the earth, the wings motionless, pointed 
 up, and the body swaying from side to side, so that the 'bird presents the 
 
 Fig. 36. THE COMMON CRANE 
 (Grus grus). 
 
AVES ORDER GRUIFORMES. 
 
 appearance of a falling parachute. On smooth ground he walks faster than 
 a man, striking out his feet in a stately manner, and jerking the tail, and 
 runs rapidly for ten or twelve yards before rising. At the approach of night 
 he becomes active, uttering long, clear, piercing cries, many times repeated, 
 and heard distinctly two miles away. These cries are most melancholy, and 
 together with its mourning plumage and recluse habits, have won for the 
 courlans several pretty vernacular names. It is called the "lamenting 
 bird" and the " crazy widow," but is more familiarly known as the carau. 
 As the breeding season draws near they become exceedingly clamorous, mak- 
 ing the marshes resound day and night with their long wailing cries. The 
 nest is built among the rushes, and contains ten or twelve eggs as large as 
 turkeys', slightly elliptical, sparsely marked with blotches of pale brown and 
 purple on a dull white ground, the whole egg having a powdery or floury 
 appearance." 
 
 In New Caledonia is found the singular bird known as the kagu (Rhino- 
 
 chetus jiibatus), the only representative of the sub-order Rhinoclietides. It is 
 
 an elegantly coloured grey bird, with a large crest, and is 
 
 The Kagus. nocturnal in its habits. In 'internal structure, it has much 
 
 Sub- order that is crane-like ; but it differs from the latter group of 
 
 Rhinochetides birds by possessing powder-down patches on each side of the 
 
 rump. When in captivity, the kagu exhibits considerable 
 
 dancing powers, in which feature he also resembles the cranes. 
 
 This sub-order is represented by a single species, Mesites varieyata, a bird 
 
 peculiar to the eastern slope of the mountain-chain which traverses the 
 
 island of Madagascar. Its plumage is of a reddish-brown, 
 
 The Madagascar an d it looks like an aberrant kind of rail. Like the kagu, it 
 
 Kagus. possesses powder-down patches, but instead of two, there are 
 
 Sub-order five : two on the side of the back, one on the sides of the 
 Mesitides. body, and two on the belly. It is said to build its nest on 
 
 the ground, but little is known of its habits. 
 
 These remarkable birds are confined to South and Central America. They 
 are also very rail-like in appearance, and resemble the kagus in having 
 
 powder-down patches. Two species 
 
 The are known, the South American 
 
 Sun-Bitterns. sun-bittern (Eurypyga lidias\ in- 
 
 Sub-order habiting Amazonia, Brazil, and 
 
 Eurypyyce. Guiana, and the large sun-bittern 
 
 (E. major) being found in Central 
 
 America and Colombia. 
 
 The plumage of the sun-bittern is curiously 
 variegated ; the wings are beautifully spotted, and 
 the bird is fond of sitting with its wings outspread, 
 as if sunning itself. The nest is placed in a tree, 
 and the bird has another heron-like character in 
 having to feed the young birds in the nest for some 
 time, though the nestlings are covered with down, 
 as in true cranes. The eggs are said to resemble 
 those of a woodcock. 
 ( The members of this sub-order are five in num- 
 ber, all confined to South America. They possess many crane-like features, 
 ,but^ differ from all the aberrant gruiformes which we have been consider- 
 ing* in their domesticity, as they are often tamed by the natives of Brazil. 
 
 Fig. 37. THE SUN-BITTERX 
 (Eurypyrja helias). 
 
TR UMPE TERSSERIAMAS. 
 
 277 
 
 Tlie Trumpeters. 
 Sub-order 
 
 Phosphide. 
 
 Fig. 38. THE COMMON TRUMPETER 
 (Psophia, rejpitans). 
 
 The Seriamas. 
 Sub-order 
 
 Dicholophi. 
 
 The nest is on the ground, the eggs being white, a peculiar colour for a 
 Crane-like bird, and the nestling is covered with down, and is able to provide 
 for itself soon after it is hatched. The birds gain their 
 name * 'Trumpeter" from their peculiar trumpet-like 
 
 note, and no doubt 
 the modification of 
 the trachea has some- 
 thing to do with this, as the windpipe 
 is enormously long, and is continued 
 under the skin of the abdomen nearly 
 to the anus. The Trumpeters differ 
 from the Cranes in having oval or 
 holorhinal nostrils, and their plumage, 
 instead of being firm and harsh, is 
 particularly soft. They are residents 
 in the parts of South America they 
 inhabit, and have not any great powers 
 of flight. They live at large in the 
 forests, and often assemble in flocks of considerable size. 
 
 In associating the Seriamas with the Cranes, we are following the 
 most recent conclusions of anatomists; but it must be conceded that 
 they are very aberrant members of the Gruiformes. 
 In some respects they resemble the bustards, and, like 
 them, have holorhinal nostrils, but in the possession 
 of four toes, and in other characters, they differ so 
 much from those birds that in our opinion there is 
 really no real affinity between them. Like the Cranes and the other 
 allied forms we have just been considering, the Seriamas have a cleft or 
 schizognathous palate, and their mode of life 
 presents some features in common with the 
 Secretary- Bird (Serpentarius secretarius) of 
 Africa. Recognising this fact, some ornitho- 
 logists, myself among the number, have 
 considered the Seriama to be an aberrant 
 accipitrine bird. The common Seriama is an 
 inhabitant of South-Eastern Brazil ; and in 
 Argentina another species occurs, Burmeister's 
 Seriama (Chunga burmeisteri). These two 
 represent the only known species of the sub- 
 order. The resemblance in appearance to the 
 secretary-bird is remarkable, and in its mode 
 of walk, its crested head, and its long legs, 
 there is much that reminds us of the latter 
 bird, which has a curious method of pounding 
 its food. If the latter be a rat, it springs 
 into the air, and brings down both feet with 
 all its force, till it has reduced its prey to a 
 pulp. This is also done by the Seriama. Mr. 
 Hudson says that these birds live on the 
 
 ground among the high grasses of the Campos, where the traveller frequently 
 hears their loud screaming cry as he rides along the tracks. Their food 
 consists principally of insects and caterpillars, but they also devour berries 
 
 Fig. 39. THK SBRIAPIA 
 (Cariama cristata). 
 
2 7 8 
 
 A VES ORDER ARDEIFORMES. 
 
 and reptiles. They nest in low bushes, the eggs being two In number, 
 rounded and spotted, resembling those of Cranes and Rails. 
 
 Somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Seriamas and the Cranes and 
 
 Kails must apparently be placed some extraordinary forms of bird-life which 
 
 have been discovered in the Miocene deposits of Patagonia, 
 
 The Extinct Birds and described by Dr. Ameghino under the order 
 
 of Patagonia Stereornithes. These peculiar creatures are only known 
 
 (Stereormthes). from their fossil remains> and they were at first supposed 
 
 to be Struthious Birds, and akin to the Rheas. Further 
 
 information is required concerning them, but at the present time, my 
 
 colleague, Mr. Andrews, considers that they are totally different from any 
 
 ostrich-like birds, and were probably gigantic fore-runners of the Seriama 
 
 and the Crane-like birds of modern times. 
 
 All the members of this order have a bridged or desmognathous palate, and 
 
 the nestlings are hatched helpless, and are fed in the 
 
 The Heron, nest by the parent birds for a considerable period. Thus 
 
 Order they differ from the Cranes, with which they were 
 
 Ardeiformes. associated in the older classifications. The Heron-like 
 
 birds may be divided into three great groups, viz., the 
 
 Storks (Ciconiidce), the Spoonbills and Ibises, and the Herons. 
 
 Although in outward appearance Storks and Herons look very much alike, 
 
 there are several characters which render them easily separable. For 
 
 instance, no Stork has the claw of the third or middle 
 
 The Storks. toe pectinated ; that is, furnished with a comb-like 
 
 Family Ciconiida. process, as is the case with all Herons. Again, the hind 
 
 toe is not on a level with the other toes, but is elevated 
 
 above it; and the f.urcula, or "merry-thought," bone shows no median 
 
 projection in the angle, as is seen in the true Herons. There are other 
 
 anatomical and osteological characters which 
 
 can be adduced for the separation of the 
 
 Storks from the Herons which it is not 
 
 necessary to enumerate in detail. 
 
 In this Order are included the true Storks 
 (Ciconiidce), the Marabous, or Adjutants 
 (Leptoptilus\ the Open -bills (Anastomus), 
 and the Wood- Storks or Wood-Ibises (Tan- 
 talus), the latter being 
 The Storks. generally admitted as a 
 Sub-order distinct sub-family, Tan- 
 
 Ciconii. talince. All these birds 
 
 have no "powder-down" 
 patches on the sides of the rump, thus differ- 
 ing from the true Herons and the Hammer- 
 heads (Scopi) and the Shoe-billed Storks 
 (Balcenicipitidoe). 
 
 The best-known representative of the 
 Ciconii is the White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) 
 of Europe, a bird which occasionally visits 
 England, but is to be more easily studied on 
 the opposite shores of the Continent. It is always interesting to take a 
 country walk in Holland in the spring and see the Storks' ne^ts, which are 
 plentifully distributed in the Dutch gardens, where the birds are encouraged 
 
 Fig. 40. THE WHITS STORK 
 (Ciconia ciconia). 
 
STORKS. 279 
 
 to nest by the erection of cradles or other accommodation (often an old cart 
 wheel) erected for their benefit. In most places frequented by tho Storks it 
 is considered lucky to have a nest on the premises, and the latter increases 
 in bulk year by year as the birds return to their nesting-places, which 
 are often on the tops of houses. They have a curious habit of sitting 
 motionless for hours together, often on one leg, as if absorbed in contempla- 
 tion, uttering occasionally their single exclamation, which is produced by the 
 snapping of the mandibles, for they apparently have no true note or call. 
 
 Before migrating to spend the winter months in Afriea the Storks often 
 assemble in large flocks, returning toEurope in January and February,and their 
 first halting-place to nest seema to be in the Mediterranean countries, especially 
 in Morocco, where they are strictly protected. Colonel Irby states that he 
 was told by a Frenchman that "in the City of Morocco, as well as at Ftz 
 and some other large towns in the Moorish Empire, there are regular Storks' 
 hospitals, and that should one be injured, or fall from the nest, it is sent to 
 this institution, or rather enclosure, which is kept up by subscription from 
 wealthy Moors, who consider the Stork a sacred bird." The late M. Favier, 
 who lived for some years in Morocco, writes the following note, which gives a 
 very good idea of the migrations of the Stork and its habits in this favoured 
 country. He says: "The Stork is seen on migration in vast numbers 
 around Tangier passing to Europe during January and February, some of the 
 birds terminating their journey by remaining to breed in Morocco. These are 
 the first to depart south, returning again year after year to the same places, 
 and apparently by the same route as that taken in their gradual departure. 
 
 "Some large flights pass on without stopping; those which migrate in 
 August rest awhile on their way south; so during the autumnal migration 
 (which lasts, like the spring, for about a month the latter half of August 
 and the first part of September) this species is extremely numerous, and 
 is seen round the environs of Tangier in all directions ; they are very 
 tame, and often follow close behind the plough. 
 
 "The superstition which shelters this bird from molestation by the natives 
 is the belief that the Storks were inspired by Allah to protect the harvest 
 and the country from noxious insects and reptiles, and that the birds 
 themselves (knowing the benefits they confer on man) ask in return 
 protection for their offspring by building their nests on the walls of towns 
 and houses, and that, therefore, anyone who kills them must be a Kaffir, i.e., 
 not a true believer of the Prophet, especially as the birds would only be 
 killed for mischief, and not for food. It may be added that some of the 
 Arabs believe that the Storks originate from a wicked Kadi and his family, 
 who, as a punishment for their great cruelty, were all changed into these 
 birds, and that these miserables humble themselves to appease Allah, and in the 
 hope of some day regaining their human form, pray without ceasing day and 
 night, and, whenever they rest, prostrate themselves and clean their bills." 
 
 The White Stork of Europe has a red bill, and is represented in Eastern 
 Siberia and Japan by the Black-billed White Stork (Ciconia boyciana), and 
 in America by the Maguari Stork (Euxenura maguari), which has a greenish 
 bill. The Black Stork (Ciconia nigra] is another European bird which has 
 occasionally visited England. It winters in Africa and in the Indian 
 Peninsula, and, like its white relative, only visits Europe in the summer, 
 when it is also found over Northern Asia. It differs from the White 
 Stork in being a forest bird, but in habits and food ib resembles that 
 species. Indeed, in these respects all Storks are very similar. 
 
280 A VES ORDER ARDEIFORMES. 
 
 In India and Africa a curious species occurs, viz., the White-necked Stork 
 (Dissura episcopus), which, on examination, would seem to have a double tail, 
 whence its Latin name. The white under tail-coverts are longer than the 
 black tail-feathers, and are stiffened so as to appear like rectrices rather than 
 coverts. The same curious formation occurs in one of the American Storks 
 (Euxenura maguari). 
 
 The Jabirus are the largest of the Storks, standing higher on their legs 
 than even the Adjutants. There are two species of Jabiru besides the 
 American one mentioned above, viz., Mycteria senegalensis of Africa and 
 M. australis of Australia. They have a very peculiar bill, which is slightly 
 upturned at the end, and of a black and red colour. 
 
 Of a more ungainly form, and with a bare and scabious head, are the 
 Adjutants (Leptoptilus). They are very large birds, and as fossil remains 
 have been found in the Miocene deposits in France, we may conclude that 
 they were at one time much more widely distributed than they are now. At 
 present one species of Leptoptilus is African, another Indian, and a third 
 Javan. They all possess the beautiful soft under tail-coverts known as 
 44 Marabou " feathers, and on the neck they have a bare pendulous pouch 
 which they are able to innate ; and from the way in which this is done by 
 the birds in confinement, it would appear as if it was considered an ornamental 
 appendage, though from its livid colour the protrusion of this naked bag is 
 anything but ornamental. In India the Adjutants are protected on account 
 of their usefulness as scavengers, as they will devour almost anything, and 
 they may often be seen in the streets of the towns. In aviaries they often 
 stand on one leg for hours motionless, or, with their legs stretched forward 
 under them, they will go to sleep with their heavy heads resting on their 
 crops. Mr. Eugene Gates says that he noticed enormous numbers of 
 Adjutants in Pegu. <4 Along with the Pelicans," he says, "breeding in the 
 same trees, were innumerable Adjutants. One can hardly realise the number 
 of these birds that visit Pegu in October, unless, as I have done, one has seen 
 the vast armies which settle on the plains on their first arrival. I have 
 stood on a bund where I could see for about two miles around me, and the 
 whole area was literally covered with them. Some fifty birds stand huddled 
 together, then there is a bare spare of about 100 ft., and then another 
 group of birds. Their numbers are incredible. They all arrive suddenly in 
 the Pegu plain on the same day, and after resting for about two days, they 
 betake themselves to the forest, where I had the pleasure of visiting them. 
 Certainly almost all the Indian Adjutants must come to Pegu to breed. 
 These birds utter only one sound, and it resembles the lowing of a cow when 
 separated from her calf. It was the only sound heard in these gloomy 
 forests." Colonel Bingham found the nests of the Indian Adjutant on the 
 Nedong Hills in Tenasserim, and only succeeded in reaching the rocks on 
 which they were built after a stiff and difficult climb. 
 
 These birds are generally known as the "Shell-Ibises,"' though they have 
 
 no connection with the true Ibises, but are Storks of a peculiar type ; Mr. 
 
 Leydecker calls them "Shell-Storks," which is a much 
 
 The Open-billed more appropriate name for them, as their food consists 
 
 Storks. Genus principally of molluscs, for the breaking of which the 
 
 jinastomus. bird's " nut-cracker "-like bill is distinctly well adapted. 
 
 The peculiar gap in the bill is not seen in the young birds, 
 
 but seems to develop as the birds get older. 
 
 These birds have also generally been called "Wood Ibises," and they seem 
 
WOOD-STORKSHAMMER-HEAD. 
 
 281 
 
 to be a kind of connecting link between the Storks and the Ibises, though in 
 structure they resemble the former. Three species are 
 known the American Wood-Stork (Tantalus loculator), The Wood- 
 
 the African Pseudotantalus ibis, and the Indian species, Storks. Family 
 P. leucocephalus. Of the nesting of the latter bird Lieut. Tantahda. 
 
 Burgess has given the following account : "In a village 
 about ten miles from the Godavery river, where there are a great number of 
 large banian trees both outside and inside the walls, I found a community of 
 these birds, which had built their nests on them, probably to the number 
 of fifty. The trees inside the walls were as thickly covered with nests as 
 those outside, and the birds, which appeared docile and tame, did not mind 
 the noise of the people passing beneath them. When I visited the village, 
 the young birds were all well fledged and most of them able to fly. The 
 villagers informed me that the old birds move off" to the river in the very 
 early dawn, and having caught a sufficient supply for their young, return at 
 about eight or nine o'clock ; a second expedition is made in the afternoon. 
 Some idea of the quantity of fish caught by these birds may be gathered from 
 what the people told me, that numbers of fine fish were dropped by the old 
 birds when feeding their young and were eaten by them. A young bird of 
 this species, which I shot in Sind, disgorged a large quantity of small eels. 
 The nest is composed of small sticks, and is placed at the top of the trees, and 
 if there are many on the same tree, they are placed pretty close together." 
 
 In many of its characters the African genus Scopus, which represents this 
 sub-order, is intermediate between the Storks and the Herons. In the 
 form of the furcula, without any median projection, it 
 resembles the former, and it also wants the pectinated 
 claw of the Herons, while the absence of powder-down 
 patches likewise allies it to the Storks. In some points 
 of its anatomy Scopus is Heron-like, but in external 
 appearance it is unlike any member of the above-mentioned sub-orders, 
 colour of the plumage is a sombre brown, but the 
 bird has a fine crest and a curiously-compressed 
 bill, with a strong dertral hook at the end. 
 Both the inner and the outer toe are connected 
 together by a distinct basal web. 
 
 But it is in its nesting habits that the Hammer- 
 head is so peculiar. The nest is the work of a pair 
 of birds, and is placed either on rocks or trees, 
 sometimes six or eight being found within a short 
 distance of each other. Sir John Kirk found one 
 on the Zambesi, 6 ft. in diameter, with small 
 openings on one side. The nest is a mass of 
 sticks, and the bird has been said to make 
 three distinct chambers ; but in South Africa the 
 nests are described as being for the most part a 
 solid mass of sticks, sometimes to the extent of a 
 cart load, the nest being often decorated with 
 bones, bits of crockery, or other rubbish, or any 
 bright thing which the bird can collect, after the 
 manner of a Bower Bird (Ptilonorhynchus). 
 
 These extraordinary birds are represented, as in the preceding instance, 
 by a single genus Balceniceps, which, like Scopus, is confined to the Ethiopian 
 
 The Hammer- 
 headed Storks. 
 Sub-order Scopi. 
 
 The 
 
 Fig, 41. THE HAMMER-HEAD 
 (Scopus u.mbrttta). 
 
282 
 
 A VES ORDER ARDEIFORMES. 
 
 Fig. 42. THR SHOE-BILLED STORK 
 (Balceniceps rex). 
 
 region, but instead of being widely distributed like the Hammer-head, 
 
 the Shoe-bill is confined to the districts of the Upper Nile. The shape of 
 
 the bill, with its dertral hook, 
 The Shoe-billed is sufficient to distinguish 
 
 Storks. -Sub order Balceniceps at a glance. The 
 
 Batenitipiiide*. genus further possesses two 
 
 powder-down patches like the 
 
 Herons, but differs from the latter birds in the 
 
 absence of any pectination on the middle claw, 
 
 and in its Stork-like furcula. Taking all points 
 
 of its anatomy into consideration, the balance of 
 
 evidence seems to be in favour of the alliance of 
 
 Balceniccps with the Storks. 
 
 Von Heuglin considered the " Abu-mask up " 
 
 or Shoe-bill to be a kind of Marabou, and an 
 
 inhabitant of the Upper Nile regions, such 
 
 as the Saraf River, the Lower Kir district, 
 
 and the Gazelle River, and the countries lying 
 
 between. It is everywhere a shy bird and 
 
 decidedly scarce, its habits being Stork-like, 
 
 standing on one leg and feeding on fish. Its 
 
 only note seems to be a snapping of the bill 
 
 like that of a Stork. 
 
 One of the chief differences between the Herons and the Storks is the 
 
 pectinated claw on the third or middle toe, and another difference is the posi- 
 tion of the hind toe, which, in 
 The Herons. tne Storks, is elevated above 
 Sub-order the level of the other toes, 
 
 Herudiones. and in the Herons is on the 
 same level as the latter. 
 
 The median process on the furcula has been 
 
 already alluded to. The Herodiones may be 
 
 divided roughly into the Herons and the 
 
 Bitterns. The former have twelve tail-feathers, 
 
 and the latter ten. 
 
 The true Herons comprise a large number 
 
 of genera, all more of less closely connected 
 
 together, but differing in certain constant 
 
 peculiarities, which warrant their being separated 
 
 as genera, or, at least, as sub-genera. Thus the 
 
 Purple Heron of Europe is remarkable for its 
 
 long middle toe, which is as long as the tarsus, 
 
 and hence it is known as Phoyx purpurea. 
 
 The genus Ardea, on the other hand, has the 
 
 proportions of the toes different, the middle toe 
 
 being shorter, and the tarsus longer than the 
 
 middle toe and claw. Besides the pectinate or 
 
 comb-like claw on the middle toe, our Common Heron (A. cinerea) has the 
 
 tip of the bill serrated or furnished with saw-like notches along the cutting 
 
 edge at the end of the upper mandible. 
 
 The Common Heron is now to be found nesting in England only in 
 
 certain heronries where the bird ia protected. The havoc which the bird 
 
 Fig. 43. THE COMMON HBRON 
 (Ardea cinerea). 
 
NIGHT-HERONSBOAT-BILLS. 283 
 
 plays among tho fish in preserved waters is sufficient excuse for its 
 slaughter, and many are killed on account of the damage they do. Never- 
 theless, the Heron is an extremely handsome ornament to our waters, and 
 it is always a beautiful sight to see one of these birds standing motionless by 
 a pool of water, or flying with its heavy wings and outstretched legs high 
 above us in the air. The nests of the Common Heron are bulky structures, 
 and, as a rule, are built on trees, though occasionally, where trees are absent, 
 they will be built on bushes or even on the ground. The eggs are of a 
 beautiful greenish-blue colour. 
 
 When in full nesting plumage, our own Ardea cinerea dons some long crest 
 feathers arid some elongated feathers on the back, but in these features it is 
 entirely eclipsed by some of the Egrets, such as the species of Herodias 
 and Garzetta, which have beautiful ornamental plumes on the breast and 
 lower back during the breeding season. The long dorsal train of the Little 
 Egrets (Garzetta garzetta) forms the material with which the English ladies of 
 the present day decorate their bonnets and hats. Every one of these 
 plumes, sold as " osprey " feathers by the dealers, has been taken from the 
 body of a bird killed while bringing food to its nestlings, which are in con- 
 sequence left to starve. It is scarcely possible that, in the present day, 
 when so much publicity has been given t the fact that the wearers of these 
 plumes are responsible for the slaughter of numberless beautiful Egrets, 
 and the de ith of the young ones by starvation, any Englishwoman can plead 
 immunity from complicity in the crime of consenting to the murder of these 
 pretty birds; and one is forced reluctantly, seeing that the plumes are 
 obtained solely for the English market, to believe that our people love to 
 have it so, and that they would rather that thousands of Egrets were killed 
 than that their bonnets should be without an "osprey " plume. 
 
 Passing from the true Herons and the Egrets to the Night-Herons, we find 
 several intermediate forms, such as the lovely A garni Heron of Guiana 
 (Ayamia agami), and the Reef-Herons (Demiegretta). 
 In the latter birds we meet with a curious fact, viz., that The Night-Herons, 
 they have two forms, a white and a grey one, and, as far QenusNyctieoraz 
 as one can say at present, the white form goes through all 
 the changes of the grey one, assuming the ornamental plumes of the breed- 
 ing season ; and yet, when the two forms cross, as they often seem to do, 
 the result is seen in any amount of pied birds. The same phenomenon is 
 exhibited in an American Heron (Dichromanassa rufa), where one form of 
 the species is white arid the other rufous. The two forms breed together, 
 and some of the uestlings will be white and others rufous. 
 
 The Night-Herons are found nearly everywhere on the globe, and the 
 European species, Nyctieorax nyctieorax, occurs in the temperate and tropical 
 portions of the Old and the New Worlds. These birds breed in colonies, 
 and build a nest of a framework of sticks, in which the eggs lie in a sort of 
 cradle. One may travel for miles through a marsh without suspecting the 
 presence of the Night-Herons, and suddenly come upon the breeding 
 place, when the air becomes full of the noisy cries of the birds, as they 
 hover over their nests, and evince the greatest concern at the invasion of 
 their retreat. 
 
 One of the most curious of the Night-Herons is the American Boat-bill 
 (Canchroma). At first sight the remarkably wide and shoe-shaped bill would 
 suggest an affinity with the Shoe-billed Stork (Balceniceps rex), but the 
 characters of the bird are absolutely Heron-like, and there is no doubt that 
 
2 8 4 
 
 A VES- ORDER ARDEIFORMES. 
 
 Fig, 44. THE BOAT BILLED HERON 
 (Canchroma cochlearia). 
 
 the bird is an exaggerated form of Night-Heron, its plumage also suggesting 
 
 the propriety of this alliance. The genus stands, in fact, between the true 
 
 Night -Herons (Nyctieorax) and the 
 Mottled Night-Herons (Gorsachius) of 
 the Indian Region. 
 
 Two species of Boat-billed Herons are 
 known the South American species 
 C. cochlearia, which is found from 
 Brazil to Guiana, Colombia, and 
 Ecuador, and the Central American 
 species, C. zeledoni, which takes its 
 place from Panama to Mexico, and has 
 a tawny-coloured breast instead of a 
 white one. They are nocturnal birds, 
 and Mr. Richmond says that in Costa 
 Rica he found C. zeledoni in colonies, 
 and the note of the species was a 
 "squawk," something like that of the 
 Night-Heron. 
 
 The Bitterns have ten, "tail-feathers 
 ?nd the end of the bill serrated. In 
 this group are contained the Little 
 Bitterns (Ardetta), the Dwarf Tiger 
 Bitterns of South America (Zebrilus), 
 and the Asiatic Bitterns (Ardeirallus and 
 Dupetor), as well as the True Bitterns 
 
 (Botaurus). Of the Little Bitterns ten species are known, and the distribution 
 
 of the genus is almost cosmopolitan. The 
 
 most tyoical species is the Little Bittern 
 
 of Eurooe (Ardetta minuta), a bird which 
 
 still occasionally finds its way to England, 
 
 and doubtless formerly bred in the British 
 
 Islands. One of the most remarkable of 
 
 the Little Bitterns is, however, the 
 
 Argentine species (Ardetta involucris), 
 
 concerning which Mr. W. H. Hudson 
 
 tells a remarkable story, one of the most 
 
 interesting of all histories of bird-life. 
 
 Most of the Bitterns have the curious 
 
 faculty of concealing themselves from 
 
 observation by their faculty of "reed- 
 simulating," and many of our readers 
 
 must have noticed some of these birds in 
 
 the Zoological Gardens standing stock- 
 still, and evidently imagining that by so 
 
 doing they were invisible to the intruder. 
 
 The Common Bittern (Botaurus stellaris) 
 
 will not only do this, but will gradually 
 
 and slowly turn his breast to any observer 
 
 if the latter only walks slowly away from 
 
 him, under the evident impression that by so doing he renders himself 
 
 invisible, as, indeed, the bird would be if he were in his native reed-bed ; 
 
 Fig. 45 THR LITTLK BITTERN 
 (Ardetta minuta). 
 
LITTLE BITTERNS. 285 
 
 but, as he has a background of green bushes or wood-work, his efforts at 
 concealment are vain. 
 
 The notion of concealment in relation to natural surroundings is, however, 
 thoroughly explained by Mr. Hudson's experiences. He writes : " One day 
 in November, 1870, when out shooting, I noticed a Variegated Bittern stealing 
 off quickly through a bed of rushes thirty or forty yards from me. He was 
 a foot or so above the ground, and went so rapidly that he appeared to glide 
 through the rushes without touching them. I fired, but afterwards ascer- 
 tained that in my hurry I missed my aim. The bird, however, disappeared 
 at the report, and, thinking I had killed him, I went to the spot. 
 
 "It was a small isolated bed of rushes I had seen him in ; the mud below, 
 and for some distance round, was quite bare and hard, so that it would have 
 been impossible for the bird to escape without being perceived ; and yet, dead 
 or alive, he was not to be found. After vainly searching and re-searching 
 through the rushes for a quarter of an hour, I gave over the quest in great 
 disgust and bewilderment, and, after reloading, was just turning to go, when, 
 behold ! there stood my Heron on a reed, no more than eight inches from, 
 and on a level with, my knees. He was perched, the body erect, and the 
 point of the tail touching the reed grasped by its feet, the long, slender, 
 tapering neck was held stiff, straight, and vertically ; and the head and beak, 
 instead of being carried obliquely, were also pointing up. There was not, 
 from his feet to the tip of his beak, a perceptible curve or inequality, but 
 the whole was the figure (the exact counterpart) of a straight, tapering rush ; 
 the loose plumage arranged to fill inequalities, and the wings pressed into 
 the hollow sides, made it impossible to see where the body ended and the 
 neck began, or to distinguish hea-d from neck or beak from head. This was, 
 of course, a front view ; and the entire under-surface of the bird was thus 
 displayed all of a uniform dull yellow, like that of a faded rush. I regarded 
 the bird wonderingly for some time, but not the least motion did it make. I 
 thought it was wounded or paralysed with fear, and, placing my hand on the 
 point of its beak, forced the head down till it touched the back ; when I 
 withdrew my hand, up flew the head, like a steel spring, to its first position. 
 I repeated the experiment many times with the same result, the very eyes of 
 the bird appearing all the time rigid and unwinking, like those of a creature 
 in a fit. What wonder that it is so difficult almost impossible to discover the 
 bird in such an attitude. But how happened it that, while repeatedly walking 
 round the bird through the rushes, I had not caught sight of the striped back 
 and the broad, dark-coloured sides? I asked myself this question, and stepped 
 round to get a side view, when, mirdbile didu, I could still see nothing but the 
 rush-like front of the bird. His motions on the perch as he turned slowly 
 or quickly round, still keeping the edge of the blade-like body before me, 
 corresponded so exactly with my own that I almost doubted that I had 
 moved at all. No sooner had I seen the finishing part of this marvellous 
 instinct of self-preservation (this last act -making the whole complete), than 
 such a degree of delight and admiration possessed me as I have never before 
 experienced during my researches, much as I have conversed with wild 
 animals in the wilderness, and many and perfect as are the instances of 
 adaptation I have witnessed. I could not finish admiring, and thought that 
 never had anything so beautiful fallen in my way before, for even the sublime 
 cloud-seeking instinct of the White Egret and the typical Herons seemed 
 less admirable than this, and for some time I continued experimenting, 
 pressing down the bird's head and trying to bend him by main force into 
 
286 A VES ORDER ARDEIFORMES. 
 
 some other position ; but the strange rigidity remained unrelaxed, the fixed 
 attitude unchanged. I also found, as I walked round him, that as soon as I 
 got to the opposite side, and he could no longer twist himself on his perch, 
 he whirled his body with great rapidity the other way, instantly presenting 
 the same front as before. 
 
 " Finally I plucked him forcibly from the rush and perched him on my 
 hand, upon which he flew away ; but he flew only fifty or sixty yards off, and 
 dropped into the dry grass. Here he again put in practice the same instinct 
 so ably, that I groped about for ten or twelve minutes before refinding him, 
 and was astonished that a creature, to all appearance so weak and frail, 
 should have strength and endurance sufficient to keep its body rigid and in 
 one attitude for so long a time." 
 
 This habit of concealing themselves among surroundings to which their 
 plumage assimilates in colour seems to be a characteristic of all the Bitterns, 
 as I have seen our Common Bittern ( Botaitriis stellftris) attempting to perform 
 this feat in an aviary, and the Tiger Bitterns (Tigrisoma) also remain in a 
 rigid position for hours together. 
 
 It should be mentioned that nearly all the Herons lay eggs of a beautiful 
 greenish-blue colour, while those of many of the Bitterns are white, and 
 that of the Common Bittern is yellowish brown. 
 
 Although agreeing with the Storks in the form of the furcula, the members 
 
 of this sub-order differ from them and from the Herons in several important 
 
 osteological characters, the principal one being the 
 
 The Spoon-bills schizorhinal or "split" nostril. The Spoon-bills are such 
 
 and Ibises. Sub- extraordinary looking birds, that there is no possibility of 
 
 order Platalece. their being mistaken for any of the other long-legged 
 
 Herons or Storks, from all of which they are distinguished 
 
 by their flattened and spoon-shaped bill. They are found in nearly every 
 
 part of the globe, but do not extend very far north, and six species are 
 
 known, viz., four species of Platalece, one of 
 Platibis, confined to Australia, and one of 
 Ajaja, viz., the Rosy Spoon-bill of the New 
 World (Ajaja ojaja). 
 
 The Common Spoon-bill used to breed in the 
 marshes of our eastern counties, but has not 
 been known to do so for the last three hundred 
 years. Now the species is only an accidental 
 visitor, but it still nests on the Horster Meer 
 in Holland, where its breeding places are strictly 
 protected. The nests are made of dead reeds 
 lined with dry grass, and are placed on the 
 tussocks of grass with a few sticks as a founda- 
 tion ; a few nests being built low down in the 
 alder trees. On the Danube the Spoon-bills 
 nest in company with Egrets and other Herons, 
 Fig. 46.-THR COMMON SPOON-BILI, and the followin g interesting account of a visit 
 (Platalece kucerodea), to one of these breeding-places is given in Mr. 
 
 Barkley's work, "Bulgaria Before the War." 
 
 He found a colony on an island a few miles below Rustchuk, and he describes 
 the scene as follows : " Pushing our small boat into a narrow creek, we took 
 off our shoes and stockings, and, turning up our trousers, picked our way 
 through the tangled boughs in the direction of the sound, which evidently 
 
SPOON-BILLSIBISES. 287 
 
 proceeded from the centre of the island, and I shall not easily forget the 
 sight we beheld when we reached it. 
 
 " There, on the pressed-down boughs of the willows, only a few feet above 
 the water, were hundreds of great flat nests of the various kinds of Herons, 
 Spoon-bills, Egrets, Bitterns, etc., all huddled together in one confused 
 mass, and the entire colony reeking with the most indescribably filthy 
 smell. 
 
 "It was rather late for eggs, as most of them were hatched off; but was 
 just the time to observe the doings of the children of these sedate, quiet, 
 peaceful-looking birds, and I must say that I never yet beheld such a collec- 
 tion of little fiends, nor a more hideous set. 
 
 ' k Their bodies were of the smallest proportions, while every other part of 
 them their wings, legs, necks, and beaks were of the longest. Most of 
 them had no feathers, and all seemed possessed with one idea, and that was 
 either to limb a sraall brother or swallow him whole, and all kept up either 
 a shriek of fear or pain or a yell of rage. Floating on the top of the putrid 
 water were masses of dead birds, some with legs torn off, others without 
 heads or wings. Most of them were dead, but others were dragging their 
 maimed carcases about in a ghastly manner. So intent were they on their 
 fiendish pastime that they took little notice of us, and dragged and clawed 
 themselves about after their weaker brethren at our very feet, whilst the old 
 parent bird sat looking on from the topmost twigs as if fratricide were the 
 proper moral pastime of the young. A big Spoon-bill would chase a small 
 Egret from bough to bough till at last he tired it out, and then seizing it 
 with one claw, would take hold of its leg or wing and tear it from the poor 
 victim, or else, getting its head in its m<~'uth, would try to swallow it whole, 
 and gulp and gulp till so much of the little one was down its throat that it 
 was itself choked, and would turn over on its back, kicking and struggling, 
 to be in turn seized by a brother and torn limb from limb. 
 
 "All uttered up some hideous scream, and all kept clambering and 
 dragging themselves about from bough to bough, either hunting or being 
 hunted, and from what we saw I am sure that nine-tenths of all hatched in 
 that colony came to an untimely end before they could fly. We did not stay 
 long to watch them, but quickly securing some eggs from the few nests that 
 were not hatched off we beat a retreat, with our opinions of the beautiful, 
 gentle-looking birds greatly changed." 
 
 The Ibises are easily distinguished from the Spoon-bills by the shape of 
 their bills, which are long and curved, and have the nasal groove extending 
 nearly the whole length of the bill, which is soft, except- 
 ing at the extreme tip. The bill in some of the Ibises The Ibises. 
 is indeed very like that of a Curlew (Numenius), and one Family Ibidida. 
 genus of the Charadrii formes, Ibidorliynchus, is so like an 
 Ibis, that externally its characters would ally it to the latter group of birds 
 rather than to the Waders, to which, as its internal Etructure shows, it 
 actually belongs. 
 
 The most interesting of all the Ibises is undoubtedly the Sacred Ibis of the 
 Egyptians. As the ancient paintings show, the bird was a great feature in 
 Egyptian life, and the mummies of these birds which are found in the 
 temples show that it was regarded with great veneration by the ancient 
 Egyptians. The species still inhabits the Upper Nile regions, and many 
 writers state that it is never found in Egypt at the present day. This, 
 however, is not the case, as the British Museum has several specimens 
 
288 
 
 A VES ORDER PHCENICOPTERIFORMES. 
 
 Fiij. 47. THK SACRBD IEIS 
 (Ibis cethiopica). 
 
 procured in Egypt, one of them having been shot near Damietta about 
 twelve years ago. We know ako that the species extends to the Persian 
 Gulf, its winter home being in Eastern and 
 Southern Africa. 
 
 There are no less than twenty different genera 
 of Ibises, and many of them are remarkable for 
 highly developed crests and ornamental plumes, 
 while in the Sacred Ibis and its allies the head 
 and neck are bare. The Glossy Ibises (Plegadis) 
 are among the commonest and best known of the 
 whole family, as one of them, P. falcinellus, has 
 visited England on many occasions. This species 
 breeds in numbers on the marshes of the lower 
 Danube, as well as in similar places in Africa 
 and India, and the egg is one of the most 
 beautiful of any of the Heron-like birds, being 
 of a deep greenish-blue, darker and richer in 
 tint than the eggs of any species of Herons. 
 
 We now approach the great group of swimming 
 birds, such as the Ducks, the Pelicans, and their 
 allies ; but, before arriving at the consideration 
 
 of these well-marked orders, there intervenes a remarkable 
 
 The Flamingoes. form of bird > the Flamingo. In its long legs and long 
 
 Order neck it might well be taken for a kind of Heron or Stork ; 
 
 Phcenicopteri- and, indeed, until recent years, the position of the 
 formes. Flamingoes was considered to be in close proximity to 
 
 the last-named birds. They are, however, more nearly 
 allied to the Ducks and Geese, having a desmognathous or "bridged" 
 palate ; while the young are hatched covered with down, and are able to run 
 about in a few hours and obtain food for them- 
 selves. These features they possess in common 
 with the Ducks and Geese and the Screamers, 
 and these three groups were united by Huxley 
 into one natural order, Chenomorphce. 
 
 The Flamingoes resemble the Ducks and 
 Geese in having the sides of the bill laminated, 
 an arrangement which enables them to sift their 
 food in the way which every one of our readers 
 must have seen tame Ducks do in a farmyard or 
 on a lake. Besides many osteological characters, 
 the Flamingoes present an external appearance 
 unique among birds. The legs are abnormally 
 long, the metatarsus being three times as 
 long as the femur, and the anterior toes fully 
 webbed. The neck is also extremely long, the 
 cervical vertebrae being eighteen or nineteen in 
 number. The bill is decurved in a remarkable 
 manner ; but in the nestling, which is covered 
 with greyish-white down, the bill is straight, 
 as in any other Duck-like bird. 
 
 The most curious feature in the economy of the Flamingo is its nest, which 
 is built of mud. For a long time it was supposed that the birds sat upon 
 
 Fig. 48. TriF! COMMON FLAMINGO 
 (Phoenieopterus roseuti). 
 
FLAMINGOES. 289 
 
 their single egg, with the legs straddled on each side of them. This idea 
 was, however, dissipated by Mr. Abel Chapman in 1883, when he visited the 
 Marismas of the Guadalquivir, in Spain, and found out the nesting habits of 
 the Flamingo. He writes : "One cannot go far into the Marisma without 
 seeing that extraordinary fowl the Flamingo, certainly the most characteristic 
 bird of the wilderness. In herds of 300 to 500, several of which are often 
 in sight at once, they stand feeding in the open water, all their heads under, 
 greedily tearing up the grasses and water-plants from the bottom. On 
 approaching them, which can only be done by extreme caution, their silence 
 is first broken by the sentries, who commence walking away with low croaks, 
 then the whole five hundred necks rise at once to the full extent, every bird 
 gaggling his loudest as they walk obliquely away, looking back over their 
 shoulders as though to take stock of the extent of the danger. Pushing <a 
 few yards forward, up they all rise, and a more beautiful sight cannot be 
 imagined than the simultaneous spreading of their thousand crimson wings, 
 flashing against the sky like a gleam of rosy light. Then one descends to 
 the practical, and a volley of slugs cuts a lane through their phalanx. 
 
 "In many respects these birds bear a strong resemblance to Geese. Like 
 them Flamingoes feed by day, and great quantities of grass, etc., are 
 always floating about the muddy water where a herd has been feeding. 
 Their cry is almost indistinguishable from the gaggling of "Geese, and they 
 fly in the same catenanan formations. In size Flamingoes vary greatly. 
 The largest I have measured was fully 6 ft. 5 in., whilst others (old red birds) 
 barely reached 5 ft." He thus describes the finding of the nests: "On 
 reaching the spot we found a perfect mass of nests ; the low mud plateau 
 was crowded with them as thickly as the space permitted. These nests had 
 little or no height ; some were raised 2 or 3 in. , a few might be 5 or 6 in. ; 
 but the majority were merely circular bulwarks of mud, with the impression 
 of the bird's legs distinctly marked on it. The general aspect of the plateau 
 was not unlike a large table covered with plates. In the centre was a deep 
 hole full of muddy water, which, from the 'gouged' appearance of its sides, 
 appeared to be used as a reservoir for nest-making materials. Scattered all 
 round this main colony were numerous single nests rising out of the water, 
 and evidently built up from the bottom. Here and there two or three or 
 more of these were joined together 'semi-detached,' so to speak. These 
 separate nests rose 6 or 8 in. above the water level, and were about 15 in. 
 across. The water was about 12 or 15 in. deep. None of these nests 
 as yet contained eggs, and though I returned to the ' pajarera ' on the latest 
 day I was in its neighbourhood (llth May), they still remained empty. On 
 both occasions many hundreds of Flamingoes were sitting on the nests, and on 
 the llth we had a good view of them at close quarters. Linked arm in arm 
 with Felipe, and crouching low in the water, to look as little human as 
 possible, we approached within some 70 yds. before their sentries showed 
 signs of alarm, and, at that distance, we observed the sitting birds as distinctly 
 as one need wish. Their long red legs doubled under their bodies, the knees 
 projecting as far as, or beyond, the tail, and their graceful necks neatly 
 curled away among their back feathers, like a sitting swan, with their heads 
 resting on their breasts all these points were unmistakable. Indeed, it is 
 hardly necessary to point out that in the great majority of cases (the nest 
 being hardly raised above the level of the flat mud) no other position was 
 possible." 
 
 Of Flamingoes six species are known, and they are found in the temperate 
 20 
 
290 
 
 A VES ORDER ANSERIFORMES. 
 
 and tropical portions of both the Old and New Worlds. Three species belong 
 to the genus Phcenicopterus Phceniconaias has one species, P. minor, found in 
 Africa and North- Western India ; and Phcenicoparrus inhabits the Andes of 
 Chili and Peru and has two species, P. andinus and P. jamesi. 
 
 In Miocene times several forms of birds allied to the Flamingoes existed 
 in Europe, and have been classed by Mr. Lydekker under the extinct genus 
 Palceolodus. He states that they were smaller than the Flamingoes of the 
 present day, and had shorter and stouter legs, while it is probable also that 
 their bill was not deflected. 
 
 Although agreeing in many characters with the Ducks and the Geese, the 
 Screamers have one peculiarity which separates them from all chenomorphine 
 birds, in that they have no uncinate processes to the ribs, 
 The Screamers. and no laminae on. the sides of the bill. The toes are long 
 Sub-order and almost devoid of web, and the general appearance of 
 
 Palamedea. the birds is gallinaceous. Two genera are known, 
 
 Palamedea and Chauna. The genus Palamedea is recog- 
 nised by the long horn which it carries on its forehead. Beyond this it has 
 no crest on the head, and has fourteen tail-feathers. Only one species. 
 P. cornnta, is known, and this is an 
 inhabitant of Guiana, Amazonia, Vene- 
 zuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia. The general 
 plumage is black, with a white belly, 
 and the wing carries two spurs, the 
 anterior one of which is much the 
 longer. Very little has been recorded 
 of the habits of the Horned Screamer, 
 but Mr. Edward Bartlett noticed the 
 species about the lakes in the Upper 
 Amazons, and the habits are probably 
 very similar to those of the next species. 
 
 The genus Chauna differs from Pala- 
 medea in having a crested head, naked 
 lores, no horn on the forehead, and in 
 
 possessing twelve tail-feathers instead of fourteen. Two 
 
 The Crested species of Chauna are known the Crested Screamer 
 
 Screamer (C. cristata) and the Derbian Screamer (C. chavaria). 
 
 (Chauna cristate). The latter is found in Venezuela and Colombia, while 
 the Crested Screamer inhabits Argentina and the neigh- 
 bouring provinces of Southern Brazil. In Mr. Hudson's well-known work 
 on Argentine ornithology we find the following notes on the species : 
 
 "The Crested Screamer, like most of the larger Birds and Mammals in 
 every part of the globe to which European emigration is attracted, is 
 probably doomed to rapid extermination. My observations of the bird in 
 that portion of the Pampas where it is most abundant date back some years, 
 to a time when the inhabitants were few and mainly of Spanish race never 
 the destroyers of bird-life. The conditions had become extremely favourable 
 to this species. It is partially aquatic in its habits, and in desert places is 
 usually found in marshes, wading in the shallow water, and occasionally 
 swimming to feed on the seeds and succulent leaves of water-loving plants. 
 After the old giant grasses of the Pampas had been eaten up by the cattle, 
 and the sweet grasses of Europe had taken their place, the Screamers took 
 kindly to that new food, preferring the clovers, and seemed as terrestrial in 
 
 Fig. 49. TUB HORNKB SCREAMER 
 (Palamedea co/nuta). 
 
SCREAMERS. 291 
 
 their feeding habits as Upland Geese. Their food was abundant, and they 
 were never persecuted: by the natives. Their flesh is very dark, coarse- 
 grained, but good to eat, with a flavour resembling that of the Wild Duck ; 
 and there is a great deal of meat on a bird with a body larger than that of a 
 Swan. Yet no person ever thought of killing or eating the Chaja, and the birds 
 were permitted to increase to a marvellous extent. It was a common thing 
 a few years ago in the dry season to see them congregated in thousands, and 
 so little afraid of man were they, that I have often ridden through large 
 scattered flocks without making the birds take wing. A curious thing about 
 the Screamer is that it pairs for life, and yet is one of the most social of birds. 
 But if a large flock is closely looked at, the birds are invariably seen 
 methodically ranged in pairs. Another curious thing is that, notwithstanding 
 the formidable weapons they possess each wing armed with two large spurs 
 they are extremely pacific in temper. I have never been able to detect 
 even the slightest approach to a quarrel among them ; yet it is hard to 
 believe that they do not fight sometimes, since weapons of offence are 
 usually found correlated with the disposition to use them. Captive birds, 
 however, can be made to fight ; and I have known Guachos take them for the 
 pleasure of witnessing their battles. They are very easily tamed, and in that 
 state seem to show greater docility and intelligence than any of our domestic 
 birds, and become so attached to their home that it is quite safe to allow 
 them to fly about at will. They associate, but do not quarrel, with the 
 poultry. They are quick to distinguish strangers from the people of the 
 house, showing considerable suspicion of them, and sometimes raising a loud 
 alarm at a stranger's approach. Towards dogs and cats they are often 
 unfriendly ; and when breeding it is dangerous for a strange person to 
 approach the nest, as they will sometimes attack him with the greatest fury. 
 
 " The Screamer is a very heavy bird, and rises from the ground laboriously, 
 the wings, as in the case of the Swan, making a loud noise. Nevertheless, 
 it loves soaring, and will rise in an immense spiral circle until it wholly 
 disappears from sight in the zenith, even in the brightest weather ; and 
 considering its great bulk and dark colour, the height it ultimately attains 
 must be very great. On sunny windless days, especially in winter and 
 spring, they often spend hours at a time in these sublime aerial exercises, 
 slowly floating round and round in vast circles, and singing at intervals. 
 How so heavy and comparatively short-winged a bird can sustain itself for 
 such long periods in the thin upper air to which it rises has not yet been 
 explained. The voice is very powerful. When disturbed, or when the nest 
 is approached, both birds utter at intervals a loud alarm-cry, resembling in 
 sound the anger-cry of the Peacock, but twice as loud. At other times its 
 voice is exercised in a kind of singing performance, in which male and female 
 join, and which produces the effect of harmony. The male begins, the 
 female takes up her part, and then with marvellous strength and spirit they 
 pour forth a torrent of strangely-contrasted sounds some bassoon-like in 
 their depth and volume, some like drum-beats, and others long, clear, and 
 ringing. It is the loudest animal sound of the Pampas, and its jubilant 
 martial character strongly affects the mind in that silent, melancholy 
 wilderness. The Screamer sings all the year round at all hours, both on the 
 ground and when soaring; when in pairs, the two birds invariably sing 
 together, and when in flocks they sing in concert. At night they are heard 
 about nine o'clock in the evening, and again just before dawn. It is not 
 unusual, however, to hear them singing at other hours. The nest is a large 
 
292 A VES ORDER ANSERIFORMES. 
 
 fabric placed among the low rushes and water-lilies, and is sometimes seen 
 floating on the water, away from its moorings. The eggs are five, pointed at 
 one end, pure white, and in size like the eggs of the domestic Goose. The 
 young are clothed in yellow down like Goslings, and follow the parents about 
 from the date of hatching." 
 
 Mr. Lydekker, when in Argentina, found the Screamer nesting on a 
 lagoon, and saw the parent birds swimming about amongst the Ducks. 
 On his approach they fled to the banks, but soon returned to the water. 
 They had evidently young birds on the lagoon. This aquatic feature in the 
 Screamers is of the highest interest, as confirming the anserine affinities 
 which their anatomy demonstrates. 
 
 These well-known birds are easily recognised by their external characters, 
 
 their semi-flattened bills, shortish legs, and fully-webbed 
 
 The Geese and feet distinguishing them from the Screamers and 
 
 Ducks. Sub- Flamingoes, while, like the latter birds, they have 
 
 order Anseres. uncinated processes to the ribs. Count Salvador!, who 
 
 has recently monographed the sub-order Anseres in the 
 
 " Catalogue" of the Birds in the British Museum, divides it into no less than 
 
 eleven sub-families belonging to the single family Anatidce. To these we 
 
 can only refer in passing. 
 
 The Swans a.re such well-known birds that very little description of them 
 
 is necessary. Among the Duck tribe they are easily recognisable by their 
 
 abnormally developed neck, which equals, or even exceeds, 
 
 The Swans. the body of the bird in length. There is no lobe to the 
 
 Sub-family hind toe, a feature which allies the Swans to the Geese, 
 
 Cygnince. b u t separates them from the majority of the Ducks. 
 
 There are three genera of Swans, viz., Cygnus, containing 
 
 the Swans with which we are most familiar ; Chenopis, the Black Swan of 
 
 Australia, with ornamental scapulars a"nd inner secondaries ; and Coscoroba, 
 
 the Chilian Swan, which has feathered lobes, and is as much a Goose in 
 
 appearance as it is a Swan in reality. 
 
 The Mute Swan is the familiar species which swims about on our rivers 
 and lakes. In most parts of the British Islands the Swan may be regarded 
 
 as a semi domesticated bird, 
 but in many places on the 
 Continent it is an absolutely 
 wild species. It is to this 
 Swan that the Polish Swan 
 (Cygnus immutabilis), with its 
 white cygnets, must be re- 
 ferred, as Count Salvador!, 
 and all the best of recent 
 observers, consider ifc to be 
 only a domestic variety of 
 the Mute Swan. Othor well- 
 known species of Cygnus are 
 the Whooper (C. musicus) 
 
 Fig. 50.-THK MUTB SWAN (Cygnus olor). and Bewick's Swan (C. 
 
 bewicki), the latter bird 
 
 nesting in Arctic Europe, where it makes a large nest composed entirely of 
 moss. It visits us in some numbers during the winter months. These 
 British species of Swans are distinguished by the size and the colour of their 
 
SWANS-SPUR-WINGED GEESE. 293 
 
 bills. Australia has one species, the Black Swan (Chenopis atrata), and 
 finally we have the Coscoroba Swan (Coscoroba Candida) which is found from 
 Chili and Patagonia to Argentina and Uruguay. Of this species Mr. W. H. 
 Hudson writes : "In their habits, language, and flight they differ much from 
 the Black-necked Swan, and the country people call them Ganso (Goose), 
 probably on account of their Goose-like habit of sometimes feeding away 
 from the water, or because their flesh has the flavour of Wild Goose. As a 
 rule, they go in small parties of five or six individuals, but sometimes flocks 
 numbering two or three hundred are seen in the cold season. Their 
 migrations are very irregular, and sometimes they are exceedingly abundant 
 in a certain district one year and absent from it the next. When disturbed 
 they utter a loud, musical, trumpeting cry in three notes, the last with a 
 falling inflection ; and, their wings being much longer proportionately than 
 in the black-necked species, they rise with greater ease, and have a much 
 freer and an almost soundless flight." 
 
 The Semipalmated Goose (Anseranas semipalmata) is the sole representative 
 of a distinct sub-family Anseranatinw, with the toes only half- webbed, and 
 the hind toe very long, and on a level with the other toes. It is an inhabitant 
 of Australia and Tasmania, and is still plentiful in some districts, though it 
 has disappeared from many places where it once was numerous. Gould says 
 that, in Northern Australia "it occurs in such countless multitudes that it 
 forms one of the chief articles of food of the aborigines, and was of the 
 utmost value to Leichardt and his party during their adventurous 
 journey from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, as shown in numerous parts 
 of his interesting account of the expedition. So dense are the flocks that 
 occur in the northern parts of the country, that the natives are able to 
 procure numbers of them by spearing," and, says Leichardt, "it seemed 
 that they only spear them when flying, and always crouch down when they 
 see a flight of them approaching ; the Geese, however, know their enemies so 
 well that they immediately turn when they see a native rise and put his spear 
 into his throwing-stick ; some of my companions-asserted that they had seen 
 them hit their object at the almost incredible distance of 200 yds." an 
 assertion which Gould says he could readily believe, from what he has 
 himself witnessed. This Goose has a very remarkable trachea, nearly 5 in. 
 in length, and mostly lying outside the pectoral muscle under the skin. 
 
 The next sub-family of the Geese consists of the Spur- winged Geese (sub- 
 family Plectropterince), and several allied forms. They have fully webbed 
 feet, a very long hind toe, and long tail-feathers. The true Spur-winged 
 Geese (Plectropterus) have the lores naked and caruncles on the forehead and 
 base of the bill, while on the wing they carry a formidable spur, from which 
 feature they derive their popular name. There are four species of Spur- 
 winged Geese, all confined to Africa, admitted by Count Salvadori, the best 
 authority on the Anseres, but even he is obliged to allow that there may 
 really exist but a single species after all. 
 
 Only one other genus with bare lores and caruncles on the face is known, 
 and this is the genus Cairina, with the single species G. moschata, the 
 Muscovy Duck of Tropical America. Another prominent form of the 
 Plectropterince is the Knobbed Goose (Sarcidiornis), of which there are two 
 species, S. melanonota of. India and Africa, and $. carunculata of Southern 
 Brazil and Argentina. 
 
 We remember seeing the "Comb Duck," as Indian naturalists call the 
 Indian Sarcidiornis, on one occasion during our journey through the 
 
294 A VES ORDER ANSERIFORMES. 
 
 North-West Provinces, and that was at Futtehpur Sikri, near Agra, where a 
 male was perched on the lofty entrance gateway. The testimony of Mr.. A. 
 O. Hume and other Indian naturalists is to the effect that the "Co-mb 
 Duck " breeds principally in trees, and the la*te Mr. A. Anderson states that 
 the eggs are generally to be found in holes of old desiduous trees, but he has 
 also found the birds frequenting old ruined forts. He says: "I was 
 present at the capture of a female Nukta on her nest, which yielded the 
 extraordinary number of forty eggs. Of course it is just possible, 
 though highly improbable, that this may have been the joint produce of two 
 birds ; but the emaciated condition of the one captured, coupled with the 
 fact that one egg was an abnormally small one, and evidently her last effort, 
 does not favour the supposition. The tree selected was an ancient banyan 
 (Ficus indicus), which overlooked a large sheet of water several miles round. 
 The nest-hole was at an elevation of some 20 ft., 3 ft. deep and 2 in 
 circumference." One of the genera of the Plectropterince is a very interesting 
 form, viz., the Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea). The appear- 
 ance of a delicate pink head in such a family as the Anatidce. is one of the 
 most curious phenomena in the whole class of birds. Its range is confined to 
 Behar and Bengal, to the north of the Ganges and west of the Brahmapootra, 
 whence it ranges north to Nepal, east to Burma, and south to Madras. 
 
 Some of the most interesting of the present sub-family are the Dwarf 
 Geese (Nettopus) or "Cotton-Teal," as they are generally called. They are 
 little Geese of about the size of a Bantam fowl, only found in the tropics of 
 the Old World, in Africa, India, and China, and thence south to Australia. 
 The Indian species, N. coromandelianus, nests generally in holes of trees, but 
 sometimes it is said to make "a semi-floating nest on the water, among the 
 rushes or lotus-leaves, of weeds, grass, etc , all together, filled up several 
 inches above the water-line." The late Mr. A. Anderson observes : "I once 
 had the opportunity of watching a pair in the act of selecting their habitation. 
 They invariably flew into the tree together ; and while the female used to 
 enter the hole, to reconnoitre as it were, the male sat on a bough watching 
 for her exit. No sooner did she make her appearance than they both flew 
 away together, giving utterance to a peculiar cackling sound, which has been 
 pronounced to be like the words 'Fix bayonets.' Their visits used to be 
 repeated at intervals of every fifteen or twenty minutes. The Drake never 
 went into the hole ; and I am therefore inclined to believe that he does not 
 lend his aid in the performance of the duties of incubation." One nest 
 taken by Mr. iSpry at Bredaon in August contained twelve eggs. It was 
 in a hole at no great height, but it was 3^ ft. deep, and only large enough to 
 admit of ingress and egress ; the contents had to be removed by means of an 
 iron spoon, something like a soup-ladle with an extra long handle. 
 
 The Summer Duck (^Ex sponsa) of North America, and the beautiful 
 Mandarin Duck (j*Ex galericulata) of China compose the g^enus JEx, which is 
 the last of the Plectropterince. 
 
 The genus Cereopsis is the sole representative of this sub-family, and is 
 
 distinguished by its shorter hind toe and shorter tail-feathers. The bill is 
 
 high at the base, and there is no metallic wing-speculum. 
 
 The C^eopsis The chief peculiarity of the Cereopsis Goose is the posses- 
 Geese. Sub- sion of a cere at the base of the bill, which character 
 family Cereopsinee. separates it from the true Geese. It is an inhabitant of 
 Australia, and is often seen in captivity ; and it has been 
 known to breed in our Zoological Gardens. As Mr. Gould says, however, it 
 
GEESE. 295 
 
 is by no means a desirable addition to the farmyard, for it is so pugnacious 
 that it not only drives all other birds before it, but readily attacks pigs, dogs, 
 or any other animal that may approach it, and often inflicts severe wounds 
 with its hard and sharp bill. 
 
 Remains of an extinct Goose (Cnemiornis calcitrans) have been discovered 
 in New Zealand, and Count Salvadori has placed it in the vicinity of Cereopsis. 
 It was a larger bird than the latter, and was apparently flightless, as there is 
 no keel to the sternum. 
 
 The characters of this sub-family are almost exactly the same as those 
 given for the sub-family Cereopsince, excepting that there is no cere. 
 There are at least six well-marked genera, of which the 
 
 most beautiful are perhaps the Snow- Geese (Chen), though The True Geese. 
 
 some of the Brent Geese are also handsome birds. The Sub-family ' 
 
 true Geese (Anser) are found in all the northern parts of Anserine. 
 
 the Old and New Worlds, breeding in the high north, and 
 migrating south in winter, often in vast numbers. The Grey Geese (Anser) 
 are nearly all of them British, the best-known being the Grey Lag-Goose 
 (A. anser\ the White-fronted Goose (A, albifrons), the Bean Goose (A. 
 f'tbalis), and the Pink-footed Goose (A. brachyrhynchus). All the true Gsese 
 have the serrations or saw-like edges of the upper mandible visible from the 
 outside, and the cutting edge of the mandible is sinuated, whereas in the 
 Brent Geese (Branta) the cutting edge is straight, and the serrations are not 
 visible from the outside. 
 
 These are, like the True Geese, also birds of the Arctic portions of the 
 Old and New Worlds, where they breed in large numbers ; and, as they 
 moult their quills before com- 
 ing south, they are trapped The Brent Geese. 
 by the natives in numbers. Qwcaaranfa. 
 Mr. Trevor- Battye describes 
 the capture of more than three thousand Brent 
 Geese on the island of Kolguev, the birds being 
 driven by the Samoyeds in boats towards the 
 shore, where a large circle of net is prepared for 
 them, and the birds are thus trapped and killed. 
 One of the handsomest of the Geese, and, 
 indeed, of all water-fowl, is the Red-breasted 
 Goose (Branta ruficollis), which breeds in Siberia, 
 winters in great numbers on the Caspian Sea, 
 and has occasionally come over to England. It 
 is remarkable for having been drawn on their 
 monuments by the ancient Egyptians, and even 
 Fig 51.-THERED-BREASTED Goes* at the present epoch it seems to be met with 
 (Branta ruficollis). sometimes in Egypt. 
 
 Count Salvadori's next sub-family is the 
 
 Chenonettince, containing the Magellanic Geese and their allies, the Blue- 
 winged Geese (Cyanochen) and the Maned Goose (Chenonetta). 
 
 In this group of Geese the hind toe is narrowly lobed 
 
 and the bill is rather short and Goose-like, as opposed to The Upland Geese, 
 the somewhat flat and broad bill of the Ducks which form Sub-family 
 the next , sub-family ^ina^mce. The Upland Geese (Cloephaga) Chenonettincs. 
 are all inhabitants of South America, where they range 
 from Peru, Bolivia, and Southern Brazil to Chili, Patagonia, and the Falkland 
 
296 A VES-ORDER ANSERIFORMES. 
 
 Islands. Mr. Hudson describes C. inornata, the Barred Upland Goose, as 
 migrating northwards along the eastern coast of Argentina in April and May. 
 * Their great camping-grounds," he writes, "are the valleys of the rivers 
 Negro and Colorado, where they are often so numerous as to denude the low- 
 grounds of the tender winter clovers and grasses, and to cause serious loss 
 to the sheep-breeders. They also visit the cultivated fields to devour the 
 young wheat, and are intelligent enough to distinguish between a real human 
 enemy and the ragged men of straw, miscalled scarecrows, set up by the 
 farmers to frighten them. While committing their depredations they are 
 exceedingly wary and difficult to shoot ; but at night, when they congregate 
 by the waterside, they give the sportsman a better chance. They are social 
 birds, always going in large fiocks, and are very loquacious, the female 
 having a deep, hanking note, while the male responds with a clear whistling, 
 like that of the Sanderling etherialised." 
 
 No less than nineteen genera are admitted by Count Salvador! as belonging 
 
 to this sub-family. Among them are the Tree-Ducks (Dendrocygna), the 
 
 Sheld-ducks (Tadorna and Casarca), the Wild Ducks 
 
 The True Ducks. (Anas), the Wigeons (Mareca), the Teal (Nettion and 
 
 Sub-family Querquedida), the Pin-tails (Dafila) and the Shovelers 
 
 Anatina. (Spatula), besides many less-known forms of Duck. 
 
 The ways of the Ducks are all very similar, and there is 
 
 not much to say in detail about their habits, beyond the fact that some are 
 
 frequenters of inland waters, while others are more maritime in their 
 
 haunts. 
 
 The Sheld-ducks are very handsome birds, of varied plumage, and with a 
 metallic patch or speculum in the wings. This is a character which is found 
 in most of the Ducks, and many species are determined by the colour of the 
 wing-speculum. Another curious feature of the Ducks is that, after the 
 young are hatched, the males put off their bright plumage and assume a 
 dull-coloured brown dress like that of the hen birds. This plumage is very 
 difficult to determine, as the male birds during the moult are practically 
 helpless, and have no quills to fly with, so that they retire into privacy, and 
 very few specimens are procured at this stage of a Duck's existence. I am 
 unable to say from direct observation whether this hen-like summer plumage, 
 
 which only lasts a few weeks, is assumed 
 by all Ducks ; but I have reason to sus- 
 pect that there are few species which do 
 not possess such a stage. 
 
 The beautiful Sheld-duck is a bur- 
 rower, sometimes having its nest as far 
 as 5 ft. from the mouth of the hole, 
 while it has been known to penetrate 
 as far as 12 ft. into the earth. These 
 holes are often burrowed by the birds 
 themselves, but quite as frequently a 
 rabbit-burrow is made use of. The 
 Fig. 52. THK COMMON SHELD-DUCK Sheld-duck often builds upon cliffs at 
 
 (Tadorna tadorna). suc h a height that it is evident the 
 
 parent bird must carry the young ones 
 
 down to the water, as must be the case also with the Common Mallard 
 when it builds its nest in a tree, as it often does. 
 
 Of these Ducks there are four sub - families, all with the hind toe 
 
SCO TERSDI VING-D UCKS. 
 
 297 
 
 broadly lobed. The Scoters (Fuligulince) have the bill more or less 
 depressed and the tail-feathers not stiffened. A large number of genera 
 is represented in this sub-family, which includes such 
 forms as the Pochards (Nyroca), the Scaups (Fidiqula), ,_, _. . 
 the Steamer Ducks (Tachyeres), the Golden -Eyes The Diving Ducks, 
 (Clangula), the Long-tailed Ducks (Harelda), the Harle- 
 quins (Cosmonetta), the Scoters (CfcWemia), and the Eiders (Somateria), 
 and their allies. They are mostly sea-ducks, and some of them, like the 
 Harlequin Duck and Steller's Eider (Heniconetta stelleri) are very handsome 
 birds. The stiff-tailed Diving Ducks (sub-family Erismaturince) differ from 
 the Fuligulince in their narrow tail-feathers, which are much stiffened. Only 
 four genera are admitted, Thalassiornis, Nomonyx, Erismatura, and 
 Biziura. The latter is a curious Australian form, with a pendant lobe on 
 the chin, and twenty-four tail-feathers. 
 
 In these birds the tail is long and stiffened, and the general look of the 
 birds is very much like that of the Mergansers, but they 
 have no serrations on the edges of the mandibles. They The Torrent- 
 are found only in the Andes from Ecuador to Chili, fre- Ducks-Sub-family 
 quenting the torrents of the high mountains, and being Merganettina. 
 very difficult of observation. 
 
 la this last sub-family we find only the Smew (Mergus 'albellus) and the 
 Mergansers (Lophodytes and Merganser). In the latter birds the tooth-like 
 serrations are very different from those of any other of 
 the Ducks, being strongly inclined backwards at the tips. The Mergansers. 
 These are not, however, real teeth, though they have the Sub-family 
 
 appearance of so being, but are merely serrations along Mergina. 
 
 the edge of the mandible, so that in the skeleton there is 
 no appearance of any indentation on the bone of the bill. Thus they are 
 very different birds from the 
 extinct Hesperornis, which had 
 real teeth, though they are inter- 
 esting as being the nearest ap- 
 proach which we can show at the 
 present day to the toothed birds 
 of ancient times. 
 
 Seven species of the genus 
 Merganser are known, and they 
 are found in the Pakearctic and 
 Nearctic regions, but are absent 
 in the Ethiopian and the greater 
 part of the Indian Region. One 
 species is isolated in the Auckland 
 Islands, viz , M. australis, and 
 another in South -Eastern Brazil, 
 M. brasiliamis. The Red-breasted 
 
 Fig. 53. THE RED BREASTED MKRGAKSER 
 (Merganser serrator). 
 
 Merganser is smaller than the Goosander (M. merganser) , and nests in Scotland 
 and Ireland. Like the other Mergansers it is an expert diver, and it feeds 
 principally on fish. On this account they are somewhat persecuted. 
 
 These birds, often called the Steganopodes, have the hind toe or hallux 
 united to the second toe by a web, so that all four toes are webbed. All 
 the Pelecanoid birds have the palate bridged or "desmognathous," and there 
 are no basipterygoid processes in the palate. There are five sub-orders, viz., 
 
298 
 
 A VES - ORDER PELECANIFORMES. 
 
 Fig. 54. THE YELLOW-BILLED 
 TROPIC-BIRD (Phaeton flavirostris). 
 
 the Tropic-Birds (Phaethontes), the Gannets (Sulce), the Cormorants and 
 
 Darters (Phalacrocoraces), the Pelecans (Pelecani), and the Frigate-Birds 
 
 (Fregati}. As their name implies, the Tropic-Birds are 
 
 The Pelicans and inhabitants of the tropics. They are often an interest- 
 
 their Allies. ing feature of a sea-voyage, 
 Order as they fly, high in the air, 
 
 Pelecaniformes. round and round the steamer, 
 with a beating flight, as if 
 everything depended on the haste they made. 
 The osteological and anatomical characters which 
 distinguish them from the other Pelican-like 
 birds are many, but their external form suffici- 
 ently distinguishes them, their lengthened tail 
 being especially remarkable. The bill is nearly 
 straight, and not hooked as in the allied forms, 
 neither is there any perceptible pouch. One of 
 the best accounts of the habits of the Tropic- 
 Birds is that given by Mr. W. E. D. Scott on P. 
 flavirostris, as observed by him in Jamaica. 
 He writes: "Of fifteen specimens procured 
 on the 27th of February five were shot, 
 eight were taken in a cave which opened by 
 a small mouth from the cliff, and two were 
 secured in holes in the cliff. The cave where the birds were found had 
 a very small entrance, about large enough for a man to crawl into, in the 
 face of the cliff. This was approachable only in the calmest weather, in 
 a boat. The entrance led at once into a spacious chamber of irregular shape. 
 Going directly back from the mouth the cavern was some 60 ft. deep. 
 It was at its widest point some 70 or 80 ft., and oval in shape as a 
 whole. The bottom was covered with coarse sand and gravel, and boulders 
 of varying size, evidently having fallen from above, were scattered thickly 
 over this floor, except at the extreme back of the cavern furthest from the 
 sea. The height of the roof or ceiling, which was of an uneven, rough 
 surface, was about 25 ft., and many bats were hanging wherever the 
 projections or inequalities afforded them opportunity. Toward the back 
 of this chamber five birds were secured, each one sitting on a single egg. 
 The place chosen for the nesting site for this is all it can be termed was in 
 all these cases where two boulders on the gravelly floor lay close together, 
 just leaving room on the ground for the birds to crawl between them. Two 
 birds were obtained in like situations that had not laid, and may have been 
 simply resting. The females were, in every case, the birds that were sitting 
 on the eggs, and it was quite evident, upon dissection, that the single egg 
 forms the complement in these cases. The birds taken from the holes in the 
 cliff, and also those taken in this cave, were very tame, and were captured 
 readily without attempting to escape. Later on the same day a bird was 
 found, with a single egg laid at the bottom of one of the holes in the face of 
 the cliff. 
 
 ' * In breeding the birds seem eminently gregarious, and the colonies at 
 different points often reach an aggregate of at least fifty pairs. At sea, far 
 out of sight of land, the birds are much more solitary in their habits, single 
 birds being frequently met with, and it has been rare in my experience to 
 meet with more than four individuals together in such locations." 
 
GANNETS-CORMORANTS. 299 
 
 The Gannets are distributed over the seas of the greater part of the world, 
 and are easily recognisable both from their internal and external characters. 
 
 Like the Tropic-Birds, they have a nearly 
 straight bill without any hook in it, and there 
 is a small and scarcely perceptible pouch, 
 though much of the face and throat is bare. 
 
 During the breeding season the Gannets 
 leave their fishing grounds to a great extent, 
 and our own species resorts to certain rocky 
 places on our coast, of which Ailsa Craig and 
 the Bass Rock are the best 
 known, and there builds a The Gannets. 
 rough nest of sticks and Sub-order Sulce. 
 seaweed, and lays a single 
 chalky- white egg. This chalky egg is a 
 peculiarity of nearly every member of the 
 Pelican-like birds, and in the Gannets and 
 Cormorants it is a distinct feature. On 
 scrubbing the egg, however, with a brush, the 
 Fig. 55. THM COMMON GANNET chalky surface can be removed, and the egg 
 (Dysporus bassanus). appears of a delicate blue, like that of a 
 
 Heron. The flight of a Gannet is very fine, 
 
 and the birds are capable of covering great distances in a very short space 
 of time, while it is certain that during the nesting season the parent birds 
 have to go far afield to their fishing grounds to procure food for the young. 
 Only one egg is laid, and the young birds are at first naked, and of a slaty- 
 black colour. They then become covered with a thick coating of white down, 
 and afterwards attain their first full plumage, which is greyish-brown with 
 white spots, but it is believed that five moults are required before the birds 
 attain their full white plumage. 
 
 Although agreeing in osteological characters with the preceding groups, 
 the Cormorants and Darters have certain evident peculi- 
 arities which separate them from the Gannets and Tropic- The Cormorants. 
 Birds. The bill is more raptorial, and is furnished with Sub-order 
 
 a hook at the end, and the tail-feathers are more stiffened Phalacrocoraces. 
 than in these birds. This is especially the case with the 
 Darters. There is, however, no perceptible pouch externally. 
 
 In the British Islands we have two representatives of the sub-order, the 
 Common Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) and the Shag (P. graculus). The 
 former is the larger bird of the two, and has fourteen tail-feathers ; while 
 the Shag is smaller and greener, and has only twelve tail-feathers. In this 
 way the young birds of the two species, which are brown, can always be 
 distinguished. Cormorants are found nearly everywhere on the face of the 
 globe, and are particularly numerous in New Zealand and the adjacent 
 islands. 
 
 Cormorants are great fish- eaters, and they are consequently excellent 
 swimmers and divers. They often nest on trees in inland places, but as 
 a rule their nest is placed on the rocks adjoining the sea. The young are 
 hatched perfectly naked, and are ugly little black morsels, like the nestlings 
 of the Gannet ; but they are afterwards covered with dense down of a sooty- 
 brown colour, and their first full plumage is brown, with a white under- 
 surface. In the breeding plumage the old birds generally don a crest, and 
 
300 A VES ORDER PELECANIFORMES. 
 
 our Common Cormorant has white filamentous plumes distributed over the 
 head and neck, as well as an ornamental white patch just above the thighs. 
 
 The way in which Cormorants and Shags feed 
 their young is very curious, and is well described 
 by Sir Walter Buller. Writing of the Pied Shag 
 of New Zealand (P. varius), he says : 
 
 " We found the Shags in great force, and it 
 was most interesting to watch the operations of 
 both old and young birds. There were 80 or 
 100 nests, many of which were vacant owing to 
 the lateness of our visit, the breeding having 
 commenced in October. The nests are large, 
 round structures, composed, as already men- 
 tioned, of dry sticks aud twigs and other loose 
 materials, bound together by means of a peculiar 
 kind of Kelp, for which the Shags may be 
 observed diving in the sea, sometimes in four 
 fathoms of water. They have a somewhat com- 
 
 .- P^ appearance, and are usually placed in a 
 
 (Phalacrocorax carbu). thick fork among the branches or between 
 
 two limbs of a tree lying close together. In 
 each of those still tenanted there were two fully-fledged young birds, and 
 these youthful Shags kept up a constant * squirling ' noise, accompanied by a 
 perpetual swaying of the head from side to side in an impatient sort of way. 
 The old bird comes up from the sea with her gullet full of small fish, and 
 takes up her station on a branch adjoining to or overlooking the nest. The 
 young birds, after craning their necks almost to dislocation, quit their nest 
 and mount up alongside the parent, when the peculiar feeding operation 
 commences. The mother bends down her head in a loving way, opens wide 
 her mandibles, and the young Shag, with an impatient guttural note, thrusts 
 his head right down the parental throat and draws forth from the pouch, 
 after much fumbling about, the first instalment of his dinner. No sooner 
 has he swallowed this than he begins to coax for more, caressing the mother's 
 throat and neck with his bill in a very amusing fashion. The old bird waits 
 till she has recovered the discomfort of the last feed, then opens her mouth 
 again, and the action is repeated, first by one young Shag^ then by the other. 
 When the pouch is emptied, the mother spreads her ample wings and goes 
 off for a fresh supply of auas, whilst her offspring shuffle themselves back 
 again into their nests to await her return. But this feeding process and the 
 squirling cries which hera.ld it are going on at the same time all over the 
 camp, and as a consequence there is a perfect din of voices. In the midst 
 of these may be heard deep guttural cries; but these are probably the 
 occasional scoldings of the old birds to repress the inconsiderate eagerness of 
 their young ones, for during the operation of feeding there is a good deal 
 of apparent squabbling among the young fraternity for the first attention, 
 accompanied by a vigorous fluttering and flapping of the wings. In one of 
 the nests, where the young birds were not sufficiently advanced to leave it, 
 I observed that the occupants, during the intervals when their parents were 
 absent, kept up an incessant flapping of their wings and swaying of their 
 long necks, first to one side, then to the other, with a never-ceasing cry as if 
 in great bodily distress. " 
 
 Although at first sight bearing considerable resemblance to the Cormorants, 
 
DAR TERS PELICANS. 
 
 301 
 
 the Darters present many striking differences. They are often called 
 " Snake-Birds," as they are able to submerge their bodies 
 and swim along with only their snake-like heads and The Darters. 
 necks protruding above the water. Cormorants, it may Family Plotidce, 
 be remarked, are said to be able to do the same. Then 
 the Darters have a "kink" in the neck, which the Cormorants have not; 
 and this " kink " is arranged in a sort of set spring-like manner, so that when 
 the bird spears a fish, its neck goes off with a jerk, and the fish is transfixed 
 by its bill in a second. We were much interested in 
 watching a Darter and a Cormorant in the "Fish- 
 House " at the Zoological Gardens, and it was 
 curious to see the way in which these -two birds 
 differed in their mode of catching fish. The Darter, 
 when let out of his cage, plunged into the water and 
 swam about for a little time, then he sank his body 
 below the surface, keeping his head and neck above 
 it, but, perceiving some fish swimming at the bottom 
 of the tank, it simply sank below the water and then 
 went for them with a few rapid strokes. No fish 
 had a chance. The Darter simply let the spring on 
 his neck go, and unerringly speared his victim as 
 with a lance. It was curious to notice that, whereas 
 the Cormorant often swallowed his fish under water, 
 the Darter invariably brought them to the surface, 
 shook them off his bill, and then swallowed them. 
 
 The Darters are tropical birds, being found in 
 America, Africa, India, and Australia, and one 
 species penetrates the Palsearctic region; for the 
 African Darter (Plotus levaillanti} breeds on the Lake of Antioch, where 
 Canon Tristram found the nests. The bird, he says, merely seems to tread 
 down a tuft of coarse grass or rushes, or press down the centre of a little 
 bush. A curious habit of the Darter, and likewise of the Cormorants, is to 
 sit motionless in the sun with extended wings, as if the bird were "hang- 
 ing itself out to dry." A captured Heron or Bittern is an awkward 
 customer to carry home, if not dead, for the bird will reserve all its 
 strength for a final effort to lance its bill at the eye of its captor, as I once 
 had occasion to experience when carrying home a young Heron, which did 
 its best to make a deadly thrust at my face. So with the Darter and its 
 formidable bill, for Mr. Thomas Ayrea writes that a wounded African Darter 
 (P. levaillanti) made a sudden dart at his eye, and it was only by the merest 
 instinct of self-preservation that he put up his hand to receive the thrust. 
 The upper mandible pierced with great force the bone of his thumb, and the 
 bill, being serrated, stuck among the muscles, and he had a hard job to pull 
 it out. 
 
 It is not necessary to enumerate the characters, osteological and other- 
 wise, which distinguish Pelicans, because their external appearance is so 
 peculiar that they are easily recognisable birds. The 
 bulky body, the long bill, hooked at the end and hav- The Pelicans. 
 ing a-n enormous gular pouch, are sufficient external Sub-orderflefewwi. 
 characters to distinguish the Pelicans, so that we need 
 not waste many words on them. In ancient times they were even more 
 widely distributed, and lived in England, like the Flamingoes to which we 
 
 Fig. 57. THE DARTER 
 (Plotus anhinga). 
 
302 
 
 AVES -ORDER PELECANIFORMES. 
 
 Fig. 58. THK ROSEATE PELICAN 
 (PeUcanm onocrotalus). 
 
 have alluded above (p. 288). They are birds which are found in the temperate 
 and tropical portions of both hemispheres, and in America the Knob- billed 
 Pelican (P. erythrorhynchus) has a remarkable bony excrescence on the 
 upper mandible, which is put on during the breeding season, and afterwards 
 
 falls off. Nearly every species assumes a 
 patch of yellow or brown colour on the 
 chest during the nesting season, at which 
 time, too, a crest is generally donned. 
 
 On the habits of the Roseate Pelican in 
 the delta of the Danube the following note 
 has been published by Messrs. Slntenis : 
 "The islands where they breed are 
 more or less composed of reed-fragments, 
 often without any fresh vegetation, often 
 also bordered by green rushes and other 
 high plants. The aspect of the large white 
 eggs shining through the green aft round 
 is very charming when seen from the 
 middle of the lake ; but when closely 
 inspected, the places look very dirty and 
 slovenly. The smell was bearable, the 
 process of fermentation and putrefaction 
 being generally over a sign that the birds 
 had not laid since the 7th instant. Gener- 
 ally there were two eggs in a nest ; but 
 there were also plenty of single ones. 
 Nearly half as many eggs as were lying on the islands were floating on the 
 surrounding water. The latter keeps sending up air-bubbles, by which it is 
 kept in constant commotion, no doubt caused by the substances putrefying 
 at the bottom. The eggs were in all stages of hatching ; but in most of 
 them the young birds were fully developed, so that we had a trouble to find 
 a number which could yet be blown. The eggs which our chasseur had taken 
 on the 7th were, on the average, far less advanced ; and it does not seem to 
 us at all improbable that the heat of the sun may have had some influence 
 upon the abandoned eggs, at least to a certain extent." 
 
 Of the breeding of the spotted-billed Pelican in Burma (P. manillensis), Mr. 
 Eugene Oates gives a very interesting account : "The whole forest consisted 
 of very large trees, but a portion about one in twenty was made up of 
 wood-oil trees, gigantic fellows 150 ft. high and more, and with a smooth, 
 branchless trunk of 80 to 100 ft. These are the trees selected by the 
 Pelicans. I was out one day till 3 P.M., continually moving, and must have 
 walked at least twenty miles in various directions, but never from first to 
 last was I out of sight of either a Pelican's or Adjutant's nest. From what 
 I saw, and from what the Burmans told me, I compute the breeding- place 
 of these birds to extend over an area about twenty miles long and five 
 broad. 
 
 " With regard to the Pelicans, I noticed that no tree contained Ies3 than 
 three nests, and seldom more than fifteen. Some birds select the upper 
 branches, placing their nests on the nearly horizontal branches of the tree, 
 not far from the trunk. In all cases the nests on one branch touch each 
 other, and when these nests are on a horizontal branch they looked like an 
 enormous string of beads. 
 
FRIG A TE- BIRDS. 303 
 
 "Judging from the size of the bird, 1 should say the nest is about 
 2 ft. in diameter, and, -when in a fork, to be 18 in. deep. Others on flat 
 branches are shallower. They are composed entirely of twiga and small 
 branches, and I could detect no lining in those nests which were thrown 
 down to me. 
 
 "The eggs are invariably three in number, and on the llth November all 
 I took were either fresh or only slightly incubated. The female bird sits 
 very closely, and frequently I found that the bird would not fly off her eggs 
 till I fired a gun. It was a most ludicrous sight to see the sitting birds 
 stretch neck and head out of the nest to have a look at us, as often happened. 
 
 "Notwithstanding the millions of birds which breed in this forest, a most 
 wonderful silence prevails. The Pelican seems to be perfectly mute, and the 
 Adjutants only bellow at intervals. The only sound which is consequently 
 heard and after a time even this sound passes unnoticed is a sort of ^^Eolian 
 harp caused by the movement of the wings of innumerable birds high in air." 
 
 In certain particulars the Frigate-Birds, of which there are only two, 
 are closely allied to the Pelicans. Like the latter birds, they have the 
 clavicle anchylosed to the sternum, and other osteological 
 characters in common, while they also have a large gular The Frigate- 
 pouch. Besides this, they are remarkable for their Birds. Sub-order 
 hooked and almost raptorial bill, and their habits Fregati. 
 
 partake of those of the Birds of Prey to a great extent. 
 The flight of the Frigate-Birds is wonderful, and can be sustained for an 
 extraordinary length of time ; while the birds have a complete arrangement 
 of air-cells beneath the skin which they are able to inflate at will. Mr. 
 Palmer, who collected birds for the Hon. Walter Rothschild in Laysan and 
 the adjacent islets, has given 
 some interesting notes on the 
 habits of the Frigate-Birds. In 
 his diary of 20th June he writes : 
 "While walking in Laysan I 
 turned some of the Frigate-Birds 
 which had young off their nests. 
 Scarcely had I pushed one off 
 when another Frigate-Bird would 
 rush up, seize the young one, fly 
 off, and eat it. Sometimes the 
 parent bird would give chase, Fig. 59. THE GREAT FRIGATE-BIRDS (Fregata aquila). 
 but it always ended in one or the 
 
 other eating the young bird. I could scarcely believe my own eyes, so I 
 tried several ; but they would even take young birds out of the nest which 
 were almost fully feathered." Again from Liasinsky Island he writes: 
 "The Frigate-Birds have their nests on the scrub round the lake. It is 
 very interesting to watch them getting their food. In the daytime they soar 
 about all over the island, and every now and then one of them picks up a 
 young Tern. Then a number of others chase him, and keep taking the prey 
 one from the other till at last it is eaten or drops to the ground. But they 
 generally make for the sea with their prey, as it is easier for them to pick up 
 on the sea than on land. When soaring they hardly seem to move a 
 wing, and sometimes I have seen them cleaning and picking their feathers 
 as they floated along in the air. In the evening, just before sunset, they 
 hover close round the island, waiting for the Petrels and other birds to come 
 
304 AVES ORDER CATHARTIDIFORMES. 
 
 home with food, when they give chase, and do not leave the unfortunate 
 bird until it has disgorged some, if not all, of its food. I have seen a Petrel 
 when thus chased drop on the water from sheer exhaustion ; but even then 
 the Frigate-Bird would not leave it till it had disgorged." 
 
 These very aberrant kinds of Birds of Prey are strictly American, being 
 
 represented in both North and South America by the Turkey Vultures, and 
 
 in. the Andes by the Condors. They differ so much from 
 
 The Turkey ordinary Accipitrine birds in their anatomy and osteology 
 
 Vultures. Order that they are now by common consent kept separate from 
 
 Cathartidifunnes. the latter, and some ornithologists have even gone so far 
 
 as to suggest that they are more nearly allied to the Storks, 
 
 and even to the Hornbills. Although not true Birds of Prey, I think that 
 
 there can be no doubt that they find their nearest allies in the Vultures of 
 
 the Old World, which they much resemble in their habits. They have, 
 
 however, a very peculiar nostril, the septum of which is perforated, so that it 
 
 can be seen through. The hind toe is small, but is raised above the level 
 
 of the other toes, and it is connected with the flexor perforans diyitorum 
 
 tendon. 
 
 The great Condor of the Andes is the largest and most striking of the 
 Turkey Vultures, but the best-known are the smaller kinds such as the 
 Cathartes aura of North America. In Captain Bendire's work on the Life- 
 histories of North American Birds, we find the following notes on the habits 
 of the species from Dr. \V. L. Ralph : "In Florida they are abundant and 
 appear to decrease but little in numbers. When not molested they become 
 very tame, and in many of the Southern cities and villages they can be seen 
 walking around the streets or roosting on the house-tops with as little 
 concern as domestic animals. 
 
 "Although they eat carrion, these birds prefer fresh meat, and the reason of 
 their eating it when decayed is that they cannot kill game themselves and 
 their bills are not strong enough to tear the tough skin of many animals 
 until it becomes soft from decomposition. I have often had Ducks and other 
 game, which I had hung in trees to keep from carnivorous animals, eaten by 
 them. When they find a dead animal they will not leave it until all but 
 the bones and other hard parts have been consumed, and if it be a large one, 
 or if it have a tough skin, they will often remain near it for days, roosting by 
 night in the trees near by. After they have eaten and sometimes they will 
 gorge themselves until the food will run off their mouths when they move 
 they will, if they are not too full to fly, roost in the nearest trees until their 
 meal is partly digested, and then commence eating again. Many times I 
 have seen these birds in company with the Black Vulture floating down a 
 stream on a dead alligator, cow, or other large animal, crowded so closely 
 together that they could hardly keep their balance, and followed by a number 
 on the wing. I have never seen them fight very much when feeding, but 
 they will scold and peck at one another, and sometimes two birds will get 
 hold of the same piece' of meat and pull against each other until it breaks, or 
 until the weaker one has to give it up." 
 
 In this order are included the Secretary Birds, the 
 The Birds of Vultures, Hawks, and Ospreys. The characters of the 
 
 p rey> Order Secretary Birds are detailed below, and their peculiarities 
 
 Jiccipitriformcs. emphasised, but the Ospreys (Pandiones) form a well- 
 characterised intermediate group between the Vultures 
 and Hawks (Accipitres), and the Owls (Striges), possessing certain features 
 
SEC RET A R Y BIRDS BIRDS OF PRE K 
 
 305 
 
 Th e Secretary 
 Birds. Sub-order 
 
 Serpentarii. 
 
 which are characteristic of the latter, especially in the proportions of the 
 skeleton. 
 
 That these are Birds of Prey there can be little doubt, but they are 
 decidedly aberrant, and were separated from the rest of the Accipitres by 
 Professor Huxley. They have abnormally long legs, and 
 an equally abnormal tail, with the centre feathers much 
 elongated, while from behind the head rises the crest of 
 pointed feathers, from which the bird gets its name of 
 "Secretary," on account of some fancied resemblance to 
 a secretary, who is supposed to carry quill pens behind his ear. There are 
 other peculiar anatomical and osteological features which separate the 
 Secretary from the other Raptorial birds. 
 Several ornithologists, amongst them myself, 
 have perceived certain characteristics in the 
 Seriama (antea, p. 277) which suggest an affinity 
 with the Secretary ; and, if the Seriama is 
 admitted to be a kind of Crane, it is also 
 certain that it possesses certain Accipitrine 
 characters which are difficult to account for. 
 The external appearance of the two birds is not 
 unlike, and there is one very curious habit 
 which they possess in common, viz., the way in 
 which they attack their prey, by striking it with 
 rapid beats of their long legs, both of which are 
 brought down with terrific force, until the object 
 is beaten to a pulp. Another character which 
 those birds possess in common, is the fact that 
 both the outer and inner toe are connected by 
 a web, which is one of the features of the 
 Caracaraa, to which, in my opinion, the Secretary 
 is distantly related. 
 
 Serpentarius is an African genus, and the single species is therefore strictly 
 Ethiopian, but in ancient times the Secretary lived in Central Europe, aa 
 its remains, like those of the African Touracous, have been found in France. 
 The Secretary is a pugnacious bird, so that frequently serious fights take 
 place between two males for the possession of a female, and the bony knob 
 which they carry on the carpal joint of the wing is doubtless an offensive 
 weapon. When attacking a Cobra, the Secretary defends itself by holding 
 its wing in front of it as a shield, and strikes the snake down by vigorous 
 blows of its feet. On account of its usefulness in destroying venomous 
 snakes it is protected in all parts of Africa, and as many as three large 
 snakes have been tiken from the stomach of one of these birds, besides 
 lizards and tortoises, and a quantity of grasshoppers and other insects ; 
 while it will frequently kill a large snake by carrying it high in the air and 
 dropping it to the ground. The eggs are two, rarely three, in number, and 
 white. 
 
 These are the true Haptorial or Accipitrine Birds of 
 authors. They may be divided into two great families, 
 the Vultures (Vulturidce) and the Hawks (Falconidce) . 
 The Vultures are mostly carrion-eaters, and are found 
 in the tropical portions of the Old World, the so-called 
 "Vultures" of the New World having been already separated off aa the 
 
 Fig. 60. THE SECRETARY BIRD 
 (Serpentarius secretrius). 
 
 The Birds of 
 Prey. Sub-order 
 
306 
 
 A VES- ORDER A CCIPITRIFORMES 
 
 Cathartidiformes (ante'a, p. 304). Although so different from their American 
 allies, the habits of the Old World Vultures are very similar. They have a 
 bare head and neck, scantily clothed with down or plumes ; but these parts 
 are never fully clothed with feathers as in the true Birds of Prey. 
 
 The genera of the Tulturidce are six in number, viz. , the Black Vultures 
 (Vultur), the Griffons (Gyps and Pseudogyps), the Eared Vultures (Otogyps), 
 the White-headed Vultures (Lopkogyps), and the Scavenger Vultures 
 (Neophron). 
 
 The Black Vulture is the only representative of the genus Vultur. It ia 
 found in the Mediterranean countries, whence it ranges through Central 
 Asia to the Himalayas, and even to China. It 
 is a large bird, nearly 4 ft. in length, and is 
 entirely black or dark brown, with a pad of 
 thick, velvety down on the crown and a ruff of 
 brown down on the neck. It is more solitary 
 in its habits than the Griffons ; and in Spain, 
 according to Colonel Irby, the species breeds in 
 trees, and not in colonies, laying only one egg 
 about the beginning of April. It acts the part 
 of a King Vulture towards the Griffons, and 
 drives the latter away from any carcase which 
 they may be feeding upon. 
 
 Four, or perhaps five, species of Griffons are 
 known, the most familiar being the Gypsfulvus 
 of Southern Europe. Colonel 
 The Griffon Irby gives an interesting 
 Vultures. Genus account of the species in 
 Gyps. Spain. It is very plentiful 
 
 near Gibraltar, and nests in 
 colonies, not exceeding thirty-five pairs, in 
 holes, or rather in caves in the perpendicular 
 crags or "lajas" which are found in many of 
 the Sierras. The eggs, according to Captain 
 Willoughby Verner, are white when fresh laid, but soon become stained and 
 often covered with mud and blood. He says: "Anyone who has seen a 
 party of Griffons on damp soil, churning up the ground with their feet 
 around a carcase, can easily understand the eggs becoming soiled." Colonel 
 Irby observes : "How the numbers which inhabit Audalucia get sufficient 
 to eat is a puzzle to me. They must be able to fast for some days, or else 
 travel immense distances for their food, as in the winter and spring it is 
 unusual to see dead animals about ; but in the hot parching months vast 
 quantities of cattle die of thirst and want of pasture. A bull fight is a sort 
 of harvest to Vultures, which flock in great numbers to revel on the carcases 
 of the unfortunate horses that have been so cruelly killed." 
 
 Of the Scavenger Vultures there are four species, the best-known being the 
 
 Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus). The members of this genus are 
 
 smaller than the generality of Vultures, and have a long 
 
 The Scavenger curved bill with a longitudinal nostril. The Egyptian 
 
 Vultures. Vulture is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean countries 
 Genus Neophron. an d Africa. In India it is replaced by a nearly allied 
 form with a yellow bill, known as N. ginginianus. In 
 Africa two brown species, N. pileatus and N. monachus, occur. 
 
 Fig. 61. TUB BLACK VULTURE 
 ( Vultur monachuis). 
 
SCAVENGER VULTURES CAR AC AR AS. 
 
 307 
 
 The Egyptian Scavenger Vulture is a more than ordinarily foul feeder, 
 even for one of its kind, and frequents human habitations, where it devours 
 all kinds of offal and excrement, but it will at other times devour lizards, 
 snakes, and small rodents, as well as worms, insects, and even fruit. 
 According to the late C. J. Andersson, it is said to devour ostrich eggs, by 
 carrying a stone up into the air and dropping it upon them. The nest is 
 generally placed on cliffs, but sometimes on trees. 
 
 Of the True Hawks there are five sub-families, the Caracaras (Polybormce\ 
 the Long-legged Hawks (Accipitrince), the Buzzards (Buteonince), the Eagles 
 (Aquilince\ and the Falcons (Falconince). 
 
 Of the Caracaras there are but two genera, Polyborus and Ibycter. They 
 are distinguished from the other Hawks by having the outer and inner toe 
 connected to the middle one by a mem- 
 brane or web. In all the other sub- 
 families there is a web only between 
 the base of the outer and middle toes. 
 Polyborus has but two species, P. tharus, 
 of South America, which is found from 
 the Straits of Magellan to Amazonia, and 
 P. cheriway, which occurs from Ecuador 
 and Guiana, through Central America, 
 into the Southern United States. 
 
 Mr. W. H. Hudson has given a long 
 and interesting account of the habits of 
 the "Carancho," as the Polyborus is 
 called in Argentina. It is too long to be 
 given in its entirety, but we cannot refrain 
 from making a few extracts: "The 
 Caranchos pair for life, and may there- 
 fore be called social birds. They also 
 often live and hunt in families of the 
 parents and young birds until the following 
 spring, and at all times several individuals 
 will readily combine to attack their prey, but they never live or move about 
 in flocks. Each couple has its own home or resting-place, which they will 
 continue to use for an indefinite time, roosting on the same branch and 
 occupying the same nest year after year ; while at all times the two birds are 
 seen constantly together, and seem very much attached. Azara relates that 
 he once saw a male pounce down on a frog, and, carrying it to a tree, call 
 his mate to him and make her a present of it. It was not a very magnificent 
 present, but the action seems to show that the bird possesses some commend- 
 able qualities which are seldom seen in the Raptorial family. Without doubt 
 it is a carrion-eater, but only, I believe, when it cannot get fresh provisions; 
 for, when famished, it will eat anything rather than study its dignity and 
 suffer hunger like the nobler Eagle. I have frequently seen one or two or 
 three of them together on the ground, under a column of winged ants, 
 eagerly feasting on the falling insects. To eat putrid meat it must be very 
 hungry indeed. It is, however, amazingly fond of freshly-killed flesh ; and, 
 when a cow ia slaughtered at an estancia-house, the Carancho quickly 
 appears on the scene to claim his share, and, catching up the first thing he 
 can lift, he carries it off before the dogs can deprive him of it. When he 
 has risen to a height of five or six yards in the air he drops the meat from 
 
 Fig. 62 THE BRAZILIAN CARACARA 
 (Polyborus iharus). 
 
308 A VES - ORDER A CCIPITRIFORMES. 
 
 his beak, and dexterously catches it in his claws without pausing or 
 swerving in his flight. It is singular that the bird seems quite incapable of 
 lifting anything from the ground with the claws, the beak being invariably 
 used, even when the prey is an animal which it might seem dangerous to 
 lift in this way. I once saw one of these birds swoop down on a rat 
 from a distance* of about 40 ft., and rise with its struggling and squealing 
 prey to a height of 20 ft., then drop it from its beak and gracefully catch it 
 in its talons. Yet, when it pursues and overtakes a bird in the air, it 
 invariably uses the claws in the same way as other Hawks. This I have 
 frequently observed, and I give the two following anecdotes to show that 
 even birds, which one would inngine to be quite safe from the Carancho, are 
 on some occasions attacked by it. In the first case, the bird attacked was 
 the Spur-winged Lapwing, the irreconcilable enemy of the Carancho and its 
 bold and persistent persecutor. The very sight of this Hawk rouses the 
 Lapwings to a frenzy of excitement, and springing aloft, they hasten to meet 
 it in mid-air, screaming loudly and continuing to harry it until it leaves their 
 ground, after which they return, and, ranged in triplets, perform their 
 triumphal dances, accompanied with loud drumming notes. But if their 
 hated foe alights on the ground, or on some elevation near them, they hover 
 about him, and first one, then another, rushes down with the greatest violence, 
 and gliding near him, turns the bend of its wing so that the spur appears 
 almost to graze his head. While one bird is descending, others are rising 
 upwards to renew their charges ; and this persecution continues until they 
 have driven him away, or become exhausted with their fruitless efforts. The 
 Carancho, however, takes little notice of his tormentors ; only when the 
 Plover comes very close, evidently bent on piercing his skull with its sharp 
 weapon, he quickly dodges his head, after which he resumes his indifferent 
 demeanour until the rush of the succeeding bird takes place. 
 
 " While out riding one day a Carancho flew past me attended by about 
 thirty Lapwings, combined to hunt him from their ground, for it was near 
 the breeding season, when their jealous irascible temper is most excited. 
 All at once, just as a Lapwing swept close by and then passed on before it, 
 the Hawk quickened its flight in the most wonderful manner and was seen 
 in hot pursuit of its tormentor. The angry hectoring cries of the Lapwings 
 instantly changed to piercing screams of terror, which, in a very short time, 
 brought a crowd numbering between two and three hundred birds to the 
 rescue. Now, I thought, the hunted bird will escape, for it twisted and 
 turned rapidly about, trying to lose itself amongst its fellows, all hovering 
 in a compact cloud about it and screaming their loudest. But the Carancho 
 was not to be shaken off; he was never more than a yard behind his quarry, 
 and I was near enough to distinguish the piteous screams of the chased Lap- 
 wing amidst all the tumult, as of a bird already captive. At the end of about 
 a minute it was seized in the Carancho's talons, and, still violently scfeamrng, 
 borne away. The cloud of Lapwings followed for some distance, but 
 presently they all returned to the fatal spot where the contest had taken 
 place ; and for an hour afterwards they continued soaring about in separate 
 
 bodies, screaming all the time with an unusual note in 
 The Long-legged tneir voices as of fear or grief, and holding excited con- 
 Hawks. Sub- claves on the ground, to all appearance as greatly dis- 
 txm&jAccipitrina. turbed in their minds as an equal number of highly 
 
 emotional human beings would be in the event of a 
 similar disaster overtaking them." 
 
GYMNOGENES HARRIERS. 309 
 
 Only the outer and middle toes are united by a membrane in this sub- 
 family, but the legs are very long, the thigh (tibio-tarsus) and the leg 
 (tarso-metatarsus) being nearly as long as one another. The birds included in 
 this group are the Gymnogenes, Harriers, Gos-Hawks, and Sparrow-Hawks. 
 
 These curious crested Hawks are Ethiopian, one species being found in 
 tropical Africa and another in Madagascar. They are grey birds with 
 a well - developed crest, and a bare face of a light yellow colour. 
 The structure of the leg is peculiar, for the tibio-tarsal 
 joint is flexible, and the bird has the power of putting its The Gymnogenes. 
 leg out of joint, as it were, and placing the tarsus at a Genus Poly- 
 backward angle, instead of forwards, as in ordinary Birds boroides. 
 
 of Prey. The Neotropical genus Geranospizias is also 
 said to possess the same faculty. In the Gymnogene this power of twisting 
 its leg about, as on a pivot, is said by observers to be of use to the bird in 
 drawing out frogs from the marsh holes. Its food appears to consist chiefly 
 of lizards and frogs, and also of insects ; and Mr. Ayres says that in Natal 
 it frequents lands on which the grass has been recently burnt, stalking over 
 the ground like a Bustard. 
 
 The Harriers are long-legged birds, differing from the Sparrow-Hawks and 
 Gos-Hawks in having the hinder aspect of the tarsus reticulate and in 
 having an oval nostril. They have also a ruff round the 
 face similar to that of the Owls, and on this account they The Harriers. 
 have often been considered to be a connecting link be- Genus Circus. 
 tween the Hawks and the Owls. This character, however, 
 is of secondary importance compared with the development of their long legs, 
 which, in our opinion, allies them to the Sparrow-Hawks. Some sixteen 
 species of the Harriers are known, and they inhabit the temperate and 
 tropical portions of both hemispheres. They do not range into the arctic 
 regions, and those which breed in northern localities migrate south in 
 winter, often in large numbers. The habits of all the Harriers are very much 
 the same in different countries. The nest is built on the ground, and the 
 eggs are white, with occasionally a few brown markings ; they appear bluish 
 inside when held up to the light. They are not birds of bold and rapid 
 flight like the Sparrow-Hawks or Eagles, but are great robbers of other 
 birds' eggs and young, feeding also on small mammals, reptiles, fish, and 
 insects. Mr. Seebohm speaks of the Marsh Harrier (Circus ceruginosus) as 
 being "usually seen passing slowly over its swampy haunts a few feet from the 
 earth, quartering the ground much as a well-trained dog searching for game. 
 Its'flight is somewhat slow and laboured, performed with measured beats of 
 the wings, varied by gliding motions as it surveys the ground below. It will 
 beat over its hunting-ground, returning backwards and forwards, as if 
 diligently searching every spot likely to contain its prey. Now and then it 
 is seen to drop somewhat slowly to the earth to secure a frog or a mole, 
 which it will either eat at once or convey to some distance." 
 
 Of Montagu's Harrier (Circus pygargus) Colonel Irby records the finding 
 of a regular colony near Lixus, in Morocco. With his telescope he could see 
 the sitting hen birds dotted about the marsh. The North American Hen- 
 Harrier (Circus hudsonius) has similar habits to those of the European 
 species, but is not such an egg- destroy ing bird, and is looked upon as a 
 beneficial Hawk, as it devours great quantities of meadow-mice and ground 
 squirrels, as well as noxious insects, such as locusts and destructive ground- 
 crickets. The flight of this Harrier is described as graceful, and at certain 
 
310 A VES ORDER A CCIPITRIFORMES. 
 
 times the males perform aerial evolutions. The male never assists the 
 female in the duties of incubation, but diligently supplies his mate with food. 
 Mr. John Clark informed Captain Bendire that he has seen the female rise 
 from the nest to welcome the male with shrill cries when he came in 
 sight, and then take the prey from his talons and fly back with it to the 
 nest. 
 
 Intermediate between the Harriers and the Go<-Hawks comes the genus 
 Micrastur, containing the Harrier- Hawks of Tropical America. These are 
 birds which have the stout build of a Gos-Hawk combined with the facial 
 ruflf of the Harriers, and, as in the last-named genus of birds, the tarsus is 
 reticulated behind. Then follow several genera of Gos-Hawks, such as 
 Geranospizias of Tropical America, Urotriorchis of Africa, and Erythrocnema, 
 again a New World form, so closely allied to the Chanting Gos-Hawks of 
 Africa (Melierax) that the two genera are scarcely distinguishable. 
 
 Two species of this genus are known, one, E. unicinda, inhabiting South 
 
 America from Brazil to Chili, and the other, E. harrisi, being found in 
 
 Central America, north to the Southern United States. 
 
 The Red-thighed Little has been recorded of the habits of the Red-thighed 
 
 Gos-HawkSi Gos-Hawks, but Captain Bendire says that they appear 
 Genus to be lazy and sluggish birds, with a slow and not graceful 
 
 Erythrocnema. flight. They build in low trees, and the nest is a poorly 
 constructed affair, so that on one occasion Captain Bendire 
 declares that he could see the eggs through the bottom of the nest. 
 
 These birds are confined to the ^Ethiopian Region, and they are called 
 "Chanting" Gos-Hawks on account of their supposed 
 
 The Chanting utterance of a song. Le Vaillant is the principal 
 
 Gos-Hawks. authority for this statement, but like many other records 
 Genus Meherax. o f this traveller's, it is open to doubt ; and Mr. Layard 
 says that he never heard anything of the sort in 
 South Africa. 
 
 The preceding genera possess a bony tubercle in their nostrils, but 
 the true Gos-Hawks (Astur) have not this peculiarity. On the contrary, 
 they have an oval nostril with no tubercle. They are remarkable for their 
 stout and heavy bill, accompanied by stout legs and short toes. They are of 
 all sizes, some of them being as big as a Buzzard, while others are scarcely 
 larger than a Thrush. 
 
 The Common Gos-Hawk is a bird of the woods and forests, where it builds a 
 
 nest of great size, which it lines with roots and moss, but does not use green 
 
 leaves as many birds of prey do. The great size of the 
 
 The Common nest is probably due to the additions made by the birds 
 
 Gos-Hawk. from year to year. The eggs are pale greenish white, and 
 Astur palumbarius. are on iy very rare ly marked with faint brown spots. The 
 Gos-Hawk is a most useful bird to the falconer, as it is an 
 adept at taking rabbits, but it belongs to the group of short- winged Hawks and 
 cannot fly down its prey like an Eagle or a Falcon. Seebohm observes : *' In 
 spite of his comparatively short wings, he is a bird of very powerful flight. 
 and of undaunted courage. He disdains to eat carrion, and will scarcely 
 stoop to catch a sitting bird. He hunts on the wing, and nothing is safe 
 from his attacks, from a sparrow to a grouse, or from a mouse to a young 
 roe. In summer he confines himself principally to the woods and the open 
 places in their immediate neighbourhood ; but late in autumn and winter he 
 extends the range of his hunting-grounds, pursuing partridges and hares, and 
 
COS- HA WKSSPARROW-HA WKS. 
 
 The Sparrow- 
 Hawks. Genus 
 
 Accipiter. 
 
 making raids on the pigeons belonging to the farmers, and sometimes 
 snatching the game from under the very nose of the sportsman." 
 
 The Gos-Hawks are about forty in number, and many of them, though 
 small, are of beautiful plumage, such as the Fijian Astur torquatus and its 
 allies, which are pale grey birds with a rufous collar round their necks and 
 vinous coloured breasts. This group inhabits the Australian region, more 
 especially the Moluccas, and the Papaan Islands. Another group is that of 
 the Indian Shikra (Astur badius), which has allied species in Burma, Africa, 
 and South-Eastern Europe. They are all small birds with prettily barred 
 breasts. One of the most interesting, however, is the White Gos-Hawk of 
 Australia, a pure white species, which looks like an albino. Astur novae, 
 hollandice, as it is called, is confined to the Australian continent, with a- 
 representative species, A. leucosomus, in New Guinea. 
 
 This is also a numerously represented genus of Hawks ; the difference 
 between the Sparrow-Hawks and the Gos-Hawks consisting principally in 
 the smaller bills and longer toes of the former birds. 
 Like the Gos-Hawks, the members of the genus Accipiter 
 are found over the greater part of the world, and both 
 small and large species are met with. They are generally 
 of slight build, but use their short wings with great 
 dexterity, doubling in their flight in the most rapid manner, and snatching 
 their prey with a sudden plunge, seldom attempting to seize it in the open. 
 
 In our English Sparrow-Hawk the female is a much larger bird than the 
 male, and is much the more powerful bird of the two, though nothing can 
 well exceed the spirit and dash of 
 the little male Sparrow-Hawk. The 
 chief food of the species consists of 
 small birds, but it takes Blackbirds, 
 Partridges, and, according to Mr. 
 Seebohm, even Wood-Pigeons. It 
 is a very determined marauder on 
 the Pheasant coops, and catches a 
 number of young birds of all sorts, 
 feeding its own young on these. 
 The nest is somewhat large, and, 
 unlike that of most of the smaller 
 Birds of Prey, which generally ap- 
 propriate the nest of some other 
 bird, the Sparrow-Hawk builds its 
 own nest. The eggs of the species 
 of Accipiter are invariably more 
 handsome than those of the Gos-Hawks, and some of the eggs of our own 
 species are beautifully marbled with reddish brown. 
 
 The largest of the Sparrow-Hawks is the Pied Sparrow-Hawk of Africa, 
 which is nearly 2 ft. in length. 
 
 With this sub-family we commence the description of the shorter legged 
 Hawks, wherein the tibio-tarsus is always longer than 
 the tarso-metatarsus. The first of the three sub-families 
 is that of the Buteonince. or Buzzards. And here we find 
 a character which runs through them all, and is very 
 constant, viz., that the hinder aspect of the tarsus is 
 scaled, and not reticulated. This we believe to be the principal character- 
 
 Fig. 3. THE FEMALE SPARROW-HAWK 
 (Accipiter nisus). 
 
 The Buzzards. 
 Sub-family 
 
 Buteonince. 
 
312 A VES- ORDER A CCIPITRIFORMES. 
 
 istic of the Buzzards, which on the one hand are allied to the Gos-Hawks, 
 and on the other to the Eagles, the difference between the latter and the 
 Buzzards being by no means strongly marked. 
 
 At the head of the Buteoninw we find the genus Erythrotriorchis, or 
 Rufous Buzzard-Hawks, of which there are two species, one, E. radiatus, 
 found in Australia, and the other, E. dorian, inhabiting New Guinea. They 
 are very rare birds, and but little has been recorded concerning their habits. 
 
 Of the succeeding genera, Buteogallus and Tachytriorchis, also very little is 
 known. They are Neotropical forms ; but T. abbreviatus and T. albicaudatus 
 occur in the Southern United States, and some good accounts of their nesting 
 have been published by Captain Bendire in his excellent work on the '* Life- 
 Histories of North American Birds." The latter species visits Southern 
 Texas during the summer, and migrates south in winter, visiting South 
 America as far 'as Argentina in companies. In the winter Mr. W. H. 
 Hudson has known them to become so reduced in flesh that, after every cold 
 rain or severe frost, numbers would be found dead under the trees where 
 they roosted, and in that way most of them perished before the return of 
 spring. Captain B. F. Goss found the species breeding abundantly near 
 Corpus Christi, in Texas, in the spring of 1882. His note to Captain Bendire 
 is as follows: "I found the favourite breeding-places of the White-tailed 
 Hawk to be a strip of open bushy land, lying between the thick line of 
 timber and chaparral along the coast and the open prairie. Any bush rising a 
 little above the surrounding level seemed a suitable nesting site, and no 
 attempt was made to conceal the nest. In most places it was very prominent, 
 and could be seen for a long distance. I examined fifteen, and they were all 
 placed in low bushes, generally not higher than 6 ft. In a few cases I hid to 
 stand upon the waggon to reach them. They were composed of sticks, dry 
 weeds, and grasses, a coarse, dry grass entering largely into the composition 
 of most of them. They were poorly constructed, but moderately hollowed, 
 and usually lined with a few green twigs or leaves. Taken as a whole, 
 the nests looked ragged in outline and slovenly in finish. About one nest in 
 four contained three eggs ; the rest but two. These Hawks are wary, and 
 difficult of approach at all times. They would leave their nests as soon as we 
 came in sight, sometimes when still half a mile away, and generally they kept 
 entirely out of sight. An occasional pair sailed high over our heads, uttering 
 a faint cry while we were at their nest. Only a single one came within 
 reach of our guns." Both of the genera Heterospizias and Tachytriorchis 
 differ from the typical Buzzards in their shorter tails, the wings reaching 
 beyond the tip of the latter. 
 
 The genus Buteo contains about twenty species, of which our European 
 
 Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) is the type. They are almost identical in 
 
 their mode of life one with another, and mostly resemble 
 
 The True Buzzards, small Eagles in their habits. They are, as a rule, useful 
 
 Genus Buteo. birds, as they feed upon rats and mice, insects, and small 
 reptiles, which they pounce upon from a sitting position ; 
 hence they do not often capture birds, as they do not take their prey on the 
 wing. The nest of the Common Buzzard is a somewhat large structure, built in 
 a tree, and is flat at the top and lined with fresh green leaves. The eggs 
 are three or four in number, white, or bluish white in colour, the markings 
 being blotches or streaks of a rich brown colour, which are often absent. 
 
 Of the utility of the Buzzards to the farmer and agriculturist very good 
 proof is given in Dr. A. K. Fisher's work on the "Hawks and Owls of the 
 
HARPIES-EAGLES. 313 
 
 United States in relation to Agriculture," where tables of the food found in 
 the stomachs of the Buzzards are given, from which it appears that large 
 numbers of small mammals and insects, especially locusts, are devoured by 
 these Birds of Prey, and that very few small birds are captured by them, 
 though the larger kinds of Buzzards will occasionally take a Duck or a 
 Partridge. 
 
 In the Buteonince are also contained some other forms of Buzzards, such as 
 the genera Asturina and Urubitinga, the habits of which call for little special 
 notice here, though some of the latter are very handsome birds of nearly 
 pure white plumage. They are neotropical in habitat, as are also the 
 Harpies, with which the Buzzards conclude. It is generally the fashion to 
 speak of the Harpies as Eagles, instead of Buzzards, but the way in which 
 the hinder aspect of the tarsus is plated, instead of being reticulated, is 
 sufficient to show that these great birds are really members of the sub-family 
 Buteonince. 
 
 There are three genera of Harpies Harpyhaliaetus, with one 
 species, H. coronatus, a grey bird found in South America ; Morphnus, 
 also with a single species, M. guianensis, found in 
 Amazonia and Guiana as far west as Panama ; and The Harpy 
 
 Thrasaetus, with the true Harpy, T. harpyia, as its type, (Tkrascetus 
 
 a species found over the greater part of Southern and harpyia). 
 
 Central America as far north as Mexico. The Harpy is 
 one of the most splendid, as it is the most powerful, of all the Birds of 
 Prey. Like the other Harpies it possesses a very long crest, which it usually 
 keeps raised, adding to its fierce appearance. It is said to kill calves and 
 animals of far greater bulk than itself, and Dr. Felix Oswald says that " in 
 the Oaxaca district in Mexico, the ' Lobo volante,' or ' Winged Wolf,' attacks 
 and kills heavy old turkey-cocks, young fawns, sloths, full-grown foxes and 
 badgers, middle-sized pigs, and even the black Sapajou monkey (Ateles 
 paniscus). The nest is built in the highest forest-trees, especially the 
 Adansonia and the Pinus balsamifera. The more inaccessible rocks of the 
 foot-hills are also commonly chosen for a breeding place, and it is not easy to 
 distinguish the compactly-built eyrie on the highest branches of a wild fig 
 tree from the dark-coloured clusters of the Mexican mistletoe ( Piscum rubrum) 
 which are seen in the same tree-tops. The process of incubation is generally 
 finished by the middle of March, if not sooner, and from that time to the end 
 of June the rapacity of the old birds is the terror of the tropical fauna, for 
 their hunting expeditions, which later in the year are restricted to the early 
 morning hours, now occupy them the larger part of the day." 
 
 In this sub-family the tibio-tarsus is much longer than the tarso- 
 metatarsus, as it was in the Buteonince, but in all the Eagles the hinder aspect 
 of the tarsus is reticulated, not plated. The bill is 
 festooned but not toothed, as it is in the Falcons, which The Eagles. 
 follow later. There are two genera with wedge-shaped Sub-family 
 
 tails, Gypaetus and Uroaetus. In the former genus is Aquilince. 
 
 found the species generally called the Bearded " Vulture, " 
 on account of the tuft of bristly feathers which is grown on its chin. 
 The Bearded Eagle (Gypaetus barbatus) extends from Southern Europe 
 throughout Central Asia to the Himalayas, but has become very rare, 
 if, indeed, not wholly extinct, in Switzerland, where it was once a 
 well-known bird. The Lcemmergeier, as it is also called, is still found in 
 some of the other mountain ranges of Southern Europe, and in the 
 
A VES- ORDER A CCIPITRIFORMES. 
 
 Himalayas it is by no means uncommon. I have myself more than once 
 seen one of these magnificent birds flying over within 30 yds. of my head, 
 and turning his head down from side to side, taking stock of everything 
 below him. His pale yellow eye, which is surrounded by a red ring, and 
 his bearded chin were plainly seen. The flight of a Lsemmergeier is 
 grand in the extreme. The bird, however, has many of the habits of a 
 Scavenger Vulture, and resembles Neophron in some of its ways, though it 
 does not seem to be such a foul feeder. The species has been known to follow 
 camps, and it is not infrequently to be met with in the neighbourhood of 
 villages in the north-western Himalayas and Tibet. Not only in the 
 Mediterranean countries, but in the Himalayas also, the bird is known as 
 the "bone-breaker," and it undoubtedly has the curious habit of devouring 
 bones. Von Tschudi says that five bullock's ribs 2 in. thick and from 6 to 9 
 in. long, a lump of hair, and the leg of a young goat, from the knee to the 
 foot, were found in the stomach of one of these Bearded Eagles, while in 
 another the large hip-bone of a cow, the skin and fore-quarters of a chamois, 
 many smaller bones, etc., were discovered. It is also said to drive the 
 chamois and goats over the precipices, and devour the bodies when they 
 have fallen below. The weak feet and claws of the Lsemmergeier are 
 vulturine, and not like those of True Eagles, and it is certain that the bird 
 could not capture any large prey with its talons. Its method of breaking 
 the bones which it delights in, is to take them up in the air to a great 
 height and then let them drop on a rock, and it was doubtless in this way 
 that ^Eschylus was killed more than 2000 years ago, an "Eagle," te., a 
 Lsemmergeier, having dropped a Tortoise on his bald head, mistaking the 
 latter for a rock. " Marrow bones," says Mr. Hudleston, "are the dainties the 
 Lsemmergeier loves the best ; and when the other Vultures have picked the 
 flesh off any animal, he comes in at the end of the feast and swallows the 
 bones, or breaks them and swallows the pieces, if he cannot get the marrow 
 out otherwise. I once saw a mature bird of this species which had evidently 
 swallowed a bone, or something ^uncommonly indigestible, close to the 
 abattoir at Athens. He was in a very uncomfortable attitude, and appeared 
 to be leaning on his long tail for support." A second species of Lsemmergeier 
 (Gypaetus ossifragus) is found in the mountains of North-Eastern Africa. 
 
 We now come to the true Eagles (Aquila) of which our Golden Eagle is the 
 type, while the Bearded Eagles are connected with the typical Eagles by means 
 of the Wedge-tailed Eagle of Australia ( Uroaetus audax), a bird which has 
 the aspect of a true Eagle, but has at the same time the wedge-shaped tail 
 of a Lsemmergeier. 
 
 In this genus occur some of the best-known Birds of Prey, such as the 
 
 Golden Eagle (AqiiUa chrysaetus), the Imperial Eagle (A. heliaca), the 
 
 Tawny Eagle (A. rapax], and the Spotted Eagle (A. 
 
 The True Eagles. maculata). When on the wing it cannot be denied that the 
 
 Genus Aquila. Eagles are birds of magnificent appearance, and I have 
 seen nothing grander in my experience of bird-life than 
 a pair of Eagles circling above the Himalayas and screaming in protest 
 against an approaching storm, as it made its way up the valley. On 
 the other hand, in many ways Eagles are little more than large Buzzards, 
 and a great deal of unnecessary romance has been shed around them. Of 
 the Imperial Eagle, Mr. A. O. Hume writes that he considers it no better 
 than a great hulking Kite. In India, he says, it is an ignoble feeder, and he 
 has generally found the birds gorged with carrion. After a good meal, they 
 
CRESTED EAGLES-SERPENT-EAGLES. 315 
 
 will sit stupidly on a tree, or any little mud pillar, and permit you to 
 walk within thirty yards of them, but, before feeding, they are somewhat 
 wary, and can by no means always be secured, even when seen sitting. On 
 more than one occasion he found desert rats (Gerbillus erythrurus) in their 
 crops, and he once shot one of a pair, which were busy on the line of rails at 
 Etawah, devouring a Bandicoot rat (Mus bandicota\ which some passing 
 train had cut in two. Occasionally, but rarely, they had eaten snails and 
 other birds. Once he shot a male, which was dancing about on the ground 
 in such an astounding fashion that he killed it to see what the matter was. 
 The bird proved to have been choking, and it had swallowed a whole dry 
 shin-bone and foot of an antelope. The bone, apparently, could not be got 
 down altogether, and in trying to void it, the sharp points of the hoof had 
 stuck into the back of the palate. 
 
 There are many other kinds of Eagles, such as the Buzzard-Eagles 
 (Arckibuteo), and the members of the genus jEutolmaetus, of which Bonelli's 
 Eagle (E. fasciatus) is the type, and the Booted Eagle of Southern Europe 
 (E. pennatus) is another well-known member of the genus. Lophotriorchis 
 is another remarkable form, with a well-developed crest. It has one species, 
 L. kieneri, found in India and the Malay Archipelago, while the only other 
 species occurs in the mountains of Colombia in South America, a very 
 interesting fact in geographical distribution. One of the most curious of 
 Eagles is the Birds'-nesting Eagle (Neopus malaiensis) of India and the 
 Malayan countries and islands. Ic is a black bird, with powerful talons which 
 are nearly straight. It spends its time hunting for eggs and nestlings, and is 
 continually on the wing, like a Kite. "It subsists," says Colonel Legge, 
 "as far as can be observed, entirely by birds'-nesting, and is not content 
 with the eggs and young birds, which its keen sight espies among the 
 branches of the forest trees, but even seizes the nest in its talons, decamps 
 with it, and often examines the contents as it sails lazily along." Part of 
 a bird's nest has been found in this Eagle's stomach. 
 
 The Crested Eagles (Spizaetus) of the Indian Region and the Black Eagle 
 of Africa (Lophoaetus occipitalis) complete the list of feathered-legged Eagles. 
 All the rest belong to the bare-legged section which have the tibio-tarsus 
 unfeathered. To this section belong the Sea-Eagles and their allies, the 
 Serpent-Eigles. Of the latter there are many species in Africa and in the 
 Indian Region, the best-known being the members of the genus Circaetus and 
 Spilornis. Of the former we have one species in Southern Europe, Circaetus 
 gallicus, but the true Serpent-Eagles (Spilornis) are inhabitants of India. 
 The amount of good which they do may be calculated by the statement of 
 Mr. A. O. Hume, who has shot numbers of these birds, that he found fifty 
 little serpents in the stomach of one individual, and on another occasion he 
 knew of a Cobra, 2^ ft. in length, being taken out of a Serpent-Eagle's 
 stomach. Butastur is another oriental genus, and the Bateleur-Eagles 
 (Helotarsus) are confined to Africa. The true Sea-Eagles (Haliaetus) are 
 nearly world-wide in distribution, but they are absent in South America. 
 In Europe and North America we have the White-tailed Eagle (Haliaetus 
 albicilla) and the Bald Eagle (H. leucoc,ephalus\ the latter remarkable for its 
 pure white head. The Ethiopian region contains a beautiful species, 
 H. vocifer, and one of the most widely distributed Birds of Prey in Australia 
 and the East is H. leiicogaster, the white-bellied Sea-Eagle. 
 
 From the Sea-Eagles we pass to the Kites, which are also members of the 
 sub-family Aquilince. At first sight they would seem to have no connection 
 
3 1 6 A VES ORDER A CCIPITRIFORMES. 
 
 with Eagles, but they are connected with the latter birds through the 
 Brahminy Kites (Haliastur). These birds inhabit India and Burma, and 
 extend through the Malay Archipelago to Australia. The Brahminy Kite of 
 India (Haliastur Indus) makes a nest in a tree very much like that of a Kite, 
 and lays a white egg, mottled with dots and hieroglyphics of reddish-brown. 
 
 From the genus Haliastur is an easy transition through the African 
 Swallow- tailed Kite (Nauclerus riqcouri) and the American IS wallow-tailed 
 Kite (Elanoides furcatus) to the typical Kites (Milvus). The Swallow-tailed 
 Kite of America is a lovely and most graceful bird, ihe back and tail being 
 black, and the head and underparts pure white. It nests in the Southern 
 United States, and winters in Brazil. Florida is one of its breeding grounds, 
 and the following account of its habits is given by Dr. William L. Ralph in 
 Captain Bendire's "Life-History of North American Birds." He writes : 
 "Excepting, perhaps, the Turkey Vulture, I think that this bird is the most 
 graceful of any when on the wing. It has the same easy floating motion, 
 but at times it flies very rapidly and turns very quickly, which is something 
 I have never seen the former bird do. Their motions are very ' Swallow '- 
 like, and this, with their forked' tail, makes them look like gigantic Barn- 
 Swallows; and like the Chimney-Swifts they have a habit of travelling 
 together in small companies, usually consisting of three individuals, 
 especially when they first return from the South. During the breeding 
 season flocks, consisting of from two to three to ten or twelve birds, but 
 oftener of three, may be seen following one another around, frequently 
 uttering their calls and circling in and out among the tree-tops so fast as to 
 make one dizzy to look at them. Except during this season one seldom sees 
 one of these birds unless it is flying, and I have often wondered if they did 
 not at times sleep while on the wing. At least I know that they usually, if 
 not always, eat while flying, for I have many times seen one sailing leisurely 
 along, occasionally bending its head to tear a piece from a small snake that 
 it held in its talons, and I have never seen one alight to eat its food, like 
 other Birds of Prey." 
 
 There are m<my other forms of Kite, such as the Hooked-billed Kites 
 (Rosthramufi), the Black-shouldered Kites (Elanus), and other smill genera, 
 but the best known are, of course, the true Kites of the genus Milvus. In 
 the towns and villages of tropical countries of the Old World these birds are 
 nearly always in evidence, flying about with a continuous squeaking cry. 
 The Common Kite is nearly extinct in England, but there are many places 
 on the Continent where it is still plentiful ; and Mr. Seebohm gives the 
 following account of its habits : " In the manner of taking its prey the Kite 
 very much resembles the Buzzards, and even the Harriers. It is by no 
 means a bold and powerful bird, for a clucking hen ^has been known to 
 put it to flight, and the fiery little Sparrow-Hawk mobs it with impunity. 
 The Kite takes its food upon the ground, and usually catches young or 
 weakly birds or mammals, and also does not even refuse to make a meal on 
 carrion. Like all rapacious birds, the Kite appears to have some favourite 
 spot which serves as a dining-table or larder, where the food brought to feed 
 its hungry young is also plucked and otherwise prepared for them. The nest 
 in the breeding season is also a well-stocked larder, far more food being con- 
 veyed thither than is really consumed. In these places may be seen the 
 remains of Grouse, Plovers, and young Curlews and Wild Ducks. In 
 addition to this food the Kite also takes young hares and rabbits, mice and 
 rats, frogs, lizards, more rarely snakes, and the larger coleopterous insects 
 
KITES -HONE Y- KITES. 3 1 7 
 
 creatures that are taken without much exertion or power. In former 
 days, when the Kite was more abundant in these islands than it is now, 
 it was said to be a great enemy to the poultry, young chickens forming 
 a favourite object of its pursuit. At the present day, however, the 
 Kite need cause the poultry-keeper no alarm. Its haunt now, where but 
 a remnant of its former numbers find a last retreat, is in the wildest 
 districts of Scotland, or Wales, where the Red Grouse is probably its 
 favourite fare. How the Kite manages to take so large and strong a bird as 
 a cock Red Grouse is surprising ; and it is most probably only the young and 
 weakly ones that fall victims to its swoop. Mr. Booth also suggests that the 
 Peregrine ofttimes unwittingly finds the Kite a meal, and puts a bird in its 
 way that would never be secured unless weakly or wounded. As is well 
 known, that bold, rapacious Falcon often strikes a bird for mere sport, and 
 will leave it where it lies ; and there, no doubt, it is sometimes found by the 
 less active Kite and conveyed away. The note of the Kite may be compared 
 to a wild plaintive scream or 'mew, 5 and is but rarely heard, save in the 
 breeding season. Unmusical as its cry may be, still it appears to be full of 
 wild harmony with the rugged scenery of its haunts, imbues them with life, 
 and, when heard as the bird is flying far overhead, lends a charm to districts 
 where other bird life is wanting." 
 
 The Kites which most approach the Falcons are the Perns or Honey- 
 Kites. These have a peculiarly soft plumage, unmistakable to the touch of a 
 practised ornithologist ; and this is shared by many of the Falcons, showing that 
 it is practically impossible to draw distinctive characters between the sub- 
 families of Accipitrine birds. Thus the Buzzards merge into the Eagles, and 
 thence through the Sea-Eagles and the Brahminy Kites we reach the true Kites, 
 and from them the Perns, which are half Falcons, and thence the transition 
 is easy to the true Falcons. So it may be affirmed that there is scarcely any 
 order of birds in which the natural connection of the families, sub-families, 
 and genera are better maintained and exemplified than in the Accipitriformes. 
 
 Some of the most curious of the Perns, and, one may say, of all Birds of 
 Prey, are the Black Perns (Maeho&rhamphus). They are nocturnal birds, 
 coming forth in the twilight to feed on bats and small swifts. One species, 
 M. anderssoni, is Ethiopian, being found in Tropical Africa and Madagascar ; 
 while the second species, M. cdcinus, inhabits Southern Burma, the Malayan 
 Peninsula, Borneo, and extends to New Guinea. 
 
 These birds are generally called Honey-'* Buzzards," but it is certainly 
 wrong to think of them as Buzzards. Their habits, their 
 outward form, and, above all, their curious softplumage, The Honey- 
 all point to their affinities with the Kites. There are Kites. Genus 
 three species of Honey-Kite, Pernis apivorus of Europe, Pernis. 
 
 P. ptilonorhynchus of Tropical Asia, and P. celebensis of 
 Celebes. 
 
 The Falcons differ from the Kites, which immediately precede them, and 
 from the other Birds of Prey in having a toothed or notched bill. In some 
 of the genera there is a distinct double tooth, as in the 
 Cuckoo-Falcons (Baza). These are very interesting The True 
 
 Hawks on account of their geographical distribution. Falcons. Sub- 
 They are all birds of the forest districts, one species being family JFalcomncs. 
 found in West Africa, another in Natal, a third in 
 Madagascar, and thence eastwards the species are distributed through the 
 Indian Region and the Moluccas to the Bismarck Archipelago and North- 
 
3 1 8 A VES ORDER A CCIP1TRIFORMES. 
 
 Eastern Australia. These birds get their name of Cuckoo-Falcons from 
 their large Cuckoo-like yellow eyes and the barred plumage of the lower 
 surface of the body, which is like that of a Cuckoo. 
 
 In Central and South America the Cuckoo-Falcons are represented by the 
 Double-toothed Falcons (Harpagus), and in the same parts of the Neotropical 
 region occur the Grey Kite-Falcons (Ictinia), one of which, J. mississipiensis, 
 ranges into the Southern United States. All these genera which we have 
 recently mentioned belong to the borderland between the Kites and the 
 Falcons. They have the characteristics of the latter birds, united to Kite- 
 like plumage and habits, and they further differ from the true Falcons in 
 having an oval nostril, with no central tubercle, whereas the latter birds 
 have a rounded nostril with a central tubercle. The habits of the Mississippi 
 Kite-Falcon have been well described in the works of Captain Bendire and 
 Dr. A. K. Fisher. The latter writes : " The food of this species, like that 
 of the Swallow- tailed Kite, consists of insects, such as the larger beetles, 
 grasshoppers, and locusts, lizards, small snakes, and frogs. It never has been 
 known to molest birds or mammals, except to drive the larger species away 
 from the vicinity of its nest. Three specimens which Wilson examined at 
 Natchez, Miss., contained the remains of beetles ; and he saw them flying 
 about the trees feeding on cicadas. Dr. Coues mentions one shot at Bluff- 
 ton, S.C., whose stomach was crammed with the same insects, together with 
 a few Katydids. It is wonderful at what a distance its keen eyes can detect a 
 comparatively small insect. Mr. E. W. Nelson says : ' I saw them repeatedly 
 dart with unerring aim upon some luckless grasshoppers from an elevation of 
 at least 100 yards.' (Bull. Essex Inst., Vol. IX., 1877, p. 58.) As regards 
 the economic value of this Kite much the same statement may be made as of 
 the previous species. It does little or no damage, but much good. Soon 
 after arriving in its summer home it begins to remodel its old nest or the 
 deserted nest of some other bird, and more rarely, when these are not avail- 
 able, it builds a new one. The remodelling consists in patching up the sides 
 with a few sticks and adding a sparse lining of Spanish moss or green leaves. 
 The nest is usuilly situated in the tops of the tallest trees, among the smaller 
 branches, where it is well concealed by the foliage. The full complement of 
 eggs, usually two or three in number, is deposited by the middle of May, 
 though in some cases it must be much earlier, for the writer once secured a 
 young bird in southern Louisiana at the end of May which had already 
 acquired nearly the adult plumage. This Kite is not at all shy, and may 
 be secured easily as it sits on some tall stub ; in fact, Col. N. S. Goss 
 tells of shooting a pair from the same tree, as the second one did not 
 move at the report of the gun, but looked down with surprise on its 
 fallen companion. It is said to be morose and irritable in captivity, 
 and very difficult to tame. A specimen which the writer once wounded 
 was the very picture of rage, as with flashing eyes and erect crest it 
 threw itself on its back and prepared to repel the aggressor with its 
 talons. This species is fully as gregarious as any of the other Kites, 
 and oftentimes may be seen in flocks of twenty or more circling over a 
 favourite hunting ground. It is observed most frequently around the border 
 of woods in the vicinity of water, and is particularly fond of half-cleared 
 ground where dead trees still stand, these being used for perches. Its flight 
 is as varied and graceful as that of the Swallow-tailed Kite, is long protracted, 
 and the birds often ascend to so great a height as to be barely visible. While 
 soaring high in the air its flight simulates that of the turkey-buzzard very 
 
FAL CONETSJER-FALCONS. 
 
 319 
 
 closely, and as the two birds are often seen together the Kite looks like a 
 miniature of the other." 
 
 A curious little genus of true Falcons is Microhierax, the members of which 
 are little larger than sparrows. They inhabit the Indian region, especially 
 the Indo-Malayan islands. An allied genus, Poliohierax, 
 is found in the Burmese Provinces and in the desert The Falconets. 
 regions of Africa, and the two species known present this Genus Microhierax. 
 unique peculiarity among the true Falcons, that the sexes 
 differ remarkably in colour, the males being grey, while the females have a 
 maroon-coloured beak. One of the chief characteristics of the Falcons is 
 that the males and females are alike in colour, but the latter differ markedly 
 in their superior size. 
 
 The true Falcons (Falco) are typified in our Peregrine Falcon (F. peregrinus), 
 and various races of this type are distributed over the Old and New Worlds, 
 whilst the Lanner (F, feldeggii), and the Juggur Falcon are well-known 
 representatives of the same type. 
 
 These birds are really gigantic Kestrels, the form and habit of the birds 
 being those of the true Falcons, while the formation of the foot is that of a 
 Kestrel, the outer and inner toe being about equal in 
 length, whereas in the genus Falco the outer toe is much The Noble Falcons, 
 longer than the inner one. Hence the latter birds with Genus H ierofako. 
 their powerful foot are the Falcons par excellence. It is 
 the Peregrine and its allies which are the chosen bird of the falconer, while 
 the noble Falcons are not thought much of by them. 
 
 As I have said before, the members of the genus Hierofalco ought to be 
 considered as gigantic Kestrels. They have the same proportions of the 
 toes, but they are very much larger than any 
 Kestrel. They are principally inhabitants of the 
 Arctic regions, the Greenland Jer-Falcon being,- 
 like the Snowy Owl and other inhabitants of the 
 snow-clad regions of the high north, almost 
 entirely white, like their snowy surroundings. 
 Thus the Greenland Jer-Falcon is an inhabitant 
 of Labrador and Greenland, occasional stragglers, 
 mostly young birds, finding their way to Great 
 Britain and various countries of Europe. The 
 Iceland Jer-Falcon (Hierofalco islandus) inhabits 
 Iceland, and also occasionally wanders to parts 
 of the European Continent, while in Southern 
 Greenland its place is taken by Holboell's Jer- 
 Falcon (H. holboelli). In Scandinavia, and 
 thence across Siberia to North America, occurs 
 the Norwegian Jer-Falcon (H. gyrfalco). Two 
 other species complete the genus one the Saker 
 Jer-Falcon (H. saker} inhabiting South-Eastern 
 Europe and Central Asia to North-Western India, 
 while Henderson's Jer-Falcon (H. hendersoni) is 
 found in Thibet. The plumage of these last two 
 
 species is rufous, rather than grey or white, and they look like largo 
 Kestrels. 
 
 Besides the Peregrine Falcon, we find in the genus Falco a large 
 assemblage of smaller Falcons, such as the Hobby (F. subbuteo) and its 
 
 Fig. 64. TBK GREENLAND JER- 
 FALCON 
 (Hierofalco candicans). 
 
320 
 
 AVES ORDER ACCIPITRIFORMES. 
 
 allies, the Merlin (F. cesalon) and kindred species, the Lanner (F. feldeggii) 
 and several other Falcons peculiar to the tropical portions of the Old and 
 New Worlds. 
 
 The Kestrels differ from the true Falcons in having the outer toe short, 
 
 and about equal to the inner toe in length. They are birds of small size, 
 
 and are chiefly insectivorous, many of them catching 
 
 The Kestrels. their prey on the wing, and devouring it as they fly. They 
 
 Genus Cerchneis. catch a large number of field mice, and are everywhere 
 
 a real friend to the agriculturist. In Dr. Fisher's report 
 
 on the American Kestrel and its food, it is interesting to observe that in the 
 
 stomachs of a large series (320) examined, few remains of birds were found, 
 
 but a considerable number of mice. The chief food of the species was, 
 
 however, grasshoppers, locusts, and caterpillars. 
 
 The Ospreys, or Fishing Hawks, as they are often called, hold an 
 
 intermediate position between the Hawks and the Owls. The skeleton 
 
 very closely approaches that of the latter birds, and the 
 
 The Ospreys. Ospreys have another character in common with the 
 
 Sub-order Owls, viz., that the outer toe is reversible, and can be 
 
 Pandwnes. turned backwards or forwards at will. The soles of 
 
 the feet are likewise furnished with spicules, thus 
 
 enabling the bird, with its toes distributed nearly at right angles and its 
 
 spiked soles, to seize and drag from the water the large fish on which 
 
 it preys. 
 
 The Osprey is now a very rare bird in Great Britain, and is only found 
 in certain parts of Scotland, where it is protected, though a few stragglers, 
 mostly young birds, are shot in other parts of 
 the United Kingdom from time to time. The 
 Osprey is a cosmopolitan species, and is found 
 nearly over the whole of the world, the birds 
 from the Australian region being slightly smaller 
 than those from Europe or North America. The 
 nest of the Osprey is an enormous structure, and 
 is placed on a tree, or on a ruined building. 
 The eggs are among the handsomest of those of 
 Birds of Prey. 
 
 In addition to the reversible toe alluded to 
 above, a character which they share with the 
 Ospreys, the Owls are further 
 The Owls. distinguished by their soft 
 Sub-order Striges. plumage, and by the absence 
 of a cere or waxlike skin at 
 the base of the bill, which is seen in almost all 
 the true Accepitres. Owls have also a facial fig. 65. TUB OBPRKTS 
 
 disk, which is surrounded by a ring of short, (Pandionhaiicetus). 
 
 crisp feathers reaching from below the chin, and x 
 
 extending above the eye to the base of the bill. The nostrils are also 
 generally hidden by bristles, and the eyes are directed 
 The Horned and forwards instead of sideways. 
 
 Wood-Owls. The sub-order Striges contains but two families 
 
 family Bubonida. BubonidcR, comprising the Owls generally, and the Barn- 
 Owls (Strigidce). In these birds the hind margin of the 
 sternum or breast- bone has two distinct clefts, and the furcula or "merry- 
 
FISHING-GWLS HORNED-OWLS. 321 
 
 thought v> bone is free, and not united to the keel of the sternum. There is 
 also no serration or pectination of the claw on the middle toe, such as is seen 
 in the Barn-Owls. 
 
 In the Bubonidce there are two sub-families the Horned-Owls (Bubonina) 
 and the Wood-Owls (Syrniince') . In the former the facial disk is not so dis- 
 tinct, and fails in intensity above the eye, whereas in the Syrniince, or Wood- 
 Owls this disk is fully developed, and extends as far above the eye as it does 
 below it. In the Horned-Owls, again, the ear-conch, always a striking 
 feature in the sub-order, is smaller than the diameter of the eye itself, and 
 is not shut in by an opercular fold. In the Wood-Owls the ear-conch is very 
 large, exceeding the diameter of the eye, and is shut in by a very distinct 
 opercular fold. 
 
 It is interesting to notice that we find in the Owls a group of fishing 
 species, which remind us of the Ospreys. Like the latter birds, these Owls 
 have spicules on their feet, and they have likewise bare 
 tarsi, which is doubtless a convenience to the birds in The Fishing-Owls, 
 lieu of their plunging their soft downy plumaged legs into Genus Ketupa. 
 the water ; though it must not be forgotten that some of 
 the feathered-legged species, such as the Tawny-Owl (Syrnium aluco), and 
 the Barn- Owl (Strix flammea) , do not hesitate to catch fish on occasion. The 
 members of the genus Ketupa are found in India, China, and the Malayan 
 Peninsula and Islands. They have feathered tufts or horns on their head, 
 and are represented in Africa by the genus Scotopelia, which has three 
 species very similar to those of Ketupa, but without the feathered tufts on the 
 head. Mr. Hume says that the Brown Fish-Owl of India (K. ceylonensis) 
 feeds on birds and small Mammals, and it is also known to eat Crustacea. 
 They build a large nest on the cleft of a rock, or on a broad shelf of a cliff, 
 or in the hole of a tree, while sometimes they repair a nest of Pallas's Sea 
 Eagle (Haliaetus leucoryphus), and appropriate it. 
 
 Pel's Fishing-Owl is a very handsome bird, discovered by Governor Ptl 
 on the Dutch Gold Coast in West Africa. He saw it sitting on a bough 
 overhanging the Rio Boutry which he was traversing in 
 his boat. Afterwards it was re-discovered in the Gambia, Pel's Fishing-Owl 
 and an amusing account of this " fetish " bird is given by (Scotopelia peli). 
 Colonel O'Connor, who had one alive : " During seven 
 years' exploration of Western Africa, I only met with one specimen of 
 the Owl 'Nero.' He was brought a3 a chicken, full of pen-feathers, 
 or rather down, of a delicate straw-colour, and very thick, from a 
 lagoon in the Bawa country. No native would admit ' Nero * as a 
 visitor ; and when the bird was installed in Government House, the 
 servants and the head people came in a body to remonstrate, asserting 
 'he was a " Gumbi Owl," a " Fettish " ! ! ! and would destroy and kill 
 whatever object he looked on.' The chief groom (an old soldier, who had 
 charge of the poultry) insisted that every cock and hen would go dead. 
 Strangely enough, an epidemic broke out, and carried off fifty to sixty head 
 of fowls ; and each day the groom placed the defunct birds on the steps of 
 Government House to meet the eye of Mrs. O'Connor, seeming to exult in 
 the mortality amongst the feathered tribe. 'You see wid your own eye, 
 Missus, dat debil jumbi bird, he go kill all de fowls : Governor tink he hab 
 long head, but he no takey owl : suppose you put him in de stable, he see 
 Nelly' (Mrs. O'Connor's favourite mare), 'de horse he go tumble down dead.' 
 Death at last ceased to reign amongst the poultry population, and Nero 
 22 
 
322 AVES SUB-ORDER S TRICES. 
 
 became my principal pet. He ranged over the Piazza, perching on the 
 branch of a tree ; he was fed regularly by the orderly on roasted fish, but 
 he often came to the dinner-table and flew down for scraps of meat or bread- 
 and-butter, which he took gently from myself or Mrs. O'Connor, permitting 
 us to rub his head, crest, neck, and back, seemingly enjoying the caressing. 
 But he would snatch meat or bones from the cat or dog, and when the 
 eagle was introduced into his company, he beat him in a most unmerciful 
 manner away from his peculiar and original portion of the Piazza the eagle 
 being one of the fiercest and most pugnacious of African birds, brought from 
 the upper parts of the Sabia River near ' Wallie,' and, when in vigour, able 
 to carry away a kid or small lamb. Nero luxuriated in a tub of water, 
 frequently washing himself and perching himself on the rim until dry. He 
 was wont to go out to the garden or fields, where instantly an immense 
 commotion arose among all the birds ; the larger ones flew round the owl, 
 keeping a very civil distance the smaller birds flew away ; but Nero treated 
 both alike with sovereign contempt ; he would return of his own accord to 
 the roosting-place in the Piazza, and when put out and confined for some 
 days, rejected all food, and pined until restored to his perch. With me he 
 was as tame as any canary, and after an absence of two months recognised my 
 voice when I went to his cage, at Oatlands (Devon), appearing much pleased 
 by my taking him out for a walk on the grass. Many natives from the 
 interior told me they had not seen such a bird before ; but they 
 considered him unlucky." 
 
 These are some of the largest of all the Owls, and they are found in nearly 
 
 every part of the globe except Australia. The Eagle-Owl of Europe (Bubo 
 
 bubo) is a magnificent species, with very large ear-tufts, 
 
 The Eagle-Owls. and is such a powerful bird that it even kills fawns, as 
 
 Genus Bubo. well as rabbits and hares, and is very destructive to game. 
 It is an inhabitant of the forests of Europe, nesting in a 
 tree, though in some places it has been known to nest on the ledge of a cliff. 
 The eggs, like those of all Owls, are pure white. 
 
 The Eagle-Owl of North America (Bubo virginianus), according to Dr. 
 A. K. Fisher, devours a good quantity of poultry, but feeds chiefly on rats, 
 mice, and other rodents, with an occasional beetle or other insect. 
 
 These are little birds, seldom exceeding the size of a Thrush, and having 
 
 the appearnce of diminutive Eagle-Owls. Like the latter they have a 
 
 strongly mottled plumage and conspicuous ear-tuft3. 
 
 The Tufted-Owls. They are found in nearly every part of the world, 
 
 Genus Scops. excepting in the extreme south of America and in 
 
 Australia and the Pacific Islands. The species of Europe 
 
 (Scops scops) is distributed over the greater part of the continent below the 
 
 line of the Baltic, and is a migratory bird : it occasionally visits Great 
 
 Britain. 
 
 This large Owl is of the size of the Eagle-Owls, and like them it has ear- 
 tufts, though these are very small, and are often difficult to trace. It is 
 distinguished by its snowy-white plumage, and is an 
 The Snowy-Owl. inhabitant of the Arctic regions, both in the Old and New 
 
 Nyctea nyctea. Worlds, keeping above the limit of forest-growth and 
 
 never nesting in the latter districts. It is a day-flying 
 
 Owl, and feeds principally on mice and lemmings, but in winter, when this 
 
 food fails it, the Snowy-Owl will catch grouse, hares, ducks, and it has even 
 
 been known to capture fish. It makes its nest on the ground on the tundra 
 
HA WK-OWLS BURRO WING-OWLS. 323 
 
 or on a ledge of a bank, and it lays six or eight white eggs. Sometimes as 
 many as ten are found in a nest, and they are generally laid at intervals, 
 so that young of all sizes are to be met with, and there can be no doubt that 
 the warmth of the downy young, which are first hatched, contributes to the 
 hatching of the eggs laid later on. 
 
 From its long tail and short wings, as well as from its barred under- 
 surface, this Owl bears considerable resemblance to a Hawk, whence its 
 popular name. The soft plumage and the noiseless flight, 
 however, distinguish it as an Owl at once. It is a diurnal The Hawk-Owl 
 bird in its habits, like the Snowy-Owl, and is often seen (/Surma ulula). 
 sitting on the top of a tree on the lookout for its prey. 
 It is also a very courageous bird, and will often attack anyone who attempts 
 to rob its nest. The latter is placed in a tree, either in a cavity or in old 
 nests among the branches. The eggs are white, and vary in number from 
 four to eight. As with the Snowy-Owl, they are laid at intervals, and are 
 found in various stages of incubation. 
 
 In the Old World are found the group of Little Owls (Carine) and the 
 Brown Hawk-Owls (Ninox), and these are replaced in America by the 
 curious Burrowing-Owls. These little birds associate 
 with the prairie-dogs, and their eggs have been found at The Burrowing- 
 a distance of 10 ft. from the mouth of the burrow, Owls. Genus 
 which is seldom made 'by the birds themselves. It has Speotyto. 
 
 often been recounted how the Owls and the prairie-dogs 
 live in harmony together, and, as Professor Elliot Coues says, " the case is 
 further complicated by the introduction of the rattlesnakes." And no little 
 pure bosh is in type respecting the harmonious and confidential relations 
 imagined to subsist between the trio, which, like the " happy family" of 
 Barnum, lead Utopian existences. He disposes of the myth as follows : 
 " First, as to the reptiles, it may be observed that they are, like other rattle- 
 snakes, dangerous, venomous creatures. They have no business in the 
 burrows, and are after no good when they do enter. They wriggle into the 
 holes partly because there is no other place for them to crawl into on the 
 bare, flat plain, and partly in search of Owl's eggs, owlets, and puppies to 
 eat. Next, the Owls are simply attracted to the villages of the prairie-dogs 
 as the most convenient places for shelter and nidification, where they find 
 eligible, ready-made burrows, and are spared the trouble of digging for 
 themselves. Community of interest makes them gregarious to an extent 
 unusual among rapacious birds, while the exigencies of life in the plains casts 
 their lot with the rodents. That the Owls live at ease in the settlements 
 and on familiar terms with their four-footed neighbours is an undoubted 
 fact, but that they inhabit the same burrows, or have any intimate domestic 
 relations, is quite another thing. It is no proof that the quadrupeds and the 
 birds live together that they are so often seen to scuttle at each other's heels 
 into the same hole when alarmed, for in such case the two simply seek the 
 nearest shelter independently of each other. The probability is that young 
 prairie-dogs often furnish a meal to the Owls, and that, in return, the latter 
 are often robbed of their eggs ; while certainly the young of both and the 
 Owl's eggs are eaten by the snakes." The principal food of the Burrowing- 
 Owl consists of insects, and they devour large numbers of locusts and grass- 
 hoppers, though the birds also eat a great many rodents ; and at times a 
 great quantity of food has been found stored up in their burrows. 
 
 These little Owls are scarcely bigger than Sparrows, and none of them 
 
324 A VESS UB- ORDER STRIGES, 
 
 exceeds a Thrush in size. They are widely distributed in both the eastern 
 
 and western hemispheres, but are absent in Australia and 
 
 The Owlets. the Austro-Malayan and Pacific Islands. They have a 
 
 Genus Glaucidium. very rounded wing, and a swollen cere like the Little 
 
 Owls (Carine) and the other members of the Bubonince we 
 
 have just been considering. Their food consists mostly of insects, and the 
 
 flight of Glaucidium brodiei of the Himalayas, which is the only species I have 
 
 seen alive, was very swift, and the bird appeared to be perfectly at home in 
 
 daylight. The European species is the Pigmy Owlet (Glaucidium pygmceum), 
 
 and in North America, where more than one form occurs, we learn that one 
 
 of the species, G. gnoma, an inhabitant of the Western States as far south as 
 
 the highlands of Mexico, is not only an insect-feeder, but also devours small 
 
 birds and rodents, as well as lizards. It is diurnal in its habits like the little 
 
 ries which I saw in the Himalayas, and, like others of its kind, breeds in 
 Woodpecker's holes. 
 
 We have already alluded to the characters of the ear-conch and the 
 operculum which separate the members of the sub-family Syrniince from 
 those of the Bubonince. Three genera are recognised in 
 The Eared- and the Syrniince, viz., the Horned-Owls (Asio\ the Wood- 
 Wood-OwlsSub- Owls (Syrnium), and the Downy-Owls (Nyctala). 
 family Syrniinat. The Horned, or Eared, Owls, as they are generally 
 called, are found nearly all over the world, and our Short- 
 eared Owl (Asio accipitrinus) is one of the most cosmopolitan of all birds, 
 nesting in the north and migrating south in winter. It is one of the most 
 useful of all the Owls, and on the occasions when Voles 
 The Horned-Owls, have proved such a plague to agriculturists, the Short- 
 Genus Asio. eared Owls have appeared in the stricken districts, and 
 have devoured numbers of the mischievous rodents. It 
 also follows the hordes of lemmings and preys upon them. It is a day- 
 flying bird, and nests on the ground, often in small colonies. The Long- 
 eared Owl (Asio oius), on the contrary, is a forest-loving bird, and comes out 
 chiefly in the gloaming and at night, when it catches large numbers of mice 
 and other small rodents. Several pairs are often found in the same neigh- 
 bourhood, and in America the species has been recorded as nesting in 
 company, the nest being generally the deserted one of a hawk or crow of 
 some sort, with a slight lining added. It very rarely nest?, like so many of 
 the other Owls, in hollow trees. 
 
 The Wood-Owls differ from the Horned-Owls in having no ear-tufts of 
 feathers on the head, and in having much less of a cere than the last-named 
 birds. The typical species is the Wood-Owl or Tawny- 
 The Wood-Owls. Owl of Europe (Syrnium alueco), which is entirely a wood- 
 Genus Syrnium. land bird, nesting in holes of trees, in which it also passes 
 the greater part of the day. At night it is more lively, 
 and its hooting note is often heard throughout the night. Although generally 
 nesting in the hollow of a tree, this Owl has been known to annex a Wood- 
 Pigeon's nest or a squirrel's "drey," or the deserted nests of a Crow or 
 Magpie, while a rabbit's burrow has also been known to be occupied 
 by the Tawny-Owl. The eggs are three or four in number and are 
 white. 
 
 Of the Downy-Owls (Nyctala), the best known species is Tengmalm's Owl 
 (N. tengmalmi), an inhabitant of Northern Europe and North America, and 
 in the latter country a second species, N. acadica, occurs. 
 
WHITE OWLS PARROTS. 
 
 325 
 
 These birds differ from the Bubonidce in having a pectinated claw to the 
 middle toe. The hinder margin of the sternum or breast- 
 Tie White Owls, bone is without notches, and the furcula or " merry - 
 Family Stngidos. thought" bone is joined to the keel of the sternum. 
 There is but one genus in the family, viz., Strix, of 
 which our own Barn-Owl or White Owl is the type. 
 
 The present species is nearly world-wide in its distribution, but does not occur 
 very far to the north. The Barn-Owl appears to follow man and his civilisa- 
 tion, doubtless from the fact that where farms are 
 settled, rats and mice will follow. The number 
 of mice which a Barn-Owl will consume is really 
 wonderful, shrews and voles being also taken in 
 great numbers ; and Waterton tells us that a mouse 
 is brought to the nest every twelve or fifteen 
 minutes, while we ourselves have found more than 
 forty field-mice, freshly caught, in the nest of one 
 of these Owls. They will also catch bats in small 
 numbers, and occasionally birds form part of their 
 diet, but the principal food of the Owl consists of 
 small rodents ; and it may confidently be said that 
 the Barn-Owl is one of the farmer's best friends. 
 Dr. A. K. Fisher, in his report on the "Hawks and 
 Owls of the United States in relation to Agricul- 
 ture," says that he scarcely found anything but 
 mice in the stomachs of thirty-nine Barn-Owls he 
 examined. Four birds had been captured, as well 
 as locusts and other insects, but the staple food 
 was mice and rats. Besides the Barn-Owls, which have a mottled plumage, 
 there are a couple of brown-backed species, known as Grass Owls. One 
 inhabits Africa, and bears the name of Strix capensis, while in India and the 
 Malay countries to Australia and the Pacific Islands, a second species (S. 
 Candida) occurs. Both these birds have longer legs than the Barn-Owl, and 
 live in the open grassy country. 
 
 We are shortly coming to the Picarian birds the Trogons, the King-fishers, 
 and such-like forms. Between them and the birds which we have hitherto 
 passed in review there would seem to be but little 
 connection, and at first sight none but the Parrots 
 afford a connecting link. They have been placed 
 in all sorts of different positions in the schemes which 
 have been propounded for the classification of birds, and 
 they have been recently pushed to the end of the series by a well-known 
 anatomist, because he did not know where else to place them. There was 
 reason in making them the head of all the birds, as was done by Blyth and 
 Bonaparte, on account of their superior intelligence, for the same reason 
 that the monkeys were placed at the head of the Mammalia, and there was 
 also sense in associating them with the climbing birds on account of their 
 zygodactyle foot, with two toes directed forwards and two backwards. They 
 have, however, certain characteristics which isolate them from the majority 
 of birds, and it requires a little consideration to determine their position in 
 the natural system. Nowhere does their place appear better in a linear 
 arrangement of birds than after the Accipitres and Striges, leading on to the 
 Picarice. Like the latter birds they nest in holes, and lay white eggs, but so 
 
 Fig. 68. THE BARN-OWL 
 (Strix flammea). 
 
 The Parrots. 
 Order 
 
 Psittaciforntes. 
 
326 AVES ORDER PSITTACIFORMES. 
 
 do most of the Owls. The Parrots have a cere which is distinctly an 
 Accipitrine character, and the Owls have semi-zygodactyle foot, not very 
 different in outward appearance from that of the Parrots. Indeed, it was 
 one of the most curious of my experiences to see a Little Owl (Carirw noctua) 
 catch a black beetle and eat it. It held the beetle between its toes, exactly 
 like a Parrot takes its food, and munched it up, holding its foot like a hand 
 to take the insect to its mouth. 
 
 In the Parrots the palate is bridged or " desmognathous," arid the upper 
 mandible is movable and loosely articulated to the skull, while the plantar 
 tendons are like those of the Game-JBirds. The nestlings of Parrots are 
 decidedly curious, and differ from those of Owls, and also of Picarian birds. 
 They are covered with a dense coating of down of a dusky colour, but appear 
 to be completely naked when first hatched. The feathers are encased in 
 sheaths, like those of Picarian birds, and these sheaths last for a considerable 
 time, being thrown off only when the feather itself is nearly perfect, so that 
 the young bird, from being covered with bristly spines, becomes all at once 
 fully feathered. 
 
 Count Salvador!, who has monographed the Parrots in the twentieth 
 volume of the British Museum "Catalogue of Birds," divides them 
 into six families, the Kaka Parrots (Nestoridce), the Lories (Loriidce), the 
 Lorikeets (Cydopsittacidce), the Cockatoos (Cacatuidce), the true Parrots 
 (Psittacidce), and the Owl-Parrots (Stringopidce). 
 
 In this family the tongue is fringed, and the culmen of the bill is grooved 
 along the middle. Ttie species are now confined to New Zealand ; but 
 Nestor productus and N. norfolcensis, from Philip Island 
 The Kaka and Norfolk Island respectively, though now extinct, show 
 
 Parrots. Family that the genus extended, in former times at least, as far as 
 Nestoridoe. the above-mentioned localities. The Nestors are forest- 
 
 loving birds, and the following are Sir W. Buller's notes on 
 the habits of the Kaka : "This is one of our highly characteristic forms, and 
 is met with, more or less, in every part of the country. Far away in the 
 depths of the forest, where the trees are clad with rich mosses, cryptograms, 
 and lycopods to their very tops, where, as if to hide the mouldering decay of 
 Nature, huge masses of green vines and creeping plants cover the aged trunks 
 and bind the bush together where the sunlight, struggling through leafy 
 tops, discloses here and there a feathery tassel of Asplenium flaccidum hang- 
 ing from the branches or a clump of the scarlet-flowered mistletoe there the 
 Kaka is at home, and may be seen twisting and turning among the sprays, 
 hopping Cockatoo-fashion along a branch, then climbing higher with grace- 
 ful agility ; resting for a moment to whistle for his mate and, when he has 
 joined him, expressing his pleasure in a sharp chuckling note, like the 
 striking together of two quartz pebbles ; then, as if suspecting some 
 treachery below, he suddenly takes wing with loud cries of * Kaka,' 
 and glides smoothly through the leafy maze, closely followed by his 
 spouse. On a rear view the brilliant plumage under the wings is very 
 conspicuous when the bird is flying ; but when the bird is climbing or 
 hopping, in the manner habitual to it, the wings are kept closed. Then on 
 the outskirts of the forest you meet with him again more generally in the 
 early morning hunting diligently for his insect food, or regaling himself 
 on ripe berries of various kinds in the thick underwood ; and towards 
 evening three or more of them may be seen in company, flying high above 
 the forest level ; then alighting on the withered, naked top of some lofty 
 
KAKA PARROTS LORIES. 327 
 
 kahikata or kauri tree always perching on the highest points resting a few 
 moments, and taking wing again till they are fairly out of sight. In the 
 early watches of the night, too, especially during the breeding season, and 
 just before the break of dawn, its peculiar cry betrays its wakeful rest- 
 lessness." 
 
 The same author writes of the Kea Parrot (Nestor notabilis) : "When 
 hunting for food in its wild mountain home, it may be seen perched for 
 a few moments on a jutting rock ; then, descending to the ground to hunt for 
 grubs and insects, or to gather the ripening seeds from certain Alpine plants, 
 it disappears for a time and then mounts to the summit of another rock, 
 just as I have seen the Common Raven doing in the higher parts of 
 the Bernese Alps. On the level ground their mode of locomotion is 
 similar to that of the Kaka, consisting of a hopping rather than a walking 
 movement. Like that bird also, they are semi-nocturnal, exhibiting much 
 activity after dusk and in the early dawn. The cry of the Kea, as generally 
 heard in the early morning, has been aptly compared to the mewing of a cat ; 
 but it likewise utters a whistle, a chuckle, and a suppressed scream, scarcely 
 distinguishable from the notes of it noisy congener. But the most interest- 
 ing feature in the history of this bird is the extraordinary mariner in which, 
 under the changed conditions of the country, it has developed a 
 carnivorous habit manifesting it, in the first instance, by a fondness 
 for fresh sheep-skins and other station offal, and then, as its education 
 progressed, attacking the living sheep for the purpose of tearing and 
 devouring the kidney-fat, and inflicting injuries that generally prove 
 fatal. This habit, confined at first to only a few of the more enterprising 
 birds, soon became general, and it is a common thing now for whole parties 
 of them to combine in this novel hunt after live mutton ! So destructive, 
 indeed, have they become on some of the sheep-runs, that the aid of 
 Parliament has been invoked to abate the nuisance by offering a subsidy to 
 Kea-hunters. Before the full development of the raptorial habit described 
 above, the penchant for raw flesh exhibited by this Parrot in its wild state 
 was very remarkable. Those that frequented the sheep stations soon 
 manifested a distaste for all other food and lived almost exclusively on flesh. 
 They took possession of sheep's heads that were thrown out from the 
 slaughter-shed, and picked them perfectly clean, leaving nothing but the bones. 
 An eye-witness thus described this operation: "Perching itself on the 
 sheep's head, or other offal, the bird proceeds to tear off the skin and flesh, 
 devouring it piecemeal, after the manner of a Hawk, or at other times holding 
 the object down with one foot, and with the other grasping the portion it 
 was eating, after the ordinary fashion of Parrots." 
 
 In these Parrots the tongue is furnished with a kind of brush, and the 
 culmen is smooth and not grooved along the middle. The Lories are birds 
 of brilliant plumage, and since Count Salvadori's review 
 of the family in the "Catalogue of Birds," Professor St. TheLories,- 
 George Mivart has published a monograph of the Family Loriida. 
 Loriidce,, beautifully illustrated by Keulemans. Following 
 Salvadori's arrangement, Professor Mivart recognises fourteen genera of 
 Lories, which are strongly represented in the Moluccan sub- region, and 
 extend west to Celebes, and eastwards to the Australian and Pacific sub- 
 regions. Although many of the Lories are well known as cage-birds, and 
 the species are well represented in most museums, it is extraordinary that 
 so little information is forthcoming as to their habits, Of several genera, 
 
328 AVES ORDER PSITTACIFORMES. 
 
 such as Chalcopsittacus, Eos, and others, scarcely anything is known, and we 
 have only been able to gather the following scanty notes from Professor 
 Mivart's "Monograph" to give us some idea of the habits of the LoriidoR. 
 Of Eos rubiyinosa, from the Caroline Islands, Dr. Otto Finsch observes : 
 " This Parrakeet makes itself known by its con f inued noise, uttered both on 
 the wing and when resting in the foliage of high trees. It is not at all a 
 shy bird, approaching fearlessly the neighbourhood of houses and plundering 
 the fruit trees, notwithstanding all the means taken to destroy them. They 
 keep mostly in pairs, or in small companies of from three to five ; and often, 
 when I had shot one of a flock, the remainder would come down to their 
 dying comrade and share the same fate." 
 
 Of the Green-tailed Lory of the Solomon Islands (Lorius chlorocercus), an 
 account is given, by Mr. James Marler, of a pair of young birds : "For a 
 long time we apprehended that they would starve rather than go to the 
 ground for their food ; so I hit on the device of hanging it to the wire 
 swinging loose in the cage. To this they instantly resorted, holding it steady 
 with one foot, and tearing it with their bills. They hang and feed in any 
 position, holding sometimes by one foot and twisting round in every direction. 
 Often in their play, or battles, they would simultaneously grasp claws and 
 struggle to upset each other." In the Pacific we find the genus Vinia con- 
 fined to the Navigator's Islands and the Friendly and Fanning groups. Dr. 
 Streets gives an account of the way in which Kuhl's Lory ( Vinia kuhli) is taken 
 on Washington Island : " When the islander wishes to take the Lories alive, 
 he provides himself with two pieces of bamboo, each about a yard long. On 
 the end of one he perches a tame bird, and from the extremity of the other 
 suspends a short running noose made of cocoa-nut fibres. The decoy bird, 
 as it is carried about among the cocoa-nut trees, utters a harsh, rasping 
 sound, and the wild birds fly down from the trees and alight alongside it on 
 the bamboo-stick, when, by means of the other stick, they are skilfully 
 noosed. When caged aboard ship, they exhibited as pretty a picture of love 
 as one can imagine. They sat billing and smoothing each other's feathers 
 for hours, and as night came on, two would get together, and sleep with their 
 heads turned towards each other. They lived in" confinement but a very 
 short time, and bore it badly. At times, even while we stood watching their 
 lively antics, one would tumble off its perch and die, apparently in con- 
 vulsions.'* The most numerously represented genus of the Loriidce is 
 Trichoglossus, which is distributed over the greater part of the Australian 
 Region, and the Papuan sub-region also presents us with a group of small 
 pointed-tailed Lories, such as Hypocharmosyna and Oreopsittacus, some of 
 which are not much larger than a sparrow. 
 
 Count Sdlvadori's next family, the Cyclopsittacidce., contains only two genera, 
 Neopisttacus and Cyclopsittacus, from Papuasia and the Molucca Islands, as 
 well as Australia. The bill is deeper than in the other two families noticed 
 above, and the size of the birds is small. 
 
 In this family the under mandible has a series of ridges producing a file-like 
 
 surface. They embrace at once the largest and the smallest of the Parrots, 
 
 among the former being the Cockatoos, of which the Great 
 
 The Cockatoos. Black Cockatoo (Microylossus aterrimus) is an immensely 
 
 Family Caeatuida. powerful bird, while the members of the genus Nasiterna 
 
 do not possess the bulk of a sparrow. The White 
 
 Cockatoos are generally seen in this country in a state of captivity, but they 
 
 form an interesting feature of wild Australian bird-life, as may be seen from 
 
COCKATOOS PIGMY PARROTS. 329 
 
 the following note given by Gould: "The crops and stomachs of those 
 killed were very muscular, and contained seeds, grain, native bread (a species 
 of fungus), small tuberous and bulbous roots, and in most instances large 
 stones. As may be readily imagined, this bird is not regarded with favour by 
 the agriculturist, in whose fields of newly -sown grain and ripening maize 
 it commits the greatest devastation ; it is consequently hunted and shot down 
 wherever it is found, a circumstance which tends much to lessen its numbers. 
 It evinces a decided preference for the open plains and cleared lands, rather 
 than for the dense brushes near the coast ; and, except when feeding or 
 reposing on the trees after a repast, the presence of a flock, which sometimes 
 amounts to thousands, is certain to be indicated by their screaming notes, 
 the discordance of which may be easily conceived by those who have heard 
 the peculiarly loud, piercing, grating scream of the bird in captivity, always 
 remembering the immense increase of din occasioned by the large number of 
 birds emitting their harsh notes at the same moment ; still, I considered this 
 annoyance amply compensated for by their sprightly actions and the life their 
 snowy forms imparted to the dense and never- varying green of the Australian 
 forest a feeling participated in by Sir Thomas Mitchell, who says, * amidst 
 the umbrageous foliage, forming dense masses of shade, the White Cockatoos 
 sported like spirits of light.' The situations chosen for the purpose of 
 nidification vary with the nature of the locality the bird inhabits ; the eggs 
 are usually deposited in the holes of trees, but they are also placed in fissures 
 in rocks wherever they may present a convenient site ; the crevices of the 
 white cliffs bordering the Murray in South Australia, are annually resorted 
 to for this purpose by thousands of this bird, and are said to be completely 
 honeycombed by them. The eggs are two in number, of a pure white and 
 rather pointed at the smaller end." 
 
 This family comprises the majority of the species of the order Psittaci- 
 formes. They differ principally from the Cacatuidce in having the orbital 
 ring generally incomplete, while the head is not crested 
 as in the Cockatoos and their allies. These are small The True 
 
 distinctions, and, as Count Salvadori has pointed out, the Parrots. Family 
 two families above named can scarcely be separated. In Psittacida, 
 
 the family Psittacidce are comprised all the Macaws (Ara), 
 the Conures (Conurus), the Amazons (Chrysotis), the Long-tailed Parrakeets 
 (Palceornis, Platycercus, etc.), as well as the true Parrots (Psittacus). 
 
 Numerous other genera, including the Love-Birds (Psittacula, Agapornis, 
 etc.), likewise belong to this section, and one of the most curious of all is the 
 genus Nasiterna. It consists of some little birds, less than a sparrow in size, 
 inhabiting New Guinea and the neighbouring groups of islands. Their small 
 size renders them difficult of observation, and little has been recorded of 
 their habits. Baron von Rosenberg found the Pigmy Parrot of Mafoor 
 Island in Geelvink Bay (N. maforensis) nesting in holes of trees, the eggs 
 being white, and not larger than those of the Bottle-Tit of Europe. Of the 
 Pigmy Parrot of New Guinea (N. pygmo&a) Dr. Meyer writes : "I got this 
 bird only near the foot of the Arfak Mountains, in New Guinea, where, at 
 Andai, I procured specimens in the middle of the day. There this lovely 
 little Parrot was sleeping on the lower branches of the trees, and could be 
 whipped off with a stick. This is also the case with other Parrots which are 
 allied to the Cacatua group. I may mention Cydopsitta lunulata, from the 
 Philippine Islands, the individuals of which species sleep in the middle of 
 the hot tropical day in rows under the shade of the foliage, when one after 
 
33 
 
 AVES ORDER PSITTACIFORMES. 
 
 another can be shot down without the survivors attempting to fly away. It 
 may be imagined how soundly they sleep when the noise of the shot does not 
 disturb them ; and it is the same with Nasiterna. At other times of the day 
 it is difficult to procure, as it lives in the high trees, where its small size and 
 green plumage form a sufficient protection. 5 ' 
 
 Space does not permit of a full discussion of the habits and ways of all the 
 Parrots, which are, after all, very similar ; but, as the Grey Parrot is a typical 
 
 representative of the family Psittacidce, I 
 give a few extracts from the account 
 published by Mr. J. G. Keulemans, who 
 studied the habits of the species in Prince's 
 Island, in the Bight of Benin. In this 
 West African island the Grey Parrot is 
 very common, and does a great deal of 
 mischief to the maize fields. The birds 
 resort in great numbers to certain parts 
 of the forest to roost. Although he 
 ultimately discovered the nesting-place of 
 the Parrots, it was not easy to find the 
 actual nests, though the cries of the birds 
 convinced him that hundreds were con- 
 cealed in the dense foliage around him. 
 His servant at last found a nest, but as 
 darkness was coming on fast, the tree 
 was marked for operations on the following 
 morning. "While thus occupied/' says 
 Mr. Keulemans, "troops of Parrots 
 approached from different sides and settled 
 among the trees. As for ourselves, we found capital shelter under a clump 
 of bushes, where we concealed ourselves, and thence we observed the doings 
 of the Parrots around us. Some were climbing and hanging on branches, 
 others flying and scampering through the foliage. We saw them perching 
 close to each other, and afterwards five or six settled just above our shelter. 
 Numbers came from all sides, and the chattering which we had previously 
 heard at the distance was by this time close to us. There was a noise of 
 whistling, screaming, quarrelling, and the breaking of dead branches. We 
 saw them pass before us and settle on the trees. At this time we must have 
 been surrounded by hundreds of Parrots. Being now almost dark, and having 
 to pass the night in the open air, it was time to take steps to make our 
 sojourn in the forest as comfortable as possible. A fire being the first 
 necessity, we left our shelter in order to gather some of the dead palm-leaves 
 that lay about. As we emerged from our covert the Parrots perceived us, 
 and in a moment the whole place was ringing with their deafening screams. 
 The fire was soon made, and, burning up quickly, it cast a cheerful light and 
 warmth around the spot, rendering our bivouac more agreeable ; and the 
 Parrots, attracted by the unusual sight, kept flying over and around the place 
 thus illuminated. An hour afterwards, quiet being restored, we proceeded 
 to get our supper, consisting of roasted bananas. This being finished, 
 we dried some moss to serve for a bed, and retired ; but the night was so 
 cold, and the mosquitos kept stinging my face so pertinaciously, that it was 
 impossible to sleep, so I got up and roasted some more bananas, smoked a 
 pipe, and then felt quite ready to go in pursuit of the birds. As it wanted 
 
 Fig. 67. THIS GRBY PARROT 
 (Puittacus erithacus). 
 
GRE Y PARROTS GRO UND PARROTS. 33 1 
 
 some three hours to daylight, I occupied myself in preparing lime sticks and 
 making snares. On the appearance of the first streak of dawn, we proceeded 
 to the tree where a nest was suspected to be. My black man, being a capital 
 climber, went up to the hole, and looking in found two young Parrots, which 
 he carefully tied up in a pocket handkerchief and lowered down to me ; the 
 little things seemed to be about a fortnight old, and readily took some banana 
 I offered them. The old birds were absent, probably seeking food ; at least, 
 we did not see them. The two young ones we fastened with string to the 
 trunk of the tree, and placed some lime sticks round about them. In this 
 way we caught one of the parent birds, the securing of which was a matter of 
 some difficulty, owing to the resistance it made. We put the freshly caught 
 old bird in a linen bag, and fastened it beside the young ones. In a few 
 minutes our captive began to turn round and round, at the same time 
 screaming vociferously ; this quickly attracted the attention of the Parrots 
 in the neighbourhood, which came near, gazing with astonishment at the 
 bag which contained their mysteriously hidden comrade. One, more bold 
 than the rest, flew down and settled on a limed stick, but its struggles were 
 so violent that it succeeded in getting away. I then took my gun and shot 
 two individuals, the others immediately taking flight." 
 
 The last genera of the Psittacidce are the Ground Parrots (Pezoporus and 
 Geopsittacus) of Australia, and these lead us to the remarkable Kakapo or 
 
 Owl-Parrot of New Zealand. This is a large bird, of 
 
 The Owl-Parrot. green, moss-like plumage, which is remarkable for having 
 
 Stringops fully developed wings, but which, like other New 
 
 habroptllus. Zealand birds, is incapable of flight. This is shown by 
 
 the sternum of the bird, which has become so reduced 
 that a keel no longer exists, and the bird can no longer fly. Of the habits 
 of this curious Parrot, Sir Walter Buller, the historian of New Zealand 
 birds, writes as follows: " During the day it remains hid in holes under the 
 roots of trees or rocks, or, very rarely, perched on the boughs of trees with 
 a very dense, thick foliage. At these times it appears stupid from its profound 
 sleep, and if disturbed or taken from its hole, immediately runs and tries to 
 hide itself again, delighting, if practicable, to cover itself in a heap of soft, 
 dry grass. About sunset it becomes lively and animated, and playfully issues 
 forth from its retreat, and feeds on grass, weeds, vegetables, fruits, seeds, 
 and roots. When eating grass it rather grazes than feeds, nibbling the 
 grass in the manner of a rabbit or wombat. It sometimes climbs trees, but 
 generally remains upon the ground, and only uses its short wings for the 
 purpose of aiding its progress when running, balancing itself when on 
 a tree, or in making a short descent, half jump, half flight, from a higher 
 to a lower bough. When feeding, if pleased with its food, it makes a con- 
 tinued grunting noise. It is a greedy bird, and choice in its food, showing 
 an evident relish for anything of which it is fond. It cries repeatedly during 
 the night, with a noise not very unlike that of the Kaka (Nestor meridionalis) , 
 but not so loud. The Kakapo is a very clever and intelligent bird ; in fact, 
 singularly so ; it contracts a strong affection for those who are kind to it, shows 
 its affection by climbing about and rubbing itself against its friend, and is 
 eminently a social and playful bird. Indeed, were it not for its dirty habits 
 it would make a far better pet than other bird with which I am acquainted, 
 for its manner of showing its attachment by playfulness and fondling is more 
 like that of a dog than a bird. It builds in holes under trees and rocks, and 
 lays two or three white eggs, about the size of a pullet's, in the month of 
 
332 
 
 AVES ORDER CORACIIFORMES. 
 
 The Picarian 
 Birds. Order 
 
 Coraciijormcs. 
 
 February, and the young birds are found in March. At present (1884) the 
 bird is known only to exist in the Middle Island of New Zealand, on the 
 West Coast, between Chalky Harbour and Jackson's Bay, and in the Northern 
 Island, about the sources of the Waganui, and in part of the Taupo countries. 
 It was, within the recollection of the old people, abundant in every part of 
 New Zealand ; and they say it has been exterminated by the cats introduced 
 by the Europeans, which are now found wild and in great numbers in every 
 part of the country. They say also that the large rat introduced from 
 Europe has done its part in the work of destruction. The natives assert 
 that, when the breeding season is over, the Kakapo lives in societies of five 
 or six in the same hole, that it is a provident bird, and lays up in the fine 
 season a store of fern roots for the bad weather." 
 
 This large order contains a number of sub-orders, which will be treated of 
 below in detail. They are very different in outward form from each other 
 as well as in habits and in structure, but they have one 
 striking character in common, which separates them from 
 the Perching birds or Passeriformes, and that is the 
 arrangement of the deep plantar tendons of the foot. In 
 the Picarian birds the hallux or hind toe is connected 
 with the flexor perforans digitorum and not with the flexor longu& hallucis. 
 In all other birds an exactly opposite arrangement takes place. 
 
 These curious birds cannot be reckoned to be Nightjars,. although they have 
 the outward appearance of being members of the latter group. Their habits 
 are crepuscular like those of the Caprimidgidce, but there 
 are many characters which show that they are not true 
 Nightjars, but constitute a sub-order apart. They lay 
 white eggs, which no Nightjar ever does, the sternum 
 has two notches on its hinder margin, and there are other 
 osteological features which distinguish the Oil-Bird. 
 
 The colour of this singular species is reddish brown inclining to chestnut, 
 with small triangular white spots on the head and neck, and cross-barrings of 
 blackish on most of the upper parts, and white spots on the median wing- 
 coverts ; the under surface is pale chestnut, suffused with greyish. 
 
 The Oil-Bird (Steatornis gariepensis), or Guacharo, as it is usually called, 
 is an inhabitant of South America, from Guiana to Venezuela and Co ombia, 
 
 and thence south to Ecuador and 
 Peru. The best account of the habits of 
 this curious bird is that given by Mr. 
 Jean Stolzmann, the celebrated explorer 
 of Northern Peru. He states that 
 the Guacharo passes "the whole day in 
 the caves, hiding itself in the inaccessible 
 ledges, and if startled by a cry or by a 
 shot they make for the roof of the 
 cave, uttering piercing cries. A pro- 
 miscuous discharge among the flying 
 birds is usually attended with no result, 
 as it is impossible to take aim in the 
 darkness, and out of sixty shots which he 
 fired in the Ninabamba grotto, the result was only eleven birds. After they 
 become tired they return to their holes, one by one, and it is afterwards im- 
 possible to make them budge by any noise whatever. Scarcely has twilight 
 
 The Oil-Birds. 
 Sub-order 
 
 Steatornithes. 
 
 Fig. 68. THR OIU-BIHD 
 (Steatornis cariepensis). 
 
OIL-BIRDSFROG-MO UTHS* 
 
 333 
 
 set in, and while still the west is lit up by the setting sun, the Guacharos come 
 out of their caves and fly over the forests at a considerable height, their move- 
 ments being very much like those of Nightjars, but they never utter any 
 note. They feed later on in the darkness on the fruits of Nectandra 
 trees, and those fruits they seize while in full flight." The stones of 
 the fruit are afterwards rejected, and Dr. Bevan Rake found large 
 quantities of such stones on the floor of the caves in Trinidad, which ho 
 visited in order to procure some nests and young birds. The eggs are two 
 in number, as a rule, but three and even four have been found ; as 
 before recorded, they are white. The nest is a round pile, about a 
 foot in height, and a little more in diameter, looking like a mass of 
 grey clay in the form of a cheese, and when the young are about a 
 fortnight old, they become very fat, so much so that the birds appear 
 as if entirely hidden under a thick layer of yellow grease. It is from 
 this peculiar development of its young that the Guacharo gets its 
 name of "Oil-Bird." The Indians are in the habit of visiting the 
 caves at the time when the young are sufficiently grown, and of killing 
 the latter by hundreds, melting down the fat into earthern jars, and 
 this fat is known by the name of guacharo-butter. Stolzmann says 
 that the note of the Guacharo is very disagreeable, being a loud 
 cri-cri-coori ? 
 
 These thick-headed birds, with their soft owl-like plumage, might well 
 pass for relations of the Striges, and, like the latter birds, they are strictly 
 nocturnal in their habits. They are oriental in habitat, 
 being found only in the Indian and Australian regions. 
 The palate is desmognathous or bridged, and the absence 
 of any pectination or comb-like process on the claw of the 
 middle toe, shows that they are not very closely allied to 
 the Nightjars, notwithstanding their external resemblance. The Podargi 
 contain but one family, with two sub-families, Podargince and ^Egothelina. 
 In the first-named powder-down patches are present, 
 and the nostrils are linear and hidden by bristles, 
 while in the ^Egothelince there are no powder-downs, 
 and the nostrils are open and exposed. 
 
 The sub-family Podargince contains but two genera, 
 Podargus and Batrachostomus. 
 
 The Frog-mouths are birds of mottled plumage, 
 the genus Podargus being confined to Australia and 
 the Papuan Islands. Of the habits of the Tawny- 
 shouldered Frog-mouth (Podargus strigoides), Gould 
 gives the following account : ** Like the rest of the 
 genus, this species is strictly nocturnal, sleeping 
 throughout the day on the dead branch of a tree, in 
 an upright position across, and never parallel to, the 
 branch, which it so nearly resembles as scarcely 
 to be distinguishable from it. I have occasionally 
 seen ifc beneath the thick foliage of the Casuarince, 
 and I have been informed that it sometimes shelters 
 itself in the hollow trunks of the Eucalypti, but I 
 never could detect one in such a situation. I mostly found them in pairs, 
 perched near each other on the branches of the gums, in situations not at 
 all sheltered from the beams of the mid-day sun. So lethargic are its 
 
 The Frog-Mouths. 
 Sub-order 
 
 Podargi. 
 
 Fig. 69. THE TAWNY- 
 SHOULDERED FROG-MOUTH 
 (Podargus strigoides). 
 
334 AVES-SUB-ORDER PCDARGL 
 
 slumbers that it ia almost impossible to arouse it, and I have frequently 
 shot one without disturbing its mate sitting close by ; it may also be 
 knocked off by sticks or stones, and sometimes is even taken with 
 the hand. When aroused, it flies lazily off with heavy flapping wings 
 to a neighbouring tree, and again resumes its slumbers until the 
 approach of evening, when it becomes as animated and active as it 
 had been previously dull and stupid. The stomach of one I dissected 
 induced me to believe that it does not usually capture its prey while on the 
 wing, or subsist upon nocturnal insects alone, but that it is in the habit of 
 creeping among the branches in search of such as are in a state of repose. 
 The power it possesses of shifting the position of the outer toe backwards, 
 as circumstances require, is a very singular* feature, and may also tend to 
 assist it in its progress among the branches. A bird I shot at Yarrundi, 
 in the middle of the night, had the stomach filled with fresh-captured mantis 
 and locusts (Phasmidw and Cicadas), which seldom move at night, and the 
 latter of which are generally resting against upright holes of the trees. In 
 other specimens I found the remains of small coleoptera, intermingled with 
 the fibres of the roots of what appeared to be a parasitic plant, such as would 
 be found in decayed ana hollow trees. The whole contour of the bird shows 
 that it is not formed for extensive flight or for performing those rapid 
 evolutions that are necessary for the capture of its prey in the air, the wing 
 being short and concave in comparison with those of the true aerial Night- 
 jars, and particularly with the Australian form to which I have given the 
 name Eurostopodus. Of its mode of nidification I can speak with confidence, 
 having seen many pairs breeding during my rambles in the woods. It makes 
 a slightly-constructed flat nest of sticks carelessly interwoven together, and 
 placed at the fork of a horizontal branch of sufficient size to ensure its 
 safety ; the trees most frequently are the Eucalypti, but I have occasionally 
 seen the nest on an apple-tree (Angophora) or a swamp-oak (Casuarina). In 
 every instance one of the birds was sitting on the eggs and the other perched 
 on a neighbouring bough, both invariably asleep ; that the male participates in 
 the duty of incubation I ascertained by having shot a bird on the nest, which, 
 on dissection, proved to be a male. The eggs are generally two in number, 
 of a beautiful immaculate white. The night-call of this species is a loud 
 hoarse noise, consisting of two distinct sounds which cannot be correctly 
 described." 
 
 The Frog-mouths of the genus Batrachostomus are smaller birds, as a rule, 
 than the Podargi, and inhabit the Indo- Malay an region. Some, like the 
 Eared Frog-mouth of the Malay Peninsula, have long ear tufts, and many of 
 them have the mouth beset with long bristly hairs. The Owlet-Nightjars 
 (dEgotheles) are the sole representatives of the sub-family ^Egothelince. They 
 inhabit Australia and the Papuan Islands and the Moluccas. Gould describes 
 the Australian species as being somewhat Owl-like in their carriage and in 
 the way in which they turn their head round. They live in the holes of 
 trees, and come out at night in pursuit of insects, flying in a straight line, 
 and not turning and twisting about like Nightjars. They differ from the 
 latter birds, also, in their method of sitting across, and not lengthwise, on a 
 branch. 
 
 These curious birds form a kind of connecting link between the Rollers 
 and the Frog-mouths, but they really constitute one of those peculiar forms 
 in which Madagascar abounds. The bill is something like that of a Roller, 
 but the base is hidden by recurved plumes, while the nostril is linear, and 
 
KIRO UMBOS ROLLERS. 335 
 
 is placed in the middle of the upper mandible, a quite peculiar position for 
 that of a Picarian bird. The fourth toe is partly reversible, 
 a character peculiar to the Climbing Birds. The affinity The Kiroumbos. 
 with the Frog-mouths is remote, but is shown by the Sub-Order 
 
 possession of powder-down patches. The sexes differ in Leptosomati. 
 plumage, the male being glossy green above and grey 
 below, while the female is rufous above, with a black head, and bars on the 
 sides of the head and back of the neck, the under-surface being fawn colour. 
 Like the Rollers, the Kiroumbo has a habit of playing in the air, ascending 
 to a great height, and then descending in a curve nearly to the tops of the 
 trees by almost closing its wings, at the same time uttering a whistle so like 
 that of an eagle, that Sir Edward Newton says he was some time before he 
 could satisfy himself that the note was that of the Kiroumbo. 
 
 In these beautiful birds we find a single family, only known from the Old 
 World, but there almost universally distributed. The palate is " desmog- 
 nathous," or bridged, and the soles of the feet are flat, 
 the toes being united together for nearly their entire The Rollers. 
 length. In Madagascar three forms of Ground-Rollers Sub-order Coracia. 
 occur, constituting the sub- family Brackypteraciince, and 
 remarkable for their long legs. Little is known of their habits ; but the 
 Pitta- like Ground-Roller (Atelornis pittoides) is known to frequent the 
 ground, and only to perch on the lowest branches of the trees. They have 
 a direct and straight flight, and jerk their tails in a curious way whenever 
 they alight on a branch. 
 
 The true Rollers, of which the Common Roller (Coracias garrulus) is the 
 type, consist of two genera, Coracias and Eurystomus, forming the sub- 
 family Coraciince. These are birds of 
 bright colours, and are more arboreal in 
 habit than the Mascarene Rollers of the 
 sub-family Brachypteraciince. Not being 
 ground-runners, we find the metatarsus 
 much shorter in Coracias than in the last- \. 
 
 mentioned birds. The Rollers build in 
 holes of trees, laying white eggs, but not 
 making much nest, the latter consisting 
 of a few roots, straws, or feathers. Both 
 sexes incubate, and during the breeding- 
 season the male ascends to a considerable 
 height in the air, and then descends Fig , 70. THB COMMON-ROLLER 
 
 to where the nest is situated by a series (Coracias garraius). 
 
 of somersaults and jerks, uttering a harsh 
 
 note, which Naumann describes as "rah-rahah-rrah-rra," etc., changing to 
 "rock " as the bird throws a somersault. 
 
 The genus Coracias has a longish bill, not unlike that of a crow, and 
 nearly all the species have bright greenish-blue on the wings and tail, 
 which colour is very conspicuous when the birds are flying. They are 
 found in Europe, thence to Central Asia, throughout Africa, India, and the 
 Burmese provinces, reappearing in Celebes, where one species, C. temmincki, 
 occurs. 
 
 The Broad-billed Rollers (Eurystomus) occur in Africa, India, Australia, 
 and one species, E. calonyx, actually goes to Eastern Siberia during the 
 nesting season. 
 
336 A VESS UB- ORDER HALC YONES. 
 
 The Kingfishers agree with the Rollers in most of their anatomical 
 characters, having a desmognathous, or "bridged," palate, and the 
 hallux connected with the flexor perforans digitorum 
 The Kingfishers, tendon ; but they differ from them in having the spinal 
 Sub-order feather-tract not forked on the back, and in other 
 
 Halcyones. characters. The eggs are white, and are always con- 
 
 cealed in the hole of a tree or bank, no nest being made. 
 Kingfishers may be divided into two sub-families, Alcedinince and 
 Dacelonince. The former contain the "fishers," and the latter the 
 omnivorous feeders, whose food consists of Crustacea, insects, reptiles, etc. 
 
 In these birds the bill is long and slender, muoh compressed, and with an 
 evident keel along the culmen. There are five genera comprised in this sub- 
 family, of which the genus Alcedo, which contains our 
 The Fish-Eating Common Kingfisher, is the type. There are, however, 
 Kingfishers. Sub- two long- tailed genera of fish-eating species, the Pied and 
 family Alcediniwa. Green Kingfishers (Ceryle) and the Stork-billed King- 
 fishers (Pelargopsis), which have the tail longer than the 
 wing. The three other genera, Alcedo, Corythornis, and Alcyone, have short 
 tails, in no case as long as the winga. 
 
 The Stork-billed Kingfishers (Pelargopsis) are large birds with long red or 
 black bills, and they are inhabitants of the Indian and Indo-Malayan sub- 
 regions. They are mainly piscivorous, but Mr. Stuart Baker records that 
 in Cachar he has known the species of the country (P. burmanica), to devour 
 lizards and other small reptiles, while he once saw one attack a nest of young 
 Mynas in a hole of a tree, and drag one of them out and swallow it. 
 
 The genus Ceryle is remarkable among the Kingfishers for the difference in 
 the markings of the sexes, the male in some species having a double pectoral 
 band, whilst in others the contrary is the case, and the 
 The Pied King- males or the females have a band, while the opposite sex 
 fishers has none at all. The Pied Kingfishers are inhabitants of 
 
 Genus Ceryle. Africa, India, China, and Japan, and the best-known 
 species is Ceryle rudis of Africa, over the whole of which 
 continent it is distributed, while it ranges east as far as the Persian Gulf. 
 The colour above is black, varied with white, and the under-surface is white, 
 with two black bands across the chest in the male, and a single band in the 
 female. It is a familiar bird to travellers in the Nile Valley, as it hovers 
 above the water like a Kestrel, and falls on its prey with a stoop like that of 
 the latter bird. In India and China it is replaced by the Indian Pied King- 
 fisher (Ceryle varia), which has no black spots on the white base of the tail. 
 In the Himalayas and the mountains of China, as far as those of the southern 
 island of Japan, the Pied Kingfishers are represented by Ceryle lugubris, a 
 large species with the hovering habits of C. rudis, and equally a fish-eater. 
 In Africa there are also some large species of Ceryle, with grey backs, and 
 in America a similar section of the genus is met with, of which the Ringed 
 Kingfisher (Ceryle torquata), and the Belted Kingfisher (C. alcyon), are well- 
 known representatives. The latter species has a pectoral band of grey in the 
 male, while the female has an additional band of rufous. In the rest of the 
 South American species of Ceryle the back is green, and in this section 
 occurs one of the smallest of all Kingfishers, C. superciliosa, which is only 
 5 inches in length. 
 
 The genus Alcedo is found over the greater part of the Old World, and 
 eleven species are known, of which Africa claims three, Europe and 
 
KINGFISHERS. 
 
 337 
 
 Northern Asia one, and the remaining seven are Indian and Malayan. 
 Our Common Kingfisher (A. ispida), is the brightest of our indigenous 
 biids, and forms the most beautiful ornament of our 
 risers and lakes. It is 7f inches in length, with a chest- 
 nut under-surface and a brilliant cobalt-blue back, 
 which shows vividly when the bird flies. It nests 
 in holes, mostly in banks of sandy soil, where the 
 tunnel is hollowed by the birds themselves, or in 
 holes of trees, sometimes at a considerable distance 
 from water. 
 
 In Africa and Madagascar occur the Crested King- 
 fishers (Corythornis), small birds with a long drooping 
 crest, and in Australia and the Moluccas, the three-toed 
 Kingfishers (Alcyone), which have the shape and fish- 
 catching habits of our own A . ispida, but are of 
 a dull purple colour, and have only three toes 
 instead of four, the hind-toe being absent. 
 
 In this sub-family the bill is shorter and wider, the tail generally long, 
 and the food of the species consists less of fish than of insects, small 
 Crustacea, reptiles, and even small rodents. 
 
 The first genus is Ceyx, a small form of Kingfisher which frequents 
 forests rather than streams. The members of this genus have a wider 
 and less compressed bill than those of Alcyone, but 
 like the latter genus they have only three toes. They are The Insectivorous 
 found in India and the Malayan sub-region, being very 
 
 Fig. 71 THB COMMON 
 
 KINGFISHER 
 (Alcedo iapida). 
 
 Kingfishers. 
 Sub-family 
 
 -Dacelonince. 
 
 abundant in the Philippines and extendingto the Moluccas. 
 
 They are mostly bright-coloured birds, some being of a 
 
 beautiful red all over, whilst others have a blue back 
 
 and resemble species of the genus Alcedo. In Africa they are represented by 
 
 a genus of tiny Kingfishers (Ispidina) which are also insect-eaters, as are 
 
 also the allied genera Ceycopsis of Celebes and Myioceyx of Western Africa. 
 
 From these small forms we pass to the Reptili- 
 vorous Kingfishers, the Crested Kingfishers 
 of Malacca and Borneo (Carcineutes), the Hook- 
 billed Kingfisher (Melidora), and Shoe-billed 
 Kingfisher (Clijtoceyx) of New Guiana, and the 
 Laughing Jackasses of Australia (L'acelo). Of 
 the common Laughing Kingfisher, the ** Jack- 
 ass " of the Australian colonists, we have the 
 following account of Mr. Gould's: "In its 
 disposition it is by no means shy, and when 
 any objects are presented to its notice, such 
 as a party traversing the bush or pitching their 
 tent in the vicinity of its retreat, it becomes 
 very prying and inquisitive, often perching on 
 the dead branch of some neighbouring tree, 
 and watching with curiosity the kindling of 
 the fire and the preparation of the meal ; its 
 presence, however, is seldom detected until 
 it emits its extraordinary gurgling, laughing 
 note, which generally calls forth some exclama- 
 tion according with the temper of the hearer, such as ' There is our old 
 23 
 
 Fig. 72. THR LAUGHING KING- 
 
 FISHER 
 
 (Daceto gigas). 
 
338 AVES SUB-ORDER HALCYONES. 
 
 friend the Laughing Jackass,' or an epithet of a less friendly char- 
 acter. So remarkable are the sounds emitted by the bird that they have 
 been noted by nearly every writer on New South Wales and its productions. 
 Mr. Caley states that its ' loud noise, somewhat like laughing, may be 
 heard at a considerable distance, fr >m which circumstance, and its 
 uncouth appearance, it probably received the extraordinary appellation 
 given to it by the settlers on their first arrival in the colony.' Captain 
 Sturt says, * Its cry, which resembles a chorus of wild spirits, is apt 
 to startle the traveller who may be in jeopardy, as if laughing and mocking 
 at his misfortune;' and Mr. Bennett, in his 'Wanderings,' says, 'Its 
 peculiar gurgling laugh, commencing in a low, and gradually rising to 
 a high and loud tone, is often heard in all parts of the colony, the 
 deafening noise being poured forth while the bird remains perched upon 
 a neighbouring tree ; it rises with the dawn, when the woods re-echo with 
 its gurgling laugh ; at sunset it is again heard ; and as that glorious 
 orb sinks in the west, a last "good-night" is given in its peculiar tones 
 to all within hearing.' It frequents every variety of situation the 
 luxuriant brushes along the coast, the more thinly-timbered forest, the 
 belts of trees studding the parched plains, and the brushes of the 
 higher ranges being alike favoured with its presence ; over all these 
 localities it is rather thinly dispersed, being nowhere very numerous. 
 Its food, which is of a mixed character, consists exclusively of animal 
 substances ; reptiles, insects, and crabs, however, appear to be its favourite 
 diet ; it devours lizards with avidity, and it is not an unfrequent sight to 
 see it bearing off a snake in its bill to be eaten at leisure ; it also preys 
 upon small mammalia. I recollect shooting a Great Brown Kingfisher in 
 South Australia in order to secure a fine rat I saw hanging from its bill, and 
 which proved to be a rare species. The Dacelo gigas breeds during the 
 months of August and September, generally selects a hole in a large gum- 
 tree for the purpose, and deposits its beautiful pearl-white eggs, which are 
 one inch and nine lines long by one inch and five lines broad, on the 
 decomposed wood at the bottom. When the young are hatched, it defends 
 its breeding- place with great courage and daring, darting down upon any 
 intruder who may attempt to ascend the tree." 
 
 The large genus Halcyon contains more than fifty species, which are found 
 over Africa, India, and China, to Japan, and thence south to Australia, and 
 over the greater number of the Pacific Islands. They are mostly insect- 
 eaters, and are often found far away from water. The last genus of the 
 Kingfishers is Tanysiptera, which includes some elegant birds with only ten 
 tail-feathers, the middle ones being produced beyond the others, and 
 generally ending in a spatula or racket. These are birds of the Moluccas 
 and the Papuan Islands, one species, T. sylvia, being found in the Cape 
 York Peninsula of North-Eastern Australia. On the habits of this species a 
 short notice has been published by the late John Macgillivray, the original 
 discoverer of the species: "This pretty Tanysiptera is rather plentiful in 
 the neighbourhood of Cape York, where it frequents the dense brushes, and 
 is especially fond of resorting to the small sunny openings in the woods, 
 attracted probably by the greater abundance of insect food found in such 
 places than elsewhere. I never saw it on the ground, and usually was first 
 made aware of its presence by the glancing of its bright colours as it darted 
 p-ist with a rapid, arrow- like flight, and disappeared in an instant among the 
 dense foliage. Its cry, which may be represented by whee-whee whee and 
 
KINGFISHERS HORNBILLS. 
 
 339 
 
 The Hornbills. 
 Sub-order 
 
 Bucerotes. 
 
 ivheet-wheet-wheet, is usually uttered while the bird is perched on a bare, 
 transverse branch or woody, rope-like climber, which it uses as a look-out 
 station, and whence it makes short dashes at any passing insect or small 
 lizard, generally returning to the same spot. It is a shy, suspicious bird, 
 and one well calculated to try the patience of the shooter, who may follow it 
 in a small brush for an hour without getting a shot, unless he has as keen an 
 eye as the native to whom I was indebted for first pointing it out to me. 
 According to the natives, who know it by the name of 4 Quatawur,' it lays 
 three white eggs in a hole dug by itself in one of the large ant-hills of red 
 clay which form so remarkable a feature in the neighbourhood, some of 
 them being as much as 10 ft. in height, with numerous buttresses and 
 } innacles. I believe that the bird also inhabits New Guinea ; for at Redscar 
 Bay, on the south-east side of that great island, in Long. 146 50' E., a heid, 
 strung upon a necklace, was procured from the natives." We now know 
 that the New Guinea bird is distinct, and is T. salvadoriana. 
 
 The Hornbills are remarkable birds, not only on account of their form, but 
 from the singular habit which every one of the species affects, so far as we 
 know, of imprisoning the female while she is engaged in 
 incubating. The Hornbills vary immensely in size, from 
 the great Rhinoceros Hornbill (Bucerus rhinoceros), which 
 is nearly 4 ft. long, to the tiny Lophocerus hartlaubi which 
 is only just over a foot in length. The Ground-Hornbills 
 (Bucorax) are natives of Africa, where they are generally distributed in the 
 Ethiopian region. They are thoroughly terrestrial birds, of black plumage, 
 with a little red or blue decoration on the bill, or the bare portion of the 
 throat. Walking about on the ground, they have the appearance of black 
 Turkeys, and are considered "omen "-birds among the Kaffirs. They will 
 devour almost any food, and eat numbers of beetles, worms, small rodents, 
 etc., and they also kill large snakes, against which 
 they generally advance in company, holding their 
 wings before them like a shield. 
 
 The Great Hornbill (Dichocerusbicornis) is a native 
 of the Western Ghauts of India and the Himalayas, 
 and thence through the Burmese Provinces to the 
 Malayan Peninsula to the mountains of Sumatra. 
 
 The Pied Hornbills (Anthracocerus) are found in 
 India and the Burmese Provinces to Cochin 
 China, and south to the Malayan Peninsula to 
 the Sunda Islands. These birds are generally 
 found in family parties, consisting of five or six 
 individuals. They inhabit well-wooded countries 
 and forests, especially near rivers, where they have 
 been known to feed on fish. Their chief food, 
 however, consists of fruits and berries. 
 
 The habits of the Hornbills seem to be alike in 
 their method of nidification, but in some species the 
 act of enclosing the female is performed by the male, 
 whereas in some instances the female assists in her 
 
 own imprisonment. Some explanation for this Flg - 73 '~Ho A LL ABAR PlED 
 curious custom may be found in the circumstance (Anthracocerus coronatus). 
 that when the female has laid her egg in the hollow 
 tree, she commences to moult, and would therefore be entirely defenceless 
 
340 AVES SUB-ORDER UPUP^E. 
 
 and at the mercy of her enemies, if she were not fenced in, and in the 
 closing of the fortress she herself assists. A narrow opening is left, through 
 which the male is able to supply her with food. 
 
 At first sight there would appear to be little connection between the 
 
 Hornbills and the Hoopoes, but in our brief account of the Bncerotes we 
 
 were unable to illustrate all the smaller genera such as 
 
 The Hoopoes. Lophocerus, Ocycerus, etc., which are much more like the 
 
 Sub-order Ujmpts. Crested Hoopoes than the larger forms of Hornbills. 
 
 Like the latter birds, the Hoopoes have the fore-part of 
 
 the sternum perforated, so as to receive the feet of the metacoracoids. 
 
 There are two families of Upupce, the true Hoopoes (Upupidce), and the 
 
 Wood-Hoopoes (Irrisoridce). The former are sandy-coloured birds, with a 
 
 large crest and a square tail. The latter are black with a metallic blue or 
 
 bronze gloss, and a long graduated tail. 
 
 The Hoopoe is an inhabitant of temperate Europe and Asia, being 
 represented in certain portions of the Indian Peninsula and the Burmese 
 
 provinces by the Indian Hoopoe (U. 
 indica). Two other species are found 
 in Africa only, and one is peculiar to 
 Madagascar. The Hoopoe nests in a 
 hole, generally in a tree, and the female 
 and young birds are fed by the male. 
 The nest is often made of very filthy 
 materials, but the young do not seem 
 to suffer,, and have the same delicate, 
 soft plumage as the adults, which they 
 resemble even to the possession of the 
 
 Fig. 74.-TH* COMMON HOOPOB c f e **' In North- Western India I saw- 
 
 (Upupa epops). the Hoopoes in small flocks in the open 
 
 fields, and in such places they are great 
 
 devourers of grubs and insects. They usually keep their crests depressed, 
 but raise them when alarmed or excited. The note resembles the syllable 
 hoop, uttered two or three times ; and the late Consul Swinhoe states that 
 from his observations in China, the bird produces its note by puffing out the 
 sides of the neck and hammering on the ground at the production of each 
 note, thus exhausting the air at the end of the series of three notes, which 
 make up its song. The eggs, four to seven in number, when fresh laid, are 
 pale greenish-blue, but fade to a dull olive or yellowish-brown. 
 
 The Bee -eaters are birds of bright plumage, and, as a rule, of slender 
 
 form, with long tails. They resemble the Kingfishers and Hornbills in the 
 
 form of the feet, the toes being joined together, the fourth 
 
 The Bee-Eaters. toe being united to the third toe as far as the last joint, 
 
 "Sub-order and the second toe being united to the middle one for the 
 
 Mesopes. basal joint only. The palate is "bridged" or desmog- 
 
 nathous, and the breast-bone has four notches in its 
 
 hind margin, while the episternal process is perforated to receive the feet of 
 
 the metacoracoids. The Bee-eaters are found in the temperate and tropical 
 
 portions of the Old World. 
 
 In Africa we find the Swallow-tailed Bee-eaters (Dicrocercus), and the 
 Square-tailed Bee-eaters (Melittophagus), while Merops, which has the 
 central tail-feathers elongated, has seventeen species, which are found in 
 Africa, India, China, the Malayan Archipelago, and Australia, one species, 
 
BEE-EA TERSMO TMO TS. 
 
 341 
 
 Fig. 75. THE COMMON BEE-EATER 
 (Mesops apiaster). 
 
 M. apiaster, visiting Southern Europe every summer, extending even to Cen- 
 tral Asia and Kashmir. The bird generally tunnels a hole into the bank of 
 some river, and the white eggs are deposited in a 
 chamber at some distance, sometimes of several 
 feet from the opening. Occasionally the birds 
 have been known to bore downwards through 
 the sandy soil, and Mr. E. L. Layard records 
 one instance which came under his own 
 observation in Cape Colony, where the ground 
 was "perforated with numberless holes, into 
 which the birds were diving and scrambling 
 like so many rats." He found the species 
 breeding on the Berg river in September and 
 October, so that the bee-eater may be con- 
 sidered one of the few species which are known 
 with certainty to nest in their winter quarters. 
 In certain parts of Spain the bee-eater com- 
 mits great havoc among the bees as they fly 
 out of the hives, and the bird is, in consequence, detested by the peasants. 
 
 In the Indian and Malayan sub-regions occur the bearded bee-eaters, re- 
 markable for an ornamental tuft of plumes on the chest. One species, 
 Meropogon forsteni, with the central tail-feathers produced, is confined to the 
 island of Celebes ; while the genus Nyctiornis, which has a square tail, is 
 represented by two species, JV. athertoni, of the Himalayas, with a blue throat, 
 and JV. amicta, of the Malayan Peninsula, with a scarlet throat. These 
 birds are of stouter build than the rest of the bee-eaters, and are believed to 
 nest in holes of trees. 
 
 The motmots are exclusively neo-tropical in habitat, and contain but a 
 single family, the Momotidce. They represent to a great extent the Mero- 
 pidce of the Old World. The pal- 
 ate is desmognathous or "bridged," 
 the sternum has four posterior 
 notches, and the hind-toe or hal- 
 lux is always present, and is con- 
 nected with the flexor perforans digitorum tendon. 
 Seven genera are recognised, Urospatha, Prioni- 
 rhynchus, Eumomota, Momotus, Barypkthengus, As- 
 patha, and Hylomanes, the last being dwarf motmots, 
 and akin to the todies (Todi). 
 
 One of the chief features of the motmots is the 
 long tail, Hylomanes being the only genus with a 
 short tail. In most of the true motmots the 
 central tail-feathers are elongated, and generally 
 end in a racket, which is preceded by a bare shaft. 
 This racket is produced Dy the bird itself, as it 
 nibbles off the web of the feather with its bill, 
 which has a serrated or saw-like edge to the man- 
 dibles. Instances have been recorded of motmots, 
 
 probably young and inexperienced birds, imbued with the instinct that they 
 have to trim certain of their tail-feathers, but, as the latter grow at first all 
 of the same length, not knowing on which rectrices to commence action. 
 Consequently they begin to nibble feathers to right and left, until the 
 
 The Motmots. 
 Sub-order 
 
 Momoti. 
 
 Fig. 76. LESSON'S MOTMOT 
 (Momotus lessoni). 
 
342 AVES- SUB-ORDER TODI. 
 
 development of the two central tail-feathers beyond the rest teaches the 
 birds that these are the two specially designed by nature to carry the 
 "racket" ! 
 
 The motmots are green birds, generally with a black patch on the crown, 
 which is surrounded by blue ; the under-side is paler, and generally of a 
 fawn-coloured shade. They nest in holes, often tunnelling to a distance 
 of six feet, and the eggs are laid in a rounded chamber at the end of the 
 tunnel, as is the case with the kingfishers and bee-eaters of the Old World. 
 With the kingfishers, however, there is no nest beyond the remains of 
 the fish-bones which are cast up by the parent birds, whereas in the nest-hole 
 of the motmots a few dry twigs are sometimes present. The nesting-place, 
 according to Mr. Zeledon, is a foul-smelling habitation, in which the young 
 remain till they are able to fly pretty well. It should be noted that 
 young birds have the edges of the mandibles quite smooth, and without 
 any serrations. 
 
 The todies are also represented by a single neo- tropical family, the Todidce, 
 which is peculiar to the West Indian sub-region. Only four species are 
 
 known, and these are from the islands 
 
 The Todies. of Jamaica, Cuba, San Domingo, and 
 
 Sub-order Porto Rico. The long, flattened bill, 
 
 Todi. with its evident rictal bristles, suggests 
 
 that of an exaggerated flycatcher, and 
 in many of its habits a tody resembles a flycatcher, 
 though it will at times search for its food like a warbler. 
 The todies have a desmognathous palate, showing their Fi 77' THE JAMAICA 
 true affinity to the motmots and kingfishers, and they TODY' (Todus viridis). 
 nest in holes in banks excavated by the little birds 
 
 themselves, though they appear likewise to avail themselves of holes and 
 depressions already made. The eggs, like those of other picarian birds, are 
 glossy white, and are laid on a bed of earth in a chamber at the end of the 
 tunnel. 
 
 This is a very interesting group of birds, of which we have one representa- 
 tive in England, the common nightjar, or "goatsucker," as it is often 
 
 foolishly called, Caprimulgus europceus. In the Caprimulgi 
 
 The Nightjars. we meet with both segithogiiathous forms, such as Capri- 
 
 Sub-order mulgns and the allied genera, and schizognathous forms, 
 
 Caprimulyi. such as Chordeiles of the New World. The presence of tAvo 
 
 types of palatine characters in one family raises grave doubts 
 as to the value of this formation of the palate, which has been so much in- 
 sisted upon by osteologists. There are eighteen genera of the sub-family 
 Caprimulgince, and they all have the middle toe furnished with a kind of comb. 
 They possess no powder-down patches. 
 
 Our common nightjar (Caprimulgus europmus) is crepuscular in its habits, 
 a bird of the twilight. During the day it rests, and only flies when suddenly 
 disturbed ; but, as dusk comes on, it comes forth in pursuit of insects, and is 
 often to be seen flying by the light of the moon, soaring above with a sailing 
 flight, and occasionally producing a " clacking " noise by flapping its wings 
 together above its head. The singular jarring noise which the creature 
 makes seems to be its love-song, and in a heathy country, which is the usual 
 habitat of the goatsucker, this " churring " utterance is heard as twilight 
 commences, and even far into the night. 
 
 From their mottled and soft plumage, the goatsuckers have been generally 
 
NIGHTJARS. 
 
 343 
 
 The Leona 
 Nightjar 
 
 associated with the owls, but there is no real affinity between these moth- 
 catching birds and the rapacious birds of the night. Their nocturnal habits 
 are really the only character which they have in common. The young goat- 
 suckers differ from those of other picarian birds in the fact that they are not 
 hatched naked, but are covered with down, though they are not able to pro- 
 vide for themselves like most of the downy nestlings of other birds. The 
 eggs, also, are not white, but are double-spotted, an unusual feature in picarian 
 birds. No caprimulgine bird makes a nest, the eggs being laid upon the 
 bare ground. 
 
 Africa possesses two curious genera of nightjars, which, in the breeding- 
 season at least, carry ornamental plumes. These are Macrodipteryx longi- 
 pennis of West Africa, and Cosmetornis vexillarius of South- 
 eastern Africa. In the former genus, the ninth primary- 
 quill is enormously elongated, and ends in a "racket." In 
 Cosmetornis, the seventh and eight primaries are elongated, (Macrodipteryx 
 the ninth enormously, so as to produce a train when the longipennis). 
 bird is flying. Round Lake Nyassa and on the Zambesi, 
 this bird is a well-known object as it flies over the water in the evening. I 
 have received the following note from Miss Alice Werner, who was con- 
 nected with the Blantyre Mission. Having read some notes of mine on 
 Cosmetornis published elsewhere, 
 she comments on them as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 "I have frequently seen the bird 
 at Blantyre, in Angoniland (i.e. 
 on the Ntumbi plain, about thirty 
 miles west of the Upper Shire), 
 and in the neighbourhood of Mount 
 Milanje. The Manganja call it 
 'lumbe,' the Angoni 'gumbe.' 
 I see that Sir John Kirk says 
 that it was only from October to 
 January that the singular pro- 
 longation of the wing feathers was 
 
 Fig. 78. LEONA GOATSUCKER (Macrodipteryx 
 
 longipennis). 
 observed. 
 
 " By a note in my diary, I find that I saw one at Blantyre on September 
 25th. I had seen another previously to this perhaps a fortnight before, but, 
 unluckily, I did not make a note of it, and cannot remember the date 
 certainly it was before the 25th of September, and I distinctly remember the 
 long wing feathers on both occasions. Seeing the bird outlined in black 
 against the sky (just after sunset, when the light was not quite gone) I took 
 it for a huge and grotesquely-shaped bat with an exaggerated, claw-like, pro- 
 longation at the end of the wing. I have never seen them in flocks only 
 singly, or, at most, one rising shortly after the other, so that they might have 
 been a pair. While I was at Mr. John Moir's plantation of Lauderdale (at 
 Mount Milanje) last November, one of the natives brought up to the house 
 three young ' Lumbi ' which had been found (I think) in a hollow tree. They 
 were about the size of newly-hatched chickens, and nearly fledged they 
 could not fly. but raised their wings (which were of immense length in pro- 
 portion to their bodies) straight above their heads, and ran along the floor 
 very quickly. We tried to feed them on chopped egg, soaked bread and 
 flies, but could not keep them alive more than a day or two. 
 
344 AVES- SUB-ORDER CAPRIMULGL 
 
 "I see you give no description of the feathers, but your figure gives the 
 impression that the long wing-feathers are white, or, at least, distinctly light- 
 coloured. I would not be positive, but am almost sure, that in a specimen 
 shot by Mr. E. Laidlaw Thomson at Lauderdale (which was the only one I 
 ever had the opportunity of examining closely), these feathers were mottled 
 black and brown like the rest of the plumage. I remember seeing two, if 
 not three, in the bush near the Chinunka River, along the road to Fort 
 Anderson. 
 
 " The first time I ever came across them was in Angoniland, passing through 
 the bush in the dark. I could not see them distinctly, and at first from their 
 noiseless flight took them to be bats, and was rather puzzled when assured 
 that they were not bats (melemi) but birds. As far as I can remember, they 
 always flew out of trees or bushes, and never from the ground." 
 
 In these South- American nightjars there is no pectination of the middle 
 
 claw, but powder-down patches are present on the sides of the body and on 
 
 the breast. In this character they show an affinity to the 
 
 The Mottled p o dargi, and like the latter birds they lay their egg on 
 Sub f&rml an ex P ose d branch or stump of a tree, as is proved by the 
 
 Nyciibtina? interesting notes of Dr. Goeldi on Nyctibius jamaicensis. 
 He observed the nesting habits of this species in the pro- 
 vince of Rio de Janeiro, and writes as follows : 
 
 "During certain months the smaller N. jama icensis, called * Uratao ' by 
 the natives, like all the species of the group, is heard at Colonia Alpina almost 
 every night. Its 'pu-hu-hu ' slowly pronounced, but with much energy, is a 
 constant nocturnal sound, quite enough to frighten a timid wanderer in the 
 solitary forest-patches. On the other hand, I was often astonished at the 
 resemblance of the voice of the large greyish N. graitdis to the mewing of 
 a cat. In November, 1895, during moonlight nights, I had occasion to hear 
 it at Amapd regularly. The bird called continuously in the adjacent ' sirinbal ' 
 (the inundated and impassable avicenna-forests) which borders in a most 
 characteristic manner the lower course of the coast-rivers of Guiana. At 
 Colonia Alpina (Rio de Janeiro) we got so well acquainted with N. jamaicensis 
 that the cry of the bird in the neighbourhood on moonlight nights was the 
 regular signal for us to take up our guns and go forth on our nocturnal hunt- 
 ing-trips. The bird is easily deceived by imitating its voice. Supposing the 
 call to be that of a rival, it leaves some inaccessible and invisible standpoint 
 in the interior of the forest, and is drawn nearer to a post 011 some isolated 
 dry gigantic tree, which, being in better light, offers more chance of a suc- 
 cessful shot. Even here, however, its wonderful protective colour, its singular 
 manner of perching in the direction of the axis of the branch and appearing 
 like a mere protuberance of it, while it retains a motionless position for a 
 quarter of an hour or more, render it very difficult to discern, except to very 
 practised eyes. My cousin, Andreas Goeldi, after long experience, is a perfect 
 Nyctibius hunter. Notwithstanding our familiarity with the habits of the 
 species of Nyctibius, for three years we were never lucky enough to discover 
 its breeding-place, though we made all possible efforts. Before I left Colonia 
 Alpina I strongly recommended the continuation of these efforts to my 
 cousin, and likewise as regards Hydropsalis. At length, some months after 
 my arrival on the Amazons, I received the agreeable news, the discovery of 
 an authentic nest of N. jamaicensis. My cousin's letter was accompanied by 
 detailed notes and photographs, and when, in August, 1895, I made a journey 
 back to Rio de Janeiro, I had, on a short visit to Colonia Alpina, the oppor- 
 
MOTTLED NIGHTJARS SWIFTS. 345 
 
 tunity of seeing the localities and studying the facts, which were as follows : 
 On the 24th November, 1894, the son of one of our neighbours and colonists 
 brought to us a dead male Nyctibius jamaicensis and a fresh egg, telling us 
 that he had shot the ' Uratao ' standing upright on the top of a stump. 
 After having killed the bird he climbed up the stump and found, as he had 
 supposed, that the bird had its breeding-place there. In a slight depression 
 on the top he found the egg, which he carefully brought to my cousin, to- 
 gether with the bird itself. My cousin immediately went to the spot pointed 
 out by the boy, and inquired minutely into every detail. 
 
 " The locality is on a sloping hill on the left side of a brook, tributary of 
 the Rio Alpina, which runs through a valley parallel to that of the centre of 
 the colony. In 1891 and 1892 one of our colonists, now dead, had a maize 
 plantation there, but since that time the ground has become what in Brazil 
 is called 'capocira,' i.e. a hill covered with shrubs and small trees of about 
 2 inches in height. Along the declivity of the right side of the brook, at a 
 distance of about 30 metres from the latter, is a path of communication be- 
 tween -the different colonial lots of the valley and the forest-slopes on 
 both sides. The stump in question is about 20 metres distant from 
 the brook, surrounded by shrubs and easily visible from the path on the 
 other side, and was evidently put there three years ago by the former 
 colonist. The nearest human residences are distant from five to six minutes 
 only. 
 
 " The stump, still partly covered with its original bark, has a height of 1/8 
 metres above the level of the ground. Its diameter at top is 9'5 centimetres. 
 The top has in the centre a small depression, caused by decomposition, and 
 scarcely presents sufficient room for a rather large egg. There was no trace 
 of a softer substratum or nest material. 
 
 "The egg measures 41 '5 millimetres in the longitudinal axis, and 30'5 
 millimetres in the transverse axis. Its general colour is white. On the 
 blunt pole, however, are some very delicate pale violet spots, and regularly 
 distributed over the whole surface, are some large ones of brownish-rufous 
 colour resembling drops of dried blood. Neither the former nor the latter 
 markings can be effaced by washing with spirit ; they belong properly to the 
 egg, which is of a very elegant shape." 
 
 The swifts are some of the most rapid in flight of all the birds in the world. 
 "Greased lightning" is a term often applied by naturalists in the East to 
 the flight of some of the species, notably the spine-tailed 
 swifts of the genus Chcvtura. Like some of the goatsuckers The Swifts. 
 alluded to above, the palate of the swifts is aegithognathous, Sub-order 
 but here the resemblance between the swifts and the Passeri- Cypseli. 
 formes ends. Of course, the most swift-like of the perching 
 birds are the swallows, and until recent years these birds were classified 
 together, because they were long-winged, of swift flight, and had the same 
 habit of hawking insects on the wing. In reality, however, the swallows are 
 highly modified flycatchers, and have little in common with the Cypscli, 
 which are more nearly related to the humming-birds of America (Trochili). 
 Like most picarian birds, the swifts have ten tail-feathers, while the swallows 
 have twelve. The latter have two notches in the posterior end of the 
 sternum, while there are no notches in that of the swifts, which further have a 
 very high keel, indicating that they are birds of extremely developed powers of 
 flight. The proportions of the wing-bones are likewise very different in the 
 two groups, being directly opposite to each other, for, whereas in the swifts 
 
346 
 
 AVES SUB-ORDER CYPSELI. 
 
 the humerus is very short, the forearm longer, and the manus extremely long, 
 in the swallows the relative proportions are exactly the contrary. 
 
 Mr. Ernst Hartert, the latest exponent of the Cypseli, divides the single 
 family which the sub-order contains, the Cypselidce, into three sub-farnilies, 
 Cypselince or true swifts, Chceturince or spine-tailed swifts, and crested swifts 
 (Macropterycjince). From the recent researches of Mr. F. A. Lucas, it seems 
 that the last-named birds are very distinct from the true swifts, and prob- 
 ably constitute a distinct family, their singular mode of nidification, viz. 
 the placing of their egg in a diminutive nest on a branch or a stump, being 
 very similar to that observed in the frogmouths (Podargi) and the Nyctibiince 
 (antea, p. 344). Mr. Hartert characterises the sub-family Cypselince, which 
 contains the true swifts, by the form of their toes, the outer and middle 
 toes having only three phalanges, while the metatarsus is distinctly feathered. 
 In one species, the pied swift of Central America (Aeronautes melanoleucus), 
 the toes are also covered with plumes. The genus Micropus, of which our 
 common swift (M. apus) is the type, has all the toes directed forward, but 
 in the palm swifts (Tachornis and Claudia) the toes are arranged in 
 pairs. 
 
 The common swift is migratory, like most of the family, arriving in Europe 
 early in May, and being one of the first of our summer birds to disappear to 
 its winter quarters in Africa. The mode of flight in a swift is more like that 
 of a bat than that of a bird, especially in the gloaming, 
 when the swifts chase each other at an incredible 
 speed, uttering shrill screams. The rapidity of their 
 flight far exceeds that of any swallow. About sixteen 
 species of the genus Micropus are known. 
 
 The sub-family Chceturince consists of the spine- 
 tailed swifts and the edible swiftlets. In these birds 
 the toes are normal, and the metatarsus is not 
 feathered. The spine-tailed swifts (Chcetura) are 
 found in both hemispheres, and have the shafts of 
 the tail-feathers produced into a point or spine. Some 
 of them are birds of considerable size, the needle- 
 tailed swift (Chastura caudacuta\ which has occasion- 
 ally been seen in England, measuring nearly a foot 
 in length to the end of its long wings, which in 
 this group of swifts always protrude beyond the tail. 
 It nests in Siberia, and migrates to Australia in the winter. 
 
 The swifts of the genus Collocalia are tiny birds, which inhabit the Indian 
 and Australian regions. Some fourteen species are known. The birds build 
 in caves, affixing, to the walls of the limestone, cup-shaped 
 nests, which are formed principally of the bird's own saliva, 
 though in some species there is some moss mixed up in the 
 nests, while others are almost entirely made of moss. These 
 '* moss " nests, however, are of no commercial value, while 
 the pure white nests are sold for making soup to the Chinese. 
 The tree-swifts are beautiful birds, often ornamented with a large crest or 
 with long white whiskers. They have the metatarsus bare, and it is shorter 
 than the middle toe, whereas in the Chceturince the tarsus is as long as the 
 middle toe, or even longer, and there are two foramina in the hinder margin 
 of the sternum, whereas in the other sub-families of swifts there are no 
 such notches. There is but a single genus, Macropteryx, with five species, 
 
 Fig. 79. THE COMMON 
 SWIFT (Micropus apus). 
 
 Tne Edible 
 
 Swiftlets. 
 
 Genus 
 
 Collocalia. 
 
HUMMING-BIRDS. 347 
 
 and the most singular feature about the tree-swifts is their mode of nesting. 
 Nearly twenty years ago, Sir Hugh Low's native collector brought to him in 
 Labuan a tree-swift's nest, which he said he had found lying 
 under the bird's body when he shot it. The nest was of about The Tree Swifts, 
 the size of half-a-crown, and contained one white egg, which Sub-family 
 had been broken in the fall. From what we know now of Macroptery- 
 the nesting of the genus Macropteryx, it is evident that in gince. 
 
 the above instance the shot must have carried away the top 
 of the stump on which the nest had been placed, as Mr. Hume has presented 
 to the British Museum a similar nest obtained by Mr. K. Thompson, who found 
 one in India. Mr. Hume says : "The stem to which the nest was attached is 
 about 0'8 inch in diameter ; against the side of this the nest is glued, so that 
 the upper margin of the nest is on a level with the upper surface of the 
 branch. The nest itself is half of a rather deep saucer, 175 inches in dia- 
 meter, and about 0'6 inch in depth internally. The nest is entirely composed 
 of thin flakes of bark, cemented together by the bird's saliva, and is about an 
 eighth of an inch in thickness." Only one white egg seems to be laid. 
 
 The humming-birds are exclusively a New World group. The species de- 
 scribed up to the present time are nearly 500 in number, and among them 
 are found some of the tiniest birds in the world, some of 
 them not being larger than a bumble-bee. The bulk of the The Humming. 
 species are from South and Central America, a few only Birds. 
 reaching to the southern United States, and only a small Sub-order 
 number migrating north in summer to Canada, and even as Trochili. 
 far as Alaska. 
 
 The plumage of the humming birds is usually of a brilliantly metallic 
 nature, and they are admitted to be some of the most beautiful and interesting 
 of all birds. Their classification is extremely difficult, for the characters 
 blend from one genus into another, until it is almost impossible to say where 
 the series should begin and where it should end. So much so is this the 
 case, that Mr. Osbert Salvin, when he wrote the sixteenth volume of the 
 British Museum " Catalogue of Birds," was forced, for want of more definite 
 characters, to divide the humming-birds into three sections, those with a well- 
 defined saw-like edge near the margin of the tip of the upper mandible, those 
 with this serration faintly marked, and those without any serration at all. 
 
 It is impossible in the space at our disposal to pass in review all the genera 
 and species of humming-birds, for they are of every size, shape, and variety 
 of metallic plumage. The largest of all is the giant humming-bird (Patagona 
 giyas), from the Andes of Ecuador to Chili. This bird measures about 8^ 
 inches in length, whereas some of the smallest species, such as Calypte helence 
 of Cuba, and Chcetocercus bombus of Ecuador, only measure 2^ inches. 
 
 The tongue in this order of birds is very peculiar, and its structure is only 
 equalled by that of the woodpeckers (Pici) and sun-birds (NectariniidcK). 
 The structure is thus described by Sir William Flower in the "Bird-Gallery" of 
 the British Museum : " The tongue is slender, and very long and extensile. 
 As in the woodpeckers, the two branches of the hyoid bone which support its 
 base, curve, when the tongue is drawn within the bill, upwards around the 
 back of the skull, and then forward over the top of the head. Instead of 
 the tongue being, as in the woodpeckers, solid and ending in a barbed horny 
 point, it is hollow, and divided at the free end into two slender branches, 
 each of which bears a thin membranous fringe on its outer margin." 
 
 The wings of the humming-birds are strong, and the primaries are ten in 
 
348 
 
 AVES SUB-ORDER CO LI I. 
 
 Fig. 80. -A 
 HUMMING -BIRD. 
 
 number, while the secondaries are only six. The first primary-quill is some- 
 times attenuated (Atthis, Aylceactis, etc.), while in some genera, such as 
 Campylopterus, the shafts of the primaries are broad and stiffened. The tail 
 is of various shapes, sometimes square, sometimes rounded, 
 or, as in the genus Phwthornis, graduated, with the two 
 central rectrices elongated and pointed. Many genera have 
 forked tails, with the outer tail-feather elongated, especi- 
 ally in the male. The racket-tailed humming-birds have a 
 forked tail, with the outer rectrjx ending in a spatule or 
 racket. In some genera, like the shear-tails (Thaumastura) 
 or the stars (Clwztocercus), all the tail-feathers are pointed 
 and spine-like, and in the king humming-birds (Topaza\ the 
 central feathers are elongated and curved, crossing each 
 other at the same time. The most remarkable, however, 
 of all the humming-birds, as regards its tail, is Loddigesia 
 mirabilis from the Upper Amazons. In the female and 
 young male, ten rectrices are present as usual, but in 
 the adult male there are only four, a very small pair in the middle, arid an 
 elongated pair on the outside, which cross each other and end in a " boss " 
 or "racket." Some of the upper tail-coverts are so lengthened that they 
 appear to be part of the tail. The flight of humming-birds is more like 
 that of a hawk -moth than that of an actual bird, for the little creatures 
 hover in front of a flower, suspended, as it were, in the air, with their 
 wings vibrating so rapidly as to appear simply like a film. Their food 
 consists of the tiniest insects, and in the case of the sword-bill hummer 
 (Docimastes ensiferus) the bill is elongated to an enormous proportion, so that 
 the bird is able to probe long tubular flowers for its'food. The nest of the 
 humming-birds is always beautiful, and is generally composed of the down of 
 plants, felted, and covered with spiders' webs or soft lichens. It is generally 
 round, but is occasionally purse-shaped, and is placed on a branch or at the 
 end of a leaf. The eggs are white, and two in number. 
 
 The colies form a separate sub-order, which contains but a single genus, 
 ColiiiSy with nine species, all peculiar to Africa. 1 here are only ten tail- 
 feathers, and the hind- toe is 
 The Colies. connected with the flexor per- 
 Sub-order Colii. foransdigitor'um tendon. The 
 bill is something like that of 
 a finch, and the birds have a slight crest. 
 The palate is bridged or desmognathous, and 
 the sternum has four notches on the posterior 
 margin. The position of the colies in the class 
 Aves has been much debated, and it seems to 
 us that their place in the natural system must 
 always be open to some comment, but they 
 must be placed somewhere near the trogons 
 and the touracoes. 
 
 The colies have curious feet, all the four 
 toes being directed forward, the first one 
 being perhaps reversible ; the birds use their 
 
 feet for climbing, and they hang in peculiar positions. They make an open 
 nest, of grass and twigs, lined internally with soft grass, placed in a fork of 
 a tree, and the eggs are white. 
 
 Fig. 81. THE CAPE COLY (Colin* 
 colius). 
 
TKOGONS. 
 
 349 
 
 The trogons are all birds of bright plumage, even the hens having brilliant 
 colours in many of the species. They are often called Heterodactyli on 
 account of their peculiar feet, which constitute the chief 
 structural feature of the order. The palate is schizognathous The Trogons. 
 or slit, and the second toe is turned backwards. The front Order Trogones. 
 plantar tendon (flexor perforans digitorum) is split into two, 
 and leads to the two front toes, while the hind plantar (flexorlongos hallucis) 
 is again split, and leads to the two hind toes. The plumage of the trogons 
 is of the softest description, and the skin is so thin that we have often heard 
 travellers say that it has no more substance than tissue-paper, and every one 
 admits that trogons are the most difficult birds in the world to prepare. 
 
 At the present day the order is distributed over Africa, a great part of 
 India and the Malayan sub-region, but they are most numerous in Central and 
 Southern America. In ancient times they occurred in France, as fossil remains 
 have been found there along with those of touracoes and secretary-birds. 
 
 One of the most splendid of birds is the long-trained trogon or quezal, 
 which has been adopted by the republic of Guatemala as its national em- 
 blem, and figures on the postage stamps of that country. It has a tail of 
 eight inches in length, but the upper tail-coverts are enormously developed, 
 the central ones extending into a train four times as long as the actual tail 
 itself. The quezal is found in Guatemala and Costa Rica, but is not so 
 plentiful as formerly ; it -is entirely a bird of the forests, and has a rapid 
 flight. Mr. Stolzmann noticed the Peruvian quezal clinging to the trunks of 
 trees like a woodpecker. 
 
 The American trogons (Trogon) are chiefly fruit-eaters, like the African 
 species of Hapaloderma. They are entirely forest birds, and are said to be 
 rather stupid, not even flying away at the 
 report of a gun, so that a whole party may be 
 shot down one after the other. They are gene- 
 rally seen in pairs, but occasionally assemble in 
 small flocks. The note is variously described as 
 being harsh, or clucking, as well as soft and 
 low. Of the Peruvian species, Trogon caligatus, 
 Mr. Stolzmann gives the note as " cou-cou-cou- 
 cou-co-co-co-co," the second half being uttered in 
 a lower tone than the first. The Indian tro- 
 gons (Harpactes) are more insect-feeders than 
 their American allies. The eggs of trogons 
 are white or pale-buff (that of the quezal being 
 said to be greenish-blue), three or four in 
 number, and deposited on the dry wood in the 
 hole of a tree. 
 
 Two sub-orders are represented in this order, 
 viz. the cuckoos (Cucidi) and the touracoes 
 (Musophagi), the former being a cosmopolitan group, and the latter being con- 
 fined to Africa, though there is evidence that in ancient times 
 touracoes inhabited Europe, as fossil remains of these birds 
 have been found in France. The cuckoos and the touracoes 
 have the following characters in common, which differentiate 
 the Coccyges from all other orders of birds. The first and 
 fourth toe are turned backwards, and the second and 
 third forwards, the hallux being always developed, arid served by the flexor 
 
 Fig. 82. THE LARGE-TAILED 
 TKOGON (Trogon macrurus). 
 
 The Cuckoo- 
 like Birds. 
 Order 
 
 Coccyges. 
 
350 AVES- SUB-ORDER CUCULI. 
 
 longus hallucis tendon, and not by the flexor perforans digitorum. The 
 palate is " bridged " or desmognathous. In the cuckoos the oil-gland is 
 nude, and the feet thoroughly zygodactyle, with two toes directed forwards 
 and two backwards, whereas in the Musophagida? or touracoes the fourth toe 
 is not so completely turned backwards as in the Cuculidce, and the foot is 
 therefore termed semi-zygodactyle. 
 
 The Cuculidce are divided by Captain Shelley into six sub-families, of which 
 the first contains the true cuckoos or Cuculince. In these birds the tail is 
 composed of ten feathers, the upper tail-coverts are not unduly prolonged, 
 the wing is long and pointed, showing that most of the species are migrants, 
 therein differing from the wing in the bush-cuckoos, which has a rounded 
 and concave wing, indicating that they are not birds of strong flight. 
 
 In this sub-family are found the crested cuckoos (Coccystes), the typical 
 cuckoos (Cuculus), the hawk-cuckoos (Hierococcyx), the golden cuckoos 
 (Chrysoeoccyx), the American cuckoos (Coccyzus), the koels (Eudynamis), the 
 channel-bills (Scythrops), and several other genera. In the genus Coccystes 
 we find the first instance of the curious parasitic nature of the cuckoos, but 
 in the case of the great spotted cuckoo (Coccystes glandarius) there is not the 
 same remarkable variation in the colour of the egg that we find in the common 
 cuckoo (Cuculus cdnorus). On the contrary, the egg of C. glandarius is very 
 crow-like, and it is deposited in the nests of crows and magpies. The Indian 
 crested cuckoo (0. jacobinus) lays blue eggs, and places them in the nests of 
 birds which also lay blue eggs, such as babbling-thrushes, etc. 
 
 Ten species of true cuckoo are known, and the type of the genus Cuculus 
 is our common cuckoo (Cuculus cdnorus). The genus is distributed over 
 the whole of the Old World, excepting in the Pacific 
 The True Islands. 
 
 Cuckoos. In a concise work like the present there is not space to 
 
 Genus Cuculus. give in detail the habits of a bird like the cuckoo, whose 
 life-history would require a volume to itself. It will be, 
 however, known to most of my readers that the female cuckoo makes no nest 
 of its own, but deposits its egg in the nest of some other bird, and leaves to 
 the latter the task of hatching the eggs and bringing up the young cuckoo. 
 The latter, while still blind and naked, ejects the other little occupants of the 
 nest, and receives thereafter the undivided attention of the foster-parents. 
 The latter are of many kinds, ftycatchers, war- 
 blers, finches, etc., preference, however, being 
 given to the warblers and pipits and other 
 insectivorous birds. In the Western Palsearctic 
 region alone the egg of C. fanorus has been 
 found in nests of 120 different species, and an- 
 other curious fact in connection with the eco- 
 nomy of the species is that the cuckoo's egg 
 is remarkably small for the size of the bird, 
 and is, in many cases, almost an exact 
 copy of the egg of the foster-parent. Each 
 female cuckoo is believed to lay the same type 
 of egg during its life, so that a bird which lays 
 blue eggs, to be inserted in the nest of a blue- 
 egged species like the redstart or pied flycatcher, 
 
 *.-T HE COMMO* CUCKOO alwa ^ la ^ Ml i e ^S. Th ! CUck ran f S ^ 
 (Cuculus canorus). over Europe and Northern Asia, and winters in 
 
 Africa, India, and Australia. 
 
CUCKOOS TO URA COES. 35 1 
 
 Many genera of the Guculince have a good deal of metallic colour about 
 them, and the golden cuckoos of Africa and India, with their emerald-green 
 and purple plumage, are among the most beautiful of all birds. In America, 
 the black-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus erythrophthalmus) and the yellow-billed 
 cuckoo (G. americanus) build their own nests, and are most affectionate 
 parents. 
 
 In the Centropodince, the hind-claw is straight, and like that of a lark. 
 There is but one genus, Centropus, which is distributed over the Ethiopian, 
 Indian, and Australian regions, and no less than thirty-two 
 species are known. They have a hooting note, like "whoot- The Lark-heeled 
 w/ioo," and on the Gold Coast the species is known as Cuckoos. 
 the "Scotchman." In India, Mr. Hume says that 0. sinensis Sub-family 
 follows up the hooting note by " kurook-kurook-kurook- Centropodince. 
 kurook," after an interval of a few seconds. It makes a 
 nest in thick thorny bushes or trees, about six inches in height and twelve 
 inches across, composed of grass or twigs, and in the form of an oblate 
 spheroid ; it is too small for the size of the bird, so that the tail of the latter 
 is generally seen sticking out. 
 
 The bush cuckoos have a rounded and concave wing like the lark-heels, but 
 want the spur-like claw of the latter birds. In this sub-family are found 
 the rain - cuckoos (Saurothera, Hyetornis, Piaya, etc.) of 
 America, the steel-blue cuckoos (Ceuthmochares) of The Bush 
 Africa, the bush-cuckoos (Phcenicophaes, Rhinocbccyx, etc.) Cuckoos. 
 of the Indian region, and the couas of Madagascar. The Sub-family 
 members of this sub-family build their own nests and lay Phcenicophceince. 
 white eggs. They are mostly bush-haunting birds and 
 thread their way through the jungle and the trees with great facility. 
 
 The most round-winged of the bush-cuckoos are the members of the genus 
 Neomorphus, which represents the sub-family Neomorphince. Only three 
 other genera are contained in the latter, Carpococeyx, with the pheasant- 
 cuckoo of Borneo (G. radiatus), and the road-runners (Geococeyx and Moro- 
 coceyx} of the New World. The species of Neomorphus are all neo-tropical, 
 being found in the southern countries of Central America and the tropical 
 portions of South America. Five species are known, all of which are very 
 rare, and nothing has been recorded of their habits. 
 
 The Diplopterince, which constitute the fifth sub-family of cuckoos, are 
 entirely American and are remarkable for the extreme length of their upper 
 tail-coverts, and the sixth sub-family, the Grotophagince, is also American. 
 In the latter there are only eight tail-feathers, instead of ten, and some of 
 the Savana cuckoos (Grotophaga) have very curious habits, several females 
 apparently laying in the same nest, so that sometimes as many as twenty eggs 
 have been found in one nest. The egg, too, is very peculiar in the Croto- 
 phagince, as it appears at first sight to be blue covered with white scratchings 
 and marblings, but the true colour of the egg is white, and the blue is only 
 an overlying colour, which gets rubbed and scratched off through contact with 
 the lining of the nest. 
 
 In appearance these birds are very different from cuckoos, and their semi- 
 zygodactyle foot has already been alluded to (p. 350). They 
 
 are forest-birds, confined to Africa, where nearly thirty The Touracoes. 
 
 species have been described. In ancient times they appear Family 
 
 to have inhabited France, as fossil remains have been dis- Musophagidce. 
 covered in that country. Some of the species are crested 
 
352 
 
 AVES ORDER SCANSORES. 
 
 dull 
 
 are 
 
 coloration, but 
 generally called 
 
 the majority are brilliantly plumaged 
 "Lowries" by the colonists of South 
 
 The Climbing 
 Birds. Order 
 
 Scansores. 
 
 Fig. 84. LADY Ross 
 
 TOURACOE 
 
 (M usophaga rosscr). 
 
 and of a 
 birds, and 
 Africa. 
 
 In the true touracoes (Turacus) the nostrils are hidden by bristles; in all 
 the other genera they are exposed. In the genus Musophaga, of which M. 
 rossce, from Angola and the Congo basin, is an ex- 
 ample, there is not only an ornamental frontal shield 
 of red, but the primary quills are of a deep crimson, 
 as they are in all the members of the genus Turacus. 
 From the wing-feathers of these birds has been ex- 
 tracted a kind of copper called turacine. The nest 
 of the touracoes is an open one, made of sticks, and 
 the egg is white. 
 
 In all the Scansores the foot is typically zygo- 
 dactyle, the first and fourth toes being turned 
 
 backwards, the second and third 
 
 forwards, and the arrangement of 
 
 the plantar tendons is as curious. 
 
 The flexor perforans digitorum ten- 
 don leads to the third digit only, 
 while the flexor longus hallucis first sends a tendon 
 to the other plantar tendon, and a second to the 
 fourth digit, after which (if the hallux be present) 
 it splits into two tendons, one leading to the hallux, 
 the other to the second digit. 
 
 Of the three sub-orders of the Scansores the toucans are exclusively neo- 
 tropical. They are very plentifully represented in Central and South 
 America, and are remarkable for their long, generally parti- 
 coloured bill, and for their curious feathery tongue. The 
 palate is desmognathous or "bridged," and the vomer 
 truncated. 
 
 The toucans are about sixty in number, and are contained 
 in five genera, Wiampliastos, Andigena, Pteroglossus, Selenidera, and Aula- 
 corhamphus. The long bill, which at first sight appears so clumsy and awk- 
 ward, is really a very light structure, full of empty 
 cellules, and the colours of the bill are usually those 
 of the adjoining bare skin of the face. The birds 
 inhabit the forests and feed on fruit, and are often 
 found in company. Though they have a scansorial 
 foot, they do not climb like woodpeckers, but pro- 
 ceed by great hops, like the hornbills, from branch 
 to branch. 
 
 The barbets are small birds with zygodactyle feet, 
 which are found in the neo-tropical, Ethiopian and 
 
 Indian regions, but do not extend 
 
 into the Australian region, nor are 
 
 they found in the temperate regions 
 
 of the Northern Zone of either 
 
 hemisphere. Some have a bridged 
 palate, but others have the palate aegithognathous or 
 passerine. The vomer is bifid, the oil-gland tufted, 
 and there are other internal characters which separate them from the rest of 
 
 The Toucans. 
 
 Sub-order 
 Rhamphastides. 
 
 The Barbets. 
 Sub-order 
 
 Capitones. 
 
 Fig. 8^. THE Toco TOUCAN 
 (Ramphastos toco). 
 
BARBETS-HONE Y-GUIDES. 
 
 353 
 
 the climbing birds, 
 vorous, and their 
 
 Fig. 86. THE GOLDEN-GREEN 
 BARBET (Capita aurovirens). 
 
 They feed chiefly on fruit, but many species are insecti- 
 curious monotonous notes have gained for them the 
 names of " Tinker or Coppersmith," the little 
 Indian species (Xantholcema hcemacephala) nod- 
 ding its head sideways as it utters its metallic 
 call. Like woodpeckers they bore a hole in 
 a tree, and lay their eggs, which are white, on 
 the chips of wood. Of the Peruvian species 
 of Capita, Stolzmann says that he has found 
 them in small parties on high trees, feeding on 
 fruits in company with toucans, chatterers, and 
 other birds. 
 
 The honey-guides have an interesting distribu- 
 tion over the earth's surface. They are mostly 
 confined to Africa, but one species 
 occurs in the Himalayas, and an- The Honey- 
 other in the mountains of Malacca Guides. 
 and Borneo. The palate is aegithognathous, and the bill is Sub-order 
 not unlike that of a finch. The colouring of the birds is Indicators. 
 generally sombre, though some African species have white 
 lower backs and the Indian honey-guide (/. xanihonotus) has a yellow back. 
 The name of ' * honey-guide " is derived from the fact that several of the 
 African species will lead men to a bee's nest, sitting on the trees and utter- 
 ing a piping note. If followed, they will fly on 
 in advance a little way, and, as a rule, the bird is 
 rewarded with a little piece of the comb, from 
 which it extracts the grubs. The food of all 
 the species, as far as is known, consists of 
 hymenoptera. 
 
 The Piciformes resemble the Scansores in hav- 
 ing the plantar tendons peculiar in their arrange- 
 ment as already described by 
 Seebohm. The flexor per/or- TheWoodpecker- 
 ans digitorum leads to the third like Birds. 
 digit only. The flexor longus Order 
 
 hallucis first sends a tendon to Piciformes. 
 the other planter, then a 
 second to the fourth digit, after which (if the 
 hallux be present) it splits into two tendons, 
 one leading to the hallux, the other to the 
 second digit. 
 
 In the woodpeckers the palate is peculiar, 
 and has been termed " saurognathous " by the 
 late Professor W. Kitchen Parker, the vomer being slender, 
 pointed, and split, the lateral halves separate. The bill is The 
 
 formed for the hammering of trees, which these birds are Woodpeckers. 
 famous for, and is, in the majority of woodpeckers, strong and Sub-order Pici. 
 chisel-shaped, though weaker and more curved in the ground- 
 feeding species. The tongue is very peculiar, for here we meet with a-similar 
 arrangement to that noticed in the humming-birds (antea, p. 347). The 
 tongue is long and worm-like, and is capable of being protruded to an enormous 
 length by means of the hyoid bones, the cornua of which extend backwards 
 24 
 
 Fig. 87. THE GREAT HONEY- 
 GUIDE (2)ulicator). 
 
354 A VES ORDER PICIFORMES. 
 
 over the skull. The tongue is furnished with a pointed, horny, barbed tip. 
 This arrangement, so far as is known, obtains in all woodpeckers excepting 
 Sphyropicus and Xenopicus. 
 
 The late Mr. Edward Hargitt divided the family Picidce, at which he 
 laboured unceasingly for fourteen years, into three sub-families, woodpeckers 
 (Picince), piculets (Picumniiice), and wrynecks (lynginat). The latter birds 
 have a soft and mottled plumage like that of a nightjar. They have a long 
 tail, the feathers of which are soft and not pointed like those of the wood- 
 peckers. Three species are resident in Africa, but our common wryneck 
 (I. torquilla) is a migrant to Europe and Northern Asia, wintering in Africa, 
 India, and Southern China. 
 
 The piculets are tiny little birds without the stiffened tail of the wood- 
 pecker, but otherwise resembling them in the form of the bill and the bristles 
 around the nostrils. In the iieo-tropical region the piculets 
 The Piculets. . are represented by the genus Picumnus with thirty-five 
 
 Sub-family species, and Nesoctites with a single species, their place being 
 
 Picumninw. taken in Africa by the genus Verreauxia with one species, V. 
 africana, and in the Himalayas and throughout the Indo- 
 Malayan region by the genus Sasia, which has only three toes. Both the 
 last-named genera have a bare orbital patch round the eye. 
 
 Of the habits of the species of Picumnus very little has been recorded, but 
 Stolzmann says that in Peru he has seen them on the borders of the rivers, 
 tapping the small branches of the trees, and running along the horizontal 
 limbs, sometimes above the branch, sometimes below. 
 
 All the true woodpeckers have the tail spiny, with the shafts of the tail- 
 feathers stiffened. They may be divided into two groups, the feathered- 
 necked section and the narrow-necked section. In the first 
 The True Wood- section are found the ground woodpeckers (Geocolaptes\ the 
 peckers. yellow-winged woodpeckers (Colaptes), and all such forms as 
 
 Sub-family the green woodpeckers (Gecinus) and their allies, the pied 
 
 Picince. woodpeckers (Dendrocopus), the three-toed woodpeckers 
 
 (Picoides), and, in fact, the bulk of the sub-family. The 
 
 narrow-necked woodpeckers are principally tropical, but they inhabit both 
 
 the Old and the New Worlds, being, however, much more plentiful in the 
 
 former, and jbhey are represented in Europe by the great black woodpecker 
 
 (Picus martins). 
 
 The distribution of the woodpeckers is interesting from the following fact, 
 that they are universally distributed over North and South America, the 
 whole of Africa, Europe and Asia, until we approach " Wallace's Line" in 
 the Moluccas, and there we find that a few species extend beyond the limits 
 of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, into Flores and Celebes. In fact, the 
 woodpeckers coincide in distribution with the monkeys, and do not extend 
 beyond the last-named island. 
 
 In habits they are singularly alike, excavating holes in trees, which they 
 
 drill with the utmost precision and with such accuracy that the hole appears 
 
 as if it had been made by the most skilled of carpenters. No 
 
 Woodpeckers, nest is made, and the white eggs are deposited on the chips 
 of wood at the end of the hole, which is often of considerable 
 depth. The note of our green woodpecker, or yaffle, is a resounding laugh, 
 while the pied woodpeckers call to each other by a series of taps on the 
 slender boughs of the tallest trees, their ordinary note being harsh and 
 unmusical. 
 
WOODPE CKERS - PUFF-BIRDS. 
 
 355 
 
 An interesting genus of the section of narrow-necked woodpeckers is seen 
 In Thripoviax, which is found in the Indian region, and extends through the 
 Indo-Malayan sub-region and the Burmese pro- 
 vinces to the Philippines on the one hand, and to 
 South India and the Andaman islands on the other. 
 Then the genus, of which Hargitt's woodpecker is 
 one of the most typical species (fig. 88), reappears 
 in Corea and the Japanese islands of Tsu-shima, 
 thus proving that in the Eastern Hemisphere the 
 same introduction of tropical forms unexpectedly 
 occurs in the palsearctic area as it does in the 
 Western Hemisphere. 
 
 The puff-birds are neotropical, and are only found 
 in Central and South America. They differ from 
 the woodpeckers in having a nude 
 oil-gland and in the possession of The Puff-Birds, 
 caeca, and their pterylography is Sub-order 
 different. The palate is bridged Buccones. 
 PECKER Tn.r^on^xl^mj or desmognathous, and a vomer is 
 
 perforans digitorum tendon leads to the third digit only, the other plantar 
 tendon serving the three other toes, as in the woodpeckers. The bill is 
 stout and curved, and in the genus Bucco is hooked at the end, the base being 
 well furnished with rictal bristles. The plumage of the puff-birds is mostly 
 of a sombre character. 
 
 Forty-three species of puff-bird are known, divided by Dr. Sclater into 
 seven genera, Bucco with twenty species, Malacoptila with seven, Micromon- 
 acha with one, Nonnula with five, Malacoptila with 
 one, Monacha with seven, and Chelidoptera with two. 
 The accounts of the habits of these birds represent 
 them to be sluggish and apathetic ; they inhabit the 
 forests and feed on insects, after which they fly fiyom 
 their perch, apparently in a manner similar to that of 
 a bee-eater or a flycatcher. Very few notes have 
 been published on their habits or nesting, but the 
 eggs are believed to be white, and deposited in the 
 holes of hollow trees. 
 
 The jacamars are a small family of neo- tropical 
 birds, mostly of metallic plumage, resembling the 
 puff-birds in much of their internal 
 structure and. their zygodactyle feet. 
 The bill, however, is not heavy, as in 
 
 the latter birds, but is long, slender and pointed, and they 
 usually have a long and pointed tail. 
 
 The jacamars feed on insects, which they dart after from a perch, like a 
 flycatcher. Jacamerops aurea is said to be casually met with as solitary in- 
 dividuals or in pairs, preferring trees on the banks of streams to more open 
 places in the forest. Here they watch for passing insects, which they catch 
 on the wing, and return to their position. They often remain almost motion- 
 less for hours without stirring a feather. The jacamars are said to tunnel 
 a small hole in a bank and to lay white and nearly round eggs. Of the black- 
 cheeked jacamar (Galbula melanogenia) more has been published about the 
 
 Fig. 89. THE GREATER 
 
 PIED PUFF-BIRD 
 (Bucco macrorhynchus). 
 
 The Jacamars. 
 Family 
 
 Gcdbulidce. 
 
356 
 
 A VES ORDER EUR YL&MI. 
 
 Fig. 90. THE WHITE- 
 BELLIED JACAMAR 
 (Galbula leucogastra.) 
 
 The Broad -Bills. 
 Order 
 
 Eurylcemi. 
 
 habits, and we learn from Messrs. Salvin and Godnian in their "Biologia" 
 that it is a solitary bird, frequenting deep ravines 
 overhung with trees ; it has a quick, darting flight, 
 utters 110 cry, and feeds on insects. Mr. Richmond 
 says that, on the Escondido River in Nicaragua, he 
 noticed the bird jerking its tail like a kingfisher, 
 and he describes the cry as piercing, and resembling 
 the syllables "kee-u," with the first syllable very 
 shrill and strongly accentuated. 
 
 Before commencing the account of the true perch- 
 ing birds or Passeriformes, there remain two orders 
 which have generally been placed with the latter, 
 but which, in our opinion, should be kept distinct. 
 These are the broad-bills (Eurylcemi) and the lyre- 
 birds (Menurce). 
 
 The broad-bills are only found in the Himalayan 
 region in India, whence they extend through the Bur- 
 mese provinces to the Malayan peninsula and islands to Borneo and the Philip- 
 pines. They have a passerine or segithognathous palate, but 
 the structure of the deep plantar tendons is strikingly different 
 from those of the typical passerine foot, as the flexor longus hal- 
 Incis tendon sends out a strong band or "vinculum" to join the 
 tendon of the flexor profuudus digitorum. The trachea is also 
 peculiar, and the sternum has no forked manubrial process. In the first sub- 
 family of the Eurylunmidce Dr. Sclater places but one genus, Calyptomena, which 
 is distinguished by the frontal plumes covering the nostrils. It contains but 
 three species, which are, however, the finest of the broad-bills. Their princi- 
 pal colour is emerald-green, varied with velvety black, and C. whiteheadi from 
 Kina Balu Mountain in Northern Borneo, is the largest of the family, mea- 
 suring nearly a foot in length. It builds a good-sized nest, according to Mr. 
 John Whitehead, who discovered this splendid species, which it "suspends 
 from the end of a slender bough about fifty feet from the ground. The 
 outside is composed of fresh green moss bound over the bough, and worked 
 into the sides, ending in a long streamer, which assists in assimilating the 
 nest to the long dripping streamers of mess and 
 lichens which hang from every bough in this continual 
 rainy season. The inside of the nest is very solid, 
 lined with dry bamboo-leaves above and below, form- 
 ing a well -sheltered pocket. The eggs are glossy 
 creamy- white." A second species of Calyptomena, G. 
 hosii, a green bird with a blue breast, has been dis- 
 covered in the mountains of Savawak by Mr. Charles 
 Hose, while the small species, 0. viridis, is found every- 
 where in the low country throughout the Malayan 
 peninsula and islands. 
 
 Of the Eurylaiminv, which have bare nostrils, there 
 are six genera, Psarisomus with one species, Serilophus 
 with two, Sarcophartops with two, Eurylcemus with 
 two, Gorydon with one, and Cymborhynchus with two. 
 Psarisomus dalhounce of the Eastern Himalayas and 
 
 the hills of Assam and Burma is a very handsome bird, being green, with a 
 black head and a blue patch on the crown. Another fine species is Hors- 
 
 Fig. 91. HORSFIELD'S 
 BROADBILL 
 
 (Eurylwmusjavanicus). 
 
L YRE-BIRDS. 
 
 357 
 
 field's broadbill (E. javanicus), which is found in Java and the Malayan 
 islands and peninsula as far north as Tenasserim. The food of the broad- 
 bills appears to consist of insects, but occasionally of small reptiles. They 
 are inhabitants of the forests, and are said to be sluggish and somewhat stupid 
 birds. The nests are suspended from the boughs of trees, and are of a purse^ 
 like shape, being composed of fibre and grass. Unlike the eggs of Calypto- 
 mena, those of the true broadbills are spotted with black or brownish-red on 
 a cream-coloured ground. 
 
 The lyre-birds have always been considered aberrant passerine birds, but 
 they cannot in any way, according to our ideas, be associated with the 
 Passer i formes, on account of their curious nesting-habits and 
 downy nestling. In addition to this, the lyre-birds have The Lyre-Birds. 
 other anatomical features, which separate them from the Order 
 true perching birds, and we believe that our separation of Menurce. 
 the Menurai as a distinct order will be followed by future 
 systematists, as the young lyre-bird looks more like the nestling of a petrel 
 than that of any other bird, and such a nestling plumage is unknown in any 
 species of passerine bird, the young of which are mostly hatched naked. 
 The adult lyre-bird is a very remarkable creature. 
 It has legs like those of a megapode, and altogether 
 looks more like a Game-Bird than anything else, but 
 it must be looked upon, we think, as a kind of 
 gigantic wren, though in effect it is, like so many of 
 the Australasian birds, a form by itself. We have 
 heard it suggested that the lyre-birds are allied to 
 the birds of paradise, but the only warranty for 
 such a proposition is that the plumage of the tail in 
 Menura is fantastic, as is the decorative plumage of 
 the birds of paradise. Three species of Menura are 
 known, all peculiar to the continent of Australia. 
 They are very shy birds, inhabiting the brush country, 
 and living solitary or in pairs. The food consists of 
 insects, chiefly beetles and centipedes, occasionally 
 varied with snails. Their strong feet give them 
 the power of making enormous leaps, and Gould 
 states that they will jump from the ground to a 
 bough ten feet above it. The nest of the lyre-bird 
 is domed like that of a wren ; it is of large size, 
 formed of sticks, and lined with feathers, and it has 
 a kind of outer rough covering, composed of sticks, moss, and leaves. Only 
 one egg is laid, of a purplish-grey colour, spotted and blotched with purplish 
 brown. 
 
 The principal character which distinguishes the Passeres or perching-birds 
 is the form of the palate, which is segithognathous or passerine, with the 
 vomer truncated in front. The hind toe is always present, 
 and is connected with the flexor longus hallucis tendon and The Perching 1 - 
 not with the flexor perforans digitorum. The bulk of the Birds. Order 
 Passeriformes belong to the division Acromyodi, in which the Passeriformes, 
 intrinsic muscles of the syrinx are fixed to the ends of the 
 bronchial semi-rings. Much discussion has taken place between ornithologists 
 as to which is the highest form of bird, and many are inclined to think that 
 preference should be given to the thrushes and warblers, on account of 
 
 Fig. 92. THE LYRE-BIRD 
 (Menura superba). 
 
358 
 
 AVES- ORDER PASSERIFORMES. 
 
 their powers of song, just as the monkeys are placed at the head of the 
 Mammalia on account of their man-like aspect ; but in our opinion, the 
 crows (Corvidce) are at the head of the Passeriformes, being, with the 
 exception of their want of song, the most perfectly developed of birds. 
 The wing of a crow exhibits in its fullest perfection the power of flight, 
 every wing-covert and quill being shown in the most complete develop- 
 ment. The same is seen in the feet of a crow, where all the scales on 
 the tarsi and toes are more strongly indicated than in any other passerine 
 bird. 
 
 The colour of the crows is black or decidedly sombre, as a rule, only 
 
 relieved by brighter plumage in the case of the magpies (Pica), jays 
 
 (Garrulus), and the beautiful blue jays of America (Cyatio- 
 
 Tlie Crows. corax, Xanthura), etc. All these forms belong to the true 
 
 Family Corvidce. crows (Oorwmce), of which our iook(Trypa'iicoraxfrugilegus\ 
 
 carrion crow (Corotie corone), magpie (Pica pica), and jay 
 
 (Garrulus glandarius) are typical examples. They all have the nostrils placed 
 
 high in the mandible, whereas the choughs (sub-family Fregilince) have the 
 
 nostril placed low in the mandible, nearer to its lower margin than to its 
 
 upper one. In the Fregilince we find four genera : Graculus, with our own 
 
 red-billed chough (G. graculus), Pyrrhocorax, with its single species, P. 
 
 pyrrhocorax, the Alpine chough, and Corcorax, with a single Australian species, 
 
 the white-winged chough (G. mtf.wiorhamphus}. The most interesting of this 
 
 group of birds, however, are 
 the desert-choughs (Podoces). 
 Of these there are four species, 
 all confined to the desert re- 
 gions of Central Asia from 
 Buchara to Turkestan and 
 Thibet. They are sandy-col- 
 oured birds, like most desert- 
 haunting creatures, but with 
 brighter heads and wings : P. 
 panderi from Buchara was the 
 first species of the genus to 
 be described, but nothing has 
 been recorded of its habits. 
 P. hendersoni from Yarkand 
 Fig. 93. PANDER'S DESERT-CHOUGH (Podoces panderi). i s better known, and Dr. 
 
 Henderson says that they al- 
 ways kept in pairs, and moved about from one sand-hill to another, seem- 
 ingly searching for insects in the sand. The stomachs, however, were 
 filled with grain, picked out of the horse-dung in the road. The eggs of 
 P. panderi are like those of crows, but one species, P. humilis, lays white 
 eggs. 
 
 The crows are all ambulatores or walkers, but there is no proof that the 
 birds of paradise progress by walking steps, when on the ground. On the 
 contrary, the Paradiseidce are entirely forest birds. They 
 differ from the true crows in the structure of the feet, the 
 outer toe being longer than the inner one but shorter than 
 the middle one. Their fantastic plumage is their chief char- 
 acteristic, but the nest and eggs are corvine, and the 
 paradise birds are really nothing but gaudy-coloured crows. 
 
 The Birds of 
 Paradise. 
 
 Family 
 Paradiseidce. 
 
BIRDS OF PARADISE BOWER-BIRDS. 359 
 
 They include the rifle-birds (Ptilorhis), and other sickle-billed forms like the 
 twelve-wired birds of paradise (Seleucides) and the superb birds of paradise 
 (Epimachus). In all the sickle-billed 
 species, composing the sub-family Epi- 
 machince, the bill is long and curved, 
 and exceeds the tarsus in length. Jn 
 Ptilorhis the plumage is velvety black, 
 with a metallic head and a metallic 
 green shield on the breast. The nest 
 of Queen Victoria's rifle-bird (P. vie- 
 torice) is described as a loosely con- 
 structed structure of dead leaves and 
 green branchlets, the eggs being of a 
 flesh-colour , with streaks and spots of w _ THE KED . PLTTMI!!D BlRD OF 
 
 reddish-brown. The rifle-birds are PARADISE (Paradisea raggiana). 
 
 found in Australia and New Guinea. 
 
 The Papuan Islands and the Moluccas are also the home of the true birds of 
 paradise, which compose the sub- family Paradiseince, which have a stouter 
 bill, with the culmen not so long as the tarsus. Some eighteen genera are 
 to be found in this sub-family, including not only the true paradise-birds, 
 but many others of varied form and decorated plumage. They inhabit the 
 forest country at different altitudes, and in some localities, such as the 
 Arn Islands, they are very abundant, the insensate fashion of decorating 
 ladies' hats with the plumes of these lovely birds having, wonderful to 
 relate, not yet succeeded in exterminating them. They feed chiefly on 
 fruit. 
 
 The bower birds are undoubtedly closely allied to the birds of paradise, 
 and it is difficult to say where one family ends arid the other begins. Such 
 forms as the golden bird of paradise (Xanthomelus aureus) 
 have been placed with the Paradiseidce, but this genus and The Bower Birds, 
 its allies are probably bower-builders, and it is certain that Family 
 some of the allied forms, like Prionodura newtoniana Ptilororpyn- 
 and Amblyornis inornata, undoubtedly construct large chidce. 
 
 bowers. 
 
 The satin bower-bird of Australia (Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus) builds 
 an arched bower of sticks, decorated with snail-shells, bleached bones 
 of small mammals, and the bright feathers of parakeets. But one of 
 the most extraordinary of all these fantastic bowers is that erected by the 
 gardener bird of North- Western New Guinea. Dr. Beccari, who dis- 
 covered the bower of this species in the Arfak Mountains, describes it as 
 follows: "The Amblyornis selects a flat even place round the trunk of a 
 small tree, which is as thick and as high as a walking-stick of middle size. 
 It begins by constructing at the base of the tree a kind of cone, chiefly of 
 moss, of the size of a man's hand. The trunk of the tree becomes the central 
 pillar, and the whole building is supported by it. On the top of the central 
 pillar twigs are then methodically placed in a radiating manner, resting on 
 the ground, leaving an aperture for the entrance. Thus is obtained a conical 
 and very regular hut. When the work is completed, many other branches 
 are placed transversely in various ways, to make the whole quite firm and 
 impermeable. A circular gallery is left between the walls and the central 
 cone. The whole is nearly three feet in diameter. All the stems used by 
 the Amblyornis are the thin stems of an orchid (Dendrobmm) t an epiphyte 
 
360 A VES ORDER PASSERIFORMES. 
 
 forming large tufts on the mossy branches of great trees, easily bent like 
 straw, and generally about twenty inches long. The stalks had the leaves, 
 which are small and straight, still fresh and living on them which leads me 
 to conclude that this plant was selected by the bird to prevent rotting and 
 mould in the building, since it keeps alive for a long time, as is so often the 
 case with epiphytical orchids. Before the cottage there is a meadow of 
 moss. This is brought to the spot and kept free from grass, stones, or 
 anything which would offend the eye. On this green turf, flowers and 
 fruit of a pretty colour are placed so as to form an elegant little garden. 
 The greater part of the decoration is collected round the entrance to 
 the nest ; and it would appear that the husband offers there his daily 
 gifts to his wife. The objects are very various, but always of a vivid 
 colour." 
 
 The starlings are a widely distributed group, peculiar to the Old World. 
 Our common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is an exceedingly plentiful bird in 
 England, where it stays all the. year, receiving an additional 
 The Starlings, host of migrants in the autumn and winter. Like the 
 Family crows, the starlings are walking, not hopping, birds like 
 Sturnidce. sparrows and finches. They differ from the crows, however, 
 in having a streaked nestling, and they have no rictal 
 bristles. Besides the members of the genus Sturnus, which contains the 
 true starlings of Europe and Asia, and of which our own starling is the repre- 
 sentative, the family embraces many allied 
 genera, chiefly Asiatic, such as the field-starlings 
 and mynas (Sturnia and Temenuchus), and the 
 rose-coloured pastor (Pastor roseus). The latter 
 is an extraordinary bird, on account of its nidi- 
 Kcation. It appears in certain districts of South- 
 Eastern Europe in vast swarms, hurriedly rears 
 its young, and departs again with such rapidity 
 that its absence has hardly been noticed from its 
 winter quarters. The starlings have the first 
 primary very short, and have on that account 
 been associated with the swallows and wagtails, 
 but with these families they have nothing to do. 
 
 Fig. 95.-Tri E COMMON STAR- Their e gg s a alwa y s W 8 * 1 * white, and the 
 LINO (Sturnus vulgaris). nest is a rough structure, placed in a hole of a 
 tree or wall. The starlings are principally in- 
 sect-feeders, and they do an immense amount of good to the agriculturist, 
 though it must be admitted that at certain times they commit some depre- 
 dation among the fruit. 
 
 This family is for the most part Indian and Moluccan, but there are 
 
 several African and Australian forms. It contains the wattled grakles 
 
 (Eulabes) of the Indian region, the glossy starlings of 
 
 The Tree Star- Africa (Lamprocolius), and the genus Calomis of the Indian 
 
 lings. Family and Australian regions. These birds are arboreal in 
 
 EidabetidcK. their habits, and differ from the true starlings in having 
 
 distinct rictal bristles, and in laying spotted eggs. In 
 
 Madagascar the Eulabetidce are represented by the genus Euryceros, a 
 
 chestnut bird with a huge bill of a blue colour. Only one species, E. 
 
 prevosti, is known. 
 
 The Dicruridai are black crow-like flycatchers, inhabiting Africa, India, 
 
DRONGOS ORIOLES. 
 
 361 
 
 They 
 
 The Drongos. 
 Family 
 Dicruridce. 
 
 and China, south throughout the Malayan Archipelago to Australia, 
 sit on exposed branches of trees, 
 whence they fly out and capture 
 insects. Their nest is a cradle 
 suspended between the fork of a 
 branch, and the eggs are whitish, 
 with red markings. In nearly all the species the 
 tail is very plainly forked, especially in Buchauga, 
 and in some genera, such as the Himalayan 
 Chibia, the outer feathers are curved upwards. 
 Some of the drongos, such as Dissemurus and 
 Bhringa, have the outer tail-feathers greatly 
 prolonged, and ending in a racket. 
 
 The orioles are an Old World family of birds, 
 the plumage being of a bright yellow or orange 
 colour, though some of the Moluccan and Aus- 
 
 Fig. 96. -THE BLACK DBONGO tralian forms, such as Mimeta, 
 
 (Buchanga atrce). 
 
 are dingy enough in colour, and 
 
 The Orioles. 
 
 Family 
 
 Oriolidce. 
 
 resemble honey-suckers (Meliphagidce). The orioles build 
 a nest like the drongos, a cup-shaped cradle between the 
 fork of a branch. 
 
 The golden oriole winters in Africa, and comes to Southern and 
 Central Europe in the spring. It not only visits the British Islands 
 pretty frequently, but has certainly bred there. 
 The note of all the orioles is very rich and flute- 
 like, and their habits are arboreal, their food con- 
 sisting of insects and fruit. The young birds are 
 streaked below, showing an affinity to the starlings ; 
 and the eggs are white, with black spots. 
 
 These birds are usually called orioles by American 
 naturalists, chiefly on account of their black and 
 yellow colour, which recalls the 
 plumage of the orioles of the Old The Hang-Nests. 
 World. They are, however, struc- Family 
 turally distinct, and differ in their Icteridce. 
 habits. The family contains many 
 well-known genera, such as the bobolink (Delichonyx 
 oryzivora) and the cow - birds (Molothrus), those 
 curious parasitic creatures of which Mr. W. H. Hudson gives such an inter- 
 esting account in the "Argentine Ornithology." He gives details of the way 
 in which the Argentine cow-bird (M. bonariensis) victimises many other small 
 birds by placing its eggs in their nests ; and he also tells us that when the 
 young cow-bird is hatched, the other occupants of the nest soon disappear, 
 though whether this massacre is the result of interference on the part of the 
 old birds, or is the work of the nestling cow-bird itself, as with our common 
 cuckoo, has not yet been proved. 
 
 Another well-known member of the family is the red- winged hang- 
 nest (Agelceus phcRiiiceus), popularly known amongst us as the red- 
 winged starling, and the meadow starlings (Sturnella) also belong to the 
 family. 
 
 The true hang-nests or troupials of the genus Icterus are widely spread 
 over the New World. The chief element in their coloration is a bright yellow 
 
 Fig. 97. THE GOLDEN ORIOLE 
 (Oriolus galbula). 
 
362 
 
 A VES ORDER PASSERIFORMES. 
 
 The Weaver- 
 Birds. Family 
 
 Ploceidce. 
 
 Fig. 98. THE BLACK-HEADED HANG 
 
 NEST (Icterus melanocephalus). 
 
 or orange, but they differ from the orioles of the Old World, with which they 
 are often confused, by having only nine 
 primaries. Nearly 140 species of Icteridce 
 are known, and some species of the genus 
 Cassidix appear, from the recent observa- 
 tions of Mr. A. Schulz, to be parasitic on 
 each other, for Dr. Kuschel of Breslau in- 
 forms us that Cassidix oryzivorus deposits 
 its eggs in the nest of C. persicus. The 
 meadow-larks (Sturnella) are ground birds, 
 as their name implies. 
 
 Intermediate between the hang-nests and 
 the finches come the weaver-birds. Al- 
 though they resemble the 
 finches in their food and in 
 many of their habits, they 
 mostly build domed and 
 hanging nests like the Ic- 
 teridce. 
 
 Weavers are found in all parts of Tropical 
 Africa and Madagascar, as well as in India 
 and Burma, as far south as the Malayan Peninsula. The weaver-finches, 
 which are an integral portion of the family Ploceidce, consist of the wax-bills, 
 such as Estrilda, Lagonosticta, Poephila, etc., are found in the Australian 
 region, as well as all over Tropical Africa and through- 
 out the Indian region. The weaver-birds build a sub- 
 stantial nest, purse-like in shape, often with a long 
 stocking-like entrance. As the nests are generally 
 suspended from the ends of palm-branches, or from 
 trees which overhang the water, it is supposed that 
 this stocking-like appendage is added to the nest to 
 prevent the attacks of monkeys or snakes, both of 
 which are enemies of the young weaver-birds. The 
 weavers have no pretensions to singing powers, and 
 can only keep up an incessant chattering, which does 
 duty for a song. When kept in captivity, and supplied 
 with dried grass for weaving, a baya weaver (Ploceus 
 baya) will make a nest in a cage, and the industry of 
 the birds is simply remarkable. The eggs of weaver- 
 birds vary to a great extent, being pure white, or bluish 
 or greenish, with deeper markings of the same colours. 
 
 These are brilliantly-coloured birds of the New World, resembling finches 
 
 _. _ in appearance, but distinguished by having a notch in the 
 
 Family ^ " u PP er mandible. They are very numerous in the neo- 
 Tanagridce. tropical region, and several species visit North America in 
 
 summer. 
 
 These curious little birds are allied to the Tanagridce, but have nevertheless 
 the habits of the creepers, and their creeper-like eggs, white 
 with red spots, point to an alliance with the tree-creepers 
 (Gerthiidce). The principal genera of the family are Gerthiola 
 and Ccereba, the latter containing the well-known blue- 
 creeper (Ccereba cyaned). 
 
 Fig. 99. THE BLACK- 
 HEADED WEAVER-BIRD 
 (Hyphantornis melano- 
 cephalus). 
 
 The American 
 Creepers. 
 
 Family 
 Cwrebidce. 
 
FINCHES B UNTINGS. 
 
 363 
 
 From these families which lie on the borderland of the finches, we pass to 
 the family Fringillidce. The latter family is one of the largest 
 in the whole series of the Passeriformes. It is almost universal The Finches. 
 in its distribution, and comprises three sub-families : the gros- Family 
 
 beaks (Coccothraustince), the true finches (Fringillince), and Fringillidce. 
 the buntings (Emberizince). 
 
 In these birds, of which our common hawfinch (Coccothraustes coccothraustes) 
 is the type, the bill is large and swollen, and the nasal bones are produced 
 backwards beyond the front lino of the bony orbit. There 
 are no less than twenty-three genera of grosbeaks, and they The Grosbeaks, 
 are represented in nearly every quarter of the globe. The Sub-family 
 northern forms are Coccothraustes in the Old World, and Coccothraustince. 
 Ligurinus, of which our common greenfinch (Ligurinus 
 clitoris) is the type. In North America Hedymeles is the prevailing form, 
 while in the Himalayas we have Mycerobas and Pycnorhamphus. The smaller 
 grosbeaks are principally neo-tropical, and are represented by the genera 
 Spermophila, and in the Galapagos Islands by Geospiza and Camarhynchus. 
 The cardinal grosbeaks (Cardinalis) are inhabitants of the Southern United 
 States as far as British Honduras in Central America, and species of the 
 genus are also found in Venezuela and Trinidad. 
 
 This family embraces all the best known of the finches. The type may be 
 said to be our common chaffinch (Fringilla ccdebs), but all the linnets, siskins, 
 goldfinches, and other familiar birds are part and parcel of 
 this sub-family. The bill is less massive than in the gros- The Finches. 
 beaks, and the upper mandible is not produced backwards Sub-family 
 beyond the front line of the orbit ; Fringillince. 
 otherwise the angle of the genys is 
 much the same as in the grosbeaks. 
 
 The finches constitute a very numerous sub-family, 
 and many beautiful birds are embraced within its 
 limits. Besides our own European forms mentioned 
 above, there are many interesting tropical genera, such 
 as the rose-finches (Carpodacus), which are found in 
 North America, as well as in Northern Europe and 
 Asia, being especially abundant in the Himalayas. 
 The sparrows all belong to this group of finches, as 
 well as the canaries, which are principally African, 
 Fig. loo. -THE CHAP- an( j the saffron-finches (Sycalis) of South America, 
 
 ^ the bullfinches (Pyrrhula) and the crossbills (Loxia). 
 In the buntings there is generally a gap between the two mandibles, and 
 the angle of the lower mandible is much more acute than in the finches and 
 grosbeaks. The buntings are grain and insect-eating birds, 
 often of bright colours, and distributed over the greater The Buntings. 
 part of the globe, excepting the Australian and Polynesian Sub-family 
 regions. In most of the buntings, as with the finches, there Emberizince. 
 is a complete winter plumage, and the summer dress is 
 gained, not by a thorough moult, but by a shedding of the edges of the winter 
 feathers, so that the underlying pattern comes into prominence. One of the 
 best examples of this phenomenon is the snow-bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis\ 
 which arrives in England in the winter in a rufescent dress. The summer 
 plumage is gradually assumed by the shedding of the pale edges to the 
 feathers ; the black tips to the primary coverts disappear by abrasion, and the 
 
364 
 
 A VES ORDER PASSERIFORMES. 
 
 Fig. 101. THE SNOW-BUNTING 
 (Plectrophenax nivalis). 
 
 The Larks. 
 
 Family 
 Alaudidce. 
 
 white bases of the primaries extend by degrees, as the rufous colour of 
 
 the upper parts is gradually shed, 
 allowing the underlying black and 
 white plumage to predominate, so that 
 the summer dress of the snow-bunting 
 is pure black and white. 
 
 Besides the genus JSmbertea, which 
 contains our yellow-hammer (E. citrin- 
 clla), cirl-bunting (E. cirlus\ and or- 
 tolan (E. hortulana), the buntings like- 
 wise embrace the corn -bunting (Mili- 
 aria miliaria), the Lapland bunting 
 (Calcarius lappoiiicus), and a large 
 number of American genera (Zouo- 
 trichia, Poospiza, Junco, Spizella, Am- 
 modronus, Melospiza, Hcemophila, Pip- 
 ilo, Spiza, Pseudochloris, Phryyilus, 
 Paroaria, etc.). 
 
 Larks are chiefly denizens of the Old World, though North America claims 
 a number of species of horned-larks (Otocorys), which represent a circumpolar 
 genus, of which the European horned-lark (0. alpestris) occurs 
 in Northern Europe and Northern Asia, as well as in North 
 America. In America the horned larks are more numerous, 
 and even extend into Colombia 
 in South America. The Alau- 
 didce are distinguished from all other passerine 
 birds by the scutellatioris on the hinder side of 
 the tarsi (planta tarsi). They are especially 
 numerous in Africa, and also in the plains of 
 India, the dominant genus Mirafra extending to 
 the Malayan Islands and even to Australia. The 
 sky-larks, of which our own familiar species, 
 Alauda arvensis, is the best known representa- 
 tive, are chiefly palsearctic, though similar 
 species occur in the Indian region. The larl.s 
 are, without exception, ground-builders, and the 
 eggs are generally dark brown, or whitish, with 
 brown mottlings and speckles. Some twenty 
 genera are known, among which are the desert 
 larks (Certhilauda), remarkable for their long 
 curved bill, the calandra larks (Melanocorypha), 
 the short- toed larks (Calandrella), the crested 
 
 larks (Galerita), the wood-larks (Lullula), and the finch-larks (Pyr- 
 rhulauda). 
 
 Like the larks, the wagtails and pipits are " ambulatores," or walking 
 birds. They do not hop like sparrows and finches. They resemble the 
 larks in one peculiarity, viz. the extreme elongation of the 
 inner secondaries, which are as long as the primary quills. 
 The Motacillidce have not the planta tarsi scutellated as in 
 the larks, and they have only nine primaries, the first one 
 being absent. In many of the larks, however, the bastard- 
 primary is present, but is so tiny as almost to defy detection. 
 
 Fig. 102. THE SKYLARK 
 (Alunda arvensis). 
 
 The Wagtails 
 
 and Pipits. 
 
 Family 
 
 Motacillidce. 
 
WA GTAILS CREEPERS. 
 
 365 
 
 Fig. 103. THE PIED WAGTAIL (Motacilla 
 lugubris). 
 
 The pipits are generally birds of sombre brown coloration, more like that 
 of the larks. They build their nests on the ground, generally under some 
 sheltered portion of a bank. The true 
 pipits (Anthus) are thirty-five in number, 
 and are found in almost every part of 
 the world. The common meadow pipit 
 (Anthus pratensis) is one well-known 
 species, and the tree-pipit (A. trivialis) 
 is another. The eggs of these two pipits 
 are much more richly coloured than 
 those of wagtails, and are often of a 
 pinkish-red or purplish colour, with 
 darker spots and blotches. The brightest 
 of the pipits are the members of the 
 African genera Macronyx and Tmetothy- 
 lacus, the species of Macronyx having 
 yellow breasts, while one species, M. amelice, has a beautiful pink 
 breast. 
 
 The wagtails arc divisible into two sections, the "water" wagtails and 
 the " field " wagtails, the latter being less frequenters of the river banks than 
 of the inland pastures. The most thoroughly river-haunting -species in our 
 own islands is the grey wagtail (Motacilla melanope\ while the pied wagtail 
 (M. lugubris) is a typical ' ' water "-wagtail, just as Ray's wagtail (M. campestris) 
 is a typical ** field "-wagtail. All these little birds, as well as the pipits, feed 
 on insects, which they catch on the wing or on the ground, and they all have 
 a graceful mode of running and walking, keeping up the whole time a con- 
 stant up-and-down waving of the tail. 
 
 The Mniotiltidce embrace a number of small warblers, entirely confined 
 to the American region, where they fulfil the same functions as our own 
 warblers (SylviicUe) of the Eastern Hemisphere, feeding on 
 insects. They differ, however, from the Sylviidce in having 
 nine primaries, nor is there any proof that the Mniotiltidce 
 have a double moult, in autumn and again in spring, like the 
 warblers of the Old World. The principal genera of the 
 Mniotiltidce are Dendrceca and Parula, both of which are 
 
 also denizens of South America. Some genera, like 
 Mniotilta, appear to have an affinity with the 
 creepers, while the genera Basileuterus, Setophaga, 
 Myiodioctes, etc., have well- developed rictal bristles, 
 and are like flycatchers in their external appear- 
 
 The American 
 
 Warblers. 
 
 Family 
 
 Mniotiltidce. 
 
 A typical creeper is easily distinguished from the 
 other passerine birds by its stiffened tail-feathers, 
 which resemble those of a woodpecker, 
 and are of the same use to the birds The Creepers. 
 in supporting themselves during their Family 
 climb up an upright trunk. Unlike Certhiidce. 
 the woodpeckers, which only ascend 
 the trunk, the tree-creepers often move along a 
 bough horizontally. They have a long and curved 
 bill, different from the conical bill of the tits, which 
 they resemble in nesting habits and in the colour of the eggs, which 
 
 Fig. 104. THE TREE- 
 CREEPER 
 (Certhia familiaris). 
 
366 
 
 A VES ORDER PASSERIFORMES. 
 
 are white, with rufous or reddish-brown spots. The genus Certhia 
 contains about ten species, of which our tree-creeper (Certhia famili- 
 aris) is the typical one, but members of the genus are found through- 
 out Europe and Northern Asia, as well as in the Himalayan mountains. 
 They occur also throughout North America and extend into Central 
 America. 
 
 Just as in the climbing birds like woodpeckers, there are stiff- 
 tailed species and soft-tailed species, so we find in the creepers the spiny- 
 tailed Certhice, and some soft-tailed genera like Salpornis of India 
 and Africa, Climacteris of Australia and New Guinea, and the crimson- 
 winged creeper (Tichodroma muraria), a species which 
 inhabits the mountainous regions from China to the 
 Himalayas, and from Turkestan to the Alps and 
 the Pyrenees. It is a beautiful little bird of a 
 delicate grey colour ; in this it resembles a nut- 
 hatch, but the bill is curved like that of a creeper. 
 Like a nut-hatch, it has white spots on the outer 
 tail-feathers, but has the wing-coverts crimson. 
 
 The honey-suckers are one of those curious Aus- 
 tralasian families which stand apart by themselves, 
 and for which it is difficult to esti- 
 Tlie mate the correct relationship. Gould 
 
 Honey-Suckers, wrote in 1865 a very excellent note 
 Family on these birds, the habits of which 
 
 Meliphagidce. he had studied himself in nature : 
 " The honey-eaters are unquestion- 
 ably the most peculiar and striking feature in Aus- 
 tralian ornithology. They are, in fact, to the farmer 
 what the Eucalypti, Bauksice, and Melalencce are to the flora of Australia. 
 The economy of these birds is so strictly adapted to those trees that the one 
 appears essential to the other ; for what can be more plain than that the 
 brush-like tongue is especially formed for gathering the honey from the flower- 
 cups of the Eucalypti, or that their diminutive stomachs are especially formed 
 for this kind of food, and the peculiar insects which form a portion of it." 
 The brush-tongue is the chief character of the honey-suckers, which are very 
 numerous in Australia and New Guinea, and extends into the Moluccas and 
 Polynesia. 
 
 The sun-birds are very similar in outward aspect to the neo-tropical 
 
 humming-birds (Trochili, antea, p. 347). They are richly decorated in 
 
 metallic colours, but instead of hovering in front of 
 
 The Sun- Birds, flowers, suspended in the air with a vibrating flight, 
 Family they are more like* tits in their ways ; at least, so we 
 
 Nectariniidce. gathered from watching a little troup of Cinnyris asiatica in 
 a garden at Delhi, where they crept about through the 
 bushes, uttering a little tit-like chirp, and picking off small insects from 
 the leaves. 
 
 The Malachite sun-bird ( Nectarinia famosa) is one of the largest of the 
 Nectariniidce, and is found in Southern Africa. Most of the species of sun- 
 birds have square tails, but N. famosa and a few other African species 
 have the central tail-feathers elongated. The sun-birds have an ex- 
 tensile tongue similar to that of the humming-birds and woodpeckers, 
 
 Fig. 105. THE CRIMSON- 
 WINGED CREEPER 
 (Tichodroma muraria). 
 
SUN-BIRDS TITS WHITE- E YES. 367 
 
 and Mr. Eugene Gates has shown that the bill is serrated for the terminal 
 third of both mandibles. They build pensile-like nests, made of fine 
 grass or rootlets, and generally with a kind of hood, 
 made of fine grass, above the entrance. The nest 
 is usually attached to the end of a branch, but is 
 sometimes found on the under-side of a broad leaf, 
 such as that of a plantain. 
 
 The flower-peckers are small birds, allied to the 
 sun-birds, but differing in their shorter bills, both 
 mandibles being serrated along 
 their cutting- edges. Their plum- The 
 
 age is mostly brilliant, and they are Flower-peckers, 
 found in the Indian and Malayan Family 
 regions and throughout the Moluc- Diceidce. 
 cas, New Guinea and Australia. 
 Their food consists of insects and small berries, and 
 Fig. 106. THE MALACHITE they are remarkable for the beauty of their nests, 
 ,, T , Su . N : B D , which are purse-like, made of the cotton from 
 
 (Nectannia famosa). , r I .111 1 
 
 plants, fine grass and vegetable-down, the nests 
 
 being suspended from the end of a twig, often at a great height from the 
 ground. The two principal genera of the flower-peckers are Dicceum and 
 Prionochilus. 
 
 The white-eyes are found in Africa, the Mascarene islands, throughout 
 India and Ceylon, to the Burmese provinces, China and Japan, and again 
 throughout the whole of the Malayan region to Australia 
 and Polynesia. They are nearly all birds of the same The White-eyes, 
 pattern of coloration, green or yellowish - green above, Family 
 mostly with a yellow forehead, sometimes with a black one, Zosteropidce. 
 while the majority of species are yellow below, or white with 
 yellow throats. The name of "white-eye" is given to the Zosteropidce, on 
 account of a white ring of feathers which encircles the eye, and not because 
 the eye itself is white. They feed upon small insects, which they seek for 
 among the trees ; and Mr. Gates says that the Indian species are generally 
 seen in flocks, and utter a constant twitter as they search for food. The 
 nest is cup-shaped, very neatly and delicately made of vegetable fibres 
 or fine grass, moss or wool. The eggs are blue, and two or three in 
 number 
 
 The tits are a numerous family, most strongly represented in the northern 
 parts of the Old and New Worlds, reaching in the latter to Central America, 
 and in the former occurring throughout Europe, Africa, and 
 Asia, but being absent from the Australian region. They The Tits. 
 have stout and conical bills, and have the nostrils covered Family 
 
 with bristles, and strongly scutellated tarsi, which have Paridce. 
 suggested to some ornithologists their affinity to the crows 
 (Corvidce). There is, however, in our opinion, no relationship between these 
 families, for the nesting habits of the two are entirely different, and the 
 character of the eggs suggests no possible connection. The tits are all small 
 birds, assembling in flocks and family parties in winter, when they associate 
 with creepers, nut-hatches, and other small birds, in traversing the woods in 
 search of insect food. The genera of tits are not many, and they are mostly 
 represented in the avi-fauna of Europe. Thus Pants contains our great tit 
 (P. major) and blue tit (P. cceruleus), Pcecile, the marsh tit (P. palustris) and 
 
A VES ORDER PASSERIFORMES. 
 
 Fig. 107. THE BEARDED 
 
 REEDLING. 
 (Calamophilus biarmicus). 
 
 its allies, Lophophanes, our crested tit (L. cristaius), and ^ffigilhalus, our long- 
 tailed tit (JE. vagans). Nearly all of these build 
 rough nests in holes of walls or of trees, and lay 
 white eggs spotted with rufous, from five to ten in 
 number. The long-tailed or bottle tit, on the other 
 hand, lays white eggs, seldom with any spots, in an 
 oval nest composed of moss, covered with lichens 
 and lined with feathers. It is one of the most 
 beautiful of all known nests, and is suspended in a 
 tree or bush, generally at no great height from the 
 ground. 
 
 The bearded reedling (Panurus biarmicus) is often 
 called the bearded tit, but it is not a true tit, being 
 a marsh-haunting bird, building a cup-shaped nest 
 at the base of a bunch of reeds. The eggs are white, 
 with reddish dots and streaks. It occurs still in the 
 Norfolk broads in England, and extends throughout 
 Europe to Central Asia in suitable localities. There 
 is more difference in the colour of the sexes in the 
 genus Panurus than there is in the tits. The males and females are alike in 
 colour in the latter birds, whereas in the reedling the male is a handsome 
 bird, with a grey head and a black moustache, while the female is quite a 
 plain coloured bird. 
 
 The nut-hatches are principally palsearctic and nearctic in their range. No 
 
 species is found in South America, Africa (south of the Sahara), or in the 
 
 Australian region. They are mostly grey-coloured birds, 
 
 The Nut-Hatches, with conspicuous white spots near the end of the tail-feathers. 
 
 Family In those parts of the world where true nut-hatches do not 
 
 Sittid'je. occur, their places are taken by birds of similar appearance 
 
 and habits, though of brighter coloration. Thus, in the 
 
 Himalayas south to the Burmese provinces and the Malayan sub-region 
 
 occurs the genus Dendrositta, represented far away 
 
 in Madagascar by Hypositta, and in Australia and 
 
 New Guinea by Sitella. 
 
 The true nut-hatches (Sitta), of which our common 
 nut-hatch is the type, are birds with the appearance 
 of a small woodpecker, and they climb up trees 
 with the same facility, using their wedge-shaped 
 bill to prize off pieces of bark to feed on the insects 
 which their prowess discovers. They have, however, 
 soft-pi umaged tails, not spiny tails like the wood- 
 peckers and creepers, but they run along boughs 
 exactly as these birds do, with the exception that 
 nut-hatches often run down a trunk, which the other 
 birds above-mentioned do not do. 
 
 The gold-crests form a little family of northern 
 birds, intermediate between the tits and warblers, 
 catching tiny insects like both of 
 these, but differing from them in 
 
 their structure and mode of nidification. They are very 
 tiny creatures, our common gold-crest (Regulus regulus) 
 being the smallest of our native birds. Gold-crests are 
 
 Fig. 108. THE COMMON 
 NUT-HATCH (Sitta ccesia). 
 
 The Gold-Crests. 
 Family 
 ReguUdce. 
 
GOLD- CRESTS WAX- WINGS. 
 
 3 6 9 
 
 found only in the northern parts of the Old and New Worlds, our own jR. 
 regulus and the fire-crest (R. iynicapillus) being palsearctic, with a smaller 
 race in the Himalayas (R. hitnalayensis), and distinct forms in Madeira (R. 
 maderensis), the Canaries (R. teneriffce), and the Azores (R. azorensis), while 
 North America has the ruby-crest (.R. calendula). 
 
 Although such a small bird, the common gold-crest is a regular migrant to 
 England across the North Sea, and sometimes migrations have taken place 
 which have lasted from eighty to ninety days. The nest which the bird 
 builds is slung like a hammock under the branch of a yew-tree or a fir : it is 
 made of moss, and is generally well concealed, and lined with feathers, the 
 eggs being from five to eight in number, of a creamy white colour, with a 
 darker ring round the largei end. 
 
 The shrikes are one of the most cosmopolitan families of birds, for, with 
 the exception of South America, where they are absent, they are everywhere 
 distributed. The true shrikes (Laiiius\ of which the great 
 grey shrike (L. excubitor) is the type, are chiefly northern The Shrikes or 
 birds, but are distributed also over Africa, India, and the Butcher-Birds. 
 Indo-Chinese sub-region, but in the Malayan, Australian, Family Laniidce. 
 and Oceanic sub-regions they are represented chiefly by the 
 genus Pachycephala. The red-backed shrike (Lanius collyrio} and the wood- 
 chat (L. senator) are two of the commonest of the European species, and the 
 former visits Great Britain in the summer. The members of this family 
 have gained their name of " butcher birds " from their habit of impaling 
 their food on sharp thorns in the hedges near their nests, mice, frogs, 
 grasshoppers, beetles, and other insects being often found in the "larders " 
 of these birds. 
 
 The swallow-shrikes or wood-swallows constitute a small assemblage of birds, 
 containing the genus Artamus, of the Indian and Australian regions, with 
 seventeen species, and Pse,udochelidon of West Africa, with 
 one species, P. eurystomina. The swallow-shrikes are grey 
 or brown birds, with a pointed blue bill and very long wings, 
 and Gould says that no one who has seen them in life can 
 fail to notice how closely they resemble the swallows in the 
 actions and general mode of life. The nest of A. sordidus 
 
 is placed in the fork of a branch, or on the side of a 
 tree, and is made of fine twigs neatly lined with 
 fibrous roots. The eggs are white, spotted with umber 
 brown. 
 
 The wax wings are a nine-pi imaried family, chiefly 
 northern in their habitat, and possessing tropical 
 genera only in North and Central 
 America, where the crested chatterers 
 (Phainopepla and Pliloyonys) occur. 
 
 The waxwing (Ampelis garrulus) is 
 found in North Am erica and in Northern 
 Europe and Asia, and occasionally visits Great Britain, 
 occurring at irregular intervals in some numbers. It 
 gains its name from the wax-like tips which are de- 
 veloped on the secondary quills in the adult bird. 
 These are also found in the American cedar-bird (Ampelis 
 cedroruw), but in the Japanese waxwing (A. japonicus) 
 the secondaries and tail are tipped with crimson. The nest of A. garrulus 
 25 
 
 The Swallow- 
 Shrikes. 
 Family 
 
 Artamidce. 
 
 The Chatterers. 
 Family 
 
 Ampelidce. 
 
 Fig. 109. THE WAX- 
 
 WINQ 
 
 (Ampelis garrulus). 
 
370 
 
 AVES-ORDER PASSERIFQRMES. 
 
 is a large and compact structure, made of twigs and moss, and lined with 
 feathers, the eggs being stone-grey, spotted with black or blackish-brown. 
 
 The Vireonidce constitute a small family of about sixty birds, peculiar 
 to the New World. They are. mostly of a green colour, and in many 
 respects resemble warblers, especially in the fact that the 
 young birds scarcely differ from the adults, whereas in the The Greenlets. 
 shrikes, to which the greenlets are undoubtedly also allied, Family 
 
 the young are cross-barred. The species of the genus Vireo Vireonidce. 
 build a pendent nest covered with lichens and mosses, and 
 they lay white eggs, speckled with red. 
 
 The warblers were, until recent years, considered to be a part of the family 
 
 of thrushes ; but in 1881, they were separated by the late Henry Seebohm 
 
 on characters which have been admitted to be of deep-seated 
 
 The Warblers. importance, viz., that the warblers had a double moult, one 
 
 Family i n spring and one in autumn, and the young were plain- 
 
 Sylviidce. coloured and resembled the adults, whereas the thrushes 
 
 have only an autumnal moult, and have spotted young, 
 
 differing from the plumage of the adult. 
 
 The warblers are denizens of the Old World, and are everywhere distri- 
 buted. Unfortunately we have not space to describe the many forms of 
 Syh'iidcR, which include some of the finest songsters in the world, such as the 
 nightingale (Daulias luscinia], the blackcap (Sylvia atricapilld), and other 
 familiar summer migrants, such as the willow 
 warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus), the chiffchaff (P. 
 minor), etc. In the Sylviidce are also placed reed 
 warblers, like our own species (Acroeephalus 
 streperus), and sedge warblers (A. phragmitis) ; as 
 well as all the grass- warblers ( Cisticola, Prinia, and 
 Sutoria). Some of the latter group build very in- 
 teresting nests, as they take a couple of leaves and 
 sew the edges together, so as to form a purse, in 
 which they build their riest, which is made of fine 
 grass, cotton down, and hair. The eggs are three 
 or four in number, white or bluish-green, boldly 
 marked with brownish-red. The warblers are 
 insectivorous birds, though most of -them, at certain 
 times, feed on small fruits and berries. In autumn 
 many of them migrate for very long distances. 
 
 As explained above, the thrushes have only one 
 
 moult in the year, and that in the autumn, and 
 
 they have the young birds thickly 
 
 The Thrushes. spotted and different from the 
 
 Family adults. Thus in the family Tur- 
 
 Turdidce. didcv are placed the robin (Erythacus rubecula) and its 
 
 ..'" allies the blue-throats (Cyanecula) and redstarts (Ruticilla), 
 
 as well as the chats (Saxicola), and numbers of tropical genera, such as the 
 
 chat-thrushes (Cossyphd) of Africa, the shamas (Cittocincla), and the dhayal 
 
 birds (Gopsychus) of India. 
 
 The thrushes may be roughly divided into three groups : the ground- 
 thrushes (Oreocida and G-eocichla), the true thrushes (Turdus), and the 
 blackbirds (Merula). 
 
 One of the largest and handsomest of the ground-thrushes is White's thrush 
 
 Fig. 110. THE INDIAN TAILOK 
 BIRD (Satoria satoria). 
 
THR USHES DIPPERS. 
 
 Fig. 111. WHITE'S 
 THRUSH (Oreocincla varia). 
 
 (Oreocicla varia), a species which comes from its home in Siberia to visit 
 Western Europe and the British Islands occasionally. 
 
 All the thrushes are insectivorous birds, but feed 
 also on worms and small molluscs, while in the 
 autumn and winter their food consists principally of 
 berries. Most of the northern species are migratory, 
 such as the fieldfare (Turdus pilaris), and the redwing 
 (T. iliacus), which come to us from Scandinavia in the 
 winter, while even our song-thrush (T. musicus) is to 
 a great extent a migrant. 
 
 In the blackbirds (Menda), the sexes are different 
 in colour, the female being always of a duller plumage 
 than in the male, as is evidenced by our common 
 blackbird (M. merula). The ground-thrushes are dis- 
 tinguished by a patch of white under the wing. 
 There is scarcely any part of the world from which 
 thrushes are absent. 
 
 The dippers, or water ouzels, are aquatic wrens. 
 
 They are generally associated with the thrushes, but they have the front 
 of the tarsus without any scutellse, and only covered with a ^ Dippers 
 plain tarsal envelope. Like the wrens, they have no rictal FamUy 
 bristles, and they build a round nest of moss under the Cindidce. 
 shelter of a stone or the root of a tree, and lay white eggs. 
 
 The name of dipper is not attached to this bird because it dips under the 
 water, but on account of the curious bobbing motion which the bird con- 
 tinually keeps up. Every time that it bobs 
 its head, it flirts its wings and slightly erects 
 its tail. The bird is ranked as " vermin " by 
 ignorant people, who suppose that it devours 
 the ova of trout, but it is generally allowed 
 that the evidence of this crime on the part 
 of the bird is open to doubt, and its food 
 consists of caddis-worms, water-beetles, and 
 small molluscs. The flight of the dipper is 
 extremely rapid, and resembles that of a 
 kingfisher. It flies with rapid beats of the 
 wings above the surface of the water, and 
 will disappear suddenly beneath the stieam, 
 but more often it settles on a rock and 
 deliberately walks into the water, searching for its food among the stones at 
 the bottom of the river. 
 
 Of the dippers about a dozen species are known, inhabitants of the moun- 
 tain-streams of the northern parts of both hemispheres, extending to the 
 Himalayas and China ; while in the New World the genus is found in the 
 highlands of Central America, and throughout the Andes of Colombia 
 Ecuador, and Peru. 
 
 The Troglodytidce embrace a number of small birds such as our common 
 wren (Anorthura troglodytes), which are spread over the 
 greater part of the globe, being very abundant in the New 
 World, but absent in the Australian and Ethiopian regions. 
 They have no rictal bristles, and build domed nests. Many 
 of them have a remarkable power of song. 
 
 Fig. 112. -THE COMMON DIVPER 
 (Cinclus aquaticus). 
 
 The Wrens. 
 
 Family 
 Troglodytidce. 
 
372 
 
 A VES ORDER PASSERIFOKMES. 
 
 me 
 
 Mocking- Birds. 
 Family 
 Mimidce. 
 
 Fig. 113. THE MOCKING-BIRD 
 (Mimus polyyloUus). 
 
 The mocking-birds &re an American family, of which Mimus polyyloUus 
 and the cat-bird (Galeoscoptes 
 carolinensis) are prominent ex- 
 amples. The Mimidto are found 
 throughout temperate North 
 America, Central America, the 
 West Indian islands, and the 
 greater part of South America, even to Chili, 
 Patagonia, and the Galapagos Islands. Their 
 powers of song and mimicry are proverbial. 
 
 The Timeliidce are short- winged, non -migra- 
 
 tory birds, with the habits of thrushes and the 
 
 rictal bristles of flycatchers. 
 
 The Babblers. They are mostly ground birds, 
 
 Family many of them, like Grateropus, 
 
 Timeliidce. proceeding through the bushes 
 
 in flocks, while others, like Ptilo- 
 
 cichla are clothed in dense plumage, resembling 
 
 the Formicariidee of South America. The characters and limits of this large 
 Old World family are still imperfectly understood. 
 
 The bulbuls are another family peculiar to the Old World, thrush-like in 
 character, but differing from the thrushes in their short tarsi, and stronger 
 rictal bristles. They are birds of quiet habits, but possess a 
 sweet song. The Pycnonotidie are found all over Africa, 
 and one species is an inhabitant of Algeria and Morocco. 
 They are strongly represented throughout the Indian region, 
 and. extend into the entire Malayan region. 
 The chief character which distinguishes this Old World family of birds 
 The is the spiny character of the rump-feathers. They are 
 
 Cuckoo-Shrikes, found throughout the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian re- 
 Family gions, and constitute a link between the flycatchers and the 
 Campophagidve. shrikes. 
 
 The flycatchers are mostly broad -billed, insect- catching birds, with abun- 
 dant rictal bristles, entirely confined to the Old World, over the whole 
 
 of which they are distributed. They 
 TheFlycatchers vhave spofcfced young like the thrushes, 
 
 nr * m ?/ an( l N this account it is often very 
 
 ******* difficult to determine whether some of 
 the genera should be referred to the Turdidce or the 
 Muscicapidce. 
 
 Our common flycatcher (Muscicapa grisola) is a 
 late summer migrant to England, and arrives from 
 Africa in May. The last-named continent is also 
 the home of a number of resident species of the genus 
 Muscicapa, which is also well represented in the Indian 
 and Chinese regions by species similar to M. grisola. 
 The nest of the latter species is often placed in a crevice 
 of bark on a tree and decorated with lichens and spiders' 
 webs, which help to conceal it. The eggs are greenish- 
 white or stone-colour, with reddish-brown spots. The 
 pied flycatcher (Ficedula atricapilla) represents another section of the Musci- 
 capidw, and lays blue eggs, the nest being in the hole of a tree. The fau- 
 
 The Bulbuls. _ 
 
 Family 
 Pycnonotidce. 
 
 Fig. 11 4. T 11 E COM MON 
 FLYCATCHER 
 
 (Muscicapa grisola). 
 
SWALLO WS TYRANT-BIRDS. 
 
 373 
 
 Fig. 115, THE 
 COMMON SWALLOW 
 (Hiru 
 
 tailed flycatchers (Rhipidura) of India and Australia build a cup-shaped nest 
 on a bough ; and besides these few forms there are many others which we 
 have not space to enumerate, such as the paradise flycatchers (Terpsiphone) 
 of Africa and India, remarkable for their long tails, which form a kind of 
 streamer. 
 
 The swallows, so often associated with the swifts, because of their similar 
 manner of flight and mode of living, are now recognised by all ornithologists 
 as being true Passeres. They have, how- 
 ever, a different arrangement of the The Swallows. 
 feather-tracts to the rest of the perch- Family 
 ing birds, in having the spinal tract HirunJinidcE. 
 forked on the back. Swallows are found 
 all over the world, and in summer penetrate very far 
 north, our common swallow (Hirundo rustica) having 
 been seen near Spitsbergen, and wintering as far south 
 as the Cape Colony and the Indian Peninsula. In 
 America the cliff"- swallow ( Petroche lidon pyrrhono to) and 
 the purple martin (Progne purpurea) also perform migra- 
 tions almost equal in extent to those of the American barri- 
 swallow (Hirundo erythrogaster), which is the counterpart 
 of our H. rustica. Many of the swallows build in barns 
 and outhouses or in holes of trees, and make rough nests 
 of mud and straw, lined with feathers, but some, like the 
 house-martins (Chelidon) build their mud nests under the 
 eaves of houses, and lay white eggs. The nest of our 
 house-martin (Chelidon urbica) is an instance of this method, and in this 
 genus the eggs are white, not spotted as in the case of the true swallows. 
 The bank-martins (Gotile) also lay white eggs, which are deposited at the end 
 of a tunnel excavated by the birds themselves. 
 
 All the birds contained in this section of the passeriformes have the in- 
 trinsic muscles of the syrinx fixed to the middle of the bronchial semi-rings. 
 The first sub-division of the Mesomyodi have the lower end 
 of the trachea not modified, the syrinx as in the oscines, but Section 
 
 with a lesser number of singing-muscles. This sub-division Mesomyodi. 
 is called the Acromyodce. There are eight acromyodian 
 families, of which mention is made below, and they are distinguished by the 
 different scutellation of the tarsi. In the first division occur the Tyrannidce, 
 Oxyrhamphidce, and Pipridce ; in these the tarsus is what is called "exas- 
 pidean." In the second division, where the tarsus is " pycnaspidean," are 
 the Cotingidce and Phytotomidw. In the third is the family PhilepittidcK, 
 with a " taxaspidean " tarsus; and lastly, the fourth division, with an 
 4 * ochreate " tarsus, containing the Pittidw and Xeniscidce. The last three 
 families inhabit the Old World, but all the others belong to the New 
 World. 
 
 In the tyrants the " exaspidean " form of tarsus prevails, i.e., the scutella- 
 tion of the fore part of the tarsus is continued over the whole outer side of 
 it, and includes also the hinder aspect or the planta tarsi. 
 The family is divided by Dr. P. L. Sclater into four sub- 
 families, the Tceniopteritue, Platyrhynchince, Elceniince, and 
 TyrannincK. The tyrants number more than 400 species, a 
 certain portion of which are migratory, breeding in North 
 America, and wandering to Central and South America in winter. 
 
 The Tyrants 
 
 Family 
 Tyrannidie. 
 
 By far 
 
374 
 
 AVES ORDER PASSERIFORMES. 
 
 the greater majority of species are neotropical in habitat. They are insect- 
 feeders, and resemble our flycatchers in habits, so much so that they are 
 commonly known as " flycatchers " in America. 
 
 In the Tyrannidce and Oxyrhamphidce the toes are nearly free, according 
 to Dr. Sclater, as in the Oscines or ordinary passerine birds. They differ 
 from the members of the foregoing family in having a straight 
 The Sharp-Bills, and pointed bill, instead of the flattened and hooked bill of 
 Family the Tyrannidw. As Mr. Salvin well observes, the position 
 Oxyrhamphidw. of the genus Oxyrhamphus is obscure, and it may turn out, 
 when its anatomy is known, that it is not allied to the 
 tyrants at all. In the male bird, according to Mr. Salvin, " the barbs of the 
 central portion of the outer web of the outermost primary have their ex- 
 tremities destitute of barbules, and these bare points turned rather abruptly 
 backwards and slightly inwards, the margin of the wing thus forming a 
 strongly serrate edge. In the female the outer web of this feather is normal." 
 Nothing has been recorded of the habits of the species of Oxyrhamphus, 
 which are three in number. 
 
 The Pipridce differ from the two foregoing families in having the toes 
 
 united at the base. They are mostly brightly-coloured birds, about seventy 
 
 in number, strictly neotropical in habitat, and dwelling in 
 
 The Manakins. the forests. A curious habit of one of the manakins, Chiroxi- 
 
 Family phialinearis, of Central America, is recorded by Mr. Nutting. 
 
 PipridcK. Instead of fighting for the female, as is the case with most 
 
 birds, this manakin dances himself into her favour. Mr. 
 
 Nutting once saw two males dancing upon a bare twig about four feet from 
 
 the ground. The two birds were about a foot and a half apart, and were 
 
 alternately jumping about two feet into the air, and alighting exactly upon 
 
 the spot whence they jumped. They kept time as regularly as clock-work, 
 
 one bird jumping up the instant that the other bird alighted, each bird 
 
 accompanying himself to the tune of toledo, tole'do, toledo, sounding the 
 
 syllable " to " as he crouched to spring, " le " while in the air, and " do " as 
 
 he alighted. 
 
 In the Cotingidce the tarsus is " pycnaspidean," with the scales of the 
 hinder aspect of the tarsus (planta tarsi) separate, small in size, and generally 
 
 arranged without any order. The 
 
 The American bill is elongated, compressed, and 
 
 Chatterers. not serrated. Six sub-families are 
 
 Family recognised by Dr. Sclater, and all 
 
 Cotingidce. the species are neotropical. They 
 
 comprise very varied forms, buti 
 
 the most striking are the cocks-of-the-rock (Rupi- 
 
 cola) arid the bell-birds (Chasmorhynchus). 
 
 The plant-cutters are only four in number, and 
 are found in Western South America from Peru 
 to Chili, thence to the Argentine 
 The Plant- Republic and Northern Patagonia. 
 Cutters. Family There is only one genus, Phytotoma, 
 Phytotomidce. which agrees with the Cotingidw, 
 as regards the scaling of the tarsus, 
 but is distinguished by its short, conical, and ser- 
 rated bill. 
 
 In the following small family the tarsus is "taxaspidean," with the spaces on 
 
 Fig. 116. THE BELL-BIRD 
 (Lhasmorhynchus niveus). 
 
PETLAS WOOD- HE WERS. 
 
 375 
 
 The Wattled 
 Ant-Thrushes. 
 
 Family 
 Philepittidce. 
 
 Fig. 117. THE PURPLE 
 PITTA 
 
 natina). 
 
 the soles of the tarsus close together, rectangular, and arranged in regular 
 series. The Philepittidce are ground birds, found only in 
 Madagascar. Two species are known, one black, the other 
 olive above, yellow below, but both having a bluish fleshy 
 carbuncle above the eye. 
 
 ThePittidce differ from all the families we have been recently 
 considering in having the tarsus "ocreate," or covered with an entire scale. With 
 the exception of one species, Pitta an- 
 
 golensis, which inhabits West Africa, The Pittas. 
 
 the whole of the family are denizens of Family Pitiidce. 
 the tropical regions of the Indian and 
 Australian regions. The pittas are birds of bright 
 coloration, inhabitants of the forests, and in many 
 cases migratory. The Burmese genus Anthocinda 
 has long superciliary tufts, which are absent in the 
 other genera. 
 
 The Xeniscidce agree with the Pittidce in the scaling 
 of the tarsus, but have only ten tail-feathers, whereas 
 the pittas have twelve. Three genera are known of 
 these tiny wren-like birds, viz. Acanthidositta, Tra- 
 versia, and Xenicus, all from the New Zealand sub- 
 region. 
 
 The arrangement of the voice- organs in the Tracheo- 
 phonce is exactly opposite to that of the Oscines or 
 ordinary passeres, and the lower end 
 of the trachea is specially modified in order to form an organ Section 
 
 of voice, and the bronchi are not involved in the arrange- Tracheophonce. 
 menb at all. 
 
 The four families composing the Tracheophonce are all neotropical, the 
 Dendrocolaptidce and Formicariidce having only one pair of notches in the 
 hinder margin of the sternum, while 
 the Conopophagidce and Pteroptoc- 
 hidce have two pairs of posterior 
 notches. 
 
 The wood-hewers are about three 
 hundred in number, and are con- 
 tained in six sub-families, three of which, the Fur- 
 nariince (oven-birds), Synallaxince, and Philydonnce 
 have soft-plumaged tails, while the other four, con- 
 sisting of the true wood-hewers and their allies, have 
 spiny tails. The species we have figured comes from 
 North and West Argentina, is somewhat gregarious, 
 and Mr. Barrows says that its habits are somewhat 
 like those of a woodpecker, but it spends much of its 
 time on the. ground searching for insects. 
 
 These are forest birds, inhabiting Central and 
 South ' America, and numbering about 300 species. 
 Mr. Osbert Salvin divides the family 
 into two groups, those which' fre- The Ant-Birds. 
 quent the trees and bushes and have short tarsi, and those Family 
 
 whose habits are terrestrial, and feed on insects on the Formicariidce. 
 ground. The habits of the Formicariidce are not very well 
 
 The 
 
 Wood-Hewers. 
 Family Den- 
 drocolaptidce. 
 
 Fig. 118. BRIDGES' WOOD- 
 HEWER (Drymornis 
 bridgesi). 
 
376 A VES ORDER PASSERIFORMES. 
 
 known, but they appear to make their nests in trees and bushes, some of 
 them being pensile, and suspended in a forked branch near the extremity of 
 a bough. The eggs, according to Mr. Saivin, vary greatly, from rich dark- 
 greenish blue to a mottled mahogany colour, and many are pure white, or are 
 white with few or many spots. Although commonly known as " ant "-birds, 
 whence also their scientific name, it is now believed that the Formicariidce 
 do not eat ants, but only feed on the insects driven up by the swarms of 
 foraging-ants (Ecliiton). 
 
 The Conopophayidce consist of a couple of genera, with eleven species, 
 found in South America, from Colombia to South-Eastern Brazil and Bolivia. 
 They bear a general resemblance to the Formicariida:, but have four posterior 
 notches in the sternum. 
 
 The tapacolas, or Pteroptochidce, are a family of small wren-like birds, 
 occurring in the Andes of Ecuador and Colombia, but more plentifully re- 
 presented in Chili arid Patagonia. 
 
 In the AtrichiidcK the sternum is single-notched, and they have a rudi- 
 mentary f urcula or " merry-thought." The wings are so small that the power 
 of flight must be very limited, and the planta tarsi is scaled 
 Tfce Scrub-Birds, like that of a lark. Only two species are known, both from 
 Family Australia. Of the noisy scrub-bird (Atrichia clamosa), whom 
 
 Atrichiidce. Gilbert discovered in Western Australia, Gould says that 
 it is a very difficult bird to find among the tangled beds of 
 dwarf-ferns and dense thickets, and is only detected by its peculiar and 
 noisy note. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM I. VERTEBRATA. 
 
 CLASS III.REPTILIA. 
 BY R. LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R,S., V.P.G.S., &c. 
 
 FROM both mammals and birds, reptiles are broadly distinguished by the 
 coldness of their blood, which has a temperature but little, if at all, raised 
 above that of the surrounding air. Probably to the popular mind this is the 
 most obvious distinction of reptiles ; and, in the ordinary acceptation of the 
 term, it does serve to differentiate the group from all other vertebrates 
 except fishes with which these creatures are not likely to be confounded. 
 But it must be remembered that the popular and scientific conceptions of 
 what constitutes a reptile are totally distinct. Under that title the ordinary 
 observer includes frogs, salamanders, and newts ; and, in fact, all terrestrial, 
 cold-blooded vertebrates. From certain structural peculiarities the natural- 
 ist, on the other hand, separates the creatures just named from reptiles, and in- 
 cludes under that title only crocodiles, tortoises, turtles, lizards and snakes, with 
 a number of extinct forms with which we are not concerned in this volume. 
 
 Although some reptiles, such as lizards, agree very closely with the egg- 
 laying mammals (Monotremata) in the structure of the bones forming the 
 shoulder-girdle, while this resemblance is still more markedly displayed by 
 certain extinct members of the reptilian class, yet the relationships of 
 modern reptiles are decidedly closer with birds. Both groups, for instance, 
 agree in that the young are not nourished with milk ; while as regards 
 structure there are several points in which they are identical, and at the 
 same time differ from mammals. Notably, each branch of the lower jaw in 
 birds and reptiles is composed of several distinct bones ; and the whole jaw 
 is jointed on each side to the skull by means of a separate ossification known 
 as the quadrate -bone. In both groups the ankle-joint is situated between 
 the two horizontal rows of bones constituting the tarsus ; although in birds, 
 as well as in some extinct reptiles, these bones are welded respectively with 
 the long bones of the leg and of the metatarsus, A further distinction 
 is the articulation of the skull to the first vertebra by means of a single 
 knob-like condyle, instead of by the two condyles characterising mammals. 
 
 Such are some of the features common to birds and reptiles, as distinct 
 from mammals. From birds, reptiles are broadly distinguished by the ab- 
 sence of feathers, the protective structures developed in the outer layer of 
 the skin taking the form either of overlapping horny scales, or of large 
 shield-like plates united by their edges. As already said, reptiles are further 
 distinguished by their cold blood ; but this is obviously a feature of much 
 less importance, for even among mammals the Monotremata have the tem- 
 perature of the blood perceptibly lower than is the case with the higher 
 members of the class. An important difference is, however, found in the 
 great blood-vessel, or aorta, by which the blood passes from the heart to the 
 body ; since, whereas in birds this is single and bends over the left branch of 
 
 377 
 
373 REPTILIA ORDER I. CROCODILIA. 
 
 the windpipe, in reptiles it is double, and passes over both branches of the 
 latter. Then, again, no reptiles are known in which the number of digits 
 in the fore-limb is reduced to three ; while in no case are the two collar- 
 bones fused together to form the forcula, or merrythought, which consti- 
 tutes such a striking feature in the skeleton of a bird. Other minor differences 
 might be pointed out, but the foregoing are amply sufficient to distinguish 
 a bird from a reptile. In common with the egg-laying mammals, both groups 
 produce their young from eggs ; but in certain reptiles the young are retained 
 so long within the body of the parent that they are born alive into the world. 
 
 From the lower vertebrates, that is to say frogs, salamanders, newts, and 
 fishes, reptiles differ in that they are never provided with gills at any period 
 of life, and when first hatched are similar in general form and structure to 
 the adult, or, in other words, do not undergo a metamorphosis. 
 
 Whereas birds are remarkably alike in general appearance and internal 
 structure, reptiles present great diversity in these respects, and the distinc- 
 tion between the various orders of the latter are much more strongly marked 
 than is the case with those of the former. If extinct types be taken into 
 account, these diversities are still more strongly accentuated, and there are 
 certain fossil forms which walked on their hind legs alone, while others were 
 capable of flying in the same manner as a bird. For this reason the presence 
 or absence of the power of flight is not given as one of the distinctions 
 between birds and reptiles. 
 
 Geologically, reptiles are much older than either mammals or birds, and 
 consequently a large number of their orders are extinct, while one is repre- 
 sented only by a solitary survivor. The existing orders are as follows : 
 I. CROCODILIA (Crocodiles, Alligators, and Garials). 
 II. CHELONIA (Tortoises and Turtles). 
 
 III. SQUAMATA (Lizards, Chamseleons, and Snakes). 
 
 IV. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA (New Zealand Tuatera.) 
 
 In consequence of their greater antiquity, and the numerous migrations 
 which they have undergone during early periods of the earth's history, 
 reptiles do not agree with mammals in respect to their geographical distribu- 
 tion ; so that the realms and regions into which the earth is divided from the 
 evidence of the present and past distribution of mammals do not hold good 
 for reptiles. Some of the leading features in the distribution of the orders 
 and sub-orders of the present class are mentioned in the sequel. 
 
 ORDER I. CROCODILIA. 
 CROCODILES, ALLIGATORS, AND GARIALS. 
 
 NOBODY can mistake a crocodile or alligator, or even their long-snouted 
 allies, the garials, for any other reptile ; and consequently, although they are 
 nearly allied to certain extinct forms, there is no necessity here for giving an 
 elaborate and detailed definition of the order. Great lumbering brutes, 
 lying like logs in the water, but waking into sudden and unexpected activity 
 directly living prey comes within their reach, crocodiles and alligators are 
 specially characterised by the rows of large shield-like homy plates covering 
 the back and parts of the neck, and in some cases also the under surface of 
 
CROCODILES, ALLIGATORS, AND GARIALS. 379 
 
 the body. These shields, which do not overlap, but join one another by 
 their edges, are often marked on the back by more or less distinctly developed 
 longitudinal ridges, and, at least on the back, are underlain in the deep layer 
 of the skin by solid bony plates. In the case of the ridged shields, the 
 underlying plates are similarly ridged ; and in every instance the plates are 
 marked by a peculiar honey-comb-like sculpture. A somewhat similar 
 sculpture, although taking more the form of irregular branching ridges and 
 grooves, is likewise developed on the outer surface of the bones of the head ; 
 and in this respect the skull of every living member of the order differs from 
 that of any other existing reptile. All crocodilians as the members of the 
 order may be collectively designated are huge ungainly reptiles, with large 
 flat heads, depressed and lizard-like bodies, short limbs, and long, compressed, 
 and powerful tails, bearing on the upper surface a crest of horny lobes, which 
 is double in the basal half of that appendage. The toes, which are five in 
 number in the fore-limbs, but are reduced to four in the hinder pair, are 
 more or less completely united by webs to form efficient paddles for swim- 
 ming ; and on each foot the three toes on the inner side are furnished with 
 strong and sharp claws. In the huge, ugly head, the apertures of the ears 
 can be closed by means of movable lids, so as to prevent the ingress of water ; 
 and the nostrils open at the very tip of the muzzle whether this be short or 
 broad, as in the alligators, or long and narrow, as in the garials, The vast 
 and cavern-like mouth is armed with a formidable series of sharp, conical teeth, 
 some of which are enlarged into tusks, while all are implanted in separate 
 sockets, and form a single row on the summit of each jaw. To keep this 
 terrible armament in repair, the teeth are being consequently shed and re- 
 newed, the new ones coming up beneath the hollow bases of the old ones 
 and gradually pushing them out, Sometimes three or four teeth may be seen, 
 one beneath the other, packed together like a nest of thimbles. 
 
 If the dried skull of one of these reptiles be examined, it will be found 
 that the whole of the palate is formed by a solid roof of bone, and also that 
 the quadrate-bone is firmly and immovably wedged in between the adjacent 
 elements of the skull. Later on, we shall see that this type of structure 
 differs very markedly from that which obtains among the lizards, and thus 
 forms a most essential feature in the definition of the order. A more de- 
 tailed examination of the skulls of all existing crocodiles will also show that 
 the posterior, or internal, nostrils open on the palate right at the hinder end 
 of the skull, close to where it joins the backbone, And it is by means of this 
 arrangement that these reptiles are enabled to hold and drown their prey in 
 their open mouths beneath the surface of the water without any danger of 
 being suffocated themselves. This is effected by means of the production of 
 the upper extremity of the windpipe well into the mouth, where it enters the 
 internal nostrils, and thus forms a closed tube from the external nostrils to 
 the lungs. 
 
 Another peculiarity in the structure of a crocodile which has much effect 
 on its movements, is to be found in the vertebrae of the short neck. From 
 the development of long processes on the sides of this portion of the back- 
 bone, a crocodile is totally unable to turn its head. Consequently, if a man 
 be attacked on land by one of these monsters, he has but to await: its rush, 
 and then leap suddenly aside, when his aggressor will continue its course 
 until able to turn its whole body, 
 
 Members of the order are found in all the warmer regions of the globe, 
 but are happily absent from European rivers. -They frequent alike rivers, 
 
REPTILIAORDER I.CROCODILIA. 
 
 marshes, and ponds ; and, although never found far removed from water, 
 will at times travel long distances on land. In periods of drought, some of 
 them, at least, bury themselves deep in the mud, where they remain in a 
 semi-torpid condition until awakened by returning moisture. They are the 
 most thoroughly carnivorous of all reptiles ; and their huge size and powerful 
 teeth render them capable of seizing and killing almost all kinds of living 
 prey. Animals coming to drink are seized by the nose, and pulled under 
 water, to be ruthlessly drowned in the manner already indicated. 
 
 All crocodilians lay eggs, which are furnished with a hard white shell, 
 and comparable in size to those of a goose. In number they usually vary 
 from one to three score. They are buried by the female parent in the warm 
 sand, where in due course they hatch. It appears, however, that in some 
 instances, at least, the female opens the pit when the young are ready to 
 burst their prison, being attracted by the cries uttered by the little crocodiles 
 while still within the shell. The young ones arc introduced to the water by 
 the mother. 
 
 Although all living crocodilians are included in the single family Crocodilidce, 
 they are divided into several genera, some of which have a more or less 
 
 limited geographical distribution, while others have a very 
 Caimans extensive range. Of those with a restricted range, the first 
 (Caiman). we have to notice are the caimans (Caiman) of Tropical 
 
 America. Caimans are broad and short-snouted crocodilians, 
 with a bony armour developed on. the under, as well as the upper, surface of 
 the body. In the skull, the nasal bones only extend as far forwards as the 
 hinder aperture of the external nostrils ; and, as a rule, both the first and 
 fourth lower teeth, which are enlarged and tusk-like, are received into pits 
 in the upper jaw, so as to be concealed when the mouth is closed. The 
 upper teeth bite on the outer side of the lower ones ; and the two branches 
 of the lower jaw have but a very short union in the middle line at their front 
 extremity. A peculiarity of the genus is to be found in the circumstance 
 that the bony plates on the back are articulated together. There are several 
 species of caiman, one of which ranges as far south as the La Plata River. 
 Their true home is, however, the tropics, and in the Orinoco and Amazon 
 they occur in thousands. In Brazil they are known as jacares, and one 
 species from that country measures from eighteen to twenty feet in length. 
 In capturing these ferocious and bloodthirsty monsters, the native Brazilians 
 display great daring. 
 
 The alligators are so closely allied to the caimans that they can only be 
 distinguished by anatomical features. The most easily detected distinction 
 
 is to be found in the skull, in which the nasal bones extend 
 Alligators right across the aperture of the external nostrils, instead of 
 (Alligator). stopping short at their hinder border. The bony plates on 
 
 the back differ by the absence of any articulation between 
 them ; while those on the lower surface are either very thin or wanting. Of 
 the two well-known species, the Chinese alligator (A. sinensis) is a compara- 
 tively small form, approximating to the caimans in the retention of 
 thin bony plates on the under surface, and having the front toes free. In 
 the gigantic North American alligator (A. mississippiensis), on the other hand, 
 there are no plates beneath the body, and the front toes are webbed ; while 
 there are also differences in the number of plates on the neck and back, as 
 well as in the number of teeth, which aid in distinguishing between the two 
 kinds. The habits of alligators are very similar to those of other members of 
 
CROCODILES, ALLIGATORS, AND GARIALS. 
 
 the order ; but the female buries her eggs which may reach a hundred in 
 number among leaves and other decaying vegetable matter, in order to 
 hasten the process of hatching ; and during the pairing -season the males 
 spend much of their time on land. The Chinese species feeds largely upon 
 fish. 
 
 The typical or true crocodiles are readily distinguished from both the fore- 
 going genera by the circumstance that the upper teeth interlock with the 
 lower ones, and likewise by the fourth lower tooth generally 
 biting into a notch in the upper jaw. In the skull the nasal True Crocodiles 
 bones extend only as far forwards as the hinder margin of (Crocodiliis). 
 the nostrils ; and whereas there are from seventeen to nine- 
 teen upper teeth, in the lower jaw the number is constantly fifteen. In all, 
 the under surface of the body is devoid of bony plates. Crocodiles are repre- 
 sented by about eleven species, which are distributed over the south of Asia, 
 Africa, Madagascar, the north of Australia, and Tropical America, and it is 
 not a little remarkable that one of these (Crocodilus porosfus) extends from 
 India to Queensland, being also found in some of the islands of Polynesia, 
 such as the Solomons and Fiji. This wide distribution is, however, readily 
 explained by this species be- 
 ing largely estuarine in its 
 habits, and taking readily to 
 salt water, whereas all the 
 others are fresh-water rep- 
 tiles. Great difference ob- 
 tains in the form of the skull 
 in the various representatives 
 of the genus, the Oriental 
 magar (G. palustris) having a 
 short and broad alligator-like 
 snout, whereas in the sharp- 
 nosed crocodile (G, ameri- 
 canus) of Central America, 
 the muzzle is comparatively 
 long, narrow, and pointed. 
 Even in this species, how- 
 ever, the short front union between the two branches of the lower jaw is 
 retained. In its still more elongated snout, the West African long-nosed 
 crocodile (C. cataphractus) forms a connecting link between the more typical 
 species and the under-mentioned garials. The species longest known is the 
 Egyptian crocodile (G, niloticus), which is one of those with a snout of medium 
 proportions. 
 
 As a rule, the favourite haunts of crocodiles are sandbanks in rivers, where 
 they lie basking for hours in the full sun, frequently with their ponderous 
 jaws widely gaping. They appear to live for a great number of years dur- 
 ing the whole of which they continue to grow and often frequent the same 
 spot for long periods of time. Their ferocity is too well known to need men- 
 tion ; and many incautious bathers have lost their lives through these hideous 
 reptiles. On the Hugli it is stated that women coming down to the river's 
 edge to draw water have occasionally been seized and dragged under while 
 stooping down on the marge. Although specimens are now seldom recorded 
 of more than twelve or thirteen feet in length, there is good evidence that 
 formerly the Indian magar grew to at least eighteen feet. 
 
 Fig. 1. NORTH AMERICAN ALLIGATOR (A. mississip- 
 piensis). 
 
382 
 
 REPTILIA ORDER LCROCODILIA. 
 
 Stumpy 
 
 Crocodile 
 
 (Osteolcemus). 
 
 Garials 
 
 ( Rhynchosuchus 
 and Garialis). 
 
 A small short-snouted species (Osteolcemus tetraspis) from Sierra Leone has 
 been referred to a genus by itself, on account of the nasal bones extending 
 right across the aperture of the nostrils. Although agreeing 
 in this respect with the alligators, in all other features this 
 species is a true crocodile. 
 
 Two members of the order differ from all the foregoing in 
 having the edges of the very long and slender muzzle nearly 
 straight, instead of more or less distinctly festooned, and likewise by the 
 circumstance that the nasal bones stop considerably short of the hinder 
 border of the external nostrils. A further marked differ- 
 ence is to be found in the great length of the bony union be- 
 tween the two branches of the lower jaw, which extends at 
 least as far back as the fifteenth tooth. The teeth themselves 
 are also much more slender than in the preceding genera, the 
 fish-eating habits of the garials rendering a more powerful type of dentition 
 unnecessary. Of these two species, Schlegel's garial (Rhynchosuchus schlegeli) 
 inhabits the Malay peninsula and Borneo, and has the snout of medium 
 elongation and slenderness. Its claim to generic distinction is due to the 
 circumstance that the nasal bones extend forwards on the upper surface of 
 the snout to reach the premaxillre or anterior jawbones. It has twenty or 
 twenty-one upper, and eighteen or nineteen lower, teeth ; and its length 
 varies from twelve to fourteen feet. 
 
 On the other hand, the true garial (Garialis gangetica), which inhabits the 
 Ganges, Bramaputra, Indus, and Mahanadi, together with a river in Arakan, 
 
 is distinguished by the much 
 greater length and slenderness of 
 the snout, in which the nasal 
 bones stop short of the pre- 
 maxillse, so that the maxillae, or 
 hinder upper jawbones come into 
 contact with one another on the 
 upper surface of the snout be- 
 tween the other two pairs of bones. 
 The almost uniformly sized teeth 
 are very numerous, varying from 
 27 to 29 in the upper, and from 
 25 to 26 in the lower jaw. None 
 of the lower ones bite into pits in 
 the upper jaw, whereas some of 
 the former are so received in the 
 other species. All the toes are 
 fully webbed. In the adult the 
 
 Fig 2. TRUE GARIAL (Garialis gangetica). 
 
 general colour is dark olive on the head and back. The male garial may be 
 distinguished by the development of the expanded extremity of the muzzle 
 into a kind of hump, in the centre of which are situated the nostrils. The 
 garial grows to a length of about twenty feet, and feeds entirely on fish. 
 For the capture of its finny prey, the numerous slender, sharply pointed, 
 and somewhat curved teeth are admirably suited; and the highly developed 
 swimming powers of this species are also correlated with the nature of its 
 food. The female deposits her eggs in the sand of the river- banks, these 
 being generally laid in two distinct layers, one above the other. When the 
 young first make their appearance in the world, they have the snout propor- 
 
TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 383 
 
 tionately much longer than in the adult; but, owing to the more rapid 
 growth of the body, this becomes gradually shorter. Young garials have the 
 body and tail ornamented with a number of oblique dark bands on a lighter 
 ground. Although the garial is commonly looked upon with suspicion, it 
 does not appear that it ever attacks man or the larger mammals. 
 
 ORDER II. CHELONIA. 
 TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 
 
 THE presence of a bony shell, in a more or less fully developed state some- 
 times enclosing the whole body in a solid case, and in other cases reduced to 
 a kind of dish-cover on the back is the grand distinguishing feature of the 
 tortoises and turtles, which collectively constitute the second great order of 
 reptiles. Indeed, so far as their bony framework is concerned, these strange 
 creatures may almost be described as reptiles turned inside out. For the 
 ribs, which are generally united with bony plates in the skin to form the 
 upper shell, or carapace, are actually placed outside both the blade-bones and 
 the haunch-bones ; while, when a shell is developed on the under surface of 
 the body, its front portion is formed by the equivalents of the collar-bones. 
 
 The presence, in some form or other, of such a shell serves at once to 
 distinguish the Chelonians from all other living reptiles. In ordinary 
 tortoises and turtles the upper shell is firmly welded to the backbone ; but 
 the under shell, or plastron, which may or may not be joined by its edges to 
 the sides of the carapace, is generally free from the internal skeleton. Ex- 
 ternally the shell is covered by a number of longitudinal rows of horny 
 shields, which can bo stripped off without much trouble, and then reveal the 
 underlying bony plates. Unfortunately for the ordinary student of natural 
 history, the form and mode of arrangement of these hidden bony plates are 
 of the utmost importance in the classification of many of these reptiles. 
 And as they are not shown in figures taken from specimens in the ordinary 
 condition, he must either refer to special works on the subject, or must visit 
 a good museum, Both the superficial horny shields and the underlying bony 
 plates have received special names ; and as some acquaintance with their 
 general mode of arrangement is absolutely essential to the study of these 
 reptiles, a brief reference to the subject must be made in this place. 
 
 Taking any ordinary Chelonian, such as the common Greek tortoise of our 
 gardens, we find the following general arrangement obtaining in the horny 
 shields. Along the middle of the upper shell runs a single series of five 
 large symmetrical shields known as the vertebrals. On each side these are 
 flanked by a series of still larger shields, usually also five in number, termed 
 the costals. The edges of the upper shell are formed by a numerous series 
 of much smaller marginal shields, which in those forms with a complete shell 
 overlap the middle of the sides, and thus come on to the plastron. At the 
 middle of the front edge of the carapace there is very generally a small un- 
 paired shield known as the nuchal ; while the term caudal is applied to the 
 corresponding single or double shield at the opposite end of the shell. ^ On 
 the under surface, or plastron, we find six pairs of large shields, respectively 
 named, from front to back, the gular, humeral, pectoral, abdominal, femoral. 
 
334 REPTILIA ORDER II.CHELONIA. 
 
 and anal shields ; while in some cases an unpaired intergular is interposed 
 between the two gulars. Certain small shields on the borders of the slits for 
 the fore and hind limbs need not be further referred to. 
 
 If we now strip off the horny shields, we shall find that the underlying 
 bony plates conform to a great extent with the arrangement of the former, 
 although presenting certain well-marked differences. In the middle line of 
 the upper shell runs a single series of small many-angled plates termed the 
 neurals, all attached below to the back-bone. A larger unattached nuchal 
 plate in front, and one or two similarly detached pygals behind, complete this 
 median unpaired series. The sides of the carapace are formed by the eight 
 pairs of costal plates, which are firmly welded to the underlying ribs ; while 
 its borders are composed of the marginal plates, which resemble the corre- 
 sponding horny shields in being angulated, and some of which join the 
 plastron, when the latter is fully developed. Exclusive of these marginals, 
 the lower shell or plastron generally consists of one unpaired and four paired 
 elements. The front pair, corresponding to the collar-bones of other verte- 
 brates, are the epiplastrals, behind or between which is the single ento- 
 plastral. Then follow the hyoplastrals, hypoplastrals, and xiphiplastrals ; 
 the latter forming the hinder extremity of the lower shell, and being fre- 
 quently more or less deeply notched in the middle line. In addition to 
 these elements, a few tortoises have a pair of mesoplastral bones intercalated 
 between the hyo- and hypoplastrals, thus bringing up the total number of 
 bones in the lower shell to eleven. 
 
 Scarcely less peculiar than their shells are the jaws of the Chelonia, which 
 are invariably cased in horny sheaths, with sharp cutting edges, like the 
 beaks of birds, and show no vestiges of teeth at any period of life, Gener- 
 ally the head is relatively short and wide ; but there is a considerable amount 
 of diversity in this respect, as there is in regard to the structure of the skull. 
 In all cases, however, the quadrate-bone is firmly fixed between the adjacent 
 bones of the skull, to which its relations are somewhat different from those 
 obtaining in the Crocodilia. There are many other peculiarities connected 
 with the bony framework of these reptiles ; but those mentioned are amply 
 sufficient to distinguish them from all other groups. 
 
 The order is divided into three sub-orders, respectively known as the 
 Cryptodira, Pleurodira, and Trionychoidea ; and these divisions are important, 
 not only on account of indicating structural differences, but also on distribu- 
 tional grounds. r J hus, whereas the first group attains its maximum develop- 
 ment in the countries to the north of the Equator, the second group is now 
 entirely restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, and is the only one repre- 
 sented in Australia. No members of the order are found in New Zealand ; 
 and the third group is unknown in both Australia and South America, as 
 indeed it is in Europe, although this is probably due to temperature. 
 
 Great differences are observable in the mode of life of the different 
 members of the order, the typical tortoises being almost or quite exclusively 
 terrestrial, the soft tortoises fresh-water, and the turtles marine. All are, 
 however, fond of water, and even the most exclusively terrestrial species are 
 fond of an occasional bath. Many of the so-called terrapins may be regarded 
 as amphibious creatures, spending much of their time in the water, but often 
 dwelling for a considerable period on dry land. Between the land tortoises 
 and the ordinary fresh-water terrapins there is not much difference in the 
 structure of the feet ; but in the turtles these are modified into paddles, 
 adapted solely for swimming, and forming poor organs of progression on 
 
TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 
 
 land. Even these purely marine forms are, however, in the habit of coming 
 on shore for the purpose of depositing their eggs. It is important to re- 
 member that in ordinary language the term turtle is often applied to many 
 of the fresh-water forms, although it is preferable to restrict it to the marine 
 species. Whereas all the other members of the order lay hard -shelled 
 eggs, those of the turtles are soft-shelled. In the matter of diet, Chelonians 
 present as much diversity as in their other habits, some kinds being ex- 
 clusively carnivorous, while others feed on vegetable substances. 
 
 Sub-Order J. Cryptodira. 
 
 The members of this group are primarily characterised by their power of 
 withdrawing the head within the margins of the shell by an S-like bending of 
 the neck in a vertical plane ; but as the same feature is to be found in I ho 
 third group of the order, supplemental characteristics are necessary to define 
 the present sub-order. With the exception of the abnormal leathery turtle, 
 the shell of all the forms no matter what be its degree of development is 
 furnished with a complete set of marginal bones, some of which are articu- 
 lated to the extremities of the ribs. Accordingly, the Cryptodira may be de- 
 lined as Chelonians which retract the head by means of a vertical S-like flexure 
 of the neck, and either possess a complete set of marginal bones attached to 
 the ribs, or have the limbs converted into nippers. These are, however, by no 
 means the sole distinctive features of the group. An important structural 
 peculiarity is to be found in the circumstance that none of the bones of the pel- 
 vic girdle have any attachment to the lower shell or plastron. Then, again, as a 
 general rule, the latter bears only six pairs of horny shields, an intergular shield 
 being but very rarely developed, If the dried skull be examined, it will be found 
 that the ring of bone surrounding the aperture of the ear technically termed 
 the tympanic ring is interrupted by a distinct notch in its hinder border ; 
 while the quadrate-bone articulates with the hinder end of the lower jaw by 
 means of a convex knob or condyle, received into a pit in the latter. 
 
 With the exception of the soft tortoises, this group includes all the land 
 and fresh-water Chelonians of the Northern Hemisphere, as well as the 
 marine turtles and the leathery turtle. It is, however, by no means wanting 
 in the Southern Hemisphere, as there are numerous forms both of terres- 
 trial and fresh- water habits in Africa and South America, although none 
 are known from Australasia. There are such a large number of genera to 
 say nothing of species included in this group, that limitations of space 
 permit of reference only to some of the more important types. 
 
 This extensive family group is probably best known in the shape of the 
 common Grecian tortoise and European pond-tortoise, both of which are com- 
 monly exhibited for sale in London shops, although neither 
 are native denizens of the British Islands, In this family Land-Tortoises 
 are also included the giant tortoises of the Mascarene and and Terrapins. 
 Galapagos Islands. There are no marine forms; but while Family 
 some are terrestrial, others are more or less amphibious, Testudinidce. 
 spending a largo portion of their lives in fresh water. With- 
 out going into abstruse and wearisome anatomical details, it is by no means 
 easy to give a concise definition of the family. It may be observed, however, 
 that while the head is capable of complete retraction within the margin oi 
 26 
 
386 REPTILIA ORDER TLCHELONIA. 
 
 the shell, the limbs arc never converted into paddles, and the shell itself is 
 nrver heart-shaped. Both the upper and lower halves of the shell are well 
 developed ; and they may be connected together at the sides either by flat- 
 tened surfaces, or they may give off minute interlocking processes, so as to 
 be united by what are termed sutures. In no instance is there an intergular 
 shield on the front of the plastron. Certain features connected with the 
 bones of the carapace and internal skeleton by which this family is distin- 
 guished from those that follow may be best mentioned under the heading of 
 the latter. Geographically the Testudinidce like the typical genus Tcstudo 
 have a range equivalent to that of the sub-order, of which they form by 
 far the largest family. As regards diet, they are as diverse ns in other habits, 
 soins feeding exclusively on vegetable substances, while others are carnivor- 
 ous. It is not an uncommon belief that the Greek tortoise which is mainly 
 a vegetarian will live upon black beetles; and I have known an instance 
 where one of these reptiles was installed in a kitchen vice a hedgehog 
 deceased to prey upon these troublesome insects, with results sadly to the 
 disappointment of the purchaser. 
 
 The typical representatives of the family are the land -tortoises of the genus 
 Testudo, most of which, like the common Grecian species, are comparatively 
 small creatures, although some of those from the Mascarene and Galapagos 
 Islands have a shell measuring considerably over a yard in length, and are cap- 
 able of trotting off gaily with a load of three full-grown men on their capacious 
 backs. In a work like the present the reader must not expect to find all the 
 characters by which the tortoises of this genus are distinguished from their 
 kin. In all cases the stout club-like limbs are adapted for walking on land, 
 and are covered with horny scales or tubercles, while the unwebbed toes 
 terminate in strong claw-like nails. The tail is always short. In a shell 
 from which the superficial shields have been stripped, it will be seen that the 
 neural bones are wide and short, with a quadrangular one generally alternat- 
 ing with an octagonal, although sometimes most are hexagonal. Of the 
 costal bones, one is wide above and narrow below, and the next the reverse of 
 this. As already said, these tortoises have a distribution practically co- 
 extensive with that of the family to which they belong ; and all are her- 
 bivorous. In South and South-Eastern Europe the genus is represented by 
 the well-known Grecian tortoise (T. grce.ca), and also by the nearly-allied 
 margined tortoise (T. marginata), which appears to be confined to Greece, 
 
 and is distinguished by the absence of 
 an enlarged tubercle on the thigh. Cer- 
 tain Indian and South African species, 
 such as jT. elcgans and T. geometrica, are 
 distinguished by the extreme convexity 
 of the shell, which is beautifully painted 
 either with narrow yellow lines radiating 
 on adark ground from the centre of eachof 
 the shields, or with similar black lines on 
 a light ground. Giant tortoises formerly 
 existed in Aldabra Island, to the north- 
 Fig. 3. GRECIAN TORTOISE we st of Madagascar ; the Mascarenes 
 
 (Reunion, Rodriquez, and Mauritius); 
 
 and the Galapagos group, off the Pacific coast of South America. From the 
 second group they have, however, been exterminated, and have been greatly 
 reduced in numbers in the others, where they formerly lived in thousands. 
 
TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 3&7 
 
 and" formed a valuable food supply for the crews of ships. Some of these 
 tortoises are remarkable for the extreme tenuity and relatively small size of 
 the shell, which is but little stouter than leather, and can be easily pierced 
 with a knife. This is very notably the case with T. ephippium of the 
 Galapagos Islands, fine examples of which are now preserved in the British 
 Museum. Some of these monsters measure over four feet along the curve of 
 the shell, and have been known to yield close upon four hundred pounds weight 
 of excellent meat. In the Galapagos Islands these tortoises make regular 
 tracks to their drinking-places in the hills, and feed chiefly upon the 
 succulent stems of the cacti, so common there. During the breeding season, 
 the males, according to Darwin's well-known account, utter a loud roar, 
 audible at a great distance. The ordinary tortoises of South Europe, Algeria, 
 and Egypt, frequent dry sandy localities, where they have full opportunity 
 of basking in the rays of the sun. In Europe, at least, they hibernate during 
 the cold season, by burying themselves deep in the earth, reappearing with 
 the returning warmth of spring. In addition to their normal vegetable food, 
 these tortoises are not averse to an occasional snail or insect. Fonr peculiar 
 tortoises from South Africa are referred to the distinct genus Homopus, on 
 account of the fore part of the palate lacking the distinct median ridge, 
 characteristic of all the species of Testudo. Moreover, the neural bones of 
 the carapace are never alternately quadrangular and octagonal, but always 
 irregularly hexagonal, with the shorter of the two lateral surfaces at the hind 
 end. The typical H. areolatus has but four toes 011 the front foot, whereas 
 in another species there are five. 
 
 The three species of hinged tortoises from Tropical Africa, forming the 
 genus Cinixys, are easily and broadly distinguished by the presence of a, 
 ligamentous hinge across the hinder third of the carapace, by means of which 
 the posterior opening of the shell can be completely closed. These tortoises 
 are small reptiles, not exceeding some nine inches in length ; and in habits 
 the majority are amphibious, thus connecting the land tortoises with the 
 terrapins. Madagascar is the sole habitat of a single peculiar tortoise (Pyxis 
 arcwhnoides), distinguished by having the front part of the plastron articulated 
 to the remainder by a transverse hinge. In this species, therefore, the front 
 aperture of the shell is capable of being closed at the will of its owner. 
 
 Coming to the terrapins, we find that these are distinguished from the fore- 
 going by the toes being either webbed, or having rudiments of such webbing, 
 as well as by the presence of three (instead of two) joints in the middle too 
 of both the front and hind-foot. In the fore-foot the nietacarpal bones are 
 also much longer and more slender than in the preceding group. Foremost 
 among these come three small Oriental genera, respectively known as 
 Geoemyda, Nicoria, and Cyclemys, all of which differ from those which follow 
 by having the shorter lateral surface of the hexagonal neural bones of the 
 carapace placed at the hinder end a feature in which they agree with 
 Homopus. Of these forms it will suffice to mention that the species of 
 Cyclemys differ from the others in having the hinder half of the plastron 
 movably articulated by means of a transverse bony hinge, in consequence of 
 which they are commonly spoken of as hinged terrapins. 
 
 In all the other members of the family, the hexagonal neural bones of the 
 carapace have the shorter of the two lateral surfaces on each side situated in 
 front. It is unfortunate that this important characteristic is hidden from 
 view by the superficial bony shields unless in the rare instances where they 
 are sufficiently transparent to allow of the underlying bones being seen 
 
388 
 
 REPTTLIA ORDER II.CHEL017IA. 
 
 through them but so it is, and the student must make the best of it. If we 
 were making animals ourselves, \ve should doubtless give the members of eacli 
 genus a characteristic mark by which they could be recognised at a glance. 
 Foremost in this group are the true box-tortoises (Cistudo) of North America, 
 which agree with Cyclemys in having a transverse hinge across the plastron, 
 the posterior moiety of which consequently forms a movable flap, capable of 
 closing the hinder aperture of the shell. As special features of the genus, may 
 be noted the hooked beak, the smooth skin covering the top of the head, the 
 
 imperfect webbing of the toes, and the 
 extreme shortness of the tail. These 
 tortoises have a vaulted carapace, and, as 
 is usual in such cases, are mainly terres- 
 trial in their habits. From this genus 
 the depressed form of the shell serves at 
 once to distinguish the European pond- 
 tortoise (Emys orfr ten/arts), which, with 
 an allied North American species, alone 
 represents the genus. There is no hook to 
 the beak; the upper and lower shells arc 
 ligament, ai 
 
 Fig 4, POND-TORTOISE 
 (Emys orbiiularis), 
 
 united only by ligament, and the hinder 
 part of the plastron is movably articu- 
 lated by a transverse hinge. The Euro- 
 pean species not only inhabits South and 
 South-Eastern. Europe, but ranges into 
 Persia and Algeria. Its shell, which grows to a little over seven inches 
 in length, is prettily speckled on the upper surface with golden flecks on a 
 blackish ground. The pond-tortoise is a carnivorous species, living upon 
 small fish, worms, and insects, and inhabiting both running and stagnant 
 waters, in which it swims and dives with great facility, It is an interesting 
 and easily-kept denizen of an aquarium. 
 
 Of the remaining genera of the Testudinidce, a very brief mention must 
 suffice. The terrapins of the genus Clcmmys form a somewhat important 
 group, ranging over South Europe, North-Western Africa, and North 
 America. In common with the four following genera, Clemmys is characterised 
 by the absence of a median ridge on the front portion of the palate of the 
 skull ; and all the species are carnivorous in their nabits. As in all the 
 remaining genera of the family, the upper and lower shells arc firmly united 
 by suture, and there is no bony hinge in the plastron. The two species of 
 the Oriental genus Bellia may be distinguished by the stronger vertical 
 buttresses connecting the plastron with the carapace, and the small horny 
 shields covering the hinder part of the head ; the toes being completely 
 \vebbed. The more or less decided balloon-shape of the anterior vertebral 
 shields of the carapace is likewise a noteworthy feature of these small terra- 
 pins. Another allied Oriental genus is typified by Damotria hamiltoni, the 
 shell of which is conspicuous for its yellow markings on a black ground, and 
 the three longitudinal ridges traversing the carapace. The North American 
 terrapins of the genus Malacodernmys are also nearly allied, and have the 
 whole head covered with a smooth skin. One species frequents brackish 
 water ; and it is members of this genus that afford the dish so well known 
 to epicures in the United States under the name of terrapin. 
 
 The other members of the family are mainly vegetarian in their diet, and 
 differ from the foregoing by the front portion of the broad palate bearing one 
 
TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 389 
 
 or two longitudinal ridges. To this group belong the exclusively American 
 terrapins of the genus Chrysemys, some of which range as far south as Brazil 
 and Uruguay. Burma and Bengal are the respective habitats of two allied 
 terrapins constituting the genus Morenia, distinguished by certain features 
 in the conformation of the skull ; while the single representative of Ocadia 
 is Chinese. The four other genera, all the members of which are known as 
 batagurs, are confined to the Oriental countries, and include the largest 
 fresh-water members of the whole family, the shell of one of them measuring 
 as much as twenty inches in length. The batagurs, which are divided into 
 the genera Cachuga, Callagur, Batagur, and HardeUa, are specially char- 
 acterised by the excessive development of the vertical bony buttresses con- 
 necting the carapace with the plastron, which project as walls into the 
 interior of the shell in such a manner as to divide it into three imperfect com- 
 partments. The different genera are chiefly distinguished by the contour 
 of the vertebral horny shields of the carapace ; the fourth shield in one 
 genus narrowing anteriorly almost to a point in a manner quite unknown in 
 any other members of the order. The batagurs have shells of extraordinary 
 strength and solidity; and the larger species are almost exclusively aquatic, 
 and very numerous in the rivers of India and Burma. In spite of their 
 herbivorous habits, they are said to be dangerous to bathers ; and it is 
 certain that a snap from their powerful jaws would cause a very serious wound. 
 
 A strange-looking aquatic tortoise (Platysternum megalocephaluni) from 
 the countries lying between Burma and the south of China demands specia 1 
 notice as being the sole representative of a family. Ex- 
 ternally, its most conspicuous features are the enormous Family 
 size of the head ; the hooked beak ; the extreme flatness of Platystemidce. 
 the shell, which looks as if it had no room to contain the 
 internal organs of the creature ; the great length of the scaly tapering tail ; 
 and the rather long and powerfully -clawed legs. The skull differs from that 
 of the Testudinidce in having the whole of its hinder portion covered over by 
 a bony roof ; and most of the vertebrae of the long tail articulate with one 
 another by means of a cup behind and a ball in front, instead of in the 
 reverse manner. These afford ample grounds for referring this tortoise to a 
 family apart. The whole length of the shell is only about six inches. Of 
 the habits of this remarkable reptile naturalists are ignorant. 
 
 The mud-terrapins (Cinosternum), of which there are eleven species, all 
 inhabitants of America to the north of the Equator, alone represent a third 
 family, easily distinguished from all other Chelonia by the 
 absence of the unpaired entoplastral bone of the plastron, Mud-Terrapins, 
 thus reducing the number of elements in the lower shell Family Cino- 
 from nine to eight. The shell is depressed, with its two sternidce. 
 portions firmly united ; and the plastron has its two ex- 
 tremities movable, and its gular shields either united or absent. The tail is 
 very short ; and the webbed toes, save the fifth hind one, terminate in strong 
 claws. In habits, these terrapins resemble ordinary fresh- water species. 
 
 Three small genera of terrapins from Central America, respectively named 
 Dermatemys, Staurotypus, and Claudius, form the fourth family. Together 
 with the Cinosternidce, these differ from the Testudinidce in 
 that each of the two lateral angles of the nuchal bone of Family Der- 
 the carapace gives off a long bony stay projecting backwards matemydida. 
 to underlie the marginal bones. The skull is of ordinary 
 form ; the plastron has the usual nine bones, and the tail is short. As in 
 
390 
 
 REPTIL1A ORDER II.CHELONIA. 
 
 the Cinosternidce and Ckelydriace, an additional series of small horny shields 
 is interposed between the marginal shields and those of the plastron. 
 Whereas in the single representative of the genus first mentioned, the plastron 
 is fully developed, in the other two genera it is cruciform, and connected 
 on each side with the upper shell only by a very narrow bridge. 
 
 Far better known than the members of the last family are the large 
 Chelonians commonly termed snappers and alligator-terrapins, all of which 
 are now confined to the northern portion of America, one 
 Snappers and species ranging as far south as Guatemala and Ecuador. In 
 Alligator- their relatively large head and long scaly tails, these terra- 
 Terrapins. pins resemble the Platysternidve. They ditfer, however, in 
 Family the presence of long, rib-like processes, running backwards 
 ChdydridcK. from the nuchal bone of the carapace to underlie the mar- 
 ginals, and likewise by the imperfect bony roof to the lateral 
 regions of the hinder part of the skull. The vertebrae of the tail have, on 
 the other hand, the same structure, the articular cup being on the hinder 
 surface in the majority. The small, cross-shaped plastron is but very loosely 
 attached to the upper shell ; and it is not till a late period of life that tho 
 shell becomes fully ossified, large spaces long remaining in both the uppi r 
 and lower halves. The long tail bears on its upper surface a crest, and all 
 the toes, except the fifth hind one, are clawed. The front border of tho 
 
 carapace is notched in order to 
 receive the ponderous head, 
 which cannot be withdrawn into 
 the shell. The largest member 
 of the family is Temminck's 
 snapper {Macroclemmys tem- 
 mtftdbi), which is generally to 
 be seen in the reptile-house at 
 the "Zoo," and ranges from 
 Missouri to Florida. The very 
 large head has the eyes lateral ; 
 and the tail is not so long as in 
 the members of the second 
 genus. In some specimens the shell measures twenty-four inches in length. 
 The two species of alligator- terrapins, or snapping turtles (Chelydra), have the 
 eyes directed upwards, and the tail exceeding the shell in length. The mem- 
 bers of both genera are common denizens of the fresh-waters of the United 
 States, where they are found in rivers, swamps, and ponds. In habits they 
 are very active, rushing on their prey with extraordinary speed, and feeding 
 entirely on animal food. The extraordinary power of their jaws (of which 
 the upper one is hooked) renders their bites very severe ; and bathers should 
 always keep a good look-out to see that none of these reptiles are in their 
 vicinity before venturing on a plunge. In captivity they are dull and sluggish 
 creatures. Several females lay their eggs in the same spot. 
 
 Ttie excellence of the flesh of one species, and the commercial value of the 
 
 tortoise-shell yielded by a second, render the turtles a family of special 
 
 importance and interest. From all the families yet men- 
 
 The Turtles. tioned the turtles are easily distinguished by the modification 
 
 Family of their limbs into oar-like flippers, adapted solely for swim- 
 
 Chelonidce. ming, and also by the heart-shaped form of the shell. There 
 
 are never more than two claws on each limb, the head cannot 
 
 Fig 5. TEMMINCK'S SNAPPER (Macroclemmys 
 tern inincki). 
 
TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 391 
 
 be completely retracted within the shell, and the tail is very short. The 
 whole of the hinder region of the skull is covered by a bony roof. There is 
 no bony union between the upper and lower shells ; and in the carapace 
 numerous unossified spaces remain for a long time, if not permanently. 
 Except during the breeding season, when the females resort to shelving 
 sandy shores for the purpose of laying their eggs, turtles are inhabitants of 
 the open sea, where in calm weather they may at times be seen floating 
 placidly on the surface, When on shore, they shuffle along in an awkward 
 manner ; and if turned on their backs are utterly helpless. Their eggs, 
 unlike those of other Chelonians, have soft shells. Like most denizens of the 
 open sea, the three common species of turtles have an almost world-wide 
 distribution. Of these, the green turtle (Chelone my das) is the one whose 
 flesh is used for culinary purposes. Nearly allied is the hawksbill (G. imbricata), 
 distinguished at all ages by the strongly hooked beak, and also by the cir- 
 cumstance that, for a considerable portion of life the horny shields of the 
 shell overlap one another like the slates in a roof, instead of meeting at the 
 edges. It is this species alone that yields the tortoise-shell of commerce. 
 More distinct is the logger- 
 head (Thalassochelys caretta), 
 in which the head is of pro- 
 portionately greater size, and 
 there are five, instead of four, 
 pairs of horny costal shields 
 on the carapace. The logger- 
 
 head is the largest of the three FJG 6 ._ LoGGERHEAD ToRTOJSE 
 
 1 1 is somewhat remarkable that ( i 'halassochelys caretta). 
 
 whereas the green turtle is an 
 
 herbivorous animal, feeding chiefly upon sea-weeds, both the hawksbill and 
 the loggerhead are carnivorous ; the food of the latter consisting largely of 
 cuttle-fish. 
 
 During the egging'- season turtles come ashore in immense numbers, the 
 Seychelles and Bahamas being two of their favourite resorts. While the 
 females are busily engaged in the occupation of laying, and of covering up 
 their eggs in the sand, the males generally pass the time by quarrelling among 
 themselves. Moonlight nights are those usually chosen for resorting to the 
 coast ; and these, of course, are most favourable to the turtle-catchers, whose 
 object is to intercept their victims before they can scuttle back to the sea. 
 Not only are the eggs largely used as an article of food, but they also yield 
 an excellent oil. Tortoise-shell, when heated, has the peculiar property of 
 welding like iron, so that plates of almost any size can be obtained by uniting 
 a number of shields. It can also be pressed into moulds, and beautiful 
 amber-like necklaces and other ornamental articles are manufactured from 
 the scraps and fragments. 
 
 Although the huge leathery turtle (Dermcchelys coriacea) the giant of tho 
 tribe is a marine species with flippers for limbs, yet it differs so markedly 
 from the other turtles in the structure of its shell and tho 
 conformation of its skull, that it unquestionably represents Leathery Turtle, 
 a separate family by itself. Indeed, as regards its shell, not Family- 
 only does the luth (as this species is sometimes called) differ Dermochelyida. 
 from other turtles, but likewise from all other living Chelonia. 
 In place of the carapace being formed by a series of large regularly-shaped 
 bones, some of which are firmly attached to the backbone and ribs, and all 
 
392 REPTILIA ORDER 2L CHELONIA. 
 
 invested with separate horny shields, in the leathery turtle it is composed of 
 a vast number of minute irregular ossifications, fitting together like mosaic, 
 and having no sort of connection with the internal skeleton, while its investi- 
 ture takes the form of a continuous leathery skin. Seven bold longitudinal 
 
 ridges traverse the upper shell 
 from end to end, and there are 
 five similar ridges on the under 
 shell, which is less fully developed, 
 Claws are totally wanting on the 
 flippers, of which the front pair 
 greatly exceed the hinder in 
 length. Although the structural 
 peculiarities of the skull are of the 
 highest importance in determin- 
 ing the systematic position of the creature, they need not be further 
 alluded to in this place. In length this turtle frequently exceeds six 
 feet. The leathery turtle, which is now rapidly diminishing in numbers, is 
 an inhabitant of the wanner oceans, one of its favourite haunts being the 
 Tortugas Islands off the Florida coast. It is known to be carnivorous, and 
 its habits are probably very similar to those of the true turtles. Com- 
 mercially this species is of no value, its flesh having a strong and highly un- 
 pleasant taste of musk. 
 
 Sub-Order II Pleurodira. 
 
 The members of the second sub-ordinal group of the Chelonia are best dis- 
 tinguished externally by the mode in which they withdraw the head and neck 
 into the shell. In place of the S-like movement characterising the preceding 
 group, these tortoises always bend the neck to one side in a horizontal plane, 
 so that instead of occupying the middle of the front aperture of the shell, the 
 head when retracted lies more or less on one or the other side, according to 
 the relative length of the neck. This very obvious characteristic is, however, 
 by no means the sole claim of the group to distinction. If the dried skull be 
 examined, it will be found that the bony ring surrounding the aperture of 
 the ear is entire instead of being notched behind, and also that the lower 
 surface of the quadrate-bone is hollowed in order to receive a knob on the 
 articulating portion of the lower jaw. In all cases the upper and lower shells 
 are fully ossified and closely joined ; and both have a firm union with the 
 bones of the pelvis. When horny shields are present at all, there is invari- 
 ably an intergular between or behind the two gulars. The Pleurodira are 
 now restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, and are the only tortoises in- 
 habiting Australia and Papua*- 
 
 The first family of the sub-order is represented by eight generic types, all 
 of which are restricted to South America and Australasia. As distinctive 
 
 features of the family, may be mentioned the presence of 
 
 Family only nine bones in the lower shell, the incapacity of com- 
 
 Chelyidce. pletely retracting the neck within the margin of the carapace, 
 
 and the absence of the so-called temporal bony arch on the 
 sides of the skull. The typical member of the family is the grotesque mata- 
 mata (Chelys Jimbriata) of the Guianas and North Brazil, a species easily 
 recognised by its flattened triangular head, the peculiar tuft-like fifaments on 
 the sides of the broad and long neck, and the great bosses formed by the 
 
TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 
 
 393 
 
 Fig. S, MATAMATA (.Chelys fimbriata). 
 
 shields of the carapace, which is serrated on its margins, In length the 
 shell of the matamata reaches fifteen inches. In habits this tortoise is a 
 fresh- water and chiefly carnivorous animal ; and it is probable that the 
 tufts on the neck are for the purpose of attracting its prey within easy reach 
 of its jaws. In addition to its 
 other characteristics, the matamata 
 has a proboscis to the snout, but 
 this is wanting in the other South 
 American long-necked members of 
 the family, which form the genus 
 Hydromedusa. These tortoises also 
 differ in the comparative smooth- 
 ness of the shell, and in having 
 only four claws to each foot. The 
 remaining three South American 
 genera, namely Hydraspis, lihinemys, and Platemys, have the neck propor- 
 tionately shorter. Three generic types of the family are met with in 
 Australia and Papua, one of which (Ckelodina) has the neck very long, while 
 in the other two (Elseya and J^mydura) it is relatively shorter. 
 
 The largest member of the whole sub-order is the great fresh- water tortoise 
 of the Amazons (Podocnemis expansa), whose shell often measures two-and-a- 
 half feet in length. Together with its allies, this species 
 belongs to the second family of the sub-order, characterised Family 
 
 by the presence of a pair of mesoplastrals between the hyo- Pclomedusidce. 
 and hypoplastral bones, the total number of elements in the 
 lower shell thus being brought up to eleven. The neck can be fully with- 
 drawn into the shell, and the skull has a lateral bony arch. The genus 
 Podocnemis affords a remarkable example of discontinuous geographical dis- 
 tribution, six of the species being inhabitants of South America, whereas the 
 seventh is found in the distant island of Madagascar. In this genus the 
 hinder part of the skull is completely roofed over by bone ; but this is not 
 
 the case in the other two genera 
 of the family. Of these, Pelo- 
 medusa, which has only a single 
 species, inhabiting both Madagas- 
 car and Africa, resembles Podo- 
 cnemis in that the two mesoplas- 
 tral bones only show themselves on 
 the sides of the lower shell, and 
 are thus widely separate in the 
 middle line. On the other hand, 
 in Sternotkcerus the same two 
 bones are as fully developed as 
 the other elements of the plastron, 
 in the median line of which they 
 come into contact with one another. 
 The whole of the species of this 
 genus are African, but one ex- 
 tends its range into Madagascar. 
 The great Amazonian species of Podocnemis is of considerable value to the 
 natives of some parts of tropical America, on account of its eggs, which are 
 collected in vast quantities, mainly for the sake of the oil they yield. 
 
 Fig. 9. AMAZONIAN FRESH-WATER TOB.TOISE 
 (Podocnemis expansa), 
 
394 REPTILIA ORDER ILCHELONIA. 
 
 A fresh-water turtle from one of the Papuan rivers described under the 
 name of Carettochelys, resembles the true marine turtles in having the limbs 
 modified into flippers, although displaying all the other char- 
 Family acteristics of the present sub-order. Only two claws occur 
 Carettochdyidce. on each flipper ; and the shell is remarkable for having a 
 continuous leathery skin in place of the usual horny shields. 
 There are certain other structural features in this little-known and rare 
 Cheloriian by which it differs from its allies. 
 
 Sub-Order III. Trionychidce. 
 
 The third and last sub-order of the Chelonia includes only the soft tortoises, 
 represented by six genera, all of which are comprised in the single family 
 Trionychidce. All these tortoises have very long necks, which can be com- 
 pletely withdrawn within the margins of the shell by an S-like flexure in the 
 same manner as in the Cryptodira. The jaws are hidden by the fleshy lips, 
 and the muzzle is prolonged into a short proboscis. The feet are fully 
 webbed, and only the three outermost toes are furnished with claws a 
 peculiarity from which the scientific name of the group is derived. None of 
 these features are, however, of sufficient importance to justify the separation 
 of the group as a distinct sub-order; but the shell is very peculiar. In place 
 of the usual horny shields, both the upper and lower shells are invested with 
 a thin, continuous leathery skin, through which can be seen and felt the 
 raised sculpture ornamenting the surface of the underlying bones. Marginal 
 bones, if developed at all, are restricted to the hinder border of the upper 
 shell, and elsewhere the margins of this shell are continued into a wide, soft 
 expansion of skin, so that the shell itself only occupies the region of the back. 
 There is no attachment between the upper and lower shells, and the latter is 
 only very imperfectly ossified. A greenish olive ground-colour, upon which 
 are yellow or orange spots, is the general type of coloration, the spots being 
 replaced by streaks on the under surface of the head. At the present day 
 the soft tortoises are restricted to the fresh waters of the warmer regions of 
 North America, Asia, and Africa. In habits, these very peculiar Chelonians are 
 purely aquatic, and although the majority are confined to fresh waters, some fre- 
 quent estuaries. They are all carnivorous ; and, being extremely bold and fierce, 
 are highly dangerous to bathers. All are mainly nocturnal, and when basking 
 on a mud-bank, or on shore, for the purpose of laying their eggs, extend their 
 long necks after any sudden surprise in a peculiarly cautious and stealthy man- 
 ner. The spherical eggs are buried in the mud by the female as soon as laid. 
 
 The typical, and at the same time the widest spread, genus is Trionyx, which 
 has a geographical distribution as extensive as that of the family, and is the 
 only one found in America, fifteen distinct species being known. In this 
 genus, the sculpture on the surface of the shell usually takes the form of 
 irregular wavy ridges; while in the lower shell the hyoplastral and hypo- 
 plastral bones of each side are separate. A distinctive feature is the want of 
 a fold of skin on the hinder part of the plastron, which in some of the allied 
 forms conceals the hind-leg. The head is relatively short and broad, with 
 the eyes situated far back. The shell and leathery disc of some of the members 
 of this genus not unf requently measure as much as a couple of feet in length, 
 and the species are arranged in groups according to the number of bones 
 entering into the composition of the upper shell, and the absence or presence 
 
SCALED REPTILES. 395 
 
 of a longitudinal ridge on the palatal surface of the fore part of the lower 
 jaw. Nearly allied to Trionyx are the general Pelochelys and Chitra, each 
 represented by a single species from the Oriental countries. In the former 
 which extends from India to the Malayan Islands the eyes have a more for- 
 ward position than in the type genus, this feature being still more marked in 
 the gigantic Indian Cfiitra, where they are situated close up to the snout, the 
 whole skull being very long 
 and narrow. The foregoing 
 genera constitute a sub-family 
 by themselves ; and a second 
 group of equivalent value is 
 formed by the other three 
 genera. The two essential 
 characteristics of the second 
 group are to be found in the 
 presence of a skinny flap be- 
 neath the under shell behind 
 
 which the hind-foot can be Fig. 10. A SOFT TOUTOISE. 
 
 withdrawn and the complete 
 
 union of the hyoplastral and hypoplastral elements of the lower shell. Exter- 
 nally the shell is distinguished by the pustular form of the sculpture. Of the 
 three types of the sub-family, the Indian Emyda is specially distinguished by 
 possessing a series of marginal bones round the hinder portion of the 
 carapace. There are but three species, and in the largest of these the shell 
 does not grow to more than about ten inches in length. Of the two African 
 genera, the one known as Cycloderma has a complete scries of neural bones 
 running down the middle of the carapace ; whereas, in the nearly related 
 Cyclanorbis the series is incomplete, so that some of the costal bones of 
 opposite sides come into contact with one another in the middle line. 
 
 It may be added that in the absence of any connection between the bones 
 of the pelvis and the lower shell, as well as in the mode of articulation 
 between the upper and lower jaws, and the notch in the ring round the 
 aperture of the ear, the soft-tortoises resemble the Cryptodira. In certain 
 forms an'd certain structural features of the skull they are, however, more like 
 the Pleurodira. 
 
 ORDER III. SQUAMATA. 
 
 SCALED REPTILES. 
 
 By far the largest of all the four orders of existing reptiles is the one including 
 the lizards, chameleons, and snakes ; each of those groups forming a sub-order 
 by itself. And here it may be remarked how unimportant is the external 
 form of reptiles in regard to their zoological affinities. The New Zealand 
 tuatera, for instance, which externally is like a lizard, has nothing whatever 
 to do with the Squamata, but forms an order by itself ; whereas ordinary 
 lizards and serpents are comprised in one and the same order. Moreover, the 
 blindworms, which in external appearance are like snakes, form a portion of 
 the sub-order typified by the lizards. A general, but by no means invariable, 
 feature of the Squamata is the covering of overlapping horny scales on the 
 
396 REPTILIA- ORDER II L SQ UAMA TA. 
 
 head, body, and limbs ; but more important and constant structural peculi- 
 arities are to be found in the internal skeleton. Of the highest import is 
 the fact that in all the members of the present order the quadrate-bone is 
 movably jointed to the other elements of the skull, from which its lower 
 extremity projects. Secondly, there is no bony rod running forwards from 
 the outer side of the lower extremity of this bone to join the upper jaw ; such 
 a rod being always developed in the Crocodilia. The palate, again, has a 
 much more open structure than in either the Crocodilia or the Chelonia ; 
 not that there is any difficulty in distinguishing between a lizard or a snake 
 and a tortoise or turtle. If we turn to the backbone, equally well-marked 
 points of difference present themselves between the Squamata on the one 
 hand and the Crocodilia on the other. In the former group the ribs of the 
 chest have single upper extremities, or heads, which are articulated to 
 facets, on the sides of what are termed the bodies of the vertebrae that is 
 to say, the solid cylindrical part underlying the arch through which passes 
 the nerve-cord. On the other hand, in the Crocodilia the majority of the 
 ribs have two heads ; and those in the region of the back are articulated to a 
 long horizontal transverse projection arising from the sides of the arch of 
 each vertebrae. In the majority of the order the bodies of the vertebrae are 
 movably united by means of ball-and-socket joints : the ball being situated 
 behind and the socket in front. Neither in lizards or in serpents are the 
 teeth ever implanted in the jaws by means of distinct sockets. In all cases 
 the teeth are firmly welded to the substance of the jaw itself ; but whereas 
 in some forms they are affixed to the summits of the jaws, in others they are 
 attached to the sides of the same. To the former mode of attachment, the 
 name acrodbtd is applied, whereas the latter is termed pleurodont. Although 
 the foregoing features are amply sufficient to distinguish the Sqniamata from 
 the Crocodilia, it may be added that when the shoulder-girdle is fully de- 
 veloped, there is a breast-bone, a pair of collar-bones, and an unpaired median 
 element, with the form of the letter T, known as the interclavide. 
 
 Sub-Order I. LacertHia. 
 LIZARDS. 
 
 Since it has been already mentioned that the blind- worm belongs to the 
 present sub-order, it will be obvious that the presence of limbs will not suffice 
 to distinguish between the lizards and the serpents, although the majority of 
 the former are four- limbed creatures, and none of the latter have four fully 
 developed and functional legs. In the limbless snake-like lizards the tongue 
 cannot, however, be withdrawn into a basal sheath, as it is in serpents ; and 
 whereas the former are generally furnished with eyelids or external openings 
 to the ears, both these are invariably wanting in the latter. The examination 
 of the skeleton will also show that whereas in all lizards the two branches of 
 the lower jaw are joined by bone where they meet at the chin, in the serpents 
 such union is ligamentous ; and it should further be observed that the limb- 
 less lizards always retain vestiges of the shoulder- girdle. As important 
 points of distinction between the lizards and the chamaeleons, it must be 
 mentioned that such of the former as retain limbs have well-developed collar- 
 bones, and that the tongue is flattened and not dilatable. 
 
 At the present day somewhere about seventeen hundred different species 
 of lizards are known ; these forming no less than twenty distinct families, 
 
SCALED REPTILES-LIZARDS. 397 
 
 mostly including a large number of genera. Hence it will be obvious that 
 only some of the leading types ca)i be even alluded to in this volume. 
 Although lizards are found everywhere save the polar regions, the group 
 attains its maximum development both as regards bodily size and the 
 number of forms in the tropical and sub-tropic .-if zones. They inhabit both 
 dry and moist situations, although the majority prefer the former. Most are 
 terrestrial, but many are arboreal, while a few are aquatic, one species at 
 least venturing into the open sea. The so-called flying lizard can take long 
 leaps in the air by the aid of a parachute-like expansion of skin supported by 
 the elongated ribs ; and an Australian species is stated to walk on its hind- 
 limbs like a bird. Sucker-like pads enable the geckos to climb vertical panes 
 of glass like flies ; and some of the arboreal species resemble the American 
 monkeys in having the tail endowed with prehensile power. Whereas the 
 majority lay eggs, a few bring forth their young into the world alive. In 
 spite of the popular dread attaching to the blind-worm, no lizards, with the 
 exception of the few species belonging to the American family Helodermatidce, 
 are poisonous. A few members of the order are vegetable-feeders, but the 
 great majority live on animal food, especially insects and other invertebrates. 
 The facility with which many lizards part with a considerable portion of the 
 tail when handled is a familiar fact ; but it is perhaps less well-known that 
 the missing fragment can be speedily reproduced. As regards geographical 
 distribution, the Lacertilia are widely different from the Chelonia. Thus, 
 whereas Australasian lizards are unlike those of South America, between the 
 lizards of Australia and those of India there is a most marked resemblance, 
 while the Indian forms differ decidedly from those of Africa. 
 
 The peculiar cry of some of its Asiatic members has given rise to the name 
 by which the first family of the Lacertilia is both familiarly and scientifically 
 known. From nearly all other members of the sub-order 
 geckos are distinguished by the fact that the bodies of their Geckos. Family 
 vertebrae are cupped at both ends, instead of articulating by Gcckonidce. 
 a ball and socket, while most of them have sucking discs on 
 the extremities of the five-toed feet. In form they are depressed, and in 
 coloration dull, and whereas the head is covered with bony granules or small 
 scales, the body is generally invested with granules above and with over- 
 lapping scales beneath. In no case are the scales underlain by plates of bone. 
 There are no movable eyelids, and the opening of the ear, and. generally also 
 the pupil of the eye, is in the form of a vertical slit. The tongue, which is 
 short and devoid of a sheath at the base, may be either smooth or covered 
 with shaggy prominences. The small teeth are attached to the jaws in the 
 pleurodont manner, and in many cases the tail is more or less distinctly 
 prehensile, although in some instances it is rudimental. Most numerous in 
 the Oriental and Australasian countries, the geckos range over all the warmer 
 parts of the world, and present a considerable number of generic modifica- 
 tions. Among these the genus Ptyodactylns is familiar to travellers in 
 Palestine in the form of the little lobe-footed gecko. In common with its 
 immediate kindred, this species has the toes expanded into circular lobes, 
 upon the under surface of which are two rows of plates. llemidactylus, as 
 represented by the little Turkish gecko, is an allied genus, ranging over all 
 the warmer parts of the world except Australasia, with dilated toes terminating 
 in compressed claws, of which the tips are free. Very aberrant is the single 
 and considerably larger species of the Oriental genus Ptychozoum, in which 
 the skin of the flanks forms a large expansion, while there is also a fringe of 
 
398 REPTILIA ORDER IILSQUAMATA. 
 
 lobes running along the two sides of the tail, and likewise on the hinder 
 borders of the legs. The toes also are completely connected by web-like dila- 
 tions, the first in each limb being clawless. A peculiarly marked type of 
 coloration further aids in the recognition of this species. The countries 
 bordering the Mediterranean are the chief habitat of another genus known as 
 Tarentola, of which the common wall-gecko is the most familiar representa- 
 tive, all the species having the toes moderately dilated, but only the third 
 and fourth clawed. The genus ranges as far south as the west coast of Africa, 
 and is likewise represented by a species from the West Indian Islands. 
 Whereas a large number of geckos frequent trees, walls, or buildings, some 
 
 are found in open sandy districts, and 
 these latter naturally have feet of ordinary 
 type, as adhesive discs would be useless. 
 In countries where these lizards abound, 
 almost every house is tenanted by at least 
 a pair. When undisturbed, such denizens 
 will scamper over the walls with the 
 greatest speed in search of flies, uttering 
 Fig. 11. FRINGED GECKO (Ptychozoum). now and then their shrill cries. It is, 
 
 doubtless, owing to these vocal powers 
 
 that geckos are so dreaded by the uneducated in all parts of the world an 
 analagous instance of the inspiration of a similar dread bejng afforded by the 
 death-watch insects. 
 
 A second family of geckos (Eublepharida), of which there are only three 
 genera, differ from the foregoing in being furnished with eyelids, and also in 
 having cup-and-ball joints to the backbone. 
 
 The third family of the sub-order includes the three species of the Mala- 
 gasy genus Uroplates, and is termed the Uroplatidce. While resembling the true 
 geckos in the doubly-cupped vertebrae, as well as in many 
 Scale-footed other structural features, these lizards agree with the follow- 
 Lizards. ing nine families in that the inner ends of the collar-bones 
 Family lack the loop-shaped expansion characteristic of the geckos. 
 PyrjopodidcE. The next family is that of the scale-footed lizards, or Pygopo- 
 did<z, which are confined to Australia, and appear to present 
 a considerable resemblance to the Geckonidce, with which they agree in the 
 general conformation of the skull. All these lizards have assumed a snake- 
 like form of body, with the complete loss of all external vestiges of the front 
 limbs, although the hinder pair are represented by two large, flap-like scaly 
 expansions, without any sign of division into toes externally. The commonest 
 species grows to a length of about twenty inches, and is coppery-grey in 
 colour, sometimes having three or five rows of blackish spots or streaks. 
 
 A very large proportion of the lizards of the eastern and southern countries 
 
 of the Eastern Hemisphere pertain to the very extensive and important family 
 
 of the Agamidce, a family which includes at least a couple 
 
 Family of hundred species ranged under thirty distinct generic 
 
 Agamidce. groups. These lizards have a tongue of the same type as 
 
 that of the geckos, no dilation of the inner extremities of 
 
 the collar-bones, and no bony plates beneath the overlapping scales with 
 
 which the head and body are invested ; but they differ from all the foregoing 
 
 groups in their acrodont dentition. The eyes, which are relatively smaller 
 
 than in the geckos, are furnished with movable eyelids, and have circular 
 
 pupils. Small scales cover the crown of the head, and the scales on the lower 
 
SCALED REPTILES LIZARDS. 399 
 
 aspect of the body are likewise not enlarged. Many of the species develop 
 large ornamental crests or pouches, either in both sexes or in the male alone. 
 These lizards generally have a long tail, which is not brittle ; and they always 
 possess well-developed fore-limbs, which, with one exception, are five-toed. 
 As a rule, the teeth are unequal in size, those at the corners of the jaws being 
 developed into tusks. As in other lizards, the arboreal species have com- 
 pressed bodies, while in those that 
 dwell on the ground the trunk is 
 more or less depressed. Although, as 
 already said, agamoids are widely spread 
 in the Old World, they attain their 
 maximum development in the Oriental 
 countries, only three generic groups 
 inhabiting Africa. Perhaps the most 
 remarkable members of the family are 
 the flying lizards (Draco) of the Oriental 
 countries, in which the hinder ribs are 
 expanded to support a kind of para- 
 chute-like expansion of the skin of the 
 flanks. These folds can be closed in a Fig - i2.-Fi.YiNG LIZARD (Draco volans) 
 fan-like manner, and there are other 
 
 expansions on the throat. The entire body is much depressed, and the 
 tail is very long and tapering. The coloration of the upper surface of 
 the body is metallic, with dark spots and bands, the parachute of the 
 common species being bright orange with black markings. These lizards 
 live high up on the trees, and pass from bough to bough by taking 
 flying leaps with the support of the parachute. At times the expansions 
 of skin on the throat are erected. The Oriental region is likewise the 
 home of the beautiful tree-lizards of the genus Calotes, which are also 
 thoroughly' arboreal, although unable to take flying leaps. They have the 
 drum of the ear visible externally, a crest running down the neck and back, 
 the large keeled scales on the back of equal size, a long, whip-like tail, and 
 no distinct fold of skin on the throat. Many of them have the power of 
 rapidly changing their brilliant colours, and some measure as much as 
 sixteen inches in length. More curious are the arboreal horned lizards 
 (Ceratophora) of Ceylon, easily recognised by the presence of a horn on the 
 nose of the males, and sometimes also in the females. There is_ no crest on 
 the neck, and the drum of the ear is concealed. Next on our list are the 
 numerous species of the typical genus Agama, which range from South- 
 Eastern Europe over South-Eastern Asia, although absent from the greater 
 part of India and Ceylon. These lizards are terrestrial in their habits, and 
 accordingly differ from all the foregoing, with the exception of the flying- 
 lizard, in having the body markedly depressed. They have the drum of the 
 ear exposed, large thickened scales in front of the vent in the males, a fold of 
 skin across the throat, and a pit on each side of the same part, while if the 
 back is furnished with a crest, this is of small size. Jn parts of Asia these 
 lizards are some of the most common representatives of their tribe, and may 
 be seen in hundreds basking in the sun. 
 
 Many of the genera of lizards are far from easy to distinguish from one 
 another, but there is no difficulty in recognising the extraordinary Australian 
 frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingi), which has the throat surrounded by a 
 large frill-like expansion of skin extending on to the sides of the neck. 
 
400 
 
 REPTILIA ORDER III. SQUAMA TA. 
 
 This long-tailed lizard, which grows to a length of over thirty inches, is an 
 inhabitant of open sandy deserts, and is peculiar in that it habitually walks 
 on its hind-legs alone. It does not, however, hop, but walks with a bold, 
 swinging gait. Probably the frill is given to the creature for the purpose 
 of terrifying its enemies, as when alarmed this lizard sits up on its hind- 
 limbs, expands the frill to its fullest extent, and shows its teeth ; its appear- 
 ance is then distinctly alarming, 
 although the creature is per- 
 fectly harmless to large ani- 
 mals. From the preceding 
 forms this lizard and a number 
 of allied genera differ by hav- 
 ing pores on the under surface 
 of the body near the vent, or 
 on the thighs, or in "both of 
 these situations. A closely re- 
 lated species is the sail-toiled 
 
 Fig. 13, FRILLED LIZARD (Chlamydosaurus kingi). lizard (Lophurus amboynensis) 
 
 of the Malayan and Philippine 
 
 Islands, in which the upper surface of the basal portion of the tail carries a 
 huge vertical crest, while the nape and back are ornamented with a ridge of 
 enlarged scales. This lizard, which has a compressed body, and an olive- 
 green ground-colour with irregular black markings, is an inhabitant of 
 wooded districts near water, and if frightened, immediately plunges into the 
 latter element. It is a vegetable feeder, and its flesh is stated to be tender 
 and well-flavoured. 
 
 The tail is an important part in distinguishing many of the lizards of this 
 family, and its characters form an easy means of recognising the thorny- 
 tailed lizards of Northern Africa and South- Western Asia, which constitute 
 the genus Uromastix. Whereas the body is smoothly scaled, the whole of 
 the rather short tail is invested with a series of rings of large scales each 
 armed with a thorn-like spine. They have very short and rounded heads; 
 the drum of the ear is visible, and there are 
 pores in front of the vent as well as on the 
 thighs. A feature in which these lizards differ 
 f i-om all those noticed above is the large size 
 of the front teeth, which in the adult are 
 separated from those on each side of the jaws 
 by a gap. Thorny lizards are abundant in the 
 sandy plains of Arabia, Persia, and the Pun- 
 jab, where they live in burrows. Probably tho 
 thorny tail is a means of defence, as if one of 
 these lizards can but get its head and body well 
 within its retreat, it seems to be pretty safe 
 from attack . The writer once tried to drag one 
 from its hole by seizing hold of the projecting 
 tail, but the appendage gave way, leaving 
 the creature secure from further harm. Their food is entirely of a vegetable 
 nature; and the Arabs by whom these lizards are frequently kept in cap- 
 tivity are very partial to their flesh. The last member of the family that 
 can be noticed is the moloch lizard (Moloch horrid\^} of South and West 
 Australia, a creature which looks more like some monster in a pantomime 
 
 Fig. 14. THORNT TAILED LIZAIID 
 (Urojuastix). 
 
SCALED REPTILES LIZARDS. 401 
 
 than a living animal. Measuring about eight inches in length, and having 
 a depressed toad -like body and rather short tail, the moloch is covered all 
 over above with large conical spines, which attain their greatest develop- 
 ment immediately over the eyes and on the forepart of the back. It 
 frequents sandy districts, is slow in its movements, and may be frequently 
 seen abroad in the full sunlight. That its spiny armour renders it perfectly 
 safe from all ordinary attacks, may be considered perfectly certain ; and 
 it is clear that the creature's motto is defence and not defiance, as it is 
 perfectly harmless. It has the power of slowly changing its colour to a cer- 
 tain extent in accordance with its surroundings ; and its chief nutriment is 
 formed by ants, although it will also eat vegetable substances. Thorny devil 
 or spiny lizard is the name given to this reptile by the colonists. 
 
 The name iguana is one of those terms constantly misapplied in popular 
 zoology, and it is very frequently given to the monitors of India and 
 Australia. As a matter of fact, most of the members of the 
 great iguana tribe are confined to the New World, where The Iguana 
 they take the place of the Old World Agamidce, which are Tribe. Family 
 wanting. There are, however, a few outlying iguanas in the Iguanidce. 
 Old World, two genera being found in Madagascar, while a 
 third occurs in the Friendly Islands and Fiji. In many points of their organisa- 
 tion the Iguanidce are closely related to the A gamidce ; but a ready means of 
 distinction between the two groups is afforded by the dentition. Whereas 
 the latter have the dentition of the acrodont type, in the former ifc is pleuro- 
 dont ; and a further difference is to be found in the nearly uniform size and 
 form of all the teeth in the iguanas. Very frequently the teeth have lancet- 
 shaped crowns, with serrated edges ; but in some rare instances they are 
 divided into three distinct cusps. Iguanas of which there are fifty different 
 generic modifications present a curious parallelism to the Agamidce in their 
 structure and habits, doubtless due to the fact that they have to fill all the 
 situations in the New World occupied by the different members of the latter 
 in the Eastern Hemisphere. Whereas, however, there is no flying iguana, 
 this group contains a marine type, which has no representative among the 
 allied family. Nearly all the American forms are inhabitants of the warmer 
 regions of the New World ; most are insect-eaters, a few are vegetarians. 
 
 The beautiful iguanas of the American genus Anolis may be regarded as 
 the western analogues of the Oriental tree-lizards. These are long-tailed 
 arboreal species, with a pyramidal head, moderately long neck, a slender 
 body of variable form, elongated hind-limbs, and large feet with toes of 
 unequal length, in which the middle joints are expanded, and the claws 
 long and elevated. The throat is ornamented with an appendage, which is 
 generally brightly coloured in the males ; but there is no crest on the back 
 and neck. The teeth are_ distinctly three-lobed. More than a hundred 
 different kinds of these lizards are known to science, many of which take up 
 their residence in human dwellings, where they hunt for their insect prey, 
 quite undisturbed by the proximity of tha owners. Like their Oriental re- 
 presentatives in the Agamidce) they have the power of changing the colour of 
 their skin even more rapidly and decisively than the chamaeleons. As the 
 species of Anolis represent Calotes in the Old World family, so the basilisks 
 (Basiliscus) simulate the sail-tailed lizard of the Malayan Islands. Tho 
 American forms have, however, gone one better than their Old World proto- 
 type, for whereas in the latter the sail-like membranous expansion is confined 
 to the upper surface of the tail, in the males of the former a similar vertical 
 27 
 
402 
 
 REPTILIA- ORDER HLSQUAMATA. 
 
 expansion of skin runs from the nape of the neck to the loins, where it ia 
 separated by a short interval from the one on the tail. Tn the back the 
 crest is supported by the elongation of the spines of the back-bone; and in some 
 cases the expansion on the tail is strengthened in a similar manner. The 
 males have in addition a helmet-like elevation on the hinder part of the head. 
 Basilisks are tree-dwelling reptiles, nearly always found in the neighbour- 
 hood of water. They generally repose on a bough overhanging some pool or 
 river ; and when frightened, immediately throw themselves into the water, in 
 which the males swim with facility by the aid of the crested tail, which acts 
 as a rudder. How the female manages to get along without the crest is not 
 stated. 
 
 From a group so extensive as that of the iguanas it is difficult to select the 
 forms best deserving of special notice. There is, however, no doubt that 
 two curious lizards from the Galapagos Islands demand recognition here. Each 
 of these is the sole representative of a genus by itself ; but whereas one 
 (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) lives to a great extent in the sea and feeds on sea- 
 weed, the other (Conolophus subcristatus) is a terrestrial creature subsisting 
 on a more ordinary vegetable diet. Having pores on the thighs, and the 
 
 fourth toe of the hind-foot longer 
 than the third, these lizards are 
 specially distinguished by the cir- 
 cumstance that both the front and 
 lateral teeth are three cusped. The 
 marine species, which measures over 
 fifty inches in length, and is con- 
 siderably the larger of the two, 
 takes its scientific name from the 
 extreme shortness and bluntness of 
 the head ; both the body and tail 
 being markedly compressed, and 
 the toes furnished with incipient 
 webs. The upper surface of the 
 head is ornamented with a number 
 of conical bosses ; and a strong ser- 
 rated crest runs from the nape of 
 
 the neck to the tip of the tail. The habits of these remarkable lizards have 
 been well described by Darwin. He states that these reptiles are seldom found 
 farther inland than a few yards distance from the shore ; and that when in 
 the water they swim strongly and easily with a serpentine movement by the 
 aid of the powerful tail alone. On the volcanic rocks forming the coasts of 
 their native islands these lizards are met with in large droves, which from 
 time to time proceed to sea in search of food. In spite, however, of this 
 fondness for the sea, they never take to the water when attacked as a means 
 of escape. The smaller terrestrial species is easily distinguished by the 
 cylindrical form of the tail and the absence of any trace of webbing on the 
 toes. The head, too, is somewhat longer, and the dorsal crest fully developed 
 only in the region of the neck. In weight, they scale from ten to fifteen 
 pounds. On the central islands of the Galapagos group these lizards are, or 
 were, found in such numbers that there is sometimes a difficulty in discover- 
 ing a space of any size free from them. They live in burrows, and in the 
 daytime love to lie basking in the sun for hours at a stretch in a dull, listless 
 manner. Even when disturbed, they are slow to get out ot the way ; arid in 
 
 Fly. 15. GALAPAGOS SBA-LTZARD. 
 (Ainblyrhynchus cristatus). 
 
SCALED REPTILESLIZARDS. 403 
 
 all their movements they are very unlike ordinary lizards. Nearly allied to 
 the Galapagos forms are the two species of the typical genus lyuana, which 
 are restricted to Tropical America and the West Indies. From the former 
 they are distinguished by the simple, conical front teeth ; the lateral teeth 
 being serrated. They have the body long and compressed, the quadrangular 
 and large head covered above with enlarged shields, and the long tail invested 
 with uniform and keeled scales. The neck, back, and upper surface of the 
 tail are ornamented with a continuous spiny crest, and there is an appendage 
 on the throat which is incapable of dilation. These iguanas are essentially 
 arboreal lizards, living in forests in the neighbourhood of water, and fre- 
 quently descending at night to the ground to feed. They readily take to water, 
 in which they swim with facility ; and although their diet is mainly of a 
 vegetable nature, they will freely eat insects and other invertebrates. The 
 common species measures as much as four and a half feet in length. By the 
 natives of the countries they frequent, iguanas are highly esteemed, and 
 they are regularly hunted in some districts for food. Their eggs are also 
 much sought after for the same purpose. Nearly allied is the ring-tailed 
 iguana (Cydura carinata) of the West Indies, in which the crowns of the 
 lateral teeth are tricuspid, and the throat is furnished with a pouch, the back 
 and tail being strongly crested. 
 
 As the Agamidce possess a spine-clad type in the form of the moloch lizard, 
 so a similar type occurs in the present family. These creatures are generally 
 called horned lizards, although in the States they are known by the title of 
 Californian toad. The genus to which they belong (Phryiiosoma) includes 
 about a dozen species, which have a geographical range extending over the 
 United States and Mexico. From all other members of the family they are 
 at once distinguished by the numerous spines studding the skin of the body, 
 head, and tail ; while they are further characterised by their short, rounded 
 head, general toad-like form of body, and abbreviated tail. About five inches 
 is the ordinary length of these lizards. As regards habits, these lizards are 
 inhabitants of sandy districts, where they prey upon beetles and such other 
 insects as they are able to capture. Some of them are among the few members 
 of the Iguanidcn which give birth to their young in a living condition. This 
 peculiarity, coupled with their remarkable external appearance, would be 
 sufficient to give these lizards a claim to distinction above their fellows. But 
 they have another peculiarity. They spit blood ; and this not from their 
 mouth, but from, their eyes. Incredible as this statement may appear, it is 
 attested by several trustworthy observers. When handled, they have been 
 known to squirt a jet of blood to a distance of more than a foot from one eye, 
 and soon after to emit a similar stream from the other. And this not only 
 once, but several times. Doubtless this most remarkable action is for defen- 
 sive purposes ; and American observers would do good service if they would 
 describe in detail the mode in which the operation is performed. 
 
 A peculiar lizard from Mexico is the representative not only of the genus 
 Xenosaumis, but likewise of the family Xehosauridw. Passing this by as 
 being worthy only of the attention of specialists, we come 
 to the girdled lizards, of which there are four genera from ^ 6 p .^ s> 
 Africa south of the Sahara, and the island of Madagascar. ZonuridL 
 To a great extent the group is intermediate between the 
 preceding family of the lyuanidce and the following one of the Anguidce. 
 From the former it is distinguished by the hinder lateral regions of the skull 
 being roofed over by (dermal) ossifications in the skin, and likewise by the 
 
404 
 
 REPTILIA ORDER HLSQ UAMA TA. 
 
 interclavicle being cruciform instead of T-shaped ; while, from the latter, it 
 is differentiated by the conformation of the tongue which, as in the 
 IgiianidcK, is not divisible into an interior and posterior portion as well as 
 by the hollow bases of the teeth, and by the structure of the bony plates, 
 which in one genus underlie the scales. All have a fold of skin covered with 
 small scales along the sides of the body, by which the upper surface is denned 
 from the lower* The head is invested with large and regular shields ; but 
 the back may be covered either with shield-like scales, which are frequently 
 provided with keels, and are arranged in regular transverse zones, or with 
 granules. As in the Jgpuant&Bj the teeth are pleurodont, and the ba,ses of 
 those in use are hollowed out by the tips of their successors, which rise verti- 
 cally from beneath. In the three genera Zonurus, Pseiidocordylus, and 
 Platysaurus, both pairs of limbs, are well developed, but in Chamcesaura, the 
 general form is snake-like, the fore-limbs being absent, and the hind ones 
 rudimentary, while the tail is remarkable for its excessive relative length. 
 The only Malagasy form is a species of the genus first named. 
 
 Although in several groups of the sub-order the limbs have more or less 
 
 completely disappeared, in no case is the assumption of a serpent-like form 
 
 more strongly marked than in the family typically represented 
 
 Snake-like by the common British blind-worm. It is to this family, 
 
 /Lizards. accordingly, that the name of snake-like lizards is most 
 
 Family applicable. While all these lizards resemble the members 
 
 AnguidcK. of the preceding family in having the hinder lateral regions 
 
 of the skull roofed by bony plates developed in the deep 
 
 layer of the skin, they differ in the structure of the teeth, It is true that 
 
 the teeth are often attached in the pleurodont manner, but instead of having 
 
 the base hollow, this is solid, the new teeth coming up between two of the 
 
 old ones, instead of beneath the crown of the one immediately above.- Whereas 
 
 in most of the genera the teeth are either tubercular or in the form of short 
 
 cones firmly attached to the sides of the jaws, in the blind- worms they are 
 
 long, slender, highly curved, and 
 very loosely fastened to the bone. 
 In these respects the blind-worms 
 come very close to the snakes, and 
 also to the poisonous lizards of the 
 family Helodermatidce. And it is 
 not a little remarkable that traces of 
 a groove have been detected along 
 the front surfaces of the teeth of 
 the blind-worms which appear to 
 correspond to the poison-grooves of 
 those of the family in question. It 
 seems, therefore, as if the popular 
 dread of the blind-worm was in- 
 stinctive, and that the creature is either descended from poisonous ancestors, 
 or would be poisonous if it could. All the members of the family have bony 
 plates developed in the deep layer of the skin beneath the scales, these plates, 
 when viewed under the microscope, displaying a system of canals. Very 
 peculiar is the tongue, which is divided into a large thick hinder portion, 
 thickly covered with shaggy papillre, and a small thin emarginate front moiety, 
 of which the covering takes the form of small, scale-like papillae. This front 
 portion is extensile, and also capable of more or less full retraction into a 
 
 Fig. 16. BLIND-WORM (Anguis fragilis). 
 
SCALED REPTILES LIZARDS. 405 
 
 sheath formed by a transverse fold at the front of the hinder portion. A 
 further resemblance to snakes is to be found in the circumstance that these 
 lizards cast their skins in a single piece. As regards the limbs, great variety 
 is presented by the seven genera included in the family, some having the 
 feet fully developed, and terminating in five toes, whereas in others all 
 external traces of limbs have disappeared. It is noteworthy that all the 
 limbed forms are American, and that Central America and the West Indian 
 Islands are the head-quarters of the group. Beyond the New World, two 
 species are found in Europe and North Africa, while a third inhabits Burma 
 and the Himalaya. Of the seven genera, GerrhonotAis&ud. Ophisaurus are 
 peculiar in having a lateral fold on the body ; the former, which is exclusively 
 American, having two pairs of five-toed limbs, while the latter has, at most, 
 external representatives of the hinder pair. This genus includes the well- 
 known scheltopusik (0. apus) of South and Eastern Europe, as well as. one 
 Oriental, and other American types. Of those without folds, the genera 
 Diploglossus, Sauresia, and Panoplus are American and four-limbed, differing 
 from one another in the number of the toes, which vary from one or two to 
 five on each foot. Ophiodes is likewise American, but has only external 
 rudiments of the hind-limbs. Lastly we have Anguis, represented solely by 
 the familiar blind- worm of Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa, which 
 lacks all vestiges of limbs externally, and has the lateral teeth large and fang- 
 like. This species is also peculiar in giving birth to living young, all the 
 other members of the family laying eggs in. the ordinary manner. All the 
 
 Anguidce, live on animal food, the 
 larger kinds killing and eating small 
 mammals, birds, and reptiles, whereas 
 the smaller species confine themselves 
 to worms, insects, slugs, and such 
 like. As a rule they are strictly ter- 
 restrial, although some species of 
 Gerrhotwtus will climb up low bushes. 
 The family AnniellidtE, as con- 
 taining only a single Calif ornian genus 
 with two species, may 
 be passed over with- Poisonous 
 out notice, and we Lizards. Family 
 accordingly proceed Helodermatidce. 
 to the family Helo- 
 dermatidce, which also comprises only 
 
 two species, and ranges from Central 
 Ftg. 17-PoisoNous LIZARD (Heloderma). Amer f ca to New Mex b ico and Arizona , 
 
 In common with many of the poison- 
 ous snakes, these lizards are distinguished by their brilliant coloration, one 
 kind having an orange or yellow ground-colour, with an irregular net-work of 
 dark markings on. the head and body, and dark rings round the tail. These 
 lizards possess a tongue and teeth of the same general type as in the blind- 
 worm, but have the upper surface covered with transverse rows of small 
 granular tubercles, the under-parts being invested with squared scales. 
 From those of the blind- worm the teeth differ by having grooves on the front 
 and back surfaces for the transmission of the poisonous fluid, and there are 
 certain structural differences in the skull. Both species are included in the 
 genus Heloderma, and the one from Arizona is rather the larger of the two, its 
 
4 o6 
 
 REPTTLIAORDER III.SQ.UAMATA. 
 
 Monitors.- 
 
 Family 
 Varanidce. 
 
 total length being about twenty inches. Both have the head broad and de- 
 pressed, the body rounded and thick, the tail moderately long and cylindrical, 
 and the limbs relatively small, with the third and fourth toes the longest. 
 The poisonous lizards are sluggish and nocturnal, inhabiting sandy districts, 
 with the soil of which their coloration is in admirable harmony. They are 
 most commonly seen abroad in the rainy season, and are carnivorous in their 
 diet. Small mammals are speedily killed by their bite, which is stated 
 occasionally to have fatal effects on human beings. 
 
 A third family of the sub-order with only a single genus, is that of 
 the monitors; the -range of the numerous species extending from the 
 Caspian through Southern Asia to Australasia, and likewise 
 embracing all Africa, as well as the Pacific Islands. They are 
 all of large size, one measuring between six and seven feet 
 in length. As compared with the preceding families, their 
 essential characteristic is to be found in the snake-like struc- 
 ture of the tongue, which is long, deeply forked at the tip, extensile, and 
 capable of being withdrawn into a sheath at the base. They all have well- 
 developed, five-toed limbs, a long and often compressed tail, small scales on 
 the head, and the drum of the ear exposed. Owing to the presence of mar- 
 ginal rows of granules, the scales on the back do not overlap, and in no case 
 is there a median longitudinal crest in this region. The different species of 
 Varanus may be arranged in four groups, the distinctive features of which need 
 not be noticed here. They are generally found in the neighbourhood of water, 
 
 and one Indian species frequents 
 the coast, and will at times enter 
 the sea. In habits, they are purely 
 carnivorous ; and, with the possible 
 exception of the Papuan species, 
 they are also terrestrial. They are 
 among the most active of the lizard 
 tribe, and although generally harm- 
 less and avoiding attack, it would ap- 
 pear from the folio wing account that, 
 when driven to bay, they will turn 
 on their aggressors. Of the Nile 
 monitor (V. niloticus\ Dr. Abel 
 Smith writes that " it is usually met 
 with in rocky precipices, or in low 
 stony hills, and, when surprised, 
 
 Fig. 18 A MONITOR (Varanus). 
 
 seeks concealment in the chinks of the former or in the irregular cavities of 
 the latter, and when any projections exist upon the surface of the rocks or 
 stones, it clasps them so firmly with its toes, that it becomes a task of no 
 small difficulty to dislodge it, even though it can be easily reached. Under 
 such circumstances, the strength of no one man is able to withdraw a full- 
 grown individual, and I have seen two persons required to pull a specimen out 
 of a position it had attained, even with the assistance of a rope fixed in front 
 of its hind-legs. The moment it was dislodged it flew with fury at its 
 enemies, who by flight only saved themselves from being bitten. After it 
 was killed it was discovered that the points of all the nails had been broken 
 previously, or at the moment it lost its hold. It feeds upon frogs, crabs, and 
 small quadrupeds ; and, from its partiality to the two former, it is often 
 found among rocks near to springs or running streams, which fact having 
 
SCALED REPTILES LIZARDS. 40? 
 
 been observed by the natives, has led them to regard it as sacred, and not to 
 be injured without danger of drought." All lay eggs, and many, if not all 
 the species, feed largely upon the eggs of birds. 
 
 A much larger assemblage is that of the greaved lizards of the New World, 
 which there occupy the position held in the Old World by the allied family of 
 the LacertidcB. From all the preceding forms, the Teiidce and 
 following families are broadly distinguished by the circum- Greaved Liz- 
 stance that their cleft and often spear-like tongues are covered ards. Family 
 either with overlapping scale-like papillae, or are marked by Teiidce. 
 
 oblique folds. Then, again, in place of the small scales of 
 the Varanidce, the head is invested with large symmetrically arranged shields; 
 and in the skeleton the inner extremities of the collar-bones are expanded, 
 and not unfrequently assume a looped form. The Teiidce, of which there 
 are five-and-thirty genera, and more than a hundred species have the head- 
 shields free from the bones of the skull, no bony plates underlying the scales, 
 and no bony roof to the hinder lateral regions of the skull, while the scales 
 are arranged in transverse rows. The teeth are very variable in form and 
 structure, but are always solid at the base, owing to the circumstance that 
 their successors come up alongside, The teeth in the front of the jaws are 
 always conical ; but both these and the lateral series may be attached either 
 on the acrodont or pleurodont plan. Distinct eyelids are generally present ; 
 the drum of the ear is always visible externally >, and the tongue is in most 
 cases covered with overlapping scales, and may be capable of retraction 
 within a basal sheath. Although most of these lizards have five-toed limbs, 
 in certain cases each foot has but four toes, while in other instances the limbs 
 are represented only by stumps, and even all external traces of the hinder 
 pair may disappear. The numerous representatives of this important family 
 have their headquarters in equatorial America, although some forms may be 
 met with throughout the warmer portions of that continent. Like the 
 monitors, they are active in their habits, and feed upon animal substances ; 
 but they may be found in all sorts of situations, some living in holes in dry 
 sandy districts, while others prefer the dense herbage of moist localities. 
 The number of genera is far too great to admit of even mention in this place. 
 It will accordingly suffice to take as our representative of the family the large 
 and handsome species commonly known as the tegu (Tupinambis tequexin\ 
 which is a common and widely-spread 
 species, ranging from the Guianas in the 
 North to Uruguay in the South. Measur- 
 ing about three feet in length, this lizard 
 has a bold and striking bearing, owing to 
 the elevation of the fore-quarters. Its 
 general colour is some shade of olive 
 above, ornamented with blotches and bars 
 of black, and indistinct longitudinal rows 
 of light spots. It is met with in great 
 numbers among the virgin forests of _ 
 
 Amazonia, where, with its forked tongue ^ _ THE TEQU 
 in rapid motion, it may be seen either tequexin). 
 
 sitting quietly upon a branch, or running 
 rapidly over the ground. As is the case with some of the other members of 
 the family, its flesh is esteemed as food by the natives. 
 
 As already mentioned, certain members of the preceding family have lost 
 
408 REPTILTA ORDER III.SQUAMATA. 
 
 ""all external traces of the hinder pair of limbs, and as such species possess 
 burrowing habits, they may be regarded as forming a con- 
 Family necting link between the Teiidce and the degraded Amphis- 
 Amphisbcvnidce. bcenidce. The latter, which take their name from the fact 
 that most of them are able to advance with equal ease in 
 either a forward or a backward direction, may, indeed, in all probability, be 
 considered as derivatives from the ancestral stock of the former, which have 
 little by little accustomed themselves to a subterranean mode of life, till the 
 majority have acquired an almost completely worm-like form and habit. One 
 American species, alone representing the genus Chirotes, still, however, retains 
 minute though well-developed fore-limbs, which are placed close up to the head, 
 and followed by the long worm-like body. And to the zoologist this form is of 
 the highest importance, as indicating that all the other members of the family 
 trace their origin to fully-limbed ancestors. With the exception of this soli- 
 tary species, the amphisbaenas are all limbless, worm-like creatures, in which 
 even the bones of the pelvis and shoulder-girdle are reduced to the condition 
 of rudiments. In all, the ears are wanting, the f unctionless eyes are buried 
 deep down in the skin, and the minute mouth is often situated on the lower 
 aspect of the head. The tail is always short; and the few and large teeth, as 
 in the preceding family, may be either acrodont or pleurodont. Indeed, it is 
 chiefly by certain degraded features of the skull that the Amphisbcenidce are 
 distinguished from the Teiidce; and as such differences are obviously produced 
 by adaptation to their environment, the amphisbsenas are but little removed 
 from their nearest allies. Not the least interesting feature in connection with 
 these strange creatures is their peculiar geographical distribution a distribu- 
 tion which can only be understood by taking extinct forms into consideration. 
 Of the existing types, the true home is Tropical America, although two 
 species one representing Chirotes are found above the northern tropic ; 
 but a considerable number of species are inhabitants of Africa, and a few 
 occur in the Mediterranean countries. Most remarkable is the circumstance 
 that the extensive and typical genus Amphisbcena has representatives both 
 in Tropical America and Africa south of the Sahara. This, however, is but 
 one out of many instances showing a community between the faunas of 
 South Africa and South America. The family is divided into two groups, 
 according to the mode of attachment of the teeth. In the first group, or 
 Prosphyodontes, which includes Chirotes, Amphisbcena, and six other genera, 
 the teeth are welded to the inner edges of the jaws ; whereas in the second 
 group, or EmphyodonteS) which is represented by Trogonophis, Pachycalmus, 
 and Agamodon, they are affixed to the edges of the same. Regarding the 
 mode of life of the amphisbsenas, Mr. G. A. Boulenger writes as follows : 
 * ' All the members of this family are burrowers, and many live in ants' nests. 
 They bore narrow galleries in the earth, in which they are able to progress 
 backwards as well as forwards. On the ground they progress in a straight 
 line, by slight vertical undulations, not by lateral movements, as in other 
 limbless reptiles. The tail of many species appears to be more or less pre- 
 Jhensile. The food of these lizards consists of small insects and worms. Little 
 has been published on their habits, and all that is known about their mode of 
 propagation is that Anops kingi is oviparous, and deposits its eggs in the 
 nests of ants." It may be added that the Amphisbcenidcz are peculiar among 
 vertebrates in having the right lung rudimental or absent, whereas the left is 
 elongated. In other snake-like lizards, and in snakes, it is the right lung 
 that is functional. 
 
SCALED REPTILES LIZARDS. 409 
 
 The typical family of the sub-order is exclusively an Old World one, and is 
 spread over the three great continents, although unknown in the island of 
 Madagascar and likewise in the Australasian countries. 
 From their New World cousins the Teiidce, these lizards Family 
 
 may be readily distinguished by the circumstance that a com- Lacertida'. 
 plete roof of bones developed in the deep layer of the skin 
 covers the hinder lateral regions of the skull, and also by the fact that the 
 shields of the head are attached to the bones of the skull. They further 
 differ and thereby resemble the Amphisbtenidce in having the two anterior 
 upper jaw-bones, or premaxillse, immovably united in front. In none are the 
 limbs aborted ; and in all cases the feet terminate in five complete toes. The 
 general form is too well known to require mention ; and it is in these lizards 
 that the long tail breaks off so readily at or near the middle. The teeth have 
 hollowed bases, and are attached to the jaws in the pleurodont manner ; and 
 the tongue has the form of an arrow-head. Distinct eyelids, which can gener- 
 ally be closed, are developed ; and the drum of the ear is visible from the 
 outside. In none of these lizards are bony plates developed in the skin beneath 
 the scales ; and while the scales of the back may either overlap one another 
 or have their edges in contact, those on the under surface of the body are 
 arranged in transverse and longitudinal series, and are usually superior in size 
 to those above. The family, which includes seventeen generic types and some- 
 where about a hundred species, attains its maximum development in Africa, 
 being but poorly represented in the Oriental countries. While several species 
 are met witli in the south of Europe, two only are found in Britain, where, 
 with the blind-worm, they are the sole representatives of the sub-order 
 Lacertilia. All are fond of sunny localities, where their brisk movements and 
 beautiful metallic tints render them attractive to all who do not possess an 
 instinctive dislike to everything in the shape of a reptile. Flies, beetles, and 
 slugs form their chief food ; and as in the colder parts of Europe and Asia, 
 these are not to be seen abroad in winter, lizards are perforce compelled to 
 follow suit and pass the dull winter months in a state of torpor, either buried 
 beneath the ground, or safely ensconced in clefts and crannies. Although 
 one species produces its young alive, the rest lay eggs. 
 
 Both the British species belong to the typical genus Lacerta ; and of these 
 the smaller is the viviparous lizard (L. vivipara), which grows to a length of 
 seven inches, and takes its name from the aforesaid peculiarity in its domestic 
 arrangements. The second is the sand-lizard (L. agilis), which may measure 
 between eight and ten inches in length, and ranges as far north as Sweden 
 and Norway. More beautiful and considerably larger than either of the 
 foregoing is the green lizard (L. mridis\ ranging from Southern Europe 
 through the Mediterranean countries to Persia. The northern limits are 
 Germany, where this lizard never reaches the dimensions it attains in more 
 favoured climes. Yet another South European species is the pearly lizard 
 {L. ocellata), easily recognised by the presence of a row of large blue spots 
 on each side of the body, the general colour of the upper-parts being in some 
 cases green, with dots or a network of black, but in others dark olive with 
 yellowish markings. This species is larger than any of the foregoing, some* 
 times measuring as much as twenty-three inches in length. It would be im- 
 possible in the space available to give the names and characteristics of all the 
 seventeen genera included in the family. It may, however, be mentioned 
 that in Southern Europe there occur three lizards belonging to a closely allied 
 genus known as Algiroides, differing from Lacerta by the larger size of the 
 
410 REPTILIA ORDER III. SQUAMA TA. 
 
 scales on the back. Another South European genus, also extending into the 
 north of Africa, is Psammodromus, the members of which differ from both 
 the genera above-mentioned by the slight development or complete absence 
 of a collar or gorget round the throat. 
 
 A small neatly-made lizard, commonly known as the skink (Scincus offici- 
 nalis), which inhabits the Sahara desert and the countries bordering the Red 
 Sea, is the type of the last large and important family of tho 
 Slunk Tribe. Lacertilia. It should, however, be mentioned that the 
 Family small African family of the Gerrhosauridce includes iive 
 Scincidce. genera, which, to a certain extent, serve to connect the 
 Lacertidce with the Scincidte. They have, for instance, the 
 scales of the body underlain by bony plates of peculiar internal structure, as 
 is the case with the latter family, whereas in the union of the two premaxil- 
 lary bones and the presence of pores on the thighs, they are like the former. 
 The presence of such bony plates beneath the scales, the distinctness of the 
 two prernaxilUe, and the invariable absence of pores on tho limbs, are 
 characters amply sufficient to differentiate the IScincidce from the Lacertida\ 
 There are twenty-five genera included in the family under- consideration, in 
 one of which (Lygosoma) no less than one hundred and fifty-nine distinct species 
 are recognised by zoologists. With such a number of different forms, it is not 
 surprising to find that the family is cosmopolitan. Its head-quarters are, 
 however, the Australasian and Oriental countries, together with the islands 
 of the Pacific and Africa. Skinks are essentially terrestrial lizards, all loving 
 dry sandy deserts, where many burrow in the soil ; and it is probably largely 
 due to such habits that the lower eyelid is furnished with a transparent 
 window in the centre, so that the eye can be used when protected by its 
 covering. A peculiar feature of the family is to be found in the circumstance 
 that the young are almost invariably born in a living condition. Whereas, 
 in all cases the limbs are relatively short, in certain instances one, and in 
 others both pairs are wanting. Many of the above-mentioned features clearly 
 indicate that they are a highly specialised group. Since the number of young 
 produced at a birth may be as low as two, and does not seem to exceed half 
 a score, the rate of increase of these lizards is comparatively slow. 
 
 The common skink (Scincus officinalis) which isasrnooth-scaled, parti-coloured 
 lizard of about eight inches in length, owes its scientificname to the circumstance 
 
 that its flesh was formerly employed in 
 European medicine, as it still is in the 
 East. It is a creature common enough 
 in Syria and Palestine, where it burrows 
 in the sandy soil. Its flesh is stated by 
 European travellers to be by no means 
 unpalatable if properly cooked. The 
 most extraordinary-looking member of 
 the entire family is the Australian stump- 
 tailed lizard (Trachysaurus rugosus), 
 which is covered with large rough 
 browny scales, underlain by thick bony 
 Fig. 20. COMMON SKINK plates, in such a manner as to give it the 
 
 (Scincus offidnalis). appearance of an extremely elongated pine- 
 
 cone. The short and broad head is triangular in form ; the limbs are very short, 
 the front and hind pair being widely separated from each other ; and the tail is 
 reduced to a very short, wide, rounded stump. In its habits the lizard is slow 
 
SCALED REPTILES CHAMELEONS, 41 1 
 
 and lethargic, as if existence were somewhat of a bore, and although its chief 
 food is of an animal nature, it is stated also to consume vegetable substances. 
 Certain worm-like burrowing skinks from the tropical and sub-tropical 
 regions of the globe are degraded types, regarded as constituting two families 
 by themselves. In both these families the Anelytropidce and the Dibamidce 
 the degradation shows itself not only in the loss of limbs, but likewise in 
 the simplification of the skull, which has lost all its lateral arches ; while the 
 eyes are buried beneath the skin, and the ears have no external opening. In 
 the first family which contains the Mexican genus Anelytrojms and the 
 African Feylinia and Typhlosaums the bony plates beneath the H skin are 
 retained, but the two premaxillae have coalesced into a single bone. On the 
 other hand, in the Dibamidce the premaxillse remain distinct, but the bony 
 plates in the skin have disappeared. This second family is represented only 
 by the genus Dilxvmus, of which one species ranges from the Moluccas through 
 Celebes to New Guinea, while the second is restricted to the Nicobar Islands. 
 
 Sub-Order II. Rhiptoglossa. 
 CHAMELEONS. 
 
 In their slow and deliberate movements, as well as by their peculiar revolv- 
 ing eyes and generally grotesque appearance; chatmeleons suggest the idea 
 that they do not properly belong to the present order of things, but are sur- 
 vivors from some ancient epoch in the earth's history, when strange and 
 uncouth monsters were to the fore. Nevertheless, we have no evidence that 
 such is really the case, since such fossil chamseleons as are known belong to a 
 comparatively late era, and the extreme specialisation of these strange crea- 
 tures is, perhaps, rather in favour of their modern origin. Although in 
 popular language chamoeleons come under the designation of lizards, they are 
 structurally so different from the Lacertilia that there can be no hesitation in 
 regarding them as the representatives of a distinct sub-order. Apart from 
 the peculiarities of their external appearance, they are broadly distinguished 
 from lizards by the conformation of the tongue. Anyone who has seen a 
 tamie charneeleon harpoon a fly at a distance of half a dozen inches from its 
 lips, will not readily forget the appearance of the long extensile, worm-like 
 organ which is shot out from the mouth with the speed of an arrow, to be 
 withdrawn immediately after with the hapless victim adhering to its viscid 
 and club-shaped tip. The feet, too, are as unique in their way as is the 
 tongue, some of the toes turning in one direction and the remainder in the 
 other, so as to form a grasping organ of unrivalled power. Whereas in the 
 front feet three toes go to form the inner half of the grasping organ, and two 
 to the outer, in the hind-limbs this arrangement is reversed. The large re- 
 volving and prominent eye is in the form of an egg, with most of the exposed 
 portion invested by a thick continuous lid of a granular texture, in the centre 
 of which is the minute perforation for the pupil. Each eye can be moved 
 independently of its fellow ; and these movements serve to heighten the 
 general grotesqueness of the creature's appearance. Owing to the frequent 
 development of three tall backwardly-projecting ridges on the hinder part of 
 the skull, the head often assumes a casque-like form ; arid the small triangu- 
 lar and compressed teeth are affixed to the jaws in the acrodont manner. In 
 all the species the body is so much compressed as to be much deeper than 
 
4 i2 REPTILIA ORDER HI.SQUAMATA. 
 
 wide, while, owing to the great relative length of the lanky limbs, it is raised 
 high above the ground. The long tapering tail is as good a grasping organ as 
 that of an American monkey. Externally, the whole surface is covered with 
 granules, or small tubercles, so that, properly speaking, chamseleons do not come 
 under the title of Squamata. In their skeleton, chameleons differ from all 
 lizards with fully-developed limbs by the complete loss of their collar-bones. 
 Chamseleons are all so closely related to one another that a single family 
 the Ghamceleontidce suffices for the group. Moreover, with the exception of 
 three Malagasy species forming the genus Brookesia, 
 and two others from Africa, which are separated 
 as Rampholeon, all the forms may be included in the 
 typical genus Chamcdeon, of which forty -four specific 
 representatives are recognised. As regards their 
 geographical distribution, chamreleons are chiefly 
 characteristic of Africa south of the Sahara and Mada- 
 gascar ; but the common Chamceleon vulgaris is an 
 inhabitant of many of the Eastern Mediterranean 
 countries, and is also found in Andalusia and Algeria. 
 India and Ceylon likewise possess a representative of 
 the same genus, while South Arabia is the home of a 
 third, and Socotra of a fourth. Great difference 
 exists in the bodily size of the various members of the 
 family ; the smallest being a species of Brookesia 
 measuring less than three inches in length, while 
 Fig. 21. A CHAMELEON. many of the larger kinds grow to considerably more 
 
 than a foot. 
 
 Chamseleons are essentially arboreal animals, mostly living in trees or 
 bushes abundantly clothed with leaves, and in localities where moisture is 
 plentiful. Although these reptiles have long been celebrated for their power 
 of changing the colour of their skins, yet it appears that the phenomenon is 
 by no means so strongly marked in this group as it is among certain lizards. 
 Still there is considerable change ; and whereas most chameeleons are gener- 
 ally of an apple-green colour in daylight, it is stated that during the night the 
 tint of the skin fades to a greyish-white. If during the daytime a chamseleon 
 passes from a leaf to a bough, its skin soon assimilates to the sombre hue 
 of the latter ; and if seized in the hand the change is even more rapid. In spite 
 of the partiality of nearly all the species for dense tropical or sub- tropical vegeta- 
 tion, a few have betaken themselves to spots in desert districts where they find 
 herbage enough for their needs. All are insectivorous, their favourite food 
 being flies ; and the rapidity with which one of these insects is seized by the 
 tongue forms a strange contrast to the otherwise sluggish and deliberate move- 
 ments of these reptiles. 
 
 Sub-Order IILOphidia. 
 SNAKES/ 
 
 The leading structural features by which snakes are distinguished from the 
 limbless lizards having been already given under the heading of the sub-order 
 Lacertilia, these need not be recapitulated, and attention may accordingly be 
 directed to some of the other characteristics of the former group. Everybody 
 is aware that snakes are scaly reptiles, crawling on the ground without the 
 
SCALED REPTILES SNAKES. 413 
 
 aid of limbs ; but it is probably less widely known that certain members of 
 the group retain vestiges of the hind-legs in the shape of two spur-like pro- 
 jections from the body in the neighbourhood of the vent. And in such 
 forms, if the skeleton be examined, it will be found that there are remnants 
 of the bony framework of the pelvis and upper part of the hind-limbs. All 
 these facts clearly show that snakes trace their descent from reptiles endowed 
 with four complete limbs. Under the heading of the Lacertilia it has been 
 mentioned that the two branches of the lower jaw of a snake are united at the! 
 chin by a ligament, so as to be capable of wide separation from one another; 
 and in many members of the group the capacity of the mouth can be further 
 augmented by a similar arrangement in the upper jaw, the bones of both the 
 jaws themselves, and likewise those of the palate, being movably joined to-, 
 gether. This arrangement permits these reptiles to devour a prey of con- 
 siderably larger size than the normal calibre of their mouth and throat. In 
 place of movable eyelids, snakes have a continuous transparent skin stretched 
 over the eyes, which is periodically cast with the slough ; and in ho case is 
 there any external opening to the ears. A peculiar feature in a serpent is 
 the enormous number of vertebrae contained in the backbone, not less re- 
 markable being the number of pairs of ribs. In fact, from the- head to a long 
 way down the tail, each joint of the backbone carries a pair of these append- 
 ages, which increase gradually in length from the head to the fore-part of the 
 trunk, and thence as gradually diminish to the tail. There being no vestiges 
 of collar-bones or breast-bone, each rib terminates below in a free point. 
 
 In order to give extra flexibility, and at the same time strength, to this 
 exceedingly elongated backbone, the vertebrae of serpents are provided 
 with extra articulations, a wedge-like projection from one fitting in to a 
 corresponding hollow in the next. Such additional articulations are, however, 
 by no means confined to snakes , but also occur in some lizards, notably the 
 monitors. In ordinary land vertebrates the ribs are largely connected with 
 the function of breathing ; but in snakes in addition to supporting the walls 
 of the trunk, and thus keeping open the cavity of the chest their chief 
 function is in progression, so that these reptiles may really be described as 
 rib- walkers. On the under surface of the body the majority of snakes have 
 a series of large transverse horny shields, which are much wider than long, 
 and in the trunk-region extend right across the lower surface ; these shields, 
 it may be remarked, being absent in the limbless lizards. In the tail the 
 enlarged shields not unfrequeritly form a double longitudinal series. Each 
 of the complete transverse shields corresponds to the termination of a pair of 
 ribs. By holding on to the inequalities of the surface they are traversing by 
 the free edges of the shields which project backwards and then by drawing 
 closer together the ribs of one side of the body, and afterwards those of the 
 other, a snake produces the well-known lateral undulations of its body. By. 
 straightening out the front part of the body when a firm hold is obtained, 
 and then drawing after it the hinder portion, progression is effected. On a 
 smooth surface movement is impossible, and no snake ever produces vertical 
 undulations of its body. All snakes have a prehensile forked tongue, capable 
 of retraction within a basal sheath, and during their waking hours kept hi: 
 constant movement. Usually the head of a snake, both above and below, is 
 invested with a number of large and symmetrically-arranged polished horny; 
 shields, to each of which a distinctive name is given. Internally, snakes are- 
 remarkable for the great elongation of the lungs, or rather lung, since, as a. 
 rule, only the one on the right side is functional. 
 
4M KEPTILIA-ORDER HL-SQUAMATA. 
 
 As regards their biting organs, harmless snakes generally have two rows of 
 teeth in the upper, and a single row in the lower jaw, such teeth being 
 slender, sharp, and comparatively short. In some, however, either one or 
 two pairs of teeth of the outer upper series may be larger than the rest, and 
 provided with a groove, or completely tubular, such a type probably always 
 indicating more or less developed noxious properties. In some of the most 
 deadly members of the sub-order, the arrangements for the injection of the 
 poison are of a more complicated nature. Here the short maxillary bones are 
 capable of being moved so as to become at right angles to the bones of the 
 rest of the palate, while each carries a large channelled tusk, which, at the 
 moment of biting, assumes an erect position. Through this pair of tusks, or 
 fangs, the poison is conveyed from the secreting glands, which are placed 
 below and behind the eyes. In some kinds these glands are short, those of the 
 cobra being of the size of an almond ; but in others they extend far down the 
 body. Regarding the mode of operation, an Australian writer observes that 
 "the curious structure of the fang makes it almost certain that the poison 
 shall be injected under the skin. The opening of the groove is not at the 
 very tip, where it would be liable to get plugged up with skin or flesh, and so 
 prevent the passage of the poison, but a little way up from and in front of 
 this, so that the sharp point goes in first, and makes a little hole into which 
 the poison flows. In fact the poison fang is the model of the medical inject- 
 ing syringe, and is exactly adapted to its purpose. The secretion of the 
 gland varies in different snakes in quantity and in quality. It is a clear 
 viscid fluid, which can retain its deadly properties for long, and does not even 
 lose them when dissolved in water or alcohol. Sir J. Fayrer, the great 
 authority on Indian snakes, found that the blood of an animal killed by snake 
 poison was itself poisonous, and he transmitted the venom through a series of 
 three animals with fatal results." 
 
 It was long supposed that harmless and noxious serpents were broadly dis- 
 tinguished from one another by definite external characters, but this is now 
 known to be incorrect ; and it is only by an examination of the teeth that ifc 
 can be determined whether or no any particular serpent is hurtful. The 
 destruction of human life by snake-bite in India is something appalling, as 
 may be gleaned by a recent return of the Indian Government. It is there 
 stated that, whereas in 1892 the deaths caused by snake-bite in the lower 
 provinces of Bengal were 9,510, in 1893 the number rose to 10,797. Though 
 the deaths in Bengal, as might be supposed from its larger area, exceeded 
 those in the other provinces, there was apparently nothing permanent in the 
 rise, as the number fell to 9,856 in 1894. The decrease of mortality during 
 1894 is ascribed in Bengal and Assam to the low flood-levels, the snakes not 
 having been dislodged from their usual haunts, as happens when the water is 
 high. In Assam the mortality is the lowest recorded in the last ten years. 
 The loss of life from snake-bite was highest, in proportion to the population, 
 in Bengal, Ajmir, the North- Western Provinces, and Oudh and the Central 
 Provinces. If all the provinces be taken together, one person was killed in 
 this manner among every 10,267 of the population in 1894, as compared with 
 one in every 10,424 in 1893. The apparent increase in Assam is ascribed to 
 more accurate reporting. In the Central Provinces the same explanation has 
 been offered for a continuous increase ; but the statistics in general are viewed 
 with distrust. The number of venomous snakes reported to have been 
 destroyed, and the rewards granted oil this account shown in the return, fell 
 respectively from 117,120 to 102,210, and from Rs. 12,607 to Rs.10,150. 
 
SCALED REPTILES SNAKES. 415 
 
 Anything that can check this frightful mortality must be welcomed ; and, 
 after the trial of many so-called remedies, it appears that a real antidote is the 
 blood-serum of animals which have been previously immunised to snake- 
 poison or in that of venomous serpents themselves. Regarding the former 
 method, Dr. J. G. M'Pherson writes that its discoverer Professor Fraser of 
 Edinburgh first proved that there is a certain amount of toleration for 
 snake-poison in animals. " Having ascertained the minimum dose required 
 to cause the death of an animal, he started below that amount and gradually 
 increased the dose after intervals of ten days. By this process of gradual .n- 
 creases in the dose of the snake-poison, he found the animal receiving is 
 much at one time as fifty times the amount of the minimum lethal dose with- 
 out it causing any perceptible bad effects. In fact, its general health 
 seemed to improve, as he had the animals weighed once and sometimes twice 
 every day ; and all the time he was administering the venom there was a 
 steady increase in weight. In the meantime Professor Fraser has not carried 
 his experiments of quantity further than fifty times the minimum lethal dose 
 at one time ; but still, when he had got to that point, the animal was receiv- 
 ing in a single dose, without being affected, enough to kill fifty animals of the 
 same size and weight. One of the animals which he had treated by this 
 gradually increasing quantity had, in two months, received enough poison to 
 kill three hundred and seventy fresh animals of equal size and weight, sup- 
 posing that each just got the minimum lethal dose. He then described a 
 second series of experiments in which he used the blood-serum of these 
 animals which had been immunised as an antidote for the venom. He mixed 
 an equal part of this blood -serum and venom together, and injected the mix, 
 ture into a fresh animal. This produced no effect, the serum counteracting 
 the action of the poison. Next he injected some of the immunised blood- 
 serum, which he has named antivenine, into a fresh animal, and then some 
 venom afterwards, but the serum hindered any action of the venom. Then 
 he took another fresh animal and injected the venom, waiting till symptoms 
 of poisoning were manifest ; at once he injected his antivenitie, and put a stop 
 to any further progress of the poisoning. The same results took place after 
 many experiments. All this points to the conclusion that this antivenine, or 
 blood-serum, in an animal that has been able to stand with impunity fifty 
 lethal doses at a time by the increasing dose process is really an antidote to 
 the poison of snakes." Subsequent experiments have shown, as was not 
 unanticipated, that the blood-serum of venomous snakes is likewise an anti- 
 dote to their own poison. 
 
 Nearly all snakes feed upon the bodies of animals that they have killed 
 themselves, the few exceptions to this rule subsisting on eggs. Owing to the 
 extensile structure of the mouth and jaws, already mentioned, as well as to 
 the separation of the lower ejvls of the ribs, and the power of extension exist- 
 ing in the stomach, snakes c,in devour animals of larger circumference than 
 the ordinary girth of their own bodies. Both absolutely and proportionately 
 the largest animals are swallowed by the pythons and boas ; and as these 
 snakes kill their prey by encircling it in the folds of their bodies, and thus 
 crushing it to death, the carcase is rendered soft and plastic, and thus more 
 easily swallowed than would otherwise be the case. Occasionally these ser- 
 pents will swallow members of their own species, as happened not long ago 
 in the menagerie of the Zoological Society of London. In this instance, two 
 large boas occupied the same compartment in the reptile-house, the one 
 measuring nine and the other eight feet in length. One night the two were 
 
4 i6 REPTILIA ORDER III. SQUAMA TA. 
 
 seen all safe at closing time, but when the house was opened next morning, 
 " only one boa was found in the cage ; the other had disappeared. Though 
 the survivor was only a foot longer than the other snake, there was no reason 
 to doubt that it had completely swallowed its companion. It was so dis- 
 tended that the scales were almost separated, and it was unable either to coil 
 itself or to move. There is every reason to believe that in accomplishing this 
 almost incredible feat the snake acted by mistake, and that it devoured its 
 companion by what deserves to be called an accident. The larger boa was fed 
 with a pigeon before the house was closed for the night. It swallowed the 
 bird, and the other boa was then given a pigeon, which it had begun to 
 swallow when the snakes were left for the night. It is believed that the 
 larger snake then caught hold of the part of the pigeon which projected from 
 the other's mouth, and gradually enveloped not only the bird, but the head 
 of the other snake. Once begun, the swallowing process would go on almost 
 mechanically. As the swallowed snake was only one foot less in length than 
 the swallower, and of nearly equal bulk, weighing about fifty pounds, the 
 gastric juices must have dissolved the portion which first entered the snake's 
 stomach before the remainder was drawn into the jaws. Though still rather 
 lethargic, the surviving boa is not injured by its meal. It coils itself up with- 
 out difficulty, and its scales have the beautiful iridescent bloom peculiar to 
 the skin of snakes when in perfect health." Within about a fortnight the 
 cannibal had completely recovered its usual condition. The majority of 
 snakes swallow their prey while still living, as may be often witnessed when 
 a common English water-snake seizes an unfortunate frog. Vipers and 
 cobras, on the other hand, first kill their prey by the injection of venom. 
 But few meals suffice for a snake, in spite of the circumstance that these rep- 
 tiles digest their food with great rapidity. 
 
 In their general mode of life serpents show much variation, some living in 
 sandy deserts, others haunting swampy localities, while yet others spend a 
 large portion of their time in fresh water. Some, again, are mainly arboreal, 
 and the members of one group are marine, and may be met with swimming 
 in the open sea far away from land. The aquatic snakes both fresh-water 
 and marine as well as vipers, give birth to living young ; whereas the others 
 lay soft-shelled eggs. Generally these are left to hatch by themselves, aided 
 sometimes by such heat as may be produced by the decomposition of the 
 heaps of leaves and other vegetable substances in which they are not infre- 
 quently deposited ; but pythons actually brood their eggs. It might be 
 thought that incubation by a cold-blooded creature would not aid develop- 
 ment ; but it is a remarkable fact that at such seasons the temperature of the 
 blood of these snakes is raised slightly above the normal. 
 
 Serpents attain their maximum development, both as regards numbers and 
 size, in the steamy tropical and sub-tropical zones ; and it is here also that 
 the most venomous forms are met with. Even in such localities there is, 
 however, great variation in the relative proportions of noxious and innocuous 
 kinds ; and in the large proportion of the former the Oriental countries bear 
 an evil reputation, as they also do in respect to the abundance of snakes in 
 general. Next to these countries comes Tropical America in point of numbers ; 
 whereas Africa has only about half as many snakes as inhabit the Indian and 
 Malayan countries. The African serpents are, as a whole, unlike those of 
 Madagascar ; while the latter show a considerable resemblance to South 
 American types. The Australian snake-fauna is allied to that of India and 
 the Malayan countries, as is well exemplified by the occurrence in both of 
 
SCALED REPTILES SNAKES. 417 
 
 pythons. In temperate regions snakes become gradually less common as we 
 proceed north in the one hemisphere and south in the other ; but, with the ex- 
 ception of New Zealand and the polar regions, the group may be considered 
 to enjoy practically a world-wide range. Nine families of snakes are recognised 
 by zoologists ; and these include a very large number of genera, and probably 
 more than fifteen hundred distinct species. With such a vast assemblage, it is 
 of course impracticable in our limited space to do more than notice the leading 
 and most important types. And even treating the group in this manner, 
 there is considerable difficulty in giving the student a proper idea of the 
 subject, on account of the close structural similarity between many of the 
 families. To understand snakes thoroughly requires an intimate acquaintance 
 with a mass of structural details, and the acquisition of a host of technical 
 terms ; and these can only be acquired by a patient practical study of the 
 group. 
 
 At the head of the sub-order are now placed the two comparatively unim- 
 portant families of blind-snakes, which differ from all the rest in lacking 
 teeth in either the upper or the lower jaw. In form, these 
 snakes are cylindrical and worm-like, with relatively short Blind-Snakes. 
 heads and tails ; while in habits they likewise resemble Families 
 worms, passing most of their lives in tunnels driven by Typhlopidce and 
 themselves beneath the surface of the ground. Here they Glanconiidce. 
 subsist by feeding upon such insects or their larvse as they 
 happen to encounter, ants being apparently a very favourite dish. Dull, 
 rainy weather will occasionally tempt them above ground. Living in such 
 subterranean haunts, the large inferior transverse shields of ordinary serpents 
 would be useless, and we accordingly find the bodies of the blind-snakes 
 covered all round with scales of equal size, although there are some large 
 shields on the fore part of the head, beneath a pair of which are buried the 
 rudimental and useless eyes. Unlike most of their kindred, these snakes 
 cannot expand their jaws ; and the small aperture of the mouth is placed on 
 the under side of the head. That these snakes are nearly related to limbed 
 reptiles is proved by the retention in the skeleton of more or less distinct 
 vestiges of the pelvis. An important feature in the structure of the bony 
 palate, which need not be considered in detail here, suffices to distinguish 
 them from all the other members of the sub-order, to which it seems likely 
 that they have no close relationship. Indeed it is quite probable that whereas 
 the blind-snakes are descended from one group of lizard-like reptiles, all 
 other ophidians may trace their origin to a second. In the first of the two 
 families into which the blind-snakes are divided, it is the lower jaw which has 
 lost its teeth, and the pelvis is represented by a single pair of bones. The 
 family, which includes three distinct genera, with about a hundred species, 
 ranges over all the warmer countries ; one species of the large typical genus 
 Typhlops occurring in Southern and Eastern Europe. On the other hand, 
 in the Glauconiidce it is the upper jaw that has no teeth, while two pairs of 
 bones remain to represent the pelvis. The family includes only the genus 
 Glaucouia, of which there are nearly thirty species ranging over Africa, the 
 south-west of Asia, and America. 
 
 Of far more importance than the last is the great family of boas and 
 pythons, which include the largest of all living snakes, and are characterised 
 by their habit of killing their prey by crushing it in the folds of their bodies. 
 Like the blind-snakes, these huge serpents retain external vestiges of the 
 hind-limbs, and likewise internal traces of the pelvis ; but as they differ con- 
 28 
 
4 i8 REPTIL1A ORDER II1.SQUAMATA. 
 
 siderably from the former in the conformation of the bony palate of the skull, 
 
 it is most probable that they have a totally distinct origin. Since they 
 
 agree in this respect with the other seven more specialised 
 
 Boa Tribe. families included in the sub-order, it is not improbable that 
 Family Boida&. these snakes are the survivors of the ancestral stock from 
 which all the latter have originated. The jaws, too, are un- 
 like those of the blind-snakes in that both are armed with a complete series of 
 teeth. The vestiges of the hind-limbs usually take the form of a pair of 
 spurs in the neighbourhood of the vent. The other distinctive features of 
 the family are mainly connected with the structure of the skull ; and as the 
 only other snakes with vestiges of limbs are the small Ilysiidce, which are not 
 likely to be confounded with the members of the present family, it will be 
 superfluous to allude further to these peculiarities. The family, which ranges 
 over all the warmer regions of both hemispheres, is divided into the two sub- 
 families of the pythons or rock-snakes (Pythonince), and the boa-constrictors 
 and sand-snakes (Boince). All the species included in the former are re- 
 stricted to the Old World ; but whereas the typical boas are solely American 
 and Malagasy, some other members of the second group are widely distributed 
 in the Eastern Hemisphere. The first sub-family is particularly characterised 
 by the presence of an additional pair of bones the supraorbitals in the 
 roof of the skull, which enter into the composition of the margins of the eye- 
 sockets. The members of the genus Python are all large serpents, having 
 teeth in the premaxillary or front upper jaw-bones, and a double series of 
 shields on the lower surface of the tail, the latter being distinctly prehensile. 
 Still more important is the presence of 'pits in two of the shields on each 
 side of the fore part of the head ; while other distinctive features are to be 
 found in the characters of the teeth, as well as in the vertical slit formed by the 
 pupil of the eye. There are nine different species of pythons recognised by 
 zoologists ; and these range over Africa and the Oriental countries, together 
 with Australia and New Guinea. Fifteen and even twenty feet is by no 
 means an uncommon length for the larger kinds, such as the Indian P. 
 molurus ; and occasionally specimens grow to between twenty and thirty feet. 
 
 A python, after having suffocated its victim by enveloping it in the coils 
 of its body, proceeds to swallow it by seizing it by the head and gradually 
 drawing it> down. Greatly exaggerated notions are prevalent as to the 
 size of the animals which can be swallowed by pythons and boas ; and the 
 stories of whole buffaloes and large deer are obviously unworthy of credence. 
 Indeed, it seems probable that even a full-grown sheep is too large for the 
 capacity of the leave of even the biggest of the tribe ; and a sheep of half 
 the full size would seem to be about the limit. In habits, pythons are chiefly 
 nocturnal, and they are partial to damp forest districts where water is easy 
 of access. In such situations they not unfrequeritly take up their residence 
 in the roofs of houses when made of straw or other vegetable substances; and 
 a well-known account of the discovery of such an unwelcome intruder into 
 his temporary abode is narrated by Mr. Wallace. Perhaps the most 
 peculiar circumstance in the life-history of these serpents is the incuba- 
 tion of the eggs. These, which comprise a large number, are arranged 
 in a pyramidal heap, round which the parent coils her body ; this posture 
 being in some instances maintained for nearly two months. Regarding 
 the appetite of a python (miscalled a boa) formerly in his possession, 
 Captain Hey land writes as follows : "The animal was brought to me early 
 in January, and did not taste food from that time until the July follow. 
 
SCALED REPTILES SNAKES. 419 
 
 ing. During this period he generally drank a quart of water daily, The 
 man who brought him stated that he had been seen to eat a hog-deer the 
 dciy before he was taken. One evening early in July, hearing a noise, I 
 went out, and discovered that the snake had left his harbour under the 
 boards of a stable where he generally lay, and having entered a small shed 
 in which some fowls were roosting, had swept eleven from the perch, and 
 destroyed them by pressing them between his folds. Then taking them one by 
 one head foremost into his mouth, swallowed the whole down in twenty minutes. 
 The largest animal that he ate while in my possession was a calf, which he 
 killed and gorged in two hours and twenty minutes. He never attacked 
 dogs, cats, or pigs. Of these last, indeed, he seemed to be in dread, for 
 whenever one was presented to him, he retired to a corner and coiled himself 
 up with his head undermost. If fed with animals not larger than a duck, he 
 ate readily every day, but after the meal of a goat refused food for a month." 
 In Australia the genus is represented by P. apilotis, of which one variety is 
 commonly termed the diamond -snake, the other the carpet-snake. 
 
 An Australian writer observes that " of our two pythons or rock-snakes, 
 one, the diamond-snake, does not occur farther south than New South 
 Wales, whilst the carpet-snake has a wider range, extending from Queens- 
 land to even as far as Southern > Victoria. These pythons may reach the 
 length of sixteen feet, but a more usual length is eight feet to ten feet. 
 The diamond-snake has a yellow spot in the centre of each of its black 
 scales, whilst the carpet-snake has a series of lighter patches with dark 
 centres along each side, producing a fancied resemblance to the pattern of a 
 carpet. They are really nocturnal animals, feeding on birds and small 
 mammals, whilst in turn the blacks will eat their flesh with avidity." Krefft 
 thus describes the way in which they secure their prey: "Coiled on the 
 branch of a tree, the reptile moves only the head and part of the body, 
 advancing and retreating, in fact measuring its distance, with its head and 
 neck bent into the form of a horizontal S. When pretty sure of its aim, the 
 snake darts forward with open jaws, fastens upon its victim, and in an 
 instant brings it within a loop formed by a portion of the body, which 
 gradually tightens till the prey is suffocated. In this position the snake will 
 remain for twenty minutes or half an hour, holding the body of the animal 
 tightly. It then gradually uncoils, and, if inclined to feed, begins the pro- 
 cess of swallowing with the head. 7 ' In Africa the best known representative 
 of the genus is Python selm, commonly termed the Natal rock-snake in the 
 southern parts of that continent. Nearly allied to the pythons are the genera 
 Laxocemus, Nardoa, and Liasis; the first including a single small species 
 from Mexico, the second one inhabiting New Ireland, while the third has 
 several representatives ranging from Timor to New Guinea and Northern 
 Australia. All these resemble the true pythons in having the premaxillre 
 toothed, but in the Papuan Chrondropython, as well as in the North Australian 
 Aspidites and the West African Calabaria, those bones carry no teeth. 
 
 The absence of prernaxillary teeth is likewise characteristic of the members 
 of the sub-family Boince, which are, however, specially distinguished by the 
 want of the aforesaid supraoccipital bone in the skull. All have teeth on the 
 palate, and likewise most of the shields on the lower surface of the tail 
 arranged in a single series ; but in these respects they resemble some of the 
 three genera last mentioned. Most of the boa tribe have the head well 
 marked off from the neck, and the tail with a certain amount of prehensile 
 power. Foremost among these are the tree-boas of the genus Epicrates, in all 
 
420 REPTILTA ORDER IH.SQUAMATA. 
 
 of which the teeth in the fore part of the jaws are superior in size to those be- 
 hind, while the head is covered with shields, the scales on the body are smooth, 
 and there are, at most, but shallow pits in the so-called labial shields of the 
 muzzle. All the members of the genus are inhabitants of Tropical America, 
 the largest not exceeding seven feet in length. The presence of deep pits in 
 the labial shields serves to distinguish the species of the nearly allied genus 
 Corcdlus, of which four are from Tropical America, while the fifth is found in 
 Madagascar. Four other snakes from the Moluccas, New Guinea, and 
 Oceania, constitute the genus Enygrus, which differs from both the preceding 
 in having ridges on the scales of the body. These boas do not appear to 
 molest human beings, but the case is different with the anaconda (Eunectes 
 murinus) of Tropical America, which grows to thirty feet or more in length. 
 
 In common with three other genera from the same countries, two of 
 which are respectively represented by a single species, while the third in- 
 cludes several, the anaconda differs from all the foregoing in that the front 
 teeth are not greatly enlarged, the whole series gradually diminishing in 
 height from before backwards. Among the distinctive generic characters of 
 the anaconda may be noticed the small size of the scales. Its general colour 
 is olive or greyish-brown on the upper surface, upon which are one or two 
 rows of large, dark, transversely- elongated blotches, and one or two of eye- 
 like spots on the sides. The anaconda is essentially a water-snake, and in 
 those parts of its habitat which are subject to a long period of drought, it 
 buries itself in the dried river mud till the return of moister conditions. In 
 the anaconda one of the pairs of shields on the head, technically known as 
 nasals, come into contact with one another in the middle line behind the 
 muzzle, but in the nearly-allied snakes forming the genus Boa a median line 
 of small scales separates all the nasal shields. Of the seven species of true 
 boas, five are from the warmer parts of Central and South America, whereas 
 the other two are met with in far distant Madagascar. The common boa-con- 
 strictor (Boa constrictor) has 
 a wide geographical range, 
 being found from Venezuela 
 to the inland districts of the 
 Upper Argentine. Although 
 marvellous stories are current 
 as to the rapacity of this 
 species whose maximum 
 length is about a dozen feet 
 it appears that its usual 
 Fig. 22. -BOA CONSTRICTOR. f OO( j con sists of the smaller 
 
 mammals, while even eggs are 
 
 sometimes swallowed. It will, however, occasionally attack and kill deer or 
 peccaries. All its victims are destroyed by the crushing effect of the com- 
 pression of the encircling folds of the body. A snake from a small island 
 near Mauritius, forming the genus Cdsarea, differs from the true boas in having 
 distinct keels on its scales, as well as in the greater relative length of the tail. 
 The only other members of the family that can be noticed are the sand- 
 snakes (Erifx) of South-Eastern Europe, Asia, and North and East Africa, 
 which differ from the boas in the want of any distinct line of demarcation 
 between the head and neck. These snakes derive their name from frequent- 
 ing open sandy districts, where they frequently enter the burrows of small 
 mammals and lizards for the purpose of preying on their rightful occupants. 
 
SCALED REPTILES SNAKES. 421 
 
 Two small and comparatively unimportant families of the sub-order claim a 
 few lines. The first of these, which includes but three genera, with a total 
 of five species, is that of the llysiidce, all the members of 
 which resemble the pythons and boas in the retention of Cylinder-Snakes 
 external vestiges of the hind pair of limbs, but differ in the and Shield-Tails, 
 conformation of the skull. The typical form is the coral Families 
 cylinder-snake (Ilysia scytale), a small species from the upper Ilysiidce and 
 part of the valley of the Amazon and the Guianas, the others Uropdtidw. 
 being the various species of Oylindrophis from South-Eastern 
 Asia, and the one representative of the nearly-allied Aiiomalochilus, which is 
 Sumatran. The Uropeltidce, which, in common with all the remaining snakes, 
 have lost all external traces of limbs, form an allied ,-family agreeing with both 
 the preceding in the structure of the lower jaw, and taking their name from 
 the peculiar conformation of the tail. Although in one genus it has a 
 coating of keeled scales, in all the rest this appendage terminates in a bare 
 roughened disc, and is thus quite unlike that of all other snakes. In all 
 cases the tail is very short, the body is cylindrical, and there is no distinct 
 neck, while botli the mouth and the eyes are relatively small. These snakes, 
 which are all of small size, and frequently brightly and handsomely coloured, 
 are found only in the mountains of India proper and Ceylon, where they 
 generally spend their time in tunnels channelled at a considerable depth 
 below the surface, although in rainy weather they frequently skulk beneath 
 stones and wood, and sometimes even venture out among grass and other 
 herbage. In addition to the typical Uropeltis, they include six generic types, 
 the total number of species recognised in 1893 being forty-one, of which only 
 one pertains to the type genus. It may be added that a snake from South- 
 Eastern Asia known as Xenopeltis uiticolor is regarded as representing by 
 itself the family of the Xenopdtidw, the reason for this reference being that 
 in the structure of the skull it exhibits distinct indications of relationship 
 with the Boidce, although agreeing with the next family in the number of 
 bones entering into the composition of the lower jaw. 
 
 Together with the aforesaid Xenopeltis, the snakes included in the two great 
 and important families of the Colubridcv and Viperidca are broadly differentiated 
 from the BoidcE and their allies by having one bone less in 
 each lateral branch of the lower jaw, the missing bone being Colubrine Tribe, 
 termed the coronoid. It is unfortunate that this important Family 
 distinctive feature is not visible in the living animal ; but so Colubridw. 
 it is, and the student must make the best of it. As already 
 said, none of these snakes retain external vestiges of limbs. The colubrine 
 tribe is an extremely large group, embracing as it does many more snakes 
 than any of the other families into which the sub-order is divided. All are 
 characterised by the circumstance that the maxilke of the upper jaw are 
 horizontal, and incapable of movement. Whereas, however, some, such as 
 the common water-snakes, are perfectly harmless except to the small crea- 
 tures upon which they prey others, like the sea-snakes and cobras, are 
 among the most deadly of all serpents. In such a vast assemblage it is im- 
 possible to do more than notice some of the leading types. 
 
 As an example of the first of the three great sections into which it has been 
 found advisable to divide the family, we may take the water-snakes of the genus 
 Tropidonotus, of which the common British ringed-snake ( T. natrix) is the most 
 familiar representative. From the fact that all the teeth are completely solid 
 throughout, showing no traces of either an external groove or a deeper 
 
422 REPTIL1A ORDER IILSQUAMATA. 
 
 channel, the section to which this genus belongs is technically known as the 
 Aglypha. And this fact alone is sufficient to indicate that all the members of 
 the section are innocuous. It will be superfluous to point out all the 
 characteristics by which the water-snakes differ from their immediate allies 
 more especially as many of these are deep-seated, and require a considerable 
 amount of anatomical knowledge for their proper apprehension. It may be 
 mentioned, however, that teeth are present throughout both the upper add 
 lower jaws, and that those in the hinder part of the upper series exceed in 
 size those near the muzzle, while all those in the lower jaw have approxim- 
 ately the same dimensions. The relatively large eye has a circular pupil, 
 the scales are arranged in regular series running lengthwise, and between 
 the openings of the nostrils are placed a pair of internasal shields. 
 
 Of water-snakes there are forty or fifty species ; and the range of the 
 genus embraces the greater portion of the globe, with the exception of 
 South America and Australia south of the tropic. The species are, however, 
 less numerous in Africa than in the other countries of the Old World. All 
 are fond of water, in which they swim well, and their favourite haunts are 
 damp situations where access to a river or pond is easy. They live on frogs 
 and other small animals, which are seized in the mouth and swallowed as 
 rapidJy as possible, without being killed by crushing in the folds of the body. In 
 addition to the ringed snake, several other species of the genus inhabit Europe. 
 Another familiar European species is the smooth snake (Coronella hevis), 
 which belongs to a rather large genus. The so-called fierce snakes (Zamenis) 
 are also well represented on the Continent, among such being the dark green 
 snake (Z. yemouensis) and the horseshoe-snake (Z. hippocrcpis). To the same 
 genus belongs the well-known Indian rat-snake (Z. mucosns). Although 
 many or all of the foregoing will at times ascend trees in search of their prey, 
 the section includes others which are truly arboreal, and in coloration re- 
 semble the foliage among which they dwell. Such are the American wood- 
 snakes of the genus Herpctodryas, and their Old World cousins included in 
 the genera Dendrophis and Dendrelaphiy. In all these, the eyes are pro- 
 portionally much larger than in the water-snakes, and the body is more 
 or less strongly compressed. Some are remarkable for being able to change 
 the colour of their skin to harmonise with their surroundings after the manner 
 of the chamseleons and certain lizards. Far more interesting than any other 
 member of the family is the small South African egg-eating snake (Dasypeltis 
 scabra). It may well be asked how a snake, with its long pointed teeth, 
 manages to seize and swallow the eggs of birds without losing their savoury 
 contents. And if the egg-eating snake had the ordinary dental armature, it 
 would doubtless find this a very difficult task, But special arrangements 
 have been made to suit its particular diet. Whereas teeth are wanting in the 
 fore part of the jaws, the upper surface of the throat is provided with a long 
 series of tooth-like organs formed by the elongation of the lower spines of the 
 joints of the backbone, which project through the membranes into the 
 throat. Taking an egg into the nearly toothless mouth, the snake gradually 
 passes it downwards into the throat, where it is split by the pressure of the 
 mill-like teeth, and its contents safely swallowed. Although this snake is a 
 very small creature, it will at a pinch cram a hen's egg into its mouth, when 
 it looks somewhat like a football with a tail to it. How it manages to force 
 such a huge object into its throat, and still more, how it cracks it when once 
 there, we are not told. 
 
 The second section into which the family Colubridce is divided takes its 
 
SCALED REPTILES SNAKES. 423 
 
 name of Opisthoglypha from the circumstance that either one or several pairs 
 of teeth in the hinder part of the upper jaw are traversed by a longitudinal 
 groove for the purpose of conveying poison from the secreting gland. 
 Whereas all are more or less noxious, many are deadly. In habits and form 
 many of these curiously simulate the members of the first section of the family. 
 The ^roup is but poorly represented in Europe, but among the Continental 
 species is the so-called cat-snake (Tarbophis vivax), forming a genus by itself. 
 This snake belongs to a sub-family of the section the Dipsadomorphince, in 
 which the nostrils are always situated on the sides of the muzzle. It frequently 
 grows to a yard or so in length, and is grey or brownish-yellow in general 
 colour, with various dark spots and blotches, and a chestnut patch on the 
 head-shields. It is fond of warm sunny spots among rocks, where it feeds 
 chiefly on lizards, which it kills by the injection of poison. The typical repre- 
 seiitalivesof the sub-family are the arboreal snakes of the genus Dipsadomorphus 
 which are widely spread through the warmer regions of the Old World, where 
 they have precisely the same mode of life as the arboreal forms included in 
 the section Aglypha. In colour they incline to black and brown, while in 
 length they may exceed a couple of yards. Many of them, at least, are 
 purely nocturnal snakes, and whereas some feed on birds, others prey almost 
 or quite exclusively on the smaller kinds of mammals. Occasionally they 
 descend from their leafy haunts to wander on the ground. Of similar habits 
 arc the Indian whip-snakes (Dryophis), in which the somewhat compressed 
 body and tall are remarkable for their extreme length and slenderness. This 
 ha bit of body enables these snakes to curl their tail tightly round a bough, 
 whence they strike to a long distance at any passing prey. Here, too, 
 belongs the Tropical American and West Indian genus Philodryas, which in- 
 cludes a considerable number of arboreal species, characterised by the green 
 tone of their coloration. This genus is also represented in Madagascar. The 
 number and arrangement of the teeth 
 form important features in the distinc- 
 tion of these genera of tree-snakes. In 
 the present section the place of the 
 water-snakes among the section Agly- 
 pha is taken by the fresh-water snakes 
 of the genera Homalopsis and Cantoria, 
 which range from India to New Guinea 
 and the North of Australia. These 
 snakes, few of which grow to more than 
 a yard in length, are far more aquatic 
 in their habits than the species of 
 Tropidonotus, and but seldom leave 
 the water at all ; and some of them 
 
 even descend rivers to enter the sea. Fig> 2 ^T THE CORAL-SNAKE 
 
 Their food consists of fish and other (Elaps corallinus). 
 
 aquatic creatures ; and they give birth 
 
 to living young while in the water. A considerable number lie in wait for 
 their prey by anchoring themselves to roots or sunken branches by means of 
 the prehensile tail. 
 
 In snakes, beauty and venom frequently go together, and an excellent 
 instance of this association is afforded by the coral-snake (Elaps corallinus} of 
 South America and the West Indies. Together with the remaining members 
 pf the colubrine family here noticed, the coral-snake belongs to the section 
 
4 2 4 REPT1LIA ORDER TILSQUAMATA. 
 
 Proteroglypha. The essential feature of that section is to be found in the 
 circumstance that it is the front, instead of the hinder, upper maxillary teeth 
 that are grooved for the transmission of the poisonous secretion. Needless 
 to say, all are venomous some highly so. The genus in which the 
 coral-snake is included comprises many other species, of which the majority 
 inhabit the warmer parts of America, although a few are found in 
 Southern Africa. They typify a sub-family (Elapince) in which the tail 
 has a cylindrical form, and all the members of which live either on 
 the ground or in trees. The coral-snake, which grows to rather more 
 than a couple of feet in length, is easily recognised by its brilliant colora- 
 tion, the whole body and tail being divided into a number of segments 
 of cinnabar-red, separated by shorter segments of black, with indistinct 
 borders of greenish - white. The coral - snake, which frequents wooded 
 districts, is a strictly terrestrial species, feeding upon other reptiles and 
 insects. Nearly allied are the resplendent adders (Callophis) of the warmer 
 parts of Asia, distinguished by the presence of a groove traversing the whole 
 front surface of the upper fangs, and likewise by the scales forming thirteen 
 rows. These slender snakes are generally found in rocky districts. 
 
 The dreaded crait (Bungarns ccervleus), and its relative the banded adder, 
 or raj-samp (B. fasciatus), are well-known Indian representatives of a genus 
 whose geographical range extends from India and Ceylon to the south of 
 China. From Callophis, in which all the teeth behind the fangs are chan- 
 nelled, this genus differs in that from one to three of the same teeth are solid 
 throughout ; a connecting link being formed by the genus Hemibnnyarus, in 
 which there is one unperforated tooth in the hinder portion of each side of 
 the upper jaw. Although the banded adder is larger than the crait, it does 
 not appear to be so fatal to human life in India as the 
 latter, owing to the circumstance that it mainly keeps to 
 the open country. The crait, on the other hand, is one of 
 the snakes most commonly met with in human dwellings, 
 where it is fond of hiding in all kinds of unsuspected 
 places. In colour, the crait is very dark brown above, 
 marked with narrow rings, bars, or streaks of white. 
 
 Whereas the crait and its immediate allies have the head 
 passing imperceptibly into the neck, and lack the power 
 of inflating the latter, the cobras (Naia) possess a dis- 
 tinctly defined neck, the lower part of which can be dilated 
 at will ; while they further differ by the equality in the 
 size of the scales of the back with those of other parts. 
 Cobras are represented by half a score of species, some of 
 which are Oriental, while the others are African ; the best 
 o known being the Egyptian asp (N. haie) and the common 
 
 *CoBRM^E^ N Indian cobra (N. tripndians). The latter is familiar as 
 tripudians), being the species commonly exhibited by Indian snake- 
 
 charmers, and as it has been described in so many popular 
 works, while newspapers are always giving accounts of its ravages, nothing 
 in the way of description need be given in this place. Ordinarily this species 
 does not exceed six feet in length ; but Capt. F. Hawkins writes in the Asian 
 newspaper of August 5th, 1892, that in Sangor a specimen was killed measuring 
 seven feet three inches. The giant cobra (N. bungarus) of the Oriental 
 countries is, however, a considerably larger species. Mr. P. A. Bulkley, 
 writing from Burma, observes that "it may interest your readers to know 
 
SCALED REPTILES SNAKES. 
 
 425 
 
 that about ten years ago, while shooting in the jungle, I came upon a fine 
 specimen of the snake in question over 12^ feet long, and, after an exciting 
 chase, succeeded in capturing it alive and uninjured. I kept it in captivity 
 for some months at Castle Rock in a large case, giving an occasional exercise 
 in the spare room of my bungalow, and eventually took it to England for the 
 reptile-house at the Zoological Gardens. At Brindisi I had to leave the snake 
 to complete its journey by steamer to London, and upon opening its case on 
 arrival at the Zoo, it was, unfortunately, found to be dead. The body, how- 
 ever, was in good preservation, and may be seen in a large case of alcohol in 
 the reptile-room of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington." 
 Although there are no cobras in Australia, that country is the home of an 
 equally deadly serpent known as the death-adder (Pscudcchis porphyriacd). 
 In this snake the cylindrical body is extremely long and slender, the head is 
 but imperfectly denned from the neck, and the scales are smooth. The 
 species, which grows to as much as seven feet in length, is commonly knqwn 
 in its native country as the black snake. 
 
 The last group of the present section of the Colubriche is that of the sea- 
 snakes, which form the sub -family HydrophiiiKK. They differ from the 
 Elapinw by the compressed and oar-like form of the tail, and also by the 
 scales on the under surface being either nearly similar to those on the upper 
 parts, or if enlarged into 
 shields, by their being much 4 
 smaller than in ordinary ter- 
 restrial snakes. As their 
 name implies, the sea-snakes 
 are peculiar in the sub-order 
 for their marine habits. Most 
 of them, indeed, pass the 
 whole of their time in the 
 open sea, where they produce 
 their young alive without the 
 intervention of eggs ; but 
 there are certain species which 
 are partly terrestrial, and 
 serve to connect the more 
 typical representatives of the 
 sub-family with the crait and 
 its allies. Sea-snakes are 
 most abundant in the tropical 
 
 portions of the Western Pacific and the Indian Ocean, although a few enjoy 
 a much more extensive range. They are all highly venomous, and most are 
 handsomely and brilliantly tinted, the coloration being always variegated. 
 They feed on fish and other marine creatures, and frequently associate in 
 companies of considerable size. When cast on shor,e by the waves, the 
 majority are utterly helpless, lying where they are thrown until they die. 
 Unlike other members of the sub-order, sea-snakes change their skins piece- 
 meal instead of entire ; the renovation taking place very frequently. They 
 also differ from ordinary snakes in the shortness of the tongue ; and while 
 at sea only the extreme tips of this organ are thrust out through a couple of 
 small notches from the closed mouth. The three species constituting the genus 
 Platurus are those which serve to connect the rest with the crait group, and 
 are distinguished by having the under surface of the body and tail covered 
 
 Fig. 25. BANDED SEA-SNAKE (Pla turns laticaudatus). 
 
426 REPTTLIA-ORDER ULSQUAMATA. 
 
 with transversely elongated shields, while the upper surface is invested with 
 smooth overlapping scales. One of the most common kinds, which grows to 
 a length of about three feet, is met with from the Bay of Bengal to Oceania. 
 These snakes can crawl with ease on land, and specimens have been from 
 time to time met with at considerable distances inland. In addition to certain 
 features connected with the nostrils, the more typical members of the sub- 
 family which are arranged under several separate genera differ from the 
 preceding in having the under surface scaled like the back, although in some 
 forms more or less distinct vestiges exist of the enlarged shields. These 
 genera are to a great extent distinguished from one another by the characters 
 of the teeth, the most important among them being Hydrus, Hydrophis, and 
 Distira. Emerson Tennent writes that> "sea-snakes are found on all the 
 coasts of Ceylon. I have sailed through large shoals of them in the Gulf of 
 Manaar, close to the pearl-banks of Aripo. The fishermen of Calpentyn, on 
 the west, live in perpetual fear of them, and believe their bite to be fatal. 
 In the course of an attempt which was made to place a lighthouse on the 
 great rocks of the south-east coast, known by seamen as the Basses or Baxos, 
 the workmen who first landed found the portion of the surface liable to be 
 covered by the tides honeycombed and hollowed into deep holes filled with 
 water, in which were abundance of fishes and some molluscs. Some of these 
 cavities also contained sea-snakes from four to five feet long, which were 
 described as having the head hooded like the cobra, do capello, and of a light 
 grey colour slightly speckled. They coiled themselves like serpents on land, 
 and darted at poles thrust in among them. The Singhalese who accompanied 
 the party said that they not only bit venomously, but crushed the limbs of 
 any intruder in their coils." 
 
 A small group of snakes, the members of which are externally very similar to 
 those of the sub-family Dipsadomorphinte in the Colubridtt:, are considered to 
 
 form a family by themselves. From the Dipsadomorphince they 
 
 Blunt-Heads. are distinguished externally by the absence of a groove on the 
 
 Family chin. They resemble the Colubridne in having the maxilhe fixed 
 
 Amblyce2)ha- in a horizontal position, but differ both from that family and 
 
 lidos. from the Viperida by the shortness of those bones in the hinder 
 
 part of the palate known as the pterygoids, which do not 
 extend sufficiently far back to reach either the hinder ends of the lower jaw 
 or the quadrate bone. Both jaws are provided with teeth, all of which are 
 solid, so that these snakes are non-venomous. The slight expansibility of 
 the mouth indicates that they prey upon small animals, while the relatively 
 large dimensions of the eye, in which the pupil is vertical, proclaim nocturnal 
 habits. Five genera of these snakes are known, two, namely, AmblycepJialus 
 and Haplopeltura, being confined to the Oriental countries, whereas Dipsas, 
 Pseudopareus, and Leptognathiis are from Tropical America. 
 
 The last family of snakes is a large one, and includes the vipers, pit-vipers, 
 puff-adders, and rattle-snakes ; all being highly venomous. The essential 
 
 distinctive feature of the Vvperidw is to be found in the fact 
 
 The Viper Tribe, that the short maxillae of the upper jaw are armed with a 
 
 Family pair of large perforated fangs, and can be erected so as to 
 
 Viperidat. become situated at right angles to the plane of the hinder 
 
 portion of the palate. Obviously, this gives to the fangs 
 the most favourable position for inflicting severe wounds. In the viperine 
 snakes the head is always more or less flattened, and is frequently triangular 
 in shape ; while the body is plump and thick, and the tail abbreviated. In 
 
SCALED REPTILES SNAKES. 427 
 
 accordance with their chiefly nocturnal habits, the eye has its pupil in the 
 form of a vertical slit. Only a few vipers climb, and none are aquatic ; while, 
 so far as present information goes, all give birth to their young in a fully 
 developed state without laying eggs. In almost all countries popular report 
 declares that the females of many species receive their young into their 
 mouth when alarmed, whence they apparently pass down the throat ; and 
 although many attempts have been made to discredit such statements, it is 
 difficult to believe that they have not some foundation of truth. 
 
 Of the two sub-families into which these snakes are divided by zoologists, 
 the typical vipers, or Viperince, are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, and 
 are characterised by the absence of pits or depressions in the pair of head- 
 shields known as the loreals. The common British viper (Vipera berus) is 
 the most familiar representative of the typical genus, all the members of 
 which have two longitudinal series of shields on the under surface of the tail, 
 while the scales on the body are keeled and arranged in from nineteen to 
 thirty-one straight longitudinal rows, and the upper surface of the head is 
 invested either with relatively small shields or with scales. There are about 
 twenty different kinds of true vipers, and these are distributed over the greater 
 part of the Old World, although there are none in Australasia or Madagascar, 
 and only one in India. The common viper enjoys a very wide geographical 
 distribution, extending from the Arctic Circle to Spain and Portugal, and 
 from the latter country eastwards to Siberia. It not unfrequently grows to 
 ten inches in length, and, like its kindred, is partial to warm sandy heaths. 
 The sand-viper (V. ammodytes) of Southern and Eastern Europe is remark- 
 able for having a flexible horn-like and scaly appendage surmounting the tip 
 of the muzzle, the use of which has not yet been explained. To the genus 
 Bitis belongs the dreaded African puff-adder (B. arietans), in which the 
 head is broader and more distinctly 
 triangular than in any of its kindred. 
 As this noxious serpent has a habit 
 of lying with only its head exposed, 
 it is frequently not noticed by men 
 and animals until too late ; and 
 it is consequently responsible for 
 many deaths. Even large mam- 
 mals are said to succumb very 
 speedily to the bite of this loath- 
 some monster. The name of puff- 
 adder is derived from the habit 
 possessed by this snake of blowing 
 itself out with air when excited. Fig. 26. PUFF-ADDER (Bitis arietans). 
 
 Nearly allied to the true vipers are 
 
 the horned vipers of the genus Cerastes, so named from the presence of a pair 
 of scaly horns situated above the eyes of the males, and in some species in 
 the females also. The scales, too, are arranged in oblique instead of straight 
 series. Both species of the genus are inhabitants of those parts of Northern 
 Africa lying to the eastward of Morocco, but one is also found in Arabia. 
 They grow to about a couple of feet in length, and assimilate remarkably in 
 coloration to the sandy deserts they frequent. They may be often seen so 
 deeply buried in the sand that only the head and a portion of the neck pro- 
 ject above the surface. Another nearly allied genus is that of the saw- vipers, 
 or JEchis ; these snakes being distinguished from the last by the absence of 
 
428 REPTILIA ORDER IILSQUAMATA. 
 
 horns on the head, and by the shields on the lower surface of the tail forming 
 a single instead of a double series. This genus is likewise represented by 
 two desert-haunting species, but one of these has a much wider geographical 
 range than either of the horned vipers, extending from Northern Africa to 
 India, whereas the second is restricted to Palestine and Arabia. Whereas 
 the puff-adder produces a prolonged hissing sound by the expulsion of the 
 air which has been drawn in to blow out the body, the Indian saw- viper 
 gives rise to a somewhat similar sound in a totally different manner. In this 
 species the keels on the scales of the sides of the body are distinctly 
 serrated ; and by rubbing the folds of the body together the contact of these 
 saw-like keels gives rise to a kind of grating, or even hissing noise. This 
 snake is a very fierce species, often attacking without provocation ; and a 
 large percentage of the deaths from snake-bite in India may be attributed to 
 this species and to the equally deadly Russell's viper (Vipera russelli). 
 
 The second sub-family, or OrotdHtUEj the members of which may be col- 
 lectively termed pit-vipers, are typified by the well-known rattle-snakes of 
 the New World, although several other genera belonging to the same sub- 
 family are found in various parts of Asia. There are, however, no representa- 
 tives of this group in Africa, where, on the other hand, the typical vipers, or 
 Viperivwe, attain their maximum degree of development. The distinctive 
 feature of the pit- vipers, and the one from which they take their name, is the 
 presence of a pair of deep pits in the fore front of the head, situated between 
 the eyes and the nostrils in the so-called loreal shields. Doubtless these 
 pits have some special function in the economy of these reptiles, but what this 
 may be naturalists do not seem to have hitherto discovered. The peculiar 
 jointed horny appendage to the tail known as the rattle gives to the snakes 
 
 of the typical genus Crotalus their 
 distinctive name, and at the same 
 time serves to distinguish them 
 at a glance from all the other 
 members of the sub-order. This 
 rattle increases in size by the inter- 
 calation of new joints between its 
 terminal button and the scaly por- 
 tion of the tail, young specimens 
 having only the button. The longer 
 a rattle-snake lives, the more joints 
 it has to its rattle ; and formerly 
 Fig. 27. -A BATTLE-SNAKE (Crotalus). specimens with as many as twenty 
 
 rings were by no means uncommon, 
 
 although at the present day, owing to the war of extermination waged against 
 these noxious reptiles, such are very rare. Very diverse views have been 
 entertained as to the precise use of the rattle to its owner, and since the 
 question is by no means even yet decided, it need not be discussed in this 
 place. All rattle-snakes are characterised by the unusually large size of their 
 venom-glands, and they are consequently among the most deadly of serpents. 
 Most of the eleven representatives of the genus are North American, 
 although one species extends to South America. In their general habits 
 they are very similar to vipers, frequenting dry sandy districts ; but in parts 
 of North America rattle-snakes frequently take up their abode in the warrens 
 of the prairie-marrnot, where they prey on the young of the rightful owners. 
 In the colder parts of their habitat, these snakes become torpid during the 
 
SCALED REPTILES THE RATTLE-SNAKES. 429 
 
 winter months ; and in certain rocky districts they were formerly wont to 
 assemble in enormous numbers, passing the winter huddled up together 111 
 caves where they kept one another warm. At the approach of the cold 
 season, thousands of these snakes might be seen travelling from all points of 
 the compass to their own special cave ; and marvellous stories have been 
 told of attacks made upon these haunts when the hapless reptiles were sleep- 
 ing in fancied security. It is somewhat curious that rattle-snakes lack the 
 power of hissing ; and it is highly probable that this disability has some 
 connection with the presence of the rattle. Nearly allied to the rattle-snakes 
 is the equally deadly bushmaster (Lachesis mutus) of tropical South America, 
 which has a spine in place of a rattle at the tip of the tail, while the lower 
 surface of the latter bears a number of spiny scales. There is often a well- 
 marked keel running down the middle of the back, of which there is no trace 
 in the typical genus. This snake is one of the few serpents which do not flee 
 at the presence of man, always standing its ground and endeavouring to in- 
 flict a blow. Since it frequently grows to ten feet and over, and its bite i s 
 rapidly fatal even to large mammals, it is one of the mO st dangerous of jt s 
 tribe, and were it more common than it actually is, fatalities would be very 
 numerous. By Mr. Boulenger the serpents formerly designated Trigono- 
 ce2)halus and Trimeresanrns are now included in Lachesis. These differ from 
 the typical forms in having the whole of the top of the head covered with 
 small scales, instead of large scales. Some species are arboreal, and have 
 the tail prehensile ; some of these inhabiting Tropical America, and others 
 South-Eastern Asia. Whereas the species from the latter area have two 
 rows of shields beneath the tail, those from the former have only a single 
 row. Among the American forms with a non-prehensile tail, one of the most 
 formidable is the jararaca (L. lanceolatus). 
 
 The so-called halys vipers, forming the genus Ancistrodon, have represen- 
 tatives alike in the northern half of the American Continent and Asia, while 
 one kind is found in the Ural Mountains. Although none have a rattle, in 
 some kinds there is a small spine at the tip of the tail, which appears to be 
 a vestige of that organ. Of the Transatlantic species one of the most 
 dreaded, and at the same time one of the handsomest, is the so-called 
 copper-head (A. contortrix). It takes its name from the metallic coppery 
 hue of the upper surface of the body ; this ground-colour being ornamented 
 with a number of brown bands with darker edges. The copper-head, which 
 frequents damp situations, has a wide geographical distribution. It is one 
 of the species furnished with a spine-like horny appendage to the tail ; and 
 differs from some of its kindred in having a single instead of a double series 
 of shields on the under surface of the tail. 
 
 ORDER IV. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. 
 
 IF we were to trust solely to external features a lizard-like reptile inhabiting 
 certain small islands to the north-eastward of New Zealand, and locally 
 known as the tuatera, would almost certainly be included in the order Squa- 
 mata. When, however, the internal structure of this creature is examined, 
 differences so important are observable that there can be no question of its 
 
430 REPTILIA ORDER IV.RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. 
 
 total distinctness from that order. Accordingly, the tuatera, which is tech- 
 nically known as Sphenodon pundatus, not only represents by itself the 
 family Sphenodontidee, but also a distinct order. This, however, is only true 
 at the present day, for in past epochs of the earth's history there flourished 
 a number of reptiles evidently belonging to the same ordinal group, several 
 of which lived in Britain. The tuatera, which grows to a length of about 
 twenty inches, is characterised by the presence of a ridge of spines extend- 
 ing from the back of the head to the base of the tail, and represented on the 
 
 latter by a less distinct crest. 
 Superiorly, the body is covered 
 with a mixture of small tubercles 
 and granular scales ; but the lower 
 aspect is invested with somewhat 
 quadrangular large scales forming 
 regular transverse bands. The 
 toes, which are five in number on 
 each foot, are partially webbed, and 
 Fig. 28. TUATERA (Sphenodon pundatus). terminate in claws. In the eye 
 
 the pupil takes the form of a ver- 
 tical slit, and there is no external opening to the ear. None of these fea- 
 tures are, however, sufficient to distinguish the tuatera from the lizards ; and 
 to understand the distinction the skull must be examined. In the descrip- 
 tion of the Squamata it was stated that in all the members of that order the 
 quadrate-bone is loosely connected with the other bonefl of the palate, and 
 there is no bony arch connecting the former with the maxilla. On the 
 other hand, in the tuatera the quadrate is firmly and immovably wedged in 
 between the other bones, and is connected with the upper jaw by the afore- 
 said arch. There are likewise important differences in the structure of the 
 bony palate, which is of a more primitive type than that of the lizards. 
 Indeed, in many respects the skull is more like that of a crocodile, or even a 
 tortoise, than that of a lizard. The teeth, too, are very peculiar. In the 
 front of the jaws are a pair of chisel-like teeth, giving the form of a beak to 
 this part of the skull : while the sides of the upper jaw and palate bear a 
 double row of closely approximated teeth separated by a groove, and in that 
 .groove are received the single row of lower teeth, which aro attached to the 
 jaw in the acrodont manner. Although there are many peculiar features in 
 this strange reptile, it will suffice to mention that within the skin of the 
 hinder part of the under surface of the body are a number of abdominal ribs, 
 forming a structure which corresponds anatomically with the plastron of a 
 tortoise. 
 
 Although now becoming scarce, tuateras were formerly abundant in their 
 native islands, where they might be seen in parties basking in the sun 
 within easy reach of the sea. In captivity, where they flourish well, tuateras 
 eat freely of meal-worms and other insects, but it is probable that vegetable 
 substances form a part of their diet. Perhaps the most remarkable feature 
 about this reptile is the vestige of an unpaired median eye situated deep 
 down among the tissues of the head, and now totally functionless. Doubt- 
 less, however, in its ancestors this eye was functional, so that the original 
 form may have been a veritable cyclops. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM L VERTEBRATA. 
 
 CLASS IV. AMPHIBIA. 
 BY R. LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. 
 
 IN popular natural history nearly every cold-blooded verebrate that breathes 
 atmospheric air by means of lungs is commonly spoken of as a reptile, whether 
 it crawls or creeps on the ground like a lizard, a frog, or a snake, or swims 
 in the water like a newt ; and if we take their adult condition alone into 
 consideration, there is a good deal to be said in favour of regarding frogs 
 and salamanders as reptiles, since they agree in many of their essential 
 characters with the creatures to which the naturalist restricts that term. 
 The case is, however, very materially altered when the developmental history 
 of frogs and salamanders is taken into consideration. As every one knows, 
 these creatures with a few exceptions commence their active existence 
 after leaving the egg in the form of a tadpole. And as a tadpole is an aquatic 
 creature, breathing the air dissolved in water by means of gills, and being 
 provided with a fish-like tail, it is obvious that we have here a very important 
 distinction from reptiles, which, at the commencement of life, are mere 
 miniatures of the adult. It may be said, indeed, that frogs and salamanders 
 commence life as fishes, but turn into reptiles when they become adult, 
 and the existence of this remarkable change or metamorphosis serves to 
 differentiate these creatures from reptiles as a distinct class, for which the 
 name Amphibia is now usually adopted, although the alternative term 
 Batrachia is also extant. It is true that in certain cases no such metamor- 
 phosis exists, the egg developing at once into a perfect air-breathing frog, 
 while in some other instances the gills of the larval state are retained through- 
 out life. In the former of these instances it is, however, evident that the 
 larval stage has been suppressed owing to the exigencies of abnormal condi- 
 tions in the life-history of the particular species. In the latter case, either 
 the creature has now ceased to develop into the air-breathing adult form, or 
 it has never advanced beyond the larval stage at any period of its history. 
 
 Amphibians, then, may be defined as cold-blooded vertebrates usually 
 furnished with external gills at the commencement of life, but before becom- 
 ing adult passing through a metamorphosis during which the gills are ex- 
 changed for lungs ; and such of them as possess limbs having these struc- 
 turally similar to those of reptiles. This change from a fish-like to a reptile-like 
 animal is one of the most marvellous phenomena to be met with among 
 vertebrates, and it is not a little remarkable that while everybody has the 
 opportunity of witnessing this transformation each year of their lives, so many 
 still refuse to believe in the evolution of animal life in general. 
 
 The metamorphosis is, however, by no means the sole feature by which 
 amphibians are distinguished from reptiles. There are many structural 
 peculiarities by which the adults of the former differ from the latter, although 
 these are, unfortunately, deep-seated, and not externally apparent. Com- 
 
 431 
 
432 AMPHIBIA. 
 
 paring the skull of a reptile with that of an amphibian, it will be found that 
 whereas the former has a single knob -like prominence, or condyle, by means 
 of which it is movably articulated to the first joint of the backbone, in the 
 latter there are two such condyles. The embryo, too, of amphibians has a 
 less complex type of enveloping structures, lacking the membranes respec- 
 tively termed the allantois and the anmiou. 
 
 Bearing in mind these important points of distinction, the student will 
 readily see the propriety of separating the Amphibia as a class apart from the 
 Reptilia. In the adult condition, the members of the present class show 
 great differences of external form. The frogs and toads, for instance, are 
 tailless, four-limbed creatures, in which the hind-legs exceed the front pair 
 more or less markedly in length. On the other hand, the salamanders and 
 newts, although likewise furnished with two pairs of limbs, have a long tail, 
 and thus present a lizard-like form. In the newts, the tail, and sometimes 
 also the back, is furnished with a longitudinal vertical fin, somewhat like that 
 of a fish, although differing from the latter in the absence of any bony sup- 
 ports. Other forms have the body eel-like, and the limbs of which the 
 hinder pair may be wanting small and rudimental ; while in some of these, 
 like the olm, the external tuft-like gills are permanently retained. In yet 
 another group, the whole form is worm-like, without any external vestiges of 
 limbs. 
 
 In spite, however, of this great variation in external form, all the ex- 
 isting members ef the class present the common feature of having the- head, 
 body, limbs, and tail covered with a soft skin, although in a few scales are 
 buried beneath its surface. The outer skin, or epidermis, which is from 
 time to time cast in a single piece, is always transparent, and the colour is 
 consequently situated in the deeper layer. Various shades of black, brown, 
 red, and yellow, are the predominant colours of amphibians, and these are 
 very generally arranged in large irregular blotches, or in streaks ; but more 
 rarely blues and greens are present. Peculiar glands, which may be either 
 distributed over the whole surface, or confined to the region of the neck, 
 secrete a milky fluid of a poisonous nature, which is poured out under the in- 
 fluence of rage or excitement. And that this "secretion serves as a means of 
 defence, will be evident to all who have watched a dog seize a toad. When 
 this secretion reaches its highest development, the apertures of the glands 
 open in the form of warty protuberances on the skin, as is the case in all 
 toads and many salamanders. There are many peculiarities connected with 
 the anatomy of the skeleton and soft internal parts of the Amphibia, but it 
 will suffice to mention two. Unlike that of all the higher vertebrates, the 
 tongue, when present, is attached to the front extremity of the lower jaw, so 
 that it is protruded by being turned right over as if on a hinge ; and when in 
 repose its tip is directed down the throat. It is always of a thick and fleshy 
 nature, and thus quite unlike the same organ in snakes and lizards. The 
 second peculiarity is connected with the skeleton, in which the ribs are either 
 completely wanting, or represented merely by small rudiments aflixed to the 
 extremities of the long horizontal transverse processes of the joints of the 
 backbone. This lack of functional ribs prevents amphibians from breathing 
 in the same manner as the higher vertebrates, in which the cavity of the 
 chest is alternately expanded and contracted by the movements of the ribs ; 
 arid they are, in consequence, compelled to take in air in large gulps by a 
 swallowing action. In the presence of a large, thin, flattened bone, lying on 
 the under surface of the hinder part of the skull, and known as the para- 
 
AMPHIBIA. 433 
 
 sphenoid, amphibians differ from the existing forms of the higher vertebrates, 
 and thereby approximate to lishes. In certain extinct reptiles, this bone 
 appears, however, to be well developed, so that its importance in classification 
 is less than has been supposed. 
 
 To describe in detail the developmental history of amphibians would re- 
 quire nearly as much space as is allotted in this volume to the entire class ; 
 and it is possible to give only the merest outline. Premising that all the 
 members of the class lay eggs, and that in certain special cases some of the 
 stages of development are abbreviated, the ordinary life-history of an amphi- 
 bian is as follows. The eggs are generally deposited by the female in fresh 
 water and are usually of small size and enveloped in a large jelly-like mass, 
 among which the yolks are conspicuous as dark balls. When these eggs are 
 ripe for hatching, the larvae burst their investing membranes to make their 
 appearance in the world as free-swimming fish-like creatures, provided with 
 a long laterally compressed tail, but devoid of limbs or external gills. They 
 still retain a portion of the yolk, which serves for a short time as nourish- 
 ment. Soon a couple of pairs of feather-like gills make their appearance on 
 the sides of the neck, and give the creature somewhat the look of bearing 
 two pairs of fins. Although in those forms which permanently retain the 
 tail these external gills persist for a considerable period, or even throughout 
 life, in those of which the adults are tailless they soon disappear, and are 
 replaced by internal gills comparable to those of fishes. These external gills 
 are enclosed in a special gill-chamber, from which the water that has been 
 taken in through the mouth is discharged through a single tube or a pair of 
 tubes ; the aperture of the latter being generally single, and situated either 
 on the left side of the body or on its lower surface. With the sprouting of 
 the external gills, the tail rapidly increases in relative size, and soon forms 
 the greater portion of the creature. About this time small bud-like processes 
 indicate the appearance of the limbs, the hinder pair first showing in the 
 frogs and toads, but the front pair being the earlier in the tailed forms. In 
 the earlier stages the jaws are furnished with horny teeth, but later with a 
 kind of beak composed of the same substance. At this time the tadpole 
 subsists on vegetable substances, and, consequently, has a long and much 
 convoluted intestine. It, of course, breathes the air dissolved in the water 
 in which it lives in the same manner as a fish, and has a two-chambered 
 fish-like heart. In the tadpole stage the large tail has no backbone ; and in 
 the frogs and toads this appendage, after the limbs are well developed, is 
 gradually absorbed, and finally disappears entirely. In the permanently 
 tailed forms, on the other hand, this appendage develops vertebrae in its 
 internal axis, when it becomes similar to the tail of a land reptile. About 
 this time the jaws' lose their horny beak, and develop teeth, and the intes- 
 tine becomes shortened. Equally remarkable changes are at the same time 
 taking place in the respiratory and circulatory organs. From the oesophagus 
 a bag-like projection grows out, which, subsequently, divides into two, and 
 eventually forms lungs, which little by little come into use, until the crea- 
 ture is able to breathe both in air and in water. Finally, the gills wither, 
 and the adult frog or salamander appears as an air-breathing, insectivorous 
 or carnivorous reptile-like creature, which has been developed from the fish- 
 like tadpole. During the development of the lungs the heart has changed 
 from a two-chambered to a three-chambered organ ; so that even in this 
 respect the adult amphibian is indistinguishable from a reptile. In most 
 cases, when all these changes have been completed, the animal emerges from 
 29 
 
434 AMPHIBIA. 
 
 the water to pass a considerable portion of its time on land, although nearly 
 always returning to its original element for the purpose of breeding. It has 
 been said that the external gills usually form two pairs, but it should be 
 added that, in some instances, these are increased to three, while in one case 
 they are reduced to a solitary pair. 
 
 As regards their mode of life, amphibians are especially characterised by 
 their partiality for moisture, some passing the whole of their time in the 
 water, while none are found in absolutely desert districts. To their soft 
 sensitive skins moisture is, indeed, an absolute necessity ; and it seems that 
 they imbibe such moisture as they require through the skin. Jn countries 
 where one season of the year is especially dry, terrestrial amphibians are 
 consequently compelled to undergo a period of more or less complete torpor. 
 To a certain extent this is the case even in Britain, where a sudden shower 
 after a dry spell brings out numerous frogs and toads at the commencement 
 of evening in gardens where not one had been visible previously. In some 
 parts of Argentina the effect of a shower after a drought is much more 
 startling. There a garden may appear for weeks or months absolutely devoid 
 of amphibian life, but after a single shower it will appear literally alive with 
 huge frogs and toads of various kinds. Probably all the terrestrial amphibians 
 are essentially nocturnal creatures, and, indeed, their skins soon become 
 parched and withered by exposure to sunlight. Few objects are more pitiable 
 than a belated frog or toad attempting to cross a dusty high-road in the full 
 glare of the summer sun. Cloudy or wet days will, however, generally tempt 
 these creatures from their hiding-places. Although the tailed forms are 
 entirely or mainly silent creatures, frogs and toads during the breeding season 
 utter their well-known croaking cries, and in moist tropical and subtropical 
 countries life is rendered at times almost unbearable by their nocturnal 
 choruses. In the breeding season frogs and toads become exceedingly bold, 
 and they may be seen sitting within a few feet of the spectator, alternately 
 dilating and contracting their capacious throats, as they give vent to their 
 discordant cries. In order to make their sounds more intense, the males of 
 many kinds are furnished with large sacs projecting on either side of the 
 throat, which can be dilated till they resemble miniature balloons. Most 
 members of the class subsist chiefly or entirely, on insects and other small 
 invertebrates, but some of the aquatic kinds consume fish, and some of the 
 larger toads and frogs will readily attack not only other reptiles, but even the 
 smaller birds and mammals. Thus a newspaper correspondent, writing from 
 Nagpur, in India, observes that in the garden adjoining his house was a small 
 pond, which was the home of a huge kind of frog. One afternoon he heard 
 a myna making a great noise, and screaming as though it had been caught by 
 some creature, so he went down the garden to ascertain what was the matter, 
 and was just in time to see the bird disappearing down a big frog's throat. 
 There were only a few feathers left, and the bird had been swallowed feathers 
 and all. Now the common myna is quite as large as our English starling, and 
 the frog certainly looked as though he had dined, so he was left in peace to 
 enjoy his meal. On another occasion a big rat appeared in the house, and 
 was being chased by himself and servants from room to room, when it dashed 
 through a disused b ithroom. A large frog which happened to be there made 
 a most determined rush, but missed the rat, which disappeared down the 
 waste water-pipe. 
 
 In conformity with their fondness for warmth and moisture, amphibians 
 are most abundant in the tropical and sub-tropical portions of the globe, 
 
FROGS AND TOADS. 435 
 
 gradually diminishing, both in size and numbers, in the temperate zones, and 
 being unknown in the polar regions, as indeed they are in deserts. Although 
 members of the class are found in all regions except those named, the orders 
 are by no means evenly distributed. In the Northern Hemisphere, for in- 
 stance, salamanders and newts are abundant, and the burrowing forms, known 
 as csecilians, are wanting ; whereas in the Southern Hemisphere csecilians 
 occur, but salamanders and newts are totally unknown. Among the frogs 
 and toads certain families are confined to particular areas, but it is remark- 
 able that there are indications of distinct relationship between certain groups 
 respectively restricted to South America and Africa south of the Sahara. 
 
 ORDER I. ECAUDATA. 
 
 FROGS AND TOADS. 
 
 THE frogs and toads constitute one Order, all the members of which are 
 easily recognised when adult by the short and often plump form of the body, 
 the total absence of a tail, and the presence of four fully-developed limbs, the 
 hind pair being generally much longer than the front ones. Even more strik- 
 ing features are displayed by the skeleton. Instead of continuing to the end 
 of the body, the backbone proper stops short about the middle of the back, 
 and never comprises more than eight vertebra). Beyond this it is continued 
 as a long, tapering, un jointed rod. To the extremities of the horizontal 
 transverse processes of the last, or sacral vertebra, are articulated the anterior 
 ends of the greatly elongated ilia of the pelvis, these bones running as far 
 backwards as the hinder end of the aforesaid rod, where they bear the sockets 
 for the articulation of the uppermost bone of the hind-legs. By this very 
 peculiar, and indeed unique arrangement, the setting-on of the hind-limbs is 
 carried far behind the sacrum. The radius and ulna in the fore-limb, and the 
 tibia and fibula in the hind-limb, are respectively united to form a single 
 bone, and the elongation of the hind-legs is produced by the lengthening "of 
 those bones in the ankle-joint known as the astragalus and calcaneum, so as 
 to form a pair of parallel long bones. Like all other living members of the 
 class in which both limbs are fully developed, frogs and toads have four front 
 and live hind-toes. In the tadpole stage which is occasionally suppressed 
 the hind-limbs bud before any trace of the front pair is visible. Usually 
 this stage of existence is passed entirely in the water, but there are some very 
 peculiar forms in which the young are produced in the moist foliage of leaves. 
 On land the adults of the tailless batrachians progress either by taking long 
 leaps from the hind-legs or by dragging forwards first one and then the other 
 of these, and thus pushing the body along. In swimming, the hind-legs are 
 alone employed for propulsion, the front pair being pressed close to the chest. 
 The total number of species of the tailless amphibians probably does not fall 
 far short of a thousand, and representatives of the group are found in all 
 countries suitable to the existence of amphibian life- Curiously enough, the 
 largest forms are found in some of the islands of the Pacific. Whereas the 
 majority are terrestrial, a considerable number have adopted an arboreal life. 
 The group is divided into twelve families, of which the two last differ from all the 
 rest in the absence of the tongue. Unfortunately, the characters by which the 
 
436 AMPHIBIA ORDER L-ECAUDATA. 
 
 first ten of these families are divided into two larger groups are taken from the 
 skeleton, and are consequently some what difficult to explain to readers not speci- 
 ally versed in anatomy. 
 
 Sub-Order J. Firmisternia. 
 
 The five families constituting this subordinal group are characterised as 
 follows : The tongue is present, and the large plate-like bones on the chest 
 termed the metacoracoids are united together by a large median cartilage, 
 attached to their free inner margins. 
 
 in the family typified by the common British frog teeth are developed in 
 
 the upper jaw, and the horizontal transverse processes of the sacral vertebra 
 
 have, at most, only a slight terminal expansion, and are fre- 
 
 Typical Frogs. quently cylindrical throughout. The frogs of this family 
 
 Family Ranidce. display remarkable diversity in the form of the tips of the 
 terminal bones of the toes, which may be either rounded, 
 pointed, forked, T-shaped, or, more rarely, claw-like. The family which 
 includes a large number of genera and a host of species has a wide geo- 
 graphical distribution. With the 
 exception of a species of the typical 
 genus from the extreme north of 
 Australia, and another belonging to 
 the genus Cornifer from New 
 Guinea, there are no members of 
 the family in Australasia. South 
 America, too, is poorly off, having, 
 in addition to certain species be- 
 longing to the typical genus .Roma, 
 only live genera, and about a dozen 
 species. Moreover, since none of 
 these latter range farther south than 
 Ecuador and Colombia, while Rana 
 
 .-COMMON FROG (Rana temporaria). does nofc apparent i y extend south- 
 ward of Amazonia, the more southern 
 
 parts of that continent aro characterised by the total absence of the present 
 family. In a group so extensive, it is difficult to select genera for special 
 notice, although the typical Ratia must of course be mentioned. In the 
 numerous irogs of this genus the tongue is free and more or less deeply 
 notched at the tip, the pupil of the eye forms a horizontal slit, and the toes 
 of the fore-feet are free, whereas those of the hind-feet are more or less fully 
 webbed. By putting the finger into the mouth of any frog of this genus, it 
 will be readily felt that teeth are present on the vomers, occupying the 
 middle region of the palate. Whereas in some forms the tips of the toes are 
 simple, in others they are dilated. The genus has a distribution nearly 
 coextensive with that of the family, one species being found in the extreme 
 north of Australia, although there is none from Papua. There are several 
 species of the genus inhabiting Europe, such at> the common frog (R. tetn- 
 poraria), the edible frog (R. esculenta\ the agile frog (R. agilis), the Spanish 
 frog (R. iberica), and Lataste's frog (R. Icttastei). Of these, the only one 
 indigenous to Britain is the common frog, in which the hind feet are incom- 
 pletely webbed, and the males are unprovided with the dilatable throat -sacs 
 characterising those of the edible species. Although the latter of which 
 
FROGS AND TOADS. 
 
 there are two varieties, differing from one another in colour is properly a 
 native of the Continent, it has been introduced into the fens of Cambridge 
 and Norfolk, where it seems to flourish. It has a very extensive geographical 
 range, being found as far south as North- Western Africa, and as far east as 
 Japan. Although the species is the only one eaten in Europe, other 
 members of the sub-order are sent to table in distant lands, and the writer 
 has partakon of- a dish of frogs in Argentina which belonged to a 
 totally different family. The great relative length of the hind-legs and 
 generally slender form of the body serves to distinguish the agile frog ; 
 while the fourth and fifth of the species mentioned above differ from the rest 
 by their spotted bellies. All these frogs are comparatively small creatures, 
 which are greatly exceeded in size by species from more distant lands. 
 
 Among these, the bull-frog (J?. catesbyana) of Eastern North America 
 occupies an intermediate position in this respect ; the largest member of the 
 whole genus being the Solomon Island frog (H. (fiippyi), which grows to nine 
 inches in length, exclusive of the limbs. The habits of the common frog are 
 too familiar to need description ; and it is probable that like this species, all 
 the members of the genus take to the water at the time of breeding. Some 
 are, however, more aquatic than others ; and there are also certain frogs of 
 this genus which are partially arboreal in their habits, while others have 
 taken to burrowing in the ground. The climbing species have the tips of the 
 toes expanded into discs, but smaller 
 expansions may be present in the 
 aquatic kinds. An Indian species 
 (A breviceps) makes burrows in the 
 ground to a depth of about eighteen 
 inches. Omitting mention of most of 
 the other numerous genera of this 
 extensive family, attention must be 
 concentrated on the curious flying- 
 frogs constituting the genus Rhaco- 
 phorus. These frogs of which there 
 are more than forty species from the 
 Oriental countries and the island of 
 Madagascar have the tips of both 
 pairs of feet expanded into large discs, 
 and very generally the front pair are 
 as fully webbed as the hinder, although 
 
 in some kinds the webs of the former F^.-FLYING FRocT(Rhacophorus). 
 
 are less fully developed. The eyes 
 
 are remarkable for their fulness and brilliancy ; and the general hue of the 
 skin is bright green. Some species, are, however, stated to have the power 
 of changing their hue to harmonise with their surroundings. In the skeleton 
 of many of the species the tips of the terminal joints of the toes are in the 
 form of the letter Y. Except during the breeding season, when they doubt- 
 less take to the water, these frogs are arboreal in their habits. They derive 
 their name of flying frogs from a statement to the effect that one species at 
 least has been observed to take a long flying leap from a tree, apparently 
 supported by the large webs between the toes. Although it does not appear 
 that such a feat has ever been witnessed by a European observer, it is almost 
 incredible that the sole use of these huge webs is for swimming, more especi- 
 ally since these frogs pass but a. comparatively small portion of their existence 
 
438 AMPHIBIAORDER LECAUDATA. 
 
 in water. One member of a Tropical American genus of this family namely 
 Phyllobates trinitatis, of Trinidad and Venezuela is remarkable 011 account of 
 its curious nursing habits. The tadpoles are provided with sucking-discs on 
 the mouth, by means of which they attach themselves to the back of their 
 female parent, and are thus carried about in safety. As many as from twelve 
 to eighteen tadpoles may sometimes be found thus clinging to one frog. A 
 similar mode of attachment occurs in one species of the under-mentioned 
 genus Deiidrobates y but in this case this mode of locomotion seems to be 
 resorted to only when the ponds in which the individuals have bred dry up. 
 
 In addition to the members of the genus Rhacophorus, there are many 
 other frogs which have taken to an arboreal life, and so much do these 
 
 resemble one another in external appearance that it is pro- 
 
 Family bable any non-scientific observer would regard all of them 
 
 Dendrobatidce. as being very closely allied. Not so that dreadful personage 
 
 the anatomist, who tells us that while the members of one 
 family conform in the structure of the bones of the chest to the sub-order 
 now under consideration, all those .of another family to be mentioned 
 later have a totally different conformation of this region. Accepting this 
 distinction, we must regard the Tropical American tree-frogs of the genus 
 Dendrobates, and those belonging to the nearly allied Malagasy genus Mantella, 
 as forming a family by themselves. From the frogs of the family Ranidce 
 the Dendrobatidce are distinguished by the absence of teeth both in the upper 
 jaw and on the bones of the palate. In both genera the toes are unwebbed, 
 and terminate in small adhesive discs, but whereas in Mantella the tongue is 
 notched at the tip, in Dendrobates it is entire. One species of the latter 
 genus (D. tinctorius) is remarkable for the brilliancy and variability of its 
 coloration; while it is further noticeable as being less arboreal than its con- 
 geners, generally frequenting low herbage or ground strewn with dead leaves. 
 As already mentioned, another species carries its tadpoles clinging to its back 
 from pool to pool in seasons of drought. 
 
 Another nearly allied family of frogs is distinguished from the last by the 
 expansion of the extremities of the horizontal transverse processes of the 
 
 sacral vertebra ; both 
 
 Family groups agreeing in the 
 
 Engystomatidce. absence of teeth in 
 
 the upper jaw. These 
 frogs present great variation in the 
 structure of the bones and cartilages 
 forming the chest ; the typical genus 
 Engystoma, together with Cacopus and 
 several others, showing the absence 
 of the bones known as precoracoicls 
 a feature rare in the sub-order. This 
 family may be regarded as essentially 
 a southern one, its geographical range 
 embracing Africa, Madagascar, the Fig. 3. Cacopus systema. 
 
 Malayan Peninsula and Islands, India, 
 
 the south of China, New Guinea, and South and Central America. Two 
 species of the typical genus extend, however, into North America as far as 
 Mexico and Carolina. Nearly a score of genera are included in the family. 
 Among these, a considerable number are characterised by the extremely 
 small relative width of the opening of the mouth ; and it is probable 
 
FKOGS AND TOADS. 439 
 
 that all these subsist more or less exclusively on ants and termites. A 
 large proportion of these frogs are nocturnal in their habits, and these may 
 be recognised by the vertical pupil of the eye. Although many have discs at 
 the tips of the toes, none of these are tree-haunting species. A consider- 
 able number of members of the family are, however, burrowers ; and in these 
 the hind-limbs are unusually powerful, and are also specially protected by 
 horny sheathings. Others, again, pass a large portion of their time in the 
 water. It would be profitless to give in this place the distinctive character- 
 istics of all th? genera included in this extensive family ; and attention may 
 accordingly be confined to a few which are noteworthy on account of some 
 peculiarity in the habits of their representatives. Foremost among these is 
 the Chilian Darwin's frog (Mhinoderma darwini), in which the female has 
 transferred the task of carrying and tending the eggs and young to her 
 partner. Whereas there is nothing 
 remarkable about the structure of 
 the female of this frog, the male 
 has a capacious pouch underlying 
 the whole of the lower surface of 
 the body, which communicates with 
 the exterior by means of a pair of 
 apertures opening into the mouth 
 on each side of the tongue. As 
 soon as his partner has deposited Fig. 4. DARWIN'S FROG (Rhinodenma darwini) 
 her eggs, the male frog takes 
 
 them in his front paws and transfers them to his mouth, whence they pass 
 into the great nursing pouch, where they remain in perfect security till 
 hatched into young frogs, which make their way into the world by the same 
 passages. The tadpoles never develop gills, and this frog is the sole member of 
 its genus. Equally noteworthy are the African frogs constituting the genus 
 Breviceps. These species, which take their name from the small size and short- 
 ness of the head, would almost seem to have given rise to the fable of the ox and 
 the frog, since they hav e the singular habit of puffing out the body till the head 
 and limbs are nearly bu ried, and the creature looks almost like a ball. What 
 may be the object of this curious habit does not appear to have been ascertained. 
 
 This family of frogs includes eight genera, all of which are confined to the 
 island of Madagascar, with the single exception of the one species constitut- 
 ing the genus Calluella, which inhabits Burma and Tenas- 
 serim. The essential distinctive features of the frogs of this Family- 
 
 family are the presence of teeth in the upper jaw, coupled Dyscophidce. 
 with the expansion of the extremities of the transverse pro- 
 cesses of the sacral vertebra, the latter feature serving to distinguish them 
 from the members of the family Ranidce, in which there is no such expansion. 
 These frogs are very closely allied indeed to those of the preceding family, 
 and as their chief interest lies in their peculiar geographical distribution, 
 they need no further notice on this occasion. 
 
 A large frog from the Solomon Islands technically known as Ceratobatra- 
 chus guentheri, and easily recognised by the extremely sharp point formed 
 by the tip of the nose, is regarded as forming a family 
 by itself. From all the members of the sub-order under Family 
 
 consideration, this frog differs by having both the upper Ceratobrachidce. 
 and the lower jaw armed with a full series of teeth ; 
 and it is further characterised by the absence of expansion of the extremi- 
 
440 AMPHIBIA ORDER LECAUDATA. 
 
 ties of the transverse processes of the sacral vertebra. It is an ugly- 
 looking creature at best, the large triangular head bearing ridges, and 
 the pointed nose being surmounted with a loose flap of skin, and similar 
 flaps covering the eyes. The mouth, too, is of enormous capacity, and thus 
 adds to the generally repulsive appearance of this frog. The sharp-nosed 
 frog is evidently a highly specialised species, since it lays very large eggs, 
 from which young frogs emerge in a highly developed condition, the tadpole 
 stage being compressed and passed in the eggs. Mr. Guppy writes that 
 " during the descent from one of the peaks of Faroe island, i stopped at a 
 stream some 400 feet above the sea, where my native boys collected from the 
 moist crevices of the rocks close to the water a number of transparent, 
 gelatinous balls, rather smaller than a marble. Each of these balls contained 
 a young frog about a third of an inch in length. On my rupturing the ball, 
 the tiny frog took a marvellous leap into existence, and disappeared before I 
 could catch it." 
 
 Sub-Order II. Arcifera. 
 
 The remaining families of the order in which the tongue is present con- 
 stitute a second subordinal group, differing from the tirst by the conforma- 
 tion of the bones and cartilages of the chest. Instead of the two metacora- 
 coid bones being connected together in the middle line by a single cartilage 
 attached to their free inner edges, each of the metacoracoids is expanded on 
 the same side into a plate of cartilage, one of which overlaps the other. 
 
 Having the above-mentioned type of chest-structure, the large and important 
 family of the Leptodactylidce the CystignatTiidcn of many authors are spread 
 over Central and South America and Australia. In all of 
 Family them only the upper jaw is furnished with teeth, and the 
 Leptodactylidce. extremities of the horizontal transverse processes of the 
 sacral vertebra are either cylindrical, or only slightly ex- 
 panded. In both these respects these frogs resemble the Ranidce, so that they 
 may be regarded as holding the same relative position in the present sub-order 
 as is occupied by the latter in the Firmisternia. More than a score of genera 
 and a very large number of species are included in the family, and it may be 
 noted that whereas in the majority of the Australian genera the pupil of the 
 eye is vertical, this is but seldom the case in the American forms. The family 
 may be divided into three groups, in the first of which the breast-bone ter- 
 minates below in a rod-like process. To this group belongs the typical genus 
 Leptodcictylus, of which all the numerous species are American. These frogs, 
 in which the pupil is horizontal, are much like the Ranidce in external 
 appearance, but the hind-toes are not webbed. They are peculiar in that 
 during the breeding season the fore-limb becomes much swollen, and in 
 the skeleton the humerus bears a conspicuous bony ridge. All these frogs 
 possess a very powerful voice, and in parts of the Argentine their croaking is 
 a dreadful nuisance. Many of them burrow holes in the ground for their 
 eggs. As an example of the second group, in which there is no bony rod to 
 the breast-bone, and the hind-toes are nearly or completely free, we may take 
 a West Indian species (Hylodes martinicensis) belonging to a large American 
 genus, all the species of which are arboreal. This particular kind has the 
 peculiar habit of laying its large eggs singly in the axils of leaves, where a few 
 drops of water may from time to time collect after a shower. From these 
 eggs the young frogs emerge with only a small remnant of the tail, which ia 
 
FROGS AND TOADS. 
 
 44i 
 
 soon absorbed ; and it appears that during development no gills are produced, 
 but that the tail, which is richly supplied with blood-vessels, acts as a breathing 
 organ. A third American genus is Oeratophrys, which includes the well-known 
 horned-frogs of Brazil and Argentina, and belongs to a group in which there 
 is no bony rod to the breast-bone, and the hind-toes are more or less fully 
 webbed. The Brazilian G. boiei is a huge creature, growing to as much as eight 
 inches in length, and furnished with a pair 
 of large horn-like outgrowths on the upper 
 eyelids. In the Argentine esquerzo (C. or- 
 nata) these processes are less developed, 
 and the whole size is less. Like its kindred, 
 furnished with an enormous mouth, this 
 species is beautifully mottled with green, 
 olive, and gold, and in this respect is really 
 a handsome creature, although its shape is 
 hideous. All the larger kinds are very fierce 
 in disposition, and carnivorous in their 
 habits, killing and eating small mammals, 
 birds, reptiles, and other members of their 
 own order. They are much dreaded by 
 the natives of the districts they inhabit, 
 who tell wonderful stories as to their fly- 
 ing at men, and even at the noses of horses 
 and cattle. Their bite is stated to produce 
 very extensive swellings. When attacking 
 a large animal, they utter a cry more like 
 a bark than anything else ; but their ordin- 
 ary note is bell-like. I once brought several 
 of these frogs in a box to Buenos Aires by rail, and during the journey the guard 
 and some of the passengers were considerably alarmed by the noises proceed- 
 ing from the cage, many of them wondering what kind of noisome beasts were 
 therein enclosed. 
 
 Nearly allied to the preceding are the two South American genera Dendro- 
 phryniscus and Batrachophrynus, forming a small family differing from the 
 Leptodactylidce merely by the absence of teeth in the upper 
 jaw, and thus serving to connect them with the next group. Family Dendro- 
 
 Of far more importance is the almost cosmopolitan and large phryniscidce. 
 toad family, in which teeth are absent in both jaws, while the 
 extremities of the transverse processes of the sacral vertebra are expanded. 
 That the family is closely allied to the Leptodactylidce is indi- 
 cated by the approximation of two of its genera to two of the T3ie Toads. 
 latter. Thus the Australian Pseudophryne resembles Crinia Family 
 
 of the same country, while Enyystomops is like Paludicola, Bufonidce. 
 both these latter being South American. Again two other 
 genera exhibit resemblances to the Engystomatidce. Most of the members of 
 the family are crawling creatures, but the Javan Nectes is completely aquatic 
 in its habits, and the members of the Oriental and African genus Necto- 
 phryne appear to be arboreal. The members of Ehinophrynus which is 
 one* of the two genera approximating to the Engystomatidce feed on ants. 
 Whereas in some forms the extremities of the terminal bones of the toes are 
 simple, in others, such as Nectophryne, they are shaped like the letter T. 
 Our remarks must be restricted to the typical genus Bufo, of which there are 
 
 Fig. 5. HORNED FROO 
 (Ceratophrys ornata). 
 
442 
 
 AMPHIBIA ORDER I.ECAUDATA. 
 
 a very large number of species distributed over the greater part of the world 
 with the exception of Oceania, Australasia, and Madagascar. In this genus 
 tile-pupil of the eye forms a horizontal slit, the tip of the tongue is not 
 notched, the toes of the fore-feet are free, but the hinder ones are partially 
 webbed. Occasionally the ends of the toes are expanded into small discs 
 the head may bear bony ridges, and in many cases the skin is covered with 
 warts, which under excitement secrete a miiky acrid fluid. Two species are 
 
 met with in Britain, namely the 
 common toad (B. mdgaris), and the 
 natterjack (B. calamila) ; the latter 
 being very local in our islands, 
 and easily recognised by the 
 whitish or yellow streak on the 
 middle of the back. Although 
 not found in Britain, a third 
 European species is the handsome 
 green toad (B. viridis), which also 
 ranges into the north of Africa 
 and Asia. The males differ from 
 those of the common species in 
 
 Fig. 6. NATTERJACK TOAD (Bufo catomita) 
 
 possessing a vocal sac beneath the 
 throat. 
 Although many of the tree-frogs belonging to this family are very similar 
 
 externally to the Dendrobatidce, they agree with the toads in the conforma- 
 tion of the skeleton of the chest. From the Bufonidce they 
 
 Family ffylidce. may be readily distinguished by the possession of upper 
 teeth ; while a still more distinctive peculiarity is to be 
 
 found in the claw-shaped terminal joints of the toes. The frogs of this 
 
 family, which are mostly arboreal in their habits, and are ranged under a 
 
 considerable number of generic divisions, attain their maximum development 
 
 in America (especially its tropical regions) and Australasia, but also occur in 
 
 Europe and Northern Asia, while a single representative of the typical genus 
 
 Hyla is found in India. The genus 
 
 just named includes more than a 
 
 hundred and fifty species, and has 
 
 a distribution coextensive with 
 
 that of the family. Whereas the 
 
 European If. arborea is a tiny little 
 
 creature, some of the Brazilian 
 
 species measure as much as three 
 
 inches in length. These frogs have 
 
 the tips of the toes expanded into 
 
 discs, and the hind-feet more or 
 
 less fully webbed. In the eye the 
 
 pupil is horizontal ; and the hinder 
 
 end of the tongue may be either 
 
 adherent or partially free. The 
 
 males of the European species, and 
 
 likewise those of some other kinds, 
 
 have a huge vocal sac on the throat. 
 
 In order to assimilate them to their surroundings, tree-frogs are of a brilliant 
 
 green colour. Except during the breeding season when they descend tem- 
 
 Fig. 7. EUROPEAN TBEE-FROG (Hyla arborea). 
 
FROGS AND TOADS. 
 
 443 
 
 Fig. 8. POUCHED FROG (Nototreina.) 
 
 porarily bo the wateT they pass their whole time in trees or shrubs, 
 and are enabled to absorb the moisture from leaves by means of special 
 glands on the skin of the under surface of 
 the body. Some of the species inhabiting 
 the hottest parts of Brazil construct basin- 
 shaped nests of mud in ponds for the 
 protection of the eggs, this task falling en- 
 tirely to the share of the female. As an 
 example of a non-arboreal species, the 
 North American grasshopper-frog (Acris 
 gryllus) may be mentioned. This species, 
 which is the sole member of its genus, and 
 is very closely allied to Hyla, spends its 
 time among * herbage in moist situations. 
 More remarkable are the pouched frogs 
 (Notokrema), with several species from 
 Central and Western Tropical America, and 
 one from Pernambuco. These frogs are 
 also closely allied to Hyla, but the females 
 have a large pouch in the skin of the back, 
 with its aperture near the hinder end of the 
 body. In this pouch the eggs to the 
 number of about fifteen are deposited by 
 the male, and there they develop into tad- 
 poles. The gills of the tadpoles are protected by a special bell-like organ : 
 and the young do not leave the chamber until they have assumed the 
 adult form. 
 
 A small number of genera constitute a family distinguished from the 
 Hylidce by the much greater expansion of the extremities of the horizontal 
 
 transverse processes 
 of the sacral verte- 
 bra, and also by the 
 simple terminations 
 of the end joint of the toes. The 
 genera have a small geographical 
 range, but the family occurs in North 
 America, Europe, the Oriental coun- 
 tries and Papua. In the country first 
 named it is represented by several 
 species of Scaphiopus, nearly allied to 
 which are the two Central and South 
 European species of Pelobates. The 
 members of both these groups are 
 burrowing frogs, with the hind-toes 
 largely webbed, and in their move- 
 
 Fig. 9. MIDWIFE FROG (Alytes). ments they are somewhat inter- 
 
 mediate between the true frogs and 
 
 the toads. The eggs of the European forms are laid in long strings, which 
 are twined by the males round the stems of aquatic plants. Another 
 European species (Pelodytes putictatiis), together with the other genera of 
 the family, differs from the foregoing in the mode by which the rod forming 
 the hinder termination of the back-bone is articulated with the last vertebra. 
 
 Family 
 
 Pdobatidce. 
 
444 
 
 AMPHIBIA ORDER I. - EGA UDA TA. 
 
 The sixth family of the present sub-order includes four genera, with a very 
 
 small number of species, and is confined to the northern half of the 
 
 Eastern Hemisphere and New Zealand. These frogs, which 
 
 Family have teeth in the upper jaw, and the extremities of the trans- 
 
 Discoglossidce. verse processes of the sacral vertebra expanded, are specially 
 
 distinguished by the retention of rudimental ribs. To this 
 
 family belong the painted frog (Discoglossus pictus) from the south of Europe 
 
 and Algeria, and the fire -bellied frog (Bombinator igneus) of Europe and 
 
 Asia, the latter having a triangular pupil to the eye, an adherent tongue, 
 
 and no drum to the ear. The under-parts are mottled with orange or yellow, 
 
 and the croak is very loud. The two European species of mid wife -frogs 
 
 (Alytes) are so named from the circumstance that the male takes the chains 
 
 of eggs laid by the female and winds them round his hind-legs. After 
 
 remaining concealed in a hole till the eggs are mature, he enters the water, 
 
 when the tadpoles burst their shells. 
 
 These two small Tropical American families differ from all the other mem- 
 Families Hemi- hers f ^ ne sub-order in possessing teeth in both jaws, the 
 phractidce and nrsfc of the two having the extremities of the horizontal 
 Amphignatho- transverse processes of the sacral vertebra cylindrical, 
 dontidce. whereas in the second they are expanded. 
 
 Sub-Order III. Aglossa. 
 
 The two genera and families by which alone this sub-order is represented 
 differ from both the other subordinal groups in the complete absence of the 
 tongue. 
 
 The three African species of spur-toed frogs (Xenopus) are sufficiently dis- 
 tinguished by possessing teeth in the upper jaw and the presence of spur- 
 like nails on three 
 Family of the toes of the 
 Xenopodidce. hind - feet, which 
 are fully webbed. 
 Their tadpoles, which are born of 
 large size, and without external 
 gills, are furnished with a pair of 
 barbels to the upper jaw. 
 
 The well-known Surinam water- 
 toad, or pipa (Pipa americana), of 
 the Guianas and 
 Family Brazil, is the only 
 Pipidce. member of this 
 family, which is 
 characterised by both jaws being 
 toothless. Externally, the pipa may 
 be recognised by its short and tri- 
 angular head, which is furnished 
 with a large flap of skin at each corner of the mouth, and has very minute eyes. 
 The four front toes are quite free, and terminate in expanded star-like tips, 
 but a large web unites all the five toes of the hind-foot. In any state the 
 creature is ugly, but when the female is carrying her nursery about with her 
 she is repulsive. Soon after they are laid, the eggs are taken up by the male 
 
 Fig. 10. SURINAM WATER-TOAD 
 (Pipa americana). 
 
NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS. 445 
 
 and pressed, one by one, into the cells in the thickened skin of his partner's 
 back, where they grow till they fit closely to the hexagonal form of their cells, 
 each of which is closed above by a kind of trap-door. After some eighty- 
 two days the eggs reach their full development and produce, not tadpoles, 
 but perfect little toads. The reason of this is that tadpoles, which require to 
 breathe the air dissolved in water by means of their external gills, could not 
 exist in the cells, and, consequently, this stage of the development is passed 
 through very rapidly within the egg. When ready to come forth, the young 
 toads, which are usually from sixty to seventy in number, although there may 
 sometimes be more than a hundred, burst open the lids of their cells, and, 
 after stretching forth their head or a limb, make their appearance. When 
 free from her charge, the mother rubs off what remains of the cells against 
 any convenient stone or plant-stem, and comes out in a new skin. After 
 breeding, these toads become much flattened, and pass the whole of their 
 time in water. 
 
 ORDER IT. GAUD ATA. 
 NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS. 
 
 THE ordinary British newts and the black-and -yellow salamander of the 
 Continent are familiar representatives of an order of amphibians broadly 
 distinguished from the frogs and toads by the permanent retention of the tail. 
 In the skeleton they differ by the more normal structure of the bones of the 
 limbs, in which there is no elongation of any of those in the ankle joint, 
 while the ulna and fibula are respectively distinct from the radius and tibia. 
 The more typical representatives of the order are lizard-like in external form, 
 having a comparatively short body and two pairs of well-developed limbs. 
 There are, however, certain aberrant types in which the body becomes more 
 or less elongated in form, with a diminution in the size of the limbs, and in 
 some instances the disappearance of the hinder pair. From the permanent 
 retention of the tail, it is obvious that even in the more typical forms the 
 metamorphosis is a much less marked feature among these amphibians than 
 it is in the frogs and toads. And in certain instances there is no metamor- 
 phosis at all the external gills persisting throughout life. In another case 
 we have the peculiar condition that whereas certain individuals may retain 
 their gills permanently, and breed while in this condition, other individuals 
 of the same species lose their gills, and develop into the proper adult ter- 
 restrial form before breeding. It is thus evident that these amphibians are 
 in a state of unstable equilibrium as regards their transformation ; and it 
 may be a question whether those kinds with permanent gills are not really 
 larvae, which for some reason have ceased to develop into the proper adult 
 form. 
 
 Numerically, the tailed amphibians form a small group, containing pro- 
 bably less than one hundred and fifty species, arranged under four families. 
 They are chiefly confined to the Northern Hemisphere where they attain 
 their maximum development in North America and are unrepresented in 
 Australasia, the intra-tropical districts of South America and Africa south of 
 the Sahara. The true newts are, however, chiefly an Old World group. The 
 Oriental region is very poorly furnished with these amphibians, having only 
 
446 
 
 AMPHIBIA ORDER ILCAUDATA. 
 
 three species altogether. Of these, one is an axolotl from Siam, belonging 
 to the American genus Amblystoma, while the other two constitute the genus 
 Tylotriton, one inhabiting the Liu Kiu Islands, and the other the eastern 
 part of the Himalaya and Yunnan. All the tailed amphibians are nocturnal 
 creatures, the great majority of which pass some portion of their time in 
 water, while others are permanently aquatic. Such as develop lungs and 
 lose their gills have to rise periodically to the surface of the water in order 
 to breathe. Their tenacity of life forms a striking feature in the physiology 
 of these creatures ; species inhabiting tropical regions, subject to periodical 
 droughts, becoming torpid at such seasons, while those from colder regions 
 hibernate. Even envelopment in ice is not always sufficient to destroy life. 
 The same low organisation is indicated by their power of reproducing the 
 tail and limbs. \Vhereas the majority of species have large and well-developed 
 eyes, a few which inhabit underground waters have lost the power of 
 sight,, and have the rudimental eyes deeply buried .beneath the skin. The 
 aquatic species swim chiefly or entirely by means of a tail, and thus differ 
 markedly from the frogs, in which the hind-limbs alone are employed. Most 
 of the terrestrial forms are slow-moving creatures, although a few dart about 
 with the rapidity of lizards. Certain members of the order are peculiar in 
 producing living young, the tadpoles being in some cases retained within the 
 body of the female until considerably developed. 
 
 The greater number of the members of the order are included in the 
 
 family typified by the common yellow and black salamander, although the 
 
 genera may be arranged in four rub-families. As a family, 
 
 Family the Salamandridce are distinguished by undergoing a full 
 
 Salamaiidridce. metamorphosis, with the consequent loss of the gills in 
 
 the adult condition, as well as by the presence of teeth in 
 
 both jaws, of eyelids, and of maxillary tones. In the typical sub-family 
 
 SalamandrincR, the teeth on the palate are arranged in the form cf a pair of 
 
 posteriorly diverging rows, such rows Tbeing situated on the inner margins of 
 
 two long processes running backwards from the palatine bones. Ko teeth 
 
 are developed on the bone forming the hinder pnrt of the inner surface of the 
 
 skifll, and known as the parasphenoid ; 
 and in the backbone the bodies of the 
 vertebras have a cup at the hinder end, 
 and a ball in front. The common black 
 and yellow salamander (Salamandria, 
 macul'osa) is the best-known representa- 
 tive of the typical genus of the sub- 
 family, which includes two other species, 
 and is confined to Central and Southern 
 Europe, Algeria, and Syria. From the 
 newts, the typical salanfanders may be 
 distinguished by the following features. 
 In form the tail is cylindrical and taper- 
 ing ; there are five toes to each of the 
 hind-feet ; the two rows of the teeth on 
 the palate are curved ; and the tongue, which is of rather large size, and 
 nearly oval in form, is free at the sides, and to a certain extent behind. The 
 black ground-colour, marked with a double row of longitudinal yellow 
 blotches on the head and back, and similar markings on the upper surface of 
 the tail and limbs, sufficiently distinguish the salamander from the other 
 
 Fig. 11. COMMON SALAMAKDER (Sala- 
 mandra, maculosa). 
 
NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS. 447 
 
 members of the same genus. This species is a somewhat solitary and slug- 
 gish creature, spending most of the year on land, but resorting to the water 
 during the spring, when breeding takes place. Usually the young are born 
 alive, but occasionally eggs are laid, when they almost immediately hatch. 
 
 A large number of tadpoles come into the world at once, and these, in 
 the ordinary mode of development, have already lost their gills. Formerly, 
 highly poisonous properties were attributed to this salamander as they, 
 doubtless, still are among the uneducated peasantry of various parts of 
 Europe, and the creature was believed to be capable of being cast into a 
 furnace without suffering harm. Beyond secreting an acrid fluid, it is, how- 
 ever, perfectly harmless. The range of this species includes a considerable 
 part of Europe, as well as Syria and Algeria. Nearly allied is the somewhat 
 smaller black salamander (S, atra) of the Alps. Although many eggs may be 
 found in the body of the female, it appears that only a pair of tadpoles are 
 produced, these being nourished by the eggs which never develop. While 
 within the body of the parent, these tadpoles have very long external gills, 
 which are shed previous to birth. Many years ago some tadpoles in the 
 gilled condition were taken from the parent and placed in water. Almost 
 immediately the large gills were cast off, and their place taken by much 
 smaller ones, which remained for a long period. As remarked by Professor 
 Mivart, "the curious and noteworthy point in this experiment is the fact 
 that, after the original gills (which were unadapted for free external life (have 
 perished, new and suitable gills become developed, and this not in a struggle 
 for existence against rivals, but directly and spontaneously from the innate 
 nature of the animal." The third and last species is S. caucasica, from the 
 Caucasus, which differs from the other two in that the tail is shorter than the 
 head and body. Its colour is black, with rows of roundish yellow spots on 
 the back. It may be remarked here that in both the spotted species the 
 young are uniformly dark-coloured, the yellow markings being only gradually 
 acquired. Hence the ornamentation may be regarded as a lately acquired 
 feature. On the other hand, where as in the lion and deer skin-markings 
 occur only on the young, such ornamentation is very ancient, and tending to 
 disappear. The Spanish salamander (Ckioglossa lusitanica) differs by the 
 tongue being fixed on a protrusile pedicle. 
 
 From the true salamanders, the newts (Molge) are distinguished by the 
 laterally compressed form of the powerful tail, as well as by their perman- 
 ently aquatic mode of life. Many of 
 the species, too, are furnished with an 
 upright longitudinal fin on the back, 
 such fin generally attaining a special 
 development during the breeding season 
 in the males. Newts range over the 
 three great continents of the Northern 
 Hemisphere, although they are unknown 
 to the south of the Himalaya, and are 
 much more abundant in the Old World 
 than in the New. They are the only Fig . 12< _. CRES TED NEWT (Moloe^Hstata). 
 members of the order inhabiting Britain, 
 
 where the common species in many districts is to be met with in every pond. 
 The handsomest and largest of the British species is the crested newt (M. 
 cristata), which belongs to a group characterised by the presence of a fin-like 
 crest on the back of the males, and in some cases of the females also, where, 
 
443 AMPHIBIA ORDER ILCAUDATA. 
 
 however, it is always considerably lower. In the males of the crested newt 
 the crest is scalloped; and in both sexes the under surface of the body is 
 orange with black marblings. When in full breeding-dress, a male of this 
 species is indeed a beautifully-coloured creature. In size it grows to five 
 inches or rather more. From Sweden southwards, this newt is spread over 
 the greater part of Europe, with the exception of Italy. It is distinguished 
 from all other members of the genus by a peculiarity in the structure of the 
 skull. Far more abundant in this country is the much smaller common 
 newt (M. vulgaris\ in which the crest of the male is likewise festooned, while 
 the hind-toes of the same sex are lobed during the breeding-season, the under 
 surface of the body being yellowish, with large black spots in the male, and 
 small dots in the female. In the latter, the back carries either a simple crest 
 or a mere ridge. It is only in the breeding season that the crest of the male 
 assumes its full development ; and at this time the tail-fin is also festooned. 
 
 With the exception of Western Europe, this species is widely distributed on 
 the Continent, and also ranges into Asia. The last and smallest of the 
 British representatives of the genus is the webbed newt (M. palmatci), which, 
 in addition to a peculiarity in the structure of the skull, is distinguished by 
 the hind-toes of the male being fully webbed during the breeding season. 
 The crest of the male is straight ; and that of the female either very smaD, or 
 represented by a ridge. The lower surface of the body is more or less nearly uni- 
 formly coloured, although there is a narrow streak of orange in the middle line. 
 
 Several species found in the south of Europe have no crest in either 
 sex. The habits of newts are so familiar to all who have lived in the country, 
 that but little need be said on the subject. During the breeding-season, all 
 are inhabitants of the water ; but later on many of them forsake that element 
 for a longer or shorter period, and become terrestrial. While some hiber- 
 nate in holes or beneath stones, others retire to the mud at the bottom of 
 ponds. The eggs are generally deposited on the stems of aquatic plants ; and 
 when the tadpoles first make their appearance, they have small, simple gills, 
 behind which are a pair of small projections, representing the future fore- 
 limbs. In the course of time the gills become branched, the fore-limbs show 
 their four toes, and the hind-legs make their appearance. Soon after, the 
 gills begin to shrink, and finally disappear, while lungs are developed, and 
 the limbs acquire their full adult proportions, when the creature ceases to be 
 a tndpole, and becomes a newt. It has been already mentioned that the tad- 
 poles of the frogs and toads differ from those of the newts and salamanders 
 in that the hind-limbs make their appearance before the front pair. The 
 reason for this remarkable difference is doubtless to be found in the circum- 
 stance that in the former group the hind-limbs are proportionately much 
 larger than in the latter, and consequently require a longer period for growth. 
 From both the foregoing genera the Italian spectacled salamander (S<daman- 
 drina perspicillata) is at once distinguished by having only four toes to each 
 of the hind-feet, the number of toes being consequently the same in both 
 pairs of limbs. It is a small species, varying between three and four inches 
 in length, with a slightly compressed and keeled tail, and a rough warty skin. 
 The under surface of the tail and of the hinder end of the body is of a 
 brilliant carmine red. This salamander inhabits moist, rocky districts, where 
 its rapid movements render it liable to be mistaken for a lizard. True to its 
 amphibian nature, it resorts, however, to the water in spring for breeding 
 
 Sirposes. The warty salamander, Tyloiriton verruco&us, of the Eastern 
 imalaya and Siam, together with the allied T. andersoni of the Liu-Kin 
 
NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS. 
 
 449 
 
 Islands, constitute a genus confined to the Oriental region, and differing from 
 all those mentioned above in the conformation of the skull, in which the 
 pterygoid bones extend forwards to touch the maxillae, instead of being 
 separated from them by an interval. These salamanders have five hind-toes, 
 and the tail strongly compressed. They are inhabitants of mountain dis- 
 tricts. Nearly allied is the single species of Pachijtriton, from South Kiansi, 
 China, in which the tail is cylindrical at the root, although compressed near 
 the tip. 
 
 In the second sub-family Ambhjstomatince of the Salamandridce the 
 teeth on the palate form either a transverse or posteriorly converging series, 
 and are attached to the hinder margin of the posterior portion of the 
 vomers, instead, of to processes of the palatine bones. The vertebrae, too, 
 differ from those of the first group in that both terminal faces of their bodies 
 are slightly cupped ; this being a lower type of structure than the ball-and- 
 socket articulation. The type of this group is the creature known in Mexico 
 as the axolotl, which is the permanent larval form of a salamander from the 
 United States described as Amblystvma tigrinum. It was long thought that 
 these two forms were totally distinct 
 animals ; but the identity of the two 
 was conclusively proved by some 
 Mexican axolotls kept many years 
 ago in Paris. One of these layed 
 eggs, which in due course developed 
 into axolotls, but these latter ulti- 
 mately assumed the form of the 
 adult salamander. The most curious 
 fact about the matter was that where- 
 as the axolotls bred freely, none of 
 the adult salamanders could be in- 
 duced to propagate their kind. There 
 are several species of the genus in- 
 habiting North America, and a single 
 outlying form in the mountains of 
 Siam. With the single exception of 
 the Mexican race of Ambiystoma 
 tigrinum, all these appear to pass from the tadpole to the salamander stage 
 in the usual manner. The reason of the Mexican race retaining the larval 
 stage appears to be that the country is very arid, and unfit for amphibian 
 life. Consequently the axolotls remain permanently in the large lake by 
 which the city of Mexico is surrounded. In this larval condition they have 
 a long compressed tail, with a crest above and below, which is continued as 
 a ridge on the back ; and on the sides of the neck are abundant bushy 
 external gills. The limbs are rather small, and the general hue of the skin 
 is mottled olive. On the other hand, the adult which is normally developed 
 in the United States is an ordinary-looking salamander, with a relatively 
 large head, good-sized limbs, and a sub-cylindrical tail ; the colour of the 
 skin being blackish or brown, with numerous yellow spots. As special 
 characteristics of the genus Ambiystoma, it may be mentioned that the teeth 
 on the palatines are arranged either in nearly a straight line or in an angle 
 without any wide gap in the middle, and that the tongue bears a series of 
 radiating pleats. Very closely allied is the genus ~Lingucelapsus. A specimen 
 of L. annulatus has been taken in Arkansas from a hot spring.' Of the other 
 30 
 
 Fig. 13. ADULT AXOLOTL 
 (Ambiystoma tigrinum). 
 
450 AMPHIBIA ORDER ILCAUDATA. 
 
 genera included in the sub-family now under consideration, Ranidens from 
 the north-eastern provinces of China and the east of Siberia, JSatrachyperus 
 from Tibet, and Dicamptodon from California, constitute a group character- 
 ised by the teeth on the palate forming a pair of arches, separated from one 
 another in the middle line, and with the convexity forwards. The second of 
 these genera differs from the other two in that the hind-feet are four-toed. 
 A third group is formed by the Japanese Onychodactylus, in which the palatal 
 teeth form a double arch, without any medium gap, while the claws are black. 
 In the last group, represented by the Japanese and Chinese Hynobius, and 
 Salamandrella of Eastern Siberia and Kamschatka, the palatal teeth converge 
 backwards in a somewhat V-shaped figure ; the first genus having five hind- 
 toes, and the second only four. 
 
 The other two sub-families are small. In the first, or Plethodontince, the 
 parasphenoid bone differs from that of the two preceding sub-families in 
 bearing teeth ; the vertebrae being of the same type as in the Amblystotnatince. 
 Of the genera included, Autodax (Anaides), Plethodon, and Batrachoseps form 
 a North American group characterised by the tongue being attached along 
 the medium line as far as its front margin ; the first genus having very few 
 teeth in the jaws, while in the second the hind- toes are five in number, and 
 in the third only four. The second group, which is likewise North American, 
 although its first genus ranges into Central America and the West Indies, 
 includes Spelerpes and Manculus, and differs from the last in that the tongue 
 is attached only by a pedicle from the middle of the lower surface, so that 
 all its edges are free. 
 
 The fourth and last sub-family, Desmognathince, is also North American, 
 and while agreeing with the third in having teeth on the parasphenoid, differs 
 in that the bodies of the vertebrae are cupped behind and convex in front. 
 In the typical genus Desmognathus the tongue is attached all along the middle 
 line, whereas in Ttiorius it has a central pedicle, and is thus mushroom-like. 
 Haptoglossa, from Costa Rica, is nearly allied to the latter, but differs in that 
 the tongue is adherent in front. Of more interest is the single species of 
 Typhlotriton, which inhabits a cave in Missouri, and is totally blind, the 
 rudimental eyes being buried beneath the continuous skin of the head. 
 
 Although very small, the second family of the tailed amphibians is note- 
 worthy on account of containing the largest members of the entire order. 
 Most of the few species are North American, but the giant 
 Family salamander is an inhabitant of Japan and China. In their 
 
 Amphiumidue. general structural characters the members of this family 
 agree with the Salamandridce, from which they are sharply 
 differentiated by the absence of eyelids. All of them have the bodies of the 
 vertebrae cupped at both ends, and in all the body is much elongated, and the 
 relatively small front and hind-limbs widely sundered from one another. 
 These features are clearly indicative of a closer relationship with fishes than 
 obtains in the case of the true salamanders and newts. The same affinities 
 are indicated by the aquatic habits of these creatures, and likewise by the 
 permanent retention of internal gills ; and, owing to the presence of the latter, 
 respiration can be effected without the necessity of coming to the surface, at any 
 rate for a considerable time. It is interesting to note that remains of a fossil 
 species belonging to the same genus as the giant salamander occur in the Ter- 
 tiary rocks of the Continent, from which it may be inferred that the family 
 has migrated westward. The giant salamander (Megalobatrachus maximus) 
 is a huge sluggish creature, frequently growing to as much as a yard in length. 
 
NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS. 451 
 
 and occasionally considerably more. With its flat, oval head, depressed body, 
 warty skin, short, splay-toed limbs, and highly compressed tail, its appearance 
 is by no means prepossessing, and when lying almost motionless in a tank of 
 slimy green water in the reptile-house in the London Zoological Gardens, the 
 attention it attracts from the general public is probably but slight. Never- 
 theless it is one of the most interesting of living animals, and our notions of 
 zoological affinities would be much less clear than they are had this salamander 
 arid its allies become extinct. Externally this salamander is distinguished 
 by having four toes in front and three behind, and likewise by the absence of 
 gill-openings on the sides of the neck. Internally it will be found that there 
 are two arches for the support of the gills on each side. If the mouth be 
 opened, it will be seen that its floor is completely covered by the closely 
 adherent tongue, and also that the teeth on the palate form a series running 
 parallel to those on the edge of the upper jaw, these teeth being situated on 
 the vomers. These salamanders, which, as already said, are common to Japan 
 and China, inhabit clear mountain streams, where they feed on such aquatic 
 creatures as they are able to 
 capture ; in captivity, at least, 
 they are known to be cannibals, 
 but this depraved taste was pro- 
 bably developed owing to lack 
 of a sufficiency of other food. 
 In autumn the female lays a 
 number of small eggs ; but the 
 early stages of development are 
 unknown, although it is pro- 
 bable that at first the young Fig 14 ._ GlANT SALAMANDER 
 tadpoles are provided with ex- (Megalabatrachus maximus). 
 ternal gills. The much smaller 
 
 Mississippi salamander, or hell-bender (Cryptolranchus lateralis), is dis- 
 tinguished by the retention of a gill-opening on one or both sides of the 
 neck, and the free front edge of the tongue, as well as by the presence of 
 four pairs of arches for the support of the internal gills. Less than twenty 
 inches seems to be the maximum size of this salamander. Geographically 
 the range of the species extends from the Mississippi basin and the streams 
 of the Louisianian district to North Carolina. 
 
 Very different in appearance and structure from "both the preceding is the 
 species representing the genus Ampkiuma, which has a somewhat more ex- 
 tended range than the hell-bender, since it is found in South Carolina. It is 
 an exceedingly elongated eel -like creature, with very minute limbs, of which 
 the front pair are situated close to the head, while the hinder ones are placed 
 very far back at the commencement of the tail, which is much shorter than 
 the body. It is a rather curious circumstance that whereas in some examples 
 each foot is furnished with three toes, in others the number is reduced to 
 two ; but in organs which are either about to disappear, or are in the course 
 of development, similar variations are by no means of unfrequent occurrence. 
 In the nature of its food this creature is very similar to the Mississippi 
 salamander ; but whereas the latter occasionally leaves the water for a stroll 
 on the bank, it does not appear that the former ever quits its native 
 element. The female Amphmma deposits a string of eggs resembling a 
 rosary, round which she" subsequently coils herself, after arranging the string 
 in a mass. 
 
452 AMPHIBIA ORDER II. C A UDA TA. 
 
 According to the system of classification now favoured by zoologists, the 
 
 tailed amphibians constitute a series regularly descending in their grade of 
 
 organisation ; and with the present family we reach a group 
 
 Family in which the external gills of the young are permanently 
 
 Proteidce. retained, while there are two pairs of rudimental limbs. An 
 
 additional peculiarity is to be found in the absence of the 
 
 maxilla in the scull. As in the preceding family, the bodies of the vertebrae 
 
 .have cupped terminal faces, and eyelids are wanting. The typical member 
 
 of the family is the famous olm (Proteus) from the subterranean waters 
 
 of Carniola, Carinthia, and Dalmatia. No better description of this creature 
 
 is extant than one by Sir Humphry Davy, which runs as follows: "At 
 
 first sight you might suppose this 
 creature to be a lizard, but it has the 
 motions of a fish. Its head and the 
 lower part of its body and its tail 
 bear a strong resemblance to those 
 of an eel ; but it has no fins ; and its 
 curious bronchial organs are not like 
 the gills of fishes ; they form a 
 singular vascular structure, almost 
 like a crest round the throat, which 
 may be removed without occasioning 
 Fig. 15. OLM (Proteus anguineus). the death of the animal, which is like- 
 
 wise furnished with lungs. With 
 
 this double apparatus for supplying air to the blood, it can live either below 
 or above the surface of the water. Its fore-feet resemble hands, but they 
 have only three claws or fingers, and are too feeble to be of use in grasping 
 or supporting the weight of the animal. The hinder feet have only two 
 claws or toes, and in the larger specimens are found so imperfect as to be 
 almost obliterated. It has small points in place of eyes, as if to preserve the 
 analogy of nature. It is of a fleshy whiteness and transparency in its natural 
 state, but when exposed to light, its skin gradually becomes darker, and at 
 last gains an olive tint. Its nasal organs appear large ; and it is abundantly 
 furnished with teeth, from which it may be concluded that it is an animal of 
 prey ; yet in its confined state it has never been known to eat, and it has 
 been kept alive for many years by occasionally changing the water in which 
 it was kept." From the olm the North American genus Necturus is at 
 once distinguished by the possession of well-developed eyes, and likewise by 
 the presence of four toes to each foot. In form, too, it is more lizard-like, 
 the body lacking the eel-like elongation characteristic of the olm, while the 
 limbs are less rudimental. There are two species of the genus, one of which 
 is not uncommon in the rice-fields of the Southern United States. Although 
 both breathe almost entirely by means of their plume-like external gills, it 
 is stated that they will occasionally venture on land, when the lungs of 
 course become the respiratory organs. In sinking a well recently in Texas, a 
 third generic representative of the family was discovered at a depth of 180 
 feet in a subterranean stream. This form is related both to Proteus and 
 Necturus, and has been named Typhlomolge rathbuni. It is characterised by 
 the great length and slenderness of its limbs, and the broad, flattened, and 
 squared muzzle. 
 
 The last family of the tailed amphibians is confined to North America, 
 where it is represented by Siren lacertina of the South-Eastern United 
 
C&CILIANS. 
 
 453 
 
 States and Pseudobranchus striatus of Georgia. Both these lowly creatures 
 have long eel-like bodies, external gills, and a small pair of front legs. The 
 
 hind - legs are, 
 however, total- 
 ly wanting, and 
 
 Fig. 16. TWO-LEGGED SALAMANDER (Siren lacertina). 
 
 Family 
 Sirenidce. 
 there are no 
 teeth in the margins of the jaws. 
 In the species first named- 
 which may measure nearly 
 twenty inches in length there 
 are three pairs of gill-openings 
 on the sides of the neck, and 
 each of the fore-feet is fur- 
 nished with four toes. From 
 this genus Pseudobranchus is dis- 
 tinguished by the presence of 
 only a single pair of gill-aper- 
 tures, and the reduction of the 
 front toes to three. These sala- 
 manders frequent damp situa- 
 
 tions and pools, and occasionally ascend the aerial roots or stems of trees. 
 They are carnivorous in their habits, and are able to breathe either by their 
 gills or their lungs. During the colder months of the year they hibernate. 
 
 ORDER III. APODA. 
 
 dECILIANS. 
 
 THE third and last order of Amphibia is represented by the blind, burrow- 
 ing creatures commonly known as caecilians. In appearance they are so 
 worm-like that by the non-scientific observer they might readily be mistaken 
 for Invertebrates. In the adult state they show no trace of limbs ; but bud- 
 like remnants of hind-legs have been detected in the embryos of Ichthyophis 
 ylutinosus. This clearly shows that they are a degraded form, but whether 
 they are descended as has been considered the case from the tailed 
 amphibians may, perhaps, be doubtful, seeing that they differ from that 
 group in an important feature connected with their reproduction. They 
 have either a rudimental tail or none at all, and they are further character- 
 ised by certain structural peculiarities in the osteology of the skull. The 
 eyes are generally deeply buried beneath the skin, or placed beneath the 
 bones of the skull, and in certain members of the group overlapping scales 
 are concealed deep down in the skin. The head is provided with a tentacle, 
 which may be capable of protrusion and retraction. Csecilians present a very 
 remarkable geographical distribution, being restricted to South and Central 
 America (with the West Indies), Africa south of the Sahara, the Seychelles, 
 and the Oriental countries. Their absence from Madagascar, coupled with 
 their existence in the Seychelles, is a very noteworthy circumstance, and 
 seems to indicate a connection between those islands and either Africa or 
 India after Madagascar was insulated. The adults burrow in moist earth, 
 
454 
 
 AMPHIBIA ORDER III. APOD A. 
 
 like worms, where they lay large eggs, from which, in due course, are de- 
 veloped tadpoles furnished, at least before birth, with gills. Soon after 
 hatching, the tadpoles take to the water, where they appear to remain until 
 they assume the adult condition. 
 
 All the members of the order are so similar in structure that they are 
 
 included in a single family group. The first genus, IchthyopkiSj includes two 
 
 species, ranging from India to the Malayan Islands ; but 
 
 Family whereas one (I. ghitinosus) is also found in Ceylon, the 
 
 CcecihidcK. second (I. mottochrous) is unknown there. In these species 
 
 overlapping fish-like scales are embedded in the skin, the 
 
 eyes are distinguishable, the lower jaw is furnished with a double series of 
 
 teeth, and the tentacle, which is capable of protrusion, is situated near the 
 
 upper lip between the eye and the nostril. The first-named species grows to a 
 
 length of about fifteen inches, but has a diameter of only half an inch. Writing 
 
 of this species in Ceylon, the late 
 Sir J. Emerson Tennent wrote as 
 follows: "The rocky jungle, 
 bordering the higher cotfee estates, 
 provides a safe retreat for a very 
 singular animal, first introduced 
 to the notice of European natural- 
 ists by Linnaeus, who gave it the 
 name Ccecilia glutinosa, to indi- 
 cate two peculiarities manifest to 
 the ordinary observer, an appar- 
 ent defect of vision, from the eyes 
 being so small, and embedded as 
 to be scarcely distinguishable, and 
 the power of secreting from 
 minute pores in the skin a viscous 
 fluid, resembling that of snails, 
 eels, and some salamanders. Specimens are rare in Europe, owing to the 
 readiness with which it decomposes, breaking down into a flaky mass in the 
 spirits in which it is attempted to preserve it. The creature is about the 
 length and thickness of an ordinary round desk-ruler, a little flattened before 
 and rounded behind. It is brownish, with a pale stripe along either side. 
 The skin is furrowed into 350 circular folds, in which are embedded minute 
 scales. The head is tolerably distinct, with a double row of fine curved teeth 
 for seizing the insects and worms on which it is supposed to feed.'' More 
 recent observations especially those of Dr. Sarasin have largely increased 
 our knowledge of the mode of life of these strange and interesting creatures, 
 which are generally found in soft mud. As already mentioned, rudiments of 
 hind-limbs have been detected in the embryos. The large globular eggs are 
 laid in a burrow near water, and are brooded by the female, who coils her 
 body round the mass. The tadpoles are not hatched until after the loss of their 
 external gills, and when they take to the water they breathe through a pair 
 of gill-openings on the sides of the neck. These tadpoles have a very fish- 
 like head, in which the eyes are much more distinct than in the adult, while 
 they have also a well-defined and highly- com pressed tail, furnished below and 
 above with a fin, after the manner of a frog's tadpole. A nearly-allied Ori- 
 ental genus is Epicrimops, with a single species. From Ichthyophis the 
 genus Urceotyphlus is readily distinguished by the tentacle being situated 
 
 Fig. 17. A C^CILIAN BROODING ITS EGGS 
 (Ichthyophis glutinosus). 
 
C^CILIANS. 455 
 
 below the nostril. The genus is represented by two species from Southern 
 India, a West African form which has been referred to it having been shown to 
 belong to Geotrypetes. In the foregoing genera the tentacle has a conical 
 form, but in the typical genus Ccecilia, which is confined to Tropical South 
 America, it becomes flap-like, with a horse-shoe shaped groove at the base, its 
 situation being below the nostril. On the other hand, in the nearly-allied 
 Hypogeophis, the same organ is placed below the nostril. This genus is 
 specially interesting on account of its geographical distribution, having two 
 species from Africa, and two from the Seychelles. A West African species 
 formerly included in the same genus is now distinguished as Geotrypetes 
 petersi. Still more remarkable is the distribution of the genus Dermophis, 
 which has several species from Tropical America, one from West Africa, and 
 another from the eastern side of the latter continent. From the preceding 
 kinds this genus is distinguished by the globular form of the tentacle, which 
 is surrounded by :* circular groove, and situated below and in front of the 
 eye. 
 
 In addition to the presence of scales in the skin, all the preceding genera 
 are characterised by the eyes being either distinct or buried only in the skin. 
 From these, Gymnopis and Herpele differ in that the same organs have sunk 
 so deep as to be actually beneath the bones of the skull. In the former 
 genus, which is confined to Tropical America, the globular tentacle is sur- 
 rounded by a circular groove, and placed close to the muzzle, whereas in the 
 latter which is West African it is nearer the nostril. 
 
 In the remaining genera of the family, the skin is devoid of scales. Of 
 these, GegenopJiis, as represented by a single Indian species, is remarkable 
 on account of its extremely restricted range, being apparently recorded only 
 from the Peria peak, in the Wynad district, at an elevation of about five 
 thousand feet. Even there it is stated to be of rare occurrence. Unlike most 
 of its kind, it lives under stones. As a genus, this csecilian is characterised 
 by the eyes being beneath the bones of the skull, and by the tentacle being 
 globular, and surrounded by a circular groove. From this genus, Siphonops, 
 with three species inhabiting Tropical South America, differs by the distinct 
 eyes, and the flap-like tentacle, which has a horse-shoe shaped groove at the 
 base, and is placed much nearer to the eye than to the nostril. The allied 
 genus Typhlonectes, from the same regions, may be distinguished by the ten- 
 tacle, which is of similar shape, being nearer to the nostril than to the eye, as 
 also by the compression of the hinder end of the body. Lastly, we have the 
 South American Chthonerpetum, which differs from all the other scaleless 
 forms in the arrangement of some of the bones of the skull. It has a flap- 
 like tentacle, situated mid- way between the eye and the nostril. One species 
 of this genus is found in the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres, and is thus 
 more southern than any other American member of the family. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM I. VERTEBRATA. 
 CLASS V. PISCES. 
 
 BY R. LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R.S., Y.P.G.S., &c. 
 
 IN the preceding section it has been shown that the tadpoles of the Amphibia 
 make a very close approximation in structure and to a certain extent also in 
 form to fishes. The resemblance, however, stops suddenly short in regard 
 to the structure of the limbs. In all amphibians the limbs resemble those 
 of the higher vertebrates in being composed of a definite number of segments, 
 and terminating in distinct digits, which are normally five in number. On 
 the other hand, although in fishes there are distinct segments in the upper 
 portion of the limbs, these do not correspond exactly with those of the higher 
 animals, and there are 110 structures corresponding with fingers and toes. 
 The limbs are, in fact, fins, and terminate either in a fringe of rays, or, more 
 rarely, in a jointed cartilaginous rod, bordered on one or both sides with a 
 smaller number of somewhat similar rays. In some fishes, it is true, limbs 
 are wanting ; but then this is also the case among the higher vertebrates, 
 and does not impair the classificatory value of these appendages. Another 
 important distinction from amphibians is to be found in the circumstance that 
 the median fins' of fishes which are always present in some form or other have 
 rays similar to those of the paired fins. Accordingly, in a popular way, fishes 
 may be defined as aquatic, cold-blooded, back-boned animals, breathing the 
 air in water by gills (sometimes supplemented by lungs), and furnished with 
 paired nostrils, paired and median fins, the former of which (when present) 
 differ essentially from the limbs of higher animals. This definition will 
 suffice to distinguish the class Pisces from all the preceding classes, but as it 
 fails to differentiate the group from the lampreys (now regarded as a class 
 apart), it must be added that all Pisces have a functional lower jaw. 
 
 Whether the earliest ancestors of fishes were as purely aquatic in their 
 habits as their descendants is a question somewhat difficult to answer, although 
 the reply should probably be in the affirmative. Anyway, it is certain that 
 we have at present no indications of a direct transition between fishes and 
 the classes immediately above and immediately below them, so that they 
 stand out as one of the best defined of all groups ; and there is very consider- 
 able uncertainty whether the paired fins of fishes can be regarded as the 
 ancestral type from which the limbs of higher animals were evolved. In 
 spite of certain minor variations as exemplified by the difference in shape 
 between an eel and a flat fish all the members of the class are characterised 
 by the adaptation of their bodily form to an aquatic life, a feature in which 
 they resemble whales and porpoises among mammals. As is well observed 
 by Dr. Bashford Dean, this adaptation to aquatic existence " has stamped 
 them in a common mould, and has prescribed the laws which direct and limit 
 
 45 6 
 
PISCES. 457 
 
 their evolution ; it has compressed their head, trunk, and tail into a spindle- 
 like form ; it has given them an easy and rapid motion, enabling them to 
 cleave the water like a rounded wedge. It has made their mode of movement 
 one of undulation, causing the sides of the fish to contract rhythmically, 
 thrusting the animal forward." Very beautiful indeed are the lines of a 
 typical swift-swimming fish, such as the common mackerel ; and in a front 
 view the sectional outline will be found to form a perfect ellipse, from which 
 project the fins as thin vertical or oblique ridges. 
 
 Interesting and important as is the structure of fishes in general, our 
 remarks onthis subject must be the briefest. Here it is important to 
 mention that the ordinary bony fish of the present day, such as a mackerel 
 or a roach, are very specialised forms, and afford but little idea of the general 
 or primitive structural type of the class, a shark or a lung-fish being far pre- 
 ferable in this respect. Among the special organs of many, although by no 
 means all fishes, is the air-bladder, which has the power of altering the 
 specific gravity of the body to accord with that of the surrounding water. 
 Frequently this bladder is connected by means of a duct with the ossophagus, 
 and in the lung-fishes it assumes the characters of a lung. Of the external 
 coverings of fishes, the most characteristic are the scales, although these are 
 wanting in some groups and in certain members of others. The ordinary 
 over-lapping scales are classified as cycloid or ctenoid, according as to whether 
 the free margin is entire or pectinate. When they are coated with a highly 
 polished enamel-like structure, and at the same time are more or less 
 icctangular in form, they are termed ganoid. The lateral line found on the 
 sides of many fishes is formed of scales, modified partly for the purpose of 
 supplying mucus. The terminal portions of the fins namely, the fin-rays 
 are likewise structures formed in the skin ; and these rays are articulated 
 below with the interspinal bones in the bony fishes, and with the radial 
 cartilages in the sharks and rays. The paired fins comprise the pectoral and 
 pelvic ; and the median or unpaired, the dorsal, caudal, and anal. When 
 the pelvic pair are situated in advance of the pectorals, they are said to be 
 jugular in position ; when in the same line, thoracic ; and when far back, 
 abdominal. Of the internal structure of the paired fins, such observations as 
 are necessary may be deferred till the different groups are treated of ; but it 
 may be mentioned that when the rays of the caudal fin surround the hinder 
 extremity of the back-bone symmetrically, the tail-fin is said to be diphycercal. 
 When, on the other hand, the upper lobe is greatly developed at the expense 
 of the lower, while the rays are unsymmetrically, as in the sharks, it is termed 
 heterocercal. More specialised than either of the foregoing is the so-called 
 homocercal or completely forked tail, in which, although the back-bone 
 terminates in an abbreviated unsymmetrical manner, the arrangement of the 
 rays is symmetrical. Whereas in some fishes the notochord persists in its 
 original form, in others it is partially surrounded by rudimental vertebral 
 arches, and in the higher forms is completely replaced by bony vertebrae. 
 Much the same may be said with regard to the primitive cartilaginous skull, 
 which is retained in its original form in the sharks, but is completely bony in 
 the higher fishes, in which, in addition to bones developed from cartilage, a 
 number of investing so-called dermal bones likewise arise. Dermal bones, 
 too, are developed in the pectoral girdle of the latter group. Very important 
 in the skull of the bony fishes is the gill-cover or operculum, which when 
 fully developed comprises the bones respectively known as the pre-, sub-, 
 and interopercular, and the opercular proper. The gill-membrane aids the 
 
458 PISCES. 
 
 operculum in closing the gill-cavity in the higher fishes, and in this may be 
 developed the so-called branchiostegal rays. In the membrane joining the 
 two branches of the lower jaw may be certain large jugular plates. The 
 teeth of fishes need not engage our attention further than to notice that they 
 may be developed not only in the jaws and on the bones of the palate, but 
 likewise also on the tongue and the pharyngeal bones of the throat. The soft 
 internal parts must likewise be passed over almost without notice, although 
 it may be mentioned that whereas the heart generally comprises only two 
 chambers, in the lung- fishes it is furnished with three. The false gills, or 
 remnants of a former gill situated in front of the permanent pair, and re- 
 presented in the adult by a plexus of blood-vessels, are likewise too important 
 not to be named. Then, again, there are the spiracles of the sharks, which 
 are situated on the head, and are the openings of canals leading into the 
 pharynx, and representing the first visceral clefts of the embryo. It is like- 
 wise important to notice that certain fishes, such as the bichir of the Nile 
 and some of the lung-fishes, develop during the earlier stages of their existence 
 pectinate external gills, and thus serve to connect the class with the larval 
 forms of the Amphibia. As regards reproduction, it must suffice to say that 
 whereas most fishes lay eggs it may be of very small size, when they are 
 collectively known as roe, or comparatively large in certain kinds these 
 are retained within the body of the parent till hatched. The interesting 
 subject of distribution both in depth and in horizontal extent must be 
 passed over without mention. 
 
 Excluding lampreys and lancelets, which are here assigned to distinct 
 classes, very different views have been entertained even by modern systematists 
 as to the proper classification of fishes. By Dr. Giinther the following scheme 
 for the existing forms was followed: even as late as 1880, viz. : 
 
 Sub-class I. PAL^ICHTHYES. 
 
 Order i. CHONDROPTERYGII. 
 
 Section 1. Plagiostomata. Sharks and Rays. 
 
 ,, 2. Holocephala. Chimseroids. 
 Order ii. GANOIDEI. 
 
 Section 1. Dipnoi. Lung-fishes. 
 ,, 2. Chondrostei. -Sturgeons. 
 ,, 3. Polypteroidei. Bichir. 
 ,, 4. Lepidosteoidei. Bony Pike, 
 5. Amioidei. Bow-fin, 
 Sub-class II. TELEOSTEI. Bony Fishes. 
 Order i. ACANTHOPTERYGII. 
 
 ii. ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNGOGNATHI. 
 ,, iii. ANACANTHINI. 
 ,, iv. PHYSOSTOMI. 
 
 ,, V. LOPHOBRANCHII. 
 
 ,, vi. PLECTOGNATHI. 
 
 The defects in this classification, are the wide separation of the Ganoidei 
 from the Teleostei, which, through the intervention of extinct forms, pass 
 completely into one another, and the association of the Chimseroids with the 
 Sharks and Rays to form a single subordinal group. 
 
 A far better scheme is the one just published by Dr. Bashford Dean, which 
 is as follows : 
 
LUNG-FISHES. 459 
 
 Sub-class I, ELASMOBRANCHII. Sharks and Rays. 
 ,, II. HOLOCEPHALI. Chimseroids. 
 ,, III. DIPNOI. Lung-fishes. 
 IV. TELEOSTOMI. Ganoids and Bony Fishes. 
 Order i. CROSSOPTERYGII. Fringe-filmed Group. 
 ,, ii. ACTINOPTERYGII. Fan-fiimed Group. 
 Section 1. Chondrostei. Ganoids. 
 2. Teleocephali. Bony Fishes. 
 
 Even this system has, however, certain disadvantages, and the following 
 arrangement appears preferable. This is as follows, viz. : 
 
 Sub-class I. DIPNOI. Lung-fishes. 
 
 ,, II. HOLOCEPHALI. Chimseroids. 
 ,, III. TELEOSTOMI. Bony Fishes and Ganoids. 
 Order i. ACTINOPTERYGII. Fan-finned Group. 
 
 ii. CROSSOPTERYGII. Fringe-finned Group. 
 Sub- class IV. EXASMOBRANCHII. Sharks and Rays. 
 
 With these preliminary remarks, we may proceed to a brief systematic 
 review of the various groups of the class. It must, however, be remembered 
 that the number of existing fishes is so vast that it is quite impossible to 
 notice even all the family types, while of the genera only a small percentage 
 are selected for mention. It must also be born in mind that the true relation- 
 ships of the sub-classes cannot be properly grasped unless the fossil forms 
 are also studied. 
 
 SUB-CLASS I. DIPNOI. 
 LUNG-FISHES. 
 
 LIKE the next, the present group is now represented by a very small 
 number of species, and as it was abundant in earlier epochs, it is evidently 
 one that is on the wane. Whereas in many respects the lung-fishes approxi- 
 mate to the amphibians, in others they show affinity to the earlier sharks ; 
 and it has been suggested that they ought to form a class intermediate 
 between Amphibia and Pisces. Regarding them, however, merely as a sub- 
 class of the latter, they agree with the Chimseroids in the essential feature 
 that there is no movable separate suspending arrangement for the lower jaw ; 
 and from this peculiarity the name of Autostylica has been suggested for the 
 two sub-classes in question. In the existing members of the group, which 
 form the order Sirenoidei, the body is thick and spindle-shaped, its covering 
 consisting of large overlapping horn-like scales, and the tail forming a diphy- 
 cercal fin. In form, the head approximates to that of amphibians, as it does in 
 its slimy integument. The paired fins are of the fringed type, their skeleton 
 consisting typically of a jointed cartilaginous rod, fringed on both sides with 
 divergent rays. In the skull the original cartilaginous cranium is roofed ove'r 
 with dermal membrane-bones, and the nostrils have posterior apertures 
 opening into the back of the mouth to form true posterior nostrils, the latter 
 
4 6o 
 
 PISCES SUB-CLASS I. DIPNOI. 
 
 Fig. 1. AUSTRALIAN LUNG-FISH. 
 
 feature distinguishing these fishes from all other members of the class. v The 
 small and compressed gills open externally by a single aperture which is pro- 
 tected by an operculum, from beneath which may protrude stunted and 
 
 rudimental external gills. The 
 nerves supplying the eyes, where 
 they cross one another, have an 
 interlacing of their fibres, and the 
 short digestive tract exhibits the 
 shark-like feature of a spiral valve 
 in the membrane of the intestine. 
 Not only is the elongated and 
 sacculated air-bladder provided with 
 a duct, but it acts in all respects as 
 a lung, with which indeed it is in 
 every sense comparable. The 
 backbone is mainly notochordal, 
 true vertebrae being developed only 
 in the caudal region. The denti- 
 tion is of a very peculiar type, and consists of a few very large and 
 strongly-ridged plates, most of which are paired, ajid divided by a distinct 
 median line. 
 
 Lung-fishes are now represented only by three species, belonging to as 
 many distinct gsnera, but all included in the single family Lfpidosiretddce. 
 Of these, the least specialised is the Australian lung-fish (Oerafowtttl which in 
 the form of its paired fins retains more of the primitive type than does either 
 of the other two. The scales are very large, and the paired fins are broad 
 and lobate, consisting of a central scaled portion bordered by a fringe. Mar- 
 ginal teeth are wanting in the jaws ; but the palate contains a pair of large 
 dental plates behind, and a couple of smaller chisel-like teeth in front, the 
 lower jaw having a single pair of large plates. Long before it was known to 
 science, the Australian lung-fish was familiar to the settlers on the banks of 
 the two great rivers of Queensland, on account of the excellent quality of its 
 salmon-coloured flesh ; whence the name of Burnett salmon commonly 
 applied to it. The fish, which grows to a couple of yards in length, lives 
 among mud and leaves, and rises at 
 
 times to the surface to breathe. _ 
 
 Its food consists of both vegetable 
 and animal substances ; and the 
 large eggs are deposited singly. In 
 the two remaining forms one of 
 which (Lepidosiren) inhabits the 
 rivers of Tropical South America, 
 and the other (Protopterus) those 
 of Africa the body is more eel- 
 like, the limbs are reduced to whip- 
 like filaments, and the anterior teeth 
 are situated in bhe margins of the 
 jaws. In many parts of the country 
 the African lung-fish during the 
 dry season envelops itself in a kind 
 
 of shell or cocoon of mud, and in this state it can be dug up and exported, 
 reviving when placed in warm water. Dr. Dean observes that " lung-fishes 
 
 Fig. 2. AFIUCAN LUNG-FISH. 
 
CHIM^ROIDS. 461 
 
 have unquestionably many structures which may have been derived from the 
 more generalised conditions of the sharks ; and as a group they may not un- 
 reasonably be looked upon as descended from the primitive elasmobranchian 
 stem." 
 
 SUB-CLASS II. HOLOCEPHALI. 
 
 CHIIVLEROIDS. 
 
 THE group typically represented by the spook-fish or chimsera is, as already 
 mentioned, now a small and waning one, which agrees with the last in the 
 structure of the skull. In spite of their many marked resemblances to the 
 sharks, the writer last, quoted is of opinion that they cannot be closely associ- 
 ated with that group. This external resemblance to the Elasmobranchii, 
 coupled with the total absence of membrane-bones from the cartilaginous 
 skull, at once serves to differentiate the chimaeras from the lung-fishes ; from 
 which they also differ by the absence of true posterior nostrils, although there 
 are nasal passages. Further differences are to be found in the form and 
 'structure of the paired fins, and the absence of an air-bladder. The optic 
 nerves and intestine are similar to those of the lung-fishes and sharks ; and 
 the accessory reproductive organs of the males, known as claspers, are found 
 elsewhere only in the latter group. Unlike the lung-fishes, the skin is gener- 
 ally naked, and when (as in the young) hard structures are developed therein, 
 these agree with teeth, whereas such plates as are found in the lung-fishes 
 are bony. Although the paired fins are not very unlike those of modern 
 sharks, consisting of an abbreviated base and numerous rays arranged in a 
 fan -like manner, their dermal margins are very large, and terminate in a 
 sharp point. A large spine 
 protects the front of the first 
 dorsal fin, which is capable 
 of being folded so as to lie 
 in a groove in the back. 
 The gill-arches aro closely 
 packed, and open by one 
 aperture on each side, which 
 is slit-like, and protected 
 with a dermal fold contain- 
 ing an operculum of carti- 
 lage. The teeth are in the 
 form of large plates closely Fig. 3. COMMON CHIMERA. 
 
 affixed to the jaws, and are 
 
 thickly studded with roughened grinding facets termed tritors. In the car- 
 tilaginous skeleton the axis of the back-bone remains notochordal, its sheath 
 lacking distinct vertebrae, but being strengthened in the fore-part of the 
 column by rings of cartilage. A lateral line is present on the sides of the 
 body, and the tail gradually tapers away, to terminate in a diphycercal fin. 
 Like sharks, chimseroids deposit large eggs, which are completely separate 
 from one another. 
 
 Existing chimseroids are classed under three genera, all included in the 
 family Chimaridce. The first of these is Harriott^ which comprises two deep 
 
462 PISCES SUB, CLASS IILTELEOSTOMI. 
 
 sea forms, one from the Atlantic and the other from Japanese waters. It 
 appears to be the most shark-like type, and is characterised by the long 
 slender beak, and the absence of an. appendage on the forehead of the males. 
 From the small size of the claspers in the same sex, it has been inferred that 
 the eggs are fertilised after extrusion. ; The second genus, Callorhynchus, 
 is represented by the bottle-nosed chimsera of the Southern Seas, and, to- 
 gether with the next, has an erectile spine on the forehead of the males. In 
 form it is very shark-like, with the tail inclined upwards and_vwithout a fin on 
 its upper surface ; the muzzle being of moderate length, with a cartilaginous 
 prominence terminating in a flap of skin. Chimcera, of which there are three 
 species, is less shark-like than the other two, with the extremely abbreviate 
 muzzle devoid of any appendage, arid the whip-like tail "forming a continua- 
 tion of the longitudinal axis of the body, and finned, for some distance both 
 above and below. These fishes appear to be rare and local, and are gener- 
 ally taken in fairly deep water. Little is known of their life-history, but 
 immature examples have been captured at great depths. Although some 
 writers have considered the chimseroids as degenerate types allied to the 
 Dipnoi, Dr. Bashford Dean is of opinion that they .are more nearly related to 
 the primitive sharks. If this should prove to be well founded, the autostylic 
 type of skull must have been independently acquired in the Dipnoi and 
 Holocephali, and cannot, consequently, be of much classificatory value. 
 
 SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOMI. 
 BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 
 
 THE passage between the modern bony fishes and the ancient ganoids having 
 been discovered to be complete, there is no possibility of assigning these 
 two nominal groups to distinct sub-classes, or even orders, and, accordingly, 
 all the fishes which come under the designation either of Dipnoi, Holo- 
 cephali, or Elasmobranchii, are now classed as Teleostomi. Indeed, the 
 terms bony fishes and ganoids, as Dr. Bashford Dean well remarks, can only 
 be used, jn a popular and convenient sense the latter to denote the old- 
 fashioned, type, with its rectangular ganoid scales and cartilaginous internal 
 skeleton,- and the former to designate the modern type, with its rounded 
 horny scales and fully calcified skeleton. The group is a very vast one, 
 including by far the great majority of existing forms, and a host of extinct 
 ones ; and the range of variation is so great that a concise definition is by no 
 means easy. All the members of the sub-class are, however^ broadly distin- 
 guished both from Dipnoi and Holocephali by the existence in the skull of a 
 movable apparatus for the suspension of the lower jaw, this type of skull 
 structure being known as the hyostylic. In the internal skeleton, calcification 
 exists to a greater or lesser degree, and membrane-bones are always present on 
 the jaws. Moreover, the membrane-bones of the pectoral girdle, like the 
 scapula and the various clavicular bones, form a chain connected with the 
 posterior region of the skull. Very important is the close crowding of the 
 gill-arches, and their complete protection by a fully-developed operculum. 
 The external skeleton, when present, consists either of rounded horn-like 
 scales, or of quadrangular bony plates. All the living forms deposit a vast 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 463 
 
 number of minute eggs, crowded together into a mass. Whereas in the 
 higher types the optic nerves simply cross one another, and there is no spiral 
 valve to the intestine, in the ganoids the latter is present, and the fibres of 
 the optic nerves interlace where they meet, to form what is known as a 
 chiasma by the complete fusion of the two nerves. Very generally an air- 
 bladder is present, and the less specialised bony fishes and all the ganoids 
 are provided with a duct to the gullet. In the higher types the rays of the 
 fins are entirely of dermal origin, their cartilaginous supports being abbre- 
 viated and enclosed within the body. In addition to the features already 
 noticed, the ganoids have a larger number of gill-arches, a spiracle, an 
 arterial cone furnished with many valves to the heart, a cellular air-bladder, 
 and several shark-like features in other organs. 
 
 ORDER I. ACTINOPTERYGII. 
 
 SUB-ORDER I. ACANTHOPTERYGII. 
 
 The first great order of the sub-class includes what may be termed the 
 Fan-finned Teleostomes, in which the fins are entirely supported by dermal 
 rays, the primitive cartilaginous supports being greatly reduced and enclosed 
 in the body-wall. A single paired series of transversely elongated rays to 
 which an unpaired anterior element .may be added are developed in the 
 branchiostegal membrane between the two branches of the lower jaw. The 
 caudal fin is variable. The spiny-finned fishes, forming the sub-order Acan- 
 thopterygii, together with the six following sub-orders, 1 are collectively dis- 
 tinguished by the supporting bony elements of the dorsal and anal fins being 
 equal in number to the dermal rays, and by the tail being generally of the 
 homocercal or abbreviate-heterocercal type although occasionally diphy- 
 cercal. In the Acanthopterygii and four following sub-orders the skeleton is 
 fully ossified, the optic nerves simply cross, and there is no spiral valve to 
 the intestine. In common with the three following sub-orders, they have 
 generally no duct to the air-bladder, the two parietal bones of the skull 
 separated by the supra-occipital, and the pelvic fins usually jugular or 
 thoracic. The chief distinction of the Actinopterygii themselves is that usu- 
 ally some of the rays of the dorsal and anal fins are not articulated, and form 
 spines. 
 
 In this section the lower pharyngeal bones are generally distinct, and the 
 scales ctenoid ; while the preopercular bone is not connected by a bony stay 
 with the orbit, the spinous dorsal is large, and the pelvic fins 
 are thoracic, and usually furnished with five branched rays, Section 1. Perci- 
 although sometimes with only four. Certain other features formes. Family 
 connected with the skeleton are too complex to be noticed Centrarchidf. 
 here. The Centrarchidce form a comparatively small family, 
 containing ten genera, and typified by the single species of Centrarchus, from 
 the fresh waters of the United States ; one of their distinctive characters 
 being the presence of three or more spines in the anal fin. In habits these 
 fishes are carnivorous ; and many of them resemble the stickle-backs in 
 building nests. 
 
 lr The following are the sub-orders of the Actinopterygii -viz., (1) Acanthopterygii, (2) Lopho- 
 branchii, (3) Plectognathi, (4) Anacanthini, (5) Physostomi, (6) Jitheospoudyli. (7) Protospcndyli, 
 (8) Chondrostei. 
 
464 PISCES SUB-CLASS III.TELEOSTOMI. 
 
 Of far more general interest are the twelve genera constituting the family 
 
 Percidce, in all of which there are never more than two spines in the anal 
 
 tin, while there are two pairs of external nostrils. Like their 
 
 Family nearest allies, the perches generally have a complete lateral 
 
 Percidce. line, no scales on the median fins or barbels to the mouth, 
 
 and the teeth conical. Six to eight pairs of branchiostegal 
 
 rays are present, as well as four pairs of gills, the last of which is followed by 
 
 a slit ; and the rayed portion of the dorsal fin does not much exceed the anal 
 
 in length. Although Lucioperca (Stizo- 
 stedion) and Percarina enter salt water, 
 the family is essentially a fresh-water 
 type, its members being spread over 
 North America, Western Asia, and 
 Europe. Among the generic types of 
 the family are the true perches (Perca), 
 with a distribution equivalent to that 
 of the family ; the aforesaid Lucio- 
 perca, or pike-perches, with a similar 
 
 Fig. 4. COMMON PERCH. range ; the three small species of the 
 
 Danubian genus Aspro ; Percarina, with 
 
 two species from the neighbourhood of the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea ; 
 and the ruffes (Acerina), of which the three representatives are restricted to 
 Europe and Asia. 
 
 Nearly allied to the last is the family of Serranida, or sea-perches, dis- 
 tinguished by the development of an internal lamina from the second sub- 
 orbital bone supporting the globe of the eye, the number of 
 Family spines in the anal fin being variable. In this extensive 
 
 Serranidce. family the genus Centrogenys is noteworthy, on account of 
 the union of the lower pharyngeal bones. It would be 
 tedious to mention the distinctive characters of even the commoner and best 
 known genera, and only a few will be referred to at all. As an example of 
 the group of the sub-family Serraninw, with two dorsal fins, we may take the 
 South American Percichthys, which is one of the few fresh-water types. In 
 this and four other allied genera the tongue is smooth, but in the bass, 
 Morone, which have likewise two dorsals, that organ is covered with patches 
 of teeth. Whereas some bass are marine, others are fresh- water in habitat. 
 They all have nine dorsal and (like the other members of the sub-family) 
 three anal spines. Among the group with a single dorsal fin, especial interest 
 attaches to the widely-spread sea-perches of the genus Serramts, on account 
 of the vast number of species and the large bodily size to which some of them 
 attain. Although the tongue is edentulous, teeth are developed on the 
 palate, and large tusks occur at intervals among the small teeth in the 
 margins of the jaws. Centropristes is an allied genus. In another group of 
 the same sub-family Mr. Boulenger includes the genera Plesiops and 
 Trachinops, which were formerly referred to the Nandidce. In these the 
 lateral line is double, consisting of an upper portion, which disappears pos- 
 teriorly, and a lower running along the middle of the side of the tail. 
 Whereas the first genus is from the coral-reefs of the Indo-Pacific, the second 
 is Australian, both being marine. To another sub-family Centropominai 
 distinguished by the extension of the lateral line on to the caudal fin, 
 belong the two species of Lutes, one of which is Nilotic, while the other 
 is Oriental and Australian. The Oriental species grows to a length of 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 465 
 
 five feet, and is probably as dangerous to bathers as are the larger kinds 
 of Serranus. 
 
 Among the most gorgeously coloured of all the class, are the tropical 
 chsetodonts or scaly-finned fishes, readily distinguished from the foregoing 
 families by the extension of the scaling on to the median 
 fins. All are deep-bodied fishes, with cycloid or ctenoid Family 
 
 scales, on which a continuous lateral line runs nearly to the Chcetodontidce. 1 
 caudal fin. Their mouth, which may be tubular, is armed 
 with bands of minute teeth. Of the fins, the pelvic are thoracic, with a 
 single spine and five rays ; three or five spines are found in the anal ; and 
 the spinous portion of the dorsal is shorter than the rayed part. Stripes or 
 spots are distinguishing features in the coloration of these fishes, which are 
 mostly inhabitants of coral-reefs, where they feed on such animals as they 
 can capture, although some ascend large tidal rivers. In the typical Chcetodon 
 the palate is devoid of teeth, the 
 dorsal fin is not deeply notched, and 
 has spines of nearly uniform length, 
 while the muzzle is short or moder- 
 ately produced. Some kinds have 
 the body ornamented by fine lines, 
 while others have on each side a large 
 eye-like spot. Chelmon merits notice, 
 on account of the elongation of the 
 muzzle into a tube, from which the 
 fish ejects a drop of water with such 
 force and accuracy of aim as to dis- 
 able any insect that may be resting 
 on the foliage near the shore, and 
 thus secure it for food. Both the species of shooting fish are Oriental, and 
 are found both in rivers and near the coast. Other well-known genera are 
 Heniochus and Holacanthus, the latter best known by the gorgeously coloured 
 emperor-fish of the African and Oriental seas. In this fish the body is 
 coloured a brilliant blue, ornamented with about thirty narrow gold stripes. 
 Even more resplendent is the Oriental zebra-fish, in which the ground-colour 
 of the body is yellow, marked with numerous vertical bands of blue margined 
 with brown. 
 
 That epicurean delicacy, the red mullet (Mullus barbatus), typifies a small 
 family distinguished from other Perciformes by the possession of a pair of 
 barbels on the lower jaw. In this family the number of 
 pairs of branchiostegal rays is only four ; and the somewhat Family 
 
 low body has large, thin, finely serrated scales, with a con- Mullidce. 
 tinuous lateral line. The dentition is weak. As regards the 
 fins, there are two dorsals, in the first of which the spines are thin, while 
 the second is placed above, and is similar to the anal, the pectorals being short, 
 and the pelvics being furnished with five rays and a single spine. Mullets 
 are comparatively small fish, of which the adults are marine. What appears 
 to be the male of the common red mullet is uniformly carmine-red above, 
 although the presumed female is marked by a few longitudinal yellow stripes. 
 Tropical forms have been assigned to distinct genera. To preserve the 
 brilliant red coloration, the fish should be scaled immediately after death. 
 
 1 Although the chaetodonts are included by Dr. Giinther in the Perciformes, it is not improbable 
 that they may be separated by Mr. Boulenger, when his Catalogue of Fishes is completed. For 
 the present they may remain here. 
 
 31 
 
466 PISCES SUB-CLASS III. TELEOSTOML 
 
 The numerous representatives of the sea- breams are perhaps Lest char- 
 acterised by the dentition, which takes the form either of cutting teeth in 
 the fore-part of the jaws, or of grinding teeth on the sides 
 Family Sparidce. of the same, the palate being in most cases edentulous. The 
 dorsal fin is single, with its spinous and rayed portions of 
 nearly equal longitudinal extent, and there are always three spines to the 
 anal. The pelvics, which are thoracic in position, include five rays and a 
 single spine, and although simple in one genus, in the other the rays of the 
 pectorals are branched. The scales may be either very slightly serrated or 
 simple, and the mouth is situated at the tip of the snout, with its cleft 
 lateral. In form, these fishes may be described as normal, while in colora- 
 tion they are dull. Although none grow to large dimensions, nearly all are 
 eaten. The coasts of the temperate and tropical zones are their favourite 
 resorts, but some kinds are found in brackish waters, while a few enter 
 rivers. They may be divided into several sub-families, of which the 
 Cantharmce are typified by the British species of Cantharus, locally known by 
 the name of old wife, but more generally as the black sea-bream. In this 
 sub -family, to which also pertain the Mediterranean Scatharus, and the 
 Oriental Tropterodon and Crenidens, there are no teeth on the vomers, but 
 the front of the jaws carries trenchant incisors, which in some cases are 
 lobed. On the other hand, in the Haplodactylince, there are teeth on the 
 vomers, and flat, generally tricuspidate teeth in the jaws, the single genus 
 Haplodactylus being the one with simple lower pectoral rays. Sargus, of 
 
 which there are about a score of 
 species from the Atlantic, Mediter- 
 ranean, and Oriental seas, repre- 
 sents by itself a third sub-family 
 (Sargince), characterised by the 
 presence of a single series of 
 incisors in the front of the jaws, 
 and of several rows of grinding 
 teeth, adapted for crushing, on the 
 sides. Whereas Haplodaclylus sub- 
 sists on a vegetable diet, the sargi 
 Fig. 6. COMMON SA.BQUS. lives by grinding up molluscs and 
 
 crustaceans. Another sub-family 
 
 (Pagrince) of shell -crushers is well known in the form of the gilt-heads 
 (Chrysophrys), which take their name from the gold spots on the forehead. 
 In this sub-family there are also grinding teeth in the sides of the jaws, but 
 the front teeth are conical. Other genera of this group are Lethrinus, 
 Sphcerodon, Pagellus, and Pagrus. 
 
 Still continuing the almost endless series of the Perciformes, we now come 
 to a small and unimportant family including only the genus Hoplognathus, 
 species of which have been discovered on the coasts of Japan, 
 Family Australia, and Peru. The most essential feature of the 
 HoplognathidcK. group is the sharp cutting edges of the jaws, to which 
 such teeth as are present are closely adherent, and 
 thereby render the margin slightly serrated. The first dorsal fin, al- 
 though low, has strong spines, and is separated only by a very short 
 interval from the taller soft dorsal, the latter being very similar to the 
 anal, above which it is situated. The three spines of the anal are very low. 
 More important are the genera constituting the family Cirrhitidce, these 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 467 
 
 being best recognised by the thickened an.d undivided lower rays of the 
 pectoral fins, which in soine cases appear to be modified into 
 organs of touch, and in others assist in locomotion. These Family 
 
 fishes have deep, compressed bodies, cycloidal scales, and Cirrhitidcu. 
 very generally six branchoistegal rays. The dorsal is single, 
 and divided into a spinous and rayed half ; and the pel vies, which are 
 separated by an interval from the pectorals, are thoracic, and provided with a 
 single spine and five rays, the anal being three-spined. The typical group 
 includes several genera of small and frequently spotted fishes from the Indo- 
 Pacific and Australasian seas, such as Cirrhitichthys, Cirrhites, and Chor- 
 inemus, in all of which there are teeth on the vomerine bones of the palate. 
 In the second group, on the other hand, there are no teeth on the vomers; and 
 among the genera are Latris, represented by two New Zealand and Tasmanian 
 species, one of which (the trumpeter-fish) is of large size, and affords excellent 
 food, and the more widely-spread Chilodactylus. The latter, which may be 
 easily recognised by the great elongation of one of the rays of the pectoral fins, 
 is likewise valuable as a food-supply, both in South Africa and at the Antipodes. 
 
 Although the Scorpcenidce are included in Dr. Giinther's classification 
 among the Perciformes, they differ from the foregoing families by the 
 presence of a bony stay connecting the preoperculum with 
 the ring of bones beneath the orbit. If the absence of such Section Scorpseni- 
 stay be taken as it is here as a distinctive feature of the formes. Family 
 Perciformes, the present family must typify a section by Scorpcenidce. 
 itself. There are many genera included in the family, which 
 ranges over nearly all oceans and seas. All the species are carnivorous, but 
 whereas some approximate in external form and their mode of life to the 
 Serranidce, others are deep-sea types, with the skin expanded into appendages 
 resembling sea- weeds. In some genera, such as Scorpcena and Sebastes, well- 
 developed scales are present ; this being also the case with the species of 
 Pterois from the warmer parts of the Indo-Pacific, all of which are charac- 
 terised by the height of the pectoral and dorsal fins. On the other hand, 
 there are other types, such as Choridactylus and Pelor of the* Indian seas, and 
 the so-called Micropus of the Pacific, in which the scales are rudimental or 
 wanting ; Choridactylus being one of those with leaf-like expansions to the 
 skin, while Micropus is notable on account of containing the smallest of all 
 the Acanthopterygians, certain kinds being considerably less than a couple of 
 inches in length. 
 
 Passing over without mention a few small and unimportant families, we 
 come to the group known technically as Benjchidce, and popularly as slime- 
 heads, which constitute not only a family, but likewise a 
 sectional group by themselves. The essential feature of Section Berychi- 
 these fishes is the presence in the head of slime-bearing, or formes. Family 
 muciferous cavities, which are protected by a skin of great Berychidce. 
 thickness. The body is compressed, and oblong or deep in 
 shape ; and the pelvic fins are thoracic, and almost always supported by five 
 rays and a single spine. Generally the body is covered with ctenoid scales, 
 although rarely there may be a naked skin; but there are never scales on the 
 head. Nearly all these fish have large goggle eyes ; and the obliquely cleft 
 mouth is armed with minute teeth, while the palate is nearly always toothed, 
 and the opercular bones are likewise armed. Except rarely, the number of 
 rays in the branch iostegal membrane is eight. All the Berychidce, are marine, 
 and nearly all live at considerable depths, although there are a couple of 
 
468 PISCES SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOML 
 
 genera namely Myripristis and Holocentrum most or all of whose members 
 are found near the surface. Like other deep-sea forms, these fish have a wide 
 distribution in species. Among the numerous genera, the single small 
 Japanese species of Monocentris is remarkable on account of the large size of 
 the vertically elongated scales, which form a kind of protective cuirass to the 
 body ; the opercular bones being unarmed. Anoplogaster of the Atlantic may be 
 cited as a genus with a naked skin; whereas in the allied Trachichthys there are 
 minute scales, from which the lateral line stands out in great prominence, both 
 having the eye very large. In this genus, too, as well as in the typical Beryx, 
 the dorsal fin is single, but in Holocentrum and certain other genera it is double. 
 The small family of the Curtidce likewise represents a section by itself, dis- 
 tinguished by the possession of only a single dorsal fin, which is much inferior 
 in length to the many-rayed and elongated anal, and like- 
 Section Curti- wise by the absence of the structure known as the supra- 
 formes. Family branchial organ. This family includes the Indian Curtis and 
 Curtidce. the Oriental and Tropical Pacific Pemperis. In both these 
 fishes the body is oblong, narrowing rapidly towards the tail; 
 and, if present at all, the spines of the dorsal fin are very few. The body is 
 covered with small or medium-sized scales ; and minute teeth are developed 
 both in the jaws and on the bones of the palate. 
 
 This section, also, includes only a single family, of which the three generic 
 
 representatives Polynemus Pentanemus and Gale.oides are easily recognised 
 
 by the presence of a number of long filaments arising from 
 
 Section below the pectoral fins. There are two somewhat short 
 
 Polynemiformes. dorsal fins, separated from one another by a considerable 
 
 Family interval ; and mucus-producing canals are well developed in 
 
 Polynemidce. the head. These fishes are well represented on tropical 
 
 coasts, and also enter estuaries and even fresh waters. They 
 
 generally prefer muddy water, where their exceedingly elongated pectoral 
 
 filaments doubtless act as efficient feelers. 
 
 The Mediterranean umbrine (Umbrina), the meagre (ScicziKi), and the 
 drum (Pogonias) of North America are three fairly well-known fishes, repre- 
 senting as many genera of the Scicenidce. As a section, the 
 Section Sciseni- group is distinguished by the great length of the soft dorsal 
 formes. Family fin, which exceeds to a greater or less extent both the spin- 
 ScicKnidce. ous dorsal and the anal in this respect. Whereas these 
 fishes resemble those of the last family in the development 
 of mucus canals in the head, they differ by the absence of elongated pectoral 
 filaments. In the skull there is no bony connection between the preoper- 
 
 cular bone and the orbit ; and 
 the pelvic fins are situated thor- 
 acically, and furnished with one 
 spine and five soft rays. Inform, 
 the body is somewhat elongate 
 and compressed, and the scales 
 are of the ctenoid type, with the 
 lateral line continuous, and often 
 extending on to the tail-fin. The 
 mouth is terminal, and armed 
 Fig. 7. THE MEAGRE. with bands of small teeth, among 
 
 which enlarged tusks may be in- 
 terspersed, but there are no teeth on the palate. The medium-sized eyes 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 469 
 
 are lateral in position. The members of the family are in the main fre- 
 quenters of the coasts of the Indian Ocean and the warmer parts of the 
 Atlantic, many of them resorting to the mouths of the larger rivers, and some 
 having taken to a completely fresh-water existence. The largest form is the 
 common meagre, which sometimes reaches a couple of yards in length. 
 Nearly all the species are fit for food; and the air-bladders of many are em- 
 ployed as a source of isinglass. The drum derives its name from the loud 
 sound the fish is capable of producing ; this sound being apparently due 
 to the striking together of the upper and lower pharyngeal bones, which 
 are heavily armed with flattened teeth. 
 
 Although there appears occasionally to be some confusion between sword- 
 fishes and the very different saw-fishes, there ought to be no difficulty in 
 distinguishing the former at a glance from any other fish 
 that swims. This distinctive feature is the production of the Section 
 
 upper jaw into the well-known " sword," which is wedge- XipMiformes. 
 shaped in form, and may exceed half the length of the rest Family 
 
 of the head and body. Spear would, perhaps, have been a Xiphiidee. 
 more suitable title for this formidable weapon, with which 
 its owner can transfix an unfortunate cod or tunny, or drive it home in the 
 side of a whale as easily as we can thrust a table-fork into a cheese. Not 
 only so, but sword-fishes have 
 
 often been known to drive -_ 
 
 their weapon deep into the 
 planking of a ship's bottom, 
 probably from having mis- 
 taken the vessel for a whale. 
 Bathers, too, are by no 
 means safe from the on- 
 slaughts of these ruthless Fig. 8. -COMMON SWORD-FISH. 
 monsters, which occasionally 
 
 grow to over a dozen feet in length. The kinds of sword-fishes are numer- 
 ous ; and they are divided into the two generic groups of Histiophorus and 
 XiphiaSj according to whether long and narrow pelvic fins are present or 
 absent. The dorsal fin, which may be either single or divided, has no dis- 
 tinct spinous portion ; it is always of considerable height, and in some cases 
 is so elevated as to project high above the water when the fish is swimming 
 near the surface, and there are stories current that it is occasionally used as 
 a sail. The skin of a sword-fish is either completely naked, or furnished with 
 minute rudimental scales. These fishes are chiefly surface-swimmers, and 
 are fond of lying in the sun to bask. According to Scoresby, the sword of 
 one of these fishes, found embedded in the hull of a ship at Liverpool, had 
 penetrated a sheet of copper, an oak plank two and a half inches in thickness, 
 a solid oak timber of seven and a half inches, and another plank of a couple 
 of inches. " The position of the bone was at the distance of four feet hori- 
 zontally from the stern, and two feet below the surface of the water when 
 the vessel was afloat. Hence it appeared that when the ship had been in 
 rapid progress through the water, she had been met and struck by a sword- 
 fish advancing in the opposite direction, by the shock of which, or by the 
 action of the water forced past the body of the animal by the vessel's progress, 
 the snout had been broken off and detached. The blow, though it must have 
 been singularly forcible, was not observed by any person in the ship." As a 
 further example of the power of the impact of these fish, it may be mentioned 
 
470 PISCES SUB- CLASS III. TELEOSTOMI. 
 
 that, according to Mr. Wood, a sword-fish, in striking a whaling vessel, drove 
 its weapon " through the copper sheathing, an inch-board sheathing, a three- 
 inch plank of hard wood, the solid white oak timber of the ship twelve 
 inches thick, through another two-and-a-half-inch hard oak ceiling plank, and 
 lastly, perforated the head of an oil-cask, where it remained immovably 
 fixed, so that not a drop of oil escaped." 
 
 The so-called scabbard-fish (Lepidopus) and the hair-tails (Trichiurus), 
 
 together with the barracudas (Thyrsitis), may be cited as well-known 
 
 examples of a family and section presenting the following 
 
 Section Trichi- leading characteristics. All have very long and compressed 
 uriformes. bodies, which sometimes assume a band-like form ; and the 
 Family skin is either naked or with rudimental scales. Both the 
 Trichiuridce dorsal and anal fins are elongated, with their spinous and 
 soft portions of nearly equal extent ; and when the pel vies 
 and caudal are present, the former are thoracic in position, and the latter is 
 distinctly forked. In some forms a portion of the median fins is split up into 
 finlets. The mouth is wide, and there are some large and powerful teeth 
 either in the jaws or on the palate. In all the forms there is an air-bladder. 
 These fishes are carnivorous and predatory in their habits. They have a wide 
 range in space ; but whereas some are surface-dwellers, others are found at 
 considerable depths. None afford a very high-class food, although the flesh 
 of several is eaten. In the scabbard-fish, which grows to a couple of yards 
 in length, the body is riband-like, the pelvic fins are wanting, as are scales ; 
 but there is a small caudal fin. The flesh is largely consumed in New 
 Zealand, where the species is known as the frost-fish. On the other hand, 
 the hair-tails take their name from the circumstance that the tail terminates 
 in a tapering whip-like extremity, without trace of a caudal fin, the pelvics 
 being wanting, or reduced to a pair of scales, and the anal rudimental, with 
 its spinous portion represented by a number of very short isolated spines. 
 From three to four feet is a common length for these fishes. Barracudas 
 also locally known as " snoek " are still larger, and are extensively caught 
 for food in New Zealand and at the Cape. They are characterised by the 
 presence of minute scales in the skin, and of from two to six finlets behind 
 the dorsal and anal, while the palatine bones are toothed. Although essenti- 
 ally coast-fishes, they are occasionally found far out at sea. 
 
 For some time we have been dealing with sectional groups represented 
 
 only by a single family each ; but we now come to one including several 
 
 families. In the present group the dorsal fin is either single, 
 
 Section Cotto- or, if divided, has its two portions closely approximated. 
 
 Scombriformes. When normal, the spinous portion is short ; but it may be 
 
 Family modified either into separate spines, tentacles, or a sucker. 
 
 Acanthuridce. The anal resembles the soft dorsal, the hinder part of both 
 these fins being sometimes split up into finlets. When 
 present, the pelvics may be either jugular or thoracic in position, and the 
 region of the vent is never furnished with papillae. Most of the members of 
 the section are marine fishes. The popular name of surgeons is given to the 
 representatives of the family Acanthuridce x on account of the circumstance 
 that in the typical genus Acanthurus each side of the tail of the adult is 
 furnished with a spine somewhat resembling a surgeon's lancet, and capable 
 of inflicting a severe wound. In other kinds the spines may be two or three 
 
 1 The family is commonly known as Acronuridce, but Acronurus is now ascertained to be a 
 synonym of the type genus. 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 471 
 
 in number, or replaced by keeled plates, and in all the dorsal fin is single, 
 with but few spines. In form, the compressed body is deep or oblong, the 
 scales with which it is invested being minute, while the eyes are lateral and 
 of moderate size. The mouth is small, and armed with compressed incisor- 
 like teeth, which may be either serrated or pointed, bub teeth are never 
 developed on the palate. The pelvic fins are situated thoracically. Inter- 
 nally, a peculiarity is to be found in the forked hinder extremity of the air- 
 bladder. These fishes, which also include the genera Naseus and Prionurus, 
 are inhabitants of tropical seas, and specially frequent coral-reefs. - Here 
 they feed partly on the growing coral and partly on vegetable substances. 
 
 The second family of the section under consideration includes among 
 other forms the horse-mackerels (Caranx), the pilot-fish (Naucrates^ and 
 the so-called sea-bats (Platax). In all of these the body is 
 more or less compressed in form, while the teeth, when Family 
 
 developed, are conical, and there is no bony connection Carwigidce. 
 between the preopercular bone and the orbit. The skin 
 may be either naked or covered with small scales, and the eyes are placed on 
 the sides of the head. The spinous dorsal fin is shorter than the anal or soft 
 dorsal, from the latter of which it is sometimes separated, while in other 
 cases the two are continuous. In some cases the spinous portion is rudi- 
 mental, and the hinder part of both the soft dorsal and anal may form finlets, 
 while the pelvics, if developed at all, are thoracic. It is important to notice 
 that the back-bone comprises ten vertebrae in the region of the trunk, and 
 fourteen in that of the tail, although in one case the number of the latter is 
 sixteen. Frequently shield-like plates distinguish the lateral line. An air- 
 bladder is invariably developed. The horse-mackerels as typified by the 
 common scad are too well known to require description, while the pelagic 
 pilot-fish may always be recognised by the dark vertical stripes with which 
 the body is ornamented. This fish derives its name from its habit of accom- 
 panying sharks or ships. In the preceding genera there are two anal spines 
 remote from the soft portion of the fin ; but in the sea-bats the anal spines 
 are continuous with the soft part, when present. These fish have the body 
 very deep, and rhomboidal in form, and the great development of the median 
 fins, which are often nearly similar above and below. In common with the 
 great majority of the family, the three genera mentioned have the soft dorsal 
 and anal fins of nearly equal extent, but in Curtus and Pempheris there is only 
 a single dorsal, which is much shorter than the anal. 
 
 The ugly but excellently flavoured John-dory (Zeus faber] is the best known 
 representative of a small family distinguished from the other members of the 
 section by the deep and highly compressed body, the double 
 dorsal fin, and the presence in the backbone of more than Family 
 ten trunk and more than fourteen caudal vertebrae. In tho Cyttidce. 
 fishes of the genus named one series of bony plates runs 
 along the base of the dorsal and anal fins, and another on the abdomen, but 
 in the species of Cyttus which inhabit the seas of New Zealand, South 
 Australia, and Madeira these plates are wanting, and the body is scaled. 
 
 The small family of the Stromateidce resembles the last in the absence of a 
 bony stay between the preopercular and the eye, and likewise in the large 
 number of thoracic and caudal vertebrae. They have the 
 body compressed, more or less oblong, and covered with Family 
 
 minute scales, the eyes lateral, the dentition very slightly Stromateidce. 
 developed, and a number of horny barbed processes in the 
 
472 PISCES SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOMI. 
 
 gullet, while the long and single dorsal fin has no distinct spinous portion. 
 The two genera are Stromateus arid Centrolophus ; one species of the latter 
 occasionally reaching the southern shores of Britain, where it is known as the 
 
 black-fish. Of more importance is the family CforyfhcenidcK, 
 
 Family which differs from the last by the absence of spines in the 
 
 Coryphcenidce. gullet ; the teeth, when present, being small and conical. 
 
 The typical members of the family are the pelagic cory- 
 phaenas (Coryphcena), commonly but incorrectly known as dolphins. These 
 are large brightly-coloured fishes, with the body rather elongated and some- 
 what compressed, the dorsal fin occupying nearly the whole length of the 
 back, the caudal very deeply forked, and the moderately long anal without 
 any distinct spinous portion. In the adults the head is ornamented with a 
 kind of crest. In the coryphsenas beauty is even less than skin-deep, the 
 exquisitely lovely colours being fugitive and transitory immediately the fishes 
 are removed from their native elements. The coryphsenas are highly preda- 
 ceous fishes, and in the Mediterranean and other warm seas may often be 
 seen in large companies pursuing the shoals of flying-fish. The only other 
 genus that can be mentioned here is Lampris, represented by a single very 
 beautiful fish from the Mediterranean and North Atlantic. Unfortunately, 
 this fish is commonly known as the sun-fish, a title also applied to the mem- 
 bers of the genus Orthagoriscus, mentioned in the sequel. Another instance 
 of such synonomy occurs in the use of the name barracuda, which is applied 
 indifferently to the species of the genera Thyrsites and Sphyrcena. In the 
 sun-fish, the whole body is very much compressed, short, and deep, the 
 scales being minute and deciduous, the mouth narrow and toothless, the 
 fore-part of the dorsal fin elevated to a point, and the pelvic fins including a 
 number of rays. In colour, the body has a bluish ground, upon which are a 
 number of silvery spots, while the fins are scarlet. In size, this splendid fish 
 grows to about four feet. 
 
 From the allied families the small group of the Nomceidce is distinguished 
 by the differentiation of a distinct spinous portion, separated by a short 
 
 interval from the soft portion of the dorsal ; the caudal fin 
 
 Family being forked, while finlets are sometimes developed, and the 
 
 NomcKid. scales are cycloid and of moderate size. Four genera are 
 
 included in the family, of which the typical Nomceus has 
 representatives in the Indian and tropical portions of the Atlantic Ocean, 
 while Gastrochisma has one species from the New Zealand seas. 
 
 Nearly allied to the last is the valuable family of the mackerels, in which 
 there are likewise two dorsal fins and generally finlets ; the body being either 
 
 scaled or naked. The best distinctive features of the family 
 
 Family are to be found in the conformation of the tins ; some forms 
 
 Scomberidce. having the spinous dorsal modified either into separate spines 
 
 or into a large sucker ; while when the former is normal the 
 soft dorsal and anal are split up into finlets. In form, the body is either 
 spindle-shaped or oblong ; and, internally, the air-bladder may be present or 
 absent. The mackerels are among the most highly organised of all fish, the 
 loss of the air-bladder in some forms being probably due to the exact corre- 
 spondence between the specific gravity of their bodies and that of the water, 
 which renders any adjustment unnecessary. They are mostly pelagic forms, 
 and their coloration is exactly in harmony with their environment, the 
 mottled greens and blacks of the back rendering them invisible from above 
 as they swim in the rippled waters, while their glistening silvery under- 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 
 
 473 
 
 surface is equally inconspicuous when viewed from beneath against the clear 
 sky above. Their blood has a temperature several degrees above that of the 
 surrounding water, and their flesh receives a larger supply of this fluid than 
 is ordinarily the case, and thus as- 
 sumes a more or less distinctly red 
 colour. So thoroughly are these fishes 
 pelagic in their mode of life, that they 
 even spawn in the open sea. In diet 
 they are carnivorous ; and at the time 
 of year when the various members of 
 
 the herring-tribe seek the shore for the Fig. 9. COMMON MACKEREL. 
 
 purpose of depositing their ova, they 
 
 are pursued by the different kinds of mackerel, which prey either upon the 
 fry or upon the adult. The typical mackerels, or those constituting the 
 genus Scomber, have a continuous first dorsal fin, furnished with weak spines, 
 five or six finlets behind both the dorsal and anal fins, and the scales small 
 and evenly distributed all over the body, the teeth being small, and each 
 side of the caudal fin bearing two short ridges. There are several kinds of 
 mackerel some with and some without an air-bladder and the distribution 
 of the genus includes nearly all seas, although none are found on the 
 Atlantic coast of the temperate portions of South America. Of larger size 
 are the various fishes known under the names of tunny, albicore, and 
 bonito, which collectively constitute the genus Thynnus, and differ from 
 Scomber by the number of finlets reaching to from six to nine, the presence 
 of one ridge on each side of the caudal fin, and the concentration of the 
 scales on the fore-part of the body, where they form a kind of corselet. By 
 
 far the most remarkable and interest- 
 ing members of the family are, how- 
 ever, the sucking-fishes (Echeneis), 
 characterised by the presence of a 
 large, plate-like, adhesive disc, occupy- 
 ing the whole upper surface of the 
 head. This sucker is formed by a 
 structural modification of the first 
 dorsal fin, and in the allied Elacate of 
 the tropical Atlantic, which has no sucker, the fin in question is still repre- 
 sented by a few short isolated spines. Sucking-fishes have minute teeth, 
 both on the jaws and on the palate, and in some cases also on the tongue ; 
 but they all lack an air-bladder. As they generally pass much of their time 
 attached to the under-surface of the body of a shark or a turtle, or the hull 
 of a ship, the back is less exposed to the light than the under-surface, and 
 consequently becomes less darkly coloured than the latter. The smaller 
 sucking-fishes grow to a length of about eight inches, whereas the larger 
 kinds may measure as much as three feet. 
 
 The eighth family of the Cotto-Scombriformes includes the star-gazers 
 (Uranoscopus, Leptoscopus, etc.), the weavers (Trachinus), the Atlantic tile- 
 fish (Lopholatilus), and a host of other types too numerous 
 Family to mention. All these fishes have a more or less elongated 
 
 Trachinidos. and narrow body, which has sometimes a naked skin, but in 
 other cases is clothed with scales. There are one or two 
 dorsal fins, of which the spinous portion is much less developed than the soft 
 part, which is like the anal. Finlets are always wanting ; and the pelvic fins 
 
 Fig. 10. SUCKIKG-FISH. 
 
474 PISCES SUB- CLASS IILTELEOSTOML 
 
 comprise five soft rays and a single spine. The mouth is armed with small 
 conical teeth. In regard to the number of vertebrae and the preopercular 
 bone, the family agrees generally with those that immediately precede, but 
 Pseudochromis is stated to possess a stay connecting the bone mentioned 
 with the orbit. Most of the members of the family are small fishes living 
 near the bottom of shallow seas; and all are carnivorous. The group is 
 divided into several sub-families, the first of which is typified by the afore- 
 said star-gazers, which are ugly-looking fishes, easily recognised by the small 
 mobile eyes being situated on the front of the head arid looking upwards, 
 the cleft of the mouth having likewise an upward direction ; the lateral line 
 being uninterrupted, and the caudal fin more or less rounded. On the other 
 hand, in the weavers (Trachinus) of which the common English species is 
 known to fishermen by the name of sting-bull the eyes retain to a greater 
 or less extent the normal lateral position ; the dorsal fin being either single 
 or divided. The members of this genus are found in European waters, and 
 on the Pacific coast of South America, although not on the Atlantic side. 
 Wounds inflicted by the spines of the dorsal fin are dangerous on account of 
 being injected with the secretion from a neighbouring poison-gland. Mention 
 must be made of the large and handsomely-coloured tile-fish (Lopholatilus) of 
 the American North Atlantic, not only on account of its being an exception 
 among the family from its size and deep-water habitat, but likewise from the 
 fact of having been met with in great profusion a few years ago, and then 
 suddenly disappearing. It is remarkable for possessing a small, pointed 
 fatty fin in front of the long single dorsal. 
 
 Since the first of the two families now to be considered contains only the 
 tropical genus Malacanthus, it may be dismissed with the bare mention that 
 it is characterised by the possession of not more than ten 
 Families thoracic and fourteen caudal vertebrae, and the great length 
 Malacanthida of the single dorsal and anal fins. Almost equally brief must 
 and Batrachidce. be our reference to the frog- fishes (Balrachidw], which in- 
 clude two genera in addition to the typical Balrachns, and 
 are for the most part small fishes of carnivorous habits frequenting tropical 
 coasts. They have the head broad and thick, with the eyes more or less in- 
 clined upwards; the long body compressed posteriorly; and either a coating 
 of small scales or a bare skin. They have small or medium-sized conical 
 teeth ; and there is no connection between the orbit and the preopercular. 
 There are only two or three spines in the first dorsal, but the soft dorsal and 
 anal are elongated arid similar; while the pelvic fins are jugular in position 
 and furnished with a pair of soft rays, and the pectorals are not produced. 
 Many of the species are poisonous, having a gland situated at. the base of the 
 pectoral fin, from which a noxious fluid is poured forth ; the genus Tliallas- 
 sophryne, of the Pacific coast of Central America, being stated to rival many 
 of the poisonous snakes in its venom. 
 
 The familiar but hideous angler-fish (Lophius piscatorius) of the British 
 
 coasts typifies a somewhat extensive family belonging to the section Cotto- 
 
 Scombriformes, and possessing the following distinctive 
 
 Family features. In these fishes the head and fore-part of the body 
 
 Lophiidce. are enlarged and covered with a naked skin, and the spinous 
 
 dorsal fin is placed very far forwards, and consists of either a 
 
 fewmore or less isolated spines, or is modified into tentacles, while in some cases 
 
 it is altogether wanting. The pelvic fins which may be wanting comprise 
 
 four or five rays, and are jugular in position, and the pectoral fins are sup- 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 
 
 475 
 
 Fig. 11. ANGLER FISH (Lophius 
 piscator.ius). 
 
 ported by a prolongation of some of the bones of the internal skeleton. The 
 teeth are rasp-like or villous, and there is no connection between the preo- 
 percular and the orbit. The apertures of the gills are very minute, and 
 situated near the root of the pelvic fins, the gills varying from two-and-a- 
 half to three-and-a-half in number, 
 and false gills being usually absent. 
 The family has an almost cosmopolitan 
 distribution, and all its members are 
 but poor swimmers, those which are 
 of pelagic habits drifting about attached 
 to floating bodies, while the littoral 
 forms cling to submarine bodies by 
 means of their pectoral fins, which 
 serve the function of arms. The great 
 size of the wide, flat, and rounded head, 
 which carries the small eyes near the 
 middle of the upper surface, the capa- 
 cious mouth, and the modification of 
 the first three dorsal spines into tentacles, serve to distinguish the species of 
 the typical genus Lophius, which are not numerous. Rarely the common 
 British species, which is often known as the fishing-frog, grows to five feet, 
 although its ordinary length does not exceed three. The first tentacle bears 
 a filamentous appendage, which by its movement serves to attract prey 
 within reach of the capacious jaws. Another interesting member of the 
 family is the pelagic tentacle-fish Antennarias often found in the gulf- 
 weed, and remarkable for building a silken nest attached to the weed for the 
 reception of the eggs, which are suspended within jtheir receptacle in a 
 cluster, like a bunch of grapes. Even more curious are the two Atlantic 
 species of Melanocetus, which are small fishes, looking as if they consisted 
 mainly of jaws and stomach. 
 
 The Cottidce, of which the best known representatives are the mostly fresh- 
 water bull-heads (Coitus) of the Northern Hemisphere and the marine- 
 gurnards ( Trigla), are well characterised by the presence of 
 a bony stay connecting the preopercular with the suborbital Family Cottidce. 
 ring of bones ; a feature found among the preceding families 
 of the section only in Pseudochromis and some allied genera. These 
 fishes have the body lengthened, and more or less nearly cylindrical ; the 
 mouth being transverse, and bearing feeble teeth generally arranged in bands. 
 
 Whereas in some forms the skin is 
 naked, in others it is scaled, and the 
 armature may consist of a single row 
 of plate-like scales. Generally the 
 dorsal fin is divided, when the soft 
 portion which fs elongated like the 
 anal exceeds the spinous in extent. 
 The number of rays in the theoracically- 
 placed pelvics never exceeds five ; and 
 in some cases the pectorals have fila- 
 
 Fig. 12. COMMON GURNARD (Trigla). 
 
 mentous prolongations. The bull-heads, which comprise a very large number 
 of species, a few of which are marine, are noted for their habit of lying 
 sluggishly in the beds of rivers, with their heads concealed beneath the 
 pebbles. The elongated and finger-like three anterior pectoral rays serve to 
 
476 PISCES SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOMI. 
 
 distinguish the gurnards ; which are further characterised by their great 
 ugly, bony heads, and the brilliant hues of scarlet or blue with which 
 many of them are adorned. They inhabit all temperate and tropical seas, 
 and are predacious fish, living chiefly on crustaceans. Their habitat is the 
 sea-bottom, on which they crawl by means of the elongated pectoral rays ; 
 those appendages apparently also acting the part of feelers. When seen 
 crawling on the bed of a glass tank in an aquarium a gurnard presents a 
 peculiarly ghost- like appearance, reminding the beholder of some monster in 
 a pantomime. 
 
 Nearly allied to the last is the family typified by the flying-gurnards 
 (Dactylopterus), which rival the true flying-fish in their power of skimming 
 
 over the surface of the waves by means of their greatly ex- 
 Family panded pectoral fins. All are easily recognised by the in- 
 Dactylopteridce. vestiture of the body in a complete cuirass of keeled bony 
 
 plates or scales. In Britain the group is represented by the 
 so-called armed bull-head, which belongs to the genus Agonus ; and the 
 family also includes the beaked-gurnards, distinguished by the prolongation 
 of some of the bones of the skull in the form of a flattened process on each 
 side of the snout. The flying-gurnards themselves inhabit the Mediterranean 
 and tropical seas. Here, too, may be placed the curious little dragon-fishes 
 (Pegasus), which inhabit the seas of Australia, China, and India, and have a 
 long beak and the body protected by very large plates ; the coloration taking 
 the form of small dark spots. 
 
 Very different in appearance to the last are the clumsy-looking fishes 
 known as lump-suckers (Cydopterus), which are the typical members of a 
 
 family belonging to another sectional group. In this section 
 
 Section Gobii- the dorsal fin may be single or double, but its spinous 
 
 formes. Family division or portion is always short, and may consist of 
 
 CydopteridcK. flexible spines ; the soft dorsal being equal in extent to the 
 
 anal. There is no bony connection between the preopercular 
 and the suborbital ring ; but there is a prominent papilla in the region of 
 the vent. When pelvic fins are retained, they usually comprise a spine and 
 five rays, although exceptionally the number of the latter may be reduced to 
 four. In addition to their clumsy build, the lump-suckers are distinguished 
 as a family by the presence of a sucker on the lower surface of the body sup- 
 ported by the rudiments of the pelvic fins. By means of their sucker these 
 fishes affix themselves firmly to rocks or stones, and are thus safe from the 
 buffeting of the waves. There are two generic modifications of the family, 
 namely Cydopterus and Liparis, in the former of which the skin is tuber- 
 culated and viscous, whereas in the latter it is entirely bare. All the 
 members of the family are confined to the colder northern seas, some of 
 them even entering the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 From the lump-suckers, the gobies (Gobius) and their allies the mud- 
 skippers (Periopthalmus) are sufficiently distinguished by the presence of 
 
 well-developed rays to the pelvic fins, which may, however, 
 Family be united together in the middle line of the body. The group 
 
 GobiidcB. is a very extensive one, both in respect to genera, species, 
 
 and individuals ; and it is represented on the temperate and 
 tropical coasts of all parts of the globe. It is, of course, impossible to char- 
 acterise the various genera ; and, as regards the gobies, it must suffic3 to say 
 that they are small fishes with a geographical range as extensive as is that 
 of the family, and that, in many cases, the males build a cleverly constructed 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 477 
 
 nest for the reception of the eggs. Of greater interest are the mud-skippers, 
 or hopping-fish, on account of their strange habits, and the long time they 
 can remain out of water. They are found on the coasts and estuaries of West 
 Africa, and the countries bordering the Indo-Pacific Ocean. Owing to their 
 remarkably prominent eyes, they look very much like tadpoles ; the common 
 species having its dorsal fins spotted with brilliant blue. The pectoral fins 
 are very strongly developed, and are used, when the fish is out of water, for 
 walking or climbing on the roots of mangrove trees. Dr. H. O. Forbes writes 
 that ' ' if the observer remain quite still, the Periophthalmus will sit motion- 
 less, staring at him with his great eyes, except that every now and then it 
 will wink apparently, sometimes with one eye, and sometimes with both to- 
 gether. What seems to be winking, however, is the inversion of the eye into 
 a depression immediately under it, for the purpose of lubricating the organ 
 when it begins to become dry. The habit that most impresses the naturalist 
 encountering these fishes for the first time is the long period which they can 
 remain out of the water. The writer has timed individuals, both in their 
 native state and in the aquarium, to sit for more than half an hour without a 
 bath. They would then walk slowly into the water, immerse themselves over 
 the head for a second, emerge and remain resting for a short time, with the 
 head and shoulders above, and the mouth under the surface, and walk slowly 
 out again on to the margin. This fish rarely if ever, goes beyond its depth, 
 find only for a few seconds does it at any time completely submerge itself. 
 Their usual habit is to sit propped up on their stiff ventral and strong pectoral 
 fins, with the fore-part of the body elevated, and their quick mobile eyes con- 
 spicuous and inquiring ; either, as already remarked, entirely away from the 
 water, or with only the extremity of the tail dipping in. When out of the 
 water and sitting still, the mouth is kept closed, and no motion can be de- 
 tected in the gills or gill-covers. Every now and then the eyes are moistened 
 as described above, and the fish flaps its pectoral fins across the gill-covers 
 and the hind-part of the head. When the tide has just receded and the small 
 marine animals are beginning to follow it, they are very busy darting here 
 and there in pursuit, and gobbling them up voraciously. They will even 
 attack and eat smaller members of their own species. When moving forward, 
 they oar themselves on their strongly muscular pectorals, which they use 
 simultaneously when hopping, or alternately in their more deliberate ' walk- 
 ing,' which leaves a curious triple track on the soft mud which they have tra- 
 versed. When in the water the Periophthalmus sits on the bottom in the 
 same attitude as on shore, with its upper-lip submerged, but with the rest of 
 the head and upper part of the back exposed, the water being driven over its 
 gills very slowly and deliberately as compared with the common trout in an 
 adjoining tank. Its eyes are better adapted for sight out of than under water, 
 and are capable of seeing all round." 
 
 The curiously-shaped marine band-fishes form the first representatives of a 
 section which includes five other families. In this section the body is low, 
 elongate, and either subcylindrical or compressed ; the dor- 
 sal fin being very long, with its spinous portion when dis- Section Blennii- 
 tinct equal to, or exceeding the soft part in extent. Indeed, formes. Family 
 in some cases the whole dorsal is composed of spines. The Cepolidce. 
 anal is more or less elongated ; the caudal when present at 
 all is rounded or somewhat truncate ; and when the pelvic fins are developed, 
 they may be either jugular or thoracic in position. The band-fishes (Cepola) 
 all of which are of small size take their name from the long compressed 
 
478 PISCES SUB-CLASS III.TELEOSTOML 
 
 body, which is covered with small scales ; the laterally-placed eyes being rela- 
 tively large. 
 
 Omitting all mention of the unimportant families Trichonotidce and CVimefoe, 
 except the statement that some members of the former, like the New 
 
 Zealand Hemerocoetes, have a continuous rayed and spineless 
 
 Family dorsal fin running nearly the whole length of the back, with 
 
 Blenniidce. a very similar anal beneath, we come to the widely-spread 
 
 and numerous family of the blennies. In these the body is 
 more or less cylindrical in form, with its skin either naked or covered with 
 scales, which are generally small. There may be from one to three dorsal 
 fins, which occupy nearly the whole length of the back, but vary much in the 
 relative proportion of spines, which in some cases constitute the entire 
 structure. The anal is long, with few or no spines, and the pelvic pair, when 
 developed, are jugular, and comprise less than five soft rays. Usually the 
 head is furnished with false gills, and this character helps to distinguish the 
 blennies from the cod tribe, which they resemble in the structure of the 
 pelvic fins. Although a few attain large dimensions, the great majority of 
 the blennies are small fish, and they include some of the most diminutive of 
 their class. While some are estuarine or fluviatile in their habits, many 
 more are marine and littoral, ranging over all the temperate and tropical 
 coasts of the globe. The true blennies (Blennius), which have a naked skin, 
 enjoy a wide geographical range, some being found far out in the open ocean 
 among masses of floating weed, while others inhabit rivers, or even lakes. 
 Whereas these blennies produce spawn in the ordinary way, the two species 
 of the allied genus Zoarces one of which is British give birth to living 
 young. In these fishes rudimental scales are developed in the skin, and the 
 dorsal fin is only separated by a notch from the caudal, with which the anal 
 is continuous. A remarkable contrast in point of size to the ordinary 
 blennies is afforded by the various species of wolf -fish (Anarrhichas), which 
 inhabit all the northern seas, and some of which grow to as much as a couple 
 of yards in length. They have their mouths crammed with a number of very 
 powerful tuberculated teeth, admirably adapted for grinding the hard shells 
 of the shell-fish, crabs, and lobsters, on which these voracious fish subsist. 
 
 No mention at all can be made of the fifth family (Acanthodinidce) of the 
 blenniform section, and but a very brief one of the sixth, which includes the 
 
 so-called spiny eels (Mastacembelus and Rhynchobdella) of 
 
 Family West Africa and the Oriental countries. These are in- 
 
 Rhynchobdd- habitants of both brackish and fresh waters, and are chiefly 
 
 lidce. remarkable for their resemblance in general appearance to 
 
 the true eels (Murcenidw), from which they may, however, be 
 at once distinguished by the presence of low spines in the fore-part of the elon- 
 gated dorsal fin. Here, too, may be mentioned the curious oil -fish (Comephorus) 
 of Lake Baikal, in regard to whose systematic position naturalists appear to be 
 still in some degree of doubt, although it probably forms a family by itself. 
 
 The large fishes forming the family Sphynenidce are commonly known as 
 barracudas, but since that name is applied to the members of a family already 
 
 noticed, it is better to term them barracuda-pikes. They are 
 
 Section Mugili- the first representatives of a sectional group in which the 
 
 formes. Family back bears two fins, the first of these being composed either 
 
 SphyrcBtudtK, of feeble spines, or short, like the second, while the pelvic 
 
 fins are abdominal in position, and comprise five rays and a 
 single spine. The barracuda-pikes, which sometimes grow to as much as 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 479 
 
 eight feet in length, and weigh forty pounds, are all included in the one 
 genus Sphyrcuna. As a family, they are characterised by the long and some- 
 what eel-like form of the body, the small cycloid scales, continuous lateral 
 line, the wide cleft of the mouth, which is armed with formidable teeth, and 
 the moderate-sized and laterally-situated eyes. They are fierce and voracious 
 fishes, inhabiting tropical and sub- tropical coasts. Although extensively 
 used as food, their flesh is at times apt to develop poisonous properties. 
 
 Passing by the small family of the Atherinidce, of which the most familiar 
 representatives are the so-called sand-smelts (Atherina) of the Mediterranean, 
 with the bare mention that the lateral line is feebly and in- 
 distinctly developed, we come to the more important group Family 
 of the grey mullets, most of which are included in the genus Mugilidce. 
 Mugil, and all of which lack the structure last mentioned. 
 They have the same number (24) of joints in the backbone as the Sphyrcenidce, 
 whereas in the Atherinidce these are considerably more numerous. Grey 
 mullets have a narrow cleft to the 
 mouth, none or feeble teeth, and a 
 very sharp, but rather tall first dorsal 
 fin, which is composed of four stiff 
 spines only. The members of the 
 genus are numerous, and common on 
 temperate and tropical coasts, where, 
 according to Dr. Gunther, "they 
 
 frequent brackish waters, in which _ : ._- _ ~~ 
 
 they find an abundance of food, which p . 13 _ GREY MULLET. 
 
 consists chiefly of the organic sub- 
 stances mixed with mud or sand. In order to prevent larger bodies from pass- 
 ing into the stomach, or substances from passing through the gill-openings, these 
 fishes have the organs of the pharynx modified into a filtering apparatus. 
 They take in a quantity of sand or mud, and, after having worked it for 
 some time between the pharyngeal bones, they reject the roughest and in- 
 digestible portion." Most of the species grow to about four pounds weight, 
 although some reach as much as ten. 
 
 The garpike (Belone\ the sauries (Scombresox), and the flying-fish (Exoccdu\ 
 collectively constitute a section and family characterised by the feeble 
 development of the spines of the fins. They have the pelvic 
 fins abdominal in situation, and are especially distinguished Section Scorn- 
 by the union of the pharyngeal bones, the absence of a spiny bresociformes. 
 dorsal fin, and the forked tail-fin ; the rayed dorsal being Family Scombre- 
 placed in the caudal region immediately over the anal. Al- socidw. 
 though false gills are present, these are concealed and 
 glandular. As a rule, the air-bladder is retained. A peculiar feature of the 
 family is the simple structure of the stomach, which forms a mere expansion 
 of the intestinal tract. Members of the family are to be met with in all 
 temperate and tropical seas, some of them, like the flying-fish, being truly 
 pelagic in their habits. Fresh-water forms, although few, are, however, by 
 no means wanting ; and it is somewhat remarkable that most of these un- 
 like their marine relatives give birth to living young, instead of depositing 
 spawn. The garpike, of which one species is commonly met with in the 
 British seas, are specially characterised by the elongation of the jaws to form 
 a long tubular beak, and the connection of all the rays of the anal and dorsal 
 fins (which are precisely similar) by membrane. Young garpike are, how- 
 
4 8o 
 
 PISCES SUB-CLASS lILTELEOSTOMI. 
 
 ever, much more ordinary-looking fishes than their parents, as the beak is 
 not developed till late in life. During the growth of the beak the lower jaw- 
 is considerably longer than the upper one, although in the fully adult con- 
 dition the two are equal in length. So much has been written about the 
 habits of flying-fish (Exocc&tus), and their form is so familiar, especially to those 
 who have made a voyage in the warmer seas, that we may be well excused 
 from saying much about either point in this place. The only other inhabi- 
 tants of the deep which indulge in similar flights are the flying-gurnards, with 
 which the true flying-fish are not likely to be confounded. To support them 
 in the air, the pectoral fins of the flying-fishes are greatly elongated. In 
 shape they are less elegant than many fishes, the head being blunt and 
 almost truncated in front. There are numerous species of the genus, some 
 of which appear to range over all seas suited to their existence, while others 
 have a curiously circumsuited habit. A foot is about the usual maximum 
 length, although specimens of eighteen inches are from time to time met 
 with. 
 
 Flying-fish associate in shoals, and when disturbed by a vessel, which they 
 not improbably mistake for a whale, rise one after another from the waves 
 
 like a flock of swallows driven from 
 their shelter. Although it is highly 
 probable that their pectoral fins may 
 vibrate for a few seconds after leav- 
 ing the water, the flight of these 
 fishes is due entirely to the initial 
 velocity of the leap with which they 
 leave the water ; and how great this 
 velocity is, may be inferred from the 
 circumstance that sometimes the flight 
 may cover a distance of at least three 
 hundred yards. Probably attracted by 
 the lights, flying-fish not unfrequently 
 leap on board the deck of small vessels, while they occasionally make their 
 entrance on to those of larger tonnage by way of the open port-holes. 
 On one occasion during a voyage home from South America, such an unbidden 
 visitor entered in this manner the cabin of a passenger, who at the time 
 was shaving, and received a severe blow in the face from the newcomer. 
 
 The next section of the Acanthopterygii is typified by the stickle-backs of 
 our streams and ditches ; and common and familiar as these little fishes are, 
 they are nevertheless highly interesting to the naturalist, 
 both on account of their structure and their habits. Unfor- 
 tunately, in our limited space, little can be here said on 
 either. As a sectional group, the Gastrosteiformes are 
 characterised by the circumstance that when a spiny dorsal 
 fin is present at all, this takes the form of a variable number 
 of isolated spines. Although in some forms the pelvic fins are thoracic, in 
 others they assume an abdominal position, owing to the prolongation of the 
 bones of the pelvic girdle, which are attached to the pectoral arch. The 
 snout is generally more or less produced, with the small mouth at its ex- 
 tremity. It will be unnecessary to characterise the stickle-backs (Gastrosteus) 
 in full, and it will therefore suffice to say that their somewhat compressed 
 and elongate bodies are either naked, or protected by large plates on the 
 sides, and that the number of spines on the back may vary from as few as 
 
 Fig. 14. FLYING-FISH. 
 
 Section Gastros- 
 teiformes. 
 
 Family 
 Gastrosteida. 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 481 
 
 three to as many as fifteen. All are comparatively small fishes, and whereas 
 the majority are inhabitants of fresh waters, a few are marine. What they 
 lack in size, they make up for in fierceness, stickle-backs being perfect 
 demons for fighting among themselves, while they are terribly destructive to 
 the spawn and fry of larger and better fishes. They have, however, the redeem- 
 ing quality of taking most excellent care of their own eggs and young, for the 
 reception of which the male builds a nest, which he guards with vigilance, 
 and, if necessary, with his life. Not only is this nest-building habit found in 
 the fresh- water spscies, but it is likewise common to the sea stickle-back of 
 the British coasts, which selects for its site of operations shallow brackish 
 water, where sea-weeds are abundant. Among many anecdotes relating to 
 the voracity and pugnacity of stickle-backs, we select one from the pen of 
 Mr. J. Stark. On one occasion this gentleman placed in the water inhabited 
 by a stickle-back a number of leeches. Thereupon the fish " darted round 
 the tumbler with lively motions till it found a leech detached and in a proper 
 situation for being seized. When the leech was very small, say about half 
 an inch in length, it was often swallowed at once, before it reached the 
 bottom of the vessel ; but when a larger one, about an inch or an inch and a 
 half in length in its expanded state, was put in, and had fastened itself by its 
 mouth to the glass, the efforts of the stickle-back to seize and tear it from its 
 hold were incessant, and never failed to succeed. It darted at the loose ex- 
 tremity, or, when both ends were fastened, at the curve in its middle, seized 
 it in its mouth, rose to near the surface, and after a hearty shake (such as a 
 dog would give a rat), let it drop. The leech, which evidently wished to avoid 
 its enemy upon its release, again fastened itself by its mouth to the glass ; 
 but again and again the attack was repeated, till the poor leech became ex- 
 hausted, and ceased to attempt to hold itself by its disc. The stickle-back 
 then seized it by the head in a proper position for swallowing, and after a few 
 gulps the leech disappeared. The flattened leech being of an oval form, and 
 having a hard skin, was not attacked, unless when very young and small ; 
 and leeches of the other species, when pretty well grown, or larger than him- 
 self when expanded, were killed in the manner above mentioned, but not 
 swallowed. In one of his attempts to seize a leech, the stickle-back having 
 got it by the tail, the animal curled back, and fixed his disc upon, his 
 snout. The efforts of the stickle-back to rid himself of this encumbrance 
 were amusing. He let go his hold of the leech, which then hung over his 
 mouth, and darting at the sides and bottom of the glass with all his strength, 
 endeavoured to rub off this tantalising morsel. This lasted for nearly a 
 minute, when at last he got rid of the leech by rubbing his back upon the 
 bottom of the vessel. The leech, perfectly aware of the company he was in, 
 no sooner loosed his hold than he attempted to wriggle away from his de- 
 vourer ; but before he had reached mid-way up the tumbler, the stickle-back 
 had turned, and finished the contest by swallowing him up." 
 
 The second family of the section, which comprises the flute-mouths 
 (Aulostoma, Auliscojis, and Fistularia\ is readily characterised by the pro- 
 duction of the muzzle into a long flute-like tube, at the 
 extremity of which is situated the small mouth ; and, like- Family 
 
 wise, by the pelvic fins, which may be either thoracic or Aidostomatidce. 
 abdominal, comprising six (rarely five) soft rays and no spine. 
 When they are abdominal they have no connection with the pelvis, which is 
 always attached to the pectoral girdle. Whereas in some forms the body 
 which is always much elongated is completely naked, in others minute scales 
 32 
 
482 PISCES SUB-CLASS I1I.TELEOSTOML 
 
 are developed. The first dorsal-fin may either be wanting or composed 
 of a few feeble isolated spines. The backbone contains a very large number 
 of joints, and presents the peculiarity that many of those at the front end 
 are united together to form a solid tube. The flute-mouths are confined to 
 the warmer temperate and tropical seas. In spite of their large dimensions 
 their length being frequently as much as from four to six feet they can 
 only be regarded as highly developed stickle-backs. 
 
 We now come to the first of three sectional groups, each of which is repre- 
 sented only by one family. The first section is characterised by the presence 
 of two dorsal fins, of which the spinous is very short, whereas 
 Section Centris- the soft one like tlie anal is of moderate length. Of more 
 ciformes. importance is the fact that the pelvic fins are truly ab- 
 Family dominal, arid have no sort of connection with the pectoral 
 CentriscidcB. girdle. These fish constitute the two genera Centriscus and 
 Amphisile; one species of the former being popularly known 
 as the bellows-fish or trumpeter-fish. They are small, short-bodied fishes, with 
 a tubular mouth similar to that of the Aulostomatidce ; and as their powers of 
 swimming are of the very feeblest, they are often carried by currents far out 
 to sea, although their proper haunts are the shallows. 
 
 Although the members of this section and family are likewise of small size, 
 
 they differ from the last in the more normal conformation of their mouths 
 
 and bodies. Having no spiny dorsal-fin, these fishes are 
 
 Section Gobioe- easily recognised by the possession of a sucker on the lower 
 
 sociformes. surface of the body, placed between the pelvic fins, which 
 
 Family are nearly jugular in position. Both the soft dorsal and 
 
 Gobioesocidce. anal fins are situated on the caudal region of the body, and 
 
 are of small or medium extent. There are numerous genera 
 
 of sucker-fishes, such as the West Indian and South American Gobioesox, the 
 
 European Lepadogaster, and the New Zealand Diplocrepis ; the latter being 
 
 distinguished by the presence of incisor-like teeth in the front of the jaws. 
 
 The group attains its maximum development in the temperate seas ; all its 
 
 representatives being marine and littoral. 
 
 The so-called serpent-heads (Channa and Ophiocephalus) are inhabitants of 
 the fresh waters of Africa and the Oriental countries, although more abun- 
 dant in the latter than in the former area. They are long- 
 Section Channi- bodied, flat-headed fishes, fond of grovelling in the mud, 
 formes. Family and often leaving their native element to travel some distance 
 Ophiocephalidce. on land, where they progress by the aid of their pectoral fins. 
 In these fish the head and body are covered with scales of 
 
 moderate size, and the fins 
 are without spines, the single 
 dorsal, which is similar to 
 the anal, being low and elon- 
 gated, and the pelvic pair, 
 if present, thoracic in posi- 
 tion, and comprising six soft 
 
 rays. The most character- 
 ^ feature in the gtructure 
 
 of the serpent-heads is, 
 
 however, the presence of a supplemental cavity on each side of the head 
 above the gill-chamber ; and it is probable that this aids in keeping the 
 gills moist while the fish are on land. One yard is no uncommon length 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 483 
 
 for fishes of this group. During seasons of drought the serpent-heads bury 
 themselves in mud ; and when living in muddy waters they are in the 
 habit of coming from time to time to the surface to gulp down a mouth- 
 ful of air. 
 
 The famous climbing-perch (Anabas scandens) of the Oriental region, 
 which has given rise to so many stories, true and false, is the type of a small 
 section characterised by the possession of an accessory 
 breathing-organ situated in a cavity on each si^e of the Section Labyrin- 
 head above the gill-chamber. In both families of the thici. Family 
 section the body is compressed, and oblong or deep in form, Anabantidce. 
 with the investing scales of moderate size. In the first of 
 the two families spines are present in the dorsal and anal fins, although their 
 number is variable ; while the lateral line is either interrupted or altogether 
 absent, and the aperture of the gills is small. Like those of the next family, 
 these fishes are inhabitants of fresh or brackish waters, and are able to exist 
 for a considerable time out of water, where they breathe by means of the 
 special organ. There are several genera, such as Anabas (climbing-perch), 
 PolyacanthuSy Osphromenus (gurami), and Betta, all of which are confined to 
 the Oriental region and Tropical and South Africa. The Malayan gurami is 
 a deep-bodied fish marked with vertical stripes, and with one of the rays of 
 the pelvic fins greatly elongated. On account of the excellent quality of its 
 flesh, it has been introduced into several districts in India, where it thrives 
 well. The climbing-perch is a less deep and more uniformly coloured fish, 
 with no elongation of the pelvic rays, and a taller dorsal fin. During dry 
 seasons it will bury itself in the mud, but more frequently appears to 
 migrate to ponds which are capable of withstanding the drought. On land 
 it travels by using its pectoral fins as legs, fixing these on the further side of 
 such objects as are capable of affording a sufficient fulcrum. One instance at 
 least is on record of these fishes having been taken high up on a palm tree. 
 The reader may well wonder as to the object of such an ascent, but it 
 appears the fish make for the moisture often to be found in the hollows of 
 such trees. The Oriental genus Polyacanthus is best known by the domesti- 
 cated and beautifully coloured Chinese paradise-fish, which, from long culti- 
 vation has altered considerably from the original parent form. Another 
 member of the family which has long been domesticated is the Siamese 
 fighting-fish (Betta pugnax). In common with the Malays, the Siamese are 
 inveterate gamblers, and in this instance they stake their money on the 
 fighting endurance of their favourite fish. The fish themselves are by no 
 means loth to afford their masters as much sport as possible, and whereas 
 when alone their colours are dull, directly an opponent is seen, the whole 
 body assumes a brilliant metallic lustre. Even a mirror is stated to be suffi- 
 cient to arouse the pugnacious propensities of these fish, which will then dart 
 forwards against their own image. 
 
 The second family of the section is represented by the small fresh- water 
 Malayan fish known as the pike-head (Luciocephalus pulcher), and sufficiently 
 distinguished from the preceding family by the presence of 
 a complete lateral line, the protruded jaws, and the general Family Lucio- 
 pike-like form of the head and body. The tail is rounded, cephalidce. 
 the dorsal fin is single, and, like the anal, devoid of 
 spines; the pelvic fins comprise one spine and five rays, and the eyes are 
 large. 
 
 The fishes of this and the next section are amply characterised by their 
 
4 8 4 
 
 PISCES SUB- CLASS III;TELEOSTOML 
 
 elongated and riband-like bodily form. This conformation gives them much 
 the appearance of sea-snalces ; and although they are ordin- 
 Section Lophoti- arily inhabitants of deep water, they are sometimes driven 
 formes. Family to the surface. On such occasions it is highly probablo that 
 Lophotidce. they are responsible for some of the alleged appearances of 
 the " sea-serpent.' 3 Moreover, when cast on shore, they 
 are extremely likely to be mistaken, by persons unacquainted with zoology, 
 for that mysterious monster ; and not many years ago a telegram in the 
 papers announced the discovery in Australia of a dead sea-serpeni, which 
 subsequently turned out to be a gigantic stranded riband fish. Here it may 
 be well to remark that the writer by no means refuses to believe in the possi- 
 bility of the existence of " sea-serpents," but at present contents himself with 
 considering that the evidence is not yet sufficiently convincing. To return 
 to the Lophotiformes, this section, in addition to the riband-like body, is 
 characterised by the vent being situated near the hinder extremity of the 
 latter, and closely followed by the anal fin ; the dorsal fin running along al- 
 most the entire length of the body, and commencing in an enormous back- 
 wardly-curved spine, which arises from an elevated crest on the summit of 
 
 the short head. To the pre- 
 sence of this spine, or horn, 
 the one representative of 
 the section and family (Lo- 
 photes cepedianus) owes its 
 popular name of unicorn- 
 fish. Rhinoceros-fish would, 
 however, be a better title. 
 The unicorn-fish grows to a 
 length of between five and 
 six feet, and has been taken 
 at considerable depths in 
 widely distant parts of the 
 ocean. That it is indeed a 
 fairly deep-sea monster is 
 apparent from its large eyes ; 
 but this feature indicates 
 that it is not an inhabitant 
 of the deepest abysses, 
 where ordinary visual or- 
 gans would be of no use. 
 Although we can never hope to acquire such knowledge, it would be matter 
 of extreme interest to discover the use of the enormous horn of this strange 
 fish. 
 
 The riband-fishes differ from the Lophotidm by two characters connected 
 with the fins. In the first place, the anal is absent ; and in the second, the 
 caudal fin is either rudimental, or is so placed as not to form 
 Section Tsenii- a direct continuation of the longitudinal axis of the body, 
 formes. Family being then directed upwards in a fan-like manner. Very 
 Trachypteridce. generally, however, this caudal appendage is lost in full- 
 grown specimens. Young riband-fishes are so totally un- 
 like their parents that no one would dream they belonged to the same group. 
 Dr. Giinther observes that such young fish, of from two to four inches in 
 length, "are not rarely met with near the surface. They possess the most 
 
 Fig. 16. UNICORN FISH. 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 485 
 
 extraordinary development of fin-rays observed in the whole class of fishes, 
 some of them being several times longer than the body, and provided with 
 lappet-like dilatations. There is no doubt that fishes with such delicate ap- 
 pendages are bred and live in depths where the water is absolutely quiet, as a 
 sojourn in the disturbed water of the surface would deprive them at once of 
 organs which must be of some utility for their own preservation." Riband- 
 fishes are classed under three genera, respectively known by the names of 
 Begalecus, Stylophorus, and Trachypterus. Of these, the first includes the 
 largest known species ; Banks' riband-fish (R. banksi), which is occasionally 
 cast 011 the shores of England, where it is known most inappropriately as 
 the " king of the herrings," exceeding a score of feet in length. In place of 
 the horn of the unicorn-fish, this riband-fish has a crest of curving spines on 
 the crown of the head, which recalls the feathery crest of a cockatoo. In 
 this genus the pelvic fins, which are placed almost immediately behind the 
 extremely short pectoral pair, are reduced to long tapering filaments, withr . 
 out rays ; the caudal fin being rudimental or absent. On the other hand, in 
 the rare Stylophorus, the pelvic fins are totally absent, and the caudal forms 
 a very long appendage like a whip-lash. In the typical Trachypterus, how- 
 ever, the pelvic pair of fins still retain their rays. The best known member 
 of this genus is the northern one commonly known as the deal-fish, which is 
 not unfrequently cast ashore after gales on the mainland and islands of the 
 north of Britain. 
 
 An aberrant group of the sub-order is formed by the long-bodied deep-sea 
 fishes, commonly known as thorn-backs, all of which may be included in the 
 single genus Notacanthus. In these fishes the dorsal fin 
 has no soft portion, and is composed of a great number of Section Nota- 
 low tooth-like spines, separated from one another by com- canthiformes. 
 paratively long intervals, and extending over nearly the whole Family Nota- 
 length of the back, the long anal being of somewhat similar canthidce. 
 structure. The muzzle is produced some distance in advance 
 of the snout. The pectoral and pelvic fins are widely separated from one 
 another, so that the latter are truly abdominal in position ; but in sp}te of 
 this the caudal region extends a long distance behind the pelvics, the tail 
 terminating in a sharp point, without a distinct fin. 
 
 The members of the last sectional group of the great sub-order Acantho- 
 pterygii are distinguished from nearly all the forms hitherto mentioned by the 
 coalescence in the median line of the lower pharyngeal bones. 
 On this account the group has been regarded as of subordinal Section Pharyn- 
 value, although it seems preferable that it should rank only gognathi. 
 as a section. That it is a specialised group is indicated, not Family 
 
 only by the union of the pharyngeals, but also by the loss of Pomacentridce. 
 the air-bladder. The group includes four families, of which 
 the first is represented by the coral-fishes, forming the genera Dascyllus, Heli- 
 astes, Pomacentrus, etc. Most of these are inhabitants of the tropical seas, 
 where, as their name implies, they frequent coral reefs. In form and colora- 
 tion, as well as in habits, they are very similar to the Chcetodontidce (p. 465), 
 many of them having alternate dark and light bands on the body. The 
 absence of scales on the fins in the present family serves, however, to dis- 
 tinguish them at a glance from the members of the other group. In these 
 fishes the body is deep and compressed ; the scales are of the ctenoid or 
 comb-like type ; the lateral line is either interrupted, or stops short of the 
 caudal fin ; and false gills are developed in the head. The number of species 
 
486 PISCES SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOML 
 
 is very large. In habits these fish are carnivorous, some of them being pro- 
 vided with powerful incisor teeth, for the purpose of feeding on coral. 
 
 More familiar than the last is the extensive and important family of the 
 wrasses, or thick-lipped fishes, in which the scales have smooth margins 
 (cycloid), and the pouting lips are often greatly thickened. 
 Family Labridce. As in the preceding family, the dorsal fin is single, with the 
 spiny portion at least as well developed as the rayed, which 
 is similar to the anal ; and the pelvic pair are thoracic in position, and com- 
 prise five rays and a single spine. Whereas in some of the wrasses the body 
 
 is deep, in others it is of a more 
 elongated shape. Wrasses are coast 
 fishes, mostly of carnivorous habits, 
 which attain their maximum de- 
 velopment in the tropical and 
 temperate seas. Although their 
 palates are unarmed, their jaws are 
 Fig. 17. STRIPED WRASSE. provided with a number of powerful 
 
 teeth admirably suited for crushing 
 
 the shell-fish on which these fishes chiefly subsist. Sea-anemones or corals 
 afford, however, a preferable diet to some of the species, while a few are 
 strict vegetarians. Wrasses are divided into a number of genera, which may 
 be arranged in larger groups in correspondence with the conformation of the 
 front teeth. In the typical Labrax, of which the headquarters is the Medi- 
 terranean, the jaw-teeth are conical and arranged in a single series. The two 
 British forms are the ballan (L. maculatus) and the striped wrasse (L. 
 mixtus), of which the latter exhibits great sexual differences in coloration. 
 The gold sinny represents in Britain a genus (Crenilabrus) differing from the 
 true wrasses in having the edge of the preopercular bone serrated at all ages, 
 instead of only in the young. 
 
 Passing by many other types, brief reference must be made to the parrot- 
 wrasses (Scarus), deriving their name from the confluence of the anterior 
 teeth to form a cutting beak. One species is common in the 
 Family Mediterranean, where it was well known to the ancients. 
 Diatrematidce. The viviparous wrasses (Ditrema and Heterocarpus) are note- 
 worthy on account of their peculiar reproduction, and are 
 accordingly referred to as a family by themselves. These fishes, which do not 
 attain to a large size, are very characteristic of the temperate portions of the 
 North Pacific, where the majority of the species are confined to the American 
 side, although a few occur on the Asiatic. 
 
 The last group of the Acanthopterygii is the somewhat important family 
 
 of the chromids, which have a very remarkable geographical distribu- 
 
 . tion. From the other members of the group with the lower 
 
 Family pharyngal bones united, they are distinguished by being 
 
 Chromididce. exclusively fresh-water in their habitat. Although none of 
 
 the genera inhabiting the Eastern Hemisphere are common 
 
 to the Western, these fish inhabit the rivers of Tropical Africa, Madagascar, 
 
 Syria, Palestine, and Tropical America, while a single genus is found in 
 
 India. From the other members of the present group, the chromids may be 
 
 distinguished by the absence of false gills. In appearance they are not very 
 
 unlike wrasses, having a single dorsal fin, of which the anterior portion is 
 
 spiny, the scales generally ctenoid, and the lateral line more or less markedly 
 
 interrupted. In regard to diet, they display considerable variation, some 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 487 
 
 forms being entirely carnivorous, whereas others are as distinctly vegetable 
 feeders. Most are relatively small fishes, although the balti of the Nile, 
 which belongs to Chromis, grows to twenty inches. Of the genera, Mroplus 
 is Indian, Ghromis and Hemichromis are African and Syrian, and Paretroplus 
 Malagasy. 
 
 SUB-ORDER II. LOPHOBRANCHII. 
 
 This and the following sub-order include a small number of peculiar fishes 
 which may probably be regarded as highly specialised offshoots from the 
 primitive stock of the Acanthopterygii, neither of them having a duct to the 
 air-bladder. The Lophobranchii take their name from the form of the gills, 
 which consist of small rounded tufts arising from the gill-arches ; the gill- 
 apertures being small, and the operculum or gill-cover comprising only a 
 single plate-like bone. All these fishes have the body enclosed in a many- 
 jointed shield of bone, and the mouth is produced into a toothless tube. 
 Another peculiarity is to be found in the exceedingly feeble development of 
 the muscles. 
 
 The first family of the sub-order is formed solely by the members of the 
 genus Solenostoma, which are few in number and small in size, and inhabit 
 the Indian Ocean. These fishes have the fins well de- 
 veloped, no soft rays to the first dorsal, wide gill-apertures, Family Soleno- 
 and the muzzle greatly elongated. The body is much com- stomatidce. 
 pressed and the tail very short ; the soft dorsal and anal fins 
 arising opposite one another from elevations of the hinder part of the body, 
 while the pelvic pair, which are seven-rayed, are situated below the first 
 dorsal, and in the female are united to the chest by their outer edges to form 
 a receptacle for the eggs. None of these fishes have an air-bladder. 
 
 The second family of the group is represented by the pipe-fishes (Syngtia- 
 thus, Siplioiwstoma, etc.), and the still more bizarre sea-horses (Hippocampus 
 and Phyllopteryx), the latter differing from the former in hav- 
 ing the tail prehensile, and employing it as an anchor. These Family 
 fishes are distinguished from the first family by the aperture Syngnathidce. 
 of the gill-chamber being reduced to a very minute opening 
 at the hinder upper angle of the operculum, and by the loss of the first 
 dorsal and pelvic fins. In certain cases some of the other fins are likewise 
 aborted. The pipe-fishes have the body exceedingly elongated, whereas in 
 the sea-horses it is shorter and deeper, while spiny leaf -like processes arise 
 from the ridges on the head and back. Many of these fish have special 
 structural modifications for the purpose of protecting the eggs, as is also the 
 case with some of the Solenostomatidce. Thus, the females of Solenostoma 
 are provided on the lower surface of 
 the body with a roomy pouch, formed 
 by the adherence of the pelvic fins to 
 the skin of the abdomen. The inner 
 walls of this pouch are furnished with 
 long filaments, which aid in keeping 
 the egg in position ; and it is probable 
 that after the fry are hatched they are 
 retained for some time by attachment Fig. 18. PIPE-FISH. 
 to the walls of the chamber. In the 
 
 typical pipe-fishes (Syngnathus) the care of the family falls to the share of the 
 males, which are provided with a long pouch on the under surface of the tail, 
 
PISCES S UB- CLASS III. TELE OS TO MI. 
 
 formed by a fold of skin arising on each side, and the two meeting in the 
 middle line. The manner in which the eggs are conveyed into this pouch 
 appears to be unknown, but when once there they are completely enclosed by 
 the junction of the edges of the two folds of skin, and thus remain till they 
 are hatched into minute eel-like pipe-fish, which soon make their way into 
 the water by bursting open the folds of the pouch. In the sea-horses the 
 development is carried one stage further, the nursing-pouch being closed 
 along the middle line, so as to communicate with the exterior only by means 
 of a small aperture at the anterior end, through which the eggs are by some 
 means or other introduced, and by which in due course the young make their 
 escape. Certain pipe-fishes (Doryichthys) differ from the ordinary forms in 
 that the males have the pouch placed beneath the abdomen instead of under 
 the tail ; and it is remarkable that in some allied genera (Nerophis) the eggs 
 are simply attached to the lower surface of the abdomen of the male without 
 the development of any pouch. 
 
 Both the Solenostomatidce and Syngnathidce are feeble swimmers ; they 
 generally frequent coasts well protected by sea-weed, to which the species 
 provided with prehensile tails attach themselves by means of that useful 
 appendage. In swimming, they generally maintain themselves In a more or 
 less nearly vertical position. Writing of the sea-horse, Dr. Bashford Dean 
 says that, "in spite of its many structural oddities, its genetic kinship with 
 the stickle-backs cannot be doubted. Yet to have attained its present form, 
 its evolution must have carried it along a widely divergent path. It may, in 
 the first place, have fused the lines of its metameral scales, dividing off the 
 surface of its elongate body in sharp-edged rectangles, whose corners have 
 become produced into spines. At this state of evolution its appearance 
 might well be represented by that of the kindred pipe-fish. To secure more 
 perfect anchorage in its algous feeding-ground, its body-terminal must now 
 have discarded its fin-membranes and become prehensile, probably the most 
 remarkable adaptation in the entire class of fishes', since it causes metameral 
 organs to change the plane in which they function from a horizontal to a 
 vertical one." 
 
 SUB-ORDER III. PLECTOGNATHI. 
 
 The spine-clad globe-fishes, of which dried specimens are so frequently 
 exhibited in old curiosity shops, may be taken as a familiar example of this 
 small sub-order, which, like the last, includes highly modified and specialised 
 forms. All these fishes have a narrow mouth, and some of the bones of the 
 upper jaw fused together, while in some of them the jaws are produced into 
 a beak-like form. They have but few segments in the back-bone, and 
 whereas the bones of the head are fully hardened, those of the rest of the 
 skeleton are comparatively soft. In form, the gills are pectinate ; the gill- 
 apertures being very small, and placed in advance of the pectoral pair of fins. 
 If the pelvic fins persist they are reduced to mere spines ; the spinous dorsal, 
 too, is more or less rudimental, although the soft dorsal is generally well 
 developed and situated far back, immediately over the anal. Very various 
 is the covering of the body, the skin in some forms being naked, while in 
 others it is dotted over with long spines ; in others the whole head and body 
 is invested in a complete cuirass of true bone, while in others there are 
 roughened scales. All, however, agree in the absence of a duct to the 
 air-bladder. 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 
 
 489 
 
 Fig. 19. COFFEE-FISH. 
 
 The first family of the Plectogathi is represented by the file-fishes 
 (Batistes, etc.) and the strange coffer-fishes (Ostracium). In these fishes there 
 are a few separate teeth in the jaws, and traces of the spinous 
 dorsal and pelvic fins usually persist. In form, the body Family 
 
 may be either compressed or angulated, and the muzzle is Balistidce. 
 rather elongated ; the skin being either spiny or rough, or 
 replaced by a bony armour. Their chief habitat is the tropical oceans, al- 
 though some range into cooler seas. The Oriental genus Triacanthus belongs 
 to a sub-family characterised by the 
 presence of roughened scale-like plates 
 on the skin, and the retention of from 
 four to six spines in the first dorsal 
 fin. On the other hand, Batistes is 
 included in a sub-family in which 
 there are never more than three spines 
 in the fin last mentioned ; while the pelvic fins are absent, or indicated only 
 by a swelling on the lower surface of the body ; the compressed body being 
 clothed with scale-like plates capable of being moved, or with a roughened 
 skin. There are several genera in this group, and the flesh of certain kinds 
 is poisonous. Batistes itself, which is furnished with powerful cutting teeth 
 in the front of the jaws, browses upon living coral, or eats through the shells 
 of molluscs in order to get at the animal within. The angulated bony cara- 
 pace composed of hexagonal plates joined together like mosaic sufficiently 
 distinguishes the coffer-fishes (Ostracium), which constitute a sub-family by 
 themselves. 
 
 The second family includes the globe-fishes and their near allies the sun- 
 fishes, in both of which the bones of the jaws are welded together so as to 
 form a cutting parrot-like beak of great power. The teeth 
 are modified into large dental plates tightly adherent to the Family 
 
 jaws, and consisting structurally of a number of very thin J)iodontidce. 
 parallel laminae, arranged like the leaves in a book. These 
 fishes are mostly inhabitants of the hotter seas, although a few have taken to a 
 fresh -water existence. The one Oriental species of Tfiodon alone represents 
 the first sub-family, and has the skin of the lower surface dilated into a large, 
 inflatable sac ; the dental plate of the upper-jaw being divided in the middle, 
 
 while that of the lower is single. 
 Spiny bony plates, which do not over- 
 lap, clothe the body, and the tail-fin is 
 forked. The globe-fishes (Diodon, 
 Tetrodon, etc.) form the second sub- . 
 family, and have the more or less 
 shortened and rounded body covered 
 with spines, while there is a distinct 
 tail and caudal fin, and the distensible 
 throat can be inflated with air. The 
 different genera are chiefly distin- 
 guished from one another by the con- 
 formation of the dental plates, and the size and distribution of the spines. 
 Dr. Giinther writes, that " these fishes have the power of inflating their body 
 by filling their distensible oesophagus with air, and thus assume a more or 
 less globular form. The skin is then stretched to its utmost extent, and the 
 spines protrude and form a more or less formidable defensive armour, as in a 
 
 Fig. 20. GLOBE-FISH. 
 
490 
 
 PISCES SUB-CLASS III.TELEOSTOML 
 
 hedgehog ; therefore they are frequently called sea-hedgehogs. However, it 
 
 is probable that the spines 
 are a protection not only 
 when the fish is on the sur- 
 face and able to take in air, 
 but also when it is under 
 water." The third sub-family 
 of the Diodontidce includes 
 only the two species of sun- 
 fish, Orthagoriscus, specimens 
 of which at times grow to as 
 much as seven feet in length. 
 Having the body excessively 
 compressed and deep, with a 
 very tall dorsal and anal fin 
 placed one above the other 
 at the hinder end, the sun- 
 fishes are especially charac- 
 terised by the short, deep, 
 and truncated tail, of which 
 
 fig. 21. COMMON SUN-FISH. the fin is confluent above with 
 
 the base of the dorsal, and 
 
 below with that of the anal. There is no dilatable sac beneath the skin, 
 which may be either rough or smoothly tesselated ; and externally the 
 pelvic fins and internally the air-bladder are absent. Sun-fish are pelagic 
 forms, generally swimming in a vertical position near the surface of the 
 water. Both kinds seem to feed chiefly on shell-fish. 
 
 SUB-ORDER IV. AXACANTHINI. 
 
 The members of this comparatively small, although highly important 
 sub-order are distinguished from the Acanthopterygii by the pelvic and 
 median fins being, as a general rule, devoid of spines and composed of soft 
 jointed rays. When present at all, the pelvic fins are invariably either thor- 
 acic or jugular in position ; and in those forms furnished with an air bladder, 
 this has no communication with the oesophagus. 
 
 The first four families of the sub-order form a section known as the Ga- 
 doidei, and are characterised by the normal and symmetrical form of the head 
 and body. The family of the Lycodidce includes several 
 Family genera of blenny-like fish characterised by the union of all 
 Lycodidce. the median fins, and by the pelvics, when present, being 
 small, jugular, and articulated to the pectoral arch. Most of 
 these fishes are inhabitants of the seas in the neighbourhood of the two poles. 
 Passing by the family with the bare mention that Lycodes and Gymnelis are 
 two of the best-known genera, we turn to the much more important cod 
 family. In these the caudal fin is generally distinct from the others, but 
 when it is united therewith, the first dorsal is divided, so 
 Family Gadidce. that three dorsals are produced. Generally the pelvic fins 
 which are jugular are well developed, but in those in- 
 stances where they are filamentary, the first dorsal is double. There may 
 be either a single or a double anal. As regards their internal anatomy, it 
 will suffice to say that the cods generally have an air-bladder ; while as their 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 491 
 
 external form is so familiar, it will not be necessary to say more than that the 
 scales are small and the lateral line distinct. Cod are for the most part in- 
 habitants of comparatively shallow seas of the cooler portions of the Northern 
 Hemisphere, although there are some widely distributed deep-sea forms, and 
 a very few live in fresh water. All the members of the family are edible ; and 
 as they are particularly suitable for salting, their value as a food-supply is 
 very great, although the taste and quality of their flesh is far inferior to that 
 of many other fish. In the typical genus Gadus are included the greater 
 number of the larger and more 
 valuable species, such as the com- 
 mon cod (G. morrhud), the haddock 
 (G. ceglefiiiits), the whiting (G. mer- 
 langus), the pollack (G. pollachius), 
 and the coal-fish (G. virens). In all 
 of these there are three dorsal and 
 two anal fins ; and whereas teeth 
 are developed on the vomerine bones 
 of the palate, the palatines are 
 toothless. Most, although not all, *% 22. COMMON COD. 
 
 have a barbel on the chin. In the 
 
 allied group of the hakes (Merluccius) this barbel is wanting, while the num- 
 ber of dorsal fins is reduced to two, and there is but a single anal ; the pelvic 
 fins being strong, and broad at the base, and teeth being present alike in the 
 jaws and on the vomer. The large fresh- water cod known as the burbot (Lota 
 vulgaris) is found both in Europe and in North America, and has the same 
 number of fins as the hakes, but the body is longer, the head flatter, and the 
 chin bears a barbel. Nearly allied are the marine lings (Molva\ distinguished 
 by having several large teeth on the vomer and in the lower jaw. In the 
 rocklings (Motella) the first dorsal fin merely forms a fringe, partly concealed 
 in a groove ; and there are barbels varying in number with the species to 
 both jaws. Some members of this genus are remarkable on account of their 
 southern habitat, being found in the seas of New Zealand and the Cape. 
 
 Although most familiarly known by the sand-eels, the chief interest in the 
 family Ophidiidce centres round the blind cave-fish from the caves of Cuba. 
 In none of the tribe are the pelvic fins fi>lly developed, and 
 in eome they are wanting ; while there is no distinct first Family 
 dorsal or first anal, and the caudal fin is in most cases nob Ophidiidce. 
 distinct from the other median fins. The two small fresh- 
 water fishes constituting the genus Lucifuga are sufficiently distinguished by 
 the absence of eyes ; but they have a near ally in the marine Brotula, which 
 possesses fully developed visual organs. There are, however, blind deep-sea 
 types, such as Typhlonus. All these retain pelvic fins, which are jugular in 
 position ; but in the typical Ophidium these are replaced by long filaments. 
 Very interesting are the somewhat eel-like small parasitic fishes constituting 
 the genera JSncheliophis and Fierasfer, which frequent the breathing-chambers 
 of sea-cucumbers, the interior of bivalve molluscs, and other safe positions in 
 living animals. They have no pelvic fins, and the vent is situated quite close 
 up to the throat. On the other hand, in the sand-launces, or sand-eels 
 (Ammodytes), while pelvic fins are absent, the position of the vent is normal. 
 These fish which love to bury themselves in the sand have elongated bodies, 
 on which the low dorsal fin extends from a little distance behind the head to 
 the tail, while the anal occupies almost all the hinder half of the lower surface. 
 
492 PISCES SUB-CLASS JILTELEOSTOML 
 
 Of comparatively little importance is the small marine family typified by 
 
 the genus Macrurus. Their chief character is that the body terminates 
 
 behind in an elongated, tapering, compressed tail, without 
 
 Family an expanded caudal fin, and is coated with scales, which may 
 
 Macruridce. be either striated, keeled, or spined. Some of the numerous 
 
 species measure as much as a yard in length. 
 
 The last family of the sub-order is that of the flat-fishes, which forms a 
 section to itself, known as the Pleuronectoidei, and characterised by the un- 
 symmetrical conformation of the head and anterior portion 
 Family of the body in the adult. This strange modification renders 
 
 Pleuronectoidce. the flat-fishes quite distinct from all other members of the 
 class, and by bringing the two eyes to one side of the body 
 it may be the right or it may be the left enables them to rest with the other 
 side on the bottom of the sea. Generally, too, they swim in this position, 
 although it is believed that some of the less modified types swira> at least at 
 times, in the normal manner. In this type of fish we have, as Dr. Bashford 
 Dean remarks, " a singular instance of environmental evolution, the flattened 
 body adapting itself both in shape and colour to its bottom-living. Its entire 
 side not the ventral region, as in the rays is flattened to the bottom. The 
 unpaired fins now become of especial value ; they increase in size, and their 
 undulatory movements enable the fish to swim rapidly yet retain its one- 
 sided position ; ventral fins become useless and degenerate. The further 
 adaptations of the flat-fish include its pigmentation only on the upper or 
 light -exposed side, in this giving one of the most remarkable cases of adapta- 
 tion known among vertebrates.' 5 Among the rather numerous genera consti- 
 tuting this family, the one in which the adaptation is least developed is 
 Psettodes, represented by a species whose distribution extends from China to 
 the west coast of Africa. In this fish the dorsal fin, which in the other types 
 commences at, or in front of the eye, begins on the neck ; the eyes being 
 either on the left or the right side. The two species of halibut (Hippoglossus) 
 mark one step in advance, the dorsal fin starting above the eye, although the 
 jaws are still of nearly equal development on both sides. More specialised 
 is the genus Rhombus, which includes the turbot, brill, and mary-sole. Here 
 the dorsal fin commences on the snout, and the eyes are situated on the left 
 side of the body; the scales being either minute or wanting. All these fishes 
 
 have teeth on the vomerine bones 
 of the palate, but since the so- 
 called top-knot of the Mediter- 
 ranean and the Channel has an 
 edentulous vomer, it is referred to 
 a genus apart, under the name of 
 Phrynorhombus. Omitting men- 
 tion of a number of other less 
 familiar genera, brief reference 
 must be made to Pleuronectes, so 
 well known in the shape of the 
 flounder and the plaice. In these 
 Fig. 23. THE FLOUNDER. fish the dorsal fin starts above the 
 
 eye, and the narrow mouth is very 
 
 unsymmetrical, having its teeth much more developed on the blind than on 
 the coloured side. There are no teeth in the palate, and the eyes are gener- 
 ally on the right side, scales being small or wanting. Lastly, the soles (Solea) 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 493 
 
 are right-eyed fishes, with the upper eye somewhat in front of the lower one, 
 and the narrow mouth twisted round to the left side ; the dorsal fin, which is 
 distinct from the caudal, starting on the snout. 
 
 SUB-ORDER V. PHYSOSTOMI. 
 
 Section A. Apodes. 
 
 The bony fishes formhig the present group are broadly distinguished from 
 all the foregoing by the possession of a duct to the air-bladder when present; 
 such duct opening either into the oesophagus or the stomach. To this leading 
 and all-important internal feature of the group it may b? added, that exter- 
 nally all these fishes have the pelvic fins situated far behind the pectoral pair, 
 whence they are described as abdominal in position. If the skull be ex- 
 amined, it will be found that, as a general rule, the parietal bones meet in the 
 middle line. The rays supporting the fins are mostly soft, although the first 
 in the pectoral pair and dorsal are spiny. Most of these features are primi- 
 tive a duct to the air-bladder being found in the succeeding sub-orders of 
 the Teleostomi, which are clearly low types and it may accordingly be 
 inferred that the Physostomi are inferior in their organisation to the groups 
 in which the air-bladder is unprovided with a duct. The section named 
 above includes three families of eel-like fishes, but as the features by which 
 this section differs from those that follow are deep-seated and would require 
 a considerable amount of technical language for their adequate explanation, 
 they cannot be described on this occasion. 
 
 The Murwnidm are all characterised by their snake-like bodily form, but as 
 this form is common to the other two families included in the section, other 
 features have to be relied on for the definition of the group. 
 Unfortunately, many of these features can only be observed The Eel-Tribe. 
 by an examination of the skeleton or internal soft parts. Family Murcen- 
 Externally eels are characterised by the absence of the pelvic idee. 
 
 pair of fins, and in some forms the pectorals are likewise 
 wanting. If the dorsal and anal fins are developed, these either form with 
 the tail a continuous fringe, or are merely separated by the projecting ex- 
 tremity of the latter. The skin is either bare, or contains minute rudimental 
 scales. The backward position of the vent is likewise a characteristic feature 
 of the family. More important is the structure of the upper jaw, of which 
 the front portion of the margin is formed by the premaxillse, while the sides 
 are constituted by the maxillae, which are well provided with teeth. Equally 
 important is the circumstance that posteriorly the skull has no connection with 
 the pectoral arch, which is attached solely to the vertebrae of the neck. Of 
 the soft parts, it will suffice to state that there are no ducts to the reproduc- 
 tive organs. Whereas some members of the family are exclusively marine, 
 others pass a considerable portion of their existence in fresh waters. Among 
 the former are the brightly-coloured and frequently gigantic species constit- 
 uting the genus Murcena, some of which grow to fully eight feet in length. 
 They have no paired fins, although the median ones are well developed ; and 
 save for the presence of the latter, are exceedingly like large snakes. In all 
 the skin is naked, and in many the teeth are very large and powerful. A 
 peculiar feature is the presence of two pairs of external nostrils, of which the 
 foremost are tubular, while the hinder pair are also of a similar type in certain 
 
494 PISCES SUB-CLASS III.TELEOSTOML 
 
 species. There are many representatives of the genus from tropical and tem- 
 perate seas, some of which ascend tidal rivers. All are highly predaceous. 
 The so-called glass-eels (Leptocephalus) are larval forms of the members of 
 the present family. Although occasionally brought by currents to the surface, 
 they live at great depths in the sea. Before turning into the adult form they 
 undergo a distinct metamorphosis. Nearly allied are the five representatives 
 of the genus Gymnomurcena, which inhabit the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and 
 have the median fins represented by mere rudiments near the extremity of 
 the tail. From both these genera the true eels (Anguilla) may be easily 
 distinguished by the retention of the pectoral fins, which are placed close to the 
 head, and have the narrow gill-openings just behind their roots. The two 
 jaws are approximately equal in length; the skin contains a number of rudi- 
 mental scales ; and the teeth are small and arranged in the form of bands. Eels 
 are so familiar to all that they need no further description. Before com- 
 panies were so careful in filtering their water as at present, eels would, not 
 unfrequently, enter the service-pipes, where they would remain until the pas- 
 sage became completely choked, owing to their increase in size. Eels occur 
 in the fresh waters of all parts of the world where the temperature is not per- 
 manently below the freezing point. Reams of paper have been spoilt in dis- 
 cussing their breeding-habits, which long remained a mystery. It is, how- 
 ever, now ascertained that eels breed only in the sea, and that the repro- 
 ductive process seems to be fatal to their existence ; such individuals as are 
 confined to fresh waters being sterile. In autumn such adults as are enabled 
 to find a passage make their way to the ocean, whence they never return ; 
 while in spring the elvers, or young eels, ascend the rivers, frequently in enor- 
 mous numbers. On such migrations scarcely any obstacles will stay their ad- 
 vance, and they have even been 
 known to circumvent a barrier by 
 leaving the water and making a 
 detour over moist rocks or marshy 
 ground. Thus St. John writes that 
 in a Scotch river when the elvers 
 " came to a fall that they could not 
 possibly ascend, they wriggled out 
 of the water, and gliding along the 
 rock, close to the edge where the 
 stone was constantly wet from the 
 Fig. 24. SERPENT-EEL. splashing and spray of the fall, they 
 
 made their way up till they got above 
 
 the difficulty, and then again slipping into the water, continued their course." 
 Writing of eel-migrations in the Thames, Jesse observes that this takes place 
 in May. " The young eels are about two inches in length, and they make 
 their approach in one regular and undeviating column of about five inches in 
 breadth, and as thick together as it is possible for them to be. As the pro- 
 cession generally lasts two or three days, and as they appear to move at the 
 rate of nearly two miles and a half an hour, some idea may be formed of their 
 enormous number.'' The largest eels occur in Oceania, where examples 
 measuring as much as ten feet in length have been recorded. From the true 
 eels the marine species included in the genus Conger differ by the total want 
 of scales, as well as by the larger mouth, the presence of an outer series of 
 cutting teeth in the jaws, and the more forward extension of the dorsal fin. 
 At least four species of conger are known, among which C. vulgaris is almost 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 495 
 
 cosmopolitan in distribution. Congers are found at moderate depths on rocky 
 bottoms, and are extremely voracious, taking at night almost any kind of bait. 
 Eight feet is not an uncommon length for one of these eels. There are also 
 deep-sea congers, such as Synaphobranchus and Saccopharynx, living at depths 
 down to two thousand fathoms ; the former being characterised by the union 
 of the gill-openings to form a median slit on the under surface of the fore-part 
 of the body, and the latter by the soft and spongy texture of the flesh of the 
 body. An allied group is formed by the numerous tropical species of 
 Ophichthys, in which the nostrils are situated in the lips, and the extremity of 
 the tail is free and finless. 
 
 There are many other generic representatives of the Murcenidce, but we 
 pass on to briefly notice the small family of the Symbranchidce, which takes its 
 name from the gill-openings forming a transverse slit on the 
 lower surface. In these eels the median fins are wanting, Family 
 
 and the paired fins rudimental, while the margin of the Symbranchidce. 
 upper jaw is formed solely by the premaxillse. The air- 
 bladder, too, is wanting ; but ducts are present to the reproductive organs. 
 Most of the members of the family are fresh-water forms from Tropical 
 America and Asia, but the Tasmanian and Australian genus Chilobranchiis 
 is marine. The Indian Amphipnous in which the gills are much re- 
 duced is remarkable for the possession of an additional breathing-organ 
 in the form of a lung-like sac on each side of the body close behind 
 the head. 
 
 The third and last family of the section is represented by certain fresh- 
 water eels from Tropical America, which are arranged in five genera. From 
 the Murcenidce these eels may be distinguished by the 
 absence or rudimental condition of the dorsal fin, the great Family 
 
 elongation of the anal, and the general absence of the caudal, Gymnotidce. 
 fin, the tail terminating in a point, and being as fragile as 
 that of the blind-worm. The vent is placed close to the throat, the repro- 
 ductive organs have ducts, and the pectoral girdle is connected with the skull. 
 The chief interest of this family is concentrated on the electric eel (Gymnotus 
 electricus), from the fresh-waters of the Guianas and Brazil, which attains a 
 length of six feet, and is provided 
 with electric organs very similar 
 in structure to those of the electric 
 ray described in the sequel, and 
 capable of inflicting equally power- 
 ful shocks. Most books on natural 
 history copy from Humboldt a 
 wonderful account of the capture 
 of these eels by means of horses 
 driven into the waters they fre- 
 quent, but there is only too much 
 reason to believe that the whole Fig. 25. ELECTRIC EEL. 
 
 story is a pure fiction, although not 
 
 an intentional one, on the part of the illustrious traveller. It is high 
 time that it should be forgotten. 
 
496 PISCES SUB-CLASS III.TELEOSTOMI. 
 
 Section B. Nematagnathi. 
 
 The second section of the Physostomi includes only the cat-fishes or sheath- 
 fishes, typified by the huge wels (Siluriis glaitis) of the larger rivers of 
 Eastern Europe, which is the sole European representative 
 Cat-fishes. of this immense family. Apart from the structural features 
 Family distinctive of the section, the cat-fishes are characterised by 
 SiluridcB. the skin of the body being either naked, or protected by 
 bony plates of variable size, scales being invariably wanting. 
 In all, the mouth is provided with barbels, or feelers, frequently of great 
 length, and it is from the presence of these highly sensitive organs that the 
 name of cat-fish is due. Many of them have the bones of the hinder region 
 of the skull ornamented with a rough tubercular sculpture, and there is fre- 
 quently a large shield, similarly sculptured, covering the upper surface of the 
 neck and shoulders. Often, too, the front of the dorsal fin is armed with a 
 long, powerful, and sometimes poisonous, spine, which in some forms can be 
 raised or depressed by the aid of a kind of trigger-like arrangement connected 
 with the spines of the vertebrae of the neck. Very often there is a fatty 
 dorsal fin, and there is also a rayed dorsal. In the skull the margin of the 
 upper jaw is mainly formed by the premaxillse ; but a more important char- 
 acter is to be found in the absence from the gill-cover of the bone technically 
 known as the subopercular. The air-bladder, which may be bony, is very 
 generally present, and is then connected with the internal ear by means of 
 minute bones. Cat-fishes are ugly creatures, with large ungainly heads, 
 small eyes, and the aforesaid long barbels. Some, like the Oriental Bayarius 
 yarelli, grow to a length of a couple of yards, and have huge ugly mouths, 
 opening nearly the full width of the head. In habits they are sluggish, and 
 dwell for the most part on the bottom of muddy rivers, lakes, or ponds, 
 where their barbels probably play a large part in enabling them to find their 
 way about. They are remarkably tenacious of life, and the writer once found 
 it absolutely impossible to kill some of these fish, caught while he was 
 quarantined on board ship in the Rio de la Plata. All these fishes should be 
 handled with extreme caution, as the spines of many of them are capable of 
 inflicting extremely dangerous wounds. Their flesh, although eatable, is of 
 poor quality. In the rivers and lakes of India and other Oriental countries, 
 cat-fish are extremely abundant, as they also are in those of South America, 
 where the shores of every little pond is strewn with their skulls. They 
 appear to inhabit ponds or lakes liable to be dried up in seasons of unusual 
 drought, and at such times they doubtless are enabled to survive by burying 
 themselves deep down in the mud. Although the majority are fresh-water 
 fishes, some will enter salt water temporarily, while others are permanent 
 residents there. For the most part they keep near the coasts, but from the 
 circumstance that one species is common to the rivers of India and some of 
 the Malayan countries, it would seem that certain kinds occasionally traverse 
 a considerable extent of sea. In certain forms, like the members of the 
 genus Arius, the males are in the habit of taking charge of the nursery 
 arrangements, by carrying the eggs about with them in their mouths. Since 
 the family comprises considerably more than a hundred distinct genera, it is 
 obviously impossible to give any adequate account in a work of the present 
 nature. It is sub-divided into several sections, in the first of which the 
 dorsal and anal fins occupy the greater part of the length of the body, the 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 497 
 
 African and Asiatic genus Clarias being an example of this section. To the 
 
 second section belongs the typical SHuTUS, of which there are five species, from 
 
 the temperate regions of Asia and Eastern Europe. Here the rayed portion 
 
 of the dorsal fin is much reduced in length, 
 
 and, if present at all, confined to the 
 
 hinder region of the back, while the fatty 
 
 dorsal is also small or wanting. On the 
 
 other hand, the anal is long, occupying 
 
 nearly the whole of the caudal region. 
 
 The third group is small, and of little 
 
 importance ; but the fourth is a very 
 
 large one, and includes the Nilotic 
 
 Bagriis (represented by the bagad), the Fig. 26. THE WELS. 
 
 South American Pimelodus, the widely 
 
 spread Arius, the gigantic Asiatic Bagarius, and a host of others. In 
 
 this group the short-rayed dorsal does not include more than a dozen rays, 
 
 and is placed far back on the body ; the fatty dorsal is present, although 
 
 often small ; and the anal is much shorter than the caudal portion of the 
 
 backbone. If barbels are present on the nose, they belong to the hinder 
 
 of the two pairs of nostrils. Passing over the fifth group, and likewise 
 
 omitting mention of the seventh and eighth, attention may be directed to the 
 
 sixth, 011 account of its including a number of South and Central American 
 
 forms in which the body is invested in a more or less complete armour, 
 
 formed of large plates of bone. As examples, may be mentioned the short 
 
 and deep-bodied Callichthys, and the long and slender Loricaria and Hypo- 
 
 ptopoma, all three of which are abundantly represented in the Amazons. 
 
 Section C. Plectispondyli. 
 
 The third section of the Physostomi is an important one, as containing the 
 large family of the carps, together with two other family groups. In both 
 the Nematognathi and Plectispondyli the first four vertebrae in the neck are 
 specially modified and united into a single mass ; but the subopercular bone, 
 which, as already mentioned, is wanting in the gill-cover of the former sec- 
 tion, is present in that of the latter. 
 
 Although the numerous members of the large fresh-water family of the 
 carps come under the designation of " coarse-fish," yet, owing to its cheap- 
 ness, their flesh affords an important article of food among 
 certain races and classes, while many of the species afford Family 
 
 sport to those anglers who do not aspire to the highest grade CyprinidcK. 
 of their pastime. All the carps have naked heads and tooth- 
 less sucking mouths ; such teeth as they may possess being confined to the 
 pharyngeal bones of the throat. Usually the body is covered with scales, 
 but if these are wanting the skin is naked. Some kinds are provided with 
 false gills of a glandular type ; and the air-bladder, when present, is large, 
 and may be divided either longitudinally or transversely into two portions. 
 When longitudinally divided, it has a bony capsule. In no carps is there a 
 fatty dorsal fin ; but the mouth often bears short barbels. Carp are un- 
 known both in Central and South America and Australasia, but are elsewhere 
 almost universally distributed. Their distribution is thus coextensive with 
 the Arctogseic realm, as defined in the introductory part of the section on 
 33 
 
X 
 498 PISCES SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOMI. 
 
 mammals. Unlike the cat-fish, the carps prefer clear water ; and while the 
 majority subsist on a mixed diet, some prefer animal substances ; some others 
 confine themselves more or less exclusively to food of a vegetable nature. 
 Although the family approaches the Siluridw in point of numbers, the .im- 
 portance of its members claim for it a somewhat fuller notice. 
 
 The typical sub-family Cypridince is characterised by the air-bladder being 
 divided by a transverse constriction into two chambers, and not invested in 
 a bony capsule. With the exception of the Oriental genus Homalopterus 
 in which they are increased to three, and the air-bladder is wanting the 
 number of pairs of barbels does not exceed two, but one or both of these 
 may be absent. Of the various genera of this sub-family, the typical 
 Cyprinus includes a small number of species from the fresh waters of tem- 
 perate Asia and Europe, the common Cyprinus carpio having been originally 
 
 introduced to the latter continent from 
 the former. In common with certain 
 other genera, Cyprinus generally has 
 the short anal fin provided with five or 
 six branching rays ; but it is specially 
 characterised by the lateral line oc- 
 cupying the middle of each side of the 
 tail, and by the dorsal fin having its 
 Fig. 27. COMMON CARP. front edge placed immediately above 
 
 the pelvic pair, and including one 
 
 serrated bony, and more than nine branching rays. The blunted muzzle 
 carries two pairs of barbels ; and the teeth form a complete triple series, the 
 outermost of which are adapted for crushing. From this genus, Carassius, 
 which includes the crucian carp of Europe and the gold-fish of China and 
 Japan, differs by the absence of barbels. Nearly allied is the very large Old 
 World genus Barbus, typified by the common European barbel, but also well 
 known in the person of the huge mahasir (B. tor\ which affords such excel- 
 lent sport with rod-and-line from Kashmir to Ceylon. The members of this 
 genus have the mouth arched, and are provided with false gills ; the barbels 
 may be either four, two, or none, and the scales are very variable in size, 
 while the form of the body is often less deep than in Cyprinus. Of the 
 mahasir, or mahseer, General Macintyre writes, that * ' on the back its hue is 
 a dark olive-green, shaded off on the sides of a well -conditioned fish into 
 a golden orange, which merges into pale pink and silvery- white below, it 
 has rather large toothless jaws, lined with a very tough membrane, so it 
 requires to be struck pretty hard to be properly hooked. When I say struck, 
 I mean that after the fish has hooked itself, as it will do by its own weight, 
 a good pull without a jerk is necessary to drive home the barb into its 
 leathern jaws. Owing to this toughness of mouth, a mahasir when fixed is 
 seldom lost unless it breaks the tackle. This a big fish will often do in its 
 first plunge, when it sometimes has a way of lashing its tail over the line. 
 That crisis being safely over, if your tackle is trustworthy, landing your fish 
 is usually only a matter of time and patience. Its strong teeth are set far 
 back in its gullet, and the stoutest tackle has a poor chance if it gorges your 
 lure beyond them. It cannot be easily clipped, as its large round scales are 
 so hard that the sharpest gaff will glance off them. When running a mahasir 
 after it has been finely hooked, I have never known it leap from the water, 
 and I think it rarely does so, but its long and rapid rushes quite equal, if 
 they do not surpass, those of any salmon of a similar size, As regards its 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 499 
 
 weight, I am well within the mark when I state that the mahasir reaches 
 nearly, if not quite, 100 Ibs. The largest mahasir I ever heard of as having 
 been taken with a trolling bait was 93 Ibs. ; and with fly, and that turned the 
 scale at 62 Ibs. But such monsters as these are very seldom landed with 
 the rod." 
 
 Nearly allied are the two species of gudgeons, constituting the genus Gobio, 
 which differ from the carps in that the pharyngeal, or throat-teeth, are 
 arranged in one or two series instead of forming three rows. In these 
 familiar fish the whole of the body is invested with scales of moderate size, 
 and the mouth, which is inferior in position, has the bones on its upper 
 margin protrusile, and there are two barbels. Gudgeon are found on the 
 pebbly beds of clear streams, where they feed on minute aquatic animals. 
 
 The numerous kinds of so-called white fish, such as the dace, roach, and 
 chub, belong to the genus Leuciscus, and, in common with certain other 
 genera, differ from the foregoing types in the conformation of the anal fin, 
 which is either of moderate length or short, includes from eight to eleven 
 branching rays, and does not extend so far forwards as the line of the hinder 
 edge of the dorsal. In the preceding forms the same tin usually has only five or 
 six branched rays. The white fish have no barbels, neither is there a cutting 
 edge to their jaws ; while the throat-teeth are arranged in one or two rows, 
 and the dorsal fin is short, and without a bony ray. White fish are found 
 throughout the fresh waters of the cooler portions of the Northern Hemi- 
 sphere, but their species are more numerous in Europe and Asia than in 
 America. Their form and habits are sufficiently familiar to all. Nearly 
 allied to the white fish is the golden-coloured tench, which represents a 
 genus (Tinea) distinguished by the presence of a pair of barbels to the mouth, 
 the slight extent to which the tail is notched, and the minute size of the 
 scales. In this fish the lateral line is complete, and runs nearly in the middle 
 of each side of the tail, as it does in such of the white fish as have it fully 
 developed. Certain allied fishes from the Old World, constituting the genus 
 Chondrostoma, may be recognised by the sharp cutting edge of the lower jaw, 
 which is sheathed in horn. None of these fishes are British, as is also the 
 case with the so-called bitterlings (fihodeus), of which there are four species. 
 The breams (Abramis) bring us, however, to another genus with an English 
 representative. In this and certain other genera of the carp tribe, the anal 
 fin is considerably elongated, and some portion at least of the lower border 
 of the abdomen is compressed to such an extent as to form a sharp keel-like 
 edge. In the bream the short and spineless dorsal fin is situated over the 
 space between the pelvics and anal, the scales are of moderate size, and the 
 lateral line runs somewhat below the middle line of the tail. As in the white 
 fish, the bones of the upper jaw are capable of protrusion, and some members 
 of the genus present the remarkable peculiarity of being "underhung," that 
 is to say, they have the lower jaw somewhat longer than the upper. Passing 
 over several allied species, mention must be made of the beautiful pearly little 
 fish known as bleak (Alburnus\ of which there are a considerable number of 
 species inhabiting the fresh waters of Europe and Western Asia. In addition 
 to the silvery lustre from which they take their name, these little fishes are 
 specially characterised by the slender form of their gill-rakers, which are 
 placed close together ; the body being rather slender, the lateral line running 
 somewhat below the middle of the tail, and the lower jaw somewhat exceed- 
 ing the upper in length. Formerly the scales of the bleak were employed 
 for making artificial pearls, the pearly matter being washed off, and after- 
 
500 PISCES SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOML 
 
 wards deposited in the inner side of thin glass balls, of which the small 
 aperture was finally closed with wax. An account of this manufacture will 
 be found in a small work on British fishes by Frank Buckland. On account 
 of the almost vertical position of the cleft of its up-turned mouth, mention 
 must be made of the sichel of Eastern Europe, which forms a genus (Pelecus) 
 sufficiently distinguished by this one characteristic. 
 
 The rare and local British fish known as the spiny loach (Cobitis tcenia) is 
 the typical member of the second sub-family (Cobitiiwe) of the carp tribe ; a 
 group which includes several other genera of loaches, all confined to the 
 fresh waters of Europe and Asia. In all the members of this sub-family the 
 air-bladder is enclosed, either completely or partly, in a bony capsule, and 
 none possess false gills. The body, too, never has the deep form character- 
 istic of the carps, and in some groups is much elongated. Barbels, varying 
 in number from six to twelve, are always present, and the mouth is inferior 
 in position, with fleshy lips. Whereas the pelvic pair may be Van ting, the 
 median fins are devoid of spines, the number of rays in the dorsal being 
 variable, but those of the anal always few. The tail-fin is rounded, and the 
 scales, if present, are small, and buried in the mucus of the skin. One genus 
 from the Oriental countries is peculiar in possessing scales on the top and 
 sides of the head. The spiny loaches, of which there are at least three 
 species, take their name from the presence of a pair of forked spines below 
 the eyes ; such spines being capable of erection at the will of their owners. 
 In the large genus Nemachilus, which includes the common loach (N. barba- 
 tulus) of every English stream, the spines below the eyes are wanting, and 
 the upper jaw alone is furnished with barbels, of which there are three pairs. 
 The third European genus, Misyurnus, includes the giant loach of Europe, 
 and three other species ; its distributional area including Europe and Asia 
 north of the Himalaya. In this genus there are either five or six pairs of 
 barbels, two of which arise from the lower jaw. Many other genera are 
 found in the Oriental countries, and it is noteworthy that whereas the 
 European forms are inhabitants of clear running waters, these latter dwell 
 in tanks, where they bury themselves in the mud at the bottom. All, how- 
 ever, agree in that their food is composed exclusively of animal substances. 
 
 In the fresh waters of Tropical Africa the place of the loaches is taken by 
 the two species of the genus Kneria, which form a family by themselves, 
 
 distinguished from the Cyprinidce by the absence of throat, 
 Family or pharyngeal teeth, the simple, undivided form of the air- 
 Kneriidce. bladder, and the absence of barbels. 
 
 Of far more importance than the last is the very exten- 
 sive family of fresh-water fishes commonly known as characinoid fishes, but 
 which might perhaps be termed the southern carps. Their distribution is 
 
 indeed largely complementary to that of the Cyprinidce, since 
 
 Family they are confined to Central and South America, and Africa 
 
 Erythrinidce. south of the Sahara ; carps being absent from the former 
 
 countries, although present in the latter. This peculiar 
 geographical distribution is one among many instances of the close affinity 
 existing between the faunas of these two areas. The explanation of 
 the absence of the Cyprinidce from South America may possibly be that 
 the characinoids entered Africa at the time when that country was in 
 communication with South America, whereas the carps did not come in till 
 that communication was severed. If that be so, the Cyprinidce must have 
 come into Africa at the same time as many of the large mammals, such as 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 501 
 
 hippopotami, giraffes, rhinoceroses, elephants, and antelopes. From the 
 Cyprinidce the present family is broadly distinguished by certain peculiarities 
 in the structure of the skull, and by the number of upper pharyngeal bones being 
 one or four, in place of two. The margin of the upper jaw is also different, in 
 that it is formed in front by the premaxillse, and by the maxillae at the sides, 
 instead of entirely by the former bones. Barbels, too, are wanting ; but 
 whereas the head is as devoid of scales as in the Cyprinidcz, the jaws may be 
 either smooth or furnished with powerful teeth. In such an extensive family, 
 it is but little use referring to genera by name, when their distinctive 
 features cannot be described. It may be mentioned, however, that the 
 African and the American genera are distinct from one another, and that the 
 typical Erythrinus is from America. Two genera of which Hydrocyon is 
 African, and Cynodon Tropical America are, however, noteworthy on account 
 of the large size and predaceous habits of some of their representatives. 
 Two species of the former genus are abundant in the Nile, where they grow 
 to about four feet in length, and are respectively known by the Egyptians by 
 the names of Kelb-el-bahr and Kelb-el-moyeh. 
 
 Section D. Haplopomi. 
 
 In this fourth section of the Physostomi the first four vertebrae of the 
 backbone are distinct from one another, and unmodified ; the supraoccipital 
 bone of the skull extends forwards to separate the two 
 parietals, and the full number of bones is developed in the Family 
 
 gill-covers, or operculum. The pharyngeal bones, too, are Cyprinodontidce. 
 separate, and in the upper jaw are three or four in number, 
 and directed forwards. The first family of the section is that of the 
 Cyprinodontidce, which includes a considerable number of genera of small 
 fishes ranging over America, Africa, Asia, and the south of Europe, and 
 inhabiting alike salt, brackish, and fresh water. With a mouth devoid of 
 barbels, these fish are easily recognised by the scales extending on to the 
 head, as well as by the absence of a fatty dorsal fin, and the backward 
 position of the rayed dorsal. As in the carps, the margin of the upper jaw is 
 formed entirely by the premaxillary bones. The third upper pharyngeal 
 bone is enlarged, and teeth are present, not only on the pharyngeals, but 
 likewise in the margins of the jaws. Whereas some cyprinodonts feed on 
 living animals, others seek their food in mud. The males, which are much 
 inferior in size to their partners, include some of the smallest of all living 
 fishes ; and most species produce their young in a living condition. In a 
 family so extensive, it is difficult to select genera for special mention. The 
 typical Cyprinodon has a very wide distribution, and is represented by seven 
 species from the countries bordering the Mediterranean. Some of its 
 members are remarkable for inhabiting springs or pools almost saturated with 
 salt, while others are found in springs of very high temperature. Perhaps 
 the most noteworthy forms are the species of the genus Anableps from 
 Tropical America, in which the eyes are divided by a horizontal line into an 
 upper and a lower half. The convexity of the lens differs in these two halves, 
 the upper half being suited to vision in air, and the lower in water. This 
 enables the fish to see perfectly in both media when swimming near the 
 surface of the water, with one half of the eye below, and the other above, the 
 surface. A good account of the habits of these curious fishes has been 
 
502 PISCES SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOMI. 
 
 recently published in the Field newspaper. It may be mentioned that, 
 according to an American writer, the name of the family should be changed 
 from Cyprinodontidce to Pceciliidce. 
 
 Nearly allied to the last are two genera of small North American fishes, in 
 
 one of which (Amblyopsis) the eyes are wanting, while in the second (Cholo- 
 
 gaster) they are very minute. The one is represented by the 
 
 Family well-known blind fish from caves and other subterranean 
 
 Amblyopsidce. waters, while the single species of the latter is found in the 
 
 rice-fields of the Southern States, although very rare. 
 
 Chologaster has no pelvic fins, but these may or may not be present in 
 
 Amblyopsis. as is also the case with Cyprinodon. The blind fish, which grows 
 
 to a length of about five inches, is quite colourless, and when the dark waters 
 
 of their habitat are artificially illuminated these fishes have a weird and 
 
 ghostly appearance. 
 
 Of the other two families of the section, the first is an unimportant one, 
 represented by one species of the single genus Umbra from Austria and 
 Hungary, and a second from the United States. Small in 
 Families size, these fish are very similar to the Cyprinodontidce, from 
 UmbridiK and which they may be distinguished by the lateral margin of 
 Esocidce. the upper jaw being formed by the maxillae. Although like- 
 wise represented only by a single genus (Esox), the pikes are 
 a much more important and better-known family, the common European 
 species (E. lucius) being well known to all. Pike are inhabitants of the fresh 
 
 waters of North America, Tem- 
 perate Asia, and Europe, but are 
 more numerously represented in 
 the Western than in the Eastern 
 Hemisphere, six species being ex- 
 clusively American, whereas the 
 common pike ranges over all three 
 continents. In these fishes the 
 Fig. 28. COMMON PIKE. margin of the upper jaw is formed 
 
 in the same manner as that of the 
 
 Umbrers ; but the absence of scales on the head serves to distinguish them 
 from all other members of the section. Their elongated, "pike "-like form, 
 their large size, and their voracious habits, are familiar features of the family ; 
 but it may be added that there are no barbels to the mouth, while there is no 
 fatty fin, and the dorsal occupies the position of the fatty fin of the Salmonidce. 
 Summarising some of the accounts which have been given of the voracity and 
 fierceness of the pike, the editor of this volume writes as follows : "It has 
 been known to attack a man when its retreat has been cut off, to bite the legs 
 of bathers, and to snap at the fingers of persons cooling their hands in the 
 water ; and when pressed with hunger, to fight an otter for the possession of a 
 carp. Its strength and endurance have often been demonstrated in the 
 destruction of strong tackle, and in its power to survive without apparent 
 inconvenience with hooks and wires mingling with its anatomy. Captain 
 Brown gives an instance of a pike being caught which had a strong piece of 
 twisted wire projecting from its side. It was in excellent condition, and on 
 being opened, discovered in its stomach a double eel-hook, much corroded, 
 and attached to the protruding wire. Another pike, when caught in the 
 River Ouse, was found in possession of a watch with a black ribbon and seals 
 attached property which, it was afterwards discovered, had belonged to a 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 503 
 
 gentleman's servant who had been drowned. The pike has often been caught 
 with portions of tackle broken from the line in former engagements hanging 
 from its mouth. Its rapacity is extraordinary. Eight hundred gudgeon are 
 said to have been consumed in three weeks by eight pike of not more than 
 five pounds weight each. " 
 
 Section E. Scyphophori. 
 
 The next family of the Physostomi comprises a few fishes from Tropical 
 Africa which appear to have no very near relations, and are consequently re- 
 garded as forming a sectional group by themselves. The 
 chief characters of the section are derived from the bones of Family 
 
 the skull, in which the parietals are separate alike from one Mormyridce. 
 another, and from the supraoccipital ; while the pterotic 
 bones, which are situated on the outer sides of the parietals, are large, funnel- 
 shaped, and contain a cavity closed by a lid. The full series of bones are 
 developed in the gill-cover, and in the back-bone the four first joints are 
 separate and unmodified. As a family, the Mormyridce are characterised by 
 the naked head, the want of barbels, the slit-like opening of the gills, the 
 simple air-bladder, and the absence of a fatty fin on the back. The front 
 portion of the margin of the upper jaw is constituted" by the premaxillse, 
 which are united together ; but the sides are formed by the maxillse. All 
 these fishes are dwellers in fresh water. The typical genus is Mormyrus, 
 from which some writers distinguish certain species under the name of 
 Mormyrops, other members of the family being included in Gymnarchus, 
 which is characterised by the complete disappearance of the pelvic, anal, and 
 caudal fins, the tail terminating in a point. Many of the species of Mormyrus, 
 have the muzzle more or less elongated and beak-like, but M. petersi has the 
 extremity of the lower jaw produced into a large, conical, fleshy appendage 
 of great relative length. Gymnarchus of which there is only one species is, 
 on the other hand, a large eel-like fish, growing to a length of a couple of 
 yards. 
 
 Section F. Isospondyli. 
 
 The sixth and last section of the Physostomi is the largest and most im- 
 portant of all, including in addition to many other groups the families of 
 the herrings and salmon, whose numerous representatives are so highly 
 valued as food. 
 
 These fishes are the most generalised of all the Physostomi, and conse- 
 quently make the nearest approach to the under -mentioned ganoids. In all 
 of them the two parietal bones are separate, and the so-called 
 symplectic bone, which is wanting in the preceding family, is Family 
 
 here present. As in the latter, the anterior segments of the Notopteridce. 
 vertebral column are of the simple, unmodified type ; but 
 both the upper and the lower pharyngeal bones are separate. The first 
 representative of the section is the genus Notopterus, which constitutes a 
 family by itself, and includes several species from the Oriental countries and 
 West Africa. None of these fishes have a fatty dorsal fin or barbels, but 
 many of them possess a short and tall dorsal fin, situated far back on the body, 
 
504 PISCES SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOMI. 
 
 and standing up in such a conspicuous manner as to give rise to the name of 
 '* feather-back.'' A better character is, however, to be found in the backward 
 continuation of the anal fin to form a fringe surrounding the tail. There are 
 many other structural peculiarities in these fresh-water fishes, but it will 
 suffice to mention that the air-bladder is divided into a number of compart- 
 ments, and furnished at each end with a pair of prolongations, so that it pre- 
 sents some resemblance to a shark's egg in form. More important, on account 
 of their peculiar geographical distribution, are the small 
 Family fresh-water fishes from the Southern Hemisphere, forming 
 
 Galaxiidce. the genus Galaxias, and typifying a family by themselves. 
 They have the base of the skull single, the pterotic bones 
 solid, and the tail forked or rounded, while there are neither scales, barbels, 
 or a fatty fin, the dorsal being situated directly over the anal fin. The eggs 
 of the female are discharged into the cavity of the abdomen, as in the last 
 family, from which these fishes differ by the simple structure of the air- 
 bladder. The typical Galaxias has long been known from the extremity of 
 South America, Australia, and New Zealand (where, from their spotted 
 coloration, they were formerly known as trout), but it is only recently that 
 a species has been recorded from the Cape. The New Zealand Neochanna 
 of which the known specimens have been found buried in mud far away from 
 water differs by the lack of the pelvic fins. 
 
 This family is noteworthy on account of its containing the largest fresh- 
 water bony fish, the huge Arapaima gigds of the Guianas and Brazil, which 
 attains a length of fully fifteen feet, and a weight of four 
 Family hundred pounds. As a family, the arapaimas are distin- 
 Osteoglossidce. guished from the Galaxiidce, by generally possessing three, 
 instead of two, upper pharyngeal bones. The body of these 
 fishes is invested with unusually large scales, marked with a kind of mosaic- 
 like sculpture, but the head is devoid of scales, and protected by large rough- 
 ened, ossified plates. Wide 
 openings of the mucus canal 
 constitute the lateral line, and 
 the long dorsal fin is placed 
 immediately over the anal 
 to which it is almost similar 
 very far back on the body. 
 Fig. 29. ARAPAIMA. Indeed, so far back are these 
 
 fins, that they sometimes co- 
 alesce with the caudal. The openings of the gills are wide, and both the 
 premaxillse and maxillae enter into the formation of the margin of the upper 
 jaw ; but there are no false gills. Whereas some forms have the air-bladder 
 simple, in others it is composed of cells. Allusion having been already made 
 to Arapaima, we pass on to the typical Osteoylossum, of which there is one 
 species from South America, and a second from Borneo and Sumatra, while 
 the other two are inhabitants of Australia. A pair of barbels to the lower 
 jaw, and the obliquity of the cleft of the mouth, are sufficient to distinguish 
 these large fishes from Arapaima. The flesh is of excellent quality. The 
 last genus, Heterotis, is African, and differs from the other two in having 
 only two upper pharyngeal bones thereby resembling the Galaxiidce and 
 its air-bladder is cellular. The one species is common to the Nile and the 
 rivers of West Africa. 
 
 A fresh-water fish from North America known as the moon-eye (Hyvdon 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 505 
 
 tergissus), and a small fish (Pantodon bucholzi) remarkably like a cyprinodont, 
 from West Africa, severally represent two families. From 
 the foregoing families of the section, these two groups are Families 
 distinguished by the under-mentioned characters. The Hyodontidce and 
 pterotic bones are of normal conformation ; there are four Pantodonlidce. 
 separate upper pharyngeal bones, of which the third and 
 largest is directed forwards ; and the base of the skull is double. All these 
 features are common to the remaining families of the section. In the Hyo- 
 dontidce the two parietal bones are united together, and the bony structure 
 supporting the tail-fin is preceded by two true caudal vertebrae. Whereas in 
 the moon-eye the tail is deeply forked, in Pantodon it terminates in a point. 
 A long slender fish from the seas of Australia, Japan, and 
 South Africa, known as the beaked salmon (Gonorhynchus Family 
 greyi\ likewise constitutes a separate family, distinguished Gonorhynchidce. 
 from the last two by the presence of barbels to the mouth, and 
 the absence of true caudal vertebrae. The beaked salmon varies from a foot to a 
 foot and a half in length, and is often found in sandy bays. Its flesh is eaten. 
 The three families now to be mentioned include marine fishes, of which the 
 majority are deep-sea or pelagic in their habitat, while many are remarkable 
 for the development of special phosphorescent organs, by the 
 aid of which they find their way in the dark ocean abysses. Families 
 
 From the preceding family, the Scopelidce are distinguished Scopelidce, 
 by the absence of barbels, and of spines on the scales (when Sternoptychidce, 
 the latter are developed), and the presence of a small and Stomiatidce. 
 fatty fin posterior to the dorsal. Whereas some forms are 
 scaled, others are naked ; but all are characterised by the wide gill-opening, 
 the possession of false gills, the absence of an air-bladder, and the formation 
 of the margin of the upper jaw by the premaxillse alone. A peculiarity of 
 these fishes is the extreme shortness of the intestine. The typical genus 
 Scopelus includes fishes of normal form, with rows of phosphorescent spots on 
 the lower side of the body ; but in Ipnops the whole body is exceedingly long 
 and slender, and the upper surface of the flattened head occupied by a large 
 luminous organ. Other genera are Saurus, Paralepis, Plagyodus (in which 
 the body is naked, and the jaws are armed with large tusks), and Gymno- 
 scopelus, in which scales are likewise wanting. Of the other two families it 
 will be unnecessary to give all the characters, but it may be mentioned that 
 in the Sternoptychidce the fatty fin is either very small or rudimental, while 
 there are no barbels, and the body may be either naked or covered with thin 
 deciduous scales, while the maxillse enter into the margin of the upper jaw. 
 On the lower parts, light-organs are developed. One of the best-known 
 forms is the somewhat elongated Photichthys, from which the allied CJiauliodus 
 differs by the large size of its teeth. On the other hand, the typical Ster- 
 noptyx has the body deep and compressed, and the tail short. The Stomiatidce 
 differ by the presence of a long barbel attached to the hyoid bone, which 
 depends from the lower jaw, the fatty fin being often totally wanting. 
 Astronesthes, which is one of the genera with a small fatty fin, has a large 
 head, and jaws armed with powerful teeth. Stomias and Echibstoma both 
 lack the fatty fin, but whereas the former has the body covered with minute 
 scales, in the latter the skin is naked, and the small pectoral fins have some 
 of their rays prolonged into thread-like filaments. At times the deep-sea 
 fishes of the present group are met with floating in a helpless inert condition 
 on the surface of the ocean ; but they are generally only obtained by 
 
506 PISCES SUB-CLASS I1I.TELEOSTOMI. 
 
 dredging. When brought to the surface, owing to the sudden diminution of 
 pressure, their eyes start out of the sockets, the scales stand erect, and the 
 flesh is loose and fragile, so that the preservation of specimens is frequently 
 a matter of considerable difficulty. 
 
 These two unimportant families, severally represented by a single type, 
 may be distinguished from the preceding members of the Isospondyli by the 
 circumstance that the supraoccipital bone of the skull ex- 
 Families Chiro- tends forwards so as to separate the two parietals from one 
 centridce and another. And in this feature they agree with the members 
 Bathythrissidm. of the following families of the section, except for a few 
 aberrant types of two. The first family is represented by 
 the dorab (Chiroceidrus dorab), of the Malayan and Red Seas, and is dis- 
 tinguished by the possession of but one caudal vertebra. The dorab is a large 
 elongated fish, with a deeply-forked tail, no fatty fin, an up-turned muzzle, 
 powerful teeth, and a sharply-keeled and serrated under surface. In length 
 it is stated to grow to as much as twelve feet. Very different is the deep-sea 
 Bathythrissa dorsalis of Japan, in which the body is deep and oblong, with 
 the under surface rounded, the head naked and without barbels, and the 
 dorsal fin so much elongated as to occupy nearly the whole length of the 
 back, a fatty fin being wanting. This fish forms an exception to the gener- 
 ality of the members of the sub-order in lacking an air-bladder. 
 
 The familiar "red-herring," in its natural condition, is the type of a family 
 of mostly marine and littoral fishes whose importance as a food-supply can 
 scarcely be overrated. Limits of space, unfortunately, 
 Herrings. allow of only a very inadequate notice of the group. Dr. 
 ~, * y Giinther writes " that the family of herrings is probably un- 
 upei ce. surpassed by any other in the number of individuals, al- 
 though others comprise a much greater variety of species. The herrings are 
 principally coast fishes, or at least do not go far from the shore ; none belong 
 to the deep-sea fauna, scarcely any have pelagic habits, but many enter or 
 live in fresh-waters communicating with the sea. They are spread over all 
 the temperate and tropical zones. " With the exception of one genus, agree- 
 ing with the Cfliirocentidce in the structure of the skull and presence of a 
 single caudal vertebra, the Clupeidce are specially characterised by the want 
 of a fatty fin, and the general presence of small plates of bone on the lower 
 surface of the body, which is usually sharp and often serrated. The head 
 is devoid of barbels, and usually also of scales, but the body is always fully 
 scaled, although the lateral line is generally wanting. The margin of the 
 upper jaw is formed in part by the premaxillse, and in part by the maxillre ; 
 each of the latter bones consisting of three distinct elements. Usually the 
 
 gill-openings are complete, and the 
 operculum comprises the full number of 
 elements. The rays of the short dorsal 
 fin are few and weak, although those of 
 the anal may be numerous. The air- 
 bladder is comparatively single, and 
 most members of the family are fur- 
 fig. 30, THE HERRING. nished with false gills. In the typical 
 
 genus Clupea the two jaws are sub-equal 
 
 in length, the eyes have fatty lids, and the body is compressed, with the 
 abdomen serrated inferiorly as far forwards as the chest. The cleft of the 
 mouth is of moderate width, and if teeth are present at all, they are rudi- 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 507 
 
 mental and deciduous. The anal fin is of moderate length, with less than 
 thirty rays, the dorsal fin is placed above the pelvic pair, and the caudal is 
 deeply forked. Among over half a hundred species, we may name the common 
 herring (C. harengus), the spratt (C. sprattus), the alliceshad (C. alosa}, the 
 shad (C. finta), the American mossbanker (C. menhaden}, and the pilchard or 
 sardine (C. pilchardus). Herrings, as is well known, are gregarious and car- 
 nivorous fishes, going about in huge shoals, the presence of which is often 
 indicated not only by the appearance of the surface of the water, but by the 
 flocks of sea-birds which hover overhead in search of prey. The shoals 
 appear to approach the coasts solely for the purpose of spawning, after which 
 they retire to deeper water. Australia is the home of certain fresh-water 
 herrings forming the genus Diplomystus, and characterised by having plates of 
 bone behind the head similar in character to those on the under surface. 
 Another and larger genus (Engraulis) is typified by the Mediterranean 
 anchovy, and is characterised by the prolongation of the nearly conical snout 
 beyond the tip of the lower jaw, and by the eyes being covered with a con- 
 tinuous skin. The Mediterranean species, either preserved whole, or made 
 into a paste, affords the piquant anchovy of commerce. The only other type 
 that can be mentioned here is Elops, which is peculiar in that the parietal bones of 
 the skull are in contact, and also for the possession of two caudal vertebrae. 
 There are two species from the warmer seas, in both of which the space 
 between the two branches of the lower jaw is protected by a thin plate of 
 bone, while the lower surface of the body is rounded and smooth. 
 
 Very brief notice must suffice for two small and unimportant families now 
 generally placed between the closely allied groups of the herrings and salmon. 
 The Alepocephalidce, resemble Elops, and thus the Salmonidce, 
 in having two caudal vertebrae, but differ from the former, Families Alepo- 
 and thereby agree with most of the latter, in that the two cephalidce and 
 parietal bones of the skull are separated by the supra- Haplochitonidce. 
 occipital. They lack, however, the fatty fin of the latter, and 
 barbels are wanting to the head, which is likewise devoid of scales, as is 
 sometimes also the body. Both pairs of jaw-bones enter into the formation 
 of the margin of the upper jaw, and the stomach lacks the blind appendage, 
 or caecum, characterising that of the herrings. In the typical genus Alepo- 
 cephalus the body is covered with thin scales, but in Xenodermichthys these 
 are replaced by fine nodules. Two other genera are known. The trout-like 
 fish from the rivers of Chili and the southern extremity of South America 
 and the Falklands known as Haplochiton, together with the allied Austra- 
 lian genus Prototroctes, represent the second of the two families now under 
 consideration ; the first of these resembling a scaleless trout, whereas in the 
 second the body is scaled and the jaws are armed with minute teeth. These 
 fish differ from the families last noticed in possessing a small fatty fin. In 
 this respect they resemble the Salmonidce, from which they may be dis- 
 tinguished by the fact that the maxillae do not enter into the formation of the 
 margin of the upper jaw. 
 
 From the other allied families the Salmonidce may be distinguished by the 
 possession of a small fatty fin between the dorsal and the tail, coupled with 
 the circumstance that the margin of the upper jaw is formed 
 in front by the premaxillae and at the sides by the maxillae. Salmon Tribe. 
 The inferior aspect of the body is rounded ; and whereas the Family 
 
 skin of the head is invariably naked, the body is generally Salmonidce, 
 clothed with scales. The Salmonidce are in the main re- 
 
508 PISCES SUB- CLASS III. TELEOSTOML 
 
 stricted to the cooler portions of the Northern Hemisphere, although one 
 genus is found in the fresh waters of New Zealand. Whereas some kinds 
 spend the whole of their time in fresh water lakes or rivers, others descend 
 periodically to the sea or, as it is perhaps more correct to say, ascend rivers 
 from the sea for the purpose of spawning. Certain kinds are, however, per- 
 manently marine, most of these being deep-water fishes, although the mem- 
 bers of two genera are pelagic. On account of the large size of many of the 
 species, coupled with the superlatively excellent quality of their flesh, the 
 Salmonidm are commercially one of the most valuable families of fishes. It 
 appears that the "salmon-colour" characterising the flesh of some of the 
 species is due to the pigment derived from the crustaceans on which they 
 feed ; the action of the gastric juice turning such pigment red in the same 
 manner as boiling. Volumes have been written on the life-history of the 
 Salmonidce, and the question as to the number of species of fresh-water trout 
 and charr ; and many pages of this work would be necessary to give even a 
 full outline of the subject. As it is, little more than a bare mention of the 
 leading genera and species can be attempted. It should, however, be men- 
 tioned that whereas the adults are usually silvery, or spotted with black and 
 red, the immature fish pass through a stage the "parr" when they are 
 marked by dark transverse bars. In certain fresh-water kinds these imma- 
 ture markings may, however, be retained individually during the whole of 
 life. There are also sexual or seasonal differences in the adult fish ; as 
 
 exemplified by the hooked lower 
 jaw of the male salmon in the 
 spawning season. The genus 
 Salmo, which includes the com- 
 mon salmon (S. salmo), and the 
 various species or varieties of trout 
 and charr, has the dorsal fin 
 Fig. 31. THE SALMON. situated nearly or immediately 
 
 above the pelvic pair, the scales 
 
 small, and well-developed teeth in the jaws, and likewise on the vomerine 
 and palatine bones and tongue ; while the anal fin never includes more than 
 fourteen rays, and the intestine is furnished with a large number of small 
 blind appendages or caeca. Moreover, the mouth is so deeply cleft, that its 
 opening extends at least as far back as the eye. Southwards, the range of 
 this large genus does not extend beyond the Atlas and Hindu Kush in the 
 Eastern Hemisphere, or the rivers flowing into the head of the Gulf of 
 California in the Western. In the various kinds of true salmon and trout the 
 whole length of the bone known as the vomer carries teeth during some 
 period of life. On the other hand, in the mostly smaller and more brilliantly- 
 coloured charr the vomerine teeth are restricted to the head of that bone. 
 The largest member of the charr group is the Danubian hucho (8. hucho), 
 which rivals the salmon in size. The migratory species, which periodically 
 ascend the rivers of North America and Asia flowing into the Pacific in in- 
 credible numbers, form the genus Onchorhynchus, distinguished by the 
 possession of more than fourteen rays in the anal fin. A third genus 
 (Osmerus) contains the three species of smelt, and is to some extent inter- 
 mediate between Salmo and Onchorhynchus on the one hand, and Coregomts 
 on the other. They are, however, peculiar, on account of the small size and 
 number of the csecal appendages to the intestine, while their eggs are rela- 
 tively small. As examples of the large and mostly fresh-water genus Core- 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 509 
 
 may be mentioned the vendace (C. vandesius), the pollan (C. pottaii), 
 and the powan (C. dupeoides), all of which are British. Like smelts, these fish 
 have small eggs ; but then they have a great number of blind appendages to 
 the intestine, and if any teeth remain in the adult, they are usually restricted 
 to the tongue, while even in the young state these organs are minute. The 
 cleft of the mouth is always much less deep than in the Salmo, while the 
 forking of the tail is more strongly marked. In common with the grayling, 
 these fishes differ from the other members of the family in that the two 
 parietal bones meet together for a short distance in the middle line in ad- 
 vance of the supraoccipital. The genus extends over a considerable portion 
 of Northern Europe, Asia, and America ; and its very numerous members 
 are for the most part permanent inhabitants of fresh water. The grayling 
 (Thymallus), which have a geographical distribution very similar to that of 
 Coregonus, differ from that genus by the taller and longer dorsal fin, in which 
 the number of rays varies from thirteen to twenty-three. The mouth, too, 
 has a smaller cleft ; while the blind appendages of the intestine are much 
 less numerous, and teeth are present in the jaws, and on the palatines and 
 the head of the vomer, although wanting from the tongue. Although rang- 
 ing from Lapland to Venice, and from England to Russia, the grayling is a 
 very local fish, which is unknown in Ireland ; and it appears that only under 
 certain conditions will it thrive and multiply in a river. A writer in Land 
 and Water for 1868 remarks, that "there is one singular peculiarity about 
 the grayling that distinguishes it from all other .species of Salmonidce, and 
 that is its remarkable odour. It resembles more than anything else the smell 
 of a freshly-cut cucumber ; by this criterion it may be immediately detected. 
 Some authorities assert that the smell of this fish resembles thyme, but I 
 cannot endorse this, or perceive the slightest affinity." 
 
 A small family is represented by the North American fresh-water Percopsis 
 gnttata and the allied Columbia transmontana, which, although possessing the 
 structural features of the Salmonidce, assimilate in the nature 
 of the scales and the bones of the mouth to the perch Percopsidse. 
 tribe. 
 
 SUB-ORDER VI. ^THEOSPONDYLI. 
 
 This and the next subordinal group of the Actinopterygii are now respec- 
 tively represented only by a single North American genus, although both 
 were abundant during earlier epochs of 
 the earth's history. To understand 
 fully their relationship to other fishes 
 it is essential to take the extinct forms 
 into consideration, but as this is im- 
 possible here, their general structural 
 
 features can be only very slightly touched j^ 32. BOXY PIKE. 
 
 upon. The present sub-order is now 
 
 represented only by the three species of bony pike (Lepidosteus) from 
 the fresh waters of North America, which typify the family Lepidosteidm. 
 These fishes, some of which measure fully six feet in length, have the 
 head covered with bony plates, and the whole body invested with a 
 coat of hard, shining, quadrangular scales, which articulate together by means 
 of a peg and socket. The long head is depressed, with the jaws well-armed 
 with teeth ; and the body is elongated, with the anal and dorsal fins which 
 have no spines placed near the tail, and the latter of the so-called abbreviate 
 
510 PISCES SUB-CLASS IILTELEOSTOMI. 
 
 heterocercal type. In the skeleton, the vertebrae are unique among living 
 fishes in that the articular surfaces of their bodies form a cup behind and a 
 ball in front. The air-bladder has a duct, and the nerves supplying the eyes 
 where they meet one another in the middle line give off interlacing fibres, and 
 there are remnants of a spiral valve in the lining membrane of the intestine. 
 Bony pike, which are abundant in many of the North American rivers, are 
 very analogous in their habits to true pike, feeding upon other fishes. 
 
 SUB-ORDER VII. PROTOSPONDYLI. 
 
 The single existing family (Amiidce) of this once abundant subordinal 
 group is now represented by the bow-fin (Amia-calva) of the fresh waters of 
 the United States. This fish, while agreeing with the bony pike in the con- 
 formation of the optic nerves supplying the eyes, differs in the fuller develop- 
 ment of the spiral valve in the intestine, and in the simpler form of the 
 bodies of the vertebrae, which are disc-like. Although the scales are coated 
 with ganoin, they differ from those of the bony pike in being thin, rounded, 
 
 and deeply over-lapping. A peculiar 
 feature of the bow-fin, and the one 
 from which it takes its vernacular 
 name, is the great length of the 
 dorsal fin, which occupies more than 
 half the entire length of the back, 
 and posteriorly is separated only by 
 a notch from the tail-fin ; the latter 
 Fig. 33. BOW-FIN. being of the abbreviate heterocercal 
 
 type. The bow-fin grows to a length 
 
 of about a couple of feet, and is a carnivorous fish, exceedingly abundant in 
 some of the North American lakes. It feeds not only on other fishes, but 
 likewise on various invertebrate animals, and can exist for a considerable 
 time out of water. Its favourite haunts are the dense masses of floating 
 vegetation fringing the North American lakes, among which it lays during 
 the month of May a host of minute eggs. 
 
 SUB-ORDER VIII. CHONDROSTEI STUEGEONS. 
 
 The title of royal fish bestowed on the common sturgeon would seem to in- 
 dicate that it has some special claim to superiority over the other members 
 of the finny tribe. This, however, is not the case, the title being due to the 
 circumstance that all such fish, according to an act of Edward II. which 
 appears to be still in force, belong of right to the crown. The enactment 
 runs that " the king shall have wreck of the sea throughout the realm, whales, 
 and great sturgeons, taken in the sea or elsewhere in the realm, except in 
 certain places privileged by the king." From all the other subordinal groups 
 of the Teleostomi, the sturgeons and their extinct allies are broadly distin- 
 guished by the greater relative number of the dermal rays in the dorsal and 
 anal tins, which exceed the bony or cartilaginous elements pertaining to the 
 true skeleton by which they are supported, instead of these two elements 
 being numerically equal. As regards the optic nerves and the lining mem- 
 brane of the intestine, the sturgeons resemble the preceding sub-order. All 
 the members of the sub-order have a persistent notochord and a cartilaginous 
 skeleton, but the tail may be of either the heterocercal or the diphycerca, 
 
BONY FISHES AND GANOIDS. 5 1 1 
 
 type. It might be thought that the bony shields investing the head, and the 
 longitudinal rows of prominent bony tubercles or plates frequently present 
 on the otherwise entirely naked skin, would form a distinctive feature of the 
 group. As a matter of fact this is not so, seeing that a number of extinct 
 tishes now classed with the sturgeons have a complete coat of ganoid scales. 
 Still, however, as distinctive of the existing forms with which alone we are 
 concerned here the presence of these shields or plates, or both, coupled with 
 the absence of scales (save in one family on part of the tail) are very dis- 
 tinctive. Existing sturgeons may be classified in two families, in both of 
 which the tail is heterocercal. 
 
 The first of these is represented only by two genera, each with a single 
 speeies, and its distinctive features are to be found in the presence of minute 
 teeth in the jaws throughout life, as well as of a median series 
 of unpaired bony shields in the armour of the head, and Family 
 
 likewise by the skin save for a few minute stellate ossifica- Polyodontidce. 
 tions being naked all over the body, although there may be 
 a few scales on the upper lobe of the tail. The typical Polyodon falius, from 
 the Mississippi basin, is a comparatively small fish, apparently not exceeding 
 about six feet in length, characterised by the upper jaw terminating in an 
 enormous shovel-like beak, furnished with soft thin margins, and equal to 
 fully one quarter the entire length of the fish. Vastly larger is Psephurus 
 gladius from some of the great Chinese rivers, which grows to something 
 approaching twenty feet, and has a much more slender beak. Both these 
 fishes have minute eyes, and appear to grovel in the mud in the river bottom 
 hi search of their food. The occurrence of two such closely allied forms in 
 the rivers of North America and China is paralleled by the instance of the 
 American and Chinese alligators, and likewise the two kinds of giant 
 salamander (Megalobatrachus and Cryptobranchus), all these examples indicat- 
 ing the close affinity between the fauna of North America and that of North- 
 Eastern Asia. 
 
 The members of the second family of the group differ from the Polyodon- 
 tidce by the disappearance of the teeth in the adult, and likewise by the bare 
 skin of the body being traversed by five longitudinal rows of 
 large elevated bony plates. The median series of shields is Family 
 
 also wanting on the head, and the under surface of the Acipenseridce. 
 muzzle is provided with two pairs of flexible barbels, of 
 which there is no trace in the first family. All the members of the family 
 are restricted to the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, and all 
 are largely fresh water in their habits, some being exclusively so, although 
 others ascend the larger rivers 
 only for the purpose of spawn- 
 ing, after which they return to 
 the ocean. Whereas the typical 
 members of the family belong 
 to the genus Acipenser, certain 
 fresh- water kinds from the basin 
 of the Mississippi and Central Fig. 34. COMMON STURGEON. 
 
 Asia form a genus apart, under 
 
 the name of Scaphirhynchus, one of their distinctive features being the pro- 
 duction of the muzzle into a shovel-like beak very similar to that of Psephurus. 
 Of the typical genus, the largest species is the huso (Acipenser huso) of the 
 Russian rivers and inland seas, which occasionally attains the enormous 
 
512 PISCES-SUBCLASS IIL-TELEOSTOML 
 
 length of four-and-twenty feet. The smallest is the sterlet (A. ruthvenus), 
 whose length is only about three feet, while the common species (A. sturio) 
 is intermediate between the other two. The sterlet claims pre-eminence on 
 account of the excellent quality of its flesh, while the roe of all the larger 
 species affords caviare, and the air-bladder isinglass. Frank Buckland writes 
 that " sturgeons seek their food chiefly among the mud at the bottom of rivers, 
 and their head is admirably adapted for the purpose. The elongated 
 snout, protected by broad plates, ploughs up the mud as a hog does the 
 ground ; and it is probably from this habit they got the name of sturgeons, 
 from the German, storen (which means to rake up, poke, or stir). A little 
 way behind the point of the snout, and on the under side, is placed a series of 
 worm-like tentacles, or feelers, the office of .which is to examine the objects 
 turned up by the snout ; and in rear of these comes the sucker-like mouth, 
 ready to receive what is thus provided." In reference to the last sentence, 
 it may be suggested that the use of the tentacles may be to attract other fishes 
 within range of the mouth. 
 
 ORDER II. CROSSOPTERYGII. 
 
 FRINGE-FINNED GANOIDS. 
 
 Africa is a country where several ancient types of animal life that have dis- 
 appeared from other regions of the globe still linger on, and a remarkable 
 instance of this survival is afforded by two fishes from the fresh waters of that 
 continent. One of these is the bichir (Polypterus bichir) of the Nile and its 
 tributaries, as well as the rivers of the west coast, and the other the reed-fish 
 (Calamoichthys calabaricus) of the fresh waters of Old Calabar on the west 
 coast. In the structure of their fins, and likewise in the hard quadrangular 
 ganoid scales with which the body is covered, these strange fishes resemble 
 a host of ancient types which were widely spread over the fresh waters of the 
 globe during the Palaeozoic epoch. Their essential difference from all other 
 living representatives of the sub-class Teleostomi is, however, to be found in 
 the structure of the fins, seeing that scales of a similar nature are met with 
 in the bony pike already described. In all these fishes the pectoral and 
 pelvic fins consist internally of a jointed longitudinal axis, from which pro- 
 ceed a larger or smaller number of divergent rays belonging to the dermal 
 system. On the under surface of the lower jaw there is at least one pair of 
 jugular plates occupying the space left between its two branches. The nerves 
 supplying the eyes when meeting one another in the middle line give off inter- 
 lacing fibres, and another primitive feature is the presence of a spiral valve in 
 the lining membrane of the intestine. The air-bladder is provided with a 
 duct, this being probably likewise a primitive character. Both the living 
 members of the order are included in the family Polypteridce, which is 
 
 characterised by the replacement of the 
 primitive notochord by bony vertebrae, 
 as well as by certain features of the 
 skeleton which need not be noticed 
 here. The tail is very short, and 
 terminates in a diphycercal fin ; and 
 the dorsal fin is peculiar in being split 
 Fig. 35. THE BICHIR. up into a number of finlets, severally 
 
 supported by a spine in front, such 
 finlets varying in the type genus from eight to eighteen in number. 
 
SHARKS AND RAYS. 513 
 
 The anal fins are situated very far back on the elongated body, so as 
 to be separated by only a short distance from the caudal. It is 
 only in the pectoral fins that the lobate structure is visible externally, 
 each of these consisting of a central scaled portion, surrounded on the 
 free margins by a fringe of rays. The bichir, which grows to a length of 
 four feet, is characterised by the moderate elongation of the body, and the 
 presence of well-developed pelvic fins. These last are wanting in the much 
 smaller reed-fish, which takes its name from the excessive attenuation of 
 the body. Information is much wanting as to the life-history of these fishes, 
 although it is known that they lay small eggs. If we may judge from the 
 analogy of the Australian lung-fish, which has a similar type of fins, it is, 
 however, probable that they are comparatively slow and sluggish in their 
 movements, and live on, if not in, the mud at the river bottoms. In the late 
 larval state, Polypterus, at any rate, develops a large external gill on each 
 side, projecting backwards from the gill-opening. In addition to the fringing 
 dorsal fin, the tubular nasal openings may be noticed as peculiar characters 
 of the existing forms. It may be added that some authorities like Dr. 
 Steindachner recognise more than a single species of bichir, one of them 
 being named Polypterus lapradei. 
 
 SUB-CLASS IV. ELASMOBRANCHII. 
 SHARKS AND RAYS. 
 
 THE dreaded sharks are the types of a fairly large sub-class of 6shes, which 
 also includes the smaller but very similar dog-fishes, as well as the more 
 aberrant saw-fishes, and the skates and rays. The latter are, indeed, so 
 unlike sharks in general appearance, that it is probable their affinities to the 
 latter are not generally recognised. Nevertheless, the two groups agree in 
 all essential structural features, and are evidently very nearly allied. Per- 
 haps the most characteristic feature of the sub-class, and the one from which 
 it derives its title of Elasmobranchii, is the conformation of the gills and their 
 apertures. Everybody knows the five vertical slits on each side of the neck 
 of a dog-fish. These are the apertures leading into the gill-chambers; and 
 in the latter the gills themselves are attached by their margins to the skin. 
 It will not fail to be noticed that in this type of structure there is nothing 
 comparable to the gill-cover or operculum of the bony fishes and their allies. 
 Still there is a very important point of connection between the Elasmo- 
 branchii and the Teleostomi ; this being a feature whereby these two sub- 
 classes are broadly distinguished from the Dipnoi and Holocephali. To 
 explain this peculiarity in detail requires the use of a number of technical 
 terms; and it must suffice to state that it is connected with the manner in 
 which the suspending apparatus of the lower jaw is attached to the skull ; 
 the attachment in this case being movable, whereas in the other two sub- 
 classes it is immovably fixed. It has been said above that the number of 
 gill-slits in a dog-fish is five, and this number is very characteristic of the 
 order generally. Still, however, there are a few exceptions, and the number 
 of slits may be increased to six or even seven on each side of the neck. 
 34 
 
5H PISCES SUB-CLASS IV.ELASMOBRANCHTL 
 
 Although the structure of the breathing apparatus alone is sufficient to dis- 
 tinguish the Elasmobranchii from all other fishes, it is advisable to glance at 
 some of the other leading structural features of their organisation. And 
 here it may be mentioned that we allude only to the living forms, and that 
 some extinct groups do not agree in all respects with the characteristics of 
 the sub-class as defined from the former alone. From the typical bony 
 fishes, the Elasmobranchii are distinguished internally by the cartilaginous 
 nature of the skeleton ; such hardening as takes place in this framework 
 being due to the deposition of calcareous matter in the cartilage, and not to 
 the replacement of the latter by bone. In consequence of this want of 
 development of bony structures, the primitive cartilaginous skull persists 
 throughout life ; and the functional jaws are bars of cartilage, which do not 
 correspond with the bony jaws of higher creatures. Teeth of the ordinary 
 structure are developed on these spurious jaws; and such hard structures as 
 exist in the skin likewise partake of the nature of teeth, and are, therefore, 
 very distinct from bone. Of this kind are the fine granules found in the 
 skin of sharks, and the larger pustules, cones, knobs, or spines occurring on 
 that of many kinds of rays, where they are often arranged in a number of 
 isolated prominent ridges on different parts of the back. From this remark- 
 able absence of bone in the group, the name of boneless fishes would not be 
 an inappropriate name for the sharks and rays. Owing to the number of 
 minute tooth-like structures embedded in its surface, shark-skin forms an 
 admirable polisher; and as it also affords a firm hand-hold, it is likewise used 
 for covering sword-hilts. 
 
 In their internal structure the Elasmobranchii show a decidedly primitive 
 type, in that where the two nerves supplying the eyes meet, there the fibres 
 interlace to form a chiasma. The formation of a spiral valve by the lining 
 membrane of the intestine also seems to be a primitive feature. In no mem- 
 ber of the group is an air-bladder ever developed. Unlike ordinary tishes, 
 sharks lay a small number of eggs, each of which is of large size, and is 
 entirely separate from the other. Generally these eggs are invested in a 
 hard, horny envelope, which is of an oblong shape, and furnished at each 
 angle with a curling tendril, by means of which they become moored to the 
 stems of sea-weeds or other submarine objects, where they remain till the 
 young come forth. The empty envelopes are frequently to be found thrown 
 up on the beach, and are commonly known as sea- purses. In certain species 
 the eggs are, however, retained within the body of the female parent until 
 hatched, so that the young are born alive. While within the shell, young 
 sharks and rays are provided with external gills, and thus resemble tadpoles, 
 but these gills are always lost before birth. The upper surface of the head 
 in many members of the group is furnished with the organs known as 
 spiracles. 
 
 As regards the internal skeleton of the fins of the Elasmobranchii, it will 
 suffice for our present purpose to state that the supporting cartilages are 
 arranged somewhat in the form of a fan made up of flattened divergent rays, at 
 the base of which are certain other short cartilages. To the homologies of 
 these latter it is unnecessary to refer in this work. In a few living sharks 
 powerful spines whose structure is also comparable to that of teeth form 
 the front portion of the dorsal fins, such spines being loosely inserted in the 
 flesh, without any basal connection with the vertebrae. The pelvic fins are 
 situated a long distance behind the pectoral pair; and in the males the sup- 
 porting axis of each of the former is developed, as in the Chimseroids, into a 
 
SHARKS AND RAYS. 515 
 
 long conical clasper. The tail-fin is of the heterocercal type, with its upper 
 lobe which is traversed by the extremity of the back-bone greatly de- 
 veloped at the expense of the lower one. As all are aware who have ever 
 seen a shark turn over on its back to seize its prey, in most members of the 
 class the mouth is situated on the lower aspect of the head, some considerable 
 distance behind the tip of the muzzle. And a cruel mouth it is in the case 
 of ordinary sharks, where it is lined with row after row of sharp triangular 
 teeth, of which the outermost stand upright in readiness for immediate use, 
 whereas those of the innermost rows are recumbent, and not destined to see 
 active service until those near the margins have been worn out and shed. Some 
 sharks, like the Port Jackson species, have, however, the mouth placed in 
 the ordinary position at the extremity of the muzzle, while the teeth except 
 a few at the front of the jaws have low flattened, crowns, and form a mill- 
 like pavement adapted to grinding the shells of molluscs and crabs. Rays, 
 too, have pavement-like teeth of a still more markedly crushing type, 
 although in the males of certain kinds the individual denticules are 
 cusped. 
 
 Sharks include the most predaceous and most dreaded of all fishes, and 
 many of the rays are likewise formidable monsters, which have the power of 
 inflicting terrible wounds by means of the poisonous spines arming the whip- 
 like tail. Bodily size is, however, by no means a criterion of offensive power 
 among the members of the sub-class, since the largest of all sharks, namely, 
 the basking-sharks, are harmless species, whose terminal mouths are armed 
 only with feeble teeth, and whose food consists chiefly of various invertebrate 
 animals. Skates and rays, which are bottom-haunting creatures, likewise 
 feed on invertebrates, their grinding teeth being specially adapted for crush- 
 ing shells. Although many kinds ascend tidal rivers for considerable dis- 
 tances, while a few have become adapted probably owing to physical 
 alterations on the earth's surface to a fresh-water mode of life, the Elasmo- 
 branchii in general are marine fishes. Although, as already stated, the rays 
 are found on the sea-bottom, while some sharks are met with at great depths, 
 the majority of the latter group are essentially pelagic creatures, pursuing 
 their prey at or near the surface of the open sea. The abundance of food to 
 be met with in the neighbourhood of frequented harbours renders these fishes 
 generally more numerous in such localities than elsewhere. 
 
 ORDER I. SELACHIL 
 
 SUB-ORDER I. ASTEROSPONDYLI. 
 
 As all the existing members of the sub-class are placed in a single 
 ordinal group, it will be unnecessary to enter into the consideration of the 
 features by which that order is distinguished from the extinct groups now 
 included among the Elasmobranchii. It will accordingly suffice to point out 
 the distinctive features of the sub-order Asterospondyli, which includes the 
 greater number of the sharks. The group takes its name from the structure 
 of the bodies of the vertebrae, which in section show a star-like arrangement 
 of the calcareous plates forming their internal support, such radiating plates 
 being considerably more numerous than the circular ones running parallel to 
 the outer surface. The members of this sub-order are characterised exter- 
 
5i6 PISCES SUB-CLASS IV.ELASMOBRANCHIL 
 
 nally by the long and nearly cylindrical body, the powerful rudder-like tail, 
 the presence of an anal tin, the moderate dimensions of the pectorals, and 
 the small size or absence of the spiracle. In consequence of the divergence 
 of the two branches of the jaws, the teeth form oblique rows, and at 
 least the teeth in the front of the jaws are sharp-pointed, their general 
 form being a much flattened cone, with or without lateral cusps at the 
 base. 
 
 In the family typified by the formidable blue shark there are no spines to 
 the fins ; the first dorsal fin is placed immediately over the space separating 
 the pelvics from the pectorals, the teeth have hollow crowns, 
 Family and are generally sharp-pointed, the mouth is inferior, the 
 Carchariidce. skin is of the shagreen type, and the eyes are furnished with 
 a nictitating membrane, which fulfils the function of an eye- 
 lid. The limits of our space forbid giving the distinctive features of the 
 various genera included in this family. The blue shark (Carcharias glaucus) 
 
 is the most familiar 
 representative of the 
 type genus, while the 
 strange-looking ham- 
 mer-headed sharks 
 form another genus 
 (Sphyrna), distin- 
 guished from all 
 other fish by the 
 
 Fig. 36. BLUE SHARK, peculiar flattening 
 
 and lateral expan- 
 sion of the muzzle into a pair of projecting lobes, each bearing an eye at its 
 apex. These sharks grow to a length of about fifteen feet, and are fairly 
 abundant in the warmer seas. The genus Galeus, in which the head is of 
 normal form, includes small sharks, represented in British waters by the 
 tope (G. canis). Other small British sharks known as hounds (Mustelus) 
 differ externally by the more blunted form of the muzzle. Unlike the species 
 of Carcharias, these sharks haunt the bottom of shallow seas, where they 
 feed on shell-fish, crabs, etc. They produce living young. Stories of the 
 ferocity of the various kinds of large carnivorous sharks are so numerous that 
 it is difficult to make a selection. The following anecdote by the well-known 
 writer, Mrs. Bowdich, is, however, of special interest, as illustrating the 
 indifference to the near presence of these terrible monsters which seems to 
 become habitual to the natives of many of the warmer coasts. " Sharks 
 abounded at Cape Coast," writes this lady, "and one day, as I stood at a 
 window commanding a view of the sea, I saw some of the inhabitants of the 
 town bathing, and the sharks hastening to seize upon them they being 
 visible from always swimming with part of their dorsal fin out of water. I 
 sent to warn the men of their danger, and all came ashore except one, who 
 laughed at the caution of his companions. A huge shark was rapidly ap- 
 proaching, and I sent my servant again, and this time armed with half a 
 bottle of rum to bribe the man to save himself. It was too late. The mur- 
 derous creature had seized him, and the water. around was dyed with his 
 blood. A canoe was despatched to bring him ashore, but a wave threw him 
 on to the beach, and it was found that the shark had taken the thigh-bone 
 completely out of the socket. The man, of course, expired in a few minutes. 
 Accidents were often happening, and always fatal, and yet the negroes, who 
 
SHARKS AND RA YS. 517 
 
 seldom think beyond the present moment, could not be dissuaded from bath- 
 ing. A man walking in the sea up to his knees was dragged away by one 
 almost before my eyes." 
 
 From the Carchariidce the members of the allied family Lamnidce differ by 
 the solid crowns of the fully developed teeth as well as by the absence of a 
 nictitating membrane to protect the eye. The typical re- 
 presentative of the family is the well-known porbeagle Family 
 (Lamna cornubica), a species widely spread in the seas of Lamnidce. 
 the Northern Hemisphere, where it feeds on fishes, which are 
 bolted whole. It seldom grows to more than about ten feet in length, and is 
 believed to produce its young alive. Far larger is the gigantic Carcharodon 
 rondelctii, which may attain the enormous length of forty feet, and is in 
 truth the giant of the carnivorous sharks. It has huge, flattened, triangular 
 teeth of great depth ; but as teeth of similar type, although of much larger 
 dimensions, are met with in various superficial deposits, as they are also in 
 some of the ocean abysses, it is evident that the living species is only an un- 
 worthy representative of its ancestors. It is, however, quite large enough, 
 and we may be thankful that its still more gigantic predecessors have dis- 
 appeared from the scene. Much smaller, and with a different type of teeth, 
 are the two species of the allied genus Odontaspis. Next comes the thresher 
 or fox-shark (Alopecias vulpcs), a species growing to a length of about fifteen 
 feet, and easily recognised by the excessive development of the upper lobe of 
 the tail, which forms more than half the total length of the creature. It has 
 feeble teeth, and feeds on mackerel and other fish, which it drives together 
 by striking the surface of the water with its tail, whence the name of 
 thresher. Sailors state that threshers also harass whales by jumping up in 
 the air, and dealing them sounding "whacks" with their tails in their 
 descent. But this naturalists, who are for the most part an incredulous race, 
 stoutly refuse to believe. However, we think that, as in the case of adders 
 swallowing their young, popular observation is more likely to be in the right 
 than conclusions drawn from the study of museum specimens. To the same 
 family belongs the gigantic basking-shark (Cetorhinus maximus) of the North 
 Atlantic, commonly met with off the west coast of Ireland, and attaining a 
 length of fully thirty feet. This shark, which has very minute teeth, is 
 characterised, among other features, by the small size of the anal and second 
 dorsal fins, and the large dimensions of its gill-slits. It is a somewhat sociable 
 species, floating motionless on the surface of the sea in calm sunny weather. 
 On account of the large quantity of excellent oil yielded by its liver, it is a 
 regular object of pursuit. 
 
 Another species (Rhinodon typicus), commonly known by the same ver- 
 nacular name as the last, forms a family by itself, being distinguished from all 
 the foregoing members of the order by the terminal position 
 of the mouth, which is of huge size, and somewhat reminds Family Rhino- 
 us of an open square-topped bag. The eyes are extremely dontidce. 
 minute, the teeth feeble, and the whole body much de- 
 pressed, with the first dorsal fin relatively small, and placed behind the 
 highest point of the back, nearly above the pelvic pair. Still smaller is the 
 second dorsal, which is situated near the tail, just over the anal. In spite of 
 its huge dimensions, fifty feet or more, this shark is a perfectly harmless 
 creature. It probably feeds on small fishes and various invertebrate animals. 
 It appears to be confined to the Indo-Pacific seas, where it is common in the 
 neighbourhood of the Seychelles. 
 
5i8 PISCES SUB-CLASS IV.ELASMOBRANCHIT. 
 
 The dog-fishes and allied members of this family differ from the foregoing 
 sharks with the mouth terminal by the backward position of the second 
 dorsal fin which occupies a position immediately over, or 
 Family Scyl- behind the line of the pelvic pair. The teeth, of which 
 liidce. several series are generally in use, are of small size, the eye 
 lacks the nictitating membrane, and spiracles are present on 
 the head. The dog-Hshes, of which there are two species from British 
 waters, form the genus Scyllium ; most of the species having their skins 
 elegantly spotted. Much larger is the Indian zebra-shark (Steyostoma), 
 growing to some fifteen feet in length, and taking its name from its zebra or 
 tiger-like coloration. Mention must also be made of the sharks of the genus 
 Crossorhinus, from 'Japan and Australia, not only on account of the circum- 
 stance that they are deep-water forms, but likewise from the presence of 
 leaf-like outgrowths of the skin of the sides of the head ; such appendages 
 being probably for the purpose of attracting prey within reach of the 
 jaws. 
 
 The Port Jackson shark, together with three allied species, form the genus 
 
 Cestracion (or more properly, Cestracium x ), which now alone constitutes a 
 
 family easily recognised by the peculiar character of the 
 
 Family dentition, and likewise by the presence of a spine in the 
 
 Cestraciid'jK. front portion of each dorsal fin. Whereas in the forepart of 
 
 both jaws the numerous rows of teeth are sharp and cusped, 
 
 on the sides and hinder region they form a pavement-like structure, arranged 
 
 in oblique rows ; the teeth in some of these rows being much larger than 
 
 in the others. The 
 mouth is situated at 
 the extremity of the 
 muzzle, and the eye 
 is unprovided with a 
 nictitating membrane. 
 These sharks, which do 
 not grow to more than 
 about five feet in 
 length, are widely dis- 
 tributed in the warmer 
 seas. Although we 
 
 7. 37. PORT JACKSON SHARK. are still very ignorant 
 
 as to their life-his- 
 tory, it is known that their food is principally composed of shell-6sh, 
 and also that their eggs are unlike those of other members of the 
 order, their enveloping membranes being twisted into the form of a 
 screw. 
 
 The two genera of sharks constituting this small sub-family stand apart 
 
 from the other members of the sub-order in regard to the manner in which 
 
 the jaws are articulated to the cranium, while externally 
 
 Family they are readily distinguished by the number of gill-clefts 
 
 Notidanidw. being increased from the normal five to either six or seven, 
 
 and also by the single dorsal fin. There is no spine to the 
 
 latter, and the teeth are cusped, and form several series. The typical genus 
 
 Notidanus includes four species, characterised by the simple gill-slits and 
 
 the complicated structure of the teeth, which consist of an elongated base 
 
 1 The name of the family is commonly given as Cestraciontidce, but it should be as written here. 
 
SHARKS AND RAYS. 519 
 
 carrying a large number of cusps, these latter gradually diminishing in height 
 from one end of the tooth to the other. The notochord remains in its 
 original condition throughout the greater part of the backbone. These 
 sharks, which may grow to about fifteen feet in length, are to be found in 
 most of the warmer seas. In the second genus, Chlamydoselache, which is 
 represented only by a single species from the Japanese seas, the six gill-slits 
 have frill-like expansions of skin on their margins, the teeth are of simpler 
 structure, and the body is so long and slender as to be almost eel-like. 
 
 SUB-ORDER II. TECTOSPONDYLI. 
 
 In this sub-order which includes the spiny dog-fishes, saw-fishes, and the 
 rays the vertebrae, when fully developed, have their calcareous plates so 
 arranged that in cross-section the circular ones predominate over those that 
 radiate from the centre to the circumference. None of the members have an 
 anal fin, but the spiracles are large. In the rays the body is characterised by 
 its extreme depression, and the pectoral tins are developed into huge flaps 
 bordering its sides. 
 
 While agreeing with the other members of the sub-order in the structure 
 of the vertebrae, the species forming the family tfpinacidce are externally like 
 sharks. The gill-clefts are small and lateral in position, the 
 spiracles are situated behind the eyes, and there are two Family 
 
 dorsal fins, which may be furnished in front with spines. In Spinacidce. 
 addition to the typical genus Spinax, the family includes the 
 spiny dog-fishes (Acanthia&), taking their name from the presence o* spines to 
 the dorsal fins, and likewise the Greenland shark (Lcemargus), Whereas the 
 spiny dog-fishes do not exceed about four feet in length, the latter species 
 grows to as much as fifteen, and has no spines to the tins of the back. It has 
 a peculiarly tuberculated skin ; and whereas the upper teeth are small, those 
 of the lower jaw are taller, and have their tips bent to one side. Nearly 
 allied is the spiny shark (Echinorhinus) of the Atlantic and Mediterranean, in. 
 which the upper and lower teeth are alike. 
 
 The monk- or angel-* sh (Squatina vulgaris) is the sole member of a family 
 which serves to connect the last with the true rays. This ugly fish has a 
 depressed skate-like body, but a nearly terminal mouth, and 
 the pectoral tins not connected at their bases with the head. Family 
 
 The conical teeth are sharply pointed, the gill-slits are lateral, Squatinidce. 
 the skin is tuberculated, and the dorsal tins, which have no 
 spines, are placed on the tail. The monk-nsh reaches a length of fully five 
 feet, and is found in nearly all seas. 
 
 The production of the extremity of the upper jaw into a long, flattened 
 bony process, armed on each side with sharp quadrangular teeth set in 
 sockets, serves at once to distinguish the saw-tishes from all 
 their kindred. They form two genera Pristiophorus and Families 
 Pristis each of which is regarded as representing a family Pristiophoridce 
 by itself, although such a division certainly seems somewhat and Pristidce. 
 superfluous. The members of the first genus are relatively 
 small fishes from the seas of Australia and Japan, characterised, among other 
 features, by the lateral situation of the gill-slits, and the possession of a pair 
 of tentacles arising from the middle of the jaw, and projecting far beyond the 
 
520 PISCES SUB-CLASS IV.ELASMOBRANCHII. 
 
 teeth. In the second genus, of which various members range through all 
 the warmer seas, the gill-slits are placed on the inferior aspect, and there 
 are no tentacles to the saw. Saw-fishes of this genus grow to twenty feet 
 or more in length, when their offensive weapon may measure as much as 
 a couple of yards. They are some of the most terrible and cruel members 
 of the whole order, using their formidable saw for the purpose of ripping 
 
 open the bodies of their victims 
 by a lateral stroke, and then 
 feeding greedily on the in- 
 testines and torn flesh. Even 
 bathers in fresh waters are by 
 
 =^-~l__^_ -_ _ ^ no means exempt from their 
 
 attacks, as these fishes fre- 
 Ftg. 38.- SAW-FISH. quently ascend large rivers to 
 
 a considerable distance. 
 
 The genera of beaked rays constituting this family differ from all the pre- 
 ceding groups by the much greater development of their pectoral fins, which 
 extend forwards to join the head, the portion of the head 
 Family and body thus surrounded by fins being technically termed 
 
 RhinobatidcK. the disc. In these and the other rays referred to below, the 
 dorsal fins are shifted backwards to the more or less whip- 
 like tail, and the gill-slits are placed inferiorly, as is generally the mouth. 
 The RhinobatidcR are specially distinguished from their kindred by the 
 moderate development of the pectoral fins, of which the portion furnished 
 with cartilaginous rays does not extend forwards to the beak ; and the long 
 tail, which is marked on the sides by a fold of skin, carries two large dorsal 
 fins. In addition to the typical genus Rhinobatis, which includes a consider- 
 able number of species from all the warmer oceans, the present family com- 
 prises the Australian Trigonorhina and the two species of Rhynchobatis, from 
 the hottest regions of the Indian Ocean. The last-named is remarkable for 
 the beautiful structure of its teeth, which form a compact pavement, with a 
 prominent ridge in the middle line of one jaw fitting into a corresponding 
 depression in that of the other, and also having undulations at the sides. 
 From six to eight feet is a common length for these rays. Like the skates 
 and rays of the following families, the members of these genera are some- 
 what sluggish fishes, living near the bottom in water of moderate depth, and 
 flapping lazily along when in movement by the aid of their huge pectoral fins, 
 the tail acting merely as a rudder. When at rest, the colour of the upper 
 surface of a ray's back is so like the sand or mud on which the creature rests 
 that it often requires a practised eye to detect its presence. The ridges of 
 tubercles found on the backs of some species probably increase the resem- 
 blance by simulating lines of small stones on the sand. The food of rays 
 consists of shell-fish and various crustaceans, whose hard shells are instan- 
 taneously ground up by the powerful mill-like jaws. In seizing their prey, 
 these fish throw themselves right above it, so as to be able readily to convey 
 it to the mouth, which is situated on the lower surface of the head some 
 considerable distance behind the muzzle. 
 
 The second family of rays includes the genera Raia, Psammobatis, and 
 Platyrhina, in all of which the disc is very broad, with its rayed portion ex- 
 tending as far forwards as the muzzle, while the tail is 
 Family Raiidce. marked on each side by a fold. Yery generally the skin is 
 roughened by tubercles, which may terminate in spines. To 
 
SHARKS AND RA VS. 
 
 521 
 
 the typical genus belongs the common thornback skate of the British seas, 
 in which the two sexes are distin- 
 guished by the structure of the teeth, 
 those of the female forming a com- 
 paratively smooth pavement, whereas 
 those of 
 arranged 
 
 LTHORNBACK SKATE. 
 
 the male although still 
 in the same manner are 
 cusped. In other species of the 
 same genus sexual differences dis- 
 play themselves in other parts of 
 the body. Skates of this genus 
 are more abundant in northern than 
 in tropical seas, and some of them 
 .range considerably farther north than 
 any other members of the group. 
 The flesh of all is largely used as 
 food. 
 
 The presence of an electric organ, 
 composed of vertical prisms, between the head and the pectoral fins, serves 
 to differentiate the numerous kinds of electric rays from the 
 other representatives of the group. The body of these fishes Family 
 
 forms a broad, smooth disc, covered with a naked skin ; the Torpedinidce. 
 tail has a longitudinal fold on each side and a caudal fin, and 
 there is generally a rayed dorsal fin. The vertical prisms of the electric 
 organ are divided by a number of horizontal partitions into separate cells, 
 each filled with a translucent substance somewhat resembling jelly in ap- 
 pearance. The currents produced by this singular structure are precisely 
 similar to those from a galvanic battery ; and in fishes of moderate dimensions 
 are sufficiently powerful to disable even human beings. The typical genus 
 Torpedo includes half a dozen species from the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, 
 some of which are also abundant in the Mediterranean, while one occasionally 
 wanders to the southern shores of Britain. From the warmer seas there are 
 also several other genera belonging to this family, such as Astrape, Discopyqe, 
 Uypnus, Narcine, and Temera, severally distinguished by the conformation 
 and position of the fins. 
 
 The largest and most hideous of all the skates are the so-called eagle-rays, 
 several of which are popularly known as devil-fish. In the five genera in- 
 cluded in this family the pectoral fins obtain an enormous 
 development, in consequence of which the disc becomes Family 
 
 greatly widened. Along the sides of the head the pectoral fins JSfyliobatidcB. 
 are, however, interrupted ; their anterior extremities form- 
 ing small finlets on the muzzle, known as cephalic fins. In some of the 
 genera these cephalic fins are modified to form a pair of horn-like structures 
 projecting forwards on each side of the muzzle, the function of which is to 
 assist in capturing and conveying to the mouth the prey. In all, the tail 
 forms a long, tapering, whip-like organ. When the mouth is armed with 
 teeth, these take the form of a pavement, which in the typical genus Mylio- 
 batis is perfectly smooth, and composed of a number of oblong and hexagonal 
 plates, fitted closely together at their edges, and with their grinding surface 
 like polished ivory. Several widely-spread species are included in the 
 typical genus, two of which are visitors to the British coasts. Most of them 
 have a barbed spine to the tail, and with this, when caught, they lash out 
 
522 PISCES SUB-CLASS IV.ELASMOR.RANCHII. 
 
 violently, and thus inflict severe wounds. In comparison with the electric 
 rays in which the width of the disc seldom exceeds from two to three feet 
 these fishes are giants, their length being at times as much as fifteen feet. 
 The tropical devil-fishes forming the genera Dicerobatis and Cephaloptera are, 
 however, still more gigantic, some examples measuring nearly twenty feet 
 across the disc, and weighing considerably more than a thousand pounds. In 
 Dicerobatis the truncated muzzle is armed with a formidable pair of horns, 
 the mouth is inferior, and has both its jaws furnished with teeth. On the 
 other hand, in Cephaloptera, the position of the mouth is terminal, and there 
 are teeth only in the lower jaw. Of these ungainly monsters, Mr. S. Ward, 
 in a letter quoted by Dr. Percival Wright, describes his experiences in the 
 Seychelles as follows : " Coming home, we passed close to an enormous 
 diable-de-mer floating quietly about. We changed from the pirogue to the 
 whale-boat, which I had scientifically fitted up for the grosses poissous, and 
 went alongside of him, driving a regular whale-harpoon right through his 
 body. The way he towed the whaler was beautiful, but we would not give 
 him an inch of line, and he had to succumb to a rather protracted lancing. 
 His size will give you an idea of his strength in the water forty-two feet in 
 circumference. We got him awash on the beach, but the united strength of 
 ten men could not get him an inch farther, so we were obliged to leave him 
 there. By this time the sharks will not have left much of him ; they have 
 not had such a meal for a long time. The fishermen say that, when alive, 
 the sharks do not molest the diable-de-mer, whose offensive weapons consist 
 of their enormous flexible sides (one can hardly call them fins) with which 
 they can beat almost any shark to death. Asa rule, when harpooned, they 
 endeavour, like other rays, to bury themselves in the sand, and if they 
 succeed in doing this, no line can ever haul them out of it their flat bodies 
 act on the principle of an enormous sucker. Another curious fact about 
 them is that when harpooned, they swim sideways, edge-on, in order to avoid 
 exposing too broad a surface to the enemy. They never do this unless 
 harpooned." Other genera are Aetobatis and Ehinoptera, both distinguished 
 by the dentition and the position and form of the fins. Whereas the former 
 of these has but a single species, the latter possesses several. 
 
 The last existing representatives of the Elasmobranchii are the formidable 
 and dreaded sting-rays, which are typified by the genus Trygon, but also 
 
 include Pteroplatea, Urogymnus, and Urolophus. In species 
 
 Family the typical genus is very numerous, some of these having a 
 
 Trygonidce. very wide geographical range. They are mostly tropical, 
 
 and attain their maximum development in the Atlantic Ocean 
 and the Indian seas. It is remarkable that certain species inhabiting the 
 eastern districts of Tropical America have become accustomed to a fresh- 
 water existence, and are now restricted to certain inland lakes. All these 
 fishes are distinguished by the excessive development of the fore-part of the 
 pectoral fins, which are so extended as to encircle the muzzle, and thus com- 
 plete the disc. The whip-like tail is distinctly marked off from the body, 
 and generally bears a poisonous serrated spine ; and in many kinds the 
 median fins which are never large are replaced by similar spines. These 
 armed rays are some of the most dangerous of all fishes. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM I. VERTEBRATA. 
 
 CLASS VLCYCLOSTOMATA. 
 BY R LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. 
 
 LAMPREYS AND HAG-FISHES. 
 
 As indicated by the name hag-fishes, which is popularly applied to the mem- 
 bers of one of the two families, the animals now to be considered are 
 commonly regarded as fishes. Popular natural history and scientific zoology 
 take, however, very different estimates of the mutual relationships of or- 
 ganised beings ; and zoologists are now pretty well agreed that, although 
 they were formerly admitted within its limits, lampreys and hag-fishes have 
 no real claim to be included in the class Pisces. Consequently, they are now 
 regarded as forming a class by themselves the Cyclostomata. This class 
 includes the last group of animals now termed true Vertebrata; the lancelets, 
 which were likewise formerly regarded as fishes, being now considered as the 
 highest of the Protochordata or semi- Vertebrates. The essential features by 
 which the members of the lamprey group are broadly distinguished from the 
 higher classes of the Vertebrates are the complete absence of jaws, the single 
 instead of double aperture of the nostrils, and the rasping tongue. 
 Round-mouths the English equivalent of Cyclostomata is a name which 
 well expresses the first of these three distinctive features ; but, in allusion 
 to the second characteristic, the alternative name of Monorhina has likewise 
 been proposed for the class. Whichever name may be selected, there can be 
 no doubt as to the right of the lamprey group to constitute a class by itself. 
 Had we these living forms alone to deal with, there would be no need to 
 sub-divide the class into groups of higher rank than families. It happens, 
 however, that there are certain extinct, somewhat fish-like creatures, which 
 there is considerable reason for regarding as more or less distantly related 
 to the modern lampreys. Consequently, it is necessary to make the latter 
 into a sub-class by themselves ; and for this sub-class the name of Marsipo- 
 branchii has been selected. This name refers to the circumstance that in 
 the lampreys and hag-fishes the gills form a series of pouches on the sides of 
 the neck, on which they usually open by round apertures coincident in 
 number with the- pouches. Either six or seven is the number of pairs of 
 gill-pouches, in which there are no supporting gill-arches. The sucking- 
 mouth, which occupies the extremity of the muzzle, is of circular form, with 
 its more or less lip-like margin sustained by a system of internal cartilages. 
 The skin of the body is soft, and unprovided with scales ; but the upper and 
 lower surfaces of its hinder half bear well-developed fins in the middle line, 
 which are supported by vertical rays of cartilage. Paired fins correspond- 
 ing to those of fishes and representing the limbs of the higher Vertebrates 
 are, however, conspicuous by their absence ; this lack of limbs forming, in- 
 deed, a characteristic of the class rather than a feature of the sub-class. 
 Internally, a lamprey lacks all traces of ribs, and the vertebral column is 
 either represented by the primitive notochord alone, or by that structure 
 surrounded by a series of calcareous rings. In reality, therefore, a lamprey 
 
 5 2 3 
 
524 CYCLOSTOMATA. 
 
 has only the very remotest claim to be called a vertebrate animal ; but since 
 some of the sharks are in a very similar predicament as regards the differ- 
 entiation of their backbones, this deficiency can scarcely be regarded as a bar 
 to the title. The heart of a lamprey is decidedly of a lower type than that 
 of a fish, since it lacks the chamber at the front end technically designated 
 the bulbus arteriosus. The digestive tract is peculiar in being quite simple 
 and straight; and the organs of reproduction discharge their products directly 
 into the general cavity of the body. The function of teeth is discharged by 
 a variable number of horny plates or cusps. 
 
 As a family, the lampreys are distinguished from the hag-fishes by under- 
 going a metamorphosis, and by the nostril terminating behind as a blind sac 
 without perforating the palate. In the adult form rasping 
 
 Lampreys. horny teeth cover the tongue, and teeth of similar structure 
 Family are present above and below the mouth, as well as in the 
 
 Petromyzidw. surrounding adhesive disc, while the aperture of the nostril 
 is situated near the middle of the head, and there are well- 
 developed eyes. The gill-pouches are seven in number, and each opens by a 
 separate aperture on the side of the neck ; but internally those of each side 
 have only a single opening into the pharynx, their ducts uniting to form one 
 tube. On the other hand, the larvte, which were long regarded as distinct 
 creatures, under the name of Ammoccetes, have an undivided median fin, and 
 toothless mouth. All the members of this family lay very small eggs, and 
 the lining membrane of the intestine forms a spiral valve. The true 
 lampreys, or those included in the genus Petromywnn, appear to be four in 
 number, and have a wide range in the Northern Hemisphere, one extending 
 as far south as the west coast of Africa. In this genus the hinder of the two 
 fins on the back is continuous with the tail-fin ; the rasp-like teeth on the 
 tongue are serrated ; and on the upper side of the mouth there is either a 
 transverse horny ridge bearing one two-cusped, or two separate teeth situated 
 close together. The largest form is the sea lamprey (P. marinuni), which is 
 not unfrequently as much as three feet in length, whereas the common river 
 lamprey (P. fluviatile) does not reach a couple of feet. Lampreys live 
 chiefly or entirely on the flesh of fishes, to whose bodies they attach them- 
 selves by their adhesive discs, and then rasp off the flesh with their horny 
 dental organs. All ascend rivers for the purpose of breeding, and the larvae 
 of some kinds remain in fresh water until they develop into the adult form. 
 At the breeding season some lampreys ascend the rivers of the Northern 
 Hemisphere in vast shoals. They deposit their eggs in furrows excavated in 
 the river bottom. Another genus (Mordcicia) is represented by a species 
 found in localities as remote from one another as the coasts of Tasmania and 
 Chili, and differs in that the teeth above the mouth are arranged in two 
 three-cusped groups. In the allied genus Geotria, of which one species is 
 found in South Australia, and the second in Chili, the hinder fin on the back 
 is distinct from the tail-fin. The last genus is the little-known Exomegas, 
 from the Argentine coast. 
 
 In this family the nostril is extended backwards to perforate the palate, 
 
 and its front aperture is placed close to the muzzle. Two pairs of barbels 
 
 decorate the sides of the muzzle, the mouth has no lip-like 
 
 Hag-Fishes. structure, a single tooth occupies the middle of the palate, 
 
 Family and the teeth on the tongue are arranged in a double comb- 
 
 Myxinida. like series. Each gill-pouch opens by a duct of its own into 
 
 the pharynx, and the external apertures of the pouches are 
 
LAMPRE YS AND HA G- FISHES. 525 
 
 situated a considerable distance behind the head, instead of close to it. 
 The eggs differ from those of the lampreys by their relatively large size, as 
 well as by having a horny coating furnished with tendrils for the purpose of 
 attachment to submerged objects. The young are hatched in a fully- 
 developed state, and undergo no metamorphosis. In the members of the 
 typical genus Myxine there is only one gill-aperture on each side of the body, 
 but this gives rise to six ducts leading to the gill-pouches. On the other 
 hand, in the genus Bdellostoma each of the six or more gill-pouches com- 
 municates directly with the exterior by a separate aperture. Whereas the 
 members of the first genus have a wide geographical range, the two repre- 
 sentatives of the second appear to be confined to the coasts of the South 
 Pacific. All are exclusively marine, and they have been taken at great 
 depths. They are blind, and to a large extent parasitic, so that they may be 
 regarded as degraded types ; and they have the habit of secreting a vast 
 quantity of stiff slime. Like the lampreys, they feed on the flesh of fishes, 
 the various members of the cod tribe being their especial favourites. They 
 do not, however, content themselves by hanging on to the surface of the body, 
 for which the structure of the mouth is less suited, but actually bore their 
 way into the flesh of their unwilling hosts. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM L VERTEBRATA. 
 
 CLASS VILPROTOCHORDA. 
 BY W. GARSTANG, M.A., F.Z.S. 
 
 SUB-CLASS I.-CEPHALOCHORDA. 
 
 THE group Cephalochorda contains a number of small marine animals which 
 resemble tishes in many respects, but are much more lowly organised than 
 even the simplest of the finny tribe. They breathe like fishes by taking 
 water into their mouths and passing it out through a series of slit-like holes 
 in the sides of their throats (gill-slits). The number of these gill-slits is much 
 greater than in fishes, frequently amounting to more than a hundred. A 
 supporting rod, the notochord, the forerunner of the backbone of higher 
 forms, extends along the back of the animal from head to tail, and the tubu- 
 lar nervous system lies above it. There are no true side-fins, but a pair of 
 ridges along the under side of the body of the young animal possibly re- 
 presents them. In the very young animal the gill-slits open directly to the 
 outside, but at an early period the fin -like ridges, which have just been 
 mentioned, close over the slits and unite with one another on the under side 
 of the body, leaving merely a small hole or water-pore for the outflow of the 
 water. These little animals are capable of extremely rapid movements, 
 wriggling their lancet-shaped bodies from side to side after the manner of an 
 eel. They have no jaws, and depend for their food upon the microscopic 
 plants and other organisms contained in the stream of water constantly 
 passing through their mouths. This current of water is set up by the action 
 of innumerable fine whip-like lashes which beset the sides of the gill-slits, and 
 by their united action drive the water outwards into the surrounding water- 
 cavity, and so to the exterior through the water-pore. New water is con- 
 stantly streaming into the mouth to take the place of the water driven out, 
 and the food-particles it contains are incessantly extracted from it by means 
 of the slimy coating of the walls of the throat, to which they adhere. Another 
 set of microscopic lashes then drives the entangled food-particles down the 
 proper channel to the animal's stomach, where they are digested in the 
 ordinary way. 
 
 The lancelet (Ampliioxus lanceolatus) is the only representative of the 
 group in the Mediterranean and North Atlantic seas. It is a semi-transpar- 
 ent little creature, from one to two 
 inches in length, compressed from side 
 to side, pointed at both ends, provided 
 with a circle of small stiff tentacles round 
 the mouth, and with a distinct tail-fin 
 
 behind. It lives in shallow water, in 
 Fig. I. THE LANCELET (Amvhioxus lanceo- , , ., , . , , i , i 
 
 latus). beds of loose sand, into which it burrows 
 
 with lightning-like rapidity. It lies 
 
 obliquely on its back in its sandy bed, its head and mouth alone protruding 
 
 526 
 
UROCHORDA OR TUN 1C AT A. 
 
 527 
 
 above the surface. These habits clearly provide the reason why the delicate 
 gill-slit region of the body should be protected from injury and enclosed 
 within a special chamber, formed by the union of a pair of fin-like ridges. 
 
 Other representatives of the group, closely resembling the European 
 lancelet, are found in shallow seas all over the world. A peculiar type 
 (Asymmetron lucayanum\ which possesses a slender backward prolongation 
 of its tail, is found in the Bahamas, where it may be taken swimming freely 
 at the surface of the sea at night, or in the day-time buried in the coral sand. 
 
 SUB-CLASS II. UROCHORDA OR TUNICATA. 
 
 THIS group of exclusively marine animals is closely related to the Cephalo- 
 chorda, although its various representatives are very unlike Amphioxus in 
 their final shape and appearance. They agree with Amphioxus, however, in 
 having similar organs for breathing and feeding, and in having a similar 
 tubular nervous system and supporting rod along the back of the body. Un- 
 like Amphioxus, however, the primitive backbone or notochord of Tunicata 
 is confined to the hinder part of the body, which is in the form of a well- 
 marked tail like that of a tadpole. The body also possesses the power of 
 producing a gelatinous envelope or tunic called the test, which clothes the 
 animal either loosely as in Appendicularians, or closely as in all others. The 
 group consists of two principal sections, which may be called the Tailed and 
 Tailless Tunicata. 
 
 The members of the first section (Appendicularians) are free-swimming, 
 and retain their tails with the nerve-cord and notochord during their whole 
 career. They are very small and inconspicuous creatures, 
 the body being about the size of a small pin's head, and the 
 tail less than a quarter of an inch in length, and the whole 
 animal is of glass-like transparency. The tunic is thin, and 
 forms a delicate " house J ' in which the Appendiculariaij 
 swims about, and from which it can escape when attacked by 
 its enemies. These creatures can often be caught at the sur- 
 face of the sea round our coasts by the use of a fine muslin 
 net. 
 
 The members of the second sec- 
 tion, the Tailless Tunicata, are 
 tailed only in their early stages. 
 After a brief free-swimming career 
 they lose their tails, like the tad- 
 poles of the common frog, and grow 
 up into soft back-boneless animals 
 of a quite different appearance. Some of these 
 tailless forms retain, or regain, their free-swimming 
 habits, and usually acquire a barrel-like shape and 
 
 Fig. 2. AN AP- 
 
 PENDICULARIAN 
 
 (Oikopleura), In 
 its house. 
 
 Fig. 3. DOLIOLUM TRITONIS. 
 
 a number of hoop-like muscle bands, by the contractions of which they drive 
 themselves through the water (Salps), or they may form definite colonies and 
 float idly about at the mercy of the waves (Pyrosoma). The majority of the 
 Tailless Tunicata, however, become permanently attached to rocks, stones, 
 and sea-weeda on the sea-bottom, and are especially abundant between tide- 
 
528 
 
 HERMICHORDA OR ENTEROPNEUSTA. 
 
 marks round our shores. They are known as Ascidians or sea-squirts, and 
 they may be either solitary or colonial. The solitary forms are sac-shaped, 
 leathery creatures fastened at the base, and possessing a mouth at the opposite 
 
 Fig. 4. FYROSOMA. 
 
 Fig. 5. COMMON SEA 
 
 SQUIRT (Ascidlella, 
 
 aspersa). 
 
 Fig. 6. BOTRYLLUS. 
 
 end. There is also another opening by which the water from the gill- 
 slits is passed out of the body. The colonial forms are smaller in size, and 
 are united together into irregular or star-shaped clusters usually brightly 
 coloured. 
 
 CLASS VIII. HERMICHORDA or ENTEROPNEUSTA. 
 
 THE commonest representative of this group is the remarkable Balanoglossus, 
 an animal which combines the creeping mud-burrowing habits of a worm with 
 some of *he organs especially characteristic of ver- 
 tebrata. The body is divided into three parts, a flexible 
 tongue-like proboscis in front of the mouth, a raised 
 collar behind it, and a long cylindrical hind-region, the 
 sides of which are perforated by numerous inconspicuous 
 gill -slits. In the back of the collar of 
 Balanoglossus a short tubular nerve-cord 
 is found like that of vertebrata. In its 
 young condition Balanoglossus is a small 
 transparent creature, about one-tenth of 
 an inch in length, remarkably similar to 
 the free-swimming larval form of star- 
 fishes and sea-cucumbers. 
 
 Balanoglossus has only once been taken 
 on the coast of the British Isles, but is Fig. 8. TORNARIA. 
 not uncommon on the shores of the Channel Islands and 
 other parts of the world. Balanoglossus sarniensis, found in the Channel 
 Islands, varies from one to three feet in length, and is difficult to obtain in a 
 perfect condition, owing to its softness and fragility. The young form, 
 Tornaria, may be found in the autumn months free-swimming at the surface 
 of the sea off the southern shores of Great Britain. 
 
 Fig. 7. BALANO- 
 GLOSSUS SARNIENSIS. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM II. ARTHROPODA. 
 
 CRUSTACEA, INSECTA, &c. 
 BY W. F. KTRBY, F.L.S., F.E.S., &c. 
 
 THE Arthropoda (otherwise called Articulata or Annulosa) include an enor- 
 mous number of animals with an external skeleton, or, at least, a thickened 
 integument to which the muscles are attached ; and a body divided into 
 segments, and furnished with jointed organs for locomotion, etc. Many of 
 them undergo a metamorphosis, passing through several dissimilar stages 
 before reaching the perfect state in which they become sexually mature, and 
 capable of reproducing their kind. The sexes are generally distinct. They 
 breathe by tracheae, or by gills, and the nervous system consists of a series 
 of ganglia, of which the largest, situated in the head, are considered to 
 correspond to the brain. The blood is usually white. 
 
 The following classes may be grouped under this heading : 
 
 I. CRUSTACEA (Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, etc.). 
 II. ARACHNID A (Spiders, Scorpions and Mites). Classes of 
 
 III. MYRIOPODA (Centipedes and Millepedes). Arthropoda. 
 
 IV. PROTRACHEATA. 
 V. INSECTA (Insects). 
 
 The characters of these classes are noticed in their places, and to enumer- 
 ate them here would be repetition. It must not be forgotten that all organic 
 beings show complicated affinities all round, and that no linear arrangement 
 can possibly be natural, and, therefore, we can only follow what appears to 
 be a fairly natural sequence, always remembering that by laying stress on 
 some characters we are necessarily ignoring others of perhaps equal or 
 greater importance ; and sometimes widely separating creatures which, when 
 looked at from a slightly different point of view, are seen to be closely 
 allied. 
 
 Space at disposal necessarily limits this article to a brief sketch of a vast 
 subject ; but care has been taken to preserve a certain proportion in allotting 
 the space to the different sections of which, it is composed, and the informa- 
 tion given, though far from exhaustive, will be found to be useful and in- 
 structive. The selection made is that of the most important and interesting 
 groups into which these animals have been divided. These are dealt with in 
 the order given above, and are illustrated by numerous original drawings 
 reproduced in most cases life size. 
 
 35 529 
 
530 CRUSTACEA ORDER PHYLLOPODA. 
 
 CLASS I. CRUSTACEA. 
 
 THE Crustacea may be considered as the marine representatives of the Insects; 
 for although a few insects are marine, and some Crustacea are found on land 
 or in fresh water, yet an overwhelming preponderance of the Crustacea are 
 exclusively marine. In the perfect state they are covered with a hard jointed 
 shell. Sometimes the head is united with the thorax, as in the class Arach- 
 tiida, but it is more often separated. Being water animals, 
 Larval Forms of or living with few exceptions in damp places on land, they 
 Crustacea. breathe with gills. They have generally two eyes, two pairs 
 of antennae, three pairs of jaws, three pairs of foot-jaws, 
 the two outer pairs of which often serve the purpose of legs, and five 
 pairs of legs. Most of the species undergo a peculiar metamorphosis, like 
 that of the Barnacles, which has led to the latter 
 being now classed as retrograde Crustacea. These 
 larval forms are generally called Nauplius, or Zoea, 
 these names having been given to them when they 
 were first discovered, and were supposed to be perfect 
 organisms. They have large eyes, and curious bifid 
 appendages terminating in long bristles, and utilised 
 as swimming feet. The Nauplius-iorm (compare Fig. 
 5) shown by many Crustacea on emerging from the 
 egg, is oval, with a single eye, and it gradually acquires 
 three pairs of limbs. In the Copepoda and Ostracoda 
 it passes gradually into the perfect state by successive 
 moults; but in the Siphonostoma it undergoes a re- 
 trograde metamorphosis, losing the eyes, and limbs, 
 as locomotive organs. This form of larva is seldom met 
 with among the Decapoda. The Zoea-form of larva 
 Fig. l. ZOEA.-LARVA OP ^g sev en pairs of iointed appendages, of which the 
 
 OPIi)ER-l^RA.B (JVICilCt, f . . *f CP 1 /c >, 
 
 Squinado). Magnified. foot-jaws are very large ; and two large eyes. (See 
 Fig. 1.) When the Zoea was first discovered, it 
 
 was thought to be a creature of the greatest rarity and interest, and it is 
 amusing to read in the old books of the capture of single specimens of a 
 Zoea at intervals of years, in distant parts of the globe. Now they are 
 known to be simply the larval forms of many of our commonest Crustacea. 
 Similar unexpected discoveries perhaps still exist, in the case of other, 
 as yet unsuspected, inhabitants of our globe. 
 
 Crustacea are carnivorous or omnivorous, and some of the smaller kinds 
 are parasitic. Some Crustacea are of very small size, while others are the 
 largest of known Arthropoda. Their average size is considerably above that 
 of insects. There are probably no species which can be considered actually 
 injurious to man ; but many are of considerable economic importance. 
 Crabs, shrimps, lobsters, prawns, and crayfish are the only Arthropoda which 
 form staple articles of diet among civilised nations at the present day, though 
 there is no reason why locusts and large wood-feeding grubs 
 Edible and caterpillars should not be eaten. Locusts have always 
 
 Arthropoda. been relished in the East ; and the Cossus, which was pro- 
 bably the larva of some large beetle, was considered a dainty 
 by the Romans. However, with the exception of cheese-maggots and cheese- 
 mites, both of which are probably less wholesome than the insects just 
 
WATER-FLEAS. 
 
 531 
 
 mentioned, Europeans turn from insects, etc., with disgust, "while eating 
 crabs and shrimps without hesitation. Food is more a matter of fashion 
 than of anything else, after all. 
 
 A most ingenious theory has lately been propounded by Mr. H. M. 
 Bernard, in his work on the Apodidce. He considers the Crustacea to have 
 originated from the Annelida, and that the earliest Crustacea were simply 
 Annelida with the head bent down under the body ; but this is a matter on 
 which only specialists are entitled to express an opinion. Nevertheless, we 
 may begin the Crustacea with the Entomostraca, as the group nearest ap- 
 proaching to the Annelida. We may add that the Pycnogonida, which we 
 have included with the Arachnida, have been placed by some authors in the 
 Crustacea, while others have regarded them as forming a distinct class of 
 Arthropods by themselves. 
 
 SUB-CLASS I. ENTOMOSTRACA. 
 
 THIS large section is only retained as a matter of convenience to include the 
 smaller Crustacea, many of which exhibit forms which have little resemblance 
 to the more typical Crustacea. It includes most of the parasitic species. The 
 Cirripedia are sometimes treated as an additional order of Entomostraca. 
 
 ORDER I. PHYLLOPODA. 
 
 The Phyllopoda have received their name from their leaf -like swimming 
 legs, of which there are four pairs, or more. Sometimes more or less of the 
 animal is covered by a bivalve shell, somewhat as in the Ostracoda, or by a 
 
 Fig. 2. WATER-FLEA 
 
 (Daphnia pulex). 
 Magnified. 
 
 Fig. S.Apus cancri- 
 furmis. Nat. size. 
 
 Fig. 4. BRTNE 
 
 SHRIMP 
 
 (Artemia salina). 
 Magnified. 
 
 solid carapace ; in other cases this is wanting. Some are marine, while others 
 inhabit fresh water. They have usually two eyes, which, however, are some- 
 times contiguous. Three families of this order may be briefly noticed. The 
 
532 CRUSTACEA ORDERS COPE POD A AND CIRRTPEDIA. 
 
 Daphniidce, or water-fleas are small Crustacea which abound in fresh water. 
 They are of a compressed oval form, and are partly covered by a thin, trans- 
 parent bivalve shell. The first pair of antennae is small, but the second very 
 large, bifid at the extremity, and set with long hairs, which serve as the 
 principal organs of locomotion. The eyes are fused into one large one, near 
 which is often another small one. They have from four to six pairs of 
 swimming legs. They are very favourite objects with microscopists, being 
 abundant, and admitting of easy observation. In the Apod id fe the body is 
 covered with a shield-shaped carapace, and there are two contiguous eyes, 
 and from 30 to 40 pairs of gill-feet. Apus caiicriformis, Schiiff., is a brownish 
 yellow species, about two inches long, which is found in ponds. The large, 
 oval carapace covers all but the last few segments of the body, which ends in 
 a flat double tail, on each side of which a long bristly appendage is visible. 
 This family is of interest as having formed the subject of Mr. Bernard's 
 memoir, already alluded to, in which he connects the Annelida with the 
 Trilobites through the Apodidw. The Branchipodidw have no shell, but a 
 strongly-segmented body, stalked eyes, and a long tapering tail, ending in a 
 flat pair of flattened appendages set with bristles. The most interesting 
 species of this family is the brine shrimp, Artemia salina (Linn.), which is of 
 a pink colour, and about half an inch long. It is more shrimp-like in appear- 
 ance than any other species of Entomostraca which we have mentioned, and 
 is only found in brine pits, appearing to prefer the most concentrated brine. 
 
 ORDER II. OSTRACODA. 
 
 In the Ostracoda the body is not segmented, and is entirely covered by a 
 bean-shaped bivalve shell. There are four antennae set with bristles, and 
 one or both pairs are used for swimming and grasping. There are five pairs 
 of other appendages, of which the first, second, often the third, and some- 
 times even the fourth, serve the purpose of jaws, and only the last pair or 
 pairs perform the office of legs. 
 
 ORDER III. COPEPODA. 
 
 In this order there are ten swimming-legs at most, generally bifid, and set 
 with hairs and bristles. One or two sessile eyes 
 are present, and the mouth is furnished with leaf- 
 like gills. The large eye possessed by some of 
 the species led to their being placed in a genus 
 Cyclops by Miiller. They commence life in the 
 Nauplius-foTm, to which the full-grown animal 
 still exhibits a strong resemblance. Some species are 
 free, and others parasitic ; as, for instance, those 
 belonging to the family Notodelphyidce, which live 
 within the branchial cavity of Ascidia. A few 
 species like these are marine, but the majority 
 of the Cydopidce live in fresh water, one species, 
 Fig. 5.- CYCLOPS QUABRI- Canthocamptvs alpestris (Vogt) being found in 
 CORNIS. Magnified. the glacier waters of the Aar in Switzerland, at an 
 
 elevation of 8,500 feet. The family Argulidce in- 
 cludes some species which are parasitic on the carp, and which are known as 
 "carp lice." 
 
BARNACLES. 
 
 533 
 
 Fig. 6. ACORN BARNACLE 
 
 (Balanus balanoides). 
 Nat. size. 
 
 ORDER IY. CIRRIPEDIA. 
 
 By recent authors the Cirripedla have been treated as a section of the Crustacea, 
 from which, however, they differ so much when adult, that they were formerly 
 regarded as a separate class. In their perfect state they are fixed immov- 
 ably by their heads to a rock, or some other object submerged in the sea, and 
 are without antennae, eyes, or any means of loco- 
 motion. Their bodies are enclosed more or less 
 completely in a calcareous shell, formed of several 
 parts, which led to the earlier naturalists regarding 
 them as Mollusca, and their shells were called Mul- 
 tivalves by collectors, in opposition to Univalves and 
 Bivalves. In the larval stages they are provided 
 with antennae, eyes, and swimming-feet, the last of 
 which become modified into short, jointed, cirrhated 
 appendages, of which there are usually six pairs, 
 and which are used to capture prey. They are 
 
 generally hermophrodite. All the species are marine. A peculiar interest 
 attaches to these animals, owing to their having formed a special object 
 of study with Charles Darwin, who published an elaborate 
 monograph upon them in 1851 and 1854. There are several 
 sub-divisions of the Cirripedia, many of which live para- 
 sitically on various Crustacea, Mottusca, or on other Cirripedia. 
 The only two families which we shall notice here are the 
 Balanidce and the Lepadidce. 
 
 The Balanidce or acorn barnacles attach themselves to 
 the rocks, often between tide-marks, after the manner of a 
 limpet ; but they can always be distin- 
 guished from true Mollusca by their multi- Acorn Barnacles 
 valve shells. The Lepadidce, on the other (Balanidce). 
 hand, fix themselves by a fleshy stalk to any 
 suitable object, from which they hang. Some of the larger 
 marine animals are often chosen by them ; and they fre- 
 quently attach themselves in great numbers 
 to the bottoms of wooden ships, which re- Goose Barnacles 
 quire to be periodically freed from such (Lepadidce). 
 appendages. There was a curious belief in 
 the Middle Ages that the bird known as the barnacle 
 goose was born from hanging barnacles, and a common 
 /era)TjPNatTsize. barnacle was named Lepas anatifera by Linnaeus on this 
 account. Old traditions of this description, when investi- 
 gated without prejudice, almost always prove to contain some germ of 
 truth ; but it is difficult to imagine in what curious error the story of the 
 barnacle goose could have originated. 
 
 Fig. 7. GOOSE 
 
 BARNACLE 
 (Lepas anati- 
 
 SUB-CLASS II. MALACOSTRACA. 
 
 THE Malacostraca, which include all the higher Crustacea, are normally 
 composed of 20 segments; 13 segments, each bearing a pair of jointed ap- 
 
534 CRUSTACEA ORDERS ARTHROSTRACA AND THORACOSTRACA. 
 
 pendages, composing the head and thorax ; 6 abdominal segments, also 
 frequently bearing jointed appendages ; and a tail-piece. They have two 
 antennae, and two or four eyes. They differ very much in shape and 
 appearance, but include nearly all the Cn^tacea which fall under ordinary 
 observation. 
 
 ORDER I. ARTHROSTRACA. 
 
 The ArtJirostraca are small or moderate-sized Crustacea, with two compound 
 eyes, which are not stalked. There are two pairs of antennae, three pairs of 
 jaws, and one pair of foot-jaws attached to the head. The thorax usually 
 consists of seven segments (rarely less), each bearing a pair of legs. The 
 abdomen likewise generally consists of six segments bearing legs, and a 
 terminal segment, but is sometimes much modified and aborted. 
 
 The Arthrostraca are divided into two sub-orders, and these again into 
 numerous families. 
 
 Sub-Order I. Isopoda. 
 
 In the Isopoda the head is distinctly separated from the thorax. The body 
 is broad, and somewhat arched, and there are usually 7 thoracic segments 
 bearing legs ; but the abdomen is short and often imperfectly developed, 
 
 bearing lamellated gill-feet. In some fami- 
 lies, such as the Bopyridce, and Cymothoidce, 
 which are parasitic on other Crustacea, or oil 
 fishes, the legs are armed with claws. But 
 the most familiar family of the Isopoda is the 
 Oniscidce, which includes the creatures known 
 as "wood-lice," "sows" or "sow-bugs." They 
 are short, broad, brown scaly creatures, with 
 conspicuous antennae, and a body arched 
 above, and flattish below. Some are able 
 to roll themselves up into a ball. They are 
 about half an inch or less in length, and 
 are found in damp, dark places among moss, 
 under the loose bark of trees, or in cellars. 
 Onelarge species, overan inch in length, Lygia 
 oceanica (Linn.), is marine, and is met with 
 running over rocks between tide marks. As 
 I have already mentioned elsewhere, a speci- 
 men which was found running along a tow- 
 rope in Dublin Harbour during the Colorado 
 Beetle scare some years ago, was secured and 
 announced in the papers as the dreaded Colorado Beetle just landing from 
 America ! 
 
 Sub-Order II. Amphipoda. 
 
 In the Amphipoda, the head and the first thoracic segment are fused to- 
 gether, and the body is laterally compressed, and strongly arched. There are 
 
 Fig. 8. LYGIA OCEANICA. 
 Nat. sue. 
 
WOOD-LICE AND WHALE-LICE. 
 
 535 
 
 always seven pairs of legs, and the abdomen and its appendages are 
 also well developed in some families, the hinder segments bearing long 
 legs adapted for leaping. This description applies 
 best to the Gammaridce, one or two of which, that 
 live in fresh water, grow to the length of half an 
 inch. The greater part of the Amphipoda, however, 
 are marine, and differ considerably in size, shape, and 
 habits. Some swim freely in the water, and others burrow 
 into woodwork. Many are in the habit of attaching them- 
 selves to various marine animals ; and one family, Lcemodi- 
 podidce, in which the abdomen is rudimentary, is truly 
 parasitic. One curious genus, Cyamus (Lamarck), which is 
 parasitic on whales, has strong hooked appendages at 
 both ends of the body; and the species are known as Whale- 
 Lice. We have figured C. ovalis (Roussel). 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 WHALE-LOUSE 
 
 (Cyamus ovalis). 
 Nat. size. 
 
 ORDER II. THORACOSTRACA, 
 
 The present order agrees with the last in the number of segments, but is 
 distinguished from it by having more or fewer of the thoracic segments 
 united with the head by a common shell, or carapace, and there are usually 
 two compound stalked eyes. We find no true parasites in this group, though 
 some of them seek the society of other animals for the sake of food and 
 shelter, as in the case of the small crab which takes up its residence in the 
 shell of the Pinna. 
 
 Sub-Order 1. Cumacea. 
 
 Includes small marine species, with sessile eyes, and a long, slender 
 abdomen. 
 
 Sub -Order II. Stomatopoda. 
 
 This order is now restricted to the single family Syuillidce, which are marine 
 Crustacea resembling large prawns, three inches or more in length, with the 
 
 cephalothorax slender, a 
 large tail-fin, and the 
 second pair of foot- jaws 
 developed into an enor- 
 mous claw, which has 
 led to one of the com- 
 mon species being called 
 Squilla mantis (Rondel), 
 on account of the shape 
 and attitude of its legs 
 very closely resembling 
 the predaceous legs of 
 the Mantidw among the 
 Orthoptera. This species 
 Fig. 10. -SQUILLA MAKTIS. swims strongly, and is 
 
 eaten in Italy, where it 
 
 attains a length of six inches ; in the British seas it does not exceed 4 
 inches in length. 
 
536 CRUSTACEA ORDER DEC APOD A. 
 
 Sub-Order III. Schizopoda. 
 
 These are slender shrimp-like Crustacea, with a large soft shield covering 
 the cephalothorax, and even part of the abdomen. The legs and gill-feet are 
 bifid, and similarly formed. They swim in large shoals in the open sea, and 
 are among the numerous surface-animals which form the food of whales. 
 
 ORDER III. DECAPOD A. 
 
 This extensive order is the most important among the Crustacea. The 
 species which it includes have a hard calcareous shield, which generally covers 
 the head and thoracic segments, as well as more or less of the abdomen. 
 Under this shield lie the gills. There are two faceted stalked eyes, between 
 which frequently projects a strong spine. They have usually three pairs of 
 jaws, three pairs of thoracic gill-feet, and five pairs of walking legs, from 
 which they derive their name. They may be divided into three sub-orders 
 the Macrura, or lobsters, prawns, and shrimps ; the Anomura, or hermit 
 crabs ; and the Brachyura, or crabs. 
 
 Sub-Order I. Macrura. 
 
 In the Macrura the abdomen is largely developed, and the first five (or 
 more rarely, four) segments bear walking legs. There is a large flattened 
 triple fin at the extremity of the abdomen, formed by the terminal segment, 
 and a leaf-like appendage attached on each side to the one preceding. 
 
 The Crangonidce are moderate- sized Crustacea with semi-transparent bodies, 
 a thin horny carapace, the outer antennae with a large moveable scale at the 
 base, and sometimes a very strong ridged spine between the eyes. The first 
 three pairs of legs are generally chelate (pincer-like). The 
 Shrimps and species generally live in shoals in shallow water, near the 
 Prawns. shore, where they are captured by waders in specially-con- 
 
 structed nets. Most of the species are marine, such as the 
 shrimps and prawns ; some are found in fresh water lakes and rivers ; and 
 one or two blind species in caves. Some species, in which the skeleton is 
 universally soft, inhabit the large shells of the Pinna. 
 
 The Astacidce are large hard-shelled species, with a small scale at the base 
 
 of the outer antenme. The first pair of legs is developed into great claws. 
 
 The gills are numerous ; sometimes there are as many as 20 pairs. They 
 
 inhabit the sea, where they live in clefts among the rocks ; and other species 
 
 are found in lakes and rivers, where they live in holes in the banks. The 
 
 two representative species of this family are the lobster and 
 
 Lobsters. the river crayfish. Some years ago a detailed monograph on 
 
 the crayfish was published by the late Prof. Huxley, to which 
 
 those who wish to study the anatomy of a Crustacean can easily refer. 
 
 The crayfish forms a very important article of diet in Eastern Europe, and is 
 
 recorded in the Esthonian ballads to have formed the principal article of food 
 
 of their mythical hero, the Kalevi poeg, when he retired to a 
 
 Crayfish. hermitage on the banks of a river, after a disastrous war. 
 
 He used a tall fir-tree torn up by the roots, as an angle, and 
 
 baited it with the body of a dead mare. (See my " Hero of Esthonia," i., p. 
 
LOBSTERS, HERMIT CRABS, AND CRABS. 537 
 
 In the Pdlinuridce, or Spiny Lobsters, the outer pair of antennae are much 
 thickened at the base, but are destitute of a scale. The legs are short and 
 all end in simple claws ; the abdomen is broad. These 
 animals resemble lobsters in size and appearance, but the Spiny Lobsters, 
 shell is very hard and spiny. They are numerous in the 
 Mediterranean, but are not common in the colder seas of Northern Europe. 
 
 Sub-Order II. Anomura. 
 
 This section is often included with the Macrura, but may conveniently be 
 treated separately. The abdomen is more or less reduced ; it is soft, and its ap- 
 pendages are rudimentary ; the hinder legs are also frequently much reduced. 
 The front pair of legs is armed with strong pincers, and the outer antennae 
 are long. The animals generally burrow in the sand, or live in the shells of 
 molluscs. They are more abundant in warm countries than in cold. 
 
 The following are the two most interesting families : 
 
 In the Birgidce the abdomen is hard above, and pouch-shaped at the ex- 
 tremity. The cephalothorax is broad, and angulated in front. The type of 
 this family, Birgus latro (Herbst), is a very large Crustacean, 
 measuring over two feet in length ; it is of a blue colour. It Bobber Crabs. 
 is common in the Eastern Archipelago. It is amphibious, 
 and is said to climb trees in search of cocoa-nuts, which it is strong enough 
 to denude of the husk, when it contrives to force in the eye-hole, and to 
 extract the contents with its pincers. 
 
 The Paguridce, or Hermit Crabs, have a very soft abdomen, and take up 
 their abode in empty univalve shells. Several common species inhabit our 
 shores, and may often be seen ensconced in whelk-shells, etc., 
 into which they retreat as far as possible on the least appear- Hermit Crabs. 
 ance of danger. In Tropical countries they grow to a much 
 larger size ; and some of them are land -animals, and inhabit land-shells, such 
 as Helix and Bulimus. 
 
 Sub-Order III. Brachyura. 
 
 This section includes the Crabs proper, in which the cephalothorax is short 
 and broad ; and the short abdomen, which has usually no tail-fin, and ia 
 narrow in the male and broad in 
 the female, is curved under the 
 cephalothorax. In the males th ere 
 are one or two pairs of abdominal 
 feet, and in the females five. 
 
 The Porcellanidce are repre- 
 sented in England by one or two 
 species, the commonest of which 
 is the Porcelain Crab, Porcellana 
 platycheles (Tennant), a polished 
 flattened crab, of a reddish brown Fig. 11. SPIDER CRAB (Maia Squinado). 
 
 colour, with very large broad 
 
 claws. It is nearly round, and about two inches in length ; and is common 
 under stones near low-water mark. 
 
538 
 
 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 The Spider Crab, Maia Squinado (Linn. ), is the representative of another 
 family. (See Fig. 11.) It is a large oval crab sometimes measuring 8 inches 
 in length and 6 inches in breadth. It is covered and margined with strong 
 sharp spines, two of which project in. front. -It is an active sea- scavenger, 
 and most of our readers will remember the amusing account in ' ' Glaucus " of 
 " Maia Squinado, Esq.,' J sitting at the bottom of the boat, twiddling his feelers. 
 It creeps, but does not swim. The young form of the larva is represented on an 
 earlier page (Fig. 1.) There are a great many other crabs, both British and 
 foreign, differing very much in size, shape, and habits. Some are smooth, others 
 rough, spiny, or hairy. Some are round, others oval. Many small crabs and 
 some larger ones are common running over the sand, or among seaweed, or 
 in rock-pools between tide-marks ; others, like the large Edible Crab, Gainer 
 pagurus (Linn.), are inhabitants of deep water, and some are good swimmers. 
 Among foreign crabs we may mention the genus Pinnotheres (Latr.), which 
 lives in pairs, in large shells, such as Pinna, from which they derive their name. 
 
 The land-crabs of tropical coun- 
 tries are large crabs which live 
 almost entirely on land. They 
 burrow in the ground, and are 
 able to run with extraordin- 
 ary swiftness. One genus, with 
 very large claws, has been called 
 Gelasimus (laughable) from the 
 ridiculous appearance which it 
 presents when chasing along 
 brandishing its great claws, only 
 one of which is fully developed, 
 over its body. 
 
 One of the largest known 
 Crustacea in expanse is Macro- 
 cheira Kampferi (De Haan), a 
 Japanese crab, not very re- 
 motely allied to the Spider 
 Crabs, which has a compact, slightly oval body rather less than a foot long, 
 but with enormously long, though comparatively slender legs, four or five 
 feet in length. Two fine specimens may be seen in the public Insect Room 
 at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, where Crustacea are 
 exhibited as well as Insects. 
 
 Fig 12. GREAT JAPANESE CRAB. 
 
 (Macrocheira Kampferi). 
 
 SUB-CLASS III. GIGANTOSTRACA. 
 ORDER XIPHOSURA. KING-CRABS. 
 
 IN the king-crabs, Limulus (Miiller), the upper part of the body is covered by 
 two great horny shields, the first covering the cephalothorax and curved 
 backwards at a sharp angle oh each side, and the second smaller, covering 
 the abdomen, and set with several strong, sharp projections on the sides, 
 
SPIDER-CRABS AND KING-CRABS. 
 
 539 
 
 pointing obliquely backwards. Beyond this is a sharp horny spine not 
 jointed, and at least 
 as long as the rest 
 of the body. The 
 antennae, jaws, and 
 gill-feet all resemble 
 legs, and all termin- 
 ate in pincers except 
 the last pair. Two 
 compound and two 
 simple eyes are pre- Figt IS.-RING-CRAB (Limulus moluccanus). Reduced, 
 
 sent. The legs are 
 
 short, and are entirely covered by the shields. The few living species known 
 are found in the East and West Indies, and on the East coast of North America, 
 living in shallow water, or running over and burrowing in the sand. The species 
 figured, Limidus moluccanus (Clusius), has larger spines than the others. The 
 Limulia sometimes attain a length of two or three feet. They are the last 
 survivors of a great group of Crustaceans, now only imperfectly known 
 by their fossil remains. Three other orders, now wholly extinct, are referred 
 to the Gigantostraca: the Merostomata, the Hemiaspida and the Trilobita. 
 Some authors have recently proposed to regard Limulus as more nearly 
 allied to the Arachnida than to the Crustacea ; but its external resemblance 
 to the latter is certainly far more obvious. 
 
 SUB-CLASS IV. PYCNOGONIDA. 
 
 THESE are sluggish animals, found among sea- 
 weeds on the sea-shore, and somewhat intermediate 
 between Arachnida and Crustacea. The front of 
 the body consists of four well-marked segments, 
 the first of which is formed of three fused together, 
 each bearing a pair of long, jointed legs, and 
 the abdomen is very small. They are provided 
 with a long suctorial proboscis. In their young 
 state, they are parasitic on Hydractinice, and are pro- 
 vided with three additional pairs of limbs, which was 
 short or wanting in the adults. 
 
 Fig. 14. Pycnogonum 
 morale, Muller. Nat. size. 
 
 CLASS 2L ARACHNIDA (SPIDERS, SCORPIONS, 
 AND MITES}. 
 
 THIS rather extensive group of animals is generally recognisable by a few 
 salient characters. The head and thorax, instead of being separated, as in 
 insects, are usually fused together into a single mass, called the cephalo- 
 thorax ; there are two pairs of jaws, one pair of which are sometimes 
 regarded as modified antennae ; from two to twelve simple eyes, variously 
 arranged in different species ; and usually eight pairs of legs, all situated on 
 
540 ARACHNIDA ORDER SCORPIONIDEA, 
 
 the cephalothorax. The abdomen is without limbs, and is most frequently 
 separated from the cephalothorax. The sexes are distinct, except in the 
 Tardigrada. Most of the animals comprising this class are carnivorous ; but 
 among the mites, many feed on vegetable, as well as on animal substances ; 
 and some species are parasitic, and often subcutaneous, giving rise to, 
 or accompanying various diseases, such as itch, mange, Plica Polonica, 
 dysentery, etc., in man and beast. The Arachnida may be classed in 
 three main divisions. 
 
 ORDER I. SCORPIONIDEA (SCORPIONS). 
 
 The scorpions are well known by their curved foot-jaws, cleft at the 
 end like the claws of a crab, which they much resemble ; and their long 
 jointed tail ending in a sharp and venomous sting. They are generally 
 of a black or yellow colour, and differ very much in shape and size, 
 some being small and slender, and not more than a couple of inches in 
 
 Fig. 15. GALEODES ABABS, Koch. J Nat. size. 
 
 length ; and others being much shorter and thicker in proportion, and 
 attaining to a length of 8 or 9 inches. They are not British, though 
 several small species are met with in the South of Europe. They are found 
 under stones, under the bark of trees, in holes in walls, etc., and are only 
 active at night. The effects of the sting differ very much in different species, 
 irrespective of size, as it appears. That of many species is probably not very 
 much more severe than the sting of the wasp ; but that of others is liable to 
 cause great pain and suffering, and sometimes death. Scorpions are vivipar- 
 ous, and the young are carried about by the mother on her back for some 
 time after birth. There is an old story, which has been recently revived, 
 that when a scorpion is surrounded by a ring of fire, it will sting itself to 
 death ; and the same result is said to ensue if a drop of irritating fluid, such 
 as whisky, is allowed to fall on its back. 
 
SCORPIONS AND HARVEST-MEN. 541 
 
 ORDER II. SOLPUGID^E. 
 
 These are large animals, resembling spiders, but with the head and thorax 
 separated, and the abdomen segmented ; the legs are very hairy. They are not 
 numerous in species, and are chiefly found in warm countries. They inhabit 
 sandy places, and although frequently called Solifugce, the majority of the species 
 are most active by day. One species is Galeodes araneoides (Pallas), which is 
 common on the Lower Volga ; it is about two inches long, and is much 
 dreaded on account of its very painful bite. They hide themselves in the 
 sand and among plants, from whence they rush upon their prey. They will 
 sometimes kill lizards and birds, but their commonest food appears to be 
 grasshoppers. They are sometimes very troublesome to camels by their bite. 
 The North African species, which we have figured, G. arabs (Koch) (Fig. 15) 
 is one of the largest known ; it is of a yellowish colour. 
 
 ORDER III. PSEUDOSCORPIONIDEA (BOOK-SCORPIONS) 
 
 These are small, but not microscopic, animals, with the abdomen united to 
 the cephalothorax, but distinctly jointed, and with 
 very long curving foot-jaws, cleft at the end. They 
 resemble very small tail-less scorpions, and are fre- 
 quently found among old books and papers, where 
 they feed on mites and other small creatures. They 
 are often seen clinging to the legs of flies, but rather, 
 perhaps, as a convenient means of transport from 
 place to place, than with the intention of preying on j^. 16. BOOK-SCORPION 
 the flies themselves. The number of species is not (Chiridium musceorum, 
 very large j the typical genus is Chelifer (Late.). Leach) ' Ma g nifle(l ' 
 
 ORDER I V. PEDIPULPI (FALSE SCORPIONS). 
 
 These are large tropical creatures, an inch or more in length, resembling 
 spiders, but with a jointed abdomen, large pincers like a scorpion, long hairy 
 legs, of which the first pair are much longer and slenderer than the others, 
 and no tail, or else a short one, not terminating in a sting. They are much 
 dreaded by the natives of the countries in which they are found, but whether 
 their claws are venomous does not seem to have been positively ascertained. 
 
 The typical genus is Phrynus (Latr.). 
 
 ORDER V. PHALANGIIDA (HARVEST-MEN). 
 
 These are small spider-like animals, with enormously long slender legs. 
 The abdomen is segmented, there are no spinning glands, and the maxillary 
 palpi end in a single claw, while the mandibles are jointed. They breathe by 
 trachese. They feed on Aphides and other small insects by night. (See Fig. 
 
542 ARACHNIDA ORDER A R ANEW A. 
 
 ORDER VI. ARANEIDA (SPIDERS). 
 
 THE Araneicla, or Spiders, are a very extensive group, with the usually un- 
 jointed abdomen well separated from the cephalothorax ; strong mandibles ; 
 spinning glands ; and breathing with lungs and tracheae or with tracheae, 
 alone. There is a variable number of eyes. They have been divided into 
 many families differing much in habits. They are very ferocious, and will 
 often kill and eat each other, but are much exposed to the attacks of birds 
 and carnivorous insects, many sand-wasps provisioning their nests chiefly 
 
 Fig 17. HARVEST MAN (Liobunum religiosum Simon). Nat. size. 
 
 with spiders. As they cannot be domesticated, owing to their cannibalistic 
 propensities, their silk cannot be collected in sufficient quantities for com- 
 mercial purposes ; but spider's web has been recommended as a useful 
 application to stop bleeding. There are many kinds of spiders in various 
 countries the bite of which is said to be dangerous to man. 
 
 FAMILY I. THERAPHOSID^E. 
 
 This family is distinguished from all the remaining spiders by the possession 
 of four lungs and only four spinnerets (except in Atypus, etc., which have 
 six) ; the remaining spiders having only two lungs (or two lungs and some- 
 times two tracheae also) and six spinnerets. These characters are sometimes 
 used to separate the spiders into two main sections, the Tetrapneumones, 
 including only the Theraphosidce (formerly called Mygalidce), and the 
 Dipneumones , including the remaining spiders. 
 
 The Theraphosidce, are further remarkable for their large size, very hairy 
 
 legs and bodies, and hard polished poison-fangs. Some of the larger species 
 
 attain a length of from two to four inches, and spin a dense white web, in 
 
 which birds as large as finches are sometimes entangled. This was first 
 
 recorded by Madame Merian two centuries ago. It was 
 
 Bird-catching doubted, but has since been confirmed by Bates in his 
 
 Spiders. " Naturalist on the Amazons," i. pp. 160-162 ; and by other 
 
 observers. Bates further adds that the hairs of these large 
 
 spiders are excessively irritating to the skin ; and lastly, " Some Mygales are 
 
 of immense size. One day I saw the children belonging to an Indian family 
 
 who collected for me, with one of these monsters secured by a cord round 
 
SPIDERS. 543 
 
 its waist, by which they were leading it about the house as they would a dog." 
 The amount of valuable scientific and general information collected by 
 Bates during his eleven years of travel on the Amazons was very ex- 
 tensive, and it is much to be regretted that though part was published in his 
 book, and in various essays shortly after his return to England, a great deal 
 must have died with him. 
 
 The Theraphosidce also includ-e smaller spiders, which construct nests in 
 the ground provided with a round trap-door, which fits down over it in such a 
 manner as to completely close and conceal it. Trap- 
 door spiders are plentiful in many parts of the 
 world, including South France ; but our only British 
 representative of the family, Atypus sulzeri (Latr.), 
 constructs a tubular gallery in the ground, about 
 half an inch in diameter, in which the female de- 
 posits her eggs, but which is not closed with a trap- 
 door. The spider itself is about half an inch in 
 length. 
 
 Turning now to the remaining spiders, it will, 
 perhaps, be sufficient to illustrate them by noticing a 
 few of the more interesting and representative groups 
 and species. 
 
 Fig is -Utupus 'sulzeri ) The Salticid( *, or hunting-spiders do not construct 
 ' Twice nat. size. a we ^ except as a resting-place at night or when 
 
 moulting their skins, and as an egg- 
 sac, but capture their prey by leaping on it, connecting Hunting- 
 themselves, however, with the spot they have quitted by Spiders, 
 drawing out a thread behind them as they leap. The 
 cephalothorax is arched, and they have eight eyes. Their legs are 
 rather short and stout. Several species, both British and foreign, re- 
 semble ants, a resemblance which is probably protective to them- 
 selves rather than designed to mask their approach from their prey. 
 
 The Lycosidce, or wolf-spiders are similar in some of their habits to the last 
 family, but generally pursue their prey by running, not by leaping. 
 Their cephalothorax is arched, but narrowed in front. They have eight eyes 
 arranged in three or four transverse rows, and their legs are long and hairy. 
 The egg-pouch of the female is carried about with her attached to the end of 
 her body till the young hatch, when they climb on her back. Some species 
 carry their egg-sac in their mandibles. 
 
 To this family belongs the famous spider Lycosa tarentula (Linnaeus), the 
 bite of which was supposed in Italy to produce a fit of melancholia, that 
 could only be cured by the tune known as the Tarentella. 
 The nests of some of these spiders are hardly less curious Tarantula, 
 than those of the trap-door spiders; that of a North American 
 species, Lycosa arenicola (Scudder), figured in Comstock's " Manual for the 
 Study of Insects," p. 41, makes a structure resembling a high bird's-nest, or 
 small turret, over the entrance to the tube. Some of the Lycosidce fre- 
 quent water, and are able to pursue their prey on or in it ; and Dolomedes 
 fimbriatus (Clerck) actually constructs a small raft on which it sails about. 
 
 The Thomisidae., or crab-spiders, have small eyes arranged in two rows, 
 and long sprawling legs, like those of a crab. Their colours are usually pro- 
 tective, being grey or brown in the case of tree -frequenting species, and 
 green or yellow in the case of those which conceal themselves in flowers. 
 
544 ARACHNIDA ORDERS ARANEIDA AND ACARINA. 
 
 The Uloboridce&re an unimportant family in England; but Comstock quotes 
 from Dr. Wilder the following curious account of the use of the triangular 
 web of Hyptiotes cavatus (Hentz), a common species in the United States: "Its 
 web is most often found stretched between the twigs of a dead branch of pine 
 or spruce. At first sight this web appears like the fragment of an orb web, 
 but a little study will show that it is complete. ... It consists of four plain 
 lines corresponding to the radiating lines of an orb web, and a series of 
 double cross lines. . . . From the points where the radiating lines meet, a 
 strong line extends to one of the supporting twigs. Near this twig the spicier 
 rests, pulling the web tight so that there is some loose line between its legs. 
 When an insect becomes entangled in one of the cross lines, the spider sud- 
 denly lets go the loose line, so that the whole web springs forward, and the 
 insect is entangled in other threads. The spider then draws the web tight, 
 and snaps it again. This may be repeated several times before the spider 
 goes out upon the web after its prey." 
 
 The Epevrid&f or garden-spiders, are large and handsome spiders, with a 
 rounded abdomen, and moderately long hairy legs, the first pair longest. 
 They have eight eyes irregularly arranged in two rows. 
 Garden-Spiders. They spin circular webs, and await their prey either near the 
 centre of their web, or in a place of concealment close by. 
 The commonest species, Epeira diadema (Clerck), is nearly an inch long, and 
 has a green abdomen marked with white or yellow spots in the form of a 
 cross. One North American species, Argiope riparia (Walckenaer), is re- 
 corded to make a large egg-sac, in which the young pass the winter ; only 
 those emerging from it in spring which have not been devoured by their 
 fellows in the interval. Other species have the same curious cannibal 
 habit. 
 
 The Gastracanthidce are a very curious family of exotic spiders, with hard, 
 horny, angular bodies, and sometimes with a long curved spine projecting on 
 each side at the extremity of the abdomen. They are 
 often of very varied colours. Many writers include 
 them in the Epeiridce. The species figured is Gastra- 
 cantha fornicata (Fabr.). It is reddish (probably 
 yellow when alive), with the head, thorax, and some 
 round spots on the abdomen, blackish ; and it inhabits 
 Ceylon, Java, and Australia. 
 Fig. i9.-(Gastracantha To the Agelenida, a large family in which the eyes 
 fornicata.) Nat. size. are arranged in two curved transverse rows, belong our 
 common house-spiders, which are too well-known to 
 
 need description, and which spin their cobwebs wherever they are left for a 
 day or two undisturbed. Another very interesting species is the water- 
 spider, Argyroneta aqtiatica (Linn.), which dives beneath fresh water, enclosed 
 in a shining bubble of air entangled in the hairs of its body, and constructs 
 a silken subaqueous dome, which it fills with air like a diving-bell, in which it 
 waits for prey, hibernates, and deposits its egg-cocoons. 
 
 To the allied family Theridiidce, belong several large and handsomely- 
 coloured spiders found in Southern -Europe, New Zealand, and elsewhere, 
 which are much dreaded on account of their poisonous bite. 
 
SPIDERS, MITES, AND TICK'S. 545 
 
 ORDER VII. ACARINA (MITES AND TICKS). 
 
 This large order includes a great variety of creatures. Most of them 
 are very minute, and many are almost microscopic. The cephaloihorax 
 and abdomen are fused together, the body forming a compact, rounded, or 
 oval mass ; the sexes are separate, and sometimes very different in appear- 
 ance ; the mouth is formed for biting or sucking, and there are nearly always 
 eight legs in the perfect state, but often six only in the earlier stages. The 
 Phytopti have usually only four. Many of the species are more or less bristly. 
 Some feed on plants, and others on decaying animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances. A considerable number are parasitic. 
 
 The Bdellidce are mites of a bright red colour, with a long snout, and long 
 palpi, which are generally elbowed, and have the appearance of antennas. 
 Some are found among moss, and others on the sea-shore; while others, again, 
 are parasitic on various insects. The number of eyes varies, and in some 
 cave-frequenting species, the eyes are obsolete. 
 
 The Gamasidce are a family of mites, many of which are parasitic on insects, 
 and others on warm-blooded animals. They are without eyes, the mandibles 
 are pincer-like, and the legs are hairy, and furnished with 
 two claws. The first or second pair of legs are frequently Insect-Mites 
 much thicker than the others ; and the immature mites have (Gamasidce). 
 only six legs. The species of Gamasus (Latr. ) infest different 
 kinds of insects, especially the black dung-beetles belonging to the genus 
 Geotrupes (Fabr. ), and its allies ; and they are also numerous on humble-bees. 
 They may often be found running over these insects ; but there are other 
 mites infesting beetles which are attached to their host by a thread ; these be- 
 long to the genus Uropoda (Latr.). Other mites of this family attack warm- 
 blooded animals, and are very numerous among poultry and caged birds, and 
 sometimes become troublesome to man by transference. 
 
 The Halacaridce are a small family of mites, living habitually under the 
 sea, having either a stiff, or a more or less rigid, cuirassed skin, and with 
 their legs springing from the inner margin of the body. 
 They are found among sea- weeds in rock-pools, or are brought Marine Mites 
 up, sometimes in large numbers, by the dredge. The body (Halacaridce). 
 is oval, the snout more or less produced, and the palpi rather 
 long. 
 
 The next family we have to consider is that of the Hydrachnidce, or fresh- 
 water mites. These are round, or, more rarely, oval, and are generally 
 smooth and velvety, and of a red, black and red, or purple 
 colour. Most of them have only six legs when immature. Fresh- Water 
 They have a hook at the extremity of the palpi, and are Mites 
 
 in the habit of attaching themselves to various water- (Hydrachnidce). 
 animals. 
 
 The Ixodidce, or ticks, are among the largest and most troublesome of the 
 whole group. They are usually of an oval form, and have a tough skin, and 
 a mouth fitted for sucking. Some are provided with eyes, 
 and others are blind. They live on grass and herbage, and Ticks 
 
 the usual habit of the female is to attach herself to any (Ixodidce). 
 warm-blooded animal, pierce the skin, and suck the blood 
 till she is gorged, when she falls off. They are sometimes very troublesome in 
 summer and autumn, even in England ; but in hot countries they are often 
 a terrible pest, especially in the Southern States of America, and in some 
 parts of South America, where they are particularly troublesome to cattle. 
 
546 ARACHNIDA ORDERS ACARINA AND TARDTGRADA. 
 
 In Brazil they are said to have been introduced. This has been doubted ; 
 but it is not unlikely that a particularly troublesome species may be carried 
 from one country to another, or introduced into districts in which it was pre- 
 viously unknown. For a tropical country, Jamaica is remarkably free from 
 noxious creatures ; and it is only of late years that ticks have multiplied in 
 the island to such an extent as to make it highly unpleasant to venture 
 among the herbage at all. This is attributed to the introduction of the 
 mongoose, which was imported to destroy rats, and which is said to have 
 carried the ticks over the whole island. The largest known ticks, which 
 sometimes attain a length of nearly an inch, are those which are found occa- 
 sionally upon the tortoise. Argas persicus (Fisch.) was said by travellers to 
 produce fatal injuries by its attacks, and to abound so much in some parts of 
 Persia as to lead to the abandonment of whole villages ; but these reports 
 are now believed to have been much exaggerated. 
 
 The Oribatidce are dark-coloured, hard, shiny mites, found among moss 
 and vegetable refuse ; but when they are older, they feed on various small 
 insects. The front of the body is often produced into a broad, triangular 
 shape, and, as in many other mites, the palpi are frequently so largely 
 developed as to resemble antennae in appearance. 
 
 The Phytoptidce, or gall mites, are an extremely large group, concerning 
 
 which much has been written of late years. They are very long, microscopic 
 
 mites, usually with only four legs visible at the anterior end 
 
 Gall-Mites of the body. They produce small galls on the leaves of 
 
 (Phytoptidce). various plants, sometimes conical, as on the lime trees, and 
 
 sometimes rounded, as on the vine. These galls may be 
 
 distinguished from insect-galls by having a small opening at the base. 
 
 The Sarcoptidcv, or itch-mites, are a family of parasites which, not content 
 with sucking blood, burrow under the skin of warm-blooded animals, causing, 
 by their irritation, diseases known as the itch or mange. 
 Itch-Mites Various species have also been observed on patients suffering 
 (Sarcoptidce). from Polish Plait (Plica polonica), and whether they actually 
 cause this disease or not, they doubtless aggravate it. The 
 itch-mites are round, with short, bristly legs, and most mammals seem to be 
 more or less subject to their attacks. In birds, they frequently attack the 
 feet. They are most active at night, and the 
 troublesome itching they cause is consequently 
 worst then. There are two principal forms of 
 the disease in man, one common in most parts of 
 the world, caused by Sarcoptes scabiei (Latr.), while 
 the other, S. scabiei-crustosce (Murray), which is far 
 worse, is almost confined to Northern Europe. The 
 itch has often been a great pest during the hard- 
 ships of a campaign, and the survivors of Sir John 
 Moore's force, in the Peninsular War, were greatly 
 affected by it. Before the cause was discovered, it 
 was regarded as a most formidable disease, and Dr. 
 Russell informs us that in the last century it was more 
 dreaded at Aleppo than the plague itself. But in 
 Fig 20. TTCH-MITE recent years, the use of sulphur baths has proved 
 
 \Sarcoptes scabiei). Under- , , -, 2 J.T j * -. -i 
 
 surface of male. Magnified. to be an easv and emcacious method of getting rid 
 
 of at least the milder forms of this complaint. 
 Two other families of parasitic mites may be briefly mentioned. These 
 
MITES. 547 
 
 are Myobiidce, small, oval mites, not unlike lice in shape, which infest mice 
 and other small mammals, and birds ; and Demodicidce, the few species of 
 which are long, tapering, microscopic mites, infesting the hair-follicles of 
 man and other animals. In man, the common Demodex follicidorum (Simon) 
 often occurs on the face, where its presence is indicated externally by a black 
 speck ; but as it is a parasite of very small size and stationary habits, its 
 presence does not cause anything like the same annoyance as that of 
 Sarcoptes scabiei. 
 
 The Trombidiidce are a family of brown, or bright scarlet mites, which are 
 in the habit of attaching themselves to insects, to which they cling so tightly 
 that they may often be seen in numbers attached to Museum specimens. 
 They attack flies, sawflies, and other insects, but are most conspicuous 
 when attached to the wings of dragonflies in more or less symmetrical 
 rows. Some very large species, measuring nearly half an inch in length, are 
 often found pinned in miscellaneous collections of insects, etc., from 
 Africa and the East Indies. ' 
 
 The Tetranychidce are allied to the last family, but are plant-feeders. The 
 two best known species are that great pest in hothouses, the " Red Spider" 
 (Tetranychus telarius, Linn.), which, however, is not a 
 spider, but a mite ; and the harvest bug (T. autumnalis, "Red Spiders" 
 Shaw), which burrows into the skin, causing great incon- (Tetranychus). 
 venience ; while in the case of allied tropical species, sup- 
 puration and ulceration may result in extreme cases. However, most of the 
 species of this family are harmless, living on plants, or under stones, and 
 not attacking animals. 
 
 The last family we have to notice, the Tyroglyphidce, includes several of 
 the most typical mites, such as the cheese-mites and the sugar-mite. Tyro- 
 ylyphus siro (Linn.), the commonest of the former, abounds 
 in cheese, causing a kind of dry rot ; and the dust from such Cheese-Mites,etc. 
 a cheese, when placed under the microscope, generally proves (Tyroglyphidw). 
 to be full of mites. They are harmless when swallowed, nor 
 do they attack the skin. Other mites, belonging to the genus Cheyletus (Latr.), 
 with large claw-like palpi, feed on cheese-mites, etc. Yery small mites, 
 belonging to the genus Tyroglyphus, are among the most destructive pests in 
 collections of insects. The sugar-mite (T. sacchari, Cameron), abounds in 
 unrefined sugar, and is sometimes the cause of a complaint known as "grocer's 
 itch." Now, however, almost all sugar brought into the market is more or 
 less refined, and no longer liable to the attacks of mites. Most of the 
 Tyroglyphidce are harmless, some feeding on dried vegetable or animal sub- 
 stances, while others are carnivorous, feeding on insects ; and others, again, 
 are, or may accidentally become, parasitic. Cases of dysentery have some- 
 times been attributed to the presence in the intestines of mites belonging 
 to this family, which had been accidentally swallowed. 
 
 ORDER VIII. TARDIGRADA. 
 
 These are small mites found among moss and seaweed. The cephalothorax 
 and abdomen are fused together ; the body is broad, with four indistinct 
 rings on the body. The sexes are not separate. The position of this group 
 is still doubtful. 
 
548 MYRIOPODA. 
 
 ORDER IX. LINGUATULIDA. 
 
 These are worm-like parasites, with jointed bodies and separate sexes. 
 They are curiously intermediate between parasitic worms and Arthropoda, 
 but they are now referred to the Arachnids as an aberrant group. In their 
 embryo state, they have two pairs of short, two-jointed legs, with two strong 
 claws, and two hooks at the mouth. In their sexually mature condition, they 
 have four hooks at the mouth, but no legs. They are met with in the encysted 
 larval conditions in the lungs and liver of the horse, dog, wolf, hare, and 
 rabbit, as well as in snakes, crocodiles, and fish ; and occasionally in man. In 
 their mature form, they inhabit the frontal sinuses of the hare, rabbit, and 
 horse. 
 
 CLASS III. MYRIOPODA (CENTIPEDES AND 
 MILLEPEDES). 
 
 THIS is the most worm-like class of the sub-kingdom Annulosa in the perfect 
 state of the animals included under it. The head is well differentiated from 
 the rest of the body, and is provided with one pair of 
 antennae, and three (more rarely, two) pairs of jaws. The 
 thorax and abdomen are not differentiated, except into 
 segments. They undergo a reversed and very imperfect 
 metamorphosis compared to that of insects, for whereas 
 insects begin with a worm-like body, sometimes provided 
 with as many as twenty-two legs, and end with only six, the 
 Myriopoda sometimes begin with only six legs, and continue 
 to increase both in number of joints and number of legs, 
 till they have reached their full growth, in which they are 
 generally long and worm-like. Hence they are called Myria- 
 poda or Myriopoda (either form of the word being equally 
 correct) ; and they are sub-divided into two principal orders, 
 tlie Chttopoda which are generally called centipedes or 
 at. size. hundred-feet ; and the Chilognatha, which are generally 
 called millepedes or thousand-feet. 
 
 ORDER CHILOPODA (CENTIPEDES). 
 
 The centipedes are carnivorous, and are provided with perforated foot- 
 jaws, connected with a poison-gland. The body and jaws are generally 
 rather flattened, and there is never more than a single pair of legs on each 
 segment. The head is divided into two regions, provided with two pairs of 
 maxillae, behind which spring the great foot- jaws. 
 
 The tfcutigeridte are distinguished from the other families of CJiilopoda by 
 having the two pairs of mandibles united, and by the long antennae, 
 legs, and abdominal appendages, which has led to the common South European 
 species being called Scutiyera araneoides (Pall.), from its fancied resemblance 
 to a spider. It is about an inch long, the antennas being at least as long as 
 the body, and the last pair of legs twice as long ; the other legs are compara- 
 
CENTIPEDES AND MILLEPEDES. 
 
 549 
 
 tively short in front, but increase rapidly in length till they are nearly as 
 long as the body. The proportions of the limbs, etc., however, vary con- 
 siderably in different species ; the legs are very brittle. These centipedes 
 feed on insects, and are very active. Most of them are inhabitants of warm 
 climates (the family is unrepresented in England), and the colour is usually 
 greenish when alive, but is liable to change rapidly after death. They have 
 only sixteen joints, and are provided with compound eyes instead of ocelli. 
 
 The Lithobiidce are represented in Britain by Lithobius forficatus (Linn.), 
 which has two clusters of ocelli, fifteen pairs of legs, increasing iri length 
 hindwards, and long antennae, with more than forty joints. 
 It is a repulsive-looking, reddish-brown creature about an 
 inch long, with a comparatively broad body. It is very 
 active in its movements, and feeds chiefly on worms ; and 
 is often unearthed by digging in garden-mould or in a 
 dung-heap. (Fig. 21.) 
 
 The Scolopendridce generally have four simple eyes on both 
 sides, antennae with about twenty joints, and usually twenty- 
 one pairs of legs. The body is often very broad and flat- 
 tened. The family is represented in South Europe, 
 and the species are often of considerable size, sometimes 
 measuring more than a foot in length. Their bite is as pain- 
 ful and dangerous as that of a scorpion, though they are 
 sometimes used as an article of food by the natives of the 
 countries where they are numerous. They are generally of a 
 brown or reddish colour, or banded with green and yellow. 
 In Britain we have only one small blind yellowish species of the 
 family, Cryptops hortensis (Leach), which is harmless. 
 
 The Geophilidce. are very long slender centipedes, with (Linotcenia eras- 
 fourteen-jointed antennae, neither compound eyes nor ocelli, s j^fied ^ 
 and from thirty-one to one hundred and seventy-three leg- 
 bearing segments, each provided with a pair of rather short legs. They are 
 nocturnal creatures, of a whitish or yellowish colour, and are remarkable 
 for emitting a pale phosphorescence which has led to their being called 
 electric centipedes. They are found in Britain as well as in warmer 
 countries. 
 
 Fig. 22. ELEC- 
 TKIC CENTIPEDE 
 
 ORDER CHILOGNATHA (MILLEPEDES). 
 
 The millepedes are distinguished from the centipedes by their feeding chiefly 
 on vegetable matters ; and, consequently, they have imperf orate foot-jaws, and 
 are not venomous. Their bodies are generally convex above, and more or less 
 flattened beneath ; and while the first three segments behind the head, cor- 
 responding to the thorax in insects, bear only one pair of legs each, the remain- 
 ing segments bear two pairs. The head of the millepede is composed of a 
 single segment only. They vary much in size ; and dead specimens become 
 extremely brittle, the segments separating at the least touch. 
 
 The Polyzoniidce are semi-cylindrical creatures, with small heads, and from 
 30 to 100 or more joints, and capable of rolling themselves up spirally. The 
 mouth-parts are modified into a sucking proboscis. The best known species, 
 Polyzonium germanicum, (Brandt), is about two-fifths of an inch long. 
 
550 PROTRACHEATA AND INSECT A. 
 
 The most familiar representatives of the millepedes in European countries 
 are perhaps the Julidw. They have a large head, and a long, cylindrical body 
 
 composed of upwards of 30 segments, which can be 
 rolled up spirally. They are either eyeless, or 
 furnished with aggregations of ocelli. They are 
 called snake-millepedes, and are very injurious 
 in fields and gardens, feeding on roots and 
 tubers, like wireworms. Our species are of 
 small size, measuring from half an inch to 
 nearly two inches in length, and are mostly of 
 a dull bluish-black or lead colour. In tropical 
 countries, some species grow to the length of a 
 foot or more ; and they are described as creep- 
 Fig. 23. MILLEPEBE (Spirostrep- ing about the branches of the trees in the damp 
 tuspyroceph a lus,Koch.). African forests. Unlike the centipedes, the 
 
 millepedes are very sluggish creatures, and 
 
 move very slowly, notwithstanding their numerous legs. The species figured, 
 Spirostreptus pyrocephalus (Koch), inhabits South Africa. It is black, with 
 a bright red head, and is about four inches long. 
 
 The Polydesmidw much resemble the Jididce in habits, but are more 
 flattened, and the three single pairs of legs are placed on the second, fourth, 
 and fifth segments, instead of on the second, third, and fourth. They are 
 very hard, but very brittle. The British species are small ; but some of the 
 foreign ones attain to a considerable size. They are composed of about 20 
 segments. Some species belonging to this family have been met with 
 in tlie great caves of Moravia and Carint*hia. All are blind. 
 
 The Polyxenidw are very small, whitish millepedes, not exceeding one-third 
 of an inch in length in the largest species, and composed of only 9 or 10 seg- 
 ments. The head is well-marked, and they are provided with two clusters of 
 ocelli. They are found under fallen leaves. 
 
 The Glomeridce are composed of from 10 to 13 segments above, but 
 each segment composed of four divisions below, an arrangement which 
 enables the animal to roll itself up like a ball. They are short and broad, 
 and much resemble wood-lice in shape, size, and appearance. 
 
 CLASS IV.PEOTRACHEATA. 
 
 THIS class includes the single family Peripatidce, the typical genus being Peri- 
 patus (Guilding). The few known species resemble caterpillars in appearance ; 
 but have two rather long antennae, and soft, cylindrical bodies, indistinctly 
 divided into from 13 to 40 segments, each bearing a pair of imperfectly- 
 jointed feet, armed with two small claws. They are viviparous, and are 
 found under leaves and among rotten wood. The body is capable of great 
 extension and retraction. When first discovered, they were supposed to be 
 Mollusca, but were afterwards found to have more resemblance to the 
 Myriopoda. There is a well-developed tracheal system, opening by incon- 
 spicuous stigmata placed irregularly over the body. The known species are 
 
MILLEPEDES AND INSECTS. 
 
 551 
 
 found in South Africa, and in various parts of the West Indies and South 
 America, as well as in Australia and New Zealand. Peripatus iuliformis 
 (Guilding), from the Island of St. Vincent, is about two inches long. (See 
 Fig. 24). 
 
 Fig. 24. Peripatus iuliformis (Guild.). 
 
 CLASS V.INSEGTA. 
 
 INSECTS are by far the most numerous class of animals which inhabit the 
 globe at the present time. The actual number of species on our lists cannot 
 be much less than 300,000 ; and many thousands of new species are described 
 every year. In this country alone we have between 12,000 and 13,000 
 species, although our fauna is exceedingly poor, not only as compared with that 
 of tropical countries, but even in comparison to that of Con- 
 tinental Europe. Only a few families and orders of insects Number of 
 are at all adequately known at present, and those only as Species 
 existing in the best -explored countries. The late Professor of Insects. 
 Riley estimated the probable number of existing species of 
 insects at possibly ten millions ; and such estimates are generally far below 
 the mark. The alternative estimate of two millions, which is put forward 
 by some entomologists, seems to me to be ridiculously low, when we consider 
 that the world has been so 'badly explored that we are not yet acquainted 
 with a dozen species of Phasmidce, or stick-insects, from Madagascar, an 
 island which has been visited by many collectors, while the Phasmidce are 
 not a group of small and obscure insects, but one which includes many 
 very handsome and conspicuous species, and to which belong the largest 
 of all known insects. 
 
 To take another illustration, Mr. E. Ernest Green is now working at a 
 monograph of the Coccidce, or scale-insects, of Ceylon. Very few species 
 were previously known from that island, and he will probably be easily able 
 to multiply them at least by ten. 
 
 Nevertheless, insects, like the plants on which they feed, are becoming 
 
552 INSECTA ORDER COLEOPTERA. 
 
 rapidly exterminated in nearly all parts of the world by cultivation, clearing 
 
 of forests, drainage, etc.; and there is good reason to he- 
 Extermination of lieve that a large proportion of the insects now existing will 
 Species. become extinct before they ever find a place in our museums 
 
 at all. The extermination of small animals proceeds pari 
 passu with that of larger ones ; but is rarely noticed, as their existence is, for 
 the most part, unknown and unsuspected. 
 
 Insects generally pass through four stages, called egg, larva, pupa, and 
 imago. In some orders, the pupa is inactive, and the insect is then said to 
 
 have a perfect metamorphosis. In other orders, the pupa 
 
 Metamorphoses only differs from the larva by possessing wing-cases, and 
 
 of Insects. continues to feed as before. Then the metamorphoses are 
 
 said to be incomplete. The egg is laid by the parent insect 
 on or near the appropriate food of its progeny, which, in insects with perfect 
 metamorphoses, is nearly always very different from that of the perfect 
 insect. The larva is frequently called a grub, maggot, or caterpillar, and is 
 generally more or less worm-like. It may be legless, or may possess several 
 pairs of legs, as well as the six pairs analogous to those of the perfect insect. 
 In insects with imperfect metamorphoses, the larva and pupa much resemble 
 the perfect insect ; and their food is frequently nearly similar. When 
 insects reach their final stage, they generally acquire wings, and become 
 capable of perpetuating their species. There are, however, numerous insects 
 which never acquire wings ; and in other cases the wings are undeveloped in 
 one sex, generally the female. 
 
 In the perfect state, an insect consists of a number of rings, called seg- 
 ments, or somites, agglutinated into three masses, called the head, thorax, 
 
 and abdomen, which can generally be well distinguished. 
 Head of Imago. The head is considered to consist of a number of somites, 
 
 jusfc as the skull of vertebrate animals is thought to con- 
 sist of a number of modified vertebrae. The head contains several of the 
 most important organs of the senses, such as the compound facetted eyes on 
 each side of the head ; the antennae, two long jointed organs, often feathered, 
 or knobbed at the extremity, which are generally inserted in front between 
 the eyes ; the ocelli, stemmata, or simple eyes, of which there may be one, 
 two, or three, on the crown of the head ; and the mouth, which is either fur- 
 nished with mandibles for biting, or a proboscis for sucking. There are also 
 two pairs of jointed organs projecting in front of the mouth, called labial and 
 maxillary palpi ; but one or other pair is frequently wanting. 
 
 The three segments behind the head are called the thorax. Each of these 
 bears one pair of legs beneath, and the second and third pairs bear the wings 
 
 at the sides ; for most insects have four wings and six legs 
 Thorax. in the perfect state. The legs are composed of several parts, 
 
 called the coxse, or hips ; the trochanters, or hinge-joints ; 
 the femora, or thighs ; the tibise, or shanks ; and the tarsi, or feet. The 
 tarsus is composed of five or fewer joints, known as the joints of the tarsi. 
 The abdomen is composed normally of nine segments, exclusive of some 
 smaller ones at the extremity in connection with the appendages of the 
 generative system ; but there are often fewer visible. Insects breathe by 
 tracheae, tubes which open by spiracles on the sides of the body. Many in- 
 sects are furnished with stridulating organs in the abdomen, while others 
 stridulate by means of various structures on their legs and wings ; and in 
 some insects the organs of hearing are situated on the legs. 
 
BEETLES. 553 
 
 The wings of insects are furnished with a ramifying system of tubes, called 
 nervures. When the insect emerges from the pupa its wings are small and 
 limp ; but first fluid and then air is pumped through these 
 tubes, and the wing quickly grows to its proper size and Wings, 
 
 dries. These nervures differ much in arrangement in differ- 
 ent insects, and are very useful in classification. The front of the wing is 
 called the costa, the part nearest to the body the base, the part opposite to 
 the body the hind margin or outer margin, and the part opposite the costa 
 the inner margin. The extremity of the costa is called the tip, and that of 
 the inner margin the hinder, or in the hind- wings the anal, angle. But these 
 divisions shade imperceptibly into each other in insects with rounded wings. 
 Between the bases of the fore- wings we sometimes find a triangular plate called 
 the scutellum. The hind- wings are often smaller, rounder, and of a different 
 consistency to the fore-wings, but when the fore-wings play the part of wing- 
 cases, under which the hind-wings are folded, the latter are often much 
 larger. Many insects possess the power of leaping, in which case the hind 
 legs are often very long, or the coxae and femora are much thickened. 
 
 Insects are divided into several large orders, of which the following are 
 the principal ones : 
 
 I. COLEOPTERA (Beetles). Insects with mandibles ; fore- wings (called 
 elytra) horny or leathery; wings membranous, folded and doubled 
 beneath them. 
 
 II. ORTHOPTERA (Grasshoppers, etc.). Insects with Orders of 
 mandibles ; fore- wings (called tegmina) leathery; Insects, 
 hind- wings folded fan-like beneath them. 
 
 III. NEUROPTERA (Dragonflies, etc.). Insects with mandibles (some- 
 
 times very imperfectly developed ; wings with many nervures ; 
 membranous and naked, or clothed with hairs. 
 
 IV. HYMEN OPTERA (Bees, Wasps, Ants, etc.). Insects with mandibles, 
 
 and often a proboscis ; wings membranous, rather small, with 
 few nervures ; the fore and hind-wings often connected together 
 by a series of little hooks. 
 
 V. LEPIDOPTERA (Butterflies and Moths). Insects with a sucking pro- 
 boscis, and membranous wings clothed with scales. 
 
 VI. HEMIPTERA (Bugs and Froghoppers). Insects with a sucking pro- 
 boscis, fore- wings leathery or membranous (or membranous only 
 at the tips) ; hindwings membranous. 
 
 VII. DIPTERA (Flies). Insects with a sucking proboscis, and only one 
 pair of membranous wings. 
 
 The first four orders are sometimes called Insecta Mandibulata, and the 
 three last Insecta Haustellata. 
 
 Fuller characters for these orders will be given in their places. There are 
 also some groups of insects (chiefly apterous) which will not fit very well 
 into any of these orders, and which will be noticed separately. 
 
 ORDER COLEOPTERA (BEETLES). 
 
 The Coleoptera are physically among the most highly organised insects, 
 although they cannot compare with the ffymenoptera in intellectual devel- 
 opment. They are distinguished by having four wings, the first pair of 
 
554 INSECT A ORDER COLEOPTERA. 
 
 which, called elytra, are of a horny or leathery consistency, and when closed, 
 form covers for the true wings, which are membranous, and are folded beneath 
 them like a fan, but with the end doubled back. They undergo a perfect 
 metamorphosis, the pupa being what is called necromorphous, or corpse-like, 
 because, although inactive, it is not enclosed in a single tight-fitting integu- 
 ment, like that of a butterfly or moth, but is furnished with separate 
 though immovable sheaths for the antennae, legs, etc. The mouth of 
 the perfect insect is mandibulate, or furnished with strong jaws or 
 mandibles. 
 
 Beetles are very numerous. We are probably at present acquainted with 
 at least 150,000 species ; and although they have been more carefully collected 
 than most other orders of insects, there are, doubtless, 
 Number of enormous numbers which yet remain to be discovered. In 
 Species. Britain we have in round numbers about 3,000 species. 
 
 They feed on all kinds of animal and vegetable substances 
 on land, in the water, and on the seashore ; but very few are parasitic on 
 other insects. They vary in size from an almost invisible speck to six inches 
 in length, or with expanded legs and antennae much more. Many of the 
 plant-feeding beetles, as the wire-worms, the chafers, the Colorado potato- 
 beetle, the turnip-fly, etc., are extremely destructive to our crops ; but the 
 carnivorous beetles, such as the ground-beetles, the tortoise-beetles, the 
 lady-birds, etc. , are very useful in destroying other injurious insects; and 
 the grubs of some of the large wood-feeding beetles are esteemed a great 
 delicacy in some countries ; indeed, it is far more probable that the Cossus of 
 the Romans was the larva of some large Lamellicorn or Longicorn beetle 
 than that it was the repulsive foul-smelling larva of the goat-moth, although 
 Linne* applied the name to the latter insect. 
 
 In the classification of beetles, the structure of the antennae, wing-cases 
 
 and legs is of primary importance. The neuration of the wings, which is 
 
 important in some orders of insects, is not much used in 
 
 Classification. Coleoptera. It should, perhaps, be noted that the wings 
 are sometimes wanting, when the elytra are sometimes free, 
 and sometimes soldered together at the middle line where they meet, which 
 is called the suture. Sometimes both wings and elytra are absent, either in 
 both sexes, or in the female only, as in that of the glow-worm. In some 
 beetles there is a triangular space, let in, as it were, between the bases of the 
 elytra ; this is called the scutellum. In some families the anal appendages 
 are useful in classification, while in others the structure of these parts is so 
 uniform that it is not worth noting in this connection. Ridges on the body 
 or elytra are called carinse, and circular pits (very conspicuous and numerous 
 in some species) are called punctures. 
 
 The first large group of the beetles is that of the Geodephaya, or carnivorous 
 ground -beetles, which are divided into two main families, the Cicindelidce, or 
 tiger-beetles, and the Carabidce, or ground-beetles proper. They are hard- 
 shelled oval beetles, with long slender legs and antennae, and five-jointed 
 tarsi on all the legs. 
 
 The tiger-beetles have a small moveable hook at the end of the maxillae, 
 
 large heads, with very prominent eyes and strong jaws, and very long and 
 
 slender legs and antennae. The front tibiae are not notched 
 
 Tiger-Beetles, on the inner side. We have but one British genus, of which 
 
 the green tiger-beetle, Oicindela campestris (Linn.), is the 
 
 commonest species. It is found in sandy places, where its larva constructs a 
 
GROUND-BEETLES AND WATER-BEETLES. 
 
 555 
 
 Fig. 25. TIGER- 
 BEETLE (Cicindela, 
 Chinensis, Linn.). 
 
 pitfall for other insects, very much resembling that formed by an ant-lion. 
 The perfect insect is bright green, with white mark- 
 ings, and coppery legs and under-surface. It feeds on 
 other insects, and runs and flies in the sun with great 
 activity. Some of the foreign species are very handsome. 
 Some genera frequent trees. We have figured a large 
 green Chinese species, C. C7miensis(Linn.), with black and 
 white markings. 
 
 In the Carabidce the legs and antennse are less slender, 
 the front tibise being sometimes flattened, and often fur- 
 nished with a conspicuous notch on each side, and the 
 head is smaller and eyes less prominent ; the maxillse 
 have no moveable hook at the tip. They are much more 
 nocturnal in their habits than the tiger-beetles, though 
 many species may be met with by day. The species of the 
 typical genus Carabus (Linn.) are rather large beetles, 
 many of them measuring an inch or more in length. The 
 elytra are well developed, and moveable, but the wings 
 are absent. They are long beetles, of a black or bronzy 
 colour, and some species are beautifully metallic. One of the most con- 
 spicuous of these is the golden-green Carabus auratus (Linn.), a common 
 garden insect abroad, but rare in England, though it is not 
 unfrequently imported with vegetables. Some of the Ground-Beetles. 
 smaller species of this group genus Bembidium, (Latr.), etc. 
 are found in marshy places, though they are not quite aquatic in their habits. 
 We have figured Zabrus gibbus, a blackish insect half an inch long, with red legs 
 and antennse ; which, contrary to the usual habit of the family, 
 is destructive to growing corn, attacking the ears at night. The 
 Bombardier beetles, belonging to the genus Brachinus (Weber), 
 are reddish beetles, about one-third of an inch long, with blue- 
 black elytra, much broader than the thorax. They lurk under 
 stones, and when alarmed, discharge an acid fluid which 
 volatilises into smoke with a slight explosion. 
 
 Among the foreign Carabidce the most remarkable is the 
 fiddler beetle Mormolyce phyllodes (Hagenbach), a reddish-brown 
 beetle, about two inches in length, with very broad elytra. The 
 5US - shape of the beetle is really something like that of a fiddle. It 
 is a native of Java. 
 
 The npxt group, the Hydradephaga, or water-beetles, have the two front 
 pairs of legs near together, and the hinder pair more widely separated, and 
 widened, flattened, and fringed with hair, so as to form a 
 pair of oars. They are divided into two main families, the Carnivorous 
 Dytiscidce. and the Gyrinidce. The species of Dytiscus Water-Beetles. 
 (Linn.) are large smooth or furrowed olive-brown beetles, 
 an inch in length, and nearly half as broad. Their larvse are long white 
 grubs, with very strong jaws, and both the larvse and the beetles are very 
 voracious, destroying great numbers of water-animals, and are even very 
 destructive to fish fry. The beetles quit the water at night and fly about, 
 returning to the water for the day. Sometimes they will dash themselves 
 against a pane of glass, mistaking it for water. There are numerous smaller 
 species of this family, more variegated, in their colours ; but the Gyrinidce^ 
 of which there are only a few species in England, are more likely to attract 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
556 INSECTA ORDER COLEOPTERA. 
 
 attention by their habit of spinning round in circles on the surface of the 
 water, which has given them the name of whirligig beetles. They are blue- 
 black beetles, about one-third of an inch long, with reddish legs and antennae. 
 They have four eyes (each eye being divided in two, an upper and a lower 
 one), and it has been suggested that the upper eyes are intended for use in 
 the air, and the lower ones for use below the surface of the water. The front 
 legs are long and slender, but the two hinder pairs, as well as the antenna, 
 are very short and stout. 
 
 The Brachelytrcu are a very extensive family of beetles, distinguished by 
 the very short square-cut elytra, which do not nearly reach to the extremity 
 of the abdomen, but which cover the ample wings, which are folded beneath 
 
 them. They are often called "Rove-Beetles," owing to 
 Rove-Beetles. some of the larger species, such as Ocypns olens (Linn.) 
 
 being found running about in search of dung or carrion. 
 The beetle to which we have referred is a black, foul- smelling beetle with 
 strong jaws, which lifts up its head and tail when molested, and is known in 
 many parts of the country by the name of the " Devil's Couch-Horse," In 
 
 Fig. tf.-D&l** 
 
 margmalis. ccesdreiis. Necrophorus vespillo. 
 
 Ireland it is regarded as a diabolical creature, which it is a meritorious action 
 to kill. We have figured Staphylinus ccesareus (Cederh.), a black species with 
 red legs and tegmina, and the thorax and segments of the abdomen partly 
 bordered with silky yellow or golden pubescence. Most of the species of 
 Brachelytra are much smaller than either of those just mentioned. Their 
 habits are very varied. Many species may be found among moss or flowers, 
 and others again live in ants' nests. 
 
 The next group, the Necrophaga or Clavicornia, is tolerably numerous in 
 species, though less so than the last, and is chiefly distinguished by the con- 
 spicuous knobs at the end of the antennae. Most of the species feed on 
 decaying animal or vegetable substances (carrion, fungi, etc.), and some of those 
 belonging to the genera Dermestes (Linn.), Anthrenus (Geoffr.), and their allies, 
 are very destructive to hams, dried skins, etc. Dermestes lardarius (Linn. ) 
 the "Bacon Beetle") is black, banded with grey, and spotted with black ; 
 it is about -a third of an inch long. The beetle and its hairy larva are too 
 familiar objects to many housekeepers. 
 
 The burying beetles, which belong to this section, are larger insects, half 
 
ROVE-BEETLES AND CHAFERS. 557 
 
 an inch or more in length, and are black, with orange-red bands on the 
 
 elytra. They are remarkable for their habit of interring the bodies of small 
 
 animals, such as mice or birds, which they may find lying 
 
 about, by scooping out the earth underneath, dragging and Burying-Beetles. 
 
 stamping them down, and covering them up. The females 
 
 are buried with the carcase, on which they deposit their eggs, and then make 
 
 their way back to the surface. We have figured Necrophorus vespillo (Linn.), 
 
 one of the commonest species. 
 
 There is a group of beetles allied to, and sometimes included in, the Necro- 
 phaga, called, from their aquatic habits, the Philhydrida. The largest 
 species, Hydrous piceus (Linn.), is a shining black beetle, 
 longer, narrower, and more convex than the species of WatoMBteetie 
 Dytiscus, from which its short-clubbed antennae and much 
 longer hind legs will at once distinguish it. It is sometimes called the 
 great water-beetle. 
 
 The Lamellicornes or chafers form a very interesting and important group of 
 beetles, but are not very numerous in Europe. They are distinguished by 
 the structure of their antennae, which are short, and 
 furnished at the extremity with a series of flat plates, which Chafers, 
 spread out like a fan. They feed on plants or dung, and 
 Borne species are very destructive. They are stout, round, or oblong beetles 
 of considerable size. Many of the species are black, but others exhibit 
 much variety of colour. There are many large species among them, and 
 they are frequently furnished with great horns, largest in the males, 
 and often assuming very strange shapes, on different parts of the head and 
 thorax. 
 
 The dung-beetles or Scarabceidw (a name sometimes applied to all the 
 Lamellicornes) are generally black and shining, though sometimes inclin- 
 ing to greenish or purple, especially beneath. They have 
 strongly toothed and flattened legs for digging. Some Dung-Beetles. 
 species, like the Egyptian sacred beetle, form pellets 
 
 of dung which they roll to a suitable place, 
 and in this deposit their eggs. This insect, 
 Scarabceus sacer(Linn.), is common throughout the 
 Mediterranean region, and is black, with a broad 
 flat head, with a vertical spine in the middle, and 
 strongly dentated on the front curve. There are a 
 number of species of more or less similar appear- 
 ance and habits, several of which are represented 
 on Egyptian monuments. 
 
 Our common black dung-beetles belong to the 
 genus Geotrupes (Fabr)., and have a much smaller 
 head than the sacred beetles. They fly in a 
 straight line in the evening, as in the time of 
 Shakespeare, who speaks of the "shardhorn beetle 
 with his drowsy hum." They are frequently much 
 il 1 lfested Wit , h 7 mifces - / The smaller dung-beetles of 
 sacer t Linn.). " e genus Aphodius (Illiger) are more numerous in 
 
 species, and more various in colour. They re- 
 semble very small cock-chafers in appearance, and rnay often be seen flying 
 about dung in the sunshine. 
 
 The Melolonthidce include the true cock-chafers, Our species, Melolontha 
 
558 INSECTA ORDER COLEOPTERA. 
 
 vulgaris and hippocastani (Fabr.) are about an inch long, and are reddish' 
 brown above, and black beneath, more or less clothed with 
 Cock -Chafers, whitish pubescence ; the abdomen ends in a blunt projec- 
 tion. They are vety destructive insects. The larva, which 
 is called the white grub, lives in the ground for three years, feeding on the 
 roots of plants ; and the beetle feeds on the leaves of trees. A similar but 
 smaller species, Rhizotrogus solstitialis (Linn.), is common in many places, 
 flying round trees in the evening. 
 
 The Dynastidce include the largest and most strangely-shaped of the 
 Lamellicornes, but they are not British, though one or two species are found 
 in the south of Europe. The larvae feed, like those of the stag-beetles, in 
 the wood of trees. The largest species are found in South America, the males 
 
 of the Her- 
 cules beetle, 
 T)ynastes her- 
 cules (Linn.), 
 and one or two 
 other species, 
 having a huge 
 horn, nearly 
 as long as the 
 
 Fig. 31. HERCULES BEETLE (Dynastes hercules). rest of the 
 
 body, project- 
 ing from the front of the thorax, and curving downwards to meet a similar 
 horn which projects from the front of the head, and curves upwards. It is 
 black, with greenish-grey elytra, and is represented of half the natural size 
 in the accompanying illustration. 
 
 To the Cetoniidce belong the great Goliath beetles of Africa, probably the 
 bulkiest, but not the largest of all beetles. They are black, brown, or 
 reddish, with longitudinal white bands on the thorax. Our 
 Rose-Chafers, most familiar representative of this family is the rose-chafer, 
 Cetonia aurata (Linn.), the beautiful, round, green, white- 
 spotted beetle which we so often find nestling in roses and other flowers. 
 
 The stag-beetle, Lucanus cervus (Linn.), is the typical representative of the 
 important family of the Lucanidce. It is black, with reddish-brown elytra, 
 and the large males are often two inches long, having very 
 Stag-Beetles. large branching mandibles ; in the females the mandibles 
 are comparatively small. The mandibles of the male of this 
 and other species of Lucanidce vary very much in size and in development, 
 but conform to certain recognised patterns, commencing with small males in 
 which the mandibles are scarcely more developed than in the female, and 
 proceeding to the largest males, in which the mandibles are very large and 
 branched. However, our common stag-beetle never attains the great de- 
 velopment of mandibles which is noticed in some allied East Indian species. 
 As already mentioned, the larvae feed in the wood of trees. 
 
 The Serricornes are another group of plant-feeding beetles, comprising 
 (besides others) the two important families of Buprestidce. and Elatcridw. 
 These are long and narrow beetles with hard integuments, and generally with 
 more or less pectinated antennae. The BupresticUe have no power of leaping, 
 but many of the foreign species are remarkable for their brilliant golden- 
 green colour ; and as they often measure nearly two inches in length they 
 form very conspicuous objects in collections of foreign insects. The British 
 
STAG-BEETLES, FIRE-FLIES, AND GLOW-WORMS. 
 
 559 
 
 Fig. 32. THE FIRE -FLY 
 (Pyrophorus noctilucus, Linn). 
 
 species are not remarkable, but the larvae of the next family, 
 the Materidce, or click- beetles, are too well known to all Click-Beetles and 
 agriculturists as wire-worms. The beetles are often found Wire-Worms, 
 in corn, flowers, etc. ; they are about half an inch long, and 
 of various subdued colours. The hinder angles of the thorax are rather 
 pointed, and on the under-surface there is a strong spine pointing backwards 
 and fixed in a groove. If the insect is placed on 
 its back it bends its body, and uses this apparatus 
 to enable it to leap up with a clicking sound. 
 
 Some of the larger foreign species of ElateridcB 
 rival the Bupresiidce in size ; but though some^ 
 times green, rarely exhibit the 
 same brilliant metallic colouring. Fire-Flies. 
 However, some of the larger 
 species are luminous, the species of Pyrophorus, 
 (111.), being the well-known tire-flies of Mexico 
 and the West Indies. Some of these emit two 
 different-coloured lights from different parts of 
 their body. Their body-colours are not con- 
 spicuous ; the species figured, Pyrophorus noctilu- 
 cus (Linn. ), is brown. 
 
 The Malacodermi are another group, in which 
 the form is generally long and narrow, the integu- 
 ments unusually soft, the elytra being leathery 
 rather than horny, and the thorax often rounded 
 above. They are active insects, and of carnivorous habits. The most in- 
 teresting beetles of this section are the glow-worms, in which 
 the females are apterous. In our common yellowish green Glow- Worms, 
 glow-worm, Lampyris noctiluca (Linn.), both sexes of which 
 are here figured, the female, which is apterous, is most luminous ; and is 
 frequently noticed shining like a spark on a grassy bank 
 or under a hedge. An allied species is common on the 
 Continent, and may be seen flying about in the evening 
 like little sparks ; but the Italian fire-fly, which is also 
 a Lampyris, and which is not found north of the Alps, 
 is far more brilliant. 
 
 In almost all the beetles, which we have hitherto been 
 considering, the tarsi are five- jointed on all the legs; 
 but we now come to the large group of ffeteromera, in 
 which the two front pairs of legs have five- jointed tarsi, 
 but there are only five joints to the hind tarsi. An- 
 other peculiarity of this group is that the antennae are generally moniliform ; 
 that is, consisting of a series of rounded joints looking like a string of beads. 
 They are generally of a black colour, and many of the species have much 
 resemblance to the Carabidw, from which either of the characters mentioned 
 will at once distinguish them. 
 
 The Heteromera, though rather numerous, need not detain us very long, 
 but we may mention three or four of the more interesting species. The 
 cellar-beetles, which belong to the genus Blaps, are hard, 
 wingless beetles nearly an inch long, with the body ending Cellar-Beetles, 
 in a point, and of the colour of an unpolished boot. Black 
 as they are, they are not the * ' black-beetles " of our housekeepers, this 
 
 Fig. 33. Fig. 34. 
 
 GLOW-WORMS 
 
 (Lampi/ris noctiluca, 
 
 Linn.). 
 
560 INSECTA ORDER COLEOPTERA. 
 
 scientific term being reserved for the reddish-brown cockroaches, which do 
 not agree with either the adjective or the noun. 
 
 Another beetle common in houses is Tenebrio molitor (Linn.), a narrow, dark 
 
 brown beetle about half an inch in length, which is better known in its larval 
 
 state as the meal-worm. Out of doors the oil-beetles, of the 
 
 Meal Worms and genus Meloe (Linn.), are familiar objects, and can hardly be 
 
 Oil-Beetles. mistaken for anything else. They are large, soft, sluggish, 
 
 blue-black beetles, with short, soft, and perfectly useless 
 
 elytra, and are found clinging to blades of grass. Their transformations are 
 
 extremely remarkable, for they pass their early stages in bees' nests, and 
 
 undergo two or three transformations into larvae and pupae before assuming 
 
 the perfect state, which even then is sufficiently incomplete, as they never 
 
 develop wings, except in the rudimentary form above described. 
 
 The blister-beetle, Cantharis vesicatoria (Linn.), is too well-known to need 
 
 description. It is found in the south of England, but is too rare with us to 
 
 be of any commercial value ; the chief supply comes from 
 
 Blister-Beetles. Southern Europe. An ash tree loaded with these beautiful 
 
 metallic green beetles is a splendid sight in the sunshine. 
 
 Mylabris (Fabr.) is a rather large genus of Heteromera, the species of which 
 
 are used for blistering purposes in some countries, but it is not represented 
 
 in Britain. They are black beetles, with yellow or tawny spots and bands. 
 
 The Rhynchophvra, or weevils, are a very large group of beetles, which 
 
 may easily be distinguished by the apparently four- jointed tarsi on all 
 
 the legs ; by their very hard integuments, and by the struc- 
 
 WeevUs. ture of their head and antennae. The head is produced 
 
 into a long snout, towards the end of which 
 the short, angulated, and generally clubbed antennas project 
 on each side. Most of our British species are of small \ 
 size ; but among the foreign beetles we find the large and 
 ' beautiful metallic green diamond-beetles, and 
 Diamond- the palm-weevil of the West Indies, a large 
 Beetles. reddish-brown beetle an inch and a half 
 long, the wood-feeding grub of which is con- 
 sidered a great delicacy. The nut-weevil, Balaninus nucum 
 (Linn.), is a small brown beetle, with the elytra varied with 
 grey. It is about of an inch in length, and is represented 
 somewhat above natural size in the accompanying wood-cut. 
 It exhibits the peculiar structure of the rostrum and antennas nucum, Linn.), 
 very typically. The Scolytidce have the head less prolonged 
 than usual among the weevils, and are extremely destructive to trees, eating 
 galleries through the wood in all directions. 
 
 The Longicornes, or long-horned beetles, are an extensive group, with ap- 
 parently four- jointed tarsi, long slender antennas, often as long and sometimes 
 many times longer than the body ; not clubbed at the ex- 
 Long-Horned tremity, but with along and thick basal joint. The eyes are 
 Beetles. generally more or less constricted in the middle, at least 011 
 one side, and are sometimes completely divided, as in the 
 Gyrinidce. They are generally insects of large size with long bodies, and 
 their larvas feed in the wood of trees. They are very numerous in warm 
 climates; but most of our British species are either of small size, or are scarce. 
 Others, which are not considered indigenous, are frequently imported into 
 England with timber. One of the commonest and most beautiful of our 
 
LONG-HORNED AND PLANT-FEEDING BEETLES. 
 
 561 
 
 larger species is the musk-beetle Aromia moschata (Linn.), which is common 
 in most parts of the country, and is often found resting on the trunks of 
 willows, in which the larvse feed, in the daytime. It exhales a strong but 
 agreeable odour, contrary to the habit of most other beetles, many of which 
 discharge an extremely offensive liquid when touched. It is of a bright 
 green colour, and often exceeds an inch in length. 
 
 This species belongs to the Cerambycidce, the typical family of the Longi- 
 cornes ; but the largest and bulkiest species belong to the Prionidce, which 
 
 are brown or reddish-brown beetles fre- 
 quently three inches long. Our single 
 native species, Prionus coriarius (Linn.), is 
 rather scarce. It is about the length of the 
 musk-beetle, but much stouter, and of a 
 brown colour. We have figured both sexes 
 of Acanthocinus cedilis (Linn.), which has 
 longer antennae in the .male than any other 
 British species. It is rather scarce with us, 
 being found chiefly at Rannoch, in Scotland, 
 in the pine forests. It is reddish-brown with 
 grey pubescence, and four yellowish spots on 
 the thorax. It belongs to the family of the 
 Lamiidw, which is distinguished by the large 
 head, and almost vertical face. 
 
 The last group of the beetles with appar- 
 ently four joints to the tarsi is that of the 
 Phytophaga, or plant-feed- 
 ing beetles par excellence. Plant-Feeding 
 They are round or oval Beetles, 
 beetles, of small or moder- 
 ate size, and of various colours, many being 
 of a brilliant green. The antennae are gen- 
 erally rather short, and not elbowed, or set 
 on a rostrum, and this alone will generally 
 distinguish them from the beetles of the two preceding groups. 
 
 This group includes several very injurious species, among others the 
 Colorado potato-beetle, and the turnip-beetles. The Colorado Potato- 
 beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), is a native of the 
 Western States of America. It is about half an inch long, Colorado 
 and of a yellowish colour, with eighteen black spots on the Potato-Beetle. 
 thorax, and ten black stripes on the wing-cases ; the larva is 
 red, spotted with black. Our figure is somewhat above natural size. Some 
 years ago this beetle began to spread eastwards from its 
 haunts in the Rocky Mountains, where it used to feed on 
 a wild species of potato ; and to attack the cultivated 
 plant. It soon spread over the whole of the United States, 
 and there is no efficient way of arresting its ravages but 
 by the free use of ' ' Paris Green, " a dangerous compound 
 of arsenic. Great fears were expressed lest it should 
 spread to Europe, and special measures were taken by all 
 the principal Governments to guard against its invasion. 
 Nevertheless, in addition to a few isolated instances of its 
 occurrence in various countries, a whole colony was dis- 
 37 
 
 Figs. 36, 37. Acanthocinus cedilis, 
 Linn. 
 
 Fifj. 38. COLORADO 
 
 B E ETL ^(Leptinotarsa, 
 
 decemlineata, Say). 
 
562 INSECT A ORDERS COLEOPTERA AND ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 covered many miles from the sea-coast in some potato fields at Miilheim-on- 
 Rhine, nearly opposite Cologne. The fields were at once ploughed up, drenched 
 with petroleum and burned over; and the pest was fortunately stamped out. 
 The scare has now subsided, but it is all the more necessary for us to be pre- 
 pared to take equally prompt and energetic measures if the Colorado beetle 
 should happen to make its appearance among us, as is always possible 
 enough, perhaps at some out-of-the-way place where it is least expected. 
 
 Among the largest and most conspicuous of the foreign species of this 
 group are the species of the genus Sagra (Fabr.), which are found in the East 
 
 Indies and Africa. They are long, smooth 
 Turnip-Beetles, beetles, of a brilliant green colour, sometimes 
 varied with coppery red, or purple, and the 
 hind femora are of very large size, being constructed for 
 leaping. These beetles are an inch long, but the destruc- 
 tive turnip-beetles, belonging. to the genus Phyllotreta (Latr.^, 
 have also thickened hind femora, and skip about like fleas. 
 They are oval, and less than a quarter of an inch in length. 
 The elytra are bronzy black, and marked with a yellow stripe. y j' J : >.Phyi 
 They are often called "Turnip Flies," but turnip flea- 
 beetles would be a more appropriate term. Our figure 
 of Phyllotreta nemorum (Linn.) is somewhat above natural size. 
 
 The last of the great group of beetles are the Pseudotrimera, which are 
 
 small species, distinguished by having only three visible joints to the tarsi. 
 
 The best known of these are the lady-birds (Coccinellidcz). 
 
 Lady-Birds. of which there are a considerable number 
 in England. They are small round beetles, 
 and the elytra are mostly red with black spots, or black 
 with red or yellow spots. The head and thorax are black 
 with white markings. They are very useful insects, for 
 they are carnivorous, and destroy large numbers of Aphides, 
 or plant-lice. 
 
 We have figured the typical form of one of the commonest 
 species, Coccinella bipunctata (Linn.), slightly magnified. It 
 is very variable, and the elytra are sometimes almost black, ~ ^bipunctata). 
 instead of being red, with a black spot on each, as in our figure. 
 
 Other families of this group are the Trichopterygidce, the smallest of all 
 beetles, and if we except some of the egg-parasites among the Hymenoptera, 
 almost the smallest insects known. They are little black beetles, with 
 long, slender, clubbed antennae, and are found among decaying vegetable 
 refuse. 
 
 Other species belonging to the Pseudotrimera are found in fungi, and 
 others, again, inhabit ants' nests, where, it has been suggested, they may be 
 preserved as pets. 
 
 ORDER ORTHOPTERA (CRICKETS, LOCUSTS, ETC.). 
 
 The Order Orkhoptera, or straight- winged insects, includes the earwigs, cock- 
 roaches, crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, etc. These are all insects with 
 strong jaws, instead of a proboscis, and differ from the other mandibulate 
 orders by the fore-wings (which are called in Orthoptera not elytra, but 
 tegmina) being generally of a different consistency to the others throughout, 
 
TURNIP-BEETLES, LADYBIRDS, AND EARWIGS. 563 
 
 and leathery, rather than horny, as in the Coleoptera. They also differ from 
 the Coleoptera in the hind-wings being folded lengthwise, and not doubled 
 back at the tips, except in the earwigs and cockroaches, which some authors 
 consider to form two separate orders, distinct from the Orthoptera. 
 
 In the Orthoptera the metamorphosis is incomplete, there being no inactive 
 pupa-state. The larva resembles the perfect insect, except in size, and in 
 the absence of wings. During the period which elapses be- 
 tween the last two moults, the insect possesses short wing Metamorphoses, 
 cases which enclose the undeveloped wings, and this stage is 
 considered to correspond to the pupa-state of insects with complete metamor- 
 phoses. The insect is, however, as active and voracious as in the larva state, 
 and is frequently termed a " nymph " by those who restrict the term " pupa " 
 to insects with complete metamorphoses. In the perfect insect the antennae 
 are usually slender, with well-marked joints, and are sometimes of great 
 length. 
 
 The bulk of the Orthoptera are plant-feeding insects, but the Mantidfe, or 
 praying insects, are carnivorous, and the earwigs and cockroaches will eat 
 decaying animal as well as vegetable substances. This 
 order contains no parasitic insects, and scarcely any which Habits, 
 are directly harmful to man, but the economic injury oc- 
 casionally caused by locusts in many countries probably far exceeds that 
 due to the ravages of all other insects put together. These insects are 
 generally voracious in all their stages after leaving the egg. 
 
 The Orthoptera are one of the least numerous orders of insects in species, 
 though most abundant in individuals, and are very poorly represented 
 in cold countries. In England we have only about sixty species, including 
 casual visitors, and introduced species. 
 
 The Forficididce, or earwigs, much resembe the Staphylinidce among the 
 Coleoptera, and were actually included in the Coleoptera by Linnaeus. Their 
 tegmina are very short, and the large transparent wings 
 are folded beneath them, so as to be quite invisible when Earwigs 
 closed, except the projecting tips of the opaque part of the (ForficulidcK). 
 costa, which are of about the same colour and consistency as 
 the tegmina. At the end of the body there is always a peculiar appendage 
 like a forceps, which is more developed in the male than in the female, and 
 which is said to be used for folding and unfolding the wings. Many species, 
 however, are apterous, and others, though provided with ample wings, are 
 never seen to fly, though they may possibly use them only in 
 the darkness of night ; others, however (chiefly small 
 species) fly about by day. They are fond of concealing 
 themselves in any sort of crevice, and some -flowers, such 
 as dahlias and sunflowers, are greatly infested by them. 
 They have sometimes been known to creep into the human 
 ear, and there is no doubt that their popular name has 
 originated in this manner. They are generally dull reddish - 
 brown, unattractive-looking insects, though one or two East 
 Indian species are of a rich purple. They measure from half 
 an inch to rather over an inch in length ; the antennae are (Anisoiabi 
 generally of moderate length, and the legs are short. We maritima). 
 have figured a brown, apterous species, which has been in- 
 troduced into most parts of the world, and is occasionally found in England. 
 
 The Blattidoe, or cockroaches, are another very isolated group. These are 
 
5 6 4 
 
 INSECT A ORDER ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 oval insects, generally more or less flat, with a round or oval thorax, under 
 which the small head is often quite hidden. The antennae 
 Cockroaches are slender, and moderately long, and the legs are 
 (Blattidai). very spiny. Many species are apterous, at least in the 
 females ; but the majority are winged, the wing-cases being 
 of a parchment-like consistency, and generally more or less overlapping ; 
 the wings are transparent. They are nocturnal insects, feeding chiefly on 
 decaying vegetable matter ; but many are carnivorous, our domestic species 
 being particularly fond of bed-bugs. The eggs are deposited in a capsule, 
 and the female may often be seen running about with the capsule pro- 
 jecting from her body. They are nearly always of dull colours, such as 
 grey, reddish-brown, or black. Three species commonly infest our houses, 
 all of which appear to have been imported insects, like most of our house- 
 hold pests. The first and smallest of these is Phyllodromia germanica 
 (Linn.), a pale brown, winged insect, about half an inch long. It is sometimes 
 found in bakeries. The female is said to open the egg-case to allow of the 
 escape of the young. In America, where it is much commoner than with us, 
 it is called the croton bug, and is said to frequent the neighbourhood of 
 water-pipes. Our common cockroach, Blatta orientalis (Linn.), a reddish- 
 brown insect, with fully developed wings in the male, but only rudimentary 
 wings in the female, is generally called "the black beetle," though it is 
 
 neither black nor a beetle. An- 
 other species, Periplaneta ameri- 
 cana (Fabr.), which is winged in 
 both sexes, is redder ; the thorax 
 is yellowish-grey, with a large black 
 mark in the centre ; it expands 
 nearly two inches across the wings, 
 and is not uncommon in ware- 
 houses. Cockroaches of various 
 species abound on board ship ; and 
 apart from one or two small in- 
 digenous species (found not in 
 houses, but in woods and fields), 
 many others, besides those which 
 we have mentioned, may be met 
 with in the docks, and elsewhere, 
 some of which may perhaps succeed 
 in establishing themselves in this 
 country. Even specimens belong- 
 ing to the genus Blaberus (Serville), 
 which includes the great broad- 
 winged species called "drummers" 
 in the West Indies, have been 
 met with occasionally. These are 
 yellowish -grey, with a large black 
 mark on the middle of the thorax, 
 and measure at least three inches 
 
 across the win^s : but the largest 
 
 Fig. 42. DRUMMER COCKROACH (Blaberus f ., , u v, i *v,<* 
 
 giganteus, Linn.). of all the cockroaches belong to the 
 
 genus Megaloblatta (Dohrn), found 
 in Mexico and South America. They have longer and narrower wings in 
 
CO CKROA CUES AND PR A YING. INSECTS. 565 
 
 proportion than Blaberus, measuring fully six inches in expanse, and are 
 of a dark reddish-brown colour. 
 
 The late Mr. H. N. Moseley, in his "Notes of a Naturalist on the 
 Challenger '' (pp. 592, 593), gives the following amusing account of the cock- 
 roaches on board ship : '* The first cockroaches apparently 
 came on board at St. Vincent, Cape Verdes, for a large one Cockroaches on 
 of these insects was caught by one of the lieutenants on his the Challenger. 
 bed soon after we left that port. Cockroaches soon became 
 plentiful on board, and showed themselves whenever the ship was in a warm 
 climate. A special haunt of a swarm of them was behind the books in the 
 chemical laboratory, from which Mr. Buchanan in vain attempted to evict 
 them. At one period of the voyage, a number of these insects established 
 themselves in my cabin, and devoured parts of my boots, nibbling off all the 
 margins of leather projecting beyond the seams on the upper leather. One 
 huge winged cockroach baffled me in my attempts to get rid of him for a long 
 tpne. I could not discover his retreat. At night he came out and rested on 
 my book-shelf at the foot of my bed, swaying his antennae to and fro, and 
 watching me closely. If I reached out my hand from bed to get a stick, or 
 raised my book to throw it at him, he dropped at once on the deck, and was 
 forthwith out of harm's way. He bothered me much, because, when my 
 light was out,' he had a familiar 
 habit of coming to sip the moisture 
 from my face and lips, which was 
 decidedly unpleasant, and awoke 
 me often from a doze. I believe 
 it was with this object that he 
 watched me before I went to sleep. 
 I often had a shot at him with a 
 book or other missile as he sat on 
 the book-shelf ; but he always 
 dodged and escaped. His quick- 
 ness and agility astonished me. 
 At last I triumphed, by adopting ** ^.-Mantis religiosa. 
 
 the advice of Captain Maclean, and 
 
 shooting him with a pellet of paper from my air-gun, a mode of attack for 
 which he was evidently unprepared ; but I was taken to task for discharging 
 the air-gun in my cabin, because it made a noise just like the sharp crack 
 of a spar when broken by the force of the breeze, and created some excite- 
 ment on the upper deck, where the sound was plainly heard." 
 
 Turning now to the more typical Orthoptera, we commence with the Mantidce. 
 or praying insects, which are not British, though one or two species are 
 common in Southern Europe. They are generally green, 
 yellow, or brown (very rarely blue), with ample wings, which Praying Insects 
 are generally transparent; the tegmina are likewise broad, (Mantidce). 
 and are opaque, at least along the costa. They are usually 
 insects with long slender bodies and slender legs ; the front pair of legs, 
 however, is large and strong, and the lower surface of the tibia is furnished 
 with a row of very strong curved spines, which close against the femora, 
 which are also sometimes denticulated or knobbed. They are carnivorous 
 and very predatory insects, and usually sit with the forepart of the body and 
 the fore-legs raised on the watch for prey. This position has caused them 
 to be looked upon with superstitious reverence ; and it was said that if 
 
5 66 
 
 INSECTA ORDER ORTHOPTERA. 
 
 (Phasmidw). 
 
 children had lost their way they had only to ask a Mantis, which would im- 
 mediately extend one of its front legs in the desired direction. Some idea 
 of their real propensities, however, may be gathered from the following anec- 
 dote : A male and female Mantis were once observed courting, when the 
 female suddenly chopped off the head of her mate and devoured it. This 
 incident was followed by their union, after which the female devoured the 
 body of her unfortunate partner. But it should be mentioned that in most 
 insects (subject, however, to exceptions) the female is much larger and, as a 
 rule, less brightly coloured than the male. We have figured a green 
 European species of Mantis. (Fig. 43.) 
 
 The Phasmidce are another group of Orthoptera, which are wholly unre- 
 presented in England, though a few small species belonging to the typical 
 genus Pheuma (Illiger) are found on the northern shores of 
 Stick Insects the Mediterranean. These are apterous insects, about two 
 or three inches long, and with short antennae, though the 
 generic name is frequently misapplied to a South American 
 genus with long antennae, and large, brightly-coloured wings. The PhasmicUe, 
 or stick insects, have long slender legs and bodies, and are exclusively vege- 
 table feeders. Although the legs are spiny in many species, they are not 
 raptorial, as in the Mautidw. A great number of species are apterous, and 
 of a brown or yellowish colour, perfectly resembling 
 pieces of dead stick in appearance. The largest 
 insect known is a species from Borneo, Phrygan- 
 istria, serratipes (Gray), the female of which mea- 
 sures more than a foot in length. Other apterous 
 species, about nine inches long, and half an inch 
 broad, are flattened rather than rounded, and are 
 of a green colour, perfectly resembling shoots of 
 bamboo. In the winged Phasmidce the tegmina 
 are always very short, and frequently scale-like; 
 but the wings are often very ample, and are 
 thickened along the costal area, which really 
 answers the purpose of tegmina in protecting the 
 delicate fan-like wings. Many of the Australian 
 Phasmidce measure six or seven inches in ex- 
 panse, and are most beautiful insects, with large 
 pink, blue, or green wings. There is a smaller 
 green species in the Pacific Islands, Lopaphus 
 cocophages(N&wp.\ about five inches long, which 
 is extremely destructive to the cocoanut trees. 
 It has odd little rudimentary red wings not more 
 than an inch long ; and shares with other species 
 of Phasmidke the habit of ejecting a disagreeable 
 fluid when alarmed. This particular insect is said 
 to be able to shoot it a distance of five feet, and 
 the fluid is so acrid that it is liable to cause blindness if it reaches the eyes. 
 
 The next family, the Gryllidce, or crickets, agrees with the remaining 
 
 groups in having the hind femora much thickened, and adapted for leaping. 
 
 The antennae are long and slender, the tegmina rest flat on 
 
 Crickets the back, and are frequently curved downwards at the sides, 
 
 (Cryllidai). but are never roof -like, and the head is large and vertical, 
 
 with prominent eyes. The legs are generally strongly spined, 
 
 Fig. 44. STICK INSECT 
 
 Lopaphus cocophayes). ^ Nat. 
 
 size. 
 
STICK-INSECTS, CRICKETS, AND GRASSHOPPERS. 567 
 
 and the ovipositor of the female is short and straight. In the male the 
 tegmina are differently formed from the female, exhibiting a bare space 
 covered by strong veins, which are roughened beneath like a file, so as to 
 produce a chirping sound when the tegmina are rubbed over one another. 
 The females are mute, as in most other Orthopterous insects. 
 
 We have tlwee conspicuous kinds of crickets in this country, of which the 
 best known is the pale brown house-cricket, Gryllus domesticus (Linn. ). It 
 is very similar in its habits to the cockroach, but is a much less disgusting 
 insect, both in appearance, and because it does not possess the foul odour of 
 the cockroach. It is, however, a destructive insect, and is very fond of mois- 
 ture; and this is the reason why it sometimes eats holes in wet clothes 
 left hanging at the fire to dry during the night; 
 though 1 have sometimes heard that " it was out of 
 spite against the maid, who was in the habit of killing 
 them." Many persons have a superstitious dislike 
 to injure crickets ; and I lately heard of an attack of 
 toothache being attributed to the murder of a cricket. 
 The field-cricket, Acheta campestris (Linn.), is rather 
 larger and stouter than the house-cricket, and is of 
 a nearly black colour, except the tegmina, which are 
 brown. It is a very destructive insect, feeding on 
 the roots of plants; but has become exterminated by 
 cultivation, and is now very rare in England, though 
 it and several other closely-allied species are abundant 
 in most parts of the world. The mole-cricket, Ctirtilla 
 gryllotalpa (Linn.), is a brown insect two inches long, 
 which represents a small section of crickets in which 
 the front legs are very broad and flat, resembling Fi ^ FIELD-CRICKET 
 those of a mole, and are used for burrowing in a (Acheta campestris). 
 similar manner. It does much mischief by destroy- 
 ing the roots of plants, and is a common insect, though seldom seen above 
 ground. 
 
 The Phasgonuridce, or long - horned grasshoppers, are a large group 
 divided into numerous sub-families, which resemble the crickets in many 
 respects, having large heads which frequently slope inwards 
 and downwards, and long or very long antennae. The Long-Horned 
 tegmina, however, are generally roof -like, and the colour is Grasshoppers 
 most frequently green, though sometimes brown. The ovi- (Phasgonuridce.) 
 positor of the female is long, compressed, and curved up- 
 wards at the end. The legs are generally less strongly spined than in the 
 crickets. The typical species of this family is known as the Great Green 
 Grasshopper, arid is not uncommon in the south of England, where it can 
 easily be recognised by its large size (three inches or more in expanse of 
 wing), bright green colour, very long antennae, and in the female its long 
 ovipositor. Some of the North American species of this family are called 
 "Katydids." their chirping having been read into the words, "Katy did, 
 Katy did, Katy didn't, she did, she didn't," and sojon. 
 
 Some insects belonging to foreign sub-families of this group are of very 
 large size, measuring six or eight inches in expanse ; and some are remarkable 
 for their broad flattened thorax, or for their disproportionately long hind 
 legs. Others, which are found in the deserts of Africa, are bulky apterous 
 insects, on the large fore - legs of which the curious auditory organs 
 
568 INSECT A ORDERS ORTHOPTERA AND NEUROPTERA. 
 
 Locusts and 
 Grasshoppers 
 
 (Locustidce). 
 
 which many Orthopterous insects possess in this odd situation are very 
 conspicuous, opening either in a large oval depression, or in a mere slit. 
 The last family of the Orthoptera, the Locustidce, which comprises the true 
 locusts and grasshoppers, may be distinguished at once by the short antennae. 
 The ovipositor is inconspicuous, and the hind legs are long 
 and slender, the hind tibiae being generally fucnished with a 
 double row of spines above. Our common grasshoppers leap 
 rather than fly, but the locusts, some of which visit us occa- 
 sionally, though they probably never breed here, are very 
 strong on the wing. The body and tegmina are generally brown, but the wings 
 are often red, blue or green. The most destructive species in Asia and Africa 
 are about five or six inches in expanse ; but the largest South American 
 
 locusts measure nearly a foot across 
 the tegmina. In some of the earlier 
 sub-families, the antennae are very 
 broad and flattened, but in the more 
 typical species they are cylindrical. 
 These chiefly inhabit the warmer parts 
 of Asia and Africa. Destructive lo- 
 custs are not always large ; for in- 
 stance, those which ravage Cyprus and 
 the United States are small species, 
 not expanding "more than a couple of 
 inches across the wings. Species of 
 about the same size, with blue and 
 red wings, are common on the Conti- 
 nent, in pine forests, and vineyards, 
 etc. ; and the blue-winged grasshopper, 
 (Edlpoda ccerulescens (Linn.), is said to be sometimes found in England. 
 
 Locusts are equally destructive in all their stages after quitting the egg, for 
 the young locusts can leap, though not fly, and they advance across the country 
 in vast hordes in this manner, before they acquire their wings, and they have no 
 quiescent pupa stage. No one can form any conception of the meaning of an 
 invasion of locusts who has not actually seen one ; and at present, schemes 
 are in progress for checking their ravages in Natal by the use of specially 
 constructed guns and mortars, in addition to other means. In America and 
 Australia the term "locust" is frequently but improperly applied to the Cka- 
 didce, which belong to quite a different order of insects. 
 
 Fig. 46. BLUE-WINGED GRASSHOPPER 
 (CEdipoda ccerulescens). 
 
 ORDER NEUROPTERA (LACE-WINGED INSECTS). 
 
 Linnaeus applied the term Neuroplera, or Nerve-wings, to an Order in- 
 cluding a number of conspicuous insects of rather large size. They have strong 
 jaws, four wings, similar in texture, and generally covered with a network 
 of very numerous nervures ; incomplete metamorphoses, and carnivorous 
 habits. 
 
 Several very discordant groups are included under the term Neuroptera ; 
 and although we have treated of the Trichoptera, Mallophaga, Thysanura^ 
 
GRASSHOPPERS, LOCUSTS, AND DRAGONFLIES. 
 
 569 
 
 and Collembola separately, many groups besides these are regarded by some 
 authors as forming distinct orders. 
 
 Although the size and importance of the dragonflies indicate them as the 
 true types of the Linnean Neuroptera, yet they have sometimes been united 
 with the Orthoptera under the absurd term Pseudo-ncurop- 
 tera. But the dissimilarity of their wings is quite sufficient Dragonflies 
 to preclude their being classed in the same order as the (Odonata). 
 Orthoptera ; while if they were, the name Orthoptera would 
 have to be abolished, being of post-Linnean date, and its contents transferred 
 to the Neuroptera. The dragonflies are frequently called Odonata. 
 
 They are generally slender-bodied insects, with long, moderately broad 
 wings, and a large head, the greater part of which, however, is occupied by 
 the two large compound eyes. Their wings are generally 
 colourless, but in some species are very brightly coloured, in Metamorphoses, 
 whole, or in part, with iridescent purple, blue, green, or 
 scarlet. The commonest pattern, where any exists, and which reappears in 
 several distinct families, is a broad purplish- brown band across the middle of 
 both pairs of wings. They are predaceous insects in all their stages. The 
 larva and pupa are brown, and live in fresh water ; the pupae can be. dis- 
 tinguished by their conspicuous wing-cases. When the pupa is matured, it 
 leaves the water, climbing up a reed, or some other convenient support, and 
 then splits down the back, to allow of the emergence of the perfect 
 insect. 
 
 The neuration in some of these insects is often very complicated, the net- 
 work forming many thousands of cells in each wing in some species, while 
 others exhibit comparatively few nervures. They are divided 
 into several families and sub-families, of which we will notice Family 
 
 two or three. In the Libellulidce, the triangular (or more Libellulidce. 
 rarely, quadrilateral) space near the base of the/wing, from . 
 which several of the principal longitudinal nervures of the wings start, is 
 differently shaped in the fore and hind wings, and the eyes are contiguous, 
 
 but rarely united by 
 a long suture. This 
 family takes in the 
 greater part of the 
 moderate-sized dra- 
 gonflies with rather 
 stout bodies, the com- 
 monest of which, 
 Libellula depressa 
 (Linn.), which may 
 often be seen flying 
 over water, has trans- 
 parent wings three 
 inches in expanse, and 
 a flattened and rather 
 short and broad body, 
 which is blue in the 
 
 Fig. 47. DRAGONFLY (Trithemis umbratd). Nat. size/ male, and yellow in 
 
 the female. We have 
 
 figured a common South American species of this family, Triihemis umbrata, 
 (Linn.). The Gomphidcv resembles the Libellulidce, but the eyes are distinctly 
 
570 INSECT A ORDER NEUROPTERA. 
 
 separated. The ^Eschnidce, which perhaps attract more notice than any other 
 
 dragonflies, measure three or four inches in length, and also 
 
 Family across the wings, and have a long narrow triangle, crossed 
 
 jEschnidai. by several nervures, on each wing, shaped nearly alike on all 
 the wings, and very large eyes, which are contiguous, being only 
 separated by a small suture on the top of the head. The wings are transpar- 
 ent, tinged with brown in one species ; and the bodies are elegantly marked 
 with blue, green, and yellow, on a brown or black ground ; but these colours 
 generally fade in a short time after death. 
 
 The Agrionidce have slender bodies, small and inconspicuous triangles on 
 
 the wings, and wide heads, with the eyes far apart; in fact their heads are 
 
 something like those of the hammer-headed shark on a small 
 
 Family scale. Some of the larger European species, measuring up- 
 
 Agrionidce. wards of two inches across, have beautifully coloured wings, 
 and frequently blue or green bodies. Two species are com- 
 mon in England, one with purplish wings, and the other with a purplish 
 band, resembling our figure 47,but with a longer and more slender body Some 
 of the foreign species are far more brilliantly coloured, the common Indian 
 Neurobasis chinensis (Linn. ) having bright green or blue hind wings Several 
 of the American species of Hetcerina (De Selys), and allied genera, are trans- 
 parent, with a bright scarlet patch at the base of the wings, which are other- 
 wise transparent. Our two British species of Agrion, already mentioned, 
 are fond of flying over ponds or slowly-flowing streams. These coloured 
 species belong to the family Agrioninm, and have more cross-nervures on the 
 costa before the middle of the wing than the other sub-family Cwnagrioniiuv, 
 in which there are only two. The latter sub-family includes a considerable 
 variety of species, all slender, but among them are the largest and the smallest 
 dragonflies known. The largest are South American species, six or seven 
 inches in length and expanse, with long transparent wings, tipped with black 
 or yellow ; the smallest are the little slender-bodied, transparent- winged 
 dragonflies which are so abundant among reeds and rushes. The type of this, 
 sub-family is Ccenagrion puella (Linn.), which has a long body prettily marked 
 with blue and black. It measures rather more than an inch in length, and in 
 the expanse of its transparent wings. 
 
 In all the true dragonflies the antennae are very short, filiform, and in- 
 conspicuous, and are generally only 
 three-jointed ; but in the Planipennia, 
 we meet with insects 
 Ant-Lions in which the antennae 
 (Myrmeleonidce). are of ten of consider- 
 able length, and fre- 
 quently cl ubbed . Th e an t-lions , wh ich 
 belong to the family Myrmeleonidce, 
 much resemble dragonflies by their 
 long, narrow, and generally transpar- 
 ent wings, but their bodies are much 
 shorter, the neuration of the wings 
 is dissimilar, and the antennae are 
 short and clubbed. The ant-lions are 
 not British, though several species are ^ ^^scalaphus Kolyvanensis, Laxm. 
 found in Southern Europe ; their 
 larvae have strong jaws, and hide themselves at the bottom of pitfalls, 
 
DRAGONFLIES, MAYFLIES, 
 
 571 
 
 which they dig in sandy soil, to entrap the ants and other insects on 
 which they feed. The Ascalaphidce are another family not represented 
 in Britain, but which has also several representatives in 
 Southern Europe. It is distinguished by its very long, Family- 
 
 clubbed antennae. In the typical genus Asccdaphus (Fabr.), Ascalaphidce. 
 the wings are black and yellow, and broader and shorter 
 than in the Myrmeleonidce ; but in many of the allied tropical genera, 
 the wings are longer, narrower, and mostly transparent. A third allied 
 family, the Nemopteridce, not British, and not extending so far south as the 
 others, being confined in Europe to the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, has rather short and slender antennae, broad, Family 
 
 oval, black and yellow fore-wings, and very long and narrow Nemopteridce. 
 hind-wings, looking, when the insect is held head upwards, 
 almost like a pair of stilts. The fore-wings measure about an inch and a half 
 in expanse, but the curious narrow hind- wings are nearly two inches long. 
 The most interesting British species of Planipennia belong 
 to the Chrysopidce, or lace-winged flies, which have bright Lace-winged 
 green bodies, long slender antennae, golden eyes, and trans- Flies 
 
 parent, delicately reticulated wings, rarely exceeding an (Chrysopidcn). 
 inch in expanse. Their larvae are very useful in gardens by 
 destroying the Aphides, or plant-lice. 
 
 The Ephemeridce, which are generally called May-flies, or Day-flies, fly over 
 streams in summer. They have long, slender antennae, slender bodies, 
 ending in two or three long fila- 
 ments, broad fore-wings, about May-Flies 
 an inch and a half in expanse, (Ephemeridcb). 
 and very small, or undeveloped 
 hind-wings. Their larvae are aquatic, and take 
 several months to arrive at maturity ; but the 
 perfect insects live a very short time. They are 
 insects of dull colours, brown, greenish, dull 
 grey, or whitish ; and on the Continent there are 
 several white species which emerge from the 
 water after sunset, and perish before sunrise. 
 In the evening they swarm in at the open windows 
 of waterside houses to the lights in great numbers. 
 In the morning the ground near the rivers 
 where they breed is covered with their dead 
 bodies, lying in heaps. 
 
 The Perlidce is another family of brown 
 Neuroptera, with well-developed hind-wings, 
 large heads, and two long fila- 
 ments at the end of the body. Stone Flies 
 Their larvae likewise are aquatic. (Ptrlidce). 
 
 The TermitidcK, or white ants, 
 are fortunately not British, and it is to be 
 hoped that they will never succeed in getting 
 a footing in this country. The males and 
 females have long and rather narrow wings, and short, stout 
 bodies ; the workers are wingless, and have very large White Ants 
 heads, and powerful jnws. They are very similar to ants in (Termetidce). 
 their habits, and shun the light, always living either in 
 
 Fig. 49. MAY FLY (Ephemera 
 vulgata, Linn.). 
 
572 
 
 IN SECT A- ORDERS NEUROPTERA, ETC. 
 
 large nests, or forming galleries in wood, which they eat away from the 
 inside. 
 
 Some of the remaining families of Neuroptera contain very small species. 
 Among the Psocidce, some are winged, and others are apterous. The species 
 most often seen is Atropos pulsatoria, a small white apterous 
 Family Psocidce. insect, which is frequently met with in neglected collections 
 of insects, and is often called a mite. It is active, and 
 sufficiently large to be seen running about. It has been stated on good au- 
 thority to produce a ticking sound, but this appears 
 almost impossible in the case of so small and soft a 
 creature. 
 
 The Thripidce are very small insects, which are 
 
 sometimes placed in a distinct order, under the name 
 
 of Thysanoptera. They have rather 
 
 Family long narro\v* wings, with very long 
 
 Thripidce. fringes, and sometimes cause much fig. so.Thrips cerealium? 
 
 injury to plants, especially in green- Magnified, 
 
 houses, where the most troublesome species have re- 
 ceived the name of the "black fly." Tobacco smoke is recommended for 
 their destruction. The species figured, Thrips cerealium (Hal.), infests the 
 ears of wheat. 
 
 ORDER TRICHOPTERA. 
 
 The Trichoptera, or hairy-winged insects, include the Caddis Flies, which 
 were formerly placed with the Neuroptera, from which they differ in many 
 important particulars. The insects have four wings, similar 
 Caddis Flies in texture. The mouth parts are imperfectly developed, the 
 (Trichoptera). antennae and legs are long and slender, and the latter spined, 
 and the metamorphoses are complete, and aquatic. The Trich- 
 optera, especially some of the smaller species, have much resemblance to some 
 of thePyralidce, and Tineidce among the Lepidoptera, in shape, neuration, and in 
 
 the structure of their legs and 
 antennae, but the wings are 
 clothed with hair instead of 
 scales. The pupse are necro- 
 morphous, as in the Coleoptera 
 and Hymenoptera. 
 
 The Caddis Flies are very 
 dull-coloured insects, of small 
 or moderate size. They are 
 nearly always of a brown, grey 
 or buff colour, and very few, 
 even among the foreign species, 
 are varied with white, purplish, 
 oryellow. The largest British 
 species, Phrygane a grandis, 
 (Linn.) measures about an inch 
 and a half across the wings. 
 Some of the smaller species have very long antennas, several times as long as 
 the body. These insects are chiefly remarkable for the habits of the larvse. 
 
 Fig. 51 CADDIS FLY (Phryganea grandis). Nat. size. 
 
CADDIS FLIES AND SPRING-TAILS. 573 
 
 The caddis worms, as they are called, live in ponds and ditches, and make 
 themselves cases of stick, or small stones and shells, bound together, and 
 lined with silk, and in these they, live, and undergo their metamorphoses. 
 
 Wingless Insects, allied to Neuroptera. 
 
 There are three groups of wingless insects, which are sometimes classed 
 with the Neuroptera, and are sometimes treated separately. They are as 
 follows : 
 
 The Mallophaga are placed by some authors with the Anoplura, or true lice, 
 as an aberrant family of Hemiptera, but others place them with the Neur- 
 optera, and others again treat them as a distinct order. 
 They much resemble the lice, but differ from them in pos- Bird Lice (Mal- 
 sessing well-developed mandibles. They have large flat- iophaga). 
 tened bodies, large heads, and rather short legs. They 
 infest different species of birds, feeding on the soft part of the feathers near 
 the quills. Most of them are of rather small size ; the largest, which are 
 nearly half an inch in length, infest the eagles, vultures, and albatrosses. 
 
 The Thysanura and Collembola are two small orders or sub-orders of 
 wingless insects, which have long, jointed antennae, and six legs, but under- 
 go no metamorphoses. The Thysanura have an apparatus 
 
 Spring Tails for leaping at the end of the body, and are frequently called 
 ( Thysanura). spring tails. The best known, however, is 
 
 the silver fish, Lepisma saceharina (Linn.), a Silver Fish, 
 silvery-grey insect, about half an inch long, often found in 
 crevices in dark corners in houses, where it darts about with great activity 
 when disturbed. 
 
 ORDER HYMENOPTERA (BEES, WASPS, ANTS, ETC.). 
 
 In this Order we find insects with four wings, which are generally long and 
 narrow, and frequently clothed with short hairs, only visible under the 
 microscope. The fore and hind wings are often linked to- 
 gether by a row of small links, which has suggested the Structure and 
 name of the order. The veins of the wings are never very Metamorphoses, 
 numerous, nor is the neuration complicated. In many 
 families, however, the females and sometimes both sexes are wingless, and 
 in others there is a race of imperfectly developed females, called neuters 
 or workers, which are frequently wingless. The ovipositor of the female is 
 modified either into a sting, or into a boring apparatus, which, in the latter 
 case, is sometimes of great length. There are usually three ocelli, or simple 
 eyes on the vertex in addition to the two large lateral compound eyes. The 
 metamorphoses are complete, and the pupa is inactive, and necromorphous, 
 as in Coleoptera, the limbs being encased in separate immovable sheaths. 
 The pupa is usually enclosed in a cocoon. 
 
 The Hymenoptera include a large number of insects, which, though very 
 diversified in form and habits, have still such a strong family likeness that 
 they cannot easily be mistaken for insects of any other order. Some are 
 vegetable-feeders, like the saw-flies, the larvae of which so much resemble 
 caterpillars that they have been not inaptly termed " false caterpillars " ; the 
 larvae of the wood-wasps burrow in the wood of trees ; the gall-flies form 
 
574 INSECTA ORDER HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 excrescences called galls on various plants, especially on the oak and rose, 
 
 though many of the smaller species are parasitic ; the groups 
 
 Habits. generally classed together roughly as ichneumons, though 
 
 they really include several very distinct families, are parasitic 
 
 on other insects ; the burrowing and solitary wasps are carnivorous, the 
 
 social wasps and the ants are omnivorous, and the bees feed on the pollen 
 
 and honey of flowers. 
 
 The ants, bees, and wasps, and the termites, or white ants, which greatly 
 resemble them, but which belong to the order Neuroptera, far surpass all 
 other animals in intelligence, and are the only creatures known to scientific 
 men which have developed any phases of social life and civilisation at all 
 resembling our own, and this is especially true of the ants. 
 
 The Hymenoptera are probably the most numerous of all insects in number 
 
 of species, for although only 36,000 species have yet been described, a much 
 
 smaller number than either the Coleoptera or Lepidoptera, yet 
 
 Number of we have considerably more than 3,000 species in England, a 
 
 Species. greater number than is known of any other order, and fully 
 
 half of these belong to the parasitic groups, which only one 
 
 or two entomologists have taken the trouble to study at all, and many of 
 
 which are of very small size, some, indeed, being the most minute of all 
 
 known insects, and there is no reason to doubt their being proportionately 
 
 as numerous in other countries as in our own. 
 
 The Hymenoptera are divided into two principal sections : the Terebrantia, 
 
 or Boring Hymenoptera, in which the ovipositor is modified into a boring 
 
 apparatus; and the Aculeata, or Stinging Hymenoptera, in 
 
 Boring Hymen- which ifc ig mo difi e d into a sting. In the Terebrantia the 
 
 (rr P ter * trochanter, or small hinge-joint which separates the coxa, or 
 
 /ia) ' hip, from the femur, or thigh, is generally double, while in 
 
 the Aculeata it is generally single ; but this is not an invariable character. 
 
 The first division of the Terebrantia consists of the Serrifera, including 
 the families Tenthredinidcv and Siricidce, or saw-flies and wood- wasps. 
 
 The Tenthredinidce are divided into several sub -families, in some of which 
 the antennae are short, and strongly clubbed at the end, like those of a 
 butterfly. The commonest of these species in England is 
 Saw-Flies Trichiosoma lucorum (Linn.), which is a blackish hairy 
 (Ttnthredinidce). insect, measuring rather more than an inch in expanse, 
 with transparent wings bordered with brown. The twenty- 
 two-legged larva feeds on hawthorn, and constructs a very solid brown 
 egg-shaped cocoon. It belongs to the sub-family Cimbicinw. Another very 
 interesting sub-family is that of the Pergince, 
 which are found in Australia, and have 
 short, club-shaped antennae ; the species 
 are mostly black and yellow, and smaller 
 than Trichiosoma, though some of them are 
 greenish, and about the same size. Their 
 black larvae have only six true legs, no 
 prolegs being developed, and they feed 
 gregariously on gum-trees 
 Habits of Perga. (Eucalyptus). In some 
 species, the female is said 
 to tend the young larva, after they are 
 hatched, an unusual habit, except in the 
 case of social insects. The number of joints of the antennae varies in the 
 
SA W-FLIES AND WOOD- WASPS. 
 
 575 
 
 Saw-Flies 
 injurious to 
 fruit trees. 
 
 Tenthredinidce, but is most frequently nine, especially in the more typical 
 
 sub-families, in which the joints are long, cylindrical, and 
 
 well-marked. In one sub-family, however, the short, thick Antenna of Saw 
 
 antennae are composed of only three well-separated joints ; Flies. 
 
 the scape, a short joint, and a long terminal one composed of 
 
 several fused together. Sometimes this third joint is bifid, each antenna 
 
 being thus double nearly to the base. 
 
 Our fruit-trees often suffer severely from the attacks of the larvae of various 
 saw-flies. Those best known to ordinary observers are probably the small 
 greenish or yellowish black-dotted larvae which frequently 
 strip our gooseberry and currant bushes of all their leaves, 
 and which develop into small black and yellow four-winged 
 flies about half-an-inch in expanse, belonging to various species 
 of the great genus Nematu (Panzer. ). But these bushes are li- 
 able to the attacks of the larvae of saw-flies belonging to other sub-families than 
 the Nematince, and also by the larvae of various Lepidoptera and other insects. 
 The Siricidce, or wood-wasps, burrow in the larva state in timber, with which 
 they are frequently imported into this country. The commonest and most 
 
 conspicuous species is 
 Sirex gigas (Linn.), a very Wood-Wasps 
 formidable - looking in- (Siricidce). 
 sect, the large females of 
 which sometimes measure nearly two 
 inches across the wings, though many 
 specimens are much smaller ; for wood- 
 feeding insects, as a rule, vary very 
 much, both in size, and in the length of 
 time which they require to reach matu- 
 rity. It is black and yellow, and the 
 
 Fig. 53.-Sirex gigas. Male. Nat. size. emale j has a stout ovipositor projecting 
 
 behind the body for about one-third of 
 
 its length. The abdomen of the male, on the other hand, terminates in a 
 rectangle. These insects 
 will sometimes emerge from 
 planks of deal or pine, 
 which have been built into 
 the floors or fittings of a 
 house, and make a loud 
 buzzing, which has some- 
 times led to their beingmis- 
 taken for hornets, but they 
 are really quite harmless. 
 
 The (jrollicolce,, or gall- 
 flies, are far better known 
 by the galls which grow 
 upon the leaf or stalk in 
 which they have deposited 
 their eggs than by the flies 
 themselves, which are gen- 
 erally small shining black 
 or reddish insects, with 
 long antennae and trans- 
 parent wings, with the very Fig. 54. Sires gigas. Female. Nat. sh 
 
576 
 
 INSECTA ORDER HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 55. GALL-FLY 
 
 (Cynips kollari, Hart.). 
 
 Slightly magnified. 
 
 few nervures visible on the fore-wings forming one large cell near the centre. 
 
 The abdomen is short, slightly compressed, and much elevated. A common 
 
 British species is figured. It is hardly necessary to remind 
 
 Gall-Flies our readers that the principal ingredient in ink is obtained 
 
 (GallicolcK). from the galls of a Levantine species of Cynips. Some of our 
 
 own galls are not unlike a cherry, or 
 other fruit ; and there are foreign galls which are much 
 larger and more tempting in appearance ; some of these 
 are called " Apples of Sodom." 
 
 Many of the gall-flies appear at different seasons of 
 the year in two different forms, one in which the sexes 
 are separate, while the other consists exclusively of 
 females, or rather of individuals capable of self-repro- 
 duction. Sometimes one form is winged, and the 
 other apterous and subterranean. It is needless to 
 say that until their habits were discovered, the two 
 broods were regarded as belonging not only to different 
 species, but to distinct genera. Another noteworthy circumstance relative 
 to galls is their extreme liability to attacks of parasites. You may collect a 
 very large quantity of some kinds of galls, and breed hun- 
 Gall- Parasites, dreds of specimens of different species of insects from them, 
 and yet never obtain a specimen of the original gall-maker ; all 
 will be parasites, and not a few will be a small parasitic species of Cynipidce. 
 
 The Entomophaga, or truly parasitic groups of Hymenoptera, include the 
 families Chalcididce, Proctotrypidce, Braconidce, Ichneumonidce and Evaniidce. 
 The female usually pierces the body of the caterpillars, or 
 Parasitic other victims which she attacks, with her ovipositor, and 
 HymeAoptera lodges an egg in each wound. In other cases, the eggs are 
 (Entomophaga). deposited on the eggs or larvae of their victims. Eggs thus 
 attacked never hatch ; but ichneumoned larvae generally 
 attain their full growth, and then die, when the larvae of the parasite, which 
 have been feeding on it all the time, often emerge from it, and form 
 their own cocoons round the dead body of the caterpillar. In other cases, 
 the larva assumes the pupa-state, and the parasites pupate within it, emerg- 
 ing from the pupa-skin instead of the butterfly. 
 
 The Chalcididce are a very extensive family, divided into many sub-families. 
 The antennae are generally 13-jointed, consisting of a long basal joint and a 
 
 series of short ones. The females 
 Family are generally provided with a long 
 
 Chcdcididce. or short ovipositor, which, in the 
 genus Leucospis (Fabr.), is curved 
 over the back. These are among the largest 
 species of the family, and though not British, 
 several species are found in Southern Europe. 
 They are black, with yellow markings, and re- 
 semble small wasps, but may at once be distin- 
 guished from them by the very rudimentary and 
 incomplete neuration of the wings. Leucospis and 
 several other genera among the larger Chalcididce 
 have very thick hind femora, toothed on the under-surface. 
 
 The genus Callimome (Spin.), to which many species which are parasitic in 
 galls, belong, are considerably smaller, rarely measuring more than about 
 
 Fig. 56. Leucospis 
 grandis. Nat. size. 
 
ICHNEUMONS, 
 
 577 
 
 Fig. 57. FAIRY FLY 
 
 (Mymar pulchellus, Curt.). 
 
 Magnified. 
 
 half an inch across the wings. They are, however, by no means inconspicu- 
 ous insects, being of a bright metallic green, or cupreous ; and the female 
 has a long straight ovipositor. 
 
 The pupae of the Chalcididce are naked, but those of the next family, the 
 Proctotrypidce, are enclosed in cocoons. The body, which is usually stout in 
 
 the Chalcididce, is slender in the 
 Proctotrypidce, and the wings Family 
 are almost destitute of any Proctotrypidce . 
 trace of neuration. Most of 
 them are egg-parasites, and some are among the 
 smallest of known insects, being barely visible 
 even to the most practised eye, except as a 
 mere speck on a window-pane. The smallest 
 of all belong to the sub-family Mymarince, and 
 Mr. F. Enock, who has paid special attention 
 to them, calls them "fairy flies." They have 
 very narrow oval or battledore-shaped wings, 
 fringed round with long hairs ; and one or two 
 of them are aquatic in their habits, probably attacking the eggs of some 
 water-insect. 
 
 The Braconidce and Ichneumonidce include the greater part of the remain- 
 ing parasitic rfymenoptera. The neuration, though still not very compli- 
 cated, extends over the greater part of the forewings ; and 
 the antennas are generally long and slender. In the Bra- Family 
 conidce there is one small joint beyond the scape of the Braconida. 
 antennae, but in the Ichneumonidce there are always two. 
 In the Ichneumonidce we often find an open space towards the middle of the 
 forewings, in which the principal nervures of the wing centre ; this is called 
 the areolet. In some genera of these two 
 families, the ovipositor is concealed ; Family 
 but in. some of the larger Ichneumonidce Ichneumonidce. 
 belonging to the sub-family Pimplince, 
 the ovipositor, which is usually composed of three sepa- 
 rate filaments, is of great length, being intended to reach 
 the larvae of wood-boring insects. Rhyssa persuasoria 
 (Linn.), which attacks the larva of Sirex gigas in its wooden 
 galleries, is black with yellow markings, and is one of 
 the largest of the British Ichneumonidce, measuring 
 nearly two inches across the wings, and nearly three 
 inches from the head to the extremity of the ovipositor, 
 which is nearly twice as long as the rest of the body. But 
 in some of the allied foreign species, the ovipositor is much 
 longer, not measuring less than six or eight inches in 
 length. 
 
 The Evaniinw are a small family of parasitic insects, re- 
 -markable for their peculiar forms. The abdomen is 
 attached to the upper part of the metathorax, which 
 gives the whole insect a very peculiar appearance. The species of the genus 
 Evania (Fabr.) are parasitic on the egg-capsules of cock- 
 roaches, and are found all over the world, though for some Family 
 reason or other they are extremely rare in England. They Evaniidce. 
 are small black insects, measuring about three-quarters of 
 38 
 
 Fig. 58. ICHNEUMON 
 FLY (Rhyssa persua- 
 soria). % Nat. size. 
 
578 
 
 INSECT A ORDER HYMENOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. 5Q.Pelccinus 
 
 politurator, Linn. 
 
 Reduced. 
 
 an inch across the expanded transparent wings, with a very small petiolated 
 
 abdomen, so small that it hardly appears to belong to the insect ; and long 
 
 sprawling legs, with very long black or red hind femora, much longer and 
 
 thicker than the abdomen of the insect. Another genus of this family, 
 
 Pdecinus (Latr.), is of a very different size and shape, but is 
 
 not less remarkable. The species are black and shining, 
 
 and measure an inch and a half across the rather long 
 
 wings. The whole insect, however, is tfiree inches in 
 
 length, on account of the great length of the joints of the 
 
 abdomen, which looks like a telescope, except that the 
 
 joints are of equal thickness. Such is the female. The 
 
 male, which is very rarely seen, is much smaller, and has 
 
 the abdomen very differently formed ; it is slender at the 
 
 base, and gradually thickened into an oval club at the end. 
 
 Here we see that instead of the ovipositor being lengthened 
 
 in the female, the whole abdomen has been inordinately 
 
 lengthened instead. This genus is not British, but is 
 
 common in North America, and other parts of the world. 
 
 We now come to the important section of the Hymenop- 
 tera Aculeata, which are not only more familiar 
 
 insects than the Terebrantia, but have been much more 
 Stinging Hymen- s fc u <iied by entomologists, though not to anything like the 
 optera same extent as the two favourite orders of Coleoptera and 
 
 (Aculeata). Lepidoptera. 
 
 The first section, the Tubidifera, includes only one family, the Chrysididce, 
 or ruby-tailed wasps, which hold an intermediate place between the two great 
 sections of the Hymenoptera, being armed with a rudi- 
 Ruby-Tails mentary sting. They are small insects, generally expanding 
 (Chrysididce). less than an inch across the transparent wings. Their bodies 
 are very hard, and very strongly punctured, and when 
 alarmed, they double their bodies together, and sometimes roll themselves 
 up into a ball. Most of the species are of a brilliant 
 metallic green (more rarely blue), with the abdomen, 
 which is more or less smooth, at least towards the 
 tip, often purple or fiery-red towards the end. The 
 abdomen is usually composed of only three or four 
 segments visible above, and is more or less retractile 
 under the first, which is usually very much longer 
 than the others ; the last dorsal segment terminates 
 in a row of strong teeth, varying in size, form, and 
 number according to the species. The larvae are 
 parasitic in the nests of other Hymenoptera. We 
 have figured Stilbum amethystinum (Fabr.), a large species found in Asia and 
 Africa, which is sometimes blue and sometimes green. 
 
 The first section of the true Hymenoptera Aculeata is that of the Heter- 
 ogyna, or ants. They are social insects, and consist of limited numbers of 
 winged males and females, and of numerous wingless and imper- 
 fectly developed females, called workers, or neuters. In 
 all Hymenoptera the female is the predominant sex, but 
 this is pre-eminently the case in the social species. When 
 the ants swarm, the males and females fly away and pair, 
 after which the great bulk of them perish. The females shed their wings, 
 
 Fig. 60. RUBY-TAIL 
 
 (Stilbum amethystinum). 
 
 Nat. size. 
 
 Ants 
 (Heterogyna). 
 
ANTS AND SAND WASPS. 579 
 
 and those which are sufficiently fortunate to return to a nest of their own 
 species, become the future mothers of the community, and devote all their 
 energies to egg-laying. The wings of ants are rather long and large, and the 
 two principal nervures generally cross obliquely about the middle of the fore- 
 wings, and beyond this, a large, closed cell is formed in some genera. Ants 
 are divided into three principal families. The Formicidce bite, but do not 
 sting, and have only one node on the petiole of the abdomen. In the 
 Poneridce, the node is formed by the first segment of the abdomen, which is 
 frequently nearly as large as the others, but is completely detached from 
 them ; and in the Myrmicidce there are two small nodes forming the petiole 
 of the abdomen. Both these last families sting as well as bite. The most 
 familiar examples of the first and last families are the wood ant, Formica 
 rufa (Linn.), a large, smooth, reddish ant, which forms large mound-nests in 
 woods ; the much smaller red ants of the genus Myrmica (Latr.), which 
 infest our gardens ; and the minute yellow house- 
 ant, which is so troublesome and difficult to get rid 
 of wherever it effects a lodgment. Our British 
 representatives of the Poneridw, or "wicked ones,'' 
 are small and insignificant ; but to this family be- 
 long some of the largest known ants, such as the 
 great black Dinoponera grandis (Guer.) of Brazil, 
 which measures upwards of an inch in length. In 
 some of the larger species of Myrmicidce, belonging 
 to the genera Odontomachus (Latr. ),Mi/rmecm(Fabr.), 
 etc., the jaws are very long, and armed with 
 formidable teeth. We have figured a large red Fig 6 ;._ 
 and black Australian ant, Myrmecia forjicata forjicata). Nat. size. 
 (Fabr.). 
 
 We have no space here to discuss the habits of ants, but those of our 
 readers who are interested in their wars, slave-raids, agriculture, cattle and 
 pets, will find ample information in the works of Huber, Kirby and Spence, 
 Moggridge, Lubbock, M'Cook, and others. 
 
 The Fossores, or sand wasps, are a large group of insects consisting of 
 winged males, and winged or apterous females, which are solitary in their 
 habits, and generally dig holes in the ground, which they fill 
 with insects or spiders which they have paralysed but not Sand Wasps 
 killed with their sting, and which remain as a store of fresh (Fossores). 
 provision for the larvse of the wasps. The wings of the 
 burrowing wasps are not folded longitudinally when at rest ; the abdomen is 
 often petiolated ; the legs are usually very spiny or hairy, and the pro- 
 thorax is transverse, the sides not being arched backwards to the base of 
 the wings, as in the true wasps. We notice here some of the principal 
 families only. 
 
 The Mutillidce have winged males, and very hairy apterous females, and 
 are sometimes improperly called " solitary ants." They are very numerous 
 in the warmer parts of the world, and we have two or three 
 species in Britain, though they are not very common. The Families of 
 Thynnidce are another family with apterous, but nearly Fossores. 
 naked females ; they are almost confined to Australia and 
 South America. In both the above families the legs are very hairy. The 
 Pompilidce have long spiny legs, and the abdomen is shortly petiolated. 
 Among them we find the largest Hymenopterous insects known, some of 
 
58o INSECTA ORDERS HYMENOPTERA AND LEP1DOPTERA. 
 
 which measure upwards of three inches across the wings. Some of the 
 species of Myynimia (Smith) are conspicuous by 
 their beautiful green or purple iridescent wings. 
 The last family we can notice is the Sphegidw, 
 which are remarkable for the long petiolated 
 abdomen, and for the brilliant metallic green of 
 some of the Indian and African species of Chl&rion 
 (Latr.), etc. In these, however, the wings are 
 generally transparent, or are at most only 
 bordered with brown. Pelopceus spirifex (Linn.) 
 is a black and yellow species, common in the 
 warmer parts of the Old World. 
 
 The Diploptera, or true wasps, may be distin- 
 
 *<* b / . the 'ow-wing. bei"g longitadin- 
 
 ally folded in repose, and by the prothorax 
 being arched backwards to the base of the wings. The species are soli- 
 tary or social ; and the former generally construct small 
 Wasps nests or cells, which they provision with insects. The social 
 
 (Diploptera). wasps, belonging to the typical genus Vespa, are too well 
 known to need description ; they construct large nests in the 
 ground or in trees, but their habits are less interesting than those of the ants 
 and bees. The nest is, however, always commenced by one queen, which 
 
 has survived the winter ; and its 
 extension is afterwards carried on 
 by her progeny. The bulk of 
 the inhabitants consist of neuters, 
 though males and females are also 
 produced ; the latter assist the 
 mother in carrying on the work 
 of the nest, for, unlike bees, more 
 than one perfect female is allowed 
 to live in a wasp's nest at the same 
 time. At the end of the season, 
 the whole community dies off, ex- 
 cept a few queens, which perpetuate 
 the brood next year ; and hence 
 every wasp destroyed in spring 
 means the destruction of a possible 
 nest. We have six species of Vespa 
 in England, all very similar, except 
 the hornet, which is twice as large as the others, but lives in smaller com- 
 munities. It is much scarcer, too, and rarely stings except under provoca- 
 tion. The largest known species of Vespa are found in India, China, and 
 Japan. 
 
 The last family of the Hymenoptera is that of the Anthophila, or bees. 
 
 They are generally short, hairy insects, though some genera are almost 
 
 naked, such as the curious wasp -like parasitic bees of the 
 
 Bees genus Nomada (Fabr.), which are mostly black and red, in 
 
 (Anthophila). various proportions, with yellow markings. 
 
 Many of the solitary bees of the large genus Andrena (Fabr.) 
 appear in spring, sometimes as early as January or February, and make 
 nests in the ground. Some are very peculiar in their habits, such as 
 
 . Fig. 63. HORNET (Vespa crdbro). Nat. size. 
 
WASPS, BEES, AND BUTTERFLIES. 581 
 
 the leaf -cutter bees, Megachile (Latr.), and the carpenter bees, Xylocopa (Latr. ), 
 which are common abroad, but are not known in England, and have deep 
 violet-coloured wings ; while there are other bees which form their nests in 
 old walls. The humble-bees, Bombus (Fabr.) ; make their nests in the ground, 
 
 Fig. 65. HIVE-BEE 
 
 Fig. 64. CAKPENTER BEE (Xylocopa violzcea, Linn.). (Apis mellifica). 
 
 Nat. size. Nat. size. 
 
 and live in small communities, consisting, like the hive bee, of males, females 
 and workers, all winged. 
 
 Apis mellifica (Linn.), the hive-bee, closes our list of the Hymenoptera. 
 The genus Apis occupies a rather isolated position among the bees, and may 
 be recognised at once by the very long narrow costal cell, which extends 
 almost to the tip of the fore-wings. The species of Apis are not numerous ; 
 but apart from the common hive-bee, ten or twelve others are met with in 
 different parts of the world. 
 
 ORDER LEPIDOPTERA (BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS). 
 
 The Lepidoptera, or scale-winged insects, have four wings, clothed with 
 scales, which look like fine powder, and easily rub off, but which exhibit a great 
 variety of form under the microscope. The colour of the 
 insects is due partly to pigment, and partly to refraction General 
 from the edges of the scales, which sometimes produces the Characteristics, 
 most brilliant iridescent changes, as in some of the blue Mor- 
 phos of Tropical America, and in the widely-dispersed genus Apatura (Fabr.), 
 to which our own Purple Emperor belongs. The antennae are long and many- 
 jointed, and one pair of palpi, at least, is more or less conspicuous. There 
 is also a long proboscis for imbibing the nectar of flowers, or moisture from 
 trees or the ground. In some of the hawk moths this is of immense length, 
 nearly reaching a foot in the largest South American species ; but in some 
 groups of moths, as in many of those classed under the heading of Bombyces, 
 it is often so slightly developed as to be practically obsolete. 
 
 In Lepidoptera the metamorphoses are complete, the insects passing through 
 four stages. The female lays her eggs on a plant suitable for the nourish- 
 ment of her brood. These are laid singly or in clusters, and 
 are frequently covered with a kind of cement, or else with Eggs, 
 
 down from the body of the mother. They are of various 
 shapes and sizes, and are often ribbed or fluted. 
 
 From the eggs emerge the larvae, or caterpillars, which are usually provided 
 
582 INSECTA ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 with sixteen legs : six horny legs, corresponding to the true legs of the perfect 
 
 insect ; eight ileshy legs, called prolegs ; and a terminal 
 
 pair, called claspers. In the larvae of the Geometridw, and 
 
 Larva,or J R t | ie ear jy stages of those of many other moths, the first 
 
 a erp ar. three pairs of prolegs are obsolete, and the larvae arch the 
 
 back at every movement, and are then called "loopers." 
 
 Caterpillars are very voracious, and generally moult, not only their skins, 
 
 but the lining of part of the internal respiratory and digestive apparatus as 
 
 well, more than once before arriving at their full growth. 
 
 The next stage is that of the pupa or chrysalis, which is almost motionless, 
 being encased in a tight-fitting integument, 011 the upper half of which the 
 outlines of the perfect insect may be observed. These are 
 Pupa, or not, however, enclosed in separate sheaths, except in the 
 Chrysalis. case of some hawk- moths, which have the proboscis enclosed 
 in a sheath which is detached from the main body of the 
 pupa. The pupa takes no nourishment, and it is either attached by threads 
 to a leaf, 1 etc, as in the case of most butterflies, or enclosed in a cocoon, 
 formed of silk in those species in which it is constructed on or above the 
 ground, and of agglutinated earth in most instances in which it is subterranean. 
 In due time the perfect butterfly or moth quits the pupa-case ; its wings, 
 which are at first soft and limp, soon expand to their full size ; the limbs of 
 the insect dry in the sun and air, and it flies away to join its comrades, and 
 to reproduce its kind. Most species, on emerging from the chrysalis, dis- 
 charge a fluid, which in former times, when they happened to be particularly 
 numerous, and when everything unusual was attributed to miraculous causes, 
 sometimes gave rise to the notion that a rain of blood had fallen. 
 
 Entomologists in England have generally agreed to call the first few 
 families of Lepidoptera butterflies, and the remainder moths ; but there is 
 110 such distinction on the Continent, where they are 
 Rhopalocera, or generally called by words corresponding to day-butterflies 
 Butterflies. and night-butterflies. Butterflies are broad-winged insects, 
 often adorned with bright colours, and with comparatively 
 slender bodies. The antennae are almost invariably thickened into a knob at 
 the extremity, a peculiarity which is not very common in other insects, 
 though we meet with it in some saw-flies, flies, the ant-lions, and other allied 
 families of Neuroptera, and in many beetles, etc. Hence the butterflies are 
 often called Rhopalocera, or club-horns. They fly by day, and seldom, unless 
 disturbed, at dusk or at nighfc, though some Tropical genera are twilight-fliers, 
 or frequent the deep gloom of thick forests. Moths, on the other hand, have 
 the antennae of various shapes, sometimes thickened in the middle, or before 
 the end, but almost never clubbed at the extremity, and generally thread- 
 like or comb-like. Most moths fly at night, or, at least, not before dusk, 
 though a few are day-fliers, and may be seen frequenting flowers, among 
 butterflies. Many of them have stout bodies, and are of dull or subdued 
 colours. Butterflies often rest with the wings raised over the back, an attitude 
 rarely assumed by moths. The latter, however, more frequently rest with 
 all their wings spread out flat, while in the stout-bodied moths the fore-wings 
 often more or less cover the hind- wings when at rest, and are sometimes 
 
 1 In the Nymphalidce the pupa is suspended freely by the tail ; in the other families 
 ' butterflies (except in the " 7 ^ " - - --"-* - *- *~ ~~i ^-~ 
 
 girth round the body as well. 
 
 of butterflies (except in the Hcsperiidce) it is generally attached by the tail, and by a 
 jody 
 
BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 5 8 3 
 
 sloped roof -like, the hind- wings frequently folding together like a fan, which 
 is never the case in butterflies. 
 
 Moths are much more numerous in proportion than butterflies, especially 
 in temperate climates. Tropical America produces more than half of all the 
 known butterflies ; in the tropics of the Old World they are 
 much less numerous. England is poor in butterflies, pro- Moths, 
 
 ducing only 60 or 70 species out of the 300 European species, 
 as against 2,000 British moths. The richest countries in Europe for butter- 
 flies are those lying round the central ranges from the Pyrenees to the 
 Balkans ; but the numbers rapidly dimmish, both north and south. Sweden 
 produces about twice as many species of butterflies as Britain ; but Andalusia 
 is not richer than Sweden, and North Africa is much poorer. Nevertheless, 
 both butterflies and moths are to be met with (though, of course, their 
 number is but few), not only in Lapland, but everywhere in Greenland 
 where any vegetation will grow. Iceland, though producing many moths, is 
 the only important country in which it is believed that no butterflies are to 
 be met with. 
 
 In the wings of butterflies, the front edge is called the costa, the outer 
 edge the hind margin, the hinder edge (which, in the hind- wings, is parallel 
 to the abdomen) the inner margin, and the side nearest to the body of the 
 insect the base. The nervures of the wings are useful in classification. The 
 principal nervures which run from the base are the costal, subcostal, median, 
 subrnedian, and internal nervures. The nervures which do not starD from the 
 base are called uervules. A wide space, which extends from the base towards the 
 middle of the wing, between the subcostal and median nervures, is called the 
 discoidal cell. The subcostal nervure divides into two branches on the hind- 
 wings, and generally into from three to five on the fore-wings ; and the 
 median nervure always divides into three. These branches are either called 
 branches of the subcostal and median respectively, or subcostal and median 
 nervules. The discoidal cell is closed at the extremity by short nervules, 
 called discocellular nervules ; and from the end of the cell one or two 
 nervules (called discoidal nervules) run to the extremity of the wing. In 
 some butterflies one of the discocellular nervules is absent or imperfectly 
 formed, leaving the wing open from the base to the hind margin. In such a 
 case the discoidal cell is said to be open ; but otherwise it is called closed. 
 The internal nervure is absent in some families of butterflies. 
 
 The first family of butterflies, the NymphaUdcB, includes about half the 
 entire number of species, and may be known by the first pair of legs being 
 always more or less imperfect, especially in the males. The 
 pupa, when attached to anything (for in exceptional cases Family 
 
 among the Satyrince it is placed on the ground), is suspended Nymphalidce. 
 freely by the tail. The larvae are cylindrical, and are generally 
 furnished with bristles, spines, or long filaments, or are naked, Avith a bifid 
 tail. Sometimes they have horny projections on the head. 
 
 The Nymphalidce, are divided into several sub-families The Danaince are 
 chiefly an Old World group, and the best-known species is Limnas chrysippus 
 (Linn.), a tawny butterfly, about three or four inches across 
 the wings, with an oblique white bar across the tip of the fore- Sub-Family 
 wings, and a curved row of small black spots on the middle Danaince. 
 of the hind-wings. It is common throughout Africa and 
 Southern Asia, and extends into South-Eastern Europe. Another section of 
 this family is represented by the East Indian genus Euplwa (Fabr.), and 
 
INSECTA ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 its allies. Many of these are butterflies of a rich velvety black or brown, 
 with bluish-white spots towards the extremity of the long, broad, rounded 
 wings, and also in the middle. They are often flushed with rich purple. 
 The Danaince are butterflies with very tough integuments, and exhale an 
 odour which is supposed to render them distasteful to birds. 
 
 Many other butterflies and moths resemble them externall} 7 , and are be- 
 lieved to share in their immunity from persecution. This phenomenon 
 is called "mimicry," and is exhibited in the greatest per- 
 Mimicry in feetion by Limnas chrysippus, the pattern and colours of 
 Butterflies. which are more or less accurately reproduced in at least a 
 dozen butterflies and moths, belonging to different families; 
 but in several instances in the female only, the male exhibiting the normally 
 and frequently very different colouring of its proper genus. The larvre of the 
 DatiaincB are usually provided with several pairs of long fleshy filaments, and 
 feed on Aristolochice. 
 
 Of the remaining sub-families, several are entirely exotic, and two, the Itho- 
 and Heliconince, are American butterflies with long rounded wings and 
 slender bodies, which have sometimes been com pared to dragon- 
 flies. They are butterflies generally measuring from two to 
 four inches across the wings, which are often black, with red or 
 yellow markings, or yellow with black markings. The typical 
 species of the Ithomiince, however, often have transparent 
 wings, with only brown borders, and a brown band at the end of the discoidal 
 cell. 
 
 The AcrceituK are another long-winged sub-family of butterflies, chiefly 
 
 found in Africa and America. The African and the few Eastern species are 
 
 generally red or tawny, with black spots, and sometimes 
 
 Sub-Family partly transparent ; but the American group usually has 
 
 Acrceince. black markings on a tawny 
 
 ground, or radiated tawny 
 
 markings on a dark ground, especially on 
 
 the hind-wings. 
 
 Two more sub-families of large butterflies 
 are chiefly South American. These are the 
 Morphince and Brassolinw. 
 Sub-Families The typical species of Mor- 
 Morphince, and pho (Fabr.) measure from 
 Brassolince. three to eight inches across 
 the wings, and many of them 
 
 Sub-Families 
 
 Ithomiince and 
 
 Heliconince. 
 
 black, with a broad blue band. through the 
 
 wings ; while others, including some of the 
 
 largest and longest-winged species, are brown 
 
 or orange. These are all American ; but 
 
 there is a greater variety of genera, though 
 
 much smaller, and more varied in colour, in 
 
 the East Indies. On the under-surface they 
 
 are always marked with large eye-spots, as 
 
 in the Satyrvncz. The Brassolince are large 
 
 brown or tawny butterflies (rarely dull blue), 
 
 which are entirely confined to Tropical America. They have generally one 
 
 large eye-spot on the under-side of the wings, and traces of one or two more ; 
 
 GaUgo teucer. 
 Reduced. 
 
BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 585 
 
 and, like some of the Tropical Satyrince, they are twilight-fliers, although 
 true butterflies. The accompanying figure represents the under-surface of 
 the wings of Caligo teucer (Linn.), a common South American species belong- 
 ing to the sub-family Brassolince. The expanded wings of this butterfly 
 measure five or six inches from tip to tip. 
 
 The two remaining sub-families, the Satyrince and the Nymphalince, 
 contain many of our commonest and most familiar British butterflies. 
 The Satyrince are brown or tawny butterflies, such as the meadow 
 brown, of moderate or rather small size, and are nearly always adorned 
 with eye-spots, at least on the under-surface of the wings. The 
 wings are rounded, and there is usually at least 
 one eye-spot towards the tip of the fore-wings, Sub-Family 
 arid two or three towards the borders of the hind- Satyrin<x. 
 wings. 
 
 The typical Nymphalince may be known from the foregoing sub-families, 
 except the Morphince, by the open wing-cells, and often by the more or less 
 dentated wings. This is a very large group of large or 
 moderate -sized butterflies, and includes the tortoise-shells, Sub-Family 
 peacock, red admiral, fritillaries, purple emperor, and white Nymphalinw. 
 admiral, among our British butterflies, which are described 
 in full in every book on the subject, 
 
 We have figured Kallima inachis (Boisduval), a butterfly found in North 
 India, which is remarkable for its resemblance to a dead leaf. It measures 
 three inches across the wings, which are dull blue above, with a broad orange 
 
 band with a transparent spot 
 in the middle, on the fore- 
 wings. The under-surface is 
 brown, with a dark line run- 
 ning from the tip of the fore- 
 wings to the end of the lobe on 
 the hind-wings. This line re- 
 presents the midrib of the leaf, 
 and the butterfly is shaped and 
 lined and mottled in such a 
 manner as to increase the de- 
 ception. There is a case of 
 such butterflies mounted, with 
 leaves, in the hall of the 
 Natural History Museum at 
 South Kensington ; and the 
 butterflies and leaves can hardly 
 be distinguished from one 
 another. Our figure shows a 
 butterfly on one side of a twig, 
 and a leaf on the other. 
 
 The Lemoniidce are a large 
 family of small, brightly-col- 
 oured butter- 
 flies, which are Family 
 most numer- Lemoniidce. 
 
 ous in South America, and least so in Europe and Africa. 
 The females have perfect legs, but the fore-legs of the male are imperfectly 
 
 Fig. 67. DEAD-LEAF BUTTERFLY (Kallima inachis). 
 Reduced. 
 
5 86 
 
 INSECTA ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 Family 
 
 LibytheidcR. 
 
 Family 
 
 Lyccenidce. 
 
 Fig. 6B.Libythea celtis. 
 Nat. size. 
 
 developed. The only European species is Nemeobius luciua (Linn.), the Duke 
 of Burgundy Fritillary, a brown butterfly about an inch in expanse, with rows 
 of tawny spots on the wings. 
 
 The LibytheidcK, which some entomologists consider to be a sub-family of 
 the LemoiiiidcK, are distinguished by their very long palpi (much longer than 
 in any other butter- 
 flies, except one or 
 two Nymphalince), 
 and by their brown, 
 dentated, tawny-spotted wings, winch 
 gives them a superficial resemblance 
 to some small species allied to 
 Vanessa. The only European species 
 is here figured. 
 
 The Lyccenidce are a large family 
 of small or moderate-sized butterflies, 
 differing little struc- 
 turally from the Le- 
 moniidce. They are, 
 
 however, more of an Old World group, although many are 
 found in America, too. Our species are known as hairstreaks, blues, and 
 coppers. The hairstreaks are brown or blue butterflies, with white lines on 
 the under-side of the wings, and a short tail. The green hairstreak, however, 
 Callophrys rubi (Linn.), is tailless, and the under-side of the wings is green. 
 There are a large number of brown or blue species 
 allied to the hairstreaks in Tropical America, some 
 measuring as much as two inches across the wings. 
 The blues, which belong to the genus Polyommahis 
 and its allies, are small butterflies, usually without 
 tails, and generally with rows of ocellated spots 
 on the under-side of the wings. Towards the hind- 
 margins we often find a row of red spots above or 
 below. The females of the blues are often brown, 
 and in some species of the group both sexes are 
 brown. They generally measure a little more than 
 an inch in expanse. One species, Lampides bwticus 
 (Linn.), has a short tail and a 
 
 streaked under-side; but in England it is only occasion- 
 ally met with on the south coast. The coppers are a very 
 handsome group of butterflies, distinguished by the 
 brilliant coppery red of many of the species, several 
 of which formerly inhabited England ; bat they are 
 all now believed to be extinct with us except the small 
 copper, an insect with the coppery wings bordered 
 and spotted with black. Some of the other species 
 are shot with purple. 
 
 The Pieridce are a large group of middle-sized 
 
 butterflies, most of which are white or yellow. All 
 
 the legs are fully developed in both 
 
 Family sexes ; and they can most readily be 
 
 Pieridce. distinguished from the next family by 
 
 possessing an internal nervure to the 
 
 Fig. 69. GBEEN HAIRSTREAK 
 (Callophrys rubi). Nat. size. 
 
 Fig. 70. ORANGE TIP 
 
 (Euchloe cardamines). 
 
 Nat. size. 
 
BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 587 
 
 hind-wings. To the Pieridw belong our garden whites, clouded yellows, 
 orange tip, and brimstone butterflies, etc. The largest butterflies of this 
 family are the great East Indian orange tips of the genus Hebomoia, Hiibner. 
 They measure live or six inches across the wings, which are much shorter and 
 broader in proportion than in our common orange tip, Euchloe cardamines 
 (Linn.), which is one of the prettiest and most admired of our vernal insects. 
 The Equitidw, or swallow-tails, are a family of very handsome butterflies, 
 many of which possess the long tails to the hind-wings from whence they 
 derive their English name. Our only British species is the well-known swallow- 
 tail butterfly Eques ma- 
 c/iaon(Linn. ),at present 
 almost confined, with 
 us, to the fen districts 
 of Norfolk, though 
 formerly much more 
 abundant. It is black 
 and yellow, with a large 
 red spot on the lower 
 part of the hind- wings, 
 and measures about 
 four inches in expanse. 
 The green caterpillar, 
 with black spots and 
 bands, and a retractile 
 fork on the neck, feeds 
 on fennel, carrot, and 
 other umbelliferous 
 plants. We have fig- 
 ured an allied species, 
 Equesalexanor(EspQr.\ 
 distinguished by the 
 continuous black band near the base of the wings, which is found in the 
 mountains of South Europe. To this family belong the great bird- winged 
 butterflies, Ornithoptera (Boisd.), of the East Indies and the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago. They share, with the Morphiuce, the distinction of being among the 
 largest butterflies in the world, measuring from three to nine or ten inches 
 in expanse ; but usually about six or seven. They are long-winged butter- 
 flies, with black fore-wings and yellow hind- wings ; or with large green, blue, 
 or orange longitudinal bands on the dark fore-wings, and the hind-wings 
 mostly of the colour of the bands. The larvae are covered with rather long 
 and thick fleshy spines, but have always the retractile fork on the neck, which 
 is one of the most characteristic marks of the Equitidce. Another interest- 
 ing genus is Parnassius (Latr.). These are satiny- white butterflies, slightly 
 transparent towards the edges, with black spots, and generally also round 
 red spots, more or less centred with white, on the hind-wings, at least. They 
 are mountain butterflies, and are most numerous in Central Asia ; though 
 three species inhabit the Swiss Alps, the commonest being Parnassius apollo 
 (Linn.), which must be well known to everyone who has ever collected butter- 
 flies in Switzerland. These might easily be mistaken for Pieridcz, but that the 
 inner margin of the hind-wings is not gutter-shaped, as it generally is in the 
 Pieridre, and the internal nervure, which is very conspicuous in the Pieridce, 
 is wholly absent in all the Equitidce. 
 
 Fig. 71. SWALLOW-TAIL (Eques alexanor). Nat. size. 
 
588 
 
 INSECTA-^ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 The last family of butterflies, the Hesperiidce, has six perfect legs in 
 both sexes, but differs very much from any of the preceding groups. The 
 head is broad, the antennae are set widely apart, and are 
 Family generally hooked at the tips, the body is rather stout, and 
 
 Hesperiidce the flight is short and jerky. Our species have somewhat 
 (Skippers). triangular fore-wings, and rounded hind-wings, and are 
 brown and tawny ; black, tesselated with square white spots; 
 or brown, with dull greyish and rather indistinct spots. 
 The Hesperiidce, are very numerous in South America, 
 but less so in the Old World. They are mostly of 
 small size, the largest being a dull blue West African 
 species, Ehopalocampta ipliis (Dru.), which measures 
 about four inches across the wings. They form a 
 transition to the moths ; many species sit with the 
 wings expanded, instead of raising them over their Fig 72 ._ GRIZZLED SKIPPEB 
 backs ; and they often make a rough sort of cocoon in (Hesperia malvce). Nat. size. 
 a leaf. The Grizzled Skipper, Hesperia malvce (Linn. ), 
 
 here figured is a small black and white butterfly not uncommon in England. 
 The Heterocera, or moths, are divided into a great number of families, 
 which are loosely classed together under various headings ; but the classifica- 
 tion of moths is still in an unsatisfactory state, and though 
 Heterocera, or many groups of families, large and small, are perfectly 
 Moths. natural, others are ill-defined and unsatisfactory. The old 
 
 group Sphinges is now quite given up, including, as it did, 
 three totally distinct sections, the hawk-moths, clear-wings, and burnets. 
 The Bombyces include a number of very discordant families, for which no 
 definite collective characters can be found, such as the tigers, footmen, eggars, 
 emperor moths, swifts, etc. Tho Noctuce, or night-flying moths proper, are 
 more compact, though even here there is a difficulty in determining whether 
 many genera belong to this group, or to the Bombyces. The Geometrce are a 
 compact group, and so to some extent are the remaining groups. We will 
 now consider the moths more in detail. 
 
 Of the families classed under Sphinges arid Bombyces, most of the species 
 have short, stout, and often tufted bodies, large wings, and pectinated, or 
 sometimes fusiform antennae. The larvae have sixteen legs, and generally spin 
 cocoons, though some pupate in the ground. Many beautiful day-flying 
 moths belong here, some of which were formerly classed as butter- 
 flies. Among these are the bright green black-striped Uraniidce of South 
 
 America, three inches in expanse, with 
 long tails on the hind-wings like swallow- 
 tail butterflies. More familiar to us 
 are the burnets (Zygcnnida'\ moths with 
 long fore- wings about an inch and a half 
 across, with long pubescent bodies, and 
 blackish bronzy fore- wings, with five or 
 six crimson spots, and red hind-wings. 
 They are found in meadows, flying heavily 
 from flower to flower in the daytime. The 
 ti^er moths (Arctiidce) are larger, and very 
 brightly coloured moths, and more nocturnal 
 in their habits as a rule. The commonest, 
 Hypercompa, caia (Linn)., has brown fore- 
 
 Fig. 73. CINNA.BA.B MOTH 
 (Hiposritajacobcea). Nat. size. 
 
SKIPPERS AND MOTHS. 589 
 
 wings, with interlacing white markings, and red hindwings with large 
 bluish black spots. Its caterpillar, which is often called the woolly bear, 
 is common in gardens, and is covered with long reddish-brown hair, partly 
 tipped with white. It feeds on all sorts of low plants, and when disturbed, 
 rolls itself up into a ball, and drops among the herbage. Bred specimens 
 of the moth are paculiarly liable to vary, some of the specimens being quite 
 black ; but those reared in a state of nature are much less variable. 
 
 The Liparidce are {mother family of stout-bodied Bombyces. Many of the 
 species are white, like the gold-tail and brown-tail moths, which are common 
 on hedges, and receive their names from the tuft of wool at the end of the 
 body, which the female uses to cover her eggs. They measure rather more 
 than an inch across the wings, and the larvae are gregarious, and are often 
 very destructive. 
 
 Some of the families of moths classed as Bombyces have slender bodies 
 and long wings. The Lithosiidce are a group well represented in Europe. 
 They generally have oblong greyish fore-wings, with a yellowish streak on 
 the costa, and slate-coloured hind- wings : they measure about an inch and a 
 half in expanse, and their larvae feed on lichens. The cinnabar moth, 
 Hipocrita jacobcece (Linn.), is more brightly coloured, being black and red, 
 like the burnet moths, though the antennae and the pattern of the wings 
 are quite different. It is not rare in Britain. The South American family 
 Dioptidce includes larger moths, with more rounded wings, and more varied in 
 their colours. Some of them are partially transparent ; and many, except 
 in their simple or slightly pectinated antennae, resemble butterflies of the 
 sub-family Ithomiince. 
 
 The Cyllopodidce are another South American family of rather small moths, 
 rarely measuring more than an inch and a half across the wings, which are 
 remarkable for their strongly contrasted black and yellow colour. 
 
 The Psychidce are a family of small grey or, more frequently, smoky-black 
 moths, remarkable for their thick, hairy bodies, and strongly-pectinated 
 antennae. They rarely reach an inch in expanse, and 
 are found flying among long grass in the daytime. The 
 larvae construct a case of bits of vegetable matter, in 
 the same way as the larvae of the caddis-flies, and the 
 females are wingless, and in some instances, legless also, 
 in which latter cas3 they never quit the dwelling which p. 
 they have inhabited as larvae and pupae. The species furva. 'Nat. size, 
 figured, Chalia furva (Borkhausen), is rather scarce in 
 England. 
 
 Among the largest moths are the Saturniidce, to which our emperor moth, 
 Saturnia pavonia-minor (Linn.), belongs. The emperor moth measures two 
 and a half to three inches across the wings, which are light brown, varied 
 with orange in the male, and of a soft grey in the female ; in the middle of 
 each wing is a large round eye-spot. The green, red-spotted larva feeds on 
 heath, and makes a flask-like cocoon. 
 
 All the moths of this family have stout and often short bodies, pectinated 
 antennae, and ample wings, with a more or less developed eye-spot or trans- 
 parent mark in the middle of each. Some are green or brown, with long 
 tails on the hind-wings ; but the largest of all, the Indian Atlas Moth, which 
 sometimes measures a foot in expanse, has tawny brown fore-wings, with 
 festooned black and white lines, between which is a large talc-like spot on 
 each wing, of very irregular shape. 
 
590 
 
 INSECTA ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 Most of the silk-producing moths of any commercial value belong either to 
 the SaturniidcK or the Bombycidce. The common mulberry silk-worm moth, 
 Bombyx mori (Linn.), the type of the Bombyces, is too well known to need 
 description here. 
 
 The Lasiocampidce are stout-bodied moths with strongly pectinated an- 
 tennae, and hairy caterpillars. They are generally of a brown or yellowish 
 
 colour, and the wings are sometimes 
 dentated, but never tailed. It includes 
 the oak-eggar, drinker moth, lappet, 
 lackey moth, and other familiar British 
 species. The lackey moth, Clisiocampa 
 ncit.stria (Linn.), is remarkable for the 
 habit of the female in laying her eggs 
 in a ring round a slender twig. All the 
 larvae of this family are very hairy. 
 
 Three families of Bombyces are remark- 
 able for their larvae feeding in the trunks 
 of trees, or on the roots of grasses ; as well as for the abnormal neuration of 
 the perfect insects. The goat-moth, Trypanns cossus (Linn.), belonging to 
 the family Zeuzeridce, is a broad-winged greyish-brown coarsely-scaled moth, 
 in which the discoidal cell of the wings is divided by additional nervures, 
 which are obsolete in most Lepidoptera. Its dark red, foul-smelling, naked 
 larva is very destructive to old willows, and takes three years to arrive at 
 maturity. 
 
 The Castniidce are a South American group of stout-bodied moths, with 
 rather short and broad wings, measuring from two to six or seven inches in 
 
 Fig. 75. LACKEY MOTH (Clisiocampa 
 neustriu). Nat. size. 
 
 Fig. 76. Castnia syphax. 
 
 expanse. The antennas are very thick, and rather tapering at the ends 
 They are brightly-coloured insects, and fly by day. They somewhat resemble 
 large Hesperiidce, and were classed as butterflies by all the older writers. 
 The cells of their wings are sub-divided, as in the Zeuzeridw, and hence we 
 notice them now, though their natural position is near the beginning of the 
 moths. The species figured, Castnia syphax (Fabr.), is black, with white 
 markings on the fore-wings and a red border to the hind-wings. 
 
MOTHS. 
 
 Fig. 77. GHOST MOTH (female) (Hepialus humuli). 
 Nat. size. 
 
 Our swiffc moths (Hepialidcz) have rather long wings and very short 
 antennae. They exhibit many remarkable peculiarities ; the wings are separ- 
 ated at the base, the connecting link between them being not by a bristle, 
 as in many moths, but by a long lobe. The fore and hind-wings have 
 similar neuration, and the hind-legs of the males are more or less aborted in 
 some of the species. The 
 ghost moth, Hepicdus hu- 
 muli (Linn. ), is common in 
 every meadow, where^ the 
 male, which is white on the 
 upper - side of the wings, 
 and brown below, flies at 
 dusk with a peculiar hover- 
 ing motion. The female 
 has yellow fore - wings 
 blotched with red, and the 
 hind - wings and under- 
 surface are brown. The 
 European swifts feed on the roots of plants, but there are some splendid 
 green Australian species, measuring four or five inches across the wings, the 
 larvae of which feed on the wood of trees. Owing to the unusual neuration 
 and mode of connection of the wings in the Hepialidce, Professor Comstock 
 has recently proposed to associate this family with the Micropterygidce, a 
 family which used to be placed among the Tinece, and to treat them as form- 
 ing a primary division (in fact, a sub-order) of the order Lepidoptera. In 
 this innovation he has since been followed by other authors. 
 
 The Noctuce, are a large group of stout-bodied moths. To it belong many 
 of the moths which we see flying over flowers, or about a candle in the even- 
 ing. Most of our species measure from one to two inches in expanse, and 
 
 many are of dull colours. Some have 
 metallic spots, or letter-like markings, 
 like the burnished brass moth, Plusia 
 chrysitis (Linn.), which has large bronzy- 
 green markings on its brown fore-wings ; 
 or the violet-grey gamma moth, Plusia 
 gfmma(Linn.), a very common day-flying 
 species, with a white mark resembling the 
 Greek letter y on each of its fore-wings. 
 Others are brown, with black streaks and 
 dashes on the wings, like the heart-and- 
 dart moth, Agrotis exclamationis (Linn.). 
 The larvae of the dart moths are often very destructive, as they live just below 
 the surface of the ground, where they eat through the roots of plants. 
 There are many closely-allied species, and the Americans call them * ' cut- 
 worms." 
 
 If we toss about a heap of hay, or disturb the leaves of a strawberry-bed, 
 we are very likely to start a specimen of one of the common yellow under- 
 wing moths, Triphcena (Hiibn.), which, after a short headlong flight, will 
 settle again, and soon disappear. In these moths the fore-wings are brown, 
 and comparatively long and narrow, and the hind-wings are very broad, and 
 of a bright yellow, with a black border. In tropical countries other yellow 
 underwinged butterflies are found, Ophideres (Boisd.), measuring three inches 
 
 Fig. 78. BURNISHED BRASS Morn 
 (Plusia chrysitis). Nat. size. 
 
592 
 
 INSECTA ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 across the wings. They are remarkable for having the proboscis modified 
 into a kind of boring instrument, with which they pierce the skin of oranges, 
 and suck out the contents. 
 
 We now come to the Geometrce, or land-measurers, which may always be 
 distinguished (if the transformations are known) by the larvae only possessing 
 ten legs, the first three pairs of prolegs being obsolete. 
 Geometrsa. When they walk they fix themselves by the last pair of pro- 
 legs and the claspers, stretch out their bodies, fix themselves 
 firmly by their true legs, and then draw up the four hinder legs, and repeat 
 the process. Thus, the body of the caterpillar is archeH into a loop at every 
 step, and these caterpillars are often called " loopers" on that account. This 
 performance, though it takes a long time to describe, is nevertheless com- 
 paratively rapid, and the larvae are able to make as good progress as other 
 caterpillars with the full complement of legs. These curious larvae often fix 
 themselves, as described, by the claspers and hind pair of prolegs, and stretch 
 their bodies straight out, when they look for all the world like little bits of 
 green or dried twigs. 
 
 Most of these moths have slender bodies and broad wings. They are 
 frequently adorned with bright colours, and the fore and hind-wings are, 
 more or less similar in markings ; some species, however, have short, thick, 
 hairy bodies, and resemble Bombyces, except in their larvae. In several 
 
 brown species, which appear during tho 
 winter, the females have only rudi- 
 mentary wings. One of the commonest 
 of the Geometrce is the magpie moth, 
 Abraxas grossulariata (Linn.), which 
 is found among gooseberry and currant 
 bushes, on the leaves of which tho 
 larvae feed. It measures an inch and a 
 half across the wings, which are white, 
 with black and yellowish spots. 
 
 The next group of moths, the Pyrales, 
 have long slender legs and antennae, 
 slender bodies, and large wings, the 
 fore-wings being generally triangular, and the hind-wings rounded. They 
 are of rather small size, rarely much exceeding an inch in expanse, and are 
 often white, grey or yellow. Two of the best 
 known species, the small magpie, Botys urticata 
 (Linn.), which is white, marked with large black 
 spots ; and the mother-of-pearl, B. verticalis 
 (Linn.), are common among nettles. Some of 
 the smaller white and brown species are found 
 among reeds, the larvae feeding on water plants ; 
 other small species of this family, which fre- 
 quent hill-sides and mountains, are black, with 
 or without white lines or spots ; or are beauti- 
 fully marked with purple and gold. 
 
 The foregoing butterflies and moths mostly include species of comparatively 
 large size, and are therefore often called Macro-Lepidoptera. The succeeding 
 families mostly include small moths. The first group of these is the Crambi, 
 which were frequently included in the Pyrales by the older entomologists. 
 They are small moths, generally not much exceeding an inch in expanse, 
 
 Fig. 79. MAGPIE MOTH (Abraxas 
 grossulariata). Nat. size. 
 
 Fig. 80. SMALL MAGPIE MOTH 
 (Botys urticata). Nat. size. 
 
MOTHS. 
 
 593 
 
 Fig. 81. GRASS MOTH 
 (Crambusericellus). Nat. size. 
 
 Fir,. 82.- 
 
 GREEN OAK TORTRIX 
 
 (Tortrix viridana). 
 
 Nat. size. 
 
 with long narrow fore- wings, and broad hind- wings. The best known repre- 
 sentatives of this group are the grass moths, belong- 
 ing to the genus Crambus (Fabr.), which have long 
 palpi, like a snout, yellowish white-streaked fore- 
 wings, and broad brown hind-wings. In some 
 species, as in G. ericellus (Hiibner), this white streak 
 is very conspicuous. In walking through long grass, 
 we often disturb these moths, which fly a short 
 distance and then settle again on a stalk, head 
 downwards, with their wings folded round, them 
 in almost a tubular form. 
 
 The Tortrices, or bell moths, generally have broad, short fore-wings, cut off 
 straight at the ends, and rounded hind-wings. They sit with their fore-wings 
 flat, meeting over their backs, and covering the hind-wings, and in this 
 position somewhat resemble a bell in shape, whence their popular name. 
 There are about 300 British species of this group, some of which are very 
 destructive. One of the best known and most easily 
 recognised is the green oak tortrix, Tortrix viridana 
 (Linn.), which has green fore-wings with a yellow costa, 
 and brown hind-wings. If an oak-branch is struck or 
 shaken, we may often see a whole shower of these 
 conspicuous little green moths come fluttering down. 
 They measure rather less than an inch in expanse. 
 The larvae are also green, with a brown head ; they live 
 between rolled-up leaves of the oak, and if alarmed, 
 drop themselves a little way down by a thread, and climb back as soon as 
 the danger appears to be over. 
 
 Other Tortrices feed, in the larva state, in flower-heads, and others, again, 
 in fruits. Different species of the genus Carpocapsa (Treitschke) feed in 
 acorns, beech-nuts, plums, etc. ; but perhaps the most injurious of all is 
 the codling moth, G. pomonella (Linn.), the pink larva of which feeds in 
 apples and pears. The moth is grey, with darker lines, and some coppery 
 markings towards the tip. It measures about three-quarters of an inch in 
 expanse. It has been introduced into all parts of the world, and is every- 
 where as destructive as in England. 
 
 The Tinece are a very large group of small moths, numbering in Britain 
 alone upwards of 600 species. Very few exceed an inch in expanse, and the 
 greater number are much smaller. They are divided into a great number of 
 families, which differ very much in structure and habits, but they may 
 generally be easily recognised by their small size and long narrow wings, 
 with very long fringes. Some of them feed in cases or galleries, like many 
 species of Tinece (Linn.), to which genus the true clothes-moths, the corn-inoth, 
 and other highly destructive insects belong. Others feed on 
 fungi, like Tinea fulvimitrella (Sodoffsky), a purplish-brown 
 moth with white spots, which is a woodland insect, and 
 not found in houses. Some have very long antennae, like the 
 beautiful delicate bronzy moths of the genus Adela (Latr.), 
 which we find flying about bushes in spring. The small 
 ermine moths of the genus Hyponomeuta (Latr.) are white 
 or lead-coloured moths, with rows of black spots on the 
 fore- wings ; and their larvae web over and devour our 
 hedges and apple-trees, for they are gregarious, and often very destructive. 
 39 
 
 Fig. 83. Tinea 
 
 fulvimitt'ella. 
 
 Nat. size. 
 
594 INSECTA ORDERS LEPIDOPTERA AND HEMIPTERA. 
 
 Many entomologists regard the Pyponomcutidce, as more closely allied to 
 the Bombyces than to the Tinem. Many Tinew mine the leaves of grasses, and 
 this habit is characteristic of the Elachistidce. Others, like the Nepticulidce, 
 a family which includes the smallest moths known, make long galleries or 
 mines, as they are called, between the membranes of a leaf. These may often 
 be found on leaves of bramble, nut, etc. ; but such mines are not always due 
 to the larvae of Tineas, ; for this habit is shared by other insects. Thus there 
 is a very common mine on holly leaves which is produced by the larva of a 
 two-winged fly. Some larvae which feed in a similar manner produce a blotch 
 on the leaf, and not a mine. One of the commonest of these blotches is that 
 formed by the larva of the beautiful delicate little Gracilaria syringella 
 (Linn.) on the leaves of the lilac. 
 
 The Pterophoridce, or plume moths, are now considered by most authors 
 to be allied to the Pyrales. They are very delicate insects, with long, 
 slender bodies and legs, and long wings, measuring an 
 inch or less in expanse, and cleft almost to the base 
 into separate feathers, two on the fore-wings, and 
 three on the hind-wings. The largest, commonest, and 
 most conspicuous among them is the white plume 
 moth, Pterophorus pentadactylus (Linn.). Its larva 
 feeds on Convolvulus, and it may often be seen floating 
 about weedy places, strawberry beds, etc., looking like 
 a snow-flake. Strawberry beds are a favourite resort 
 of many insects, probably for purposes of conceal- 
 ment. 
 
 The last family of moths, the Alucitidce, which forms an isolated group, is 
 represented in England by the twenty -plume moth, Alucita hexadactyla 
 (Linn.). Its larva feeds in the buds of the honey- 
 suckle. The moth is grey, with broad wings about two- 
 thirds of an inch in expanse, and it is often noticed 
 on windows, walls, etc., sitting with its wings spread 
 out flat, and looking like one of the smaller Geo- 
 metrse. But on a closer inspection we find that 
 each wing is split up into six separate feathers, which 
 distinguishes it at once from any other moth found 
 in this country. 
 
 Fig. 84. WHITE PLUME 
 MOTH (Pterophorus penta- 
 dactylus). 
 
 Fig. 85.- 
 
 TWENTY- PLUME MOTH 
 (Alucita hexadactyla). 
 V Nat, size, ' 
 
 ORDER HEMIPTERA (BUGS AND FROG-HOPPERS). 
 
 This is a somewhat extensive order of insects, with four wings, of which 
 the front pair, or tegmina, are usually of a stouter consistency than the hind- 
 wings. They are divided into two main sections. In the first, the Hemip- 
 tera Heteroptera, or true bugs, the tips of the tegmina are usually trans- 
 parent, and veined ; but in the Hemiptera the fore-wings are nearly of the 
 same consistency throughout. In many large groups of Hemiptera, however, 
 the fore-wings are transparent and veined, like the hind-wings ; but all the 
 insects belonging to both sections of the order may be known by their strong 
 sucking proboscis, and the absence of mandibles. The metamorphoses are 
 incomplete. 
 
MOTHS AND BUGS. 595 
 
 Sub-Order Heteroptera. 
 BUGS. 
 
 The word bug is derived from the Arabic, and has nothing etymologically to 
 do with bogy, with which it is popularly associated. It suggests an ugly, foul- 
 smelling, wingless insect, which sucks blood, hides itself in 
 crevices, and shuns the light. In America, however, the Sub-Order 
 word has come to be extended to insects in general. Ento- Heteroptera 
 mologically it is applied to the insects belonging to the sub- (Bugs). 
 order Heteroptera, only some of which suck blood, the 
 greater number feeding on the juices of plants ; and these are as beautiful 
 and varied in form and colour as the beetles ; or more so, in proportion to 
 their numbers, and they are mostly diurnal insects. These insects may easily 
 be recognised, not only by the characters mentioned above, but by the 
 peculiar structure of the antennae, which, though generally of considerable 
 length, are composed of a very few long and* well-separated joints generally 
 four or five. 
 
 The Scutellridoe, or shield-bugs, are those which most resemble beetles, and 
 would be easily mistaken for them at first sight. But the hard convex wing- 
 covering is not formed by wing-cases meeting on their 
 inner edges, as in beetles, but consists of an inordinate 
 development of the appendage to the thorax called the 
 scutellum, under which not only the wings, but the 
 tegmina also, which in such cases differ little in con- 
 sistency from the wings, are completely hidden. These 
 bugs are not numerous in Europe, but in tropical coun- 
 tries they are often as large as a cockchafer, and of 
 brilliant colours. Callidea perplexa (Hope), here figured, is 
 a common East Tndian species, of a brilliant green or 
 purple, with black spots. 
 
 In the family Pentatomidce, the body is still short, broad, 
 and bulky in many of the species, but the scutellum, jfat. size, 
 
 though still of considerable ske, is a long structure, differ- 
 ing in shape, separating more or less of the basal portion of the tegmina, 
 when the wings are closed. Beyond its extremity, the membranous portion 
 of the over-lapping tegmina is generally visible. Several 
 brown or grass-green species belonging to this family are not 
 uncommon in England In many species, especially foreign 
 ones, the front of the thorax expands into a kind of spine or 
 horn on each side, often of considerable length. 
 
 Some species of Pentatomidce are carnivorous as well as 
 herbivorous, and will attack caterpillars and other soft insects, 
 and suck out their juices. Acanthosoma griseum (Linn.), which . 
 
 is common in England on birch, is an oval insect, about a Linn. Nat. size, 
 third of an inch long. The thorax is angulated in front, 
 and the colour is reddish-ochreous or greenish, finely punctured with black ; 
 at the base of the scutellum is a black patch. Like some of the earwigs and 
 Australian sawflies, the female of this species has been observed to watch 
 over her newly-hatched young like a hen, and it is said that, as in the case of 
 the crocodiles, and some other animals, her vigilance' is chiefly required to 
 guard them against the attacks of the male. 
 
59<5 INSECTA ORDER HEMIPTERA. 
 
 The species of this family are more numerous in America than in England, 
 and they are called "stink bugs" in the former country, on account of the 
 offensive odour which many of them emit. 
 
 There are a great variety of other flower-frequenting bugs belonging to 
 various families, but the European species are mostly of small size, though 
 often prettily coloured. The scutellum is generally much 
 Plant-Bugs. smaller than in the Pentatomidcc, and the body is more oval ; 
 the legs and antennae are often long and slender, remarkably 
 so in some species ; and occasionally the antennae are clubbed. In some of 
 the large foreign species belonging to the family Harpactoridce, the thorax is 
 often curved forwards on each side, and toothed in front, while the antennae 
 and tibiae are often lobate, and the hind-femora much thickened and dentated. 
 Among the carnivorous land-bugs, two families are specially notable. One 
 of these is the Cimicidce, the type of which, and, indeed, of the whole sub- 
 order Heteroptera, is the common bed-bug, to which we have 
 Tlie Bed-Bug 1 , already alluded. It is of a reddish-brown colour, broad, 
 flattened, with very slight rudiments of wings (which are 
 said occasionally to become fully developed in hot climates), and measures 
 less than a quarter of an inch in length when full grown ; but the larval 
 forms, which are, of course, much smaller, are equally fond of blood, though 
 they must be capable of subsisting on other food, as they have been known to 
 multiply in empty houses. Very similar species are found attacking pigeons, 
 fowls, and bats. This insect has always been common throughout Africa and 
 Southern Europe, but was scarcely known in England till it was introduced 
 in numbers with foreign timber after the Fire of London. (See my ' * Text- 
 Book of Entomology," p. 204.) It has many enemies, including the cock- 
 roach and the wheel-bug ; and I have been informed that in the poor parts 
 of London, fleas and bugs do not generally exist in equal numbers in the 
 same house, and that, as a rule, it is the cleaner houses which are most in- 
 fested by bugs. Can it be that fleas will attack bugs ? I am not aware that 
 this has been previously observed or surmised ; but, as fleas are known to 
 attack caterpillars, it does not seem by any means impossible. 
 
 The lleduviidce, or wheel-bugs, are a family of rather large bugs, with a 
 large head, contracted behind into a neck, prominent eyes, two ocelli, rather 
 short antennae, and a' curved proboscis or rostrum. The type of the family 
 is the masked-bug, Reduvius personatus (Linn.), the larva 
 and pupa of which cover themselves with particles of dust, 
 apparently in order to creep upon their insect prey un- 
 noticed. This species is not uncommon in outhouses, and 
 is a blackish or dark brown insect, two-thirds of an inch 
 long, and very hairy, especially on the head, antennae, and 
 legs. There is a whitish line on the membrane- suture of 
 the tegmina. This species is rarely found in houses ; but, 
 as already mentioned, it preys on the bed-bug, as well as 
 on flies, etc. Its own bite is said to be as painful as the 
 sting of the bee, which may well be the case, considering 
 'BUG (faduvius**' iks comparatively large size ; but it does not appear to attack 
 personate). man or the higher animals habitually. There are, however, 
 Nat. size. other and much larger species of the same family that are 
 
 great pests to both man and beast in the Southern States 
 of America, Chili, and other parts of the world. 
 
 Many bugs, including several of this family, are usually apterous, but 
 
BUGS. 597 
 
 acquire wings occasionally ; while in some species, two forms are habitually 
 met with, in one of which the wings are more or less rudimentary, while in 
 the other they are fully developed. 
 
 Hitherto we have been discussing land-bugs, but several families of the 
 Heteroptera are aquatic, and among them we find the largest 
 species of the sub-order. Water-Bugs. 
 
 The first family includes the Hydrometridce, the water- 
 measurers, which are long, narrow, black insects, often with fine silvery 
 pubescence. They have yery long middle and hind-legs, and the front-legs are 
 directed forward. Here, too, we meet with both winged and apterous adult 
 individuals of the same species. They measure from one to three-quarters of 
 an inch in length, and are found running rapidly on the surface of the water, 
 and feeding on small insects. They can also dive when alarmed. One genus 
 of this family, Halobates (Esch.), is found running on the surface of the open 
 ocean in various regions of the tropics. 
 
 The Nepidce, or water-scorpioos, have an oval and rather flattened body, 
 terminating in a breathing tube of nearly half its length, and the front pair 
 of legs have thickened femora, and project forwards in such 
 a manner as to suggest the pincers of a scorpion. Our British Water-Scorpion, 
 species, Nepacinerea (Linn.) is a brown insect, nearly an inch 
 long exclusive of the spiracular tube, and is found in muddy, stagnant pools. 
 
 Eanatra linearis (Linn.) is an insect allied to the last, and belonging to the 
 family Eanatridce. It is, however, very long and narrow, and of a lighter 
 yellowish-brown colour. The middle and hind-legs are very long and slender, 
 and the front pair are much longer and less thickened than in Nepa. It 
 measures nearly three inches in length, of which the abdominal breathing- 
 tube occupies nearly half. It is not a very common insect in England, and 
 creeps about at the bottom of stagnant water. 
 
 The largest Heteroptera belong to the family Belostomatidce, which is not 
 British, though common in most of the warmer parts of the world. They are 
 oval insects, with the legs flattened, especially the front femora. The insects 
 sometimes measure four and a half inches in length, and six inches or more 
 in expanse of wing. They are of a yellowish-brown colour. In the evening 
 they leave the water, and fly about. This is a common habit with many 
 water-insects, which enables them to migrate from one place to another, if 
 the ponds in which they live dry up. In America, where one or two 
 species are common, they are sometimes attracted in large numbers by the 
 electric light. They feed on small fish, frogs, etc., as well as on water-insects. 
 
 The water boatmen (Notonectidce) are represented in England by one or two 
 yellowish species, about half an inch long, with flattened hind-legs fringed 
 with hairs, and which stand out from the body in the position 
 of oars. They are used in a similar manner, for the insects Water-Boatmen, 
 float on their backs, and row themselves about with them. 
 Zaitlia aurantiaca (Leidy) is a light brown North American species. 
 
 Among the remaining water-bugs are the Corixidce, which are not unlike the 
 Notonectidce, but are smaller, much broader in proportion, especially the 
 head, and more obtuse behind. They are brown or black, glossy, with 
 yellowish striae above. 
 
 A friend once showed me an absurd error with respect to the term water- 
 boatmen, which is frequently applied to different species of water-bugs. 
 It occurred in connection with the habits of some South American birds, 
 in an ornithological work, the name of which I have forgotten, and ran 
 
598 INSECT A SUB-ORDER HOMOPTERA. 
 
 something like this : " They feed on the eggs which the fishermen lay on the 
 
 banks of the streams, in clusters of six lines long 
 ky three broad." If I remember right, the pass- 
 age was translated from the French, and I 
 have little doubt that in the original some ex- 
 pression was used equivalent to " water-boat- 
 rnen." It reminds me of another story which I 
 read in the translation of a Russian book of 
 travels, in which an elephant was described as 
 seizing an object with his tail, instead of his 
 Fig. 89. -WATER-BUG (Zaitha, trunk. I have also heard of a translation of a 
 aurantiaca), WITH EGOS. German book, in which a naturalist on ship- 
 
 Nat, size, board, who wanted to shoot a bird, was de- 
 
 scribed as taking down the back-shutters, 
 
 instead of the breech-loader. 
 
 SUB-ORDER HOMOPTERA (FROG-HOPPERS, PLANT-LICE, ETC.). 
 
 A great number of insects are classed under this sub-order, which we have 
 
 already briefly defined. They do not emit any foul odour like the Heterop- 
 
 tera ; their antennae are generally very short ; and they are 
 
 Sub-Order exclusively plant-feeders. Some of them supply us with 
 
 Homoptera. useful products, such as shell-lac and cochineal, while others 
 
 are among the most injurious insects which infest our 
 
 gardens and greenhouses. 
 
 The Homoptera are divided into several very distinct families, of which the 
 first is the Cicadidce. They are large, wedge-shaped insects, with a broad 
 head, large eyes, a pointed body, with a short ovipositor in 
 Family the female, and broad wings, which are generally, but not 
 
 Cicadidce. always, transparent. When at rest, the wings are folded 
 roof-like over the body, and generally extend considerably 
 beyond the abdomen. They are difficult insects to classify, as the most 
 tangible characters available for the purpose are to be found in the drums of 
 the males. These organs are found on each side of the abdomen, and are 
 visible above in some genera, while in others they are covered by a flap. On 
 the under-surface they are always covered by two flaps, called the opercula, 
 which are sometimes very short, small, and rounded, and in others are very 
 large, and extend nearly to the end of the abdomen. In the Australian genus 
 Thopha, amongst the opercula are extended over the sides of the abdomen, as 
 well as beneath. In Tibicina (Latr.), there are no covers at all on the upper 
 surface of the abdomen ; and in Zammara (Amyot), the rims of the openings are 
 slightly raised, giving them something of a pitcher shape. It_has been pro- 
 posed to divide the Gicadidce into two sub-families, according to whether the 
 drums are open or closed above ; but I find, not only that the upper abdominal 
 covers differ very much in completeness or absence, but that many genera, 
 otherwise closely allied, run in pairs, one with closed, and one with open tympana. 
 The sounds made by these insects have always made them celebrated, and 
 they are among the noisiest denizens of the tropical forests. They are, how- 
 ever, difficult to capture, as they are not easily seen, and their flight, when 
 disturbed, is very sudden and rapid. This is chiefly a tropical family, and 
 the largest known species, Pomponia imperatoria (Westwood), which inhabits 
 
LANTERN FLIES. 
 
 599 
 
 the Malay Islands, measures nearly eight inches in expanse. Several species 
 are found in Southern Europe, and their song was greatly admired by the 
 Greeks. In Northern Europe they are scarce, and we have but one small 
 species in England, which is very far from common, and is almost confined 
 to the New Forest, though it has once been met with near Haslemere. This 
 species is Melampsalta montana 
 (Scop.), and measures rather less 
 than two inches in expanse. It is 
 brown, with reddish markings on 
 the thorax ; and the principal 
 wing nervures towards the base, 
 and the incisions of the abdomen 
 are of the same colour. It belongs 
 to a very extensive genus of rather 
 small species, in which the basal 
 cell of the tegmina is long and fig. W.Melampsdlta montana Nat. size, 
 narrow, arid emits one bifurcating 
 
 longitudinal nervure from its extremity, instead of two separate ones. This 
 genus is represented by numerous, but usually comparatively small, species, in 
 most parts of the world, and is especially numerous in Australia ; and it is at 
 present the only genus of Cicadidce which is known to occur in New Zealand. 
 The Cicadidce vary from the general character of the Homoptera in the 
 tegmina and wings being of uniform consistency, though the tegmina are 
 always larger, and have a more elaborate neuration. They are insects with 
 imperfect metamorphoses, and in countries where they are common, the 
 empty pupa-skin may often be seen attached to trees by its strong claws, 
 with a large hole in the back, through which the insect has emerged. 
 
 The Fulgoridce are an extensive and varied family, differing from the 
 Cicadidce in many particulars. There are only two ocelli, instead of three ; 
 the tegmina and wings are opaque, and generally differ con- 
 siderably in consistency ; the antennae are inserted oil the Family 
 sides of the head and below the eyes ; and the larvae, and in Fulgoridce. 
 many cases the perfect insects, are frequently covered with Lantern Flies. 
 a white waxy exudation, which we seldom observe in the 
 Cicadidce, and then only to a trifling extent. This family is divided into 
 several sub-families, of which we will mention some of the most interesting. 
 
 The Fidgorince t or true lantern and candle-flies, are exotic insects of rather 
 large size, and are remarkable for having the front of the head produced into a 
 long horn or excrescence, differing considerably in size and shape. The largest 
 species is the lantern-fly of South America, Fulgora laternaria (Linn.), which 
 often measures more than four inches in expanse. It is of a greenish-yellow 
 colour, with & large eyelike spot on the hind-wings ; the head is produced 
 
 into a great hollowappendage, 
 slightly bent downwards, and 
 then continued forward. The 
 candle-flies of the East Indies, 
 Hotinus candelarius (Linn., 
 etc.), are also large insects, 
 measuring two or three inches 
 in expanse. In the species w e 
 have mentioned, the tegmina 
 are black and green, spotted 
 
 Fig. 91. CANDLE-FLY (Hotinus candelarius). Nat. size. 
 
6oo 
 
 INSECTA SUB-ORDER HOMOPTERA. 
 
 Fig. Q2.Flata circulatd. Nat. size. 
 
 with yellow, and the hind-wings are yellow, bordered with brown. There is a 
 long and somewhat recurved horn on the head. Other species of this family 
 are varied with blue or red, and the horns are of different colours and shapes ; 
 yellow or green, and pointed ; dentated ; white, with a red knob at the ex- 
 tremity ; rather short, and trifid at the end, etc. Most of the species are 
 East Indian or South American ; a few are African. 
 
 The Lystrince, are also tropical species of considerable size and bright 
 colours, but the excrescence on the head is absent. They are chiefly, but not 
 exclusively, South American. 
 
 The Flatince are another extensive tropical group, in which the tegmina 
 are bordered more or less broadly with a row of oblique or transverse nervures. 
 They generally measure from one to two inches in expanse. The tegmina 
 
 are frequently green, some- 
 times prettily spotted with 
 red, and are oval or angula- 
 ted at the tips, and not m uch 
 longer than the wings, which 
 are generally light brown, 
 grey, or white, and sub-hya- 
 line. The species figured, 
 Flata circulata (Guerin), is 
 pale grey, with black mark- 
 ings. It is a native of Java. 
 Most of the European Fnl- 
 goridce are small insects. The 
 Delphacince, which measure 
 
 about one-sixth of an inch in length, have comparatively long antennae, with 
 the joints much thickened, and the last ending in a bristle. The hind-legs 
 are very long, and strongly spined at the end of the tibiae ; they are generally 
 of a yellow colour. The head is broad, and the face more or less keeled. 
 They are generally found on grass in damp places, and many species are 
 dimorphic, exhibiting both winged and subapterous forms. 
 
 The Derbince are a small exotic sub-family, with very short, oval bodies, 
 comparatively long antennas, unarmed legs, and long narrow wings, an inch 
 in expanse, and shaped more like those of a Tipula or a Pterophorus than 
 those of other homopterous insects. 
 
 In the Cercopidce, the antennse are placed between the eyes, just under the 
 vertex ; the scutellum is rather small, and the hind tibiae are usually armed 
 with from one to three spines, and a crown of stronger ones at their extremity. 
 This family includes the true frog-hoppers, the most conspicuous species 
 of which is Triecphora vulnerata (Illiger), which is not unlike a small beetle 
 in appearance. It is black, and measures about three-quarters of an 
 inch across the long, oval, horny tegmina, which are 
 black, with bright red markings ; the wings are sub- 
 hyaline. It is not uncommon in England. Aphrophora 
 alni (Fall.) is about the same size, but is dull yellow, 
 with brown markings on the elytra, which are broader 
 than in Triecphora vulnerata, and more pointed at. the 
 tips ; the hind- wings are also broader and more rounded 
 than in the latter insect. Its soft yellow larva is very 
 commo.n on grass, etc., and is always surrounded by a 
 mass of froth, called popularly "cuckoo-spit." 
 
 Fig. 93 Triecphora 
 vulnerata. Nat. size. 
 
FROG-HOPPERS AND PLANT-LICE. 601 
 
 The Jassidce differ from the Cercopidoe, in the hind tibiae having a row of 
 spines below. They are small yellowish insects, most of 
 which are placed by Mr. G. B. Buckton, in his " Monograph Family Jassidce. 
 of the British Cicadce," under the genus Deltocephalus (Burin.). 
 
 The Membracidce are remarkable for the thorax being produced into a long 
 horn or spine, which is frequently recurved over the abdomen. The genus 
 Centrotus (Fabr.), represented in England by C. cornutus 
 (Linn.), is very numerous in species, which are generally of a Family 
 
 black or brown colour, with paler wings and tegmina, the Membracidce. 
 sides of the thorax projecting to a more or less sharp point, 
 and a long spine, broad at the base, and narrowing behind, projecting from 
 the thorax over the back. They are insects of small size, rarely reaching a 
 quarter of an inch in length. Among the foreign species, the forms of the 
 horn in this family are frequently very remarkable. In 
 one genus, Umbonia (Burm.), the species are yellow, 
 streaked with red, and the whole insect is shaped exactly 
 like the thorn of a rose tree. These are found in Tropical 
 America. Respecting the North American species, Prof. 
 Comstock remarks, "In some cases the prothorax is elevated 
 above the head, so that it looks like a peaked nightcap ; in 
 others it is shaped like a Tam-o'-Shanter ; and sometimes F . 
 it has horns, one on each side, which have given one species l9 ' comutus 
 the name of the buffalo tree-hopper." In others, again, Nat. size! 
 
 the horn of the prothorax is nearly vertical, larger than 
 the whole of the rest of the insect, and recurved and bifid at the extremity, 
 and in some species from tropical America, belonging to the genus Bocydium 
 (Latr.), the horn separates into a number of little balls, each of which again 
 throws off a small spine. 
 
 The remaining families of Homoptera which we have to notice are all 
 plant-feeding insects of small size, in which the proboscis appears to issue 
 from between the front-legs, if present at all. The antennae, when present, 
 are usually long and slender, and the tarsi are one or two- jointed. 
 
 The Psyllidce are short, broad insects, which have been compared to 
 minute Cicadas. The hind legs are thickened, and the antennae terminate in 
 two bristles. They leap about on plants, and many of the 
 species produce galls. They resemble the Aphidw in dis- Family 
 
 charging a sweet fluid, which attracts ants, and their larvae Psyllidce. 
 are covered with a white cottony exudation. They are pro- 
 vided with three ocelli. The wings are transparent. 
 
 The Aphididce, which are often called plant-lice, smother-flies, or blight, 
 have slender legs, not fitted for leaping ; the antennae are long and slender, 
 not terminating in a double bristle ; the ocelli are absent, 
 and the wings are transparent. There is a most curious Family 
 
 alternation of broods in these insects, some forms being Aphididce. 
 winged, and with separate sexes, and others winged or Plant-Lice, 
 apterous, and capable of producing their kind for an indefinite 
 number of generations before a sexual brood is again developed. Some pro- 
 duce galls, but the greater part feed on the leaves of trees. Sometimes one 
 generation will live on one tree, and the next migrate to another, a future 
 generation returning to the original food-plant. In fact, the anomalies of 
 these insects are endless, and it would require volumes to epitomise even the 
 comparatively little which has already been discovered with reference to their 
 
602 INSECT A ORDERS ANOPLURA AND DIPTERA. 
 
 habits and transformations. They are small insects, but some are capable, 
 like the Phylloxera of the vine, of ruining or crippling a vast industry over a 
 considerable portion of the world. They exude a sweet liquid known as 
 honey-dew, of which ants are extremely fond ; and to ants they bear the re- 
 lation of milch-kine, and are frequently protected and tended by them 
 accordingly. In some cases the ants are even said to superintend the breeding 
 of the various broods. 
 
 The Aleyrodidce are a small family, of which the perfect insects resemble 
 very small moths, covered with a whitish powder. One or two species are 
 very destructive to cabbages and tomatoes. 
 
 The Coccidce, or scale-insects, differ much from all other insects. The male 
 has no rostrum, and only two wings, but possesses anal setae, and the wingless, 
 
 short-legged female settles herself 
 Family permanently down on a leaf or twig, 
 
 Coccidce. and forms a scale-like covering for 
 Scale-Insects, her own eggs. Some of these furnish 
 useful products, such as cochineal, 
 but others are highly injurious. One species, Icerya 
 purchasi (Maskell), caused great damage in California; 
 but by the advice of the late Prof. C. V. Riley, Fig.95.Aleyrodesproletdla, 
 an Australian lady-bird, Novius cardinalis (Muls.), Linn - Magnified, 
 
 was introduced into the country, and has since been 
 
 effectual in keeping the ravages of the Icerya within bounds. Many of the 
 Coccidce, especially the larval forms, are covered either with a white cottony 
 substance or with large plates of white wax, which in some cases has a com- 
 mercial value. 
 
 ORDER ANOPLURA. 
 
 The true lice, which are wingless insects, parasitic on mammals, and 
 furnished with a sucking proboscis, are sometimes regarded as a sub-order of 
 Hemiptera. Three species at least infest man in European countries, and, 
 besides the discomfort and annoyance which they occasion, are either the 
 cause of, or accompany various diseases. They multiply very rapidly, but 
 can usually be destroyed or kept away by ordinary attention to cleanliness. 
 In warm countries, or, indeed, in any community where cleanliness is neglected, 
 they are universally prevalent. There has been much controversy as to 
 whether the lice infesting different races of mankind are to be regarded as 
 distinct species, or only as slight varieties. Even the two species of lice 
 which infest the head and clothes respectively, Pediculus capitis (Linn.), and 
 P. vestimeuti (Nitsch), although certainly distinct, are so much alike that they 
 can hardly be distinguished from each other. The third species, the crab 
 louse, Pthirius inguinalis (Leech), belongs to a distinct genus, and is much 
 smaller, broader, and shorter than the others. 
 
 ORDER DIPTERA (FLIES). 
 The Diptera, or Flies, differ from other insects in possessing only two wings 
 
LICE AND FLIES. 
 
 603 
 
 throughout the whole of the Order, the hind-wings being represented only by 
 two knobbed appendages like drumsticks, which are known as 
 halteres or poisers. They are furnished with a proboscis, General 
 with which they imbibe their food, which consists, in the Characteristics, 
 perfect state, of liquid substances only. They undergo a 
 complete metamorphosis, their larvae being footless maggots, which pass the 
 pupa state in a barrel-shaped integument formed of the dried skin of the 
 larva. In the larval state, many species live in water, some in the ground, 
 others on plants, sometimes forming galls, while others feed on carrion, 
 dung, etc.; and others, again, are parasitic on various animals, neither 
 vertebrate nor invertebrate animals being secure from their attacks. They 
 probably form one of the largest orders of insects, but have been so little 
 studied that only 28,000 species were described up to 1892, of which between 
 2,000 and 3, 000 'inhabit the British Islands. The Flies are divided into two 
 principal sections, and the Aphaniptera, or fleas, are now usually regarded as 
 forming a third main section of Diptera rather than a separate order. 
 
 The body is not generally very hairy, and the wings are usually destitute 
 of hair or scales, generally transparent, and with very few nervures, most of 
 which are longitudinal. The Aphaniptera have the barest rudiments of wings, 
 while some genera of Diptera are provided with small additional lobes at the 
 base of the wings, which are usually called alulae. 
 
 DIPTERA NEMOCERA (GNATS AND CRANE-FLIES). 
 
 The insects belonging to this group are generally slender-bodied flies, with 
 the antennae long, or of moderate length, and composed of six joints and 
 upwards. The palpi have from three to six joints. They frequently undergo 
 their metamorphoses in the water or in the ground ; and none of the species 
 of this section are parasitic, or even carnivorous, in the larval stage, though 
 the females of certain families will suck blood in their perfect state. 
 
 The Cecidomyiidce, or gall-gnats, with which we will commence our notice 
 of the Nemocera, are very small, gnat-like insects, with long moniliform 
 or cylindrical antennae, often set 
 with whorls of hairs, and compara- - Family 
 tively broad, iridescent wings, with CecidomyiidcK. 
 from two to five longitudinal ner- Gall-Gnats, 
 vures only, and these frequently 
 not all clearly defined. Their bodies are clothed 
 with long hairs. The larvae are very various in 
 their habits, many of them causing galls, on various 
 trees and plants, especially willows, while others 
 live in bulbs, fungi, rotten wood, under bark, or in 
 fir-cones. One or two species are at times very 
 destructive to wheat, especially the wheat-midge 
 and the Hessian-fly, Diplosis tritici (Kirb.), arid 
 Cecidomyia destructor (Say.). The latter has 
 only lately been recognised as a British species. 
 It attacks the stems of the wheat, which crack and 
 bend over, and this appearance furnishes the easiest 
 and most reliable evidence of the presence of the 
 pest among the wheat. Its ravages are, however, much checked by the attacks 
 of various small parasites belonging to the Hymenopterous family Ghalcididce. 
 
 Fig. 96. HESSIAN-FLY 
 
 (Cecidomyia destructor). 
 
 Magnified. 
 
604 
 
 INSECTA ORDER DIPTERA. 
 
 Besides the true gnats or mosquitoes (Culicidce), some of the species be- 
 longing to several other families of this section of Diptera are extremely 
 troublesome, the females sucking the blood of men and 
 Gnats and animals. These are the sand-flies (Simuliidiv), and also the 
 
 Sand-Flies. Chironomidce and Psychodidce. The larvae of all these 
 families, except the Psychodidce, live in water. The Culi- 
 cidce and Ghironomidce have more or less plumose antennae in the males, 
 which may often be seen on our windows. The transformations of the 
 common gnat are very curious, and have often been described. The female 
 gnat lays her eggs in a compact, boat-shaped mass, which floats on the surface 
 of the water. The larva swims head downwards, having a respiratory tube 
 at the hinder extremity of the body, through which it breathes. The 
 pupa is of a different form, and swims head upwards, the upper end of the 
 body, which is much thickened, being now provided with respiratory organs. 
 When it has arrived at maturity, the skin of the upper end of the pupa splits, 
 and the gnat gradually disengages itself, steps out on the surface of the water, 
 and flies away. The Simuliidce have short, broad wings, comparatively short 
 and stout antennae, a*id spotted legs, in which the first joint of the tarsi is as 
 long as the remaining joints. The larvae and pupae live in water, where they 
 form small cases, which they attach to grass-stems, weeds, stones, etc. Our 
 British species are harmless, or nearly so ; but in many countries, as in the 
 Banat of Hungary, for example, they form a terrible pest. The Psychodidw, 
 the last of this group of blood-sucking families which we shall notice, resemble 
 small moths, and sit on the underside of leaves, or run actively over them. The 
 principal blood-sucking species in this family is Phleboto mus papatom(Scopoli), 
 whichinhabitsthesouth-east of Europe. It is asmall, hairy, yellowish-brown fly. 
 
 Next to the gnats and gnat-like flies, the most familiar insects belonging 
 to the Nemocera are the Tipulidce, which are generally called crane-flies, or 
 
 daddy longlegs. These are flies 
 Family with long, narrow, transparent 
 
 Tipulidce. or mottled wings, expanding 
 
 Crane-Flies. from one to two inches ; a long 
 pointed snout, on each side of 
 which are moderately long antennae ; and a long 
 slender body, generally greyish-brown, but 
 sometimes banded with yellow, and terminating, 
 in the female, in a short horny point. They 
 have very long slender legs, which break ofl' at 
 the least touch. They are easily disturbed 
 when we are walking through the meadows, 
 when they flit a few feet, and settle again with 
 their wings extended. They frequently fly into 
 rooms at night, being easily attracted by a light. 
 Their grubs live in the ground, and feed on the 
 roots of grass, frequently causing whole fields 
 to wither and turn brown, as if parched up with 
 drought. The smaller insects of this rather ex- 
 tensive family resemble gnats in size and general f . 9 7._c RA NE-FLY 
 appearance, and some of them appear during the (Pachyrhina'crocata). Nat. size, 
 winter months. The species figured, Packyrhina 
 
 crocaa(Linn.), is a rather handsome black and yellow insect, and is found in 
 woods. 
 
FLIES. 
 
 605 
 
 DIPTERA BRACHYCERA (FLIES). 
 
 The flies of this section are generally stouter than those of the last, and 
 may be distinguished from them by their very short antennae, which generally 
 consist only of three joints (never more than six), and often terminate in a 
 long bristle ; the palpi, too, consist of one or two joints only. 
 
 The Stratiomyidce are a family of small or moderate-sized flies of sluggish 
 habits, which are often to be met with on flowers. Some 
 are rather pretty black or black and yellow flies, often with Family 
 
 spines on the scutellum. Many of their larvse live in water Stratiomyidce. 
 or mud. 
 
 The Tabanidce, or gad-flies, are large flies with stout bodies and a very 
 strong proboscis. They vary in length from an inch downwards, and 
 
 are frequently very 
 troublesome in the Family 
 
 woods and fields, by Tabanidce. 
 sucking the blood of Gad-Flies, 
 men and animals. 
 Some are of a plain brown colour, 
 but others are rather pretty, being 
 clothed with golden hair, while others 
 are banded or marked with reddish- 
 yellow. The larvse are harmless, 
 living in damp situations, among 
 fallen leaves, etc.; and, as usual, it is 
 only the female flies which suck blood. 
 We have been speaking here chiefly 
 
 of the genus Tabanus (Linn.), the largest British species of which, T. bomnus 
 (Linn.), is here figured ; but there are several other equally troublesome genera 
 of this family, such as Chrysops, with its variegated wings and beautiful large 
 golden-green eyes ; and Hwmatopoda (Meigen), which 
 contains dull-coloured species, with longer and slenderer 
 bodies than Tabanus and its allies. The species of Hce- 
 matopota are particularly troublesome in the neighbour- 
 hood of woods, especially in rainy weather, one of the 
 Linnean species being actually named plumalis (rainy). 
 
 The next family of interest is that of the Asilidaz, 
 which are large flies, often measuring an inch or more in 
 length, which feed, in the perfect state, 
 on other insects. They have long and Family 
 
 narrow wings, and long bodies, but tHeir comparatively short AxilidcE. 
 and thick legs render it impossible for the most careless Kobber-Flies. 
 observer to mistake them for Tipulidce. A handsome black 
 and yellow species, Asilus crabroniformis (Linn.), is not rare. So far as is 
 known, the larvse feed on vegetable substances, either under the surface of 
 the ground, or in the wood of trees ; but the transformations of most of 
 the species of this family still remain to be discovered. Most flies 
 which are either carnivorous or blood-suckers in their perfect state are 
 vegetable-feeders in their early stages ; but some of the exotic family 
 Midaidce, the perfect insects of which are carnivorous, also feed on insects 
 in the larva state, while the larvse of others live in rotten wood. In the 
 
 Fig. 98. GAD-FLY (Tabanus bovinus). 
 .Nat. size. 
 
 Fig. 99. Hcematopota 
 pluvialis. Nat. size. 
 
6o6 
 
 INSECTA ORDER DIPTERA. 
 
 latter case, however, it is possible that they feed on other insects which 
 
 live in the wood, and not on the wood 
 itself. 
 
 The species of the family Empidce much re- 
 semble the Asilidce in habits, but are smaller, 
 and frequent woods rather than open places. 
 They will, however, feed on vegetable as well as 
 animal substances, and their larvae live in loose 
 earth. 
 
 The BombyliidcE, or bee-like flies, are another 
 interesting family. They are moderate-sized 
 hairy flies, much resembling bees, but with a 
 long straight proboscis, with which they suck 
 the honey of flowers. The larvae are parasitic 
 on the earlier stages of other insects. 
 
 The Syrphidce are a large family of hand- 
 somely - coloured flies of moderate size, which 
 curious hovering and darting flight. Many 
 
 Fig. IQO.Asilus crabroniformis. 
 Nat. size. 
 
 Fig. lOl.Eristalis tenax. 
 Nat. size. 
 
 are remarkable for their 
 
 of the species resemble wasps and bees ; and 
 their larvae live on decaying animal or vege- 
 table substances, and frequently in foul water. 
 The most interesting species of this family is 
 Erisbalis tenax (Linn.), a blackish fly, more or less 
 clothed with tawny hair, and rather more than 
 half an inch long. Its larva is often found in foul 
 water, and is called the rat-tailed grub, from a 
 long respiratory appendage at the end of the body. 
 This species appears to have given rise to the wide- 
 spread belief that bees might be reared from dead 
 
 carcases, as we find recorded in the story of Sampson ; in the ' ' Georgics " of 
 Virgil, and in many other old writings. Wasp-like flies of similar habits 
 have also given rise to the idea that wasps or hornets were, or might be, 
 bred from the carcases of horses. 
 
 The (Estridce, or bot-flies, are chiefly remarkable for being parasitic in 
 
 mammalia. Recent statistics have shown that the amount of damage caused 
 
 by the following species to cattle in England alone is quite 
 
 Family CEstrjdce. astounding. Hypoderma bovis (Linn.) is a black hairy fly, 
 
 Bot-Flies. varied with whitish and yellowish, which attacks oxen ; it 
 
 is about half an inch in length. The flies themselves are very 
 
 rarely seen, unless when reared. Other species of this family live in the nasal 
 
 fossae of sheep and deer ; in the stomach of the horse ; and in various other 
 
 situations. They have sometimes been known to attack man, especially in 
 
 warm countries ; but whether any species of this family habitually attacks 
 
 man is doubtful. Hypodermic dipterous parasites which infest man belong, 
 
 as a rule, to some section of the immense family Muscidce, which we have 
 
 now to consider. 
 
 The Muscidfx include nearly half the known Diptera. and have nearly all 
 more or less resemblance to the common house-fly, which is the type of the 
 whole order. The antennae are always three-jointed, with 
 Family the third joint compressed, and bearing a bristle on the 
 
 Muscidce. back, which is often plumose. The proboscis is always pre- 
 sent, and is usually membranous, rarely horny; the palpi 
 
FLIES. 607 
 
 are unjointed, and the abdomen has from four to seven joints, and is generally 
 soft. The larvae are footless maggots, and are either parasitic, or live on 
 decaying animal and vegetable substances. The MuscidcK are divided into 
 two main sections : the Muscidce Calypterce, in which the appendages called 
 alulae, or winglets, are present ; and the Muscidce Acalypterce, in which they 
 are absent or rudimentary. (The alulae must not be confounded with the 
 halteres, or poisers, which are drumstick or battledore-shaped organs, which 
 are considered to correspond to the hind pair of wings in four- winged insects.) 
 Each of these two sections is divided into several large sub-families, the 
 more interesting of which we will now proceed to consider. 
 
 The Tachinince, are a sub-family remarkable for the very bristly 
 abdomen of most of the species. The larvae are parasitic on various species 
 of Lepidoptera, and the flies, which are rather numer- 
 ous in genera and species, are frequently found on 
 the flowers of wild carrot, and other Umbelliferce. A 
 species of this sub-family has been reared from a nest 
 of the gregarious larvae of a West African moth of 
 the genus Anaphe, and is here figured. 
 
 The typical sub-family of the Muscince includes a 
 
 . large number of our most familiar flies ; and among 
 
 Twic7na a t s\ze.' ** them ^he true house-fly, Musca domestica (Linn.), 
 which is blackish, more or less varied with grey, and 
 with the base of the abdomen reddish ; it is about one-third 
 of an inch long. The various organs of this insect : the House-Flies, 
 compound facetted eyes, the proboscis, and the peculiarly 
 complicated foot, all form interesting microscopic objects, and have often 
 been described and figured in books on natural history. It is now believed 
 fhat the pads of the foot do not support the insects when walking on a ceiling 
 or window-pane by performing the office of suckers, but that they exude a 
 viscid fluid which enables the insects to adhere to a smooth surface. The 
 larvae of Musca domestica live in dung, or in any sort of animal or vegetable 
 refuse ; and owing to the much greater cleanliness of our houses and en- 
 closures, to what was the case formerly, flies are not nearly so numerous and 
 troublesome as was the case even thirty or forty years ago. They do not 
 bite or sting, but there is a greyer fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (Linn.), which comes 
 into houses in wet weather, and bites sharply. Its pupae have been found in 
 horse-dung, in which the larva very probably feeds. But any flies can convey 
 the infection of diseases which can be communicated in this manner, even 
 those which do not bite ; and ophthalmia is frequently thus communi- 
 cated in Egypt ; and the bite of flies that have been feeding on putrid 
 substances is still more dangerous. The mosquitoes in the East Indies are 
 even said to convey the germs of a small blood-parasite from one person to 
 another in this manner. At the best, therefore, flies are undesirable visitors 
 in our houses ; but they are not allowed to increase indefinitely, but are liable 
 to various natural checks. They are frequently seen in autumn plastered to 
 the windows by a white fungus, which has spread over and round them till 
 it has killed them. They are also frequently seen with the curious little 
 creatures called false scorpions (belonging to the Arachnide family Cheliferidce) 
 clinging to their legs. These resemble microscopic scorpions without the 
 tail, but it is doubtful if they are really injurious to the flies, which, it has 
 been suggested, they may use as winged steeds to carry them to fresh fields 
 and pastures new. 
 
608 INSECTA ORDER DIPTERA. 
 
 The house-fly is most common in summer and autumn, but there are other 
 flies very similar to it in size and colour, belonging to the sub-family Antho- 
 myince, which are common in houses earlier in the year, and are commonly 
 called house-flies. It is perhaps hardly necessary to say that although many 
 genera and species of flies are common in houses, either habitually or casually, 
 none of them ever grow after assuming the perfect state ; and it would, con- 
 sequently, be an absurd error to suppose that the small flies are the young 
 of the large ones, even though individuals of the same species may vary a 
 little in size within narrow limits. 
 
 Other larger flies are common in our houses, with brown bodies and blue 
 or purple abdomens. They are generally called blue-bottle flies, and their 
 grubs feed on meat, or carrion. A smaller and prettier species, the green- 
 bottle, Lucilia ccesar (Linn.), is more frequently observed out of doors. 
 Linnaeus is reported to have said that the progeny of three blow-flies could 
 devour the carcass of an ox as quickly as a lion could. The Tse-tse fly, 
 Glossina morsitans (Westwood), which destroys horses and cattle in South 
 Africa, is another species of this sub-family ; it is about the size of a bee. 
 
 MUSCID.E ACALYPTER.E. 
 
 This is another large section, divided into several sub-families, mostly of 
 small size. Some of them feed on dung, like the conspicuous yellow fly, 
 Scatophaga stercoraria (Linn.); others, as the sub-families, Ortalince, Trypetince, 
 and Agromyzince, feed on plants ; some in the heads of floweTs, and others 
 mining the leaves of trees, like the Tinece among the moths. Most of the flies 
 of this section are small and slender, and many have very prettily variegated 
 wings. The best known species is perhaps Piophila casei (Linn.), a rather 
 slender, black, hairy fly, the larvae of which feed on cheese or bacon. It 
 belongs to the sub-family Piophilince. 
 
 Fig. 103. SWALLOW FLY Fig. 104. SHEEP TICK 
 
 (Ornithomyia avicularia, (Mallophagus ovinus, 
 
 Linn.). Nat. size. Linn.). Nat. size. 
 
 DIPTERA HOMALOPTERA. 
 
 This section contains only two families, the Hippoboscidce and Nycteribiidw, 
 which include a few species with a rather horny integument, and very hairy, 
 sprawling legs. They are parasitic on various mammals and birds ; and 
 some of the species, such as the sheep tick, Melophagus ovinus (Linn. ), are 
 apterous. 
 
FLIES AND FLEAS. 609 
 
 DIPTERA APHANIPTERA. 
 
 This section includes the fleas, which are too well known to need descrip- 
 tion. The species are not well-defined, and it is *hot clear how far those 
 which are found on different animals are really distinct. 
 They are all remarkable for their great powers of leaping ; Fleas. 
 
 and they possess the merest rudiments of wings. They 
 sometimes form colonies on the ground, especially in warm countries, and 
 have been observed to attack caterpillars, so that their food is not confined 
 to the blood of mammals or birds. They are probably quite as ready to 
 attack any soft-bodied animal which comes in their way. I have already 
 suggested (antea, p. 596) that it is possible that they may even attack the 
 common bed-bug, and exterminate it in houses where they are sufficiently 
 numerous. In America it is said that the common house-flea is the dog- 
 flea, the human flea being much less common. 
 
 40 
 
SUB-KINGDOM III. MOLLUSCA. 
 
 SNAILS, ETC. 
 
 BY B. B. WOODWARD, F.L.S., F.G.S., ETC. 
 
 THE sub-kingdom Mollusca includes such well-known creatures as the whelk, 
 the oyster, the garden snail, and the octopus. It may be roughly character- 
 ised as comprising soft-bodied animals that are usually possessed of a hard 
 shell into which they can withdraw for protection. The forms of its different 
 members are as varied as the different conditions of life to which they have 
 become adapted ; for some live in the open sea, others hide in its depths ; 
 some live in rivers or swift-flowing streams and even torrents, or abide in 
 still lakes and ponds ; others, again, are adapted for life on dry land, and, 
 though mostly lovers of moist, shady spots, will some of them rejoice in 
 sun-baked rocks, or live in arid spots where vegetation is scanty. Indeed, 
 save for the frozen polar regions and snow-capped mountain summits, or 
 desert wastes such as the Sahara there is no spot on the surface of the 
 globe, nor, unless it be certain of the extreme depths, any point on the sea 
 bottom, without its representative mollusc. But it is in the tropical regions 
 and oceans that they most abound. Their mode of life is as varied as their 
 habitat : some are strong swimmers, others only float in the water ; some 
 crawl on land or under water, others burrow in the mud or sand, or even 
 into hard rocks, whilst a few live in the tissues of other animals ; others, 
 again, attach themselves to different objects more or less permanently ; this 
 is especially the case with the shore dwellers, who have to withstand the 
 action of currents, the sweep to and fro of the tides, or the violence of 
 storm-tossed waters. Their food, too, differs, some being carnivorous and 
 even cannibals, others strict vegetarians, whilst many prefer a mixed diet. 
 Those that burrow, or are attached, generally feed on microscopic organisms, 
 which they obtain from the mud or the water ; whilst the parasites, as all 
 the world over, dine at the expense of their hosts. 
 
 Owing to the great variations in form, and even in structure, which 
 conformity to these widely different requirements of life has brought 
 about, it is impossible to draw up any satisfactory definition of a mollusc 
 which shall be fairly applicable to even the majority of the larger groups. 
 Nevertheless, certain characters they do possess more or less in common. 
 The shell, though not universally present, is on the whole, perhaps, the 
 most conspicuous feature, although not the most important part of 
 the animal. They have also a well- developed muscular system, of which 
 that portion pertaining to the foot, or organ of locomotion, is the most 
 prominent. There is a distinct nervous system ; a heart and circulatory 
 system with its associated organs of respiration ; an alimentary system, or 
 
 610 
 
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF MOLLUSCS. 611 
 
 set of organs for preparing and digesting the food ; an excretory system ; and 
 reproductive organs. 
 
 The shell in the majority of Mollusca consists of a single more or less 
 coiled tube (a.s in the whelk and snail), and hence they are termed univalves ; 
 in the oyster and other bivalves the shell is in two pieces ; whilst in the 
 coat-of-mail shells, chitons, there are eight little overlapping shelly plates. 
 The shell is composed mainly of carbonate of lime, with the admixture 
 of an organic substance known as conchiolin, which is very similar to chitin, 
 the horny material forming the hard parts of insects. It is generally 
 divisible into layers exhibiting differences of structure. The outermost, 
 called the periostracum, largely and often entirely consists of conchiolin ; it 
 varies greatly in appearance, being sometimes smooth and shiny, at others 
 rough and coarse, frequently it is fibrous. In many forms it readily rubs 
 off, in others it is firmly united to the true shell beneath. The term 
 epidermis, which has been misapplied to this layer, should be reserved 
 exclusively for the outermost layer of the skin of the animal itself. Of the 
 shell proper the main layer is usually either porcellaneous or crystalline in 
 structure, and in certain cases, such as Pinna, it is prismatic. The inner- 
 most layer is frequently pearly (nacreous), and in some, like the fresh-water 
 mussels or the pearl oyster, it is the thickest of all. The iridescent play of 
 colours, for which mother-of-pearl is noted, results not so much from any fine 
 microscopic sculpturing of the surface as from the breaking up and refraction 
 of the light that falls on them by the extremely thin films of which the 
 pearly layer is built up. Yet another quality of shelly matter is that which is 
 deposited when a damage in the shell has to be made good, or an unoccupied 
 space requires to be filled up. Very similar, too, is the calcareous material of 
 which the trap-door (operculum) closing the mouth of some shells is formed. 
 These different layers of shelly matter are secreted by a series of special 
 cells near the margin (collar) of the tough muscular skin (mantle) that 
 envelops the greater portion of the animal's body, the outermost layer 
 by the cells nearest the margin, the next one by those further in, 
 and so on. The shell, therefore, increases in size by the addition of 
 fresh material to its free edges, the whole being subsequently thickened 
 and strengthened by further deposits on the inner surface. The successive 
 additions along the growing edge generally leave ridges or marks parallel 
 with it, that are known as lines of growth. The deposition of shell does 
 not go on continuously ; every now and again there comes a period of 
 rest, and these rest-periods are frequently indicated by the occurrence of 
 a stronger ridge or mark. The different details of sculpturing on the 
 surfaces of the shell, striae, ribs, spines, etc., are all the products of corre- 
 sponding irregularities on the margin of the mantle, and were, when first 
 formed, situated on the growing edge. Pearls result from the coating over 
 with nacre of any irritating object that may have got between the mantle of 
 a pearl-producing mollusc and its shell a fact taken advantage of by the 
 ingenious Chinese who introduce small metal images. More often, perhaps 
 and certainly it is the case with the finer examples they result from a 
 diseased condition of the cells that secrete the nacre. 
 
 The muscular foot, which is generally an organ of locomotion, takes various 
 forms in the different groups of Mollusca: the univalves (snails and whelks) 
 creep along by its means ; the bivalves employ it to burrow with ; in the 
 cuttle-fish it is drawn out into the arms ; in other Mollusca it is transformed 
 into fins to swim with ; whilst in some, like the oyster, it has ceased to be 
 
612 MOLLUSC A GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 
 
 employed, and has degenerated into a mere rudiment. Most of the muscles 
 of the body are concerned with the extension or retraction of the different 
 organs of the body, and do not here need special enumeration. 
 
 The nervous system of Mollusca acquires peculiar importance in that it is 
 the last feature to be influenced by the modifications of the organism, and 
 henoe is of extreme value in tracing relationships of the parts. Its principal 
 elements comprise a series of paired nerve centres or ganglia ; of these one 
 pair, the cerebral ganglia, lying above the oesophagus, sends off nerves to 
 (innervates) the head, eyes, and the special organs of sense; another pair, 
 the pedal ganglia, situated below the oesophagus, innervates the foot ; whilst 
 the pleural ganglia, lying one on each side just above the pedal ganglia, form 
 the third pair. These several ganglia are united by nerve cords, so that the 
 whole usually forms a ring or collar round the throat. A nerve cord runs, 
 also, from each pleural ganglion back into the visceral mass, innervating the 
 viscera and various organs : these two ultimately joining form what is known 
 as the visceral commissure. Sometimes these two cords cross over each to the 
 opposite side of the body before uniting, and the loop becomes a figure of 8. 
 Various sense organs are present in the Mollusca. Many of these are situated 
 on the integument, and are probably, like the tentacles, organs of touch. 
 Eyes are found in most forms, sometimes very perfect organs, as in the 
 cuttle-fish ; in snails generally they are less well-developed, and placed near 
 the base of the horns, or on the summit of a special pair: the bivalves being 
 headless, have usually no eyes ; when visual organs are present they occur in 
 some part of the margin of. the mantle and are numerous. In the case of 
 one or two molluscs, eyes are developed over the back. From their dis- 
 crimination of certain food, some Mollusca appear to be capable of tasting, 
 and they certainly can smell. The seat of the olfactory sense is believed to 
 vary, and sometimes to reside in a tentacle, at others to be traced to a special 
 organ called an osphradium, which in marine snails is situated close to the 
 gills and resembles them somewhat in appearance. That molluscs can hear 
 is inferred, rather than known, from the presence of otocysts, small cavities 
 filled with fluid in which grains of shelly material float. These otocysts are 
 situated close to the pedal ganglia and supplied by nerves from the cephalic 
 ganglia. 
 
 The most important feature in connection with the digestive system of 
 Mollusca is the armature of the mouth, and consists of a horny jaw or jaws, 
 and the radula, as it is called. Both, however, are wanting in the bivalves 
 and in a few other isolated forms. 
 
 The cuttle-fish have a pair of jaws, upper and under ; the common snails and 
 limpets, a single upper jaw ; but the majority of the univalve Mollusca have 
 a pair of jaws, right and left. The radula is characteristic of the Mollusca. 
 It consists first of a ribbon-like horny, or chitinous, transparent, yellowish 
 membrane lying on the floor of the mouth, and passing over two cartilages, 
 to which it is attached by special muscles. On the surface of this membrane 
 are set a series of minute, recurved teeth, also formed of very dense, hard 
 chitine. In a few instances there is but a single row of teeth, one behind 
 the other ; usually there are several, sometimes a greafc many, side by side, 
 and row upon row, each tooth repeating the form of the corresponding one 
 in the row immediately in front of it. Only those teeth near the front are 
 in use, the muscles attached to the basal membrane pulling that portion of 
 the radula backwards and forwards over the cartilages, so that the teeth act 
 very much after the manner of a chain-saw, and rasp off portions of the food. 
 
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF MOLLUSCS. 
 
 613 
 
 The cartilages, too, which are attached by one end to the floor of the mouth, 
 can be worked backwards and forwards by special muscles, and so bring the 
 teeth into play. The action of the tongue thus formed can be well seen in a 
 common pond snail, as it slowly crawls up the glass-side of an aquarium, 
 clearing off the microscopic plant-growths as it goes. Of course the teeth in 
 front soon wear away and drop off, so that further and further portions of 
 the radula have to be brought into use as required. The portion of the 
 radula held in reserve for this purpose is stowed away in a kind of pocket 
 (the radula sac), situated at the back of the mouth and immediately under 
 the oasophagus. At the extreme end of this radula sac a special set of cells, 
 in the substance of its wall, are engaged in forming fresh teeth, so that a 
 constant supply is being manufactured ready to be moved forward in place 
 of the worn-out ones. When the reserve supply needed is very great the 
 radula is of great length, and the radula sac, correspondingly long, has to be 
 stowed away amongst the other organs of the body. This is especially the 
 case in the limpet and the periwinkle, which last has proportionately 
 the longest known radula of any mollusc. As a rule, in each transverse 
 row of teeth there is a symmetrical central one called the median or 
 rachidian tooth ; on either side of this the teeth are unsymmetrical, 
 and their shape changes as they are traced outwards from the centre, 
 but each one pairs exactly with the corresponding tooth on the opposite side 
 of the median one. Generally the first few near the median more or less 
 resemble each other, and are succeeded rather abruptly by smaller ones, so 
 that the whole radula appears divided into three longitudinal tracts. The 
 middle tract is then termed the rachis and the teeth on it the median and 
 admedian, whilst the outer tracts are styled pleurae, and their teeth uncini. 
 Sometimes between the admedian and the uncini there is a conspicuous tooth 
 differing from either, which may be termed the lateral or capituliform tooth. 
 The shapes and patterns 
 of these teeth (Fig. 1) 
 and their arrangement 
 are so characteristic in 
 the different genera as to 
 form valuable aids to 
 classification, though, 
 since they are apt to vary 
 in the young and adult 
 state of the same in- 
 dividual, they do not 
 furnish an unerring 
 clue to the identity 
 of species. A formula 
 has been invented for 
 expressing the number 
 of teeth in each trans- 
 verse row thus : 
 
 I'l'l signifies that 
 there is a- median, with 
 a single lateral on either 
 side ; 2'11-1'2 has in 
 addition 2 uncini on either side. When the uncini are very numerous 
 the sign oo (= infinity), or, better still, x is employed, thus oo 'l'4'l'4*l*oo, 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 A, Docoglossa (Patella vulgata). 
 
 B, Rhipidoglossa(7Voc/ittS cinerarius). 
 
 C, Tamiojrlossa (Cyprcea Europcea). 
 
 D, Rhachiglossa (Buccinum undatum) Whelk. 
 
 E, Achatina fulica. 
 
614 MOLLUSCA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 
 
 or x l^'l'i'l* 5c, is the formula for certain kinds. Further allusion 
 to these will be made when treating of the different groups. 
 
 All the Mollusca have a circulatory system, with a heart as the central 
 organ, which propels the blood through the body. The heart lies in a cavity, 
 known as the pericardium, and receives from auricles, usually two in number 
 and lying one on each side of it, the blood that has been aerated in the gills. 
 This blood is driven by the heart through a series of arteries, whence it 
 passes in most Mollusca through a series of cavities amongst and between 
 the various organs and muscles of the body ; hence it finds its way back, for 
 the most part through veins, to the gills, but some passes direct to the heart 
 without aeration and thence circulates again. The blood is often colourless, 
 or is slightly bluish, from the presence of an albuminoid (hwmocyanin) con- 
 taining copper ; sometimes it is red, and contains the same colouring matter 
 (hcemoylobin) as the blood of vertebrates. 
 
 The gills have been so largely employed in classifying Mollusca 
 that it is impossible to omit a brief description of their main 
 features. The simple or primitive form of gill has been aptly 
 compared to a plume, in that, like an ostrich feather, it con- 
 sists of a main axis or shaft, from which, at short intervals, filaments are 
 given off in pairs. The axis of the gill contains, on 
 opposite sides, the vessels that convey the blood 
 to the smaller passages in the filaments and carry 
 it off again to the heart after it has been aerated 
 in them. Increase in the surface of aeration is 
 obtained either by the lengthening of the fila- 
 ments, or by the union and flattening out of each 
 pair into a small leaf-like expansion. The former 
 is the Filibranchiate,orPectintinibranchiate (comb- 
 Fig. 2 DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING gilled), the latter the Scutibranchiate, or Aspido- 
 THB Two TYPES OF GILL branchiate (both meaning shield - gilled), or 
 S Tp T e U ctinibra D chiate. Foliobranchiate (leaf-gilled) condition (Fig 2). 
 
 B, Foliobranchiate. Further modifications take place in the gills of 
 
 bivalves, but these will be treated of later on. 
 
 In the Foliobranchiate, and in the more complicated forms of gill, the 
 vessels conveying the blood to and from the gill have their positions with 
 relation to the axis considerably modified. 
 
 A pair of organs called nephridia, which play the part of kidneys and free 
 the blood from impurities on its way to the gills, lie in the region of the 
 heart ; they open into the pericardium on the one hand, and communicate on 
 the other with the exterior. 
 
 In the majority of Mollusca the sexes are distinct, but in the land snails, 
 the sea slugs, and their allies, the sexes are united in each individual. Most 
 Mollusca are oviparous ; that is to say, lay eggs. In a few instances the young 
 are brought forth alive, the eggs being hatched within the body of the 
 parent ; whilst in numerous other cases, notably the bivalves, the eggs are 
 retained within the parent shell till hatched. The land snails lay beparate 
 eggs, which have each a tough outer layer or case, or even a regular shell 
 like a bird's egg. There is one West African snail whose egg is as large as 
 that of a pigeon, and has nearly as thick a shell. The fresh water and 
 marine snails deposit their eggs generally in clusters, adhering together 
 either in a mass, or spread out in a ribbon. Sometimes each egg is enclosed 
 in a tough albuminous capsule, as in the case of the whelk and the cuttle-fish. 
 
COAT-OF-MAIL SHELLS. 615 
 
 The early stages in the development of the young Mollusca are the same as 
 in all other animals. The original single cell splits up into many cells, till it 
 looks like a mulberry. These cells next arrange themselves in a single layer, 
 so as to form a hollow ball ; one side then becomes folded in, so that a 
 double layer of cells results, enclosing a cavity which ultimately becomes the 
 digestive tube ; other cells arise between the two layers, that subsequently 
 form the various organs and the muscles of the young animal. Meantime 
 there arises a swimming organ, which is peculiar to the young mollusc ; this 
 is called the velum. It begins as a ridge, fringed with fine hairs (cilia), 
 encircling that part of the head of the embryo which lies in front of the 
 mouth, and it finally expands into a sort of disc, which is drawn out into 
 lobes or into fingers. This is known as the veliger stage, and is further 
 marked by the formation of the young shell and the first appearance of the 
 foot. The young shell is always a simple coil, even in those forms which, 
 when adult, have a straight shell, or discard their shell altogether. As the 
 young snail grows up the velum disappears. 
 
 The molluscan sub-kingdom is divided into five classes : 
 
 I. AMPHINEURA. 
 
 II. PELECYPODA, Or LAMELLIBRANCHIATA, 
 
 III. SCAPHOPODA. 
 
 IV. GASTROPODA. 
 V. CEPHALOPODA. 
 
 Formerly the sea-butterflies PTEROPODA were considered to form a class by 
 themselves : they are now, however, known to be only very greatly modified 
 forms of Gastropoda. 
 
 CLASS I. AMPHINEURA. 
 
 The Amphineura are in many respects the most primitive of all the Mollusca. 
 They are literally symmetrical ; that is to say, if the body were divided down 
 the middle from head to tail, structures found on one side of the body would 
 be seen to be repeated on the other. 
 
 The elementary canal is not bent, the hinder end opening at the opposite 
 extremity of the elongate body to the mouth. 
 The nervous system consists of two lateral and 
 two ventral nerve trunks, which start from 
 the cerebral ganglia and are connected together 
 at intervals by numerous transverse nerve cords. 
 The class is divided into two orders : POLYPLA- 
 COPHORA and APLACOPHORA. 
 
 K 
 
 ORDER I. POLYPLACOPHORA. 
 The Coat-of-Mail Shells, or Chitons (Fig. 2), are 
 readily distinguished by being alone amongst the 
 Mollusca in possessing a shelly covering of many 
 pieces called the lorica. There are eight plates 
 or valves in all on the back of the animal, fitting 
 one over the other like the tiles on a roof. 
 Generally the lorica is surrounded by a leathery 
 girdle, so called, which helps to unite the several 
 plates, and which, though sometimes naked, is Fig. B. 
 
 usually studded with scales or beset with spines. A CHITON* 
 
616 MOLLUSCAAPLACOPHORA. 
 
 In some forms the animal is very long in the body and the shelly plates 
 are placed at intervals. The animals, which are vegetable feeders, may be 
 found clinging, like limpets, to the under surfaces of rocks and stones at low 
 tide, and when detached will coil up much after the fashion of the well-known 
 wood-louse. The muscular foot extends the whole length of the under 
 surface of the body ; the end of the snout is just visible ; there are rio 
 tentacles. A row of small gills is seen along each sido of the body under the 
 edge of the mantle. A remarkable feature in the shell of many chitons calls 
 for special mention. The outer chitinous layer of the valves is perforated 
 for the passage of sense organs, which, in the family Chitonidae, are in 
 part converted into eyes. 
 
 The Polyplacophora are divided into families as follows, according to 
 details of sculpturing, etc., of the valves: LEPIDOPLEURIDJE, ISCHNO- 
 
 CHITONID^E, MOPALIID^E, ACANTHOCIHTID-iE, CRYPTOPLACI.UJE, 
 
 ORDER II. APLACOPHORA, OR SOLENOGASTRA. 
 
 The Aplacophora, which are carnivorous, are so modified that they scarcely 
 resemble molluscs at all. The body is worm-like and there is no trace of 
 shell, but the much thickened outer skin contains 
 shelly spicules, which probably represent the spines 
 and scales of the Polyplacophora. The foot is 
 extremely reduced, or altogether wanting. The 
 gills are in a chamber at the latter end of the 
 body, into which chamber also the excretory 
 orifices open. Their blood is red. Two sub- 
 orders are distinguished : 
 
 Sub-order 1. NEOMENIINA, in which the foot is 
 reduced to a ridge sunk in a groove along the ventral 
 , 4 - side of the body. 
 
 &f CH^MRMA. The radula is of the usual many-toothed order, or 
 
 wanting. There are four families : NEOMEN^ID^E, 
 PRONEOMENIID^, DONDERSIID^E, and PARAMENIID.E. 
 
 Sub-order 2. CH^TODERMATINA, represented by a single genus Chceto- 
 derma, in which the body is extremely long and cylindrical ; the foot is 
 wanting, its position being merely indicated by a groove ; whilst the radula is 
 represented by a single tooth. 
 
 CLASS II. PELECYPODA, OR LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 The principal characteristic of this class is the division of the shell into 
 two halves, the valves, which lie on either side, right and left, of the animal : 
 hence the class at one time received the name of Bivalvia. These valves are 
 usually connected by an elastic, chitinous ligament, and are further kept in 
 place, when the shell is closed, by a series of interlocking teeth that project 
 from their margins. The shell is closed by powerful adductor muscles, but 
 opens spontaneously, when the muscles relax, by the action of the ligament. 
 Each valve is a hollow, irregular cone, the apex of which, termed the beak 
 or umbo, is the point at which growth began, and is in fact formed by the 
 valve of the young shell. In very good specimens, when the umbones are 
 not worn or eroded, the two valves that were formed by the animal ere it 
 
BIVALVE SHELLS-GENERAL STRUCTURE. 
 
 617 
 
 issued from the egg can be seen crowning the umbones ; they generally differ 
 in shape and marking from the portion subsequently formed and are called 
 the prodissoconch. 
 
 The umbo is generally curved more or less to one side, and usually points 
 towards the head, or anterior end, when the shell is said to be prosogyre, in 
 contradistinction to those in which the umbones are straight, orthogyre, or 
 are directed backwards, opisthogyre. More often than not the two valves 
 are of equal size and shape, and the shell is equivalve, as in the cockle ; 
 sometimes, however, as in the oyster, one valve is smaller than the other, 
 and the shell is inequivalve. The bivalves are all more or less inequilateral; 
 that is to say, if a line be drawn from the umbo to the ventral margin of the 
 valve the portion on one side of that line, usually the front one, will be 
 found to be smaller than that on the other. When the shell is shut it is 
 said to be close, if the valves fit accurately ; and to gape, if openings be left. 
 The ligament is made up of two elements : an external horny, non-elastic 
 layer, or ligament proper, and an inner, fibrous layer, the resilium, which 
 imparts elasticity to the whole. The latter is sometimes separated from the 
 outer layer and situated in a pit, resilifer, in the margin of the shell, or 
 even borne on a process projecting into the interior. This resilium was 
 formerly known under the misleading name of cartilage. The margin 
 of the shell, on which the ligament and the teeth that lie close to it 
 are situated, is termed the hinge line: it is sometimes expanded inwards 
 and forms a sort of platform, the hinge plate, on which the teeth are 
 placed. The central teeth, under the umbo, are termed cardinal, those 
 on each side lateral teeth : frequently some one or other of these, and 
 sometimes all, are wanting. The mode of origin of these teeth is a matter of 
 extreme interest and importance, but is too special a subject to be followed 
 out here. On the interior of the shell in each valve are impressed markings 
 or scars, which indicate the points of attachment of the muscles. Firstly, 
 
 Fig. 5. TOPOGRAPHY OP A BIVALVE SHELL. 
 I,, Exterior of right valve. II. Dorsal view of both valves. 
 
 III. Interior of right valve. 
 
 A, Anterior or front. P, Posterior or hinder end. D, Dorsal area or back, V, Ventral area or 
 under margin, c, Cardinal teeth, al, Anterior lateral teeth, pi, Posterior lateral teeth. 
 aa, Scar of anterior adductor muscle, pa, Scar of posterior adductor muscle, p, Pallial line, 
 ps, Pallial einua. 
 
 there are in the majority of shells e.g., the fresh water mussel two large 
 impressions in each valve, one near the front, the other near the hinder, 
 margin ; these are the scars of the adductor muscles that close the shell. In 
 
6i8 MOLLUSCA CLASS ILPELECYPODA. 
 
 some forms, like the oyster, only one such, the hinder one, remains. 
 Bivalves with two adductor scars in each valve are termed Dimyaria, the 
 others Monomyaria. The reduction and disappearance of the anterior 
 adductor may be accounted for by the more rapid growth of the latter half 
 of the body, which thus tends to bring the two muscles and the hinge into 
 line, when the anterior adductor, being less and less required, is propor- 
 tionately reduced and ultimately disappears. In Pinna the hinge is reduced 
 to the lowest limit instead. Running from one adductor scar to the other 
 in the Dirnyaria, and at a short distance from the ventral margin of the shell, 
 is a shallow groove, the pallial line, which marks the attachment of the 
 muscular mantle. In a large group of the bivalves this line, instead of 
 running in a continuous curve, makes, shortly before it reaches the hinder 
 scar, a sharp bend back towards the centre of the valve, forming a bay or 
 sinus called the pallial simis. Its presence indicates that the animal had 
 retractile breathing tubes or siphons, and to these further allusion will be 
 made later on. Other small scars of lesser importance are generally present. 
 The terms employed in designating the different parts will best be gathered 
 from the accompanying diagrams (Fig. 5). 
 
 No bivalve mollusc possesses a head, and hence the term Acephala, or its 
 equivalent Lipocephala, has sometimes been applied to the class. The animal 
 is enclosed between the two lobes of the thin mantle, one lying on either 
 side of it immediately under the shell. These lobes are attached along the 
 back and reach out to the margin of the valves. In the more primitive 
 forms the mantle margins are quite simple, and open from the front round 
 the ventral edge to the back ; but many different modifications take place in 
 the higher forms. Instead of the margins being simple, there may be folds, 
 
 Fig. 6. DIAGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE THR DIFFERENT FORMS OF MANTLB OPENING AND TTTB 
 FORMATION OF TUB SIPHON. 
 
 A, Mantle open all round. 
 
 B, Mantle margins appl.ed to each other except at e (exhalent aperture) and t (iahalent aperture) 
 
 and where /(the foot) protrudes. 
 
 C, Mantle margins grown together at 1. 
 
 D, Mantle margins grown together at 1 and 2. 
 
 E, Mantle margins prolonged into siphons, e and t (as before), united at 1 and 2. 
 F v Siphons united, alao mantle margins at 2 and 3. 
 
 thickenings, protuberances, tentacles, various glands, and even eyes. Nor are 
 the margins always free ; indeed, in extreme cases, they are united nearly the 
 whole way round. There are various stages (Fig. 6) : counting the open one 
 as the first, in the second the currents of water, instead of being drawn in all 
 the way round, the edges of the mantle are kept close together except where 
 the foot protrudes and at two points at the hinder end, one of which (i) serves 
 to admit the fresh water to the gills and food to the mouth, and is called the 
 
BIVALVE SHELLS-GENERAL STRUCTURE. 
 
 619 
 
 inhalent aperture, whilst the other (e) allows the fouled water to escape and is 
 termed the exhalent aperture. In the next stage the edges of the mantle are 
 united permanently at the point between these two openings, and in the 
 fourth at a second point below the inhalent aperture. In the fifth stage the 
 margins of these apertures have grown out into tubes (siphons), and the 
 remaining portions of the mantle margins have united all round, except 
 where the foot is protruded. Finally, the two siphons become united exter- 
 nally. In these cases there is frequently a fourth small aperture left in the 
 ventral margin. The siphons, the ends of which are frequently fringed, can 
 be wholly or partly withdrawn ; and it is to make room for them within the 
 shell that the pallial attachment is set further back at that point, giving rise 
 to the pallial sinus already spoken of. The proportionate length of the 
 siphons forms a rough index to the burrowing habits of the animal, since the 
 longer the siphons and the more complete the union of the mantle margins, 
 the deeper the mollusc can burrow into the mud or silt and still inhale clear 
 water from above. 
 
 The gills lie underneath the mantle, one on either side, in the space 
 between the latter and the body of the animal. In structure these organs 
 vary progressively from a very simple to an extremely complicated form, and 
 since their features have been made the basis whereby this difficult group is 
 classified, it is necessary briefly to describe them. In the more primitive 
 bivalves the gill is of the foliobranch type (see ante, p. 614); but in the higher 
 Pelecypods they are filibranch, only the filiments of each of the two rows, 
 instead of running separate, have an arrangement whereby they interlock and 
 form a continuous membrane, like the web of a feather. The mechanism by 
 which this is brought about is extremely simple. At regular intervals on either 
 side of each filiment are little patches of stiff hairs which interlock with the 
 corresponding ones on the two neighbouring filiments, just as two brushes 
 can be made to do ; these are known as the ciliated junctions (Fig. 7 E). 
 Moreover, the two membranes lamellce thus arising do not simply depend 
 from the axis, but their edges are folded upwards that of the outer one 
 outwards, that of the inner, inwards, making a W in section as shown at 
 B, Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig, 7. DIAGRAM ILI/CTBTRATING STTCCKSSIVB DEVELOPMENT OF PELECYPOD GILUJ. 
 
 A, Protobranch (or Foliobranch). B, Filibranch. 
 
 Oj Eulamellibranch. D, Septibranch. E, Diagram of Ciliated Junctions. 
 
 A further complication of structure ensues when junctions, called inter- 
 lamellar junctions, are formed between the dependent part of each filament 
 and its reflected portion. In a more advanced stage still both the ciliated 
 
620 MOLLUSCA CLASS IL PELECYPODA, 
 
 and the interlamellar junctions become solid connections, so that the whole 
 structure presents a spongy appearance, whilst the reflected ends of the 
 filaments, uniting with the walls of the mantle and foot, subdivide the pallial 
 chamber (C, Fig. 7). One further development remains to be mentioned, in 
 which the gills have become converted into a sort of party wall. The follow- 
 ing diagrammatic drawings will make these various stages more clear (Fig. 7). 
 
 The muscular foot is a prominent feature in most bivalves, lying in the 
 middle line towards the front of the body. It is actuated by special muscles, 
 and is principally of service in forcing a way for the creature into the sand 
 or mud ; in a few it is a creeping organ ; whilst the cockles, by its means, 
 take extraordinary leaps. In some forms it is greatly reduced, or altogether 
 wanting. Towards the back of the foot is situated the apparatus for 
 spinning the horny threads by which many bivalves anchor themselves 
 to stones, seaweed, etc. The common mussel is a familiar example, 
 and the bunch of threads is known as the byssus. The animal generally 
 has the power of rejecting its byssus at any time and spinning a fresh 
 one. 
 
 The mouth is situated a little behind and beneath the front adductor 
 muscle; it is unarmed, neither jaw nor radula being present. It is flanked 
 on either side by a pair of twin, triangular lobes, the labial palps, which are 
 in a line with, and in front of, the gills. Their function apparently is to 
 collect, and possibly to taste, the food before it passes into the mouth. A 
 short oesophagus leads to the stomach at the base of the foot, whence the 
 intestine, more or less coiled, leads off, and, after passing through the peri- 
 cardium, terminates beneath the hinder adductor muscle, at the base of the 
 exhalent siphon. 
 
 The heart, in addition to the ventricle, which frequently encircles the 
 alimentary canal, has usually two auricles. The nervous system is sym- 
 metrical, and consists typically of three pairs of ganglia : The cerebro- 
 pleural, resulting from the fusion of the cerebral and pleural ganglia, lying 
 above the oesophagus ; the pedal ganglia, which are situated in the foot, near 
 its base \ and the visceral ganglia, placed close to the posterior adductor 
 muscle. These ganglia are connected by nerve cords, and supply nerve 
 fibres to the various organs. The remaining anatomical features call for no 
 comment here. 
 
 The classification of the Pelecypoda is a most difficult and vexed question ; 
 but that founded on the structure of the gills, as explained above, will be 
 employed here. The five orders thus created are ; 
 
 I. PROTOBRANCHIATA. 
 II. FILIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 III. PSEUDOLAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 IV. EULAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
 V. SEPTIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 ORDER I. PROTOBRANCHIATA 
 
 Contains the most primitive forms of Pelecypoda, The gills are folio- 
 branchiate in type, and the mantle margins generally open. The foot has a 
 creeping disc on its ventral surface. 
 
 Two families are included in this order the NUCULIDJE and the SOLENO- 
 MYID.E. To the former belong the little nutshells (Nucula), small triangular 
 shells of a plain brown exterior and pearly interior, provided with a series 
 of fine transverse teeth in the hinge, calling to mind a comb, with the re- 
 
BIVALVES-ARKS, NUT-SHELLS, ETC, 621 
 
 silium borne in a small triangular pit in the middle. The umbones are 
 directed backwards. Their close allies, Leda and Yddia, are elongate, and 
 have fewer and more prominent teeth, and a more prominent ligament pit. 
 The family is one of the oldest known, dating back to the earliest geological 
 times, and its modern representatives are found in all seas. 
 
 The SOLENOMYID.E comprise a single genus Solenomya, and are remarkable 
 for being without teeth in the hinge, and in having the periostracum greatly 
 prolonged beyond the margin of the valves. The typical species, S. togata, 
 is found in the Mediterranean. The genus also occurs on the east coast of 
 North America, the Antilles, Patagonia, New Zealand, and Australia. 
 
 ORDER II. FILIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 In this order the gill filaments are dependent and reflexed with ciliar, but 
 no interlamellar junctions. The animal generally spins a strong byssus. 
 Four sub-orders are distinguished : 
 
 Sub-order 1. ANOMIACE^R, whose typical genus Anomia is well-known by 
 the common A. ephippium, found on our shores. The shell is very variable 
 in shape, but the right valve is generally the flatter of the two, since it is 
 moulded to the surface of the object the animal is attached to. The strong 
 byssus, by which it holds on consists of a shelly "plug," instead of a bundle 
 of threads, and passes through a notch in the right valve near the umbo. 
 When quite young the notch is in the ventral margin of the valves, as in the 
 next group, but the shell subsequently grows round it. There are no teeth 
 in the hinge ; only a single adductor muscle, the posterior one, is present in 
 the adult; and the heart projecting into the pallial cavity lies almost with- 
 out the body. The Saddle oyster, f lacuna sella, also belongs to this group. 
 
 Sub-order 2. ARCACEA, of which the Noah's Ark- 
 shells are the type (Fig. 8), have hinge-teeth like Nucula; 
 but the ligament is external, extends for ward in advance 
 of the umbones, and spreads over the wide space be- 
 tween the two beaks, frequently obtaining additional 
 hold by grooves in the shell. In Area there is often 
 a strong and sometimes shelly byssus, which passes 
 through an opening in the ventral margin of the shell. 
 The two adductors are nearly equal in size. The 
 mantle margins are entirely open. The genera Pec- 
 tunculus and Limopsis have much rounder shells ; the A ARCA 
 
 teeth are far fewer, and less comb-like than in Area. ' A 
 
 All three genera are represented on our coasts, and have a wide distribu- 
 tion ; whilst Area dates back to almost the earliest geological times. 
 
 Sub-order 3. TRIGONIACEA, represented by a single family, TRIGONIID.E, 
 having one genus Trigonia. This genus, now confined to the Australian 
 seas, was in geological times very widely distributed. The living species are 
 beautiful pearly shells, roughly triangular in shape and externally ribbed, 
 after the manner of a cockle-shell. The right valve bears two cardinal teeth ? 
 the left four. These teeth are transversely grooved. There is no byssus. 
 
 Sub-order 4. MYTILACEA is so well known through its representatives the 
 common marine mussel, Mytllus edulis, and the Horse- mussel, Modiola 
 
622 MOLLUSCA-CLASS IL-PELECYPODA. 
 
 modiolus, as to need no further description. The genus Mytilus is world- 
 wide in its distribution : Modiola is chiefly tropical. 
 
 The genus Crenella is interesting on account of its hinge margin, which is 
 crenulated behind the ligament. Lithodomus, the Date- shell, so called from 
 its resemblance in external shape to a date-stone, is an interesting example 
 of adaptation to habitat. It perforates corals and the hardest rocks, forming 
 for itself a long, narrow burrow into which it exactly fits. 
 
 The fresh-water genus Dreissensia, introduced into this country from the 
 Baltic on timber, may be placed here rather than with the fresh- water mussels, 
 despite certain of its anatomical features, till its true affinities shall have been 
 determined. 
 
 ORDER III. PSEUDOLAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 In this division, to which the oyster belongs, the mantle is entirely 
 open ; the foot is but little developed, and the gill filaments are reflected 
 and joined by interlamellar connections. The order is further subdivided 
 into AVICULACIA, OSTREACEA, PECTINACEA. 
 
 Sub-order 1. Th e A VICULACE A, or swallow shells, 
 are so called from the fancied resemblance pre- 
 sented by representative forms, when the two 
 valves are spread open, to a flying bird (Fig. 9). 
 
 They are extremely pearly shells, indeed the 
 
 Fig. a-AvrouiAHntuNDo. P ear | ^ ter of Commerce is a conspicuous ex- 
 ample, the nacreous layer being the thickest ; 
 the middle layer of the shell is prismatic and 
 
 consequently brittle ; the periostracum is very thin. In shape they are 
 inequivalve ; the hinge is long and straight, with few and obscure teeth, 
 or none at all, and the hinge line is usually produced on either side of the 
 umbones, forming expansions, technically known as ears. 
 
 The ligament is external, and placed in a groove or grooves. The posterior 
 adductor is very large ; the anterior, situated close to the umbo, is small, or 
 sometimes wanting ; the pallial line is represented by a chain of small 
 isolated scars. They spin a strong byssus, which issues through a notch in 
 the right valve beneath the front ear. They dwell in temperate or tropical 
 seas, and in point of geological time are found right back to almost the earliest 
 fossiliferous rocks. The principal genera are Avicida, Meleagrina (the 
 pearl oyster), Malleus (the hammer-headed oyster), Perna, in which the 
 ligament is crumpled into numerous folds, occupying transverse grooves in the 
 thick hinge, and the common Pinna. 
 
 Sub-order2. TheOsTREACEA,of which theoyster(0srea)is the type, present 
 some points of great interest other than gastronomic. The mantle margin is 
 double and finely fringed, forming the so-called "beard." The foot is reduced 
 to a rudiment, and there is no byssus. The anterior adductor in the adult 
 is entirely wanting ; but in the embryo, that, as in all bivalves, is the first 
 of the two adductors to be formed, the posterior developing later and per- 
 sisting, whilst the former disappears. The stage in which both are present 
 has not yet been seen in the European oyster. Traces of teeth are some- 
 times to be observed. Oysters are world- wide in their distribution, if Arctic 
 seas be omitted. 
 
 Sub-order 3. The PECTINACEA are best known by the scallop (Pecten), of 
 
BIVALVES OYSTERS, MUSSELS, ETC. 623 
 
 which there are numerous species, many of them most beautifully coloured and 
 marked. As in the oyster, the mantle margins are double and fringed, but 
 in addition, there is a row of conspicuous round black eyes. Most of the 
 pectens spin a byssus when young, and some do habitually; whilst many not 
 only remain free but move about, progressing through the water by rapidly 
 opening and closing their valves. With few exceptions the Pecten shells are 
 ornamented with radiating ribs. The genus Lima resembles pecten, but is 
 more elongate and not so equilateral. 
 
 The thorny oyster (Spondylus) is ornamented, as its popular name suggests, 
 with spines and other shelly prominences. The Spondyli attach themselves to 
 various objects, sometimes slightly by a few spines, sometimes by the whole 
 surface of a valve. Two curved teeth in each valve so interlock with corre- 
 sponding sockets in the other that it is impossible to separate them without 
 damage. The big Water Spondylus in its growth leaves cavities in the shell 
 substance which retain sea water. 
 
 ORDER IV. EULAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 In this order is included the great majority of the bivalves. The gills have 
 complete interfilamentary and interlamellar junctions. Both adductors, with 
 few exceptions, are present. The hinge teeth are few and strong. 
 
 The following seven sub-orders may conveniently be distinguished: SUB- 
 MYTILACEA, TfiLLINACEA, VENERACEA, CARDIACEA, MYACEA, PHOLADACEA, 
 ANATINACEA. 
 
 Sub-order 1. SUBMYTILACEA. The Submytilacea are generally devoid of 
 siphons, and hence the pallial impression is simple. They are more nearly 
 related to the Mytilacea than to the Pseudolamellibranchiata just described ; 
 indeed the Dreiasensiidse and the fossil Modiolopsidre are by some included 
 in the Mytilacea, and the Unionidse and ^Etheriid?9 placed close to them. 
 
 The UNIONISE include, amongst others, the fresh-water mussels familiar 
 to all. The young, as soon as they leave the parent shell, attach themselves 
 to passing fish, and, becoming buried in the skin, pass a short period of 
 their lives as parasites. This stage of the young mussel, till its true nature 
 was ascertained, was called Glochidium. 
 
 The ^.ETHERIID.E include sEtheria,, the fresh- water oyster of the Nile, 
 that has a remarkable cellular shell, the layers on the inside looking like 
 blisters. The corresponding South American form, Mnlleria, has only a 
 singrle (posterior) adductor, and looks yet more like an oyster. 
 
 The CYRENID^, another fresh-water family, are represented in the British 
 Isles by the genera Cydas and Pisidium. Formerly there was a third 
 genus, Corbicula, which spread all over Europe and Siberia, but is now 
 confined to warmer climes. 
 
 The Cyrenidoe have equivalve, subtriangular shells with brown periostra- 
 cum. The hinge has two or three cardinals, and laterial teeth are present, 
 which in Corbicula are striated ; the ligament is external. The siphons 
 are short. 
 
 Amongst the marine forms belonging to this group are the CARDITID^:, 
 stout, equivalved, heart-shaped shells, generally with radiating ribs like the 
 Cockles, and having a strong hinge with one or two oblique cardinal teeth 
 and one or two laterals ; the ligament is external. One member of the family, 
 Cardita concamerata, is remarkable for the curious egg-pouch, formed by an 
 infold of the ventral margin of the mantle and shell. The Carditidse are 
 
624 MOLLUSCA CLASS ILPELECYPODA. 
 
 principally inhabitants of southern waters, but are represented in the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 The ASTARTID^E, on the other hand, are northern forms. Their shells are 
 rather flattened, subtriangular, or ovoid in outline, marked with concentric 
 ribs, and covered with a thick brown periostracum. There is a strong hinge 
 with two or three cardinal teeth in each valve ; the ligament is external. 
 
 The CRASSATELLID^E, another family of southern range, have a much longer 
 shell, generally subtriangular and concentrically ribbed ; there is a distinct 
 lunule ; the hinge is furnished with two or three cardinals in each valve ; the 
 resilium is lodged in a pit between the teeth. 
 
 The ARCTICID^E are best known by the Arctica [ = Cyprina] Islandica of our 
 own northern shores. It has a strong, fairly globose shell, with prominent 
 umbones, covered with a rough brown periostracum ; there is no lunule. 
 The ligament is external ; the hinge teeth well developed, and, like those of 
 the Veneracea, there are two cardinal teeth, two posterial laterals, and two 
 feeble anterior laterals in each valve. Another genus, Libitina, is found in 
 the Red Sea and Indian Ocean ; it is an oblong shell with very long, straight, 
 posterior teeth. Another member of the group is Coralliophaga^ which, in 
 external form, closely resembles LithodomuSj already alluded to under 
 Mytilacea. 
 
 The ISOCARDIID^E, or heart-cockles, which were formerly associated with 
 the preceding, have very globose shells, and very prominent, widely separated, 
 spiral umbones. The ligament which follows the umbones in their growth 
 is split in front and curved out on either side. 
 
 A contrast to the foregoing is offered by most of the LUCINID^J, which 
 have very round, but rather depressed, and generally white shells, with 
 small umbones. The teeth, when well developed, comprise two cardinal and 
 one lateral in each valve ; the ligament is internal and very large. There is 
 generally, in addition to the usual muscular scars on the interior, the mark 
 of a muscular attachment running obliquely right across the valves. The 
 foot is long and cylindrical. The UNGULINID^E, with a single genus Ungulina, 
 are closely allied. 
 
 The three remaining families, KELLYELLID.E, ERYCINID/E, and GALEOM- 
 MID.E are small shells, which have the common characteristic of a foot 
 adapted for creeping ; many of them when thus crawling spread the valves 
 wide open. The mantle is generally more or less reflected over the shell, 
 and in Ephippodonta and Clamydoconcha it completely and permanently 
 envelopes the valves. 
 
 Sub-order 2. TELLINACEA. These have very long siphons, which are not 
 united ; the pallial sinus is correspondingly deep ; the foot is large and 
 flattened. 
 
 In the type family TELLINID^:, or sunset shells, the shell is generally very 
 elongate, sometimes smooth and polished, sometimes marked with concentric 
 ribs, and oblique and gaping behind. There are two cardinal and two lateral 
 teeth, one anterior and one posterior, in each valve ; the ligament is external. 
 The Tellinidae are world-wide in their distribution, but the finer specimens 
 come from tropical seas. 
 
 The SCROBICULARIID^ are Tellinse in which the ligament is internal ; they 
 love the mud of estuaries to dwell in, and obtain their food from it. 
 
 The PSAMMOBIID.E resemble the Tellinidae both in shell and animal. ^The 
 former, however, is more equivalve, less twisted, and gapes more widely 
 
BIVALVES VENUS SHELLS, COCKLES, ETC. 625 
 
 behind. The hinge plate is broader and there are no lateral teeth. As their 
 name indicates, they are sand dwellers. A few occur on the British coasts, 
 but the finer examples come from the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 
 
 The DONACID^E, or wedge shells, are very inequilateral, the front portion 
 being much longer than the truncated hinder part. The exterior is usually 
 smooth, the umbones are directed backwards, and the margins of the valves' 
 are usually very finely crenulated, whilst the pallial sinus is deep. There 
 are two or three cardinals and two laterals, one anterior and one posterior, 
 in each valve. 
 
 The TANCREDIID^E have very similar shells to the Donacidse. 
 
 The MACTRID^E are a large and widely- distributed family dwelling in sand. 
 The shell is equivalve and somewhat triangular ; commonly smooth and white, 
 with a trace of periostracum. The hinge is usually marked by the conspicu- 
 ous internal resilium lodged in a deep pit ; but in some forms the whole 
 ligament is external. The hinge-plate is well developed; the teeth vary 
 somewhat, typically there is a A-shaped cardinal tooth in each valve in front 
 of the resilifer, and single anterior and posterior lateral teeth in the right 
 valve fitting into double ones in the right one. 
 
 The CARDILIID^: are very similar in their shell to the preceding, and are 
 probably closely allied to them, bub their anatomy is still unknown. 
 
 The MESODESMATIDJK resemble the Mactridae in their anatomy, but the 
 siphons are not united, the shell usually is more like that of Donax with 
 umbones directed backwards. 
 
 Sub-order 3 VENERACEA. These have usually short siphons, and there- 
 fore a moderate pallial sinus. The shells of 
 the principal family, VENERID^E, are remarkable 
 for the elegance of their forms and colours. 
 Their texture is very hard and procellaneous, 
 the exterior is frequently smooth and highly 
 polished, sometimes ornamented with V-shaped 
 lines of colour,sometimes with concentric grooves, 
 \vh : lst a few have projecting plates or spines 
 (Fig. 10). The margins are closed, and often 
 crenulate. The siphons are more or less united. 
 The ligament is external, and there is a well- Fig. 10. CYTHERKA DICNK. 
 marked lunule ; the hinge is strong, and con- 
 sists of three well-developed cardinal teeth in each valve, two out of the 
 three appearing double ; the laterals are variable. 
 
 The PETRICOLID^E, which occupy burrows in limestone, are very elongate ; 
 in their shape and external markings they closely resemble the well-known 
 rock-borer Pholas, though they are readily distinguished by the possession 
 of three cardinal teeth in each valve. 
 
 The GLAUCOMYID^E, which are fresh, or brackish-water forms, have very 
 long siphons, and live buried in the mud of estuaries in India, China, and 
 the Eastern Archipelago. The shell is shaped like Mya. 
 
 Sub-order 4. CARDIACEA comprises the cockles and their allies. The shell 
 
 is heart-shaped, with an internal ligament, and there are She or two cardinals 
 
 in each valve ; whilst the right valve usually carries two anterior and two 
 
 posterior laterals, which receive the corresponding single teeth of the 
 
 41 
 
626 MOLL USC A - CLASS IT. -PELECYPODA. 
 
 left valve. The siphons are short and deeply fringed ; the foot very long 
 and slender. 
 
 The cockles, CARDIID.*:, live buried in sand or sandy mud, and in some 
 species with a prickly shell the size and number of the spines is dependent 
 on the nature of the sea bottom, the spines being fewest in those which 
 bury in the firmest silt. The shells of the genus Hemicardium are the most 
 peculiar in shape of almost any bivalve, for they are much shorter than wide 
 or thick. 
 
 The "giant clam" (Tridaena), and the bear's-paw (Hippopus), so commonly 
 used to make shell-baskets, form the family TRIDACNID.E. In these no 
 anterior adductor is present in the adult, nor are there any siphons. The 
 shell is ornamented with radiating ribs, and the margins are deeply 
 indented. The hinge has a single cardinal in each valve, and two posterior 
 laterals in the right, one in the left valve. Tridaena is the largest bivalve 
 known, either recent or fossil, T. gigas attaining 2 ft. in length. It lives 
 in coral reefs moored by its huge byssus, which issues through the large 
 notch in the valves in front of the umbones. The animal is most gaudily 
 coloured, rivalling the corals amongst which it dwells. Large dull pearls are 
 sometimes found in it. Hippopus, on the other hand, has a close-fitting 
 shell, through it spins a small byssus. It, too, is a reef-dweller. 
 
 The CHAMID^E, which resemble oysters in external appearance, and in 
 being attached, are inequivalve, with sub-spiral umbonea and external 
 ligament. The shell is rough, and generally ornamented with frills, or flat 
 shelly projections. Sometimes one valve is attached, sometimes the other ; 
 the hinge teeth consist of two cardinals in the attached, and one in the free 
 valve, with traces of laterals. They inhabit tropical seas. 
 
 Sub-order 5. MTACEA. The shells of this group gape more or less widely, 
 and never completely enclose the animal. The mantle margins are united, 
 except where passage is given for the foot, and at the siphons, which are long 
 and more or less united. The hinge is degenerate. The typical family, 
 Myida, includes the common Mya or "gaper" of our coasts. The animal 
 is difficult to obtain owing to its habit of burrowing a foot down in the mud. 
 Its siphons are encased in an extension of the horny periostracum, and are 
 never completely withdrawn into the shell. The hinge is peculiar : from the 
 left valve at the umbo a spoon-shaped process projects that carries the 
 resilium, the corresponding attachment in the right valve being underneath 
 the umbo, the hinge plate being folded quite back. Traces of the cardinal 
 teeth are sometimes visible. 
 
 In the SOLENID^E, or razor-shells, the shell is usually very elongate and 
 open at either end. The ligament is external, the hinge teeth are small, 
 usually two or three in each valve. The foot is long and cylindrical; the siphons 
 short, and mostly united. The family is world-wide in its distribution. The 
 common Solen of the English shores is known to all. The razor-fish live 
 deeply bedded in sand or mud, into which they force themselves by means 
 of their powerful foot. By some the Solenidse are placed as a separate 
 group nearer the Tellinidre. , 
 
 The SAXICAVID.E resemble the Myidse, but the gills extend into the cavity 
 of the inhalent siphon. The genus Glycimeris also resembles Mya in its 
 habitat ; but the members of the typical genus Saxicava bore into hard 
 stone, and are generally found in colonies, honeycombing the rocks with 
 burrows sometimes 6 in. in depth, nor do they scruple to drill through 
 
BIVALVES PI D DOCKS, SHIP-WORMS, ETC. 627 
 
 their neighbours should they lie in their path. They are anchored in their 
 crypts by a byssus. The shell is elongate and when young has two teeth in 
 each valve ; these disappear in the adult. It is one of the most widely 
 distributed of all bivalves, and varies a great deal in shape. 
 
 The GASTROCH^NID^ have wedge-shaped shells that gape widely in front ; 
 the anterior adductor scar is smaller than the posterior ; the pallial sinus is 
 deep ; the gills are as in Saxicava; the siphons naked and united. The 
 ligament is external ; sometimes a single cardinal tooth is present. Some 
 members of the family line their burrows with a shelly tube, to which, 
 however, they are in no way attached. 
 
 Sub-order 6. PHOLADACEA. In this are included the Pholas, or piddock, 
 known to every sea-side visitant, the ship-worm, and their allies. The 
 PholadidsB have white, brittle shell's, roughened like a file on the outside ; 
 they are generally elongate and gape at both ends widely ; but in one genus, 
 Jouanettia, the two valves form an almost spherical shell, with one small 
 aperture. There is no hinge properly speaking, or ligament, the hinge plate 
 being bent back over the umbo and the anterior adductor muscle carried with 
 it so that it lies without the shell. It is by the action of this muscle that 
 the valves are opened, the posterior adductor serving to close them. The 
 little curved, shelly process that arises from beneath the umbo in each valve 
 and projects into the interior serves the purpose of muscular attachment. 
 The animals, which are phosphorescent, have long, united siphons ; the 
 mantle margins are united, except in front, where the large foot, that fills up 
 the opening in the shell, protrudes. The adult animal has additional shelly 
 plates on the back on either side of the umbones. The common Pholas of 
 our shores bores into rocks, the burrows lying parallel to one another ; but 
 some species bore into floating wood across the grain. 
 
 The TEREDINID^E, or ship- worms, have two very small valves widely 
 gaping at both ends, that are borne at the extreme anterior end of the long 
 cylindrical animal. The greater portion of the creatures' length (ordinarily 
 they are a foot long, and sometimes two and a half feet) is taken up by the 
 gills and the fleshy siphons. These last are united to within a short distance 
 of their extremities. At the point where they separate two little shelly 
 pallets, or styles, are found. The true ship-worms bore into timber with the 
 grain, and become so abundant where they once settle that they soon honey- 
 comb and destroy the stoutest balks. Their burrows are lined with shell 
 and sometimes show cross partitioning. One species bores into cocoa-nuts 
 and other woody fruits floating in tropical seas. The tube of the giant 
 Teredo is often a yard long and two in diameter ; it burrows in sand and in 
 the roots of mangroves. 
 
 Sub-order 7. ANATINACEA. In the gills of this group the outer lamella 
 on each side is directed upwards instead of downwards, and its free edge is 
 not reflected. The margins of the mantle are largely united. The shell is 
 usually thin, and pearly within, frequently strengthened at the umbo by a 
 buttress. The hinge rarely has any teeth ; the ligament is generally internal, 
 and more or less divided by a shelly portion or ossicle. The principal 
 families are : PANDORID^E, CHAMOSTREID^, VERTICORDIID^, LYOKSIID^E, 
 ANATINID^E, PHOLADOMYIDJE, and CLAVIGELLIDJE. The Pandoridse are 
 represented in British seas by Pandora, in which the right valve is flat, 
 
628 MOLLUSCA -CLASS III.SCAPHOPODA. 
 
 whilst the left is convex ; the shell is also very inequilateral. There are 
 two diverging resilium grooves at the hinge. It lives buried in sand. 
 
 The single species Chamostrea albida, found off the coast of New South 
 Wales, constitutes the family CHAMOSTR^EIDVE. It has a thick, pearly shell ; 
 the right valve, by which it is attached, is deep and strongly keeled ; the left 
 valve is flat, with a conical tooth in front of the resilifer; the ossicle is 
 extremely large. 
 
 The VERTICORDIID^E and LYONSIID^E are deep-water forms not often met 
 with. 
 
 The ANATINID^E have extremely thin shells, sometimes granular on the 
 surface, and gaping behind. The genus Thracia is British. 
 
 The PHOLADOMYIP^E, represented to-day by a single species, Pholadomya 
 Candida, in the West Indies, was formerly an abundant group. The shell is 
 oblong and equivalve, gapes behind, and is ornamented with obscure radiat- 
 ing ribs. The ligament is internal, and there is one tooth in each valve. 
 
 The CLAVIGELLID^E are in some respects the most interesting members of 
 the group. One genus, Clavigella, bores into rocks, the left valve becomes 
 attached to the wall of the burrow, the right remaining free ; the passage to 
 the exterior, occupied by the siphons, has a shelly lining, which projects 
 freely on the exterior and terminates in two or more frills. 
 
 The other principal genus Brechites [ = Aspergittum], known as the 
 watering-pot shell, burrows in sand, lining the burrow with a shelly tube, 
 into the wall of which the valves of the young shell are built. The free end 
 of the tube is also frilled. The adductor muscles not being required are 
 aborted. When the animal is full grown the bottom of the tube is closed 
 with the familiar perforated plate, secreted by the fringed foot. It occurs 
 only in the tropical seas. 
 
 ORDER V. SEPTIBRANCIIIATA 
 
 Contains two families POROMYID^ and CUSPIDARIID^E principally inter- 
 esting on account of the modification of the gills to form a transverse septem 
 as already described (ante, p. 620). The POROMYID^S are rounded shells with 
 a single tooth in each valve. The siphons are fringed. The CUSPIDARIID^E 
 are represented in British waters. The shell is beaked behind, and the 
 valves are closed except at the end of the beak through which the fringed 
 siphons protrude. There are no teeth in the hinge. 
 
 CLASS III.-SCAPHOPODA, OR SOLENOCONCHA. 
 
 The Elephant's-tooth shells belong to a small but very distinct class of 
 low organisation. The shell is long, slightly curved, and tapers almost to a 
 point, resembling in external appearance a miniature elephant's tusk. It is, 
 of course, quite hollow, and there is an opening at each end ; the one at the 
 small end is generally notched on the ventral, i.e., the convex side. Some- 
 times the shell is finely striated lengthwise. The animal is symmetrical. 
 The margins of the mantle are united beneath, forming a long tube open at 
 either end ; a barrel-shaped prominence or snout represents the head, and 
 the mouth at its extremity is surrounded by leaf like tentacles. 
 
 The formula of the radula is I'l'l'l'l. The alimentary canal is 
 doubled on itself, and terminates about the middle of the ventral side, 
 opening into the mantle cavity, which latter has its efferent opening at the 
 apex of the shell. There are no gills properly so called, but their function 
 
ELEPHANT 'S- TOOTH SHELLS, ETC. 
 
 629 
 
 is probably taken by a double row of retractile filaments, each terminating 
 in a knob-like thickening, that encircle the base of the snout. The heart is 
 quite rudimentary. The foot lies under the snout, and is a long, cylindrical 
 body directed forwards and terminating in three lobes. The nervous system 
 
 1 S CG 
 
 Fig* 11. DENTALIUM SHELL AND DIAGRAM OF ANATOMY. 
 
 AC. Alimentary canal. F t Foot. M', Mantle. S'. Shell. 
 
 CG, Cephalic ganglia. L, Liver. PQ, Pedal ganglia. TT, Tentacles. 
 
 EA, Efferent aperture,, M, Mouth. S, Snout VG, Visceral ganglia. 
 
 is simple and resembles in general arrangement that of the Pelecypoda 
 already described (p. 620), except that the cerebral and pleural ganglia are 
 not fused. The Scaphopoda live in mud, and feed on the small organisms 
 they find in it. 
 
 CLASS IV. GASTROPODA. 
 
 In this class are included mollusca like the snail, whelk, etc., that have a 
 distinct head, and, along the underside of the body, a muscular foot on which 
 they creep ; whilst the visceral mass situated above is sometimes naked, but 
 more often covered with a shell, composed of a single piece. 
 
 The organs of the body are asymmetrical, i.e., those on one side of the 
 body are not matched by corresponding ones on the other. 
 
 The shell is essentially a longer or shorter hollow cone. In some, such as 
 the limpet, it is a simple cone, but in by far the greater number it is an 
 elongated cone, coiled round and round spirally, each coil forming a whorl, 
 the last being the body-whorl. Nearly all spiral shells are dcxtral; that is to 
 say, when placed with the mouth uppermost, and the apex directed away 
 from the observer, the mouth lies to the right hand of the axis of the shell. 
 Some are wound in the opposite direction, and are sinistral. Reversed 
 varieties of shells normally dextral, or sinistral, are met with. 
 
 The axis or columella of the shell is sometimes hollow or umbllicated 
 (the hollow itself being called the umbilicus), sometimes the whorls are 
 closely coiled, and solid pillar of shell results. The apex or extreme top of 
 the shell generally differs in markings and other features from the rest, and 
 offers important characters. This nudeus or protoconch is the portion 
 formed in the egg, hence it is also known as the embryonic shell. 
 
630 
 
 MOLLUSC A CLASS IV. GASTROPODA. 
 
 The spiral 
 the suture. 
 
 ---APEX 
 
 COLUMELLA 
 UMBILICUS 
 
 -ANTIOa CANAl 
 
 Fig. 12. TOPOGRAPHY OF A GASTRO- 
 POD 
 
 channel formed by the junction of the whorls is termed 
 A spiral line traced along the whorls midway between 
 the sutures would mark the periphery. 
 The mouth or aperture has sometimes 
 quite a circular margin (peristome) when it 
 is said to be continuous ; more often it is 
 interrupted, the side next the columella 
 being bounded by the inner wall of the 
 body- whorl only, when the exterior portion 
 is known as the outir lip or labrum, and the 
 other side as the -inner, columella lip or 
 labium. There is frequently a notch in the 
 margin of the aperture near the junction 
 of the outer lip with the body-whorl, and 
 another where it joins the anterior end 
 of the columella: these are respectively 
 termed the posterior and anterior canal, 
 and give passage to the siphons of the 
 animal (Fig. 12). 
 
 The labrum is thin and sharp in most 
 immature shells, and in some adult forms; 
 
 but more frequently it is either thickened, or curved outwards (reflected), 
 or curled inwards (inflected), or expanded, or fringed with spines. When 
 these thickenings or expansions occur periodically during the growth of the 
 shell they form conspicuous transverse markings on the whorl termed varices. 
 The exterior of the shell is also more frequently than not ornamented 
 with either spiral lines or ridges running in the direction of growth, or with 
 transverse markings coinciding with the "lines of growth," or with both. 
 
 Many Gastropods, like the periwinkle, close the aperture of the shell when 
 they retire with a horny, or shelly trap-door, the operculum. It is developed 
 in the embryo within the egg, and to its inner surface are attached strong 
 muscles that hold it firmly in place. The following figures (Fig. 13) give some 
 idea of the principal forms. 
 
 The head of the animal 
 bears either a single pair or 
 two pairs of tentacles, be- 
 neath which, quite in front, 
 the mouth is situated. Of 
 the armature of the mouth 
 mention has already been 
 made (ante, p. 612-14). 
 
 The visceral mass is ex- 
 ternally covered by the 
 mantle, which is in one 
 piece. Towards the front, 
 and a little to the right side, 
 there is, under the edge of 
 the mantle, a cavity in 
 which are placed the gills 
 or gill, whilst into it also 
 the excretory duct and the 
 The mantle margin is sometimes 
 
 Fig 13 PRINCIPAL FOBMS OF OPKRCULA. 
 A, Unguiculate or claw-shaped. B, Concentric. 
 C, MultispiraJ. D, Pancispiral. E, Articulate. 
 
 terminal end of the digestive tract open. 
 
LIMPETS AND KEYHOLE LIMPETS. 631 
 
 prolonged in front of this cavity into a respiratory siphon : a posterior exha- 
 lent siphon is likewise present in certain forms. 
 
 Originally, in all probability, the animal, like the Amphineura, had a 
 straight alimentary canal, terminating behind with a gill on either side of the 
 opening ; but, through the operation of causes which need not here be dis- 
 cussed, the alimentary canal first became arched, then its hinder portion was 
 tucked- under, so to speak, whilst subsequently the visceral mass became 
 twisted, the hinder portion, with the gills, being forced round by the right 
 side to the front, so that in its final stage what had been the left gill is, in 
 the typical gastropod of to-day, now on the right side, whilst the right one 
 has passed over the neck to the left side. This last, however, is wanting in 
 the majority of Gastropoda. 
 
 In the process of this torsion the visceral nerve-loop became twisted into a 
 figure of 8, and, though in one great group the body is again untwisted, 
 traces of its former contortion can still be traced in the nerve-loop. 
 
 The Gastropoda are divided first into two sub-classes : A, Streptoneura, in 
 which the visceral nerve-loop forms a figure of 8 ; and B, Euthyneura, in which 
 the loop is not thus twisted. 
 
 SUB-CLASS A. STREPTONEURA. 
 
 To this section the name Prosobranchiata has also been applied, since the 
 gills are in advance of the heart. There is only a single pair of tentacles, 
 the eyes being situated on prominences near their bases. The sexes are 
 usually distinct. 
 
 They are further sub-divided, according to the structure of their gills, into 
 Scutibranchiata and Pectinibranchiata. 
 
 ORDER I. SCUTIBRANCHIATA 
 
 (Sometimes called Diotocardia because the heart has two auricles) comprises 
 the Limpets, Keyhole Limpets, Ormers, and Top-Shells. 
 
 For convenience they are further sub-divided, according to the arrangement 
 of the teeth on the radula, into Docoglossa and Rhipidoglossa. 
 
 Sub-order 1. The DOCOGLOSSA, or limpets, are characterised by their simple 
 conical shell without any operculum. The animals adhere by the sucker- 
 like foot to rocks between tide-marks. There are three families : The 
 ACM^:ID^E in which there is but one true gill. The genus Scurria has in 
 addition a series of leaflets arising from the mantle in a circle between it and 
 the foot, that also serve for the purpose of respiration, and are known as 
 pallial gills. The PATELLID.E, to which the common limpet belongs, have a 
 circlet of pallial gills, but nearly all trace of the ordinary gill has disappeared. 
 The LEPETID^E, going a step further, have neither ordinary nor pallial gills, 
 nor have they any eyes. 
 
 Sub-order 2. RHIPIDOGLOSSA. The radula of this group is very distinctive. 
 The teeth are numerous and weak, the large number of uncini being 
 especially remarkable. 
 
 The FISSURELLID.E, called keyhole limpets on account of the aperture in 
 the shell that communicates with the pallial chamber, where the two gills 
 are. In Emargimda, the "keyhole" takes the form of a notch in the edge 
 of the shell. 
 
632 MOLLUSCA-CLASS IV. GASTROPODA. 
 
 The PLEUROTOMIDJS, or slit-shells, have conical, spiral shells with a notch 
 in the outer lip at the periphery. The typical genus Pleurotoma is one 
 of the rarest of living sea-shells (only a few 
 specimens have ever been dredged), but they 
 include one very fine example measuring over 6 in. 
 in height (Fig. 14). There are two gills and the 
 mantle is slit in front. The shell is pearly within, 
 and there is an operculum. 
 
 The H AUCTION, or ormers, have an ear-shaped, 
 flat, spiral, pearly shell, with a row of perforations, 
 a very wide aperture, and no operculum. The 
 animal has two gills, of which the right one (left 
 in position) is the smaller. 
 
 In the families next succeeding the mantle is 
 entire ' there ia no slifc . or Perforation in the shell, 
 and only one gill remains, the (originally) left one. 
 The TROCHID^E have spiral shells of conical form, and very largely com- 
 posed of nacre ; they are frequently used for necklaces after the non-pearly 
 outer coat has been removed. Some of the smaller examples are common 
 on our coasts, but the finer and more handsomely coloured ones all come 
 from tropical seas. The operculum is circular, horny, arid spiral. 
 
 The STOMATID^ are for the most part pearly shells with a minute spire 
 and large aperture ; the operculum is like that of the Trochidte. 
 
 The DELPHINULID^E are flat-topped, spiral shells, having few whorls ; the 
 umbilicus is wide and the angles of the whorls rough or spiny ; the interior is 
 pearly. They occur in tropical seas. 
 
 The CYCLOSTREMATID^E are small, sometimes minute, nearly discoidal shells, 
 with cross-ribbing on the whorls. They are not pearly within. 
 
 The TURBINID^E include large and very pearly shells, much used as orna- 
 ments. They have a moderate number of rounded whorls, sometimes very 
 richly coloured. The operculum is calcareous, and sometimes very thick 
 and heavy, with the outer surface frequently beautifully sculptured or 
 coloured : one kind, called cat's-eyes, has been used for necklaces. The 
 Turbinidse are tropical forms. 
 
 The NERITOPSID^E have solid shells much resembling Natica in shape. 
 There is only one living species known. 
 
 The NERITID.E have solid and rather globular shells of not many whorls 
 and very short spire, or none at all; the columellar lip is crenulate or 
 toothed, and the shelly operculum is articulated. The genus Neritina 
 occurs both in the sea and in fresh water. 
 
 The TITISCANIID.E are shell-less : one species only is known, which cornea 
 from the Pacific. 
 
 The PROSPERPINID^, HELICINID^J, and HYDROCENID.E are terrestrial 
 members of the sub-order, in which the gill is absent and the gill cavity 
 transformed into a pulmonary chamber, as in the snail. The shell is more 
 or less globular, and mostly of a yellow tint. All three are tropical families, 
 and occur, the first two in the New World, the laat in the Old. 
 
 ORDER II. PECTINIBRANCHIATA 
 (Sometimes termed Monotocardia, the heart having only one auricle). 
 
 In this order, which includes the majority of the marine Gastropods, 
 only one gill remains, the (originally) left one. The greater number, 
 
PURPLE-SNAILS, WENTLE-TRAPS, ETC. 633 
 
 moreover, are monopectinate ; that is to say, the gill has only one row of 
 filaments. 
 
 The Pectinibranchiata are further divided into sub-orders according to the 
 characters of the radula. 
 
 Sub-order 1. GYMNOGLOSSA. Under this are grouped some more or less 
 parasitic Mollusca which have no radula. The arrangement is artificial but 
 convenient. Two families are distinguished, both of universal distribu- 
 tion : EULIMID.E and PYRAMIDELLID/E. The former are mostly high-spired, 
 very glossy ; small white shells, with slightly bent axis ; at times furnished 
 with an operculum. S >me species are found crawling in the stomachs of 
 sea-cucumbers (Hulothuria), others affix themselves to the exterior of the 
 same creatures by means of the long proboscis, which is thrust through the 
 skin of the host. The genus Stylifer has a glassy, globular shell, and lives 
 amongst the spines of Echinoderms or buried in the skin of star-fish. The 
 Pyramidellidse form the preceding family by the occurrence of plaits or folds 
 on the columellar, and by the fact that the protoconch is sinistral, whilst the 
 rest of the shell is dextral and the axis of the former inclined at a consider- 
 able angle to that of the latter. 
 
 Sub-order 2. PTENOGLOSSA. Two families are associated, probably pro- 
 visionally, under this sub-order, having but one feature in common, viz., the 
 radula contains a great number of similar teeth in each row, the largest 
 being at the outer edges. 
 
 The IANTHINID/E, or purple sea-snails, float about in mid-ocean. Their 
 violet shells are thin and translucent ; the animal has a distinct snout ; the 
 eyes are generally wanting. Two plume-like gills are present. At certain 
 seasons a membranous float or raft, full of air cells, is secreted by the 
 animals, the egg-sacs are attached beneath, and when the whole is complete 
 it is cast adrift. They seem to be gregarious, and stray parties brought by 
 the Gulf Stream are frequently stranded on our western shores. 
 
 The SCALARIID^E, or wentle-traps, are high-spired shells, with the whorls 
 often only united by the prominent varices that occur at regular intervals 
 and impart to the shell its most characteristic feature. The aperture is 
 circular, the operculum horny and spiral. The animal has a retractile 
 snout. The Scalariidse are carnivorous snails and widely distributed. Four 
 species are British. 
 
 Sub-order 3. T^ENIO^LOSSA. To this the greater part of the Pectini- 
 branchiata belongs. The radula usually has the formula 2'1*1'1'2. The 
 various families may be conveniently taken in the following order, bub the 
 position in the group of the first two ia still undecided. 
 
 The SOLARIID/E, called "stair-case shells," from the appearance of the 
 whorls as seen within the open umbilicus of Solarium, comprise forms having, 
 for the most part, depressed shells with wide and deep umbilicus. The 
 opercula vary in the different genera. 
 
 The HOMALOGYRIDJE include one genus Homaloyyra which has a very 
 small, flat, coiled shell with circular operculum. The animal has no tentacles, 
 and the eyes are not on stilks ; the front of the foot is lobed and covered 
 with fine hairs. 
 
 The NATICID^ have, for the most part, very stout, globular shells in which 
 the umbilicus is sometimes open, sometimes more or less completely filled 
 
634 MOLLUSC A CLASS IV. GASTROPODA, 
 
 up with a shelly deposit termed the callus. The operculum is either horny 
 or shelly. The animal of Natica is blind and has an extension of the fore- 
 part of the foot that projects over its head when the animal is crawling ; 
 extensions of the side of the foot also partially envelop the shell. The 
 Naticas prey on bivalves, boring a small hole right through the shell. 
 Several species are British. 
 
 The LAMELLARIID.E have a delicate shell over which the mantle is reflected 
 to a greater or less degree. The aperture is very large and rounded, and 
 there is no operculum. 
 
 The TRICHOTROPID.E have a conical shell ; the whorls are keeled, and 
 the periostracum, where it covers these, is fringed with hairs. They are 
 northern forms and come from moderately deep water. The operculum is 
 short and claw-shaped. 
 
 The NARICIDJE have shells shaped like Nalica, but covered with a velvety 
 periostracum, whilst the shell itself is marked with spiral and transverse ridges, 
 forming a kind of network sculpturing. The operculum is thin and horny. 
 The majority of the XENOPHORID^ may be recognised at once by their 
 curious habit of building into their own shells 
 those or parts of others, stones, corals, or what- 
 ever may happen to be lying on the sea-bottom 
 where they dwell (Fig. 15). 
 
 The shell in the CAPULID^E is limpet-like. 
 In CapuLus, the cap-of -liberty shells, it has a 
 little curly apex ; whilst in the cup-and-saucer 
 limpets (Crucibulum, etc.) there is an internal 
 shelly projection which serves for muscular 
 attachments. 
 
 The HIPPONICID.E have also limpet -like 
 Fig. 15. XENOPHORA. shells, but the mouth is closed by an accu- 
 
 rately-fitting shelly plate attached to some fixed 
 
 object. This plate is secreted by a kind of second mantle that envelopes 
 the under surface of the animal and represents the foot, of which there is 
 none properly so-called. A great horse-shoe-shaped muscle holds the shell 
 to its base. 
 
 The four next families are all dwellers on the land, and in place of the 
 gill, which is not developed, the pallial cavity is converted into a lung, as 
 in the common snail. The animals have a distinct snout. 
 
 The TRUNCATELLIDJE and ARICULID^ are diminutive forms with cylin- 
 drical, many-whorled shells having a blunt apex, and closed with a spiral 
 operculum. 
 
 The CYCLOSTOMATID.E have spiral shells, sometimes top-shaped, sometimes 
 globose, closed by a spiral operculum. One species of Cyclostoma is found 
 on our chalk downs. 
 
 The CYCLOPHORID^E vary much in the shape of their shells, some having 
 high spires, whilst others have none at all. The mouth is always circular, 
 and closed with a tightly-fitting operculum, in which the nucleus is generally 
 central. To enable the creature to breathe, when fast shut in its shell, there 
 is often either a notch in the peristome or an aperture a short distance from 
 the margin, that is occasionally prolonged into a tube. A few examples 
 occur in Southern Europe, but the majority are found in the tropical regions 
 of the Old World. 
 
 The succeeding five families are all fresh or brackish-water forms. 
 
BANDED WATER-SNAILS, PERIWINKLES, ETC. 635 
 
 The ASSIMINIDJB are small, high-spired shells that live in brackish waters, 
 near the mouths of large rivers through Europe, Asia, and in the Antilles. 
 One species is still to be found in ditches beside the mouth of the Thames, 
 but is rapidly becoming extinct. 
 
 The AMPULLARIID^ dwell in tropical lakes and rivers. They have globular 
 shells, with greenish periostracum, and closed with a horny or shelly con- 
 centric operculum. In some species the shell is sinistral. The animal of 
 Ampullaria has a double respiratory chamber one portion for breathing air, 
 the other for respiring water. 
 
 The VALVATID^C, in which there is but a single genus Vatvata, are 
 restricted apparently to the northern hemisphere. Two species occur in 
 Britain. The shell is flat, or moderately spired, and furnished with a many- 
 whorled operculum fitting the circular mouth. 
 
 The VIVIPARIDJS have two common British representatives, known as the 
 banded water-snails. The shell is high-spired with rounded whorls, the 
 mouth is oval, and the operculum horny. 
 
 The right tentacle of the males is shorter than the left, and has a 
 deformed look. The eggs are usually hatched within the parent. The 
 family is confined to the northern hemisphere, except in Africa, where it 
 extends to the head- waters of the Nile. 
 
 The PALUDESTRINID ,E are miniature editions, so to speak, of the preceding; 
 but the tentacles are not modified. The operculum is calcareous in Bythinia. 
 They are world-wide in their distribution, and there are several British 
 representatives. 
 
 The RlSSOZlDJS are minute marine shells, very similar to the preceding ; 
 they are abundant everywhere. The LITIOPLD^E and JEFFREYSIID^E are 
 closely allied to the Rissoiidse. 
 
 The LITTORINID^E, or Periwinkles, both the common one with its round, 
 banded shell arid short, sharp spire, and the yellow one without any spire, 
 are too well known to need description. Some of the species have spiral 
 ridges on the shell. Pagodus has a conical shell with tubercles or spines. 
 The operculum in this family is horny and spiral. 
 
 The FOSSARID^Q are closely allied and very similar to the LittorinidsB. 
 
 The MELANIID^E and PLEUROCERID^E have as a rule very high-spired shells 
 covered with a brown periostracum ; the mouth is simple, and the spiral 
 operculum oval. The whorls are sometimes smooth, sometimes ornamented 
 with spiral ridges and lines of tubercles, or a row of spines near the suture. 
 They are exclusively fresh- water forms. 
 
 The C^ECID^E, sole genus Ccecum, are strange little curved shells without any 
 markings. The young shell is coiled, but the creature, as it grows, breaks 
 off successive portions and blocks up the end with a shelly plate, so that the 
 whole shell is never found in the adult. It has a horny, spiral, circular 
 operculum. Two species occur in Britain. 
 
 The TURRITELLID.E, or screw-shells, have long, slender, pointed shells of a 
 great many whorls, more or less keeled, or ornamented with spiral ridges ; 
 the aperture is small, the lip simple, and the operculum horny, many- 
 whorled, and covered with short hairs. The family has a world- wide 
 distribution. One species of Turritdla is British. 
 
 The VERMETID.E, when young, often have a neatly- wound spiral shell like 
 Turritella, but in the more mature and the adult state this straggles off into 
 an irregular circular tube much resembling those of certain marine worms. 
 The shells are attached to each other in masses or to other objects. The foot 
 
636 MOLLUSC A CLASS IV. GASTROPODA. 
 
 of the animal is plug-like and quite useless for crawling. In the genus 
 Tenagodes the tubular shell is fissured for almost its whole length. 
 
 The CERITHIID.E have long shells like the Turritellidse, but the mouth is 
 not so round and is interrupted by the anterior and posterior canals, the 
 former of which is usually bent to the left. The operculum is horny. The 
 whorls are generally sculptured, or ornamented with ribs, tubercles, or 
 spines. They occur in all parts of the world and dwell in the shallow waters 
 of coasts and estuaries, some even advancing up the rivers into fresh waters. 
 There are three British species. 
 
 The wing-shells, STROMBID.E, APORRHAID^E, and STRUTHIOLARIIDJS, are 
 noted for their strong shells, with very short spire and widely expanded outer 
 lip, which is often drawn out into curved spines. The fountain-shell, 
 Strombus giyas, of the West Indies, the scorpion-shells, Pterocera, and the 
 pelican's-foot shell, Aporrhais, are familiar examples. The operculum, 
 which is rudimentary in all, is horny and claw-shaped : in the Strombida? its 
 outer edge is serrate. 
 
 In the CYPRJSID/E, or cowries, the outer lip of the adult shell is curled 
 inwards, blocking still further the already narrow aperture, which is, 
 moreover, edged with numerous fine teeth, whilst the short spire is almost, 
 if not quite, concealed. The young shell, on the other hand, has a distinct 
 spire and thin, sharp lip. The mantle when the animal is crawling is greatly 
 extended, enveloping the shell, which thus acquires that beautiful polished 
 surface for which the cowries are noted. 
 
 The DOLIIDM are, for the most part, large, thin, and rather globose shells, 
 the fragile whorls of which are strengthened by their walls being corrugated. 
 In Pirula the shell is stouter, and furnished with a long anterior canal. 
 There is no operculum. They are denizens of tropical seas. 
 
 The CASSIDIDJS, or helmet-shells, resemble the preceding, to which they 
 are closely allied, and with which they are found. Their shells, however, 
 have the margin of the outer lip inflected, or thickened and crenulated, and 
 they furthermore possess a fan-shaped, horny operculum. The under-layers 
 of the shell in Strombus, Cyprcea, and Cassis being of a different colour to the 
 upper ones, these shells lend themselves especially to the art of the cameo 
 engraver : the best results are generally those obtained from the Cassis rufa 
 of West Africa. 
 
 The LOTORIIDJS are best typified by the great triton-shell (Fig. 12), which 
 the sea-gods in mythical pictures are represented blowing. It is a fine large 
 shell, with slender pointed spire and numerous varices, resulting from the 
 formation of periodic mouths. The aperture is large and oval, whilst both 
 inner and outer lip are denticulate. The periostracum in this family is 
 usually stout and fibrous : the operculum is horny and claw-shaped. 
 
 The most highly specialised of all the Tsenioglossa are certain pelagic 
 
 forms formerly placed in a separ- 
 ate group, and called Heteropoda 
 or Nucleobranchiata. The 
 
 y-^ , ^wBin -f T-V* -^- animals are remarkable for their 
 
 4^~*~X*3Hft^ ;X*dtf9C*. transparency, all the various 
 
 organs being perfectly visible 
 even through the shell. They 
 swim upside down in the water, 
 
 fig. 16.-CARIKARIA. the flafcfcened f 00t aCfcin g a - fin - 
 
VENUS' -CO MB SHELLS, WHELKS, ETC. 637 
 
 The ATLANTID.E have convolute shells, which in Atlanta is flat, and 
 furnished with a single remarkably deep keel at the periphery, and in 
 Oxygyrus is globose, and provided with many small keels. 
 
 The PTEROTRACH^ID.E, as a rule, have neither mantle, shell, nor tentacles; 
 in Carinaria (Fig. 16), however, there is a cap-shaped, transparent, glassy 
 shell covering the small visceral mass. The animals are carnivorous. 
 
 To the Tsenioglossa, also, in all probability, belong the families CIIORISTID^E, 
 ADEORBID.E, SEGUENZIID/E, and OOCOIIYTHID^:. 
 
 Sub-order 4. RACHIGLOSSA, Mollusca with long retrac- 
 tile proboscis. The formula for the radula is I'l'l; 
 the laterals, however, are often wanting. 
 
 The MURICII^E are a numerous family, chiefly familiar 
 by the many examples of the spiny species of Murea 
 that adorn some people's houses. Their shells have 
 moderate spires and generally a large body-whorl ; the 
 mouth is furnished with both anterior and posterior 
 canals, the former often being of great length, and a 
 horny operculum. They are usually more or less 
 spirally ribbed, whilst Murex has numerous strong 
 varices frequently ornamented with spines of great 
 length, which, in the Venus* Comb (Fig. 17), extend the Fi(j 17 
 
 whole length of the anterior canal. The dog-periwinkle, MDRBX TENUI-SPINA. 
 Purpura lapiUus, so common on our coasts, belongs to 
 this family. 
 
 The CORALLIOPHILTDJE live amongst masses of coral ; Magilus, indeed, 
 becomes buried in them, and forms a tubular shell to keep pace with the 
 coral as it grows. The young Magilus, before it becomes fixed, and the 
 other members of the family resemble Purpura, both in shell and animal, but 
 have no radula. 
 
 The COLUMBELLIDJE are small fusiform shells resembling Strombus in shape ; 
 but the lip, instead of being expanded, is thickened and dentate within ; the 
 aperture is narrow and the anterior canal short. 
 
 The NASSIDJS, or dog-whelks, have a shell like the common whelk, only 
 smaller ; the outer lip is thickened and dentate ; the columella lip is 
 thickened with a callus ; the operculum is horny ; the wide, thin foot 
 of the animal is divided behind into two tails. Nassa reticidata is very 
 common on our coasts. 
 
 To the BUCCINID.E belong the common whelk and its allies. The siphon 
 is rather long and allows the animal to burrow in the mud in search of the 
 bivalves on which it feeds, boring a neat little hole in their shells and rasp- 
 ing out its victim with the radula in its long, retractile proboscis. The foot 
 is large and thin ; the operculum horny and oval ; a scanty, rough 
 periostracum is found on fresh specimens, but soon rubs off. 
 
 The TURBINELLID.E have generally pear-shaped, solid shells, usually with 
 shelly plaits or folds on the columella ; the anterior canal is fairly long. 
 They are for the most part tropical forms. To this family belongs the 
 largest known Gastropod, Semifusus proboscidiferus, which attains 2 ft. in 
 length. It comes from Australia. 
 
 The FASCIOLARIIDJE have elongate fusiform shells ; the spire is generally 
 high and pointed and the anterior canal long. The columella bears several 
 shelly plaits or folds ; the lip is simple, and the horny operculum bluntly 
 claw- shaped. The whorls are frequently ornamented with tubercles arranged 
 
638 MOLLUSC A CLASS IV. GASTROPODA. 
 
 spirally, and with spiral stride. The members of this family, also, chiefly 
 inhabit southern seas. 
 
 The MITKID^E are more cylindrical shells than the preceding, with more 
 or less acute spire and narrow aperture, without operculum ; the columella 
 bears several folds, of which the hindermost, i.e., the one furthest from the 
 well-marked anterior canal, is the largest. The Mitridse are tropical shells, 
 the best-known examples being, perhaps, Mitra episcopcdis, which is white, 
 with squarish, red spots arranged in rows. 
 
 The VOLUTID^J include some of the finest of the tropical shejls. The 
 animal has a long foot and a wide, flat head ; the shell varies, being spindle- 
 shaped in some, and greatly swollen in others ; in all, however, the aperture 
 is large, the outer lip slightly turned out, the margin simple, notched for the 
 siphon at the anterior end next the columella, which ends in a point, and 
 bears several folds. The protoconch is set obliquely. 
 
 The MARGINELLID^E have oval, or sub-conoidal, shells that are shining and 
 polished, without operculum. 
 
 The HARPID.E include but a single genus, Harpa, to the shell of which the 
 periodic mouths impart its characteristic lirate appearance. The spire is 
 short, the aperture wide, lip simple, with anterior siphonal notch ; there are 
 no folds on the columella, nor is there any operculum. The Harps are found 
 in tropical seas, and so, too, are olives, which come next. 
 
 The OLIVID;E, or olives and rice - shells, in point of polished surface 
 and in colour-markings, are equal to the cowries. They are more or less 
 cylindrical, with a short spire and long, narrow mouth; the columella is 
 callous, and bears several plaits towards the anterior extremity an oper- 
 culum is sometimes present. 
 
 Sub-order 5. TOXOGLOSSA. The radula normally has the formula 1/0 1, 
 and the teeth are large. 
 
 The CANCELLARIID^E include but one genus, Cancellaria, so named from 
 the cancellate, or cross-marked sculpturing of the shell, which is oval, or 
 turreted, with anterior siphonal notch ; the columella is strongly plicate ; the 
 operculum is wanting. 
 
 The PLEUROTOMIDJE include a great number of spindle-shaped shells, most 
 of which bear a characteristic notch in the outer lip, and a marked anterior 
 canal ; the columella is smooth ; the operculum is not always developed. 
 
 The CONID.E are too universally known to require description, their 
 conical shells, with long, narrow apertures, are only approached in form in 
 one or two exceptional instances by members of other families. The 
 operculum, when present, is very small, and almost rudimentary. Perhaps 
 the most remarkable feature about the animal lies in its radula, the teeth 
 of which are proportionately large, are barbed, and perforated by a duct 
 leading to a poison gland. This character has not been observed in any 
 other group. The cones are essentially tropical inhabitants. The varied 
 markings of their shells are completely concealed during the lifetime of the 
 occupant by the tough periostracum in which they are enveloped. 
 
 The TEREBRID^?, or auger shells, are extremely long and slender, with 
 many whorls, which are sometimes smooth but often ribbed ; the mouth is 
 oblique, with simple, thin lips and large anterior notch ; the columella is 
 without folds. The horny operculum is bluntly claw-shaped. The sole 
 genus, Terelra, is entirely confined to tropical seas. 
 
BULL AS AND SEA-BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 639 
 
 SUB-CLASS B. EUTHYNEURA. 
 
 Gastropoda, in which the visceral nerve-loop, with one exception, is not 
 twisted into a figure of 8, and in which the nerve ganglia are brought closer 
 together around the oesophagus. The twist in the visceral mass is not so 
 great as in the preceding sub-class, and the pallial cavity with its accompany- 
 ing organs lies on the right side of the body. The head generally bears two 
 pairs of tentacles ; the radula is usually composed of rows of uniform teeth 
 on either side of a central one ; and the sexes are united in each individual. 
 
 The Euthyneura are divisible into two orders Opisthobranchiata and 
 Pulmonata. 
 
 ORDER I. OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. 
 
 In this group the heart is placed in front of the gills. The order is sub- 
 divided into Tectibranchiata and Nudibranchiata. 
 
 Sub-order 1. TECTIBRANCHIATA. The animal possesses a shell usually 
 more or less completely concealed by the folds of the mantle and skin. For 
 convenience this sub-order is further divided into three groups Bulloidea, 
 Aplysioidea, and Pleurobranchoidea. 
 
 A. BULLOIDEA. 
 
 The Bulloidea have a well-developed shell, external or internal (Fig. 18 
 A-C); the head is generally devoid of tentacles, and the skin of the upper 
 part is produced into a broad disc. In many the stomach is armed with 
 shelly plates for crushing the shells of their prey. 
 
 Fig. 18. TKOTIBRANCHS. 
 
 A, Actaeon. 
 
 B, Bulla. 
 
 C, Philine. 
 
 D, Dolabella. 
 
 Fig. 19 PTKROPODS. 
 A, Spiralia. 0, Cleodora. 
 B, Eurjbia, D, Limacina 
 
 The genus ActcE^n is distinctly streptoneurous and thus forms a con- 
 necting link between the Streptoneura and Euthyneura. It has an 
 ovate, spired shell, with pointed apex and a narrow aperture that widens 
 out in front. The horny operculuru is elliptical in shape. 
 
640 MOLLUSC A CLASS IF. GASTROPODA. 
 
 In the genus Tornatina the shell is cylindrical, the apex of the short spire 
 being sinistral ; in Volvulella the spire is no longer raised, the shell being 
 convolute, i.e., wound on itself like a measuring tape ; in Bulla and 
 JBullinella [ = Cylichna] it is involute, i.e., the spire is sunk, leaving an 
 aperture, whilst the columella is less pronounced ; in Scaphander the latter 
 has disappeared and the shell is without any central axis, the whole interior 
 being visible from the front ; in Philine this is carried still further, the 
 shell, which is internal, being widely open unrolled, as it were. 
 
 To the Bulloidea is now referred that section of the old class Pfceropoda, 
 or sea-butterflies, in which the animal retains its shell in the adult state. 
 
 The chief peculiarity of the Pteropoda lies in the conversion of the foot 
 into a pair of wing-like fins. Their shells vary greatly in shape, whilst their 
 general appearance will best be understood from the foregoing figures (Fig. 19). 
 
 The following families are referred to the Bulloidea : Actseonidfe, Torna- 
 tinidse, Scaphandridre, Bullidaj, Aplustridpe, Ringiculidre, Gastropteridre, 
 PhilinidfB, Doridiidse, Runcinidre, Oxynoidse, Limacinidte, Cymbulidre, 
 Cavolinidse. 
 
 B. APLYSIOIDEA. 
 
 Tn the Aplysioidea the shell is either very greatly reduced or wanting 
 altogether ; the head carries two pairs of tentacles. 
 
 The APLYSIIDVE, or sea-hares, have large bodies of greenish or oiive-greeii 
 hue, with a pair of lappet-like extensions of the foot folded over the back ; 
 the shell, concealed beneath the mantle-folds, is thin, covered with a horny 
 periostracum, triangular in shape, and flexible when first removed from 
 the animal (Fig. 18 D). 
 
 The shell-less sea-butterflies are now placed with this group, which 
 includes the following families : Aplysiidse, Pneumonodermatidso, Clionop- 
 sidse, Clionidse, Notobranchseidae, and Eurybiidse. 
 
 C. PLEUROBRANCHOIDEA. 
 
 The Pleurobranchoidea have two pairs of tentacles, no lappet-like 
 extensions of the foot, and no gill cavity, the gill occupying a narrow 
 space between the mantle and the foot. 
 
 In the PLEUROBRANCHID^E, the thin flexible shell which is covered by the 
 mantle is large, oblong, and nearly flat, with the nucleus at the hinder 
 margin. In Umbrella, the sole genus in the family UMBRELLIDJS, the 
 external shell is a flat, circular disc, with the nucleus nearly in the centre. 
 
 Sub-order 2. NUDIBRANCHIATA. The sea- 
 slugs are shell-less in the adult state, but possess 
 when still in the egg both shell and operculum. 
 There are no true gills ; their place is taken by 
 certain tentacle-like organs that sometimes are 
 placed in a cluster near the end of the body 
 (Fig. 20 A), and sometimes ranged in rows 
 down the back (Fig. 20 B). These "branchial 
 leaflets," "dorsal appendages," or "cerata," 
 as they are variously styled, frequently bear 
 Fig. 20. NUDIBRANCHS. & sfcr iking resemblance both in form and 
 
 A, Doris. B, Dendronotus. colour to some other marine object, such as a 
 cluster of zoophytes or small sea-weeds, etc. 
 The radula is very variable, sometimes there are many teeth in each 
 
A IR-BREA THING SNA ILS. 64 1 
 
 transverse row, sometimes the whole radula consists of a row of single 
 teeth, one behind the other. In one group, the Elysioidea, the worn- 
 out teeth as they drop off are saved up in a little pouch in front of the 
 mouth. 
 
 The Nudibranchiata are divided into Elysioidea, Tritonioidea, Moli- 
 dioidea and Doridoidea. 
 
 Though they occur on every sea-coast they are not forms often met with 
 by the ordinary student, and hence will not be discussed in further detail. 
 
 ORDER II. PULMONATA. 
 
 In this order are included the vast majority of the land Mollusca (both 
 snails and slugs) and of the fresh-water snails, besides three genera, repre- 
 senting a like number of families, of marine Gastropods. In all, the gills 
 have entirely disappeared, and the pallial cavity has been converted into a 
 breathing organ. The free edge of the mantle has been united to the skin 
 of the neck and back, leaving only a small contractile aperture, whilst on 
 the roof of the chamber thus formed respiration is effected by means of a 
 branching net-work of blood-vessels that surround and lead to the heart, 
 which lies with its auricle to the front. In the marine forms sea water 
 is admitted into this cavity, in the others air is drawn in and then expelled. 
 With one exception no operculum is present in the adult. 
 
 The Pulmonata are divided into BASOMMATOPHORA, or those in which 
 the eyes are placed at the base of the tentacles, and STYLOMMATOPHORA, in 
 which the eyes are borne on the ends of tentacles. 
 
 Sub-order 1. BASOMMATOPHORA. These have one pair of tentacles, which 
 are not retractile, and the eyes are placed at their bases. All have an 
 external shell, and, in the egg, an operculum, which is subsequently lost, 
 except in Amphibola. 
 
 The AURICULID^: greatly resemble the Actreonidse from which in all 
 probability they have descended in the shape of their shells as well as in 
 certain points in their anatomy. The shell is oval in outline, with a 
 prominent spire and large body-whorl, whilst the aperture is long, narrow 
 behind, and widening out in front. There are two or three strong folds on 
 the columella ; the margin of the outer lip is thickened and often more or 
 less toothed on its inner side. They especially frequent salt marshes and 
 damp spots within reach of the waves. The smallest British land-shell, 
 Carychium minimum, is, however, found inland everywhere in damp spots 
 at the roots of grass. 
 
 The OTINIC^J are closely related ; their shells are auriform. They occur 
 between tide-marks, and one species is British. 
 
 The AMPHIBOLID^E are represented by a single genus, Amphibola, which 
 has a globular, spiral shell, with an uneven surface, looking as if it had 
 shrivelled. The operculum is horny and sub-spiral. They live by the 
 margins of the sea in the Indian Ocean, Australia, New Zealand, and the 
 Pacific Islands. 
 
 The SIPHONARIID^E have limpet-like shells, only distinguishable from 
 those of the true Patellidse by the slight, channel-like depression on the 
 interior that marks the position of the opening into the respiratory chamber. 
 Like the limpets they are found clinging to rocks at low water, but do not 
 occur in the colder seas. 
 
 The CHILINID^E are fresh-water forms that occur in South America. The 
 42 
 
642 MOLLUSC A CLASS J 'V. GASTROPODA. 
 
 single genus Cliilinia has a globose shell with wide aperture, a thickened 
 columella with one or two strong folds ; the exterior is ornamented with zig- 
 zag lines and spots of colour. 
 
 The LIMNJEID.E include our commonest pond-snails, Limncea and 
 Planorbis, as well as the little fresh- water limpet, Ancylus, with a few 
 other allied genera. A characteristic feature of their shells is that their 
 surface looks as if it had been beaten with a hammer. 
 
 The LimnseidsB are amongst the most widely distributed of Mollusca, 
 being found from arctic to tropical climes, whilst Limncea can even live in 
 hot springs where the water attains a temperature of 104 F. The shells 
 of Limncea vary from very high to very short spired forms, but all have a 
 very large body-whorl. The genus Planorbis, or the flat-coil shells, are 
 really sinistral forms. Ancylus is found clinging to stones in swift-flowing 
 streams. 
 
 The PHYSIOS are sinistral forms, and have very thin, globular, horn- 
 coloured, and glossy little shells. 
 
 Sub-order 2. STYLOMMATOPHORA. The Stylommatophora have, as a rule, 
 two pairs of tentacles, which can be withdrawn into the body by a process 
 of inversion, and carry their eyes on the summits of the upper pair. They 
 are all terrestrial forms and have an external spiral shell, except the slugs, 
 in which it is reduced to an internal shelly plate, or is wanting altogether. 
 The slugs do not constitute a group by themselves, but belong to different 
 families. 
 
 The land-snails occur in all climes and at all altitudes where life is 
 possible, and include innumerable forms which have been variously 
 divided into a great number of families and sections ; the following, how- 
 ever, may be taken as constituting the principal groups : 
 
 The ONCHIDIID^E are slug-like animals, entirely devoid of any shell, that 
 live close down to the margin of the sea. Only one pair of retractile 
 tentacles, bearing the eyes, is present. Certain species are also furnished 
 with eyes on the back. There is a British representative found locally on 
 the coasts of Cornwall and Devon. 
 
 The VAGINULID^E are shell-less slugs, unrepresented in Europe. Only 
 one genus, Vaginida, is distinguished. 
 
 The ATHOKACOPHORID^, with a single genus, Athoracophorus, have a small, 
 flat, internal, shelly plate. The lower pair of tentacles is wanting. They are 
 found in New Zealand, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides. 
 
 The SUCCINEID^J include snails, in some of which the shell is external, 
 whilst in others it is internal. The lower pair of tentacles is either little 
 developed or wanting. The type genus Succinea, or the amber-snails, are 
 world-wide in their distribution, and have pretty little delicate, amber- 
 coloured, glossy, spiral shells. Two or three species are British. Hyalimax 
 is one of the slug-like members of the family found in the Mascareigne 
 and Nicobar Islands. 
 
 The ACHATINELLUXE occur in the Sandwich Islands. They are prettily 
 marked, and very variable little high-spired shells, that are sometimes 
 dextral and sometimes sinistral. 
 
 The ACHATINID^I include at the same time some of the largest and of the 
 smallest land-snails. The type genus Ackatina is confined to Africa and 
 its islands, although one species has been introduced into the Botanical 
 Gardens in India. It has a high-spired shell, usually with a large body- 
 
SNAILS AND SLUGS. 
 
 643 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 CLAUSILIA, 
 
 showing 
 
 clausium(c)in 
 
 position. 
 
 whorl. The largest species attains 7 in. in length, and lays an egg as large 
 as a pigeon's, with a calcareous shell. Stenogyra has a very long and narrow, 
 many-whorled, glossy shell ; some species are nearly an inch in length. 
 Cfficillianella is very small and lives underground. It is, as its name implies, 
 blind. One species occurs in England. 
 
 The PUPID^ have many-whorled (more or less cylindrical) spiral shells, 
 often strongly striated and frequently sinistral. 
 
 The genus Pupa, the chrysalis-shells, is represented in 
 Britain, as also is Clausilia, in which the shell is very long 
 and sinistral. The latter is remarkable for possessing a 
 curious little valve, the clausium, which is attached within 
 the shell by a spiral elastic stalk to the columella, and closes 
 automatically behind the animal when it retires (Fig. 21). 
 
 The CYLINDRELLHLE, which are confined to America and 
 the West Indies, have exceedingly long, many-whorled shells, 
 with circular aperture : the last whorl often stands out from 
 the rest. 
 
 The BULIMULID.E occur in America, Southern Asia, and 
 Polynesia. With the exception of the slug-like genus 
 Peitella, they have external high-spired shells. 
 
 The ORTITALICID.E are an American family, whose single 
 genus Orthalicus has a shell in external shape resembling that 
 of Bidimulus. 
 
 The HELICID.E comprise an enormous number of forms : High-spired 
 shells as in the genus Bulimus, which is confined to South America and the 
 West Indies; or as in the gaudily-painted shells of the Philippine genus 
 Helicostyla and our own Cochlvella ; shells with short spire or no spire at 
 all, as in the big genus Helix, of which the garden snail is an example. 
 
 The family THYROPHORELLID^E has 
 been created to receive one small species, 
 Thyrophorella Thomensis (Fig. 22), from 
 the Island of St. Thomas, Gulf of Guinea. 
 
 The unique feature about the shell, 
 which is a flat, spiral one, consists in the 
 prolongation of the upper half of the 
 peristome beyond the aperture and the A 
 formation of a hinge allowing this pro- 
 jection to close over the mouth and thus 
 act like an operculum when the animal 
 retires. 
 
 The ARIONID^E are slugs whose shell 
 is represented by a few calcareous grains 
 beneath the mantle. The big black slug 
 Avion ater is a type. 
 
 The PHILOMYCID^E are shell-less slugs found in North and Central America, 
 Eastern Asia, and Java. 
 
 The ENDODONTID^E have flatly-coiled shells, generally ribbed and marked 
 with little red patches. The common little Pyramidula rotundata is a 
 British example. 
 
 The LIMACID^ are slugs with small, internal, shelly plate. The majority 
 of the British slugs belong to this group. 
 
 The ZONITID^E have external shells, often very thin and shining. The 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 22. THYROPHORKLLA. 
 
 A, The animal crawling 1 . B, The shell seen 
 
 edgewise. C, Do. seen from beneath. 
 
644 MOLLUSCA-CLASS V. CEPHALOPODA. 
 
 peristome is sharp. The cellar-snail, Vitrea cellaria, is one of several British 
 examples. 
 
 The TESTACELLHLE and SELENITIDJE are the most highly specialised of the 
 Stylommatophora and are almost all voracious carnivores. Testacella looks 
 like a slug with a tiny shell at the end of its tail. It is a worm-eater and 
 follows its prey in their burrows, hence it is seldom seen though fairly 
 abundant in England. Other members of the group have shells of varying 
 sizes and shapes. 
 
 CLASS V.-CEPHALOPODA. 
 
 THE Cephalopoda include not only the most highly organised Mollusca, but 
 also the largest of them all, some forms, it is calculated, exceeding 50 ft. in 
 total length. The pearly nautilus has an external shell, the cuttle-fish and 
 its near allies have internal ehells, whilst the octopus has none at all. 
 
 The Cephalopoda are symmetrical animals, the two halves of the body 
 corresponding in structure. The visceral mass is large and often elongated. 
 The head, on either side of which there is a large and well-developed eye, 
 is more or less distinct, and is surrounded by the foot, which has in fact 
 grown around the head and has developed, or been drawn out into, eight or 
 ten long processes called arms. 
 
 In the majority of living forms these arms are furnished with rows of 
 suckers or hooks. The upper part of the back of the foot has grown out into 
 two fleshy lobes, the free, outer edges of which can be applied to each other 
 so as to form a tube, known as the funnel, or siphon, that con municates with 
 the mantle-cavity. Sometimes the edges of these lobes have grown together 
 and form a complete tube. The bell-shaped mantle which envelopes the 
 body is extremely tough and muscular. 
 
 The mantle-cavity is on the under side towards the back of the body, and 
 the water for respiration is taken in at its open end and then discharged 
 through the siphon. By the forcible expulsion of water in this way these 
 animals can dart backwards through the water with great rapidity. 
 
 The mouth is placed in the centre of the arms; it is furnished with two 
 jaws which resemble a parrot's beak and which are moved by powerful muscles. 
 The radula is small in proportion to the animal, and has lut few teeth in 
 each row; the alimentary canal runs in an almost straight line from the 
 mouth to the stomach near the further erd of the bcdy, thence the intestine 
 leads forwards and downwards and terminates in the mantle-cavity. Just 
 at the same point the ink-bag also opens into the mantle-cavity. By dis- 
 charging the ink or sepia-pigment contained in this gland, and thus clouding 
 the water, the animal is enabled to cover its retreat frcm an enemy. On 
 either side of the median line, within the pallial-cavity also, are the gills, 
 either two or four in number and foliobranchiate in type. The heart has a 
 corresponding number of auricles ard a ventricle, -whilst the blood is largely 
 confined to veins and arteries, so that nearly the whole of the blood return- 
 ing from the body passes through the gills. The nervous system is highly 
 concentrated, whilst the ganglia around the ossophagus are fused together 
 into a ring of nervous tissue. This nerve-collar in Nautilus is partly, and in 
 the other Cephalopoda completely, enclosed by a cartilage called the cfphalic 
 cartilage. There are other cartilages present, except in Nautilus, in different 
 parts of the body, that serve as points of attachment for the larger muscles. 
 
 The faculty which Cephalopods possess of changing their colour is one of 
 
NAUTILUS, CUTTLE-FISH, ETC. 
 
 645 
 
 considerable interest. Scattered over the surface of the body, and just 
 beneath the outer layer of the skin, are a number of pigment cells called 
 chromatophores, and it is by the contraction and expansion of these, which 
 are partly under the control of the animal, that the changes of colour are 
 effected. 
 
 The class is divided into two orders, according to the number of gills 
 present, viz.: Tetrabranchiata and Dibranchiata. 
 
 ORDER I. TETRABRA.NCHIATA 
 
 Is represented at the present day by a single genus Nautilus; but in past 
 times there were many other very strange forms whose shells were either 
 uncoiled or curved or quite straight. 
 
 The shell of Nautilus is entirely external and coiled forwards over the 
 animal's back ; the aperture of the shell of the male is proportionately wider 
 
 than that of the females. 
 Its outer layer is porcella- 
 neous, the inner nacreoua, 
 Inside, when neatly cut in 
 half, it is seen to be divided 
 off by a number of shelly 
 partitions into a series of 
 chambers (Fig. 23). The 
 reason for these lies in the 
 fact that the animal does not 
 occupy the hinder part, which 
 it shuts off each time that 
 growth compels it to con- 
 struct a wider and more 
 commodious portion in front. 
 The first chamber of all, or 
 protoconch, being horny, is 
 never preserved in the Nau- 
 tiloidea. Running right 
 through these chambers to 
 the last one is a small tube, 
 the walls of which are pervious and lined with a black horny layer. It is 
 occupied by a backward extension of the mantle called the siphunde. What 
 the function of this siphuncle may be is still unknown, nor is it yet 
 ascertained for certain whether the untenanttd chambers are filled wkh gas 
 or water, though the latter appears more probable. 
 
 The animal of Nautilus is rare, and differs conspicuously from other 
 Cephalopods in that it has no long arms furnished with suckers; the mouth 
 is, instead, surrounded by numerous suckerless tentacles which can be 
 retracted into special sheaths. The margins of the lobes which form the 
 funnel are not united. There is no ink-bag. The gills are four in number. 
 
 The eye is remarkable for being of the simplest description : it consists of 
 a cup-shaped depression lined by the retina and covered with an outer layer 
 of the skin, save for one small aperture in the centre. The sea-water fills the 
 cavity when the animal is alive, and the whole apparatus must work on the 
 principle of a pin-hole camera. 
 
 Four species of Nautilus are known from the Gulf of Persia, the Indian 
 Ocean, the China Sea, and the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Fig. 23. NAUTILUS. 
 
646 
 
 MOLL USC A CLASS V. CEPHALOPODA. 
 
 To the Tetrabranchiata probably also belongs the fossil group Ammonea, 
 in which the shell was external and of various shapes, but retained the 
 protoconch. 
 
 ORDER II. DIBRANCHIATA 
 
 Characterised by the possession of a single pair of gills. The funnel is 
 complete. The eye is highly developed, having both lens and cornea. The 
 shell, when present, is internal. 
 
 Sub-order 1. DECAPODA. The members of this sub-order have ten arms. 
 Eight of these, often shorter than the body, are tapering and armed with 
 rows of suckers. Each sucker, or a^cetabulum^ is on a short stalk or pedicle, 
 and strengthened by a horny rim which is frequently toothed. The horny 
 rim is sometimes replaced by a hook which is retractile like the claw of a cat. 
 The other two arms, called the "prehensile tentacles " or ''tentacular arms," 
 placed one on either side, are longer than the rest and cylindrical in form, 
 with expanded ends armed with suckers, or with hooks. Just beneath the 
 expanded tips there is sometimes an arrangement of suckers enabling the 
 two to lock together and act in concert. These arms are retractile, and in 
 the cuttle-fish can be withdrawn into special pouches. 
 
 The shell is concealed beneath the mantle on the side of the body opposite 
 to the pallial cavity. It is generally more or less rudimentary, but is most 
 developed in the cuttle-fish (Sepia) in which the "cuttle-bone" or "sepion" 
 occupies the whole length and nearly the width of the body. In another 
 form, Loliyo, the shell is reduced to a horny "pen" or "gladius." Spirilla 
 (Fig. 24), however, has a spirally- coiled chambered shell in 
 which the whorls are widely separated. This shell lies in the 
 hinder extremity of the body, and, in the few specimens of the 
 animal that have been obtained, is not completely concealed by 
 the mantle, though whether this is the natural state or due to 
 injury is not yet clearly ascertained. It is thus strikingly different 
 from the shells of other living Decapoda ; the gap between them 
 is, however, supplied in fossil forms. In some of these, the 
 Belemnites, the apex of the shell is enclosed in a calcareous 
 sheath called the guard, or by quarrymen "thunderbolts.'' The 
 shell of Spirula is common enough and frequently cast up on 
 our shores, but the animal is an inhabitant of deep water and 
 rarely obtained. The other members of the group frequent the 
 open sea, and often have lateral expansions of the mantle that 
 act as fins. 
 
 Fig. 24. The Decapoda are divided into two sections : OIGOPSIDA, in 
 
 SPIRULA. which the sea-water has access to the space between the cornea 
 of the^heli an( * lens of the eye, and MYOPSIDA, in which the cornea is 
 is indicated entire and water is not admitted. 
 
 through ^^ e Bowing ar e the principal families: A, OIGOPSIDA 
 
 the skin. Families Thysanoteuthidae, Ommastrephidae, Onychoteuthidae, 
 
 Gonatidae, Chiroteuthidae, Cranchiadae, Spirulidae, and the fossil 
 
 Decapods with "guarded" shells. B, MYOPSIDA Families Sepiolidse, 
 
 Sepiadariidae, Idiosepiidae, Sepiidee, and Loliginidse. 
 
 Sub-order 2. OCTOPODA. The members of this sub-order have short bag- 
 like bodies without tentacular arms, only the eight tapering ones, which are 
 
CUTTLE-FISH AND PAPER-NAUTILUS. 
 
 647 
 
 always longer than the body, and the suckers of which have no horny rings. 
 
 In many the arms are connected by a web, the umbrella, which may exist 
 
 only at their base or extend almost to their tips, as in Cirroteuthis ; it is 
 
 probably of assistance in swimming. 
 
 There is no shell except in the famous " Paper-Nautilus " (Argonauta), and 
 
 then it is not a true shell but a secondary one. This is carried by the 
 
 females only, and is formed after the 
 animal is hatched. It consists of a 
 thin, white, perfectly open shell, which 
 is slightly coiled towards the back ; its 
 corrugated walls are formed of three 
 layers the outer ones prismatic, the 
 inner fibrous. The animal nestles in 
 the boat-like shell, which is in nowise 
 attached to the body, and holds it in 
 place with the two front arms. The 
 ends of these arms are curved round 
 and sustain thin membranes, vela, 
 which cover the exterior of the shell 
 
 on either side (Fig. 25). Whether the mantle takes part in the secretion of 
 
 this shell, or whether it is wholly formed by the "vela," is not yet quite 
 
 clear ; its function, however, is probably less to protect the animal than to 
 
 serve as a receptacle for the eggs. 
 
 The following families are included in the Octopoda : Cirroteuthidse, 
 
 Amphitretidoe, Argonautidte, Tremoctopodidse, Allopsidoe, and Octopodidse. 
 
 Fig. 26. -ARGONAUT. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM IV. BRACHIOPODA. 
 
 LAMPSHELLS, ETC. 
 BY F. A. BATHER, M.A., F.G.S., ETC. 
 
 THE Brachiopoda are marine animals which, like some Mollusca, form ex- 
 ternal shells ; but they 
 differ from the Mollusca 
 in many points. 
 
 The shell consists of 
 two valves, which lie on 
 the back and front of the 
 animal, not on its sides 
 as in bivalve Mollusca. 
 Each valve is symmetri- 
 cal in itself, which is very 
 rarely the case in Mol- 
 lusca ; but one valve is 
 nearly always larger 
 than the other. By this 
 larger valve the adult 
 animal is usually at- 
 tached to rocks or other 
 objects, either by the 
 direct growth of the 
 
 valve to the rock (e.</., Crania, Fig. 1), or, as is more usual, by means of a 
 
 Fig. I. A SESSILE BRACHIOPOD (Crania) ; attached to a 
 piece of oyster-shell ; d.v., dorsal valve; v.v., ventral 
 valve ; e.d., exterior of dorsal valve ; i,v., interior of 
 ventral valve. Twice natural size. 
 
 Fig. 2. A PEDUNCULATE BRACHIO- 
 POD (Lingtda) The animal lives 
 in the mud (m.) in a tube, the 
 bottom of which is lined with 
 cemented sand-grains (.). The 
 shell (s.) is attached to this by a 
 peduncle (p.), which can con- 
 tract, a. and b., the peduncle 
 outstretched; c., the peduncle 
 contracted ; rf., the opening of 
 the tube from above. Greatly 
 reduced. 
 
 HIIIIIIIIIII 
 
 iiiiiiitiiiin 
 
 iiiiciiiiiiiniij 
 
 Fig. 3. Shell structure of, A, a calcareous 
 shelled Brachiopod; B, a horny shelled; 
 TO., mantle, which sends processes (p.m.) 
 through the prisms of carbonate of lime 
 that make up most of the shell; p., outer 
 imperforate layer ; I., line of growth ; h., 
 horny layers ; c., calcareous layers with 
 vertical canals. Greatly magnified. 
 
 648 
 
649 
 
 long muscular stalk, called the peduncle (Tig. 2). This larger valve is there- 
 fore often called the *' peduncle valve " ; by English writers it is called the 
 " ventral valve," although in the natural position of stalked forms it is always 
 the uppermost. The smaller valve is called the "brachial" or "dorsal" 
 valve. In microscopic structure, also, the shell differs from that of the 
 Mollusca (Fig. 3). The two valves may be united by a hinge at the hinder, 
 or umbonal end (ARTICULATA, Fig. 4), or they may not (INA&TICULATA, 
 Fig. 5). 
 
 The shell-valves are lined by two mantle-folds, or extensions of the body- 
 walls, which contain prolongations of the body-cavity ; and in them the 
 generative products are formed. The free margins of the mantle-folds are 
 beset with bristles (setae, shown at 6. in Fig. 2). Muscles pass across the body 
 of the animal from one valve to the other; they serve to open and to close 
 the valves, and to move them sideways. The imprints of these muscles 
 on the shell are important in the study of fossil brachiopods (Fig, 5). 
 
 fig, *. A HINOED BRACHIOPOD (Ra^nesquina alternatd). 
 ~ The upper figure shows the hinge from outside; the 
 lower figures show the inside of the valves, p.v., 
 peduncular or ventral valve; ~b.v., brachial or dorsal 
 valve ; h., hinge-line ; d., deltidium ; /., foramen ; a., 
 area; i.a. ando.a., its inner and outer portions; t., 
 tooth; d.s., socket in which tooth works; c.p., car- 
 dinal process ; m.c., muscle scars. Two-thirds natural 
 size. 
 
 The viscera (Fig. 6) lie near the hinder umbonal part of the shell, and the 
 mouth is directed towards the fore-part or opening of the shell. Around 
 the mouth is a somewhat horseshoe-shaped disc, bearing ciliated tentacles, 
 and called the lophophore (tuft-bearer). It is often produced into two 
 processes or "arms," which fill the fore-part and sides of the shell-cavity, 
 and are often spirally coiled. From these "arms" is derived the name 
 '* Brachiopoda " (fyaxiu*, an arm, and *6vs, a foot) ; they are often sup- 
 ported by a calcareous skeleton, the shape of which is of great import- 
 ance in classifying fossil forms. The movement of the cilia of the lopho- 
 phore serves to drive to the mouth currents of water containing food- 
 particles. A lophophore is also found in the Bryozoa, and in a few other 
 sessile marine animals (Phoronis, Bhaldopleura, Cephalodiscus). The mouth 
 
650 
 
 BRACHIOPODA. 
 
 leads to a slightly-coiled intestine, which may have an anus (TJLIETESTERATA), 
 or may not (CLISTEKTEIIATA). 
 
 D 
 
 7. 5; A NON-HINGED BRACHIOPOD (Lingula anatina). In- 
 terior of ventral (F.) and dorsal (D.) valves, showing muscle 
 gears, named as follows : u., umbonal; p.s., parietal; <.?,., 
 transmedian ; e.-L, externo-lateral ; m.-l., medio-lateral ; c., 
 centra? ; a.-Z., antero-lateral. Natural size. 
 
 The Brachiopoda possess a system of blood-vessels, with a contractile heart, 
 a distinct nervous system, and a pair of excretory organs (nephridia), which 
 
 serve also for the transmission of the 
 generative products. The sexes are 
 usually separate, But Lingula is 
 hermap hrodite. 
 
 The Brachiopoda are found in 
 seas all over the world, and usually 
 at depths of less than 100 fathoms, 
 but they have been dredged at a 
 depth of 2,900 fathoms. A few 
 (e.{/., Livujula, Fig. 2) bury them- 
 selves in mud ; but most attach 
 themselves to rocks. They occur in 
 great numbers wherever found. 
 Their shells, which are easily pre- 
 served, abound in strata of all ages, 
 so that a knowledge of them is of 
 great assistance to the geologist. 
 
 The simplest form of Brachiopod 
 known occurs in the Lower Cambrian 
 rocks of America, and is called 
 Pater ina (Fig. 7). Its valves are 
 oval in outline, with 'one side truncated by a straight hinge-lino. Concentric 
 
 Fig. 6. Internal organs of a Brachiopod 
 (Rhynchonclla psittacea). p., peduncle; 
 D. V. , dorsal valve, and V. V. , ventral valve, 
 of the shell, which are broken away on one 
 side, exposing L.,lophophore; M,, median 
 partition ; Oe., oesophagus, leading from a 
 mouth between the coils of the lophophpre 
 to the stomach, S.; C., the coecum, or blind 
 end of the gut, which has no anus. 
 
LAMPSHELLS, ETC. 
 
 651 
 
 Fig. T.-THE AN- 
 CKSTOK OF THE 
 BRA.CHIOPOIM. 
 (Paterina). En- 
 larged. 
 
 lines of growth run parallel to the curved margin of the shell, and up to the 
 hinge-line, whence we see that at all stages of its growth the 
 shell was of the same shape. A very large number of the 
 genera of the Brachiopods pass through a stage in early 
 youth in which both valves, or, more generally, the dorsal 
 valve alone, are of the same shape as the adult Paterina. 
 But during growth, changes in the shape of the valves 
 take place, chiefly produced by the enclosure of the 
 peduncle in the walls of the ventral valve, and by the 
 formation of a definite hinge. In the simple types of 
 Brachiopoda, such as Paterina and Lingula (Fig. 5), the 
 peduncle passes out freely between both of the valves ; such forms are known 
 as ATREMATA. 
 
 Next, the peduncle-opening is restricted to the ventral valve, where it lies 
 in a slit, which may become transformed into a round opening by growth of shell 
 substance, a stage that is still seen in the modern Discing and Discinisca (Fig. 
 8). Such forms are known as NEOTREMATA. The two orders, Atremata and 
 Neotremata, are equivalent to the old order, Inarticulate or Tretenterata. 
 
 In the next order, the PROTREMATA, the peduncle lies at the apex of a trian- 
 gular fissure (delthyrium). This is partially closed in early life by a single 
 shelly plate (pseudo-deltidium), as in Clitambonites (Fig. 9). This plate is 
 secreted by the peduncle and posterior part of the body itself, and lies 
 towards the apex of the delthyrium. In the adult, the pseudo- delthyrium 
 becomes fused to the ventral valve, and often decreases in size. 
 
 The last order is the TELOTREMATA, in which the delthyrium becomes closed 
 by tho development of a pair of shelly plates (deltidial plates). These are 
 
 Fig 9. Clitambonites ddscan- 
 dens - ' dr * or 
 
 Fifj. S.-Disciniscd. D. , dorsal, and 
 
 ^^atSS''^^ 0016 
 
 sht. Natiualsize. dium of dorgal 
 
 (chilidium) ; V.A. and 
 D. A . , areas of ven tral an d 
 dorsal valves. Natural 
 size. 
 
 secreted by tho edges of the mantle, and may fuse, either in the adult or 
 from their earliest appearance, to form a single plate (deltidium). (See Fig. 10.) 
 Some of the earliest forms of this order are the EhynchonettidcR, which occur 
 early in palceozoic times. Subsequently, we find two main branches of the order, 
 in which the lophophore is borne either by simple loops of shelly substance 
 (e.{/., Tcrebratula and Magdlania\ or by coiled spires (e.g., Spirifer and 
 Atrypa) respectively (Fig. ll). The two orders Prolremata and Telotremata 
 together correspond to the old order, Articulata or Clistcntcrata. 
 
612 
 
 BRACHIOPODA. 
 
 The Brachiopoda, which were formerly very numerous, both in genera, 
 species, and individuals, are now represented by a little over a hundred 
 species, distributed among some fifteen or sixteen genera. 
 
 Fig. lO.Spirifer sulcatus. A specimen, natural 
 size, atid an enlargement of the middle part 
 of the hinge-area (A.) of the ventral valve, 
 showing the delthyrium almost closed by 
 two deltidial plates (.)> so that only a small 
 foramen (F.) remains. 
 
 r. 11 Lophophore supports in Mayel- 
 lania(m.)&nd Atrypa(a.). m.s., median 
 septum; c., crura; c.p., crural processes; 
 j.p., jugal processes; d.l., descending 
 'lamella a.l. ascending lamella ; p.l., 
 primary lamella ; s.c., spiral coils. 
 
 The Brachiopoda have often been grouped together with the other forms 
 that have a lophophore (Bryozoa, etc.) under the name Molluscoidea (mol- 
 lusc-like). But, while they certainly are not related to the Mollusca, it is 
 very doubtful how far they are allied to these other forms. It is therefore 
 safer to keep them as a separate group of the animal kingdom. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM V. ECHINODERMA. 
 
 STAX-FISH, ETC. 
 
 BY F. A. BATHER, M.A., F.G.S., ETC. 
 
 THIS is one of the main groups of the animal kingdom, and the animals 
 contained in it, such as the star-fish (Figs. 1, 2), brittle-stars (Figs. 5, 6), 
 sea-urchins (Figs. 7, 8), feather-stars (Figs. 13, 15), and sea-cucumbers (Figs. 
 9-12), are well marked off from all other animals by certain well-defined 
 characters. The first is the feature that has suggested the name of 'the 
 group, namely, 
 the deposition in 
 the lower layers 
 of the integu- 
 ment of a crystal- 
 line deposit of 
 carbonate of 
 lime. This may 
 be in the form of 
 minute spicules 
 (Fig. 11, s), of 
 separate plates, 
 or of larger 
 plates and 
 ossicles closely 
 joined together 
 into a more or 
 less rigid test 
 (Figs. 7 and 13). 
 In all cases it is 
 characterised by 
 its trellis - work 
 structure, and by 
 the ease with 
 which it may be 
 
 split in certain definite directions. Such deposition of carbonate of lime 
 may also take place among the internal organs of the animal. 
 
 The second feature is the radiate structure so obvious in the ordinary 
 star-fish (Fig. 1). The number of rays is generally five, and the external 
 and internal organs of the animal are variously affected in the various classes 
 of echinoderms by this five-rayed symmetry. The Echinoderma resemble the 
 Mollusca, the Arthropoda, the Vertebrata, and many other groups, in 
 possessing a separate gut, shut off from the rest 'of the body-cavity, as well 
 
 653 
 
 Fig, 1. A STAR-FISH (Asterias rubens) FROM UPPER SURFACE. 
 Two thirds natural size. 
 
654 ECHINODERMA. 
 
 as a system of branched tubes which convey blood through the body ; and in 
 these respects they differ from the jelly-fish, with which their radiate 
 symmetry has often caused them to be allied. 
 
 A system of tubes conveying water from the exterior throughout the 
 body, and serving as a hydraulic system, is characteristic of the echinoderms. 
 On the under side of the rays in a living star-fish may be seen a number of 
 small cylindrical processes which wave about gently like trees in a wind 
 (Fig. 1, P). They lie in each ray along two rows with a clear space 
 between, as trees on either side of an avenue; hence the whole band of them 
 in each ray is called an ambulacrum (garden-walk). In the sea-urchin 
 similar rows of the tube-like processes are seen passing from the 
 summit down to the base, dividing the test into five equal portions. 
 In the star-fish and sea-urchin these processes end in sucker-like discs. 
 The tubular process can be extended to a considerable length and 
 its disc attached to some neighbouring object. The contraction of the 
 process then draws the animal along ; hence in these animals the processes 
 are called tube-feet. Similar processes occurring in the brittle-stars and 
 crinoids have no suckers at the end, and serve only for purposes of respira- 
 tion and not for locomotion. The processes in general may therefore be 
 called podia. Their movements are caused by the squeezing of water into 
 them from the internal water-vessels ; for each podium is like an indiarubber 
 tube, closed at one end, passing through the test to join with one main tube 
 which runs along under the ambulacrum in a radial direction (Fig. 3, W), 
 and before it joins this radial canal, each podium gives off a small swelling 
 likewise filled with fluid, so that when this swelling, or ampulla (Fig. 3, Amp.), 
 is contracted, all the fluid is squeezed up into the podium, and pushes it out 
 like the finger of a glove when one blows into it. All the radial canals 
 meet in a ring-canal surrounding the mouth, and this is connected with the 
 outside water by a canal that passes right across, the body-cavity to the 
 other side of the animal, where it opens to the exterior through a sieve-like 
 plate called the madreporite (Fig. 1, M). The walls of this canal are often 
 hardened by limy deposits, whence it is known as the stone-canal. Some 
 such system of water-canals occurs in all echinoderms, but in the sea- 
 cucumbers the madreporite that should connect it with the exterior is sunk 
 inward, and hangs in the fluid of the general body-cavity. Direct com- 
 munication with the exterior is perhaps not so necessary with these animals 
 since their flexible muscular walls enable them to drive the fluid of the body- 
 cavity in any desired direction. 
 
 There are three main systems of nerves found in echinoderms, one supply- 
 ing the skin, the podia, and the gut, and consisting of a nerve-ring round 
 the mouth, with radial nerves passing from it beneath the ambulacra ; the 
 second, with a similar arrangement, but placed deeper, and supplying the 
 internal muscles of the body wall ; the third, which is best seen in crinoids, 
 starts from the other side of the body, opposite to the mouth, and supplies 
 the muscles that work the arms and stems. 
 
 In the star-fish the generative glands are orange- coloured tubes somewhat 
 branched and knotty, which pass down the sides of the rays and communi- 
 cate with the exterior at the angles between the rays (Fig. 2, G) ; they have 
 a similar position in the sea-urchins; in crinoids they extend right down the 
 arms, at the extremities of which the generative products are produced, In 
 the sea-cucumber, however, there is but a single much-branched generative 
 gland. 
 
STAR- FISH, SEA-URCHINS, ETC. 
 
 655 
 
 The echinoderms now living are divided into five classes Asteroidea, star- 
 fish ; Ophiuroidea, brittle-stars ; Echinoidea, sea-urchins ; Crinoidoa, sea- 
 lilies, feather-stars ; and Holothuroidea, sea-cucumbers. There are two 
 extinct classes first, the Cystidea, which are closely allied to the ancestors of 
 all echinoderms ; and second, the Blastoidea, which are perhaps nothing 
 more than an offshoot from the crinoids. In the star-fish and brittle-star 
 the mouth (see Fig. 6) is in the centre of the under side of the body, directed 
 towards the sea-floor ; while the anus (Fig. 2, As), when it exists, is on the 
 other side and directed upwards. In a regular sea-urchin (Fig. 7) the mouth 
 and anus are in a similar position, but in the irregular sea-urchins (Fig. 8) 
 the body has become somewhat elliptical in shape and the mouth has moved 
 a little forward ; while the anus has moved down from the top of the body 
 to its lower surface, so that both mouth aud anus lie on the under surface at 
 either end of the long axis. In a holothurian (Fig. 9) the body is cucumber- 
 shaped, with the mouth at one end and the anus at the other, and the animal 
 usually crawls along on one side of its body. In the crinoids both mouth 
 and anus are on the upper surface of the body, the mouth usually in the 
 centre (Fig. 15, M) and the anus (Fig. 15, As) a little on one side, and both 
 are directed upwards ; while the opposite or under side of the body is pro- 
 longed into a stem 
 (Figs. 13, 14) by which 
 the animal is generally 
 attached to the sea- floor 
 or some other object. 
 
 Echinoderms cannot 
 live on land, since they 
 require water to work 
 their hydraulic appar- 
 atus, neither can they 
 live in fresh water, 
 where they would net 
 find enough lime-salts 
 from which to build 
 their skeletons: in the 
 sea, however, they have 
 a universal distribution. 
 Hence their calcareous 
 remains have often 
 been preserved as 
 fossils, and are found 
 in the rocks from the 
 earliest period in which 
 animals are known to 
 have existed. Echino- 
 derms move little from 
 place to place during 
 adult life ; many of 
 them, however, have 
 rather larger powers of 
 locomotion in the lar- 
 val stage, and the free-swimming larvae are occasionally carried to consider- 
 able distances by ocean- currents. 
 
 Fig. 2. DISSECTION or COMMON CRCS-FISH (Asterias rubens 
 Two-thirds natural size. 
 
656 
 
 ECHINODERMA CLASS ASTEROIDEA. 
 
 ASTEROIDEA (Star-fish). 
 
 The common cross-fish, Asterias rubens, is perhaps the commonest ex- 
 ample of an echinoderm, known to all visitors to the sea-side. Fig. 1 shows 
 it from the upper surface, one of the arms being slightly turned over so 
 as to show the ambulacral grooves with the tube-feet (P) on either side. 
 Towards the middle of the body, at the junction of two of the rays, is seen 
 the madreporite (M). These two rays are known as the bivium, while the 
 other three rays form the trivium. A line drawn between the two rays 
 of the bivium, through the madreporite and down the central ray of the 
 trivium, would divide the star-fish into two equal and symmetrical portions. 
 In Fig. 2 the same animal is shown, also from the upper surface, but partly 
 dissected. In the ray marked IV. the rough spiny skin has been left 
 on, while it has been removed over the middle of the body from 
 portions of rays II. and ILL, and from the whole of the upper surface 
 of the ray marked I. In the middle is seen the stomach (S), which 
 sends into the rays the pouch-like extensions (D). At F part of the 
 roof of the stomach has been removed to show the folded arrangement of 
 its walls. Near the centre is the anus (As). From the stomach there pass 
 down in the rays blind, much-branched outgrowths (C), known as pyloric 
 caeca, which have been dissected out in the ray marked I. Underneath 
 these, on either side of each ray, are the generative glands (G), which are 
 seen in ray II. In rays I. and II. the central line of plates (Ao) separating 
 the ray is exposed. On either side of these there are shown in ray I. the 
 little swellings or ampullae (P) at the inner ends of the tube-feet. 
 
 Fig. 3 is a diagram showing the arm of a star-fish in section. Here the 
 same organs may" be seen, namely, the pyloric caeca (PC), the blind processes 
 from the stomach, the generative glands (G), which open to the exterior 
 
 Fig 3. I>T AORAMATIC IROSS SPCTION OF 
 STAR-KISII ARM. Natural size. 
 
 Pig. 4. DUGRAMATIC CPOSS SKCTION OF OPIIIUHID 
 ARM. Much enlarged. 
 
 through a pore (GP) which is situated near the junction of two adjacent 
 rays, and the ampullae (Amp), from which the tube-feet (P) pass through the 
 ambulacral ossicles (AO). In the groove (A) on the under side of the arm, 
 formed by the ambulacral ossicles and lying between the tube-feet, there are 
 shown the following structures : close to the surface, the radial nerve (N) ; 
 below this, the radial blood-vessel (B) ; and below this again, the radial water- 
 vessel (W). All of these give off side branches, those from the latter going 
 to the ampullae. The arm is encased in an external skeleton of irregular 
 limestone plates (SK) ; some of these support spines (S), and others support 
 
STAR- FISH. 657 
 
 curious kinds of spines with branched heads, known as paxillae (Px). 
 Between the plates there pass out thin-walled processes (Rsp), which serve 
 for respiration by bringing the fluid of the body-cavity into the proximity of 
 the outer water. Besides the paxillae, there occur on the outer surface of a 
 star-fish, as well as on that of a sea-urchin, small pincer-like organs called 
 pedicellariae. These resemble little pincers supported at the end of a 
 movable stalk, and they have probably been evolved from the smaller spines 
 that cover the test of these animals. They move with extreme rapidity, and 
 catch hold of any minute object that is brought into contact with their inner 
 surfaces. They are variously supposed to hold small particles of food, to 
 clean the test of dirt, and to catch hold of fronds of sea- weed for the steady- 
 ing of the animal ; while the fact that in the sea-urchin they are sometimes 
 provided with poison-glands seems to show that they serve also as weapons 
 of offence. At the extremity of each arm is a single tube-foot, with no 
 
 Fig. 5. A BRITTLE-STAR (Ophiopholis aculeata). Two-thirds natural size. 
 
 sucker at the end : this is always stretched straight out, and is known as the 
 unpaired tentacle. Immediately above it is a small eye coloured with red 
 pigment, and protected by small tentacles. 
 
 Star-fish are sluggish animals, rarely moving of themselves, and staying for 
 days in the same position. They can, however, travel at a fair pace when 
 disturbed. When turned over on their backs, they are able to right them- 
 selves, but some of them, which have very stiff skeletons, take much longer 
 over the process than those that are able to twist their arms about in 
 acrobat fashion. They are, like most echinoderms, a sociable class, living 
 usually in swarms. Some species of shallow-water forms have been observed 
 to pair during the breeding season. They are voracious animals, eating all 
 kinds of food, and taking plenty at a time. The stomach can, in most cases, 
 be extruded through the mouth, and can enfold such articles of food as an 
 oyster ; star-fish are, in fact, dangerous enemies to oysters, and also attack 
 
658 ECHINODERMA-CLASS OPHIUROIDEA. 
 
 the bait of fishermen, whence they are regarded by that class with a holy 
 horror, and the cross-fish sometimes is called by them "Devil's fingers." 
 To their credit it must be said that they serve as the scavengers of the sea, 
 and that they make excellent manure. 
 
 OPHIUROIDEA (Brittle-stars). 
 
 The brittle-stars and sand-stars, which may often be found hiding under the 
 rocks, or in the sea-weed, or in pools at low tide, resemble the ordinary star- 
 fish in having five distinct arms. These, however, as shown in Fig. 
 5, are long and serpent-like, and are attached to a relatively small body 
 or disc (D, in Fig. 5). There are other differences, as may be seen 
 by a comparison of the section shown in Fig. 4 with that of the star- 
 fish in Fig. 3. Here it is seen that the digestive and generative systems 
 do not extend to the arms but are confined to the body. The arms 
 are cylindrical and have no groove on the under side, such as exists 
 in star-fish, but they have little openings through which the tube-feet 
 P pass. In this class, however, it is the arms that are used for locomotion 
 and not the tube-feet, so that the latter have no terminal suckers. The 
 greater part of each arm is formed by a central axis of successive calcareous 
 ossicles not unlike the vertebrae of a backbone. Each arm-ossicle (AO) is 
 composed of two parts one on either side and united in the middle line. 
 The successive ossicles are connected by pairs of straight, muscular bundles, 
 and articulate with one another by tenon-and-mortise joints, according to 
 whose degree of development the arms vary in their power of coiling. The 
 arm-ossicles are encased in the tough outer skin of the arm, in which are 
 developed plates (U, upper, and S, side arm-plates in Fig. 4). Spines (Sp) 
 are borne by these plates, and these are clearly shown in Fig. 5 (S) ; they 
 aid the animal in locomotion. The integument of 
 the disc, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, also bears 
 small plates which are often covered with minute 
 spines. Returning to the section of the arm, we 
 see on its under side between the tube-feet, the 
 nerve, blood-vessel, and water-vessel, which give 
 off branches just as in the star-fish, the difference 
 being that they are here enclosed by the integu- 
 ment of the arm. The mouth is shown in Fig. 6 
 on the under surface of the disc. Around the 
 mouth are a number of short, flat processes, the 
 mouth papillae, which serve as strainers. Inside 
 the mouth are seen the five tooth-plates. 
 Fig. G.-UNDKR SURFACE OF OpHi- . Ophiuroids are found in all seas, usually occur- 
 URID Eom (Ophiopkolis acu- ring in quantities. They are most abundant in 
 leata). Natural size. the roc k-pools of the tropics. They gather their 
 
 food to them by sweeping their arms over the 
 
 sea-bottom, and thus conveying any suitable substances to the mouth. 
 Figs. 5 and 6 represent a daisy brittle-star, Ophiopholis aculeata, which 
 occurs all round the British coast. The colloquial name is due to the 
 resemblance to a daisy caused by the intermingling of spines and plates on 
 the surface of the disc. The popular name, brittle-star, applied to the 
 ophiuroids is due to their fragile nature and their habit, so distressing to 
 the collector, of breaking themselves into small portions when touched. 
 
SEA-URCHINS. 
 
 659 
 
 Fig. 7. A REGULAR 
 SHA - URCHIN (Cidaris 
 papillata). One-half 
 natural size. 
 
 ECHINOIDEA (Sea-urchins). 
 
 The sea-urchins are the best known and most numerous of echinoderms. 
 They are divided into two groups regular and irregular sea-urchins. Fig. 7 
 shows the test of a regular sea-urchin, Cidaris papillata, 
 which is called the Piper from the supposed resemblance 
 of its spines to the drones of a bagpipe. In the figure 
 most of the larger spines have been removed, but three 
 or four have been left on (S). Several of the plates of 
 the test are seen to bear a rounded tubercle (T), and it 
 is to these that the large spines are attached by a ball- 
 and-socket joint, which is surrounded by muscles that 
 can move the spines in any direction. The bases of the 
 large spines are protected by smaller spines (s 1 ) see figure 
 which are similarly attached to smaller tubercles. The 
 spine-bearing tubercles do not cover the whole test, but 
 are disposed chiefly in five broad zones, interambulacra 
 (I A), which extend from one pole to the other. Alter- 
 nating with these are the narrower ambulacra (A). In 
 these can be seen the holes through which the tube-feet 
 pass. At the summit of the test, where these zones 
 converge, is a star-shaped space covered with mem- 
 brane, and in the middle of this is the anus. Regularly 
 placed round this, at the summit of the interambulacral 
 zones, are five conspicuous plates, each pierced by a 
 hole (G), which is the duct of the underlying generative gland. One of the 
 plates (M) is also pierced by a number of small water-pores, and is the 
 madreporite. Outside these five plates, end alternating with them, are five 
 other plates, each at the top of an ambulacrum, and each pierced by the 
 unpaired tentacles which terminate the water-canals, and represent the 
 unpaired tentacles near the eye at the end of the star-fish arms. These 
 plates, marked O, are therefore called oculars ; in a few cases they do actu- 
 ally bear eyes. The mouth is at the other pole of the body, and is therefore 
 not shown in the figure. It is surrounded by an elaborate arrangement of 
 teeth, found in all regular urchins, and com- 
 pared by Aristotle to a lantern. The gut, 
 which passes from the mouth, coils round 
 inside the test. Such a sea-urchin as Cidaris, 
 or the common egg-urchin, Echinus, shows 
 most clearly the five-rayed symmetry that 
 has been impressed upon the echinoderms. 
 In the irregular sea - urchins, however, 
 one of which, Echinocardium cordatum, 
 is shown in Fig. 8, the animal has become 
 elongated along one of the axes so as to have 
 a superficial two-sided symmetry. This is 
 connected with constant movement in one 
 direction, and such modification is found 
 among those urchins that live on muddy 
 bottoms, and especially in those from con- 
 siderable depths. Not only is the test elon- 
 gated, but the mouth moves forward to the 
 
 AI 
 
 Fig. 8. IRREGULAR SEA - URCHIN 
 (Echinocardium cordatum). Two- 
 thirds natural size. 
 
66o 
 
 ECHINODERMA CLASS ECHINOIDEA. 
 
 front margin, while the anus moves downwards to the hinder margin, and 
 eventually comes to lie on the under side of the test. These heart-urchins, 
 as they move along through the sand and mud, scoop it up into their mouths, 
 and pass it through the gut, extracting from it on its passage such nutriment 
 as the minute organisms in it can afford. Urchins of this type have short 
 delicate spines, as shown on the left side of Fig. 8. They move almost 
 entirely by stretching out their long tube-feet. It is, perhaps, the hair-like 
 spines that have caused the urchin here figured to be popularly known as 
 Mermaid's head, Child's head urchin, and Hair sea-egg. 
 
 The sea-urchins, like the star-fish, have pedicellarioe. In the regular 
 urchin locomotion is chiefly effected by means of the spines, which are used 
 like crutches; they can also be used like chop-sticks for prehension. The 
 spines also serve as organs of protection, but their efficacy varies much in 
 different forms. In Diadema setosum the spines reach a length of 10 in., 
 and are so fine that one is pricked by them before one can see them. A 
 few urchins, such as Asthenosoma urens, have poison-glands attached to their 
 spines. On the other hand, the large spines of the Piper appear to be very 
 small protection against its natural enemies, fish and star-fish ; it is only the 
 small spines that have any defensive value, and they are placed for this purpose 
 near the main openings and organs of the body. Some sea-urchins cover 
 themselves with dead shells, sea-weed, and similar objects, which they hold 
 on by their tube-feet and so move about unobserved. Other sea-urchins do 
 not move about but live in holes in the rocks, which in some cases they can 
 be proved to have bored for themselves. The sea-urchins here figured have 
 a rigid test; but there are others in which the plates are not so closely joined 
 together, and the test is flexible. Fossil examples of such leathery urchins 
 
 have long been known from the Chalk, but were 
 not found in the living state before the dredging 
 expedition of the Porcupine. The regular sea- 
 urchins breathe by ten thin-walled extensions of 
 the body-cavity which are protruded around the 
 mouth. In the irregular urchins some of the 
 tube-feet are modified for respiration. 
 
 Sea-urchins live on both animal and vegetable 
 food, and even on one another. They them- 
 selves are often eaten by fish, and some are 
 thought delicacies by man. The ovaries, when 
 in the spring they are full of eggs, are said to 
 equal the best fish-roe. 
 
 HOLOTHUROIPEA (Sea-cucumbers). 
 A typical example of the sea-cucumber, 
 Cucumaria planci, is represented in Fig. 9. 
 The body, as already said, is elongated, with 
 a mouth (M) at one end, and an anus (A) 
 at the other. Around the mouth is a fringe 
 of branched tentacles connected with the 
 Fig. 9.-A SEA-CTTCUMBER water- vascular ring. ^ Two of these tentacles, 
 
 (Cucumaria planci). Natural size- those in the direction of the letter M, are 
 
 shorter than the others. Five rows of tube- 
 feet pass from the mouth to the anus, and under them lie radially-disposed 
 nerves and muscles. In no holothurian, however, does the radial arrange- 
 
HOLOTHURIANS OR SEA-CUCUMBERS. 
 
 661 
 
 Fig. 10. PlMTKD HOLOTRURIAN (Ps<.lll8 
 
 diomediae). 3-2 natural size. 
 
 rnent affect any portion of the digestive or generative systems. In most 
 other echinoderms, it will be remembered, a canal passes from the water- 
 vascular ring, and opens to the exterior by a madreporite. In a few 
 holothurians of primitive structure this is 
 similarly the case, but in Cucumaria, as in 
 most, the connection with the exterior is 
 lost, and the canal with its madreporite 
 hangs down into the body-cavity. The 
 skin is leathery, and contains a compara- 
 tively small amount of calcareous matter. 
 What there is occurs usually in small 
 spicules, which assume very definite shapes, 
 such as anchors in Synapta, or wheels in 
 Chiridota. Such spicules are represented 
 in Fig. 11 (S 1 and J> 2 ). In such forms as 
 
 10), the spicules increase in size so as to form 
 there may also often be a ring of calcareous 
 plates round the gullet and round the anus (M and 
 As in Fig. 10). The tentacles of Cucumaria and 
 some other forms are used like a net to intercept 
 floating organisms in the surrounding water. Many 
 holothurians take a good deal of sand into the gut 
 and the intestines ; those that live near coral reefs 
 generally contain fragments of coral. They usually 
 attach themselves by their tube-feet to rocks or sea 
 weed, and wave the tentacles around. The food- 
 Inden tentacles are thrust one after the other into 
 the circular mouth. Some curious modifications of 
 form have taken place among the Holothuroidea. 
 In Psolus the animal has become flattened, and the 
 tube-feet restricted to three out of the five ambulacra, 
 and by these three the animal creeps about or holds 
 itself fixed to the rock. The species shown in Fig. 
 10 is one of 
 
 Psolus, however (Fig. 
 plated integument ; 
 
 those that 
 were dredged 
 by the U.S. 
 steamer Al- 
 batross, and 
 occurs near 
 the Cocos 
 Islands at a 
 depth of G6 
 fathoms, ad- 
 hering to the 
 
 rocks like a limpet. It represents a 
 highly specialised form of the genus. 
 
 The tube-feet (P) are seen on its under side, forming a somewhat irregular 
 ring. The curious form, Psychropotes raripes, shown in Fig. 11, is one of 
 the deep-sea forms known as Elasipoda. It also was dredged by the 
 Albatross, and cornea from a depth of 1,573 fathoms, south of Cape San 
 Francisco. The left-hand figure shows the under side of it, with the mouth 
 
 Fig. 11. DBUP-SEA HOLO- 
 THURIAN (Psychropotes 
 raripes). Two - ninths 
 natural size. 
 
 Fig. 12. A FREK-SWIMMING HoLOTHriUAN (Pela- 
 gothuria natatrix). O^e-hal( natural size. 
 
662 
 
 ECHINODERMA CLASS HOLOTHUROIDEA, 
 
 (M) at the anterior end, and the anus (As) at the posterior. The row of 
 tube-feet passes down the middle of the under surface, between the mouth 
 and anus. On either side of these tube-feet, and well seen in the side-view, 
 is a row of podgy stumps, by which the animal moves as a centipede moves 
 by its legs. Behind the anus a part of the body is prolonged into a flat tail. 
 These animals live on the ooze of the abyssal ocean, gorging themselves 
 therewith. Some of the holothurians that live in the sand of the deep sea, 
 by constantly keeping both mouth and anus above the surface of the mud, 
 have had their bodies curved in U-fashion, and in one genus the two openings 
 have come to lie close together at the top of a thick stalk, so that one may 
 compare the animal to a conjuror's bottle with a divided mouth. A yet 
 stranger modification of the holothurian type is the beautiful Pelagothuria, 
 represented in Fig. 12 ; this lives in the East Pacific on the surface of the 
 ocean. It has no calcareous spicules, and the longitudinal muscles are mostly 
 changed into a jelly tissue. Around the mouth is a circlet of short tentacles 
 (T) ; and from these radiate thirteen to sixteen long feelers (R), the bases 
 of which are united by a web forming a disc, by which the animal swims in 
 much the same way as a floating jellyfish. The rest of the body, with the 
 
 anus (As) at the end of it, hangs vertically 
 downwards. In life the semi-transparent 
 body is tinged a purplish red. 
 
 Holothurians are of interest to men, 
 especially Chinamen, as furnishing a food 
 known as Trepang, which ranks with edible 
 birds' nests among the delicacies of the celes- 
 tial table. The fishing for this takes place in 
 the East Indies and along the Barrier Reef 
 of Australia. Only those species that have 
 few calcareous spicules are of value for this 
 purpose, while others are rejected because, 
 when caught, they get rid of all their insides. 
 
 CEINOIDEA (Sea-lilies). 
 
 The echinoderms that we have hitherto 
 discussed have all availed themselves, to a 
 greater or less extent, of their power of free 
 locomotion. The crinoids, on the other hand, 
 together with the extinct blastoids and some 
 of the cystids, are for the most part attached, 
 either during youth or for the whole of their 
 existence, to the sea-floor by means of a jointed 
 stem (Fig. 13). The body of the crinoid, which 
 is relatively small, is placed on the top of 
 this stem, and from it there extend long arms 
 which are usually branched and often provided 
 
 CRINOID FROM THE WENLOCK LIMB- with yet smaller branches regularly arranged 
 along them, and called pinnules. Each of 
 the pinnules, or each of the finer divisions of 
 the arms, is provided on the upper side with a sroove, carpeted by the 
 minute rapidly waving processes known as cilia. These constantly drive a 
 stream of water down the groove towards the main arm, which is provided 
 with a similar groove. The water itself passes down the arms towards 
 the body, and is then carried down five similar grooves, one leading from 
 
 Fig, 13. RESTORATION OF A FOSSIL 
 
CRINOIDS OR SEA-LILIES. 663 
 
 each arm to the mouth, which is placed at or near the centre of the upper 
 surface of the body. The stream of water, containing numerous animalculae 
 and food particles, passes through the mouth into the gut, which is coiled round 
 the inside of the body, and passes out again at the anal opening. This latter 
 is often raised on a small eminence or papilla (Fig. 15, As). In some forms, 
 especially in some extinct genera, this papilla was extended into a long tube, 
 so that the excrement was carried far away from the food-grooves of the arms 
 (Fig. 13). Ranged along the sides of the food-grooves are the tube-feet, which, 
 however, are not provided with suckers, but probably serve as respiratory 
 processes. The small size of the body is perhaps to be accounted for by the 
 fact that the generative glands do not develop within the body, but extend 
 along the arms underneath the food-groove into the pinnules. Here the 
 generative products become ripe and swell up the pinnules, from which they 
 ultimately burst. The calcareous case that encloses the organs of the body is 
 known as the calyx; it may be regarded as composed of a cup supported like 
 a wine-glass on a stem, from the edges of which cup the arms originate ; 
 while it is covered by a lid in which are the openings for the mouth and 
 anus. The lid is pierced by pores which put the water-vascular system in 
 connection with the exterior. These may either be dispersed over the 
 surface of the lid, or, as in other echinoderms, collected in one plate the 
 madreporite. This plate, when it exists, lies between the mouth -and the 
 anus. In the crinoids now living the cup is composed of only two or three 
 circlets of plates, with no more plates than five in each circlet, and in many 
 cases the two lower circlets are hardly to be distinguished. In some ancient 
 crinoids, however, the organs of the body take up much more room, 
 and to accommodate them the cup had an increase in size. This was 
 effected, not by the plates becoming larger, but by the lid being, as 
 it were, raised up the arms, so that the lower plates of the arms were 
 included in the walls of the cup. At the same time, further plates were 
 intercalated between the arms and their branches, binding them all into 
 a plated integument, which looked like a tesselated pavement. 
 
 The stem is perhaps the most interesting part of the crinoid anatomy. All 
 echinoderms, and many other animals, including, oddly enough, some which 
 are generally reckoned by zoologists among the ancestors of the Vertebrata, 
 have in their youngest stages a small process or lobe extending in front 
 of the mouth, by which lobe they are accustomed to attach themselves as 
 though by a sucker. In many cases the attachment 
 lasts but a short period ; but in the crinoids, at all 
 events, it persists for some time, and the lobe 
 becomes extended, while rings of calcareous sub- 
 stances are deposited in its integument. The 
 increase of these rings in number and in size 
 gradually produces a stem or column formed of 
 superposed ossicles, perforated by a canal which is 
 an extension of the original body-cavity. In the 
 crinoids this canal contains extensions of blood- 
 vessels and also of a sheath of nervous substance 
 surrounding the blood-vessels. These extensions 
 pass from a central five-chambered organ placed 
 at the bottom of the cup, just at its junction 
 
 with the stem. From this strands of the same nervous substance also 
 pass in criss-cross fashion through all the plates of the cup, and finally join 
 
66 4 
 
 ECHINOD.ERMA CLASS CRINOIDEA. 
 
 together and pass up the ossicles of the arms. These are motor nerves, and 
 the central organ controls the movements of the arms, the stem, and all 
 appendages of the crinoid. 
 
 Although crinoids are typically fixed by this stem, and although the 
 ancestors, at least, of all crinoids have been fixed by such a stem, still 
 there are some, both living and extinct, in which the stem has entirely 
 or almost entirely disappeared, leaving the crinoid with powers of free 
 locomotion. There are some four or five living genera in which this 
 has taken place ; the most familiar instance is the rosy feather- star 
 of our own seas, shown in Fig. 15. In its younger stages, however (see Fig. 
 14), the animal is provided with a stem. From this it ultimately breaks off, 
 retaining but a few of the ossicles. These ossicles become fused together, 
 and form a thick knob at the base of the cup. From this knob, which is 
 called the centrodorsal, there pass small branches called cirri (C, Fig. 
 15) ; by these cirri the animal can hold on to stones or other objects at 
 the bottom of the sea, so that, although able to move at will, it can save 
 itself from being swept away by storms or currents. Fig. 15 shows one 
 of these creatures in the act of crawling away frc m the stone to 
 which it WiS attached. The arm towards the spectator is stretched out and 
 slightly curved back, the pinnules at its extremity being bent right back like 
 the barjbs of a fish-hook. By these it will hook on to the rough surface of 
 the sea-floor, and the arms will then bend and the animal be dragged along. 
 
 At the same time 
 the opposite arms 
 are bent down- 
 wards and their 
 pinnules are 
 pushed in the op- 
 posite direction. 
 This shortening 
 of the stem and 
 power of locomo- 
 tion has been a 
 gradual develop- 
 ment. The Pen- 
 tacrini, which are 
 among the com- 
 monest of living 
 stalked crinoids, 
 have their stem 
 beset at intervals 
 with whorls of 
 cirri. The joints 
 of the stem just 
 below each whorl 
 are not muscular, 
 but brittle, so 
 that the crinoid 
 
 Fig. 15. A FEATHER-STAR CRAWLING (Antedon rosacea). Natural size. 
 
 can easily break its stem at those joints, and after moving away a short 
 space, can again affix itself by the whorl of cirri remaining at the broken 
 end. In this way Pentacrini have been found attached to telegraph cables 
 but a short time after they had been laid down, 
 
SUB-KINGDOM VI. BRYOZOA 
 
 [OR POLYZOA]. 
 MOSS ANIMALS. 
 
 BY R. KlEKPATRICK. 
 
 IF the sea-weeds and shells cast up on the sea-shore be carefully examined, 
 some of these objects will probably be found overgrown by encrustations and 
 patches, which, viewed through a lens, resemble fine lacework or tracery of 
 varying pattern. Probably, also, some of the supposed sea- weeds themselves 
 will, on closer inspection, prove to be wholly different from plants, and to 
 
 be, in fact, Bryozoa. One of the commonest of 
 these plant-like animals is the Sea Mat or Broad- 
 leaved Hornwrack (Flustra foliacea), (Fig. 1), 
 found all round the shores of Great Britain, 
 growing in shallow water, 
 attached to shells and rocks. 
 It is often found in atun- 
 dance amongst the sea- 
 weeds cast up on shore, 
 especially after a gale. 
 
 The Sea Mat forms thin 
 brown strap-shaped or fan- 
 shaped fronds, expanding 
 upwards from a flat, narrow 
 stem to a height of four to 
 six inches, and branching 
 A very fine reticuhte pattern is visible 
 Under a low magnifying power this 
 appearance (Fig. 2) is seen to be due to the raised 
 margins of oblong boxes arranged in longitudinal rows ; 
 two spines rise from the margin on each side of the 
 rounded and expanded upper end, and frequently 
 a fifth spine between and above the lateral pairs. 
 The front of each box is covered with a roof of mem- 
 brane. On examining a fresh leaflet in sea-water, 
 crowns of very slender tentacles will be seen to be 
 extruded through the upper ends of the front of the 
 boxes, a thin, horny, semi-circular lid being pushed up 
 during the process ; on the slightest alarm the ten- 
 tacles are rapidly withdrawn. It is also possible to see a bent tube beneath 
 the membranous roof. Each box or cell (Fig. 2) is the home of a polypide, 
 which has formed the cell. The tentacles of the polypide arise in a circle 
 from a platform, in the centre of which is an orifice, the mouth. 
 
 665 
 
 Fig. 1. FLUBTRA FOLIACEA. 
 
 in one plane, 
 on both surfaces. 
 
 Fig. 2. FLUSTRA (magni- 
 fied), showing polypiuea. 
 
 a, Horny lid. 
 
 b, Avicularium. 
 
 c, Egg capsule. 
 
666 BR YOZOA INFUNDIB ULA TA. 
 
 The circle of tentacles surmounts a conical proboscis, which, together with 
 the tentacles, can be completely withdrawn into a sheath cavity, over which 
 there falls a horny lid. The proboscis is merely a part of the cell wall, which 
 always remains flexible and capable of being rolled in or out. The horny lid 
 is a specialised fold of the wall, and is characteristic of the order of Bryozoa 
 (Chilostomata, lip-mouthed) to which Flustra belongs. A glove-finger, with 
 a hole in the top, surrounded by a crown of bristles to represent the mouth 
 and tentacles, will convey an idea of the arrangement of the tentacular sheath ; 
 when the top is rolled in, a fold or lid must be supposed to fall over the cavity 
 thus formed. The tentacles are hollow, and each is provided with a double 
 row of cilia, by whose motion currents are set up, which converge to the 
 mouth. This opening leads into a pharynx and gullet 
 (Fig. 3), and the latter opens into the stomach, which 
 forms the bend of the bent tube; the stomach is continued 
 into the intestine, which opens to the exterior outside the 
 circle of tentacles. The U-shaped intestinal tract is sus- 
 pended in the cavity of the cell, and is separated from the 
 walls by a space filled with fluid and continued up into the 
 interior of the tentacles ; the latter organs thus have a 
 respiratory function, since the peri-visceral fluid is brought 
 into close proximity to the sea-water. Further, the ten- 
 tacles are sensory organs capable of perceiving tactile and, 
 i FLUSTRA perhaps, other sensations. A nerve ganglion is situated 
 Poljpide remold' afc tne upper end of the cell between the pharynx and 
 from cell. intestine. In the walls of each cell are round sieve-like 
 
 B'GuHet DX ' areas, through which the inner linings of adjacent cells 
 
 C, stomach. become continuous, so that an organic and, perhaps, 
 
 D, intestines nervous continuity exists between all the cells of a 
 
 j VClit. i 
 
 colony. 
 
 Passing down from the stomach to the base of the cell is a cord, in which 
 the eggs and male cells are formed. The fertilised eggs pass up to a hemi- 
 spherical brood-chamber, which forms a hood over the top of some of the 
 cells, and there develop into embryos, which swim away from the parent. 
 The embryos are minute, nearly spherical, bodks, flattered at each pole, and 
 with a broad zone of cilia round the equator. At one pole is the mouth and 
 intestine, and at the other a flattened disk, wherewith the embryo, after a 
 short free life, fixes itself, and gives lise to the first polypide; the latter 
 produces buds which develop, and in their turn produce other buds, with 
 the result that a colony is formed. 
 
 Scattered over the surface of the frond, and interpolated among the ordi- 
 nary cells, are small oval shallow cells -with large thick lids ; here the polypide 
 has degenerated, and a muscular apparatus for opening and shutting the lid 
 alone remains. The purpose served by these modified cells is the retention 
 of prey, and probably the motion of the lid also serves to frighten away un- 
 desirable intruders. In some species of Bryozoa these metamorphosed cells 
 have an extraordinary resemblance to birds' beaks, and hence were named 
 "avicularia" (avicula, a bird's beak), this name being applied to all such 
 cases of metamorphosis, whatever the shape of the modified cell may be. 
 
 In all Bryozoa we find an approximately U-shaped intestinal tract contained 
 in a sack or box. The mouth is either surrounded by a circular or horse- 
 shoe shaped crown of tentacles, or the area surrounding the mouth is drawn 
 out into processes provided with tentacles, and the vent opening is on about 
 
FLUSTRA, BUGULA, LEPRALIA, 
 
 667 
 
 Fig. 4. BUGULA TUR- 
 
 BINATA. 
 
 the same level as the mouth opening. Further, all Bryozoa (excepting the 
 doubtful Phoronis) produce buds, which (excepting in Loxosoma) remain con- 
 nected so as to form colonies. The colonies vary greatly in their composi- 
 tion, texture, and outward appearance. They may be stony, horny, and 
 flexible ; gelatinous, fleshy, or like leather or paper. They may form crusts 
 and patches, hard or flexible leaves, bushy or shrubby growths, stony 
 nodules, branches or plates, shapeless fleshy masses, etc. In all, we have as 
 the unit the polypide in its cell. Often the same species occurs as a crust, or 
 in plates of single or double lamellae, the identity being revealed by the 
 characters of the individual cells composing the colony. A few typical and 
 interesting species will now be briefly referred to. 
 
 The Birds' Head Coralline (Bugula turbinata, Figs. 4, 5) forms 
 brownish horny tufts about two inches in height ; the branches, which are 
 arranged spirally round the stem, are very slender. The 
 cells are boat-shaped, and expand at the upper end. 
 The upper three-fourths of the front surface is mem- 
 branous, the rest of the cell being composed of hard, 
 horny material. At the upper part of 
 the membranous area is the lid, which 
 is pushed up when the tentacles are 
 extruded. The animal owes its popular 
 name to the remarkable avicularia 
 which arise from the edges of the cells ; 
 these organs consist of a short stalk, 
 
 a curved head and beak, and a horny mandible. The 
 "head" is filled with powerful muscles, which keep the 
 mandible continually snapping, the whole presenting a 
 ludicrous resemblance to a bird's beak (Fig. 5). 
 
 In the Creeping Coralline (Scrupocellaria reptans) a 
 further modification of the cell is seen. Ab the back of 
 each ordinary cell is a very minute tubular cell known as a 
 vibraculum (bristle cell), with a cleft at the top in which 
 a long fine bristle is hinged. Sometimes the bristles are 
 all kept moving together like oars, or, again, individual 
 bristles may sweep round the front of the cells to clear 
 away debris or frighten trespassers. The cell and its 
 contained polypide are here reduced to a tubular cell 
 and muscular apparatus, while the lid of the ordinary cell 
 has become lengthened out and changed into a bristle. 
 
 Bryozoa are perhaps most commonly met with in the form of crusts and 
 patches on stones, shells, and sea-weeds. The Lepralia of Pallas (Lepralia 
 pallasiana (Figs. 6, 7) forms circular reddish-white 
 or vitreous patches on shells, etc. The cells are 
 arranged in radiating lines, each cell being a stony box 
 with a punctured pattern on the front surface. At 
 the outer end of the front surface is a square aperture, 
 surrounded by an elevated rim and closed by a horny 
 lid. One of the cells in the figure shows a lid partly 
 pushed up by the tentacles of the polypide in the 
 interior. 
 Fig. 6.-LBPRALIA PAL- A11 the spec i es hitherto referred to belongto theorder 
 
 Fig. 5. BUQULA 
 
 (magnified). 
 A, Avicularia. 
 
 LASIAMA (encrueting a 
 shell). 
 
 Chilostomata (lip-mouthed), which is characterised by 
 
668 
 
 BR YOZOALOPHOPODA. 
 
 Fig 7. LEPRALI\ PAL- 
 LASIANA (magnified). 
 
 the presence of the horny lid covering the tentacle sheath. A second order, 
 
 the Cyclostomata (circular-mouthed), commonly form white circular or fan 
 
 shaped stony crusts, plates, or branches, the component cells being tubular, 
 
 and without horny lids. The tubes are frequently 
 
 arranged in single or double rows. In a third 
 
 order, the Ctenostomata (comb - mouthed), the 
 
 colonies are horny or fleshy, never stony. When 
 
 the tentacles are extruded, a comb-like circle 
 
 of fine bristles is seen arising from the pro- 
 boscis near the base of the tentacles ; when the 
 
 tentacles are retracted the bristles form a kind of 
 
 operculum. The gelatinous Alcyonidium, so called 
 
 from its resemblance to the zoophyte Alcyonium 
 
 ("dead men's fingers"), forms fleshy masses or long 
 
 cylindrical branches. The polyps, which are em- 
 
 b ddtd near the surface, extrude their tentacles 
 
 when undisturbed. The Nit Coralline (Amathia 
 
 lendigera) forms little dark brown bushy tufts, the 
 
 ce'ls being arranged on the branches in double rows of small horny cylinders 
 
 like Pan's-pipes. 
 
 The three orders above mentioned are included in one group, the 
 Infundibulata (infundibidum, a funnel), in which the 
 tentacles form a funnel-like circle round the mouth. 
 The rest of the Bryozoa are included under the group 
 Lophopoda (crest foot), in which the tentacles are 
 arranged in a horse-shoe shaped zone round the mouth. 
 Nearly all the fresh- water Bryozoa belong to this group. 
 LopJwpus crystallinus (Figs. 8, 9) is found in the form of 
 little jelly-like blobs on the stems of Duck-weed (Fig. 8). 
 The polypides can be seen as yellowish red streaks in the 
 interior of a blob ; when the horse-shoe plumes of 
 tantacles are expanded the 
 animal presents a beautiful 
 appearance. Lophoptis and 
 other fresh-water Bryozoa 
 commonly propagate them- 
 selves by means of peculiar 
 internal buds, termed " stato- 
 blasts " (Fig. 10), which arise 
 in the cord passing from the 
 
 stomach to the base of the cell. 
 
 In Lophopus each statoblast is a flat, elliptical, 
 
 seed-like body about T \> in. in diameter, pointed at 
 
 each end, and with a dark-brown oval centre sur- 
 rounded by a broad band with a reticulate pattern . 
 
 In the autumn the central part opens like a 
 
 watch, and a young polypide half emerges and 
 
 forms the nucleus of a colony. The remarkable 
 
 Cristatetta miicedo forms pale-green worm-like 
 
 colonies averaging about an inch in length 
 
 and one-sixth of an inch in breadth ; the animal 
 
 creeps about on the stems of water weeds. The polypides are arranged in 
 
 Fig. 8.-LOPHOPTJ8 
 CRYSTALLINUS ON 
 DUCK-WEKD. 
 
 Fig. 9. Loruorus (magnified) 
 
LOPHOPUS, A^LC YON ELLA. 669 
 
 three concentric series on the upper convex surface, the lower flat surface, on 
 which the colony moves along, being devoid of polyps. The statoblasts are 
 provided with a double circle of long slender spines, ending in recurved hooks. 
 Alcyoneila fungosa is a species commonly found in streams and ponds in the 
 form of brown clumps and nodules on floating timber, stems, sticks, etc. 
 
 In the Pedicellinidre, which are mostly marine, the polypides are stalked, 
 the stalks arising from a creeping stolon; the tentacles, which form an 
 almost complete circle round the mouth, are not capable of being retracted 
 into a sheath. In the aberrant genus, Rhabdopleura, the platform round the 
 mouth is drawn out into two long tentacle-bearing arms. In Cephalodiscus, 
 dredged up in the Straits of Magellan by the Challenger, the 
 oral platform is drawn out into twelve processes six on each 
 side, armed with plumes of tentacles ; the colony, which re- 
 sembles a branching, spiny, gelatinous sea- weed, is permeated 
 by canals along which the polypides can wander freely. In 
 most of the Lophopoda a lobe projects over the mouth; the 
 presence or absence of this character was made use of by 
 Allman for the purpose of classifying Bryozoa into two groups 
 Phylactolsemata (guarded throat) and Gymnolsemata (un- 
 protected throat). 
 
 The Bryozoa are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, and occur 
 in great abundance in the Chalk, the Cyclostomatous group (magnified), 
 prevailing in the earlier formations. A classification is here 
 appended for reference : 
 
 Sub-class I. Infundibulata with a circle of tentacles, a, Chilostomata 
 with a horny lid shutting down over the tentacle sheath (Flustra, 
 Bugula, Lepralia, etc.). b, Cyclostomata all calcareous; without a 
 horny lid ; without avicularia (Crisia, Tubulipora). c, Ctenostomata 
 with a circle of bristles forming a kind of operculum ; never calcareous 
 (Amathia, Alcyonidium, etc.). 
 
 Sub-class II. Lophopoda with horse-shoe shaped plume of tentacles or 
 arm-like processes bearing tentacles (Alcyoneila, Pedicellina, etc.). 
 
 [Note. The name Polyzoa is often used by English zoologists in place 
 of Bryozoa, but the latter term, definitely employed as a class name by 
 Ehrenberg in 1834, apparently has greater claims to acceptance. Biblio- 
 graphy Johnston's "British Zoophytes;" Hincks* " British Marine 
 Polyzoa;" Allman ! s " Fresh- water Polyzoa j " "Encyclopaedia Britannica," 
 Polyzoa (Lank ester). 
 
SUB-KINGDOM VII. VERMES. 
 
 THE WORMS. 
 
 BY R. I. POCOCK. 
 
 To give a concise diagnosis of the Vermes is a matter of no small difficulty, 
 for the different classes that are discussed in this chapter are merely grouped 
 together for the sake of convenience, since they present few features in com- 
 mon to justify their association, apart, that is, from the negative fact that 
 they do not possess the characters by which the rest of the sub-kingdoms 
 may be recognised. From the Echinoderms (star-fish, sea-urchins, etc.) and 
 Coelenterates (corals, jelly-fish), for example, they may be distinguished by 
 beng bi-laterally and not radially symmetrical; bi-laterally symmetrical 
 anmals being those in which the right and left halves of the body are alike. 
 From the Arthropoda (insects, spiders, etc.) they may be recognised by the 
 abisence of jointed limbs and of limbs modified to act as jaws ; from the 
 Chordata (Vertebrates and Ascidians) by the absence of the cartilaginous 
 doirsal chord (notochord) and of slits in the walls of the gullet ; and from the 
 Mollusca (snails, cuttle-fish, mussels) by the absence of the gland for pro- 
 ducing the shell, and of the muscular foot, which subserves locomotion. In 
 addition, however, to these negative features, it may be said that the body is 
 soft, usually long, and often jointed ; the alimentary canal, when present, 
 usually traverses it from end to end ; but in the lowest forms it has no pos- 
 terior outlet, and in some of the parasitic species has entirely disappeared. 
 In the simpler types the nervous system consists of two chords, one running 
 along each side of the body, and uniting in the head to form the brain, which 
 is placed just above the gullet. But in the higher groups these chords are 
 united throughout their length, and form a double chain, traversing the body 
 from end to end beneath the alimentary canal. In the higher forms, again, 
 there is a highly developed circulatory system, consisting of longitudinal and 
 transverse vessels, but no such organs have been observed in the less higTily 
 organised types. Very characteristic, too, of all the classes are the excretory 
 vessels, consisting of tubes that open to the exterior, and at their inner 
 end communicate with the body cavity. 
 
 A bond of union, however, between some of the classes, which in the adult 
 stages are very dissimilar, may perhaps be sought in the similarity that is 
 observable in their larval forms. For example, in the groups known as 
 Polychreta, Gephyrea, Nemertinea, and Turbellaria, in addition to some 
 others of less importance and extent, the young is an active larva furnished 
 with cilia, or vibratile hairs, arranged in one or more definite belts around 
 the body, by the movement of which it is enabled to swim freely through the 
 water. These groups would thus seem to have at least a common starting- 
 point in development, from which they have diverged in different directions. 
 
 670 
 
ANNELIDS BRISTLE-FOOTED WORMS. 671 
 
 But too much stress must not be laid upon this circumstance, seeing that other 
 marine groups of invertebrated animals, like the Mollusca and Hemichordata, 
 may also be developed from ciliated larvae not very different in structure from 
 those that are met with in the Vermes. 
 
 The Vermes may be divided into the following six classes : 1. Annelida 
 (earthworms, leeches, etc.); 2. Gephyrea ; 3. Nematohelminthes (thread- 
 worms) ; 4. Rotifera (wheel-animalcules) ; 5. Nemertinea ; 6. Platyhelminthes 
 (flat-worms). 
 
 THE RINGED WORMS. 
 CLASS ANNELIDA. 
 
 To this class belong those highly specialised worms whose organisation has 
 been briefly referred to above. The body consists of a series of rings or 
 segments, each of which is substantially similar to the one behind and the 
 one in front of it. The alimentary canal traverses the body from end to end, 
 and beneath it lies the nerve-chord, consisting of a double thread united in 
 each segment to form a ganglion or swelling, and connected in front with the 
 brain, one of the threads passing on each side of the oesophagus. Each seg- 
 ment, too, typically contains a pair of excretory tubes or nephridia, and the 
 circulatory system consists of longitudinal vessels, connected by transverse 
 branches. The most highly organised members of this class, namely, the 
 Chretopoda, are structurally not very far removed from the Arthropoda 
 (crustaceans, insects, centipedes, etc.). The chief distinctions between the 
 two groups are, however, three in number. In all the Arthropods, except 
 Peripaius, the legs are jointed, and at least one pair of them has become 
 modified to act as jaws. But in the Chsetopoda, although there may be 
 distinct leg-like processes, these are never jointed, and the jaws, when 
 present, are merely horny teeth developed in the mouth. Again, in the 
 Arthropods the walls of the heart, or dorsal blood-vessel, are perforated by 
 slits, by means of which the blood makes its way back to that organ, 
 whereas no such slits are present in the corresponding blood-vessels in the 
 Annelids. The Annelida are divisible into the CHJETOPODA and HIRUDINEA . 
 
 THE BRISTLE-FOOTED WORMS SUB-CLASS CH^TOPODA. At the head 
 of the Vermes stand the species known as the Bristle-Footed Worms 
 or Chsetopoda, which in many details of their organisation approach the 
 Arthropoda. For example, in the typical members of the class the body 
 consists of a series of approximately similar segments, each of which is 
 furnished at the sides with two rows of bristles, and very often with limb- 
 like prominences, known as a parapodia. There is a distinct head, bearing 
 above the mouth, a prostomium or kind of enlarged upper lip, and often 
 furnished in addition with one or more pairs of tentacles. The alimentary 
 canal traverses the body from end to end ; and beneath it lies the double 
 nerve chord, which is in front connected with the brain, placed in the head 
 above the mouth. 
 
 Leaving aside for the moment some of the less important types, the 
 Chsetopoda may be said to fall into two orders, known as the POLYCH^ETA 
 and the OLIGOCH^TA. 
 
 The Polychseta have a conspicuous head, usually bearing feelers and 
 gills, and the segments of the body are furnished at the sides with 
 limb -like processes, usually supplied with a rich armature of bristles. 
 
6 7 2 
 
 VERMES CLASS ANNELIDA. 
 
 Nearly all the species are marine, and many of them are of considerable 
 size and great beauty. According to structuie and mode of life, they are 
 divided into two sub-orders (1) the SEDENTARIA or TUBICOLA and (2) the 
 ERRAJSTIA. 
 
 The typical members of the Sedentaria live 
 in tubes of sand, mud, or pieces of shell glued 
 together by the slimy secretion of their skins, 
 or composed of a dense, shelly, chalk-like 
 substance. The worm known as Terebella 
 constructs a dwelling-place of the former 
 kind, gathering together the particles by 
 means of long flexible tentacles placed on 
 its head ; while tubes of cement are built by 
 such forms as Serpula and Spirorbis. The 
 latter is the maker of those tubes so much 
 resembling a snail-shell, which are common 
 on our coasts ; while Serpula makes the long, 
 sinuous, serpent-like tubes which may be 
 often found in interlacing clusters encrusting 
 stones and shells of various kinds. When 
 undisturbed these worms may be seen pro- 
 truding from their tubes and waving in the 
 water their gills and tentacles, which are 
 affixed to the head, but upon the slightest 
 alarm they shoot back like a flash out of 
 harm's way, and remain 
 securely concealed within 
 their homes until the danger 
 is overpast. To render it- 
 
 self still safer within its retreat, the worm called Serpula 
 has one of its tentacles transformed into a veritable 
 stopper, which exactly fits the mouth of the tube and 
 completely closes it up when the worm has withdrawn 
 itself. 
 
 Although differing from the Serpula and Terebella, and 
 approaching the Errant Polychseta in many characters, the 
 common Sand-worm or Lug-worm (Arenicola marina), so 
 much sought for on our coasts as bait, also belongs to the 
 group of Ssdentaria. In this species the gills are repre- 
 sented by plumes situated on the middle segments of the 
 body. At low water on the sandy shores of northern Europe 
 the Lug- worm may be found at times in great quantities, 
 the position of its burrows being easily detected by the 
 little heaps of sand that accumulate at the entrance. For, 
 like the Earth-worm, the Lug-worm swallows large 
 quantities of sand, in order to extract for its nourishment 
 any organic matter it may contain ; and it ccmes to the 
 surface to unburden its body of the sand that has passed 
 through it. 
 
 To the section Errantia belong the most highly-organised species of the 
 class. They lead a free predatory life, wandering hither and thither in 
 search of food, which consists almost exclusively of animals more defenceless 
 
 Fig. 1. TUBE-MAKING ANNKLID 
 (Serpula contortuplicaia). 
 
 a> Gr protrudiD tUbeS Wlth 
 b, Worm removed from tube. 
 
 Fig. 2. LUG-WORM 
 (Arenicola marina). 
 
PREDATORY ANNELIDS. 
 
 673 
 
 than themselves. For this purpose they are fitted with organs of locomotion 
 in the form of prominent limb-like, bristle-bearing, processes (parapodia); 
 the conspicuous head is supplied with tentacles of various kinds, and 
 generally with eyes, while the gullet, which 
 is protrusible, is armed with horny teeth. 
 Many of these worms are of large size and 
 are composed of a long series of segments, 
 a species, for example, named Eunice 
 (jigantea, is said to have over 400 of them, 
 and to be upwards of four feet in length. 
 But one of the commonest forms upon our 
 coast, known as the Sea-mouse (Aphrodite 
 acuteatct), is a very different looking 
 animal, with a short, broad, more or less 
 oval body, convex above and flat below, 
 like that of a Slug. Its sides are orna- 
 mented with the most beautifully iridescent 
 hairs, and with barbed retractile spines, 
 which serve as a protection against carnivo- 
 rous fish or other enemies. 
 
 An interesting feature connected with 
 some of these Bristle-worms, is that their 
 method of development takes place by 
 means of what is called an alternation of 
 generations. In Autolytus, one of the 
 Syllidse, for example, the worm that is 
 hatched from the egg and grows to maturity 
 is a neuter, and is consequently quite in- 
 capable of reproducing its kind in the 
 ordinary way. But the difficulty is over- 
 come by the formation of a new worm, the hinder end of the old one 
 breaking off and turning either into a male or a female. In some cases 
 more than one individual is produced at a time by this process of division, 
 so that before they sever themselves from the parent stock a regular chain 
 of worms is formed. In another member of this family, namely, the 
 Branched Syllis (Syllis ramosa), which lives in certain sponges, new individuals 
 are produced as lateral branches, as well as one behind the other. Very 
 exceptionally in the Polychseta the young are born alive. In the majority of 
 cases the eggs give rise to a free swimming larva , the Trochophore or Trochosphere, 
 characterised by the presence of one or more belts of long vibratile cilia 
 encircling the body. According to the number and disposition of these belts 
 the larvse have been named ; those that possess several of them being known, 
 for example, as Polytrochous. Sometimes there is but one belt, which may 
 be in the middle of the body {Mesotrochous), or in front of the mouth 
 (Monotrochous), while not infrequently the Monoirochous larva has a second 
 belt surrounding its posterior end, when it is known as Telotrochous. Some- 
 times, again, there is no definite belt (Atrochous), the larva being uniformly 
 covered with short cilia, bearing, in addition, a special tuft of them at the 
 front end of the body. Somewhat similar larvae are found in other groups 
 of Vermes, and are of special interest, as showing possible relationship 
 between them and the Annelida. 
 
 The second order of Bristle- footed worms is named Oligochseta, on account 
 44 
 
 Fig, 3. THE PEARLT NEREIS 
 (Nereis margaritacea). 
 
 a, Entire worm. 
 
 b, Head with jaws, feelers, and eyes. 
 
 
6 74 
 
 VERMES CLASS ANNELIDA. 
 
 of the relatively poor development of the armature of bristles as compared 
 with the Polychseta. In other respects they are less highly organised, as is 
 shown by the absence of tentacles and gills and teeth, and by the fact that 
 the sexes are united in one individual. The best-known members of this 
 order are the familiar earth-worms, belonging to the families Lumbricidce, 
 etc. Most people are probably of opinion that but one species of this animal 
 occurs in Great Britain; but, as a matter of fact, there are about twenty 
 belonging to three distinct genera. Another popular belief connected with 
 them is, that if a couple of specimens be cut in two, and the head end 
 of one be applied to the tail end of the other, the two parts will grow 
 together and form a complete individual. In fact, the curious swelling 
 which may be observed in the fore part of the body of a full-grown worm is 
 often regarded as the point of union of two such separate pieces. As a 
 matter of fact, this swelling, called the clitellum or cingidum, is an organ 
 used in the formation of the cocoons in which the eggs are laid. 
 
 Although occasionally seen on the surface of the ground during the day- 
 time, Earth-worms are for the most part strictly nocturnal and subterranean, 
 burrowing into the soil in all directions, and devouring any animal or 
 vegetable refuse it may contain. In connection with food they swallow 
 large quantities of earth, and when this has passed through their bodies, it 
 is voided at the surface of the ground, forming the so-called vegetable mould. 
 During spells of dry weather they bury themselves deep in the earth in 
 search of moisture, without which life is an impossibility ; and in the 
 winter months they descend to the lower layers of the soil so as to be out 
 of reach of the frost. These animals are subjected to ruthless persecution 
 at the hands of farmers and gardeners on account of their propensity for 
 pulling shoots of young corn and blades of grass beneath 
 f the surface. But it is doubtful if the harm done in 
 
 this respect is not more than counteracted by the 
 benefit that plants derive from the ceaseless tunnelling 
 of the soil, the loosening of its particles, and the 
 porterage of the lower layers to the surface, to be 
 deposited as castings. In fact, so extensively is this 
 work carried on by earth worms, that Mr. Darwin has 
 compared their action to that of a plough, and adds 
 that it is doubtful whether many other animals have 
 played so important a part in the history of the world. 
 Earth-worms are found in all parts of the world in 
 spots suitable for their existence, and in some countries 
 they reach an enormous length as compared with the 
 common species with which we are familiar. In South 
 Africa, for instance, there is a species called Microchceta 
 Rappi, which attains a length of about five feet. It is, 
 however, by no means frequently seen, rarely appear- 
 * n ^ n sur f a ce> and then only after heavy rains. 
 
 Other worms, however, besides the earth-worms, 
 belong to the Oligochseta. Many representatives of 
 this group live in fresh water streams and ditches, 
 as well as in the sea. For example, the common Tubifex 
 rivulorum, a long, slender, reddish worm, may be found 
 in quantities in the muddy bottom of ponds, where it 
 constructs long tubular burrows. When undisturbed it has the peculiar 
 
 Fig. 4. SNOUTED NAIS 
 (Nais proboscidea). 
 
PREDA TOR Y ANNELIDS- LEE CHES. 67 5 
 
 habit of projecting the hinder part of its body from its burrow and waving it 
 incessantly in the water. But one of the best known of these aquatic worms 
 is the species called Nais proboscidea, which has long hair-like bristles jutting 
 out from the sides of its body, and a proboscis-like feeler projecting from 
 the forepart of its head. This worm may be regarded as more highly 
 organised than the earth-worm, as is indicated by the presence of a couple 
 of eyes upon its head. Like some of the Polychaata, too, it possesses the 
 power of reproducing by fission. Between two of the segments in the 
 posterior half of the body a mass of tissue appears, and from the front part 
 of this a new tail is formed for the original piece bearing the head, while 
 from its hinder part a new head develops for the part that was primarily 
 the tail-end of the parent form. It not infrequently happens that several 
 new worms start almost contemporaneously in this way one behind the 
 other, and before the severance between them is effected, they appear as 
 a chain of individuals, exactly as described above in the case of Autdytus, 
 one of the Polychceta. 
 
 In addition to the Polychaeta and Oligochseta a third group, called Archi- 
 annelida, is now referred to the Chaetopoda, in spite of the fact that the 
 integument bears no bristles, and the only external signs of segmentation 
 are shallow grooves in the skin and serially arranged rows of cilia (fine hairs). 
 The head is furnished with tentacles, but there are no parapodia. This 
 group, lying in some respects midway between the Chaetopoda and the Flat- 
 worms of the sub-class Turbellaria, contains several marine forms, of which 
 the best known are Protodrilus and Polygordius. The young of the Archi- 
 annelida are developed from Trochophore larvae of the type known as 
 Telotrochous (see p. 673). 
 
 Usually now regarded as aberrant members of the class Chaetopoda are 
 the remarkable species belonging to the genus Myzostoma, of the family 
 Myzostomidse. These degraded creatures live parasitically upon the Sea- 
 lilies (Crinoidea), their presence giving rise to tumours or various irregularities 
 of growth. The body is oval and flattened and unsegmented, and its margins 
 are produced into a number of short, prehensile filaments ; while on the 
 lower surface near the edge are four pairs of suckers, and on the inner side 
 of these five pairs of conical, foot-like processes, each of which is provided 
 with a pair of retractile bristles. But in spite of the anomalous structure 
 of the adult, these parasites are developed from free-swimming larvae 
 furnished with ciliated bands, and calling to mind the Trcchophore of the 
 Annelida. 
 
 THE LEECHES SUB-CLASS HIRUDINEA. The Leeches, or Hirudinea (Latin, 
 hirudo, a leech), sometimes called the Discophora (disc-bearers), on account 
 of the suckers with which they are furnished, are not unlike earth-worms in 
 general appearance, and also in many points of structure. The integument 
 is divided by shallow transverse grooves into a multitude of rings, a varying 
 number of which (five to three) correspond to each true segment of the body. 
 There are no bristles nor organs of locomotion in the form of parapodia, 
 movement from one spot to another being effected by means of swimming 
 or by crawling, with the aid of the suckers, after the manner of the " looper '' 
 caterpillars. There is always a large sucker situated at the hinder end of 
 the body, and usually a second at the opposite extremity, with the mouth 
 placed in its centre. 
 
 The Leeches are divisible into two families the Gnathobdellidce., or jaw- 
 
676 
 
 I T ERMES ANNELIDA. 
 
 bearing: species, and the Rhynchobddlidce, or proboscis-bearing species. Of the 
 Gnathobdellidse, the medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is a well-known 
 example. This animal is usually of a blackish colour, and ornamented witli 
 longitudinal bands of yellow spots. It is somewhat scarce in England, 
 and in the days when blood-letting was extensively practised by doctnis 
 the demand for it was met by the importation of large quantities 
 from he Continent, where it is not only more abundant than with 
 us, but was artificially cultivated on a large scale in especially-constructed 
 tanks. The power of these animals to pierce the skin and draw blood, upon 
 which their value as blood-letters depends, is due to the presence in the 
 mouth of three semi-circular jaws, each of whk-h 
 is studded with a series of minute horny teeth. By 
 means of a set of powerful muscles these j iws are 
 capable of being worked backwards and forwards 
 after the manner of a saw, while by aid of the 
 sucker, the mouth is kept closely applied to the 
 wounded spot and the blood is drawn into the 
 worm's stomach. This is a capacious sac, consisting 
 of no fewer than eleven pairs of pouches, capable of 
 considerable distention, and occupying the greater 
 part of the space between the walls of the body. 
 When the leech has pumped itself full of blood, but 
 not before, it relaxes its hold ; and it has been 
 affirmed that the amount thus imbibed will be 
 sufficient for a whole year. 
 
 In a natural state these leeches are found in 
 ponds, marshes, or sluggish brooks with a bottom 
 of mud or clay. Out of water they cannot live for 
 any length of time, since they speedily succumb to 
 the drying effects of the atmosphere. During the 
 day, especially if the weather be warm and bright, 
 they may be seen swimming about with liveliness, 
 but in cold or dark days and at night-time they lose their activity, and remain 
 curled up with head and tail closely applied. In the autumn they bury them- 
 selves deep in the mud. Their food consists of the blood of fishes or aquatic 
 amphibians, or of terrestrial vertebrates, that visit their haunts to bathe or 
 drink. Like earth-worms, leeches are hermaphrodite, and after pairing in the 
 spring they creep up the banks of the pond or ditch above the surface of the water 
 and dig burrows in the soft damp soil, and in these, like the earth-worms again, 
 they construct for the reception of their eggs elliptical cocor ns, formed of a 
 secretion from certain skin-glands, which afterwards hardens. Externally, 
 the cocoons are covered with a layer of spongy material, while the inside is 
 filled with aibumen, in which the small eggs, usuallv about twenty in number, 
 are embedded. When the eggs are hatched, the young float in the albumen, 
 and obtain their nourishment from it. Upon quitting the cocoon after 
 several weeks' residence therein, the young leeches resemble their parents in 
 form, though they are not dark -coloured. Growth, however, is a slow pro- 
 cess, maturity not being reached until five years have passed, and life endur- 
 ing, under favourable conditions, for about twenty years. 
 
 A far commoner species in England than the medicinal leech is the so-called 
 Horse-leech (Aulostomiim, gitlo), which may be distinguished from the former 
 by the absence of the bands of yellow spots, the skin being of a uniform 
 
 Fig. 5. MEDICINAL LEECH 
 (Hirudo medicinalis). 
 
LEECHES. 677 
 
 greenish-black, and by the fact that its jaws are furnished with fewer and 
 blunter teeth. This difference of dentition is evidently correlated with the 
 difference in the feeding habits of the two animals, the food of the Horse- 
 leech, in spite of its name, consisting of such soft-bodied creatures as earth- 
 worms and snails. 
 
 It must not be supposed, however, that all leeches are inhabitants of fresh 
 water. In many countries, indeed, especially in the tropics, land leeches are 
 abundant, as many a traveller knows to his cost. They inhabit jungle and 
 forest land, where the vegetation in the wet season is saturated with moisture; 
 but in the dry season they entirely disappear, presumably burying themselves 
 deep in the earth. According to the accounts of those who have had practical 
 experience of them, these animals are a terrible plague. Gifted with the 
 power of perceiving the presence of prey at some distance, they hasten 
 towards it in crowds from all quarters, or collect in the herbage bordering 
 the forest paths, with head extended, ready to seize hold of any passing man or 
 beast. To protect themselves from their attacks, Europeans are compelled 
 to wear leather or closely-woven cloth gaiters, tied tightly round the knee, 
 while the natives rub their bare legs with oil or lemon juice. 
 
 The leeches of the second family (the Rhynchobdellidoe) differ from those 
 belonging to the Gnathobdellidre, that have been hitherto discussed, in 
 having the front of the body furnished with a protrusible proboscis at the end 
 of which the mouth is situated. To this family belongs the fresh water leech 
 Clepsine. This animal is yellow, grey, or whitish in colour, occurs on the 
 leaves of plants or on the lower side of stones, and feeds apparently upon 
 water-snails and the young of fresh water mussels. The eggs, in number 
 about 200, are not embedded in albumen as is the case in the medicinal 
 leech, but are of larger size and contain their own food-yolk. They are laid 
 in flattish cocoons which are attached to some stone or water-plant, and the 
 
 leech curls itself round the 
 
 ^^ ___ cocoon to protect it. More- 
 over, when the young are 
 hatched, the mother still con- 
 tinues to look after them, carry- 
 ing them about/with her attached 
 to the lower surface of the body. 
 Also belonging to this family 
 is the Warty Sea-leech (Pontob- 
 deUa muricata) which is common 
 on our coasts, and may be readily 
 Fig. 6. WARTY SKATE-LEECH recognised by its greenish grey 
 (Pontobdella muricata). colour, cylindrical body, and 
 
 tough knobby integument. It 
 
 is found mostly on fishes of the skate tribe, and hence is sometimes called 
 the skate-sucker. 
 
 THE GEPHYREAN WORMS. 
 CLASS GEPHYREA.. 
 
 The worms of this class are all marine, and although more or less cylindrical 
 in shape, show scarcely any traces of segmentation. The front of the 
 body is furnished with a large proboscis, and the integument is covered 
 with warts. 
 
6;8 
 
 VERMES CLASS GEPHYREA. 
 
 The species fall into two well-marked orders known as the Chsetifera and 
 the Achseta. The Chsetifera, or bristle-bearing Gephyrea, show strong indica- 
 tions of affinity with the Chsetopoda, and are by some authors considered to 
 belong to that class. In the young the body is partially segmented, and 
 in the adult is furnished below with a pair of hooked bristles. The alimen- 
 tary canal terminates at the hinder end of the body, and the proboscis, which 
 is ciliated and often of enormous length as compared with the size of the 
 animal, appears to be nothing but an enlargement of the prostomium or region 
 in front of the mouth, the latter being situated at its base. The best-known 
 members of the group are Bonellia, Echiurus, and Thalassema. They are to 
 
 be found at the bottom of the sea or beneath 
 stones in pools, and appear to be gifted with 
 but little activity. 
 
 The Achoeta have no bristles, as their name 
 indicates ; there is no sign of segmentation 
 at any period of life ; the alimentary canal is 
 twisted upon itself, and terminates in the 
 front half of the body ; and the proboscis 
 carries the mouth at its tip, and can be re- 
 tracted inside the body by muscles specially 
 set apart for the purpose. In some of these 
 worms in those, for example, known as 
 Sipunculus, Phascolosoma, and Phymosoma 
 the tip of the proboscis is furnished with a 
 circlet of tentacles surrounding the mouth. 
 These animals live on the sea-bottom in de- 
 serted univalve shells, closing up the mouth 
 of the shell with sand grains cemented to- 
 gether with slime, but leaving an aperture 
 just large enough to allow the extensible 
 proboscis to be thrust in and out with ease. 
 A British representative of this group is 
 Sipunculus bernhardus. A still more curious 
 form is Priapidus, found in deep water in the 
 North Atlantic. This worm burrows in the 
 sand, and is furnished with a stout probocis 
 armed with horny teeth, but without the 
 circlet of tentacles observable in Sipunculus. 
 In both groups of the Gephyrea occur ciliated larval forms which present 
 a close resemblance to the Trochophore of the Polychseta. 
 
 Fig. 7. GKPHYREAN WORMS. 
 
 A, Bonellia viridis (with proboscis 
 
 distended). 
 
 B, Priapulus caudatus, 
 
 C, Echiurus. 
 
 THE THREAD-WORMS. 
 CLASS NEMATOHELMINTHES. 
 
 As implied by their name, the worms of this class are mostly long, slender, 
 and more or less thread-like. The body is usually pointed at both ends, and 
 it presents at most but slight external indications of segmentation, and none 
 of that serial repetition of internal organs which is so characteristic of the 
 highly organised Annelida. The skin, moreover, instead of being furnished 
 with bristles or the delicate hairs known as cilia, is protected by a smooth 
 and relatively tough cuticle. In all the typical members there is a distinct 
 
THREAD-WORMS. 679 
 
 alimentary canal traversing the body nearly from end to end, and there is 
 an excretory system, consisting of tubes lying lengthwise, which com- 
 municate with each other in the fore part of the body and open upon its 
 lower surface by a single pore. The sexes are generally distinct. 
 
 Although a large majority of the species of this class are parasitic, spending 
 the whole or part of their lives within the bodies of other animals, a few, 
 nevertheless, are to be found on plants, on fresh water or damp earth, or even 
 in the sea. But amongst the parasitic forms we meet with species that are 
 free during a part of their existence ; that is to say, either during the 
 immature stages of life or after maturity is attained . Such species as these 
 thus show an interesting gradation in habit between those kinds that are 
 wholly independent and those that live permanently in other organisms. 
 
 One of the best known of the free living species is the Vinegar or Paste- 
 eel (Anguillula aceti), which feeds upon the minute fungi found growing in 
 these substances. Allied forms, known as Leptodera and Pelodera, occur in 
 water or damp earth ; but, unless supplied with plenty of nitrogenous food 
 in the form of decaying animal or vegetable matter, they remain in the 
 larval stage, a supply of food of this nature being necessary for the attainment 
 of maturity. 
 
 Before passing to the most interesting members of this class, namely, those 
 that are parasitic in animals, and especially in mankind, brief reference may 
 be made to a couple of species which infest plants and are of considerable 
 economic importance on account of the damage done by their agency to corn 
 crops and vegetables of the turnip kind. Adult examples of the Wheat-eel 
 (Tylenchus tritici) attack developing ears of wheat, converting them into a 
 kind of gall. Here the young are hatched, ultimately reaching the ground 
 by the falling of the grain. They are then set free in the moist earth, and 
 wander hither and thither in search of the young shoots of growing corn. If 
 successful in their quest they ascend the stalks, and, finally reaching the 
 summit, take up their abode in the blossom of the wheat ; and, nourishing 
 themselves upon it, arrive at maturity and then produce new generations. 
 The second vegetable pest to be noticed is the Turnip Thread-worm 
 (Heterodera schachti), which gives rise to swellings on the roots of the sweet 
 turnip or sugar-beet. These swellings are caused by the expansion of the 
 female worm into a spherical body owing to the quantity of nourishment 
 she absorbs. Here the eggs are laid, and after being retained for a time in 
 a special brood-pouch, pass to the outer world, and undergo the first stages 
 of their development. Subsequently the females bore their way into the 
 turnip roots by means of a special instrument with which the throat is fitted 
 fur the purpose. 
 
 Passing now to the species that live parasitically in other animals, we find 
 the simplest life-history in such kinds as Ascaris lumbricoides and Oxyuris 
 vermicularis, known to medical men respectively as the " round- worm '' and 
 the ** thread- worm," and occurring not infrequently in the human intestine, 
 especially during childhood. The eggs of these worms are discharged from 
 the alimentary canal of their host, and make their way back again through 
 the mouth in connection with food or impure water. In addition to man- 
 kind, species of thread- worms allied to those just mentioned infest the 
 intestines of horses, pigs, dogs, cats, and a variety of other animals. 
 
 In addition, however, to the alimentary canal, other organs of man are 
 liable to the attacks of various Thread- worms. The Guinea or Medina-worm 
 (Dracunculus medinensis), for example, reaches maturity in the subcutaneous 
 
68o 
 
 VERMES CLASS NEMA TOHELMINTHES. 
 
 tissue of man in the tropical countries of the Old World, measuring, when 
 adult, many inches in length. It is usually extracted by being carefully 
 wound round a small roller, an operation which often occupies several days, 
 owing to the precautions that are taken not to fracture the animal. But if 
 allowed to remain beneath the skin, the worm effects its escape to the outer 
 world through the abscess to which its presence gives rise. Then the young 
 with which the females are laden make their way into fresh water streams or 
 lakes, and falling in with minute water-fleas of the family Cyclopidye, bore 
 their way into the interior of these crustaceans, which are swallowed by 
 mankind in connection with drinking-water ; and so, by means of an inter- 
 mediate host, the young Guinea-worms are introduced into their final place of 
 abode. A similar transference of parasitic worms from one host to another is 
 of common occurrence in this, as in other, groups of entozoic vermes, and we 
 meet with it again in another thread-worm ( FUaria sanguinis-hominis) which, 
 in various parts of the Old World, infests the blood system of man, giving 
 rise, by the stoppage of the circulation in the small vessels, to the disease 
 known as elephantiasis. In this case the embryos are sucked from the 
 vascular system by mosquitoes or other suctorial diptera, and so become 
 scattered abroad, making their way in all probability back again into the 
 human body along with drinking water. 
 
 To the genera Gordius and Mermis belong the horse- hair worms, so named 
 on account of their length, slenderness, and colour, which recall the form of 
 a long hair from a horse's mane or tail. In Gordius, which is found in fresh 
 water streams and ponds, the alimentary canal is functionless and the mouth 
 
 closed. The eggs, deposited in clusters 
 and glued together by an adhesive sub- 
 stance, sink to the bottom of the water, 
 and there remain until the hatching of 
 the young. These are armed in front with 
 a sharp proboscis and circles of hooks, by 
 means of which they bore their way into 
 the bodies of aquatic insect larvee, such 
 as gnats and mayflies, and there remain 
 encysted until the host is devoured by a 
 fish or carnivorous insect. Thus intro- 
 duced into the alimentary canal of a 
 fresh host, the young Gordius subse- 
 quently penetrate into the body-cavity, 
 and undergo the semi-final stages of their 
 development, acquire the form charac- 
 teristic of the adult, and then making 
 their escape into the water become fully 
 adult (see Fig. 8, 6). The other hair-worm 
 known as Mermis lives in damp earth. 
 Here the eggs are laid, and the young 
 penetrate the skin and take up their 
 abode in the bodies of caterpillars or other insects, whence, after a prolonged 
 residence, they escape again to the ground, become mature, and lay their 
 eggs. 
 
 The descriptions that have hitherto been given of the life-histories of the 
 parasitic thread-worms deal with species which lead a free existence, at all 
 events during a part of life. But the last of the species that we have 
 
 Fig. 8. THREAD-WORMS. 
 
 a, Trichinosis-worm (Trichina spiralis) 
 
 encysted in muscle. 
 
 b, Horse-hair worm (Gordius) escaping 
 
 from an insect (Mantis). 
 
THREAD- WORMS. 
 
 681 
 
 space to notice is of special interest, not only on account of its being one of 
 the most dangerous of parasitic worms to mankind, but also because it 
 spends the whole of its existence within the bodies of two hosts, carrying 
 the parasitic habit to a greater extreme than is met with elsewhere in the 
 group. This is the worm called Trichina spiralis, which gives rise to the 
 dreaded disease trichinosis. In the adult or sexually mature stage this 
 worm lives in the intestine of various carnivorous mammals, man being 
 amongst the number. But the minute young, which are born alive, instead 
 of making their way to the outer world in connection with excrementitious 
 matter, bore through the wall of their host's alimentary canal and entering 
 the blood-stream are carried by the circulation to various parts of the body, 
 ultimately coming to a standstill in the muscles. Here the little creatures 
 begin to grow and form, for themselves a protective capsule or cyst between 
 the fibres of the muscular tissue. Meat infested with these encysted worms 
 is said to be " trichinised " (Fig. 8, ). In this state the Trichinae remain 
 without attaining maturity until the meat in which they have taken up their 
 abode is eaten by another animal, whereupon the action of the digestive 
 juices of the new host, dissolving away the muscular fibres and the capsule, 
 set free the worms, which in their new surroundings quickly become adult, 
 and each female gives birth to thousands of new individuals. Man as a rule 
 contracts "trichinosis " through eating " trichinised " pork in an underdone 
 state. But, happily, since the discovery of the source of infection some fifty 
 years ago, and the introduction of stringent laws against the sale of unhealthy 
 pork, the disease has become far less common than in former times. 
 
 Usually classified with the thread-worms, though differing from them in 
 the absence of mouth and alimentary canal, and in 
 other anatomical details, are the parasitic-worms, 
 known as Ecliinorhynchus, belonging to the group 
 Acanthocephali. These two names the former mean- 
 ing "spiny-beaked " and the latter "thorny-headed " 
 refer to the presence on the worm's head of a retrac- 
 tile proboscis, armed with rows of backwardly directed 
 hooks. The various species of Echinorhynchus are 
 internal parasites, the mature stages being found 
 in vertebrata of different kinds, and the immature 
 stages in certain invertebrated animals. For ex- 
 ample, a species known as Echinorhynchus gigas, which 
 infests the alimentary canal of the pig, passes the 
 earlier part of its life in the intestine of the larvse of 
 various kinds of chafers, such as the cock-chafer 
 (Melolontha vulgaris) or the rose-chafer (Cetonia 
 aurata). The migration from the one host to the 
 other is effected in the following manner : The 
 embryos of the worm, invested in a protective membrane, 
 after passing out of the pig's alimentary canal in con- 
 nection with excrementitious matter, are devoured by 
 the beetle-larvse along with their food. In the stomach 
 of the new host the investing membrane becomes 
 dissolved, and the worm, thereby set free, bores into 
 the intestinal walls of the larvae. These in turn are 
 
 rooted up and swallowed by the pigs, and the young a, Echinorhynchus gigas. 
 Echinorhynchi thus become transferred again into the b, Sagitta Mpunctata. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
682 ' VERMES CLASS ROTIFER A. 
 
 alimentary canal of the animal from which they set out. The migrations 
 of other species is substantially similar to that of E. gigas. For instance, 
 E. polymorphiis lives as a mature animal in the intestine of ducks or other 
 water-fowl, while in the immature stage it occurs in the little fresh-water 
 crustacean (Gammarus pulex). This amphipod (G. pulex) is also, in conjunc- 
 tion with the fresh-water wood-louse (Asellus aquaticus), the intermediate 
 host of two other species, E. anyustatus and E. proteus, which, when 
 mature, infest the alimentary canal of fresh-water fish. Instances of the 
 occurrence of worms of this group in mankind have been recorded, but, 
 happily, such cases are rare. 
 
 Although, probably, more nearly related to the Thread-worms than to any 
 other group in the animal kingdom, the Arrow-worm (Sagitta) presents so 
 many peculiarities of organisation that its true systematic position is still a 
 matter of doubt, and it forms the sole type of an order known as Chsetognatha. 
 This name, meaning "bristle- jawed," is given to it in allusion to the fact 
 that the head is armed with a number of strong, movable, horny spikes which 
 act as jaws. The body is long, slender, and unsegmented, with a rounded, 
 blunt head, bearing eyes, and a narrow-pointed tail ; but the tip of the tail 
 and the sides of the body in its hinder half are furnished with horizontally- 
 projecting fins (Fig. 9, b). 
 
 The Arrow-worms, so called from their arrow-like shape, are not parasitic 
 like the Thread-worms, but are to be found swimming in numbers on the 
 surface of the ocean in all parts of the world. 
 
 THE WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. 
 
 CLASS ROTIFERA. 
 
 The Rotifera, or " Wheel-animalcules," as they were formerly called, on 
 account of the appearance in the water of a rapidly rotating wheel, to which 
 the movement of the circlet of hairs on their heads gives rise, are all 
 small, aquatic animals, varying in length from \ to 5^ of an inch, and found 
 universally in marine and fresh water, but most abundantly in stagnant 
 pools. 
 
 The front end of the body is usually broader than the opposite extremity, 
 and is shaped like a disc, the trochal disc, which is 
 fringed with long vibratile hairs or cilia. By means 
 of the currents of water set up by the movement of 
 these cilia, particles of food are swept into the mouth, 
 a wide aperture placed in the middle or at the 
 sides of the trochal disc. The mouth passes into 
 the stomach, which is supplied with a complicated 
 armature of teeth, and by means of these the food is 
 crushed and divided. In the females the alimentary 
 canal passes right through the body, but in the males, 
 Fig. 13. WHEEL-ANIMAL- strange to say, it has ceased to be functional, and is 
 CULES. reduced to a solid chord-like organ. Apart from the 
 
 a, floscularia coronetta. cilia of fche trocna l disc, the integument of the body 
 6, Pedalion mirum. ig g^^h, an d the only signs of segmentation that it 
 
 C> ^Stefnudsonf ^ Presents are a few weak wrinkles. The tail-end, 
 or the foot, as it is called, varies considerably 
 in structure according to the habits of the species. In some forms that are 
 
NEMERTINE WORMS. 683 
 
 fixed (Floscularia), it ends in an adhesive disc or cup, and is not wrinkled nor 
 retractile ; imt in most of the free-living species the foot is retractile within 
 the body and terminates in a couple of nippers which serve to anchor the 
 body in place. In other forms (Pedalion and Hexarthra), the body is pro- 
 vided with pairs of limb-like processes, ending in a fan-shaped tuft of cilia. 
 These two are free-living forms, skipping through the water by means of 
 their limbs and swimming by means of the ciliary wreath. 
 
 The habitat of the " Wheel-animalcules " is tolerably varied. They may be 
 found in ditches, gutters, ponds, and streams ; sometimes attached to stems 
 and leaves of plants ; sometimes creeping upon them ; sometimes roving 
 through the water. Some species, again, are parasitic. A species, for 
 instance, named Drilophaga bucephala, holds by means of its jaws to a water- 
 worm, Lumbriculus, and sucks the animal it clings to. Again, Callidina 
 parasitica is always found adhering to the limbs of the fresh-water shrimp 
 (Gammarus pulex), and merely creeps about the body of its host. And 
 lastly, the genus named Albertia furnishes an instance of internal parasitism, 
 its species, vermiculus, being found living in earth- worms .and slugs. 
 
 The true position of the Wheel-animalcules amongst the Vermes is one 
 of some doubt. But it is important to notice the resemblances that exist 
 between them with their wreath of cilia and the Trochophore larvae of the 
 Polychsetous Annelids. 
 
 NEMERTINE WORMS. 
 
 CLASS NEMERTINEA. 
 
 Although the members of this division are but little known to the ordinary 
 public, many of them, so far as length is concerned, are the most striking 
 of all Vermes. There is, however, a most astonishing difference in size 
 between various species, for while some of those belonging to the genus 
 Linens may attain a length of several yards, the species of other genera are 
 comparatively of quite insignificant dimensions. In other respects, however, 
 there is a close similarity between the various members of the class, the 
 structural characteristics of which may be briefly summarised as follows : 
 The body is not segmented, and its integument is covered externally with 
 cilia. At the front end a head-region may be distinguished by the presence 
 of eyes and of a pair of ciliated pits, which are probably sense organs of some 
 kind. On the lower side of the head opens the mouth, and this leads into 
 a spacious alimentary canal which traverses the body from end to end. But 
 in addition to the mouth, the head is also furnished with a second aperture, 
 from which a retractile proboscis can be shot forth. This proboscis is one of 
 the most characteristic features of the Nemertiries. When retracted it rests 
 in a special sheath lying along the back, above the alimentary canal, and 
 reaching sometimes to the hinder end of the body. In this state the 
 proboscis has been compared to the finger of a glove that has been turned 
 outside in within the part that covers the hand, the latter representing the 
 sheath ; but when proti uded, the organ is comparable to the finger of the 
 glove in its normal situation. This type of proboscis is of not uncommon 
 occurrence in the Vermes, and from its method of protrusion and retraction 
 is often called an "introvert." The nervous system consists of a pair of 
 chords, one running along each side of the body and uniting at its fore end 
 with the brain, which lies above the alimentary canal and beneath the 
 
684 
 
 VERMES CLASS NEMERTINEA. 
 
 proboscis-sheath or rather round the proboscis-sheath like a ring, for the 
 right and left halves of the brain are joined together by a transverse band 
 which passes above this sheath. The only other organs that need be noticed 
 are the paired nephridia or excretory organs situated in the front part of the 
 body and the thin blood-vessels, sometimes containing red blood, which lie 
 just above and at the sides of the alimentary canal and unite at the anterior 
 and posterior ends of the body. 
 
 In most Nemertines the sexes are distinct, and, as a rule, the young are 
 produced from eggs that are deposited by the mother either singly or in 
 gelatinous clusters ; some forms, however, such as Monopora livijara, retain 
 the eggs until the development is far advanced and the young aie born alive. 
 
 In many species again, as in Linens t 
 the young goes through a striking meta- 
 morphosis, the egg giving rise to a free- 
 swimming ciliated larva known as the 
 pilidium and consisting of an upper 
 bell-shaped part, from the lower rim of 
 which spring a pair of lobes. Within this 
 larva the young Nemertine is gradually 
 formed, and when sufficiently advanced 
 to lead an independent life it breaks free 
 from its pilidium-case and deserts it. In 
 other cases the development is less com- 
 plicated, conditions in different species 
 having been observed, which lead from the 
 complete metamorphosis by means of the 
 pilidium to the direct development of such 
 species as TetrasUmma and Malacobddla. 
 
 The class is usually divided into two 
 orders, the Enopla and the Anopla, the 
 difference between the two consisting in 
 the presence of stylets on the proboscis in 
 the former and their absence in the latter. 
 To the Anopla belong such genera as Polia 
 and Linens, and to the Enopla or Hoplonemertinea, Malacobdella, Tetra- 
 stemma, and Geonemertes. 
 
 All Nemertines appear to be carnivorous, feeding upon annelids or other 
 soft-bodied living organisms. The great majority of the species are marine, 
 occurring for the most part amongst sea-weeds and coral rocks, in shallow 
 water ; a genus, however, called Pelagoncmertes is found in the open sea. 
 Of the marine forms Malazobddla, which was originally regarded as nearly 
 allied to the Leeches, lives parasitically upon bivalved Mollusca of the genera 
 .Mt/a, Venus, and Cypridina. The genus Tetrastemma is interesting for the 
 reason that some of its species are marine, some fresh water, and some 
 terrestrial, one fresh-water species having been found in England, another 
 (T. aquarum-dulcium) in North America ; the two known land species being 
 from Rodriguez (T. rodericanum) and the Bermudas (T. agricola). The rest 
 of the land species are furnished by the genus Geonemertes, which has a 
 representative (G. australiensis) in Australia, another in New Zealand (G. 
 novce-zelandice), a third in the Pelew Islands (G. palaensis), and a fifth, which 
 has probably been introduced, in Germany ; all these land species are found 
 in damp spots beneath logs, stones, etc. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 a, NBMKRTINH WORM. Lineus marinus 
 
 (with proboscis protruded). 
 
 b, Land Planarian (Bipalium 
 
 kewense). 
 
FLAT- WO RMS. 685 
 
 FLAT- WORMS. 
 
 CLASS PLATYHELMINTHES. 
 
 Many of the worms of this division have been greatly modified by a parasitic 
 life, have lost all trace of the mouth and alimentary canal, and in the case of 
 the Tape-worms have acquired a rich segmentation of the body, which, as 
 will be explained, is subservient to the process of reproduction ; but the 
 forms that lead a free existence, and may be looked upon as the primitive 
 members of the class, approach the Nemertines in many points of structure, 
 though, on the whole, they are much less highly organised, there being no 
 distinct vascular system, no dorsal proboscis and sheath, and the alimentary 
 canal, when present, has no posterior outlet. 
 
 THE PLANARIAN WORMS SUB-CLASS TURBELLARTA. To this sub-class 
 belong the free- living flat- worms alluded to above. The flattish unseg- 
 mented body is either short and broad or long and slender, and, as in 
 the Nemertines, its integument is covered with cilia. The mouth, which 
 varies much in position, being sometimes placed at the front end of 
 the body aud sometimes in the middle of its lower surface, leads into a 
 muscular pharynx, and this usually passes into a spacious digestive tract, 
 upon the structure of which the classification of the group is based. In the 
 first section, named RHABDOCXELA, for example, the alimentary canal consists 
 of a single undivided pouch. In the DENDROCGELA, on the other hand, the 
 stomach is branched, being divided into three (Tricladida), or a very large 
 number of branches (Polycladida), while in the section known as AC(ELA 
 there is no true intestine, the alimentary canal being merely represented by 
 the mouth and the muscular pharynx or gullet which immediately follows 
 it. In some cases, as represented in our figure of Bipalium kewense, one of 
 the land Planarians, the pharynx is capable of protrusion through the 
 aperture of the mouth, and of acting as a sucker. The nervous system is 
 well developed, and consists of a bilobed mass or ganglion placed in the 
 head, and from this a pair of widely-separated chords pass backwards to the 
 hinder end of the body, and others go to supply the head and eyes, of 
 which there are sometimes many, though more usually only one or two 
 pairs. Sometimes, too, ears of a simple kind are found. 
 
 The habitat of Planarian worms is tolerably varied, some species being 
 found in the sea, others in fresh water, and others, again, on the land. 
 Most of them are free living. A few, however, have taken to a parasitic 
 life, two of the Rhabdocoela, named Graffila and Anoplodi'\im^ occurring 
 respectively upon Mollusca of the snail-kind and upon Sea-cucumbers, 
 while Bdellura, a Triclad Dendrocosl, lives on the king-crab. All the mem- 
 bers of the Polyclad Dendrocoels are marine, and in this group we meet 
 with a metamorphosis in the development, the young Planarian, known 
 as Midler's larva, being furnished with eight ciliated processes arranged 
 round the middle of its body. Thus equipped it leads a free life, circling 
 about in the water. In other members of the class the development takes 
 place without the intervention of active larval forms. Usually the method 
 of reproduction offers nothing worthy of special comment ; but one of the 
 Rhabdocoels, known as Microstoma, presents an alternation of generation such 
 as has been described in the case of some Annelids (e.g., Nereis). The hinder 
 portion of the body becomes divided by a partition from the front portion ; 
 
686 VERMES CLASS PLATYHELMINTHES. 
 
 each part then again divides into two, the process being repeated until there 
 may be as many as eight, sixteen, or thirty-two divisions. Each division 
 acquires a mouth, and when each is sexually mature, the chain breaks up 
 into a number of separate individuals, which lay eggs, these ultimately giving 
 rise to sexless individuals, which can only reproduce by fission. 
 
 Many Planarians are elegantly coloured, presenting either a tolerably 
 uniform vivid tint, or considerable diversity of pattern. Two species, 
 namely, Vortex mridis and Convoluta tckuUeu, the former belonging to the 
 RHABDOCCELA and the latter to the ACOSLA, are noteworthy in this connection 
 as being coloured with chlorophyll, the material which imparts to plants 
 their characteristic green tint, and which enables them under the influence 
 of sunlight to break up carbonic acid gas into its constituent chemical 
 elements, oxygen and carbon. Both of these Planarians are of small size, 
 measuring less than half an inch in length. Many other kinds are, however, 
 much larger than this, one of the terrestrial species, Geoplaua australis, from 
 New Zealand, being upwards of a foot long. 
 
 The acquatic forms swim by means of the undulatory movement of the 
 body, aided by the sweeping action of the multitude of cilia which clothe the 
 integument. The terrestrial forms progress in the same manner, preserving 
 their moisture by the copious secretion of slime. Avoiding the lighband living 
 under stones and logs of wood during the daytime, they venture forth at night 
 from their dark humid haunts, and crawl about with the sensitive head 
 raised and gently swayed from side to side to feel the way. Their food 
 consists of earth-worms and defenceless insects, the soft parts of which are 
 imbibed by means of the gullet, the prey being securely held the while by 
 the slimy coils of the Planarian. The figure of the Planarian (Bipalium 
 Jcewense) on page 684, represents one of these terrestrial leech-like species, 
 which is recognisable by the peculiar shape of its head. It was first 
 obtained in Kew Gardens, and has been introduced into many parts of the 
 world in connection with imported exotic plants. 
 
 THE TAPE-WORMS SUB-CLASS CESTODA. Almost all the members of this 
 class live, when mature, as parasites in the alimentary canal of carnivorous 
 vertebrated animals ; but during the younger stages they occur in different 
 parts of the body of animals of many kinds, including ticks, fresh- water 
 shrimps, molluscs, and water-worms, as well as fish, rabbits, pigs, etc. 
 Unless, in fact, the worm is able to change its host it is quite unable to 
 reach the adult state. The truth of this is well illustrated in the case of one 
 of the commonest of mankind's Tape-worms, known as Tcenia solium, which 
 may be selected as a convenient type to illustrate the life-history and the 
 structure of the other members of the class. 
 
 Upwards of three yards in length, this worm floats in the intestinal juices, 
 maintaining a firm hold of the inner wall of the gut by means of its minute 
 pin-sized head, which is furnished for the purpose with a circlet of five hooks 
 and four strong suckers. Immediately behind the head comes a narrow part, 
 called the neck, which is unjointed and only about half an inch long. This 
 is continuous with the rest of the body, which gradually expands into the 
 characteristic tape-like form, and becomes divided into a vast number of 
 segments. At first imperfectly defined, these segments become longer and 
 longer and more and more distinct as they pass from the neck to the posterior 
 end, the last ones alone being what is called "ripe" and ready to break off 
 from the parent stock. The worm is furnished with a well-developed muscular 
 
TAPE- WORMS. 
 
 687 
 
 Fig. 12. TAPE-WORMS. 
 
 a, Head of Tcenia sagiiiata. 
 
 b, Head of Tcenia soliurn. 
 
 c, Head of Bothriocephalus 
 
 lalus. 
 
 system, consisting of fibres that run lengthwise throughout the body, and 
 of others that pass from wall to wall of the segments. It also possesses a 
 nervous and excretory system, the former repre- 
 sented by a ganglion in the head, whence a pair 
 of nerves run backwards along each side of the 
 segments to the end of the body. The excretory 
 organs consist of a circular canal lodged in the 
 head, from which spring four branches, one cor- 
 responding to each sucker ; two of these traverse 
 the sides of the body, and, becoming united in 
 the last segment, open by a common aperture on 
 its hinder edge. They are also put into com- 
 munication with each other in each segment by 
 means of a transverse canal, which runs along its 
 posterior border. Of mouth and alimentary canal 
 there is no vestige, the animal gaining its nutri- 
 ment by absorbing the fluids in which it floats. 
 
 A Tape-worm is unable to propagate its kind 
 within the host in which it is lodged. But 
 each segment contains a complete set of organs 
 necessary for the purpose, and when it is ripe 
 and breaks off in the manner mentioned above, 
 it is found to be charged with eggs. Such a 
 segment, called a proghttis, makes its way to the 
 exterior, and, bursting, sets free the eggs, which 
 are thus disseminated. Sooner or later some of 
 them, in connection with food or water, are 
 swallowed by a pig. Each egg is then hatched and 
 gives rise to the young known as the proscolex, 
 a minute organism provided with three pairs of hooks (Fig. 12, e). By 
 means of its armature, the proscolex bores it way through the coats of 
 the pig's alimentary canal and enters its blood-vessels. It is then 
 carried by the blood stream to some such organ as the brain, lung, 
 muscles, etc., where it ultimately becomes lodged. Then growth sets in in 
 earnest, the proscolex loses its hooks, and, enlarging, becomes converted into 
 a bladder. Pork thus infested is technically called measly (Fig. 12, /). 
 At one point of the bladder a deep depression arises, and at the bottom of 
 this the hooks and suckers of the tape-worm head are developed ; the 
 depression is then pushed outwards until it becomes a process, carrying at 
 the tip the head which is thus formed outside in. But beyond this stage, 
 known as the Cysticercus or Bladder-worm, the parasite cannot pass without 
 again changing its host. This is effected when the meat of an infested pig 
 is eaten in an uncooked state by a human being, whereby the Cysticercus 
 is introduced into the alimentary canal, the bladder is digested, and the head 
 or Scolex, attaching itself to the wall of the intestine, starts growing in 
 length, until it assumes the adult form and breaks up into proglottides. 
 
 Another tape-worm, common in man, and presenting the same cycle of 
 development as Tcenia soliurn, with the exception that oxen are the inter- 
 mediate hosts, is Tcenia saginata, which is larger than the one just described, 
 arid may be at once recognised from it by the absence of the circlet of hooks 
 on the head (Fig. 12, a). 
 
 A third species that infests mankind, but is of more frequent occurrence 
 
 e, Hooked Embryo of Tcenia 
 
 solium. 
 
 f, Measly Pork infested with 
 
 Cysticercus. 
 
688 
 
 VERMES CLASS PL A TYHELMINTHES. 
 
 in Central Europe than in England, is the cleft-headed or Broad Tape- worm 
 (Bothriocephalus latus), which is said to attain a length of 30 ft. The 
 head has neither hooks nor protuberant suckers, but is furnished on each 
 side with a deep groove (Fig. 12, c). The intermediate hoats of these worms 
 and of their allies, which live in water-birds, are fresh-water fish of various 
 kinds, and an interesting fact connected with their development is the ability 
 of the larvae to live for a while an independent life, swimming about in water 
 by means of a set of vibratile hairs or cilia with which they are furnished. 
 
 It must not, however, be supposed that man is only infested with these 
 parasites in their sexual stage. There is a kind, called Tania echinococcus, 
 found in dogs, which scatter the eggs broadcast with their dung ; and these, 
 if swallowed by man in connection with water or unwashed salad, are con- 
 verted into embryos, which ultimately, making their way to the liver, give 
 rise to cysts of large size, and often cause the death of the patient. 
 
 FLUKE - WORMS SUB - CLASS TREMATOPA. The Flat - worms belonging 
 to this section are characterised by having smooth (not ciliated), 
 more or less leaf-like, shortish, unsegmented bodies, provided with 
 two or more suckers, by means of which they adhere parasitically to 
 the hosts they infest. According to the number of the suckers, these 
 worms are divided into two sections, the Polystomece and the Distomece. 
 The Polystomere have two suckers in the fore part of the body, and one 
 large one or several smaller ones at the hinder end ; not infrequently, 
 too, they are armed with hooks for clinging. This rich equipment 
 of organs for adhesion is explained by the fact that these creatures live 
 mostly as external parasites upon various kinds of fish, and are thus 
 constantly exposed to the danger of being washed from their moorings 
 by the water. Their development also takes place directly and without 
 any such curious metamorphoses as obtain in many of the entoparasitic 
 
 worms. The following species 
 may be cited as examples of 
 this order : Cydatella anneli- 
 dicola found upon annelidan 
 worms ; Trochopus tubiporus 
 on the Gurnet; and Aspido- 
 gaster conchicola, which lives 
 in the pericardial cavity of 
 the fresh-water mussel. Per- 
 haps the most remarkable 
 form of all is the one known 
 as Diplozoon parddoxum, the 
 double-worm, which frequents 
 the gills of minnow, gudgeon, 
 etc. The young of this worm 
 is ciliated and leads a free 
 swimming life. It is fur- 
 nished with two eye-spots and with a small ventral sucker and a dorsal 
 papilla. In this stage it is known as the Diporpa. After a time the Diporpce 
 settle down upon the gills of their host, and two of them approaching each 
 other unite, the one seizing the papilla of the other with its sucker, then 
 with a dexterous twist the second similarly gets hold of the papilla of the 
 first, and, growing together, the two become inseparably united (Fig. 13,/). 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 a-e, LIFR HISTORY OF THE LIVER FLUKB. 
 Free swimming larva ; 6, cercaria larva ; c, redia 
 larva ; d, young fluke ; e t adult fluke ; / Diplozoon 
 paradoxum. 
 
FL UKE- WORMS. 689 
 
 The Distomeae, as their name, meaning two-mouthed, implies, are pro- 
 vided with only two suckers, and have no clinging hooks ; for, being internal 
 parasites, they have no such special need of instruments for maintaining a 
 secure hold as the more highly organised species of the previous group. 
 Their development, too, is often complicated by the most extraordinary 
 metamorphoses, and is accompanied by migrations from one host to another. 
 
 A well-known example of this section is the Liver fluke (Distoma hepa- 
 ticum), which lives parasitically in the liver of herbivorous mammalia such 
 as sheep. The worm is less than an inch long, and is broad and flat, wider 
 in front than behind, and bearing on its front end a conical projection sup- 
 porting the mouth, which is lodged in the centre of a sucker. The second 
 sucker is situated on the ventral surface a short distance behind the first. 
 The eggs of the Fluke enter the intestines of the sheep through the bile 
 ducts, and are thence discharged with the droppings. Thereupon they hatch; 
 but the embryo perishes, unless by chance it is carried or washed into some 
 fresh-water pond or stream. If favoured by fortune in this particular, it 
 swims actively about by means of its long cilia in search of the particular 
 host in which it is forced for awhile to sojourn. This host is the water-snail 
 known as Limnceus truncatulus. Into the soft tissues of this mollusc the young 
 Fluke bores its way, and after losing its cilia becomes converted into an oval 
 sac known as the Fporocyst. Within this fresh individuals, known as Redice, 
 are developed, the Redice, being short cylindrical little worms, furnished, like 
 the parent form, with mouth, gullet, and stomach. After making their way 
 to the snails' liver, the Redice in turn take up the process of development, 
 and give rise to individuals as different from themselves as they are from the 
 ciliated embryo. These new forms, known as Cercarice, somewhat resemble 
 a tadpole in shape, consisting of a flattish, heart-shaped body, furnished with 
 two suckers, a mouth, a forked alimentary canal, and produced behind 
 into a long vibratile tail. These make their escape from the body of the 
 snail, and, after swimming about for a time, settle upon some plant, and 
 envelop themselves in a coating or cyst. In times of flood this takes place 
 upon the grass blades of some overflowed meadow, and in this case there is 
 a chance that the organism will be devoured by a grazing sheep, and will 
 become lodged in the bile ducts of its new host, where the development into 
 the adult Fluke will be completed (see Fig. 13, a-e). 
 
 To be regarded in all probability as degenerate Flat-worms are the 
 minute organisms belonging to the Dicyemidce and Orihonedidce, which live 
 as parasites, the former in the branchial veins of cuttle-fish and the latter 
 upon Planarian and Nemertine worms and on sand-stars. They are ciliated 
 vermiform creatures, without trace of body cavity or alimentary canal, the 
 chief peculiarity of their organisation consisting in the fact that the solid 
 body consists of a central mass, composed in the Dicyemidse of one large 
 nucleated cell, and in the Orthonectidse of a cluster of cells, surrounded 
 externally by a single layer of ectoderm cells. 
 
 45 
 
SUB-KINGDOM VIII. 
 THE COELENTERATA. 
 
 SPONGES, CORALS, ETC. 
 BY HENRY M. BERNARD, M.A., F.L.S., ETC., AND MATILDA BERNARD. 
 
 THE Coelenterata are to be distinguished from all the animals hitherto 
 described by the fact that the alimentary canal no longer runs through the 
 body as a free tube suspended to its walls and surrounded by the body cavity. 
 Animals in which such a closed alimentary canal is found are known as the 
 Coelomata, on account of the spaces between the canal and the body wall. 
 In contradistinction, the Coelenterata or hollow-bodied animals are called 
 the Acoelomata, because the digestive sac fills up the whole body without 
 leaving any spaces between the digestive layer and the body wall. The body 
 is, in fact, a more or less simple sac into which the mouth opens. 
 
 The Coelenterata, while thus distinguished from all animals higher than 
 themselves, are nevertheless associated with them owing to the multicellular 
 c imposition of the body. As Metazoa, or many-celled animals, they differ 
 from all lower animals or Protozoa, whose bodies are unicellular. 
 
 The Coelenterata may be divided into two groups (1) the Sponges, and (2) 
 the Cnidaria. 
 
 I. THE SPONGES. 
 
 The Sponges, which ara also known as the Porifera, on account of the 
 pores that perforate their walls, are usually considered to be Coelenterates of 
 a very simple kind, although many naturalists place them in a group by 
 themselves. 
 
 The Sponges have been the subject of frequent discussion among naturalists 
 from the time of Aristotle down to the present day. Aristotle was of opinion 
 that they were animals, because they appeared to shrink when torn from the 
 rocks, and thus seemed to show signs of sensation, but their real nature was 
 altogether misunderstood by most of the earlier naturalists, some considering 
 them to be plants, others congealed foam of the sea. Lamarck, even, 
 imagined the apertures on the surface of a Sponge to be the mouths of cells 
 occupied by small polyps something like the Coral polyps, which, however, 
 could never be discovered in their homes. Peysonnel, on the other hand, 
 considered a large worm which often lives in Sponges to be their "sole 
 fabricant, the rest being mere nidus or excretion." About one hundred and 
 fifty years ago the secret of Sponge life was revealed when the fact that 
 water is drawn into the Sponge and expelled by it was established, but the 
 various ways in which the currents of water pass through the body, and their 
 relation to the life of the Sponge, were not accurately investigated until about 
 seventy years ago, and are, indeed, still to a certain extent problematical. 
 
 690 
 
SPONGES. 691 
 
 In the Sponge we have the very simplest type of Metazoan or multiccllular 
 animal. The component cells of the body, which, in the higher Metazoa, 
 lose much of their individuality, functioning in masses (as tissues or organs) 
 for the good of the whole complex organism rather than as individuals for 
 their own benefit, are comparatively little modified in the body of the 
 Sponge, still acting individually almost more than collectively. 
 
 The body wall of a Sponge consists of two layers. The outer layer is of a 
 gelatinous nature, and contains (1) cells which, like some of the unicellular 
 animals such as the Amoeba (Fig.l,p.714),can change their 
 shape, throwing out processes in various directions; and Constitution of the 
 (2) needle-like bodies, called spicules, which are formed Sponge Body, 
 by cells and give firmness to the wall and support the 
 apertures on its surface. The inner layer primarily consists of cells closely 
 resembling another form of unicellular organisms, the collared FJagellata 
 (Fig. 6, C, p. 738). Each of the collar cells in this layer is provided with the 
 whip-like appendage which characterises the Flagellata, so that the whole inner 
 surface of the wall of the simplest Sponge is lined with fine, waving whips. 
 The presence of these "whip cells" at one time led naturalists to consider 
 the Sponges as mere aggregates of unicellular animals. 
 
 The very simplest type of Sponge, such as the one depicted in Fig. 1, is a 
 simple sac, generally more or less cylindrical, and attached by its narrowed 
 base to a rock or some other surface. This sac, which opens above by a 
 wide, circular orifice, the oscule, consists of an outer and an inner layer such 
 as have just been described. 
 
 The water necessary to the life of the Sponge does not enter in at the 
 oscule, which must not be considered as a mouth, but through multitudes of 
 much smaller apertures or pores that perforate the wall. 
 Within the cavity of the sac the collar cells of the lining laytr 
 draw in from the water, which enters at the pores and streams 
 out at the oscule, small particles of nourishment, and for this 
 reason this space has been called the " gastral cavity." All 
 indigestible matter, together with the water containing it, is 
 ejected through the oscule. The whips with which the collar 
 cells are provided keep the water in constant motion, and help 
 to draw it in through the pores and to eject it through the 
 oscule. 
 
 Other Sponges are less simple in structure, complexity 
 being brought about by the thickening of the walls of the sac 
 and by new arrangements of the whip cells. 
 
 In a rather more complicated type of Sponge, the wall is 
 bulged out in the form of numbers of small radiating tubes. 
 The wall of each of these tubes is perforated by pores through 
 which the water is drawn by the action of the whip cells, and 
 is passed on into the central cavity with which all the tubes (Ascetta). 
 communicate. It is finally ejected through the oscule, which 
 has here the same position as in the simpler type of Sponge. In this second 
 type of Sponge the collar cells line the tubes only, the central cavity being 
 lined with flat cells. 
 
 In still more complicated types of Sponges with very thick walls an 
 elaborate canal system arises, leading the water through the thick walls to 
 the central cavity. The collar cells here no longer line either the central 
 cavity or the canals, but form the lining of a great number of round 
 
692 COELENTERATAI. PORIFERA. 
 
 chambers which may be called "whip chambers." The water, entering 
 through the pores on the outer surface, passes through canals into these 
 spherical chambers, the whips of the lining cells keeping it in movement 
 
 and sending it on through 
 The Canal System, other canals, which unite 
 with those from other 
 whip chambers to form large channels that 
 finally open into the central cavity. When 
 such a sponge is cut across and highly 
 magnified we see, as in the diagram Fig. 2, 
 an elaborate and repeatedly branched system 
 of canals. The whip chambers unite the 
 ramifications, which come from the outer 
 surface (the incurrent canals), with those 
 that lead to large trunks opening into the 
 gastral cavity (the excurrent canals). F{ ^_- DlknM OP TIIE CAKAL 
 
 Ihe above descriptions apply only to what SYSTEM OF A SPONGE. 
 
 maybe regarded as single sponge individuals ; 
 
 but, by repeated budding, individual sponges may, in some cases, form colonies 
 in which the individuals are no longer separately recognisable. This bud- 
 ding process giving rise to colonies is, however, not the 
 Development of a only method of reproduction. In a Sponge whose life- 
 Sponge, history has been fully worked out, the process is as 
 follows : Eggs are produced at certain parts of the body- 
 wall which, when fertilised, divide up and give rise to small oval embryos 
 covered with cilia. These are either solid or are provided with a small 
 central cavity. They escape from the parent through the oscule, and swim 
 about for a short time, varying from a few hours to a day or two. During 
 this time they change their shape, and spicules develop in their walls. 
 When such an embryo attaches itself and becomes a sponge, the whip cells 
 which clothed the outer surface and rowed the tiny creature about, come, in 
 various ways, to line the interior and set up currents of water which bring 
 in the necessary food. 
 
 Although the canal system is so essential to the life of the Sponges, and is 
 so typically developed in the different kinds, its various modifications are 
 apparently of little use in classification. Those who have 
 Classification of made Sponges a special study prefer to group them accord- 
 Sponges, ing to the structure of the hard parts which support the 
 outer layer of the body. These hard parts are either 
 spicules or fibres, and are very rarely absent. 
 
 In the Calcareous Sponges, the skeleton consists of separate spicules of 
 carbonate of lime. In the Siliceous Sponges, flinty spicules are found, which 
 either remain separate or become united together to form networks or other 
 supporting structures. There are, further, Sponges with skeletons composed 
 of horny fibres, and besides the spicules or fibres secreted by the Sponge 
 itself, foreign objects are sometimes appropriated to assist in the formation 
 of the skeleton. 
 
 The spicules found in Sponges assume a vast variety of shapes, a few of 
 which are given in Fig. 3. Some are like fine needles pointed at both ends, 
 others have several rays, the number of these determining the classification 
 of the Siliceous Sponges into those with six or four-rayed or uniaxial spicules. 
 Other spicules, again, terminate either at one end or both in anchor-like 
 
SPONGES. 
 
 693 
 
 Fig, 3 SPONGE SPICULES. 
 
 projections, or else resemble thorny sticks ; others end in lobes instead 
 
 of points. The spicules either lie embedded separately in the Sponge 
 
 tissue, giving it firmness, or unite in many dif- 
 
 ferent ways, forming rosette-like or plate-like 
 
 structures or else delicate supporting frame- 
 
 works. Several kinds of spicules may be found 
 
 in the same Sponge. Besides strengthening the 
 
 body, they also protect it, as is evident from 
 
 their position. Spicules of the anchor type are 
 
 frequently found projecting from the outer sur- 
 
 face, especially round the oacules and pores, and, 
 
 in some Sponges, spicules stand out like thorns 
 
 all over the surface of the gastral cavity. 
 
 The exceedingly fine and brittle nature of 
 
 Sponge spicules causes them to penetrate any soft 
 
 object that comes in contact with them. If some 
 
 Sponges are handled carelessly, a burning irrita- 
 
 tion is set up by the fine points, which pierce and 
 
 break off in the skin. One Sponge has on this 
 
 account received the significant name of Agefas 
 
 noli tangere. This peculiarity no doubt efficiently protects Sponges from 
 
 many enemies which might prey upon them. 
 
 In size, Sponges vary greatly ; some are minute objects only to be distinctly 
 
 seen under the microscope, others form enormous masses several feet high. 
 By far the greater number of Sponges live in the sea ; a few species of 
 
 fresh-water Sponges, however, occur in our own rivers, lakes, and ponds, and 
 
 many others are found in various parts of the globe. 
 
 A considerable number of marine Sponges are to be found in our own 
 
 coasts, but these are less attractive in appearance than some of the tropical 
 Sponges, especially those with elegant framework, 
 produced by combinations of six-rayed spicules. 
 The skeletons of the Venus's Flower Basket (Fig. 
 4, A), the Lacework Sponge, and Bird's-Nest 
 Sponge are familiar objects in museums. Below 
 the beautiful framework of the Sponge itself, a 
 tangle of very fine threads resembling spun glass 
 is to be seen. These are modified spicules, and 
 by their means the Sponges anchor themselves in 
 the mud. The Glass-Rope Sponge (Fig. 4, B) 
 derives its name from the rope-like appearance of 
 the anchoring threads, which are slightly twisted. 
 Among the more massive Sponges is the 
 Neptune's Cup, which may stand several feet 
 high. 
 
 The most familiar of all Sponges, the Bath 
 Sponge, has a skeleton of horny fibres. In a 
 living condition, it forms large 
 
 d k * f ten *] m * *>lack ma * ses ' The Bath S P n e 
 the surface of which is raised up (Euspon 
 
 into numberless conical promin- nahs). 
 
 F;g. 4.-S.X-RATKD SPONGES 
 
 (Tlexactinel Udce). 
 A, Venues Flower Basket 
 
 B, 
 
 (Hyalonema). 
 
 , . 
 
 large oscules ; each oscule is surrounded by an 
 
694 
 
 COELENTERATAL PORIFERAIL CNIDARIA. 
 
 iris-like membrane ; fine pores are to be found opening on the surface 
 between the conical prominences. Canal systems with whip chambers run 
 through the entire mass, all the cavities and canals being lined with flat cells, 
 while the collar cells are restricted to the whip chambers. The tissue 
 through which the canal systems run receives firmness from the presence 
 of the horny fibres, which are specially plentiful along the chief canals and 
 round the oscules. 
 
 The Bath Sponge, like most of the other massive Sponges, may be regarded 
 as a colony, each individual of which consists of a cavity opening through an 
 oscule and of the canal system which finally leads into that cavity. Such 
 colonies arise by budding ; the reproduction of the colony is, however, 
 effected by means of eggs which grow into free-swimming larvse. 
 
 The Bath Sponge flourishes on the coasts of the eastern half of the 
 Mediterranean, in the West Indies, the Bahamas, and Florida. The 
 sponges are fished for either with harpoons or nets, or are obtained by means 
 of divers, and are carefully prepared for the market. Large Sponges are also 
 artificially produced from small pieces which, under favourable conditions, 
 grow to a marketable size in the space of about seven years. 
 
 II. THE CNIDARIA. 
 
 The Cnidaria, which form the other great division of the Coelenterata 
 derive their name from the peculiar stinging cells with which they are 
 provided. They have been divided into : (1) The Hydrozoa, or water 
 animals, to which all the Zoophytes or plant-like animals, and some of the 
 Jelly-fish belong. (2) The Scyphozoa, which include most of the larger 
 Jelly - fish, the Sea - anemones, and the 
 Corals. (3) The Ctenophora or Comb- 
 bearers. 
 
 A short account of one of the simplest 
 and most easily accessible of the Hydrozoa 
 will serve to give some idea of the essential 
 features of the Cnidarian body. The Hydra 
 is a small fresh-water Hydrozoan very 
 common in ponds and 
 The Hydrozoa. aquaria. As it is from 
 to \ an inch in length, it 
 can easily be seen with the naked eye hang- 
 ing from the under surface of some water 
 plant or other submerged object, to which 
 it has attached itself by a very simple kind 
 of sucker at the lower end of the body. 
 The free end terminates in a mouth at the 
 tip of a prominence which is surrounded 
 by a ring of long tentacles. Both the body 
 and the tentacles are exceedingly contrac- 
 tile, so that while the whole animal, when 
 retracted, appears like a gelatinous ball 
 crowned with bud-like knobs, when fully 
 extended its body is slender and the 
 tentacles thread-like. 
 
 The walls of the simple tube-like body 
 of the Hydra consist of two layers of cells an outer layer in contact with the 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 THE FRESH-WATKR POLYP ( Hydra). 
 
 Stinging Cells (Nematocysts), much 
 
 magnified. 
 
 A, The veaicle with thread discharged. 
 
 B, The vesicle containing coiled thread. 
 
THE FRESH-WATER POLYP. 695 
 
 surrounding medium, and an inner layer lining the tube- like interior or 
 stomach cavity. Separating these cell layers there is a very thin intermediate 
 or supporting (non-cellular) layer. This supporting layer by itself might be 
 thought of as a kind of framework exactly corresponding with the shape of the 
 body, for it penetrates even to the tips of the tentacles, which arise as 
 outpushings of .the body wall, and are therefore themselves tube-like. In 
 this intermediate layer are found all the processes of the cellular layers 
 which function as nerves and muscles. At the mouth, the outer and inner 
 cell layers pass into one another ; this is an important point, because, as we 
 shall presently see, the arrangement of the layers at the mouth forms one of 
 the chief distinctions between the Hydrozoa and the Scyphozoa. 
 
 The cells of the outer layer of the Hydra body are chiefly remarkable for 
 their stinging apparatus. The stinging cells contain minute vesicles (Fig. 5), 
 many of them measuring not more than T -^^ of an inch, in which are coiled 
 up stinging threads, which are very valuable weapons of attack and defence. 
 Each of these stinging cells is provided with a minute projection, the cnidocil, 
 and it appears that, when this is touched, the vesicle shoots out its long, 
 coiled, barbed thread so rapidly that, delicate as it is, it is able to penetrate 
 the body of any creature rash enough to approach too near. The poisonous 
 effect of these weapons is shown by the fact that any small animal thus 
 attacked appears to be paralysed; the victim speedily ceases struggling to 
 escape, and is drawn in by the tentacles to the mouth. It is said that each 
 tentacle of a Hydra is provided with many thousands of such weapons, 
 which are being constantly produced afresh, new cells taking the place of 
 those which have been discharged. 
 
 The cells constituting the inner lining of the body are provided with fine 
 hairs or whips, and are capable of changing their shape, and of sending out 
 processes into the cavity of the body ; they are therefore called amoeboid 
 cells. The simple crustacean or other prey which, caught and paralysed by 
 the stinging tentacles, has been pushed through the mouth into the cavity of 
 the body, is digested by the cells of this lining layer. Whatever cannot be 
 assimilated is thrown out again at the mouth, the muscles of the body wall 
 and the current of water kept up by the whips in the cavity assisting in this 
 process. 
 
 The Hydra often reproduces itself by means of buds which grow out from 
 the parent body, and when fully equipped for independent life, break off and 
 attach themselves near the parent. But, at certain seasons, a large globular 
 body forms at some part of the surface of the fully-grown Hydra. This 
 represents an egg, and, when fertilised, separates from the parent and 
 develops into a new Hydra. 
 
 The Hydra and its allies have a wonderful power of repairing injuries 
 which the body may suffer. Almost any part of the body, if cut off, is able 
 to reproduce the rest. Some naturalists have amused themselves by produc- 
 ing monstrous growths possessed of a large number of heads, and others have 
 tried the experiment of turning the sac-like body inside out, and have even 
 asserted that the Hydra is able to carry on its life activities in such a condi- 
 tion. It has, however, been proved that, under such circumstances, the 
 Hydra either manages to regain its normal state or else dies. 
 
 In this account of the Hydra, which is also known as the Fresh- water polyp, 
 in contradistinction to other marine polyps, such as the Sea-anemones, the 
 Corals, and the Zoophytes, we have noticed some of the essential points in 
 the structure of the Cnidarian body. Among these are the sac-like nature 
 
6 9 6 
 
 COELENTERATAIL CNIDARIA. 
 
 of the body, the digestion of food by the walls of the body cavity, the capture 
 of prey, and defence against enemies, by means of the formidable stinging 
 threads. 
 
 The Hydra we have described is not an entirely stationary animal ; it can 
 
 detach its disc and creep along by using alternately its tentacles and its disc, and 
 
 sometimes even casts its body loose, using the expanded 
 
 Hydroid Colonies disc as a float and the tentacles for swimming. Most other 
 
 Zoophytes, Hydroids, however, unite to form stationary colonies, the 
 young, which bud from each successive generation, re- 
 maining attached like branches, orby means of 
 rootlets, to the original parent animal. Such 
 colonies are often found encrusting empty 
 shells, which they sometimes entirely cover 
 with branched growths. One of them is re- 
 presented in Fig. 6. Some of the members 
 of this colony (A, A) bear a great re- 
 semblance to the Hydra, having the same 
 tube-like body, surrounded at the free end 
 by a crown of tentacles. But a large colony 
 of such highly contractile creatures as the 
 Hydra clustered together would be un- 
 manageable, so, in these cases, their trunks 
 are generally enveloped in a more or less 
 stiff covering, which protects and supports 
 the colony. The free ends of the individuals, 
 with the mouths and tentacles, however, 
 protruding from the open ends of the en- 
 velopes, contract and expand freely. 
 
 In the branched Hydroid figured, two 
 important points are to be noticed. First, 
 the gastral cavities of all the members of the 
 colony are in communication with each other, 
 so that, when one of them captures food, the superfluous nutritive fluid 
 produced can be passed on to the other members through the communicating 
 canals that run along the trunk and stems. Secondly, while most of the 
 members of a colony are Hydra -like, and help to feed the whole, others 
 (Fig. 6, B) are quite unlike the Hydra, differing both in the shape of the 
 body and in the character of the tentacles. These, which are called Medusoid 
 individuals on account of their resemblance to Medusae or Jelly-fish, are the 
 members in which the reproductive elements are produced. In some cases 
 the inedusoid buds remain attached to the colony, and send forth ciliated 
 larvae, which swim away and settle later to start fresh colonies ; but, in the 
 colony depicted, the medusoid individuals break loose, swim about freely, 
 often greatly increasing in size, and after a time give rise to young forms 
 which attach themselves as Hydroids. 
 
 Here, then, we have a most interesting phenomenon. These colonies of 
 Hydroids are stationary like trees or bushes, and, as in the case of trees or 
 bushes, it would be a disadvantage to them if their young grew up too close 
 around them; they would crowd each other to death. In the vegetable kingdom 
 there are many beautiful arrangements for securing the scattering of the 
 seed, but surely none more beautiful than the method adopted by some of 
 the Hyroids. The individuals selected to bear the young change their: 
 
 Fig. 6. A HYDROID COLONY (Bougain- 
 villea ramosa). 
 
 A, Hjdra like individuals. 
 
 B, Medusoid individuals. 
 
HYDROID COLONIES. 
 
 697 
 
 shapes, break off and swim away as minute Jelly-fish (Fig. 6, B), dispersing 
 their young as they go. 
 
 Before giving any further account of these reproductive individuals, we 
 must describe the Hydroid colonies a little more closely. They frequently 
 resemble delicately branching trees or bushes, fine moss, or feathers, or 
 sometimes form crusts over stones hence the name of Zoophytes or animal- 
 plants. Such growths are very common on our coasts, and are still popu- 
 larly considered, on account of their plant-like appearance, to be sea-weeds ; 
 this deceptive appearance being heightened by the fact that the very minute 
 polyps forming the colony are, in many cases, when contracted, entirely 
 hidden within the protective framework. This common protective covering 
 is sometimes of a horny nature and transparent, sometimes hard and chalky, 
 and, round the be dies of the individuals of the colony, may take the form of 
 cups into which the soft polyps can withdraw. The Campanularians received 
 their name from their bell-shaped, protective cups. In the Sea-firs or Sertu- 
 laria, the cups project from each side of the stalk; in the Plumularians, from 
 only one side. In other forms, again, there are no protective cups. The 
 Oaten straw coralline (Tubularia) resembles a number of closely-packed straws, 
 from the ends of which the beautiful little crimson-tentacled polyps project. 
 
 Besides these colonies which invest themselves with hard, tubular cover- 
 ings, there are others in which the chalky parts become so greatly developed 
 as to form massive skeletons so like those of Corals that 
 they were long classed as such. These Hydrocorallia are The 
 
 often found in coral reefs, and would be taken, by the Hydrocorallia. 
 uninitiated, for true coral. In one family, the skeleton 
 of which exactly resembles that of a branched, pink coral, the similarity is 
 even carried out in the structure of the polyp. This family has received 
 the name of the Stylasteridse, because of the central style or column which 
 seems to imitate the columella of the true coral. 
 
 Another family of the Hydrocorallia, the Millepora, affords an interesting 
 example of the division of the life-work of a colony among its different 
 members. We have already described 
 colonies in which the feeding was 
 undertaken by some of the members 
 and the reproduction by others, but 
 here we have a more remarkable dis- 
 tinction between the different members. 
 If we examine a mass of skeleton of 
 a Millepore, the minute apertures on 
 its surface are often seen to be arranged 
 in groups, one larger, central aperture 
 being surrounded by a number of smaller 
 ones. When the surface of such a 
 skeleton is alive with polyps, the central 
 tube is inhabited by a polyp shorter and 
 thicker than its neighbours, with a mouth 
 and a few knob-like tentacles (Fig. 7, 
 A). From the smaller tubes, long slen- 
 der polyps project, not provided with 
 mouths, but only with tentacles (Fig. 7, 
 B). The outer slender polyps keep up 
 a constant waving motion, bending from time to time over the central polyp. 
 
 Fig. 7. MILLEPORA. 
 
 A, Gastric individual 
 
 B, Teutaculate individual. 
 
698 COELENTERATAIL CN ID ARIA. 
 
 With their tentacles, no doubt amply provided with stinging threads, 
 they catch the food which, being themselves unable to eat, they pass 
 on to the mouth of the central polyp. Within the body of this central 
 polyp the food is digested, but not for itself alone, as the products of 
 digestion, flowing along the many canals of the colony, feed all its 
 members. There are no free swimming Medusae connected with these 
 Hydrocorallia. 
 
 We return now to the reproductive individuals, which, in many Hydroid 
 
 colonies, carry and distribute the eggs (Fig. 6, B). These, when seen 
 
 swimming about independently, are so like the larger Jelly- 
 
 Hydromedusae. fish belonging to the Scyphozoa that they were long mistaken 
 
 for them. The general plan of the body, indeed, is very 
 
 similar and is worth describing, especially in order to show what changes are 
 
 necessary in the ordinary Hydra-like body to produce a swimming bell. 
 
 In all Medusae the general shape of the body is due to the great thickening 
 of the middle supporting layer in the body wall, which we described in con- 
 nection with the Hydra. Instead of a long body like that of the Hydra, 
 running like a tube from the mouth to the bottom of the gastric sac, we have 
 one flattened out like an umbrella, the upper part of the umbrella corre- 
 sponding with the former closed end of the tube, while the mouth is at the 
 tip of a short stalk or handle to the umbrella. The transformation of the 
 Hydra into the Medusoid can be imagined by supposing the mouth pro- 
 minence between the tentacles to be pushed down into the body, which 
 expands laterally, till the whole forms a bowl with the oral prominence 
 rising up in its base; the tentacles take up positions on the rim of the bowl. 
 The stomach lies partly in the mouth stalk or manubrium (handle) and partly 
 in the body of the umbrella. Here it sometimes forms a cavity, and a number 
 of canals run from it radially out, like spokes, to the edge of the umbrella, 
 there to meet a canal which runs round the margin. When food is taken 
 into the stomach the nutritive fluid derived from it passes through the radial 
 canals to the circumferential canal and nourishes the whole body. The 
 number of these radial canals in the Hydromedusse is usually small (two, 
 four, or eight), and these are little if at all branched. The margin of the 
 body is fringed with tentacles, and carries the so-called "marginal bodies," 
 some of which are minute bags (lithocysts) containing bodies called otoliths, 
 whose function is usually said to be auditory, but is more probably that of 
 regulating the position of the animal in the water. Other brilliantly coloured 
 bodies, a<.ain, have been named "eye-spots." The Hydromedusae were 
 formerly distinguished from the Jelly-fish proper as "naked-eyed " Medusae, 
 because in them these "eyes" are exposed, whereas in the other Jelly-fish, 
 or "covered-eyed" Medusae, they are protected by a hood-like lappet of 
 gelatinous tissue. Simple tactile organs are also found along the margin of 
 the Hydromedusae, round which a double nerve ring runs. 
 
 Another characteristic of the Hydromedusae is the velum (veil), a thin, 
 muscular membrane which hangs down from the margin of the umbrella, 
 slanting inward toward the manubrium. 
 
 The swimming movements of these animals also deserve notice. The 
 lower concave surface of the " umbrella" is supplied with a very thin layer of 
 contractile tissue or muscle, by the contraction of which the umbrella is 
 partially closed. This action, performed suddenly, drives the water out from 
 under the umbrella and propels the Medusa along. 
 
 The eggs, in the Hydromedusae, form along the radial canals, or on the 
 
HYDROID COLONIES PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR. 
 
 699 
 
 inner walls of the manubrium, and give rise to ciliated larvae which pass 
 through the cavity of the umbrella into the open water, become attached, and, 
 by budding, produce new Hydroid colonies. Such colonies again produce 
 Medusoids, and so on. This process is a simple case of what is called 
 alternation of generations. The Hydroid form has been called in German 
 the "nursing" generation, as it does not itself produce the young, but 
 brings to perfection the individuals which, when free, become the reproduc- 
 tive generation. 
 
 Although most Hydromedusse are the products of a Hydroid colony, and 
 their eggs develop again into such colonies, there are others which develop 
 direct from forma in every respect like themselves, i.e., the young ones no 
 longer pass through any attached Hydroid stage. On the other hand, there 
 are Hydroid colonies which never develop free medusoid forms to secure the 
 dispersal of their progeny. 
 
 Leaving the fixed Hydroid colonies and their free swimming members, we 
 come to the one remaining group of the Hydrozoa, the Siphonophora, which 
 consists of large Hydroid colonies, no longer attached, but 
 floating freely about. These are very complicated The Siphonophora. 
 creatures in which the Hydroid and Medusoid type of 
 body is so curiously changed as to be scarcely recognisable, and in which 
 also division of labour has reached an extreme point. 
 
 The Siphonophora are exceedingly striking and beautiful objects, only to 
 be seen in tropical seas, where they delight the traveller by their exquisite 
 shapes and brilliant colouring. 
 
 The colonies are not branched, but the many members are arranged round 
 a central stalk. The cavities of all the members communicate as in the 
 Zoophytes. The uppermost individual is turned into a kind of air-bladder for 
 floating the colony, and then come a number of individuals turned into 
 swimming-bells which drive the whole colony through the water. Beneath 
 these locomotory individuals come nutritive individuals, which are often 
 little more than stomach-tubes, reproductive individu- 
 als, frequently in clusters, and protective individuals, 
 arranged in such a way as to overlap the nutritive and 
 reproductive members of the colony. There are, 
 further, tentacular individuals which are usually long 
 filaments (sometimes called fishing lines). These are 
 richly provided with stinging batteries, their function 
 being to capture food for the colony and to defend 
 it from, its enemies. 
 
 In the simpler forms of Siphonophora the stalk is 
 long, and the members of the colony project from it 
 at intervals. Sometimes several pairs of swimming 
 bells follow each other for a short way down the stalk, 
 in other cases a single pair heads the colony. In 
 other forms the stalk is much shortened, and a central 
 air-bladder is surrounded by medusa-like swimming 
 bells, the other members of the colony being crowded 
 together beneath these. One of the best - known 
 Siphonophora is the Portuguese Man-of-War, illus- 
 trated in Fig. 8. This is one of the most specialised 
 forms. The large, crested, and exquisitely coloured air - bladder alone 
 appears above the waves. This air-bladder secretes its own gas, and has 
 
 Fig. 8 THE PORTTTGUKSB 
 MAN-OF-WAR (Physalia). 
 
700 COELENTERATA-II. CNIDARIA. 
 
 an aperture through which some of its contents can be forced out. The feed- 
 ing, reproductive, and other members cluster beneath the float, and several 
 immensely long filaments, supplied with multitudes of stinging batteries, 
 trail down into the water. The stinging powers of this Cnidarian are so 
 great that adventurous people who have tried to capture a large tpecimen 
 have narrowly escaped with their lives. 
 
 Turning now to the second great division of the Cnidaria, the Scyphozoa, 
 we find that an important change has taken place in the simple sac or tube- 
 like body. A tube has grown inward from the mouth 
 The Scyphozoa. into the body, forming a passage to the stomach (a simple 
 kind of oesophagus) ; this, being an ingrowth from 
 outside, is always lined with the outer layer of the body wall. All the 
 Scyphozoa i.e., the Jelly-fish proper, the Anemones, and the Corals are 
 distinguished by the presence of this oesophagus from the Hydrozoa above 
 described. 
 
 In the Hydrozoa we had single stationary polyps, stationary colonies, 
 medusoid individuals which have broken loose from stationary colonies, and 
 medusse which no longer belong to any stationary form. In the Scyphozoa, 
 also, we have single stationary polyps, colonies of polyps, and free-swimming 
 medusse. Taking the last of these forms, the Scypho- 
 The medusse, first, we find not only that they are far larger 
 
 Scyphomedusae. and more important than are the Hydromedusse, but that 
 the thickening of the middle gelatinous layer of their body 
 is even greater than in the Hydromedusse. The gelatinous tissue is a mere 
 network of connective tissue, the interstices of which are filled with water, 
 which far exceeds in volume all the delicate body tissues of the animal. This 
 is well illustrated by the fact that a Jelly-fish weighing 34 Ibs., and measur- 
 ing 7 ft. in diameter without its tentacles, when left to dry in the sun, in a 
 few d*ys lost j 9 ^ of its original weight. It has also been stated that, when 
 a large Jelly-fish is placed in the sun on blotting paper, nothing but the out- 
 line of its form has been found after a few hours have passed. 
 
 These Scyphomedusse differ from the Hydromedusse in several ways. 
 
 The margin of the umbrella is generally lobed, and there is no true velum ; 
 
 the mouth at the tip of the manubrium is often square. 
 
 An English Jelly- The cavity of the body is more complicated than in the 
 
 Fish (Aurelta Hydromedusse, being divided up in various ways, and 
 
 aurita). the radial canals are often richly branched. To the 
 
 Scyphomedusse belong, not only many lovely tropical 
 
 forms, but those commonly seen floating in our own waters. In the 
 
 commonest of these last (Aurelia aurita) the margin forms eight slightly 
 
 marked off lobes and is fringed with very fine tentacles. The square mouth 
 
 is edged with four long arms, which hang down into the water and catch 
 
 prey. At the eight notches between the lobes are small sensory bodies 
 
 which are protected in the way characteristic of the "covered eyed" 
 
 Medusse (as the Scyphozoa were formerly called). Four large coloured 
 
 patches, which are very marked on the upper surface of the umbrella, 
 
 represent the reproductive masses, beneath which the under surface of 
 
 the umbrella is hollowed out into four pits. The water needed for 
 
 aerating the tissues is thus brought into closer proximity to the reproductive 
 
 elements. 
 
 A curious modification of the ordinary form is found in the Rhizostomse 
 or Root-footed Jelly-fish. The corners of the square mouth at the tip of the 
 
JELL Y- FISH SEA -ANEMONES. 70 1 
 
 manubrium are prolonged into long oral arms. The edges of each of these 
 fold together so as to form tubes. The mouth then closes and suckers are 
 developed along the inner surfaces of the tubes, through which alone 
 nourishment reaches the stomach. Very large prey, such as fLh, is often 
 captured by these Jelly-fish, and held fast by the oral arms while the 
 nourishment is sucked out of it. 
 
 In many of these Jelly-fish, reproduction takes place by means of eggs 
 which develop in the reproductive chambers. These eggs usually develop 
 into Medusae, but, in the large family of the 
 Discophorse, to which our own Jelly-fish 
 belong, the larva which results from the egg 
 is a small spherical body covered with cilia, 
 and never grows into a Medusa direct. It 
 attaches itself to a rock or sea-weed (Fig. 9, 1), 
 develops tentacles, and lengthens out. Con- 
 strictions then begin to appear round its body : 
 the first just below the tentacles, and others 
 successively further down. The edges formed 
 
 by the constrictions become lobed, and the i, Larva. S, Strobila. 
 
 little creature, usually not more than an inch 
 
 long, soon has the appearance of a series of saucers with lobed margins piled 
 one upon another, but increasing in size upward (Fig. 9, S). After a time 
 the whole structure breaks up, each detached disc developing later into a 
 Medusa, often of gigantic size. This curious process of a sexual multiplication 
 is known as strobilation, each series of developing young being a strobila, 
 which is the Greek for fir-cone. 
 
 There is only one permanently attached form among these Medusae. This 
 is the Lucernaria, a very beautiful flower-like animal often found adhering 
 to sea- weed. 
 
 The Anthozoa or flower-like animals, which form the next group of the 
 Scyphozoa, include the stationary Sea-anemones and the Corals, the living 
 bodies of both of which are built on essentially the same 
 plan. The body of the Sea-anemone, however, always re- The Anthozoa. 
 mains soft, while that of the Coral proper develops a hard 
 skeleton. For this reason the Sea-anemones have been called the Fleshy 
 Corals, while one large division of the Corals is cilled the Stony Corals, on 
 account of their stony skeletons. The Sea-anemones always remain single, 
 while the Corals comprise both single and colonial forms. 
 
 The Sea-anemone is a familiar object to most of us, as it is very plentiful 
 on our rocky shores. Small, coloured, jelly-like masses are often to be seen 
 adhering to the rocks at low tide, which, as soon as they 
 are again covered by water on the return of the tide, The Sea-anemones 
 expand in beautiful and brilliantly-coloured flower-like (Actinia). 
 
 animals. Looking down upon an Anemone, the central 
 mouth can generally be made out fringed with its tentacles. If the body 
 were cut across a little below the level of these, we should find that it con- 
 sisted of two tubes, one within the other. The inner tube is the stomach 
 tube or oesophagus, lined with the outer skin, which, as above described, 
 characterises all the Scyphozoa. It is united to the wall of the outer tube, 
 which is the body wall of the Anemone, by a number of fleshy partitions, 
 which, running right through the length of the body, divide it up into many 
 compartments. The uppermost portion of each of these compartments runs 
 
702 
 
 COELENTERATA-II. CNIDARIA. 
 
 up into a tentacle. These fleshy "septa" are infoldings of the inner layer 
 of the wall of the sac-like body. They do not all arise at the same time, 
 nor do they all project equally far into the body cavity. Only some of them 
 run out far enough to connect the two tubes in the upper part of the body. 
 
 This dividing up of the body into compartments is one of the chief dis- 
 tinctions between the Sea-anemone polyp and the Hydra polyp. In many 
 other respects the Sea-anemone closely resembles the Hydra. It has the 
 same power of retracting its tentacles and reducing its whole body to a bud- 
 like shape. It captures food with its tentacles, and digests it within its 
 body cavity, throwing out at the mouth all that it cannot assimilate. It has 
 also a limited power of motion, not, however, like the Hydra, using its 
 tentacles for this purpose, but gliding along on its base. 
 
 The Anemone is still richer than the Hydra in stinging cells. It has been 
 calculated that some Anemones possess as many as 43,000,000 of stinging 
 cells in one tentacle, and in the whole body something like 6,450,000,000. 
 The stinging cells in Anemones measure from 3!^ to ^oVo ^ an i ncn ^ ne 
 thread being often twenty times as long as the cell, and more richly supplied 
 with barbs than are those of the Hydra. These cells, too, in the Anemone, 
 are not merely found in the outer skin, but form in great quantities in the 
 gastric cavity. 
 
 The outer skin of the Anemone is not always smooth and jelly-like ; it is 
 often covered with wart-like protuberances, which sometimes secrete a sticky 
 fluid. Some Anemones have, further, a circle of " eyes " placed like a 
 necklace round the body. Each of these has a lens and simple optic nerve, 
 but the latter is not connected with any other nerves. From time to time, 
 as the Anemone grows, it is able to cast off its outer skin, after having 
 formed a new one beneath it ; the old skin can often be seen in a wrinkled, 
 dead-looking condition encircling the base of the animal. 
 
 Although none of the Sea-anemones found on our own shores attain the 
 size of some of the tropical specimens, they are very beautiful and well 
 worthy of study. A few only can here be briefly described. 
 
 The Plumose Anemone (Fig. 10) and the Daisy Anemone are two of the 
 English varieties of the Sagartiadse, so-called after a tribe in the army of 
 
 Xerxes, known for their practice of en- 
 tangling their enemies by means of noosed 
 ropes. All these Anemones possess, attached 
 to the septa of the gastric cavity, tangled 
 masses of stinging threads resembling 
 tangles of white cotton. These they can at 
 
 Fig. 10. THE PLUMOSK ANKMONB 
 (Actinoloba dianthus). 
 
 Fig. 11. EDWARDBIA. 
 
 will shoot out of the mouth, and, in some cases, through apertures at the 
 sides of the body, for the purpose of paralysing their enemies. In large 
 
SEA-ANEMONES. 703 
 
 specimens these " acontia " may, when extended straight through the mouth, 
 measure as much as six inches. 
 
 In the Plumose Anemone, which is flesh-coloured, pale orange, or clear 
 white, the pillar-like body is surmounted by a widely-expanded, frilled disc 
 edged with numberless fringe-like tentacles. When these Anemones move 
 along on the disc small pieces are sometimes torn off and left behind. These 
 pieces can develop into young Anemones ; at other times young forms bud 
 out from the parent. 
 
 In the Daisy Anemone the upper part of the body wall is studded with 
 suckers, to which fragments of shell or gravel may become attached. In 
 colour this Anemone varies greatly, almost all shades, 
 from a delicate flesh colour to a deep chocolate or olive The Daisy 
 green, being seen in various specimens. The small Anemone 
 
 tentacles are arranged in many rows, and may amount to (Sagartiabellis). 
 500. The Daisy Anemone is exceedingly prolific. Its 
 young, which arise from fertilised eggs, are usually matured within the body 
 cavity and thrown out at the mouth as minute but perfect Anemones. From 
 160 to 300 of such young are said to have been produced by a Daisy 
 Anemone in a single day. 
 
 The Cloak Anemone is noted for being constantly found in company with 
 the Hermit Crab, on the lip of whose borrowed shell it attaches itself. Two 
 wing-like lobes grow out from the base of the Anemone, 
 gradually surround the lip of the shell, meeting finally on Th e Cloak 
 
 the other side and forming the so-called "cloak." The Anemone 
 
 Anemone no doubt profits by its chosen position, as it can (Adamsia palhata). 
 feed on particles of the prey caught and torn up by the 
 claws of the crab, and is borne along by him in his wanderings, sometimes 
 thus travelling a mile or two out to sea, and enjoying constant change of 
 water. If the shell chosen by this strange couple is too small for the 
 Anemone, or gets broken, it can fabricate a shelly substance which makes 
 good all defects. 
 
 The Opelet, so called because its disc is habitually expanded, has long, 
 emerald-green tentacles, which can coil round its prey. 
 Large sea - weeds are often found studded with these The Opelet 
 
 beautiful flower-like creatures, which, in some parts of (Anthea cercus). 
 France, are appreciated as an article of food. 
 
 The Beadlet is distinguished by brilliantly coloured beadlike vesicles set 
 near the edge of the disc. These may be stinging batteries, for these 
 Anemones are not provided, like the Sagartiadse, with 
 internal stinging threads. The Beadlet, which is also The Beadlet 
 called the Strawberry Anemone, is the commonest of the {Actinia inesembry- 
 red Anemones found on English rocks. It is very hardy, anthemum). 
 
 and has been known to live as long as thirty years in 
 captivity, during that time giving rise to three hundred and thirty-four 
 young Anemones. 
 
 The Dahlia Wartlet has the surface of its body covered with small 
 grey warts to which fragments of stone or shell adhere. 
 This Anemone is scarcely less abundant on our shores Wartlet * 
 
 than the Beadlet, and is very handsome, one variety (Tealia 
 
 having white tentacles, vividly contrasting with the crassicornis\ 
 crimson disc. It is particularly voracious, devouring 
 shore crabs, limpets, and other molluscs, and even sea-urchins and fish. 
 
704 COELENTERATAIL CNIDARIA. 
 
 The Cave-dwelling Anemone, though plentiful on our coasts, is very 
 
 difficult to find, its colouring being wonderfully adapted 
 
 The Cave-dwelling to the sand or mud of the pools it inhabits. The black, 
 
 Anemone white, and grey of the disc are arranged in delicate 
 
 (SagarUa patterns, which have been compared with those on the 
 
 troglodytes}. feathers of a snipe. The purpose of concealment is 
 
 further aided by fragments of shells, etc., attached to the 
 
 suckers on its column. 
 
 In the Edwardsias (Fig. 11, p. 702) the body is much elongated, and 
 
 the lower part is usually buried in the sand or mud. 
 
 The Crimson One of the best-known of these Anemones is the Crim- 
 
 Pufflet son Pufflet, which often inhabits the old burrows of 
 
 (Edwardsia carnca). Molluscs in limestone rocks on the coast of South 
 
 Devon, the beautiful crimson tentacles protruding from 
 
 the mouth of the burrow. 
 
 On tropical shores there are many brilliantly beautiful varieties of Sea- 
 anemones, some of which attain a very large size. Actinia paumotensis, 
 found on the islands of the Paumotu Archipelago, is 
 Tropical described by Dana as one of the most beautiful of all 
 
 Anemones. Anemones. It has a disc often 14 in. in diameter, 
 
 * ' densely covered with large tentacles tipped with bright 
 lake, the margin undulating so as to form numerous lobes, each of which 
 has the appearance of being a separate Actinian, ard the whole resembling 
 a beautiful bouquet. " Other tropical forms have been said to resemble 
 brilliantly-coloured carpets covering the rocks. Some of these large, tropical 
 Anemones are used as homes by ether animals, which live within the stomach 
 cavity. A fish some 3 in. long and very vividly coloured in striking con- 
 trast to its host, and a biightly-coloured prawn are almost always found thus 
 associated with certain large Anemones on the great Barrier Reef of Australia, 
 as recently described by Mr. Saville Kent. These curious lodgers emerge 
 from their refuge from time to time to swim about in the sea, but dart back 
 again into the mouths of their hosts when pursued by enemies. It has been 
 supposed that this association may be of advantage to the Anemone as well 
 as to the fish and the prawn. Animals are attracted to pursue these brilliant 
 decoys and fall victims to tie voracious Anemone, while the fish and the 
 prawn live on the crumbs which fall from the feasts of their magnificent 
 friends and protectors. 
 
 In the Corals proper, the polyps are essentially like the Sea-anemones, but 
 are able to form a hard, protective framework for their bodies. 
 
 The soft, fleshy body first gives off upon the rock below 
 The Corals. it a quantity of chalky matter from its base, and thus 
 forms a kind of pedestal for itself, which is called the 
 foot-plate. From this, six hard ridges rise up into the body, given off by 
 the fleshy parts of the base ; six, at least, is the number first produced, 
 other ridges arising later in the intervals between these. From the outer 
 edges of these plates, phlanges may grow out till they meet one another, 
 and make a hard ring supporting the ridges. Sometimes, too, a hard 
 column arises from the centre of the foot-plate; this is called the columella. 
 All over these hard ridges, rings, and columns, the basal skin of the soft 
 body of the animal fits closely. This arrangement is doubtless pro- 
 tective, for, on being disturbed, the whole animal, which was perhaps seen a 
 moment before as a beautiful Anemone, with expanded tentacles, collapses 
 
CORALS. 
 
 705 
 
 12. THE OTTP CORAL 
 ( Caryopn yllia). 
 
 between the projections, and nothing is seen over them but a thin shiny 
 
 skin. 
 
 Fig. 12 shows us the skeletons of two solitary corals which have 
 thus built up their pedestals to a considerable 
 height. The greater number of coral polyps, 
 however, do not remain solitary, but are 
 continually producing daughter polyps, whole 
 families together forming great colonies, each 
 member of which as it grows adds its own pedes- 
 tal to the mass. All the stony corals seen in 
 our museums are but the complicated skeletons, 
 i.e., the combined pedestals of polyps whose soft, 
 jelly-like bodies have perished. In the living 
 state these hard masses were covered by the flesh 
 of the animal colony, as a thin layer of slimy 
 matter. The individual Sea-anemone-like animals 
 lurked in the cavities, rising and expanding their 
 
 tentacles when in search of food, but drawing them back under shelter 
 
 whenever threatened or disturbed. 
 
 Corals are usually grouped according to the number of divisions, compart- 
 ments, or "rays'" in their bodies, each compartment, as in the Anemone, 
 
 running up into the hollow axis of a tentacle. 
 
 Six-rayed polyps have six tentacles or (approximately) some multiple of 
 
 six, eighteen, twenty-four, forty-eight, and even more. 
 
 Eight-rayed polyps have eight tentacles or some multiple of eight. 
 Most of the six-rayed polyps live in great colonies, their skeletons produc- 
 ing the chalky masses with which we are much more familiar than we are 
 
 with the living animals. One important family of the 
 
 six-rayed polyps, however, the Fungidse, or Mushroom 
 
 corals, consists of single individuals. The median slit seen Corals (Hexaciinia). 
 
 along the surface of the Mushroom coral (Fig. 13) indicates 
 
 the position of the mouth, 
 
 while the many jagged ridges 
 
 that radiate out from it and 
 
 give the whole the appearance 
 
 of an inverted mushroom are 
 
 the hard, stony ridges and 
 
 partitions over which the body 
 
 of the polyp fits. When the 
 
 polyp is expanded, all this 
 
 skeleton is hidden from view 
 
 The Six-rayed 
 
 by the beautifully coloured Fiy> 18. A MUSHROOM CORAL (Fungia). 
 
 soft body, the whole surface 
 
 being one mass of tentacles, often of a vivid green, tipped with white. 
 With these tentacles, each richly provided with stinging cells, the huge 
 polyp paralyses and masters its prey, using them also as weapons of defence 
 against enemies. When disturbed, the whole animal sinks down among the 
 toothed ridges, which project through without actually piercing the thin 
 skin, and may well defy any enemy to touch him. These Mushroom corals, 
 when young, are cup-like or cylindrical like other corals, and provided with 
 a stalk ; as they grow, the sides of the cup get flatter and flatter until the 
 whole becomes quite flat, or the bottom of the original cup rises even higher 
 46 
 
7 o6 
 
 COELENTERA TA II. CNIDARIA . 
 
 than the rim. The young, as a rule, bud from the under surface of the 
 parent, then drop off, and lie loosely on the rock or sea-bottom. A branched 
 form is known in which young Fungia drop from the tips of branches. 
 
 This branching condition, which is exceptional in the Mushroom corals, 
 is the rule in nearly all other corals. By division or budding of various 
 kinds an endless variety of colonies are produced. Sometimes, as among 
 
 the Zoophytes, the polyps build up 
 branched frameworks, from which 
 at intervals they protrude, like 
 flowers from a branched stalk. 
 The form of such colonies depends 
 upon the intervals separating the 
 polyps, and the angle at which 
 they branch out from the parent 
 individuals. In Fig. 14, in the 
 coral on the left, the polyps are far 
 apart, in that on the right the 
 budding is frequent and the polyps 
 crowded. In this latter case the 
 skeleton is penetrated in all direc- 
 tions with canals which, for a cer- 
 tain distance below the surface, 
 carry food juice from polyp to 
 polyp. The Madrepores, of which 
 the coral to the right of Fig. 14 is 
 an example, are amongst the most 
 important builders of coral reefs 
 and islands. Other coral colonies form waving plates, often beautifully 
 frilled at the edges, the polyps usually projecting from the upper surface of 
 the plate. The variety in form and structure of coral colonies is, indeed, 
 almost endless. 
 
 Entirely different coral forms are produced by polyps which, instead of 
 budding, simply divide into two or more new individuals. In Fig. 15 we 
 
 have a hemispherical mass, the surface 
 of which is thickly set with star-like 
 polyps ; some are seen expanded, with 
 the slit-like mouths in the centre of the 
 disc, others are in a retracted condition. 
 The star-like shape of the polyps in 
 this kind of coral has obtained for it the 
 name of star-coral. On such a mass a 
 larger polyp is often found which has 
 two mouths instead of one ; a row of 
 tentacles forms between the two 
 mouths, this row then breaks up 
 into two, and two polyps are seen on 
 the surface where only one was before. 
 In this case we have complete division of the individuals, for, while these 
 outer changes have been going on, corresponding changes have been taking 
 place below the surface, resulting in a more or less complete division 
 of the original animal into two. In these colonies, the whole hemispherical 
 mass, which may grow to an enormous size, is built up layer after layer, the 
 
 Fiff. 14.-CORAL COLONS. 
 Dendrosoma. Madrepora. 
 
 Fig. 15. THE STAR CORAI/ (Astrcea). 
 
CORALS. 707 
 
 living flesh of the colony never forming more than a thin layer over the 
 surface. 
 
 The skeleton of the Brain Coral (Fig. 16), -which is distinguished by the 
 systems of ridges and furrows winding over its surface, is builfc up in 
 successive layers like that of the Star Coral, 
 bub the polyps multiply in a different 
 manner. Each long furrow denotes the 
 former home of a large polyp, which formed 
 a whole row of new mouths without dividing 
 up into new individuals. Here, therefore, 
 we have incomplete division of the 
 individuals. This furrow was fringed by 
 tentacles which rose above the ridges. After 
 a certain stage of elongation of the polyp was Fig, 16. BRAIN CORAL (Maeandrina). 
 reached, the body completed itself, as it 
 
 were, with a new row of tentacles between two of the mouths, and so a new 
 individual was started. 
 
 While budding and division play such a large part in increasing the 
 number of polyps forming a colony, each new colony itself is started by 
 another method of reproduction. Eggs, which form on 
 the internal partitions or septa of the polyp, give rise to Development of 
 minute larvae that swim about, first within the body of Corals, 
 
 the parent, and then in the open water, sometimes for as 
 long as two months. Then they attach themselves by one end to a rock or 
 some other surface, and begin to assume the polyp shape, tentacles and 
 mouth developing at the free end of the body, and the hard parts form as in 
 the parent animal. Such polyps, by budding and division, found new 
 colonies. 
 
 All the skeletons we have as yet mentioned are more or less massive or 
 stony, as is usually the case with the skeletons of the six-rayed polyps (hence 
 the name stony corals), but some colonies of this division 
 secrete horny instead of chalky skeletons. The skeletons The Black Corals 
 of the Black Corals or Antipatharia form branching tufts (Antipatharia). 
 or trees of horny substance. The surface of the branches 
 appears smooth and polished, and, in some of the larger species, resembles 
 ebony. These corals grow to a great height as single trunks, or as tree- 
 like growths ; sometimes the separate branches fuse to produce networks. 
 In such coral skeletons there are none of the traces of the former presence 
 of polyps such as we see on the surface of the stony corals, because the 
 branched stem is merely the central axis of the living colony that produced 
 it and once covered it with a soft crust. Out of this crust the individual 
 polyps protruded at intervals. The hard, rod-like skeletons of the Black 
 Corals are used by natives in various parts of the world for dagger handles, 
 necklaces, or mouthpieces for pipes, on account of their toughness and 
 susceptibility to polish. 
 
 The eight-rayed polyps differ in several ways, too technical for us to enter 
 upon, from the six-rayed polyps. The eight tentacles of the individual 
 polyps are toothed or feathered, and form a more 
 imposing crown than do the simple cylindrical tentacles The Eight-rayed 
 of the six-rayed order. The hard parts produced by Corals (Octactinia}. 
 them, in the majority of cases, take the form of a central 
 axis like that found in the Black Corals, but here of chalk or horn, or of 
 
7 o8 
 
 COELENTERA TAIL CNIDARIA. 
 
 Fig. 17. ORGAN-PIPE COHAL 
 (Tubipora musica). 
 
 chalk and horn alternately. The fleshy crust which covers the axis, and out 
 
 of which the individual polyps protrude, is 
 
 supported by chalky spicules or plates 
 
 scattered through its substance (see Fig. 
 
 18). There are, however, massive forms 
 
 produced by the eight-rayed polyps which 
 
 have no central skeletal axis, such as the 
 
 Blue Coral (Heliopora) and the Organ Pipe 
 
 Coral (Fig. 17). In the latter, the polyps 
 
 grow up side by side in separate tubes 
 
 which result from the fusion of coloured 
 
 chalky spicules. Those tubes, from which 
 
 the coral takes its name, are, at regular intervals, joined together by 
 
 platforms. It is from these platforms, where the interval between two 
 
 tubes is considerable, that new buds arise to grow up alongside of the older 
 
 polyps. Both the skeleton and the soft parts of this colony are of a deep 
 
 crimson, the tentacles of the polyps being of an emerald green. 
 
 The coral we probably know best in its skeletal condition, the Red Coral 
 of commerce, is also the product of one of the eight-rayed corals. Some 
 
 idea of the structure of this coral in its living 
 condition may be gained from the diagram- 
 atic section of it given in Fig. 18. The 
 central hard (chalky) axis answers to the 
 smooth red branch with which we are 
 familiar. This is covered by a layer of soft 
 tubes, some of which, in the illustration, are 
 thrown back in order to reveal the hard axis, 
 the grooved markings on which show where 
 the canals ran. These tubes convey the 
 nourishing fluid through the whole colony, 
 receiving it from the polyps and giving it off 
 through branches connecting them with the 
 soft crust that lies over them. Throughout 
 this crust star or plate-like spicules are 
 scattered, which give it . some degree of 
 firmness. Three polyps are seen in the 
 illustration : the one to the right has its 
 fringed tentacles extended in search of prey, 
 the middle one is in a retracted condition, and that to the left is cut across 
 to show the partitions in the body. The soft bodies of these polyps are pure 
 white, and the effect of their feathered tentacles, projecting here and there 
 from the bright red crust, is very beautiful. 
 
 These corals form tree-like growths often several feet high, and are very 
 plentiful in the Mediterranean. Coral fisheries on an extensive scale are 
 carried on, chiefly by Italians, off the coasts of Italy, Algiers, and Spain, the 
 corals being dredged for with nets. The soft living crust is easily removed, 
 and the axis, which takes a high polish, is used for ornamental purposes. 
 
 Though the two corals last described, the Organ Pipe Coral and the Red 
 Coral of commerce, as well as a few other of the Octactinia, are rigid 
 growths, in the majority of the eight-rayed corals, which have horny axial 
 skeletons, the branches are not hard and stiff like those of the stony corals, 
 but can wave about with the motion of the water, the brightly-coloured 
 
 Fig. 18. THE RED CORAL OF COM- 
 MBRCB (Corattum rubrum). 
 
CORALS CORAL REEFS. 
 
 709 
 
 Fig. 19. SKA-PBN 
 (Pennatula). 
 
 living jelly that covers them often glistening with metallic lustre. Some- 
 times the delicate branches unite to "form networks, as in the Sea-fans 
 (Gorgonia). In other cases fine branches stand out from a central shaft, and 
 the whole colony resembles a feather with its barbs. 
 Fig. 19 represents one of the Sea-pens belonging to 
 this group. The lower end of the colony does not 
 carry any polyps, but is buried in sand or mud. This 
 is a peculiarly beautiful object when alive, especially 
 in the dark, as waves of phosphorescent light sweep 
 over the surface of the colony and make it glow with 
 indescribable beauty. It is these graceful and vividly- 
 coloured corals which form the chief adornments of 
 the coral reefs, the solid rocks of which are derived 
 from the harder and more massive skeletons produced 
 by the six-rayed corals. 
 
 The marvellous beauty of the banks covered with 
 living corals in the Red Sea and elsewhere, where 
 shallow water enables the traveller to feast his eyes 
 on these exquisite growths, has often roused the 
 enthusiasm of naturalists. They have been compared 
 with fields or gardens of the choicest and most 
 brilliantly-coloured flowers growing in the richest 
 profusion, all the intervals between the larger growths 
 being filled up with bright moss, which is itself com- 
 posed of minute corals. Among the elegant flowering 
 shrubs and bushes of this garden brilliantly-coloured fishes, glittering with 
 metallic lustre, dart to and fro ; Star-fishes, Sea-urchins, and Snails climb 
 about among the branches, while transparent Crustaceans and Jelly-fish 
 swarm in the crystal water around. 
 
 Before quitting the Corals we must briefly recall the important part they 
 have played in Nature in helping to build up the continents which we now 
 inhabit, a process which can still be seen going on in the 
 great coral reefs and islands of tropical seas. With the Coral Reefs and 
 exception of a few unimportant forms, Corals are now Islands, 
 
 restricted to regions within 30 on either side of the 
 equator, the more important reef-building forms being able to carry on their 
 life activities only in water above a certain temperature. Even within these 
 latitudes corals are not found everywhere. They flourish best in the Indian 
 Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Carribean Sea, where the reef-builders are 
 at work over thousands of square miles. 
 
 A coral reef is a bank of coral rock built upon the shallow sea-bottom 
 immediately surrounding the shores of tropical lands. Where the land is 
 edged by a reef, as in the island of Mauritius, the ordinary 
 beach passes into a flat irregular bank terminating at a The Fringing 
 varying distance from land, in a ridge over which the Reef, 
 
 sea continually breaks. This bank, which is called a 
 " fringing reef," is almost entirely made up of the skeletons of colonies of 
 corals, with which, however, are mixed the calcareous remains of myriads of 
 molluscs, sea-urchins and crabs, and the tubes of the tube-dwelling worms 
 which haunt every cranny and crevice of coral growths. At low tide broad 
 expanses of the coral rock are to be seen just above water level, strongly 
 contrasting with the usually steep shore of the land to which the reef forms 
 
;io COELENTERATAIL CNIDARIA. 
 
 a margin. At high tide, except when a retreating wave reveals a small 
 portion of rock, the only sign of the presence of the reef is the line of 
 breakers along its outer edge, where the shallow water suddenly passes into 
 deep water, the outer side of the reef sloping steeply down to a great depth. 
 Between this outer edge and the land a shallow basin or channel arises, and 
 here the water is usually very clear, and brilliantly-coloured corals are seen 
 covering the rocky bottom. 
 
 From such a " fringing reef " there arises, in process of time, a " barrier 
 reef." The channel between the edge of the reef and the shore tends to 
 widen, the corals along its bottom not flourishing so well 
 The Barrier Eeef. as those along the outer edge. The water, too, in which 
 they are condemned to live receives its chief additions from 
 rivers or streams of fresh water washing down mud and Band from the land. 
 The corals here, indeed, cannot grow fast enough to repair the continual 
 disintegration which is going on. The coral colonies at the edge of the reef, 
 on the contrary, grow luxuriantly, continually raising the level of the reef 
 and carrying it out to sea. It seems at first sight strange that corals exposed 
 to the full fury of the breakers should thus flourish ; this is no doubt due to 
 the constant supply of food in the shape of minute organisms which swarm 
 in the open sea. Even the storms which often break up the coral colonies 
 into fragments help on the work they are doing, as the broken pieces are 
 thrown up on the reef and fill up all interstices left in it, rendering it thus 
 only the more solid and complete. Even the fragments broken off can give 
 rise to new colonies if only the living polyps retracted within their stony 
 cells have escaped undamaged, and provided also that their new position is 
 favourable in the matter of food. 
 
 Barrier reefs are found rising up like ramparts against the waves even as 
 much as one hundred miles from the shores where they must have originated. 
 They thus cover vast areas of the sea-bottom. The Great Barrier Reef off 
 the N.E. coast of Australia is 1100 miles long, the distance from land of its 
 outer edge being usually from 20 to 30 miles, and in places over 100 miles. 
 Saville Kent computes the total area of this reef, built up by coral polyps, as 
 at least 80,000 square geographical miles ! Over the whole of this enormous 
 area of coral rock, the water remains comparatively shallow, while the outer 
 edge dips down almost suddenly into as much as 1000 fathoms. The whole 
 surface of such a reef is covered, wherever the circumstances are favourable, 
 with living masses of coral, while, in the large areas where the corals cannot 
 flourish, the reef is a vast conglomerate, the sand and fine mud, swept about 
 by the tides, filling up the interstices between the skeletons of original coral 
 colonies. 
 
 When reefs form round small islands, the edge of the reef rising a little 
 
 above the water, a coral island is produced, enclosing a lake or lagoon out of 
 
 which rises the original island. Such circular reefs are 
 
 Coral Islands and also found surrounding a clear lake of still water without 
 
 Atolls. any island in the middle ; these latter are known as 
 
 *' atolls." These wonderful products of the coral polyps 
 
 are a very marked feature of tropical seas, to the beauty of which they 
 
 greatly add. The reef encircling an island or smooth lagoon becomes raised 
 
 above the level of the surrounding sea by the debris washed up upon it ; as 
 
 a rule, however, it does not rise more than a few feet above the surface, the 
 
 sea often dashing, at the narrower parts, over into the enclosed lagoon. In 
 
 other cases, it may rise 10 or 12 ft. above high tide and may be covered 
 
CORAL REEFS SEA GOOSEBERRY. 
 
 711 
 
 with the rich verdure of the tropics, the wind and birds having supplied it 
 with seeds as soon as it rose above the waves. The enclosed lake is often 
 fringed with graceful palms, and the whole island, the product of minute 
 coral polyps, becomes a fruitful habitation for man. 
 
 These different kinds of reef formations were all traced back by Darwin 
 to fringing reefs, and accounted for by the subsidence of the land round 
 which these reefs originally formed. A fringing reef would gradually become 
 a barrier reef as the land on which it stood sank, and in the same way, a reef 
 surrounding an island would be transformed, after subsidence of the island, 
 into a circle of coral rock enclosing a lake. As long as the highest points of 
 the land remained above water, the lagoon would contain islands, but, when 
 the original land had entirely sunk beneath the waves, an atoll would result. 
 In the case of a very large island, surrounded, as New Caledonia now is, by 
 a barrier reef, the gradual sinking of the land would lead to the formation of 
 a complicated archipelago of islands, like that of the Maladives to the west 
 of Ceylon, where 12,000 small islands appear to represent a huge reef which 
 must once have surrounded a vast island long since sunk beneath the waves. 
 Darwin's theory of subsidence has, however, recently been disputed, and 
 cannot be considered as fully established. 
 
 The Ctenophora, which constitute the last division of the Cnidaria, are 
 beautiful, almost transparent, marine creatures, either more or less round in 
 form, or else flattened out in the shape of ribbons. 
 Their relationship to the other groups is still a matter of The Ctenophora, 
 uncertainty; they are often placed near the Hydrozoa. 
 The animals belonging to this group move through the water, mouth 
 downward, by means of swimming plates or "combs," from which they take 
 the name of Ctenophora or Comb-bearers. Eight 
 rows of these swimming plates run from pole to pole 
 of the body, each plate consisting of a row of fine 
 hairs or cilia connected at their bases, but capable 
 of independent movement. The animal can, at will, 
 move the plates either separately or collectively, and 
 thus bring about slow locomotion in the direction 
 opposite to the mouth, and, by the help of tentacles 
 and other appendages, twisting and swaying move- 
 ments can also take place. In the ribbon-like forms 
 muscular contractions bring about serpentine move- 
 ments. 
 
 The mouth leads into a stomach, which, again, 
 opens into a funnel that sends off eight vessels, which 
 run, in meridians, down the sides of the body, just 
 below the eight rows of swimming plates. The animal 
 is usually provided with tentacles and with long 
 "capturing filaments" (Fig. 20). These are not 
 armed, like the tentacles of other Cnidaria, with 
 stinging cells, but with small knobs on coiled stalks, 
 which are called ** adhesive" cells. These are not 
 poisonous, but simply sticky, and when shot out at 
 prey entangle it and prevent its escape. They differ from stinging cells also 
 in the fact that they are not finally discharged from the body, but, when 
 the prey is mastered, can be drawn in again, and are capable of functioning 
 any number of times. 
 
 Fig. 20. THH SKA Gooac- 
 BKRRY (Cydippe). 
 
712 COELENTERATAIL CNIDARIA. 
 
 Another peculiarity of the Ctenophora is a sensory organ always found at 
 the end of the body opposite to the mouth. This somewhat resembles a 
 small weight borne on springs, and, as it i3 sensitive to the slightest oscilla- 
 tions of the body, seems to enable the animal to regulate its position in the 
 water. 
 
 The Sea Gooseberry, depicted in Fig. 20, is a good example of a round 
 Ctenophoran, the swimming plates and long capturing filaments being well 
 developed. The best known of the ribbon-like forms is Venus's Girdle 
 (Cestus veneris). The mouth lies at the centre of the long, transparent 
 ribbon, which has no swimming plates, but is fringed with cilia. When 
 alarmed, this Ctenophoran can roll up either or both ends of its body 
 spirally, but, when undisturbed, passes through the water with a graceful, 
 undulating motion. Its iridescent colouring makes it a peculiarly lovely 
 object. Other Ctenophorans are barrel-shaped, or resemble Phrygian caps, 
 and many are beautifully phosphorescent at night. 
 
 Most of the Ctenophora feed on small Crustaceans. Some, e.g., the 
 Beroidse, are very voracious, devouring creatures of their own kind, and often 
 larger than themselves, as the mouth is very wide, and the body distensible. 
 They have even been known to swallow and digest fish. 
 
 All the Ctenophora multiply by means of fertilised eggs and ciliated larvae, 
 which only very gradually attain the adult form. 
 
SUB-KINGDOM IX. THE PROTOZOA. 
 
 ANIMALCULE. 
 BY HENRY M. BERNARD, M.A., F.L.S., ETC., AND MATILDA BERNARD. 
 
 THE Protozoa, or first animals, are distinguished from all others by the fact 
 that they are unicellular organisms, i.e., the body of a Protozoan consists of 
 a single cell, whereas the bodies of all other animals, or Metazoa, are built up 
 of many cells. The one-celled Protozoan is capable of all the vital functions 
 of feeding, moving, breathing, and reproducing itself. In the Metazoa, the 
 greater number of the living cells of which the body is composed are 
 stationary in relation to one another, and the vital activities of the whole 
 have to be considered apart from the lives of the individual cells building it 
 up. We accordingly find these cells arranged into organs and tissues, each 
 specialised for some function necessary to the life of the whole. 
 
 The Protozoan, then, is a free-living cell essentially like the cells which, 
 organised into great masses, build up the bodies of all other animals. 
 
 All the Protozoa are of microscopic size, and are therefore removed from 
 ordinary observation. This is the more to be regretted since they compare 
 favourably with other classes of animals in variety and beauty of form, and 
 probably surpass all others in actual number of existing individuals. At 
 least five thousand species of these minute creatures are known, swarming, 
 at the present day, in salt and fresh water or in other animal organisms. 
 There are, in addition, several thousand fossil forms, the latter representing, 
 of course, only those Protozoa of past ages which were provided with a shell 
 or skeleton capable of preservation. Countless millions of such shells form 
 the chief constituent of vast areas of limestone rocks all over the world's 
 surface, and, in some more or less transformed condition, enter into the com- 
 position of a large part of the earth's crust. Vast numbers, again, are daily 
 being deposited on the sea-bottom to form the rocks of future ages. Nine- 
 tenths of the ooze over the greater part of the North Atlantic consists of 
 the shells of Protozoans, and one ounce of sand from the Naples shore yields 
 no fewer than one and a half million of their shells or parts of such shells. 
 
 The very lowest of the Protozoa, that is, the very simplest of all animals, 
 
 called the Monera, are mere microscopic particles of living jelly or protoplasm, 
 
 in which, so far, no definite structure has been discovered. 
 
 The Monera. In all other Protozoa, however, some differentiation of 
 the protoplasmic body has been found. Among many 
 minute granular particles scattered about in the jelly, there is always one 
 body (sometimes more than one) somewhat larger than the granules, and 
 different in character from the rest. This usually rounded body is known as 
 the nucleus. 
 
 713 
 
714 
 
 PROTOZOA. 
 
 The lowest of the nucleated Protozoa are the Rhizopoda or root-footed 
 
 animals, a name given to them on account of their manner of moving by 
 
 means of root-like prolongations of the body. The 
 
 The Rhizopoda. simplest of these Rhizopoda is the Amoeba, which has 
 
 been called the Proteus animalcule because of its constant 
 
 changes of shape. These animalcules are to be found in most rain-water 
 
 puddles and in ponds, and when seen under the microscope might escape 
 
 observation as mere specks of clear jelly-like matter, yet the careful observer 
 
 will find that each such speck is capable of moving about and feeding, and, 
 
 indeed, can be proved to be living, carrying on all those functions which, 
 
 taken together, we designate as life. 
 
 If a Proteus animalcule is magnified about three or four hundred times the 
 following important points can be noted : (1) It is naked, i.e., it has no 
 cuticle or shell. (2) The surface layer of protoplasm, 
 The Amoeba. though not forming a skin, is clear and glassy, and com- 
 pletely envelops the more fluid and granular inner portion 
 of the Amoeba. (3) Among these granules can be seen the nucleus and 
 foreign particles, taken in as food, the remains of such particles, and 
 
 other bodies not understood. (4) Lastly, if the 
 Amoeba is carefully watched, a round space, like 
 a bubble, appears, increases in size, and then 
 instantaneously disappears, forming again at 
 another spot. This is the contractile vesicle 
 which is thought to collect the waste products 
 of the body and to eject them when it con- 
 tracts. 
 
 The Amoeba is seen to change its shape 
 slowly by protruding at certain points finger- 
 like or knob-like processes which are called 
 pseudopodia or make-believe feet. Its exceed- 
 ingly slow movements over the surface of plants 
 or other submerged objects, or through the 
 water, are all made by the extension of pseudo- 
 podia in one direction and corresponding with- 
 drawal on another side, the whole body seeming 
 to flow on along its pseudopodia. If, in its course, 
 it meets with minute plant cells suitable for 
 food, it admits them into its body at any point, retains them within it for a 
 time, while it evidently assimilates some nourishment from them, and then 
 flows on, the indigestible remains of its meal being left behind. The 
 manner in which the Amoeba breathes cannot be seen, but the fact that it 
 breathes is indisputable, for if the water in which Amoebae are kept is 
 deprived of its free oxygen, the assimilation of which is what is meant by 
 breathing, the animals become rigid and lifeless. 
 
 When, in consequence of the nourishment derived from the assimilated 
 particles, an Amoeba has grown to a certain limit, its shape becomes that of 
 a dumb-bell (Fig. 1, B), the nucleus divides into two, each end of the dumb- 
 bell containing one of the new nuclei, the connecting part narrows more and 
 more, and finally the two ends separate completely (Fig. 1, C), and each 
 half (or '* daughter ") repeats the simple life activities of the original whole 
 (or "mother* "). These terms mother and daughter at first sight appear 
 hardly justifiable, yet we now know that all reproductive processes, even in 
 
 Fig. 1. A, B, C. 
 
 A PROTEUS ANIMALCULB (Amoeba} 
 
 in three stages. 
 
ANIMALCULES. 
 
 715 
 
 the highest animals, are but specialisations of this simple dividing up of 
 living cells. 
 
 The Amoeba has been described somewhat fully, as a simple type of the 
 Root-footed animals. Many different kinds of Amcebse have been distin- 
 guished, varying in the characters of the pseudopodia and in other respects, 
 but they all agree in being single cells of granulated protojlasm, containing 
 a nucleus, and moving and feeding by means of pseudopodia. 
 
 In the group next above the Amoebae, the Foraminifera, the protoplasm 
 of the central body is no longer naked. The animal assimilates from the 
 water in which it lives the necessary material for 
 surrounding itself with a chitinous or shelly covering, or The Foraminifera. 
 perhaps it utilises its own waste products for this purpose. 
 This shell, in some of the Foraminifera, is merely a delicate case within 
 which the soft body lives. In others, grains of sand, or sponge spicules are 
 obtained from without and embodied in the shell. 
 
 For the purposes of movement, the animal sends out pseudopodia into the 
 surrounding water through the openings in its shell. The Foraminifera have 
 been divided into the Perforate and the 
 Imperforate, according as the pseudopodia 
 protrude through small openings scattered 
 all over the surface of the shell, or through 
 only one or two large openings. The shells 
 depicted in Fig. 3 are those of Perforate 
 Foraminifera, while in Fig. 2 we have an 
 Imperforate form, the egg-shaped Gromia. 
 In this latter, the protoplasm streams out 
 at one aperture, breaks up into numberless 
 fine threads which, here and there, run 
 together, forming thicker patches. The 
 whole surface of the simple shell has also 
 become covered with a thin layer of 
 protoplasm. If any small plant cell or 
 other particle suitable for food touches one 
 of the pseudopodia, other threads flow 
 together round it, and it is slowly drawn in 
 towards the aperture and passed into the 
 body. Such particles of food can often be 
 seen, as in the illustration, within the body 
 of a Gromia. 
 
 The shells of the Perforate Foraminifera 
 are very varied in form. Sometimes they 
 consist of many chambers, for the proto- 
 plasm, as it grows, has not room in the 
 one little chamber with which it at first surrounds itself, and adds another 
 from time to time, each chamber, however, remaining in communication with 
 the last by means of one or more minute apertures through which a thread 
 or threads of protoplasm pass. The inner protoplasm can also stream out 
 in all directions through the perforations in the sides of the shell. 
 
 A few of the many forms assumed by the shells of such Foraminifera 
 are given in Fig. 3. Some are more or less flattened, like coins, and have 
 therefore been called Nummilites(Fig.3, A) ; others are flask-shaped (C); others 
 again closely resemble the shells of the Ammonite or the Nautilus (B) ; in fact, 
 
 Fig. 2. -GROMIA OVIFORMIS. 
 
7i6 
 
 PROTOZOA. 
 
 Fig. 3. SIIBLLS OF FORAMINIFERA. 
 
 A, Nummulites. 
 
 B, Nonionina. 
 
 C, Lagena. 
 
 D, Globigerina. 
 
 E, Milliola. 
 
 such forms were long considered to be minute Molluscs. The shells of the 
 
 Globigerina, or globe- bearers (D), help largely to build up Chalk. They are said 
 
 to constitute almost one-third of the ooze 
 covering vast areas of the sea-bottom in 
 the North Atlantic. Milliolite shells (E) 
 are the chief constituent of the stone of 
 which the houses of Paris are built. 
 Nummilitic limestones cover an enormous 
 area of Central and Southern Europe, 
 North Africa, West Asia, and India. All 
 limestones indeed abound in the shells of 
 Foraminifera, some species being found 
 in the Coal formations also. 
 
 The Foraminifera nearly all live in the 
 sea, creeping along its bottom ; but some 
 float about. Young ones are produced by 
 the breaking up of the protoplasm into 
 small portions, which secrete their charac- 
 teristic shelly covering before leaving the 
 body of the parent. Some young Fora- 
 minifera have very simple single^ shells, but others are provided from the first 
 
 with a three-chambered shell. 
 
 Passing from those Protozoa whose protoplasmic processes are mere 
 
 protrusions of the soft body showing no definite shape, but constantly 
 
 varying, we come to others in which these body processes are highly 
 
 specialised, and here again we have naked and shelled forms. 
 
 The Heliozoa, or Sun animalcules (Fig. 4), have straight, ray-like 
 
 pseudopodia, which, however, are not rigid, but when brought in contact 
 
 with particles of food, 
 The Heliozoa, can contract or bend so .. , 
 
 as to draw them in to- \ \ : , / . / / 
 
 wards the body. Sometimes a minute 
 
 animalcule, touching one of the rays, appears 
 
 to become paralysed and to glide down the 
 
 pseudopodium to its root, where a protruding 
 
 part of the protoplasm can draw in it. In 
 
 most of the Heliozoa the body is naked, and 
 
 the contractile vesicle is very conspicuous, 
 
 often growing to a very large size at the 
 
 edge of the body, and bursting with such 
 
 violence as to shake the whole animal. 
 
 Some idea of the size of these animalcules 
 
 Can be gained from the fact that four hundred 
 
 of them set closely side .by side would 
 
 measure an inch. In spite of the formidable rays by which the Sun 
 
 animalcule is surrounded, it often falls a prey to a simple Amoeba, which 
 
 either envelops the whole animalcule or tears out portions of its soft body. 
 
 Next in order above the Sun animalcules, and far more complicated in 
 
 appearance on account of their elaborate skeletons, are 
 
 The Kadiolaria. the Ray animalcules or Radiolaria. In these the soft 
 
 body is not, as in the Foraminifera, enclosed in an almost 
 
 continuous outer shell, but the hard matter, usually of a flinty nature, 
 
 -' /'/i.V'rv 
 
 Fig. 4. THE SUN ANIMALCULE 
 (Actinophrys sol). 
 
ANIMALCULES. 717 
 
 derived from the surrounding water, takes the form of rods or spikes which 
 pierce the soft body, and also often form some kind of protective framework 
 around it. Another peculiarity of the Radiolaria is that the soft body is 
 divided into an inner portion, containing the nucleus and enclosed in a 
 gelatinous membrane called a capsule, and ari outer portion which surrounds 
 the other and is itself enclosed in a gelatinous envelope. The inner capsule 
 is perforated so that the inner protoplasm can pass outward, while the outer 
 protoplasm sends out radiating threads in all directions through the number- 
 less fine perforations of its envelope. 
 
 A vast number of exquisite forms assumed by the skeletons of the Radio- 
 laria were found in the dredgings made by the Challenger expedition. Some 
 of these skeletons consist only of spines radiating from the centre which, 
 however, are often beautifully sculptured or branched ; in one form the 
 number of the spines is always twenty, and these are arranged with absolute 
 regularity at definite angles to each other. The whole animal often has the 
 appearance of a spiny ball (Fig. 5, A). In other cases the hard rods, which 
 
 Fig. 5. SKELETONS OF RADIOLARIA. 
 C, Actinomma. B, Lithomelissa. A, Acanthometra. 
 
 form the constituent elements of all these skeletons, may be arranged so as 
 to form a framework or network outside the protoplasm with hexagonal 
 apertures. Such a framework may be more or less round for a time, and 
 then a second framework may be added below the first with a wide opening 
 at its base the whole having the appearance of a helmet ornamented at 
 definite points with a few of the characteristic spines that pierce the inner 
 protoplasm (B). Sometimes a whole series of fenestrated balls is produced, 
 one outside the other (C), recalling the elaborate carved ivory spheres of the 
 Chinese. In the illustration, some of the outer spheres have been broken 
 through to show the inner structure. Such successive spheres are firmly 
 united together by means of cross rods or of the characteristic spines. 
 
 The Radiolaria are all found in salt water, but, unlike the Foraminifera, 
 float near the surface. Their skeletons form an important element in the 
 rocks of Sicily and Greece; and the "Barbadoes earth," which is used for 
 polishing, is mainly composed of the flinty skeletons of Radiolarians. Although 
 
7 i8 
 
 PROTOZOA. 
 
 there is little doubt that Radiolaria abounded in the seas where the great 
 Chalk beds were deposited, they are not found in chalk; their siliceous 
 skeletons probably having been dissolved and re-deposited as flint. 
 
 In the next division of the Protozoa, we find animals in which the proto- 
 plasmic processes of the body are still further specialised. They no longer 
 send out indefinite pseudopodia for creeping slowly along 
 The Flagellata. on the surface of the ground, nor do they float free in the 
 water, the protoplasm streaming out on all sides in fine 
 rays. We now have only one or two processes adapted for locomotion through 
 the water, and these are long and whip-like. These whips or "flagella,' 1 at 
 the anterior end of the body, by their constant movement, drag it along 
 rapidly through the water. 
 
 Some of the simplest of these Flagellata are so very like vegetable cells, 
 that they were long excluded from the animal kingdom. It is, indeed, 
 impossible to draw any very hard and fast line between the lowest plant and 
 animal cells, and, as authorities are still more or less divided in opinion, 
 such simple Flagellates may be regarded as belonging to a border land. 
 One point in which many of the Flagellata resemble vegetable cells 
 is colour. The Protozoa of other divisions are usually colourless and 
 transparent, whereas many Flagellates are of a bright red, yellow, brown, 
 or green. Some of the simplest of these animalcules (Fig. 6, A) as they 
 dart across the microscopic field by the help of their whips, which, on 
 account of the rapidity of their movements are for the time invisible, 
 
 sparkle like minute emeralds. Some of 
 the red Flagellata, when swarming in 
 great numbers, produce large red 
 patches on the sea. Other forms shine 
 with phosphorescent light, and cause 
 the beautiful glow often seen among the 
 breakers on a shore at night. Thirty 
 thousand animalcules are said to be 
 contained in one cubic inch of such 
 phosphorescent water. 
 
 Some of theFlagellata are distinguished 
 by a collar-shaped projection round the 
 depression from which the whip-like 
 appendage rises (Fig. 6, D), others by 
 taking in food at one spot only of the 
 body, i.e., at the base of the chief whip 
 (C). A shelly covering is present in 
 
 some forms, in which it may resemble a cuirass or may be prolonged into 
 several sharp, horn-like processes (E). These horny cases are often found in 
 Chalk rocks. 
 
 The Flagellata do not always, like the creatures -we have hitherto described, 
 
 lead independent lives, each individual feeding, moving, etc., on its own 
 
 account. They are often found grouped together in 
 
 Flagellate colonies, the various individuals composing the colony 
 
 Colonies. being united by a common mass of protoplasm. The 
 
 manner in which such colonies arise is interesting and 
 
 important, inasmuch as, from this primitive grouping of single cells to form 
 
 simple colonies, complex and highly organised colonies arose, culminating in 
 
 the bodies of the higher animals, which are in reality gigantic colonies of 
 
 Fig. 6. FLAGELLATA. 
 A , Euglena. 
 J5, Chilomonas. 
 
 C, Noctiluca. 
 
 D, Monosig'a. 
 
 E, Ceratium. 
 
COLONIES OF ANIMALCULES. 
 
 719 
 
 countless living cells arranged into organs, each with its own special function 
 to perform for the life of the whole. Single cells multiply in several ways, 
 the simplest being that of the Amoeba, which, creeping along the ground, 
 parts into two daughter Amcebre , each of which creeps on its separate way. 
 In the case of free- swimming cells, like the Flagellata, separation into two 
 might not be so easy, especially if the mechanism of locomotion is not very 
 powerful as compared with the size of the body. In such creatures the cells, 
 though actually dividing, need not finally separate, but may swim about in 
 contact with one another j and, if successive generations of cells thus remain 
 together, simple colonies arise. Several balls made up of flagellate cells 
 are known, in which all the whips of the component cells are turned 
 outward, and, by their movement, send the whole colony rolling along 
 through the water. The best known of these is Volvox globator, which, on 
 account of the bright green colour in its cells, is often claimed as a plant/ 
 
 It is clear again that colonies may also arise by the dividing up of cells 
 which are stationary. The daughter cells in this case may either grow up 
 simply alongside of the parent, or may 
 branch out from it. We are, however, 
 fairly safe in assuming that all the higher 
 animals arose from free-swimming, and 
 not from stationary colonies, a stationary 
 manner of life being but little conducive 
 to progress. In Fig. 7, A, we see 
 stationary colonies of Flagellata which, 
 but for the stalk of attachment, some- 
 what resemble Volvox above mentioned. 
 Another stationary colony is seen in the 
 same figure (B), and is formed by the 
 contiguous tubular sheaths of a number 
 of flagellate cells, each provided with 
 two whips. This colony forms folded, 
 fan-like growths, the height of the 
 whole structure being often not more 
 than T \ of an inch. Collared Flagel- 
 lates also form colonies, sometimes 
 being grouped together in flower-like 
 bunches on stalks, as in Fig. 7, C, or 
 floating about freely with the collars and whips projecting from a mass of 
 common protoplasm. A colony of this latter sort has been named Protos- 
 pongia, as it seems to foreshadow the arrangement of somewhat similar 
 collared cells found in the Sponges. 
 
 Returning, however, to the Flagellata which remain single, i.e., do not 
 form colonies, reproduction takes place among them in several different 
 ways. Some Flagellata simply break up into parts, like the Amoeba, others 
 detach only small pieces of their bodies, each piece developing into a new 
 animal, a process which is called budding or gemmation ; others, again, 
 reproduce themselves by a kind of internal budding called spore-formation. 
 The whole inside of the animal divides into a great number of minute 
 "spores," each of which, after resting a while, grows into an animal like 
 the parent. The Noctiluca (Fig. 6, C), for instance, which causes the 
 marine phosphorescence already alluded to, may pass through a resting stage 
 when it loses its whip and looks like a mere gelatinous ball (it is then said 
 
 Fig, 7. FLAGELLATE COLONIES. 
 
 A, Anthro^hysa. 
 
 B, Rhipidodendron. 
 
 C, Codosig*. 
 
720 PROTOZOA. 
 
 to be encysted). The protoplasm seems to collect in one part of the cyst 
 and to break up into minute nodules. These nodules, which are called 
 spores, raise up the outer surface into prominences, and finally, when 
 mature, pass through the wall of the cyst, develop whips of their own, and 
 swim about freely as young individuals known as ** swarm spores." 
 
 Leaving now for a moment those Protozoa, which are rising higher and 
 higher in the scale of organic life, we must notice a group which shows 
 curious degeneration, the Gregarinse. These creatures 
 The Gregarinae. possess neither pseudopodia nor flagella : they can only 
 move very slowly by a kind of contraction of the proto- 
 plasm just below the outer surface, which, being somewhat different from 
 the rest of the body, we may call the "skin." These animalcules are all 
 parasites, hence their degradation. They have managed to get into the 
 bodies of animals higher than themselves, and are able to draw in as 
 food, through the whole surface of the body, the juices of their "host" 
 without any exertion on their own part, They are very common in the 
 bodies of all classes of animals from the worms upward, each kind of 
 Gregarina having its own special feeding ground in some part of a 
 higher animal. One species, for instance, is only found in the gills 
 of a small Crustacean, another in the liver of the Rabbit, and so on. 
 The only kind of outward appendages ever found in these creatures 
 are hooks which enable them the better to attach themselves to their 
 victims. The chief life activity in these, as in most other parasites, 
 is reproduction, which takes place by spore-formation. Two or more of 
 the worm-shaped Gregarinse fuse together, become encysted, and, after a 
 time, produce spores, which are released by the bursting of the cyst. Each 
 spindle-shaped spore develops into an independent individual, being sup- 
 plied by its immediate surroundings with appropriate nourishment. 
 
 We pass on from these degenerate creatures to the highest of the Pro- 
 tozoa, the Infusoria, so-called on account of being found in infusions i.e., 
 in water in which decaying animal or vegetable matter 
 The Infusoria. has been soaked, and in which it was at one time thought 
 that they bred spontaneously. 
 
 In the Infusorians the protoplasm of the body shows more variety than 
 in any other Protozoans. Not only is the outer surface of the body dis- 
 tinctly unlike the inner protoplasm, but it is more or less covered with very 
 fine hairs or cilia (literally eyelashes), which promote its motion. It is 
 sometimes provided with hooks or bristles as well, by means of which it can 
 creep or hang on to other objects. At one definite spot there is a simple 
 mouth, from which a depression often leads into the interior of the body. 
 The mouth is usually encircled by cilia, which, by their rapid vibrations, 
 keep up a kind of whirlpool, and bring particles of food within reach. As 
 the food, which passes on into the body along the tube, is absorbed, definite 
 streamings in certain directions can be made out in the granulated proto- 
 plasm. The indigestible portions of the food are, in some forms, ejected at 
 a definite part of the body. The nucleus is not always round it may be 
 horse-shoe-shaped, or ribbon-like, or it may even resemble a string of beads. 
 There are often several contractile vesicles. 
 
 The Infusoria are very plentiful in fresh water : they prey upon each 
 other, and sometimes upon higher animals, such as Rotifers. Some are 
 parasites. 
 
 There are Ciliated Infusorians and Tentacled Infusorians. 
 
ANIMALCULES. 
 
 721 
 
 The Ciliated Infusorians are classed according to the arrangement of their 
 cilia. These sometimes cover the whole surface of the body, as in the 
 
 Slipper animalcule (Fig. 8, A), 
 which is very common in pond 
 water or in infusions of hay, and 
 measures from 
 inch in length, 
 the distinction 
 
 A 3 
 
 Fig. 8. CILIATED INFUSORIA. 
 A, Paramoecium. 
 JS, Stentor. 
 
 g to ih of an 
 In this Protozoan, 
 between the outer 
 part of the body and the inner 
 granulated part is very clear, and 
 the mouth and tube leading from it 
 are very evident. In the outer 
 "skin" a number of small oval 
 bodies can be seen pointing out- 
 wards. These, which are known as 
 trichocysts, are minute bags contain- 
 ing threads which can be shot out 
 of them and are probably used as a 
 defence against enemies. These 
 structures recall the stinging threads 
 of the Coelenterates, but are still 
 more wonderful as the products of a 
 single cell. 
 
 In the next division of the 
 Ciliated Infusorians, very fine cilia 
 cover the surface of the body, while 
 longer ones encircle the mouth. The Trumpet animalcules (Fig. 8, B), 
 usually about $ of an inch in length, are found moving about freely in 
 the water or attached, either singly or in groups, to some submerged 
 object by the narrowed end of the body. The 
 lower part of the body is sometimes protected 
 by a kind of sheath or case. The wide opening 
 at the free end which surrounds the mouth is 
 fringed with long and strong cilia. In order to 
 multiply, these Trumpet animalcules divide into 
 two, a new mouth and oral fringe forming on the 
 parent animal before division. 
 
 The Infusorians of the next division have smooth 
 bodies, the cilia being usually confined to the 
 region round the mouth ; in some cases, how- 
 ever, a second band of cilia surrounds some other 
 part of the body. Some of the attached Infusorians 
 of this kind surround themselves with a slipper- 
 shaped case of protoplasm, which helps to protect 
 the soft part of the body, and can, when necessary, almost entirely cover it. 
 As a rule, however, the mouth end, with its circle of cilia, protrudes from 
 the aperture of the case in search of food. Other forms attach themselves 
 by stalks which are contractile, and can, by coiling up spirally, quickly with- 
 draw the animal from any threatening danger. 
 
 The Bell animalcules, when watched under the microscope, afford a very 
 interesting example of the complexity of life and movement which may be 
 attained by the single cell. When the water in which they are is. for any 
 47 
 
 Fiff,9. GROUP OP BFMJ 
 ANIMALCULES (V orticellidae). 
 
722 
 
 PROTOZOA. 
 
 reason, in a state of disturbance, the minute gelatinous balls lie hidden close 
 to the surface of some water weed at the ends of their tightly coiled stalks, 
 and thus easily elude observation. But if the water is at rest, the observer, 
 through the microscope, will see them gradually emerge from their place of 
 refuge, one individual after another rising into view on its slowly uncoiling 
 stalk, the ball lengthening and assuming the shape of a bell about ^\^ of an 
 inch in length. Long cilia, fringing a spiral membrane which can be pro- 
 truded beyond the aperture of the bell, wave about in the water, and bring 
 within reach particles of food that are swept down a groove leading to the 
 inner protoplasm. As such a group of Bell animalcules is watched, one 
 individual or another suddenly vanishes, being drawn down instantaneous^ 
 by the contraction of its stalk, while others more gradually come into sight. 
 These animalcules multiply by dividing lengthwise ; the young form, when 
 provided with its circle of cilia, breaks loose from the parent and swims 
 about freely for a time before attaching itself by a stalk. Young are some- 
 times also produced within the parent as spores. 
 
 These beautiful creatures are often found in colonies of various shapes, 
 some of the most delicate (Fig. 10, A) resembling the frond of a maidenhair 
 
 fern. The stem is, in such cases, formed 
 of protoplasm, produced by the various 
 individuals of the colony, which are not 
 always all alike. In the form illustrated 
 spherical individuals without stalks are to 
 be seen attached at the bases of the 
 branchlets which carry the other in- 
 dividuals. 
 
 In the fourth division of the Ciliated 
 Infusorians the cilia are confined to the 
 lower surface of the body, and are some- 
 times changed into bristles or hooks ; these 
 forms are much less attractive in appear- 
 ance than those we have just described. 
 
 We come, in the last place, to the 
 Tentacled Infusorians which are often to 
 be found attached to pond weeds by long, 
 straight stalks. The soft body is usually 
 contained in a cup-like sheath, sometimes 
 triangular in form, and terminates at the 
 free end in one or more projecting knobs, 
 ornamented with groups of stiff, hollow 
 tentacles. The animal has no mouth, but 
 feeds by means of these tentacles, the minute discs in which they end 
 arresting and piercing the bodies of any small animalcules that come 
 within reach. The soft parts of the victim are sucked up through the 
 hollow tentacles and drawn into the body within the. sheath. These 
 stationary bodies give rise, by means of budding, to free young forms with 
 cilia which swim about for a time, then attach themselves, lose their cilia, 
 and develop tentacles like those of the parent form. 
 
 These Tentacled Infusorians sometimes form very complicated colonies 
 consisting of creeping roots, from which rise trunks and branches (Fig. 10, B). 
 Each branch and branchlet terminates in an individual with its radiating 
 tentacles, bub besides these tentacled members of the colony there are other 
 
 Fig. 10 TNFUSORIAV COLONIES. 
 
 A, Zoothamnium. 
 
 B, Dendrosoma. 
 
ANIMALCULES. . 723 
 
 spherical members, sometimes clustered together like bunches of berries, 
 and within the protoplasm of the trunks there are capsules in which the 
 young are produced and matured. So complicated are these beautiful 
 colonies, in which a distinct division of labour takes place, that it is difficult 
 to realise that they are nothing more than communities of Protozoans. 
 
INDEX 
 
 A, 
 
 AARD-VARKS, 188 
 Aard-wolf, 62 
 
 Abbreviates, Tachytriorchis,3l2 
 Abderites, 204 
 Abramis, 499 
 
 Abraxas grossulariata, 592 
 Abu-maskup, 282 
 Acadica, Nyctala, 324 
 Acalypterae, Muscidae, 607 
 Acanthias, 519 
 Acanthidositta, 375 
 Acanthocephali, 681 
 Acanthoehitidie, 616 
 Acanthocinus sedilis, 561 
 Acanthoclinidae, 478 
 Acanthometra, 717 
 Acanthopterygiij 463 
 Acanthosoma gnseum, 595 
 Acanthuridae, 470 
 Acarina, 545 
 Accipiter, 311 
 Accipitres, 304 
 Accipitriformes, 304 
 Accipitrinae, 307 
 Accipitrinus, Asio, 324 
 Acephala, 618 
 Acerina. 464 
 Aceti, Anguillula, 679 
 Aohatinellidae, 642 
 Achatina, 642 
 Achatinidae, 642 
 Acheta campestris, 567 
 Acipenser, 511 
 Acipenser huso, 511 
 Acipenser ruthvenus, 512 
 Acipenser sturio, 512 
 Acipenseridae, 511 
 Acmaeidae, 631 
 Acodon, 101 
 Accela, 685 
 Acoelomata, 690 
 Acomus, 236 
 Acomys, 106 
 Aconaemys, 111 
 Acorn, Barnacle, 533 
 AcrseinaB, 584 
 Acris gryllus, 443 
 Acrobates, 203 
 
 Acrocephalus phragmitis, 370 
 Acrocephalus streperus, 370 
 Acromyodae, 373 
 Acromyodi, 357 
 Acronuridae, 470 
 Acronurus, 470 
 Acryllium vulturinum, 240 
 Actaeon, 639 
 Actteonid*, 640 
 Actinia, 701 
 
 Actinia mesembry antheinunu, 
 703 
 
 Actinia paumotensis, 704 
 Actinoloba dianthus, 702 
 Actinomma, 717 
 Actinophrys sol, 716 
 Actinopterygii, 463 
 Aculeata, 574-578 
 Aculeata, Aphrodite, 673 
 Aculeata, Echidna, 217 
 Aculeata, Ophiopholis, 657 
 Adamsi, Colymbus, 254 
 Adamsia palliata, 703 
 Adansoni, Excalfactoria, 235 
 Adansoniana, Pleurotomaria, 
 
 632 
 
 Adapis, 32 
 Addax, 154 
 
 Addax nasomaculatus, 154 
 Adders, The, 424 
 Adder, Banded, 424 
 Adder, Death, 425 
 Adder, Puff, 427 
 Adder, Resplendent, 424 
 Adela, 593 
 Adeorbidse, 637 
 Adjutants, 278 
 
 Adscendens, Clitambonites, 651 
 Adustus, Canis, 66 
 yEdilis, Acanthocinus, 561 
 ^Egagrus, Capra, 159 
 ^Egialitis, 270 
 ./Egithalus, 368 
 ^Egithalus vagans, 368 
 ^Eglefinus, Gadus, 491 
 ^Egotheles, 334 
 ^gothelinse, 333 
 ^Egyprymnus rufescens, 197 
 -iEluropus melanoleucus, 75 
 ^Elurus fulgens, 75-76 
 ^Enea, Carpophaga, 243 
 ^olidioidea, 641 
 ^Epyceros, 152 
 ^Epyornis, 220 
 JSpyornithiformes, 221 
 /Epypodius, 227 
 ^Eronautes melanoleucus, 346 
 ^Eruginosus, Circus, 309 
 ^Esalon, Falco, 320 
 JEschnidae, 570 
 ^Etheospondyli, 463, 509 
 ^theria, 623 
 ^theriidae, 623 
 vEthiopica, Ibis. 288 
 Aethiopicus, PhiacochaBrus, 134 
 /Etobatis, 522 
 JEx. galericulata, 294 
 MX. sponsa, 294 
 Affinis, Cervus, 143 
 African darter, 301 
 African elephant, 123 
 African flying squirrel, 89 
 African giraffe, 147 
 African lung-fish, 460 
 
 725 
 
 African swallow-tailed kite, 316 
 
 African wild ass, 129 
 
 Africana, Verreauxia, 354 
 
 Africanus, Elephas, 123 
 
 Africanus, Sus, 134 
 
 Agami heron, 283 
 
 Agamia agami, 283 
 
 Agamidae, 398 
 
 Agampdon, 408 
 
 Agapornis, 329 
 
 Agedastes, 239 
 
 Agelaeus phcenicens, 361 
 
 Agelas noli tangere, 693 
 
 Agelenidae, 544 
 
 Agile frog, 436 
 
 Agile wallaby, 194 
 
 Agilis, Lacerta, 409 
 
 Agilis, Ma<;ropus, 194 
 
 Agilis, Rana, 436 
 
 Aglseactis, 348 
 
 Aglossa, 444 
 
 Aglypha, 422 
 
 Agonus, 476 
 
 Agrestis, Microtus, 103 
 
 Agricola, 103 
 
 Agricola, Tetrastemma, 684 
 
 Agrion, 570 
 
 Agrionidaa, 570 
 
 Agromyzinae, 608 
 
 Agrotis exclamationis, 591 
 
 Agutis. 8 
 
 Agutis family, The, 115 
 
 Ajaja, 286 
 
 Ajaja, Ajaja, 286 
 
 Alactaga, 110 
 
 Alactaga decumana, 110 
 
 Alauda arvensis, 364 
 
 Alaudidae, 364 
 
 Alba, Chionis, 265 
 
 Alba, Gygis, 26Q 
 
 Albatros, The, 257 
 
 Albatros, Cautious, 259 
 
 Albatros, Culminated, 258 
 
 Albatros, True, 258 
 
 Albatros, Wandering, 258 
 
 Albellus, Mergus, 297 
 
 Albertia, 683 
 
 Albertisi, Gymnophaps, 244 
 
 Albicaudatus, Tachytriorchis, 
 
 312 
 
 Albicilla, Haliaetus, 315 
 Albicollis, Rhynchops, 262 
 Albicore, 473 
 Albida, Chamostra, 628 
 Albifrons, Anser, 295 
 Albifrons, Bubalis, 150 
 Albinucha, Pcecilogale, 81 
 Albipennis, Tachybaptes, 253 
 Albofuscus, Nycticejus, 38 
 Alburnus, 499 
 Alca torda, 260 
 Alcedininse, 336 
 
726 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Alcedo, 336 
 
 American boat-bill, 283 
 
 Anatifera, Lepas, 533 
 
 Alcedo ispida, 337 
 
 American cedar-bird, 369 
 
 Anatina, Lingula, 650 
 
 Alces machlis, 145 
 
 American chatterers, 374 
 
 Anatinacea, 623-627 
 
 Alchata, Pteroclesrus, 241 
 
 American creepers, The, 362 
 
 Anatinidse, 628 
 
 Aloinus, Maehcerhamphus, 317 
 
 American cuckoo, 350 
 
 Anatinus, Ornithorhynchus, 215 
 
 Alcoe, 259 
 
 American deer, 146 
 
 Ancestor of Brachiopoda, 651 
 
 Alcyon, Ceryle, 336 
 
 American golden plover, 270 
 
 Ancistrodon, 429 
 
 Alcyone, 336 
 
 American racoons, 75 
 
 Ancistrodon contortrix, 429 
 
 Alcyonella fungosa, 669 
 
 American swallow-tailed kite, 
 
 Ancylochilus, 269 
 
 Alcyonidium, 668 
 
 316 
 
 Ancylus, 642 
 
 Alector, Crox, 229 
 
 American trogons, 349 
 
 Andersoni, Tylotriton, 448 
 
 Alectoropodes, 226 
 
 American warblers, The, 365 
 
 Anderssoni, Maehcerhamphus, 
 
 Alectranas, 243 
 
 American wood-snakes, 422 
 
 317 
 
 Alectraenas nitidissima, 243 
 
 American wood-stork, 281 
 
 Andigena, 352 
 
 Alepocepbalidae, 507 
 
 Americana, Antilocapra, 149 
 
 Andina, Recurvi rostra, 270 
 
 Alexanor, Eques, 587 
 
 Americana, Mustela, 80 
 
 Andinus, Phaenicoparrus, 290 
 
 Aleyrodes proletella, 602 
 
 Americana, Periplaneta, 564 
 
 Andrena, 580 
 
 Aleyrodidse, 602 
 
 Americana, Pipa, 444 
 
 Anelytropidae, 411 
 
 Alfred!, Cervus, 143 
 
 Americana, Rhea, 221 
 
 Anemones, 700 
 
 Alfurus, Babirusa, 134 
 Algiroides, 409 
 
 Americanus, Bos, 163 
 Americanus, Coccyzus, 351 
 
 Anemone, Cave-dwelling, 704 
 Anemone, Cloak, 703 
 
 Alle, Mergulus, 260 
 
 Americanus, Crocodilus, 381 
 
 Anemone, Daisy, 702 
 
 Alleni, Neotoma, 102 
 
 Americanus, Ursus, 75 
 
 Anemone, Plumose, 702 
 
 Alliceshad, The, 507 
 
 Amethystinum, Stilbum, 578 
 
 Anemone, Strawberry, 703 
 
 Alligators, 380 
 
 Amherstiae, Chrysolophus, 238 
 
 Anemones, Sea, 701 
 
 Alligator, Chinese, 380 
 
 Amia-calva, 510 
 
 Anemones, Tropical, 704 
 
 Alligator mississippiensis, 380 
 
 Amicta nyctiornis, 341 
 
 Angasi, Tragelaphus, 156 
 
 Alligator, North American, 
 
 Amiidse, 510 
 
 Angel fish, 519 
 
 380 
 
 Ammocaetes, 524 
 
 Angler fish, 474 
 
 Alligator sinensis, 380 
 
 Ammodorcas clarkei, 153 
 
 Angolensis, Pitta, 375 
 
 Alligator-terrapins, 390 
 
 Ammodronus, 364 
 
 Anguid*, 404 
 
 Allopsidae, 647 
 
 Ammodytes, 491 
 
 Anguilla, 494 
 
 Alni, Aphrophora, 600 
 
 Ammodytes, Vipera, 427 
 
 Anguillula aceti, 679 
 
 Alopecias vulpes, 517 
 
 Ammon, Ovis, 160 
 
 Anguineus, Proteus, 452 
 
 Alosa, Clupea, 507 
 
 Ammonea, 646 
 
 Anguis, 405 
 
 Alouatta, 23 
 
 Ammoperdix, 233 
 
 Anguis fragilis, 404 
 
 Alouatta nigra, 24 
 
 Ammoperdix bonhami, 233 
 
 Angustatus, Echinorhynchus, 
 
 Alouatta seniculus, 23 
 
 Ammoperdix heyi, 233 
 
 682 
 
 Alpestris, Canthocamptus, 532 
 
 Amoeba, 691, 714 
 
 Anhinga, Plotus, 301 
 
 Alpestris, Otocorvs, 304 
 
 Ampelidse, 369 
 
 Animal plants, 697 
 
 Alpine chough, 358 
 
 Ampelis cedrorum, 369 
 
 Animalculse, 713 
 
 Alpine marmot, 93 
 Alpinus, Canis, 68 
 
 Ampelis garrulus, 369 
 Ampelis japonicus, 369 
 
 Animalcule, Bell, 722 
 Animalcule, Slipper, 721 
 
 Alternate, Rafinesquina 649 
 
 Amphibia, 431 
 
 Animalcule, Trumpet, 721 
 
 Alucita hexadactyla, 594 
 Alucitidaj, 594 
 
 Amphibius, Hippopotamus, 131 
 Amphibius, Microtus, 103 
 
 Animalcules, Sun, 716 
 Anisolabis maritima. 563 
 
 Aluco, Syrnium, 321 
 
 Amphibola, 641 
 
 Anisonyx, 91 
 
 Alueco, Syrnium, 324 
 Alytes, 443 
 
 Amphibolidae, 641 
 Amphignathodontidse, 444 
 
 Annelid, Tube-making, 672 
 Annelida, 531, 671 
 
 Amathia lendigera, 668 
 
 Amphineura, 615 
 
 Annelidicola, Cyclatella, 688 
 
 Amazonian dolphin, 178 
 
 Amphioxus, 526 
 
 Anniellidae, 405 
 
 Amazonian fresh-water tortoise, 
 
 Amphioxus lanceolatus, 526 
 
 Annulatus, Linguaelapsus, 449 
 
 393 
 
 Amphipnous, 495 
 
 Annulosa, 529, 548 
 
 Amazons, 329 
 
 Amphipoda, 534 
 
 Anoa, 162 
 
 Amber-snails, 642 
 
 Amphisbaenidae, 408 
 
 Anolis, 401 
 
 Amblycephalidse, 426 
 Amblycephalus, 426 
 
 Amphisile, 482 
 Amphitretidse, 647 
 
 Anomalochilus, 421 
 Anomaluridae, 89 
 
 Amblyopsidae, 502 
 Amblyopsis, 502 
 
 Amphiuma, 451 
 Amphiumidae, 450 
 
 Anomalurus, 89 
 Anomalurus peli, 90 
 
 Amblyornis inorna'a, 359 
 
 Ampullariidaj, 635 
 
 Anomalurus pusillus, 90 
 
 Amblyrhynchus cristatus, 402 
 Amblystoma, 446 
 Amblystoma tigrinum, 449 
 Amblystomatinse, 449 
 
 Anabantidae, 483 
 Anabas scan dens, 483 
 Anableps, 501 
 Anacanthini, 490 
 
 Anomia, 621 
 Anomia ephippium, 621 
 Anomiacese, 621 
 Anomura, 537 
 
 Amboynensis, Lophurus, 400 
 
 Anaconda, 420 
 
 Anoplodium, 685 
 
 Amelias, Macronyx, 305 
 
 Anaides, 450 
 
 Anoplogaster, 468 
 
 American badgers, 79 
 
 Anaphe, 607 
 
 Anoplura, 602 
 
 American barn swallow, 373 
 
 Anarhynchus. 270 
 
 Anops kingi, 408 
 
 American beaver, 98 
 
 Anarrhichas, 478 
 
 Anorthura troglodytes, 371 
 
 American bison, 163 
 
 Anas, 296 
 
 Anser albifrons, 295 
 
 American black bear, 75 
 
 Anastomus, 280 
 
 Anser anser, 295 
 
 American bluejays, 358 
 
 Anatidse, 292 
 
 Anser brachyrhynchus, 295 
 
INDEX. 
 
 727 
 
 Anser fabalis, 295 
 
 Aphodius, 557 
 
 Arcticus, Colymbus, 254 
 
 Anseranas seinipalmata, 293 
 
 Aphrodite aculeata, 673 
 
 Arctiidse, 588 
 
 Anseranatinse, 293 
 
 Aphrophora alni, 600 
 
 Arctogale, 59 
 
 Anseres, 292 
 
 A piaster, Merops, 341 
 
 Arctomys, 92 
 
 Anserinse, 295 
 
 Apis mellifica, 581 
 
 Arctomys aureus, 93 
 
 Ants, 578 
 
 Apivorus, Pernis, 317 
 
 Arctomys bobac, 93 
 
 Ant, Australian, 579 
 
 Aplacophora, 615-610 
 
 Arctomys caudatus, 94 
 
 Ant, House, 579 
 
 Aplustridse, 640 
 
 Arctomys dichrous, 94 
 
 Ant, Red, 579 
 
 Aplysiidae, 640 
 
 Arctomys himalayanus, 93 
 
 Ant, Wood, 579 
 
 Aplysioidea, 640 
 
 Arctomys marmotta, 92 
 
 Ant-bears, 189 
 
 Apoda, 453 
 
 Arctonyx, 79 
 
 Ant-birds, The, 375 
 
 Apodes, 493 
 
 Arctus, Ursus, 75 
 
 Ant-eaters, 181 
 
 Apodidse, 532 
 
 Ardea cinerea, 282 
 
 Ant-eater, Great, 184 
 
 Apollo, Parnassius, 587 
 
 Ardeiformes, 278 
 
 Ant-eater, Lesser, 184 
 
 Aporrhaidae, 636 
 
 Ardeirallus, 284 
 
 Ant-eater, Two-clawed, 184 
 
 Aporrhais, 636 
 
 Ardetta, 284 
 
 Ant-eaters, True, 183 
 
 Appendicularians, 5?7 
 
 Ardetta involucris, 284 
 
 Ant-lions, 570 
 
 Apples of Sodom, 576 
 
 Ardetta minuta, 284 
 
 Ant-thrushes, 375 
 
 Aptenodytes longirostris, 255 
 
 Arenaria, 271 
 
 Antarctic white seal, 86 
 
 Aptendytes patachonica, 255 
 
 Arenaria interpres, 272 
 
 Antarctic wolf, 64 
 
 Apteryges, 221 
 
 Arenaria melanocephala, 272 
 
 Antarctica, Megalestris, 263 
 
 Apterygiiformes, 221 
 
 Arenariinae, 272 
 
 Antarcticus, Canis, 64 
 
 Apteryx, The, 224 
 
 Arenicola, Lycosa, 543 
 
 Antechinomys laniger, 209 
 
 Apteryx australis, 224 
 
 Arenicola marina, 672 
 
 Antedon rosacea, 663 
 
 Aptornis, 252 
 
 Areolatus, Homopus, 387 
 
 Antelopes, The, 149 
 
 Apus cancriformis, 531 
 
 Argali, True, 160 
 
 Antelope, Bubaline, 150 
 
 Apus, Micropus, 346 
 
 Argas persicus, 546 
 
 Antelope, Equine, 153 
 
 Apus, Ophisaurus, 405 
 
 Argentatus, Canis, 71 
 
 Antelope, Four-horned, 151 
 
 Aquarum-dulcium, Tetrastem- 
 
 Argentatus, Larus, 263 
 
 Antelopes, Harnessed, 156 
 
 ma, 684 
 
 Argentine cow-bird, 361 
 
 Antelope, Prong-horned, 149 
 
 Aquatic carpincho, 116 
 
 Argentine peludo, 186 
 
 Antelope, Royal, 151 
 
 Aquatica, Argyroneta, 544 
 
 Argiope riparia, 544 
 
 Antelope, Sable, 153 
 
 Aquaticus, Cinclus, 371 
 
 Argonaut, 647 
 
 Antelope, Salts', 151 
 
 Aquaticus Rallus, 249 
 
 Argonautidae, 647 
 
 Antennarias, 475 
 
 Aquila chrysaetus, 314 
 
 Argulidfe, 532 
 
 Anthea cereus, 703 
 
 Aquila, Fregata, 303 
 
 Argus, Argusianus, 239 
 
 Anthocincla, 375 
 
 Aquila heliaca, 314 
 
 Argus, Common, 239 
 
 Anthomyinae, 608 
 
 Aquila maculata, 314 
 
 Argus, Crested, 239 
 
 Anthophila, 580 
 
 Aquila rapax, 314 
 
 Argus, Gray's, 239 
 
 Anthops ornatus, 36 
 
 Aquilinse, 307, 313 
 
 Argus pheasant, 235-239 
 
 Anthozoa, 701 
 
 Ara, 329 
 
 Argusianus argus, 239 
 
 Anthracocerus, 339 
 
 Arabian camel, 136 
 
 Argusianus bipunctatus, 239 
 
 Anthracocerus coronatus, 339 
 
 Arabs, Galeodes, 540 
 
 Argusianus grayi, 239 
 
 Anthrenus, 556 
 
 Arachnida, 539 
 
 Argyroneta aquatica, 544 
 
 Anthrophysa, 719 
 
 Arachnoides, Brachyteles, 25 
 
 Ariculidae, 634 
 
 Anthropoidea, 11 
 
 Arachnoides, Pyxis, 387 
 
 Arietans, Bitis, 427 
 
 Anthropopithecus, 14 
 
 Arami, 275 
 
 Arion ater, 643 
 
 Anthropopithecus calvus, 15 
 
 Aramides, 249 
 
 Arionidae, 643 
 
 Anthropopithecus troglodytes, 
 
 Aramides ypecaha, 250 
 
 Armadillos, 181, 185 
 
 15 
 
 Aramus pictus, 275 
 
 Armadillo, Broad, 186 
 
 Anthus, 365 
 
 Aramus scolopaceus, 275 
 
 Armadillo, Fairy pink, 188 
 
 Anthus pratensis, 365 
 
 Araneida, 542 
 
 Armadillo, Giant, 187 
 
 Anthus trivialis, 365 
 
 Araneoides, Galeodes, 541 
 
 Armadillo, Hairy, 186 
 
 Antigone, 274 
 
 Araneoides, Scutigera, 548 
 
 Armadillo, Six-banded, 186 
 
 Antigone australasiana, 274 
 
 Araneus, Sorex, 46 
 
 Armadillos, Three-banded, 187 
 
 Antilocapra, 10 
 
 Arapaima, 504 
 
 Armenian sheep, 160 
 
 Antilocapra americana, 149 
 
 Arapaima gigas, 504 
 
 Arnuxi, Berardius, 177 
 
 Antilocapridae, 149 
 
 Arborea, Hyla, 442 
 
 Arnux's whale, 177 
 
 Antilope cervicapra, 152 
 
 Arboricola, 234 
 
 Aromia moschata, 561 
 
 Antilopine, 152 
 
 Area Nose, 621 
 
 Arquatela, 269 
 
 Antipatharia, 707 
 
 Area Zebra, 621 
 
 Arrow worm, 682 
 
 Antisiensis, Cervus, 146 
 
 Arcacea, 621 
 
 Artamidse, 369 
 
 Anurosorex, 46 
 
 Aichaeopteryx, 220 
 
 Artamus, 369 
 
 Apatura, 581 
 
 Archiannelida, 675 
 
 Artamus sorditus, 369 
 
 Ape, Barbary, 22 
 
 Archibuteo, 315 
 
 Artemia salina, 531 
 
 Ape, Black, 22 
 
 Arcifera, 440 
 
 Arthropoda, 529 
 
 Apes, Man-like, 11 
 
 Arctic fox, 73 
 
 Arthropoda, Edible, 530 
 
 Aphanapteryx, 251 
 
 Arctic tern, 261 
 
 Arthrostraca, 534 
 
 Aphaniptera, 603 
 
 Arctica, Fratercula, 260 
 
 Artibeus, 41 
 
 Aphaniptera, Diptera, 609 
 
 Arctica Islandica, 624 
 
 Artibeus perspicillatus, 41 
 
 Aphanolimnas monasa, 251 
 Aphididse, 601 
 
 Arcticidse, 624 
 Arctictis binturong, 59 
 
 Articulata, 529, 651 
 Am Island wallaby, 194 
 
728 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Arui, 160 
 
 Atricapilla, Sylvia, 370 
 
 Aye-aye, The, 31 
 
 Arundineum, Cobus, 152 
 
 Atrichia clamosa, 370 
 
 Azara, Canis, 89 
 
 Arvensis, Alunda, 364 
 
 Atrichiidae, 376 
 
 Azara's dog, 6'J 
 
 Arvicanthis, 105 
 
 Atrochous, 673 
 
 Azorensis, Kegulus, 369 
 
 Ascalaphidae, 571 
 Ascalaphus, 571 
 
 Atropos pulsatoria, 572 
 Atrypa, 651 
 
 B. 
 
 Ascalaphus kolyvanensis, 570 
 
 Attagides, 266 
 
 
 Ascaris lumbricoides, 679 
 
 Attagis, 266 
 
 Babblers, The, 372 
 
 Ascetta, 691 
 
 Atthis, 348 
 
 Babirusa, 134 
 
 Ascidians, 532 
 
 Atypus, 542 
 
 Babirusa alfurus, 134 
 
 Ascidiella aspersa, 528 
 
 Atypus sulzeri, 543 
 
 Babiun, Papio, 23 
 
 Asellus aquaticus, 682 
 
 Aucklandica, Gallinago, 268 
 
 Baboon, Dog-faced, 22 
 
 Asiatic bittern, 284 
 
 Audax, Urosetus, 314 
 
 Baboon, Gelada, 22 
 
 Asiatic wild ass, 129 
 
 Auks, The, 259 
 
 Baboon, Yellow, 23 
 
 Asiatica, Cinnyris, 366 
 
 Auk, Great, 260 
 
 Bacon beetle, 556 
 
 Asilidae, 605 
 
 Auk, Little, 260 
 
 Bactrian camel, 136 
 
 Asilus crabroniformis, 605 
 
 Aulacodus, 112 
 
 Bactrianus, Camelus, 136 
 
 A sinus, Equus, 129 
 
 Aulacorhamphus, 352 
 
 Badgers, 79 
 
 Asio, 324 
 
 Auliscops, 481 
 
 Badgers, American, 79 
 
 Asio accipitrinus, 324 
 
 Aulostoma, 481 
 
 Badger, Common, 79 
 
 Asio otus, 324 
 
 Aulostomatidae, 481 
 
 Badgers, Ferret-, 80 
 
 Asp, Egyptian, 424 
 
 Aulostomum gulo, 676 
 
 Badgers, Malayan, 79 
 
 Aspatha, 341 
 
 Aura, Cathartes, 304 
 
 Badgers, Sand-, 79 
 
 Aspergillum, 628 
 
 Aurantiaca.Zaitha, 597 
 
 Badia, Felis, 55 
 
 Aspersa, Ascidiella, 528 
 
 Aurata, Cetonia, 558 
 
 Badius, Astur, 311 
 
 Aspidites, 419 
 
 Auratus, Carabus, 555 
 
 Badius, Rhizomys, 107 
 
 Aspidobranchiate, 614 
 Aspidogaster conchicola, 688 
 
 Aurea, Jacamerops, 355 
 Aurelia aurita, 700 
 
 Basticus, Lampides, 586 
 Bagad, 497 
 
 Aspro, 464 
 
 Aureus, Arctomys, 93 
 
 Bagarius yarelli, 496 
 
 Ass, African wild, 129 
 
 Aureus, Canis, 66 
 
 Baillon's crake, 251 
 
 Ass, Asiatic wild, 129 
 
 Aureus, Xanthomelus, 359 
 
 Bahena australis, 172 
 
 Assiminidae, 635 
 
 Auriculidae, 641 
 
 Balaena mysticetus, 172 
 
 Assogue, 81 
 
 Aurita, Aurelia, 700 
 
 Balaeniceps, 282 
 
 Astacidae, 536 
 
 Auritum, Crossoptilum, 236 
 
 Balaeniceps rex, 282 
 
 Astartidae, 624 
 
 Auritus, Plecotus, 39 
 
 Bahenicipitides, 282 
 
 Asterias rubens, 653, 656 
 
 Auritus, Podiceps, 253 
 
 Balamicipitidce, 278 
 
 Asteroidea, 656 
 
 Australasiana, Antigone, 274 
 
 Balaenidse, 171 
 
 Asterospondyli, 515 
 
 Australian ant, 579 
 
 Balaenoptera, 173 
 
 Asthenosoma urens, 660 
 
 Australian brush-turkey, 227 
 
 Balaenoptera musculus, 174 
 
 Astrsea, 706 
 
 Australian lady-bird, 602 
 
 Balamoptera rostrata, 174 
 
 Astrape, 521 
 
 Australian lung-fish, 460 
 
 Balsenoptera sibbaldi, 173 
 
 Astronesthes, 505 
 Astur, 310 
 
 Australian megapode, 228 
 Australiensis, Geonemertes, 684 
 
 Balanidae, 533 
 Balaninus nucum, 560 
 
 Astur baduis, 311 
 
 Australis, Apteryx, 224 
 
 Balano, 528 
 
 Astur novte hollandine, 311 
 
 Australis, Balaena, 172 
 
 Balanoglossus, 528 
 
 Astur leucosomus, 311 
 
 Australis, Eupodotis. 275 
 
 Balanoglossus sarniensis, 528 
 
 Astur palumbarius, 310 
 
 Australis, Gallinago, 268 
 
 Balanoides, Balanus, 533 
 
 Astur torquatus, 311 
 
 Australis, Geoplana, 686 
 
 Balanus balanoides, 533 
 
 Asturina, 313 
 
 Australis, Merganser, 297 
 
 Bald chimpanzee, 15 
 
 Astutus, Bassariscus, 76 
 
 Australis, Mycteria, 280 
 
 Bald eagle, 315 
 
 Asymmetron lucayanum, 527 
 
 Australis, Peltohyas, 270 
 
 Bald uakari, 27 
 
 Atalapha, 37 
 
 Australis, Rostratula, 267 
 
 Balistes, 489 
 
 Atalapha cinerea, 37 
 
 Australis, Struthio, 223 
 
 Balistidse, 489 
 
 A teles, 25 
 
 Autodax, 450 
 
 Ballan, 4b6 
 
 Ateles variegatus, 25 
 
 Autolytas, 673 
 
 Balti, The, 487 
 
 Atelornis pittoides, 335 
 
 Autumnalis, Tetranychus, 547 
 
 Bamboo-rats, 106 
 
 Ater, Arion, 643 
 
 Avahi, Woolly, 29 
 
 Band-fishes, 477 
 
 Aterrimus, Microglossus, 328 
 
 Avahis, 29 
 
 Banded adder, 425 
 
 Atherina, 479 
 Atherinidae, 479 
 
 Avahis lanigera, 29 
 Avellanarius, Muscardinus, 99 
 
 Banded ant-eater, 209 
 Banded lemming, 103 
 
 Athertoni, Nyctiornis, 341 
 
 Aves, 218 
 
 Banded mungoose, 61 
 
 Atherura, 113 
 
 Avicula, 622 
 
 Banded sea-snake, 425 
 
 Athoracophoridae, 642 
 
 Avicula hirundo, 622 
 
 Banded wallaby, 196 
 
 Athoracophorus, 642 
 
 Aviculacia, 622 
 
 Banded water-snails, 635 
 
 Atlanta, 637 
 
 Avicularia, Ornithormyia, 608 
 
 Bandicoot tribe, 205 
 
 Atlantidse, 637 
 
 Avocet, Chestnut-breasted, 270 
 
 Bandicoot, Gunn's, 206 
 
 Atolls, 710 
 
 Avocets, 270 
 
 Bandicoot, Pig-footed, 206 
 
 Atra, Salamandra, 447 
 
 Awantibo, 31 
 
 Bandicoot-rats, 105 
 
 Atrae, Buchanga, 361 
 
 Axis, Cervus, 143 
 
 Bank martin, 373 
 
 Atrata, Chenopis, 293 
 Atremata, 651 
 
 Axis, or spotted deer, 143 
 Axolotl, 446 
 
 Bank-vole, 103 
 Bank's ribband-fish, 485 
 
 Atricapilla, Ficedula, 372 
 
 Axolotl, Adult, 449 
 
 Banksi, Regalecus, 485 
 
INDEX. 
 
 729 
 
 Banteng, 165 
 Banting, Bos, 165 
 
 Batagurs, 389 
 Bateleur Eagle, 315 
 
 Beetles, Dung, 557 
 Beetle, Egyptian sacred, 557 
 
 Barbarus, Mus, 105 
 
 Bath sponge, 693 
 
 Beetle, Fiddler, 555 
 
 Barbary ape, 22 
 
 Bathyergus maritimus, 107 
 
 Beetle, Golden-green, 555 
 
 Barbary mouse, 105 
 
 Bathythrissa dorsalis, 506 
 
 Beetles, Ground, 555 
 
 Barbary red-legged partridge, 
 
 Bathythrissidae, 506 
 
 Beetle, Hercules, 558 
 
 232 
 
 Batomys, 104 
 
 Beetles, Long-horned, 560 
 
 Barbastelle, 37 
 
 Batrachidse, 474 
 
 Beetle, Musk, 561 
 
 Barbata, Phoca, 85 
 
 Batrachophrynus, 441 
 
 Beetles, Oil, 560 
 
 Barbatulus, Nemachilus, f.OO 
 
 Batrachoseps, 450 
 
 Beetles, Plant-feeding, 561 
 
 Barbatus, Gypautus, 313 
 
 Batrachostomus, 334 
 
 Beetle, Rove, 556 
 
 Barbatus, Mullus, 4U5 
 
 Batrachus, 474 
 
 Beetles, Stag, 558 
 
 Barbel, 498 
 
 Batrachyperus, 450 
 
 Beetles, Tiger, 554 
 
 Barbets, The, 352 
 
 Baya, Ploceus, 362 
 
 Beetles, -Turnip, 561 
 
 Barbus, 498 
 
 Baya weaver, 362 
 
 Beetles (water), Carnivorous, 555 
 
 Barbus tor, 498 
 
 Baza, 317 
 
 Beetle (water), Great, 557 
 
 Bare-throated francolins, The, 
 
 Bdellidse, 545 
 
 Beetles, Whirligig, 556 
 
 233 
 
 Bdellostoma, 525 
 
 Bell animalcule, 721 
 
 Barn owl. 321, 325 
 
 Bdellura, 685 
 
 Bell-birds, 374 
 
 Birnacle, Acorn, 533 
 
 Bdeogale, 60 
 
 Bell-moths, 593 
 
 Barnacle, Goose, 533 
 
 Beadlet, The, 703 
 
 Bellia, 3S8 
 
 Barracuda-pikes, 478 
 
 Beaked gurnard, 476 
 
 Bellis sagartia, 703 
 
 Barracudas, 478 
 
 Beaked salmon, 605 
 
 Bellows-fish, 482 
 
 Barracudas, The, 470 
 
 Beaked whales, 177 
 
 Belone, 479 
 
 Barred-back pheasants, 238 
 
 Bean goose, 295 
 
 Belostomatidae, 597 
 
 Barred rail, 249 
 
 Bear Tribe, The, 74 
 
 Belted kingfisher, 336 
 
 Barrier reef, The, 710 
 
 Bear, American black, 75 
 
 Beluga, 179 
 
 Baryphthengus, 341 
 
 Bear, Brown, 75 
 
 Bembidium, 555 
 
 Basileuteruss 365 
 
 Bear, Cat, 75 
 
 Bengal fox, 73 
 
 Basilisks, 401 
 
 Bear, Grizzly, 75 
 
 Bengal monkey, 22 
 
 Basiliscus, 401 
 
 Bear, Himalayan black, 75 
 
 Bengalensis, Canis, 73 
 
 Basking shark, 517 
 
 Bear, Indian sloth, 75 
 
 Bengalensis, Felis, 55 
 
 Basommatophora, 641 
 
 Bear, Isabelline, 75 
 
 Bennetti, Cynogale, 60 
 
 Bass, 464 
 
 Bear, Malayan, 75 
 
 Bennettianus, Dendrolagus, 195 
 
 Bassanus, Dysporus, 299 
 
 Bear, Parti-coloured, 75 
 
 Bennett's civet, 60 
 
 Bassaricyon, 76 
 
 Bear, Polar, 75 
 
 Bennett's wallaby, 194 
 
 Bassariscus, 76 
 
 Bear, Sea, 82 
 
 Berardius arnuxi, 177 
 
 Bassariscus astutus, 76 
 
 Bear, Spectacled, 75 
 
 Berdmorei, Hapalomy's, 104 
 
 Bats, The, 33 
 
 Bear, Syrian, 75 
 
 Berdmore's rat, 104 
 
 Bat, Bechstein's, 38 
 
 Bearded bee-eater, 143 
 
 Bernhardus sipuiiculus, 678 
 
 Bat, Chin-leaf, 41 
 
 Bearded eagle, 313 
 
 Beroidae, 712 
 
 Bat, Common, 37 
 Bat, Cusp-toothed fruit-, 35 
 
 Bearded partridge, 234 
 Bearded reedling, 368 
 
 Berus, Vipera, 427 
 Berychidi-e, 467 
 
 Bat, Daubenton's, 37 
 
 Bearded seal, 85 
 
 Berychiformes, 467 
 
 Bat, Epauletted fruit-, 35 
 
 Bearded tit, 368 
 
 Beryx, 468 
 
 Bat, False vampire, 36 
 
 Bearded vulture, 313 
 
 Betta, 483 
 
 Bat, Flower-nosed, 36 
 
 Bear's paw, 626 
 
 Betta pugnax, 483 
 
 Bat, Fox, 35 
 
 Beavers, The, 96 
 
 Bettongia, 197 
 
 Bat, Free-tailed, 38 
 
 Beaver, American, 98 
 
 Bewicki, Cygnus, 292 
 
 Bat, Fruit, 34 
 
 Bechsteini, Vespertilio, 38 
 
 Bewick's swan, 292 
 
 Bat, Golden, 38 
 
 Bechstein's bat, 38 
 
 Bharal, 160 
 
 Bat, Greater horse-shoe, 36 
 
 Bed bug, 596 
 
 Bhringa, 361 
 
 Bat, Hare-lipped, 39 
 
 Beech-marten, 80 
 
 Bichir, 512 
 
 Bat, Hoary, 37 
 Bat, Horse-shoe, 36 
 
 Bee-eaters, 340 
 Bee-eater. Bearded. 341 
 
 Bichir polypterus, 512 
 Bicornis, Dichocerus, 339 
 
 Bat, Javelin, 41 
 
 Bee-eater, Common, 341 
 
 Bicornis, Rhinoceros, 126 
 
 Bat, Leaf-nosed, 36 
 
 Bee-eater, Square-tailed, 340 
 
 Binturong, 59 
 
 Bat, Long-eared, 36 
 
 Bee-eater, Swallow-tailed, 340 
 
 Binturong, Arctictis, 59 
 
 Bat, Long-tailed, 39 
 
 Bee, Hive, 581 
 
 Bipalium kewense, 684 
 
 Bat, Mastiff, 39 
 
 Bees, 553, 573, 580 
 
 Bipunctata, Coccinella, 562 
 
 Bat, Naked, 40 
 
 Bees, Carpenter, 581 
 
 Bipunctata, Sagitta, 681 
 
 Bat, Pouch-winged, 39 
 
 Bees, Humble, 581 
 
 Bipunctatus, Argusianus, 239 
 
 Bat, Schreiber's, 38 
 
 Bees, Leaf -cutter, 581 
 
 Birds, 218 
 
 Bat, Sheath-tailed, 39 
 
 Beetles, 553 
 
 Bird-catching spiders, 542 
 
 Bat, Short-nosed fruit-, 357 
 
 Beetle, Bacon, 556 
 
 Bird lice, 573 
 
 Bat, Tailed fruit-, 35 
 
 Beetle, Blister, 560 
 
 Bird's head coralline, 667 
 
 Bat, Tomb, 39 
 
 Beetle, Bombardier, 555 
 
 Bird's nest sponge, 693 
 
 Bat, Tricolor, 38 
 
 Beetle, Burying, 557 
 
 Birds'-nesting eagle, 315 
 
 Bat, Tube-nosed, 37 
 
 Beetles, Cellar, 559 
 
 Birds of Prey, The, 304 
 
 Bat, Typical, 36 
 
 Beetles, Click, 559 
 
 Birds of Paradise, 358 
 
 Bat, Vampire, 40 
 
 Beetle, Colorado, 561 
 
 Birgidse, 537 
 
 Bat, White, 39 
 
 Beetles, Diamond, 560 
 
 Birgus latro, 537 
 
730 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bison, American, 163 
 
 Blight, 601 
 
 Botryllus, 528 
 
 Bison, Bos, 162 
 
 Blind-mouse, 106 
 
 Bottle-nosed chimaera, 462 
 
 Bison, European, 162 
 
 Blind-snakes, 417 
 
 Bottle tit. 368 
 
 Bitis, 427 
 
 Blind- worm, 404 
 
 Botys uricata, 532 
 
 Bitorquatus, Rhinoptilus, 273 
 
 Blister-beetle, 560 
 
 Botys verticalis, 592 
 
 Bitterlings, 499 
 
 Blood-pheasants, 235 
 
 Bougainvillea rarnosa, 696 
 
 Bitterns, The, 276 
 
 Blue-bottle flies, 608 
 
 Bovidae, 149 
 
 Bittern, Asiatic, 284 
 
 Blue coral, 708 
 
 Bovinus, Tobanus, 605 
 
 Bittern, Dwarf tiger, 284 
 
 Blue creeper, 362 
 
 Bovis, Hypoderma, 606 
 
 Bittern, Little, 284 
 
 Blue jays of America, 358 
 
 Bow-fin, 510 
 
 Bittern, Sun, The, 276 
 
 Blue rorquals, 173 | Bower-birds, The, 359 
 
 Bittern, True, 284 
 
 Blue shark, 516 
 
 Bower-bird, Satin, 359 
 
 Bivalve shell, Topography of, 
 
 Blue-throats, 370 
 
 Box-tortoises, 388 
 
 617 
 
 Blue tit, 367 
 
 Bovciana, Ciconia, 279 
 
 Bizarre sea-horses, 487 
 
 Blue water-hen, 248 
 
 Brachelytra, 556 
 
 Biziura, 297 
 
 Blue-winged geese, 295 
 
 Brachinus, 555 
 
 Blaberus, 564 
 
 Blue-winged grasshopper, 68 
 
 Brachiopod internal organs, 650 
 
 Blaberus giganteus, 564 
 
 Blues, The, 586 
 
 Brachiopod, Hinged, 649 
 
 Black ape, 22 
 
 Blunt-heads, 426 
 
 Brachiopod, Non-hinged, 650 
 
 Black-backed jackal, 66 
 
 Boa-constrictors, 418 
 
 Brachiopod, Pedunculate, 648 
 
 Black beetle, 564 
 
 Boa constrictor, Common, 420 
 
 Brachiopod, Sessile, 648 
 
 Black-billed cuckoo, 351 
 
 Boa tribe, The, 418 
 
 Brachiopoda, 648 
 
 Black-billed white stork, 279 
 
 Boar, Wild, 133 
 
 Brachiopoda, Ancestor of, 651 
 
 Black corals, 707 
 
 Boat-billed heron, 284 
 
 Brachypteraciinre, 335 
 
 Black cuscus, 200 
 
 Bobac, 93 
 
 Brachyrhynchus, Anser, 295 
 
 Black drongo, The, 361 
 Black eagle, 315 
 
 Bobac, Arctomys, 93 
 Bobolink, 361 
 
 Brachytarsomys, 102 
 Brachyteles arachnoides, 25 
 
 Black-faced uacaria, 27 
 
 Bocydium, 601 
 
 Brachyura, 537 
 
 Black fox, 71 
 
 Boidje, 418 
 
 Braconidae, 577 
 
 Black grouse, 230 
 
 Boiei, Ceratophrys, 441 
 
 Bradypodidae, 182 
 
 Black guillemot, 260 
 
 Boinae, 418 
 
 Bradypus, 182 
 
 Black-headed gull, 262 
 Black-headed, red-legged part- 
 
 Bombardier beetles, 555 
 Bombinator igneus, 444 
 
 Bradypus tridactylus, 183 
 Brahminy kites, 316 
 
 ridge, 232 
 
 Bombus, 581 
 
 Brain Coral, 707 
 
 Black-headed hangnest, 362 
 
 Bombus, Chsetocercas, 347 
 
 Branched Syllis, 673 
 
 Black-headed weaver bird, 362 
 Black howler, 24 
 
 Bombyces, 688 
 Bombyliidse, 606 
 
 Branchipodidae, 532 
 Branick's paca, 115 
 
 Black perns, 317 
 
 Bombyx mori, 590 
 
 Branta, 295 
 
 Black rat, 105 
 
 Bonariensis, Molothrus, 361 
 
 Branta ruficollis, 295 
 
 Black rhinoceros, 126 
 
 Bonasa, 231 
 
 Brasilianus, Merganser, 297 
 
 Black saki, 27 
 
 Bonellia, 678 
 
 Brassolinw, 584 
 
 Black salamander, 447 
 
 Bonellia veridis, 678 
 
 Brazilian caracara, 307 
 
 Black sea-bream, 466 
 
 Bonelli's eagle, 315 
 
 Breams, 499 
 
 Black-shouldered kites, 316 
 
 Bonhami, Ammoperdix, 233 
 
 Brechites, 628 
 
 Black slug, 643 
 
 Bonito, 473 
 
 Brent geese, 295 
 
 Black stork, 279 
 
 Bontebok, 150 
 
 Brevicaudata. Indris, 29 
 
 Black swan, 292 
 
 Bony fishes, 462 
 
 Breviceps, 439 
 
 Black tern, 261 
 Black-throated diver, 254 
 
 Bony pike, 509 
 Book scorpions, 541 
 
 Breviceps, Cogia, 176 
 Breviceps, Petaurus, 202 
 
 Black turn-stone, 272 
 
 Boops, Megaptera, 173 
 
 Breviceps, Rana, 437 
 
 Black vultures, 306 
 
 Booted eagle, 315 
 
 Brevipes, CKstrelata, 257 
 
 Black water-hen. 252 
 
 Bopyridie, 534 
 
 Bridges' wood-hewer, 3/5 
 
 Black wood-partridge, 234 
 
 Boring hymenoptera, 574 
 
 Bridges!, Drymornis, 375 
 
 Black wood-rail, 249 
 
 Bornean Bay cat, 55 
 
 Brill, 492 
 
 Blackbirds, 370 
 
 Bos, 161 
 
 Brine shrimp, 531 
 
 Blackbird, Common, 371 
 
 Bos americanus, 163 
 
 Bristle-footed worms, 671 
 
 Blackcap, 370 
 
 Bos banting, 165 
 
 British capercailzie, 230 
 
 Bladder seal, 87 
 
 Bos bison, 162 
 
 British ringed-snake, 421 
 
 Bladder worm, 687 
 
 Bos bubalis, 162 
 
 British turtle-dove, 244 
 
 Blainvillei, Mormops, 41 
 
 Bos caffer, 162 
 
 British viper, 427 
 
 Blainvillei, Steuodelphis, 178 
 
 Bos depressicornis, 162 
 
 Brittle-star, 657 
 
 Blaps 559 
 
 Bos frontalis, 164 
 
 Broad armadillo, 186 
 
 Blarina, 46 
 
 Bos gaurus, 164 
 
 Broadbills, 356 
 
 Blastoidea, 655 
 
 Bos grunniens, 164 
 
 Broadbill, Horsefield's, 356 
 
 Blatta orientalis, 564 
 
 Bos indicus, 165 
 
 Broad-leaved hornwrack, 665 
 
 B attidae, 563 
 
 Bos mindorensis, 162 
 
 Brocket, Red, 146 
 
 Bleak, 499 
 
 Bos pumilus, 162 
 
 Brodiei, Glaucidium, 324 
 
 Blennies, The, 478 
 
 Bos taurus, 165 
 
 Brookesia, 412 
 
 Blenniidse, 478 
 
 Boselaphus tragocamelus, 154 
 
 Brotula, 491 
 
 Blenniiformes, 477 
 
 Bot flies, 606 
 
 Brown bear, 75 
 
 Blennius, 478 
 
 Botaurus stellaris, 284 
 
 Brown fish-owl, 321 
 
 Blesbok, 150 
 
 Bothriocephalus latus, 687 
 
 Brown hawk-owls, 323 
 
INDEX. 
 
 73i 
 
 Brown hyaena, 62 | Burmanica, Pelargopsis, 336 
 Brown-tailed mungoose, 61 j Burmeisteri, Chunga, 277 
 
 Caffra, Felis, 55 
 Caia, Hypercompa, 588 
 
 Browni, Macropus, 194 
 
 Burmeisteria, 188 
 
 Caimans, 380 
 
 Bruijni, Proechidna. 217 
 
 Burineister's seriama, 277 
 
 Cairina, 293 
 
 Bruijn's echidna, 217 
 
 Buriiets, 588 
 
 Cairina moschata, 293 
 
 Brunii macropus, 194 
 
 Burnett salmon, 460 
 
 Calabarensis, Pottos, 31 
 
 Brunnea, Hyaena, 62 
 
 Burnished brass moth, 591 
 
 Calabaria, 419 
 
 Brush-tailed porcupines, 113 
 Brush-turkeys, 226, 227 
 
 Burrowing owls, The, 323 
 Bursarius, Geomys, 109 
 
 Calabaricus, Calamoichthys, 512 
 Calaenadinae, 244 
 
 Bryozoa, 665 
 
 Burying beetles, 557 
 
 Calaenas, 245 
 
 Bubaline antelope, 150 
 
 Bush cuckoos, 351 
 
 Calamita, Bufo, 442 
 
 Bubalis, 150 
 Bubalis albifrons, 150 
 
 Bush-dog, 74 
 Bush-pig, 134 
 
 Calamoichthys calabaricus 512 
 Calamophilus biarmicus, 368 
 
 Bubalis, Bos, 162 
 
 Bushmaster, 429 
 
 Calandra larks, 364 
 
 Bubalis pygargus, 150 
 
 Bustards, The, 264, 273 
 
 Calandrella, 364 
 
 Bubo, 322 
 
 Bustard, Crested, 273 
 
 Calcareous sponges, 692 
 
 Bubo bubo, 322 
 
 Bustard, Great, 273 
 
 Calcarius, lapponicus, 364 
 
 Bubo virgin ianus 322 
 
 Bustard, Kori, 273 
 
 Calcitrans, Cnemiornis, 295 
 
 Bubonidae, 321 
 
 Bustard, Lesser, 273 
 
 Calcitrans, Stomoxys, 607 
 
 Buboninas, 321 
 
 Bustard-quail, 241 
 
 Calendula, Regulus, 369 
 
 Buccinida3, 637 
 
 Butastur, 315 
 
 Calidris, 269 
 
 Bucco, 355 
 
 Butcher-birds, 3C9 
 
 Californian quail, 240 
 
 Buccones, 355 
 
 Buteo 312 
 
 Californian toad, 403 
 
 Bucephala, Drilophaga, 683 
 
 Buteo buteo, 312 
 
 Californiana, Lophortyx, 240 
 
 Bucerotes, 339 
 
 Buteogallus, 312 
 
 Caligatus, Trogon, 349 
 
 Bucerus rhinoceros, 339 
 
 Buteoninse, 307, 311 
 
 Caligo teucer, 584 
 
 Buchanga atrae, 361 
 
 Butterflies, 553, 581 
 
 Callagur, 389 
 
 Bucholzi, Pantodon, 505 
 
 Butterfly, Dead leaf, 585 
 
 Callichthys, 497 
 
 Buck, Indian black, 452 
 
 Butterfly, Swallow-tail, 587 
 
 Callidea perplexa, 595 
 
 Buck, Prong-, 149 
 
 Buzzards, The, 307, 312 
 
 Callidina parasitica, 683 
 
 Bucorax, 339 
 
 Buzzard, Common. 312 
 
 Callimome, 576 
 
 Budorcas taxicolor, 157 
 
 Buzzard, Honey, 317 
 
 Callithrix, 26 
 
 Buffalo, Cape, 162 
 
 Buzzard-eagles, 315 
 
 Callithrix torquata, 26 
 
 Buffalo, Indian, 162 
 
 Buzzard-hawk, Rufous, 312 
 
 Callophasis, 238 
 
 Buffon's skua, 263 
 
 Bythinia, 635 
 
 Callophasis ellioti, 238 
 
 Bufo, 441 
 
 
 Callophasis humiae, 238 
 
 Bufo calamita, 442 
 
 
 Callophis, 424 
 
 Bufo viridis, 442 
 
 C. 
 
 Callophrys rubi, 586 
 
 Bufo vulgaris, 442 
 
 
 Callorhynchus, 462 
 
 Bufonidae, 441 
 
 Caballus, Equus, 128 
 
 Calluella, 439 
 
 Bugs, 553, 594 
 
 Cabalus, 249 
 
 Calomys, 101 
 
 Bug, Bed, 596 
 
 Cabalus dieffenbachii, 249 
 
 Calonyx, Eurystomus, 335 
 
 Bug, Masked, 596 
 
 Cabalus modestus, 249 
 
 Caloperdix, 234 
 
 Bug, Plant, 596 
 
 Cabalus sylvestris, 249 
 
 Caloprymnus campestris, 197 
 
 Bug, Shield, 595 
 
 Cabul, Marmot, 94 
 
 Calornis, 360 
 
 Bug, Water, 597 
 
 Cacatuidce, 328 
 
 Calotes, 399 
 
 Bug, Wheel, 596 
 
 Caccabis chukar, 232 
 
 Calva, Uacaria, 27 
 
 Bugula turbinata, 667 
 
 Caccabis magna, 232 
 
 Calvus, Anthropopithecus, 15 
 
 Bulbuls, The, 372 
 
 Caccabis inelanocephala 232 
 
 Calypte helenae, 347 
 
 Bulimulidae, 643 
 
 Caccabis petrosa, 232 
 
 Calypterse, Muscidae, 607 
 
 Bulimus, 643 
 
 Caccabis rufa, 232 
 
 Calyptomena, 356 
 
 Bull frog, 437 
 
 Caccabis saxatilis, 232 
 
 Calyptomena hosii, 356 
 
 Bull-heads, 475 . 
 
 Cachuga, 389 
 
 Calyptomena viridis, 356 
 
 Bullfinches, 303 
 
 Cacomistle, 76 
 
 Calyptomena whiteheadi, 356 
 
 Bullidaa, 640 
 
 Cacopus, 438 
 
 Cama, Canis, 73 
 
 Bullinella, 640 
 
 Cacopus systema, 438 
 
 Camarhynchus, 363 
 
 Bulloidea, 639 
 
 Caddis flies, 572 
 
 Camel Tribe, The, 135 
 
 Bulweri, Lobiophasis.238 
 
 Caddis worms, 573 
 
 Camel, Arabian, 1-37 
 
 Bungarus caeruleus. 424 
 
 Caeca, Talpa, 48 
 
 Camel, Bactrian, 137 
 
 Bungarus fasciatus, 424 
 
 Csecidae, 635 
 
 Camelidae, 135 
 
 Bungarus, Naia, 424 
 
 Caecilians, 453 
 
 Camelopardilis, Giraffe, 147 
 
 Buntings, 363 
 Bunting, Cirl, 364 
 
 Caecilian brooding its eggs, 454 
 Caeciliidae, 454 
 
 Camelus, 136 
 Camelus bactrianus, 136 
 
 Bunting, Corn, 364 
 
 Caecum, 635 
 
 Camelus dromedarius, 136 
 
 Bunting, Lapland, 364 
 Bunting, Snow, 363-364 
 
 Caenagrioninae, 570 
 Caenolestes, 204 
 
 Camelus, Struthio, 223 
 Campanularians, 697 
 
 Buprestid:e, 558 
 
 Caesar, Lucilia, 608 
 
 Campestris acheta, 567 
 
 Burbot, The, 491 
 
 Caesareus, Staphylinus, 556 
 
 Campestris, Caloprymnus, 197 
 
 Burchelli, Equus, 128 
 
 Cwsia, Sitta, 368 
 
 Campestris, Cervus, 146 
 
 Burchell's rhinoceros, 126 
 Burchell's zebra, 128 
 Burhinus grallarius, 273 
 
 Caffer, Bos, 162 
 Caffer cat, 55 
 Caffer, Pedetes, 110 
 
 Campestris, Cicindela, 554 
 Campestris, Motacilla, 365 
 Campestris raphiceros, 151 
 
732 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Campophagidae, 372 
 
 Canthocamptus alpestris, 532 
 
 Carettochelyida;, 394 
 
 Canadensis, Castor, 98 
 
 Cantiaca, Sterna, 261 
 
 Cariacus, 146 
 
 Canadensis, Cervus, 143 
 
 Cantoria, 423 
 
 Cariama cristata, 277 
 
 Canadensis, Felis, 56 
 
 Canus, Larus, 262 
 
 Carinaria, 636 
 
 Canadensii ">vis, 160 
 
 Cap-of-liberty shells, 634 
 
 Carinata, Cyclura, 403 
 
 Canadian lynx, 56 
 
 Cape buffalo, 162 
 
 Carinat*, 225 
 
 Canadian porcupine, 113 
 
 Cape coly, The, 348 
 
 Carinate avis, 225 
 
 Canarian fork-tailed petrel, 257 
 
 Cape golden mole, 50 
 
 Carinate birds, 225 
 
 Canaries, 363 
 
 Cape hunting-dog, 74 
 
 Carine, 323 
 
 Cancellaria, 638 
 
 Cape jumping-hare, 110 
 
 Carnea, Edwardsia, 704 
 
 Cancellariidae, 638 
 
 Cape moles, 50 
 
 Carnivora, 50 
 
 Cancer pagurus, 538 
 
 Cape polecat. 80 
 
 Carnivorous water-beetles, 555 
 
 Canchroma, 283 
 
 Cape quail, 234 
 
 Carolinensis, Galeoscoptes, 372 
 
 Canchroma cochlearia, 284 
 
 Caped pheasants, The, 238 
 
 Carp, Common, 498 
 
 Canchroma zeledoni, 284 
 
 Capensis, Coturnix, 234 
 
 Carp, Crucian, 498 
 
 Cancriformis, Apus, 531 
 Cancrivorus, Canis, 69 
 
 Capensis, Orycteropus, 189 
 Capensis, Rostratula, 267 
 
 Carp lice, 532 
 Carpenter bees, 581 
 
 Candelarius, Hotinus, 599 
 
 Capensis, Strix, 3-25 
 
 Carpet-snake, 419 
 
 Candicans, Hierofalco, 319 
 
 Capensis, Tachybaptes, 2f)3 
 
 Carpincho, 89 
 
 Candida, Coscoroba, 293 
 
 Capercailzies, The, 230 
 
 Carpincho, Aquatic, 116 
 
 Candida, Pholadoiuya, 628 
 
 Capercailzie, British, 230 
 
 Carpio, Cyprinus, 498 
 
 Candida, Strix, 325 
 
 Capercailzie, Dusky, 231 
 
 Carpocapsa. 593 
 
 Candle fly, 599 
 
 Capitis, Pediculus, 602 
 
 Carpocapsa pomonella, 593 
 
 Cane-rat, 112 
 
 Capito, 353 
 
 Carpococeyx, 351 
 
 Caniceps, Lepidolemur, 30 
 
 Capitones, 352 
 
 Carpococeyx radiatus, 351 
 
 Canidae, 63 
 
 Capivara, 116 
 
 Carpodacus, 363 
 
 Canis, 63 
 
 Capivara, Hydrochcerus, 89 
 
 Carpomys, 104 
 
 Canis adustus, 66 
 
 Capra, 158 
 
 Carponycteris, 35 
 
 Canis alpinus, 68 
 
 Capra segagrus, 159 
 
 Carpophaga zenea 243 
 
 Canis antarcticus, 64 
 
 Capra, Cervus, 146 
 
 Carpophaginae, 242 
 
 Canis argentatus, 71 
 
 Capra cylindricornis, 158 
 
 Carrion crow, 358 
 
 Canis aureus, 66 
 
 Capra falconeri, 159 
 
 Carterodon, 113 
 
 Canis azarae, 69 
 
 Capra hispanica, 158 
 
 Carunculata, Sarcidiornis, 293 
 
 Canis bengalensis, 73 
 
 Capra ibex, 158 
 
 Carychium minimum, 641 
 
 Canis cama, 73 
 
 Capra pyrenaica, 158 
 
 Caryophyllacea, Rhodonessa, 
 
 Oanis cancrivorus, 69 
 
 Capra sibirica, 159 
 
 294 
 
 Canis corsac, 73 
 
 Capreola, Pelea, 151 
 
 Gary ophy ilia, 705 
 
 Canis deccanensis, 68 
 
 Capreolus, 146 
 
 Casarca, 296 
 
 Canis dingo, 66 
 
 Caprimulgi, 342 
 
 Casei, Piophila, 608 
 
 Canis dukhunensis, 68 
 
 Caprimulgus europaeus ; 342 
 
 Cashmirianus, Cervus, 143 
 
 Canis famelicus, 73 
 Canis ferrilatus, 73 
 
 Captine, 158 
 Capromys, 112 
 
 Caspia, Hydroprogue, 261 
 Caspian seal, 85 
 
 Canis flavescens, 71 
 
 Capuchins, 24 
 
 Caspian tern, 261 
 
 Canisjulvus, 71 
 
 Capuchin, White-throated, 24 
 
 Caspica, Phoca, 85 
 
 Canis, Galeus, 516 
 
 Capulidae, 634 
 
 Cassididfe, 636 
 
 Canis japonicus. 73 
 
 Capulus, 634 
 
 Cassidix, 362 
 
 Canis jubatus, 69 
 
 Carabidae, 554 
 
 Cassidix oryzivorus. 362 
 
 Canis lagopus, 73 
 
 Carabus, 555 
 
 Cassidix persicus, 362 
 
 Canis laniger, 65 
 
 Carabus auratus, 555 
 
 Cassis rufa, 636 
 
 Canis latrans, 66 
 
 Caracal, 55 
 
 Cassowaries, The, ?24 
 
 Canis leucopus, 73 
 
 Caracal, Felis, 55 
 
 Castanotis, Chceropus, 206 
 
 Canis lupus, 64 
 
 Caracaras, 307 
 
 Castnia syphax, 590 
 
 Canis macrotis, 73 
 
 Caracara, Brazilian, 307 
 
 Castniidae, 590 
 
 Tan is rnesomelas, 66 
 
 Carancho, 307 
 
 Castor, 96 
 
 Canis montanus, 71 
 
 Carangidae, 471 
 
 Castor canadensis, 98 
 
 Canis niger, 65 
 
 Caranx, 471 
 
 Castor fiber, 96 
 
 Canis niloticus, 71 
 
 Carassius, 498 
 
 Castoridw, 96 
 
 Canis pallipes, 64 
 
 Carbo, Phalacrocorax, 299 
 
 Casuarii, 223 
 
 Canis pennsylvanicus, 71 
 
 Carchariidae, 516 . 
 
 Casuariiformes, 221, 223 
 
 Canis primsevus, 68 
 
 Carcharodon rondeletii, 517 
 
 Cat-bear, 75 
 
 Canis procyonides, 69 
 
 Carcineutes, 337 
 
 Cat-bird, 372 
 
 Canis pulex (dog flea), 609 
 
 Carcinophaga, Lobodon, 86 
 
 Cat-fishes, 496 
 
 Canis rutilans, 68 
 
 Cardamines, Euchioe, 586 
 
 Cat-snake, 423 
 
 Canis velox, 72 
 
 Cardiacea, 623-625 
 
 Cats, The, 52 
 
 Canis Virginian us, 72 
 
 Cardiidae, 626 
 
 Cat, Bornean Bay, 55 
 
 Canis vulpes, 71 
 
 Cardiliidse, 625 
 
 Cat, Gaffer, 55 
 
 Canis zerda, 73 
 
 Cardinal grosbeaks, 363 
 
 Cat, Domestic, 55 
 
 Cannabateomys, 112 
 
 Cardinalis, 363 
 
 Cat, Jungle, 55 
 
 Canorus, Cuculus, 350 
 
 Cardinalis, Novius, 602 
 
 Cat, Leopard Oriental, 55 
 
 Cantharinae, 466 
 
 Cardita concamerata, 623 
 
 Cat, Marbled, 55 
 
 Cantharis vesicatoria, 560 
 
 Carditidae, 623 
 
 Cat, Tiger, 55 
 
 Cautharus, 466 | 
 
 Caretta, Thalassochelys, 391 
 
 Cat tribe, 52 
 
INDEX. 
 
 733 
 
 Cat, Wild, 55 j 
 
 Ceratobrachidae, 439 
 
 Ceryle torquata, 336 
 
 Cataphractus, Crocodilus, 381 
 
 Ceratobrachus guentheri, 439 
 
 Ceryle varia, 336 
 
 Catarrhactes, Megalestris, 263 
 
 Ceratodus, 460 
 
 Cestoda, 686 
 
 Catesbyana, Ran a, 437 
 
 2eratophora, 399 
 
 Cestoni, Nyctinomus, 40 
 
 ( athartes aura, 304 
 
 ^eratophrys, 441 
 
 Cestraciidae, 518 
 
 Cathartidiformes, 304 
 
 ZJeratophrys boiei, 441 
 
 Cestracion, 518 
 
 Catheturus, 227 
 
 Ceratophrys ornata, 441 
 
 Cestraciontidae, 518 
 
 Catheturus lathami, 227 
 
 Cercariae, (i89 
 
 Itestracium, 518 
 
 Catreus wallichii, 237 
 
 Cerchneis, 320 
 
 Destus veneris, 712 
 
 CatU, Lemur, 29 
 
 ^ercocebus, 21 
 
 ^etacea, 169 
 
 Cattle, Indian humped, 165 
 
 Cercoleptes caudivolvulus, 76 
 
 Cetonia aurata, 558 
 
 Catus, Felis, 55 
 
 Jercomys, 113 
 
 Cetoniidse, 558 
 
 Caucasica, Salamandra, 447 
 
 Cercopithecidae, 19 
 
 ^etorhinus maximus, 517 
 
 Caudacuta, Chaetura, 34G 
 
 Cercopithecus, 21 
 
 Ceycopsis, 337 
 
 Caudata, 445 
 
 Cercopithecus callitrichus, 21 
 
 Ceylonens'is, Ketupa, 321 
 
 Caudatus, Arctomys, 94 
 
 Cercopithecus diana, 21 
 
 Ceyx, 337 
 
 Caudatus, Priapulus, 678 
 
 Cercopithecus mona, 21 
 
 Chacma, 23 
 
 Caudivolvulus, Cercoleptes, 76 
 
 Cercopsinae, 294 
 
 Chaeronycteris, 41 
 
 Cautious albatros, 259 
 
 Cerealium, Thrips, 572 
 
 Chaeropsis, 13 L 
 
 Cautus, Thalassogeron, 259 
 
 Cereopsis geese, The, 294 
 
 Chaeropus castanotis, 206 
 
 Cavatus, Hyptiotes, 544 
 
 Cereus, Anthea, 703 
 
 Chaetoceraus, 348 
 
 Cave-dwelling anemone, 704 
 
 Cerithiidse, 636 
 
 Chaetocercus bombus, 347 
 
 Cave-fish, 491 
 
 Cerivoula, 38 
 
 Chretoderma, 616 
 
 Cavia, 115 
 
 Certhia familiaris, 365 
 
 Chsetodermatina, 316 
 
 Cavies family, The, 115 
 
 Certhiidaj, 362 
 
 Chaetodon, 465 
 
 Caviidse, 115 
 
 Certhilauda, 364 
 
 Chaetodontidse, 465 
 
 Cavolinidae, 640 
 
 Certhiola, 362 
 
 Chaetognatha, 682 
 
 Cebidae, 23 
 
 Cervicapra, 152 
 
 Chaetomys, 113 
 
 Cebus, 24 
 
 Cervicapra antilope, 152 
 
 Chaetopoda, 671 
 
 Cebus hypoleucus, 24 
 
 Cervicaprinae, 151 
 
 Chaetura, 345 
 
 Cecidomyia destructor, 603 
 
 Cervidae, 140 
 
 Chaetura caudacuta, 346 
 
 Cecidomyiidse, 603 
 
 Cervulus, 141 
 
 Chaeturinse, 346 
 
 Cedar-bird, American, 369 
 
 Cervulus muntjac, 142 
 
 Chafers, 557 
 
 Cedrorum, Ampelis, 369 
 
 Cervus, 142 
 
 Chaffinch, Common, 363 
 
 Celebensis, Pernis, 317 
 
 Cervus affinis, 143 
 
 Chajd, 291 
 
 Cellar-beetles, 559 
 
 Cervus alfredi, 143 
 
 Chalcididae, 576 
 
 Cellar- snail, 644 
 
 Cervus antisiensis, 146 
 
 Chalcopsittacus, 328 
 
 Cellaria, Vitrea, 644 
 
 Cervus axis, 143 
 
 Chalia furva, 589 
 
 Celtis, Libythsa, 586 
 
 Cervus campestris, 146 
 
 Chalinolobus, 37 
 
 Cemas, 157 
 
 Cervus canadensis, 143 
 
 Chalinolobus tuberculatus, 40 
 
 Centetes ecaudatus, 49 
 
 Cervus caprea, 146 
 
 Chamaeleons, 411 
 
 Centetidae, 49 
 
 Cervus cashmirianus, 143 
 
 Chamaeleon vulgaris, 412 
 
 Centipedes, 548 
 
 Cervus chilensis, 146 
 
 Chamaeleontidae, 412 
 
 Centipede, Electric, 549 
 
 Cervus clavatus, 146 
 
 Chamaesaura, 404 
 
 Centrarchidae, 463 
 
 Cervus dama, 144 
 
 Chamidas, 626 
 
 Centrachus, 463 
 
 Cervus davidianus, 143 
 
 Chamois, 156 
 
 Centriscidse, 482 
 
 Cervus duvauceli, 143 
 
 Chamostrea albida, 628 
 
 Centrisciformes, 482 
 
 Cervus elaphus, 143 
 
 Chamostreidae, 627 
 
 Centriscus, 482 
 
 Cervus eldi, 143 
 
 Changu, 65 
 
 Centrogenys, 464 
 
 Cervus eustephanus, 143 
 
 Channa, 482 
 
 Centrolophus, 472 
 
 Cervus giganteus, 144 
 
 Channel-bills, 35<X 
 
 Centropelma, 253 
 
 Cervus, Lucanus, 558 
 
 Channiformes, 482 
 
 Centropodinse, 351 
 
 Cervus macrotis, 146 
 
 Chanting gos-hawks, 310 
 
 Centropominae, 464 
 
 Cervus maral, 143 
 
 Charadrii, 266 
 
 Centropristes, 464 
 
 Cervus mesopotamicus, 144 
 
 Charadriidae, 266 
 
 Centropus, 351 
 Centropus sinensis, 351 
 
 Cervus philippinus, 1 43 
 Cervus porcinus, 143 
 
 Charadriiformes, 260 
 Charadriinse, 270 
 
 Centrotus, 601 
 
 Cervus pygargus, 146 
 
 Charadrius dominicus, 270 
 
 Centrotus cornutus, 601 
 
 Cervus ruffi, 144 
 
 Charadrius pluvialis, 271 
 
 Cepedianus, Laphotes, 484 
 
 Cervus rufus, 146 
 
 Charcharias glaucus, 516 
 
 Cephalochorda, 526 
 
 Cervus schomburgki, 143 
 
 Chasmorhynchus, 374 
 
 Cephalodiscus, 649 
 
 Cervus sica, 143 
 
 Chat-thrushes, 370 
 
 Cephalophus, 151 
 
 Cervus swinhoei, 143 
 
 Chats, 370 
 
 Cephalopoda, 644 
 
 Cervus thoroldi, 143 
 
 Chatterers, The, 369 
 
 Cephaloptera, 52'2 
 
 Cervus unicolor, 143 
 
 Chatterer, American, 374 
 
 Cephalorhynchus, 179 
 
 Cervus virginianus, 146 
 
 Chatterer, Crested, 369 
 
 Cephalorhynchus heavisidei, 179 
 
 Cervus xanthopygus, 143 
 
 Chauliodus, 505 
 
 Cephalus, Harpyio, 37 
 
 Ceryle, 336 
 
 Chauna, 290 
 
 Cepolidse, 477 
 
 Ceryle ale von, 336 
 
 Chauna chavaria, 290 
 
 Cerambycidae, 561 
 
 Ceryle lugubris, 336 
 
 Chauna cristata, 290 
 
 Cerastes, 427 
 
 Ceryle rudis, 336 
 
 Chaus, Felis, 55 
 
 Ceratium, 718 
 
 Ceryle superciliosa, 336 
 
 Chavaria, Chauna, 290 
 
734 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cheer pheasant, 237 
 
 Chironomidae, 604 
 
 Cinerea, Atalapha, 37 
 
 Cheese-mites, 547 
 
 Chiropodomys, 104 
 
 Cinerea, Nepa, 597 
 
 Chelidon, 373 
 
 Chiroptera, 33 
 
 Cinereus, Phascolarctus, 199 
 
 Chelidon urbica, 373 
 
 Chirotes, 408 
 
 Cinixys, 387 
 
 Chelidoptera, 356 
 
 Chiroteuthidae, 646 
 
 Cinnabar moth, 588 
 
 Chelifer, 541 
 
 Chiroxiphia linearis, 374 
 
 Cinnyris asiatica, 366 
 
 Chelmon, 465 
 
 Chiru, Tibetan, 152 
 
 Cinosternidaj, 389 
 
 Chelodina, 393 
 
 Chiruromys, 106 
 
 Circaetus, 315 
 
 Chelone imbricata, 391 
 
 Chiton, 615 
 
 Circaetus gallicus, 315 
 
 Chelone mydas, 391 
 
 Chitonidae, 616 
 
 Circulate, Flata, 600 
 
 Chelonia, 383 
 
 Chitra, 395 
 
 Circus aeruginosus, 309 
 
 Chelonidse, 390 
 
 Chlamydophorus retusa, 188 
 
 Circus hudsonius, 309 
 
 Chelydridae, 390 
 
 Chlamydophorus truncatus, 188 
 
 Circus pvgargus, 309 
 
 Chelyidae, 392 
 
 Chlamydosaurus kingi, 399 
 
 Cirl-bunting, 364 
 
 Chelys fimbriata, 392 
 
 Chloris, Ligurinus, 363 
 
 Cirlus, Emberiza, 364 
 
 Chen, 295 
 Chenomorphae, 288 
 
 Chlorocercus, Lorius, 328 
 Chloron, 580 
 
 Cirrhites, 467 
 Cirrhitichthys, 467 
 
 Chenonetta, 295 
 
 Chloropus, Gallinula, 252 
 
 Cirrhitida>, 466 
 
 Chenonettinse, 295 
 
 Cholaepus, 182 
 
 Cirripedia, 533 
 
 Chenopis, 292 
 
 Chologaster, 502 
 
 Cirroteuthidai, 647 
 
 Chenopis atrata, 293 
 
 Chondrostei, 510 
 
 Cirroteuthis, 647 
 
 Cheriway, Polyborus, 307 
 
 Chondrostoma, 499 
 
 Cisticola Prinia, 370 
 
 Chestnut-breasted avocet, 270 
 
 Choneziphius cuvieri, 177 
 
 Cistudo, 388 
 
 Chevrotain family, The, 19 
 
 Chordeiles, 342 
 
 Citrinella, Emberiza, 364 
 
 Chevrotains, Oriental, 139 
 
 Choridactylus, 467 
 
 Cittocincla, 370 
 
 Chevrotain, West African, 139 
 
 Chorinemus, 467 
 
 Civet tribe, 56 
 
 Cheyletus, 547 
 
 Choristida;, 637 
 
 Civet, Bennett's, 60 
 
 Chibia, 361 
 
 Chough, 358 
 
 Civet, Daubenton's, 57 
 
 Chiffchaff, 370 
 
 Chough, Alpine, 358 
 
 Civet, Palm-, Small-toothed, 
 
 Child's head urchin, 660 
 
 Chough, Desert, 358 
 
 59 
 
 Chilensis, Cervus, 146 
 
 Chough, Red-billed, 358 
 
 Civet, Palm-, True, 59 
 
 Chilensis, Megalestris, 263 
 
 Chough, White-winged, 358 
 
 Civet, True, 57 
 
 Chilian swan, 292 
 
 Chromatophores, 645 
 
 Civetta, Viverra, 57 
 
 Chilinia, 642 
 
 Chromididae, 486 
 
 Cladorhynchus leucocephalus, 
 
 Chilinidse, 641 
 
 Chromids, 486 
 
 270 
 
 Chilobranchus, 495 
 
 Chromis, 487 
 
 Clamosa, Atrichia, 376 
 
 Chilodactylus, 467 
 Chilognatha, 549 
 
 Chrondropython, 419 
 Chrotomys, 100 
 
 Clamvdoconcha, 624 
 Clangula, 297 
 
 Chilomonas, 718 
 
 Chrysaenas victor, 243 
 
 Clarias, 497 
 
 Chilonycteris, 41 
 
 Chrysaetus, Aquila, 314 
 
 Clarkei, Ammordorcas, 153 
 
 Chilopoda, 548 
 
 Chrysalis-shells, 643 
 
 Clarke's gazelle, 153 
 
 Chilostomata, 666 
 
 Chrysididae, 578 
 
 Claudia, 346 
 
 Chimaera, Bottle-noserl, 462 
 
 Chrysippus, Limnas, 583 
 
 Claudius, 389 
 
 Chimaera, Common, 461 
 Chimaeroids, 461 
 
 Chrysitis, Plusia, 591 
 Chrysochloridse, 50 
 
 Clausilia, 643 
 Clavatus, Cervus, 146 
 
 Chimpanzees, 14 
 
 Chrysochloris, 50 
 
 Clavicornia, 556 
 
 Chimpanzee, Bald, 15 
 Chimpanzee, Common, 15 
 
 Chrysceoccyx, 350 
 Chrysolophus, 238 
 
 Clavigella, 628 
 Clavigellidaa, 627 
 
 Chimarrogale, 47 
 
 Chrysolophus amherstiae, 238 
 
 Claviglis, 99 
 
 Chin-leaf bats, 41 
 
 Chrysolophus pictus, 238 
 
 Clepsine, 677 
 
 Chinchilla tribe, The, 113 
 
 Chrysophrys, 466 
 
 Click beetles, 559 
 
 Chinchilla, Cuvier's, 114 
 
 Chrysopid*, 571 
 
 Cliff-swallow, 373 
 
 Chinensis neurobasis, 570 
 
 Chrysops, 605 
 
 Climbing birds, The, 352 
 
 Chinese alligator, 380 
 
 Chrysothrix, 26 
 
 Climbing-perch, 483 
 
 Chinese water-deer, 146 
 
 Chrysotis, 329 
 
 Clionidae, 640 
 
 Chinquis, Polypectrum, 238 
 Chioglossa lusitanica, 447 
 
 Chthonerpetum, 455 
 Chukar, Caccabis, 232 
 
 Clionopsidae, 640 
 Clisiocampa neustria, 590 
 
 Chionarchus minor, 265 
 
 Chukar partridge, 232 
 
 Clistenterata, 650 
 
 Chionarchus crozettensis, 265 
 Chionides, 265 
 
 Chunga burmeisteri, 277 
 Cicadidae, 598 
 
 Clitambonites, 651 
 Clitambonites adscendens, 651 
 
 Chionis alba, 265 
 
 Cicindela campestris, 554 
 
 Cloak anemone, 703 
 
 Chipmunks, 91 
 
 Cicindelidas, 554 
 
 Cloephaga, 295 
 
 Chiridaj, 478 
 
 Ciconia boyciana, 279 
 
 Clcephaga inornata, 296 
 
 Chiridium musaeorum, 541 
 
 Ciconia, Ciconia, 278 
 
 Clothes moths, 593 
 
 Chiridota, 661 
 
 Ciconia nigra, 279 
 
 Clouded leopard, 55 
 
 Chirocentridae, 506 
 Chirocentrus dorab, 506 
 
 Ciconiidse, 278 
 Cidaris papillata, 6f9 
 
 Clupea alosa, 507 
 Clupea finta, 5( 7 
 
 Chirogale, 30 
 
 Ciliated Infusorians, 720 
 
 Clupea harengus, 507 
 
 Chiromeles torquata, 40 
 Chiromyidae, 31 
 
 Cimbicinae, 574 
 Cimicidae, 596 
 
 Clupea menhaden, 507 
 Clupea pilchardus, 507 
 
 Chiromys madagascariensis, 31 
 Chironectes minimus, 214 
 
 Cinclus aquaticus, 371 
 Cinerea, Ardea, 282 
 
 Clupea sprattus, 507 
 Clupeida;, 506 
 
INDEX. 
 
 735 
 
 Clupeoides, Coregonus, 509 
 
 Columba livia, 244 
 
 Common pike, 502 
 
 Clytoceyx, 337 
 
 Columb83, 242 
 
 Common porpoise, 179 
 
 Cnemiornis calcitrans, 295 
 
 Columbia transmontana, 509 
 
 Common pratincole, 272 , 
 
 Cnidaria, 694 
 
 Columbidae, 244 
 
 Common quail, 234 
 
 Coal-fish, 491 
 
 Columbiformes, 242 
 
 Common rat, 105 
 
 Coati, 77 
 
 Columbillidse, 637 
 
 Common rhea, 221 
 
 Coatis, 76 
 
 Coly, Cape, 348 
 
 Common roe, 146 
 
 Cobitinse, 500 
 
 Dolymbiformes, 254 
 
 Common roller, 335 
 
 Cobitis trenia, 500 
 
 Colymbus adamsi, ^54 
 
 Common rorqual, 174 
 
 Cobras, The, 424 
 
 Colymbus arcticus, 254 
 
 Common salamander, 446 
 
 Cobra, Giant, 424 
 
 Colymbus glacialis, 254 
 
 Dommon sargus, 466 
 
 Cobra, Indian, 424 
 Cobus, 152 
 
 Colymbus septentrionalis, 254 
 Comadre'ja, 212 
 
 Common sea-squirt, 528 
 Common seal, b5 
 
 Cobus arundineum, 152 
 
 Comadreja-colorada, 213 
 
 Common seriama, 277 
 
 Coccidae, 602 
 
 Comb-bearers, 711 
 
 Common sheld-duck, 296 
 
 Coccinella bipunctata, 562 
 
 Comb-duck, 293 
 
 Common shrew, 46 
 
 Coccinellida?, 562 
 
 Comephorus, 478 
 
 Common skink, 410 
 
 Coccothraustes coccothraustes, 
 
 Comeri, Porphyriornis, 252 
 
 Common skunk, 78 
 
 363 
 
 Common argus, 239 
 
 Common snipe, 268 
 
 Coccothraustinae, 363 
 
 Common badger, 79 
 
 Common spoon-bill, 286 
 
 Coccyges, 349 
 
 Common bat, 37 
 
 Common squirrel, 91 
 
 Coccystes, 350 
 
 Common bee-eater, The, 341 
 
 Common starling, 360 
 
 Coccystes glandarius, 350 
 
 Common blackbird, 371 
 
 Common sturgeon, 511 
 
 Coccyzus, 350 
 
 Common boa-constrictor, 420 
 
 Common swallow, The, 373 
 
 Coccyzus americanus, 351 
 
 Common buzzard, 312 
 
 Common swift, 346 
 
 Coccyzus erythrophthalmus, 351 
 
 Common carp, 498 
 
 Common sword-fish, 469 
 
 Cochlearia, Canchroma, 284 
 
 Common chaffinch, 363 
 
 Common tern, 261 
 
 Cochlicella, 643 
 
 Common chimsera, 461 
 
 Common toad, 442 
 
 Cock-chafers, 558 
 
 Common chimpanzee, 15 
 
 Common trumpeter, 277 
 
 Cockatoos, The, 328 
 
 Common cockroach, 564 
 
 Common turn- stone, 272 
 
 Cockatoo, Great black, 328 
 
 Common cormorant, 299 
 
 Common vampire, 42 
 
 Cockles, The, 626 
 
 Common crane, 275 
 
 Common weasel, The, 80 
 
 Cockroaches, 564 
 
 Common cuckoo, 350 
 
 Common wolf, 64 
 
 Cockroach, Common, 564 
 
 Common dipper, 371 
 
 Common wren, 371 
 
 Cockroach, Drummer, 564 
 
 Common emu, 223 
 
 Common wryneck, 354 
 
 Cocks-of-the-rock, 374 
 
 Common flycatcher, 372 
 
 Communis, Phocoena, 179 
 
 Cocophagez, Lopaphus, 566 
 
 Common francolin, 2b3 
 
 Concamerata, Cardita, 623 
 
 Cocorax, 358 
 
 Common frog, 436 
 
 Conchicola, Aspidogaster, 688 
 
 Cocorax melanorhamphus, 358 
 
 Common fulmar petrel, 258 
 
 Concolor, Felis, 53 
 
 Cod, The, 491 
 
 Common gannet, 299 
 
 Condor, The, 304 
 
 Codling moth, 593 
 
 Common gold-crest, 368 
 
 Condylura cristata, 48 
 
 Codosiga, 719 
 
 Common gos-hawk, 310 
 
 Conepatus mapurito, 78 
 
 Coecillianella, 643 
 
 Common greenfinch, 363 
 
 Conger, 494 
 
 Coelebs, Fringilla, 363 
 
 Common grey seals, 85 
 
 Conger vulgaris, 494 
 
 Ccelenterata, 690 
 
 Common gull, 262 
 
 Conidse, 638 
 
 Ccelogenys, 9, 115 
 
 Common gurnard, 475 
 
 Conies, 124 
 
 Coelomata, 690 
 
 Common hare, 118 
 
 Conilurus, 106 
 
 Coenagrion puella, 570 
 Ccereba, 362 
 
 Common hawfinch, 363 
 Common heron, 282 
 
 Connochretes, 150 
 Conolophus subcristatus, 402 
 
 Coereba cyanea, 362 
 
 Common herring, 507 
 
 Conopophagid*, 375 
 
 Coerebidae, 362 
 
 Common hippopotamus, 131 
 
 Constrictor, Boa, 420 
 
 Coerulea, Crossopus, 46 
 Ccerulescens, (Edipoda, 568 
 Cceruleus, Bungarus, 424 
 
 Common hoopoe, 340 
 Common horse, 128 
 Common jackal, 66 
 
 Contortrix, Ancistrodon, 429 
 Contortuplicata, serpula, 672 
 Conurus, 329 
 
 Coffer- fishes, 489 
 
 Common kingfisher, 337 
 
 Convoluta schultzii, C86 
 
 Cogia breviceps, 176 
 
 Common kite, 316 
 
 Coots, 252 
 
 Colaptes, 354 
 
 Common lapwing, 271 
 
 Copepoda, 533 
 
 Colchicus, Phasianus, 237 
 
 Common lemming, 103 
 
 Copper-head, 429 
 
 Coleoptera, 553 
 
 Common loach, 500 
 
 Copper pheasant, 238 
 
 Colies, The, 348 
 
 Common lynx, 56 
 
 Coppers, The, 586 
 
 Colii, 348 
 
 Common mackerel, 473 
 
 Coppersmith, 353 
 
 Colius, 348 
 
 Common marmot, 92 
 
 Copsychus, 370 
 
 Colius colius, 348 
 
 Common mole, 48 
 
 Coraciae, 335 
 
 Collembola, 573 
 
 Common newt, 448 
 
 Coracias, 335 
 
 Collocalia, 346 
 
 Common nut hatch, 368 
 
 Coracias garrulus, 335 
 
 Collyrio, Lanius, 369 
 
 Common opossum, 211 
 
 Coracias temmincki, 335 
 
 Colobus, 21 
 
 Common ox, 165 
 
 Coraciinse, 335 
 
 Colorado beetle, 561 
 
 Common partridge, 233 
 
 Coraciiformes, 332 
 
 Colubridse, 421 
 
 Common perch, 464 
 
 Coralline, Bird's head, 667 
 
 Colubrine tribe, The, 421 
 
 Common pewit, 271 
 
 Coralline, Creeping, 667 
 
 Columba, 244 
 
 Common phalanger, 200 
 
 Coralline, Nit, 668 
 
 Columba aenas, 244 
 
 Common pheasant, The, 237 
 
 Coralline, Oaten-straw, 697 
 
736 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Corallinus, Elaps, 423 
 
 Cottidae, 475 
 
 Crested curassow, 229 
 
 Coralliophaga. 624 
 
 Cotto-scombriformes, 470 
 
 Crested eagles, 315 
 
 Coralliophilidae, 637 
 
 Cotton-teal, 294 
 
 Crested guinea fowls, 240 
 
 Corallum rubrum, 708 
 
 Cottus, 475 
 
 Crested kingfisher, 337 
 
 Corallus, 420 
 
 Coturnix, 234 
 
 Crested larks, 364 
 
 Corals, The, 690, 704 
 
 Coturnix capensis, 234 
 
 Crested newt, 447 
 
 Coral, Black, 707 
 
 Coturnix coturnix, 234 
 
 Crested-rat, 102 
 
 Coral, Blue, 708 
 
 Coturnix japonica, 235 
 
 Crested screamer, 290 
 
 Coral, Brain, 707 
 
 Coturnix novae zealandiae, 235 
 
 Crested swift, 346 
 
 Coral colonies, 706 
 
 Coursers, The, 273 
 
 Crested tit, 368 
 
 Coral, Cup, 705 
 
 Courser, Coromandel, 273 
 
 Crested wood-partridges, 234 
 
 Coral, Development of, 707 
 
 Courser, Cream-coloured, 273 
 
 Crex crex, 248 
 
 Coral, Eight-rayed, 70? 
 
 Courser, True, 272 
 
 Cricetinae, 101 
 
 Coral, Fleshy. 701 
 Coral Islands, 709 
 Coral, Mushroom, 705 
 
 Cow-bird, Argentine, 361 
 Cowries, 636 
 Coyote, North American, 66 
 
 Cricetine Group, The, 101 
 Cricetomys, 106 
 Cricetus frumentarius, 101 
 
 Coral, Organ-Pipe, 70S 
 
 Coypu, 8, 111 
 
 Cricetus, 101 
 
 Coral, Red, 708 
 
 Coypu myopotamus, 112 
 
 Crickets, The, 566 
 
 Coral reefs, 709 
 
 Crabs, The, 537 
 
 Cricket, Field, 567 
 
 Coral, Six-rayed, 705 
 
 Crab, Edible, 538 
 
 Cricket, House, 567 
 
 Coral, Star, 706 
 
 Crab, Great Japanese, 538 
 
 Cricket, Mole, 567 
 
 Coral, Stony, 701 
 Coral cylinder-snake, 421 
 Coral-fishes, 485 
 
 Crab, Hermit, 537 
 Crabs, King, 538 
 Crab, Porcelain, 537 
 
 Crimson pufflet, 704 
 Crimson-winged creeper, 366 
 Crinia, 441 
 
 Coral snake, 423 
 
 Crab, Robber, 537 
 
 Crinoidea, 662 
 
 Corbicula, 623 
 
 Crab, Spider, 537 
 
 Cristata, Cariama, 277 
 
 Cordatum, Echinocardium, 659 
 
 Crab-eating dog, 69 
 
 Cristata, Chauna, 290 
 
 Coregonus, 508 
 
 Crab-eating macaque, 22 
 
 Cristata, Condylura, 48 
 
 Coregonus clupeoides, 509 
 Coregonus pollan, 509 
 
 Crab plovers, The, 264 
 Crabro, Vespa, 580 
 
 Cristata, Cystophora, 87 
 Cristata, Guttera, 240 
 
 Coregonus vandesius, 509 
 
 Crabroniformis, Asilus, 605 
 
 Cristata, Molge, 447 
 
 Coriacea, Dermochelys, 391 
 
 Graces, 226 
 
 Cristatella mucedo, 668 
 
 Coriarius, Prionus, 561 
 
 Crait, 424 
 
 Cristatus, Amblyrhynchus, 402 
 
 Corixidae, 597 
 
 Crakes, The, 251 
 
 Cristatus, Lophophanes, 368 
 
 Cormorants, The, 299 
 
 Crake, Baillon's, 251 
 
 Cristatus, Opisthocomus, 247 
 
 Cormorant, Common, 299 
 
 Crake, Corn, 251 
 
 Cristatus paro, 239 
 
 Corn-bunting, 364 
 
 Crake, Little, 251 
 
 Cristatus, Podicipes, 253 
 
 CoVn-crake, 251 
 
 Crake, Spotted, 251 
 
 Cristatus, Proteles, 62 
 
 Corn moth, 593 
 
 Crake, White-winged, 251 
 
 Cristatus, Sus, 134 
 
 Cornifer, 436 
 
 Crambi, 592 
 
 Crocata, Pachyrhina, 604 
 
 Cornubica, Lamna, 517 
 
 Crambus ericellus, 593 
 
 Crocidura, 46 
 
 Cornuta, Palamedea, 290 
 
 Cranchiadse, 646 
 
 Crocodiles, The, 378 
 
 Cornutus, Centrotus, 601 
 
 Cranes, The, 274 
 
 Crocodile, Egyptian, 381 
 
 Coromandel courser, 273 
 
 Crane, Common, 275 
 
 Crocodile, Long-nosed, 381 
 
 Coromandelianus, Nettopus, 
 
 Crane flies, 604 
 
 Crocodile, Stumpy, 382 
 
 294 
 
 Crane, Sarus, 274 
 
 Crocodilia, 378 
 
 Coromandelicus, Cursorius, 273 
 
 Crangonidati, 536 
 
 Crocodilidre, 380 
 
 Coronata, Goura, 245 
 
 Crania, 648 
 
 Crocodilus, 381 
 
 Coronatus, Anthracoeerus, 339 
 
 Crassatellidse, 624 
 
 Crocodilus americanus, 381 
 
 Coronatus, Harpyhaliaetus, 313 
 
 Crassicaudata, Didelphys, 213 
 
 Crocodilus cataphractus, 381 
 
 Corone corone, 358 
 
 Crassicornis, Tealia, 703 
 
 Crocodilus niloticus, 381 
 
 Coronella laevis, 422 
 
 Crassidens, Pseudorca, 180 
 
 Crocodilus palustris, 381 
 
 Coronetta, Floscularia, 682 
 
 Crassipes, Linotaenia, 549 
 
 Crocodilus porosus, 381 
 
 Corsac, Can is, 73 
 
 Crateromys, 101 
 
 Crocuta, Hyaena, 63 
 
 Corsac fox, 73 
 
 Crateropus, 372 
 
 Cross-fox, 71 
 
 Corvidae, 338 
 
 Cratogeomys, 109 
 
 Crossarchus, 61 
 
 Corvinse, 358 
 
 Crax alector, 229 
 
 Crossarchus fasciatus, 61 
 
 Corydon, 356 . 
 
 Cray-fish, 536 
 
 Crossbills, 363 
 
 Coryphaena, 472 
 
 Cream-coloured courser, 272 
 
 Crossopterygii, 512 
 
 Coryphsenas, 244 
 
 Cream-coloured turtle-dove, 245 
 
 Crossoptilum auritum, 236 
 
 Coryphasnidae, 472 
 
 Crecinas, 248 
 
 Crossopus, 46 
 
 Corythornis, 336 
 
 Creepers, The, 365 
 
 Crossopus coerulea, 46 
 
 Coscoroba, 292 
 
 Creeper, Crimson-winged, 366 
 
 Crossopus fodiens, 46 
 
 Coscoroba Candida, 293 
 
 Creeper, Tree, 365 
 
 Crossorhinus, 518 
 
 Coscoroba swan, 293 
 Cosmetornis, 343 
 
 Creeping coralline, 667 
 Crenidens, 466 
 
 Crotalinae, 428 
 Croton bug, 564 
 
 Cosmonetta, 297 
 
 Crenilabrus, 486 
 
 Crotophaga, 351 
 
 Cossus, Trypanns, 590 
 Cossypha, 370 
 
 Crepidatus, Stercorarius, 264 
 Crepitans, Psophia, 277 
 
 Crotophaginae, 351 
 Crows, The, 358 
 
 Costa Kica deer, 146 
 
 Crested argus, 239 
 
 Crow, Carrion, 358 
 
 Cotile, 373 
 Cotingidse, 373 
 
 Crested chatterer, 369 
 Crested cuckoo, 350 
 
 Crowned pigeon, 245 
 Crowther, Ursus, 75 
 
INDEX. 
 
 737 
 
 Crozettensis, Chionarchus, 265 
 
 Cuscus, Spotted, 200 
 
 Cysticercus, 687 
 
 Crucian carp, 498 
 
 Cusimanses, 61 
 
 Cystidea, 655 
 
 Crucibulum, 634 
 
 Cusp-toothed fruit-bat, 35 
 
 Cystignathidae, 440 
 
 Crustacea, 530 
 Crustacea, Larval forms of, 
 
 Cuspidariidae, 628 
 Cuttle-fish, 646 
 
 Cystophora cristata, 87 
 Cytherea dione, 625 
 
 530 
 
 Cut-water, 262 
 
 Cyttidge, 471 
 
 Crymophilus, 266 
 
 Cut worms, 591 
 
 Cyttus, 471 
 
 Crymophilus fulicarius. 266 
 
 Cuvieri, Choneziphitis, 177 
 
 
 Cryptobranchus lateralis, 451 
 
 Cuvier's chinchilla, 114 
 
 
 Cryptodira, 385 
 
 Cuvier's whale, 177 
 
 D. 
 
 Cryptoplacidae, 616 
 
 Cyamus ovalis, 535 
 
 
 Cryptoprocta ferox, 56 
 
 Cyanea, Caereba, 362 
 
 Dabchick, 253 
 
 Cryptops hortensis, 549 
 
 Cyanecula, 370 
 
 Dace, 499 
 
 Crystallinus, Laphopus, 668 
 
 Cyanochen, 295 
 
 Dacelo gigas, 337 
 
 Ctenodactylus, 111 
 
 Cyanocorax, 358 
 
 Daceloninse, 336 
 
 Ctenomys, 111 
 
 Cyclanorbis, 395 
 
 Dactylomys, 112 
 
 Ctenophora, 694, 711 
 
 Cyclas, 623 
 
 Dactylopsila, 201 
 
 Ctenostomata, 668 
 
 Cyclatella annelidicola, 688 
 
 Dactylopteridae, 476 
 
 Cuckoos, The, 350 
 
 Cyclemys, 387 
 
 Dactylopterus, 476 
 
 Cuckoo, American, 350 
 
 Cycloderma, 395 
 
 Dahlia wartlet, The, 703 
 
 Cuckoo, Black-billed, 351 
 
 Cyclophoridae, 634 
 
 Daisy anemone, 702 
 
 Cuckoo, Bush, 351 
 
 Cyclops, 532 
 
 Dalhousiae, Psarisomus, 356 
 
 Cuckoo, Common, 350 
 
 Cyclops quadricornis, 532 
 
 Dama, Cervus, 144 
 
 Cuckoo, Crested, 350 
 
 Cyclopsitta lunulata, 328 
 
 Darnaliscus, 150 
 
 Cuckoo, Golden, 350 
 
 Cyclopsittacidae, 328 
 
 Damascena, Perdix, 234 
 
 Cuckoo, Great-spotted, 350 
 
 Cyclopsittacus, 328 
 
 Damon ia hamiltoni, 388 
 
 Cuckoo, Hawk, 350 
 
 Cyclopteridae, 476 
 
 Danainae, 583 
 
 Cuckoo, Indian crested, 350 
 
 Cyclopterus, 476 
 
 Daphnia pulex, 531 
 
 Cuckoo, Lark-heeled, 351 
 
 Cyclostoma, 634 
 
 Dark green snake, 422 
 
 Cuckoo-like birds, The, 349 
 
 Cyclostomata, 523, 669 
 
 Darters, The, 298, 301 
 
 Cuckoo, Pheasant, 351 
 
 Cyclostomatidse, 634 
 
 Darter, African, 301 
 
 Cuckoo, Eain, 351 -. 
 
 Cyclostrematidse, 632 
 
 Darwini, Rhea, 222 
 
 Cuckoo, Spotted, 350 
 Cuckoo, Sarana, 351 
 
 Cycloturus didactylus, 184 
 Cyclura carinata, 403 
 
 Darwini, Ehinoderma, 439 
 Darwin's frog, 439 
 
 Cuckoo, Steel-blue, 351 
 
 Cydippe, 711 
 
 Darwin's rhea, 222 
 
 Cuckoo, True, 350 
 
 Cygminae, 292 
 
 Daryprocta, 8 
 
 Cuckoo, Typical, 350 
 
 Cygnus, 292 
 
 Dascyllus, 485 
 
 Cuckoo, Yellow-billed, 351 
 
 Cygnus bewicki, 292 
 
 Dasypus, 186 
 
 Cuckoo-doves, 244 
 
 Cygnus immutabilis, 292 
 
 Dasypus minutua, 186 
 
 Cuckoo-falcon, 317 
 
 Cygnus musicus, 292 
 
 Dasypus sexcinctus, 186 
 
 Cuckoo shrikes, The, 372 
 
 Cygnus olor, 292 
 
 Dasypus villosus, 186 
 
 Cuculi, 349 
 
 Cylichna, 640 
 
 Dasymys, 101 
 
 Cuculidse, 350 
 
 Cylinder snakes, 421 
 
 Dasypeltis scabra, 422 
 
 Cuculinse, 350 
 
 Cylindrellidje, 643 
 
 Dasypodidae, 185 
 
 Cuculus, 350 
 Cuculus canorus, 350 
 
 Cylindricornis, Capra, 158 
 Cylindrophis, 421 
 
 Dasyprocta, 115 
 Dasyproctidae, 115 
 
 Cuculus jacobinus, 350 
 
 Cyllopodidse, 589 
 
 Dasyure, Spotted, 208 
 
 Cucumaria planci, 660 
 
 Cymborhynchus, 356 
 
 Dasyure, Spotted-tailed, 203 
 
 Culicidse, 604 
 
 Cymbulidse, 640 
 
 Dasyure tribe, 206 
 
 Culminated albatros, 258 
 
 Cymothoidse, 534 
 
 Dasyuridse, 206 
 
 Cumacea, 535 
 
 Dynaelurus jubatua, 56 
 
 Dasyurus, 208 
 
 Cumingi, Megapodius, 228 
 Cumming's megapode, 228 
 
 Cynictis penicillata, 60 
 Cynipidse, 576 
 
 Dasyurus maculatus, 208 
 Dasyurus viverrinus, 208 
 
 Cuniculus, Lepus, 118 
 
 Cynips, 576 
 
 Daubentoni, Fossa, 57 
 
 Cuniculus torquatus, 103 
 
 Cynips, Kollari, 576 
 
 Oaubentoni, Vespertilio, 37 
 
 Cup-and-Saucer limpets, 634 
 
 Cynocephalus, Thylacinus, 207 
 
 Daubenton's bat, 37 
 
 Cup coral, The, 705 
 
 Cynodon, 501 
 
 Oaubenton's civit, 57 
 
 Curassows, The, 229 
 
 Dynogale bennetti, 60 
 
 Daulias luscinia, 370 
 
 Curassow, Crested, 229 
 
 ^ynomolgus, Macacus, 22 
 
 Daurica, Perdix, 234 
 
 Curlew, Pearl-grey, 270 
 
 Jynomys, 92 
 
 Davidianus, Cervus, 143 
 
 Curlew, Sandpiper, 269 
 
 Dynopithecus niger, 22 
 
 David's deer, 143 
 
 Curlew, Stone, 273 
 
 Cynopterus, 35 
 
 Dead leaf butterfly, 585 
 
 Cursorii, 272 
 
 Cyon, 67 
 
 Death-adder, 425 
 
 Cursorius, 272 
 
 Cypraeidae, 636 
 
 Decapoda, 536 
 
 Cursorius coromandelicus, 273 
 
 Cyprina, 624 
 
 Decapodo, 646 
 
 Cursorius gallicus, 272 
 
 Cyprinidae, 497 
 
 Deccanensis, Canis, 68 
 
 Curtidae, 468 
 
 Jyprinodontidae, 501 
 
 Decemlineata, Leptinotarsa, 561 
 
 Curtiformes, 468 
 
 Cyprinus, 498 
 
 Decumana, Alactaga, 110 
 
 Curtilla gryllotalpa, 567 
 
 Cyprinus carpio, 498 
 
 Decumanus, Mus, 105 
 
 Curtis, 468 
 
 Cypseli, 345 
 
 Deer, Axis, 143 
 
 Curtus, 471 
 
 Cypselinee, 346 
 
 Deer, Chinese water, 146 
 
 Cuscus, Black, 200 
 
 Cyrenidae, 623 
 
 Deer, Costa Rica, 146 
 
 48 
 
738 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Deer, David's, 143 
 
 Desmodus, 41 
 
 Dipnoi, 459 
 
 Deer, Eld's, 143 
 
 Desmodus rufus, 41 
 
 Dipodidse, 109 
 
 Deer, Fallow, 144 
 
 Desmognathinae, 450 
 
 Dipodomys, 109 
 
 Deer, Hog, 143 
 
 Desmognathus, 450 
 
 Dipodomys phillipsi, 109 
 
 Deer, Irish, 144 
 
 Destructor, Cecidomyia, 603 
 
 Diporpa, 688 
 
 Deer, Japanese. 143 
 
 Development of corals, 707 
 
 Dippers, The, 371 
 
 Deer, Large-eared mule, 146 
 
 Devil-fish, 521 
 
 Dipper, Common, 371 
 
 Deer, Musk, 141 
 
 Devil, Tasmanian, 207 
 
 Diprera homaloptera, 608 
 
 Deer, Pampas, 146 
 
 Devil's coach-horse, 556 
 
 Dipsadomorphinae, 423 
 
 Deer, Persian fallow, 144 
 Deer, Pudu, 147 
 
 Dhaval birds, 370 
 Diadema, Epeira, 544 
 
 Dipsadomorphus, 423 
 Dipsas, 426 
 
 Deer, Red, 143 
 
 Diadema setosum, 660 
 
 Diptera, 553, 602 
 
 Deer, Roe, 146 
 
 Diamond beetles, 560 
 
 Diptera aphaniptera, 609 
 
 Deer, Ruff's, 144 
 
 Diamond snake, 419 
 
 Diptera brachycera, 605 
 
 Deer, Spotted, 143 
 
 Diana monkey, 21 
 
 Diptera homaloptera, 608 
 
 Deer, Swamp, 143 
 
 Dianthus, Actinoloba, 702 
 
 Diptera nemocera, 603 
 
 Deer, Thorold's, 143 
 
 Diatrematid*, 486 
 
 Dipus, 110 
 
 Deer tribe, The, 140 
 
 Dibamidae, 411 
 
 Discina, 651 
 
 Deer, Virginian, 146 
 
 Dibamus, 411 
 
 Discinisca, 651 
 
 Deep-sea holothurian, 661 
 
 Dibranchiata, 643 
 
 Discoglossidae, 444 
 
 Degu, 111 
 Delichonyx oryzivora, 361 
 
 Dictum, 367 
 Dicamptodon, 450 
 
 Discoglossus pictus, 444 
 Discophora, 675 
 
 Delphacinre, 600 
 
 Diceidse, 367 
 
 Discopyge, 521 
 
 Delphinapterus leucas, 179 
 
 Dicerobatis, 522 
 
 Dissemurus, 361 
 
 Delphinidse, 180 
 
 Dichocerus bicornis, 339 
 
 Dissura episcopus, 280 
 
 Delphinidse, 178 
 
 Dicholophi, 277 
 
 Distira, 426 
 
 Delphinulidse, 632 
 
 Dichromanassa rufa, 283 
 
 Distoechurus pennatus, 202 
 
 Delphinus, 181 
 
 Dichrous, Arctomys, 94 
 
 Distoma hepaticum, 689 
 
 Deltocephalus, 601 
 
 Diclidurus, 39 
 
 Distomeae, 688 
 
 Demiegretta, 283 
 
 Dicotyles, 9, 135 
 
 Ditrema, 486 
 
 Demodex folliculorum, 547 
 
 Dicotylidae, 135 
 
 Divers, The, 254 
 
 Demodicidae, 517 
 
 Dicrocercus, 340 
 
 Diver, Black-throated, 254 
 
 Dendraeca, 365 
 
 Dicruridae, 361 
 
 Diver, Great northern, 254 
 
 Dendragapus, 231 
 
 Dicyemidae, 689 
 
 Diver, Red-throated, 254 
 
 Dandragapus obscurus, 231 
 
 Didactylus, Cycloturus, 184 
 
 Diver, White-billed, 254 
 
 Dendrelaphis, 422 
 
 Didelphyidae, 9, 210 
 
 Diving-ducks, The, 297 
 
 Dendrobates, 438 
 
 Didelphys, 211 
 
 Diving-duck, Stiff-tailed, 297 
 
 Dendrobates tinctorius, 438 
 
 Didelphys crassicaudata, 213 
 
 Diving petrel, 257 
 
 Dendrobatidse, 438 
 
 Didelphys marsupialis, 211 
 
 Docimastes ensiferas, 348 
 
 Dendroccela, 685 
 
 Didelphys opossum, 213 
 
 Docoglossa, 631 
 
 Dendrocolaptidse, 375 
 
 Didelphys velutina, 213 
 
 Dodo, The, 246 
 
 Dendrocopus, 354 
 
 Didi, 242 
 
 Dogs, The, 63 
 
 Dendrocygna, 296 
 
 Didunculus, 245 
 
 Dog, Azara's, 69 
 
 Dendrogale, 44 
 
 Didunculus strigirostris, 245 
 
 Dog, Bush, 74 
 
 Dendrolagus, 195 
 
 Didus, 245 
 
 Dog, Crab-eating, 69 
 
 Dendrolagus bennettianus, 195 
 
 Didus ineptus, 246 
 
 Dog, Hunting-, Cape, 73 
 
 Dendromys, 101 
 
 Dieffenlachii, Cabalus, 249 
 
 Dog, Prairie-, 92 
 
 Dendromyinae, 101 
 
 Dimyaria, 618 
 
 Dog, Racoon, 69 
 
 Dendrophis, 422 
 Dendrophryniscidae, 441 
 
 Dingo, 66 
 Dingo, Canis, 66 
 
 Dog tribe, The, 63 
 Dog-faced baboons, 22 
 
 Dendrophryniscus, 441 
 
 Dinomys, 115 
 
 Dog-fish, 518 
 
 Dendrositta, 368 
 
 Dinoponera grandis, 579 
 
 Dog-fishes, Spiny, 519 
 
 Dendrosoma, 722 
 Dentalium shell, 629 
 
 Dinornithidaa, 224 
 Dinornithiformes, 221 
 
 Dog-flea, 609 
 Dog-periwinkle, 637 
 
 Deomys, 104 
 
 Diodontidse, 489 
 
 Dog-whelks, 637 
 
 Depressa, Libellula, 569 
 
 Diomedea, 258 
 
 Dolichotis, 115 
 
 Depressicornis, Bos, 162 
 
 Diomedea exulans, 258 
 
 Doliidae, 636 
 
 Derbian screamer, 290 
 
 Diomedeidae, 257 
 
 Doliolum tritonis, 527 
 
 Derbianus, Oreophasis, 229 
 
 Diomediae, Psolus, 661 
 
 Dolomedes fimbriatus, 543 
 
 Derbinse, 600 
 
 Dione, Cytherea, 625 
 
 Dolphins, 169 
 
 Derby's guan, 229 
 
 Diotocardia, 631 
 
 Dolphin, Amazonian, 178 
 
 Dermatemys, 389 
 
 Diphylla, 41 
 
 Dolphins, Fresh water, 177 
 
 Dermestes, 556 
 
 Diphylla ecaudata, 42 
 
 Dolphin, Gangetic, 177 
 
 Dermestes lardarius, 556 
 
 Diplocrepis, 482 
 
 Dolphin, Heaviside's, 179 
 
 Dermochelyidae, 391 
 
 Diploglossus, 405 
 
 Dolphin, Irawadi, 179 
 
 Dermochelys coriacea, 391 
 
 Diplomesodon pulchellus, 46 
 
 Dolphin, La Plata, 178 
 
 Desert-chough, 358 
 
 Diplomystus, 507 
 
 Dolphin, Risso's, 180 
 
 Desert fox, 73 
 
 Diploptera, 580 
 
 Dolphin, Rough-toothed, 181 
 
 Desert larks, 364 
 
 Diplopterinaa, 351 
 
 Dolphins, True, 181 
 
 Desmans, The, 47 
 
 Diplosis tritici, 603 
 
 Domestica, Musca, 07 
 
 Desman, Pyrenean, 47 
 
 Diplozoon paradoxum, 688 
 
 Domesticus, Gryllus, 567 
 
 Desman Russian 47 
 
 Dipueumoues, 542 
 
 Dominicus, Charadrius, 270 
 
INDEX. 
 
 739 
 
 Donacidse, 625 
 
 Duke of Burgundy Fritillary, 
 
 Echiurus, 678 
 
 Donax, 625 
 
 586 
 
 Ectopistinae migratoria, 244 
 
 Dondersiidse, 616 
 
 Dulitensis rhizothera, 233 
 
 Edentata, 181 
 
 Dorab, 506 
 
 Dung beetles, 557 
 
 Edible arthropoda, 530 
 
 Dorab, Chirocentrus, F;06 
 
 Dupetor, 284 
 
 Edible crab, 538 
 
 Dorca kangaroos, 194 
 
 Dusky capercailzies, 231 
 
 Edible frog, 436 
 
 Dorcatherium, 139 
 
 Dusky rail, 249 
 
 Edible swiftlets, The, 346 
 
 Dorcatragus, 153 
 
 Duvauceli, Cervus, 143 
 
 Edouardi, Guttera, 240 
 
 Dorcopsis, 194 
 
 Dwarf geese, 294 
 
 Edulis, Mytilus, 621 
 
 Dorite, Ervthrotriorchis, 312 
 
 Dwarf tiger bittern, 284 
 
 Edwardsia, 702 
 
 Doridiidfe, 640 
 
 Dynastes hercules, 558 
 
 Edwardsia carnea, 704 
 
 Doridoidea, 641 
 
 Dyscophidse, 439 
 
 Edwardsi, Eupodotis, 275 
 
 Dormouse-phalanger, 202 
 
 Dysporus bassanus, 299 
 
 Eels, The, 493 
 
 Dormouse tribe, The, 99 
 
 Dytiscidse, 555 
 
 Eel, Electric, 495 
 
 Dorsalis, Bathythrissa, 506 
 
 Dytiscus, 555 
 
 Eel, Glass, 494 
 
 Doryichthys, 488 
 
 Dytiscus marginalis, 556 
 
 Eel, Serpent, 494 
 
 Dotterel, 270 
 
 
 Eel, Spiny, 478 
 
 Dotterel, True, 271 
 
 
 Eel tribe, The, 493 
 
 Double-toothed falcon, 318 
 
 E. 
 
 Eel, True, 478 
 
 Dougalli, Sterna, 261 
 
 
 Eel, Paste, 679 
 
 Douroucoulis, 26 
 
 Eagles, The, 313 
 
 Eel, Vinegar, 79 
 
 Douroucouli, Three striped, 
 
 Eagle, Bald, 315 
 
 Eel, Wheat, 679 
 
 26 
 
 Eagle, Bateleur, 315 
 
 Effodientia, 188 
 
 Doves, The, 244 
 
 Eagle, Bearded, 313 
 
 Egg-eating snake, 422 
 
 Dove, Cuckoo-. 244 
 
 Eagle, Birds'-nesting, 315 
 
 Egg-laying mammals, 214 
 
 Dove, Rock-, 244 
 
 Eagle, Black, 315 
 
 Egg-urchin, 659 
 
 Dove, Ring-, 244 
 
 Eagle, Bonelli's, 315 
 
 Egret, Little, 283 
 
 Dove, Stock-, 244 
 Dove, Turtle-, 244 
 
 Eagle, Booted, 315 
 Eagle, Crested, 315 
 
 Egyptian asp, 424 
 Egyptian crocodile, 381 
 
 Dove, Turtle-, British, 244 
 
 Eagle, Golden, 314 
 
 Egyptian sacred beetle, 557 
 
 Dove, Turtle-, Cream-coloured, 
 
 Eagle, Imperial, 314 
 
 Egyptian vulture, 306 
 
 245 
 
 Eagle, Sea, 315 
 
 Eiders, The, 297 
 
 Downy owl, 324 
 
 Eagle, Serpent, 315 
 
 Eider, Steller's, 297 
 
 Draco volans, 399 
 
 Eagle, Spotted, 314 
 
 Eighkrayed corals, 707 
 
 Dracunculus medinensis, 679 
 Dragon-fishes, 476 
 
 Eagle, Tawny, 314 
 Eagle, White-bellied Sea, 315 
 
 Elacate, 473 
 Elachistidse, 594 
 
 Dragonflies, 553, 569 
 
 Eagle, White-tailed, 315 
 
 Elseniinse, 373 
 
 Dreissensiidse, 623 
 
 Eagle-owls, The, 322 
 
 Eland bull, 156 
 
 Drilophaga bucephala, 683 
 
 Eagle-rays, 521 
 
 Elanoides furcatus, 316 
 
 Drinker moth, 590 
 
 Eared owls, 324 
 
 Elanus, 316 
 
 Dromades, 264 
 
 Eared pheasants, The, 236 
 
 Elapinse, 424 
 
 Dromedarius, Camelus, 136 
 Dromece, 223 
 
 Eared seals, 81 
 Eared vultures, The, 306 
 
 Elaphodus, 141 
 Elaps corallinus, 423 
 
 Dromeoa irroratus, 223 
 
 Earth-worms, 674 
 
 Elasmobranchii, 513 
 
 Dromece novae-hollandioe, 223 
 
 Earwigs, 563 
 
 Elateridse, 558 
 
 Dromicia, 202 
 
 Ecaudata, 435 
 
 Eldi, Cervus, 143 
 
 Dromiciops, 214 
 
 Ecaudata, Diphylla, 42 
 
 Eld's deer, 143 
 
 Dromornis, 224 
 
 Ecaudata, Pennula, 251 
 
 Electric centipede, 519 
 
 Drongos, The, 361 
 
 Ecaudatus, Centetes, 49 
 
 Electric eel, 495 
 
 Drongo, Black, 361 
 
 Echeneis, 473 
 
 Electricus, Gymnotus, 495 
 
 Drum, The, 468 
 
 Echidna aculeata, 217 
 
 Elegans, Galidia, 61 
 
 Drummer cockroach, 564 
 
 Echidna, Bruijn's, 217 
 
 Elegans, Nectogale, 47 
 
 Dryophis, 423 
 
 Echidna, Five-toed, 217 
 
 Elegans, Testudo, 386 
 
 Dryopithecus, 14 
 
 Echidnas, 216 
 
 Elegant mungoose, 61 
 
 Drymornis bridges!, 375 
 Duck-bill, 215 
 
 Echidnidse, 216 
 Echinocardium cordatum, 6J9 
 
 Elephant, African, 123 
 Elephant family, The, 119 
 
 Duck-mole, 215 
 
 Eclrinococcus, Taenai, 688 
 
 Elephant, Indian, 119 
 
 Ducks, The, 293 
 
 Echinoderma, 653 
 
 Elephant seal, 87 
 
 Duck, Comb, 293 
 
 Echinoidea, 659 
 
 Elephantidse, 119 
 
 Duck, Ulving, 297 
 
 Echinomys, 112 
 
 Elephant's-tooth shells, 628 
 
 Duck, Long-tailed, 297 
 
 Echinops, 49 
 
 Elephas, 118 
 
 Duck, Mandarin, 294 
 Duck, Pink-headed, 294 
 
 Echinorhinus, 519 
 Echinorhynchus, 681 
 
 Elephas africanus, 123 
 Elephas indicus, 119 
 
 Duck, Sheld, 296 
 
 Echinorhynchus angustatus, 682 
 
 Elephus, Cervus, 143 
 
 Duck, Steamer, 297 
 
 Echinorhynchus gigas, 681 
 
 Eliomys, 99 
 
 Duck, Summer, 294 
 
 Echinorhynchus polymorphus, 
 
 Eliurus, 102 
 
 Duck, Tree, 296 
 
 682 
 
 Elk, 145 
 
 Duck, True, The, 296 
 
 Echinorhynchus proteus, 682 
 
 Ellioti, Callophasis, 238 
 
 Duck, Wild, 296 
 
 Echinothrix, 106 
 
 Ellobius, 104 
 
 Dugongs, 165 
 
 Echinus, 659 
 
 Elops, 507 
 
 Dugong halicore, 167 
 
 Echiostoma, 505 
 
 Elseya, 393 
 
 Duikerboks, 151 
 
 Echis, 427 
 
 Elvers, 494 
 
740 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Elysioidea, 641 
 
 Erinaceus, 45 
 
 Eurypygse, 276 
 
 Emarginula, 631 
 
 Erinaceus europaeus, 45 
 
 Eurypyga helias, 276 
 
 Emballonura, 39 
 
 Hriomys, 113 
 
 Eurypyga major, 276 
 
 Emballonuridae, 38 
 
 Erismatura, 297 
 
 Eurystomina, Pseudochelidon, 
 
 Emberiza cirlus, 364 
 
 Erismaturinae, 297 
 
 369 
 
 Emberiza citrinella, 364 
 
 Eristalis tenax, 606 
 
 Eurystomus, 335 
 
 Emberiza hortulana, 364 
 
 Erithecus, Psittacus, 330 
 
 Eurystomus calonyx, 335 
 
 Emberizinae, 363 
 
 Ermine, 81 
 
 Eusiferus, Docimastes, ;-,48 
 
 Emperor fish, 465 
 
 Ermine moths, 593 
 
 Euspongia officinalis, 693 
 
 Emperor moth, 589 
 
 Erminea, Mustela, 81 
 
 Eustephanus, Cervus, 143 
 
 Emperor penguin, 255 
 
 Errantia, 672 
 
 Euthyneura, 6H9 
 
 Emphyodontes, 408 
 
 Erycinidae, 624 
 
 Eutolmaetus, 315 
 
 Empidae, 606 
 
 Erythacus rubeculi, 370 
 
 Eutolmaetus fasciatns. 315 
 
 Emu, The, 223 
 
 Erythrinidae, 500 
 
 Entolrnaetus pennatus, 315 
 
 Emu, Common, 223 
 
 Erythrinus, 501 
 
 Euxenura maguari, 280 
 
 Emu, Spotted, 223 
 
 Erythrocnema, 310 
 
 Evania, 577 
 
 Emyda, 395 
 
 Erythrocnema unicincta, 310 
 
 Evaniidse, 576 
 
 Emydura, 393 
 
 Erythrogaster, Hirundo, 373 
 
 Evotomys, 103 
 
 Emys orbicularis, 388 
 
 Erythromachus, 251 
 
 Excalfactoria, 235 
 
 Encheliophis, 491 
 
 Erythrophthalmus, Coccyzus, 
 
 Excalfactoria adansoni, 235 
 
 Endodontidse, 643 
 
 351 
 
 Exclamationis, Agrotis, 591 
 
 Endrina, 29 
 
 Erythrorhynchus, Pelecanus, 
 
 Excubitor, Lanius, 3(J9 
 
 Endynamis, 350 
 
 302 
 
 Exoccetus, 479 
 
 English puffin, 260 
 
 Erythrotriorchis, 312 
 
 Exomegas, 524 
 
 Engraulis, 507 
 
 Erythrotriorchis doria?, 312 
 
 Expansa, Podocnemis, 393 
 
 Engystomatidse, 438 
 
 Erythrotriorchis radiatus, 312 
 
 Exquisita, Ortygops, 252 
 
 Engystomops, 441 
 
 Eryx, 420 
 
 Extinct birds of Patagonia, 278 
 
 Entellus, Semnopithecus, 20 
 
 Esacus recurvfrostris, 273 
 
 Exulans, Diomedea, 258 
 
 Enteropneusta, 528 
 
 Esculenta, Rana, 436 
 
 Eyra, South American, 55 
 
 Entomophaga, 576 
 
 Esocidae, 502 
 
 Eyra felis, 55 
 
 Entomostraca, 531 
 
 Esox, 502 
 
 
 Enygrus, 420 
 
 Esox lucius, 502 
 
 
 Eos, 328 
 
 Estrilda, 362 
 
 F. 
 
 Eos rubiginosa, 328 
 
 Etroplus, 487 
 
 
 Epanorthidae, 204 
 
 Eublepharidae, 398 
 
 Fabalia, Anser, 295 
 
 Epanorthus, 204 
 
 Euchloe cardamines, 586 
 
 Faber, Zeus, 471 
 
 Epauletted fruit-bats, 35 
 
 Euchore, Gazella, 153 
 
 Fairy fly, 577 
 
 Epeira diadema, 544 
 
 Euchoretes, 110 
 
 Fairy pink armadillos. 1S8 
 
 Epeiridae, 544 
 
 Eudromias, *71 
 
 Faicinellus, Plegadis, 288 
 
 Ephemeridae, 571 
 
 Eudromias morinellus, 271 
 
 Falco, 319 
 
 Ephemera vulgata, 571 
 
 Eudyptila minor, 255 
 
 Falco sesalon. 320 
 
 Ephippium, Anomia, 621 
 
 Euglena, 718 
 
 Falco feldeggii, 319 
 
 Ephippium, Testudo, 387 
 
 Eulabes, 360 
 
 Falco peregrinus, 319 
 
 Ephippodonta, 624 
 
 Eulabetidae, 360 
 
 Falco subbuteo, 319 
 
 Epicrates, 419 
 
 Eulamellibranchiata, 623 
 
 Falcon, Cuckoo, 317 
 
 Epicriniops, 454 
 
 Eulimidse, 633 
 
 Falcon, Double-toothed, 318 
 
 Epimachinae, 359 
 
 Eulipoa, 228 
 
 Falcon, Juggur, 319 
 
 Epimachus, 359 
 
 Eulipoa wallacii, 228 
 
 Falcon, Peregrine, 319 
 
 Episcopalis, Mitra, 638 
 
 Eumomota, 341 
 
 Falcon, True, 317 
 
 Episcopus, Dissura, 280 
 
 Eunectes murinus. 420 
 
 Falcon-kite, Grey, 318 
 
 Epomophorus, 35 
 
 Eunice gigantea, 673 
 
 Falcon eri, Capra, 159 
 
 Epops, Upupa, 340 
 
 Eupetaurus, 95 
 
 Falconets, The. 319 
 
 Equatorial flying-squirrel, 90 
 
 Euplectella, 693 
 
 Falconidse, 305 
 
 Eques alexanor, 587 
 
 Eupleres goudoti, 61 
 
 Falconinse, 307, 317 
 
 Eques machaon, 587 
 
 Euplcea, 583 
 
 Fallow deer, 144 
 
 Equidae, 127 
 
 Eupodotis australis, 275 
 
 False vampire bats, 36 
 
 Equinus, Hippotragus, 153 
 
 Eupodotis edwardsi, 275 
 
 Famelicus, Canis, 73 
 
 Equitidae, 587 
 Equus, 127 
 
 Europaea, Talpa, 48 
 Europaeus, Caprimulgus, 342 
 
 Familiaris, Certhia, 366 
 Famosa, Nectarinia, 366 
 
 Equus asinus, 129 
 
 Europaeus, Erinaceus. 45 
 
 Fan-tailed flycatchers, 373 
 
 Equus burchelli, 128 
 
 Europaeus, Lepus, 118 
 
 Fasciatus, Bungarus, 424 
 
 Equus caballus, 128 
 
 European bison, 162 
 
 Fasciatus, Crossarchus, 61 
 
 Equus grevyi, 1-28 
 
 European horned-lark, 3G4 
 
 Fasciatus, Eutolmaatus, 315 
 
 Equus hemionus, 129 
 
 European tree-frog, 442 
 
 Fasciatus, Lagostrophus, 196 
 
 Equus prezevalskii, 128 
 
 Eurostopodus, 334 
 
 Fasciatus, Myrmecobius, 209 
 
 Equus quagga, 129 
 
 Eurybiidse, 640 
 
 Fasciolariidifi, 637 
 
 Equus zebra, 128 
 
 Euryceros, 360 
 
 Feather-Star, Crawling, 6C4 
 
 Erethizon, 113 
 
 Euryceros prevosti, "60 
 
 Feldeggii, Falco, 319 
 
 Ericulus, 49 
 
 Eurylsemi, 356 
 
 Felidae, 5* 
 
 Ericulus setosus, 49 
 
 Eurylaemus, 356 
 
 Felis. 52 
 
 Ericulus telfairi, 49 
 
 Eurylajmus javanicus, 356 
 
 Felis badia, 55 
 
 Erinaceidaa, 44 
 
 Eurynorhynchus pygmseus, 269 
 
 Felis bengalensis, 55 
 
INDEX. 
 
 741 
 
 Felis caff ra, 55 
 
 Flammea, Strix, 321 
 
 Fornicata, Gastracantha, 544 
 
 Felis canadensis, 56 
 
 Flat-fishes, 492 
 
 Forsteni, Meropogon, 341 
 
 Felis caracal, 55 
 
 Flat worms, 685 
 
 Fossa, 56 
 
 Felis catus, 55 
 
 Flata circulata, 600 
 
 Fossa daubentoni, 57 
 
 Felis chaus, 55 
 
 Flatinse, 600 
 
 Fossaridae, 635 
 
 Felis concolor, 53 
 
 Flavescens, Canis, 71 
 
 Fossores, 579 
 
 Felis eyra, 55 
 
 Flavicollis, Mus, 105 
 
 Fosteri, Ortaria, 82 
 
 Felis leo, 53 
 
 Flavigula, Mustela, 80 
 
 Fountain shell, 636 
 
 Felis lynx, 56 
 
 Flavirostris, Phreton. 298 
 
 Four-horned antelope, 151 
 
 Felis marmorata, 55 
 
 Flavirostris, Rhynchops, 262 
 
 Four-toed mungooses, 60 
 
 Felis nebulosa, 55 
 
 Flea, Water, 534 
 
 Fox-like animals, 69 
 
 Felis onca, 53 
 
 Fleas, 609 
 
 Fox, Arctic, 73 
 
 Felis pardalis, 55 
 
 Flesh-eating mammals, 50 
 
 Fox, Common, 71 
 
 Felis pardina, 56 
 
 Fleshy corals, 701 
 
 Fox, Bengal, 73 
 
 Felis pardus, 53 
 
 Flies, 553, 602 
 
 Fox, Black, 71 
 
 Felis serval, 55 
 
 Flies, Blue-bottle, COS 
 
 Fox, Corsac, 73 
 
 Felis tigrina. 55 
 
 Flies, Bot, 606 
 
 Fox, Cross, 71 
 
 Felis tigris, 53 
 
 Flies. Caddis, 572 
 
 Fox, Desert, 73 
 
 Felis uncia, 53 
 
 Flies, Crane, 604 
 
 Fox, Japanese, 73 
 
 Fennecs, 73 
 
 Flies, Gad, 605 
 
 Fox, Kit-, 72 
 
 Fennec, Lalande's, 74 
 
 Flies, Gall, 576 
 
 Fox, Long-eared, 73 
 
 Ferox, Cryptoprocta, 56 
 
 Flies. House, 607 
 
 Fox, Mountain, 71 
 
 Ferret-badgers, 80 
 
 Flies, Lace-winged, 571 
 
 Fox, Nile, 71 
 
 Ferrilatus, Canis, 73 
 
 Flies, Lantern, 599 
 
 Fox, Red, 71 
 
 Feylinia, 411 
 
 Flies, May, 571 
 
 Fox, Tibetan, 73 
 
 Fiber, Castor, 96 
 
 Flies, Rohber, 605 
 
 Fox, Virginian, 72 
 
 Fiber ziberthicus, 103 
 
 Flies, Sand, 604 
 
 Fox, Yellow, 71 
 
 Ficedula atricapilla, 372 
 
 Flies, Saw, 574 
 
 Fox-bats, 35 
 
 Fiddler beetle, 555 
 
 Flies, Smother, 601 
 
 Fox-shark, 517 
 
 Field cricket, 567 
 
 Flies, Stone, 571 
 
 Fragilis anguis, 404 
 
 Fieldfare, 371 
 
 Florida limpkin, 275 
 
 Francolin, Bare-throated, 233 
 
 Field -starling, 360 
 
 Floscularia coronetta, 682 
 
 Francolin, Common, 233 
 
 Field -vole, 103 
 
 Flounder, The, 492 
 
 Francolin, Hose's long-billed, 
 
 Field wagtail, 365 
 
 Flower-nosed bat, 36 
 
 233 
 
 Fierasfer, 491 
 
 Flower- peckers, The, 367 
 
 Francolin, Long-billed, 233 
 
 Fierce snakes, 4?2 
 
 Fluke-worms, 688 
 
 Francolinus francolinus, 233 
 
 Fighting fish, Siamese, 483 
 
 Kluminalis, Orcella, 179 
 
 Fratercula artica, 260 
 
 Filaria sanguinis-hominis, 680 
 
 Flustra foliacea, 665 
 
 Free-swimming holothurian, 
 
 File-fishes, 489 
 
 Flute-mouths, 481 
 
 661 
 
 Filibranchiata, 621 
 
 Fluviatibis, Tachybaptes, 253 
 
 Free-tailed bats, 38 
 
 Fimbriata, Chelys, 392 
 Fimbriatus, Dolomedes, 543 
 
 Fluviatile, Petromyzum, 524 
 Fluviatilis, Sterna, 261 
 
 Fregata aquila, 303 
 Fregati, 298 
 
 Finch-larks, 364 
 
 Fly, Candle, 599 
 
 Fregilinae, 358 
 
 Finches, The, 363 
 
 Fly, Fairy, 577 
 
 Fresh- water leech, 677 
 
 Finfeet, The, 252 
 
 Fly, Ichneumon, 577 
 
 Fresh-water mites, 545 
 
 Finfoot, Senegal, 252 
 
 Fly, Swallow, 608 
 
 Fresh -water polyp, 694 
 
 Finfoot, South Ameiican, 252 
 
 Fly, Tse-tse, 608 
 
 Frigate-birds, The, 303 
 
 Finners, 173 
 
 Flycatchers, The, 372 
 
 Frigate-birds, Great, 303 
 
 Finta, Clupea, 507 
 
 Flycatcher, Common, 372 
 
 Frilled lizard, 399 
 
 Fin-whale, 173 
 
 Flycatcher, Fan-tailed, 373 
 
 Fringe-tinned ganoids, 512 
 
 Fin-whale, Lesser. 174 
 
 Flycatcher, Paradise, 373 
 
 Fringed gecko, 398 
 
 Fire backed pheasant, 236 
 
 Flycatcher, Pied, 372 
 
 Fringilla cselebs, 363 
 
 Fire-bellied frog, 444 
 
 Flying-fish, 480 
 
 FringillidiB, 363 
 
 Fire crest, 369 
 
 Flying frog, 437 
 
 Fringillinae, 363 
 
 Fire-flies, 559 
 
 Flying gurnard, 476 
 
 Fringing reef, The, 709 
 
 Fire fly, Italian, 559 
 Firmisternia, 436 
 
 Flying-lemur, 43 
 Flying lizard, 399 
 
 Fritillaries, 585 
 Fritillary, Duke of Burgundy. 
 
 Fish-eating kingfisher, 336 
 
 Flying-phalanger, 202 
 
 586 
 
 Fish-eating rats, 102 
 
 Fodiens, Crossopus, 46 
 
 Frogs and toads, 435 
 
 Fish-owl, Brown, 321 
 
 Foina, Mustela, 80 
 
 Frog, Agile, 436 
 
 Fish, Pilot, 471 
 
 Foliacea, Flustra, 665 
 
 Frog, Bull, 437 
 
 Fish, Scabbard, 470 
 
 Folius, Polyodon, 511 
 
 Frog, Common, 436 
 
 Fishing frog, 475 
 
 Folliculorum, Demodex, 547 
 
 Frog, Darwin's, 439 
 
 Fishing hawks, 320 
 
 Foraminifera, The, 7J5 
 
 Frog, Edible, 436 
 
 Fishing owl, Pel's, 321 
 
 Forficata, Myrmecia, 579 
 
 Frog, Fire-bellied, 444 
 
 Fishing owls, 321 
 
 Forficatus, Lithobius, 548 
 
 Frog, Flying, 437 
 
 Fissurellidse, 631 
 
 ForSculidaj, 563 
 
 Frog, Grasshopper, 443 
 
 Fistularia, 481 
 
 Fork-tailed gull, 262 
 
 Frog, Horned, 441 
 
 Five-toed echidna, 217 
 
 Fork-tailed petrel, 257 
 
 Frog, Lataste's, 436 
 
 Flagellata, The, 718 
 
 Formica rufa, 579 
 
 Frog, Midwife, 443 
 
 Flagellate Colonies, 718 
 Flamingoes, The, 288 
 
 Formicariidse, 372 
 Foruiicidse, 579 
 
 Frog, Painted, 444 
 Frog, Pouched, 443 
 
742 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Frog, Solomon Island, 437 
 
 Galidia elegans, 61 
 
 Gazelle, Clarke's, 153 
 
 Frog, Spanish, 436 
 
 Gall-flies, 576 
 
 Gazelle, Waller's, 153 
 
 Frogs, Spur-toed, 444 
 
 Gall-gnats, 603 
 
 Gecinus, 354 
 
 Frog, Tree-, 442 
 
 Gall-mites, 546 
 
 Geckos, 397 
 
 Frogs, Typical, 436 
 
 Gall-parasites, 573 
 
 Gecko, Fringed, 393 
 
 Frog-fishes, 474 
 
 Gallicolse, 575 
 
 Gecko, Turkish, 397 
 
 Frog-hoppers, 594, 598 
 
 Gallicus, Circaetus. 315 
 
 Gecko, Wall, 398 
 
 Frog-mouths, The, 333 
 
 Gallicus, Cursorius, 272 
 
 Geckonidae, 397 
 
 Frontalis, Bos, 164 
 
 Galliformes, 226 
 
 Geese, The, 292 
 
 Frontatus, Steno, 181 
 
 Gallinago, 268 
 
 Geese, Blue-winged, 295 
 
 Frugilegus, Trypancorax, 358 
 
 Gallinago aucklandica, 268 
 
 Geese, Brent, 295 
 
 Fruit bats, 34 
 
 Gallinago australis, 268 
 
 Geese, Grey, 295 
 
 Fruit pigeons, The, 242 
 
 Gallinago gallinago, 268 
 
 Geese, Magellanic, 295 
 
 Frumentarius, Cricetus, 101 
 
 Gallinago gigantea, 268 
 
 Geese, Snow, 295 
 
 Fulgens, yElurus, 75 
 
 Gallinago imperialis, 268 
 
 Geese, Spur-winged, 293 
 
 Fulgora laternaria, 599 
 
 Gallinago jamesoni, 268 
 
 Geese, The true, 295 
 
 Fulgoridae, 599 
 
 Gallinago major, 268 
 
 Gegenophis, 455 
 
 Fulica, Heliornis, 252 
 
 Gallinago megala, 268 
 
 Gelada baboons, 22 
 
 Fulicarius, Crymophilus, 266 
 
 Gallinago nemoricola, 268 
 
 Gelada, Theropithecus, 22 
 
 Fulicidae, 248 
 
 Gallinago pusilla, 268 
 
 Gelasimus, 538 
 
 Fuligula, 297 
 
 Gallinago stenura, 268 
 
 Gemonensis, Zamenis, 422 
 
 Fuligulinae, 297 
 
 Gallinago undulata, 268 
 
 Gemsbok, 153 
 
 Fuliginosa, Sterna, 262 
 
 Gallinula chloropus, 252 
 
 Gemze, 156 
 
 Fuliginosus, Hyracodon, 204 
 
 Gallinula, Limnocryptes, 268 
 
 Genets, 58 
 
 Fulmars, The, 258 
 
 Gallinulidse, 248 
 
 Genetta, 58 
 
 Fulmar, Petrel, 258 
 
 Gallopavo, Meleagris, 240 
 
 Gennaeus, 236 
 
 Fulmarinae, 258 
 
 Gallus, 238 
 
 Gentle lemur, 30 
 
 Fulmaris glacialis, 258 
 
 Gamasidae, 545 
 
 Geocichla, 370 
 
 Fulvimitrella tinea, 593 
 
 Gamasus, 545 
 
 Geococeyx, 351 
 
 Fulvus, Canis, 71 
 
 Game-birds, The, 226 
 
 Geocolaptes, 354 
 
 Fungia, 705 
 
 Gamma moth, 591 
 
 Geodephaga, 554 
 
 Fungosa, Aleyonella, 669 
 
 Gamma, Plusia, 591 
 
 Geoemyda, 387 
 
 Furcata, Xema, 262 
 
 Gammaridae, 535 
 
 Geoffroyensis, Inia, 178 
 
 Furcatus, Elanoides, 316 
 
 Gammarus pulex, 682 
 
 Geogale, 48 
 
 Furnariinae, 375 
 
 Gangetic dolphin, 177 
 
 Geometrae, 592 
 
 Furva, Chalia, 589 
 
 Gangetica, Garialis, 382 
 
 Geometrica, Testudo, 380 
 
 Fuscicaudatus, Scaptonyx, 48 
 
 Gangetica, Platanista, 177 
 
 Geometridae, 582 
 
 Fuscus, Larus, 263 
 
 Gannets, The, 299 
 
 Geomyidae, 107 
 
 
 Ganoids, 462 
 
 Geomys bursarius, 109 
 
 
 Ganso, 293 
 
 Geonemertes, 684 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaper, 626 
 
 Geonemertes australiensis, 684 
 
 
 Garden snail (Helix), 643 
 
 Geonemertes novae-zelandiae, 
 
 Gad-flies, 605 
 
 Garden spiders, 544 
 
 684 
 
 Gadidae, 490 
 
 Garials, 382 
 
 Geonemertes palaensis, 684 
 
 Gad us seglefinus, 491 
 
 Garial, Schlegel's, 382 
 
 Geopeliinae, 244 
 
 Gadus merlangus, 491 
 Gadus morrhua, 491 
 
 Garial, True, 382 
 Garialis, 382 
 
 Geophilidae, 549 
 Geoplana australis, 686 
 
 Gadus pollachius, 491 
 
 Garialis gangetica, 382 
 
 Geopsittacus, 331 
 
 Gadus virens, 491 
 
 Gariepensis, Steatornis, 332 
 
 Georgian black grouse, 230 
 
 Galago, 30 
 
 Garpike, 479 
 
 Georychus, 107 
 
 Galago, Senegal, 30 
 
 Garrulus, 358 
 
 Geospiza, 363 
 
 Galago senegalensis, 30 
 
 Garrulus ampelis, 369 
 
 Geotria, 524 
 
 Galagos, 30 
 
 Garrulus, Coracias, 335 
 
 Geotrupes, 545 
 
 Galapagos sea-lizard, 402 
 
 Garrulus glandarius, 358 
 
 Geotrygoninae, 244 
 
 Galaxias, 504 
 
 Garzetta, 283 
 
 Geotrypetes, 455 
 
 Galaxiidse, 504 
 
 Garzetta garzetta, 283 
 
 Geotrypetes petersi, 455 
 
 Galbula melanogenaia, 355 
 Galbula, Oriolus, 361 
 
 Gastracantha fornicata, 544 
 Gastracanthidee, 544 
 
 Gephyrea, 677 
 Gephyrean worms, 677 
 
 Galbulidae, 355 
 
 Gastrochisina, 472 
 
 Geranospizias, 309 
 
 Galeodes arabs, 540 
 
 Gastrochaenidae, 627 
 
 Gerbil group, The, 101 
 
 Galeodes araneoides, 541 
 
 Gastropod Shell, Topography 
 
 Gerbillinfe, 101 
 
 Galeoides, 468 
 
 of, 630 
 
 Germanica, Phyllodromia, 564 
 
 Galeommidae, 624 
 Galeopithecidse, 43 
 
 Gastropoda, 629 
 Gastropteridae, 640 
 
 Germanicum, Polyzonium, 549 
 Gerrhonotus, 405 
 
 Galeopithecums volans, 43 
 
 Gastrosteidae, 480 
 
 Gerrhosauridse, 410 
 
 Galeopithecus, 43 
 
 Gastrosteiformes, 480 
 
 Ghost moth, 591 
 
 Galeoscoptes carolinensis, 372 
 
 Gastrosteus, 480 
 
 Giant armadillo, 187 
 
 Galericulata, M\, 294 
 
 Gaur, 164 
 
 Giant clam, 626 
 
 Galerita, 364 
 
 Gaurus, Bos, 164 
 
 Giant cobra, 424 
 
 Galeus, 516 
 
 Gayal, 164 
 
 Giant extinct lemur, 32 
 
 Galeus canis, 516 
 
 Gazella, 152 
 
 Giant humming-birds, 347 
 
 Galictis, 80 
 
 Gazella euchore, 153 
 
 Giant salamander, 450 
 
INDEX. 
 
 743 
 
 Gibbons, 18 
 
 Goat, Rocky Mountain, 157 
 
 Graphiurus, 99 
 
 Gibbon, Hainan, 19 
 
 Goatsucker, 342 
 
 Grass moth, 593 
 
 Gibbus, Zabrus, 555 
 
 Gobies, The, 476 
 
 Grass owls, 325 
 
 Gigantea, Eunice, 673 
 
 Gobiidse, 476 
 
 Grass warblers, 370 
 
 Gigantea, Gallinago, 268 
 
 Gobiiformes, 476 
 
 Grasshoppers, 568 
 
 Gigantea, Leguatia, 252 
 Gigantea, Ossifraga, 258 
 
 Gobio, 499 
 Gobioesocidse, 482 
 
 Grasshopper, Blue-winged, 568 
 Grasshopper, Long-horned, 567 
 
 Giganteus, Blaberus, 564 
 
 Gobioesociformes, 482 
 
 Grasshopper frog, 443 
 
 Giganteus, Cervus, 144 
 
 Gobioesox, 482 
 
 Grayi, Argusianus, 239 
 
 Giganteus, Macropus, 194 
 
 Gobius, 476 
 
 Grayling, 509 
 
 Gigantostraca, 538 
 
 Godwit, 269 
 
 Gray's argus, 239 
 
 Gigas, Arapaiina, 504 
 
 Gold-crests, The, 308 
 
 Great ant-eater, 184 
 
 Gigas, Dacelo, 337 
 
 Gold-crest, Common, 368 
 
 Great auk, The, 260 
 
 Gigas, Echinorhynchus, 681 
 
 Gold-fish, 498 
 
 Great-billed Rhea, 222 
 
 Gigas, Patagona, 347 
 
 Gold sinny, 486 
 
 Great black cockatoo, 328 
 
 Gigas, Priodon, 187 
 
 Golden bat, 38 
 
 Great black woodpecker, 354 
 
 Gigas, Rhytina, 168 
 
 Golden bird of Paradise, 359 
 
 Great bustard, 273 
 
 Gigas, Sirex, 575 
 
 Golden cuckoo, 350 
 
 Great-crested grebe, 253 
 
 Gigas, Strombus, 636 
 
 Golden eagle, 314 
 
 Great frigate-bird, 303 
 
 Gigas, Tridacna, 626 
 
 Golden eyes, The, 297 
 
 Great grey shrike, 369 
 
 Gillespie's sea-lion, 82 
 
 Golden fruit-pigeon, 243 
 
 Great honey-guide, 353 
 
 Gillespii, Otaria, 82 
 
 Golden-green beetle, 555 
 
 Great hornbill, 339 
 
 Gilt heads, 466 
 
 Golden marmot, 93 
 
 Great Japanese crab, 538 
 
 Ginginianus, Neophron, 306 
 
 Golden-moles, 50 
 
 Great mole-rat, 106 
 
 Giraffidfe, 147 
 
 Golden oriole, The, 361 
 
 Great northern diver, 254 
 
 Giraffa camelopardalis, 147 
 
 Golden plover, 271 
 
 Great sand-mole, 107 
 
 Giraffe family, The, 147 
 
 Golunda, 105 
 
 Great skuas, The, 263 
 
 Girdled lizards, 403 
 
 Gomphidse, 569 
 
 Great snipe, 268 
 
 Glacialis, Colymbus, 254 
 
 Gonatidse, 646 
 
 Great spotted cuckoo, 350 
 
 Glacialis, Fulmaris, 258 
 
 Gonorhynchidse, 505 
 
 Great tinamou, 226 
 
 Gladiator, Orca, 180 
 
 Gonorhynchus greyi, 505 
 
 Great tit, 367 
 
 Gladius, Psephurus, 511 
 
 Goosander, 297 
 
 Great vampire, 41 
 
 Glandarius, Coccystes, 350 
 
 Goose barnacles, 533 
 
 Great water-beetle, 557 
 
 Glandarius, Garrulus, 358 
 
 Goose, The, 294 
 
 Greater black-backed gull, 263 
 
 Glanis, Silurus, 496 
 
 Goose, Bean, 295 
 
 Greater horse shoe bat, 36 
 
 Glareolse, 272 
 
 Goose, Cereopsis, 294 
 
 Greaved lizards, 407 
 
 Glareola pratincola, 272 
 
 Goose, Dwarf, 294 
 
 Grebes, The, 253 
 
 Glareolus, Microtus, 103 
 
 Goose, Knobbed, 293 
 
 Grebe, Great-crested, 253 
 
 Glass eels, 494 
 
 Goose, Maned, 295 
 
 Grebe, Little, The, 254 
 
 Glass rope sponge, 693 
 
 Goose, Pink-footed, 295 
 
 Grebe, Sclavonian, 253 
 
 Glaucidium, 324 
 
 Goose, Red-breasted, 295 
 
 Grecian tortoise, 386 
 
 Glaucidium brodiei, 324 
 
 Goose, Semipalmated, 293 
 
 Greek partridge, 232 
 
 Glaucidium gnoma, 324 
 
 Goose, White-fronted, 295 
 
 Green-bottle, 608 
 
 Glaucidium pygmaeum, S24 
 
 Gophers, 91 
 
 Green fruit-pigeon, 242 
 
 Glaucomyidse, 625 
 
 Gopher, Striped, 92 
 
 Green hairstreak, 586 
 
 Glauconia, 417 
 
 Goral, 157 
 
 Green kingfisher, 336 
 
 Glauconiidae, 417 
 
 Gordius, 680 
 
 Green lizard, 409 
 
 Glaucus, Carcharias, 516 
 
 Gorilla, 15 
 
 Green monkey, 21 
 
 Glis, Myoxus, 99 
 
 Gorilla, Dentition of, 6 
 
 Green oak tortrix, 593 
 
 Globator, Volvox, 719 
 
 Gorilla savagei, 15 
 
 Green sandpiper, 269 
 
 Globe-bearers, 716 
 
 Gorsachius, 284 
 
 Green-tailed lory, 328 
 
 Globicera, 243 
 
 Gos-hawk, Chanting, 310 
 
 Green tiger-beetle, 554 
 
 Globigerina, 716 
 
 Gos hawk, Common, 310 
 
 Green toad, 442 
 
 Globiocephalns melas, 180 
 
 Gos-hawk, Red-thighed, 310 
 
 Green turtle, 391 
 
 Glochidium, 623 
 
 Gos-hawk, White, 311 
 
 Green woodpecker, 354 
 
 Glomeridae, 550 
 
 Goudoti, Eupleres, 61 
 
 Greenfinch, Common, 363 
 
 Glossina moristans, 608 
 
 Goura, 245 
 
 Greenland jer-falcon, The, 319 
 
 Glossophaga, 41 
 
 Goura coronata, 245 
 
 Greenland-whale, 172 
 
 Glossy ibis, 288 
 
 Gracilaria syringella, 594 
 
 Greenland seal, 85 
 
 Glossy starling, 360 
 
 Graculus, 358 
 
 Greenland shark, 519 
 
 Glow-worms, 559 
 Glutinosus, Ichthyophis, 453 
 
 Graculus graculus, 358 
 Graculus, Phalacrocorax, 299 
 
 Greenlets, The, 370 
 Gregarinae, The, 720 
 
 Glutton, 81 
 
 Graeca, Testudo, 386 
 
 Grevyi, Equus, 128 
 
 Glycimeris, 626 
 
 Graffila, 685 
 
 Grevy's zebra, 128 
 
 Glyptodonts, 9 
 
 Grakles, Wattled, 360 
 
 Grey geese, 295 
 
 Gmelini, Ovis. 160 
 
 Grallarius, Burhinus, 273 
 
 Grey kangaroo, Great, 194 
 
 Gnathobdellidse, 675 
 
 Grampus griseus, 180 
 
 Grey kite-falcon, 318 
 
 Gnats, 603 
 
 Grampuses, 179 
 
 Grey lag-goose, 295 
 
 Gnoma, Glaucidium, 324 
 
 Grandis, Dinoponera, 579 
 
 Grey mullet, 479 
 
 Gnus, 150 
 
 Grandis, Leucospis, 576 
 
 Grey parrot, 330 
 
 Goat moth, 590 
 
 Grandis, Nyctibius, 344 
 
 Grey phalarope, 260 
 
 Goat, Persian wild, 159 
 
 Grandis, Phryganea, 572 
 
 Grey plover, 271 
 
744 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Grey wagtail, 365 
 
 Gull, Little, 263 
 
 Haliaetus leucogaster, 315 
 
 Grey-whale, 172 
 
 Gull, Ross's, 262 
 
 Haliaetus leucoryphus, 32 
 
 Greyi, Gonorhynchus, 505 
 
 Gull, Sabine's, 262 
 
 Haliaetus, Pandion, 320 
 
 Griffon, The, 306 
 
 Gull, True, 262 
 
 Haliaetus vocifer, 315 
 
 Griseum, Acanthosoma, 595 
 
 Gulo, Aulostomum, 676 
 
 Haliastur, 316 
 
 Griseus, Grampus, 180 
 
 Gulo luscus, 81 
 
 Haliastur indus, 316 
 
 Grisola, Muscicapa, 372 
 
 Gumbi owl, 321 
 
 Halibut, 492 
 
 Grizzled skipper, 588 
 
 Gundi, 111 
 
 Halichaerus grypus, 85 
 
 Grizzly bear, 75 
 
 Gunni, Perameles, 206 
 
 Halicore dugong, 167 
 
 Groenlandica, Phoca, 85 
 
 Gunn's bandicoot, 206 
 
 Halicoridae, 165 
 
 Gromia oviformis, 715 
 
 Guppyi, Rana, 437 
 
 Haliotidae, 632 
 
 Groove-toothed mice, 105 
 
 Gurami, 483 
 
 Hallomys, 102 
 
 Groove-toothed squirrel, 91 
 
 Gurnard, Beaked, 476 
 
 Halobates, 597 
 
 Groove-toothed vole, 103 
 
 Gurnard, Common, 475 
 
 Halys vipers, 429 
 
 Grosbeaks, 363 
 
 Gurnard, Flying, 476 
 
 Hamiltoni, Damonia, 388 
 
 Grosbeaks, Cardinal, 363 
 
 Guttata, Percopsis, 509 
 
 Hammer-head stork, 281 
 
 Grossulariata, Abraxas, 592 
 
 Guttera, 240 
 
 Hammer-headed oyster, 622 
 
 Ground-beetles, 555 
 
 Guttera cristata, 240 
 
 Hamsters, 101 
 
 Ground hornbills, 339 
 
 Guttera edouardi, 240 
 
 Hamster, True, 101 
 
 Ground parrot, 331 
 
 Guttera pucherani, 240 
 
 Hang-nests, The, 361 
 
 Ground pigeons, The, 244 
 
 Gygis alba, 262t 
 
 Hang-nest, Red-winged, 361 
 
 Ground-rollers, 335 
 
 Gymnarchus, 503 
 
 Hangul, 143 
 
 Ground sloths, 183 
 
 Gymnelis, 490 
 
 Hapalemur, 30 
 
 Ground-squirrels, 91 
 
 Gymno scopelus, 505 
 
 Hapalidse, 27 
 
 Ground-thrushes, 370 
 
 Gymnobelideus leadbeateri, 201 
 
 Hapaloderma, 349 
 
 Ground woodpeckers, 354 
 
 Gymnogenes, The, 309 
 
 Hapalomys berdmorei, 104 
 
 Grouse family, The, 229 
 
 Gymnoglossa, 633 
 
 Haplocerus montanus, 157 
 
 Grouse, Black, 230 
 
 Gymnomuraena, 494 
 
 Haplochiton, 507 
 
 Grouse, Georgian black, 230 
 
 Gymnophaps, 244 
 
 Haplochitonidae, 507 
 
 Grouse, Pinnated, 231 
 
 Gymnophaps albertisi, 244 
 
 Haplodactylinae, 466 
 
 Grouse, Red, 230 
 
 Gymnopis, 455 
 
 Haplodactylus, 466 
 
 Grouse, Ruffed, 231 
 
 Gymnotidae, 495 
 
 Haplognathidae, 466 
 
 Grouse, Sand-, 241 
 
 Gymnotus electricus," 495 
 
 Haplopeltura, 426 
 
 Grouse, Sand-, Pallas', 241 
 
 Gymnura rafflesi, 45 
 
 Haplopomi, 501 
 
 Grouse, Sand-, Pin-tailed, 241 
 
 Gypaetus, 313 
 
 Hapolodontidae, 95 
 
 Grouse, Willow-, 229 
 Grues, 274 
 
 Gypaetus barbatus, 313 
 Gypaetus ossifragus, 314 
 
 Haptoglossa, 450 
 Hardella, 389 
 
 Gruiformes, 274 
 
 Gyps, 306 
 
 Hardwickei, Hemigale, 58 
 
 Grunniens, Bos, 164 
 
 Gyrfalco, Hierofalco, 319 
 
 Hardwicke's hernigale, 58 
 
 Grus, Grus, 275 
 
 Gyrinidae, 555 
 
 Hares and rabbits, 117 
 
 Grylle, Uria, 260 
 
 
 Hare, Common, 118 
 
 Gryllidse, 566 
 
 
 Hare, Cape jumping, 110 
 
 Gryllotalpa, Curtilla, 567 
 
 H. 
 
 Hare, Mountain, 118 
 
 Gryllus, Acris, 443 
 
 
 Hare-lipped bats, 39 
 
 Gryllus domesticus, 567 
 
 Habroptila wallacii, 249 
 
 Hare-wallabies, 194 
 
 Grypus, Halichcerus, 85 
 
 Habroptilus, Stringops, 331 
 
 Harelda, 297 
 
 Guacharo, 332 
 
 Haddock, The, 491 
 
 Harengus, Clupea, 507 
 
 Guan, Derby's, 229 
 
 Hadomys, 102. 
 
 Hargitti, Thriponax, 355 
 
 Guanaco, 138 
 
 Haemacephala, Xantholaema, 
 
 Hargitt's woodpecker, 355 
 
 Guanacus, Lama, 138 
 
 353 
 
 Harlequins, The, 297 
 
 Guemels, 146 
 
 Haematopoda, 605 
 
 Harmless vampires, 41 
 
 Guenons, 21 
 
 Haematopodinae, 271 
 
 Harnessed antelopes, 156 
 
 Guentheri, Ceratobrachus, 439 
 
 Hsematopota pluvialis, 605 
 
 Harpa, 638 
 
 Guerezas, 21 
 
 Hsematortyx, 234 
 
 Harpactes, 349 
 
 Gugeons, 499 
 
 Haemophila, 364 
 
 Harpactoridae, 596 
 
 Guianensis, Morphnus, 313 
 
 Hag-fishes, 523 
 
 Harpagus, 318 
 
 Guib, 156 
 
 Haie, Naia, 424 
 
 Harpidfe, 638 
 
 Guillemot, 260 
 Guillemot, Black, 260 
 
 Hainan gibbon, 19 
 Hainan us, Hylobates, 1 
 
 Harpy, The, 313 
 Harpyhaliaetus, 313 
 
 Guinea-fowls, The, 240 
 
 Hair sea-egg, 660 
 
 Harpyhaliaetus coronatus, 313 
 
 Guinea fowl, Crested, 240 
 
 Hair-tails, The, 470 
 
 Harpyia, 35 
 
 Guinea-fowl, Vulturine, 240 
 
 Hairstreak, Green, 58 
 
 Harpyia, Thrasaetus, 313 
 
 Guinea-pig, 115 
 
 Hairy armadillo, 186 
 
 Harpyio-cephalus, 37 
 
 Guinea-worm, 679 
 
 Hairy saki, 27 
 
 Harriers, The, 309 
 
 Gulls, The, 261 
 
 Hairy-tailed moles, 
 
 Harrier, Marsh, 309 
 
 Gull, Black-headed, 262 
 
 Hakes, 491 
 
 Harrier, Montagu's, 309 
 
 Gull, Common, 262 
 
 Halacaridse, 545 
 
 Harriotta, 461 
 
 Gull, Fork-tailed, 262 
 
 Halcyon, 338 
 
 Hartebeests, 150 
 
 Gull, Greater black-backed, 263 
 
 Haley ones, 336 
 
 Hartlaubi, Lophocerus, 339 
 
 Gull, Herring, 263 
 
 Haliaetus, 315 
 
 Harvest bug, 547 
 
 Gull, Hooded-, 262 
 
 Halisetus albicilla, 315 
 
 Harvest-men, 541 
 
 Gull, Lesser black-backed, 263 
 
 Haliaetus leucocephalus, 315 
 
 Harvest-mouse. 105 
 
INDEX. 
 
 745 
 
 Hawfinch, Common, 363 
 
 Heniochus, 465 
 
 Hippopotamus, The, 133 
 
 Hawk-cuckoos, 350 
 
 Hepalicum, Distoma, 689 
 
 Hippopotami family, The, 130 
 
 Hawks, 304, 307 
 
 Hepialidae, 591 
 
 Hippopotamidse, 130 
 
 Hawks, Long-legged, 308 
 
 Hepialus humuli, 591 
 
 Hippopotamus amphibius, 131 
 
 Hawk, White-tailed, 312 
 
 Hercules beetle, 568 
 
 Hippopotamus, Common, 131 
 
 Hawk-owl, 323 
 
 Hercules, Dynastes, 558 
 
 Hippopotamus hipponensis, 133 
 
 Hawk-owl, Brown, 323 
 
 Hermit crabs, 537 
 
 Hippopotamus iravaticus, 132 
 
 Hawksbill, 391 
 
 Herodias, 283 
 
 Hippopotamus lemerlei, 133 
 
 Hazel-hens, 231 
 
 Herodiones, 282 
 
 Hippopotamus liberiensis, 131 
 
 Heart-and-dart moth, 591 
 
 Herons, The, 282 
 
 Hippopotamus namadicus, 132 
 
 Heart-cockles, 624 
 
 Heron, Agami, 283 
 
 Hippopotamus palaeindicus, 132 
 
 Heavisidei, Cephalorhynchus, 
 
 Heron, American, 9 ,83 
 
 Hippopotamus, Pigmy, 131 
 
 179 
 
 Heron, Common, 282 
 
 Hippopotamus sivalensis, 132 
 
 Heaviside's dolphin, 179 
 
 Heron, Night, 283 
 
 Hippopotamus, Siwalik, 132 
 
 Hebomoia, 587 
 
 Heron, Purple, 282 
 
 Hippopus, 626 
 
 Hedgehog tribe, 44 
 
 Heron, Reef, 283 
 
 Hipposiderus, 36 
 
 Hedgehog, Shrew-, Raffle's, 45 
 
 Herpele, 455 
 
 Hippotragus equinus, 153 
 
 Hedgehog, Shrew-, Smaller, 45 
 
 Herpestes ichneumon, 60 
 
 Hippotragus niger, 153 
 
 Hedgehog-tenrecs, 49 
 
 Herpestinae, 60 
 
 Hirudinea, 675 
 
 Hedymeles, 363 
 
 Herpetodryas, 422 
 
 Hirudo medicinalis, 676 
 
 Helenae, Calypte, 347 
 Heliaca, Aquila, 314 
 
 Herrings, The, 506 
 Herring, Common, 507 
 
 Hirundinidae, 373 
 Hirundo, Avicula, 622 
 
 Helias, Eurypygae, 276 
 
 Herring gull, 263 
 
 Hirundo erythrogoaster, 373 
 
 Heliastes, 485 
 
 Hesperia malvae, 588 
 
 Hirundo rustica, 373 
 
 Helicidse, 643 
 
 Hesperiidae, 588 
 
 Hispanica, Capra, 158 
 
 Helicinidae, 632 
 
 Hessian fly, 603 
 
 Hispidus sigmodon, 102 
 
 Heliconinse, 584 
 
 Hetaerina, 570 
 
 Histiophorus, 469 
 
 Helicostyla, 643 
 
 Heterocarpus, 486 
 
 Hive-bee, 581 
 
 Helictis, 80 
 
 Heterocephalus, 107 
 
 Hoary-bat, 37 
 
 Heliopais, 252 
 
 Heterocera, 588 
 
 Hoatzin, 246 
 
 Heliopora, 708 
 
 Heterodactyli, 349 
 
 Hobby, The, 319 
 
 Heliornis, 252 
 
 Heterodera schachti, 679 
 
 Hodgsoni, Ovis, 160 
 
 Heliornis fulica, 252 
 
 Heterogeomys, 109 
 
 Hodgsoni, Pantholops, 152 
 
 Heliornithidse, 252 
 
 Heterogyna, 578 
 
 Hodgsoni, Vespertilio, 38 
 
 Heliozoa, The, 716 
 
 Heteromera, 559 
 
 Hodgsonise, Perdix, 234 
 
 Helix, 643 
 
 Heteromys, 109. 
 
 Hodomys, 102 
 
 Hell-bender, 451 
 
 Heteropoda, 636 
 
 Hog-deer, 143 
 
 Helmet-shells, 636 
 
 Heteroptera, 595 
 
 Hog, Pigmy, 134 
 
 Heloderma, 405 
 
 Heterotis, 504 
 
 Hog, Wart-, 134 
 
 Helodermatidae, 397, 405 
 
 Hexactinel lidae, 693 
 
 Holacanthus, 465 
 
 Helodromas, 269 
 
 Hexactinia, 705 
 
 Holboelli, Hierofalco, 319 
 
 Helodromas ochropus, 269 
 
 Hexadactyla, Alucita, 594 
 
 Holboell's jer-falcon, 319 
 
 Helogale parva, 60 
 
 Hexarthra polyptera, 682 
 
 Holocentrum, 468 
 
 Helotarsus, 315 
 
 Heyi, Anmoperdix, 233 
 
 Holocephali, 461 
 
 Helvetica, Squatarola, 271 
 
 Hibernica, Mustela, 81 
 
 Holochilus, 102 
 
 Hemiaspida, 539 
 
 Hierococcyx, 350 
 
 Holosericeus, Ptilonorhynchus, 
 
 Hemibungarus, 424 
 
 Hierofalco, 319 
 
 359 
 
 Hemicardium, 626 
 
 Hierofalco candicans, 319 
 
 Holothurian, Deep-sea, 661 
 
 Hemicentetes, 49 
 
 Hierofalco gyrfalco, 319 
 
 Holothurian, Free-swimming, 
 
 Hemichorda, 528 
 
 Hierofalco hendersoni, 319 
 
 661 
 
 Hemichromis, 487 
 
 Hierofalco holboelli, 319 
 
 Holothurian, Plated, 661 
 
 Hemidactylus, 397 
 
 Hierofalco islandus, 319 
 
 Holothuroidea, 660 
 
 Hemigale, 58 
 
 Hierofalco saker, 319 
 
 Hollow-horned ruminants, 149 
 
 Hemigale hardwickei, 58 
 
 Himalayan black bear, 75 
 
 Homalogyra, 633 
 
 Hemigale, Hardwicke's, 58 
 
 Himalayan ibex, 159 
 
 Homalogyridae, 633 
 
 Hemigale hosei, 58 
 
 Himalayan marmot, 93 
 
 Homalopsis, 423 
 
 Hemigalidia, 61 
 
 Himalayan tahr, 159 
 
 Homaloptera, Diprera, 608 
 
 Hemionus, Equus, 129 
 
 Himalayanus, Arctomys, 93 
 
 Homalopterus, 498 
 
 Hemiphractidae, 444 
 
 Himalayensis, Regulus, 369 
 
 Homoptera, 598 
 
 Hemipodes, The, 241 
 
 Himalayensis, Tetraogallus, 232 
 
 Homopus, 387 
 
 Hemipodii, 226 
 
 Himantopodinae, 270 
 
 Homopus arcolatus, 387 
 
 Hemiptera, 553, 594 
 Hemitragus hylocrius, 159 
 
 Himantopus melas, 270 
 Hinged brachiopod, 649 
 
 Honduras turkey, 240 
 Honey buzzards, 317 
 
 Hemitragus jemlaicus, 159 
 
 Hiposrita jacobaea, 588 
 
 Honey guides, The, 353 
 
 Hen, Black water, 252 
 
 Hippoboscidse, 608 
 
 Honey-guide, Great, 353 
 
 Hen, Blue water, 248 
 
 Hippocampus, 487 
 
 Honey-guide, Indian, 353 
 
 Hen, North American harrier, 
 
 Hippocastani, 558 
 
 Honey-kites, 317 
 
 309 
 
 Hippocrepis, Zamensis, 422 
 
 Honey-suckers, The, 366 
 
 Henderson!, Hierofalco, 319 
 
 Hippoglossus, 492 
 
 Hooded gulls, 262 
 
 Hender&oni, Podoces, 358 
 
 Hipponensis, Hippopotamus, 
 
 Hooded seal, 87 
 
 Henderson's jer-falcon, 319 
 
 133 
 
 Hoofed mammals, The, 118 
 
 Heniconetta stelleri, 297 
 
 Hipponicidse, 634 
 
 Hook-billed kingfisher, 337 
 
74<3 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hook-billed kites, 316 
 
 Huso, Acipenser, 511 
 
 Hypsiprymnodontinfe, 198 
 
 Hoopoes, The, 340 
 
 Hutia, 112 
 
 Hyptiotes cavatus, 544 
 
 Hoopoe, Common, 340 
 
 Hyaenas, 62 
 
 Hyraces family, The, 123 
 
 Hoopoe, Indian, 340 
 
 Hyaena, Brown, 62 
 
 Hyracodon, 204 
 
 Hoopoes, Wood, 340 
 
 Hyaena brunnea, 62 
 
 Hyracodon fuliginosus, 204 
 
 Hoplognathidse, 466 
 
 Hyaena crocuta, 63 
 
 Hyracoidea, 123 
 
 Hoplopterus, 271 
 
 Hyaena, Spotted, 63 
 
 Hyrax, 124 
 
 Hopolgnathus, 466 
 
 Hyaena striata, 62 
 
 Hystricidse, 113 
 
 Hopping-ftsh, 477 
 
 Hyaena, Striped, 62 
 
 Hystrix, 113 
 
 Hornbills, The, 339 
 
 Hysenidse, 62 
 
 
 Hornbill, Great, 339 
 
 Hyalimax, 642 
 
 
 Hornbill, Ground, 339 
 
 Hyalonema, 693 
 
 I. 
 
 Hornbill, Malabar pied, 339 
 
 Hybrida, Tatusia, 187 
 
 
 Hornbills, Pied, 339 
 
 Hydra, 694 
 
 lanthinicte, 633 
 
 Hornbill, Rhinoceros, 339 
 
 Hydrachnidae, 545 
 
 Iberica, Rana, 436 
 
 Horned frog, 441 
 
 Hydradephaga, 555 
 
 Ibex, 158 
 
 Horned-larks, 364 
 
 Hydraspis, 393 
 
 Ibex, Capra, 158 
 
 Horned lark, European, 364 
 
 Hydrobates, Sitornys, 101 
 
 Ibex, Himalayan, 159 
 
 Horned lizards, 399 
 
 Hydrocenidae, 632 
 
 Ibex, Nilgiri, 159 
 
 Horned-owls, 321 
 
 Hydrochaerus, 116 
 
 Ibex, Spanish, 158 
 
 Horned pheasants, The, 235 
 
 Hydrochserus capivara, 89 
 
 Ibididae, 287 
 
 Horned screamer, 290 
 
 Hydrochelidon, 261 
 
 Ibidorhynchinae, 270 
 
 Horned vipers, 427 
 
 Hydrochelidon nigra, 261 
 
 Ibidorhynchus struthersi, 270 
 
 Hornet, 580 
 
 Hydrocorallia, 697 
 
 Ibises, 287 
 
 Horribilis, Ursus, 75 
 
 Hydrocyon, 501 
 
 Ibis aethiopica, 288 
 
 Horridus, Moloch, 400 
 
 Hydroid colonies, 66 
 
 Ibis, Glossy, 288 
 
 Horse tribe, The, 127 
 
 Hydromedusae, 698 
 
 Ibis, Pseudotantalus, 281 
 
 Horse, Common, 128 
 
 Hydrometridse, 597 
 
 Ibis, Sacred, 288 
 
 Horse-hair worm, 680 
 
 Hydromyinse, 100 
 
 Ibycter, 307 
 
 Horse leech, 676 
 
 Hydrophiinae, 425 
 
 Iceland jer-falcon, 319 
 
 Horse mackerel, 471 
 
 Hydrophis, 426 
 
 Icerya purchasi, 602 
 
 Horse mussel, 621 
 
 Hydropotes inermis, 146 
 
 Ichneumon fly, 577 
 
 Horse-shoe bats, 36 
 
 Hydroprogne caspia, 261 
 
 Ichneumons, 60 
 
 Horsefleld's broadbill, 356 
 
 Hydrous piceus, 557 
 
 Ichneumon, Herpestinae, 60 
 
 Horseshoe snake, 422 
 
 Hydrozoa, 694 
 
 Ichneumonidse, 577 
 
 Hortensis, Cryptops, 549 
 
 Hydrus, 426 
 
 Ichthyomys, 102 
 
 Hortulana, Emberiza, 364 
 
 Hyla arborea, 442 
 
 Ichthyophis glutinosus, 453 
 
 Hosei, Hemigale, 58 
 
 Hyetornis, 351 
 
 Ichthyophis monochrous, 454 
 
 Hose's long-billed francolin, 233 
 
 Hylidse, 442 
 
 Icteridae, 361 
 
 Hosii, Calyptomena, 356 
 
 Hylobates, 18 
 
 Icterus, 361 
 
 Hotinus candelarius, 599 
 
 Hylobates hainanus, 19 
 
 Icticyon venaticus, 74 
 
 Hounds (Shark), 516 
 
 Hylobates hulock, 18 
 
 Ictinia, 318 
 
 Houbaropsis, 273 
 
 Hylobates leuciscus, 19 
 
 Ictinia mississippiensis, 318 
 
 House-ant, 579 
 House cricket, 567 
 
 Hylobates syndactylus, 19 
 Hylocrius, Hemitragus, 159 
 
 Ictonyx, 81 
 Ictonyx zorilla, 80 
 
 House flies, 607 
 
 Hvlodes martinicensis, 440 
 
 Idiosepiidae, 646 
 
 House martin, 373 
 
 Hylomanes, 341 
 
 Idiurus, 90 
 
 House-mouse, 105 
 
 Hylomys suillus, 45 
 
 Ignicapillus, Regulus, 369 
 
 Hova, Oryzorictes, 49 
 
 Hymenoptera, 553, 573 
 
 Igneus, Bombinator, 444 
 
 Howlers, 23 
 
 Hymenoptera, Aculcata, 578 
 
 Iguana tribe, The, 401 
 
 Howler, Black, 24 
 
 Hymenoptera, Boring, 574 
 
 Iguana, Ring-tailed, 403 
 
 Howler, Red, 23 
 
 Hymenoptera, Stinging, 578 
 
 Iguanidse, 401 
 
 Hucho, The Danubian, 508 
 
 Hynobius, 450 
 
 Iliacus, Turdus, 371 
 
 Hucho, Salmo, 508 
 
 Hyodon tergissus, 504 
 
 Ilysia scytale, 421 
 
 Hudsonius, Circus, 309 
 
 Hyodontidae, 505 
 
 Ilysiidse, 421 
 
 Hulock, 18 
 
 Hyperboreus, Phalaropus, 266 
 
 Imberbis, Strepsiceros, 154 
 
 Hulock, Hylobates, 18 
 
 Hypercompa caia, 588 
 
 Imbricata, Chelone, 391 
 
 Human skeleton, 3-4 
 
 Hyperoodon rostratus, 177 
 
 Imhausi, Trilophomys, 102 
 
 Humble bees, 581 
 
 Hypnus, 521 
 
 Immutabilis, Cygnus, 292 
 
 Humboldti Lagothrix, 24 
 
 Hypocharmosyna, 328 
 
 Impennis, Plautus, 260 
 
 Humboldt's woolly monkey, 24 
 
 Hypoderma bbvis, 606 
 
 Imperatoria, Pomponia, 598 
 
 Humise, Callophasis, 238 
 
 Hypogeomys, 102 
 
 Imperial Eagle, 314 
 
 Humilis, Podoces, 358 
 Humming-birds, The, 347 
 
 Hypogeophis, 455 
 Hypoleucus, Cebus, 24 
 
 Imperial snipe, 268 
 Imperialis, Gallinago, 268 
 
 Humming-bird, Giant, 347 
 Humming-bird, King, 348 
 
 Hyponomeuta, 593 
 Hyponomeutidse, 594 
 
 Impeyan pheasants, 235 
 Inachis, Kallima, 585 
 
 Humming-bird, Sword bill, 848 
 
 Hypoptopoma, 497 
 
 Inarticulata, 651 
 
 Humpback whale, 173 
 
 Hypositta, 368 
 
 Indian atlas-moth, 589 
 
 Humuli, Hepialus, 591 
 
 Hypotfenidia, 249 
 
 Indian black-buck, 152 
 
 Hunting-dog, Cape, 73 
 Hunting-leopard, 56 
 
 Hypselornis, 224 
 Hypsiprymnodon moschatus, 
 
 Indian buffalo, 162 
 Indian cobra, 424 
 
 Hunting spiders, 543 
 
 197 
 
 Indian crested cuckoo, 350 
 
INDEX. 
 
 747 
 
 Indian glephant, 119 
 
 Ithomiinse, 584 
 
 Kakapo, 331 
 
 Indian honey-guide, 353 
 
 luliformis, Peripatus, 551 
 
 Kalij pheasants, The, 236 
 
 Indian hoopoe, 340 
 
 Ixodidae, 545 
 
 Kallama inachis, 585 
 
 Indian humped cattle, 165. 
 
 lynginae, 354 
 
 Kampferi macrocheira, 533 
 
 Indian musk-shrew, 46 
 
 lynginae torquilla, 354 
 
 Kamtchaticus, Tetrao, 230 
 
 Indian pied kingfisher, 336 
 
 Izard, 156 
 
 Kangaroo tribe, 192 
 
 Indian porpoise, 179 
 
 
 Kangaroos, Dorca, 194 
 
 Indian rat-snake, 422 
 
 
 Kangaroo, Grey, 194 
 
 Indian rhinoceros, 126 
 
 J. 
 
 Kangaroo, Musk, 197 
 
 Indian shikra, 311 
 
 
 Kangaroo, Plain rat, 197 
 
 Indian sloth bear, 75 
 
 Jacamars, The, 355 
 
 Kangaroos, Prehensile- tailed 
 
 Indian tailor bird, 370 
 
 Jacamerops aurea, 355 
 
 Rat, 197 
 
 Indian wolf, 65 
 
 Jacares, 380 
 
 Kangaroos, Rat, 197 
 
 Indica, Upupa, 340 
 
 Jack snipe, 268 
 
 Kangaroo, Rufous rat, 197 
 
 Indicator xanthonotus, 353 
 
 Jackal, Black-backed, 66 
 
 Kangaroos, Tree, 195 
 
 Indicatores, 353 
 
 Jackal, Common, 66 
 
 Kangaroo-rats, 109 
 
 Jndicus, Bos, 165 
 
 Jackal, Side-striped, 66 
 
 Kashmir stag, 143 
 
 Indicus, Elephas, 119 
 
 Jacobaea, Hiposrita, 588 
 
 Katydids, 567 
 
 Indris, 29 
 
 Jacobinus, Cuculus, 350 
 
 Kea parrot, 327 
 
 Indris brevicaudata, 29 
 
 Jaguar, 53 
 
 Kelb-el-bahr, 501 
 
 Indus, Haliastur, 316 
 
 Jamaica tody, The, 342 
 
 Kelb-el-moyeh, 501 
 
 Ineptus, Didus, 246 
 
 Jamaicensis, Nyctibus, 344 
 
 Kellyellidaa, 624 
 
 Inermis, Hydropotes, 146 
 
 Jamesi, Phaenicoparrus, 290 
 
 Kestrels, The, 320 
 
 Infundibulata, 668 
 
 Jamesoni, Gallinago, 268 
 
 Ketupa, 321 
 
 Infusoria, The, 720 
 
 Jameson's snipe. 268 
 
 Ketupa ceylonensis, 321 
 
 Infusorian colonies, 722 
 
 Japanese deer, 143 
 
 Kewense, Bipalium, 684 
 
 Infusorians, Ciliated, 720 
 
 Japanese fox, 73 
 
 Keyhole limpets, 631 
 
 Infusorians, Tentacled, 720, 722 
 
 Japanese waxwing, 369 
 
 Khannanay, 229 
 
 Inguinalis, Pthirius, 602 
 
 Japonica, Coturnix, 235 
 
 Kieneri, Lophotriorchis, 315 
 
 Inia geoffroyensis, 178 
 
 Japonicus, Ampelis, 369 
 
 Killer, 179 
 
 Inornata, Amblyornis, 859 
 
 Japonicus, Canis, 73 
 
 Killer, Lesser, 180 
 
 Inornata, Ckephaga, 296 
 
 Jararaca, 429 
 
 King crabs, 538 
 
 Insect-eating mammals, 42 
 
 Jassidae, 601 
 
 Kingfishers, The, 336 
 
 Insect-mites, 545 
 
 Javan rhinoceros, 126 
 
 Kingfisher, Belted, 336 
 
 Insecta, 551 
 
 Javanicus, Eurylaemus, 356 
 
 Kingfisher, Common, 337 
 
 Insecta haustellata, 553 
 
 Javelin-bats, 41 
 
 Kingfisher, Crested,- 337 
 
 Insecta mandibulata, 553 
 
 Jays, 358 
 
 Kingfisher, Fish-eating, 336 
 
 Insectivora, 42 
 
 Jeffreysiidae, 635 
 
 Kingfisher, Green, 336 
 
 Insectivorous kingfishers, The, 
 
 Jelly-fish, 700 
 
 Kingfisher, Hook-billed, 337 
 
 337 
 
 Jelly-fish, Root-footed, 700 
 
 Kingfisher, Indian-pied, 336 
 
 Insects, Lace-winged, 568 
 
 Jemlaicus, Hemitragus, 159 
 
 Kingfisher, Insectivorous, 337 
 
 Insects, Praying, 565 
 
 Jerboa-rats, 106 
 
 Kingfisher, Laughing, 337 
 
 Insects, Stick, 566 
 Insects, Wingless (Neuroptera), 
 573 
 
 Jerboa tribe, The, 109 
 Jerboa, Kirghiz, 110 
 Jer-falcon, Greenland, 319 
 
 Kingfisher, Pied, 336 
 Kingfisher, Ringed, 336 
 Kingfisher, Shoe-billed, 337 
 
 Intercedens, Rhynchops, 262 
 
 Jer-falcon, Henderson's, 319 
 
 Kingfisher, Stork-billed, 336 
 
 Intermedia, Porzana, 251 
 
 Jer-falcon, Holboell's, 319 
 
 Kingfisher, Three-toed, 337 
 
 Interpres, Arenaria, 272 
 
 Jer-falcon, Iceland, 319 
 
 King humming-birds, 348 
 
 Inuus macacus, 22 
 
 Jer-falcon, Norwegian, 319 
 
 Kingi, Anops, 408 
 
 Involucris, Ardetta, 284 
 
 Jer falcon, Saker, 319 
 
 Kingi, Chlamydosaurus, 399 
 
 Iphis, Rhopalocampta, 588 
 
 John-dory, 471 
 
 King-of-the-herrings, 485 
 
 Ipnops, 505 
 
 Johnnie, 255 
 
 King penguin, 255 
 
 Iravaticus, Hippopotamus, 132 
 
 Jouanettia, 627 
 
 Kinkajou, 76 
 
 Irawadi dolphin, 179 
 
 Jubata, Myrmecophaga, 184 
 
 Kirghiz jerboa, 110 
 
 Irish elk, 144 
 
 Jubata, Otaria, 82 
 
 Kirghiz shrew, 46 
 
 Irregular sea-urchin, 659 
 Irrisoridae, 340 
 
 Jubatus, Canis, 69 
 Jubatus, Cynaelurus, 56 
 
 Kiroumbos, The, 335 
 Kites, The, 316 
 
 Irritans, Pulex (Flea), 609 
 
 Jubatus, Rhinochetus, 276 
 
 Kite, African swallow- tailed, 
 
 Irroratus, Dromece, 223 
 
 Juggar falcon, 319 
 
 316 
 
 Isabelline bear, 75 
 
 Julidae, 550 
 
 Kite, American swallow-tailed 
 
 Isabellinus, Ursus, 75 
 
 Jumping- mice, 110 
 
 316 
 
 Ischnochitonidae, 616 
 
 Jumping-shrews, 44 
 
 Kite, Black-shouldered, 316 
 
 Islandica Arctica, 624 
 
 Junco, 364 
 
 Kite, Brahminy, 316 
 
 Islandus, Hierofalco, 319 
 
 Jungle-cat, 55 
 
 Kite, Common, 316 
 
 Isocardiidae, 624 
 
 Jungle fowl, The, 238 
 
 Kites, Honey, The, 317 
 
 Isopoda, 534 
 
 
 Kite, Hooked-billed, 316 
 
 Isospondyli, 503 
 
 
 Kite-falcon, Mississippi, 319 
 
 Ispida, Aicedo, 337 
 
 K. 
 
 Kit-fox, 72 
 
 Ispidina, 337 
 
 
 Kittiwake, 263 
 
 Italian fire-fly, 559 
 
 Kagus, The, 276 
 
 Kiwis, The, 224 
 
 Itch-mites, 546 
 
 Kagu, Madagascar, 276 
 
 Klipspringer, 151 
 
 Ithagenes, 235 
 
 Kaka parrots, 326 
 
 Kneria, 500 
 
748 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Kneriidae, 500 
 
 lampreys, 523 
 
 Jaughing kingfisher, 337 
 
 Knobbed goose, 293 
 
 jamprey, River, 524 
 
 ^axocemus, 419 
 
 Knob-billed pelican, 302 
 
 ^amprey, Sea, 524 
 
 L.ayardi, Mesoplodon, 177 
 
 Knot, The, 269 
 
 L,ampris, 472 
 
 Leach's petrel, 257 
 
 Koala, 199 
 
 Lamprocolius, 360 
 
 Leadbeateri, Gymnobelideus, 
 
 Koels, The, 350 
 
 Lampshells, 648 
 
 201 
 
 Koklass pheasant, The, 237 
 
 Lampyris noctiluca, 559 
 
 Leadbeater's phalanger, 201 
 
 Kollari, Cynips, 576 
 
 Lancelet, The, 526 
 
 Leaf-cutter bees, 581 
 
 Kolyvanensis ascalaphus, 570 
 
 Lanceolatus, Amphioxus, 526 
 
 Leaf -nosed bats, 36 
 
 Kudu, Lesser, 154 
 
 Lanceolatus, Lachesis, 429 
 
 Leathery turtle, 3ll 
 
 Kudu, Strepsiceros, 154 
 
 Land planarian, 684 
 
 Leda, 621 
 
 Kudu, True, 154 
 
 Land-tortoises, 385 
 
 Leeches, The, 675 
 
 Kuhli, Vinia, 328 
 
 Langurs, 20 
 
 Leech, Fresh water, 677 
 
 Kuhl's Lory, 328 
 
 Langur, Sacred, 20 
 
 Leech, H orse, 676 
 
 
 Laniger, Antechinomys, 209 
 
 Leech, Medicinal, 676 
 
 L. 
 
 Laniger, Canis, 65 
 Lanigera, Avahis, 29 
 
 Leguatia gigantea, 252 
 Lemerlei, Hippopotamus, 133 
 
 
 Laniidae, 369 
 
 Lemming, Banded, 103 
 
 Labrax, 486 
 
 Lanius, 369 
 
 Lemming, Common, 103 
 
 Labrax maculatus, 486 
 
 Lanius collyrio, 369 
 
 Lemcniidae, 585 
 
 Labfax mixtus, 486 
 
 Lanius exciibitor, 369 
 
 Lemmus, Myodes, 103 
 
 Labridae, 486 
 
 Lanius senator, 369 
 
 Lemurs, The, 29 
 
 Labyrinthici, 483 
 
 Lanner, 319 
 
 Lemur catta, 29 
 
 Lacerta, 409 
 
 Lantern flies, 599 
 
 Lemur, Flying, 43 
 
 Lacerta agilis, 409 
 
 Lapaphus cocophage*, 566 
 
 Lemur, Gentle, 30 
 
 Lacerta ocellata, 409 
 
 Lapillus, Purpura, 637 
 
 Lemur, Giant extinct, 32 
 
 Lacerta, Viridis, 409 
 
 La Plata dolphin, 178 
 
 Lemur, Mouse, 30 
 
 Lacerta vivipara, 409 
 
 Lapland bunting, 364 
 
 Lemur, Ring- tailed, 29 
 
 Lacertidae, 409 
 
 Lappet, 590 
 
 Lemur, Sportive, 30 
 
 Lacertilia, 396 
 
 Lapponicus, Calcarius, 364 
 
 Lemurs, True, 29 
 
 Lacertina, Siren, 452 
 
 Lapradei, Polypterus, 513 
 
 Lemurs, Typical, 28 
 
 Lace-winged flies, 571 
 
 Lapwing, Common, 271 
 
 Lemuridae, 28 
 
 Lace winged insects, 568 
 
 Lardarius, Dermestes, 556 
 
 Lemuroidea, 11 
 
 Lace-work sponge, 693 
 
 Large-eared mule-deer, 146 
 
 Lencorrhoa, Oceanodroma, 257 
 
 Lachesis lanceolatus, 429 
 
 Large fruit-pigeons, The, 243 
 
 Lendigera, Amathia, 668 
 
 Lachesis mutus, 429 
 
 Large sun-bittern, 276 
 
 Leo, Felis, 53 
 
 Lackey moth, 590 
 
 Large-trained trogon, 349 
 
 Leona, Nightjar, 343 
 
 Lady-birds, 562 
 
 Laridae, 260 
 
 Leoninus, Macrorhinus, 87 
 
 Lady-bird, Australian, 602 
 
 Lariformes, 261 
 
 Leopards, 53 
 
 Lady Ross Touracoe, 352 
 
 Larks, The, 364 
 
 Leopard, Clouded, 55 
 
 Laemargus, 519 
 
 Lark, Calandra, 364 
 
 Leopard, Hunting, 56 
 
 Laemmergeier, 313 
 
 Lark, Crested, 364 
 
 Leopard, Seal, 86 
 
 Laemodipodidae, 535 
 
 Lark, Desert, 364 
 
 Leopard, Snow, 53 
 
 Lsevis, Coronella, 422 
 
 Lark, Finch, 364 
 
 Lepadidae, 533 
 
 Lagenorhynchus, 180 
 
 Lark, Horned, 364 
 
 Lepadogaster, 482 
 
 Lag-goose, Grey, 295 
 
 Lark, Short-toed, 364 
 
 Lepas anatifera, 533 
 
 Lagidium, 114 
 
 Lark, Skv, 364 
 
 Lepetidae, 631 
 
 Lagomyidae, 117 
 
 Lark, Wood, 364 
 
 Lepidolemur, 30 
 
 Lagomys, 117 
 
 Lark-heeled cuckoos, The, 351 
 
 Lepidolemur caniceps, 30 
 
 Lagonosticta, 362 
 
 Larus, 262 
 
 Lepidopleuridae, 616 
 
 Lagopus, 229 
 
 Larus argentatus, 263 
 
 Lepidoptera, 553, 581 
 
 Lagopus, Canis, 73 
 
 Larus canus, 262 
 
 Lepidopus, 470 
 
 Lagopus lagopus, 229 
 
 Larus fuscus, 263 
 
 Lepidosirenidae, 460 
 
 Lagopus mutus, 230 
 
 Larus marinus, 263 
 
 Lepidosteidae, 509 
 
 Lagopus scoticus, 230 
 
 Larus, minutus, 263 
 
 Lepidosteus, 509 
 
 Lagorchestes, 194 
 
 Larus, ridibundus, 262 
 
 Lepisma saceharina, 573 
 
 Lagostomatidae, 113 
 
 Larval Forms of Crustacea, 530 
 
 Leporidae, 117 
 
 Lagostomus, 114 
 
 Larvatus, Nasalis, 19 
 
 Lepralia of Pallas, 667 
 
 Lagostrophus fasciatus, 196 
 
 Lasiocampidae, 590 
 
 Lepralia, Pallasiana, 667 
 
 Lagothrix, 24 
 
 Latastei, Rana, 436 
 
 Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 5C1 
 
 Lagothrix, humboldti, 24 
 Laisurus, Platacanthomys, 100 
 
 Lataste's frog, 436 
 Latax lutris, 77 
 
 Leptodactylidge, 440 
 Leptodactylus, 440 
 
 Lalande's fen nee, 74 
 
 Lateralis, Cryptobranchus, 451 
 
 Leptodera, 679 
 
 Lama guanacus, 138 
 
 Laternaria, Fulgora, 599 
 
 Leptognathus, 426 
 
 Lama vicuna, 138 
 
 Lates, 464 
 
 Leptonychotes weddelli, 87 
 
 Lamellariidae, 634 
 
 Lathami, Catheturus, 227 
 
 Leptonyx, Ogmorhinus, 86 
 
 Lamellibranchiata, 616 
 
 Latham's snipe, 268 
 
 Leptoptilus, 278 
 
 Lamellicorns, 557 
 
 Laticaudatus, Platurus, 425 
 
 Leptoscopus, 473 
 
 Lamiidae, 561 
 
 Latrans, Canis, 66 
 
 Leptosomati, 3J5 
 
 Lamna cornubica, 517 
 Lamnidae, 517 
 
 Latro, Birgus, 537 
 Latus, Botliriocephalus, 687 
 
 Lepus, 117 
 Lepus cuniculus, 118 
 
 Lainpides bseticus, 586 
 
 Laughing jackass, 337 
 
 Lepus europaeus, 118 
 
INDEX. 
 
 749 
 
 Lepus timidus, 118 
 
 Liparis, 476 
 
 Long-legged pouched-mouse,209 
 
 Lerwa, 231 
 
 Lipoa, 228 
 
 Long-legged thick-knee, 273 
 
 Lesser ant-eater, 184 
 
 Lipoa ocellata, 228 
 
 Long-nosed crocodile, 381 
 
 Lesser black-backed gull, 263 
 
 Lipocephala, 618 
 
 Long-nosed j urn ping-shrews, 44 
 
 Lesser bustard, 273 
 
 Lithobiidse, 549 
 
 Long-nosed rat, 106 
 
 Lesser fin-whale, 174 
 
 Lithobius forficatus, 549 
 
 Long-snouted phalanger, 203 
 
 Lesser killer, 180 
 
 Lithocranias walleri, 153 
 
 Long-tailed African flying- 
 
 Lesser kudu, 154 
 
 Lithomelissa, 717 
 
 squirrel, 90 
 
 Lessoni, Momotus, 341 
 
 Lithosiidse, 589 
 
 Long-tailed bat, 39 
 
 Lesson's Motniot, 341 
 
 Litiopidae, 635 
 
 Long-tailed ducks, The, 297 
 
 Lesser shrew, 46 
 
 Litopterna, 9 
 
 Long-tailed marmot, 94 
 
 Lesser sperm-whale, 176 
 
 Litorale, Pycnogonum, 539 
 
 Long-tailed parrakeet, 329 
 
 Lesser tern, 261 
 
 Little auk, 260 
 
 Long-tailed pigeons, 244 
 
 Lethrinus, 466 
 
 Little bittern, 284 
 
 Long-tailed skuas, 264 
 
 Leucas, Delphinapterus, 179 
 
 Little crake, 251 
 
 Long tailed tit, 368 
 
 Leucerodea, Platalese, 286 
 
 Little egret, 283 
 
 Loopers, 592 
 
 Leuciscus, 499 
 
 Little gull, 263 
 
 Lophiidse, 474 
 
 Leuciscus, Hylobates, 19 
 
 Little owls, 323 
 
 Lophiomys, 102 
 
 Leucocephalus, Cladorhynchus, 
 
 Little skunk, 78 
 
 Lophius piscatorius, 474 
 
 270 
 
 Littorinidse, 635 
 
 Lophoaetus occipitalis, 315 
 
 Leucocephalus, Haliaetus, 315 
 
 Liver-fluke, 689 
 
 Lophobranchii, 487 
 
 Leucopus, Canis, 73 
 
 Livia, Columba, 244 
 
 Lophocerus, 340 
 
 Leucoryphus, Haliaetus, 321 
 
 Livingstonianus nanotragus, 
 
 Lophocerus hartlaubi, 339 
 
 Leucosomus, Astur, 311 
 
 151 
 
 Lophodytes, 297 
 
 Leucospis, 576 
 
 Lizards, 896 . 
 
 Lophogyps, 303 
 
 Leucospis grandis, 576 
 Levaillanti, Plotus, 301 
 
 Lizard, Flying, 399 
 Lizard, Frilled, 399, 400 
 
 Lopholaimus, 243 
 Lopholatilus, 473 
 
 Liasis, 419 
 
 Lizard, Girdled, 403 
 
 Lophophanes cristatus, 368 
 
 Libellula depres?a, 569 
 
 Lizard, Greaved, 407 
 
 Lophophanes, 368 
 
 Libellulidse, 569 
 
 Lizard, Green, 409 
 
 Lophophorus, 235 
 
 Liberiensis, Hippopotamus, 131 
 
 Lizard, Horned, 399 
 
 Lophopoda, 668, 669 
 
 Libitina, 624 
 
 Lizard, Moloch, 400 
 
 Lophopus, 668 
 
 Libythea celtis, 586 
 
 Lizard, Pearly, 409 
 
 Lophortyx californiana, 240 
 
 Libytheidse, 586 
 
 Lizards, Poisonous, 405 
 
 Lophotes cepedianus, 484 
 
 Lidse, Hexactinel, 693 
 
 Lizard, Sail-tailed, 400 
 
 Lophotidse, 484 
 
 Ligurinus, 363 
 
 Lizard, Sand, 409 
 
 Lophotiformes, 484 
 
 Ligurinus chloris, 363 
 
 Lizard, Snake-like, 404 
 
 Lophotis, 273 
 
 Lima, 623 
 
 Lizard, Spiny, 401 
 
 Lophotriorchis, 315 
 
 Limacidse, 643 
 
 Lizard, Stump-tailed, 410 
 
 Lophotriorchis Kieneri, 315 
 
 Limacinidae, 640 
 
 Lizard, Thorny-tailed, 400 
 
 Lophura, 236 
 
 Limacomys, 101 
 
 Lizard, Tree, 399 
 
 Lophuromys, 101 
 
 Limnaea, 642 
 
 Lizard, Viviparous, 409 
 
 Lophurus amboynensis, 400 
 
 Limnaeidse, 642 
 
 Llamas, 138 
 
 Loricaria, 497 
 
 Limnas chrysippus, 5^3 
 
 Loach, Common, 500 
 
 Lories, The, 327 
 
 Limnocryptes gallinula, 268 
 
 Loach, Spiny, 500 
 
 Loriidse, 327 
 
 Limnopardalus, 219 
 
 Lobed pheasant, 236 
 
 Loris, 31 
 
 Limonites, 269 
 
 Lobiophasis bulweri, 236 
 
 Lorisis, 31 
 
 Limopsis, 621 
 
 LobivanellinsB, 271 
 
 Lorius chlorocercus, 328 
 
 Limosa, 269 
 
 Lobodon carcinophaga, 86 
 
 Lory, Green-tailed, 328 
 
 Limpets, 631 
 
 Lobsters, 536 
 
 Lory, Kuhl's, 328 
 
 Limpets, Cup-and-saucer, 634 
 
 Lobster, Spiny, 537 
 
 Lota vulgaris, 491 
 
 Limpets, Keyhole, 631 
 
 Loculator, Tantalus, 281 
 
 Lotoriidae, 63d 
 
 Limpkins, The, 275 
 
 Locustidse, 568 
 
 Louse, Whale, 535 
 
 Limpkin, Florida, 275 
 
 Locusts, 568 
 
 Love-birds, 329 
 
 Limpkin, South American, 275 
 
 Loddigesia mirabilis, 348 
 
 Lowi, Ptilocercus, 44 
 
 Limulus, 538 
 
 Loggerhead tortoise, 391 
 
 Lowries, 352 
 
 Limulus moluccarms, 539 
 
 Loliginidae, 646 
 
 Loxia, 363 
 
 Linearis, Chiroxiphia, 374 
 
 Loligo, 646 
 
 Loxosoma, 667 
 
 Linearis, Ranatra, 597 
 
 Loncheres, 112 
 
 Lucanus cervus, 558 
 
 Lineus marinus, 684 
 
 Long-billed francolin, 233 
 
 Lucayanum, Asyminetron, 527 
 
 Linguselapsus, 449 
 
 Long-eared bats, 36 
 
 Lucifuga, 491 
 
 Linguaelapsus annulatus, 449 
 
 Long-eared fox, 73 
 
 Lucilia caesar, 608 
 
 Linguatulida, 548 
 Lingula, 648 
 
 Long-eared owl, 324 
 Long-horned beetles, 560 
 
 Lucina, Nemoebius, 586 
 Lucinidae, 624 
 
 Lingula anatina, 650 
 
 Long-horned grasshoppers, 567 
 
 Luciocephalidae, 483 
 
 Linotsenia crassipes, 549 
 
 Longicornes,-560 
 
 Luciocephalus pulcher, 483 
 
 Linsanga, 58 
 
 Longipermis, Macrodipteryx, 
 
 Lucioperca, 464 
 
 Linsangs, 58 
 
 343 
 
 Lucius, Esox, 502 
 
 Liobunum religiosum, 542 
 
 Longirostris, Aptenodytes, 255 
 
 Lucorum Trichiosoma, 574 
 
 Lion, 53 
 
 Longirostris, Rhizothera, 233 
 
 Lug worm, 672 
 
 Lion -tailed monkey, 22 
 
 Long-legged hawks, 307 
 
 Lugubris, Ceryle, 336 
 
 Liparidae, 589 
 
 Long-legged petrel, 257 
 
 Lugubris, Motacilla, 365 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Lullula, 364 
 
 Macropus giganteus, 194 
 
 Malvse, Hesperia, 588 
 
 Lumbricidae, 674 
 
 Macropus walabatus, 194 
 
 Mammalia, 1 
 
 Lumbricoides, Ascaria, 679 
 
 Macropygia, 244 
 
 Mammalia, Dentition of, 5 
 
 Lump-suckers, 476 
 
 Macrorhinus leoninua, 87 
 
 Mammalia, Human Skeleton, 
 
 Lung-fishes, 459 
 
 Macrorhyncha, Rhea, 222 
 
 3-4 
 
 Lung-fish, Australian, 469 
 
 Macroscelides, 44 
 
 Mammals, Distinctive features 
 
 Lunulata, Cyclopsitta, 329 
 
 Macroscelides tetradactylus, 44 
 
 of, 2 
 
 Lupus, Canis, 64 
 
 Macroscelididae, 44 
 
 Mammals, Egg-laying, 214 
 
 Luscinia, Daulias, 370 
 
 Macrotis, Canis, 73 
 
 Mammals, Flesh-eating, 50 
 
 Luscus, Gulo, 81 
 
 Macrotis, Cervus, 146 
 
 Mammals, Geographical distri- 
 
 Lusitanica, Chioglossa, 447 
 
 Macrura, 536 
 
 bution of, 7 
 
 Luth, 391 
 
 Macrura, Sterna, 261 
 
 Mammals, Insect eating, 42 
 
 Lutra, 76 
 
 Macruridse, 492 
 
 Mammals, Pouched, 190 
 
 Lutreola, Mustela, 81 
 
 Macrurus, 492 
 
 Mammals that gnaw, 88 
 
 Lutris Latax, 77 
 
 Mactridae, 625 
 
 Manakins, The, 374 
 
 Lycaenidae, 586 
 
 Maculata, Aquila, 314 
 
 Manatis, 165 
 
 Lycaon pictus, 73 
 
 Maculatus, Dasyurus, 208 
 
 Manatus, 167 
 
 Lycodes, 490 
 
 Maculatus, Labrax, 486 
 
 Manculus, 450 
 
 Lycodidae, 490 
 
 Maculatus, Phalanger, 200 
 
 Mandarin duck, 294 
 
 Lycosidae, 543 
 
 Maculosa, Salamandra, 446 
 
 Mandril, 32 
 
 Lycosa arenicola, 543 
 
 Madagascar kagu, 276 
 
 Maned goose, 295 
 
 Lycosa tarentula, 543 
 Lygia oceanica, 534 
 
 Madagascar mungoose, 61 
 Madagascariensis, Chiromys, 31 
 
 Mangabeys, 21 
 Manidae, 189 
 
 Lygosoma, 410 
 
 Maderensis, Regulus, 369 
 
 Manillensis, Pelecanus, 302 
 
 Lyncodon, 81 
 
 Madoqua, 151 
 
 Manis, 190 
 
 Lynx, Canadian, 56 
 
 Madreporo, 706 
 
 Man-like apes, 11 
 
 Lynx, Common, 56 
 
 Maeandrina, 707 
 
 Mantella, 438 
 
 Lynx, Felis, 56 
 
 Maehoerhamphus, 317 
 
 Mantidse, 563 
 
 Lynx, Spanish, 56 
 
 Maehoerhamphus alcinus, 317 
 
 Mantis religiosa, 565 
 
 Lyonsiidse, 628 
 
 Maehoerhamphus anderssoni, 
 
 Mantis, Squilla, 535 
 
 Lyre-birds, 357 
 
 317 
 
 Manx shearwater, 258 
 
 Lyrurus, 229 
 
 Maforensis, Nasiterna, 329 
 
 Mapi, 195 
 
 Lyrurus mlokosiewiczi, 230 
 
 Magar, Oriental, 381 
 
 Marabous, 278 
 
 Lyrurus tetrix, 230 
 
 Magellania, 651 
 
 Maral, Cervus, 143 
 
 Lysiurus unicinctus, 186 
 
 Magellanic geese, 295 
 
 Maral, Persian, 143 
 
 Lystrinae, 600 
 
 Magilus, 637 
 
 Marbled cat, 55 
 
 
 Maginrostris, Orthorhamphus, 
 
 Mareca, 296 
 
 
 273 
 
 Margaritacea, Nereis, 673 
 
 M. 
 
 Magna, Caccibis, 232 
 
 Margaroperdix, 234 
 
 
 Magnifica, Megaloprepia, 243 
 
 Marginalis, Dytiscus, 556 
 
 Macacus, 21 
 
 Magnificent fruit-pigeon, 243 
 
 Marginata, Testudo, 386 
 
 Macacus cynomolgus, 22 
 
 Magpies, 358 
 
 Margined tortoise, 386 
 
 Macacus inuus, 22 
 
 Magpie moth, 592 
 
 Marginellidse, 638 
 
 Macacus rhesus, 22 
 
 Maguari, Euxenura, 280 
 
 Marina, Arenicola, 672 
 
 Macacus silenus, 22 
 
 Maguari stork, 279 
 
 Marine gurnards, 475 
 
 Macaques, 21 
 
 Mahasir, 498 
 
 Marine lings, 491 
 
 Macaque, Crab-eating, 22 
 
 Maia squinado, 530 
 
 Marine mites, 545 
 
 Macaws, 329 
 
 Maimon, Papio, 23 
 
 Marine mussel, 621 
 
 Maccormicki, Megalestris, 263 
 Machaon, Eques, 587 
 
 Major, Eurypyga, 276 
 Major, Gallinago. 268 
 
 .Marinum, Petromyzum, 524 
 Marinus, Larus, 263 
 
 Machlis, Alces, 145 
 
 Major, Parus, 367 
 
 Marinus, Lineus, 684 
 
 Mackerels, The, 472 
 
 Malabar pied hornbill, 339 
 
 Maritima, Anisolabis, 563 
 
 Mackerel, Common, 473 
 
 Malabar spiny mouse, 100 
 
 Maritimus, Bathyergus, 107 
 
 Mackerels, Horse, 471 
 
 Malacanthidae, 474 
 
 Maritimus, Ursus, 75 
 
 Macrauchenia, 9 
 
 Malacanthus, 474 
 
 Markhor, 159 
 
 Macro, Lepidoptera-, 592 
 
 Malaccensis, Viverra, 57 
 
 Marmorata, Felis, 55 
 
 Macrocephalus, Physeter, 175 
 
 Malachite sun-bird, 366 
 
 Marmosets, The, 27 
 
 Macrocheira Kampferi, 538 
 
 Malacobdella, 684 
 
 Marmot, Alpine, 93 
 
 Macroclemmys temmincki, 390 
 
 Malacoclemmys, 388 
 
 Marmot, Cabul, 94 
 
 Macrodipteryx longipennis, 343 
 
 Malacodermi, 559 
 
 Marmot, Common, 92 
 
 Macrogeomys, 109 
 
 Malacomys, 101 
 
 Marmot, Golden, 93 
 
 Macrolopha, Pucrasia, 237 
 
 Malacoptila, 355 
 
 Marmot, Himalayan, 93 
 
 Macronyx, 365 
 
 Malacostraca, 533 
 
 Marmot, Long-tailed, 94 
 
 Macronyx ameliae, 365 
 
 Malaiensis, Neopus, 315 
 
 Marmots, Prairie, 92 
 
 Macropodidae, 192 
 
 Malayan badger, 79 
 
 Marmot, Red, 94 
 
 Macropodinae, 193 
 
 Malayan bear, 75 
 
 Marmots, True, 92 
 
 Macropteryginae, 346 
 
 Malayan tapir, 124 
 
 Marmotta, Arctomys, 92 
 
 Macropteryx, 346 
 
 Malayanus ursus, 75 
 
 Marpurito, Conepatus, 78 
 
 Macropus, 193 
 
 Maleo-bird, 226 
 
 Marsh harrier, 309 
 
 Macropus agilis, 194 
 
 Malleus, 622 
 
 Marsh tern, 261 
 
 Macropus browni, 194 
 
 Mallophaga, 573 
 
 Marsh tit, 367 
 
 Macropus brunii, 194 
 
 Mallophagus ovinus, 608 
 
 Marsipobranchii, 523 
 
INDEX. 
 
 751 
 
 Marsupial mole, 210 
 Marsupialia, 190 
 
 Melanocephala, Caccabis, 232 
 Melanocephala, Uacaria, 27 
 
 Mexican turkey, 240 
 Mice, Groove-toothed, 105 
 
 Marsupialis, Didelphys, 211 
 
 Melanocetus, 475 
 
 Mice, Jumping, 110 
 
 Marten, Beech-, 80 
 
 Melanocorypha, 364 
 
 Mice, Mosaic-tailed, 106 
 
 Marten, North American, 80 
 
 Melanogenia, Galbula, 355 
 
 Mice, Narrow-footed pouched, 
 
 Marten, Pennant's, 80 
 
 Melanoleucus, Aeronautes, 346 
 
 209 
 
 Marten, Pine, 80 
 
 Melanoleucus, JSluropus, 75 
 
 Mice, Pouched, 208 
 
 Marten, Sable, 80 
 
 Melanonota, Sarcidiornis, 293 
 
 Mice, Singing, 105 
 
 Marten, Yellow-throated, 80 
 
 Melanope, Motacilla, 365 
 
 Mice, Spiny, 106 
 
 Martes, Mustela, 80 
 
 Melanoperdix nigra, 234 
 
 Mice, Waltzing, 105 
 
 Martin, Bank, 373 
 
 Melanorhamphus, Cocorax, 358 
 
 Mice, White-footed, 101 
 
 Martin, House, 373 
 
 Melanura, Rhynchops, 262 
 
 Micoureus, 213 
 
 Martin, Purple, 373 
 
 Melas, Himantopus, 270 
 
 Micrastur, 310 
 
 Martinicensis, Hylodes, 440 
 
 Melas, Globiocephalus, 180 
 
 Microcebus, 30 
 
 Martius, Picus, 354 
 
 Meleagrina, 622 
 
 Microchaeta rappi, 674 
 
 Mary-sole, 492 
 
 Meleagris gallopavo, 240 
 
 Microgale, 49 
 
 Masked bug, 596 
 
 Meleagris ocellata, 240 
 
 Microglossus aterrimus, 328 
 
 Mastacembelus, 478 
 
 Meles, 79 
 
 Microhierax, 319 
 
 Mastacomys, 106 
 
 Meliceps, Mydaus, 79 
 
 Micromonacha, 355 
 
 Masterdons, 9 
 
 Melidora, 337 
 
 Microperdix, 234 
 
 Mastiff-bats, 39 
 
 Melierax, 310 
 
 Microphyllum, Rhinopoma, 39 
 
 Matamata, 392 
 
 Meliphagidse, 366 
 
 Micropterygidse, 591 
 
 Maximus, Cetorhinus, 517 
 
 Melittophagus, 340 
 
 Micropus, 467 
 
 Maximus, Megalobatrachus, 
 
 Melleri, Ehynchogale, 61 
 
 Micropus apus, 346 
 
 450 
 
 Meller's mungoose, 61 
 
 Microstoma, 685 
 
 May flies, 571 
 
 Mellifica, Apis, 581 
 
 Microtinse, 103 
 
 Mayeri, Nesaenas, 244 
 
 Mellivora, 79 
 
 Microtus, 103 
 
 Meadow brown, 585 
 
 Melee, 560 
 
 Microtus agrestis, 103 
 
 Meadow pipit, 365 
 
 Melolontha vulgaris, 557 
 
 Microtus amphibius, 103 
 
 Meadow-starling, 361 
 
 Melolouthidse, 557 
 
 Microtus glareolus, 103 
 
 Meagre, The, 468 
 
 Melophagus ovinus, 608 
 
 Micrura, Talpa, 48 
 
 Meal-worms, 560 
 
 Melospiza, 364 
 
 Midaidse, 605 
 
 Medicinal leech, 676 
 
 Melursus ursinus, 75 
 
 Midas, 27 
 
 Medicinalis, Hirudo, 676 
 
 Membracidse, 601 
 
 Midwife frog, 443 
 
 Medina worm, 679 
 
 Menhaden, Clupea, 507 
 
 Migratoria, Ectopistinae, 244 
 
 Medinensis, Dracunculus, 679 
 
 Menura superba, 357 
 
 Migratory quail, 234 
 
 Medusoid, 696 
 
 Menurse, 356 
 
 Miliaria miliaria, 364 
 
 Meerkat, 61 
 
 Mephitis, 77 
 
 Millepedes, 548 
 
 Megacephalum, 226 
 
 Mephitis, Mephitica, 78 
 
 Millepora, 697 
 
 Megachile, 581 
 
 Merganettinae, 297 
 
 Milliolite shells, 716 
 
 Megacrex, 249 
 
 Mergansers, The, 297 
 
 Milvus, 316 
 
 Megaderma, 36 
 
 Merganser australis, 297 
 
 Mimeta, 361 
 
 Megala, Gallinago. 268 
 
 Merganser brasilianus, 297 
 
 Mirnidae, 372 
 
 Megaladapis, 32 
 
 Merganser merganser, 297 
 
 Mimus polyglottus, 372 
 
 Megalestris, 263 
 
 Merganser, Red-breasted, 297 
 
 Mindorensis, Bos, 162 
 
 Megalestris antarctica, 263 
 
 Merginse, 297 
 
 Minimum, Carychium, 641 
 
 Megalestris catarrhactes, 263 
 
 Mergulus alle, 258 
 
 Minimus, Chironectes, 214 
 
 Megalestris chilensis, 263 
 
 Mergus albellus, 297 
 
 Miniopterus schreibersi, 38 
 
 Megalestris maccormicki, 263 
 
 Meriones, 101 
 
 Mink, North American, 81 
 
 Megalobatrachus maximus, 451 
 
 Merlangus, Gadus, 491 
 
 Minor, Chionarchus, 265 
 
 Megaloblatta, 564 
 
 Merlin, The, 320 
 
 Minor, Endyptila, 255 
 
 Megalocephalum, Platyster- 
 
 Merluccius, 491 
 
 Minor, Phaeniconaias, 290 
 
 num, 389 
 
 Mermaid's head, 660 
 
 Minor, Philohela, 267 
 
 Megaloprepia, 243 
 
 Mermis, 680 
 
 Minor, Phylloscopus, 370 
 
 Megaloprepia magnifica, 243 
 
 Meropogon forsteni, 341 
 
 Minuta, Ardetta, 284 
 
 Megalotherium, 183 
 
 Merops, 340 
 
 Minuta, Sterna, 261 
 
 Megalotis, Otocyon, 74 
 
 Meropes, 340 
 
 Minutus, Dasypus, 186 
 
 Megapode, Australian, 228 
 
 Merostomata, 539 
 
 Minutus, Larus, 263 
 
 Megapode, Cumming's, 228 
 
 Merula, 370 
 
 Minutus, Mus, 105 
 
 Megapode, Nicobar, 228 
 
 Merula merula, 371 
 
 Mirabilis, Loddigesia, 348 
 
 Megapode, Ocellated, 228 
 
 Mesembry-anthemum, Actinia. 
 
 Mirafra, 364 
 
 Megapodes, True, 228 
 
 703 
 
 Mirum, Pedalion, 682 
 
 Megapodii, 226 
 
 Mesites variegata, 276 
 
 Misgurnus, 500 
 
 Megapodius, 228 
 
 Mesodesmatidse, 625 
 
 Mississippi kite-falcon, 318 
 
 Megapodius cumingi, 228 
 
 Mesomelas canis, 66 
 
 Mississippi salamander, 451 
 
 Megapodius nicobariensis, 228 
 Megapodius tumulus, 228 
 
 Mesomyodi, 373 
 Mesomys, 112 
 
 Mississippiensis, Alligator, 380 
 Mississippiensis, Ictinia, 318 
 
 Megaptera, 173 
 
 Mesoplodon, 177 
 
 Mitchelli, Phegornis, 267 
 
 Megaptera boops, 173 
 Melampsalta montana, 599 
 
 Mesoplodott layardi, 177 
 Mesopotamicus, Cervus, 144 
 
 Mites, 539, 545 
 Mites, Cheese, 547 
 
 Melaniidae, 635 
 
 Mesotrochous, 673 
 
 Mites, Fresh-water, 545 
 
 Melanocephala, Arenaria, 272 
 
 Metachirus, 213 
 
 Mites, Gall, 546 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Mites, Itch, 546 
 
 Monkeys, New World, 23 
 
 Moth, Drinker 590 
 
 Mites, Marine, 545 
 
 Monkeys, Old World, 19 
 
 Moth, Emperor, 589 
 
 Mite, Sugar, 547 
 
 Monkeys, Spider, 25 
 
 Moth, Ermine, 593 
 
 Mithan, 164 
 
 Monkeys, Woolly, 24 
 
 Moth, Hart-and dart, 5D1 
 
 Mitra episcopal is, 638 
 
 Monocentris, 468 
 
 Moth, Gamma, 591 
 
 Mitridse, 638 
 
 Monochrous, Ichthyophis, 454 
 
 Moth, Ghost, 591 
 
 Mixocebus, 30 
 
 Monodon monoceros, 178 
 
 Moth, Goat, 590 
 
 Mixtus, Labrax, 486 
 
 Monomyaria, 618 
 
 Moth, Grass, 593 
 
 Mlokosiewiczi, Lyrurus, 230 
 
 Monopora vivipara, 684 
 
 Moth, Lackey, 590 
 
 Mniotiltidae, 365 
 
 Monorhina, 523 
 
 Moth, Magpie, 592 
 
 Moas, The, 220 
 
 Monosiga, 718 
 
 Moth, Mother-of-pearl, 592 
 
 Mocking-birds, The, 372 
 
 Monotocardia, 632 
 
 Moth, Silk-worm, 590 
 
 Modestus, Cabalus, 249 
 
 Monotremata, 214 
 
 Moth, Small magpie, 592 
 
 Modiola, 622 
 
 Monotrochous, 673 
 
 Moth, Tiger, 588 
 
 Modiola modiolus, 621 
 
 Montagu's Harrier, 309 
 
 Moth, Twenty-plume, 594 
 
 Modiolopsidae, 623 
 
 Montana, Melampsalta, 599 
 
 Moth, White plume, 594 
 
 Modiolus, Modiola, 621 
 
 Montana, Perdix, 234 
 
 Moth, Yellow underwing, 591 
 
 Modoqua saltiana, 151 
 
 Montanus, Canis, 71 
 
 Moths, Bell, 593 
 
 Moles, The, 47 
 
 Montanus, Haploceros, 157 
 
 Moths, Plume, 594 
 
 Mole, Cape golden, 50 
 
 Moon eye, 504 
 
 Moths, Swift, 591 
 
 Mole, Common, 48 
 
 Moonals, The, 235 
 
 Motmots, The, 341 
 
 Mole, Duck-, 215 
 
 Moor-hen, 252 
 
 Motmot, Lesson's, 341 
 
 Moles, Golden, 50 
 
 Moose, 145 
 
 Mottled night-heron, 284 
 
 Moles, Hairy-tailed, 48 
 
 Mopaliidaj, 616 
 
 Mottled nightjars, 344 
 
 Mole, Marsupial, 210 
 
 Mordacia, 524 
 
 Mouflon, 160 
 
 Mole, Musk-, 48 
 
 Morenia, 389 
 
 Mound-builders, The, 226 
 
 Mole, Sand-, Great, 107 
 
 Mori, Bombyx, 590 
 
 Mountain fox, 71 
 
 Mole, Star-nosed, 48 
 
 Morinellius eudromias, 271 
 
 Mountain hare, 118 
 
 Moles, True, 48 
 
 Moristans, Glossina, 608 
 
 Mountain partridge, 234 
 
 Moles, Web-footed, 47 
 
 Mormolyce phylloes, 555 
 
 Mountain zebra, 128 
 
 Mole, Yellow-tailed, 48 
 
 Mormops, 41 
 
 Mouse tribe, The, 100 
 
 Mole-cricket, 567 
 
 Mormops blainvillei, 41 
 
 Mouse, Barbary, 105 
 
 Mole-rats, The, 106 
 
 Mormyridae, 503 
 
 Mouse, Blind, 106 
 
 Mole-shrews, 46 
 
 Mormyrops, 503 
 
 Mouse, Harvest, 105 
 
 Molge, 447 
 
 Mormyrus, 503 
 
 Mouse, House, 105 
 
 Molge cristata, 447 
 
 Mormyrus petersi, 503 
 
 Mouse, Long-legged pouched, 
 
 Molge palmata, 448 
 
 Morococeyx, 351 
 
 209 
 
 Molge vulgaris, 448 
 
 Morone, 464 
 
 Mouse, Malabar spiny, 100 
 
 Molitor, Tenebrio, 560 
 
 VJorphinae, 584 
 
 Mouse, Prehensile-tailed, 106 
 
 Mollusca, 610 
 
 Morphnus, 313 
 
 Mouse, Tree-. Pencil-tailed. 
 
 Moloch horridus, 400 
 
 Morphnus guianensis, 313 
 
 104 
 
 Moloch lizard, 400 
 
 Morpho, 584 
 
 Mouse, Wood, 105 
 
 Molossus, 39 
 
 Morrhua, Gadus, 491 
 
 Mouse-lemurs, 30 
 
 Molothrus, 361 
 
 Morse, 84 
 
 Mucedo, Cristatella, 6C8 
 
 Molothrus bonariensis, 361 
 
 Mosaic-tailed mice, 106 
 
 Mud-skippers, 477 
 
 Moluccanus, Limulus, 539 
 
 Moschata, Aromia, 561 
 
 Mud-terrapins, 389 
 
 Molurus, Python, 418 
 
 Moschata, Cairina, 293 
 
 Mugil, 479 
 
 Molybdophanes, Struthio, 223 
 Momotidae, 341 
 
 Moschata, Myogale, 47 
 Moschata, Talpa, 48 
 
 Mugilidse, 479 
 Mugiliformes, 478 
 
 Momotus, 341 
 
 Moschatus, Hypsiprymnodon, 
 
 Mulita, 187 
 
 Momotus lessoni, 341 
 
 197 
 
 Mulleria, 623 
 
 Mona, Cercopithecus, 21 
 
 Moschatus, Nesotragus, 151 
 
 Mullet, Grey, 479 
 
 Mona monkey, 21 
 
 Moschatus, Ovibos, 160 
 
 Mullidae, 465 
 
 Monacha, 355 
 
 Moschiferus moschus, 141 
 
 Mullus barbatus, 465 
 
 Monachus, 85 
 
 Moschus, 141 
 
 Mungoose, The, 60 
 
 Monachus, Neophron, 306 
 
 Moschus moschiferus, 141 
 
 Mungoose, Banded, 61 
 
 Monachus, Pithecia, 27 
 
 Moschus sifanicus, 141 
 
 Mungoose, Brown-tailed, 61 
 
 Monachus, Vultur, 306 
 Monasa, Aphanolimnas, 251 
 
 Mosquitoes, 604 
 Moss animals, 665 
 
 Mungoose, Egyptian, 60 
 Mungoose, Elegant, 61 
 
 Moneceros, Monodon, 178 
 
 Mossbanker, The, 507 
 
 Mungoose, Four-toed, 60 
 
 Monera, The, 713 
 
 Motacilla campestris, 365 
 
 Mungoose, Madagascar, 61 
 
 Monitors, The, 406 
 
 Motacilla lugubris, 365 
 
 Mungoose, Meller's, 61 
 
 Monitor, Nile, 406 
 
 Motacilla melanope, 365 
 
 Mungoose, Pencilled, 60 
 
 Monk fish, 519 
 
 Motacillidse, 364 
 
 Mungoose, Small African, 60 
 
 Monkeys, The, 10 
 
 Motella, 491 
 
 Mungoose, Small- toothed, 61 
 
 Monkey, Bengal, 22 
 
 Moths, 581 
 
 Muntjacs, 141 
 
 Monkey, Diana, 21 
 
 Moth, Atlas, 589 
 
 Muntjac, Cervulus, 142 
 
 Monkey, Green, 21 
 
 Moth, Burnished brass, 591 
 
 Muraena, 493 
 
 Monkey, Lion-tailed, 22 
 
 Moth, Cinnabar, 588 
 
 Muranidse, 478, 493 
 
 Monkey, Mona, 21 
 
 Moth, Clothes, 593 
 
 Muraria, Tichodroma, 366 
 
 Monkey, Proboscis, 19 
 
 Moth, Codling, 593 
 
 Murea, 637 
 
 Monkey, Squirrel, 26 
 
 Moth, Corn, 593 
 
 Murex, 637 
 
INDEX. 
 
 753 
 
 Murex tenui-spina, 637 
 
 Myioceyx, 337 
 
 Narrow-footed pouched-mice, 
 
 Muricata, Pontobdella, 677 
 
 Myiodioctes, 365 
 
 209 
 
 Muricidse, 637 
 
 Mylabris, 560 
 
 Narrow-necked woodpecker 
 
 Muridae, 100 
 
 Myliobatidae, 521 
 
 354 
 
 Murinae, 104 
 
 Myliobatis, 521 
 
 Narwhal-spotted, 178 
 
 Murinus, Eunectes, 420 
 
 Mymar pulchellus, 577 
 
 Nasalis larvatus, 19 
 
 Mus, 104 
 
 Mynas, 360 
 
 Naseus, 471 
 
 Mus barbarus, 105 
 
 Myobiidfe, 547 
 
 Nasiterna, 329 
 
 Mus decumanus, 105 
 
 Myodes, 103 
 
 Nasiterna maforensis, 329 
 
 Mus flavicollis, 105 
 Mus minutus, 105 
 
 Myodes lemmus, 103 
 Myogale, 47 
 
 Nasiterna pygmoea, 329 
 Nasomaculatus, Addax, 154 
 
 Mus musculus, 105 
 
 Myogale moschata, 47 
 
 Nassa reticulata, 637 
 
 Mus rattus, 105 
 
 Myogale pyrenaica, 47 
 
 Nassidse, 637 
 
 Mus sylvaticus, 105 
 
 Myopotamus, 111 
 
 Nasua, 9, 76 
 
 Musaeorum, Chiridium, 541 
 
 Myopotamus, Coypu, 112 
 
 Natal rock-snake, 419 
 
 Musca domestica, 607 
 
 Myopsida, 646 
 
 Natalus, 38 
 
 Muscardinus avellanarius, 99 
 
 Myoscalops, 107 
 
 Natatrix, Pelagothuria, 66 
 
 Muscicapa grisola, 372 
 
 Myosorex, 46 
 
 Naticidae, 633 
 
 Muscicapidae, 372 
 
 Myoxidae, 99 
 
 Natrix, Tropidonotus, 421 
 
 Muscidae, 606 
 
 Myoxus, 99 
 
 Natterjack toad, 442 
 
 Muscidaa acalypterae, 607-608 
 
 Myoxus glis, 99 
 
 Nauclerus riqcouri, 316 
 
 Muscidae calypterae, 607 
 
 Myoxus nitella, 99 
 
 Naucrates, 471 
 
 Musculus, Balsenoptera, 174 
 
 Myriopoda, 548 
 
 Nauplius, 530 
 
 Musculus, Mus, 105 
 
 Myripristis, 468 
 
 Nautilus, 645 
 
 Mushroom, Coral, 705 
 
 Mynnecia, 579 
 
 Nebulosa, Felis, 55 
 
 Musica, Tubipora, 708 
 
 Myrmecia forficata, 579 
 
 Necrophago, 556 
 
 Musicus, Cygnus, 292 
 
 Myrmecobiinae, 209 
 
 Necrophorus vespillo, 556 
 
 Musicus, Turdus, 371 
 
 Myrmecobius fasciatus, 209 
 
 Nectarinia famosa, 66 
 
 Musimon, Ovis, 160 
 
 Myrmecophaga jubata, 184 
 
 Nectariniidae, 366 
 
 Musk-beetle, 561 
 
 Myrmecophagidae, 183 
 
 Nectes, 441 
 
 Musk-deer, 141 
 
 Myrmeleonidse, 570 
 
 Nectogale elegans, 47 
 
 Musk-kangaroo, 197 
 
 Myrmica, 579 
 
 Nectophryne, 441 
 
 Musk-mole, 48 
 
 Myrmicidse, 579 
 
 Necturus, 452 
 
 Musk-ox, 160 
 
 Mystacoceti, 171 
 
 Needle-tailed swift, 34 
 
 Musk-rat, Round-tailed, 103 
 
 Mystacops tuberculatus, 40 
 
 Nemachilus, 500 
 
 Musk-rat, True, 103 
 
 Mystromys, 101 
 
 Nemachilus barbatulus, 500 
 
 Musk-shrews, 46 
 
 Mytilacea, 621 
 
 Nematagnathi, 496 
 
 Musophaga rossae, 352 
 
 Mytilus, 622 
 
 Nematohelminthes, 678 
 
 Musophagidse, 351 
 
 Mytilus edulis, 621 
 
 Nematu, 575 
 
 Musquash, 103 
 
 Myxine, 525 
 
 Nemeobius lucina, 586 
 
 Mussel, Horse, 621 
 
 Myxinidae, 524 
 
 Nemertine worms, 683 
 
 Mussel, Marine, 621 
 
 Myxopoda urita, 38 
 
 Nemertinea, 683 
 
 Mustela, 80 
 
 Myzostoma, 675 
 
 Nemopteridae, 571 
 
 Mustela americana, 80 
 
 MyzostornidEe, 675 
 
 Nemorhaedus, 157 
 
 Mustela erminea, 81 
 
 
 Nemoricola, Gallinago, 268 
 
 Mustela flavigula, 80 
 Mustela foina, 80 
 
 
 Nemorum, Phyllotreta, 562 
 Neobalsena, 172 
 
 Mustela hibernica, 81 
 
 N. 
 
 Neochanna, 504 
 
 Mustela lutreola, 81 
 
 
 Neofiber, 103 
 
 Mustela martes, 80 
 
 Nahura, Ovis, 160 
 
 Neomeniidae, 616 
 
 Mustela pennanti, 80 
 
 Naia, 424 
 
 Neomeniina, 616 
 
 Mustela putorius, 81 
 
 Naia bungarus, 424 
 
 Neomorphinaj, 351 
 
 Mustela vison, 81 
 
 Naia haie, 424 
 
 Neomorphus, 351 
 
 Mustela vulgaris, 81 
 
 Naia tripudians, 424 
 
 Neophron, 306 
 
 Mustela zibellina, 80 
 
 Nais proboscidea, 674 
 
 Neophron ginginianus, 306 
 
 Mustelidse, 76 
 
 Nais, Snouted, 674 
 
 Neophron monachus, 306 
 
 Mustelus, 516 
 
 Naked bat. 40 
 
 Neophron percnopterus, 306 
 
 Mute swan, 292 
 
 Nakong, 156 
 
 Neophron pileatus, 306 
 
 Muticus, Paro, 239 
 
 Namadicus, Hippopotamus, 132 
 
 Neopsittacus, 328 
 
 Mutillidae, 579 
 
 Nana, Rhea, 221 
 
 Neopus malaiensia, 315 
 
 Mutus, Lachesis, 429 
 
 Nandidse, 464 
 
 Neoscolopax rochusseni, 267 
 
 Mutus, Lagopus, 230 
 
 Nandinia, 59 
 
 Neotoma, 102 
 
 Mya, 626 
 
 Nandu, 222 
 
 Neotoma alleni, 102 
 
 Myacea, 623, 626 
 
 Nannosciurus, 95 
 
 Neotramata, 651 
 
 Mvcerobas, 363 
 
 Nanotraginae, 151 
 
 Nepa cinerea, 597 
 
 Mycteria australis, 280 
 Mycteria senegalensis, 280 
 
 Nanotragus livingstonianus, 151 
 Nanotragus moschatus, 151 
 
 Nepidae, 597 
 Neptune's cup, 693 
 
 Mydas, Chelone, 391 
 Mydaus meliceps, 79 
 
 Nanotragus pygmaeus, 151 
 Napoleonis, Polypectrum, 238 
 
 Nereis margaritacea, 673 
 Neritidae. 632 
 
 Mygalidae, 542 
 
 Narcine, 521 
 
 Neritina, 32 
 
 Mygnimia, 580 
 
 Nardoa, 419 
 
 Neritopsidae, 632 
 
 Myidae, 626 
 
 Naricidse, 634 
 
 Nerophis, 488 
 
 49 
 
754 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Nertz, 81 
 
 North American alligator, 380 
 
 
 
 Nesaenas, 244 
 
 North American hen harrier, 
 
 
 Nessenas mayeri, 244 
 
 309 
 
 Oak eggar, 590 
 
 Nesiotis, Porphyriornis, 252 
 
 North American marten, 80 
 
 Oaten straw coralline, 697 
 
 Nesocia, 105 
 
 North American wapiti, 143 
 
 Obscurus, Dendragapus, 231 
 
 Nesoctites, 354 
 
 Northern sea-cow, 168 
 
 Obscurus, Theropithecus, 22 
 
 Nesomys, 102 
 
 Northern sea-lion, 82 
 
 Ocadia, 389 
 
 Nestor norfolcensis, 326 
 
 Norwegian jer-falcon, 319 
 
 Occipitalis, Lophoaetus, 315 
 
 Nestor notabilis, 327 
 
 Notabilis, Nestor, 327 
 
 Oceanica, Lvgia, 534 
 
 Nestor productus, 326 
 
 Notacanthidse, 485 
 
 Oceanitinae, 257 
 
 Nestoridae, 326 
 
 Notacanthiformes, 485 
 
 Oceanodroma leucorrhoa, 257 
 
 Nettion, 296 
 
 Notacanthus, 485 
 
 Ocellata, Lacerta, 409 
 
 Nettopus, 294 
 
 Notidanidae, 518 
 
 Ocellata, Lipoa, 228 
 
 Nettopus coromandelianns, 294 
 
 Notiosorex, 46 
 
 Ocellata, Meleagris, 240 
 
 Neurobasis chinensis, 570 
 
 Notobranchaeidae, 640 
 
 Ocellated megapode, 228 
 
 Neuroptera, 568 
 Neuroptera, Pseudo, 569 
 
 Notodelphyidse, 532 
 Notonectidae, 597 
 
 Ocellatus, Rheinhaidms, 239 
 Ocelot, 55 
 
 Neurotrichus, 47 
 
 Notopteridse, 503 
 
 Ochropus, Helodroraas, 209 
 
 Neustria, Clisiocampa, 590 
 New world monkeys, 8, 23 
 
 Notopterus, 503 
 Notornis, 252 
 
 Ochthodromus,, 271 
 Octactinia, 707 
 
 Newts and salamanders, 445 
 
 Notoryctes typhlops, 210 
 
 Octodon, 111 
 
 Newt, Common, 448 
 
 Notoryctidae, 210 
 
 Octodont tribe, The 110 
 
 Newt, Crested, 447 
 
 Nototrema, 443 
 
 Octodontidae, 110 
 
 Newt, Webbed, 448 
 
 Novae-hollandiae, Astur, 311 
 
 Octopoda, 646 
 
 Newtoniana, Prionodura, 359 
 
 Novae-hollandiae, Dromeae, 223 
 
 Octopodidae, 647 
 
 Nicobar megapode, 228 
 
 Novae-zealandiae, Coturnix, 235 
 
 Ocycerus, 340 
 
 Nicobar pigeon, '245 
 
 Novae-zealandiae. Geonemertes, 
 
 Ocydromus, 251 
 
 Nicobariensis, Megapodius, 228 
 
 684 
 
 Odonata, 569 
 
 Nicoria, 387 
 
 Noveboracensis, Ortygops, 252 
 
 Odontaspis, 517 
 
 Niger, Canis, 65 
 
 Novius cardinalis, 602 
 
 Odontoceti, 171 
 
 Niger, Cynopitheeus, 22 
 
 Nucleobranchiata, 636 
 
 Odontomachus, 579 
 
 Niger, Hippotragus, 153 
 
 Nucula, 620 
 
 Odontophorinae, 231 
 
 Nigra, Alouatta, 24 
 
 Nuculidse, 620 
 
 (Edemia, 297 
 
 Nigra, Ciconia, 279 
 
 Nucum, Balaninus, 560 
 
 ffidicnemi, 273 
 
 Nigra, Hydrochelidon, 261 
 
 Nudibranchiata, 640 
 
 ffidicnemus oedicnemus, 273 
 
 Nigra, Melanoperdix, 234 
 
 Nudibranchis, 640 
 
 OZdipoda caerulescens, 568 
 
 Nigra, Rhynchops, 262 
 
 Numenius, 269 
 
 OZstrelata brevipes, 257 
 
 Night-heron, Mottled, 284 
 
 Numida, 239 
 
 CEstridae, 606 
 
 Nightingale, 370 
 
 Nummilites, 715 
 
 Officinalis euspongia, 693 
 
 Nightjars, The, 342 
 
 Nut hatches, The, 368 
 
 Officinalis, Scincus, 410 
 
 Nightjar, Leona, 343 
 
 Nut hatch, Common, 368 
 
 Ogmorhinus leptonyx, 86 
 
 Nightjar, Mottled, 344 
 
 Nut-weevil, 560 
 
 Oigopsida, 646 
 
 Nile fox, 71 
 
 Nutria, 111 
 
 Oikopleura, 527 
 
 Nile monitor, 406 
 
 Nyctala, 324 
 
 Oil beetles, 560 
 
 Nilgai, 154 
 Nilgiri ibex, 159 
 
 Nyctalea acadica, 324 
 Nyctalea tengmalmi, 324 
 
 Oil birds, The, 332 
 Oil fish, 478 
 
 Niloticus, Canus, 71 
 
 Nyctea nyctea, 322 
 
 Old world monkeys, 19 
 
 Niloticus, Crocodilus, 381 
 
 Nyctereutes, 69 
 
 Olens, Ocypus, 556 
 
 Niloticus, Varanus, 406 
 
 Nycteribiidge, 608 
 
 Oligochaeta, 673 
 
 Ninox, 323 
 
 Nycteridse, 36 
 
 Olividae, 638 
 
 Nit, Coralline, 668 
 
 Nycteris, 36 
 
 Olm, 452 
 
 Nitella, Myoxus, 99 
 
 Nyctibiinae, 344 
 
 Olor, Cygnus, 292 
 
 Nitidissima, Alectraenas, 243 
 
 Nyctibus grandis, 344 
 
 Ommastrephidae, 646 
 
 Nivalis, Plectrophenax, 363 
 
 Nyctibus jamarcensis, 344 
 
 Ommatophoca rossi, 87 
 
 Nivicola, Ovis, 160 
 
 Nycticebus, 31 
 
 Onca, Felis, 53 
 
 Noble falcons, The, 319 
 
 Nycticejus, 37 
 
 Onchidiidae, 642 
 
 Noctilio, 39 
 
 Nycticejus albofuscus, 38 
 
 Onchorhynchus, 508 
 
 Noctiluca, 718 
 
 Nyctieorax, 283 
 
 Oniscidae, 534 
 
 Noctiluca, Lampyris, 559 
 
 Nyctieorax nyctieorax, 283 
 
 Onocrotalus, Pelecr.nus, 302 
 
 Noctilucus, Pyrophorus, 559 
 
 Nyctinomus, 40 
 
 Onychodactylus, 450 
 
 Noctuae, 588 
 
 Nyctinomus cestoni, 40 
 
 Onychogale, 194 
 
 Noctula, Vesperugo, 37 
 
 Nyctiornis, 341 
 
 Onychomys, 101 
 
 Noctule, 37 
 
 Nyctiornis amicta, 341 
 
 Onychoteuthidae, 646 
 
 Noisy scrub-bird, 376 
 
 Nyctiornis athertoni, 341 
 
 Oocorythidae, 637 
 
 Nomada, 580 
 
 Nyctipithecus, 26 
 
 Opelet, The, 703 
 
 Nomaeidae, 472 
 
 Nyctipithecus trivirgatus, 26 
 
 Open-billed storks, ?80 
 
 Nomaeus, 472 
 
 Nymphalidse, 582 
 
 Open -bills, 278 
 
 Nomonyx, 297 
 
 Nyroca, 297 
 
 Opercula, Principal forms of,630 
 
 Non -hinged brachiopod, 650 
 
 
 Operculum, 630 
 
 Nonnula, 355 
 
 
 Ophichthys, 494, 495 
 
 Norfolcensis, Nestor, 326 
 
 
 Ophideres, 591 
 
 Norfolk plover, 273 
 
 
 Ophidia, 412 
 
INDEX. 
 
 755 
 
 Ophidiidaa, 491 
 
 Oryzivorus, Cassidix, 362 
 
 Owl, Tengmalm's, 324 
 
 Ophidium, 491 
 
 Oryzomys, 101 
 
 Owl, Wood, 320, 324 
 
 Ophiocephalidae, 482 
 
 Oryzodctes, 49 
 
 Owls, Eared, 324 
 
 Ophiocephalus, 482 
 
 Oryzorictes nova, 49 
 
 Owls, Fishing, 321 
 
 Ophiodes, 405 
 
 Oryzorictes tetradactylus, 49 
 
 Owls, Tufted, 322 
 
 Ophion, Ovis, 160 
 
 Osmerus, 508 
 
 Owl-parrot, 331 
 
 Ophisaurus, 405 
 
 Osphromenus, 483 
 
 Owlets, The, 324 
 
 Ophisaurus apus, 405 
 
 Ospreys, 320 
 
 Owlet, Pigmy, 324 
 
 Ophispholis aculeata, 657 
 
 Ossifraga gigantea, 258 
 
 Owlet-nightjar, 334 
 
 Ophiuroidea, 658 
 
 Ossifragus, Gypaetus, 314 
 
 Ox, Common, 165 
 
 Opisthobranchiata, 639 
 
 Osteoglossidae, 504 
 
 Ox, Musk, 161 
 
 Opisthocomus cristatus, 247 
 
 Osteolaemus, 382 
 
 Oxygyrus, 637 
 
 Opolemur, 30 
 
 Osteolaemus tetraspis, 382 
 
 Oxymycterus, 101 
 
 Opossums, 211 
 
 Ostracium, 489 
 
 Oxynoidae, 640 
 
 Opossum, Common, 211 
 
 Ostracoda, 532 
 
 Oxyrhamphidae, 373 
 
 Opossum, Didelphys, 213 
 
 Ostrea, 622 
 
 Oxyrhamphus, 37* 
 
 Opossum quica, 213 
 
 Ostreacea, 622 
 
 Oxyuris vermicularis, 679 
 
 Opossum, Thick-tailed, 213 
 
 Ostrich, The, 222 
 
 Oyster-catchers, 271 
 
 Opossum, Velvety, 213 
 
 Ostrich, Somali-land, 223 
 
 Oyster, Hammer-headed, 622 
 
 Opossum, Water, 211 
 
 Ostrich, South African, 223 
 
 Oyster, Pearl, 622 
 
 Orang-utan, 16 
 
 Otaria, 82 
 
 Oyster, Saddle, 621 
 
 Orange tip, 586 
 
 Otaria fosteri, 82 
 
 Oyster, Thorny, 623 
 
 Orbicularis, Emys, 388 
 
 Otaria pusilla, 82 
 
 
 Orca, 179 
 
 Otaria gillespii, 82 
 
 
 Orca gladiator, 180 
 
 Otaria jubata, 82 
 
 P. 
 
 Orcella fluminalis, 179 
 
 Otaria stelleri, 82 
 
 
 Oreocicla, 370 
 
 Otaria ursina, 82 
 
 Pacas, 115 
 
 Oreocicla varia, 371 
 
 Otariidae, 81 
 
 Paca, Branick's, 115 
 
 Oreophasis derbianus, 229 
 
 Otides, 273 
 
 Pacas family, The, 115 
 
 Oreopithecus, 14 
 
 Otinidse, 641 
 
 Pachycalmus, 408 
 
 Oreopsittacus, 328 
 
 Otis, 273 
 
 Pachycephala, 369 
 
 Oreotragus saltator, 151 
 
 Otis tarda, 273 
 
 Pachyrhina crocata, 604 
 
 Orias, 156 
 
 Otocorys, 364 
 
 Pachytriton, 449 
 
 Oribi, South African, 151 
 
 Otocorys alpestis, 364 
 
 Pachyuromys, 101 
 
 Oribia, Scoparia, 151 
 
 Otocyon megalotis, 74 
 
 Pacificus, Pareudiastes, 252 
 
 Oriental chevrotains, 139 
 
 Otogyps, 306 
 
 Pagellus, 466 
 
 Oriental leopard cat, 55 
 
 Otomys, 101 
 
 Pagodus, 635 
 
 Oriental magar, 381 
 
 Otters, The, 76 
 
 Pagrinae, 466 
 
 Oriental shrews, 46 
 
 Otter, Sea, 77 
 
 Pagrus, 466 
 
 Orientalis, Blatta, 564 
 
 Otus, Asio, 324 
 
 Paguridse, 537 
 
 Orioles, The, 361 
 
 Ounce, 53 
 
 Pagurus, Cancer, 538 
 
 Oriole, Golden, 361 
 
 Ovalis, Cyamus, 535 
 
 Painted frog, 444 
 
 Oriolidae, 361 
 
 Oven-birds, 375 
 
 Painted fruit-pigeon, 242 
 
 Oriolus galbula, 361 
 
 Ovibos moschatus, 160 
 
 Painted pigeons, The, 243 
 
 Organ-pipe coral, 708 
 
 Oviformis, Gromia, 715 
 
 Painted quails, 235 
 
 Ormers, The, 632 
 
 Ovinus, Melophagus, 608 
 
 Painted snipes, The, 267 
 
 Ornata, Ceratophrys, 441 
 
 Ovis, 159 
 
 Pala, 152 
 
 Ornatus, Anthops, 36 
 
 Ovis ammon, 160 
 
 Palseindicus, Hippopotamus, 
 
 Ornatus, Ursus, 75 
 
 Ovis canadensis, 160 
 
 132 
 
 Ornithomyia avicularia, 608 
 
 Ovis gmelini, 160 
 
 Palaensis, Geonemertes, 684 
 
 Ornithoptera, 587 
 
 Ovis hodgsoni, 160 
 
 Palseolodus, 290 
 
 Ornithorhynchidfe, 215 
 
 Ovis musimon, 160 
 
 Palamedea, 290 
 
 Ornithorhynchus anatinus, 
 
 Ovis nahura, 160 
 
 Palamedea cornuta, 290 
 
 215 
 
 Ovis nivicola, 160 
 
 Palinuridse, 537 
 
 Ortalinse, 608 
 
 Ovis ophion, 160 
 
 Pallasiana, Lepralia, 667 
 
 Orthagoriscus, 472 
 
 Ovis poli, 160 
 
 Pallas' sand-grouse, 241 
 
 Orthalicidse, 643 
 
 Ovis tragelaphus, 160 
 
 Pallas' sea-eagle, 321 
 
 Orthalicus, 643 
 
 Ovis vignei, 160 
 
 Palliata, Adamsia, 703 
 
 Orthogeomys, 109 
 
 Owls, The, 320 
 
 Pallipes, Canis, 64 
 
 Orthonectidse, 689 
 
 Owl, Barn, 325 
 
 Palm-civit, 59 
 
 Orthoptera, 562 
 
 Owl, Brown Hawk, 323 
 
 Palm squirrel, Indian, 91 
 
 Orthorhamphus maginrostris, 
 
 Owl, Burrowing, 323 
 
 Palm swifts, 346 
 
 273 
 
 Owl, Downy, 324 
 
 Palm weevil, 560 
 
 Ortolan, 364 
 
 Owl, Eagle, 322 
 
 Palmarum, Sciurus, 91 
 
 Ortygops, 251 
 
 Owl, Grass, 325 
 
 Palmata, Molge, 448 
 
 Ortygops exquisita, 252 
 
 Owl, Horned, 321 
 
 Palmeri, Porzanula, 251 
 
 Ortygops noveboracensis, 252 
 
 Owl, Little, 323 
 
 Palseornis, 329 
 
 Ortyx virginianus, 240 
 
 Owl, Long-eared, 324 
 
 Paludestrinidae, 635 
 
 Orycteropodidae, 189 
 
 Owl, Pel's Fishing, 3?.l 
 
 Paludicola, 103, 441 
 
 Orycteropus capensis, 189 
 
 Owl, Short-eared, 324 
 
 Palumbarius, Astur, 310 
 
 Oryx, 153 
 
 Owl, Snowy, 322 
 
 Palustris, Parus, 367 
 
 Oryzivora, Delichonyx, 361 
 
 Owl, Tawny, 321 
 
 Pamir sheep, 160 
 
756 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pampas-deer, 146 
 
 Partridge, The true, 234 
 
 Pelicans and allies, 298 
 
 Panda, The, 75, 76 
 
 Partridges, Snow, 231 
 
 Pelicans, The, 301 
 
 Panderi, Podoces, 358 
 
 Partridges, Tooth-billed, 231 
 
 Pelican, Knob-billed, 302 
 
 Pandiones, 304, 320 
 
 Parula, 365 
 
 Pelican, Roseate, 302 
 
 Pandion haliaetus, 320 
 
 Parus, 367 
 
 Pelican, Spotted-billed, 302 
 
 Pandora, 627 
 
 Parus caeruleus, 367 
 
 Pelican's foot shell, 636 
 
 Pandoridse, 627 
 
 Parus major, 367 
 
 Pelidna, 269 
 
 Pangolins, 188 
 
 Parus palustris, 367 
 
 Pelobatidae, 443 
 
 Panoplus, 405 
 
 Parva, Helogale, 60 
 
 Pelochelys, 395 
 
 Panther, 53 
 
 Parva, Zapornia, 251 
 
 Pelodera, 679 
 
 Pantholops, Hodgsoni, 152 
 
 Parvirostris, Tetrao, 230 
 
 Pelodytes punctatus, 443 
 
 Pantodon bucholzi, 505 
 
 Pasang, 159 
 
 Pelomedusidje, 393 
 
 Pantodontidse, 505 
 
 Passenger pigeons, The, 244 
 
 Pelopaeus spirifex, 580 
 
 Papatasii, Phlebotomus, 604 
 
 Passeriformes, 357 
 
 Pelor, 467 
 
 Paper nautilus, 647 
 
 Paste, Eel, 679 
 
 Pel's fishing-owl, 321 
 
 Papillata, Cidaris, 659 
 
 Pastor, Rose-coloured, 360 
 
 Pel's flying-squirrel, 90 
 
 Papio, 10, 22 
 
 Pastor roseus, 360 
 
 Peltella, 643 
 
 Papio babuin, 23 
 
 Patachonica, Aptendytes, 255 
 
 Peltohyas, 270 
 
 Papio maimon, 23 
 
 Patagona gigas, 347 
 
 Peltohyas australis, 270 
 
 Papio porcarius, 23 
 
 Patellidse, 631 
 
 Peltohyatinae, '270 
 
 Pappogeomys, 109 
 
 Paterina, 650 
 
 Peludo argentine, 186 
 
 Paradise-fish, Chinese, 483 
 
 Paumotensis, Actinia, 704 
 
 Pemperis, 468 
 
 Paradise flycatchers, 373 
 
 Pavoncella, 269 
 
 Pempheris, 471 
 
 Paradiseidae, 358 
 
 Pavoncella pugnax, 269 
 
 Pencillata, Cynictis, 60 
 
 Paradiseinae, 359 
 
 Pavonia-minor, Saturnia, 589 
 
 Pencilled mungoose, 60 
 
 Paradoxuna, Diplozoon, 688 
 
 Pea-fowl, The, 239 
 
 Pencil-tailed tree-mouse, 10i 
 
 Paradoxurus, 59 
 
 Peacock butterfly, 585 
 
 Pendadactylus, Pterophorus, 
 
 Paradoxus, Syrrhoptes, 241 
 
 Peacock pheasants, The, 238 
 
 594 
 
 Paralepis, 505 
 
 Pearl-grey curlew, 270 
 
 Penguins, The, 255 
 
 Parameniidse, 616 
 
 Pearl oyster, 622 
 
 Penguin, Emperor, 255 
 
 Parasitic Hymenoptera, 576 
 
 Pearly lizard, 409 
 
 Penguin, King, 255 
 
 Parasitica, Callidina, 683 
 
 Pearly nereis, 673 
 
 Pennanti, Mustela, 80 
 
 Parasiticus, Stercorarius, 263 
 
 Peccaries, 9 
 
 Pennant's marten, 80 
 
 Pardalis, Felis, 55 
 
 Peccaries family, The, 135 
 
 Pennatula, 709 
 
 Pardina, Felis, 56 
 
 Pecora, 140 
 
 Pennatus, Distaechurus, 202 
 
 Pardus, Felis, 53 
 
 Pecten, 622 
 
 Pennatus, Eutolmsetus, 315 
 
 Paretroplus, 487 
 
 Pectinacea, 622 
 
 Pennula ecaudata, 251 
 
 Pareudiastes pacifieus, 252 
 
 Pectinator, 111 
 
 Pentacrini, 664 
 
 Paridse, 367 
 
 Pectinibranchiata, 632 
 
 Pen-tailed phalanger, 202 
 
 Parnassius, 587 
 
 Pectintinibranchiate, 614 
 
 Pen-tailed shrew, 44 
 
 Parnassius Apollo, 587 
 
 Pectunculus, 621 
 
 Pen-tailed tree-shrew, 202 
 
 Paro, 239 . 
 
 Pedalion mirum, 682 
 
 Pentanemus, 468 
 
 Paro cristatus, 239 
 
 Pedetes caffer, 110 
 
 Pentatomidse, 595 
 
 Paro muticus, 239 
 
 Pediculus capitis, 602 
 
 Peragale, 205 
 
 Paroaria, 364 
 
 Pediculus vestimeuti, 602 
 
 Perameles, 206 
 
 Parrakeet, Long-tailed, 329 
 
 Pedionomus, 241 
 
 Perameles gunni, 206 
 
 Parrots, The, 325 
 
 Pedipalpi, 541 
 
 Peramelidse, 205 
 
 Parrot, Grey, 330 
 
 Pedunculate Brachiopod, 648 
 
 Peramys, 213 
 
 Parrot, Ground, 331 
 
 Pegasus, 476 
 
 Perca, 464 
 
 Parrot, Kea, 327 
 
 Pelagica, Procellaria, 257 
 
 Percarina, 464 
 
 Parrot, Owl, 331 
 
 Pelagonemertes, 684 
 
 Perch, Common, 464 
 
 Parrot, Sea-, 260 
 
 Pelagothuria, 662 
 
 Perching birds, The, 357 
 
 Parrots, Kaka, 326 
 
 Pelagothuria natatrix, 661 
 
 Percichthys, 464 
 
 Parrots, True, 329 
 
 Pelargopsis, 336 
 
 Percidae, 464 
 
 Parrot-wrasses, 486 
 
 Pelargopsis burmanica, 336 
 
 Perciformes, 463 
 
 Parti -coloured bear, 75 
 
 Pelea capreola, 151 
 
 Percnopterus, Neophron, 306 
 
 Partridges, The, 231 
 
 Pelecaniformes, 298 
 
 Percopsidae, 509 
 
 Partridge, Barbary red-legged, 
 
 Pelecani, 298 
 
 Percopsis guttata, 509 
 
 232 
 
 Pelecanoididse, 258 
 
 Perdicinae, 231 
 
 Partridge, "Bearded, 234 
 
 Pelecanus erythrorhynchus, 
 
 Perdicula, 234 
 
 Partridge, Black-headed red- 
 
 302 
 
 Perdix, 234 
 
 legged, 232 
 
 Pelecanus manillensis, 302 
 
 Perdix damascena, 234 
 
 Partridge, Chukar, 232 
 
 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 302 
 
 Perdix daurica, 234 
 
 Partridge, Common, 233 
 
 Pelecinus, 578 
 
 Perdix hodgsoniae, 234 
 
 Partridge, Greek, 232 
 
 Pelecinus soliturator, 578 
 
 Perdix montana, 234 
 
 Partridge, Mountain, 234 
 
 Pelecnanoidae, 257 
 
 Perdix perdix, 235 
 
 Partridge, Prjevalsky's red- 
 
 Pelecus, 500 
 
 Perdix sifanica, 234 
 
 legged, 232 
 
 Pelecypod gills, Development 
 
 Peregrine falcon, 319 
 
 Partridge, Rock red-legged, 
 232 
 
 of, 619 
 Pelecypoda, 616 
 
 Peregrinus, Falco, 319 
 Perforate formanifera, 715 
 
 Partridge, See-see, 233 
 
 Peli, Anomalurus, 90 
 
 Perginae, 574 
 
 Partridge, Toothed, 240 
 
 Peli, Scotopelia, 321 
 
 Periopthalmus, 476 
 
INDEX. 
 
 757 
 
 Peripatidae, 550 
 
 Phalanger, Flying, Taguan, 20 
 
 PhilydorinjB, 375 
 
 Peripatus, 671 
 
 Phalanger, Leadbeater's, 201 
 
 Phlaeomyinae, 101 
 
 Peripatus iuliformis, 551 
 Periplaneta americana, 564 
 
 Phalanger, Long-snouted, 203 
 Phalanger maculatus, 200 
 
 Phlebotomus papatosi, 604 
 Phoca, 85 
 
 Perissodactyla, 124 
 
 Phalanger, Pen-tailed, 202 
 
 Phoca barbata, 85 
 
 Peristeridae, 244 
 
 Phalanger, Ring-tailed, 200 
 
 Phoca caspica, 85 
 
 Peristerinaj, 244 
 
 Phalanger Tribe, 198 
 
 Phoca grcenlandica, 85 
 
 Peristeropodes, 226 
 
 Phalanger ursinus, 200 
 
 Phoca sibirica, 85 
 
 Periwinkles, 635 
 
 Phalangeridse, 198 
 
 Phoca vitulina, 85 
 
 Perlidae, 571 
 
 Phalangerinse, 199 
 
 Phocidae, 84, 85 
 
 Pern, Black, 317 
 
 Phalangiida, 541 
 
 Phoccena, 179 
 
 Perna, 622 
 Pernis, 317 
 
 Phalaropes, The, 266 
 Phalarope, Grey, 66 
 
 Phocoena communis, 179 
 Phocoena phocoenoides, 179 
 
 Pernis apivorus, 317 
 
 Phalarope, Red-necked, 266 
 
 Phoccenoides, Phocoena, 179 
 
 Pernis celebensis, 317 
 
 Phalarope, Wilson's, 266 
 
 Phoebetria, 258 
 
 Pernis ptilonorhynchus, 317 
 
 Phalaropinae, 266 
 
 Phoenicens, Agelaeus, 361 
 
 Perodicticus, 31 
 
 Phalaropus, 366 
 
 Phoeniconaias, 290 
 
 Perodicticus potto, 31 
 
 Phalaropus hyperboreus, 266 
 
 Phoeniconaias minor, 290 
 
 Perodipus, 109 
 
 Pharyngognathi, 485 
 
 Phoenicoparrus, 290 
 
 Perognathus, 109 
 
 Phascolarctinae, 199 
 
 Phoenicoparrus andinus, 290 
 
 Perplexa, Callidea, 595 
 
 Phascolarctus cincreus, 199 
 
 Phoenicoparrus jamesi, 290 
 
 Persian fallow-deer, 144 
 
 Phascologale, 208 
 
 Phoenicophaeinse, 351 
 
 Persian wild goat, 159 
 Persian maral, 143 
 
 Phascolomyidse, 204 
 Phascolomys, 203 
 
 Phoenicophaes, 351 
 Phcenicopteriformes, 288 
 
 Persicus, Argas, 546 
 Persicus, Cassidix, 262 
 
 Phascolosoma, 678 
 Phasgonuridae, 567 
 
 Phoenicopterus, 290 
 Phoethornis, 348 
 
 Persicus, Phasianus, 237 
 Personatus, Reduvius, 596 
 
 Phasiani, 226 
 Phasiandae, 229 
 
 Pholadacea, 623 
 Pholadidae, 627 
 
 Perspicillata, Salamandrina, 448 
 
 Phasianinfe, 235 
 
 Pholadomya caudida, 628 
 
 Perspicillatus, Artibeus, 41 
 
 Phasianus colchicus, 237 
 
 Pholadomyidae, 628 
 
 Persuasoria, Rhyssa, 577 
 Petauroides volans, 201 
 
 Phasianus persicus, 237 
 Phasianus principalis, 237 
 
 Pholas, 625 
 Phoronis, 649 
 
 Petaurus, 202 
 
 Phasianus reevesi, 238 
 
 Photichthys, 505 
 
 Petaurus breviceps, 202 
 
 Phasianus scemmeringi, 238 
 
 Phoyx purpurea, 282 
 
 Petersi, Geotrypetes, 455 
 
 Phasianus scintillans, 238 
 
 Phragmitis, Acrocephalus, 370 
 
 Petersi, Mormyrus, 503 
 
 3 hasianus talischensis, 237 
 
 Phryganea grandis, 572 
 
 Petrels, The, 256 
 
 i'hasianus veisicolor, z'3S 
 
 Phryganistria serratipes, 566 
 
 Petrel, Canarian fork-tailed, 257 
 
 Phasidus, 239 
 
 Phrygilus, 364 
 
 Petrel, Common fulmar, 258 
 
 Phasmidae, 551 
 
 3 hrynorhombus, 492 
 
 Petrel, Diving, 257 
 
 'heasants, The, 235 
 
 5 hrynosoma, 403 
 
 Petrel, Fork-tailed, 257 
 
 Pheasant, Argus, 235 
 
 Phrynus, 541 
 
 Petrel, Fulmar, 258 
 
 Pheasant, Barred-backed, 238 
 
 Phylactolaemata, 669 
 
 Petrel, Leach's, 257 
 
 Pheasant, Caped, 238 
 
 Phyllobates trinitatis, 438 
 
 Petrel, Long-legged, 257 
 
 J heasant, Cheer, 237 
 
 Phyllodes, Mormolyce, 555 
 
 Petrel, Short-legged, 257 
 
 Peasant, Common, 237 
 
 Phyllodromia germanica, 564 
 
 Petrel, Storm, 257 
 Petricolidse, 625 
 
 Pheasant, Copper, 238 
 Pheasant, Cuckoo, 351 
 
 Phyllonycteris, 41 
 Phyllopoda, 531 
 
 Petrochelidon pyrrhonota, 373 
 
 Pheasant, Fire-backed, 236 
 
 PhyUopteryx, 487 
 
 Petrodomus, 44 
 
 Pheasant, Horned, 235 
 
 ^hylloscopus minor, 370 
 
 Petrogale, 194 
 
 > heasant, Impeyan, 235 
 
 'hylloscopus trochilus, 370 
 
 Petromys, 111 
 
 Pheasant, Kalij, 236 
 
 'hyllostoma, 41 
 
 Petromyzidae, 524 
 
 Pheasant, Koklass, 237 
 
 Phyllostomatidae, 40 
 
 Petromyzum, 524 
 
 Pheasant, Lobed, 236 
 
 Phyllotreta, 562 
 
 Petromyzum fluviatile, 524 
 
 Pheasant, Pucras, 236 
 
 'hyllotreta nemorum, 562 
 
 Petromyzum mar in 11111, 524 
 
 Pheasant, Reeves, 238 
 
 'hymosoma, 678 
 
 Petrosa, Caccabis, 232 
 
 Pheasant, Silver, 236 
 
 Physalia, 699 
 
 Pewit, Common, 271 
 
 Pheasants, Blood, 235 
 
 'hyseter macrocephalus, 175 
 
 Pezophaps, 245 
 
 Pheasants, Eared, 236 
 
 Physeteridae, 175 
 
 Pezophaps solitarius, 245 
 
 'heasants, Ring-necked, 237 
 
 Physidae, 642 
 
 Pezoporus, 331 
 
 'hegornis mitchelli, 267 
 
 'hysodon, 176 
 
 Phabinae, 244 
 
 'henacomys, 103 
 
 'hysostomi, 493 
 
 Phacochaerus aethiopicus, 134 
 Phaeton flavirostris, 298 
 
 Philander, 213 
 Philepittidae, 373 
 
 Phytophaga, 561 
 Phytopti, 545 
 
 Phainopepla, 369 
 
 Philhydrida, 557 
 
 Phytoptidae, 546 
 
 Phalacrocoraces, 299 
 
 Philinidae, 640 
 
 Phytotomidae, 373 
 
 Phalacrocorax carbo, 299 
 
 Philippine rats, 101 
 
 Piaya, 351 
 
 Phalacrocorax graculus, 299 
 
 Philippinus, Cervus, 143 
 
 Pica, 357 
 
 Phalacrocorax varius, 300 
 
 Phillipsi, Dipodomys, 109 
 
 Pica pica, 358 
 
 Phalangers, The, 200 
 
 Phillotis, 101 
 
 Picarian birds, The, 33? 
 
 Phalanger, Common, 200 
 
 Philodryas, 423 
 
 Picas family, The, 117 
 
 Phalanger, Dormouse, 202 
 
 Philohela minor, 267 
 
 Piceus, Hydrous, 557 
 
 Phalanger, Flying, 202 
 
 Philomycidae, 643 
 
 Pichi, 186 
 
758 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pichiago, 185 
 
 Pipit, Tree, 365 
 
 Pleurotomidae, 632 
 
 Pichiciagos, 188 
 
 Pipridae, 373 
 
 Ploceidae, 362 
 
 Pici, 353 
 
 Pirula, 636 
 
 Ploceus baya, 362 
 
 Piciformes, 353 
 
 Piscatorius, Lophius, 474 
 
 Plotidae, 301 
 
 Picinae, 354 
 
 Pisces, 456 
 
 Plotus anhin-ra, 301 
 
 Picoides, 354 
 
 Pisidium, 623 
 
 Plotus levaillanti, 301 
 
 Pictus, Aramus, 275 
 
 Pit vipers, 428 
 
 Plovers, The, 264 
 
 Pictus, Discoglossus, 444 
 
 Pithechirus, 106 
 
 Plover, American golden, 270 
 
 Pictus, Lycaon, 73 
 
 Pithecia, 27 
 
 Plover, Crab, 264 
 
 Piculets, 354 
 
 Pithecia monachus, 27 
 
 Plover, Golden, 271 
 
 Picumninae, 354 
 
 Pithecia satanus, 27 
 
 Plover, Grey, 271 
 
 Picumnus, 354 
 
 Pittas, The, 375 
 
 Plover, Norfolk, 273 
 
 Picus martius, 3=>4 
 
 Pitta angolensis, 375 
 
 Plover, Spur-winged, 271 
 
 Piddocks, The, 627 
 
 Pitta, The Purple, 375 
 
 Plover, Stone, 273 
 
 Pied flycatcher, 372 
 
 Pittidae, 373 
 
 Plover, True, 270 
 
 Pied hornbill, 339 
 
 Pittoides, Atelornis, 335 
 
 Plover, Wattled, 271 
 
 Pied kingfisher, 336 
 
 Placuna sella, 621 
 
 Plover, Wry-billed, 270 
 
 Pied shag, 300 
 
 Plagiodon, 112 
 
 Plume moths, 594 
 
 Pied sparrow-hawk, 311 
 
 Plagyodus, 505 
 
 Plumose anemone, 702 
 
 Pied swift, 346^ 
 
 Plain rat-kangaroo, 197 
 
 Plumularians, 697 
 
 Pied wagtail, The, 365 
 
 Planarian, Land, 684 
 
 Plusia chrysitis, 591 
 
 Pied woodpecker, 354 
 Pieridae, 586 
 
 Planarian worms, 685 
 Planci, Cucumaria, 660 
 
 Plusia gamma, 591 
 Pluvialis, Charadrius, 271 
 
 Pig tribe, The, 133 
 
 Planipennia, 570 
 
 Pluvialis, Haematopota, 605 
 
 Pig, Bush, 134 
 
 Planorbis, 642 
 
 Pneumonodermatidae, 640 
 
 Pigs, True, 133 
 
 Plant bugs, 596 
 
 Pochards, The, 297 
 
 Pig-footed bandicoot, 206 
 Pigeons, The, 242 
 
 Plant cutters, The, 374 
 Plant-feeding beetles, 561 
 
 Pocket-gophers, The, 107 
 Podargi, 333 
 
 Pigeon, Crowned, 245 
 
 Plant-lice, 598, 601 
 
 Podarginae, 333 
 
 Pigeon, Fruit, 242 
 
 Platacan thorny s lasiurus, 100 
 
 Podargus, 333 
 
 Pigeon, Ground, 244 
 
 Plataleae, 286 
 
 Podargus strigoides, 333 
 
 Pigeon, Long-tailed, 244 
 
 Plataleae leucerodea, 286 
 
 Podica, 252 
 
 Pigeon, Nicobar, 245 
 
 Platanista gangetica, 177 
 
 Podica senegalensis, 252 
 
 Pigeon, Painted, 243 
 
 Platanistidae, 177 
 
 Podicipes auritus, 253 
 
 Pigeon, Passenger, 244 
 
 Platax, 471 
 
 Podicipes cristatus, 253 
 
 Pigeon, Tooth-billed, 245 
 
 Plated holothurian, 661 
 
 Podicipedidiformes, 253 
 
 Pigeon, Wood, 244 
 Pigmy hippopotamus, 131 
 
 Platemys, 393 
 Platibis, 286 
 
 Podilymbus, 253 
 Podoces, 358 
 
 Pigmy hog, 134 
 
 Platurus, 425 
 
 Podoces hendersoni, 358 
 
 Pigmy owlet, 324 
 
 Platurus laticaudatus, 425 
 
 Podoces humilis, 358 
 
 Pigmy squirrels, 95 
 
 Platycercomys, 110 
 
 Podoces panderi, 358 
 
 Pigmy whale, 172 
 
 Platycercus, 329 
 
 Podocnemis expansa, 393 
 
 Pike, Bony, 509 
 
 Platycheles, Porcellana, 537 
 
 Pcecile, 367 
 
 Pike, Common, 502 
 
 Platygeomys, 109 
 
 Pceciliidae, 502 
 
 Pike head, 483 
 
 Platyhelminthes, 685 
 
 Poecilogale albinucha, 81 
 
 Pike-perches, 464 
 Pilaris, Turdus, 371 
 
 Platyrhina, 520 
 Platyrhynchinae, 373 
 
 Poensis, Poiana, 58 
 Poephila, 362 
 
 Pilchard, 507 
 
 Platysaurus, 404 
 
 Pogonias, 468 
 
 Pilchardus, Clupea, 507 
 Pileatus, Neophron, 306 
 
 Platysternidae, 389 
 Platysternum megalocephalum, 
 
 Poiana poensis, 58 
 Poiphila casei, 608 
 
 Pilidium, 684 
 
 389 
 
 Poisonous lizards, 405 
 
 Pilot-fish, 471 
 
 Plautus impennis, 260 
 
 Polar bear, 75 
 
 Pimelodus, 497 
 
 Plecotus, 36 
 
 Polecat, 81 
 
 Pimplinse, 577 
 
 Plecotus auritus, 37 
 
 Polecat, Cape, 81 
 
 Pine-marten, 80 
 Pink-footed goose, 295 
 
 Plectispondyli, 497 
 Plectognathi, 488 
 
 Poll ovis, 160 
 Poliohierax, 319 
 
 Pink-headed duck, 294 
 
 Plectrophenax nivalis, 363 
 
 Polish swan, 292 
 
 Pinna, 622 
 
 Plectropterinae, 293 
 
 Politurator, Pelecinus, 578 
 
 Pinnated grouse, 231 
 
 Plectropterus, 293 
 
 Pollack, The, 491 
 
 Pinnotheres, 538 
 
 Plegadis, 288 
 
 Pollan, 509 
 
 Pin-tailed sand grouse, 241 
 Pin-tails, 296 
 
 Plegadis falcinellus, 288 
 Plesiops, 464 
 
 Pollan, Coregonus, 509 
 Polyacanthus, 483 
 
 Piophilinse, 608 
 
 Plethodon, 450 
 
 Polyborinae, 307 
 
 Pipa americana, 444 
 
 Plethodontinae, 450 
 
 Polyboroides, 309 
 
 Pipe fishes, 487 
 
 Pleurobranchoidea, 640 
 
 Polyborus, 307 
 
 Piper, The, 659 
 
 Pleuroceridae, 635 
 
 I'olyborus cheriway, 307 
 
 Pipidae, 444 
 
 Pleurodira, 392 
 
 Polyborus tharus, 307 
 
 Pipilo, 364 
 
 Pleuronectes, 492 
 
 Polychaeta, 671 
 
 Pipistrelle, 37 
 
 Pleuronectidse, 492 
 
 Polydesmidae, 550 
 
 Pipistrellus, Vesperugo, 37 
 Pipits, 364 
 Pipit, Meadow, 365 
 
 Pleuronectoidei, 492 
 Pleurotoma, 632 
 Pleurotomariaadansoniana, 632 
 
 Polyglottus, Mimus, 372 
 Polygordius, 675 [682 
 Polymorphus, Echinorhynchus, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 759 
 
 Polynemidae, 468 
 
 Pouched rats, 106 
 
 Protospondyli, 510 
 
 Polynemiformes, 468 
 
 Pouched-winged bats, 39 
 
 Prototroctes, 507 
 
 Polynemus, 468 
 
 Powan, 509 
 
 Protozoa, The, 713 
 
 Polyodon folius, 511 
 
 Prairie-dogs, 92 
 
 Protracheata, 550 
 
 Polyodontidae, 511 
 
 Prairie-marmots, 92 
 
 Protremata, 651 
 
 Polyommatus, 586 
 Poly pectr urn, 238 
 
 Pratensis, Anthus, 365 
 Pratincola, Glareola, 272 
 
 Psauimobatis, 520 
 Psammobiidae, 624 
 
 Polypectrum chinquis, 238 
 Polypectrum napoleonis, 238 
 
 Pratincoles, The, 272 
 Pratincole, Common, 272 
 
 Psammodromus, 410 
 Psarisomus, 356 
 
 Polyplacophora, 615 
 
 Prawns, 536 
 
 Psarisomus dalhousiae, 356 
 
 Polyptera, Hexarthr, 682 
 
 Praying insects, 565 
 
 Psephurus gladius, 511 
 
 Polypteridae, 512 
 
 Prehensile-tailed mouse, 106 
 
 Psettodes, 492 
 
 Polypterus, 513 
 
 Prehensile-tailed rat-kangaroos, 
 
 Pseudechis porphyriaca, 425 
 
 Polypterus bichir, 512 
 
 197 
 
 Pseudo neuroptera, 569 
 
 Polypterus lapradei, 513 
 
 Prevosti, Euryceros, 360 
 
 Pseudobranchus striatus, 453 
 
 Polystomeae, 688 
 
 Prezevalskii, Equus, 128 
 
 Pseudochelidon, 369 
 
 Polytrochous, 673 
 
 Priapulus, 678 
 
 Pseudochelidon eurystomina, 
 
 Polyxenidae, 550 
 
 Priapulus caudatus, 678 
 
 369 
 
 Polyzoa, 665 
 
 Primates, 10 
 
 Pseudochirus, 200 
 
 Polyzoniidae, 549 
 
 Principalis, Phasianus, 237 
 
 Pseudochloris, 364 
 
 Polyzonium germanicum, 549 
 
 Priodon gigas, 187 
 
 Pseudochromis, 474 
 
 Pomacentridse, 485 
 
 Prionidse, 561 
 
 Pseudocordylus, 404 
 
 Pomacentrus, 485 
 
 Prionirhynchus, 341 
 
 Pseudogyps, 306 
 
 Poipatorhine skua, 264 
 
 Prionochilus, 367 
 
 Pseudolamellibranchiata, 622 
 
 Pomatorhinus, Stercorarius, 264 
 
 Prionodura newloniana, 359 
 
 Pseudopareus, 426 
 
 Pomonella, Carpocapsa, 593 
 
 Prionurus, 471 
 
 Pseudophryne, 441 
 
 Pompilidse, 579 
 Pomponia imperatoria, 598 
 
 Prionus coriarius, 561 
 Pristidae, 519 
 
 Pseudorca crassidens, 180 
 Pseudoscorpionidea, 541 
 
 Pond-tortoise, 388 
 
 Pristiophoridse, 519 
 
 Pseudotantalus ibis, 281 
 
 Poneridae, 579 
 
 Pristiophorus, 519 
 
 Pseudotantalus leucocephalus, 
 
 Pontobdella muricata, 677 
 
 Pristis, 519 
 
 281 
 
 Poospiza, 364 
 
 Prjevalski's red-legged par- 
 
 Pseudotrimera, 562 
 
 Porbeagle, 517 
 
 tridge, 232 
 
 Psittacea, Khynchonella, 650 
 
 Porcarius, Papio, 93 
 
 Proboscidea, Nais, 674 
 
 Psittacidae, 329 
 
 Porcelain crab, 537 
 
 Proboscidiferus, Semifuses, 637 
 
 Psittaciformes, 325 
 
 Porcellana platycheles, 537 
 
 Proboscis-monkey, 19 
 
 Psittacula, 329 
 
 Porcellanidae, 537 
 
 Procavia, 124 
 
 Psittacus erithecus, 330 
 
 Porcinus, Cervus, 143 
 
 Procaviidae, 123 
 
 Psocidse, 572 
 
 Porcupine, Canadian, 113 
 
 Procellaria pelagka, 257 
 
 Psolus diomedise, 661 
 
 Porcupine tribe, The, 113 
 
 Procellariidae, 257 
 
 Psophia repitans, 277 
 
 Porcupine, True, 113 
 
 Procellariiformes, 256 
 
 Psvchidae, 589 
 
 Porcupines, Brush tailed, 113 
 
 Proctotrypidse, 576 
 
 Psychodidas, 604 
 
 Porcus, Sus, 134 
 
 Procyon, 75 
 
 Psychropotes raripes, 661 
 
 Porifera, 690 
 
 Procyonidae, 75 
 
 Psyllidse, 601 
 
 Poromyidae, 628 
 
 Frocyonides, Canis, 69 
 
 Ptarmigan, 230 
 
 Porosus, Crocodilus, 381 
 
 Prodissoconch, 617 
 
 Ptenoglossa, 633 
 
 Porphyriaca, Pseud echis, 425 
 
 Productus, Nestor, 326 
 
 Pternistes, 233 
 
 Por,phyrio, 248 
 
 Proechedna, 217 
 
 Pternistes swainsoni, 233 
 
 Porphyriovnis comeri, 25? 
 
 Proechidna, Bruijn's, 217 
 
 Pterocera, 636 
 
 Porphyriovnis nesiotis, 252 
 
 Proglottis, 687 
 
 Pteroclurus alchata, 241 
 
 Porpoises, 169 
 Porpoise, Common, 179 
 
 Progne purpurea, 373 
 Proletella, Aleyrodes, 602 
 
 Pteroglossus, 352 
 Pterois, 467 
 
 Porpoise, Indian, 179 
 
 Proneomeniidae, 616 
 
 Pteromys, 95 
 
 Port Jackson shark, 518 
 
 Prong-buck, 149 
 
 Pterophoridae, 594 
 
 Portuguese man-of-war, 699 
 Porzana intermedia, 251 
 
 Prongbuck family, The, 149 
 Prong-horned antelope, 149 
 
 Pterophorus pendadactylus, 594 
 Pteroplatea, 524 
 
 Porzana porzana, 251 
 
 Propithecus, 29 
 
 Pteropoda, 640 
 
 Porzana sandwichensis, 251 
 
 Proscolex, 687 
 
 Pteropodidae, 34 
 
 Porzanula palmeri, 251 
 
 Prosobranchiata, 631 
 
 Pteroptochidae, 375 
 
 Potamochaerus, 134 
 
 Prosogyre, 617 
 
 Pteropus, 35 
 
 Potamogale, 43 
 
 Prosperpinidae, 632 
 
 Pterotrachaeidae, 637 
 
 Potamogale velox, 48 
 
 Prosphyodontes, 408 
 
 Pthirius inguinalis, 602 
 
 Potamogalidae, 48 
 
 Proteidse, 452 
 
 Ptilocercus, 202 
 
 Potoroinae, 197 
 
 Proteleidse, 62 
 
 Ptilocereus lowi, 44 
 
 Patorus, 197 
 
 Proteles cristatus, 62 
 
 Ptilocichla, 372 
 
 Pottos, 31 
 Potto, Perodicticus, 31 
 
 Proteus anguineus, 452 
 Proteus animalcule, 714 
 
 Ptilogonys, 369 
 Ptilonorhynchidse, 359 
 
 Potto, True, 31 
 
 Proteus, Echenorhynchus, 682 
 
 Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus, 
 
 Pottos calabarensis, 31 
 
 Protobranchiata, 620 
 
 359 
 
 Pouched frog, 443 
 
 Protochorda, 526 
 
 Ptilonorhynchus, Pernis, 317 
 
 Pouched mammals, 190 
 
 Protodrilus, 675 
 
 Ptilopodinae, 242 
 
 Pouched-mice, 203 
 
 Protopterus, 460 
 
 Ptilorhis, 359 
 
7 6o 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ptilorhis victorise, 359 
 
 yrrhononta, Petrochelidon, 373 
 
 lanatra linearis, 597 
 
 Ptychozoum, 397 
 
 'yrrhula, 363 
 
 lanatridse, 597 
 
 Ptyodactylus, 397 
 
 'yrrbulauda, 364 
 
 ^angifer, 145 
 
 Pucherani, Guttera, 240 
 
 ython, 418 
 
 iangifer tarandus, 145 
 
 Pucras pheasant, 236 
 
 'ython molurus, 418 
 
 lanidae, 436 
 
 Pucrasia, 237 
 
 } ython sebas, 419 
 
 lanidens, 450 
 
 Pucrasia macrolopha, 237 
 
 Python spilotis, 419 
 
 tapax, Aquila, 314 
 
 Pudu-deer, 147 
 
 'ythoninse, 418 
 
 taphiceros campestris, 151 
 
 Pudua, 147 
 
 Pyxis arachnoides, 387 
 
 lappi, Microchaeta, 674 
 
 Puella, Csenagrion, 570 
 
 
 laripes, Psychropotes, 661 
 
 Puff adder, 427 
 
 
 Rasse, 57 
 
 Puff birds, The, 355 
 
 Q. 
 
 lats, The, 101 
 
 Puffin, English, 260 
 
 
 Rat, Bamboo-, 106 
 
 Puffiniidfe, 257 
 
 (uadricornis, Cyclops, 532 
 
 Rat, Bandicoot-, 105 
 
 Puffinus, 257 
 
 uadricornis, Tetraceros, 151 
 
 Rat, Berdmore's, 104 
 
 Pugnax, Betta, 483 
 
 Quagga, 129 
 
 Rat, Black, 105 
 
 Pugnax, Pavoncella, 269 
 
 Quagga, Equus, 129 
 
 Rat, Cane-, 112 
 
 Pulchellus, Diplomesodon, 46 
 
 Quails, The, 234 
 
 lat, Common, 105 
 
 Pulchellus, Mymar, 577 
 
 Quail, Bustard," 241 
 
 Rat, Crested-, 102 
 
 Pulcher, Luciocephalus, 483 
 
 Quail, Californian, 240 
 
 Rat, Fish-eating, 102 
 
 Pulex canis (dog flea,), 609 
 
 Quail, Cape, 234 
 
 lat, Jerboa-, 106 
 
 Pulex, Daphnia, 531 
 
 Quail, Common, 234 
 
 rlat, Kangaroo, 109 
 
 Pulex, Gammarus, 63 
 
 Quail, Migratory, 234 
 
 Rat, Long-nosed, 106 
 
 Pulex irritans (flea), 609 
 
 Quail, Painted, 235 
 
 Rat, Mole, Great, 106 
 
 Pulraonata, 641 
 
 Quail, Swamp, 235 
 
 Rat, Musk-, 103 
 
 Pulsatoria, Atropos, 572 
 
 Quail, Virginian, 240 
 
 Rat, Philippine, 101 
 
 Puma, 53 
 
 Queen Victoria's rifle-birds, 359 
 
 Rat, Pouched, 106 
 
 Pumilus, Bos, 162 
 
 Querquedula, 296 
 
 Rat, Rice, 102 
 
 Punctatus, Pelodytes, 44 1 ? 
 
 Quezal, 349 
 
 Rat, Sand, 107 
 
 Punctatus, Sphenodon, 430 
 
 Quica-opossum, 213 
 
 Rat, Shrew-, 104 
 
 Pupa, 643 
 
 Quizes, 115 
 
 Rat-snake, Indian, 422 
 
 Pupidse, 643 
 
 
 Ratels, 79 
 
 Purchasi, Icerya, 602 
 
 
 Rathbuni, Typhlomolge, 452 
 
 Purple emperor, 585 
 
 R. 
 
 Ratitae, 221 
 
 Purple heron, 282 
 
 
 Rattle snake, 428 
 
 Purple martin, 373 
 
 Rabbit, 118 
 
 Rattus, Mus, 105 
 
 Purple sandpiper, 269 
 
 Rabbit-bandicoots, 205 
 
 Ray's wagtail, 365 
 
 Purple sea-snails, 633 
 
 Rachiglossa, 637 
 
 Razor-shells, 626 
 
 Purpura lapillus, 637 
 Purpurea, Phoyx, 282 
 
 Racoon -dog, 69 
 Racoon tribe, The, 75 
 
 Razorbill, 260 
 Recurvirostra andina, 270 
 
 Purpurea, Progne, 373 
 
 Racoons, American, 75 
 
 Recurvirostris, Esacus, 273 
 
 Pusilla, Gallinago, 268 
 
 Radiatus, Carpococeyx, 351 
 
 Red admiral, 585 
 
 Pusilla, Ortaria, 82 
 Pusillus, Anomalurus, 90 
 
 Radiatus, Erythrotriorchis, 312 
 Radiolaria, 716 
 
 Red ant, 579 
 Red-backed shrike, 369 
 
 Putorius, 80 
 
 Raffle's shrew-hedgehog, 45 
 
 Red-billed chough, 358 
 
 Putorius, Mustela, 81 
 
 Raffles!, Gymnura, 45 
 
 Red-breasted goose, 295 
 
 Putorius, Spilogale, 78 
 
 Raflnesquina alternate, 649 
 
 Red brocket, 146 . 
 
 Pycnogonida, 539 
 
 Ragosus, Trachysaurus, 410 
 
 Red coral, 708 
 
 Pycnogonum litorale, 539 
 
 Raia, 520 
 
 Ked-deer, 143 
 
 Pycnonotidae, 372 
 
 Raiidse, 520 
 
 Red fox, 71 
 
 Pycnorhamphus, 363 
 Pygargus, Bubalis, 150 
 
 Rails, The, 248 
 Rail, Barred, 249 
 
 Red-grouse, 230 
 Ked herring, 506 
 
 Pygargus, Cervus, 146 
 
 Rail, Water, 249 
 
 Red howler, 23 
 
 Pygargus, Circus, 309 
 
 Rail, Wood, 249 
 
 Red-legged partridge, 232 
 
 Pygamsea, Nasiterna, 329 
 
 Rails, Weka, 251 
 
 Red marmot, 94 
 
 Pygmseum, Glaucidium, 324 
 
 Rain cuckoo, 351 
 
 Red mullet, 465 
 
 Pygmseus, Eurynorhynchus, 26 
 
 Raj -samp, 424 
 
 Red-necked phalarope, 266 
 
 Pygmseus, Nanotragus, 151 
 
 Rallidse, 225 
 
 Red spider, 547 
 
 Pygmaeus, Sorex, 46 
 Pygopodidse, 398 
 
 Ralliformes, 248 
 Rallus aquaticus, 249 
 
 Red-thighed gos-hawks, 310 
 Red-throated diver, 254 
 
 Pygoscelis taeniata, 255 
 
 Ramosa, syllis, 673 
 
 Red uakari, 27 
 
 Pyrales, 592 
 
 Ramosa, Bougainvillea, 696 
 
 Red vole, 103 
 
 Pyralidae, 572 
 
 Rampholeon, 412 
 
 Red-winged hang-nest, 361 
 
 Pyramidellidse, 633 
 
 Rana, 436 
 
 Red-winged starling, 361 
 
 Pyramid ula rotundata, 643 
 
 Rana agilis, 436 
 
 Rediae, 689 
 
 Pyrenaica, Capra, 158 
 
 Rana breviceps, 437 
 
 Redstarts, 370 
 
 Pyrenean desman, 47 
 
 Rana catesbyana, 437 
 
 Reduviidse, 596 
 
 Pyrocephalus, Spirostreptus,55 
 
 Rana esculenta, 436 
 
 Reduvius personatus, 596 
 
 Pyrophorus noctilucus, 559 
 Pyrosoma, 528 
 
 Rana guppyi, 437 
 Rana iberica, 436 
 
 Redwing, 371 
 Reed-fish, 512 
 
 Pyrrhocorax, 358 
 
 Rana latastei, 436 
 
 Reed-warbler, 370 
 
 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax, 358 
 
 Rana temporaria, 436 
 
 Reedling, Bearded, 368 
 
INDEX. 
 
 761 
 
 Reef-herons, 283 
 
 Rhinoptilus, 273 
 
 River tern, 262 
 
 Reeve, 209 
 
 Rhinoptilus bitorquatus, 273 
 
 Rivulorum, Tubifex, 674 
 
 Reeve's pheasant, 238 
 
 Rhipidodendron, 719 
 
 Roach, 499 
 
 Reevesi, Phasianus, 238 
 
 Rhipidoglossa, 631 
 
 Road-runners, 351 
 
 Regalecus, 485 
 
 Rhipidoinys, 101 
 
 Robber crabs, 537 . 
 
 Regalecus banksi, 485 
 
 Rhioidura, 373 
 
 Robber flies, 605 
 
 Regulidfe, 368 
 
 Rhiptoglossa, 411 
 
 Robin, 370 
 
 Regulus azorensis, 369 
 
 Rhithrodon, 102 
 
 Rochusseni, Neoscolopax, 268 
 
 Regulus calendula, 369 
 Regulus himalayensis, 369 
 RegulusMgnicapillus, 369 
 
 Rhithrodontomys, 102 
 Rhithrosciurus, 91 
 Rhizomys, 106 
 
 Rock-dove, 244 
 Rock red-legged partridge, 232 
 Rock-snakes, 418 
 
 Regulus maderensis, 369 
 
 Rhizomys badius, 107 
 
 Rock-snake, Natal, 419 
 
 Regulus regulus, 368 
 
 Rhizopoda, 714 
 
 Rock-wallabies, 194 
 
 Regulus teneriffse, 369 
 
 Rhizostomse, 700 
 
 Rocklings, The, 491 
 
 Rehbok, 151 
 
 Rhizothera, 233 
 
 Rocky Mountain goat, 157 
 
 Reindeer, 145 
 Reinwardtsenas, 244 
 
 Rhizothera dulitensis, 233 
 Rhizothera longirostris, 233 
 
 Rodeletii, Carcharodon, 517 
 Rodentia, 88 
 
 Reitbok, South African, 152 
 
 Rhizotrogus solstitialis, 558 
 
 Rodericanum, Tetrastemma, 
 
 Religiosa, Mantis, 565 
 
 Rhodeus, 499 
 
 684 
 
 Religiosum, Liobunum, 542 
 Reptans, Scrupocellaria, 667 
 
 Rhodonesoa caryophyllacea, 294 
 Rhodostethia rosea, 262 
 
 Roe, Common, 146 
 Roe-deer, 146 
 
 Reptilia, 377 
 
 Rhombus, 492 
 
 Rollers, The, 335 
 
 Resplendent adder, 424 
 
 Rhopalocera, 582 
 
 Roller, Common, 335 
 
 Reticulata, Nassa, 6d7 
 
 Rhopalocompta iphis, 588 
 
 Roller, Ground, 335 
 
 Retusa, Chlamydophorus, 188 
 
 Rhyacophilus, 269 
 
 Rollulus, 234 
 
 Rex, Baheniceps, '282 
 
 Rhynchobatis, 520 
 
 Rollulus rouloul, 234 
 
 Rhabdocaela, 685 
 Rhabdopleura, 649 
 
 Rhynchobdella, 478 
 RhynchobdellidjB, 478, 676 
 
 Rook, 358 
 Root-footed jelly-fish, 700 
 
 Rhachianectes, 172 
 
 Rhynchocephalia, 429 
 
 Rorqual, Common, 174 
 
 Rhacophorous, 437 
 
 Rhynchocyon, 44 
 
 Rorqual, Sibbald's, 173 
 
 Rhamphastides, 352 
 
 Rhynchogale melleri, 61 
 
 Rorquals, Blue, 173 
 
 Rhamphastos, 352 
 
 Rhynchomys, 104 
 
 Rosacea, Antedon, 663 
 
 Rhea americana, 221 
 
 Rhynchonella psittacea, 650 
 
 Rose-chafer, 558 
 
 Rhea, Common, 221 
 
 Rhynchonellidse, 651 
 
 Rose-coloured pastor, 360 
 
 Rhea darwini, 222 
 
 Rhynchophora, 560 
 
 Rose-finches, 363 
 
 Rhea, Darwin's, 222 
 
 Rhynchopinae, 261 
 
 Rosea, Rhodostethia, 262 
 
 , Rhea, Great-billed, 222 
 
 Rhynchops albicollis, 262 
 
 Roseate pelican, 302 
 
 Rhea macrorhyncha, 222 
 
 Rhynchops flavirostris, 262 
 
 Roseate tern, 261 
 
 Rhea nana, 221 
 
 Rhynchops intercedens, 262 
 
 Roseus, Pastor, 360 
 
 Rheiformes, 221 
 
 Rhynchops melanura, 262 
 
 Rosmarus, Trichechus, 84 
 
 Rheinhardius ocellatus, 239 
 
 Rhynchops nigra, 262 
 
 Rossae, Musophaga, 352 
 
 Rhesus macacus, 22 
 
 Rhynchosuchus, 382 
 
 Rossi, Ommatophoca, 87 
 
 Rhinemys, 393 
 
 Rhynchosuchus schlegeli, 382 
 
 Ross's gull, 262 
 
 Rhinobatidse, 520 
 
 Rhynchotus rufescens, 226 
 
 Ross's seal, 87 
 
 Rhinobatis, 520 
 
 Rhyssa persuasoria, 577 
 
 Rosthramus, 316 
 
 Rhinoceroses, The, 125 
 
 Rhytina, 168 
 
 Rostrata, Balsenoptera, 174 
 
 Rhinoceros bicornis, 126 
 
 Rhytina gigas, 168 
 
 Rostratula, -267 
 
 Rhinoceros, Black r 126 
 
 Ribband-fishes, 484 
 
 Rostratula australis, 267 
 
 Rhinoceros, Bucerus, 339 
 
 Ribband-fish, Banks', 485 
 
 Rostratula capensis, 267 
 
 Rhinoceros, Burchell's, 126 
 
 Rice-rat, 102 
 
 Rostratula semicollaris, 267 
 
 Rhinoceros, Indian, 126 
 
 Rice-tenrecs, 49 
 
 Rostratus, Hyperoodon, 177 
 
 Rhinoceros, Javan, 126 
 
 Richardson's skua, 264 
 
 Rostratus, Tarsipes, 203 
 
 Rhinoceros simus, 126 
 
 Ridibundus, Larus, 262 
 
 Rosy feather-star, 664 
 
 Rhinoceros sondaicus, 126 
 
 Rifle-birds, 359 
 
 Rosy spoon-bill, 286 
 
 Rhinoceros, Sumatran, 126 
 
 Rifle-bird, Queen Victoria's, 359 
 
 Rotche, 260 
 
 Rhinoceros sumatrensis, 126 
 
 Right-whales, 172 
 
 Rotifera, 682 
 
 Rhinoceros unicornis, 126 
 
 Ring-necked pheasants, 237 
 
 Rotundata, Pyramidula, 643 
 
 Khinocerotidse, 125 
 
 Ring-tailed iguana, 403 
 
 Rough-toothed dolphin, 181 
 
 Rhinoceros-hornbill, 339 
 
 Ring-tailed lemur, 29 
 
 Rouloul, Rollulus, 234 
 
 Rhinochetides, 276 
 
 Ring tailed phalanger, 200 
 
 Round worm, 679 
 
 Rhinochetus jubatus, 276 
 
 Ringed kingfisher, 336 
 
 Rove-beetles, 556 
 
 Rhinococcyx, 351 
 
 Ringed snake, British, 421 
 
 Royal antelope, 151 
 
 Rhinoderma darwini, 439 
 
 Ringed worms, 671 
 
 Rubecula, Erythaeus, 370 
 
 Rhinodon typicus, 517 
 
 Ringiculidse, 640 
 
 Rubens, Asterias, 653 
 
 Rhinodontidse, 517 
 
 Ripa, 229 
 
 Rubi, Callophrys, 586 
 
 Rhinolophidae, 36 
 
 Riparia, Argiope, 544 
 
 Rubicunda, Uacaria, 27 
 
 Rhinolophus, 36 
 
 Riqcouri, Nauclerus, 316 
 
 Rubiginosa, Eos, 328 
 
 Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum, 
 
 Risorius, Turturinae, 245 
 
 Rubrum, Corallum, 708 
 
 36 
 Rhinophrynus, 441 
 Rhinopoma microphyllum, 39 
 
 Rissa tridactyla, 263 
 Rissoiidse, 635 
 Risso's dolphin, 180 
 
 Ruby-crest, 369 
 Ruby-tailed wasps, 578 
 Rudis, Ceryle, 336 
 
 Rhinoptera, 522 
 
 River lamprey, 524 
 
 Rufa, Caccabis, 232 
 
762 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Rufa, Cassis, 636 
 
 Salmo hucho, 508 
 
 Scabiei, Sarcoptes, 546 
 
 Kufa, Dichromanassa, 283 
 
 Salmo salmo, 508 
 
 Scabra, Dasypeltis, 422 
 
 liufa, Formica, 579 
 
 Salmon, Beaked, 505 
 
 Scalariidae, 633 
 
 Rufescens, ^Egyprymnus, 197 
 
 Salmon tribe, The, 507 
 
 Scale-footed lizards, 393 
 
 Rufescens, Rhynchotus, 226 
 
 Salmonidae, 507 
 
 Scale insects, 602 
 
 Ruff, 269 
 
 Saltator, Oreotragus, 151 
 
 Scaled reptiles, 395 
 
 Ruffed grouse, 231 
 
 Saltiana, Modoqua, 151 
 
 Scallop, The, 622 
 
 Ruffes, 464 
 
 Salticidae, 543 
 
 Scalops, 47 
 
 Ruffi, Cervus, 144 
 
 Salt's antelope, 151 
 
 Scaly-finned fishes, 465 
 
 Ruff's deer, 144 
 
 Salvador] ana, Tanysiptera, 339 
 
 Scandens, Anabas, 483 
 
 Ruficollis, Branta, 295 
 
 Salvanius sus, 134 
 
 Scansores, 352 
 
 Rufous buzzard-hawks, 312 
 
 Sambar, 143 
 
 Scapanus, 48 
 
 Rufous rat-kangaroo, 197 
 
 Sand-badgers, 79 
 
 Scaphandridae, 640 
 
 Rufus. Cervus, 146 
 
 Sand-eels, 491 
 
 Scaphiopus, 443 
 
 Rufus, Desmodus, 41 
 
 Sand-flies, 604 
 
 Scaphirhynchus, 511 
 
 Runcinidse, 640 
 
 Sand grouse, The, 241 
 
 Scaphopoda, 628 
 
 Rupicapra tragus, 156 
 
 Sand-launces, 491 
 
 Scapteromys, 101 
 
 Russelli, Vipera, 428 
 
 Sand-lizard, 409 
 
 Scaptochirus, 48 
 
 Russell's viper, 428 
 
 Sand-rats, 107 
 
 Scaptonyx fuscicaudatus, 48 
 
 Russian desman, 47 
 
 Sand-smelts, 479 
 
 Scarabaeidae, 557 
 
 Rustica, Hirundo, 373 
 
 Sand-snakes, 418 
 
 Scarabaeus sacer, 557 
 
 Ruthvenus, Acipenser, 512 
 
 Sand viper, 427 
 
 Scarus, 486 
 
 Ruticilla, 370 
 
 Sand wasps, 579 
 
 Scatharus, 466 
 
 Rutilans, Canis, 68 
 
 Sand worm, 672 
 
 Scatophaga Ktercoraria, 608 
 
 
 Sanderling, 269 
 
 Scaups, The, 297 
 
 S. 
 
 Sandpipers, The, 269 
 
 Scavenger vultures. The, 300 
 
 
 Sandpiper, Curlew, 269 
 
 Schachti, Heterodera, 679 
 
 Sabine's gull, 262 
 
 Sandpiper, Green, -269 
 
 Schizopoda, 536 
 
 Sabinii, Xema, 262 
 
 Sandpiper, Purple, 269 
 
 Scheltopusik, 405 
 
 Sable antelope, 153 
 
 Sandpiper, Spoon-billed, 269 
 
 Schlegeli, Rhynchosuchus, 382 
 
 Sable marten, 80 
 
 Sandpiper, Wood, 269 
 
 Schlegel's garial, 382 
 
 Sacchari, Tyroglyphus, 547 
 
 Sandwich tern, 261 
 
 Schomburgki, Cervus, 143 
 
 Saccopharynx, 495 
 
 Sandwichensis, Porzana, 251 
 
 Schreiber's bat, 38 
 
 Saccopteryx, 39 
 
 Sanguinis-hominis, Fiiaria, 680 
 
 Schreibersi, Miniopterus, 38 
 
 Saccostomus, 106 
 
 Sarcidiornis, 293 
 
 Schultzii, Convoluta, 686 
 
 Saccopharynx, 495 
 
 Sarcidiornis carunculata, 293 
 
 Sciaena, 468 
 
 Saceharina, Lepisma, 573 
 
 Sarcidiornis melanonota, 293 
 
 Scisenidse, 468 
 
 Sacer, Scarabaeus, 557 
 
 Sarcophanops, 356 
 
 Sciaeniformes, 468 
 
 Sacred Ibis, The, 288 
 
 Sarcophilus ursinus, 207 
 
 Scincus oflicinalis, 410 
 
 Sacred langur, 20 
 
 Sarcoptes scabiei, 546 
 
 Scintillans, Phasianus, 233 
 
 Saddle oyster, 621 
 Saemmeringi, Phasianus, 238 
 
 Sarcoptes scabiei-crustosae, 546 
 Sarcoptidae, 546 
 
 Scissor-bills, 262 
 Sciuropterus, 95 
 
 Saffron finches, 363 
 
 Sardine, 507 
 
 Sciurus, 91 
 
 Sagartia bellis, 703 
 
 Sarginae, 466 
 
 Sciurus palmanim, 91 
 
 Sagartia troglodytes, 704 
 
 Sargus, Common, 466 
 
 Sciurus vulgaris, 91 
 
 Sagartiadae, 702 
 
 Sarus crane, 274 
 
 Sclavonian grebe, 253 
 
 Saginata, Taenia, 687 
 
 Sasia, 354 
 
 Scolopaceus, Aramus, 275 
 
 Sagitta, 682 
 
 Satanus, Pithecia, 27 
 
 Scolopaeinae, 267 
 
 Sagitta bipunctata, 681 
 
 Satin bower-bird, 359 
 
 Scolopax, 267 
 
 Sagra, 562 
 
 Satoria, 370 
 
 Scolopax saturata, 267 
 
 Saiga, 152 
 
 Satoria satoria, 370 
 
 Scolopendridae, 549 
 
 Saiga tartarica, 152 
 
 Saturata, Scolopax, 267 
 
 Scolytidae, 560 
 
 Sail-tailed lizard, 400 
 
 Saturnia pavonia-minor, 589 
 
 Scomber, 473 
 
 Saker, Hierofalco, 819 
 
 Saturniidae, 589 
 
 Scomberidae, 472 
 
 Saker jer-falcon, 319 
 
 Satyrinse, 585 
 
 Scombresocidae, 479 
 
 Sakis, 27 
 
 Satyrus, Limia, 16 
 
 Scombresociformes, 479 
 
 Saki, Black, 27 
 
 Sauresia, 405 
 
 Scombresox, 479 
 
 Saki, Hairy, 27 
 
 Sauries, 479 
 
 Scoparia, Oribia, 151 
 
 Salamanders, The, 446 
 
 Saurothera, 351 
 
 Scopelidse, 505 
 
 Salamander, Common, 446 
 
 Saururae, 220 
 
 Scopelus, 505 
 
 Salamander, Giant, 450 
 
 Saurus, 505 
 
 Scopi, 278 
 
 Salamander, Mississippi, 451 
 
 Savagei, Gorilla, 15 
 
 Scops, 322 
 
 Salamander, Spanish, 447 
 
 Savana cuckoos, 351 
 
 Scops scops, 322 
 
 Salamander, Spectacled, 448 
 
 Saw fish, 520 
 
 Scopus umbretta, 281 
 
 Salamander, Two-legged, 453 
 
 Saw flies, 574 
 
 Scorpaena, 467 
 
 Salamander, Warty, 448 
 
 Saw viper, 427 
 
 Scorpaenidae, 467 
 
 Salamandra atra, 447 
 
 Saxatilis, Caccabis, 232 
 
 Scorpaeniformes, 467 
 
 Salamandra caucasica, 447 
 
 Saxicava, 626 
 
 Scorpions, 539, 540 
 
 Salamandra maculosa, 446 
 
 Saxicavidae, 626 
 
 Scorpion, Book, 541 
 
 Salamandrella, 450 
 
 Saxicola, 370 
 
 Scorpion, False, 541 
 
 Salamandridae, 446 
 
 Scabbard fish, 470 
 
 Scorpion shells, 636 
 
 Salamandrina perspicillata, 448 
 
 Scabiei-crustosae, Sarcputes, 546 
 
 Scorpionidea, 540 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Scotchman, The, 351 
 
 Seal, Common grey, 85 
 
 Sexcinctus, Dasypus, 186 
 
 Scoters, The, 297 
 
 Seal, Elephant, 87 
 
 Sha, 160 
 
 Scoticus, Lagopus, 230 
 
 Seal, Greenland, 85 
 
 Shad, The, 507 
 
 Scotonvcteris, 35 
 
 Seal, Hooded, 87 
 
 Shag, The, 299 
 
 Scotopelia, 321 
 
 Seal, Leopard, 86 
 
 Shag, Pied, 300 
 
 Scotopelia peli, 321 
 
 Seal, Ross's, 87 
 
 Shamas, 370 
 
 Screamers, The, 290 
 
 Seals, True, 85 
 
 Sharks and rays, 513 
 
 Screamer, Crested, 290 
 
 Seals, The typical, 85 
 
 Shark, Basking, 517 
 
 Screamer, Derbian, 290 
 
 Seal, Weddel's, 87 
 
 Shark, Blue, 516 
 
 Screamer, Horned, 290 
 
 Sebae, Python, 419 
 
 Shark, Fox, 517 
 
 Screw-shells, 635 
 
 Sebastes, 467 
 
 Shark, Greenland, 519 
 
 Scriptus, Tragelaphus, 156 
 
 Secretary birds, The, 305 
 
 Shark, Port Jackson, 518 
 
 Scrobicu'ariidse, 624 
 
 Secretrius, Serpentarius, 305 
 
 Shark, Spiny, 519 
 
 Scrofa, Sus, 133 
 
 Sedentaria, 672 
 
 Shark, Zebra, 518 
 
 Scrub-birds, The, 376 
 
 Sedge warbler, 370 
 
 Sharp-bills, The, 374 
 
 Scrub-bird, Noisy, 376 
 
 Seed snipes, The, 66 
 
 Shear-tails, 348 
 
 Scrupocellaria reptans, 667 
 
 See-see partridge, 233 
 
 Shearwaters, 258 
 
 Snuiridse, 91 
 
 Seguenziidae, 637 
 
 Sheathbills, The, 265 
 
 Scurria, 631 
 
 Selachii, 515 
 
 Sheathbill, Yellow-billed, 265 
 
 Scutellridse, 595 
 
 Selenidera, 352 
 
 Sheath tailed bats, 39 
 
 Scutibranchiata, 631 
 
 Selenitidse, 644 
 
 Sheep, 159 
 
 Scutigera araneoides, 548 
 
 Seleucides, 359 
 
 Sheep, Armenian, 160 
 
 Scutigeridae, 548 
 Scylliidse, 518 
 
 Sella, Placuna, 621 
 Selvas, 204 
 
 Sheep, Pamir, 160 
 Sheep tick, 608 
 
 Scyllium, 518 
 
 Semicollaris, Rostratula, 267 
 
 Sheld-ducks, 296 
 
 Scyphophori, 503 
 Scyphomedusae, The, 700 
 
 Semifusus proboscidiferus, 637 
 Semipalmata, Anseranas, 293 
 
 Sheld-duck, Common, 296 
 Shell ibises, 280 
 
 Scyphozoa, 700 
 
 Semipalmated goose, 293 
 
 Shell-less slugs, 642 
 
 Scytale, Ilysia, 421 
 
 Semnopithecus, 20 
 
 Shell storks, 280 
 
 Scythrops, 350 
 
 Semnopithecus entellus, 20 
 
 Shield bug, 595 
 
 Sea-anemones, 701 
 
 Senator, Lanius, 369 
 
 Shield-tails, 421 
 
 Sea-bats, 471 
 
 Senegal finfoot, 252 
 
 Shikra, Indian, 311 
 
 Sea-bear, 82 
 
 Senegal galago, 30 
 
 Ship worm, 627 
 
 Sea-breams, 466 
 
 Senegalensis, Galago, 30 
 
 Shoe-billed kingfisher, 337 
 
 Sea-butterflies, 640 
 
 Senegalensis, Mycteria, 280 
 
 Shoe-billed storks, 278 
 
 Sea-cow,' Northern, 168 
 
 Senegalensis, Podica, 252 
 
 Short-eared owl, 324 
 
 Sea-cucumbers, 660 
 
 Seniculus, Alouatta, 23 
 
 Short-legged petrel, 257 
 
 Sea-eagle, 315 
 
 Sepia, 646 
 
 Short-nosed fruit-bats, 35 
 
 Sea-eagle, Pallas, 321 
 
 Sepiadariidae, 646 
 
 Short-toed larks, 364 
 
 Sea-gooseberry, The, 711 
 
 Sepiidfe, 646 
 
 Shou, 143 
 
 Sea-hares, 640 
 
 Sepiolidae, 646 
 
 Shovellers, 296 
 
 Sea-hedgehogs, 490 
 
 Septentrionalis, Colymbus, 254 
 
 Shrews, The, 45 
 
 Sea-horse, 488 
 
 Septibranchiata, 628 
 
 Shrew, Common, 46 
 
 Sea-lamprey, 524 
 
 Seriamas, The, 277 
 
 Shrew, Jumping, 44 
 
 Sea-leech, Warty, 677 
 
 Seriama, Burmeister's, 277 
 
 Shrew, Kirghiz, 46 
 
 Sea-lilies, 662 
 
 Seriama, Common, 277 
 
 Shrew, Lesser, 46 
 
 Sea-lion, 81 
 
 Serilophus, 356 
 
 Shrew, Mole, 46 
 
 Sea-lion, Gillespie's, 82 
 
 Serotine, 37 
 
 Shrew, Musk, 46 
 
 Sea-lion, Northern, 82 
 
 Serotinus, Vesperugo, 37 
 
 Shrew, Oriental, 46 
 
 Sea-lion, Southern, 82 
 
 Serows, 157 
 
 Shrew, Pen-tailed, 44 
 
 Sea-lizard, Galapagos, 402 
 
 Serpens, Ophichthys, 495 
 
 Shrew, Swimming, 47 
 
 Sea-mat, 665 
 
 Serpent eagle, 315 
 
 Shrew, Tree, 43 
 
 Sea-mouse, 673 
 
 Serpent eel, 494 
 
 Shrew, Water, 46 
 
 Sea-otter, 76 
 
 Serpent-heads, 482 
 
 Shrew, Web-footed, 47 
 
 Sea-parrot, 260 
 
 Serpentarii, 305 
 
 Shrew-rat, 104 
 
 Sea-pen, 709 
 
 Serpentarius secretarius, 277, 
 
 Shrikes, The, 369 
 
 Sea-perches, 464 
 
 305 
 
 Shrike, Great grey, 369 
 
 Sea-serpent, 484 
 
 Serpula, 672 
 
 Shrike, Red-backed, 369 
 
 Sea-slugs, 640 
 
 Serpula contortuplicata, 672 
 
 Shrike, Swallow, 369 
 
 Sea-snakes, 425 
 
 Serranidae, 464 
 
 Shrimps, 536 
 
 Sea-snake, Banded, 425 
 
 Serraninae, 464 
 
 Shrimp, Brine, 531 
 
 Sea-squirt, Common, 528 
 
 Serranus, 464 
 
 Siamang, 19 
 
 Sea-swallow, 261 
 
 Serricornes, 558 
 
 Sibbaldi, Balaenoptera, 173 
 
 Sea-unicorn, 178 
 Sea-urchin, Irregular, 659 
 
 Serrifera, 574 
 Serval, 55 
 
 Sibbald's rorqual, 173 
 Sibirica, Capra, 159 
 
 Sea-urchins, 659 
 
 Serval, Felis, 55 
 
 Sibirica, Phoca, 85 
 
 Seals, The, 85 
 Seal, Antarctic white, 86 
 
 Sessile brachiopod, 648 
 Setophaga, 365 
 
 Sica, Cervus, 143 
 Side-striped jackal, 66 
 
 Seal, Bearded, 85 
 
 Setosum, Diadema, 660 
 
 Sifakas, 29 
 
 Seal, Bladder, 87 
 
 Setosus, Ericulus, 49 
 
 Sifanica, Perdix, 234 
 
 Seal, Caspian, 85 
 
 Sewellels, 95 
 
 Sifanicus, Moschus, 141 
 
 Seal, Common, 85 
 
 Sewellels family, The, 95 
 
 Sigmodon hispidus, 102 
 
764 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Silenus, Macacus, 22 
 
 Sminthopsis, 209 
 
 Solstitialis, Rhizotrogus, 558 
 
 Siliceous sponges, 692 
 
 Sminthus, 109 
 
 Somali-land ostrich, 223 
 
 Silk-worm moth, 590 
 
 Smooth snake, 422 
 
 Somateria, 297 
 
 Siluridse, 496 
 
 Smother flies, 601 
 
 Sombre wallaby, 194 
 
 Silurus, 497 
 
 Snails, 610 
 
 Sondaicus, Rhinoceros, 120 
 
 Silurus glanis, 496 
 
 Snake-birds, 301 
 
 Song thrush, 371 
 
 Silver fish, 573 
 
 Snakes, The, 412 
 
 Sooty albatros, 258 
 
 Silver pheasant, 236 
 
 Snake, Blind, 417 
 
 Sooty tern, 262 
 
 Simla satyrus, 16 
 
 Snake, Carpet, 419 
 
 Sordidus, Artamus, 369 
 
 Simiidae, 11 
 
 Snake, Cat, 423 
 
 Sorex, 46 
 
 Simuliidae, 604 
 
 Snake, Coral, 423 
 
 Sorex araneus, 46 
 
 Simus rhinoceros, 126 
 
 Snake, Cylinder, 421 
 
 Sorex pygmaeus, 46 
 
 Sinensis, Alligator, 380 
 
 Snake, Dark green, 422 
 
 Soricidae, 45 
 
 Sinensis, Centropus, 351 
 
 Snake, Diamond, 419 
 
 Soriculus, 46 
 
 Singing-mice, 105 
 
 Snake, Egg-eating, 422 
 
 Sotalia, 181 
 
 Siphneus, 104 
 
 Snake, Horseshoe, 422 
 
 South African oribi, 151 
 
 Siphonariidae, 611 
 
 Snake, Rat, 422 
 
 South African ostrich, 223 
 
 Siphonophora, 699 
 
 Snake, Rattle, 428 
 
 South African reitbok, 152 
 
 Siphonops, 455 
 
 Snake, Sand, 420 
 
 South American finfoot, 252 
 
 Siphonostoma, 487 
 
 Snake, Sea, 425 
 
 South American limpkin, 275 
 
 Siphuncle, 645 
 
 Snake, Smooth, 422 
 
 South American ostrich, 221 
 
 Sipunculus, 678 
 
 Snake, Whip, 423 
 
 South American skunk, 78 
 
 Sipunculus bernhardus, 678 
 
 Snake, Wood, 422 
 
 South American sun-bittern. 
 
 Siren lacertina, 452 
 
 Snakes, Water, 421 
 
 276 
 
 Sirenia, 165 
 
 Snappers, 390 
 
 Southern sea-lion, 82 
 
 Sirenidae, 453 
 
 Snapper, Temminck's, 3 
 
 Sow bugs, 534 
 
 Sirex gigas, 575 
 
 Snapping turtles, 390 
 
 Spalacidae, 106 
 
 Siro, Tyroglyphus, 547 
 
 Snipes, The, 267 
 
 Spalacopus, 111 
 
 Sitatunga, 156 
 
 Snipe, Common, 268 
 
 Spalax typhlus, 106 
 
 Sitella, 368 
 
 Snipe, Great, 268 
 
 Spanish frog, 436 
 
 Sitomys, 101 
 
 Snipe, Imperial, 268 
 
 Spanish ibex, 158 
 
 Sitomys hydrobates, 101 
 
 Snipe, Jack, 268 
 
 Spanish lynx, 56 
 
 Sitta, 368 
 
 Snipe, Jameson's, 268 
 
 Spanish salamander, 447 
 
 Sitta, Csesia, 368 
 
 Snipe, Latham's, 268 
 
 Sparidae, 466 
 
 Sittidae, 368 
 
 Snipe, Painted, 267 
 
 Sparrow-hawk, 311 
 
 Sivalensis, Hippopotamus, 132 
 Siwalik hippoptamus, 132 
 
 Snipe, Seed, 266 
 Snipe, Summer, 269 
 
 Sparrow-hawk, Pied, 311 
 Sparrows, The, 363 
 
 Six-banded armadillo, 186 
 
 Snipe, True, 268 
 
 Spatula, 296 
 
 Six-rayed corals, 705 
 
 Snipe, Wire-tailed, 268 
 
 Spectacled bear, 75 
 
 Skate, Thornback, 521 
 
 Snipe, Wood, 268 
 
 spectacled salamander, 448 
 
 Skeleton of Mammals, 3 
 
 Snoek, The, 470 
 
 spectrum, Tarsius, 31 
 
 Skimmers, The, 261, 262 
 
 Snouted nais, 674 
 
 Spectrum, Vampirus, 41 
 
 Skink tribe, The, 410 
 
 Snow bunting, 363 
 
 Spekei, Tragelaphus, 156 
 
 Skink, Common, 410 
 
 Snow cocks, The, 232 
 
 Spelerpes, 450 
 
 Skippers, 588 
 
 Snow geese, 295 
 
 Sperm-whale, 175 
 
 Skipper, Grizzled, 588 
 
 Snow-leopard, 53 
 
 spermophila, 363 
 
 Skuas, The, 263 
 
 Snow partridges, The, 231 
 
 Spermophilus, 89 
 
 Skua, 260 
 
 Snow pheasants, 232 
 
 Spermophilus tridecemlineatus, 
 
 Skua, Buffon's, 263 
 
 Snowy owl, 322 
 
 92 
 
 Skua, Great, 263 
 
 Snowy tern, 262 
 
 Sphaerodon, 466 
 
 Skua, Long-tailed, 264 
 
 Soft tortoises, 394 
 
 Sphegidse, 580 
 
 Skua, Pomatorhine, 264 
 
 Sol, Actinophrys, 713 
 
 Sphenisciformes, 255 
 
 Skua, Richardson's, 2G4 
 
 Solariidae, 633 
 
 Sphenodon punctatus, 430 
 
 Skunks, 77 
 
 Solea, 492 
 
 Sphenodontidae, 4oO 
 
 Skunk, Common, 78 
 
 Solen, 62tf 
 
 Sphinges, 588 
 
 Skunk, Little, 78 
 
 Solenidse, 626 
 
 Sphyraena, 479 
 
 Skunk, South American, 78 
 
 Solenoconcha, 628 
 
 Sphyraenidae, 478 
 
 Skylark, The, 364 
 
 Solenodon, 49 
 
 Sphyrna, 516 
 
 Slipper animalcule, 721 
 
 Solenodontidae, 49 
 
 Sphyropicus, 354 
 
 Slit-shells, 632 
 Sloths, 181 
 
 Solenogastra, 616 
 Solenomya, 621 
 
 Spiders, 539 
 Spider, Bird-catching, 542 
 
 Sloths, Ground, 183 
 
 Solenomya togata, 621 
 
 Spider, Garden, 544 
 
 Sloths, Three-toed, 182 
 
 Solenomyidae, 620 
 
 Spider, Hunting, 543 
 
 Sloths, Two-toed, 182 
 
 Solenostoma, 487 
 
 Spider, Trap-door, 543 
 
 Slugs, 641 
 
 Solenostomatidae, 487 
 
 Spider, Water, 544 
 
 Small magpie moth, 592 
 
 Soles, The, 492 
 
 Spider, Wolf, 543 
 
 Small mungoose, 60 
 
 Solifugse, 541 
 
 Spider-crab, 537 
 
 Small-toothed mungoose, 61 
 
 Solitarius, Pezophaps, 245 
 
 Spider-crab. Zoea-larva of, 530 
 
 Small-toothed palm-civets, 59 
 Smaller shrew-hedgehog, 45 
 
 Solitary ants, 579 
 Solium, Taenia, 686 
 
 Spider-monkey, Variegated, 
 25 
 
 Smelt, The, 508 
 
 Solomon Island frog, 437 
 
 Spider-monkey, Woolly, 25 
 
 Sinew, The, 297 
 
 Solpugidae, 541 
 
 Spilogale putorius, 78 
 
INDEX. 
 
 765 
 
 Spilornis, 315 
 
 Squirrels, Ground, 91 
 
 Stomatidse, 632 
 
 Spilotis, Python, 419 
 
 Squirrel, Palm, 91 
 
 Stomatopoda, 535 
 
 Spinacidae, 519 
 
 Squirrels, Pigmy, 95 
 
 Stomias, 505 
 
 Spinax, 519 
 
 Squirrels, Spiny, 91 
 
 Stomiatidaa, 505 
 
 Spine-tailed swifts, 345 
 
 Squirrel-monkeys, 26 
 
 Stomoxys calcitrans, 607 
 
 Spiny dog-fishes, 519 
 
 Stag beetles, 558 
 
 Stone-curlew, 273 
 
 Spiny eels, 478 
 
 Stag, Kashmir, 143 
 
 Stone flies, 571 
 
 Spiny lizard, 401 
 
 Stag, Thian Shan, 143 
 
 Stone plovers, The, 273 
 
 Spiny loach, 500 
 
 Stair-case shells, 633 
 
 Stony corals, 701 
 
 Spiny lobsters, 537 
 
 Staphylinus cresareus, 556 
 
 Stork-billed kingfisher, 336 
 
 Spiny-mice, 106 
 
 Star-coral, 706 
 
 Storks, The, 278 
 
 Spiny shark, 519 
 
 Star-fish, 653 
 
 Stork, Black, 279 
 
 Spiny squirrels, 91 
 
 Star-gazers, 473 
 
 Stork, Hammer-head, 281 
 
 Spiralis, Trichina, 680 
 Spirifer, 651 
 
 Star-nosed mole, 48 
 Starlings, The, 360 
 
 Stork maguari, 279 
 Stork, Open-billed, 280 
 
 Spirifer sulcatus, 652 
 
 Starling, Common, 360 
 
 Stork, Shoe-billed, 282 
 
 Spirifex, Pelopaeus, 580 
 
 Starling, Field, 360 
 
 Stork, White, 278 
 
 Spirorbis, 672 
 
 Starling, Glossy, 360 
 
 Stork, White-necked, 280 
 
 Spirostreptus pyrocephalus, 
 
 Starling, Meadow, 361 
 
 Storks, Wood, The, 281 
 
 550 
 
 Starling, Red-winged, 361 
 
 Storm petrel, 257 
 
 Spirula, 646 
 Spirulidae, 646 
 
 Starling, True, 360 
 Staurotypus, b89 
 
 Stratiomyidae, 605 
 Strawberry anemone, 703 
 
 Spiza, 364 
 
 Steamer ducks, The, 297 
 
 Streaked tenrecs, 49 
 
 Spizaetus, 315 
 
 Steatomys, 101 
 
 Streperus, Acrocephalus, 370 
 
 Spizella, 364 
 Spondylus, 623 
 
 Steatornis gariepensis, 332 
 Steatornithes, 332 
 
 Strepsiceros, 154 
 Strepsiceros imberbis, 154 
 
 Sponges, The, 690 
 
 Steel-blue cuckoos, 351 
 
 Strepsiceros kudu, 154 
 
 Sponge, Bath, 693 
 
 Steganopodes, 297 
 
 Streptoneura, 631 
 
 Sponge, Birds'-nest, 693 
 
 Steganopus, 266 
 
 Striata, Hyaena, 62 
 
 Sponge, Glass-rope, 693 
 
 Stegostoma, 518 
 
 Striatus, Pseudobranchus, 453 
 
 Sponge, Lacework, 693 
 
 Steinbok, True, 151 
 
 Striges, 304 
 
 Sponge spicules, 693 
 
 Steinbok, Zanzibar, 151 
 
 Strigidse, 320 
 
 Sponge, System of a, 692 
 Sponges, Calcareous, 692 
 Sponges, Siliceous, 692 
 
 Stelleri, Heniconetta, 297 
 Stelleri, Otaria, 82 
 Stelleri, Ursina, 82 
 
 Strigirostris, Didunculus, 245 
 Strigoides, Podargus 333 
 Stringops habroptilus, 331 
 
 Sponsa, MX, 294 
 
 Steller's eider, 297 
 
 Striped gopher, 92 
 
 Spoon-bills, The, ?86 
 
 Steno frontatus, 181 
 
 Striped hyaena, 62 
 
 Spoon-bill, Common, 286 
 
 Stenodelphis blainvillei, 178 
 
 Striped wrasse, 48S 
 
 Spoon-bill, Rosy, 286 
 
 Stenoderma, 41 
 
 Strix Candida, 325 
 
 Spoon -billed sandpiper, 269 
 
 Stenogyra, 643 
 
 Strix capensis, 325 
 
 Sporocyst, 689 
 
 Stentor, 721 
 
 Strix flammea, 321 
 
 Sportive lemur, 30 
 
 Stenura, Gallinago, 268 
 
 Strobilation, 701 
 
 Spotted billed pelican, 302 
 
 Stercorariidae, 260 
 
 Stromateus, 472 
 
 Spotted crake, 251 
 
 Stercorarius, 264 
 
 Stromateidae, 471 
 
 Spotted cuscus, 200 
 
 Stercorarius crepidatus, 264 
 
 Strombidse, 636 
 
 Spotted-dasyure, 208 
 
 Stercorarius parasiticus, 263 
 
 Strombus gigas, 636 
 
 Spotted deer, 143 
 Spotted eagle, 314 
 
 Stercorarius pomatorhinus, 264 
 Stercoraria, Scatophaga, 608 
 
 Strurnella, 361 
 Struthersi, Ibidorhynchus, 270 
 
 Spotted emu, 223 
 
 Stereornithes, 278 
 
 Struthio australis, 223 
 
 Spotted Hyaena, 63 
 
 Sterlet, 512 
 
 Struthio camelus, 223 
 
 Spotted-narwhal, 178 
 Spotted-tailed dasyure, 208 
 Spratt, The, 507 
 
 Sterna cantiaca, 261 
 Sterna dougalli, 261 
 Sterna fluviatilis, 261 
 
 Struthio molybdophanes, 223 
 Struthiolariidae, 636 
 Struthiones, 220 
 
 Sprattus, Clupea, 507 
 
 Sterna fuliginosa, 262 
 
 Struthioniformes, 221 
 
 Springbok, 15 i 
 
 Sterna macrura, 61 
 
 Stump-tailed lizard, 410 
 
 Spring tails, 573 
 
 Sterna minuta, 261 
 
 Stumpy crocodile, 382 
 
 Spur-toed frogs, 444 
 
 Sterninae, 261 
 
 Sturgeons, 510 
 
 Spur-winged geese, The, 293 
 
 Sternoptychidae, 505 
 
 Sturgeon, Common, 511 
 
 Spur-winged plover, 271 
 
 Sternoptyx, 505 
 
 Sturio, Acipenser, 512 
 
 Squamata, 395 
 
 Sternothasrus, 393 
 
 Sturnia, 360 
 
 Square-tailed bee eaters, 340 
 
 Stick-insects, 551 
 
 Sturuidae, 360 
 
 Squatarola helvetica, 271 
 
 Stickle-backs, 480 
 
 Sturnus vulgaris, 360 
 
 Squatina vulgaris, 519 
 
 Stiff-tailed diving ducks, 297 
 
 Stylasteridae, 697 
 
 Squatinidae, 519 
 
 Stilbum amethystinum, 578 
 
 Stylifer, 633 
 
 Squilla mantis, 535 
 
 Stilts, The, 270 
 
 Stylommatophora, 641-642 
 
 Squillidae, 535 
 
 Sting-bull, 474 
 
 Stylophorus, 485 
 
 Squinado, Maia, 537 
 
 Stinging hymenoptera, 574 
 
 Subbuteo, Falco, 319 
 
 Squirrel tribe, The, 91 
 
 Stink-bugs, 596 
 
 Subcristatus, Conolophus, 402 
 
 Squirrel, African flying, 89 
 
 Stint, 269 
 
 Submytilacea, 623 
 
 Squirrel, Common, 91 
 
 Stizostedion, 464 
 
 Succinea, 642 
 
 Squirrel, Flying woolly, 95 
 
 Stoat, 81 
 
 Succineidae, 642 
 
 Squirrel, Groove-toothed, 91 
 
 Stock dove, 244 
 
 Sucking-fish, 473 
 
766 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sugar mite, 547 
 
 Symbranchidae, 495 
 
 Tape worms, The, 686 
 
 Suillus hylomys, 45 
 
 Synallaxinae, 375 
 
 Taphozous, 39 
 
 Suina, 135 
 
 Synaphobranchus, 495 
 
 Tapirs family, The, 124 
 
 Sulae, 298 
 
 Synapta, 661 
 
 Tapir, Malayan, 124 
 
 Sulcatus, Spirifer, 652 
 Sulphur-bottom, 174 
 
 Synaptomys, 103 
 Syndactylus hylobates, 19 
 
 Tapiridae, 124 
 Tapirus indicus, 124 
 
 Sulzori, Atypus, 543 
 
 Syngnathidae, 487 
 
 Tarandus, Rangifer, 145 
 
 Sumatran rhinoceros, 126 
 
 Syngnathus, 487 
 
 Tarantula, 543 
 
 Sumatrensis, Rhinoceros, 126 
 
 Synotus, 37 
 
 Tarbophis vivax, 423 
 
 Summer duck, 294 
 
 Syphax, Castnia, 590 
 
 Tarda, Otis, 273 
 
 Summer snipe, 269 
 
 Sypheotis, 273 
 
 Tardigrada, 547 
 
 Sun animalcules, 716 
 
 Syriacus, Ursus, 75 
 
 Tarentola, 398 
 
 Sun-birds, The, 366 
 
 Syrian bear, 75 ' 
 
 Tarentula, Lycosa, 543 
 
 Sun-bird, Malachite, 366 
 
 Syringella, Gracilaria, 594 
 
 Tarsius, 31 
 
 Sun-bitterns, The, 276 
 
 Syrniinae, 321 
 
 Tarsiidae, 31 
 
 Sun-bittern, Large, 276 
 
 Syrnium, 824 
 
 Tarsipedinae, 203 
 
 Sun-bittern, South American, 
 
 Syrnium aluco, 321 
 
 Tarsipes rostratus, 203 
 
 276 
 
 Syrphidae, 606 
 
 Tarsius spectrum, 31 
 
 Sun -fish, 490 
 Sunset shells, 624 
 
 Syrrhoptes paradoxus, 241 
 Systema, Cacopus, 438 
 
 Tartarica, Saiga, 152 
 Tasmanian devil, 207 
 
 Superba menura, 357 
 
 
 Tasmanian wolf, 207 
 
 Superciliosa, Ceryle, 336 
 
 
 Tatlers, The, 269 
 
 Surciata tetradactyla, 61 
 
 T. 
 
 Tatouay, 186 
 
 Surinam water-toad, 444 
 
 
 Tatusia hybrida, 187 
 
 Surnia ulula, 323 
 
 Tabanidse, 605 
 
 Taurus, Bos, 165 
 
 Sus, 133 
 
 Tachininae, 607 
 
 Tawny eagle, 314 
 
 Sus africanus, 134 
 
 Tachornis, 346 
 
 Tawny owl, 321 
 
 Sus cristatus, 134 
 
 Tachybaptes albipennis, 253 
 
 Tawny -shoulder frog -mouth. 
 
 Sus porcus, 134 
 
 Tachybaptes capensis, 253 
 
 333 
 
 Sus salvanius, 134 
 
 Tachybaptes fluviatilis, 253 
 
 Taxicolor, Budorcas, 157 
 
 Sus scrofa, 133 
 
 Tachytriorchis, 312 
 
 Taxidea, 79 
 
 Susliks, 91 
 
 Tachytriorchis albicadautua, 
 
 Teal, 296 
 
 Susu, 177 
 
 312 
 
 Te'alia crassicornis, 703 
 
 Swainsoni, Pternistes, 233 
 
 Tachytriorchis abbreviatus, 312 
 
 Tectibranchiata, 639 
 
 Swallows, The, 373 
 
 Tadorna, 296 
 
 Tectospondyli, 519 
 
 Swallow, American barn, 373 
 
 Tadorna tadorna, 296 
 
 Teeth of gorilla, 6 
 
 Swallow, Cliff, 373 
 
 Taenia echinococeus, 688 
 
 Teeth of mammalia, 5 
 
 Swallow, Common, 373 
 
 Tsenia, Cobitis, 500 
 
 Tegu, The, 407 
 
 Swallow, Sea, 261 
 
 Taenia saginata, 687 
 
 Teiidae, 407 
 
 Swallow-fly, 608 
 
 Taenia solium, 686 
 
 Teirao, 229 
 
 Swallow shells, 622 
 
 Taeniata, Pygoscelis, 255 
 
 Telarius, Tetranychus, 547 
 
 Swallow-shrikes, The, 369 
 
 Taeniiformes, 484 
 
 Teleostomi, 462 
 
 Swallow-tail butterfly, 587 
 
 Taenioglossa, 633 
 
 Telfairi, Ericulus, 49 
 
 Swallow-tailed bee-eaters, 310 
 
 Taeniopterinae, 373 
 
 Tellinacea, 624 
 
 Swamp deer, 143 
 
 Taguan flying-phalanger, 201 
 
 Tellinidse, 624 
 
 Swamp quail, 235 
 
 Tahr, Himalayan, 159 
 
 Telmatornis, 248 
 
 Swans, The, 292 
 
 Tailed fruit-bats, 35 
 
 Telotremata, 651 
 
 Swan, Bewick's, 292 
 
 Tailless tunicata, 527 
 
 Temenuchus, 360 
 
 Swan, Black, 292 
 
 Takin, 157 
 
 Temera, 521 
 
 Swan, Chilian, 292 
 
 Talegallus, 226 
 
 Temmincki, Coracias, 335 
 
 Swan, Coscoroba, 293 
 
 Talischensis, Phasianus, 237 
 
 Temmincki, Macroclemmys, 
 
 Swan, Mute, 292 
 
 Talpa, 48 
 
 390 
 
 Swan, Polish, 592 
 
 Talpa caeca, 48 
 
 Temminck's snapper, 390 
 
 Swifts, The, 345 
 
 Talpa europaea, 48 
 
 Temporaria, Rana, 436 
 
 Swift, Common, 346 
 
 Talpa micrura, 48 
 
 Tenagodes, 636 
 
 Swift, Crested, 346 
 
 Talpa moschata, 48 
 
 Tenax, Eristalis, 606 
 
 Swift, Needle-tailed, 346 
 
 Talpidae, 47 
 
 Tench, 499 
 
 Swift, Palm, 346 
 
 Tamahoa, 184 
 
 Tenebrio molitor, 560 
 
 Swift, Pied, 346 
 Swift, Spine- tailed, 345 
 
 Tamandua tetradactyla, 184 
 Tamarins, 27 
 
 Teneriffae, Regulus, 369 
 Tengmalmi, Nyctalea, 324 
 
 Swiftlets, The Edible, 346 
 
 Tameng, 143 
 
 Tengmalm's owl, 324 
 
 Swift-moths, 591 
 
 Tamias, 91 
 
 Tenrecs, The, 49 
 
 Swimming-shrews, 47 
 
 Tana tupaia, 43 
 
 Tenrecs, Hedgehog, 49 
 
 Swinhoei, Cervus, 143 
 Sword-bill hummer, 348 
 
 Tanagers, The, 362 
 Tanagridae, 362 
 
 Tenrecs, Rice, 49 
 Tenrecs, Streaked, 49 
 
 Sword-fish, Common, 469 
 
 Tancrediidae, 6^5 
 
 Tentacle fish, 475 
 
 Syllis ramosa, 673 
 
 Tantalus, 278 
 
 Tentacled infusorians, 722 
 
 Sylvaticus, Mus, 105 
 
 Tantalus loculator, 281 
 
 Tenthredinidae, 574 
 
 Sylvestris, Cabalus, 249 
 
 Tanysiptera, 3s8 
 
 Tenui-spina, Murex, 637 
 
 Sylvia atricapilla, 370 
 Sylvia, Tanysiptera, 338 
 Sylviidse, 370 
 
 Tanysiptera salvadoriana, 339 
 Tanysiptera sylvia, 338 
 Tapacolas, 376 
 
 Teonoma, 102 
 Tequexin, Tupinambis, 407 
 Terebra, 638 
 
INDEX. 
 
 767 
 
 Terebrantia, 574 
 Terebratula, 651 
 Terebella, 672 
 Terebridae, 638 
 Teredinidae, 627 
 Teredo, 627 
 
 Tergissus, Hyodon, 505 
 Termetidae, 571 
 Terns, The, 261 
 Tern, Arctic, 261 
 Tern, Black, 261 
 Tern, Caspian, 261 
 Tern, Common, 261 
 Tern, Lesser, 261 
 Tern, Marsh, 261 
 Tern, River, 262 
 Tern, Roseate, 261 
 Tern, Sandwich, 261 
 Tern, Snowy, 262 
 Tern, Sooty, 262 
 Terpsiphone, 373 
 Terrapins, 385 
 Testacellidas, 644 
 Testudinidie, 385 
 Testudo, 386 
 Testudo elegans, 386 
 Testudo ephippium, 3S7 
 Testudo geometrica, 386 
 Testudo graeca, 386 
 Testudo marginata, 386 
 Tetrabranchiata, 645 
 Tetraceros quadricornis, 151 
 Tetradactyla, Surciata, 61 
 Tetradactyla, Tamandua, 184 
 Tetradactylus macroscelides, 44 
 Tetradactylus, Oryzorictes, 49 
 Tetranychidse, 547 
 Tetranychus autumnalis, 547 
 Tetranychus telarius, 547 
 Tetrao kamtchaticus, 30 
 Tetrao parvirostris, 230 
 Tetrao uralensis, 230 
 Tetrao urogallus, 230 
 Tetraogallus, 232 
 Tetraogallus himalayensis, 232 
 Tetraonidse, 229 
 Tetrapneumones, 54 - ? 
 Tetraspis osteolgemus, 382 
 Tetrastemraa, 684 
 Tetrastemma agricola, 684 
 Tetrastemma aquaruin-dul- 
 
 cium, 684 
 
 Tetrastemma rodericanum, 684 
 Tetrastes, 231 
 Tetrax, 273 
 Tetrax tetrax, 273 
 Tetrix, Lyrurus, 230 
 Tetrodon, 489 
 Teucer, Caligo, 584 
 Thalassema, 678 
 Thalassiornis, '297 
 Thalassochelys caretta, 391 
 Thalassogeron cautus, 259 
 Thallassophryne, 474 
 Tharus, Polyborus, 307 
 Thaumastura, M8 
 Theraphosidae, 542 
 Theridiidse, 544 
 Theropithecus gelada, 22 
 Theropithecus obscurus, 22 
 Thian shan, 159 
 Thian shan stag, 143 
 
 Thick-knee, 273 
 Thick-knee, Long-legged, 273 
 Thick-lipped fishes, 486 
 Thick-tailed opossum, 213 
 Thinocorus, 266 
 Thinornis, 270 
 
 Thomensis, Throphorella, 643 
 Thomisidae, 543 
 Thomomys, 109 
 Thopha, 598 
 Thoracostraca, 535 
 Thorius, 450 
 Thornback skate, 521 
 Thorn-backs, 485 
 Thorny devil, 401 
 Thorny oyster, 623 
 Thorny-tailed lizard, 400 
 Thoroldi, Cervus, 143 
 Thorold's deer, 143 
 Thracia, 628 
 Thrasaetus, 313 
 Thrasaetus harpyia, 313 
 Thread worms, 678 
 Thread-worm, Turnip, 679 
 Three-banded armadillos, 187 
 Three-striped douroucouli, 26 
 Three-toed kingfisher, 337 
 Three-toed sloths, 182 
 Three-toed woodpecker, 354 
 Thresher, 517 
 Thripidse, 572 
 Thriponax, 355 
 Thriponax hargitti, 355 
 Thrips cerealium, 572 
 Thrushes, The, 370 
 Thrush, Ground, 370 
 Thrush, Song, 371 
 Thrush, True, 370 
 Thrush, White's, 370 
 Thrynomys, 112 
 Thylacine, 207 
 
 Thylacinus cynocephalus, 207 
 Thymallus, 509 
 Thynnidae, 579 
 Thynnus, 473 
 
 Thyrophorella thomensis, 643 
 Thyrophorellidae, 643 
 Thyroptera tricolor, 38 
 Thyrsitis, 470 
 Thysanoptera, 572 
 Thysanoteuthidae, 646 
 Thysanura, 573 
 Tibetan chiru, 152 
 Tibetan fox, 73 
 Tibetan yak, 164 
 Tibicina, 598 
 Tichodroma muraria, 366 
 Ticks, 545 
 Tiger, 53 
 Tiger-beetles, 554 
 Tiger-beetle, Green, 554 
 Tiger cat, 55 
 Tiger moths, 588 
 Tigris, Felis, 53 
 Tile-fish, 473 
 Timeliidas, 372 
 Timidus, Lepus, 118 
 Tinamiformes, 225 
 Tinamous, The, 225 
 Tinamou, Great, 226 
 Tinea, 499 
 Tinctorius, Dendrobates, 438 
 
 Tineas, 591 
 
 Tinea fulvimitrella, 593 
 
 Tineidae, 572 
 
 Tinker, 353 
 
 Tipulidae, 604 
 
 Tits, The, 367 
 
 Tit, Bearded, 368 
 
 Tit, Blue, S67 
 
 Tit, Bottle, 368 
 
 Tit, Crested, 368 
 
 Tit, Great, 367 
 
 Tit, Long-tailed, 368 
 
 Tit, Marsh, 367 
 
 Titis, 26 
 
 Titi, White-collared, 26 
 
 Titiscaniidae, 632 
 
 Tmetothylacus, 365 
 
 Toads, The, 441 
 
 Toad, Common, 442 
 
 Toad, Green, 442 
 
 Toad, Natterjack, 442 
 
 Tobanus bovinus, 605 
 
 Todidae, 342 
 
 Todies, The, 342 
 
 Todus viridis, 342 
 
 Tody, Jamaica, 342 
 
 Togata, Solenomya, 621 
 
 Tolypeutes, 187 
 
 Tomb-bats, 39 
 
 Tooth-billed partridges, 231 
 
 Tooth-billed pigeons, The 245 
 
 Toothed partridges, The, 240 
 
 Toothed whales, 171 
 
 Topaza, 348 
 
 Tope, 516 
 
 Tor, Bar bus, 498 
 
 Torda, Alca, 260 
 
 Tornaria, 528 
 
 Tornatina, 640 
 
 Tornatinidae, 640 
 
 Torpedinidae, 521 
 
 Torpedo, 521 
 
 Torquata, Callithrix, 26 
 
 Torquata, Ceryle, 336 
 
 Torquata, Chiromeles, 40 
 
 Torquatus, Astur, 311 
 
 Torquatus, Cuniculus, 103 
 
 Torquatus, Ursus, 75 
 
 Torquilla, lynginse, 354 
 
 Torrent ducks, The, 297 
 
 Tortoises and turtles, 383 
 
 Tortoise, Amazonian fresh 
 
 water, 393 
 
 Tortoise, Grecian, 386 
 Tortoise, Land, 385 
 Tortoise, Loggerhead, 891 
 Tortoise, Margined, 386 
 Tortoise, Pond, 388 
 Tortoise, Soft, 394 
 Tortoise, True Box, 388 
 Tortoise-shells, 585 
 Tortrices, 593 
 Tortrix, Green Oak, 593 
 Tortrix viridana, 593 
 Totaninse, 269 
 Totanu, 269 
 Toucans, The, 352 
 Touracoe, Lady Ross, 352 
 Touracoes, 351 
 Toxodon, 9 
 Toxoglossa, 638 
 Tracheophonae, 375 
 
768 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Trachichthys, 468 
 
 Trilobita, 539 
 
 True mound-builders, 226 
 
 Trachinidse, 473 
 
 Trimeresaurus, 429 
 
 True palm-civets. 59 
 
 Trachinops, 46t 
 
 Tringa, 269 
 
 True parrots, The, 329 
 
 Trachinus, 473 
 
 Tringoides, 2fi9 
 
 True partridges, The, 234 
 
 Trachypteridae, 484 
 
 Trinitatis, Phyllobates, 438 
 
 True phalangers, 200 
 
 Trachypterus, 485 
 
 Triodon, 489 
 
 True pigeons, The, 244 
 
 Trachysaurus rugosus, 410 
 
 Trionychidae, 394 
 
 True pigs, 133 
 
 Tragelaphine, 154 
 
 Trionyx, 394 
 
 True pipits, The, 365 
 
 Tragelaphus, 156 
 
 Triphaena, 591 
 
 True plovers, 270 
 
 Tragelaphus angasi, 156 
 
 Tripudians, Naia, 424 
 
 True porcupine, 113 
 
 Tragelaphus, Ovis, 160 
 
 Trithemis umbrata, 569 
 
 True potto, 31 
 
 Tragelaplius scriptus, 156 
 
 Tritici diplosis, 603 
 
 True rails, 248 
 
 Tragelaphns spekei, 156 
 
 Tritici, Tylenchus, 679 
 
 True seals, 85 
 
 Tragocaraelus, Boselaphus, 154 
 
 Triton-shell, B36 
 
 True snipe, 268 
 
 Tragopan, 235 
 
 Tritonioidea, 641 
 
 True steinbok, 151 
 
 Tragulidae, 139 
 
 Trivialis, Anthus, 3R5 
 
 True tenrec, 49 
 
 Tragulus, 139 
 
 Trivirgatus, Nyctipithecus, 26 
 
 True thrushes, 370 
 
 Tragus, Rupicapra, 156 
 
 Trochidae, 632 
 
 True whales, 172 
 
 Transmontana, Columbia, 509 
 
 Trochili, 347 
 
 True woodcock, 267 
 
 Trap-door spiders, 543 
 
 Trochilus, Phylloscopus, 370 
 
 True wood-peckers, The, 354 
 
 Tratratratra, 33 
 
 Trochophore, t>73 
 
 Trumpet animalcule, 721 
 
 Traversia, 375 
 
 Trochopus tubiporus, 688 
 
 Trumpeters, The, 277 
 
 Tree-creepers, 362 
 
 Trochosphere, 673 
 
 Trumpeter, Common, 277 
 
 Tree-ducks, 296 
 
 Troglodytes, Anorthura, 371 
 
 Trumpeter fish, 467 
 
 Tree-frog, European, 442 
 
 Troglodytes, Anthropopithecus, 
 
 Truucatellidae, 634 
 
 Tree-kangaroos, 195 
 
 15 
 
 Truncatus, Chlamydophorus, 
 
 Tree-lizards, 399 
 
 Troglodytes, Sagartia, 704 
 
 188 
 
 Tree-mice, The, 101 
 
 Troglodytidae, 371 
 
 Trygon, 522 
 
 Tree-partridsre, The, 234 
 
 Trogons, The, 349 
 
 Trygonidae, 522 
 
 Tree-pipit, 365 
 Tree-shrews, 43 
 
 Trogon, American, 349 
 Trogon c'aligatus, 349 
 
 Trypancorax frugilegus, 358 
 Trypanns cossus, 590 
 
 Tree-starlings, The, 360 
 
 Trogon, Large-tailed, 349 
 
 Trypetinse, 608 
 
 Tree-swifts, The, 347 
 
 Trogonophis, 408 
 
 Tse-tse fly, 608 / 
 
 Trematoda, 688 
 
 Troile, Uria, 260 
 
 Tuatera, 480 
 
 Tremoctopodidse, 647 
 
 Trombidiidse, 547 
 
 Tube-making annelid, 672 
 
 Treronidae, 242 
 
 Tropic Birds, The, 298 
 
 Tube-nosed bats, 37 
 
 Treroninaj, 242 
 
 Tropic Bird, Yellow-billed, 298 
 
 Tube-nosed fruit-bats, 35 
 
 Tretenterata, 650 
 
 Tropical Anemones, 704 
 
 Tuberculatus, Chalinolobus, 40 
 
 Tretretretre", 33 
 Triacanthus, 489 
 
 Tropicoperdix, 234 
 Tropidonotus, 421 
 
 Tuberculatus mystacops, 40 
 Tubicola, 672 
 
 Trichechidse, 84 
 
 Tropidonotus natrix, 421 
 
 Tubifex rivulorum, 674 
 
 Trichechus rosmarus, 84 
 
 Tropterodon, 466 
 
 Tubinares, 256 
 
 Trichina spiralis, 680 
 
 True albatros, 258 
 
 Tubipora musica, 708 
 
 Trichinosis worm, 680 
 
 True ant-eaters, 183 
 
 Tubiporus, Trochopus, 688 
 
 Trichiosoma lucorum, 574 
 
 True argali, 160 
 
 Tubularia, 697 
 
 Trichiuridte, 470 
 
 True badgers, 79 
 
 Tubulifera, 578 
 
 Trichiuriformes, 470 
 
 True bittern, 284 
 
 Tuco-tucos, 111 
 
 Trichiurus, 470 
 
 True buzzards, The, 312 
 
 Tufted owls, The, 322 
 
 Trichoglossus, 328 
 
 True civets, 57 
 
 Tumulus, Megapodius, 228 
 
 Trichonotidse, 478 
 
 True coursers, 272 
 
 Tunicata, 527 
 
 Trichoptera, 572 
 
 True cranes, The, 274 
 
 Tunny, 473 
 
 Trichopterygidae, 562 
 
 True crocodile, 381 
 
 Tupaia, 44 
 
 Trichosurus, 200 
 
 True crows, 3c8 
 
 Tupaia tana, 43 
 
 Trichosurus vulpinus, 200 
 
 True cuckoo, 350 
 
 Tupaiidae, 43 
 
 Trichotropidae, 634 
 
 True dolphins, 181 
 
 Tupinambis tequexin, 407 
 
 Trichys, 113 
 
 True dotteral, 271 
 
 Turacaena, 244 
 
 Tricolor bat, 38 
 
 True ducks, The, 296 
 
 Turacus, 352 
 
 Tricolor, Thyroptera, 38 
 
 True eels, 478 
 
 Turbellaria, 685 
 
 Tridacna, 62t> 
 
 True falcon, The, 317 
 
 Turbinata. Bugula, 667 
 
 Tridacna gigas, 626 
 
 True finches, 363 
 
 Turbinellidse, 637 
 
 Tridactyla, Hissa, 263 
 
 True fruit-pigeon, 242 
 
 Turbinidfe. 632 
 
 Tridactylus, Bradypus, 183 
 
 True hamster, 101 
 
 Turbot, 492 
 
 Tddanidse, 626 
 
 True garial, 382 
 
 Turdidse, 370 
 
 Tridecemlineatus, Spermo- 
 
 True geese, 295 
 
 Turdus, 370 
 
 philus, 92 
 
 True grouse, The, 230 
 
 Turdus iliacus, 371 
 
 Triecphora yulnerata, 690 
 
 True gulls, 260 
 
 Turdus pilaris, 371 
 
 Trigla, 475 
 
 True hawks, The, 307 
 
 Turdus musicus, 371 
 
 Trigonia, 621 
 
 True kudu, 154 
 
 Turkey-brush, Australian 227 
 
 Trigoniacea, 621 
 
 True lemurs, 29 
 
 Turkish gecko, 397 
 
 Trigoniidae, 621 
 
 True marmots, 92 
 
 Turkey, Honduras, '240 
 
 Trigonocephalus, 429 
 
 True megapodes, 228 
 
 Turkey, Mexican, 240 
 
 Trigonorhina, 520 
 
 True moles, 48 
 
 Turkey vultures, The, S04 
 
 V 
 
INDEX. 
 
 769 
 
 Turn-stones, The, 272 
 
 Undulata, Gallinago, 268 
 
 Vampirus, 41 
 
 Turn-stone, Black, 272 
 
 Ungulata, 118 
 
 Vampirus spectrum, 41 
 
 Turn-stone, Common, 272 
 
 Ungulina, 624 
 
 Vandeluria, 104 
 
 Turnip-beetles, 5<>1 
 
 Ungulinidae, l>-?4 
 
 Vandesius, Coregonus, 509 
 
 Turnip flies, 562 
 
 Unicincta, Erythrocnema, 310 
 
 Vanellus vanellus, . 71 
 
 Turnip thread-worm, 679 
 
 Unicinctus, Lysuirus, 186 
 
 Varanidae, 40 i 
 
 Turnix, 241 
 TurritelliuX 635 
 
 Unicolor, Cervus, 143 
 Unicolor, Xenopeltis, 421 
 
 Varanus, 405 
 Varanus nilot'cus, 406 
 
 Turtle-doves, *44 
 
 Unicorn fish, 484 
 
 Varia, Ceryle, 3:>6 
 
 Turtles, The, 390 
 
 Unicorn, Sea, 178 
 
 Varia, Oreocicla, b71 
 
 Turtle, Green, 391 
 
 Unicornis, Rhinoceros, 126 
 
 Variegata, Mesites, ?76 
 
 Turtle, Leathery, 391 
 
 Unionidae, 623 
 
 Variegated spider-monkey, 25 
 
 Turtur, Turturinse, 245 
 
 Upland geese, The, 295 
 
 Variezatus, Ateles, 25 
 
 Turturaena, 244 
 
 Upupa epops, 340 
 
 Varius, Phalacrocorax, 300 
 
 Tuvturinae, '244 
 
 Upupa indica, 340 
 
 Velox, Canis, 7.< 
 
 Turturinae risortus, 245 
 
 Upupae, 340 
 
 Velox potamogale, 48 
 
 Turturinse turtur, 245 
 
 Upupidae, 340 
 
 Velutina, Didelphys, 213 
 
 Twenty-plume moth, 594 
 Two-clawed ant-eater, 184 
 
 Uraeotyphlus, 454 
 Uralensis, Tetrao, 230 
 
 Velvety-opossum, 213 
 Venaticus, Icticyon, 74 
 
 Two-legged salamander, 453 
 
 Uraniidae, 588 
 
 Vendace, 509 
 
 Two-toed sloths, 182 
 
 Uranoscopus, 473 
 
 Veneracea, 623 
 
 Tylenchus tritici, C79 
 
 Urbica, Chelidon, 373 
 
 Veneris, Cestus, 712 
 
 Tylopoda, 136 
 
 Urens, Asthenosoma, 660 
 
 Venus' comb, (.37 
 
 Tvlotriton, 44S 
 
 Uria grylle, 260 
 
 Venus's flower basket, 693 
 
 Tylotriton andersoni, 448 
 
 Uria troile, 260 
 
 Venus's girdle, 71 . 
 
 Tylotriton verrucosus, 448 
 
 Urial, 160 
 
 Vermes, 670 
 
 Tyinpanuchus, 231 
 
 Urosetus, 313 
 
 Vermetidse, 635 
 
 Typhlomolge rathbuni, 452 
 
 Uroaetus audax, 314 
 
 Vermicularis, Oxvuris, 679 
 
 Typhlomys, 106 
 
 Urochorda, 527 
 
 Vermiculus, 683 
 
 Typhlonectes, 455 
 
 Urogallus, Tetras, 230. 
 
 Verreauxia, 354 
 
 Typhlonus, 491 
 
 Urogymnus, 522 
 
 Verreauxia africana, 54 
 
 Tvphlopidae, 417 
 
 Urulophus, 522 
 
 Vesrucosus, Tylotriton, 448 
 
 Typhlops, 417 
 
 Uromastix, 400 
 
 Versicolar, Phasianus, ^38 
 
 Tyyhlops, Notoryctes, 210 
 
 Uromys, 10 i 
 
 Vertebrata, 1 
 
 Typhlosaurus, 411 
 
 Uropeltidse, 42l 
 
 Vertebrates, Characteristics of, 1 
 
 Typhlotriton, 450 
 
 Uroplates, b98 
 
 Verticalis, Botys, 592 
 
 T) phlus, Spalax, 106 
 
 Uroplatklse, 398 
 
 Verticordiidae, 628 
 
 Typical bats, :;6 
 
 Uropoda, 545 
 
 Vesicatoria, Cantharis, 560 
 
 Typical cuckoo, 350 
 
 Uropsilus, 47 
 
 Vespa, 580 
 
 Typical frogs, 436 
 
 Urospatha, 341 
 
 Vespa crabro, 580 
 
 Typical seals, The, 85 
 
 Urotrichus, 47 
 
 Vesperimus, 101 
 
 Typical tree-shrews, 14 
 
 Urotriorchis, 310 
 
 Vespertilio bechsteini, 38 
 
 Typicus, Rhinodon, 517 
 
 Ursidse, 74 
 
 Vespertilio daubentoni, 37 
 
 Tyrannidse, 373 
 
 Ursinus, Melursus, 75 
 
 Vespertilio hodgsoni, 38 
 
 Tyranninae, 373 
 
 Ursinus, Phalanger, 200 
 
 Vespertiiio welwitschi, 38 
 
 Tyrants, The, b73 
 
 Ursinus, Sarcophilus, 207 
 
 Vespertilionidae, 3 
 
 Tyroglyphidse, 547 
 
 Ursus, 75 
 
 Vesperugo, 38 
 
 Tyroglyphus sacchari, 547 
 
 Ursus americanus, 75 
 
 Vesperugo noctula, ' 7 
 
 Tyroglyphus siro, 547 
 
 Ursus arctus, 75 
 
 Vesperugo pipiptrellus, 7 
 
 
 Ursus crowther, 75 
 
 v'esperugo serotinus, o7 
 
 
 Ursus horribilis, 75 
 
 Vespillo, Necrophorus, 55 5 
 
 U. 
 
 Ursus isabellinus, 75 
 
 Vestimenti, Pediculus, 602 
 
 
 Ursus malayanus, 75 
 
 Victor, Chrysaenas, '243 
 
 Uacaria, 27 
 
 Ursus maritimus, 75 
 
 Victoriae, Ptilorhis, 359 
 
 Uacaria, Bald, 27 
 
 Ursus ornatus, 75 
 
 Vicuna, 138 
 
 Uacaria, Black-faced, 27 
 
 Ursus syriacus, 75 
 
 Vicufia, Lama, 133 
 
 Uacaria calva, -LI 
 
 Ursus torquaters, 75 
 
 Vignei, Ovis, IfiQ 
 
 Uacaria melanocephala, 27 
 
 Urticata, iJotys, 592 
 
 Villosus, Dasypus, 186 
 
 Uacaria rubicunda. z7 
 
 Urubitinga, 313 
 
 Vinegar eel, 679 
 
 Uakari, Red, 27 
 
 
 Vinia, M28 
 
 Uakaris, *7 
 
 
 Vinia kuhli, 328 
 
 Uloboridae, 544 
 
 V. 
 
 Violacea, Xylocopa, 581 
 
 Ulula, Surnia, >23 
 
 
 Vipers, The, 427 
 
 Umbrata, Trithemis, C63 
 
 Vagans. ^Egithalus, 68 
 
 Viper, British, 427 
 
 Umbrella, 640 
 Umbrellidge, i 40 
 
 Vaginuli, 642 
 Vaginulidae, 642 
 
 Viper, Halys, 4 9 
 Viper, Horned, 427 
 
 Umbretta, Scopus, 281 
 
 Valvata, Gt5 
 
 Viper, Pit, 428 
 
 Umbridaa, 502 
 
 Valvatidee, 635 
 
 Viper, Russell's, 428 
 
 Umbrina, 4f 8 
 
 Vampire-bats, 40 
 
 Viper, Sand, 427 
 
 Umbrine, The, 468 
 Umbonia, 601 
 Uncia, Felis, 53 
 
 Vampire, Common, 42 
 Vampire, Great, 41 
 Vampires, Harmless, 41 
 
 Viper, Saw, 4 7 
 Vjper tribe, The, 426 
 Vipera ammodytes, 427 
 
 50 
 
770 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Vipera arietans, 427 Vultures, Eared, 306 Weasles, 80 
 
 Vipera berus, 427 
 Vipera russelli, 428 
 
 Vulture, Egyptian, 306 
 Vulture, Turkey, 304 
 
 Weasel, Common, 80 
 Weasel tribe, The, 76 
 
 Viperidae, 42 
 
 Vulture, White-headed, 306 
 
 Weaver birds, The, 362 
 
 Viperinae, 427 
 
 Vulturidse, 305 
 
 Weaver, Baya, 362 
 
 Virens, Gadus, 491 
 
 Vulturine guinea-fowl, 240 
 
 Webbed newt, 448 
 
 Vireo, 370 
 
 Vulturinum, Acryllium, 240 
 
 Web-footed moles, 47 
 
 Vireonidse, 370 
 
 
 Web-footed shrew, 47 
 
 Virginian deer, 146 
 
 
 Weddelli, Leptonychotes, 87 
 
 Virginian fox, 72 
 
 W. 
 
 Weddell's seal, 87 
 
 Virginian quail, 240 
 
 
 Weevil, 560 
 
 Virginianus, Bubo, 322 
 
 Wagtails, The, 364 
 
 Weevil, Nut, 560 
 
 Virginianus, Canis, 72 
 
 Wagtail, Field, 365 
 
 Weevil, Palm, 560 
 
 Virginianus, Cervus, 146 
 Virginianus, Ortyx, 240 
 
 Wagtail, Grey, 365 
 Wagtail, Pied, 365 
 
 Weka rails, 251 
 Wels, The, 497 
 
 Viridana, Tortrix, 593 
 
 Wagtail, Ray's, 365 
 
 Welwit-chi, Vespertilio, 38 
 
 Viridis, Bufo, 442 
 
 Wagtail, Water, 365 
 
 Wentle-traps, 633 
 
 Viridis, Calyptomena, 353 
 
 Walabatus, Macropus, 194 
 
 West African chevrotains, 139 
 
 Viridis, Lacerta, 409 
 
 Wall gecko, 398 
 
 Whales, &c., 169 
 
 Viridis, Todus, -.4' 
 
 Wallabies, The, 194 
 
 Whale, Arnux's, 177 
 
 Viridis, Vortex, 686 
 
 Wallabies, Hare, 194 
 
 Whale, Beaked, 177 
 
 Viscacha, 114 
 
 Wallabies, Rock, 194 
 
 Whale, Cuvier's, 177 
 
 Vison, Mustela, 81 
 
 Wallaby, Agile, 194 
 
 Whale, Fin, 173 
 
 Vitrea cellaria, C44 
 
 Wallaby, Aru Island, 194 
 
 Whale, Greenland, 172 
 
 Vivax, Tarbophis, 423 
 
 Wallaby, Banded, 196 
 
 Whale, Grev, 172 
 
 Viverra, 57 
 
 Wallaby, Bennett's, 194 
 
 Whale, Humpback, 173 
 
 Viverra civetta, 57 
 
 Wallaby, Sombre, 194 
 
 Whale, Lesser sperm, 176 
 
 Viverra malaccensis, 57 
 
 Wallacii, Eulipoa, 228 
 
 Whale, Pigmy, 172 
 
 Viverricula, 57 
 
 Wallacii, Habroptila, 249 
 
 Whale, Right, 172 
 
 Viverridse, 56 
 
 Walleri, Lithocranias, 153 
 
 Whale, Sperm, 175 
 
 Viverrinse, 60 
 
 Waller's gazelle, 153 
 
 Whale, Toothed, 175 
 
 Viverrinus, Dasyurus, 208 
 
 Walliehii, Catreus, 237 
 
 Whale, Whalebone, 171 
 
 Vivipara, Lacerta, 409 
 
 Walrus family, The, 84 
 
 Whale, White, 179 
 
 Vivipara, Monopora, 684 
 
 Waltzing-mice, 105 
 
 Whalebone whales, 171 
 
 Viviparidae, 635 
 
 Wandering albatros, 258 
 
 Whale-louse, 535 
 
 Viviparous lizard, 409 
 Viviparous wrasses, 486 
 
 Wapiti, North American, 143 
 Warblers, The, 370 
 
 Wheat eel, 679 
 Wheat midge, 603 
 
 Vocifer, Haliaetus, 315 
 
 Warbler, Orass, 370 
 
 Wheel animalcules, 68? 
 
 Volans, Draco, 399 
 
 Warbler, Reed, 370 
 
 Wheel bugs, 596 
 
 Volans, Galdopithecums, 43 
 
 Warbler, Sedge, 370 
 
 Whip snakes, 423 
 
 Volins, Petauroides, 201 
 
 Warbler, Willow, 370 
 
 Whirligig beetles, 556 
 
 Voles, The, 103 
 Vole, Bank, 103 
 
 Wart-hog, 134 
 Warty salamander, 448 
 
 White admiral, 585 
 White ants, 571 
 
 Vole, Field, 103 
 
 Warty sea-leech, 677 
 
 White bats, 39 
 
 Vole, Groove-toothed, 103 
 
 Wasps, 580 
 
 White-bellied sea-eagle, 315 
 
 Vole group, The, 103 
 
 Wasps, Ruby-tailed, 578 
 
 White-billed diver, 254 
 
 Vole, Red, 103 
 
 Wasps, Sand, 579 
 
 White-collared titi, 26 
 
 Vole, Water, 103 
 
 Wasps, Wood, 575 
 
 White-eyes, The, 367 
 
 Volutidae, 638 
 
 Water-animals, 694 
 
 White-footed mice, 101 
 
 Volvox globator, 719 
 
 Water-beetle, Great, 557 
 
 White-fronted goose, 295 
 
 Volvulella, 640 
 
 Water-beetles, Carnivorous, 555 
 
 White gos-hawk, 311 
 
 Vortex viridis, 686 
 
 Water-boatmen, 537 
 
 White-headed vultures, The, 
 
 Vorticellidse, 721 
 
 Water-buck, 152 
 
 o06 
 
 Vulgaris, Bufo, 442 
 
 Water-bugs, 597 
 
 White-necked stork, 280 
 
 Vulgaris, Chamseleon, 412 
 
 Water-flea, 531 
 
 White owls, The, 325 
 
 Vulgaris, Conga, 494 
 
 Water-hens, The, 252 
 
 White plume moth, 594 
 
 Vulgaris, Lota, 491 
 
 Water-opossum, 211 
 
 White stork, 278 
 
 Vulgaris, Melolontha, 557 
 
 Water-ouzels, 371 
 
 Whi'e stork, Black-billed, 279 
 
 Vulgaris, Molge, 448 
 
 Water-rail, 249 
 
 White-tailed eagle, 315 
 
 Vulgaris, Mustela, 81 
 
 Water-scorpion, 597 
 
 White tailed hawk, 12 
 
 Vulgaris, Sciurus, 91 
 
 Water-shrews, 46 
 
 White-throated capuchin, 24 
 
 Vulgaris, Squatina, 519 
 
 Water-snakes, 421 
 
 White whale, 179 
 
 Vulgaris, Sturnus, 360 
 
 Water-spider, 544 
 
 V\ hite-winged chough, 358 
 
 Vulgata, Epliemera, 571 
 
 Water-toad, Surinam, 444 
 
 W 7 hite-winged crake, 251 
 
 Vulnerata, Triecphora, 600 
 
 Water-vole, 103 
 
 Whiteheadi, Calyptomena, 356 
 
 Vulpes, 70 
 
 Water-wagtails, 365 
 
 White's thrush, 370 
 
 Vulpes, Alopecias, 517 
 
 Wattled ant-thrushes, 375 
 
 Whiting, The, 491 
 
 Vulpes, Canis, 71 
 
 Wattled fruit-pigeon, 243 
 
 Whooper, 292 
 
 Vulpinus, Trichosurus, 200 
 
 Wattled grakles, 360 
 
 Wigeon, 296 
 
 Vultur, 306 
 
 Wattled plovers, The, 271 
 
 Wild boar, 133 
 
 Vultur monachus, 306 
 
 Waxwing, The, 369 
 
 Wild cat, 55 
 
 Vulture, Black, 306 
 
 Waxwing, Japanese, 369 
 
 Wild ducks, 296 
 
INDEX. 
 
 771 
 
 Willow-grouse, 229 ! 
 
 Worm, Bristled-footed, 671 
 
 Y. 
 
 Willow-warbler, 370 
 
 Worm, Earth, 674 
 
 
 Wilson's phalarope, 166 
 
 Worm, Flat, 685 
 
 Yaffle, 354 
 
 Wingless insects, 573 
 
 Worm, Fluke, 688 
 
 Yak, Tibetan, 164 
 
 Wing-shells, 636 
 
 Worm, Gephyrean, 677 
 
 Yapock, 214 
 
 Wire-tailed snipe, 268 
 
 Worm, Guinea, 679 
 
 Yarelli, Bagarius, 496 
 
 Wire worms, 559 
 
 Worm, Horse-hair, 680 
 
 Yellow baboon, 3 
 
 Wolf -like animals, 64 
 
 Worm, Lug, 672 
 
 Yellow-billed cuckoo, 351 
 
 Wolf, Aard, 62 
 
 Worm, Medina, 679 
 
 Yellow-billed sheathbill, -J65 
 
 Wolf, Antarctic, 64 
 
 Worm, Nemertine, 684 
 
 Yellow-billed tropicfbird, 298 
 
 Wolf, Common, 64 
 
 Worm, Ringed, 671 
 
 Yellow fo*; 71 
 
 Wolf, Indian, 65 
 
 Worm, Round, 679 
 
 Yellow hammer, 364 
 
 Wolf, Tasmanian, 207 
 
 Worm, Sand, 672 
 
 Yellow-tailed mole, 48 
 
 Wolf-fish, 478 
 
 Worm, Tape, 686 
 
 Yellow-throated marten, 80 
 
 Wolf -spiders, 543 
 Wolverine, 81 
 
 Worm, Thread, 678 
 Worm, Trichinosis, 680 
 
 Yellow underwing moth, 591 
 Yellow-winged woodpecker, 35 1 
 
 Wombats, 204 
 
 Worms, Planarian, 1 85 
 
 Yoldia, 621 
 
 Wood ant, 579 
 
 Wrasse, Parrot, 486 
 
 Ypecaha, Aramides, 250 
 
 Wood chat, 369 
 
 Wrasse, Striped, 486 
 
 Ypecaha wood-rail, 250 
 
 Wood-hewers, The, 375 
 
 Wrasses, Viviparous, 486 
 
 
 Wood-hewer, Bridge's, 375 
 
 Wrens, The, 371 
 
 
 Wood hoopoes, *40 
 
 Wren, Common, 371 
 
 Z. 
 
 Wood-ibises, 278 
 
 Wry-billed plover, 270 
 
 
 Wood larks, 364 
 
 Wrynecks, ;<54 
 
 Zabrus gibbus, 555 
 
 Wood lice, 534 
 
 Wryneck, Common, 354 
 
 Zaglossus, 217 
 
 Wood-mouse, 105 
 
 
 Zaitha aurantiaca, 597 
 
 Wood-owls, 21 
 
 
 Zamensis, 422 
 
 Wood-pigeon, 244 
 
 
 Zamensis gemonensis, 422 
 
 Wood rails, The, 249 
 
 X. 
 
 Zamensis hippocrepis, 422 
 
 Wood-rats, 102 
 
 
 Zammara, 598 
 
 Wood sandpiper, 269 
 
 Xantharpyia, 35 
 
 Zanzibar steinbok, 151 
 
 Wood-snakes, American, 422 
 
 Xantholseina hsemacephala, 353 
 
 Zapornia parva, 251 
 
 Wood-snipe, 268 
 
 Xanthomelus aurens, 359 
 
 Zapus, 110 
 
 Wood storks, 278 
 
 Xanthonotus indicator, 353 
 
 Zebra, Burchell's, 128 
 
 Wood stork, American, 281 
 
 Xanthopygus, Cervus, 143 
 
 Zebra, Equus, 128 
 
 Wood-swallows, 369 
 
 Xanthura, 358 
 
 Zebra, Grevy's, 1-28 
 
 Wood wasps, 575 
 
 Xema, 62 
 
 Zebra, Mountain, 128 
 
 Woodcocks, The, 268 
 
 Xema furcata, 262 
 
 Zebra-fish, 465 
 
 Woodcock, True, 267 
 
 Xema sabinii, 262 
 
 Zebra shark, 518 
 
 Woodpeckers, The, 353 
 
 Xenicus, b75 
 
 Zebrilus, 284 
 
 Woodpecker, Great black, 354 
 
 Xeniscidae, 373, 375 
 
 Zeledoni, Canchroma, 284 
 
 Woodpecker, Green, :-54 
 
 Xenodermichthys, 507 
 
 Zenaidinae, 244 
 
 Woodpecker, Ground, 354 
 
 Xenopeltidae, 421 
 
 Zerda, Canis, 73 
 
 Woodpecker, Hargitt's, 355 
 
 Xenopeltis unicolor, 421 
 
 Zeus faber, 471 
 
 Woodpecker, Narrow-necked, 
 
 Xenophoridae, 634 
 
 Zeuzeridae, 590 
 
 354 
 
 Xenopicus, 354 
 
 Zibellina, Mustela, 80 
 
 Woodpecker, Pied, 354 
 
 Xenopodidae, 444 
 
 Zibethicus, Fiber, 103 
 
 Woodpecker, Three-toed, 354 
 
 Xenopus, 444 
 
 Ziphius, 177 
 
 Woodpecker, True, :+54 
 
 Xenosaurus, 403 
 
 Zoarces, 478 
 
 Woodpecker, Yellow- winged, 
 
 Xenosuridae, 403 
 
 Zcea, 530 
 
 :54 
 
 Xeromys, 100 
 
 Zrea-larva of spider-crab, 530 
 
 Woodpecker-like birds, 353 
 
 Xerus, 91 
 
 Zonitidse, 643 
 
 Woolly avahi, 29 
 
 Xiphias, 469 
 
 Zonotrichia, 364 
 
 Woolly flying squirrel, 95 
 Woolly monkeys, 24 
 
 Xiphidiopterus, 271 
 Xiphiidae, 469 
 
 Zonuridaa, 403 
 Zonurus, 404 
 
 Woolly monkey, Humboldt's, 
 
 Xiphiiformes, 469 
 
 Zoophytes, 696 
 
 24 
 
 Xiphosura, 538 
 
 Zoothamnium, 722 
 
 Woolly spider-monkey, 25 
 Worms, The, 670 
 
 Xylocopa, 581 
 Xylocopa violacea, 581 
 
 Zorilla, Ictonyx, 80 
 Zosteropidse, 367 
 
 Worm, Arrow, 682 
 
 
 Zygsenidaj, 588 
 
 Worm, Bladder, 687 
 
 
 Zygogeoniys, 109 
 
 THE END. 
 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 T 
 
 HE NATURAL HISTORY OF SELBORNE AND 
 OBSERVATIONS ON NATURE. By GILBERT WHITE. 
 With an Introduction by John Burroughs, 80 Illustrations by 
 Clifton Johnson, and the Text and New Letters of the Buckland 
 Edition. In two volumes. I2mo. Cloth, $4.00. 
 
 " White himself, were he alive to-day, would join all his loving readers in thank- 
 ing the American publishers for a thoroughly excellent presentation of his famous 
 book. . . . This latest edition of White's book must go into all our libraries ; our 
 young people must have it at hand, and our trained lovers of select literature must 
 take it into their homes. By such reading we keep knowledge in proper perspective 
 and are able to grasp the proportions of discovery." MAURICE THOMPSON, in the 
 Independent. 
 
 "White's 'Selborne' belongs in the same category as Walton's 'Complete 
 Angler ' ; . . . here they are, the ' Complete Angler ' well along in its third century, 
 and the other just started in its second century, both of them as highly esteemed as 
 they were when first published, both bound to live forever, if we may trust the pre- 
 dictions of their respective admirers. John Burroughs, in his charming introduction, 
 tells us why White's book has lasted, and why this new and beautiful edition has been 
 printed. . . . This new edition of his work comes to us beautifully illustrated by 
 Clifton Johnson." New York Times. 
 
 "White's ' Selborne ' has been reprinted many times, in many forms, but never 
 before, so far as we can remember, in so creditable a form as it assumes in these two 
 volumes, nor with drawings comparable to those which Mr. Clifton Johnson has made 
 for them." New York Mail and Express. 
 
 " We are loath to put down the two handsome volumes in which the source of 
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 ant to the touch, the weight of each volume is so nicely adapted to the hand, and one 
 turns page after page with exactly that quiet sense of ever new and ever old endeared 
 delight which comes through a window looking on the English countryside the rooks 
 cawing in a neighboring copse, the little village nestling sleepily amid the trees, trees 
 so green that sometimes they seem to hover on the edge of black, and then again so 
 green that they seem vivid with the flaunting bravery of spring." New York 
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 "Not only for the significance they lend to one of the masterpieces of English 
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 lightfully welcome. The edition is in every way creditable to the publishers." 
 Boston Beacon. 
 
 " Rural England has many attractions for the lover of Nature, and no work, per- 
 haps, has done its charms greater justice than Gilbert White's ' Natural History of 
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 "This charming edition leaves really nothing to be desired." Westminster 
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 " This edition is beautifully illustrated and bound, and deserves to be welcomed by 
 all naturalists and Nature lovers." London Daily Chronicle. 
 
 " Handsome and desirable in every respect. . . . Welcome to old and young." 
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 " The charm of White's ' Selborne' is not definable. But there is no other book 
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 Baltimore Sun. 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. 
 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 1DIRD-LIFE. A Guide to the Study of our Common Birds, 
 U By FRANK M. CHAPMAN, Assistant Curator of Mammalogy 
 and Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History; Au- 
 thor of " Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America." With 
 75 full-page Plates and numerous Text Drawings by Ernest 
 Seton Thompson. I2mo. Cloth, $1.75. 
 
 " ' Bird-Life ' is different from other books. It deals with birds that are familiar, 
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 appreciated after reading this book. " Boston Herald. 
 
 " Contains more information about birds, in the same space, attractively as well 
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 ... A delightful, valuable, instructive, entertaining, beautiful book." Brooklyn 
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 . . . While accurate from a scientific point of view, it makes delightful reading for 
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 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. 
 
H 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 AND BOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH 
 AMERICA. With Keys to the Species, Descriptions of their 
 Plumages, Nests, etc. ; their Distribution and Migration. 
 Treating of all the birds, some five hundred in number, which 
 have been found east of the Mississippi River, and from the 
 Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. By FRANK M. CHAPMAN, 
 Assistant Curator of Mammalogy and Ornithology, American 
 Museum of Natural History. With,over 200 Illustrations. T2mo. 
 Library Edition, cloth, $3.00; Pocket Edition, flexible covers, 
 $3.50. 
 
 The author's position has not only given him exceptional opportunities for the 
 preparation of a work which may be considered as authoritative, but has brought him 
 in direct contact with beginners in the study of birds whose wants he thus thoroughly 
 understands. The technicalities so confusing to the amateur are avoided, and by the 
 use of illustrations, concise descriptions, analytical keys, dates of migration, and re- 
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 fication, either in the field or study, is reduced to its simplest terms. 
 
 OPINIONS OF ORNITHOLOGISTS AND THE PRESS. 
 
 " Written in simple and non-technical language, with special reference to the needs 
 of amateurs and bird-lovers, yet with an accuracy of detail that makes it a standard 
 authority on the birds of eastern North America." J. A. ALLEN, Editor of The Auk. 
 
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 had yet." OLIVE THORNE MILLER. 
 
 " The ' Handbook' is destined to fill a place in ornithology similar to that held by 
 Gray's ' Manual' in botany. One seldom finds so many good things in a single vol- 
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 errors, together with its many original ideas, make it the standard work of its class." 
 JOHN H. SAGE, Secretary of the American Ornithologists' Union. 
 
 " Your charm ing and most useful little book. . . . I had good reason to expect an 
 excellent book of the kind from your pen, and certainly have not been disappointed. 
 We receive here very many inquiries concerning a popular book on birds, or rather, I 
 should say, a book so combining popular and scientific features as to render it both 
 entertaining and instructive. To all such inquiries I have been obliged to reply that 
 no such book existed. Now, however, the ' long-felt want ' has been satisfactorily 
 supplied ; and it will give me great pleasure to answer such inquiries in future in a 
 different way. ROBERT RIDGWAY, United States National Museum, Washing- 
 ton, D. C. 
 
 " A book so free from technicalities as to be intelligible to a fourteen-year-old boy, 
 and so convenient and full of original information as to be indispensable to the -work- 
 ing ornithologist. ... As a handbook of the birds of eastern North America it is 
 bound to supersede all other works." Science. 
 
 "The author has succeeded in presenting to the reader clearly and vividly a vast 
 amount of useful information." Philadelphia Press. 
 
 "A valuable book, full of information compactly and conveniently arranged." 
 New York Sun. 
 
 " A charming book, of interest to every naturalist or student of natural history." 
 Cincinnati Times-Star. 
 
 "The book will meet a want felt by nearly every bird observer." Minneapolis 
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 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. 
 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 CAMILIAR FLOWERS OF FIELD AND GARDEN. 
 -*- By F. SCHUYLER MATHEWS. Illustrated with 200 Drawings 
 by the Author, and containing an elaborate Index showing at a 
 glance the botanical and popular names, family, color, locality, 
 environment, and time of bloom of several hundred flowers. 
 I2mo. Library Edition, cloth, $1.75; Pocket Edition, flexible 
 covers, $2.25. 
 
 " In this convenient and useful volume the flowers which one finds in the fields are 
 identified, illustrated, and described in .familiar language. Their connection with gar- 
 den flowers is made clear. Particular attention is drawn to the beautiful ones which 
 have come under cultivation, and, as the title indicates, the book furnishes a ready 
 guide to a knowledge of wild and cultivated flowers alike. 
 
 " I have examined Mr. Mathews's little book upon ' Familiar Flowers of Field and 
 Garden,' and I have pleasure in commending the accuracy and beauty of the drawings 
 and the freshness of the text. We have long needed some botany from the hand of an 
 artist who sees form and color without the formality of the scientist. The book 
 deserves a reputation." L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture^ Cornell Uni- 
 versity, 
 
 " I am much pleased with your ' Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden.' It is a 
 useful and handsomely prepared handbook, and the elaborate index is an especially 
 valuable part of it. Taken in connection with the many careful drawings, it would 
 seem as though your little volume thoroughly covers its subject." Louis PRANG. 
 
 "The author describes in a most interesting and charming manner many familiar 
 wild and cultivated plants, enlivening his remarks by crisp epigrams, and rendering 
 id3ntification of the subjacts described simple by means of seme two hundred draw- 
 ings from Nature, made by his own pen. . . . The book will do much to more fully 
 acquaint the reader with those plants of field and garden treated upon with which he 
 may be but partly familiar, and go a long way toward correcting many popular 
 errors existing in the matter of colors of their flowers a subject to which Mr. Mathews 
 has devoted much attention, and on which he is now a recognized authority in the 
 trade." New York Florists' 1 Exchange. 
 
 " A book of much value and interest, admirably arranged for the student and the 
 lover of flowers. . . . The text is full of compact information, well selected and in- 
 terestingly presented. ... It seems to us to be a most attractive handbook of its 
 kind." New York Sun. 
 
 " A delightful book and very useful. Its language is plain and familiar, and the 
 illustrations are dainty works of art. It is just the book for those who want to be 
 familiar with the well-known flowers, those that grow in the cultivated gardens as 
 well as those that blossom in the fields. " Newark Daily Advertiser. 
 
 " Seasonable and valuable. The young botanist and the lover of flowers, who have 
 only studied from Nature, will be greatly aided by this work." Pittsburg Post. 
 
 " Charmingly written, and to any one who loves the flowers and who does not ? 
 will prove no less fascinating than instructive. It will open up in the garden and the 
 fields a new world full of curiosity and delight, and invest them with a new interest in 
 his sight. " Christian Work. 
 
 " One need not be deeply read in floral lore to be interested in what Mr. Mathews 
 has written, and the more proficient one is therein the greater his satisfaction is likely 
 to be." New York Mail and Express. 
 
 "Mr. F. Schuyler Mathews's careful description and graceful drawings of our 
 ' Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden ' are fitted to make them familiar even to those 
 who have not before made their acquaintance." New York Evening Post. 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. 
 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY ; S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 AM I LIAR TREES AND THEIR LEAVES. By F. 
 SCHUYLER MATHEWS, author of " Familiar Flowers of Field 
 and Garden," " The Beautiful Flower Garden," etc. Illustrated 
 with over 200 Drawings from Nature by the Author. I2mo. 
 Cloth, $1.75. 
 
 " It is not often that we find a book which deserves such unreserved commenda- 
 tion. It is commendable for several reasons : it is a book that has been needed for a 
 long time, it is written in a popular and attractive style, it is accurately and profusely 
 illustrated, and it is by an authority on the subject of which it treats." Public Opinion. 
 
 " Most readers of the book will find a world of information they never dreamed of 
 about leaves that have long been familiar with them. The study will open to them 
 new sources of pleasure in every tree around their houses, and prove interesting as 
 well as instructive." San Francisco Call. 
 
 " A revelation of the sweets and joys of natural things that we are too apt to pass 
 by with but little or no thought. The book is somewhat more than an ordinary 
 botanical treatise on leaves and trees. It is a heart-to-heart talk with Nature, a true 
 appreciation of the beauty and the real usefulness of leaves and trees." Boston 
 Courier. 
 
 " Has about it a simplicity and a directness of purpose that appeal at once to every 
 lover of Nature." New York Mail and Express. 
 
 " Mr. Mathews's book is just what is needed to open our eyes. His text is charm- 
 ing, and displays a loving and intimate acquaintance with tree life, while the drawings 
 of foliage are beautifully executed. We commend the volume as a welcome com- 
 panion in country walks." Philadelphia Public Ledger. 
 
 "The book is one to read, and then to keep at hand for continual reference." 
 Chicago Dial. 
 
 " The unscientific lover of Nature will find this book a source of enjoyment as well 
 as of instruction, and it will be a valuable introduction to the more scientific study of 
 the subject." Cleveland Plain Dealer. 
 
 " This book will be found most satisfactory. It is a book which is needed, written 
 by one who knows trees as he knows people." Minneapolis Journal. 
 
 " A book of large value to the student. The reader gathers a wide and valuable 
 knowledge which will awaken new interest in every tramp through the forest." 
 Chicago Inter-Ocean. 
 
 " A most admirable volume in many ways. It meets a distinct and widely felt 
 want. The work is excellently done ; its appearance is very timely. . . . Written in a 
 clear and simple style, and requires no previous technical knowledge of botany to 
 understand it." Baltimore News. 
 
 " This very valuable book will be prized by all who love Nature." The Churchman. 
 
 "Of the many Nature books that are constantly inviting the reader to leave 
 pavement and wander in country bypaths, this one, with its scientific foundation, 
 and its simplicity and clearness of style, is among the most alluring." .57. Paul 
 Pioneer-Press. ^_ 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. 
 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 APPLETONS' HOME-READING BOOKS. 
 
 EDITED BY W. T. HARRIS, A. M., LL.D., 
 U. S. Commissioner of Education. 
 
 A comprehensive series of books presenting upon a symmetrical plan the best 
 available literature in the various fields of human learning, selected with a view to the 
 needs of students of all grades in supplementing their school studies and for home 
 reading. It is believed that this project will fully solve the long-standing problem 
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 them intellectually as well as morally. 
 
 NOW READY. 
 
 HE STORY OF THE BIRDS. By JAMES NEWTON 
 BASKETT. 65 cents net. 
 
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 book. " The Nation . 
 
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 HE PLANT WORLD : Its Romances and Realities. 
 Compiled and edited by FRANK VINCENT, M. A., author of 
 " Actual Africa," etc. 60 cents net. 
 
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 -* DICKENS. Condensed for home and school reading by ELLA 
 BOYCE KIRK. 60 cents net. 
 
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 -* By CLARA KERN BAYLISS. 60 cents net. 
 
 In this volume the author introduces her readers to some of the interesting inhab- 
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 CURIOUS HOMES AND THEIR TENANTS. By JAMES CARTER 
 
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 CRUSOE'S ISLAND. By F. A. OBER. 
 UNCLE SAM'S SECRETS. By O. P. AUSTIN. 
 NA TURAL HISTOR Y READERS. 5 vols. By J. F. TROEGER. 
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 E STORY OF THE EARTH. By H. G. SEELEY, 
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 With Illustrations. 
 
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 E STOR Y OF A PIECE OF COAL. By E. A. MAR- 
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 HE STORY OF ELECTRICITY. By JOHN MUN- 
 
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 E STORY OF EXTINCT CIVILIZATIONS OF 
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D. APPLETON AND COMPAiNY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 S^AMP-FIRES OF A NATURALIST^ From the Field 
 ^-" Notes of LEWIS LINDSAY DYCHE, A. M., M. S., Professor of 
 Zoology and Curator of Birds and Mammals in the Kansas State 
 University. The Story of Fourteen Expeditions after North 
 American Mammals. By CLARENCE E. EDWORDS. With nu- 
 merous Illustrations. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. 
 
 "It is pot always that a professor of zoology is so enthusiastic a sportsman as 
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 mountain sheep and goats more difficult to stalk and shoot than any creatures of the 
 torrid zone. Evidently he came by his tastes as a hunter from lifelong experience." 
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 and the illustrations are numerous and highly graphic as to the big game met by the 
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 that are being rapidly formed for the students of the United States. Prof. Dyche 
 seems, from this account of him, to have thought no personal hardship or exertion 
 wasted in his attempt to collect facts, that the naturalist of the future may be provided 
 with complete and verified ideas as to species which will soon be extinct. This is 
 good work work that we need and that posterity will recognize with gratitude. The 
 illustrations of the book are interesting, and the type is clear. " New York Times. 
 
 44 The adventures are simply told, but some of them are thrilling of necessity, 
 however modestly ths narrator does his work. Prof. Dyche has had about as many 
 experiences in the way of hunting for science as fall to the lot of the most fortunate, 
 and this recountal of them is most interesting. The camps from which he worked 
 ranged from the Lake of the Woods to Arizona, and northwest to British Golumbia, 
 and in every region he was successful in securing rare specimens for his museum." 
 Chicago Times. 
 
 "The literary construction is refreshing. The reader is carried into the midst of 
 the very scenes of which the author tells, not by elaborateness of description but by 
 the directness and vividness of every sentence. He is given no opportunity to aban- 
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 follow incident with no intervening literary padding. In fact, the book is all action." 
 Kansas City Journal. 
 
 44 As an outdoor book of camping and hunting this book possesses a timely interest, 
 but it also has the merit of scientific exactness in the descriptions of the habits, 
 peculiarities, and haunts of wild animals." Philadelphia Press. 
 
 41 But what is most important of all in a narrative of this kind for it seems to us 
 that 4 Camp-Fires of a Naturalist' was written first of all for entertainment these 
 notes neither have been ' dressed up ' and their accuracy thereby impaired, nor yet re- 
 tailed in a dry and statistical manner. The book, in a word, is a plain narrative of 
 adventures among the larger American animals. " Philadelphia Bulletin. 
 
 44 We recommend it most heartily to old and young alike, and suggest it as a 
 beautiful souvenir volume for those who have seen the wonderful display of mounted 
 animals at the World's Fair." Topeka Capital. 
 
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D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 /^LIMBING IN THE HIMALAYAS. By WILLIAM 
 MARTIN CONWAY, M. A., F. R. G. S., Vice-President of the 
 Alpine Club ; formerly Professor of Art in University College, 
 Liverpool. With 300 Illustrations by A. D. McCoRMiCK, and 
 a Map. 8vo. Cloth, $10.00. 
 
 This work contains a minute record of one of the most important and thrill- 
 ing geographical enterprises of the century an expedition made in 1892, under 
 the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, the Royal Society, the British 
 Association, and the Government of India. It included an exploration of the 
 glaciers at the head of the Bagrot Valley and the great peaks in the neighbor- 
 hood of Rakipushi (25,500 feet); an expedition to Hispar, at the foot of the 
 longest glacier in the world outside the polar regions ; the first definitely re- 
 corded passage of the Hispar Pass, the longest known pass in the world ; 
 and the ascent of Pioneer Peak (about 23,000 feet), the highest ascent yet 
 authentically made. No better man could have been chosen for this important 
 expedition than Mr. Con way, who has spent over twenty years in mountain- 
 eering work in the Alps. Already the author of nine published books, he has 
 recorded his discoveries in this volume in the clear, incisive, and thrilling 
 language of an expert. 
 
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 of mountaineering it is almost, if not quite, unique. Among records of Himalayan 
 exploration it certainly stands alone. . . . The farther Himalayas . . . have never 
 been so faithfully in other words, so poetically presented as in the masterly delicate 
 sketches with which Mr. McCormick has adorned this book." London Daily News. 
 
 " This stately volume is a worthy record of a splendid journey. . . . The book is 
 not merely the narrative of the best organized and most successful mountaineering 
 expedition as yet made ; it is a most valuable and minute account, based on first-hand 
 evidence, of a most fascinating region of the heaven-soaring Himalayas." Pall Mall 
 Gazette. 
 
 " Mr. Conway's volume is a splendid record of a daring and adventurous scientific 
 expedition. . . . What Mr. Whymper did for the northern Andes, Mr. Conway has 
 done for the Karakorum Himalayas." London Times. 
 
 " It would be difficult to say which of the many classes of readers who will wel- 
 come the work will find most enjoyment in its fascinating pages. Mr. Conway's pen 
 and Mr. McCormick's pencil have made their countrymen partners in their pleasure." 
 London Standard. 
 
 " . . . In addition to this, Mr. Conway is a man of letters, a student (and a 
 teacher, too) of art, a scholar in several languages ; one, too, who knows the Latin 
 names of plants, and the use of theodolite and plane table. From him, therefore, if 
 from any one, the world had a right to expect a book that should combine accurate 
 observation and intelligible reporting with an original and acute record of impressions ; 
 nor will the world have any reason to be disappointed." London Athen&um. 
 
 ' ' With its three hundred illustrations we have seldom seen a volume which speaks 
 to the eye and understanding so pleasantly and expressively on every page. . . . We 
 have an exhaustive panorama of the Himalayan scenery, of the manner in which the 
 rough marching was conducted, of ascents achieved under the most dangerous condi- 
 tions, and of the troubles and humors of the shifting camps where the coolies rested 
 from their labors." London Saturday Review. 
 
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D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 /JCTUAL AFRICA ; or, The Coming Continent. A Tour 
 -*^ of Exploration. By FRANK VINCENT, author of " The Land 
 of the White Elephant," etc. With Map and 102 Illustrations. 
 8vo. Cloth, $5.00. 
 
 This thorough and comprehensive work furnishes a survey of the entire continent, 
 which this experienced traveler has circumnavigated in addition to his inland explora- 
 tions. The latter have included journeys in northern Africa, Madagascar, southern 
 Africa, and an expedition into the Congo country which has covered fresh ground. 
 His book has the distinction of presenting a comprehensive summary, instead of offer- 
 ing an account of one special district. It is more ' elaborately illustrated than any 
 book upon the subject, and contains a large map carefully corrected to date. 
 
 " Mr. Frank Vincent's books of travel merit to be ranked among the very best, not 
 only for their thoroughness, but for the animation of their narrative, and the skill 
 with which he fastens upon his reader's mind the impression made upon him by his 
 voy agings." Boston Saturday Evening Gazette. 
 
 " A new volume from Mr. Frank Vincent is always welcome, for the reading pub- 
 lic have learned to regard him as one of the most intelligent and observing of travel- 
 ers." New York Tribune. 
 
 AROUND AND ABOUT SOUTH AMERICA : Twenty 
 ** Months of Quest and Query. By FRANK VINCENT. With 
 Maps, Plans, and 54 full-page Illustrations. 8vo, xxiv + 473 
 pages. Ornamental cloth, $5.00. 
 
 " South America, with its civilization, its resources, and its charms, is being con- 
 stantly introduced to us, and constantly surprises us. ... The Parisian who thinks 
 us all barbarians is probably not denser in his prejudices than most of us are about our 
 Southern continent. We are content not to know, there seeming to be no reason why 
 we should. Fashion has not yet directed her steps there, and there has been nothing 
 to stir us out of our lethargy. . . . Mr. Vincent observes very carefully, is always 
 good-humored, and gives us the best of what he sees. ... The reader of his book 
 will gain a clear idea of a marvelous country. Maps and illustrations add greatly to 
 the value of this work." New York Commercial Advertiser . 
 
 "The author's style is unusually simple and straightforward, the printing is re- 
 markably accurate, and the forty odd illustrations are refreshingly original for the 
 most part." The Nation. 
 
 " Mr. Vincent has succeeded in giving a most interesting and valuable narrative. 
 His account is made doubly valuable by the exceptionally good illustrations, most of 
 them photographic reproductions. The printing of both text and plates is beyond 
 criticism." Philadelphia Public Ledger. 
 
 TN AND OUT OF CENTRAL AMERICA ; and Other 
 * Sketches and Studies of Travel. By FRANK VINCENT. With 
 Maps and Illustrations. I2mo. Cloth, $2.00. 
 
 "Few living travelers have had a literary success equal to Mr. Vincent's." 
 Harper's Weekly. 
 
 " Mr. Vincent has now seen all the most interesting parts of the world, having 
 traveled, during a total period of eleven years, two hundred and sixty-five thousand 
 miles. His personal knowledge of man and Nature is probably as varied and com- 
 plete as that of any person living." New York Home Journal. 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. 
 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 BEGINNERS OF A NA TION. A History of 
 the Source and Rise of the Earliest English Settlements in 
 America, with Special Reference to the Life and Character of 
 the People. The first volume in A History of Life in the United 
 States. By EDWARD EGGLESTON. Small 8vo. Cloth, gilt 
 top, uncut, with Maps, $1.50. 
 
 " Few works on the period which it covers can compare with this in point of mere 
 literary attractiveness, and we fancy that many to whom its scholarly value vill 
 not appeal will read the volume with interest and delight." New York Evening 
 Post. 
 
 " Written with a firm grasp of the theme, inspired by ample knowledge, and made 
 attractive by a vigorous and resonant style, the book will receive much attention. It 
 is a great theme the author has taken up, and he grasps it with the confidence of a 
 master." New York Times. 
 
 " Mr. Eggleston's ' Beginners ' is unique. No similar historical study has, to our 
 knowledge, ever been done iq the same way. Mr. Eggleston is a reliable reporter of 
 facts ; but he is also an exceedingly keen critic. He writes history without the effort 
 to merge the critic in the historian. His sense of humor is never dormant. He ren- 
 ders some of the dullest passages in colonial annals actually amusing by his witty 
 treatment of them. He finds a laugh for his readers where most of his predecessors 
 have found yawns. And with all this he does not sacrifice the dignity of history for 
 an instant." Boston Saturday Evening Gazette. 
 
 " The delightful style, the clear flow of the narrative, the philosophical tone, and 
 the able analysis of men and events will commend Mr. Eggleston's work to earnest 
 students." Philadelphia Public Ledger. 
 
 " The work is worthy of careful reading, not only because of the author's ability as 
 a literary artist, but because of his conspicuous proficiency in interpreting the causes 
 of and changes in American life and character." Boston Journal. 
 
 " It is noticeable that Mr. Eggleston has followed no beaten track, but has drawn 
 his own conclusions as to the early period, and they differ from the generally received 
 version not a little. The book is stimulating, and will prove of great value to the stu- 
 dent of history." Minneapolis Journal. 
 
 "A very interesting as well as a valuable book. ... A distinct advance upon 
 most that has been written, particularly of the settlement of New England." New- 
 ark Advertiser. 
 
 " One of the most important books of the year. It is a work of art as well as of 
 historical science, and its distinctive purpose is to give an insight into the real life and 
 character of people. . . . The author's style is charming, and the history is fully as 
 interesting as a novel." Brooklyn Standard-Union. 
 
 " The value of Mr. Eggleston's work is in that it is really a history of 'life,' not 
 merely a record of events. . . . The comprehensive purpose of his volume has been 
 excellently performed. The book is eminently readable." Philadelphia Times. 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. 
 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES. 
 
 NOW READY. 
 
 BEGINNINGS OF ART. By ERNST GROSSE, 
 Professor of Philosophy in the University of Freiburg. A new 
 volume in the Anthropological Series, edited by Professor 
 FREDERICK STARR. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, $1.75. 
 
 This is an inquiry into the laws which control the life and development of art, and 
 into the relations existing between it and certain forms of civilization. The origin of 
 an artistic activity should be sought amon^ the most primitive peoples, like the native 
 Australians, the Mincopies of the Andaman Islands, the Botpcudos of South America, 
 and the Eskimos ; and with these alone the author studies his subject. Their arts are 
 regarded as a social phenomenon and a social function, and are classified as arts of 
 rest and arts of motion. The arts of rest comprise decoration, first of the body by 
 scarification, painting, tattooing, and dress ; and then of implements, painting, and 
 sculpture ; while the arts of motion are the dance (a living sculpture), poetry or song, 
 with rhythm, and music. 
 
 J/f7O 'MAN'S SHARE IN PRIMITIVE CULTURE. 
 rr By OTIS TUFTON MASON, A. M., Curator of the Department 
 of Ethnology in the United States National Museum. With 
 numerous Illustrations. 121110. Cloth, $1.75. 
 
 " A most interesting resume' of the revelations which science has made concerning 
 the habits of human beings in primitive times, and especially as to the place, the 
 duties, and the customs of women." Philadelphia Inquirer. 
 
 PYGMIES. By A. DE QUATREFAGES, late Professor 
 of Anthropology at the Museum of Natural History, Paris. 
 With numerous Illustrations. I2mo. Cloth, $1.75. 
 "Probably no one was better equipped to illustrate the general subject than 
 Quatrefages. While constantly occupied upon the anatomical and osseous phases of 
 his subject, he was none the less well acquainted with what literature and history had 
 to say concerning the pygmies. . . . This book ought to be in every divinity school 
 in which man as well as God is studied, and from which missionaries go out to con- 
 vert the human being of reality and not the man of rhetoric and text-books." Boston 
 Literary World. 
 
 BEGINNINGS OF WRITING. By W. J. 
 HOFFMAN, M. D. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo. Cloth, 
 
 $1.75- 
 
 This interesting book gives a most attractive account of the rude methods employed 
 by primitive man for recording his deeds. The earliest writing consists of pictographs 
 which were traced on stone, wood, bone, skins, and various paperiike substances. Dr. 
 Hoffman shows how the several classes of symbols used in these records are to be in- 
 terpreted, and traces the growth of conventional signs up to syllabaries and alphabets 
 the two classes of signs employed by modern peoples. 
 
 IN PREPARATION. 
 
 THE SOUTH SEA ISLANDERS. By Dr. SCHMELTZ. 
 THE ZUNI. By FRANK HAMILTON GUSHING. 
 THE AZTECS. By Mrs. ZELIA NUTTALL. 
 
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