THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
THE 
 
 ADVANCED 
 
 MACHINIST. 
 
THE 
 
 ADVANCED 
 MACHINIST 
 
 PRACTICAL AND EDUCATIONAL 
 TREATISE, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 WILLIAM ROGERS 
 
 THEO. AUDEL.& COMPANY 
 
 63 FIFTH AVENUE NEW YORK CITY. / 
 
COPYRIGHTED, 1902, 1903, 
 
 BY 
 THEO. AUDEL & Co., NEW YORK. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 The difference between an engineer and 
 a machinist is one of degree only hence a 
 book written for the benefit of engineers is 
 of service to machinists ; and, again, a book 
 devoted to the interests of machinists is of 
 the utmost value to engineers. 
 
 Why? Because the machinery which 
 the engineer operates is made in the shop. 
 
GENERAL CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 1-18 
 
 SUMMARY OF ARITHMETIC 19-56 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS 57-81 
 
 PARTS OF A CIRCLE 82-83 
 
 MEASURING MACHINES 84-100 
 
 SCREW CUTTING IN THE LATHE 101-137 
 
 BORING MACHINES AND OPERATIONS 138-150 
 
 PLANING MACHINES AND OPERATIONS. . . 151-174 
 
 MILLING MACHINES AND OPERATIONS.... 175-198 
 
 DRILLING MACHINES AND OPERATIONS.. 199-212 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS 213-226 
 
 PUNCHING AND SHEARING MACHINES 
 
 AND OPERATIONS 227-233 
 
 BOLT CUTTING MACHINE AND OPERATION 234-242 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINES 243-262 
 
 UTILITIES AND ACCESSORIES 263-274 
 
 SHOP MANAGEMENT 275-286 
 
 USEFUL WORKSHOP RECIPES 287-296 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED IN ACCIDENTS 297-316 
 
 TABLES AND INDEX. , ? 317-334 
 
 For special index, alphabetically arranged, see page 325. 
 
 xi 
 
zii 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In a certain high-class journal of a recent date, devoted 
 to the interests of the class for whom this book of instruc- 
 tion is designed, there appeared under the heading " Help 
 Wanted," thirty-two paid advertisements in a single issue. 
 
 Not a single one of these called for any except those 
 possessing qualifications expressed as follows : 
 
 "Sober," "first-class," "good," "competent," "accurate/' 
 "experienced," "undoubted ability," "ambitious," " able to handle 
 men," " skilled," "with shop experience," "executive ability," "all- 
 around," "able to design," " able to supervise construction," "satis- 
 factory men." 
 
 The closest scrutiny fails to discover a wish for the 
 opposite of those thus described, nor in the eleven paid 
 advertisements under the heading of " Situations Wanted," 
 in the same paper, does there appear even one saying " I 
 am a second-class man hire me," as that would be money 
 thrown away. Hence, the only call is for the kind of men 
 classified as in the foregoing quoted words. 
 
 xiii 
 
xiv Preface. 
 
 Now, examining the list again, we find what these men 
 are specially desired to perform the range of service 
 needed is wide, but interesting enough to study. All are 
 described under the letters " Help Wanted ": 
 
 " A. good die-maker on round work." "Accurate machinist for 
 marine-engine work." *' Draftsman experienced on steam pumps." 
 " First-class designer on cotton machinery." "First class machinists 
 for heavy floor and machine work." "First-class toolmakers, experi- 
 enced on jigs, punch and die work." "Experienced mechanical drafts- 
 man for detail work on engines." "Four first class machinists, those 
 
 familiar with oil-well tool work." " A machine-tool inspector, of 
 
 undoubted ability." "Mechanical draftsman having experience on 
 large vertical Corliss-engine work." " A large Chicago factory desires 
 to employ a man experienced at fixing differential piece-work rates." 
 "A number of mechanical draftsmen on iron-and-steel-work machin- 
 ery." "Mechanic wanted, one accustomed to rolling mill work." 
 "Foreman to take charge of machine shop employing about fifteen 
 men." "We invite application from patternmakers, molders and 
 machinists." " Wanted, superintendent for small shop in Brooklyn, 
 N. Y." " Man experienced in light machinery, able to design, draft 
 and supervise construction of special tools, jigs, etc., with shop experi- 
 ence, executive ability and some knowledge of cost and piece work 
 accounts." "A New York factory contemplating additions to their 
 drafting force desires applications from experienced draftsmen and 
 tracers for electrical switchboard and instrument work." "A thor- 
 oughly competent mechanical engineer, to take charge of drafting- 
 room of a concern manufacturing a full line of mining machinery, 
 except steam engines and boilers." " Foreman for a brass department 
 containing 50 hands, in a lar^e electrical factory ; must be familiar with 
 parts of electrical apparatus and with modern methods of production, 
 and know the entire details of the workings of such a department." 
 " Three first-class floor men, as gang foremen, to take charge of machine 
 shop operating several hundred men. Steady employment for compe- 
 tent men." 
 
 Men possessing the qualifications described above may 
 well be classed as "advanced" machinists, designers, 
 draughtsmen and engineers ; it is the glory of the age that 
 there are many such to be found ; these descriptions are 
 
Preface. xv 
 
 quoted to plainly tell what kind of talent is desired, and 
 
 This is the call for men in but a single issue of one 
 periodical ; there are many other journals containing 
 similar " wants "; again, scores of mighty war ships are 
 "lying in port" because competent machinists and engi- 
 neers cannot be found to man them ; and, still again, every 
 great engine and every intricate machine makes place for a 
 good man to operate it ; in fact, the openings for clever, 
 ingenious, trusty men, are world-wide. 
 
 It will be noted that the demand is for men pos- 
 sessing certain qualities most difficult to define and hard 
 indeed to acquire ; there must, perforce, be second-class 
 men, to fill the ranks, for all cannot be " Captains of Indus- 
 try "; but this book is not for them, unless it be to inspire 
 thought and ambition to do better. 
 
 A few quotations may be helpful, indicating the path 
 of advancement : 
 
 " Just do a thing and don't talk about it. This is the great secret 
 in all enterprises." " Modest confidence in his own abilities is one of 
 the most pleasing traits a man can possess, and it is often his best 
 business capital. I know many a young man with the right kind of 
 stuff in him, who has watched the operations of other people and has 
 said, 'I can do it if they can? Then, with all the judgment he pos- 
 sessed, he made the effort successfully." "It is easy to do what one 
 is absolute master of. Indeed, this absolute mastery commands the 
 fighting-deck of any trade, profession or labor, and to be best in any- 
 thing honorable is to be secure of continual success." " The man who 
 undertakes to learn his business from books will never make a practical 
 mechanic, but, on the other hand, the mechanic who refuses to read 
 whatever he finds of interest on the subject can hardly expect to be 
 successful." " There are two ways of doing work. One may go about 
 
xvi Preface. 
 
 it with a clouded brow, a lagging step, and a general expression of dis- 
 gust and weariness ; or it is possible to be alert, energetic, bright of 
 countenance and elastic of step, as if the labor were really enjoyable. 
 The work is done in either case, of course, but there is something in 
 the latter manner that inspires confidence in the worker and assures 
 him of a reward that would not crown his efforts were they put forth 
 in the other way." " The best rule for success in life that I have ever 
 found is to do a little more than is expected of you. Whatever your 
 position in life may be, whether in an office, store, or workshop, do a 
 little more than is expected of you, and you will never be overlooked, 
 be the establishment large or small." " The word ' tact ' is equivalent 
 to the word * touch ' ; tact is that nice perception which comprehends 
 everything of the order, formation, location and disposition of aught 
 which bears upon the successful issue of the enterprise at issue. The 
 man of tact who has that presence of mind which can bring him on 
 the instant all he knows, is worth for action a dozen men who know as 
 much, but can only bring it to light slowly." " The young fellow who 
 will distance his competitors is he who masters his business ; who pre- 
 serves his integrity, who lives cleanly and purely, who never gets into 
 debt, who gains friends by deserving them, and puts his money into 
 the savings bank. There are some roads to fortune that look shorter 
 than this old dusty highway. But the staunch men of the community, 
 the men who achieve something really worth having, good fortune, 
 good name and a serene old age, all go this road." " Our present gen- 
 eration of coming men, youths of from fifteen to eighteen, can have 
 not the least ground for fearing the temper and promise of the times 
 into which their lives are going. Never before in the world's history 
 has there been such a call from the near future to a rising army of 
 eager workers. Science has probed the secrets of things, and the prac- 
 tical application of knowledge to all the lines of labor has lifted even 
 menial services to a place of dignity, provided always that the operator 
 is master of what he takes into hand." 
 
 In short, the preparation and issue of this work is 
 aimed to point the way of advancement to those who must 
 become fitted to assume the obligations, as well as to 
 receive the rewards of those who, in the order of things, 
 must give place to the coming-man. 
 
Preface. xvii 
 
 But ! this is not all 
 
 The trade of the machinist is peculiar in that it is a 
 preparation for so many positions outside of it. It takes 
 a man of good natural ability and of considerable educa- 
 tion not always from books to make a first-class machin- 
 ist, and more of the same to make a competent foreman 
 or a superintendent ; so that when he is well qualified for 
 these positions he is also well prepared for so many other 
 openings with which the machine shop apparently has 
 little to do ; and many of these keep calling him, and 
 many respond to the call, hence in consequence it is said 
 that skill is dying out, that skilled workers are becoming 
 scarce, that soon, as things are going, we will be left behind, 
 in the world's markets, by the lack of both competent 
 operatives and of the higher skill and reliability that are to 
 exercise supervision and direction. 
 
 It is with a full knowledge of this fact, that in " The 
 Plan of the Work" some subject matter has been intro- 
 duced which the author is confident will be of the utmost 
 value in the shop and afterwards as well, when the student 
 " makes a change ; " for in the fluctuation of business there 
 come times when everybody is busy and then times that 
 are slack and not so booming, when foremen and superin- 
 tendents have that toughest of all jobs, the telling of good 
 men that there is nothing for them to do; this being inci- 
 dent, also, to the kind of country we live in. 
 
 There is a bit of a necessary warning, too, in a little 
 fable the author has seen, from ^Esops Fables (Revised) 
 
 " A man had a Glass in which he looked at himself 
 every day. And he did not perceive that he grew older. 
 But at length he perceived that the Glass had grown old. 
 
xviii Preface. 
 
 So he threw it away and got another that was new. Then 
 he saw that he had grown old with his Glass." 
 
 Every man looks in a glass at times and afterwards 
 does some rather serious thinking ; it is to aid the friendly 
 reader and student in such moments to right thoughts that 
 some things, too, have been put in the book in odd spaces, 
 with the hope that the good will with which it has been 
 done will not be taken amiss. 
 
 The path of advancement, how uncertain is it and at 
 times so difficult to discern amid the shadows. The mere 
 mention of this allows the quotation of a wise leader of 
 men, that may well be the author's closing words for the 
 volume. 
 
 " Look up and press forward and the way will become 
 clear step by step, day by day ; the space between is the 
 way thither.*' 
 
SUMMARY OF ARITHMETIC. 
 
 The following abridgment of several of the rules of 
 arithmetic, often referred to in elementary books on 
 mechanical science, are here inserted for the convenience 
 of reference. These rules and examples are given merely 
 to refresh the memory, it being taken for granted that the 
 reader has already acquainted himself with the principles 
 of common arithmetic. They will, however, be found serv- 
 iceable, both as a convenience of reference and to give some 
 insight to the subjects on which they treat. 
 
 Arithmetic is the science of numbers, and numbers 
 treat of magnitude or quantity. Whatever is capable of 
 increase or diminution is a magnitude or quantity. 
 
 The processes of arithmetic are merely expedients for 
 making easier the discovery of results which every man of 
 ordinary ingenuity would find a means for discovering him- 
 self. Roger Bacon lived eight centuries ago ; in the great roll 
 of modern scientists, his name stands first ; these are his 
 
 NOTE. Calculation is the art, practice or manner of computing 
 by numbers : the use of numbers by addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
 tion or division, for the purpose of arriving at a certain result. 
 
 Upon this art of calculation rest not only the mechanical arts, 
 but the whole structure of modern civilization. Consider the solar 
 system, a time-piece, a well-equipped modern factory the characteris- 
 tic of each is its ' ' calculability. " Everything comes at last to correct 
 figuring for assured success. 
 
 19 
 
2O The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SUMMARY OF ARITHMETIC. 
 
 words: " For he who knows not mathematics cannot know 
 any other sciences ; and, what is more, he cannot discover 
 his own ignorance or find its proper remedies." 
 
 In every branch of science, our knowledge increases as 
 the power of measurement becomes improved ; it is very 
 generally true that the one ignorant of useful numbers is 
 the one who serves, while the leader in all departments is 
 the one who calculates. 
 
 A glossary is a collection of words not in general use, 
 especially of an art or science ; the ordinary use of a glos- 
 sary is to explain in some detail many of the more difficult 
 words used in the text, hence the following 
 
 SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 = Equal to. The sign of equality; as 100 cts. = $1, 
 signifies that one hundred cents are equal to one dollar. 
 
 Minus or Less. The sign of subtraction ; as 8 2 
 ^ 6 ; that is, 8 less 2, is equal to 6. 
 
 -{-Plus or More. The sign of addition ; as 6 -f 8 = 14 ; 
 that is, 6 added to 8 is equal to 14. 
 
 X Multiplied by. The sign of multiplication ; as 7 X 7 
 49 ; that is, 7 multiplied by 7 is equal to 49. 
 
 -f- Divided by. The sign of division; as 16-7- 4 -=4; 
 that is, 1 6 divided by 4 is equal to 4. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 2 1 
 
 SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 .*. Signifies then or therefore. 
 V Since or because. 
 
 d 2 = diameter squared, or is a number multiplied by 
 itself, thus 2X2 = 4. 
 
 d 3 = diameter cubed, or is a number multiplied by 
 itself twice, thus 2X2X2=8. 
 
 d 4 = diameter to the fourth power, or is a number 
 multiplied by itself thrice, thus 2X2X2X2 = 16. 
 
 A single accent (') signifies feet ; a double accent (") 
 inches ; thus 3' 6" =- 3 feet 6 inches. 
 
 Dia. = diameter. Degrees. 
 
 Revs, per min. = revolutions per minute. 
 
 Lbs. per sq. in. =- pounds per square inch. 
 
 Brackets ( ) or [ ] are employed to denote that several 
 numbers are to be taken collectively. Thus 4 (a -f- b) sig- 
 nifies that the number represented by a -|-b is to be mul- 
 tiplied by 4 ; again (a + b) X (c d) denotes that the 
 number represented by a+b is to be multiplied by the 
 number which is the result of subtracting d from c. 
 
 The Greek Letter n denotes the ratio of the circum- 
 ference of a circle to its diameter. In the English alphabet, 
 this letter stands in place of /, and is called pi; it is very 
 frequently met with in mechanical literature. 
 
 The Decimal Point. In both France and Germany, 
 one-fourth (%) reduced to a decimal is always written as 
 0,25 ; in England it is written 0-25, and in the United 
 States in this way, 0.25. 
 
22 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 A formula is an arithmetical rule in which all words 
 are omitted, all the quantities represented by letters and 
 figures, and all the operations indicated by signs, and by 
 the position of the different characters ; the word "formula" 
 is another name for " form." 
 
 The following 10 formulas include the elementary 
 operations of arithmetic and follow from the succeeding 
 illustrations. 
 
 1. The Sum all the parts added. 
 
 2. The Difference = the Minuend the Subtrahend. 
 
 3. The Minuend = the Subtrahend -f the Difference. 
 
 4. The Subtrahend '= the Minuend tlte Difference. 
 
 5. The Product= the Multiplicand X the Multiplier. 
 
 6. The Multiplicand^- the Product -*- the Multiplier. 
 
 7. The Multiplier =the Product -f- the Multiplicand. 
 
 8. The Quotient = the Dividend -~ the Divisor. 
 g. The Dividend =the Quotient X the Divisor. 
 
 IO. The Divisor = the Dividend -r- the Quotient. 
 
 A number is exactly divisible by 2, when the number 
 ends in an even number or in o ; j, when the sum of the 
 digits is exactly divisible by 3 ; /, when the number formed 
 by the last two digits is exactly divisible by 4 ; 5, when 
 the number ends in 5 or o. 
 
 Ratio is the relation of one number to another, as 
 obtained by dividing one by the other ; hence, ratio means 
 the same as the word quotient. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 23 
 
 SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Log. This is the abbreviation of the term logarithm ; 
 these are auxiliary numbers, by means of which the simple 
 operations of addition and subtraction may be substituted 
 for the more cumbrous operations of multiplication and 
 division, and easy cases of multiplication and division for 
 involution and evolution. 
 
 The use of logarithms reduces multiplication to addi- 
 tion, division to subtraction ; raising powers or extracting 
 roots to multiplication and division, respectively. 
 
 Logarithms of numbers are arranged in tables, running 
 to four and six figures, beginning with one and going to so 
 high as to fill entire books with the columns. 
 
 Algebra is that science which deals with formulas ; it 
 is a mathematical science which teaches the art of making 
 calculations by letters and signs instead of figures. The 
 name comes from two Arabic words, al gabron, reduction 
 of parts to a whole. The letters and signs are called Sym- 
 bols. Quantities in Algebra are expressed by letters, or by 
 a combination of letters and figures; as a, b, c, 2x, 3^, 5^r, 
 etc. The first letters of the alphabet are used to express 
 known quantities ; the last letters, those which are unknown. 
 
 The operations to be performed are expressed by the 
 same signs as in Arithmetic ; thus + means Addition, 
 expresses Subtraction, and X stands for Multiplication. 
 
 NOTE. A machinist has little or no use for algebra in his every- 
 day work ; but if he wants to find out more about the how and why of 
 things and study into general principles, it is the most important sub- 
 ject that he can take up, next to arithmetic and mechanical drawing. 
 
24 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 A NUMBER is a unit or collection of units; as two, 
 five, six feet, etc. 
 
 An INTEGER is a number that represents whole things. 
 
 An ABSTRACT NUMBER is one which does not refer 
 to any particular object. 
 
 A CONCRETE NUMBER is a number used to designate 
 objects or quantities. 
 
 An ODD NUMBER is a number which cannot be 
 divided by two. 
 
 An EVEN NUMBER can be exactly divided by two. 
 
 FACTORS of a number are those numbers which, when 
 multiplied together, make that number. 
 
 A PRIME NUMBER is a number exactly divisible by one. 
 
 A COMPOSITE NUMBER is a number which can be 
 divided by other integers besides itself and one. 
 
 An EXACT DIVISOR of a number is a whole number 
 that will divide that number without a remainder. 
 
 The GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR of two or more 
 numbers is the greatest number that will divide each of 
 them exactly. 
 
 A MULTIPLE of a number is any number exactly divis- 
 ible by that number. 
 
 The LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE of two or more num- 
 bers is the least number that is exactly divisible by each of 
 them. 
 
 A PRIME FACTOR is any prime number used as a factor. 
 
 NOTE. Quantity is the amount of anything considered, or of any 
 commodity bought, or sold. Price is the value in money of one, or of 
 a given unit of any commodity. Cost is the value in money of the 
 entire quantity bought, or sold. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 25 
 
 NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 
 
 NOTATION is a system of representing numbers by 
 symbols. There are two methods of notation in use, the 
 Roman and the Arabic. NUMERATION is a system of nam- 
 ing or reading numbers. 
 
 THE ARABIC METHOD OF NOTATION employs ten 
 characters or figures, viz : 
 
 </&<?<s6yff0 
 
 One, Two, Three, four. Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine, Zero. 
 
 The nine figures are called digits or significant figures. 
 The character o has no value when standing alone. 
 
 The nine digits have each a simple and a local value. 
 The simple value of a figure is the one expressed by it 
 when standing alone or in the units place. The local value 
 of a figure is that which depends upon the place which the 
 figure occupies in a number. 
 
 There must be three figures in every period, except 
 the one at the left, which may have one, two or three. 
 Every order of a number not occupied by a significant 
 figure must be filled with a cipher, or o. 
 
 NOTE. By means of these ten figures or characters we can repre- 
 sent any number. When one of the figures stands by itself, it is called 
 a unit ; but if two of them stand together, the right-hand figure is still 
 called a unit, but the left-hand figure is called tens ; thus, 79 is a col- 
 lection of 9 units and 7 sets of ten units each, or of 9 units and 70 
 units, or of 79 units, and is read as seventy-nine. If three of them 
 stand together, then the left-hand figure is called hundreds ; thus, 279 
 is read two hundred and seventy -nine. 
 
26 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 
 
 RULE FOR NOTATION. Beginning at the left, write 
 the hundreds, tens and units of each successive period in their 
 proper order, filling all vacant orders and periods with 
 
 ciphers. 
 
 NUMERATION TABLE. 
 
 Names of _ Billions. Millions. Thousands. Units. 
 
 I I L 
 
 i! |1. I 5 1 
 
 Order of Units : 2 S S.& . 3 -g a a -o 
 
 c a a 111 1I 1 1 J i I 
 
 rtf ,0 3 9 8 .8 "0 +? "^ CO ,2 -S ^ 3 
 
 W W H WHH WHP Q H W H 
 
 876, 543, 201, 282 . 489 
 
 The number in the table is read " eight hundred and 
 seventy-six billion, five hundred and forty-three million, 
 two hundred and one thousand, two hundred and eighty- 
 two, decimal point, four, eight, nine." 
 
 In the table given, it will be observed that the long 
 row of figures is divided into groups of three figures, 
 called periods. This is to aid in their ready reading. The 
 first set is called units, the second thousands, the third 
 millions, etc. 
 
 Beginning at units place, the orders on the right of the 
 decimal point express tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc. 
 
 THE READING OF DECIMALS. In reading decimals, 
 it is well to omit, even in thought, the idea of a denomi- 
 nator, and to say, thus example, .25 ; to read, say "point, 
 2, 5"; in reading .48437, say " point, 4, 8, 4, 3, 7." 
 
 EXAMPLE. Write sixty-four thousandths in decimals. 
 
 Since there are only two figures in the numerator 64, 
 and the right-hand figure of the decimal must occupy the 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 27 
 
 NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 
 
 third decimal place to express thousandths, it is necessary 
 to prefix a cipher to bring the right-hand figure into its 
 proper place. Therefore write point, oh, six, four (.064), 
 in the order named. 
 
 It is well also to say " oh " (this is the letter O). 
 
 THE ROMAN NOTATION is the method of notation 
 by letters, and is illustrated as follows : 
 
 I, V, X, L, C, D, M, 
 
 i, 5, 10, 50 100, 500, 1,000. 
 
 Repeating a letter repeats its value; rhus: 1=1, 
 
 11 = 2. 
 
 Placing a letter of less value before one of greater 
 value diminishes the value of the greater by the less; thus, 
 IV = 4, IX = 9, XL=40. 
 
 Placing the less after the greater increases the value of 
 the greater by that of the less; thus, VI = 6, XI=u, 
 LX = 6o. 
 
 Placing a horizontal line over a letter increases its 
 value a thousand times; thus, IV = 4,ooo M= 1,000,000. 
 
 ROMAN TABLE. 
 
 I denotes One. 
 
 II 
 
 Two. 
 
 III 
 
 Three. 
 
 IV 
 
 1 Four. 
 
 V 
 
 Five. 
 
 VI 
 
 Six. 
 
 VII 
 
 ' Seven. 
 
 VIII 
 IX 
 
 ' Eight. 
 Nine. 
 
 X 
 
 ' Ten. 
 
 XI 
 
 Eleven. 
 
 XII 
 
 ' Twelve. 
 
 XIII 
 
 Thirteen. 
 
 XIV 
 
 " Fourteen. 
 
 XV 
 
 Fifteen. 
 
 XVI " Sixteen. 
 
 XVII denotes Seventeen. 
 
 XVIII " Eighteen. 
 
 XIX " Nineteen. 
 
 XX " Twenty. 
 
 XXX " Thirty. 
 
 XL " Forty. 
 
 L " Fifty. 
 
 LX " Sixty. 
 
 LXX " Seventy. 
 
 LXXX " Eighty. 
 
 XC " Ninety. 
 
 C " One hundred. 
 
 D ' ' Five hundred. 
 
 M " One thousand. 
 
 X " Ten thousand. 
 
 M " One million. 
 
28 The Advanced Machinist, 
 
 ADDITION. 
 
 Addition is uniting two or more numbers into one. 
 The result of the addition is called the Sum or Amount. 
 In addition, the only thing to be careful about except the 
 correct doing of the sum, is to place the unit figures 
 under the unit figure above it, the tens under the tens, etc. 
 
 RULE. 
 
 After writing the figures down so that units are under 
 units, tens under tens, etc.: 
 
 1. Begin at the right hand, up and down row, add the 
 column and write the sum underneath if less than ten. 
 
 2. If, however, the sum is ten or more, write the right- 
 hand figure underneath, and add the number expressed by 
 the other figure or figures with the numbers of the next 
 column. 
 
 3. Write the whole of the last column. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 7,060 248,124 13,579,802 
 
 9,420 4,321 83 
 
 i,743 889,876 478,652 
 
 4,004 457,902 87,547,289 
 
 22,227 Ans. 
 
 Use care in placing the numbers in vertical lines; irreg- 
 ularity in writing them down is the cause of mistakes. 
 
 RULE FOR PROVING THE CORRECTNESS OF THE 
 SUMS. Add the columns from the top downward, and if 
 the sum is the same as when added up, the answer is right. 
 
 Add and prove the following numbers: 
 
 684 32 257 20. Ans. 993. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 29 
 
 SUBTRACTION. 
 
 Subtraction is taking a lesser sum from a greater one. 
 
 As in addition, care must be used in placing the units 
 under the units, the tens under the tens, etc. 
 
 The answer is called the remainder or the difference. 
 
 The sign of subtraction is ( ) Example : 98 22=76. 
 
 Subtraction is the opposite of addition: one "takes 
 from," while the other "adds to." 
 
 RULE. 
 
 1. Write down the greater number first, and then under 
 it the lesser number, so that the units stand under the units, 
 the tens under the tens, etc., etc. 
 
 2. Begin with the units, and take the under from the 
 upper figure, and put the remainder beneath the line. 
 
 3. But if the lower figure is the larger ; add ten to the 
 upper figure, and then subtract and put the remainder 
 down: this borrowed ten must be deducted from the next 
 column of figures where it is represented by I. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 892 89,672 89,642,706 
 
 46 46,379 48,765,421 
 
 846 remainder. 
 
 NOTE. In the first example, 892 46, the 6 is larger than 2 ; 
 borrow 10, which makes it 12, and then deduct the 6 ; the answer is 6. 
 The borrowed 10 reduces the 9 to 8, so the next deduction is 4 from 
 8=4 is the answer. 
 
30 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SUBTRACTION. 
 
 RULE FOR PROVING THE CORRECTNESS OF SUB- 
 TRACTION. Add the remainder, or difference, to the smaller 
 amount of the two sums, and if the two are equal to the 
 larger, then the subtraction has been correctly done. 
 EXAMPLE. 898 246 
 
 246 Now then, 652 
 
 652 898 Ans. 
 
 MULTIPLICATION. 
 
 MULTIPLICATION is finding the amount of one number 
 increased as many times as there are units in another. 
 
 The number to be multiplied or increased is called the 
 MULTIPLICAND. 
 
 The MULTIPLIER is the number by which we multiply. 
 It shows how many times the multiplicand is to be 
 increased. 
 
 The answer is called the PRODUCT. 
 
 The multiplier and multiplicand which produce the 
 product are called its FACTORS. This is a word frequently 
 used in mathematical works, and its meaning should be 
 remembered. 
 
 The sign of multiplication is X and is read " times," 
 or multiplied by; thus, 6x8 is read, 6 times 8 is 48, or, 6 
 multiplied by 8 is 48. 
 
 The principle of multiplication is the same as addition ; 
 thus, 3X8=24 is the same as 8+8+8=24. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 31 
 
 MULTIPLICATION. 
 
 RULE FOR MUTIPLYING. 
 
 I. Place the unit figure of the multiplier under the unit 
 
 figure of the multiplicand, and proceed as in the following : 
 
 EXAMPLES. Multiply 846 by 8, and 487,692 by 143. 
 
 Arrange them thus : 
 
 487,692 
 
 143 
 846 
 
 8 1463076 
 
 1950768 
 
 6,768 487692 
 
 2. But if the multiplier has ciphers at its end, then 
 place it as in the following : 
 
 Multiply 83,567 by 50, and 898 by 2,800. 
 
 898 
 83567 . 2800 
 
 718400 
 
 I79 6 
 
 2,514,400 
 
 The product and the multiplicand must be in like 
 numbers. Thus, 10 times 8 gallons of oil must be 80 gal- 
 lons of oil\ 4 times 5 dollars must be 20 dollar s\ hence, 
 the multiplier must be the number and not the thing to be 
 multiplied. 
 
 In finding the cost of 6 tons of coal at 7 dollars per 
 ton, the 7 dollars are taken 6 times, and not multiplied by 
 6 tons. 
 
32 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MULTIPLICATION. 
 
 When the multiplier is 10, 100, 1000, etc., the product 
 may be obtained at once by annexing to the multiplicand 
 as many ciphers as there are in the multiplier. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 1. Multiply 486 by 100. Now 486 with oo added 
 48,600. 
 
 2. 6,842 X 10,000 = how many ? Ans. 68,420,000. 
 To PROVE THE RESULT IN MULTIPLICATION. 
 RULE. Multiply the multiplier by the multiplicand, 
 
 and if the product is the same in both cases, then the answer 
 is right. 
 
 DIVISION. 
 
 Division is a word derived from the Latin, divido 
 meaning to separate into parts. In arithmetic, it may be 
 defined as the dividing of a number or quantity into any 
 number of parts assigned. 
 
 When one number has to be divided by another num- 
 ber, the first one is called the DIVIDEND, and the second 
 one the DIVISOR, and the result is the QUOTIENT. 
 
 i. To DIVIDE BY ANY NUMBER UP TO 12. 
 
 RULE. Put the dividend doivn with the divisor to the 
 left of it % with a small curved line separating it, as in the 
 following 
 
 EXAMPLE. Divide 7,865,432 by -6. 
 6)7,865,432 
 
The 'Advanced Machinist. 33 
 
 DIVISION. 
 
 Here at the last we have to say, "6 into 32 goes 5 
 times and 2 over " ; always place the number that is over 
 as above, separated from the quotient by a small line, or 
 else put it as a fraction, thus, f , the top figure being the 
 remainder, and the bottom figure the divisor, when it 
 should be put close to the quotient ; thus, 1,310,905!. 
 
 2. To DIVIDE BY ANY NUMBER UP TO 12, WITH A 
 
 CIPHER OR CIPHERS AFTER IT, as 2O, /O, 90, 5OO, 7,OOO, etc. 
 
 RULE. Place the sum down as in the last example, 
 then mark off from the right of the dividend as many fig- 
 ures as there are ciphers in the divisor; also mark off the 
 ciphers in the divisor; then divide the remaining figures by 
 the number remaining in the divisor; thus: 
 
 EXAMPLE. Divide 9,876,804 by 40. 
 40)9,876,804 
 
 246,9204. 
 
 The 4 cut off from the dividend is put down as a 
 remainder, or it might have been put down as -fa or -fa. 
 
 3. To DIVIDE BY ANY NUMBER NOT INCLUDED IN 
 
 THE LAST TWO CASES. 
 
 RULE. Write the divisor at the left of the dividend 
 and proceed as in the following 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Divide 726,981 by 7,645. 
 
 7,645)726981(95 
 68805 
 
 38931 
 38225 
 
 706 
 
34 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 DIVISION. 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 I. Divide 76,298,764,833 by 9. 
 
 2. " 120,047,629,817 " 20. 
 
 3. " 9,876,548,210 " 48. 
 
 4. " 3,247,617,219 " 63. 
 
 Multiplying the dividend, or dividing the divisor by any 
 number ', multiplies the quotient by the same number. 
 
 Dividing the dividend, or multiplying the divisor by 
 any number, divides the quotient by the same number. 
 
 Dividing or multiplying both the dividend and divisor 
 by the same number does not change the quotient. 
 
 RULE FOR PROVING DIVISION. 
 
 Division may be proved by multiplying the quotient by 
 the integral part of the Divisor, and adding to the product 
 the remainder, if there is any. The result will be equal to 
 the dividend if the work is correct. 
 EXAMPLE. 12)48679 
 
 40567 
 
 12 
 
 48679 Proof. 
 
 QUOTATION. " As long ago as the days of ancient Greece, Aristotle 
 said : ' I find the young men who study mathematics quick and intel- 
 ligent at other studies.' But, apart from the value of mathematical 
 stud es as a mental training, the modern engineer, whatever branch of 
 the science he may pursue, will find mathematics one of the necessary 
 tools of his profession." 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 35 
 
 REDUCTION. 
 
 A DENOMINATE NUMBER is a number applied to an 
 object ; thus, 40 inches and 3 feet 5 inches are denominate 
 numbers ; the first is a simple and the latter a compound 
 denominate number. 
 
 REDUCTION is changing these numbers from one 
 denomination to another without altering their values. It 
 is of two kinds, DESCENDING and ASCENDING. 
 
 Reduction Descending is changing higher denomina- 
 tions to lower, as tons to pounds. Reduction Ascending is 
 changing lower to higher denominations, as cents to dollars. 
 
 Reduction of Denominate Numbers is the process of 
 changing the denomination of a number without changing 
 the value. Thus, 3 yards may be expressed as 9 feet, or 
 108 inches. 
 
 TO CHANGE DENOMINATE NUMBERS TO LOWER 
 DENOMINATIONS is done by multiplication and by the 
 following 
 
 Ru LE. I . Multiply the number of the h ighest denomina- 
 tion given by the number of units of the next lower denomina- 
 tion required to make one of that higher, and to the product 
 add the given number of the lower denomination, if any. 
 
 2. Proceed in like manner with this result and each 
 successive denomination obtained, until the given number is 
 reduced to units of the required denomination. 
 
 NOTE. A simple number is one which expresses one or more 
 units of the same denomination. A compound number expresses units 
 of two or more denominations of the same kind, as 5 yards, i foot, 4 
 inches or example, page 36, 6 T., 8 cwt, 3 qrs. these are compound 
 numbers j but ten oxen, Qifive dollars, are simple numbers, 
 
36 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 REDUCTION. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Reduce six tons, eight hundred weight, three quarters, 
 to Ibs. 
 
 6 T. 8 cwt. 3 qrs. 
 20 
 
 1 20 
 8 add above. 
 
 128 
 4 
 
 512 
 
 3 add above. 
 
 515 qrs. 
 
 25 
 
 2575 
 1030 
 
 12875 Ibs. Answer. 
 
 TO REDUCE LOWER DEMOMINATIONS TO HIGHER IS 
 DONE BY DIVISION. 
 
 RULE. i. Divide the given number by the number of 
 units of the given denomination required to make a unit of 
 the next higher denomination. 
 
 2. In the same manner, divide this and each successive 
 quotient until the required denomination is reached. The 
 last quotient, with the remainders annexed, will be the 
 required result. 
 
 Ex. Bring 98,704,623 Ibs. to tons and Ibs. 
 2000)98704623 
 
 49352 Tons, 623 Ibs. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 37 
 
 REDUCTION. 
 
 EX. 76,245 gills to gallons, etc. 
 4)76245 
 
 2)19061 1 gill 
 4)95301 pint. 
 
 2382 2 quarts. 
 Ans., 2382 gallons, 2 quarts, I pint and I gill. 
 
 PROOF. Reduction Ascending and Descending prove 
 each other ; for one is the reverse of the other. 
 
 FRACTIONS. 
 
 A fraction means a part of anything. A vulgar frac- 
 tion is always represented by two numbers (at least), one 
 over the other and separated by a small horizontal line. 
 The one above the line is always called the NUMERATOR, 
 and the one below the line the DENOMINATOR. 
 
 The denominator tells us how many parts the whole 
 thing has been divided into, and the numerator tells us 
 how many of those parts we have. Thus, in the fraction f 
 the eight is the denominator, and shows that the object 
 has been divided into eight equal parts ; and three is the 
 numerator, and shows that we have three of those pieces 
 or parts of the object. 
 
 A PROPER FRACTION is one whose numerator is less 
 than the denominator, as f or f. 
 
 AN IMPROPER FRACTION is one whose numerator is 
 more than its denominator, f or f. 
 
 NOTE. f means more than a whole one, because f must be a whole 
 one. Thus f will be three- thirds-f- three-thirds-j-two-thirds, or 2|, and 
 this form of fraction is called a mixed number* 
 
38 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS. 
 
 To REDUCE AN IMPROPER FRACTION TO A MIXED 
 NUMBER. 
 
 RULE. Divide the numerator by the denominator ; the 
 quotient is the whole number part, and the remainder is the 
 numerator of the fractional part. 
 
 EXAMPLES: ^- =2 f- V^S- V^Sf- 
 
 TO REDUCE A MIXED NUMBER TO AN IMPROPER 
 FRACTION. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the whole number part by the denomi- 
 nator, and add on the numerator; the result is the nume- 
 rator of tJie improper fraction. 
 
 EXAMPLES: 2-f V- 5i=V- 3t~V- 
 
 TO REDUCE A FRACTION TO ITS LOWEST TERMS. 
 
 RULE. Divide both numerator and denominator by 
 the same number ; if by so doing there is no remainder. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Reduce T 8 3 . Here 4 will divide both top 
 and bottom without a remainder. Divide by 4. 
 
 4)A-t- 
 
 The meaning of this is, that if you divide a thing into 
 T2 equal parts, and take 8 of them, you will have the same 
 as if the thing had been divided into 3 equal parts and you 
 had two of them. 
 
 TO REVERSE THE LAST RULE ; TO BRING A FRACTION 
 OF ANY DENOMINATOR TO A FRACTION HAVING A GREATER 
 DENOMINATOR. 
 
 RULE. See Jww often the less will go into the greater 
 denominator and multiply both numerator and denominator 
 by it. The result is the required fraction. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 39 
 
 REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Bring \ to a fraction whose denominator is 8. 
 
 Here 2 goes in 8 four times ; then multiply the nume- 
 rator and denominator of ^ by 4=-J, which is the required 
 fraction. 
 
 Bring f to a fraction whose denominator is 15. 
 
 Here 3 goes into 15 five times ; then f becomes -J-g-. 
 
 In case of a fraction of a fraction, as ^ of J-, it is called. 
 a compound fraction, and should always be reduced to a 
 simple fraction by multiplying all the numerators together 
 for a ne^v numerator, and all the denominators together for 
 a new denominator ; then, if necessary, reduce this fraction 
 to its lowest terms. 
 
 EXAMPLE. | of f of . Reduce to a single fraction : 
 3X2X4= 2 4; and 4X3X9=108. 
 
 Thus, T %- is the fraction. Reduce this 
 
 TO REDUCE TWO OR MORE FRACTIONS TO EQUIVA- 
 LENT FRACTIONS HAVING THEIR LEAST COMMON DENOMI. 
 NATOR. 
 
 RULE. Find the least common multiple of the given 
 denominators for the least common denominator, and reduce 
 the given fractions to this denominator. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Reduce f , f , and -fa to equivalent fractions having 
 their least common, denominator; then f ==-=$, f~it 
 
 *-> A-H- 
 
40 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CANCELLATION. 
 
 This is a method of shortening problems by rejecting 
 equal factors from the divisor and dividend. 
 
 The sign of cancellation is an oblique mark drawn 
 across the face of a figure, as X, #, # 
 
 Cancellation means to leave out ; if there are the same 
 numbers in the numerator and the denominator they are to 
 be left out. 
 
 Ex. J of | of . Here the 3 in the first numerator 
 and the 3 in the second denominator are left out ; also 4 of 
 the first denominator and the last numerator, thus: 
 
 Ex. | of f of f| of fVV^by cancellation thus: 
 
 3 j* 
 2 
 
 j*^ f 00 _ 7 
 
 7 
 
 X$ Xfifi 3X2X34 
 34 
 
 See note. 
 
 204 
 
 NOTE. The process is as follows : The first numerator, 2, will 
 go into 8, the denominator of the second fraction, 4 times ; the denomi- 
 nator of the third fraction, 18, will go into 90, the numerator of the last 
 quantity, 5 times. The numerator of the second fraction, 3, will go 
 into the denominator of the first fraction 3 times ; 5 will go into 170, 
 34 times ; 2 will go into 4 twice, and 2 into 14, 7 times, and as we can- 
 not find any more figures that can be divided without leaving a 
 remainder, we are at the end, and the quantities left must be collected 
 into one expression. On examination, we have 7 left on the top row ; 
 this is put down at the end as the final numerator ; on the bottom we 
 have 3, 2 and 34 ; these multiplied together give us 204, which is the 
 final denominator. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 41 
 
 USEFUL DEFINITIONS. 
 
 RULES FOR CANCELLING. 
 
 1. Any numerator may be divided into any denominator , 
 provided no remainder is left, and vice versa, thus: 
 
 $ 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2. Any numerator and denominator may be divided 
 by the same number, provided no remainder is left, and the 
 decreased value of such numerator and denominator be 
 inserted in the place of those cancelled. 
 
 5 Here 8 is divided by 4, and 20 can also be 
 
 5 of divided by the same number without leav- 
 g ing any remainder. Answer, j-J. 
 
 Ex. 
 
 7 
 
 17 3X2X17 102 
 
 DBFS. A COMMON DENOMINATOR of two or more fractions is a 
 denominator to which they can all be reduced, and is the common mul- 
 tiple of their denominators. 
 
 THE LEAST COMMON DENOMINATOR of two or more fractions is 
 the least denominator to which they can be reduced, and is the least 
 common multiple of their denominators. 
 
 A MULTIPLE of a number is a number that is exactly divisible by 
 it ; or it is any product of which the given number is a factor. 
 
 Thus, 12 is a multiple of 6 ; 15 of 5, etc. 
 
 A COMMON MUI/TIPI,E of two or more numbers is a number that 
 is exactly divisible by each of them. 
 
 Thus, 12, 24, 36 and 48 are multiples of 4 and 6. 
 
 THE LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE of two or more numbers is the 
 least number that is exactly divisible by each of them. 
 
 Thus, 12 is the least common multiple of 4 and 6. 
 
42 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 ADDITION OF FRACTIONS. 
 
 Addition of fractions is the process of finding the sum 
 of two or more fractions. In order that fractions may be 
 added, they must have like denominators and be parts of 
 like units. 
 
 RULE. Bring all the fractions to the same common 
 denominator, add their numerators together for the neiv 
 numerator, and reduce the resulting fraciion to its simplest. 
 
 form. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 What is the sum of j-4-JJ+f f . Ans. 
 What is the sum of f-f + J-|-f= s =jyu=2f. Ans. 
 
 SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS. 
 
 Bring the fractions to others having a common denomi- 
 nator, as in addition, and subtract their numerators. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 From -J subtract -=4=-s-. 
 
 o o o < 
 
 From J take f ^=f-f 
 
 7 3 7 6 1 
 
 TS" F TB IT- 
 
 What is the difference between % of f and of i? 
 
 i of f-| ; and J of i J=J of |=f . 
 Therefore, it is f f=o. 
 
 MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS. 
 
 First bring each fraction to its simplest form; then 
 multiply the numerators together for the new numerate^ 
 and the denominators together for the new denominator. 
 Reduce the fraction to its simplest form. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 43 
 
 MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Multiply fX i A ; that is, f X f i= T 8 A= Ji=f> or by 
 canceling 
 
 1 3 
 
 X x 21 3 
 
 f ii 4 
 
 1 4 
 
 The 4 cancels into the 16 four times, and the 7 into the 21 
 three times. Thus 1X3=3, and 1X4=4. Answer f. 
 
 2. 2^ of 3fX6jof^ T . 
 
 3571 
 
 S< ?*<& ; 
 
 2113 
 5 
 
 i| X I = f = 17J Answer. 
 
 1 
 
 DIVISION OF FRACTIONS. 
 
 Reverse the divisor and proceed as in multiplication. 
 The object of inverting the divisor is convenience in 
 multiplying. 
 
 After inverting the divisor, cancel the common factors. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 f-s-i-J-, that is, f^|, reverse the - and it becomes f ; 
 then the question is t^HH ^ ns - 
 
 4f of if-^St of 3i> that is, - 3 T - of #+*- of J/-; cancel- 
 ing reduces the dividend to f and the divisor to *- and we 
 have 4-^, that is, f Xi^rV^i Ans - 
 
4.4 7%0 Advanced Machinist. 
 
 DECIMALS. 
 
 A decimal fraction derives its name from the Latin 
 decent, "ten," which denotes the nature of its numbers. 
 It has for its denominator a UNIT, or whole thing, as a 
 pound, a yard, etc., and is supposed to be divided into ten 
 equal parts, called tenths; those tenths into ten equal 
 parts, called hundredths, and so on. 
 
 The denominator of a decimal being always known to 
 consist of a unit, with as many ciphers annexed as the 
 numerator has places, is never expressed, being understood 
 to be 10, 100, 1000, etc., according as the numerator con- 
 sists of I, 2, 3 or more figures. Thus: T 2 ^, -gfa, J^, etc., 
 the numerators only are written with a dot or comma be- 
 fore them, thus: .2, .24, .125. 
 
 The use of the dot (.) is to separate the decimal from 
 the whole numbers. 
 
 The first figure on the right of the decimal point is in 
 the place of tenths, the second in the place of hundredths, 
 the third in the place of thousandths, etc., always decreas- 
 ing from the left towards the right in a tenfold ratio, as in 
 
 the following 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 
 eS 
 
 | 
 
 *+* 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 a 
 .2 
 
 O 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 rj 
 
 ^ 0? 
 
 -3 
 
 d a 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 Thousai 
 
 S 
 1 
 
 nd 
 
 d 
 
 | 
 
 .2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 w 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 fi 
 
 s 
 
 HI H 
 
 sS 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 W 
 
 i 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 w 
 
 S 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 CJ 
 
 S 
 
 55555555.5555555 
 
 Ascending. Descending. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 45 
 
 A cipher placed on the left hand of a decimal decreases 
 its value in a tenfold ratio by removing it farther from the 
 decimal point. But annexing a cipher to any decimal does 
 not alter its value at all. Thus 0.4 is ten times the value 
 of 0.04, and a hundred times 0.004. But 0.7=0. 70=0. 700 
 =0.7000, etc., as above remarked. 
 
 O.2 is equal to two-tenths. 
 
 0.25 " " " twenty-five hundredths. 
 
 0.1876 " " " one thousand eight hundred and 
 seventy-six ten thousandths, and 
 so on. 
 
 Mixed numbers consist of a whole number and a deci- 
 mal, as 4.25 and 3.875. 
 
 TO REDUCE A FRACTION TO A DECIMAL. 
 
 RULE. Annex decimal ciphers to the numerator, and 
 divide by the denominator, pointing off as many decimal 
 places in the quotient as there are ciphers annexed. 
 
 Ex. Reduce J to a decimal. 
 
 EX. 4) 3.00 
 75 
 
 TO REDUCE A DECIMAL TO A FRACTION. 
 
 RULES. I, Omit the decimal point ; 2, Supply the 
 proper denominator ; 3, Reduce the fraction to its lowest 
 terms. 
 
 Ex. Reduce .075 to an equivalent fraction. 
 
 Q75--rflhr A- __ 
 
 NOTE. " It is not merely the ability to calculate that constitutes 
 the utility of mathematical knowledge to the engineer; it is also the 
 increased capacity for understanding the natural phenomena on which 
 the engineering practice is based." 
 
46 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 ADDITION OF DECIMALS. 
 
 RULE. Place the quantities down in such a manner 
 that the decimal point of one line shall be exactly under that 
 of every other line ; then add up as in simple addition. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Thus: Add together 36.74, 2.98046, 176.4, 31.0071 
 and .08647, 
 
 36.74 
 
 2.98046 
 176.4 
 31.0071 
 .08647 
 
 247.21403 
 
 SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS. 
 
 RULE. Place the lines with decimal point under deci- 
 mal point, as in addition. If one line has more decimal 
 figures than another, put naughts under the one that is 
 deficient till they are equal, then subtract as in simple sub- 
 traction. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 From 146.2004 take 98.9876. 
 146.2004 
 98.9876 
 
 47.2128 Answer. 
 From 4.17 take 1.984625. 
 
 4.170000 
 1.984625 
 
 2.185375 Ans. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 47 
 
 MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS. 
 
 RULE. Place the factors under each other, and mul- 
 tiply them together as in whole numbers ; then point off as 
 many figures from the right hand of the product as there 
 are decimal places in both factors, observing, if there be not 
 enough, to annex as many ciphers to the left hand of the 
 product as will supply the deficiency. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Multiply 3.625 by 2.75. 
 
 3.625x2.75=9.96875 Ans. 
 
 DIVISION OF DECIMALS. 
 
 RULE. Prepare the decimal as directed for multiplica- 
 tion ; divide as in whole numbers; cut off as many figures 
 for decimals in the quotient as the number of decimals in the 
 dividend exceeds the number in the divisor ; and if the 
 places in the quotient be not so many as the rule requires, 
 supply the deficiency by annexing ciphers to the left hand of 
 the quotient. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Divide 173.5425 by 3.75. 
 
 1500 
 
4 8 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 RATIO, PROPORTION, RULE OF THREE. 
 
 THE RULE OF THREE, so called because there are 
 always three numbers to find a fourth. 
 
 The solving of this problem, i. e., having three num. 
 bers, to find the fourth, is the most important part of 
 proportion. On account of its great utility arid extensive 
 application, it has been called the golden rule. 
 
 RATIO is the relation of two numbers as expressed by 
 the quotient of the first divided by the second. Thus, 
 the ratio of 6 to 3 is 6-^3, or 2. 
 
 THE RATIO BETWEEN TWO NUMBERS is expressed by 
 placing a colon between them ; thus, the ratio of 8 to 4 is 
 expressed 8 : 4. 
 
 A SIMPE RATIO IS A RATIO BETWEEN TWO NUM- 
 BERS, as 4 : 5. 
 
 A COMPOUND RATIO is a ratio formed by the combina- 
 tion of two or more simple ratios. 
 
 Thus, ^ ; 5 is a compound ratio, and is equivalent to 
 4X3:5 X 2, or 12: 10. 
 
 The numbers whose ratio is expressed are the terms of 
 the ratio. The two terms of a ratio form a couplet, the 
 first of which is the antecedent and the second the conse- 
 quent. 
 
 PROPORTION is AN EQUALITY OF RATIOS. The first 
 and fourth terms of a proportion are called the extremes, 
 and the second and third the means. 
 
 The product of the means is equal to the product of the 
 extremes. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 49 
 
 RATIO AND PROPORTION. 
 
 A missing mean may be found by dividing the product 
 of the extremes by the given mean. 
 
 A missing extreme may be found by dividing the product 
 of the means by the given extreme. 
 
 SIMPLE PROPORTION is an equality of two simple 
 
 ratios, as, 
 
 9 Ib. : 1 8 Ib. : : 27 cents : 54 cents. 
 
 Ex. If 24 wrenches cost $27, what will 32 wrenches 
 cost? 
 
 ANS. 36 dollars. See note. 
 
 RULE. For convenience, take for the third term the 
 number that may form a ratio with, or is of the same 
 denomination as, the answer. If , from the nature of tJu 
 example, the answer is to be greater than the third term, 
 make the greater of the two remaining terms (which must 
 be of the same denomination] the second term ; when not, 
 make the smaller the second term. Then multiply the 
 means (the second and third) together, and divide their 
 product by the given extreme (the first term). 
 
 Exs. The missing term, x, in the examples below, can 
 be found by applying the principles given on page 48). 
 16 : x : : 24 : 18. Ans. 12. 
 x \ 27 : : 18 : 54. Ans. 9. 
 32 : 27 : : x : 135. Ans. 160. 
 16 : 12 : : 24 : x. Ans. 18. 
 
 NOTE. For convenience in working this example make the fourth 
 term the missing term, or the required answer. Since the third and 
 fourth terms must be of the same denomination and the denomination 
 of the answer will be dollars, take $27 as the third term. From the 
 nature of the example the answer will be more than $27, the third 
 term; therefore, make 32 wrenches the second term and 24 wrenches 
 the first term. The proportion will then be stated as follows : 24 
 wrenches : 32 wrenches : : $27 : x (Let x represent the unknown term). 
 Multiplying 32 by 27. and dividing the product by 24, the fourth or 
 missing term will be 136. 
 
5O The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 EVOLUTION OR SQUARE ROOT. 
 
 The SQUARE ROOT of a number is one of the two 
 equal factors of a number. Thus, the square root of 25 
 is 5- 5X5=25. 
 
 To FIND THE SQUARE ROOT OF A NUMBER. 
 
 RULE. Beginning at units place, separate the given 
 number into periods of two figures each. 
 
 Find the greatest square in the left-hand period, and 
 write its root at the right in the form of a quotient in divi- 
 sion. Subtract this square from the left-hand period, and 
 to the remainder annex the next period to form a dividend. 
 
 Double the part of the root already found for a trial 
 divisor. Find how many times this divisor is contained in 
 the dividend, exclusive of the right-hand figure, and write 
 the quotient as the next figure of the root. Annex this quo^ 
 tient to the right of the trial divisor to form the complete 
 divisor. Multiply the complete divisor by the last figure of 
 the root, and subtract the product from the dividend. 
 
 To the remainder annex the next period, and proceed as 
 before. 
 
 When the given number is a decimal, separate the num- 
 ber into periods of two figures each, by proceeding in both 
 directions from the decimal point. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Find the square root of 186624. Proof 432 
 18,66,24(432 432 
 
 16 
 
 266 
 249 
 
 862 I 1724 
 
 I 1724 166624 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 51 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Find the square root of 735. 
 
 7/35(27.n etc. Proof 2711 
 
 _4 2711 
 
 47 I 335 
 
 I 329 2711 
 
 541 600 2711 
 
 li_ 18977 
 
 5421 5900 5422 
 
 734.9521 
 
 We proceed as before till we get the remainder 6, and 
 we see it is not a perfect square ; we wish the root to be 
 taken to two or three places of decimals; there are no more 
 figures to bring down, therefore bring down two ciphers 
 and proceed as in the first example; to the remainder 
 attach two more ciphers and proceed as before, and by 
 attaching two ciphers to the remainder you may carry it to 
 any number of decimal places you please. In the above 
 example the answer is 27.11, etc. 
 
 The following important note is to be studied in con- 
 nection with example at the bottom of the opposite page. 
 
 NOTE. Begin at the last figure 4, count two figures, and mark the 
 second as shown in the example ; count two more, and mark the figure, 
 and so on till there are no more figures ; take the figures to the left of 
 the last dot, 18, and find what number multiplied by itself will give 18. 
 There is no number that will do so, for 4X4=16, is too small, and 
 5X5 = 25, is too large ; we take the one that is too small, viz., 4, and 
 place it in the quotient, and place its square, 16, under the 18, subtract 
 and bring down the next two figures, 66. To get the divisor, multiply 
 the quotient 4 by 2=8. place the 8 in the divisor, and say 8 into 26 goes 
 3 times, place the 3 after the 4 in the quotient and also after the 8 in 
 the divisor ; multiply the 83 by the 3 in the quotient, and place the 
 product under the 266 and subtract, then bring down the next two fig- 
 ures, 24. To get the next divisor, multiply the quotient 43 by 2=86 ; 
 see how often 8 goes into 17, twice ; place the 2 after the 43 of the quo- 
 tient, and also after the 86 of the divisor ; multiply the 862 by the 2> 
 and put it under the 1724, then subtract. Answer, 432. 
 
52 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 EVOLUTION. 
 
 In expressing the square root it is customary to use 
 simply the mark (\/), the 2 being understood. 
 
 All roots as well as powers of one are I, as <\/i=i. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Find the square root of 588.0625. 
 
 5,88.06,25(24.25 
 4 
 
 44 ' 
 
 4845 
 
 In a decimal quantity like the above, the marking off 
 differs from the former examples. Instead of counting 
 twos from right to left, we begin at the decimal point and 
 count twos toward the left and toward the right. The rest 
 of the work is similar to the other examples. 
 
 Notice, that when the .06 is brought down, the figure 
 for a quotient is a decimal. 
 
 To familiarize oneself with the extracting of the square 
 root, it is well first to square a number and then work 
 backward according to the examples here given, and by 
 long and frequent practice become expert in the calcula- 
 tion. But in first working square root, it is undoubtedly 
 better to secure the services of a teacher. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 53 
 
 INVOLUTION 
 
 Is the raising a number (called the root) to any power. 
 The powers of a number are its square, cube, 4th power, 
 5th power, etc. 
 
 2 x 2= 4 4 is the square or 2nd power of 2. 
 
 2X2X2= 8 8 is the cube or 3d power of 2. 
 
 2X2X2X2=16 16 is the 4th power of 2. 
 
 Etc. Etc. 
 
 RULE. To square a number multiply it by itself. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 What is the square of 27 (written 2f) ? 
 27 
 27 
 
 54 
 
 729 Answer. 
 
 RULE. To cube a number t multiply the square of the 
 number by the number again. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What is the cube of 50 (written So 3 )? 
 
 50 
 50 
 
 2500 the square 
 50 
 
 125000 the cube. 
 
 A power of a quantity, is the product arising from 
 multiplying the quantity by itself one or more times. 
 When the quantity is taken twice as a factor, the product 
 is called the second power ; when taken three times, the 
 third power, and so on. 
 
54 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 INVOLUTION. 
 SIGNS THAT REPRESENT THE ROOTS OF NUMBERS. 
 
 The sign common to all roots is */ or /y/ and is 
 known as the Radical Sign. If we require to express the 
 square root of a number we simply put this sign before it, 
 as 4/16, but if the number is made up of two or more 
 terms, then we express the square root by the same 
 in front, but with a line as far as the square root extends, 
 
 as V9 + 7 <> r V4 
 
 The cube root is expressed by the same sign, with a 
 
 3 in the elbow, as \/8 or A/7 (10051.) 
 
 All other roots in the same manner, the number of the 
 
 5 
 
 root being put instead of the 3. As fifth root V an d 
 sixth root y', etc. 
 
 In the above examples, 9+7 16, and the square root 
 of 16 is 4. 
 
 The 4 ^19+6) 4X25 100, and the square root of 100 
 is 10. 
 
 The other way of expressing that the root is required, 
 is by putting a fraction after and above the quantity, as 
 16*, which means the square root of 16, (19+17) , or 
 {4 (194-6) p all of which means the square root of the 
 quantities to which they are attached. 
 
 The cube root, 4th root, 5th root, etc., are written in 
 the same way, as 7299; 256* 4; 31 25* 5, etc. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 55 
 
 THE POWERS OF NUMBERS. 
 
 SIGNS REPRESENTING THE POWER OF NUMBERS. 
 
 6 2 is equal to 6x6=36; that is, 36 is the square of 6. 
 
 5 3 is equal to 5x5X5125: that is, 125 is the cube 
 of 5- 
 
 4 4 is equal to 4X4X4X4256; that is, 256 is the 
 fourth power of 4. 
 
 The power and the root are often combined, as 4!. 
 this is read as the square root of 4 cubed. So the nume- 
 rator figure represents the power, and the denominator 
 figure represents the root. In this case the square root of 
 4 is 2, and the cube of 2 is 2X2X2=8 Answer. 
 
 Perhaps the most common form that the student will 
 meet with this sign is in the following : 
 
 8^, which is read the cube root of 8 squared. Now, 
 8 squared=64, and the cube root of 64 is 4 Answer. 
 Find the value of 20 . 
 
 20 cubed=8ooo, and square root of 800089.4, etc. 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 What is the value of 8 *"t' 81 ? 
 
 3* 
 
 J8i* 9; 3 1 VS^-V^-S-a nearly. 
 
 Hence, 4x2=11=2.5 or 2j Answer. 
 5.2 5.2 
 
 ( ) are called brackets, and mean that all the quanti- 
 ties within them are to be put together first; thus, 
 7 (8 6+4X3) means that 6 must be subtracted from 8=2, 
 and 4 times 312 added to this 214; and then this 14 is 
 to be multiplied by 798. 
 
56 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 THE METRIC SYSTEM. 
 
 In the Metric or French system of weights and meas- 
 ures, the Meter is the basis of all the units which it 
 employs. The Meter is the unit of length, and is equal to 
 one ten-millionth part of the distance measured on a 
 meridian of the earth from the equator to the pole, and 
 equals about 39.37 inches, or 39! inches nearly. 
 
 The standard meter is a bar of platinum carefully pre- 
 served at Paris. Exact copies of the meter and the other 
 units have been procured by the several nations (including 
 the United States) that have legalized the system. 
 
 In this system, weights and measures are increased or 
 decreased by the following words prefixed to them : 
 
 Milli expresses the i,oooth part. 
 Centi " " looth " 
 Deci " " loth " 
 Deka " 10 times the value. 
 
 Hecto " 100 " " " 
 Kilo " 1,000 " " " 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 Millimeter (TT^JU f a meter) = .03937 in. 
 
 10 mm. = Centimeter ( T ^ of a meter) = .3937 in. 
 
 10 cm. ~ 
 10 dm. - 
 
 10 m. 
 10 Dm. 
 
 Decimeter (^ of a meter) = 3.937 in. 
 
 METER (I meter) r= 39.37 in. 
 
 Dekameter (10 meters) = 32.8 ft. 
 
 Hectometer (100 meters) = 328.09 ft. 
 
 . = Kilometer (1000 meters) = .62137 mile. 
 
 NOTE. A gramme is the weight of a cubic centimeter of distilled 
 water; a decigramme contains fa of a gramme; a dekagram me contains 
 10 grammes. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 59 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 A measurement is an ascertained dimension, as the 
 length, breadth, thickness, depth, extent, quantity, capacity, 
 etc., of a thing as determined by measuring. 
 
 Mensuration is the art of measuring things which 
 occupy space ; the art is partly mechanical and partly 
 mathematical. 
 
 There are three kinds of quantity in space, viz., length, 
 surface and solidity ; and there are three distinct modes 
 of measurement, viz., mechanical measurement, geomet- 
 rical construction and algebraical calculations. The last 
 two modes are done by calculations, while in mechanical 
 measurements they are made by the direct application of 
 rules and special measuring instruments. 
 
 Lengths are measured on lines, and the measure of a 
 length of a line is the ratio or relation which the line bears 
 to a recognized unit of length the inch, foot or mile deter- 
 mined by reference to brass rods kept by the United 
 States Government at Washington as a standard. The use 
 of the " rules " is called direct measurement. 
 
 The second kind of quantity to be measured is surface. 
 This sort of measurement is never done directly or mechan- 
 ically, but always by the measurement of lines, as will be 
 seen both under this division and under the sections 
 relating to geometry. 
 
 The third species of quantity is solidity. Direct meas- 
 urement of solid quantities consists simply in filling a vessel 
 
60 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 of known capacity, like a bushel or gallon measure, until 
 all is measured. The geometrical mode of computing 
 solids is the one hereafter shown by examples and illustra- 
 tions. 
 
 SURFACES. 
 
 A surface is the exterior part of anything that has 
 length and breadth, as the surface of a cylinder. The area 
 of any figure is the measure of its surface or the space con- 
 tained within the bounds of that surface, without any 
 regard to the thickness. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE. 
 
 A Triangle is a figure bounded by three sides, and is 
 half a parallelogram ; hence the 
 
 RULE. Multiply the base by half the perpendicular 
 height. 
 
 EXAMPLE. The base of the triangle is 12 feet, and it 
 is also 12 feet high; what is its area? 
 
 Half the height=6 feet; and 12x672 square feet 
 area. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 61 
 
 SURFACES. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A TRAPEZIUM. 
 
 A Trapezium is any four-sided figure that is neither 
 a rectangle, like a square or oblong, nor a parallelogram. 
 
 RULE. I. Join two of its opposite angles, and thus 
 divide it into two triangles. 
 
 2. Measure this line and call it the base of each triangle. 
 
 3. Measure the perpendicular height of each triangle 
 above the base line. 
 
 4. Then find the area of each triangle by the previous 
 rule ; their sum is the area of the whole figure. 
 
 Fig. 7- 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A TRAPEZOID. 
 
 A Trapezoid is a trapezium having two of its sides 
 parallel. 
 
 RULE. Multiply half the sum of the two parallel sides 
 by the perpendicular distance between them. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
62 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 Let the figure be the trapezoid, the sides 7 and 5 being 
 parallel ; and 3 the perpendicular distance between them. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Find the area of the above trapezoid, the 
 parallels being 7 feet and 5 feet, and the perpendicular 
 height being 3 feet. 
 
 7 
 _5 
 
 2)12 
 
 6 And 6x318 square feet. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A SQUARE. 
 
 A Square is a figure having all its angles right angles 
 and all its sides equal. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the base by the height ; that is, mul- 
 tiply the length by the breadth. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What is the area of a square whose side is 
 
 feet? 
 
 2-5 
 
 2.5 
 
 125 
 
 50 
 
 Answer, 6.25 square feet 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SURFACES. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A RECTANGLE. 
 
 A rectangle is a figure whose angles are all right 
 angles, but whose sides are not equal ; only the opposite 
 sides are equal. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the length by the breadth. 
 
 ^jji\ 
 
 ILL 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What is the area of a rectangular figure 
 whose base is 12 feet and height 8 feet? 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 Answer, 96 square feet. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM. 
 
 A Parallelogram is a figure whose opposite sides are 
 parallel , the square and oblong are parallelograms ; so also 
 are other four-sided figures whose angles are not right 
 angles. It is these latter whose area we now want to find. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the base by the perpendicular height. 
 
 Fig. ii. 
 
64 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Find the area of a parallelogram whose 
 base is 7 feet and height 5 J feet ? 
 
 5.25 
 7 
 
 Answer, 36.75 square feet. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A POLYGON. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the sum of the sides, or perimeter of 
 the polygon, by the perpendicular dropped from its center to 
 one of its sides, and half the product will be the area. This 
 rule applies to all regular polygons. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What is the area of a regular pentagon, 
 or five-sided figure, BAD whose side A D is 9 feet and 
 the perpendicular C E is 6 feet ? 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 45 the perimeter. 
 6 
 
 2)270 
 Answer, 1 35 feet. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 65 
 
 THE CIRCLE. 
 
 The circle is a plane figure, comprehended by a single 
 curve line, called its circumference, every part of which is 
 equally distant from a point called the center. Of course 
 all lines drawn from the center to the circumference are 
 equal to each other. 
 
 .7854 
 
 " Why is the decimal .7854 used to ascertain the area of 
 a circle or round opening ? " is a question frequently asked. 
 Now, if you will divide a square inch into 10,000 parts, 
 then describe a circle one inch in diameter and divide that 
 into ten thousandths of an inch, you will find that you have 
 7854 of such squares, each one-thousandth of an inch, 
 hence the decimal .7854 is used as a " constant " or multi- 
 plier, after squaring the diameter, and tb~ result is the 
 area of the circle. 
 
 3.1416 
 
 The Greek letter n, called pi, is used to represent 
 3.1416, the circumference of a circle whose diameter is I. 
 The circumference of a circle equals the diameter multi- 
 plied by 3.1416, nearly. Another approximate proportion 
 is 3f. t and another still nearer is f-^| . 
 
 This decimal has been worked out to 36 places, as 
 follows : 
 
 3.141592653589793238462643383279502884+ 
 and called the Ludolphian number, because calculated by 
 Ludolph Van Ceulen, a long cime ago. 
 
66 
 
 '1'fie Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 TO FIND THE LENGTH OF THE CURVE LINE, CALLED 
 
 THE CIRCLE ; THAT is, TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF 
 A CIRCLE. 
 
 RULE. Multiply 3.1416 by the diameter. 
 
 Fig. 13- 
 
 EXAMPLE What is the circumference of a circle 
 whose diameter is 3 inches ? 
 
 3-1416 
 3 
 
 Answer, 9.4248 inches. 
 
 To FIND THE DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE. 
 
 RULE. (i) Multiply the circumference by 7 and 
 divide by 22 ; or, (2) Divide the circumference by 3.1416. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 A pulley has a circumference of 50.30", find its 
 diameter? 
 
 50.30 X 7 
 
 22 
 
 = 1 6" diameter. Answer. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 6 7 
 
 THE CIRCLE. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A CIRCLE. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854. 
 
 EXAMPLE. The diameter of a circle is 3 inches, find 
 its area. 
 
 3 7854 
 
 3 9 
 
 Answer, 7.0686 square inches. 
 
 EXAMPLE. The diameter of a circle is 3.5 inches, find 
 the area. 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 175 
 105 
 
 12.25 
 
 .7854 
 12.25 
 
 39270 
 15708 
 15708 
 7854 
 
 Answer, 9.621150 square inches. 
 
 NOTE. "In every branch of science our knowledge increases as 
 the power of measurement becomes improved/' 
 
68 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 TO FIND THE SECTIONAL AREA OF A RING OR PIPE. 
 RULE. From the area of the greater circle subtract 
 that of the lesser. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 EXAMPLE. A pipe has an external diameter of 2" 
 and an internal diameter of if", find its sectional area in 
 square inches. 
 
 Thus area of 2" 2 3 X .7854 3.1416 
 if" if 3 X .;B54 2.4053 
 
 Answer, .7363 square inches, 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF AN ELLIPSE. 
 RULE. Multiply .7854 by the product of the diameters. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 69 
 
 THE CIRCLE. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 What is the area of an ellipse whose diameters are 5| 
 
 and 4j? 
 
 575 24.4375 
 
 4.25 .7854 
 
 977500 
 1221875 
 1955000 
 1710625 
 
 244375 
 
 19.19321250 
 
 To FIND THE SURFACE OR ENVELOPE OF A CYLINDER. 
 RULE. Multiply 3.1416 by the diameter, to find the 
 circumference, and then by the height. 
 
 ! <m La/JL 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 What is the surface of a cylinder whose diameter is 
 9 inches and height 15 inches. 
 
 28.2744 ==c ^ rcum f eren ce. 
 15 
 
 1413720 
 282744 
 
 424.1 160 area of surface in square inches., 
 
7o The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 To FIND THE SURFACE OR ENVELOPE OF A SPHERE. 
 The surface of a sphere is equal to the convex surface 
 of the circumscribing cylinder ; hence the 
 
 RULE. Multiply 3.1416 by the diameter of the sphere, 
 and this again by the diameter ; because in this case the 
 diameter is the height of the cylinder ; 
 
 Or multiply 3. 1416 by the square of the diameter of the 
 sphere. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Wnat is the surface of a sphere whose diameter is 
 3 feet? See figure page 73. 
 
 3.1416 
 9=3 2 
 
 28.2744 area of surface in square feet. 
 
 QUOTATION. "Observe any of the best known mechanics' pocket 
 reference books after it has been used a few years, and there is always 
 indisputable evidence that the arithmetical tables are used oftener than 
 tony other part of the contents. Though it may be well preserved in 
 all other parts, the tables are worn to a useless condition." 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 71 
 
 SOLIDS. 
 
 A solid is a body or magnitude which has three dimen- 
 sions length, breadth and thickness being thus distin- 
 guished from a surface, which has but two dimensions, and 
 from a line, which has but one ; the boundaries of solids are 
 surfaces. 
 
 The measurement of a solid is called its solidity, 
 capacity or content. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OR CAPACITY OF ANY FIGURE 
 IN THE CUBICAL FORM. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the length by the breadth and by the 
 depth. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 A tank is 10 feet long, 6 feet broad and 3 feet deep ; 
 how many cubic feet of water will it hold ? 
 iox6X3=Ans. 180 cubic feet. 
 
 A bar of iron is 24" long, 6" broad, and 2j" thick ; 
 how many cubic inches does it contain ? 
 24X6.5 X2.25=Ans. 351 cubic ins. 
 
 Find the cubical contents in inches of a shaft 3" diam- 
 eter and 15' o" long? 
 
 3 2 X.7854=7.o686xi5Xi2=Ans. 1272.348 cubic ins. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MEASUREMENTS OF SOLIDS. 
 
 A CUBE is a solid having six equal square sides. To 
 FIND THE CONTENTS 
 
 RULE. Multiply the area of the base by the perpendic- 
 ular height. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 Ex. What is the contents of a cistern whose sides 
 and depth are 3 feet 6 inches? 
 
 3' 6"X3' 6"X3' 6"=42' 10" nearly (42.875 cubic feet). 
 
 TO FIND THE CONTENTS OF A RECTANGULAR SOLID. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the length, breadth and height to- 
 gether. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 73 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 What is the contents of a rectangular solid whose 
 length is 5 feet, breadth 4 feet and height 3 feet? 
 
 5 feet 
 4 feet 
 
 20 square feet of base 
 3 feet 
 
 60 cubic feet 
 TO FIND THE CUBIC CONTENTS OF A SPHERE. 
 
 RULE. Multiply .7854 by the cube of the diameter, 
 and tJun take f of the product. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Ex. Find the cubic contents of a sphere whose 
 diameter is 5 feet. 
 
 5 .7854 
 
 25 39270 
 
 5 15708 
 7854 
 125 5 s - 
 
 98.1750 
 
 2 
 
 3)196.3500 
 
 Answer, 65.4500 cubic feet 
 
74 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 The rule is only approximate, owing to the " repeat- 
 ing decimal" used in the calculations. Another rule is 
 as follows: 
 
 Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236, or the cube 
 of the circumference by .016887, and the product will be 
 the solidity. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A HEMISPHERE. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the square of the diameter by the 
 radius, and multiply the product by .5236, which is the ratio 
 between the solidity of a cube and that of a sphere, whose 
 diameter is equal to one side of the cube. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 EXAMPLE. How many cubic inches in a hemisphere 
 whose diameter is 60 inches ? 
 
 6ox6oX3OX. 5236=56548.8 cubic inches. Answer. 
 
 NOTE The convex surface of a sphere may be found by multiply- 
 ing the circumference by the diameter. Or, multiply the square of the 
 diameter by 3.1416, and the product will be the convex surface. 
 
 The solidity of a sphere is equal to two-thirds of the solidity of its 
 circumscribing cylinder. 
 
 The surface of a sphere is equal to 4 times the area of a circle of the 
 same diameter as the sphere ; or to the area of a circle whose diameter 
 is double that of the sphere ; or to the convex surface of the circum- 
 scribing cylinder. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 75 
 
 SOLIDITY OF A HEMISPHERE. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A SEGMENT OF A SPHERE. 
 
 RULE I. To three times the square of the radius of 
 the segment's base, add the square of the depth or height ; 
 then multiply this sum by the depth, and the product by .5236. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 EXAMPLE. How many cubic inches in a spherical seg- 
 ment which has a diameter of 60 inches and a depth of 
 20 inches ? 
 
 60-^2 = 30 inches radius. 30X30X32700; 2700 
 + (20 X 2o)=-3ioo; 3100 X 20 X. 5236 32463.2, which is 
 the number of cubic inches. 
 
 RULE 2. From three times the diameter of the sphere 
 subtract twice the height of the segment; multiply the re- 
 mainder by the square of the height, and that product by 
 .52361 for the solidity. 
 
 EXAMPLE. If the diameter of a sphere be 3 feet 6 
 inches, what is the solidity of a segment whose height is 
 I foot 3 inches? Ans. 6.545 feet. 
 
 Now, 3.5 X3 io-5 
 1.25x2 2.5 
 
 8 
 
 1.25X1.25 1.5625x8 12.5 Product. 
 Then, 12.5 X. 52361 = 6.545 cubic feet. 
 
 NOTE. When the segment is greater than a hemisphere, find the 
 solidity of the lesser segment and subtract the same from the solidity 
 of the entire sphere. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 TO FIND THE CUBIC CONTENTS OF A SOLID CYL- 
 INDER. 
 
 RULE. Find the area of the base y and multiply this by 
 the height or length. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 What is the cubic contents of a cylinder whose diam 
 eter is 4 feet, and height or length 7^ feet ? 
 
 4 .7854 
 _4 16 
 
 16 47124 
 
 7854 
 
 I2.5664=area of base in square feet 
 7.5==height or length in feet 
 
 628320 
 879648 
 
 Answer, 94.24800 cubic feet. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY 
 OF A CYLINDRICAL RING. 
 
 RULE. To the thickness of 
 the ring, add the inner diameter ; 
 and this sum being multiplied 
 
 by the square of the thickness, and the product again by 
 2.4674, will give the solidity. 
 
 . The surface of a cylindrical ring may be found by the 
 following rule : To the thickness of the ring, add the inner diameter ; 
 and this sum being multiplied by the thickness, and the product again 
 by 9.8696, will give the surface required. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 vSOLIDITY OF A CYLINDRICAL RING. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What is the solidity of a cylindrical ring 
 whose thickness A B or C D is 6, and the inner diameter 
 B C 20 inches? 
 
 Here (20+ 6) X6 3 X 2.467426 X 3 6 X 2.4674 936 X 
 2.4674=2309.4864 inches, the solidity required. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A CONE. 
 RULE. Multiply the area of the base by the perpen- 
 dicular height, and\ of the product will be the sohdity. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 I. Required, the solidity of the cone A B C\ the diame- 
 ter, A B y of the base being 12 feet, and the perpendicular 
 altitude, D C, 1 8 feet 6 inches. 
 
 Here .7854X I2 2 7854X 144 113.0976, the area of 
 the base; and (i I3.O976X 1 8. 5)-^3==2O92. 30564-3 697.4352 
 feet, the solidity required. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 TO FIND THE CUBIC CONTENTS OF A FRUSTRUM OF 
 
 A CONE. 
 
 A frustrum of a cone is the lower portion of a cone 
 left after the top piece is cut away. 
 
 RULE. Find the sum of the squares of the two diam- 
 eters (d t D], add on to this the product of the two diameters 
 multiplied by .7854, and by one-third the height (h). 
 
 Fig- 25. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Find the cubic contents of a safety-valve 
 weight of the following dimensions : 12" large diameter, 6" 
 small diameter, 4" thick. Now : 
 
 X.7854XI.33 
 
 , etc., cubic inches. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A PYRAMID. 
 
 Pyramids may be trilateral, quadrilateral, pentagonal, 
 hexagonal, heptagonal, octagonal, etc., having three, four, 
 five, six, seven, eight triangular sides, respectively. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 79 
 
 SOLIDITY OF A PYRAMID. 
 
 The trilateral pyramid has three triangles. The quad- 
 rilateral pyramid has four triangles, and the pentagonal 
 pyramid has five triangles, and so on. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the area of the base by one-third of 
 the perpendicular height, and the product will be the solidity. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What is the solidity of the regular penta- 
 gon pyramid A B CD E, each side of the base being 9 
 feet, and the perpendicular altitude, F C, 24 feet? 
 
 The area of the base, see page 64, is 
 
 135 ^et X i of 24= 8 
 8 
 
 Answer, 1080 feet, the solid contents. 
 
8o The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID. 
 
 RULE. 
 
 Divide the irregular solid into different figures ; and 
 the sum of their solidities, found by the preceding problems \ 
 will be the solidity required. 
 
 If the figure be a compound solid, whose two ends are 
 equal plane figures, the solidity may be found by multiplying 
 the area of one end by the length. 
 
 To find the solidity of a piece of wood or stone that is 
 craggy or uneven, put it into a tub or cistern, and pour in as 
 much water as will just cover it ; then take it out and find 
 the contents of that part of the vessel through which the 
 water has descended, and it will be the solidity required. 
 
 If a solid be large and very irregular, so that it cannot 
 be measured by any of the above rules, the general way is to 
 take lengths, in two or three different places ; and their sum 
 divided by their number, is considered as a mean length. 
 A mean breadth and a mean depth are found by similar 
 processes. Sometimes the length, breadth and depth taken 
 in the middle are considered mean dimensions. 
 
 There are five regular solids which are shown in Figs, 
 below. A regular solid is bounded by similar and regular 
 plane figures. Regular solids may be circumscribed by 
 spheres, and spheres may be inscribed in regular solids. 
 
 Fig. 27. Fig. 2$. Fig. 29. Fig. 30, Fig. 31. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 THE FIVE REGULAR SOLIDS. 
 
 The Tetrahedron (fig. 27) is bounded by four equilateral 
 triangles. 
 
 The Hexahedron, or cube (fig. 28), is bounded by six 
 squares. 
 
 . % The Octahedron (fig. 29) is bounded by eight equi- 
 lateral triangles. 
 
 The Dodecahedron (fig. 30) is bounded by twelve pen- 
 tagons. 
 
 The Icosahedron (fig. 31) is bounded by twenty equi- 
 lateral triangles. 
 
 TO FIND THE SURFACE AND THE CUBIC CONTENTS 
 OF ANY OF THE FIVE REGULAR SOLIDS. 
 
 RULE. For the surface, multiply the tabular area 
 below, by the square of the edge of the solid. 
 
 For the contents, multiply the tabular contents below, 
 by the cube of the given edge. 
 
 TABLE OF CONSTANTS. 
 SURFACES AND CUBIC CONTENTS OF REGULAR SOLIDS. 
 
 Number 
 of Sides 
 
 NAME 
 
 Area. 
 Edge = i 
 
 Contents. 
 Edge = i 
 
 A 
 
 Tetrahedron 
 
 1. 732O 
 
 O.II78 
 
 6 
 
 Hexahedron 
 
 6.0000 
 
 I.OOOO 
 
 8 
 
 Octahedron 
 
 3.464.1 
 
 0.4714 
 
 12 
 
 Dodecahedron 
 
 20.6458 
 
 7.663 1 
 
 2O 
 
 Icosahedron 
 
 8.6603 
 
 2.1817 
 
 
 
 
 
 A constant is a quantity or multiplier which is assumed 
 to be invariable. 
 
8s The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PARTS OF A CIRCLE. 
 
 The circumference of a circle is supposed to be divided 
 into 360 degrees or divisions, and as the total angularity 
 about the center is equal to four right angles, each right 
 angle contains 90 degrees or 90, and half a right angle 
 contains 45. Each degree is divided into 60 minutes, or 
 60'; and, for the sake of still further minuteness of measure- 
 ment, each minute is divided into 60 seconds, or 60". In 
 a circle there are, therefore, 360 X 60 X 60= 1 ,296,000 seconds. 
 
 Fig. 32- 
 The above diagram exemplifies the relative positions 
 
 of the 
 
 Sine, Tangent, 
 
 Cosine, Cotangent, 
 
 Versed sine, Secant, and 
 
 Cosecant 
 of an angle. 
 
 NOTE. The circumferences of all circles contain the same number 
 of degrees, but the greater the radius, the greater the absolute measures 
 of a degree. The circumference of a fly-wheel or the circumference of 
 the earth have the same number of degrees ; yet the same number of 
 degrees in each and every circumference is the measure of precisely 
 the same angle. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 83 
 
 DEFINITIONS OF PARTS OF A CIRCLE. 
 
 1. The Complement of an arc is 90 minus the arc. 
 
 2. The Supplement of an arc is 180 minus the arc. 
 
 3. The Sine of an angle, or of an arc, is a line drawn 
 from one end of an arc, perpendicular to a diameter drawn 
 through the other end. 
 
 4. The Cosine of an arc is the perpendicular distance 
 from the center of the circle to the sine of the arc ; or it is 
 the same in magnitude as the sine of the complement of 
 the arc 
 
 5 The Tangent of an arc is a line touching the circle 
 in one extremity of the arc, and continued from thence to 
 meet a line drawn through the center and the othei 
 extremity. 
 
 6. The Cotangent of an arc is the tangent of the com- 
 plement of the arc. The Co is but a contraction of the 
 word complement. 
 
 7. The Secant of an arc is a line drawn from the centei 
 of the circle to the extremity of the tangent. 
 
 8. The Cosecant of an arc is the secant of the comple- 
 ment. 
 
 9. The Versed Sin? of an arc is the distance from the 
 extremity of the arc to the foot of the sine. 
 
 For the sake of brevity these technical terms are con- 
 tractedthus: for sine AB,vfQ write sin. AB ; for cosine 
 A, we write cos. AB ; for tangent AB, we write tan. 
 AB, etc. 
 
 NOTE. Trigonometry is that portion of geometry which has for 
 its object the measurement of triangles. When it treats of plane 
 triangles it is called Plane Trigonometry, and as the engineer will 
 continually meet in his studies of higher mathematics the terms used 
 in plane trigonometry, it is advantageous for him to become familial 
 with some of the principles and definitions relating to this branch o' 
 mathematics. 
 
84 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MEASURING MACHINES, TOOLS AND 
 DEVICES. 
 
 The accuracy of a man's workmanship can usually be 
 determined from knowing the kind of measuring instru- 
 ments he employs. It is an old saying among mechanics 
 that a blacksmith's " hair's-breadth" is anything less than a 
 quarter of an inch. There used to be good ground for 
 this statement, the reason being that the blacksmith meas- 
 ured with a square, the graduations of which were -]- inch. 
 
 When a man begins to use a scale graduated to hun- 
 dredths he finds, as soon as he learns to distinguish the 
 marks, that there is considerable space included in y^- of 
 an inch. 
 
 When a man has used a micrometer caliper for a 
 short time he learns to determine of y^^ of an inch 
 quite readily, and then begins to appreciate the value of 
 fine measurements and close fits. In considering modern 
 methods and comparing them with older practice, we are 
 at once struck by the definiteness with which the sizes of 
 parts are now fixed. The fitting of one part to another 
 is no longer a question of working to gauges of which the 
 absolute sizes are unknown, but of working to sizes which 
 
 NOTE. In a device consisting of a short steel rod fitting into a 
 hollow cylinder, the rod being three-quarters of an inch in diameter, it 
 was found that the fit was so perfect that it would slide freely in and 
 out, but if the rod was taken out and held in the hand for a few sec- 
 onds, the slight expansion caused by the warmth of the hand was 
 enough to render it impossible to insert the rod until it had been 
 allowed by gradual cooling to regain its normal size. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 85 
 
 MEASURING MACHINES AND TOOLS. 
 
 are definitely fixed and stated, and which are at any time 
 capable of reproduction. To carry out this system means 
 the general provision of instruments for accurate measure- 
 ment which were formerly only to be found in a very few 
 special establishments ; it means the possession of skill in the 
 use of such measuring appliances, and a cultivation of an 
 appreciation of the value of small units. 
 
 Fig. 33 shows a side view of a standard End-Measuring 
 Rod ; these are formed of steel, hardened on the ends and 
 accurately ground, so that the ends form sections of true 
 spheres whose diameters are equal to those of the length of 
 the rods. They are suitable for making internal measure- 
 
 Fig- 33- 
 
 ments, as rings, cylinders, etc.; and, as reference tools, are 
 particularly well adapted for setting calipers, comparing 
 gauges, and work of a similar character. They are also 
 suitable for measuring parallel surfaces, as the spherical 
 ends will pass such surfaces without cramping, the same as 
 spheres of like diameters. 
 
 Figs. 34 to 39 exhibit Inside Micrometer Gauges. 
 These are adjustable, and designed for making internal 
 measurements, and work of a similar character, and are also 
 adapted for measuring parallel surfaces. 
 
 The device consists of a holder provided with a 
 micrometer screw and thimble. The screw has a move- 
 ment of " ; and, by the use of the extension rods fur- 
 
86 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MEASURING TOOLS AND DEVICES. 
 
 nished, measurements from 3" to 6" can be made by 
 the thousandths of an inch. 
 
 The extension rods vary by ", and each rod is pro- 
 vided with an adjusting nut and check-nut, which are set 
 
 Figs. 34 to 39. 
 
 to obtain the proper measurement of the given rod, and 
 should be adjusted only when the point of that rod has 
 become worn. 
 
 This instrument is provided with a micrometer screw 
 and nut, and is graduated to read by half-thou'sandths. 
 
 Provision is made for adjustment to compensate for 
 wear of the screw and measuring surfaces. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MEASURING MACHINES. 
 
 Fig. 40 shows a standard form of measuring machine 
 for use in the tool room in preparing templates, reamers, 
 mandrels, etc. It will measure differences of the 7-5--^^ of 
 an inch. Adjustments in the machine provide for the 
 wear of measuring points. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Calipering Machines are used to transmit sizes, and 
 differ from fixed calipers in that they record as the size is 
 approached, and show how much a piece is to be reduced. 
 
 Machines of this type are used in connection with 
 standard sizes as an accurate pair of calipers, and have the 
 features of a measuring machine, as they will measure 
 
88 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MEASURING DEVICES. 
 
 accurately above and below a certain size after having been 
 adjusted and the index, which is on the edge of the wheel, 
 set for a standard size. The machine shown in fig. 41 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 will caliper to 6 inches. The index wheel is divided tc 
 read to ten-thousandths of an inch. 
 
 Fig. 42 shows corrective gauge standards. These 
 discs are employed for testing and correcting fixed gauges, 
 for setting calipers, and also as a reference to prove 
 dimensions within their range. Each disc is separate and 
 is ground independently to size. 
 
 Fig. 43- 
 
 The introduction of accurate scientific methods into 
 manufacturing and commercial processes involves the use 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 89 
 
 MEASURING TOOLS. 
 
 of a great variety of standards of far greater accuracy than 
 formerly required. Fig. 42 is but one of very many 
 measuring devices introduced to secure the essential accu- 
 racy. 
 
 Standard reference discs are shown in fig. 43. These 
 are employed for testing and correcting fixed caliper 
 gauges, for setting calipers, and also as a reference to 
 
 
 
 Fig. 44- 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 prove dimensions within their range. They are intended 
 to serve principally as originals, not as working gauges. 
 
 The illustration represents " a set " of forty-five discs, 
 ranging in size from J" to 3", inclusive, by i6ths, and four 
 handles. The discs vary in width from J" to J", according 
 to the diameter, and afford ample contact surface. 
 
 The figures 44 and 45 represent the common form of 
 internal and external limit gauges. Gauges of this type 
 
90 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MEASURING DEVICES. 
 
 are stamped with the words " go on " and " not go on," for 
 the external, and " go in " and " not go in " for the 
 internal ; and, as the two ends are of different shape, the 
 workman is enabled to easily and quickly distinguish the 
 large from the small end without looking at the sizes 
 stamped upon the gauge. 
 
 These gauges are not only used as references for 
 finishing operations, but are of advantage in roughing 
 work for finishing. When used in this way the same 
 amount of stock is left on each piece, thus enabling the 
 operator who finishes the pieces to work to better advantage 
 than if they were of various sizes. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 The fig. 46 shows a limit gauge as used in shop prac- 
 tice. It is stamped 2j, 2.500, 2.4995 ; the end marked 2! 
 is ground accurately to size, and is not used except as a 
 reference standard, the calipers or measuring instruments 
 being set by the ends marked 2.500, 2.4995. The difference 
 between these is a limit of .0005, or the -g^Vr P art f an 
 inch. 
 
 The advantages derived from the use of the limit 
 gauges are being appreciated more and more ; as, by their 
 use the time consumed in testing and gauging is reduced 
 to a minimum, and the duplication of parts is insured. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MEASURING DEVICES. 
 
 Fig. 47 shows an adjustable parallel measuring gauge. 
 It measures from \ inch to 4 inches, and measurements 
 over the above are got by placing a base beneath. The 
 slide is tightened by the right-hand thumb nut and the 
 scriber by the the left-hand one, by which both work inde- 
 
 . 47- 
 
 pendently of each other. It is graduated into 64 parts 
 to the inch. The graduation on the tool is wider than the 
 ordinary scale, it being on an incline, but the operator 
 should read them just the same as a scale of 64ths, match- 
 ing the line of the slide to the graduation on the incline. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 GAUGES. 
 
 English or Birmingham gauges, for sheet and plate 
 steel and iron, are shown in figs. 48 and 49. The former 
 indicates sizes from I to 32 ; the latter from ooo to 25. 
 The illustrations are about two-thirds the real size. 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 Fig. 50 represents, two-thirds actual size, the United 
 States Standard Gauge for sheet and plate steel and iron, 
 adopted by Congress March 3, 1893. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 GAUGES. 
 
 Figs. 51 and 52 are gauges for use in measuring 
 twist drills and steel drill rods. 
 
 ID oo o.o- o o a co o 01 
 
 J 13 14 lb 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 : 23 24 25 ~; 
 
 0-tO O O O O O O O O: O O O OH 1 
 
 ? 2G - 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34-:- 35 3 ; 6 37 38 39 40 41 ^f" 
 
 ^O O . O O O O o- o o c o o o o e o ^ 
 
 ' .42- 43 44 45 4b" 47 48 49 50 51 ^52 -53- :54, 55- 56:- 57 58- : 59 60-1' 
 
 vO- Z Q O O C P- f>. e; e --- *. - * : .... 
 
 -"' : - : /:vo^^^o^-C'%:^.^-.;^3^. 
 
 Fig. 51- 
 
 Gauge No. 51 is about -fa" thick, if" wide, 5J" long, 
 and contains gauge numbers from I to 60 inclusive. 
 
 61 
 
 G3 
 
 66 
 
 BROWNS- SH ASPE MFG.EO . 
 
 71 
 
 75v7.6;,7.7: 78 79 80 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 Gauge No. 52 is about T y thick, | /r wide, 2" long, and 
 contains gauge numbers from 61 to 80 inclusive. 
 
 Fig. 53- 
 
 Fig. 53 shows an angle gauge, with the addition of a 
 protractor and registering dial. It is a very useful tool for 
 testing planed and finished parts. 
 
94 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 ANGLE-GAUGES. 
 
 Fig. 54 shows a simple form of bevel protractor 
 operated on the same principles as that shown in the 
 preceding illustration. 
 
 Fig- 54- 
 
 Fig- 55- 
 
 Fig. 55 shows still another form of the same device. 
 In each of the above instruments the circles, or parts 
 thereof, are divided into degrees. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 95 
 
 USEFUL, MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 This tool is well adapted for all classes of work where 
 angles are to be laid out or established ; one side of the 
 stock is flat, thus permitting its being laid upon the paper 
 or work. The dial is accurately graduated in degrees the 
 entire circle. It turns on a large central stud, which is 
 hardened and ground, and can be rigidly clamped by the 
 thumb nut shown in cut. 
 
 The line of graduations is below the surface, thus pro- 
 tecting them from wear. The blade is about one-eighth 
 inch thick, can be moved back and forth its entire length, 
 and clamped independently of the dial, thus adapting the 
 protractor for work where others cannot be used. 
 
 THE VERNIER AND ITS USE. 
 
 SCALE. 
 
 I 2 
 
 '' U 
 
 VERNIER. 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 The Vernier is a small movable scale invented by 
 Pierre Vernier in 1631, and used for measuring a fractional 
 part of one of the equal divisions on the graduated fixed 
 scale. 
 
 The Vernier consists, in its simplest form, of a small 
 sliding scale, the divisions of which differ from those of the 
 fixed or primary scale ; the ingenuity of the invention has 
 given a lasting and world-wide fame to the discoverer of 
 its useful application. 
 
9 6 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 THE VERNIER AND ITS USE. 
 
 On the scale of the tool is a line of graduations divided 
 into inches and numbered o, I, 2, etc., each inch being 
 divided into ten parts, and each tenth into four parts, 
 making forty divisions to the inch. 
 
 On the sliding jaw is a line of divisions of twenty-five 
 parts, numbered o, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25. The twenty-five 
 divisions on the Vernier correspond, in extreme length, to 
 twenty-four divisions, or || of an inch, on the scale ; each 
 
 Fig. 57- 
 
 division on the Vernier is, therefore, -^ of 1 Q-, or yoV-g- of an 
 inch shorter than the corresponding division on the scale. 
 If the Vernier is moved until the line marked o on the 
 Vernier coincides with that marked on the scale, then the 
 next two lines to the right will differ from each other by 
 Y^Viv of an inch ; and the difference will continue to increase 
 10 1 00 of an inch for each division, until the line 25 on the 
 Vernier coincides with a line on the scale. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 97 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 Fig. 56 represents a Vernier caliper, showing the two 
 scales, and in the note is an admirable explanation of its 
 use, for which credit is due to Brown & Sharpe Manufac- 
 turing Co. 
 
 NOTE. On the bar of the instrument is a line of inches, num- 
 bered o, i, 2, etc., each inch being divided into ten parts, and each 
 tenth into four parts, making forty divisions to the inch. On the 
 sliding jaw is a line of divisions of twenty -five parts, numbered o, 5, 10, 
 15, 20, 25. The twenty-five parts on the Vernier correspond, in extreme 
 length, with 24 parts, or twenty-four fortieths of the bar ; consequently, 
 each division on the Vernier is smaller than each division on the bar by 
 .001 part of an inch. If the sliding jaw of the caliper is pushed up to 
 the other, so that the line marked o on the Vernier corresponds with 
 that marked o on the bar, then the two next lines to the right will 
 differ from each other by .001 of an inch, and so the difference will 
 continue to increase, .001 of an inch for each division, till they again 
 correspond at the line marked 25 on the Vernier. To read the distance 
 the caliper may be open, commence by noticing how many inches, 
 tenths and parts of tenths the zero point on the Vernier has been moved 
 from the zero point on the bar. 
 
 Now, count upon the Vernier the number of divisions, until one is 
 found which coincides with one on the bar, which will be the number 
 of thousandths to be added to the distance read off on the bar. The 
 best way of expressing the value of the divisions on the bar is to call 
 the tenths one hundred thousandths (.100), and the fourths of tenths, 
 or fortieths, twenty-five thousandths (.025). Referring to the cut shown 
 above, it will be seen that the jaw is open two-tenths and three-quarters, 
 which is equal to two hundred and seventy-five thousandths (.275). 
 Now, suppose the Vernier was moved to the right, so that the tenth 
 division would coincide with the next one on the scale, which will 
 make ten thousandths (.010) more to be added to two hundred and 
 seventy-five thousandths (.275), making the jaws to be open two hun- 
 dred and eighty-five thousandths (.285). 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 Figs. 58 and 59 represent the entire calipers of which 
 the head only is shown in fig. 57. 
 
 Th<-se instruments are graduated on the front side to 
 
 Fig. 58. Fig- 59- 
 
 read, by means of the Vernier, to thousandths of an inch, 
 and on the back to sixty-fourths of an inch; the jaws can 
 be used for either outside or inside measurements; points 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 99 
 
 THE VERNIER AND ITS USE. 
 
 are placed on the bars and slide, so that dividers can be 
 used to transfer distances. Verniers are applied to 
 minute measuring instruments, as the sextant, barometer, 
 
 etc. 
 
 X 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 This double Ver- 
 nier caliper, fig. 60, 
 is for the purpose of 
 accurately measuring 
 the distance from top 
 to pitch line, and the 
 thickness at pitch line 
 of gear teeth, measur- 
 ing all pitches. 
 
 The sliding jaw 
 moves upon a bar 
 graduated to read by 
 means of the Vernier 
 to thousandths of an 
 
 inch. A tongue, moving at right angles with the jaws, is 
 graduated in the same manner. Both the sliding jaw and 
 tongue are provided with adjusting screws. 
 
100 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
IO2 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 " There is a difference between ' cut ' and ' wear ' ; 
 tightening a cut journal will ruin it; steady, uniform, 
 rotary wear upon a journal will outlast the lifetime 
 of almost any machine." 
 
 " No man of any pretensions has any right to mix 
 up the terms journal and bearing ; a journal is that 
 part of a shaft or axle that rests in the bearings; a 
 bearing is the part, the contact with which, a journal 
 moves, or the part of any piece where it is supported 
 or the part of another piece where it is supported; a 
 bearing is a guide to steady a shaft or rod and main- 
 tain it in position." 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 103 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 The operations of turning and boring are performed in 
 the lathe, screw machine, boring mill, etc.; in these the 
 work is usually made to rotate to a cutting tool, which, 
 except for " the feeds," is stationary. 
 
 The movement of the work and the cutting of the 
 tools, produce curved or circular, external or internal, and 
 plane surfaces. 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 The lathe, with its two headstocks, is admirably 
 adapted for all kinds of work supported by the two heads 
 directly, or supplemented by supports or steady rests. 
 
 When boring and facing have to be done on the 
 headstock, disadvantages and defects are encountered ; the 
 work must of necessity overhang when fixed on the hori- 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 zontal spindle, causing vibration, etc. Another defect of 
 the horizontal lathe, when used for boring, is the difficulty 
 of setting and securing the overhang work to the face- 
 plate. 
 
 The illustration, page 100, is a lathe designed for 
 screw-cutting by the means of the lead-screw shown on the 
 front. 
 
 Fig. 62 shows a lathe for turning, boring and screw- 
 cutting; it has self-acting longitudinal and cross feeds, 
 actuated by the spline feed spindle in front, on which is 
 a sliding worm geared into a worm wheel on the carriage ; 
 the screw-cutting mechanism is actuated by the long 
 leading screw shown in front, under the rack which is fixed 
 to the shears or slides of the lathe. 
 
 There are two ways of cutting a screw-thread in a 
 lathe: I, by tools manipulated by the hand, called chasers ; 
 2, by cutting tools fixed in the lathe rest, which slides auto- 
 matically. 
 
 Chasers are of two kinds, the outside and the inside 
 chaser; fig. 63 shows the outside or male chaser; it is the 
 one which cuts the male thread, on a pipe, etc.; fig. 64 
 shows the inside, or female chaser ; this cuts the interior 
 thread on a pipe, etc. 
 
 The teeth of chasers are made to correspond to the 
 number of threads per inch which they are intended to cut, 
 and each size chaser can only be used to cut its own 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 105 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 number of threads, although the same chaser is equally 
 suitable for different diameters of work; thus, an eight- 
 thread-to-the-inch chaser would cut a thread of this pitch 
 equally as well on a piece of work j mcn diameter as on 
 a piece I inch diameter. 
 
 The mode of applying a chaser to cut an external 
 thread is shown in fig. 65. Here A is the work between 
 centers, B the tool rest, and C the chaser. If the tool rest, 
 B y is placed with its upper surface level with the center of 
 the work, then the chaser, C, must be tilted slightly, as 
 shown in fig. 65, in order to bring the cutting angles of 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 NOTE. These hand tools or chasers would appear, at first 
 acquaintance to many, to be old-fashioned, and not up-to-date devices 
 for performing the very beautiful process of producing a perfectly 
 uniform thread ; nevertheless, chasers cannot be entirely superseded, 
 even by the very perfect modern lathe, as a good workman can produce, 
 with their aid and with ease and certainty, screws of the greatest 
 cleanness and delicacy the pressure required being very slight 
 threads can be cut by this method on the thinnest and the most fragile 
 materials, which would be quite unable to resist the more violent treat- 
 ment to which they would be subjected by any other process of screw- 
 cutting ; this system is used by manufacturers of brass fittings for tele- 
 scopes and exceedingly light work, the thickness of the tube employed 
 frequently exceeding only to a very small extent the depth of the 
 screw thread which is cut upon them ; it is not unusual to give the 
 finishing touch to the threads of machine and engine work with the 
 hand chaser when accurate and perfect threads are required. 
 
Io6 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 the tool into the right position. To start a thread, the 
 end of the work should first be beveled off, as shown in 
 fig. 66, and the points of the chaser teeth applied 
 lightly to the work : if the chaser is held still in the one 
 place, it is evident the teeth will simply cut a series of 
 rings or circles on the surface of the work instead of a 
 spiral thread ; at the same time, therefore, as the teeth are 
 applied to the work, a sliding motion towards the left hand 
 must be given to the chaser ; the exact rate at which the 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 chaser is moved depends on the pitch of the screw to be 
 cut, and also the speed at which the work is revolved in the 
 lathe. 
 
 To cut a true thread, the chaser should move through 
 a distance of one tooth for each revolution of the work, and 
 this motion should be perfectly uniform ; the speed of the 
 lathe also should be constant and regular; if this operation 
 be correctly performed the teeth of the chaser will produce 
 one continuous spiral line, which should run quite true as 
 the work revolves ; the chaser is then brought back to the 
 right-hand end of the work, and another cut taken, so as to 
 deepen the line already made. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 107 
 
 SCREW CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 Great care is necessary for the first few cuts, to insure 
 that the chaser-teeth engage in the same cuts each time, 
 and that they do not start fresh threads; the line or groove 
 is thus cut deeper and deeper, until it becomes a V-shaped 
 groove, with, of course, the V-shaped ridge, or thread, 
 between. 
 
 Fig. 67 shows a hand-chaser being used for cutting 
 an internal thread. In this case the tool-rest, B, is placed 
 across the mouth of the hole, and the chaser is inserted and 
 gradually advanced, with its teeth against the interior 
 surface, as shown. 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 In chasing wrought iron or steel, plenty of soap and 
 water or oil, preferably the former, should be used as a 
 lubricant. If the chaser be moved along unevenly, or if 
 the speed of the lathe fluctuate, an irregular thread will 
 be produced, and this will be readily recognized by the 
 "wobbling" appearance it has when running. A thread of 
 this description is caused by incorrect speed of travel. 
 
 If the chaser-teeth be inserted in a true thread, without 
 any cutting taking place, the screw will carry the chaser along 
 at the proper speed. By trying this plan with the lathe 
 
108 The Advanced Machinist, 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 running at various speeds, the reader will readily see how 
 the speed at which the work revolves necessitates a faster 
 or slower sliding motion of the chaser accordingly to pro- 
 duce a screw of the desired pitch. 
 
 When it is desired to cut a screw of, say, two or three 
 inches, with a hand-chaser, the first inch or so should be 
 well started before following up to the remaining portion 
 of the screw; this, if correctly done, will then form a guide 
 to lead the chaser up to the part as yet uncut. 
 
 The second method of screw-cutting in the lathe is 
 performed by cutting-tools fixed in the lathe rest. 
 
 For cutting screws of any pitch by a tool fixed in the 
 lathe rest, the lathe requires to be specially fitted with, I 
 a leading or guide screw ; 2, a quadrant fitted with one or 
 more studs for carrying the change wheels ; 3, a saddle or 
 carriage upon which is fixed the slide rest carrying the 
 cutting tools ; 4, a nut attached so that it can be readily 
 put into or out of gear with the leading screw. 
 
 The following illustration, fig. 68, shows the general 
 arrangement of lathe for cutting a screw. A is the leading 
 screw ; the round metal bar, B, on which the screw is to be 
 cut, is placed between the steel centers of the fast and 
 movable headstocks of the lathe ; a " carrier," or dog, C, is 
 secured to the bar at the end next to the fast headstock, 
 which engage with a driving stud, D, attached to the face- 
 plate. 
 
 The cutting of a screw in a lathe, whether V-shape or 
 a square thread, is an operation, the most important part 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 109 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 of which is the selection of the proper change wheels. 
 Every turn or revolution of the leading screw moves the 
 carriage and cutting tool through a distance equal to the 
 pitch of the leading screw. If the iron bar, B, fig. 68, 
 revolves at the same rate as the leading screw, A, 
 the pitch of the screw cut upon the bar will be 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 the same pitch as that of the leading screw; to cut the 
 same thread as the leading screw, therefore, the driving 
 wheel on the lathe mandrel must be the same size as the 
 follower or driven wheel on the leading screw. 
 
 If the bar revolve faster than the leading screw, then 
 the pitch of thread cut on the bar will be less than that on 
 the leading screw; if the bar revolve slower than the 
 leading screw, the thread cut upon the bar will be of 
 greater pitch than that of the leading screw. 
 
 Fig. 68 shows the general arrangement looking down 
 on the work of a lathe arranged for cutting screw threads, 
 
110 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 with a cutting tool fixed in the tool-holder, which slides 
 or travels automatically. 
 
 When V-threads are cut in a screw-cutting lathe by 
 tools sliding automatically, a single-pointed tool is gener- 
 ally used. 
 
 Fig. 69 shows the front tool for cutting the male 
 or outside thread ; fig. 70 shows the inside tool for cutting 
 the interior thread. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Fig. 7<x 
 
 It will be noticed that the tools are very similar to the 
 ordinary turning and boring tools, but with the points 
 ground to a V-shape, the angle of the V corresponding 
 exactly with the correct angle for the screw to be cut. 
 
 NOTE. When cutting internal screw-threads it is important to 
 remember that the diameter of the hole should be equal to the diam- 
 eter at the bottom of the male screw-thread, which is to fit into it ; thus 
 the hole intended for an inch bolt, having eight threads per inch on it, 
 would be bored out to just under seven-eighths inch diameter. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. in 
 
 SCREW-CTJTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 There is one important difference, however, between 
 the shape of a turning tool and a screw-cutting tool ; i. e., 
 that the tool point is canted or sloped over at an angle ; 
 this is necessary in the screw-cutting tool to prevent it 
 rubbing against the sides of the thread, owing to the slope 
 or "rake ' of the latter; the rake of a thread depends on 
 the pitch of the screw and the diameter of the work on 
 which it is cut ; thus, a screw of one-eighth pitch cut on a 
 bolt of one-inch diameter, will have greater rake or slope 
 than that of a thread of same pitch cut on a bolt of two 
 inches diameter. 
 
 Fig 71. 
 
 It maybe said, however, that in actual practice it is not 
 necessary to make a separate tool for each pitch of thread 
 when cutting V-threads of reasonably small pitch and 
 diameter, the clearance angle given to the cutting edges of 
 the tool usually being sufficient to allow for slight varia- 
 tions in the rake of the thread. 
 
 It is necessary to have some gauge to which the tool 
 can be ground to the correct shape ; one way is to grind it 
 to fit between the threads of an ordinary plug-tap, but a 
 
112 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 special screw-cutting gauge is more satisfactory ; the one 
 shown in fig. 71 is a useful form ; the V-openings are cut 
 out to the standard angle, 60, and as it is made of light 
 sheet steel, it can be readily applied to the tool when 
 grinding, to test it. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 The method of setting an outside screw-cutting tool 
 in correct position with regard to the work is shown in 
 fig. 71, and fig. 72 shows how the gauge may be used for 
 setting an inside screw-cutting tool. It will be noticed 
 that a steel rule or other flat strip of metal, A, is laid 
 across the end of the work, B, to form a surface for the end 
 of the gauge to rest against. 
 
 Fig. 73- Fi g- 74- 
 
 The form of tool used for cutting square threads is 
 very similar to a parting tool, only that canting, or rake, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 must be provided for in the portion that enters the work, 
 to prevent side rubbing. 
 
 A tool holder of the kind shown in fig. 73 simplifies 
 the making of square-thread tools very much. The tool 
 itself is filed up out of a small round piece of tool-steel, 
 A, which is then fixed in the holder, B, by means of the 
 set-screw, C. The tool-steel being circular in section, can 
 be turned round in the holder before the set-screw is tight- 
 ened, so as to give any desired degree of rake. 
 
 
 Fig- 75- 
 
 Fig. 74 shows the end view of the tool and its holder. 
 
 The width of a tool for cutting a single square thread 
 must be equal to half the pitch of the thread. This will 
 be seen from fig. 75, where A shows the pitch of the 
 thread, which is equal to the thickness of a thread and a 
 space. B shows the width the cutting tool should be, i. es 
 exactly half of A. In cutting a double or triple thread 
 the case is different, as will be seen from fig. 76? which 
 represents a double thread. Here the pitch, A, is equal to 
 
 Fig. 76 
 
1 1 4 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 the thickness of two threads and two spaces, so that the 
 width of the cutting tool, B y must be exactly one-quarter 
 of the pitch, A, 
 
 Fig. 77 shows a double-threaded screw with only the 
 first groove cut. When the second groove is cut in the 
 center of the intervening portions of the work, it leaves the 
 double thread. 
 
 A neat way of finishing off a square thread is to drill 
 a small hole into the work at the end of the thread for the 
 tool to run into, as shown at C, in fig. 75. The diameter 
 of the hole should be slightly larger than the thickness of 
 the tool, and the depth a little greater than the depth of 
 the thread. The lathe must be stopped just before the 
 
 Fig. 77- 
 
 tool reaches the hole, and pulled round by hand for the last 
 half turn or so. As soon as the tool finishes its cut, it is 
 withdrawn and run back again in readiness for taking a 
 fresh cut. 
 
 The process of cutting a screw in the lathe is com- 
 paratively simple. The work being mounted between 
 centers, the tool fastened in the slide-rest, and the proper 
 screw-cutting change wheels placed in gear, the lathe is 
 started and a preliminary cut taken along the work ; the 
 tool is then withdrawn, the clasp-nut disengaged from the 
 leading screw, the carriage is run back to the starting 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 115 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 point, and the tool is set in a little deeper than before ; the 
 clasp being dropped into gear with the leading screw again, 
 a second cut is taken along. 
 
 This series of operations is repeated until the screw is 
 cut to a sufficient depth. There are, however, one or two 
 precautions which must be observed ; in the first place, a 
 screw-cutting tool, by reason of its shape, is weak at the 
 point, and is therefore easily broken ; consequently, the 
 depth of cut taken should not be greater than the tool can 
 easily stand, and this should be regulated in a systematic 
 manner. A simple plan is to mark, with a piece of chalk, 
 the position of the cross-slide handle with which the tool is 
 fed to the work, when the tool is withdrawn after a cut has 
 been taken ; it is wound in again before taking the next 
 cut, so that the chalk mark is in exactly the same position 
 as before ; this shows the position of the tool during the 
 previous cut, so that the operator can now readily judge 
 how much further to turn the handle round to advance the 
 tool sufficiently for the next cut. 
 
 This done, the old chalk mark is wiped out, and a 
 fresh one substituted, the marking being repeated as each 
 successive cut is taken. 
 
 The same guidance can be obtained in a neater way 
 by placing a brass ring or clip over the handle of the 
 slide rest, with a line marked across it, as shown in fig. 78 ; 
 the ring is slipped back after each cut has been set in, so 
 as to bring its mark again opposite to the arrow mark on 
 the boss on the slide-rest, in readiness for the adjustment 
 of the following cut. 
 
 Some lathes are provided with a small graduated disk 
 
n6 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 on the handle which winds the tool in, a fixed pointer 
 being attached to the lathe saddle ; in this case, of course, 
 the simpler expedients already described are not required. 
 There is another important precaution to be taken, 
 viz., that the tool shall follow in the same path at each 
 successive cut. There will be no trouble on this point 
 when cutting any thread which is an exact multiple of the 
 thread on the leading screw, or guide screw, of the lathe. 
 If, for example, the guide screw has four threads per inch, 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 and the screw to be cut has twelve threads per inch, the 
 work will always be in the right position for the tool to 
 follow in the thread when the clasp-nut engages w'tb the 
 leading screw. 
 
 The same will be true if the screw to be cut has eight, 
 sixteen, twenty or any number of threads per inch which 
 is divisible by four. 
 
 The reason for this is that the change-wheel on the 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 117 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 spindle and the change-wheel on the leading screw are in 
 exactly the same proportion to each other as the threads 
 on the leading screw and the screw being cut ; and, since 
 the number of teeth in one wheel is an exact multiple of 
 the teeth in the other wheel, the smaller wheel of the two 
 will always make an exact number of complete revolutions 
 for each revolution of the larger. 
 
 To cut twelve threads per inch, as in the case 
 mentioned above, a wheel with forty teeth would be placed 
 on the spindle, and a wheel with 120 teeth on the leading 
 screw; the spindle would therefore make three complete 
 revolutions for each revolution of the leading screw, and 
 the commencement of the screw-thread on the work would 
 accordingly be brought to exactly the same position in 
 relation to the tool each time the clasp-nut became 
 engaged with the leading screw. 
 
 If, instead of twelve threads to the inch, a screw of 
 ten threads to the inch is to be cut, the wheels required 
 would be forty on the spindle and 100 on the leading screw ; 
 it will be apparent that for each turn of the leading screw 
 the spindle will now make only 2^ revolutions, and the 
 work will therefore be half a revolution behind its proper 
 position, thus causing the point of the tool to come on top 
 of the thread instead of in the groove between the threads, 
 if the clasp-nut be engaged with the leading screw. 
 
 If the leading screw be allowed to make another 
 complete revolution before engaging with the clasp-nut, 
 the work will make another two and a half revolutions, 
 which will bring it into the right position again for start- 
 ing the tool in the proper groove. The work is therefore 
 
n8 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 only in the correct position for starting a cut once during 
 every two revolutions of the leading screw. Similarly, 
 with other threads which are not exact multiples of the 
 thread of the leading screw, it will be found that to bring 
 the tool to the right position the clasp-nut must only be 
 dropped in at certain intermediate positions of the 
 change-wheels. 
 
 To prevent any mistake arising, the usual plan is to 
 stop the lathe before the tool commences its first cut along 
 the work, and chalk a tooth on the spindle wheel and a 
 tooth on the leading screw wheel, placing another chalk 
 mark on the headstock opposite the former and a chalk 
 mark on the lathe bed opposite the latter, the clasp-nut 
 being then engaged with the leading screw. 
 
 The saddle is run back to the starting point after each 
 cut, and as soon as both chalk marks on the wheels come 
 opposite to the stationary marks again at the same instant, 
 the clasp-nut may be engaged with the leading screw, 
 and another cut taken. 
 
 When cutting a double thread, a wheel with an even 
 number of teeth should be selected for the spindle, and 
 a chalk mark should be made on each of two exactly 
 opposite teeth. The space into which one of these teeth 
 falls in the wheel with which it gears should also be 
 marked; when the first thread has been cut, the mandrel 
 wheel should be disengaged and turned through half a 
 revolution, so that the other marked tooth comes opposite 
 the marked space; the wheels are then geared together 
 again, and the second thread can be cut. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 119 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 For a triple thread the spindle wheel should be 
 divided into three, and for a quadruple thread into four, 
 and so on. 
 
 For cutting a right-hand thread, the tool traverses 
 from right to left, and for a left-hand thread it traverses 
 from left to right. 
 
 In the latter case the necessary reversal in the 
 direction of rotation of the leading screw is obtained by 
 inserting an extra wheel in the train of gear wheels between 
 the spindle and the leading screw ; this extra wheel does 
 not in any way affect the speed of rotation of the leading 
 screw; it simply alters the direction in which it revolves. 
 
 A square thread must be finished to exact size with 
 the tool. A V-thread can be finished off with a hand 
 chaser. 
 
 All that is necessary to cut any pitch desired is to 
 arrange gearing to revolve the screw as many times as it 
 has threads to the inch, while the feed stud, or spindle, is 
 making as man)/ revolutions as the desired pitch. 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 Fig. 79 shows an ordinary V-thread, of which the 
 angle is 60. 
 
12O Tke Advanced Machinist* 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 Fig. 80 shows the American Standard thread ; it is the 
 V-thread, with one-eighth of its depth cut off the top and 
 bottom, the angle being 60. 
 
 Fig. 8 1 shows the Whitworth, or English Standard 
 thread ; it is a V-thread, with one-sixth of its depth rounded 
 off the top and bottom the angle being 55. 
 
 The following quotation from Low and Bevis* " Man- 
 ual of Machine Drawing and Design" presents the rela- 
 tive merits of screw-threads shaped according to the Whit- 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 worth and Sellers system respectively, as seen through 
 English eyes. The comparison, however, seems to be fair. 
 Without underrating the good points of the Sellers 
 thread, we believe that the Whitworth thread has its good 
 points also, and that they are not as fully appreciated in 
 this country as they might be: 
 
 "Comparing the 'Whitworth' and 'Sellers' screw- 
 threads, the former is stronger than the latter because of 
 the rounding at the root. The point of the Whitworth 
 thread is also less liable to injury than the Sellers. The 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 12 1 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 form of the Sellers thread is, however, one which is more 
 easily produced with accuracy, in the first place, because it 
 is easier to get with certainty an angle of 60 degrees than 
 an angle of 55 degrees, and, in the second place, because it 
 is easier to make the point and root perfectly parallel to 
 the axis than to ensure a truly circular point and root. 
 The Sellers thread has also a slight advantage in that the 
 normal pressure, and therefore the friction, at every point 
 of the acting surface is the same ; while in the Whitworth 
 thread the normal pressure, and therefore the friction, is 
 greater at the rounded parts. The surface of the Sellers 
 thread will, therefore, wear more uniformly than the surface 
 of the Whitworth thread. The total friction, and also the 
 
 .___v 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 bursting action on the nut, are slightly greater in the 
 Sellers thread than in the Whitworth, because of the 
 greater angle of the V ; it will be seen that for a given 
 diameter of screw the diameter at the bottom of the thread 
 is greater in the case of the Whitworth than in the Sellers. 
 A bolt with a Sellers thread is, therefore, weaker than the 
 same size of bolt with a Whitworth thread. The strength 
 of the Sellers screw is still further reduced on account of 
 the sudden change of the cross-section of the bolt at the 
 bottom of the thread." 
 
122 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CHANGE-WHEELS. 
 
 Cutting a screw in the lathe is a mechanical operation, 
 of which the most important part is the selection of the 
 proper change-wheels. Change-wheels, or change-gears, are 
 the gear-wheels employed to change the revolutions of a 
 lead-screw, or feed motion. 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 There are two ways of arranging the wheels: 1st, 
 with two change-wheels ; 2d, with four change-wheels. 
 
 Fig. 82 shows the two change-wheels, c and d; the 
 middle wheel serves only to connect the two ; c is the 
 wheel on the spindle a; d\$ that on the leading screw. 
 
 Fig. 83 is a side view of this two-change-wheel. 
 
 The distance between the spindle and the leading 
 screw of a lathe does not generally admit of cutting a 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 123 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 screw of more than ten threads to the inch, with two 
 wheels, as the wheel on the leading screw would be too 
 large, and that on the spindle too small. 
 
 In the same way, for cutting coarse-pitched screws, 
 such as half a turn to the inch, the second method is gen- 
 erally used, or else the wheel on the leading screw would 
 
 Fig. 84. Fig. 85. 
 
 be too small, and that on the spindle too large. Thus trie 
 second method is employed for cutting screws of coarser 
 pitch than one-half a thread, and finer than ten threads to 
 the inch, and the first method for screws of a pitch inter- 
 mediate between one-half a thread and ten threads to the 
 inch. 
 
 Fig. 84 shows the second arrangement with four 
 change-wheels, c y d, e, f; c is the wheel on the spindle, d 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CHANGE-WHEELS. 
 
 and e are the wheels on the stud, f is the wheel on the 
 leading screw b. 
 
 Fig. 85 is a side view of the arrangement with four 
 change-wheels. 
 
 The rule for calculating the size of the change-wheels 
 to cut threads of different pitches is really a very simple 
 one, though frequently a source of difficulty to the student. 
 It may be expressed as a simple proportion sum, thus : 
 
 As the pitch of the leading screw is to the pitch of the 
 screw to be cut, so is the number of teeth in the wheel on the 
 spindle to the number of teeth in the wheel on the leading 
 screw. 
 
 Putting this in fractional form, we have : 
 
 Pitch of leading screw Wheel on spindle 
 
 Pitch of screw to be cut Wheel on leading screw. 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 EXAMPLE i. Suppose that the lathe has a leading 
 screw, a, with four threads to the inch ; what wheels will 
 be required to cut a screw, b, having eight threads per 
 inch? 
 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 . It simplifies matters by using the number of threads per 
 inch in the two screws instead of the pitch, as in most cases it enables 
 us to use whole numbers instead of fractions for figures. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 125 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 Now, substituting these figures in the above fractions, 
 
 we get 
 
 4 Wheel on spindle 
 
 8 Wheel on leading screw, 
 
 therefore, any two wheels in the proportions of four to 
 eight will answer the purpose ; if we multiply both these 
 figures by the same number we do not alter the propor- 
 tions at all ; therefore, by multiplying both by five we get 
 twenty and forty, as two suitable wheels, or multiplying 
 by ten we get forty and eighty, or multiplying by fifteen we 
 get sixty and one hundred and twenty, any of which pair 
 will give the desired result. 
 
 Selecting the last pair, put the sixty wheel on the 
 spindle and the one hundred and twenty wheel on the 
 leading screw, and gear the two together by inserting an 
 intermediate wheel, which may be whatever size will fit it 
 best. 
 
 EXAMPLE 2. Suppose a screw of eleven threads per 
 inch is to be cut in the same lathe, the leading screw has 
 four threads to the inch, as before, then the proportion 
 required between the wheels is ^ T , so that (multiplying by 
 ten), a forty and a one hundred and ten wheel will be 
 correct, or (multiplying by five), a twenty and a fifty-five 
 wheel, or any wheels having the same ratio. 
 
 If a fractional number of threads is to be cut, such as 
 9^ threads per inch, exactly the same plan is adopted. 
 The proportion is 4:9!-; multiplying both by ten, we get 
 forty and ninty-five as suitable wheels. 
 
 Similarly, if the leading screw have two threads per 
 inch, and it is desired to cut twelve threads per inch, the 
 
126 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CHANGE-WHEELS. 
 
 proportion is 2:12. Multiplying both by ten, we get 
 twenty and one hundred and twenty as being suitable 
 wheels. 
 
 It is sometimes difficult to measure the exact number 
 of threads per inch in places where there is a fractional part 
 of a thread included, as, for instance, five and a quarter 
 threads per inch. It is then better to measure such a 
 length of the screw as contains an exact number of 
 threads, and compare it with the number of threads in a 
 similar length of the leading screw. A screw with five 
 and a quarter threads per inch will have twenty-one 
 complete threads in a distance of four inches. If the 
 leading screw has four threads to the inch, it will clearly 
 have sixteen complete threads in four inches. Therefore 
 the relation between the two screws is 16:21. Multiplying 
 both of these by five, we get eighty and one hundred and 
 five as the wheels necessary to cut such a thread. 
 
 The calculations so far refer to a simple train of 
 wheels. Cases frequently arise, however, especially with 
 fine pitches, in which the wheels calculated in this way 
 are not available. If the leading screw has four threads to 
 the inch, and it is required to cut a screw of forty threads 
 to the inch, the proportion is 4:40. Multiplying both by 
 five, we get twenty and two hundred as the necessary 
 wheels, but in all probality the lathe to be operated is not 
 fitted with a two hundred wheel. A compound train of 
 wheels, that is, four change-wheels, as shown in fig. 84, 
 must therefore be selected. 
 
 To calculate these, proceed as follows : The propor- 
 tion, as already stated is -fa. Split each number up into 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 127 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 two separate numbers, which, if multiplied together, will 
 produce the original number, thus /^"f X*f Multiplying 
 each of these numbers by 10, we get f g-Xff. This means 
 that a wheel on the spindle, gearing into a 50 wheel on 
 the intermediate stud, and another 20 wheel on the inter- 
 mediate stud, gearing into an 80 wheel on the leading 
 screw, will give the desired result. 
 
 It will be more easily understood if the student 
 considers the fact that the first 20 wheel, c, gearing into 
 the 50 wheel, d, reduces the speed in the proportion of 
 2^/2 to I, and the second 20 wheel, e, gearing into the 80 
 wheel,/, on the leading screw again reduces this speed in 
 the proportion of 4 to I, making a total reduction in speed 
 of 10 to I, which is the proportion between the thread to 
 be cut and the thread on the leading screw, i. e., 4 to 40. 
 
 A few other examples are worked out to assist the 
 reader to thoroughly grasp the rule. 
 
 EXAMPLE i. Leading screw two threads per inch, 
 required the wheels to cut twenty-five threads per inch. 
 
 2__2Xi 
 25 5X5 
 
 Multiplying each pair of numbers by the same figure, 
 
 2oX 10 
 
 we get as one set of wheels, or using different mul- 
 
 tipliers we get as another set of wheels, either of 
 75 /N i ^5 
 
 which will cut the desired threads. The respective 
 wheels may be identified by comparing the above fractions 
 with the following : 
 
 Driving wheel on spindle X driving wheel on stud 
 driven wheel on stud X driven wheel on leading screw. 
 
128 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CHANGE WHEELS. 
 
 The figures in the fractions of all the examples corre- 
 spond to the wheel here indicated in the same position. 
 
 EXAMPLE 2. Leading screw two threads per inch, 
 required the wheels to cut nineteen threads per inch. 
 _2_ 2X1 20X40 
 19 (X2 
 
 as one set of wheels, or - s^ as another set of wheels. 
 
 95X70 
 
 EXAMPLE 3. Leading screw four threads per inch, 
 required the wheels to cut thirty-three threads per inch. 
 
 4 2X2 40X20 
 "SS^SXII = 6oxno 
 
 as one set of wheels, or .5 - as another set of wheels, 
 
 45X110 
 
 either of which would do. 
 
 Ex. 4. Leading screw four threads per inch, required 
 the wheels to cut seventeen and a half threads per inch. 
 
 If there are seventeen and a half threads in one inch 
 of the screw to be cut, there are thirty-five threads in two 
 inches. In two inches of the leading screw there are eight 
 
 Q 
 
 threads, so that the proportion is 
 
 8^2X4^20X40 
 3 5~~ ~ 
 
 as one set of wheels, or ^ -- as another set, which will 
 
 100x105 
 
 cut the desired pitch. 
 
 If any doubts exist as to the correctness of the calcu- 
 lations for a set of wheels, the result may easily be tested 
 by multiplying the number of teeth in the driving wheels 
 together and the number of teeth in the driven wheels 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 129 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 together, and placing these totals one above the other, in 
 the form of a fraction. Then reduce this fraction to its 
 lowest terms, and the figures obtained should correspond 
 with the ratio of the leading screw to the screw to be cut, 
 expressed in its lowest terms. Thus, to prove the second 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 wheels obtained in example (i), we have thirty and twenty- 
 five as drivers, and 75 and 125 as the driven wheels. 
 
 30X25=75o,and 75x125=9,375. 
 
 9375 
 
 reduced to its low- 
 
 est term= which represents the ratio of the leading 
 
130 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CHANGE-WHEELS. 
 
 screw (two threads per inch) to the screw to be cut 
 (twenty-five threads per inch). 
 
 It should be remembered that the u drivers " are 
 those wheels which impart motion, and the " driven '' 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 Figs. 89-98. 
 
 wheels are those which receive motion. The wheel on the 
 spindle is a " driver," while the wheel on the leading 
 screw is a " driven " wheel ; the wheel on the intermediate 
 stud, which gears with the spindle wheel, is a " driven " 
 wheel, and the other wheel, on the intermediate stud, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 131 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 which imparts motion to the wheel on the leading screw, 
 is a *' driver." 
 
 Fig. 88 shows a specially devised tool in operation, 
 cutting a screw-thread on the lathe ; the tool consists, as 
 will be seen, of a disc of steel having ten distinct teeth on 
 its rim , these teeth are graded for cutting the thread in 
 distinct operations of the tool. 
 
 The cutter is mounted on a hand-sliding rest, which is 
 bolted to the ordinary lathe carriage, and the tool is 
 adjusted to each cut by the hand lever. Fig. 99 shows a 
 separate view of the cutter. 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 Figs. 89-98 show a screw as it would appear after each 
 cut has been performed. Commencing at No. I, the thread 
 is finished in ten trips, each of which removes an exact 
 depth of stock. The first tooth, No. I, makes a shallow 
 cut the full width of the thread ; each following tooth cuts 
 deeper (as well as narrower), until the last one (No. 10), 
 with its cutting point, does the finishing. 
 
 When fine work, such as for taps, etc., is required, the 
 pawl is thrown back out of action, the micrometer adjust- 
 ment used, and another trip taken across the thread. 
 Advancing the lever one hole in the micrometer adjustment 
 
132 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CHANGE- WHEELS. 
 
 brings the cutting point a fraction of a thousandth of an 
 inch forward. Successive trips with advance of lever will 
 give the finest finish possible to a thread. 
 
 The heel of the tooth in action rests upon a stop, so 
 that it can be ground until but an eighth of an inch in 
 thickness, and still retain the full strength and power to do 
 the work ; a square is employed against the face of the 
 cutting disc, and the thread angles are ground from this 
 face. 
 
 When once set, neither tool nor cross-slide adjustment 
 need to be changed in cutting the screw or any number of 
 screws in exact duplication. 
 
 This form of tool requires very little grinding, as the 
 point of the tool is reserved and only used in the finishing 
 or last cut. 
 
 Ingenuity on the part of the lathe builders has 
 resulted in the design of a simple contrivance by which the 
 gears which are mounted under the head can be instantly 
 set to cut any required thread at the will of the operator, 
 without delay of calculating or of changing the gears. 
 The mechanism consists of a set of gear wheels, usually 
 ten, mounted on a shaft called the " change gear shaft," 
 which is placed in the bed under the headstock of the 
 lathe. 
 
 By an arrangement consisting of a sliding or tumbling 
 gear, any of these ten fixed gears can be brought into 
 operation ; these combine with a set of intermediate gears 
 located outside of the head, also varied in their arrange- 
 ment by a lever mechanism, to vary the speed of the lead 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 133 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 screw to cut any of the following forty threads or feeds 
 per inch. 
 
 Fig. 100 shows an index plate for the ' change gear 
 shaft "; this is usually attached to the front of the lathe, 
 " handy " to the two levers to which reference is made. 
 
 THDslKlMOB 
 
 THDS[KNOB 
 
 THDS]KNOB 
 
 THDG]KNOB 
 
 08- 2 
 
 Q 2_, 
 
 -4X* 2 
 
 a ' C 
 
 ^IQ C3 
 
 f 9Xa 3 
 
 434 3 
 
 2^4 2 ^ 
 
 20 ^ 
 
 IO -4 
 
 5 *0- 
 
 2!^ -4- 
 
 22 5 
 
 1 1 5 
 
 5Xa 5 
 
 2% 5 
 
 23 e 
 
 1 l> 6 
 
 5 3 A 6 
 
 2% e 
 
 2^ 7 
 
 12 7 
 
 G 7 
 
 3 7 
 
 2e e 
 
 13 e 
 
 6V B 
 
 3>4 B 
 
 2Q 9 
 
 1-4 O 
 
 7 Q 
 
 3X 2 Q 
 
 30 10 
 
 15 IO 
 
 7>fe IO 
 
 354 10 
 
 32 1 1 
 
 16 1 1 
 
 8 1 1 
 
 -4- f 1 
 
 D 
 
 80To4O 
 
 R EIEIDS 
 
 CP 
 
 10 To 5 
 
 <4OTo 20 
 
 20 To IO 
 
 18-Inch Index Plate. 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Should the operator desire to cut 12 
 threads per inch, he engages the sliding gear on the lead 
 screw intermediates, opposite the table showing 20 to 10 
 threads per inch, and then places the lever in front of the 
 lathe head, which carries the sliding or tumbling gear into 
 the hole marked " 7," as indicated in the index plate 
 opposite 12, the number of required threads; the tool is 
 then ready for operation. 
 
 The gears required are obtained by moving two levers 
 only ; one being on the intermediate gear of the lead screw, 
 the other beins outside the headstock. 
 
134 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CHANGE- WHEELS. 
 
 /TH. TOOTH. 
 
 O TOOTH 
 
 TOOTH. 
 
 Section of seven-pitch V-thread, 
 enlarged four times, showing the 
 regular ten cuts taken by the 
 Rivet-Dock thread tool shown in 
 fig. 88. 
 
 Figs. loi-iio. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 135 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE. 
 
 bo 
 
 s - & 2 
 
 c/T O -fl 
 
 <L> 6 >* 
 
 11* 
 
 O C QJ 
 
 bo o T3 
 g 3 "g 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 O -5 
 
 J3 bo rt 
 
 ^ o S 
 
 C ^ <M 
 
 ' -3 
 
 3 "O 
 
 u <U 
 
 tl 
 
 OJ 
 
 h 
 
 en ^ 
 
 !|! 
 
 jj O rj 
 
 rt 
 
 X *3 
 
 <u o 
 
 c e 
 
 * c 
 
 en 
 
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 J 
 
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 6 
 
 fS ^ 
 
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 8 
 
 rj rt C 
 "Z3 o o 
 
 "> <u 
 
 o^l 
 
 S S * 
 rt O en 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CHANGE-WHEELS. 
 
 The gauge, fig. 112, is used as a standard for grinding 
 tools to cut threads according to the United States Standard. 
 
 The angles are 60 degrees, and the flat surfaces at top 
 and bottom of threads are equal to one eighth of the 
 pitch. 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 Fig. 113 shows a center gauge of United States 
 Standard, 60 degrees ; the method of setting a screw cut- 
 ting tool by its use is shown in illustrations, figs. 114-116, 
 on page 1.37. 
 
 This gauge is also used for a guide in grinding screw 
 cutting-tools. The table on the gauge (see full size cut) 
 is used for determining the sizes of tap drills for V-threads 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 '37 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE 
 
 and shows in thousandths of an inch the double depth of 
 thread of taps and screws of the pitches most commonly 
 used. 
 
 Tlg.l 
 
 Figs. 114-116. 
 
 Noa E. In fig. /, at A, is shown the manner of gauging the angle 
 to which a lathe centre should be turned ; at B, the angle to which a 
 screw thread cutting tool should be ground ; and at C, the correctness 
 of the angle of a screw thread already cut. 
 
 In Fig. 2 the shaft with a screw thread is supposed to be held 
 between the centres of a lathe. By applying the gauge as shown at D, 
 or E, the thread tool can be set at right angles to the shaft and then 
 fastened in place by the screw in tool post, thereby avoiding imperfect 
 or leaning threads. 
 
 In Fig. j, at /''and G, the manner of setting the tool for cutting 
 inside threads is illustrated. 
 
138 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 139 
 
 BORING OPERATIONS. 
 
 The operation of boring is the enlarging and trueing 
 of holes already formed, and differs from drilling, which 
 applies to making holes in solid stock. 
 
 Boring can be divided into two classes: i, horizontal ; 
 2, vertical Horizontal boring is done in a lathe in two 
 ways: I, the work rotates and the cutting tool is stationary; 
 2, the work is stationary and the cutting tool rotates. 
 
 Vertical boring is generally performed in special 
 machines ; in light work, the cutting tool revolves, as in 
 drilling, the work being stationary ; in heavy boring, the 
 work is revolved, and the cutting tool is stationary except 
 for feed motions. 
 
 Vertical boring machines having suitable automatic 
 traverse for the cutting tool are largely used for turning 
 and surfacing work which rotates ; these machines are 
 known as boring and turning mills, and may be described 
 as revolving planing machines. 
 
 The most simple form of boring in a lathe is done on 
 the chuck or face-plate, to which the work is fixed and 
 rotated to a stationary tool in the saddle or carriage. 
 When the hole is deep and the tool has to project beyond 
 the holder, it is liable to spring, and the work itself, being 
 overhung on the headstock, is liable to jar ; in such cases, 
 the work is more advantageously attached to the carriage 
 of the lathe, and a bar used, as shown in fig. 1 18. This is 
 designed to pass through the work and revolve between 
 
140 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 BORING OPERATIONS. 
 
 the lathe centers, as shown in figs. 120 and 122, the carriage 
 feeding the work to the rotating cutter. 
 
 In some cases, it is found needful to fix the work with- 
 out any motion, the boring bar having both rotary and 
 feed motion combined ; such a boring bar is shown in fig. 
 119. AT is a stout, strong bar, usually of cast-iron, because 
 it does not " spring " as readily as wrought-iron ; the cut- 
 ting tool L is fixed to a sleeve H sliding on bar K b* 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 means of the feed screw actuated by the handle G, or auto- 
 matically by the provision / at the other end, as shown ; 
 the work to be operated on is securely fixed between the 
 clamps or bearings F and J, the splined boring-bar K is 
 rotated by the worm-wheel E, which is operated by the 
 worm D connected to the driving-pulley or sheave A. 
 
 This is a portable tool, useful for boring cylinders, etc., 
 without removing them from their beds, as it can be fixed 
 at any angle or position ; it may also be used between the 
 centers of the lathe instead of the plain boring bar shown 
 in fig. 1 1 8. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 141 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 Special horizontal boring machines are made which 
 differ from the ordinary lathe in that the work-table is con- 
 structed with three movements, one being in a vertical and 
 two in the horizontal plane ; when the work has been set 
 vertically, the work-table is moved crosswise and lengthwise 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 until the horizontal setting has been found ; no blocking of 
 any kind is needed ; such an arrangement is shown in fig. 
 1 20. 
 
 Boring of taper holes in a lathe is illustrated by the 
 arrangement shown in fig. 122 ; this is used when neither 
 attachment, compound rest nor reamers are available ; A 
 is the headstock of the lathe, and W W the piece of work 
 mounted on the face-plate. 
 
 Now, set over the tail-stock B the same as if turning^ 
 an outside taper the same as the hole to be bored. Fit up 
 a boring-bar F, of as large diameter as practicable, with a 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 BORING OPERATIONS. 
 
 key-way G, and a traveling-head D carrying a cutter. Con- 
 nect this traveling-head to the cross-carriage of the lathe C 
 by the link E. Set a lathe-dog (see figs. 123 and 124) on 
 
 Figs. 121 and 122. 
 
 the outer end of the bar to prevent the bar from turning. 
 Use the usual power longitudinal feed of the lathe, and 
 adjust the cutter in the traveling-head for size the same as 
 
 Figs. 123 and 124. 
 
 for cylinder boring. This is a satisfactory way of taper 
 boring where the conditions are suitable for the method. 
 
144 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 THE BORING MILL. 
 
 The boring mill is essentially a vertical face-plate lathe, 
 without the defects of the horizontal construction, i. e., the 
 
 Fig- 125. 
 
 difficulty of setting and securing the work, and the necessity 
 pf heavy overhanging parts ? etc, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 145 
 
 BORING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 125 shows a boring mill, in which the horizontal 
 table B is driven by internal bevel-gearing from a belt-cone 
 K, the power being increased by external spur-gearing. 
 The bed A is cast in one piece and well ribbed and braced 
 for all stresses ; the " housings " M are of hollow section, 
 having wide palms where connected to the bed, to which 
 they are fixed by bolts passing through reamed holes ; a 
 cross-brace N, at the top, stiffens the whole structure ; the 
 cross-rails c, c, are of box-girder form, having wide slide 
 surfaces for the saddles b, b, and for the " housings;" power 
 gears Q are used for elevating the cross-rails ; the saddles 
 b, b, are made "right" and "left," to permit the tool-bars 
 E, E, to come close together ; these tool-bars are octagonal 
 in section, held in adjustable capped bearings, and will 
 swing to any angle, being counter-weighted in all positions, 
 and having convenient adjustment by racks H, H, and 
 hand pinion wheel /, which have a power feed at all angles 
 by friction nut J, J. 
 
 P, P, are the gears for elevating the cross- rails ; the 
 friction disc X communicates motion to rod R through the 
 friction wheel V, which gives the quickest possible adjust- 
 ment by handwheel U while running ; a system of double 
 gears at the end of the cross-rail gives vertical and horizon- 
 tal traverse feeds to the tool ; these are instantly reversible 
 by sliding any one of the four slip gears shown in sketch. 
 
 The tool holders F, F, fig. 125, are solid steel forgings, 
 held in the tool-bars by steel shanks and keys ; these tool 
 
 NOTE. The names of the parts and the above description are 
 furnished by the makers of this admirable tool. 
 
146 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 BORING MILL. 
 
 holders will grip tools in any position, and are easily remov- 
 able for the insertion of cutter-bars or special tools, for 
 which purpose the right-hand bar is set exactly central with 
 the table ; the counterweight acts at all angles through the 
 wide bearing surface; in addition, the table has an annular, 
 angular bearing which increases the bearing surface and 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 gives steadiness of motion ; it has also a self-centering tend- 
 ency, so that the combined weight of the table and spindle, 
 as well as that of the work upon the table, tends to pre- 
 serve and not destroy the alignment. 
 
 The advantages in the boring mill are that the work 
 lies upon the horizontal table, and the total weight of the 
 table and the work is distributed on a large angular bearing 
 provided for that purpose, as shown in section, fig. 126, 
 which gives rigidity and smooth cutting qualities, thus 
 avoiding all jar or trembling, which occur in overhung 
 lathe?. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 147 
 
 BORING MILLS. 
 
 Vertical boring machines are largely taking the place 
 of planing machines for doing " surface " work. The contin- 
 uous motion of the boring mill gives economy in time 
 saved ; an additional advantage is that a cutting-tool on a 
 circular surface, when once it commences the cut, is contin- 
 uous, whereas, in the planing machine, the tool gets into 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 and out of the work at each stroke, often causing a ridge 
 at the commencement, or a break-off at the termination, of 
 the cut. 
 
 Fig. 127 shows a valve, held by angle-plates on the 
 table, being faced or operated by two tools. 
 
148 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TURNING AND BORING. 
 
 Fig. 117 shows a boring mill driven by an external 
 bevel-ring attached to the table. In many boring mills, an 
 internal worm-wheel, geared into a worm on the cone spin- 
 dle, is used, instead of chain L and the sheaves S, S, and 
 does not pull the swinging tool-bar over, nor does it inter-' 
 fere with the moving saddles. 
 
 A section through the center of the revolving table is] 
 shown in fig. 126, the center spindle being of large diameter 
 giving toothed gear the advantages claimed for the worm 
 gearing, i. e., steadiness in motion, and the table is closer 
 to the floor level, thus being more convenient for handling 
 heavy work. 
 
 When worm gearing is adopted, it is necessary that it 
 and the thrust-bearing should run in a flood of oil, which 
 reduces the friction to a minimum. 
 
 On page 149 are shown a set of turning tools for gen- 
 eral use in a boring mill. 
 
 Fig. 128 being " a skiveing tool." 
 
 Fig. 129 is "a round-nose tool." 
 
 Fig. 130 is " a boring tool." 
 Fig. 131 is "a hog-nose roughing tool." 
 Fig. 132 is "a side tool." 
 
 Fig. 133 is "a broad finishing tool." 
 
 On page 1 50 are shown a set of boring tools for fin- 
 ishing cored-holes. Fig. 134 is an adjustable reamer with 
 floating shank, the arrangement of which is shown in sec- 
 tion in fig. 135. Fig. 136 is a boring bar with an adjust- 
 able cutter. Fig. 137 is a four-lipped roughing drill. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 149 
 
 BORING-MACHINE TOOLS. 
 
 Fig. 128. Fig. 129. Fig. 130. 
 
 Fig. 131- Fig. 132. Fig. 133. 
 
150 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 BORING MACHINE TOOLS. 
 
 A boring mill is practically an endless or continuous 
 planer, that is, a planer without reversing. The convenience 
 and facility with which work can be set on the vertical 
 table, and the ease with which pieces can be secured, are 
 apparent, the weight of the piece being on the machine 
 and not on the securing device. 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 Fig. 136. Fig. 137. 
 
 Irregular shapes, such as eccentric discs, offset valves, 
 brackets, etc., require no counterbalance in the boring mill, 
 thus saving the time adjusting counterweights, which are 
 seldom satisfactory on the overhung lathe, even when 
 specially designed. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 153 
 
 PLANING OPERATIONS, 
 
 The operation of planing constitutes straight-line cut- 
 ting by means of a planer, a shaper, a slotting machine or 
 a key-way cutter, with a steel cutting tool. In the planer, 
 the piece to be planed is given a straight-line motion to a 
 stationary tool ; while in the shaper and slotting machine, 
 the work is stationary and the cutting tool is given a 
 straight-line motion over the surface of the former. The 
 planer is a very important tool to the engine-builder, as 
 well as others, being instrumental in the production of 
 engine and lathe beds, slides, parallel pieces, etc. 
 
 The work to be planed is securely fixed to the table 
 of the machine, and is moved backwards and forwards by 
 means of suitable gear, the cutting tool being held in the 
 tool box, mounted upon the cross-slide. 
 
 The devices feeding the cutting tool, and regulating 
 the traverse of the table in planing machines, are of differ- 
 ent forms; the general practice is I, the employment of 
 two driving belts, one for the forward and the other for 
 the backward movement of the table ; 2, the feeds are 
 actuated by independent frictional devices, the tappets on 
 the carriage being employed only to shift the belts; 
 3, narrow driving belts moving at a high speed to facilitate 
 shifting on the pulleys. 
 
 Also, the rack and pinion movement is employed in 
 nearly all planers to give the traverse to the table. 
 
154 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 155 
 
 PIvANING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 139 shows a heavy planer designed to plane IO 
 feet long, 34 inches high and 34 inches wide. The cabinets 
 A support the bed B, which has parallel, V-shaped grooves 
 D, on its upper side. Drip cups, to receive the overflow 
 oil from these grooves, are shown at C. The table F is 
 moved by rack and gear ; on its under side are parallel V- 
 shaped strips, which are fitted to slide smoothly in the sim- 
 ilarly-shaped grooves D, on the bed ; the wipers E contain 
 felt to filter the oil entering the grooves, and also tend to 
 keep them clean. 
 
 The long dog G strikes the rocker arm //", which has a 
 removable arm for hand use ; this rocker arm, through a 
 system of mechanism, shifts the driving belts, reversing the 
 motion of the table ; X is the back or short dog ; the cutter- 
 head is on the cross-bar and consists of the tool-post /, 
 where the cutting tool is clamped ; /is the clapper or tool 
 box, fastened to the vertical slide, or feed regulator, Z, and 
 swivels to any angle, being attached to the shoe N t which 
 slides on the cross-bar K, thus giving the cross-feed or 
 "advance" of the tool. 
 
 The down-feed or depth of cut is regulated by the 
 handle shown over slide L. The head-lift bevel pinion O 
 raises or lowers the cross-bar K, being geared to head-lift 
 shaft P, on which is the spur-wheel Q, geared into pinion 
 S, operated by the pulley R and belt W, driven from the 
 pulley shaft Z. 
 
 The front post, or housings, V, are of box-form in 
 section, and are bolted to the sides of the bed, being con- 
 nected at the top by a substantial box-shaped cross-girt. 
 The pulley-shaft Z is driven by two driving belts; the 
 
156 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PLANING MACHINES. 
 
 forward, or cutting belt, T y and the backward, or return 
 belt, U\ the belts being moved on the fast and loose pul- 
 leys by belt shifter F. The backing pulleys A A are 
 shown in the illustration the forward, or cutting motion 
 pulleys, are on the other side of the bed. 
 
 The friction box B B revolves through an angle which 
 is varied by turning the worm shaft D D, which moves a 
 segment having stop-lugs, so placed that the lugs on the 
 back of the friction box strike them, thereby actuating the 
 cross-feed. E E is the center gear which meshes with the 
 table-rack. 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 Planing machines run at a linear velocity of 15 to 20 
 feet per minute. The depth of cut depends on the 
 material. The average cutting speeds for the various 
 metals are as follows: Brass, 30 feet; gun metal, 25 ; cast 
 iron, 15 to 20; wrought iron, 16; steel, 12. For general 
 work the cross-feed, or advance of the tool should be from 
 12 to 14 cuts per inch for roughing cuts. The finishing 
 cuts should be done with a broad tool, advancing from 
 one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch with each cut. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 157 
 
 PLANING OPERATIONS. 
 
 The tools used in planing are very similar in form to 
 lathe-turning tools a front tool used for roughing, a side 
 tool for edge work, and a spring tool for flat work or sur- 
 facing. In fig. 140, A is the cutting angle, B the angle of 
 relief or clearance, and C the tool angle. 
 
 The " cutting angle " for cast iron is 70, for wrought 
 iron, 65, for brass, 80, according to the table below. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 Cast Iron. Wrought Iron. Brass. 
 
 Cutting angle 70 65 80 
 
 Clearance 3 4 3 
 
 Tool angle 67 61 77 
 
 One cutter head is shown in fig. 139, but it is quite 
 common to have two cutter heads or clapper boxes, as 
 shown in front view fig. 138, on the cross-bar, and in large 
 machines there are, in addition, " side-heads," one on each 
 housing, making four. All these heads will swivel to any 
 angle. 
 
 Fig. 141 shows the arrangement of the cutter or cross- 
 bar head which moves on the cross-bar parallel with the 
 work table or platen.* 
 
 A is the tool-post-apron, sometimes called the clapper- 
 box, being hinged so that the tool can lift upon the return 
 or backward stroke ; this prevents the tool edge rubbing 
 on the work ; B is the swivel apron ; C the " slider " which 
 carries the apron ; D is the swing frame or swivel head ; 
 E is the saddle which slides on the cross-bar. 
 
 * Platen is a very old word meaning a covering plate ; the more 
 modern definition for this is ' ' table." 
 
158 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PLANING MACHINES. 
 
 The cross-bar heads are operated by self-acting mech- 
 anisms both in the cross and angular feeding, the side- 
 heads being fitted with vertical self-acting feed motions. 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 Planing machine tables are provided with bolt-holes 
 and T-slots or grooves on the surface for fixing the work, 
 which is usually bolted direct to the table. This cannot 
 always be done, on account of the shape of the work. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 159 
 
 PLANING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 142 shows an open-side planer; this tool is 
 adapted to accommodate work when bolted to the table, 
 of a greater width than the ordinary planer ; the cross-vail 
 or beam is a right-angle casting having a vertical leg with 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 a very long bearing on the front face of the post ; the 
 horizontal arm is supported at the back by a heavy brace 
 bolted securely to it, this arrangement insuring stiffness 
 and stability ; the brace has a sliding bearing on the side 
 
i6o 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 CHUCKS. 
 
 and at the rear of the post, being rigidly clamped to it 
 when set in position for planing. The beam and brace 
 are raised and lowered by power. 
 
 Fig. 143 shows a swivel chuck which is sometimes 
 
 Fig. 143- 
 
 used ; it is bolted on the table and travels with it, the work 
 being held between the jaws as in a vise. Frequently 
 work has to be held as on a lathe ; for this purpose two 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 " planer centers '' are used, as shown in fig. 144. These 
 are bolted on the table; one of these is shown with a 
 " dividing index." 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 161 
 
 PLANING MACHINE TOOLS. 
 
 The following illustrations show the tools in general 
 use in planing machines. The name of each tool is given 
 below in Note. 
 
 Figs. 145-156. 
 
 NOTE. No. i, Left-hand Side Tool ; No. 2, Right-hand Side 
 Tool ; No. 3, Left-hand Diamond-point Tool ; No. 4, Right-hand 
 Diamond-point Tool ; No. 5, Broad-nose, or Stocking Tool ; No. 6, 
 Scaling Tool ; No. 7, Right-hand Siding Tool ; No. 8, Left hand Siding 
 Tool ; No. 9, Finishing Tool, for corners ; No. 10, Cutting-off Tool ; 
 No. n, Left-hand Bevel Tool ; No. 12, Right-hand Bevel Tool. 
 
362 
 
 The Advanced Machinist, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 163 
 
 SHAPING MACHINES. 
 
 The shaper, or shaping machine, is a straight-line 
 cutter of the planer class ; they perform a large variety of 
 operations formerly executed by hand-chipping and filing. 
 
 In this machine the work is held stationary, the tool 
 being given a reciprocating cutting motion. 
 
 The feed-motion of shaping machines may be commu- 
 nicated either to the cutting-tool or to the work ; when the 
 feed is given to the cutting-tool the machine is described 
 as a traveling-head shaper ; such an arrangement is shown 
 in fig. 157. 
 
 More generally and in all small shapers the feed is 
 communicated to the work-table, as shown in fig. 158, the 
 ram or tool-head having no side travel, the feed motion 
 being given to the table carrying the work. 
 
 The shaper is a useful and handy tool, and is made 
 in a variety of forms for special purposes, the work ranging 
 from key grooves in shafting to planing valves and steam 
 ports in engine cylinders. 
 
 Fig. 157 shows a usual type of traveling-head shaper; 
 the tool-head is carried in a saddle having variable self- 
 acting feed in either direction ; it has also a rapid move- 
 ment along the bed by hand through a rack and pinion, or 
 in some cases it is operated by a powerful square-cut 
 screw ; the tool has ratchet down-feed motion ; it can be 
 swiveled and will act at an angle ; two tables are provided, 
 
 NOTE Shaping machines are generally run at a tool speed of 155 
 to 20 feet per minute. 
 
164 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PLANING OPERATIONS. 
 
 each having a hand movement along the bed, and also a 
 vertical adjustment by screws ; one table has, generally, a 
 horizontal surface for clamping work, the other being pro- 
 vided with horizontal and vertical slotted surfaces for 
 clamping the work in any desired position. 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 For forming teeth in spur-wheels cut out of solid 
 blanks, shapers of special design are made, of which an 
 example is given in fig. 159 it is the "Fellows' Gear 
 Shaper," 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 165 
 
 SHAPING MACHINES. 
 
 A t B, C, are change gears ; D, the " module " or pitch 
 gear, the number of teeth of which must have a fixed ratio 
 with the teeth of the cutter ; E, feed trip ; F, lower index ; 
 G y apron ; //, chip pan ; /, work arbor ; /, cutter ; K, cutter 
 
 Q 
 
 Fig. 159- 
 
 slide ; Z, work support ; M, saddle binder ; JV, saddle 
 adjustment ; O, upper index ; P, adjustment for the posi- 
 tion of cutter; Q, to rotate cutter; R, driving crank; 
 S, pilot wheel ; J 1 , locking pin ; 7, apron lever ; V, detach- 
 able lever ; W, worm adjustment. 
 
1 66 The Advanced Machinist, 
 
 PLANING OPERATIONS. 
 
 The Fellows Gear Shaper goes back to first principles 
 and generates its tooth form from flat and circular surfaces 
 which can be made absolutely true and can be proven to 
 be so. 
 
 The work is done automatically, by a circular cutter 
 of the correct pitch. 
 
 Fig. 1 60. 
 
 An example of the work produced is shown in fig. 160. 
 This is effected as follows : The blank to be cut is securely 
 fixed on the work arbor and the machine being started, 
 the cutter reciprocating vertically on its center line 
 is fed towards the blank, and cuts its way to the 
 proper depth ; at this point both cutter and blank begin to 
 revolve, the cutter maintaining its reciprocating motion ; 
 this revolution of the cutter and blank is obtained by 
 external mechanism, which insures that the movement 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 167 
 
 SHAPING MACHINES. 
 
 shall be as though the cutter and blank were two complete 
 gears in correct mesh; fig. 161 shows a section through the 
 centers of blank and cutter which will explain the process 
 of cutting an external-toothed gear wheel ; internal gears 
 can be cut with equal ease and regularity. 
 
 Fig. 161 shows the action of the gear cutter, also 
 each cut and the wedge form of the gear shaper chips. 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 
 The combined result of rotary and reciprocatory 
 motions is that the cutter teeth generate conjugate teeth 
 in the blanks which mesh correctly with the cutter teeth 
 and with each other. 
 
 Fig. 162 illustrates a device for setting planing or 
 shaper tools ; it consists of a body containing a spirit level, 
 the bubble of which appears through an elongated opening 
 
1 68 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 DEVICE FOR SETTING TOOI^S. 
 
 formed in the top plate, attached to the body and provided 
 at its side with linear graduations having their zero points 
 coinciding with the zero point of the bubble. The body is 
 provided with a downwardly extending web terminating in 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
 legs, extending at an angle of 150 degrees and having their 
 apex in vertical alignment with the bubble of the spirit 
 level. The outer faces of the legs are provided with linear 
 graduations, reading from the apex outwardly. 
 
 NOTE. The figure shows the instrument on the shaft and the tool 
 in position in the tool post ready to cut a keyseat. For setting a 
 square- nose tool in the shaper or planer, to cut a keyseat or groove, 
 the operator places the instrument upon the shaft with the legs touch- 
 ing the sides of the shaft and turns the instrument until the bubble of 
 the spirit level is at zero. The planer tool is then brought to the cor- 
 rect position by aid of the graduations and is set with its edge parallel 
 with the top surface of the instrument. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. i6< 
 
 THE SLOTTING MACHINE. 
 
 The slotting machine may be classed as a vertical 
 shaper, or planing machine ; it performs straight line 
 cutting; the tool, as in the shaper, receives the motion, 
 the bed or table being stationary, except for feed adjust- 
 ment. 
 
 There are many varieties of slotters, both light and 
 heavy ; the small machines are usually crank-driven, the 
 larger ones have steel racks and pinions driven by a train 
 of spur gears, with shifting belts ; for slotting heavy forge 
 work, especially cutting propeller shaft cranks out of the 
 solid, they are built of great cutting power. 
 
 The principal features aimed at in all, are smooth 
 running and convenient handling of the work. 
 
 The advantageous features of the slotter are, first, that 
 the lay-out of the work is always visible, the line to be 
 worked to being on top where the tool begins to cut, 
 instead of where it finishes the cut as in the case of the 
 shaper ; and secondly, that there are three feeds longi- 
 tudinal, cross and circular all with a wide range. 
 
 For the slotting of interior surfaces, and the planing of 
 such exterior surfaces as for one reason or another cannot 
 be done advantageously on the planer or turned in the 
 lathe, and where the pieces are of medium or large size, 
 the slotter is a necessity. 
 
 For cutting keyways in wheels, etc., the slotting 
 machine has no equal and in addition nearly all descrip- 
 tions of broaching work can be accomplished with it. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PLANING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 163 shows a well known form of the tool in 
 common use for machine-shop purposes ; the tool-bar can 
 be adjusted to suit the height of the work, or any length 
 
 Fig. 163. 
 
 of tool used; the work-table has power feed for the lon- 
 gitudinal, cross and circular movement ; all the feeds are 
 moved at the top of the stroke, when the tool is clear of 
 the work. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 171 
 
 THE SLOTTING MACHINE. 
 
 The ram, or tool-bar, as shown in the illustration, is 
 counter-weighted and easily regulated ; the hand cranks 
 and levers for all adjustments are placed within easy reach 
 of the operator. 
 
 The cutting tools in slotting machines are gripped in 
 a relief tool block, J, carried by the ram, K, moving verti- 
 cally in the slides of the upright frame, A ; the work being 
 operated on is fixed on the work table, H, which lies hori- 
 zontal beneath the ram ; the work table is carried on a com- 
 pound slide, having two horizontal motions: the lower slide 
 or carriageway, G, is operated by the rod or feed-shaft, J", 
 and the end main feed gear, F; the upper slide or saddle- 
 way, E, is operated in a similar manner by the main inter- 
 mediate gear, C. D is the transverse adjusting screw; the 
 small wheel, B, operates a worm, which engages with a 
 worm wheel on the periphery of the circular table, H, to 
 rotate it ; the tool-posts, /, /, are carried in the relief tool, 
 block or apron,/; the ram, K, may be varied according to 
 the thickness of the work on the table by the adjusting 
 screw, Z, on the ram; M is the counterweight which bal- 
 ances the ram and prevents "jump" when the tool is enter- 
 ing or leaving the work; N is the connecting rod attached 
 to the crank-plate, (9, which gives motion to the ram ; the 
 gear, P, on the crank-plate shaft is driven by a pinion on 
 the driving-cone pulley, Q; the feed-rod, R, gives motion 
 to the feed-shaft, T, by means of the bell-crank, S. 
 
 The cutting-bar slide is made adjustable on the out- 
 side of frame, and by making the slide very heavy, no 
 matter at what point the cutting-bar is set, it will be very 
 rigid. To adjust the cutting-bar slide, it is only necessary 
 
172 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PLANING OPERATIONS. 
 
 to tighten up one of the gib screws and loosen the clamp- 
 ing bolts, and by revolving the driving cone the slide can 
 be adjusted in any desired position to bring it down close 
 to the work. 
 
 The accompanying drawings (fig. 174 being a side 
 view and fig. 175 a front view) will show the detail of the 
 relief tool-block on all these machines. 
 
 A is the adjustable slide attached to the main frame 
 by the bolts C; B is the ram having slides H, H\ D is the 
 
 B. 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
 Fig- 175- 
 
 pivot or pin on which the apron or tool-box E hinges ; F is 
 the relief spring which presses the apron E against the ram 
 B on the downward or cutting stroke of the tool, as illus- 
 strated in fig. 176; on the return or idle stroke, the relief 
 spring yields and takes the pressure off the cutting point 
 of the tool, which is carried in the tool posts G. 
 
 Fig. 177 shows a form of machine used largely in 
 machine shops for cutting keyways up to one inch wide ; it 
 is constructed on the principle of a broacher or drift cutter, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 173 
 
 THE SLOTTING MACHINE. 
 
 the work being fixed to the adjustable table, A, by the 
 heavy clamping, D. The cutter-bar, 6", which has coarse 
 teeth, as shown, is drawn through the work : there is a pro- 
 vision for automatic relief on the return stroke, which 
 prevents the breaking of the cutter-teeth ; B is the sup- 
 porting bracket used when cutting sleeves or hubs ; it has an 
 adjusting screw, C, for holding the work ; the clamp, D, is 
 used for holding all large work such as pulleys, spur and 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 bevel gears, etc., being fixed by the screwed studs, E y 
 which compress springs Q. 
 
 An adjustable chuck, F, is used for centering small 
 work ; the vertical cutter bar, G, is connected to the cross- 
 head, V, which reciprocates in vertical guides under the 
 table ; a scale, //, is provided for graduating the depth of 
 the key seat ; collars or packing, /, regulate the height of 
 
174 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PLANING OPERATIONS. 
 
 the clamp, D ; an adjustable clamp arm, /, is used for 
 holding small work ; it has hand feed screw ; an adjusting 
 post, N y and clamp screw, M, for attachment to the table. 
 
 c H , 
 
 / A 
 
 - 
 
 Fig. 177- 
 
 The spur gear enclosed in case, O, are driven by the 
 tight and loose pulleys revolving at 175 revolutions per 
 minute ; in this machine the work is chucked by the hole 
 or bore. 
 
7 6 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 178. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 177 
 
 MILLING MACHINES. 
 
 A milling machine is a power machine-tool for shaping 
 metal by means of a cylindrical cutter or serrated spindle. 
 
 No special tool has come more rapidly to the front in 
 recent years than the milling machine ; by its use a large 
 variety of work which was formerly done by the planer, 
 shaper, and by hand, is now performed on various types of 
 these tools. 
 
 A milling machine has been defined as " a whole ma- 
 chine shop in itself"; it has a movable table, to which the 
 work is fixed and on which it is brought to the cutter ; it 
 is fitted with index-plates and other appliances for securing 
 accuracy in the work executed. 
 
 Milling is nearly identical with grinding ; the former is 
 a cutting and the latter an abrading process ; the milling 
 machine resembles in its action a high type of emery- 
 grinder ; the rotating cutter in the grinder being, however, 
 of emery, while in the milling machine it is a steel cutter, 
 the latter producing plain, curved or special formed surfaces 
 on the material operated upon. 
 
 Metal may be cut away by a rotary milling cutter at 
 from four to ten times the speed at which it can be cut in 
 a shaping or planing machine. 
 
 A "universal milling machine" is shown in fig. 178; 
 this is capable of cutting spirals on either taper or parallel 
 work, being provided with an index head arranged with 
 suitable gearing or feed motion to rotate the work while it 
 
78 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MILLING MACHINES. 
 
 is travelling beneath the cutter; hence, when these two 
 feed motions act simultaneously, the path of the work 
 beneath the cutter is a spiral, and the action of the revolv- 
 ing cutter in the work is therefore similarly spiral ; grooves 
 may be cut or spiral projections left on the work according 
 to the shape of the cutter employed. 
 
 Fig. 179 shows a plain horizontal milling machine, fitted 
 with a vertical head and rotary cutter. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 179 
 
 PARTS OF MILLING MACHINE. 
 
 Following is a description of the principal parts of 
 this machine tool and their use : 
 
 A is the standard on which is attached all the main parts of the 
 machine. 
 
 B is called the horn, and contains the elevating screw for raising 
 the knee, C, which is adjustable vertically on the slide, P. 
 
 D is the spindle with micrometer attachment for operating the 
 elevating screw of the knee, C. This is also connected with the 
 power feed spindle, W, through connecting spindle O. 
 
 E is the horizontal adjustment for the saddle, which, in turn, sup- 
 ports the table, G. This is also connected in the same manner as D. 
 
 F\& the hand- wheel shown connected with the quick-return longi- 
 tudinal movement of the table. This handle can also be used on the 
 spindle, K, which also operates a quick -return movement connected 
 with the table. 
 
 G is the table, which is shown with oil grooves on each side 
 and oil pockets on each end. On each end of the table on the side, 
 and shown connected by the T-slot running longitudinally with the 
 table, is a dog, which, by engaging with the locking lever, 7?, in the 
 center of the saddle, this, in turn, being connected by the rod, N, with 
 the lever, Z,, throws the power feed off when the machine is in motion. 
 This power feed is connected to the longitudinal and transverse 
 motions of the table. 
 
 H is the rotary table which is shown bolted to the regular 
 platen of the machine and connected with the power feed by the 
 spindle, /. This, in turn, is connected by gearing, which is shown 
 encased, with the spindle,/, which, in turn, is connected with power- 
 feed spindle, W. 
 
 M is the lever connected with the interior mechanism of the 
 rotary table for tightening the same when the table is to remain in a 
 fixed position. 
 
 O is a spindle on which is the pull gear for connecting the cross 
 or vertical feed with the power-feed spindle, W. 
 
 Q is the vertical attachment. 
 
 R is the overhanging arm, on which is used, at times, the out- 
 
i8o 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 board bearing for supporting the end of horizontal spindle. S is the 
 driving cone on main spindle of machine. 
 
 T is the back-geared sleeve, and gears which are thrown in con- 
 nection with the spindle by the lever, U. 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 ^is the feed cone connected by gearing with the end of the main 
 spindle. 
 
 X is the feed-driving cone, which is connected by a belt with 
 cone V. This cone drives the complete feed mechanism of the machine. 
 
 Fig. 1 80 shows a milling machine of the simplest de- 
 sign, with horizontal cutter ; it is a similar machine to the 
 one illustrated in fig. 179. without the vertical head. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 181 
 
 Fig. 181 shows a dividing head and tail stock for 
 a milling machine ; the index plate has five rows of 
 
 bo 
 ft 
 
 holes drilled in circles of 48, 56, 60, 66 and 72 ; the spindle 
 can be solidly bound for taking heavy cuts, thus relieving 
 the index pin from strain. 
 
182 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 182 shows a dividing head and tail stock. In 
 this example the dial is moved by a worm and gear which 
 turns and at the same time holds the head-stock spindle, 
 thus relieving the index pin and the dial of strain, and 
 
 also the attendant wear and loss of accuracy ; the worm 
 can be dropped out of gear when it is desirable to turn 
 the dial by hand; the tail-stock spindle has a vertical 
 adjustment for taper work, as shown in the illustration, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 183 
 
 Fig 183 shows a regular vise, mounted on a graduated 
 base, and held by a beveled friction disk and bound at any 
 angle. 
 
 The base is provided with two clamping surfaces, so 
 that the vise can be mounted horizontally or vertically, and 
 clamped at any angle in either position. 
 
8 4 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 The Feed Mechanism is a special feature of the 
 Garvin Milling Machine 
 
 As shown by the illustration, fig. 184, the Change-Gear Box is set 
 into the column and driven by a chain from the spindle. The Feed- 
 Box is movable vertically and provided with an adjusting-screw, so 
 that any slack in the chain can be taken up at once. A slip-friction 
 
 "iS v Sliding Key 
 
 Index Lever 
 
 AH Hardened Steel Gears 
 
 Fig. 184. 
 
 device is set in the feed-box sprocket, so that if any unusual strain is 
 put on the machine, the frictional resistance will be overcome and 
 prevent breakage. 
 
 Two double cones of gears are employed, which arrangement 
 gives a larger number, and greater range, of feeds than is possible with 
 a single cone. Nine direct changes are obtained, and by reversing the 
 two outside gears, eighteen changes are obtained, ranging from fa" to 
 \" per revolution of spindle. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 185 
 
 The change-gears in the box are all hardened steel and run in a 
 bath of oil. Gears are connected to the shaft by means of two sliding 
 spring-keys, as shown, which require no waiting for key ways to come 
 in line. Each index lever is connected to a sliding key, and when 
 each lever is moved the key is changed from one set of gears to another. 
 
 The numbers on the index table represent numbers of revolutions 
 of spindle per inch travel of table. Feeds marked "pinion " mean that 
 the outside pinion must be attached to the upper shaft, and feeds 
 marked "gear" mean that the large outside gear should be attached 
 to the upper shaft lo obtain the indicated feed-speed. Supposing that 
 a feed of yfo/' is required ; examine table and see that combination 
 
 2 5 gives this feed ; first lift the locking lever, and then bring No. 2 
 
 on the outside lever around to the setting point ; then No. 5 on the 
 inside lever is brought to the setting point. The locking-lever is now 
 pushed down into place, thereby locking the index levers in place, 
 when the connection will be made for this feed. These feeds are all 
 positive. 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 
 Fig. 185 represents a side view of a face or straddle 
 mill in operation ; the direction of the motion of the tool is 
 shown by the arrow the movement of the work being 
 from the left hand to the tool. 
 
1 86 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 186. 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 187 
 
 SPEED FOR MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 The face mill shown in fig. 185 is a form in general 
 use ; it has straight teeth arranged at equal distances on its 
 " face," parallel to its axis, and radial teeth on one side, as 
 shown in fig. 186. When two of these mills are arranged 
 in pairs, or when a single mill has teeth on its face and on 
 two sides, it is called a " straddle" mill. 
 
 Should a mill have a wide "face," the teeth are cut 
 spirally, as shown in fig. 187; wide, straight teeth would 
 not maintain a uniform cut on entering or leaving the 
 work; with spiral teeth the cut begins at one end of the 
 tooth ; the cut being started, the cutting is uniform, pro- 
 ducing smooth work, also avoiding a sudden shock when 
 entering or leaving the cut. 
 
 The face-mill cutter is provided with a center hole, 
 which fits on an arbor, and is provided with a keyway, 
 shown in the illustration ; the end of the arbor fitting into 
 a conical seat, is securely held in the machine spindle, per- 
 mitting the arbor to revolve in either direction, without 
 becoming released ; the mill can be reversed on the arbor, 
 and the feed of the work can be changed, which, it is plain, 
 could not be done if the mill was on an arbor that screwed 
 upon the driving spindle of the machine. 
 
 The proper rotating speed of the cutters is essential 
 to the economical production of work done by milling 
 machines. The following rules and table will be found of 
 value. 
 
 RULE. Divide the required speed per minute in inches y 
 by the circumference of the cutter in inches , and the result 
 is the number of revolutions per minute of the cutter. 
 
i88 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 Angle or Spiral Cutter. 
 
 Fig. 188. 
 Angle or Spiral Cutter. 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 Face Milling Cutter 
 
 Fig. 192. 
 Angle or Spiral Cutter. 
 
 Fig. 193. 
 Face Milling Cutter. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 189 
 
 SPEEDS FOR MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 EXAMPLE FOR FIGURING CUTTER SPEEDS. If a 
 milling cutter is 3 inches in diameter, and it is required to 
 cut wrought iron at a peripheral speed of 40 feet per min- 
 ute, how many revolutions per minute must the cutter 
 make? Now, 
 
 40X12" 480 inches 
 
 3" X 3- 1416 9.4248" circum. 
 
 = 51 revols., nearly. Ans. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the circumference of the cutter in 
 inches by the number of revolutions of the cutter per minute, 
 divide by 12, the result is the cutting speed per minute 
 in feet. 
 
 If a milling cutter of 4 inches diameter makes 60 
 revolutions per minute, what is its peripheral cutting 
 speed in feet per minute? 
 
 4X3.1416X60 
 
 12 
 
 63 feet per minute, nearly. Ans. 
 
 SPEEDS FOR MILLING CUTTERS 
 
 
 Brass 
 
 Cast Iron 
 
 Machine 
 Steel 
 
 Tool Steel 
 Annealed 
 
 Ft. per min. . . 
 
 80 to 120 
 
 40 to 60 
 
 35 to 45 
 
 25 to 35 
 
 The speed of the cutters varies considerably with the 
 kind of material to be operated upon, and is another case 
 where the workman will be called upon to use his own 
 judgment. The table shown above may be taken as a 
 guide. 
 
190 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 201. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 191 
 
 SPEEDS FOR MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 It is more satisfactory to run milling cutters up to 
 nearly the maximum speed, with comparatively light feed, 
 than to reduce the speed of cutter, and overfeed the 
 work. 
 
 A second table is added to the one printed on page 
 189; this gives the speeds for roughing and finishing, and 
 also the traverse feed. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE MILLING SPEEDS, VIZ., THE 
 
 PERIPHERY SPEED OF CUTTER (IN FEET) 
 
 PER MINUTE. 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 Wrought 
 Iron 
 
 Cast 
 Iron 
 
 Gun 
 Metal 
 
 Brass 
 
 Roughing cut 
 
 3O 
 
 AO 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 1 2O 
 
 Finishing Cut 
 
 4O 
 
 cc 
 
 7^ 
 
 IOO 
 
 IA.O 
 
 Feed per min., ins. . 
 
 l"tof 
 
 f " tO 2" 
 
 / D 
 i"toii" 
 
 Iito2 // 
 
 2* 
 
 Where there is no great depth of material to cut away, 
 these feeds may be taken as the maximum figures. 
 
 On page 188 are illustrated a variety of milling cutters 
 or " mills." 
 
 Figs. 1 88 and 189 are angle mills used in cutting spiral 
 grooves. 
 
 Fig. 190 is a double angle cutter. 
 
 Figs. 191 and 193 are face milling cutters. 
 
 Fig. 192 is an angle or spiral cutter. 
 
 On page 190 : figs. 194-196 are T-slot cutters, figs. 197 
 and 198 are bevel mills, fig. 199 is an end mill or shank cut- 
 ter, figs. 200 and 201 are surface mills or form cutters. 
 
I 9 2 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 205. 
 
 Counter Bore Mills. 
 
 Fig 206. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 193 
 
 MILLS AND CUTTERS. 
 
 Fig. 207. 
 
 Fig. 208. 
 
 Fig. 209 
 
 Fig. 210. 
 
 Fig. 211. 
 
 Fig. 212. 
 
 Fig. 213. 
 
 Fig. 214. 
 
194 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Figs. 202-204 are rose mills or groove cutters. 
 
 Figs. 205 and 206 are counter-bore mills, or irregular 
 cutters. 
 
 On page 193 : fig. 207 is a special surface cutter, fig. 
 208 is a hollow end mill. 
 
 Fig. 209 is a center reamer. 
 
 Fig. 210 is a counter-bore mill. 
 
 Fig. 211 is a parallel reamer. 
 
 Figs. 212-21 4 are taper reamers. 
 
 Fig. 215. 
 
 Fig. 215 exhibits a side cutter in operation, finishing 
 the end of a milling machine table ; formerly this work was 
 done in a planing machine, which required to be very large, 
 in order to permit the casting to pass between the housings. 
 
The Advanctd -\fackinist. 195 
 
 MILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 216 illustrates a rose mill (see fig. 203) operating 
 on the periphery of a circular casting, cutting a groove ; 
 this class of work can be done very much faster on a mill- 
 
 Fig. 216. 
 
 ing machine than it could be accomplished in a lathe ; in 
 addition, the shape of the recess is secured without a possi- 
 bility of an error on the part of the operator, by the use of 
 the rose mill. 
 
196 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 217 illustrates a bevel or angle mill in operation, 
 finishing a cone or bevel surface on a circular casting ; this 
 cutter bevels the internal face of a corresponding ring, in^ 
 
 Fig. 217. 
 
 suring accuracy of fit between the two faces ; this mill is 
 largely used for economically finishing valves and many 
 forms of similar work, 
 
TJic Advanced Machinist. 
 
 197 
 
 MILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 218 shows an angle mill in operation, finishing 
 the parallel vees on the inside of a sliding-head casting ; 
 both the vees can be finished at one setting ; the slides can 
 
 Fig. 218. 
 
 be made to match in duplication, or duplicate work, in less 
 time in the milling machine than the same work could be 
 done in a planer. For the four last illustrations credit is 
 due to the Becker-Brainard Milling Machine Co, 
 
198 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 219. 
 
200 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 220. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 201 
 
 DRILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 The word " drill " has a history ; it is formed from the 
 word " rille," now called rill, meaning " a channel," hence 
 the root signification of the word is " to turn, wind, or 
 twist?' a trickling stream wearing its own channel. 
 
 A drill is a tool to pierce holes ; a drilling machine is 
 adapted for drilling holes in metal ; boring and drilling are 
 nearly the same, the former term being applied to very 
 large and the latter word to smaller operations ; drilling, 
 too, differs from boring in that the latter term applies 
 specially to the enlarging and " truing " of a hole already 
 formed. 
 
 The operation called drilling is the perforation of solid 
 metal with revolving tools ; these are made pointed and 
 adapted to suit the work. The tool receives the " feed," 
 the work being stationary. 
 
 Two classes of stress are imposed upon drilling 
 machines ; this is owing to the fact, never to be forgotten, 
 that a revolving drill does not cut at its central point, 
 while its outermost circumference may have excellent 
 cutting effect ; hence, the two strains, one of direct press- 
 ure and the other of twisting or torsion, are to be always 
 reckoned with in designing a drilling machine. 
 
 The torsion is easily met by a spindle of high carbon 
 steel, accurately cut gearing, and stiff driving shafts; to 
 reach large work the drill must overhang, and therefore 
 needs a very strong frame to stand the end pressu*~. 
 
2O2 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 203 
 
 DRILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Drilling machines are made in many forms and sizes, 
 suitable for fixing to the floor, the bench or the wall, 
 according to requirements. 
 
 Drilling machines are described by some special feature 
 which they possess, as a "single cutting," "multiple drill- 
 ing," "direct," "double-geared," " rigid," " radial," "self- 
 acting," "friction feed," etc. 
 
 Fig. 221 shows a vertical drilling machine, double- 
 geared, with hand and self-acting feed, and adjustable table, 
 with the parts lettered, to aid in the description following : 
 
 A is a substantial base plate, having planed upper face having 
 bolt-holes for fixing to foundations, and also provided with T-slots for 
 bolts used to fix large or special work, which, on account of size or 
 shape, cannot be operated on the ordinary table, C. 
 
 B is the upright pillar frame, or standard, which carries the drill 
 spindle and its driving and feed motion. 
 
 C is a circular table, or face-plate, provided with slot-grooves for 
 sliding clamping bolts ; it has a cylindrical box on the under side 
 which fits into a recess in its supporting bracket. 
 
 D is the vertical drill spindle or arbor which has recess and pro- 
 vision for fixing drills and boring tools. 
 
 E shows the power fast and loose pulleys for shifting belt. 
 
 .Fis the speed cone fixed on pulley spindle. 
 
 G is the speed cone which receives motion from Cone F. 
 
 H is the spur gear, to reduce speed of cone and thereby increase 
 the power of cutter. 
 
 /shows a pair of bevel wheels which transmit the motion and 
 power from the horizontal spindle to the vertical drill spindle, D ; the 
 bevel wheel slides on spindle Z?, and rotates it by means of a key or 
 feather sliding in a groove running the length of spindle. 
 
 J exhibits the hand-ratchet motion for raising and lowering table 
 by a spur pinion, or ratchet spindle, geared into rack K. 
 
204 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 DRILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 A" is the rack fitted into a groove in the bracket ; this rack slides 
 loose with bracket round the pillar, and is used to raise and lower the 
 table, the rack being confined between the collars of the pillar. 
 
 L is the bracket supporting the table ; this slides every way on 
 pillar according to adjustment. 
 
 M shows a foot-lever actuating belt fork or guide on fast and 
 loose pulleys for starting or stopping the drill. 
 
 N is a self-acting feed for vertical spindle D ; it receives its 
 motion from horizontal shaft through pulley O, which communicates it 
 through a pair of spur wheels and a pair of worm wheels to a spur 
 pinion gearing into rack ^? on sleeve Q. 
 
 O is a pulley for self-acting feed motion. 
 
 Pis a hand wheel for hand-feed attachment fixed on worm spindle ; 
 when using the hand feed the self-acting feed can be disconnected by 
 cam attachment. 
 
 Q is a sleeve for raising or lowering drill spindle Z>, which 
 revolves in it. 
 
 R is a rack on sleeve. 
 
 .Sis a hand lever for quickly adjusting spindle Z>, used for hand 
 feed. 
 
 T is a balance weight and chain to counterbalance weight of 
 spindle Z>, drill, etc. 
 
 On page 198 is shown a wall drilling-machine ; it is 
 double geared, with self-acting feed motion, as shown in 
 the upper portion of the illustration ; the lower part shown 
 is the table, with an elevating screw beneath to regulate 
 the height ; these portions shown are bolted to a wall, 
 hence the name. 
 
 The advantage of the machine consists in its porta- 
 bility, allowing its use in rough and temporary situations, 
 aside from its extreme lightness. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 DRILLING MACHINES. 
 
 Fig. 220 shows one form of the approved " radial " 
 drill ; the name is derived from " radius " from a center. 
 
 The base of this machine has traverse slots for facili- 
 tating the clamping of the work ; the column extends to 
 the top of the sleeve, which is a feature affording stiffness 
 to the machine, which is so essential to true work ; the 
 radial arm is raised and lowered by power under the control 
 of a lever located within convenient reach of the operator ; 
 the arm describes a free circle about the column, which is 
 desirable for many classes of work ; the back gears are fitted 
 with friction clutches ; the feed is automatic. 
 
 Drills used in machines vary in size according to the 
 nature of the work ; in ordinary shop practice f-inch to 
 3-inch diameter is the range of holes drilled. Therefore, 
 tools are made in sets ; with each set is a steel socket 
 which fits the drill spindle at one end, and at the other end 
 the recess fits all the drills in the set ; they are, therefore, 
 interchangeable. 
 
 Fig. 222. 
 
 A socket or collet is shown in above illustration. 
 
 To enable the drill to be easily extracted from the 
 socket, the latter is provided with a slot, as shown in' the 
 figure ; this slot passes through it ; the drill end protrudes 
 
 NOTE. Usually the sockets are in sizes from \ to if inch ; f to ff 
 inch ; \\ to i inches ; i/ to 2 inches, and 2 T ^ to 3 inches diameter. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 DRILL CHUCKS. 
 
 Fig. 224. 
 
 into the stop, so that a key driven into the aperture will 
 force the drill out. 
 
 Fig. 223 shows one of many forms of drill chucks ; it 
 
 __-^^^==5-*^^ 
 
 Fig. 225. 
 
 Fig. 226 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 207 
 
 DRILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 consists of two movable jaws operated by a spindle, on 
 which are formed a right-hand and a left-hand thread ; the 
 spindle is operated by a key, as shown ; the jaws which 
 grip the drill move simultaneously towards or recede from 
 one another, closing or opening as required. 
 
 Fig. 224 shows a similar chuck in section. 
 
 Fig. 225 is a patent drill chuck; the jaws are oper- 
 ated by the action of a nut or collar as shown in section in 
 fig. 226. 
 
 Twist drills are illustrated in figs. 228 and 229. These 
 are fast superseding all other forms of drills used in machine 
 work. 
 
 Care must be exercised in grinding and 
 sharpening both the ordinary " flat drill " 
 and the " twist drill," to get a proper cutting 
 angle. Authorities differ on the question of 
 the angle, but one found excellent in actual 
 practice is to grind each cutting Tip to an 
 angle of 60, with a line taken through the 
 Fig. 227. central axis of the drill, as shown in fig. 227. 
 
 NoTE. The flat drill must be forged in order to keep it up to the 
 required size and to keep its point thin enough for cutting ; on account 
 of this forging it is difficult to get a flat drill to run true ; the sides of 
 the drill form a very indifferent guide in the hole ; the diameter of the 
 hole made by the drill depends on the accuracy of the grinding of the 
 cutting edge ; should one edge be longer than the other, as soon as the 
 end pressure is applied, the flat drill will endeavor to revolve on its 
 point, and the tendency of the drill will be to cut eccentric, the 
 greatest cutting radius making a larger hole than the diameter of the 
 drill. 
 
208 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TWIST DRILLS. 
 
 Fig. 229. 
 
 Fig. 231. 
 
 Fig. 230. 
 
 Fig. 228. 
 
 Fig. 228 is a roughing drill, having two cutting edges ; 
 fig. 229 is an enlarging drill, having three cutting edges, 
 and fig. 230 is a finishing reamer; fig. 231 is an adjustable 
 reamer; ng. 232 is an adjustable shell reamer; fig. 233 and 
 fig. 234 are fluted shell reamers. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 209 
 
 DRILLING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 232. 
 
 Fig. 233. 
 
 Fig. 234. 
 
 Fig. 235 shows a device designed for use on a twist drill. 
 To grind twist drills to the proper angle, place the drill 
 parallel and against the left-hand leg, to bring the cutting 
 edge parallel with the other leg. Note the length of one 
 cutting edge by the graduations, then turn the drill half 
 
 Fig. 235. 
 
 way round to get the length of the other cutting edge, and 
 continue turning the drill and grinding the edges until 
 they are the same length. 
 
2IO 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 TABLE OF SPEEDS 
 
 The table below gives the revolutions per minute 
 for drills from r ^ inch to 2 inch diameter, as usually 
 applied ; the table shows the drill speeds recommended by 
 the Morse Twist Drill and Machine Co. for cutting steel, 
 iron and brass. 
 
 TABLE OF SPEEDS FOR TWIST DRILLS. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Revolutions per Minute 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Revolutions per Minute. 
 
 of Drill 
 
 
 
 
 of Drill 
 
 
 
 
 in inches. 
 
 For 
 
 For 
 
 For 
 
 in inches. 
 
 For 
 
 For 
 
 For 
 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 A 
 
 940 
 
 1280 
 
 1560 
 
 t 
 
 75 
 
 105 
 
 130 
 
 \ 
 
 460 
 
 660 
 
 785 
 
 1 
 T 
 
 65 
 
 90 
 
 U5 
 
 A 
 
 310 
 
 42O 
 
 540 
 
 I 
 
 58 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 i 
 
 230 
 IQO 
 
 320 
 260 
 
 400 
 320 
 
 If 
 if 
 
 S l 
 46 
 
 70 
 62 
 
 90 
 80 
 
 l 
 
 150 
 
 220 
 
 260 
 
 '1 
 
 42 
 
 58 
 
 72 
 
 A 
 
 130 
 
 185 
 
 230 
 
 if 
 
 39 
 
 54 
 
 66 
 
 
 115 
 
 1 60 
 
 200 
 
 If 
 
 36 
 
 49 
 
 60 
 
 A 
 
 100 
 
 140 
 
 1 80 
 
 If 
 
 33 
 
 45 
 
 56 
 
 1 
 
 95 
 
 130 
 
 160 
 
 If 
 
 3i 
 
 4i 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 39 
 
 49 
 
 To drill I inch in soft cast iron will usually require for 
 drill, 125 revolutions; for |--inch drill, 120 revolu- 
 tions; for f -inch drill, 100 revolutions, and for i-inch drill, 
 95 revolutions. 
 
 NOTE. The advantages of a twist drill over a flat drill are 
 chiefly : The cuttings can find free egress in the twist drill ; in the flat 
 drill the cuttings jamb between the hole and the wedge-shape sides of 
 the drill, causing frequent removal of the drill to extract the cuttings. 
 In deep holes more time is occupied in this manner than in the actual 
 cutting operation. The twist drill always runs true, and requires no 
 retorging or tempering, and, by reason of its shape, fits closely and 
 produces a straight, parallel hole, provided tae point is ground true. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 211 
 
 SPEED OF DRILLS. 
 
 The following is a table given by the Standard Tool 
 Co. and recommended by them. 
 
 SPEED OF DRILLS. 
 
 Diameter 
 of Drill. 
 
 Revolutions per Minute. 
 
 Diameter 
 of Drill. 
 
 Revolutions per Minute. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 TV 
 
 890 
 
 I22O 
 
 1550 
 
 I* 
 
 37 
 
 5 2 
 
 63 
 
 1 
 
 445 
 
 630 
 
 775 
 
 I T V 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 * 
 
 291 
 
 405 
 
 525 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 48 
 
 58 
 
 
 223 
 
 305 
 
 395 
 
 
 33 
 
 4 6 
 
 55 
 
 A 
 
 178 
 
 245 
 
 315 
 
 *i 
 
 32 
 
 44 
 
 53 
 
 I 
 
 148 
 
 205 
 
 260 
 
 in 
 
 
 42 
 
 50 
 
 rV 
 
 122 
 
 175 
 
 225 
 
 i-J 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 49 
 
 i 
 
 III 
 
 ISO 
 
 195 
 
 'it 
 
 29 
 
 39 
 
 46 
 
 A 
 
 9 8 
 
 135 
 
 175 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 38 
 
 45 
 
 4 
 
 8 9 
 
 125 
 
 155 
 
 2 V 
 
 28 
 
 37 
 
 44 
 
 
 81 
 
 1 10 
 
 140 
 
 
 27 
 
 35 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 IOO 
 
 125 
 
 2 A" 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 42 
 
 W 
 
 69 
 
 95 
 
 
 2 i 
 
 26 
 
 33 
 
 
 1 
 
 63 
 
 85 
 
 no 
 
 2A 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 if 
 
 59 
 
 80 
 
 105 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 32 
 
 39 
 
 I 
 
 55 
 
 75 
 
 IOO 
 
 2 rV 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 38 
 
 J iV 
 
 52 
 
 70 
 
 95 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 37 
 
 !-l 
 
 49 
 
 68 
 
 90 
 
 2 rV 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 *"A 
 
 46 
 
 65 
 
 , 80 
 
 2-| 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 35 
 
 ij- 
 
 44 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 2| 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 
 lySj- 
 
 42 
 
 58 
 
 70 
 
 2-J 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 56 
 
 68 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 32 
 
 
 38 
 
 54 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 The above table gives a suitable speed for drills, tor 
 general use, but it can be increased from 50 to 75 per cent 
 to suit special conditions, 
 
212 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 236. 
 
214 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 237. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 215 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 To grind is to wear down, smooth or sharpen by fric- 
 tion, as by friction of a wheel or revolving stone to give a 
 smooth surface, edge or point to an object. 
 
 To abrade is the act of wearing or rubbing off or away 
 by friction or f , attrition. An abrasive is a material used for 
 grinding, such as emery, sand, powdered glass, etc. The 
 
 Fig. 238. 
 
 operation of grinding is an abrasive process, the material 
 being ground away rather than cut; grinding makes possi- 
 ble the accurate finish of the hardest metals. 
 
 In modern machine-shop practice the grinding machine 
 has become recognized as an indispensable tool, and no 
 shop equipment is considered complete without it. The 
 use of hardened spindles in lathes, milling machines, drilling 
 machines, etc., also hardened crank pins and cross-head 
 pins in steam engines, is made possible by its use; with it 
 can be ground milling cutters of all shapes, taps, reamers, 
 
2l6 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 239. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 217 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 arbors, keys, gauges, holes in cutters or other articles^ 
 edges, sides and ends of flat, square, hexagon or octagon 
 objects, leaving the ends square with the sides or edges, 
 and also many other kinds of work. 
 
 Grinding machines are of various designs, and range 
 from the simple rotating emery or corundum wheel to a 
 perfectly automatic, self-acting universal and surface-grind- 
 ing machine. One of the former is shown in fig. 236. On 
 page 218, fig. 240, is shown a machine of the latter de- 
 scription. 
 
 Fig. 236 shows a simple Wet Tool Grinder ; the emery 
 wheel being mounted on a spindle, running in broad bear- 
 ings, is driven by the pulley ; the emery wheel is covered 
 with a shield, to prevent the water splashing ; it has no 
 pump ; the water trough is raised to the wheel by pressing 
 on the footpedal shown in front of the machine. 
 
 Fig. 237 shows an emery grinder sharpening a twist 
 drill ; a rest is provided for the shank of the drill, also an 
 adjustable end stop, for any length of drill. 
 
 Fig. 238 shows an emery grinder sharpening a circular 
 saw ; a self-centering device holds the saw in position ; the 
 attachment can be " tilted " to give any desired bevel to 
 the saw. 
 
 Fig. 239 is a Grinder, on which a variety of work can 
 be done ; the arbor is arranged for two wheels, one on 
 each end ; A is the " head " of the machine, mounted upon 
 the " standard " J; the head contains a spindle driven by 
 the " pulley " B, and having emery wheel D on left-hand end, 
 
218 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 and cup emery wheel C on right-hand end ; H is the hand- 
 wheel which operates the bevel gears /, and gives the 
 vertical adjustment to the knee N, by the screw P\ G is 
 the hand-wheel fastened to the cross-feed screw, which 
 moves the cross-carriage M forward or back ; K is the 
 binder-screw, which clamps the knee N when in the re- 
 quired position ; F is the hand-wheel fixed on pinion, 
 which operates the long slide E ; L is the adjusting screw, 
 which swivels the pair of centers, (9, which can be fixed on 
 long slide E, when grinding reamers, taps, etc. 
 
 Fig. 240. 
 
 Fig. 240 exhibits a front view of a grinding machine, 
 for straight and taper work, that revolves on two dead 
 centers. To obtain the best results, a great variety of table 
 work and wheel speeds are necessary ; all speed changes are 
 adaptation of the belt and cone, easily understood by 
 operators. 
 
 Provision is made for the amount of power and water 
 demanded by the rapid rate at which the machine is 
 designed to work. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 241. 
 
 Fig. 241 is a front view and fig. 242 is a back view of 
 the machine shown in fig. 240. From these views the 
 arrangement of the machine can be easily understood. 
 
 .big. 242. 
 
22O 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 The following illustrations show several of the many 
 kinds of accurate work, for which the universal grinding 
 machines shown in fig. 178 are adapted. 
 
 243 
 
 Fig. 243 and fig. 244 exhibit the method of grinding 
 the sides of a face, or straddle mill, by means of the 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 221 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 emery wheel. The straddle mill is placed upon the table of 
 the grinding machine, and is revolved on a stud, so as to 
 bring each tooth in turn under the action of the revolving 
 emery wheel. 
 
 Fig. 246. 
 
222 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 245 shows the grinding of the same object, the 
 emery wheel acting upon the face of the mill, which is 
 carried on a stud in the universal cutter-head. 
 
 Fig. 246 illustrates the grinding of a spiral tooth 
 cutter, carried on a sleeve, sliding on the arbor, between the 
 head and the adjustable collar. 
 
 Fig. 247 shows the sharpening of a tap held in reamer 
 centers, which are fitted in the universal cutter-head. 
 
 247. 
 
 "POINTS" RELATING TO GRINDING 
 OPERATIONS-. 
 
 It is considered good engineering practice to push the 
 work of a grinding machine to the utmost limit, get all 
 that can be got out of it in work and get it out quick. This 
 does not imply wasting the tool; it is intended to save the 
 time of workmen. At the same time, where grinding is to 
 
The Advanced Machinist, 223 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 be done rapidly and well, a machine to do it must be heavy 
 and powerful. 
 
 The durability and usefulness of all machines depend 
 largely upon proper care, which if not given will in a short 
 time cause them to become unreliable, even though the 
 machines are well constructed. The grinding machine 
 being a tool upon which great accuracy is required, be- 
 comes, therefore, most susceptible to bad results through 
 such lack of care. 
 
 The machine should be kept clean and the bearings 
 well lubricated, using the best oil only, to prevent gumming. 
 
 In order to produce correct work it is important that 
 the spindle boxes be kept in proper adjustment, so that 
 there may be no lost motion. This is true of the head- 
 stock, foot-stock and emery wheel spindles and also the 
 wheel spindle boxes, which, to do accurate work, should be 
 adjusted closely, even though they warm up slightly. 
 
 The adjustment of the emery wheel slide is equally 
 important; it should be close and yet not tight enough 
 to move hard ; the slide should be well oiled. 
 
 Wheels for internal grinding should be softer than for 
 external, as the surface in contact is greater ; therefore the 
 wheel will not let go the dulled particles so readily. It 
 should be very keen cutting and of coarser grade than for 
 external grinding. As the surface speed of the wheel is 
 not as great as that for external grinding, the work cannot 
 therefore be done as rapidly, and more time must be given 
 to remove the stock, and the work must be revolved slower. 
 
 Too great a variety of work should not be expected of 
 one grade of wheel, and when the amount of grinding will 
 
224 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 warrant it, several grades of wheels can be profitably em- 
 ployed, each carefully selected for its particular purpose. 
 
 All machines should be securely fastened to a solid 
 floor or foundation where there is no vibration. 
 
 To grind tools without drawing the temper requires a 
 soft grade of wheel, which would not be suitable for rough 
 work ; moreover, much depends upon the nature of the 
 material to be ground as to whether a hard or soft, coarse 
 or fine wheel should be used. 
 
 A wheel should be kept perfectly true and in balance 
 to obtain the best results, both as regards rapidity and 
 accuracy in grinding. For the sake of economy it is 
 necessary that a dresser be kept constantly at hand to 
 dress up the wheels a little and not allow them to become 
 out of true. 
 
 It should be remembered, the contact between an 
 emery wheel and the work is entirely different from that 
 of the lathe or planer tool in operation. In the latter case 
 some extra pressure is always required to counteract 
 spring between work and tool; but in the former condition, 
 some material is removed at the slightest contact. 
 
 The speed of work should be in proportion to the 
 amount of stock removed at each revolution, as the wheel 
 must always have sufficient time to do its work; if the 
 
 NOTE. There can be no hard and fast rules for the speed of emery 
 and polishing wheels, since there is so great a variety in the nature of 
 the work to be done, but a peripheral speed of a mile 5,280 feet a 
 minute for ordinary emery wheels is commonly regarded as good prac- 
 tice. For water tool-grinders the speed is usually about two-thirds that 
 of dry grinders, while on the other hand, polishing wheels are gener- 
 ally run at about one and one-half, and buff wheels at twice the speed 
 of dry grinders. Emery wheels are classed as water grinders and dry 
 grinders ; the former run at about one-third less than the dry grinders, 
 that is, about two-thirds of a mile per minute on the surface. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 225 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 work is revolved too rapidly the wheel is liable to crowd, 
 chatter and waste, and make an unsatisfactory job. There 
 is no fixed rule as to speed, but by a little experience the 
 operator will soon learn what is best. 
 
 These numbers represent the grades of emery, and the 
 degree of smoothness of surface may be compared to that 
 left by files as follows : 
 
 8 and 10 represent the cut of a wood rasp. 
 
 16 " 20 " " " " a coarse rough file. 
 
 24 " 30 " " " " an ordinary rough file. 
 
 36 " 40 " " " " a bastard file. 
 
 46 " 60 " " " " a second-cut file. 
 
 70 " 80 " " " * a smooth file. 
 
 90 " ico " " " " a superfine file. 
 
 120 F and FF " " " " a dead-smooth file. 
 
 Nearly all emery wheel makers use a letter to desig- 
 nate the grade of hardness of wheels, grade M being the 
 medium between the hardest and the softest. All letters 
 before M are softer, as L, K, J, I, in the order given ; while 
 all letters after M are harder, as N, O, P, in their order. 
 
 Wheels are numbered from coarse to fine ; that is, a wheel made 
 of No. 60 emery is coarser than one made of No. 100. Within certain 
 limits, and other things being equal, a coarse wheel is less liable to 
 change the temperature of the work and less liable to glaze than a fine 
 wheel. As a rule, the harder the stock the coarser the wheel required 
 to produce a given finish. For example, coarser wheels are required 
 to produce a given surface upon hardened steel than upon soft steel, 
 while finer wheels are required to produce this surface upon brass or 
 copper than upon either hardened or soft steel. 
 
 Wheels are graded from soft to hard, and the grade is denoted by 
 the letters of the alphabet, A denoting the softest grade. A wheel is 
 soft or hard chiefly on account of the amount and character of the 
 material combined in its manufacture with emery or corundum. But 
 
226 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Other characteristics being equal, a wheel that is composed of fine emery 
 is more compact and harder than one made of coarser emery. For 
 instance, a wheel of No. 100 emery, grade B, will be harder than one 
 of No. 60 emery, same grade. 
 
 The softness of a wheel is generally its most important character- 
 istic. A soft wheel is less apt to cause a change of temperature in the 
 work, or to become glazed, than a harder one. It is best for grinding 
 hardened steel, cast-iron, brass, copper and rubber, while a harder or 
 more compact wheel is better for grinding soft steel and wrought iron. 
 As a rule, other things being equal, the harder the stock the softer the 
 wheel required to produce a given finish. 
 
 Generally speaking, a wheel should be softer as the surface in 
 contact with the work is increased. For example, a wheel i/i6-inch 
 face should be harder than one }& inch face. If a wheel is hard and 
 heats or chatters, it can often be made somewhat more effective by 
 turning off a part of its cutting surface ; but it should be clearly under- 
 stood that while this will sometimes prevent a hard wheel from heating 
 or chattering the work, such a wheel will not prove as economical as 
 one of the full width and proper grade, for it should be borne in mind 
 that the grade should always bear the proper relation to the width. 
 
 Pieces intended to be ground can frequently be profit- 
 ably turned in the lathe to near the finished size before 
 being tempered. After hardening^ the pieces can then be 
 accurately finished in the grinding machine, thus securing 
 the utmost accuracy united with great durability. Many 
 pieces of work require but one cut to prepare them for the 
 grinding machine; if the tool has dulled or the work has 
 sprung in hardening or in turning, it causes no trouble 
 when being ground. 
 
 NOTE. Emery is a granular mineral substance and belongs to the 
 species corundum, but is not pure, being mixed with magnetic or 
 hematite ores. Corundum is a mineral substance found in a crystalline 
 torin. Its hardness is next to the diamond. Emery is granular corun- 
 dum more or less impure. As an abrasive, corundum cannot be ex- 
 celled, its diamond like hardness, brittleness and sharpness giving it 
 lasting qualities. 
 
228 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 248. 
 
PUNCHING AND SHEARING. 
 
 To punch is to pierce, to perforate or indent a solid 
 material. 
 
 To shear is to clip or cut with a sharp instrument ; the 
 act or operation of cutting by means of two edges of 
 sharpened steel, as on the principle upon which shears are 
 operated. 
 
 A punch is a tool, the working end of which is pointed 
 or blunt, and which acts either by pressure or percussion 
 applied in the direction of its length to drive out or in, 
 or to make a hole or holes, as in sheet or plate iron and steel. 
 
 Shears consist of two blades with beveled edges 
 facing each other and used for cutting. There are in- 
 numerable forms of these two implements punches and 
 shears but this volume has to do only with those actuated 
 by power, hence called " power-punching machines " or 
 "power-cutting machines," etc. 
 
 Punching machines are very commonly combined with 
 shearing machines, the work of both being essentially the 
 same. In some cases the construction is such as to allow 
 of the removal of the shear-blades and substitution of the 
 punch, and vice versa, as desired. More usually, however, 
 the two contrivances are separate, though arranged in the 
 same supporting frame. Fig. 248 represents a punching 
 and shearing machine. The reason the two are combined 
 in one machine is that it is very usual for both shearing 
 and punching to be needed on the same plate. 
 
 Presses used for stamping or forming purposes are 
 properly punches; the term punch includes two very dif- 
 ferent kinds of instruments ; i, tools whose duty is to indent 
 
 229 
 
2 3 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PUNCHING AND SHEARING. 
 
 the material without absolutely separating or dividing it , 
 2, tools which, in conjunction with a bolster placed under- 
 neath the work, cut or divide it similarly to the action 
 of a pair of shear blades. 
 
 Punching machines, as is evident from the flat or 
 obtuse angle of the edge of the punch, do not effect the 
 division of the material by cutting, but by a tearing apart 
 
 View of throat, showing 
 topis in position. 
 
 Fig. 249. 
 
 of the fibre of the material; this is equally true of the 
 upper and lower blades of a shearing machine, as shown in 
 fig. 249; the blades are not cutting edges, but are flat or 
 nearly so. 
 
 The operations of both punching and shearing may be 
 regarded as similar, one being done with circular or curved 
 and the other with straight tools. The blades of a shear- 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PUNCHING AND SHEARING. 
 
 ing machine will pass through a plate an inch and a half 
 in thickness with a rapidity and appearance of ease which 
 give little idea of the power actually used. 
 
 Fig. 250. 
 
 Fig. 251 shows an enlarged view of the arrangement of 
 the punch end of the machine illustrated in fig. 248 ; the 
 operation is that of perforating a hole in a heavy plate ; 
 
232 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 PUNCHING AND SHEARING. 
 
 each portion is named, to more readily convey the idea of 
 the work and the several parts of the machine. 
 
 BOTTOM OF PLUHGER 
 
 COUPLING 
 
 TOP OFDIE 
 
 Fig. 251. 
 
 The above cut shows the positions of punch, plunger 
 and die ; also the positions of the stock, punch and coupling, 
 and the correct position of the stripper relative to the 
 punch and plate, in use, to prevent the plate from binding 
 when the punch is drawn. 
 
 In punching and shearing machines the power is ap- 
 plied in many ways : I, by screw pressure ; 2, by hydraulic 
 pressure ; 3, by a lever ; or, 4, by eccentrics the latter is 
 the usual method. 
 
 A complete set of punching tools includes I punch, I 
 die, I die block, I die holder, I socket, I stripper or pull-off, 
 I edge gauge and wrenches. The die block bolts on to the 
 lower jaw to receive the die holder or the die, and the die 
 holder is made to fit in the die block and is bored to receive 
 the various sizes of small dies. The edge-gauge bolts to 
 the frame of the machine, and its edges serve as a gauge 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 233 
 
 PUNCHING AND SHEARING. 
 
 for the edge of the piece being punched. The stripper or 
 pull-off is a pivoted lever whose forward end straddles the 
 punch and strips the sheet as the punch rises ; it is adjust- 
 able up and down by means of a pin at the rear end of the 
 lever, so as to accommodate different thicknesses of metal. 
 The capacities of the different machines vary accord- 
 ing to the size, and the throats in the same size vary in 
 depth. The distance from the edge of the sheet at which 
 punching or shearing can be done, is governed by the 
 depth of the throat ; by the depth of the throat is meant 
 the distance from the center of the punch to the back wall 
 of the throat. 
 
 Fig. 248 shows a double-ended eccentric, punching 
 and shearing machine. 
 
 This machine is double-geared, the frame cast in halves 
 securely bolted and dowelled together. The driving and 
 eccentric shafts are of steel, and the latter drives the slides 
 through short connecting rods. The slides have large rec- 
 tangular bearing surfaces, those for the punch and the 
 shears being fitted with stop motions. 
 
 Fig. 250 shows a double-ended lever punch of approved 
 design. 
 
 This machine is double-geared, and the punch and 
 shear slides are worked by levers which allow the slides to 
 remain at the top of the stroke during half a revolution of 
 the main shaft, thus affording time for adjustment of the 
 plate. 
 
 In single-ended machines the punching and shearing 
 are both operated from one slide, the shears being placed 
 at the top. 
 
'1 lie Advanced Machinist. 
 
 ADJUSTING 
 SCREW 
 
MACHINE BOLT CUTTING. 
 
 This subject also properly includes nut tapping and 
 bolt-heading. Bolt-cutters, like most other machines, re- 
 quire additional tools and devices, according to their com- 
 plication and general construction ; an example of this is 
 the special cutting-off tool designed to reduce round rolled 
 iron to the exact length necessary for heading in the 
 heading machine, which is in itself an accessory of the 
 bolt-cutter ; another example is the power feed-attachment, 
 designed to be applied to the main machine, to produce 
 coarse bastard threads true to the pitch. 
 
 Fig. 254 shows an improved bolt-thread cutter, arranged 
 with gear for screwing large diameters of bolts. 
 
 The cutters, four in number, are arranged in a revolv- 
 ing die head ; fig. 252 is a front view of same; the carriage 
 is moved to and from the die head by a rack and pinion 
 operated by hand wheel ; the lubrication for the dies is 
 supplied by an oil pump of plain plunger type, placed 
 within the column of the machine, and is driven from the 
 cone pulley the throw of the crank pin can be adjusted 
 to and from the center, thereby decreasing and increasing 
 the stroke of the plunger, and regulating the supply of oil 
 to the cutters. 
 
 A substantial metal box frame A, provides an oil tank 
 in the base, the top forms the bed and the slides for the 
 carriage ; the headstock B carries the live spindle C, to 
 which is bolted the die head D ; the hand wheel F opens 
 and closes the vise E, which slides with carriage (9, and is 
 operated by hand wheel //"and the rack and pinion shown; 
 
 235 
 
236 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MACHINE BOLT CUTTING. 
 
 the hand lever 7 operates the clutch ring, opening and 
 closing the dies, which is also automatically accomplished 
 
 IU 
 
 by the stop rod J t which slides through the vise block, and 
 the stops K K, being set to the length of the screw to be 
 cut, are operated by contact with the vise. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 237 
 
 MACHINE BOI/T CUTTING. 
 
 The driving cone L, with pinion M, gear into wheel N 
 on the live spindle ; the oil supply O is fed by the pump P, 
 in the metal box frame, through the center of the overflow 
 pipe; the discharge end is curved downwards slightly below 
 the top of the overflow pipe, which prevents splashing of 
 the oil. 
 
 N 
 
 Fig. 254. 
 
 The pump is of ample size, so that when running on 
 the slow speed a sufficient supply of oil is discharged hitc 
 the oil-pot to keep a constant stream on the dies when 
 cutting threads ; the removable chip-pan will hold the chips 
 of a day's work. 
 
238 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MACHINE BOI/T CUTTING. 
 
 Fig- 253 is a section side view of the machine, showing 
 the interior arrangment of the parts and the plunger pump 
 P; it also shows a device, a substitute for the rack and 
 pinion motion for travelling carriage, which is not shown in 
 fig. 254, viz., a self-acting lead screw S, which is driven from 
 the live spindle by two spur gears, T and U, and idle or 
 carrier wheels R, which reverse the motion for right or left- 
 hand screw cutting. 
 
 Fig. 257. 
 
 Fig. 255. Fig. 256. 
 
 The die ring is made of cast iron ; this ring controls 
 the movement of the dies radially to and from the center, 
 by means of recesses at an angle to its face; the clutch 
 ring has a phosphor-bronze ring working in a groove and 
 attached to the automatic spring and closing device ; the 
 movement of the clutch ring is transmitted to the die ring 
 through the rocking lever and toggle. 
 
 The cutters are four in number; fig. 255 is a side view, 
 fig 256 an end view, of the cutter with cast-steel head 
 attached; figs. 257 and 258 show the tool-steel caps; the 
 upper one is for a full-size die. When recut several times, 
 it is needful to use the deeper steel cap, to make up for 
 the shortening of the cutter by recutting. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 239 
 
 MACHINE BOI/T CUTTING. 
 
 Fig. 259. 
 
 Fig. 260. 
 
240 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MACHINE BOLT CUTTING. 
 
 Fig. 261 shows the side view of the die head, which is 
 made of cast iron, turned, milled and bored. To the post 
 end is fastened a face plate, which serves to hold the dies 
 and die bushings in place see fig. 
 252; in the outer surface of the 
 barrel, there are four longitudinal 
 grooves milled to within a short dis- 
 tance of the flange, and in these 
 grooves are fitted steel strips, hard- 
 ened and ground to resist the wear 
 of the sliding die ring. 
 
 A section on line A B of revolving die head ; figure 
 252 shows the dies and die caps, etc., fig. 259; a sec- 
 tion on line C D of the die head see fig. 260 shows the 
 opening and closing device operated by the clutch ring and 
 the rocking lever and toggle. 
 
 Fig. 262 shows a lead screw, and fig. 263 a split-nut ; 
 these are required for each pitch cut; the lead screws 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 241 
 
 MACHINE BOLT CUTTING. 
 
 are made short and they can be changed from one pitch to 
 another; the bronze split-nut fits in the carriage and is 
 opened and closed by means of a cam disc and lever oper- 
 ated by hand. 
 
 Fig. 262. 
 
 mmm 
 
 \\\\\\\\ 
 
 Fig. 263. 
 The cutting speeds for dies in bolt cutting are as 
 
 follows : 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 Diameter of 
 Bolt. 
 
 Revolution of 
 Dies. 
 
 Diameter of 
 Bolt 
 
 Revolution of 
 Dies. 
 
 i 
 
 460 
 
 'i 
 
 50 
 
 A 
 
 230 
 1 88 
 
 : 
 
 45 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 153 
 
 If 
 
 38 
 
 A 
 
 131 
 
 l|- 
 
 35 
 
 
 IJ 5 
 
 if 
 
 32 
 
 
 102 
 
 I-J- 
 
 30 
 
 
 93 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 
 75 
 
 2 i 
 
 25 
 
 
 65 
 
 2 i 
 
 22 
 
 I 
 
 55 
 
 2 f 
 
 2O 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 The usual cutting speed for bolts in machine-shop 
 practice is fifteen lineal feet per minute ; the above table 
 is based upon that capacity of work. In tapping nuts, the 
 same number of revolutions of the taps are required. 
 
242 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 -If 
 
 Fig. 264. 
 
244 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 
AUXILIARY MACHINES. 
 
 The introduction of a new machine or device implies 
 the immediate employment of a whole series of auxiliary 
 and dependent appliances. 
 
 Some of these are seemingly of more importance 
 than the parent machine, and frequently are much more 
 complicated and expensive to build ; they are named, fre- 
 quently, by their use, and largely aid in the practical suc- 
 cess of the new machine which they are designed especially 
 to operate with. 
 
 Thus a " cutting-off " machine is used to cut off stock 
 to the required length before it can be operated on by the 
 lathe, etc. ; one of these machines is shown on the opposite 
 page and described below. 
 
 CUTTING-OFF MACHINES. 
 
 When rods, etc., are required to be cut to a certain 
 length, the operation is performed in several ways; I, either 
 by a special lathe designed for the purpose, or, 2, by a 
 power saw ; when executed in a lathe, the revolving 
 spindle in the headstock is constructed hollow, the rods 
 pass through the hole and are then cut to exact length 
 
 245 
 
246 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINES. 
 
 by an ordinary " parting " or cutting-off tool fixed in the 
 rest or carriage of the lathe. 
 
 A special cutting-off tool for the purpose is shown 
 in fig. 266; it consists of a substantial drop-forged steel 
 
 Fig. 266. 
 
 holder; the under edge is extended, giving a firm support 
 to the blade directly under the cut ; the blades are six 
 inches long, seven-eighths inch wide, milled and ground 
 on both sides to give proper clearance. The top, or cut- 
 
 Fig. 267. 
 
 ting edge, and bottom are ground square, to gauge of slot 
 in holder. Hence the blades used in this style of holder 
 require grinding on the end only. In use, the blade 
 should be set to project beyond the supporting lip of 
 holder, or under side, a sufficient distance to cut to center 
 of stock ; on heavy stpck the blade can be advanced after 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 247 
 
 CUTTING-OFF MACHINES. 
 
 making a cut of one inch or so on the outside. The blade is 
 held in position by a substantial strap, bolts and case- 
 hardened nuts. 
 
 Fig. 267 is a similar cutting-off tool, but fitted with 
 an offset holder for particular work which could not be 
 executed by the straight tool holder shown in fig. 266. 
 
 A " cutting-off " saw is a machine designed for " crop- 
 ping " the ends of work and cutting it to length ; in the 
 ordinary machine shop practice, a power-driven hack-saw 
 is used, but when cutting large work, a circular, revolving 
 saw is used to cut the work cold ; this is commonly styled 
 a cold saw cutting-off machine; the latter is shown in 
 fig. 265. 
 
 The power hack-saw illustrated in fig. 268 is especially 
 designed to meet all the requirements of a machine for 
 sawing metal. The upper arm of the frame can be 
 extended so that large work can be cut; the jaws holding 
 the work are planed and can be set so that work on any 
 required angle, as well as straight sawing, can be done. 
 The machine has an 8-inch stroke with quick return ; by 
 loosening the set screw in the stud holding the connecting 
 rod, the frame can be swung to either side ; by this adjust- 
 ment the saw can be made to cut perfectly straight ; the 
 lower arm of the frame passes through a hole in the sliding 
 thimble with a projecting stud, to which the connecting 
 rod is attached, and on which friction nuts are placed ; a 
 set screw runs through this stud and holds the frame in 
 
 NOTE. It has been the custom, when cutting a piece of iron or 
 steel, especially hard tool-steel, to send it to the blacksmith to heat 
 the metal in the forge and cut it to the required length ; this method 
 has the disadvantage of deteriorating the steel in quality consequent on 
 the heating, and the rod is returned in a rough shape. 
 
248 
 
 The Advanced Machinist, 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINES. 
 
 any set position ; a piece of steel with concaved end is 
 placed under the set screw to prevent the point from 
 coming in contact with the arm. The slide in which the 
 thimble runs is split so that any wear can readily be taken 
 up by tightening the screws at each end. There is no 
 drag on the saw during the backward movement. 
 
 *' 
 
 Fig. 268. 
 
 By adjusting the friction on the connecting rod the 
 saw can be made to lift gently from the work when going 
 backward, and the pressure on the forward stroke can be 
 increased or diminished by the same means. A coil con- 
 taining twenty-five feet of saws is placed in the magazine 
 on the rear end of the arm, and can be drawn through the 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 249 
 
 CUTTING-OFF MACHINES. 
 
 proper distance for the work being sawed. By using the 
 magazine coil principle the saws can be used their entire 
 length. This feature alone reduces the cost of saws fully 
 one-half, and as the saw is firmly clamped at both ends 
 instead of being held by pins, the danger of the holes 
 being pulled out of the ends of blades is entirely obviated. 
 The usual speed of the blade is 40 strokes per minute. 
 After a cut is finished, the clutch is automatically thrown 
 out and the machine is stopped. 
 
 With flexible hack-saw blades the teeth only are hard- 
 ened, the back remaining untempered ; thus the blade will 
 
 Fig. 269, Fig. 270. 
 
 neither snap nor break, assuring full efficiency until the 
 teeth are worn dull. Fig. 270 shows the construction of the 
 flexible back blade ; fig. 269 shows the set of the teeth. 
 These blades for cutting iron, steel, brass, etc., are made 
 from 23-gauge stock, and have 15 teeth to the inch ; for 
 cutting tubing and sheet metals the teeth are finer, being 
 made 24 teeth to the inch. 
 
 Fig. 264 shows the countershaft used with the power 
 hack-saw shown in fig. 268 ; the motion is stopped by shift- 
 ing the driving belt from the fast on to the loose pulley 
 these are the pair shown in the cut, the small pulley being 
 the driving pulley connected to the pulley on the machine. 
 
250 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 M 
 
 Fig. 271. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 251 
 
 THE ARBOR PRESS. 
 
 The arbor press is a machine devised for accomplish- 
 ing the work described in the note, which is ordinarily 
 done by hand, by means of a hammer, etc. The arbor or 
 mandrel is a spindle which is forced or driven into a bored 
 hole in the work, such as a pulley or wheel, to enable it to 
 revolve between the centers of a lathe, milling cutter, etc. 
 
 Fig. 271 shows such a machine, which is a very useful 
 device, being quick in action, and which can be bolted on 
 the end of the lathe-bed or on a separate bench, and which 
 is always ready for use. Operated by a hand lever, a 
 pressure of seven and a-half tons can be obtained by an 
 ordinary man by means of the gear-wheels shown in the 
 engraving ; it is exceedingly simple in action, and consists 
 of a massive standard A, which carries a sliding or adjust- 
 able knee B, which can be regulated to the height of the 
 work by a square-thread screw G, which acts in a nut in 
 the top of standard E ; the handle C operates the screw G\ 
 the plate H is free to revolve on the knee B, and is pro- 
 vided with lateral openings of graduated sizes for various- 
 dimensioned mandrels ; when released from the work, the 
 arbor or mandrel drops on the soft babbitted cushion D, 
 and is caught or retained in the large steel ring F\ the 
 plunger or ram J has a rack cut on one side ; this rack is 
 engaged with two pinions, one on spindle J/and one on 
 
 NOTE. Very generally the mandrel is driven into the work with 
 a lead-headed hammer, or an ordinary sledge is used ; as a precaution, 
 a piece of sheet-brass, copper or hard-wood is placed against the end 
 of the mandrel to receive the force of the blow of the sledge and thus 
 prevent the "center" in the mandrel being damaged or destroyed, as 
 the brass strips will spread and become thin from repeated use, soon 
 rendering it unfit for the purpose. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 272, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 253 
 
 THE ARBOR PRESS. 
 
 the lever spindle, and they are geared together by the 
 spur wheels L and O ; the leverage is obtained by means 
 of wheel Q and a pinion hidden in the drawing by the 
 ratchet N; a pawl fits into the casting, into which the lever 
 /is fixed; a leverage of 135 to I is thus obtained. The 
 counterweight R balances the lever and keeps it in an 
 upright position when not in use ; a pin projects from one 
 side of the pawl, so that when the lever casting is upright, 
 
 Fg. 273. 
 
 the pawl rides the "shedder" P, disengaging the pawl from 
 the ratchet, thus leaving the ram J free to be moved up or 
 brought down to the work by means of the hand-wheel K. 
 
 Fig. 272 shows a very powerful press, designed for 
 mandrels up to 7 inches diameter ; the ram is made of four- 
 inch steel and has a rack cut on two opposite sides ; the 
 gears are steel, have a leverage of 250 to I and exert a 
 pressure of about sixteen tons at the end of the ram, with 
 a man of ordinary strength at the lever. 
 
254 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SHAFT-STRAIGHTENING MACHINES. 
 
 Fig. 271 shows a hand-power shaft-straightening 
 machine intended for bench use ; it has a powerful screw 
 made of steel ; the bed is planed true and has two steel 
 blocks or vees fitted to slide upon it ; these can be adjusted 
 to suit the bend or twist in the shaft, and will accommo- 
 date work of any length. 
 
 This is but one of many devices of this nature ; some 
 of these are much more complicated and costly and oper- 
 ated by pneumatic and other powers ; one of the most 
 common is a machine used in railroad shops in straighten- 
 ing car and locomotive engine axles. 
 
 TURRET MACHINES. 
 
 These were originally named from their resemblance 
 to the turrets or " little towers rising from or otherwise 
 connected with a larger building; " the word turret was in 
 very frequent use in the middle ages as defining movable 
 towers used in military operations ; at the present date 
 turrets, in engineering practice, are always understood to 
 mean a revolving mechanism, as the turret-gun, designed 
 for use in " a revolving turret," and the turret lathe, which 
 has a revolving tool-holder. 
 
 NOTE. The monitor, or turret lathe, derives its name from the 
 Ericsson's Monitor, designed and built in 1862 ; this carrries on its 
 deck one or more revolving turrets, each containing one or more 
 great guns, which can be successively brought into range by revolving 
 the steel-clad turret, thus combining the maximum of gun power with 
 the minimum of exposure. Ericsson named his newly -invented ship 
 The Monitor, from its use as a caution or warning to the enemies of his 
 adopted country. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 255 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINES. 
 
 In modern machine shops a turret is known as a revolv- 
 ing tool holder; that is, a tool holder which contains a 
 number of cutting tools, any one of which may be used by 
 revolving the holder, which brings the cutting tool succes- 
 sively into position to operate on the work ; while the 
 turret is principally used on lathes, screwing and drilling 
 machines, it is applied to many other machines, such as 
 the planer, and shaper, and also in wood-working machines. 
 
 Fig. 272. 
 
 Fig. 272 shows a turret fitted on the shears or bed of 
 a lathe ; the turret is bored with holes for the reception of 
 six tools ; it has hand longitudinal and cross feeds, the tur- 
 ret being revolved by hand ; it has at its base, a steel index 
 ring of large diameter, hardened and ground ; the locking 
 bolts are hardened and ground, and provided with a taper 
 gib for taking up the wear ; a spiral spring forces the lock- 
 ing bolts into the slots, and is adjusted by a screw at the 
 back end of the turret slide. The turret slides move in 
 flat bearings with adjustable taper gibs to maintain correc^ 
 alignment. 
 
256 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 THE TURRET LATHE. 
 
 Fig. 273 exhibits a turret fitted on the carriage of an 
 engine lathe, similar to that illustrated in fig. 61 ; it shows 
 the hexagonal turret mounted on the carriage, being inter- 
 changeable with the compound rest shown in fig. 61, 
 enabling the lathe to be used either as an engine lathe or a 
 turret lathe. 
 
 The advantages of this turret are that it has power, 
 longitudinal and cross feeds, and is screw cutting ; it 
 has all the changes of feed that the lathe has ; it may be 
 used in connection with the half-nuts, and therefore chase a 
 thread ; it permits running in such taps as conform with 
 the threads cut by the lathe at their proper pitch and bring- 
 ing them out without danger of stripping any of the 
 threads ; it may be " set over " either way from the center 
 and is provided with centre stops. 
 
 NOTE. In practice, all pieces made from the continuous bar are 
 machined as follows : A long bar of the rough iron or steel is pushed 
 through the spindle, until the piece projects beyond the chuck long 
 enough to make the piece desired. The various tools on the turret are 
 set for the different diameters and cuts, and after each performs its 
 operation, it is turned out of the way to admit the next tool. Since a 
 number of tools are set for the various diameters, it gives this machine 
 a great advantage over the lathe where there is but one tool. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 257 
 
 Fig. 274. 
 
258 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 THE TURRET DRILL. 
 
 Fig. 274 shows a turret head fitted to a drilling 
 machine described as a turret drill. On the trunnion of 
 the frame is mounted the turret head with any number of 
 projecting bearings ; six are shown in the illustration 
 fig. 275, which is a front view of the turret head. These 
 projecting bearings support and guide the drill spindles ; 
 through the frame passes the driving shaft, on the end of 
 which, inside of the turret, is fastened a bevel gear in mesh 
 
 275. 
 
 NOTE. Pivoted on the front of the gear-case, fig. 275, in the 
 interior of the turret head is a bell crank lever, one end of which is 
 forked and loosely connected to the driving spindle ; the other arm of 
 this lever is connected to the locking bolt that holds the turret head in 
 position. Fastened to the locking bolt is a rod connected to the foot- 
 treadle shown on left-hand side of the base. When the treadle is 
 pressed downward it moves the locking bolt outward ; at the same time 
 the driving spindle moves upward and is unlocked from the drill 
 spindle before the locking bolt leaves its socket, thus making it 
 impossible for the turret to be moved while the driving spindle is in 
 contact with the drill spindle. When the turret is revolved to the tool 
 wanted, the bolt will automatically drop in its socket, and the driving 
 spindle moves downward and engages the drill spindle. 
 
 The feed is by hand and foot lever. The table is balanced and has 
 a vertical feed motion. The knee that supports the table is fastened to 
 the face of the column and balanced by a weight inside of the column. 
 The drill bpiudles are of steel, hardened and ground, and reamed to fit 
 the Morse taper ; the spindles have an independent drill stop. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 259 
 
 AUXILIARY MACHINES. 
 
 with another bevel gear, loosely splined to the driving 
 spindle, which has on its lower end a clutch that engages, 
 when in operation, with a corresponding clutch on the 
 inner end of the drill spindle. 
 
 Fig. 276 shows a screw-cutting die-head which is self- 
 opening and adjustable ; it is designed for use on screwing 
 machines, lathes and in turrets, being provided with an 
 internal adjustable gauge for varying the length of the 
 threads. It has few parts, yet admits of the finest adjust- 
 
 Fig. 276. 
 
 ments; being graduated upon one side of the shell and 
 provided with an index by which quick and accurate varia- 
 tions in the diameter of threads may be made, and as the 
 index is controlled by one screw, both dies are adjusted 
 simultaneously. It is provided with four single-point dies, 
 and also with a roughing and finishing attachment, by 
 means of which two cuts may be taken in making a thread, 
 and insures a more perfect quality of work than is possible 
 to produce with one passage of dies, 
 
260 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SCREW-CUTTING DIE HEAD. 
 
 The roughing and finishing attachment is operated by 
 a small handle located at one side and back of the head 
 proper, and as shown in the illustration, so arranged that 
 by moving it to a forward position the dies are opened 
 slightly for the roughing cut, and when the handle is 
 returned to its original or backward position, the dies are 
 closed and locked at a predetermined point for the finish- 
 ing cut ; this handle is easily and quickly manipulated by 
 the left hand of the operator. In regular practice the 
 tripping of the dies is effected by the stock as it passes 
 through the dies and comes in contact with the end of the 
 gauge, but they may be tripped at any point on the cut by 
 moving the handle which operates the roughing and finish- 
 ing attachment to a central position, which unlocks the 
 dies and causes them to open. 
 
 Fig. 277. 
 
 Adjustable collapsing taps, as shown in fig. 277, are 
 designed for use in screwing machines and lathes and are 
 held either in the turret, or in the rotary or live spindle. 
 By reason of not requiring to be reversed, these taps 
 retain their cutting edges longer and will cut smoother and 
 cleaner than a solid tap ; the standard size of thread can be 
 maintained by adjusting the chasers or cutters in a similar 
 manner to the adjustable dies described on page 259. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 261 
 
 KEYSEATING MACHINE. 
 
 Fig. 278 shows a machine which will cut keyseats on 
 any portion of a shaft, without removing it from its bear- 
 ings ; the machine being firmly fastened to the shaft by 
 two clamps, the cutter-head is fed along the shaft and will 
 mill a keyseat 12 inches long without resetting, and as it 
 has a sliding support under the cutter at all times, it cuts 
 without jar and produces keyseats with straight sides and 
 
 Fig. 278. 
 
 smooth bottoms. The machine is provided with an auto- 
 matic feed while cutting, but this feed may be disengaged 
 if desired, and the cutter-head fed by hand. 
 
 Five milling cutters are used with each machine; by em- 
 ploying one or more of which on spindle, keyseats of any of the 
 following sizes may be milled full width at one operation : 
 
 i fV f- T V i- rV> i U. I- i-f- *. H. i. 'TV. 'i in. 
 
262 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 279. 
 
264 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 Fig. 280. 
 
 American JUactiiniat 
 
 Fig. 281. 
 
UTILITIES AND ACCESSORIES, 
 
 Fig. 282. 
 
 A utility is defined as a useful thing ; a machine shop 
 utility is a tool or device adapted for use among machines 
 of larger and more pretentious reputation ; each shop has 
 
 265 
 
266 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 JIGS, SHOP KINKS AND WRINKLES. 
 
 its own utilities, and upon their proper application depends 
 largely the success of the whole organization. 
 
 An accessory machine or tool is one contributing to a 
 general effect and belonging to something else as a prin- 
 cipal ; a "jig," defined below, is properly an accessory 
 machine or device. 
 
 A jig is defined as any subordinate mechanical con- 
 
 Fig. 283. 
 
 Fig. 284. 
 
 Fig. 285. 
 
 trivance or convenience to which no definite name is 
 attached ; a jig is a small special tool or otherwise a 
 " wrinkle " or shop "kink." 
 
 NOTE. In repetition work, where hundreds, thousands or even 
 millions of similar pieces are to be worked upon, the profitableness of 
 these special devices is most apparent. Jigs to the number of many 
 thousands have been devised and used, although not always to 
 advantage; they have often "cost more than they come to" in 
 economical results. 
 
 The few examples shown on the following pages are rather as 
 suggestions than an attempt to fully explain all the useful contrivances 
 known under the names of utilities, jigs, etc. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 267 
 
 UTILITIES AND ACCBSSORIKvS. 
 
 Fig. 279 shows a pressed-steel shop pan used for 
 handling bolts, rivets, nails, screws, nuts, washers, castings 
 and other substances ; they are also used under lathes and 
 drilling machines, to catch the turnings, trimmings, oil drip- 
 pings, etc. The pressed steel pans are found, in practice, 
 more durable than riveted ones, and are lighter and more 
 easily cleansed. 
 
 Fig. 280 shows a lathe pan ; the lower pan or " shelf ." 
 is intended for the usual lathe extras, the upper pan is for 
 the chips or cuttings. The top tray, which catches the 
 chips and oil, is sometimes provided with a strainer and 
 draw-off cock, as shown in section in fig. 281; by using 
 this, the lubricant can be separated and used again. 
 
 When emery wheels wear out of true or glaze on the 
 surface, it becomes necessary to true them. For this pur- 
 pose a hand tool is used, which consists of a pure carbon 
 or black diamond set firmly in the end of a steel rod pro- 
 vided with a suitable wooden handle ; with this tool any 
 desired shape, round or bevel, can be given to face of the 
 wheel ; the diamond produces true and smooth work, but 
 the cutting qualities of the emery are slightly impaired by 
 its action. 
 
 The above device is designed to be operated by hand ; 
 it is not illustrated ; a similar tool is used, which can be 
 fixed in the tool-post, the diamond being set in a solid 
 steel shank. 
 
 Emery wheel dressing tools usually held in a sliding 
 holder, are shown in three figures on the opposite page. 
 
 NOTE. The chips are made at or near the headstock end and, of 
 course, drop in one end of the pan ; when brass and iron work alter- 
 nate, to keep the chips separate, simply turn the pan end for end for 
 this purpose the wheels of the casters are large and swivel readily. 
 
268 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 EMERY-WHEEL DRESSING TOOLS. 
 For the purpose of removing the smoothness from 
 emery wheels which have become glazed, emery-wheel 
 dressers, as shown, are used ; they are serrated or grooved 
 discs which are pressed against the wheel and traversed 
 back and forth across the face ; the tool shown in 
 fig. 283 is specially intended for large, thick wheels, 
 say from 8 inches diameter and 2 inches thick or 
 
 Fig. 286. 
 
 more, but are not practical for use on small, thin wheels ; 
 while the dressers shown in fig. 284 and fig. 285 are gener- 
 ally used on smaller and thin wheels, but can likewise be 
 used on the large wheels. 
 
 Fig. 287. Fig. 288. 
 
 Figs. 286 to 288 are steel clamps made from drop 
 forgings, case-hardened, and have take-up blocks to slip on 
 and off the end of the screw. They will hold work square 
 and parallel for laying out on surface plates, drilling, etc. 
 A round piece may be rigidly held in two of the clamps 
 and drilled, as shown in the illustration, fig. 288. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 269 
 
 UTILITIES AND ACCESSORIES. 
 
 Various devices are used for stamping on metal sur- 
 faces impressions of trademarks, etc.; the machine shown in 
 fig. 282 is designed for this purpose ; it will mark, by means 
 of steel dies, letters, numbers, etc., on either flat or round 
 metal surfaces, such as twist drills, taps, dies, reamers, etc. 
 The piece of work to be marked is held on the table 
 by a suitable fixture. For marking flat surfaces a cylin- 
 drical die is used, carried in a yoke or holder, which is 
 attached to the slide bar or rack, and which is moved by 
 the lever and pinion shown. By using a round die only a 
 single point on its circumference is in contact with the 
 work at one time. Many kinds of material that would be 
 distorted by the use of a punch press can readily be stamped 
 
 by this machine. When 
 marking round surfaces, as 
 the shanks of drills and 
 reamers, a flat die is at- 
 tached to the rack or slide, 
 and the work allowed to roll on 
 the table as the die comes in con- 
 tact with it. Adjustments are 
 provided when using flat or 
 round dies, so that the proper 
 character on the die shall come 
 
 in contact with the work at a stated point ; the amount of 
 travel, after contact is made, is governed by screw stops ; 
 the round die, after use, is relieved of pressure and returned 
 by spring tension to its original position. 
 
 Fig. 289 shows a screw jack, which is useful for lifting 
 heavy castings into position on the planer, etc. The illus- 
 tration explains itself, the cap being self-adjusting 
 
270 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MACHINE SHOP UTILITIES. 
 
 Fig. 290 exhibits a pair of " two and two " sheave rope 
 blocks, fitted with an " automatic lock " or self-sustaining 
 brake, which holds the load in any desired position ; this 
 lock can be released only by a pull on the rope, hence it is 
 a safety block ; for many purposes, rope blocks are superior 
 to chain blocks. 
 
 291. Fig. 292. 
 
 Fig. 293. 
 
 Fig. 294. 
 
 Fig. 291 is a snatch block; fig. 292 a 
 double, or two-sheave block ; fig. 293 is a 
 three-sheave block; fig. 294 is a snatch 
 block with disconnecting side strap. 
 
 Fig. 295 illustrates a wall crane, de- 
 signed for use with a lathe, slotting planer 
 or, in fact, any tool in which heavy articles 
 are machined ; the construction enables 
 this crane to be used without occupying 
 any of the floor, nor does it interfere 
 with the movements of the workman ; 
 with this description of crane, pulley 
 
The Advanced Machinist* 
 
 271 
 
 SNATCH AND SHEAVE BLOCKS. 
 
 blocks are generally used to raise the work, to a trolley 
 which slides on the top of the crane arm, as shown in 
 fig. 295. 
 
 Fig. 296 shows a simple and convenient method of 
 supplying a grindstone with water, an essential feature 
 being to provide a supply of water for the wheel while in 
 operation, and to keep the wheel dry when not in use. The 
 wheel, as illustrated, is mounted on a wooden frame, and 
 the trough for the water is made of galvanized iron, the 
 
 Fig. 295. 
 
 trough being high enough to enter the top of the frame, 
 which serves as a guide, thus returning all the water to 
 the trough again. When down, the water is below the 
 bottom of the stone ; the treadle, made of a piece of pine 
 1X5 inches, is connected to the trough by a couple of 
 kettle ears and fulcrumed about the center of its length 
 to the floor. The weight of the water keeps the trough 
 down, and a presssure of the foot quickly brings the water 
 in contact with the stone. 
 
272 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 MACHINE SHOP UTILITIES. 
 
 Fig. 297 shows a "buff" or polishing machine. The 
 stand or pedestal is hollow, and the wheel guard is of such 
 shape 'that the draught, caused by the rapid movement of the 
 wheel, carries the larger part of the dust produced by pol- 
 ishing, from the operator to the bottom of the stand; this 
 may be connected with a blower, and the dust almost com- 
 pletely removed. 
 
 Fig. 296. 
 
 Polishing wheels are made of different materials, such 
 as wood covered with leather, canvas clamped between iron 
 plates, felt, unbleached muslin, etc.; the best wheels are 
 
 NOTE. While most shops are provided with special tool grinders 
 and sharpeners, the old grindstone still seems to have a place of its 
 own among them, and most machinists prefer the grindstone when it 
 is kept in good shape and well supplied with water. The chief objec- 
 tions to grindstones are that they do not hold their form any great 
 length of time, and that the means usually employed to keep them 
 well supplied with water are unsatisfactory. If the stone is kept sub- 
 merged in water when not running, soft spots will result, and these will 
 wear much faster than the rest of the stone. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 273 
 
 THE GRINDSTONE. 
 
 solid leather and are made in three grades: soft, medium 
 and hard ; and they are well adapted to all kinds of polish- 
 ing. These wheels are made of discs of oak-tanned leather, 
 held together with elastic water-proof cement, and com- 
 pressed under a hydraulic pressure of from 75 to 100 tons. 
 They have advantages over other wheels, being more plia- 
 ble and elastic, can be turned to any shape face, saving the 
 
 Fig. 297. 
 
 expense of re-covering, as a coat of emery is all that is 
 needed to make them ready for service. Being water-proof, 
 they can be washed like a leather-covered wood wheel 
 when a new coat of emery is needed, and they can be run 
 at any speed with perfect safety. 
 
 A tool chest is shown in fig. 298. This is preferably 
 made of hardwood and furnished with locks and handles. 
 
274 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 " The user of the machine tool, wiser in his gen- 
 eration than the agitator, refuses to make sudden and 
 radical changes in methods which have proved suc- 
 cessful. To him machines are but a means to an end. 
 He does not purchase them because they make 
 watches, or engines, or ships. For these things he 
 does not care. He wants them to make money, and 
 
 Fig. 298. 
 
 if he finds that a new machine can turn out more of 
 it in an hour than an old machine, he tries the new. 
 But it is labor lost, explaining the beauties of its con- 
 struction, the 'excellence of its work, and the rapidity 
 of its output, if it cannot be shown that it makes 
 more money than a tool his grandfathers found 
 good." 
 
276 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 "The most successful managers are those who 
 manage men, not things. By selecting the right 
 heads of departments, encouraging them to do their 
 best, by showing in a substantial manner their work 
 is appreciated, the manager or superintendent can 
 suggest improvements to the various departments that 
 far out-weigh the whole cost of some of the details. 
 It is well to know the details, so as to be able to 
 examine them occasionally, but to attempt to follow 
 them continually prevents attention to features of 
 more importance." 
 
 " The shop manager must educate his foremen ; 
 must train them to his methods ; must teach them 
 concentration along the line of their particular work. 
 Imbued with this spirit the shop foreman will train 
 the gang boss, and he in turn the workmen under 
 him. All must understand, that the greatest output 
 of perfect, finished product, with the least delay and 
 waste, is the sole object in view." 
 
SHOP MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The advanced machinist, in common with other trades 
 and professions, has, in very recent times, learned the 
 value of co-operation between man and man, and between 
 man and machines ; at last he is working on the principles 
 he has found to underlie good results in any trade division 
 of labor and organization. 
 
 When the modern machinist undertakes a problem of 
 construction, or a special line of manufacture, he looks it 
 squarely in the face, and if the equipment is not equal to 
 the demands of the situation, supplies the need with the 
 most approved machines or he invents new and improved 
 devices and tools, and guarantees successful and definite 
 results even before the work is begun. He does this by 
 what is broadly named shop management. 
 
 The subject suggests two things a shop and a man- 
 ager ; or, to enlarge a little, shops with machinery in opera- 
 tion and a foreman ; again, to widen the view still further, 
 shop management may properly include as its field of 
 operations, a vast establishment with thousands of skilled 
 and unskilled workmen, with their gang-bosses, foremen, 
 and superintendents of departments, the whole animated 
 and directed as a single whole by a general manager, who 
 in turn is responsible to a board of directors, representing 
 the capital employed. 
 
 For its most effective use, the shop may be considered 
 a machine, sometimes large and sometimes small, of which 
 the equipment and men are the moving parts. These are 
 so placed as to work one with another, so that the product, 
 
 277 
 
278 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SHOP MANAGEMENT. 
 
 passing through the shop, reaches the finished condition 
 with the least expense, in the desired state of finish and 
 accuracy, thus effecting the combination of superiority and 
 low price. 
 
 Be the " plant " large or small, the first thing that 
 enters into its successful management is a " system " 
 adapted to its size, condition and location. The word 
 system explains the idea : A plan or scheme according to 
 which ideas or things are connected together as a whole ; 
 a union of parts forming a whole ; whatever savors of 
 system, savors of accuracy, speed, ease and comfort. 
 
 Let it not be forgotten, that of thousands of machine- 
 shops now in existence, the exceptions are few in number 
 but what they had -their beginnings in the days of small 
 things, as to men and equipment ; they have simply grown 
 with passing years, but with all, the fact has been, that 
 success and continuance has depended upon a proper 
 system, which has been classified as 
 
 I. Organization ; 
 
 2. Management; 
 
 3. Equipment. 
 
 NOTE. "System is not work, but is simply a law of action for 
 reducing work ; it does not require special executors, but permits few to 
 accomplish much. It loads no man with labor but lightens the labor 
 of each by rigidly defining it. Hard work begins when system relaxes. 
 
 System never under any circumstances, interferes with variations 
 in human action, but includes them ; elasticity is not a quality of sys- 
 tem, but comprehensiveness is. System is the result of two rigid laws : 
 i, a place for everything and everything in its place, and, 2, specific lines 
 of duty for every man. The laws being written, understood and exe- 
 cuted, lighten the responsibility of every man. " Chorda?* Letters. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 279 
 
 ORGANIZATION. 
 
 The term organization refers to the arrangement of 
 departments and the positions they occupy, but in this 
 book, the term does not include the commercial organiza- 
 tion, of account keeping, financing or business management. 
 EQUIPMENT. 
 
 The term equipment may be said to include all 
 machinery, tools, gauges, auxiliary plant, means of trans- 
 portation and shop fittings ; this is nearly a definition of a 
 power-plant. 
 MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The above enter into the operation of every shop 
 and " plant," and so the problems of to-day in shop and 
 factory management, are not so much problems of machinery 
 as of men ; the question of men is, and always will be a 
 difficult one ; men are, as a rule, willing to do a good, 
 fair day's work for a fair day's pay. They do not 
 have to be driven to this. It is only necessary that the 
 foreman let them know, in manly, inoffensive ways, what 
 is expected of them. 
 
 Many schemes of co-operation have been attempted 
 in the various trades and factories, with varying success. 
 Many schemes have been too complicated, and many have a 
 serious drawback in the length of time necessary before 
 the workman knows to what extent he has participated in 
 the profits. Many schemes are too visionary, and some 
 good ones may have been failures on account of the 
 methods taken to introduce them. Any plan, to succeed, 
 must be practical and simple enough to introduce without 
 
 NOTE. The Century Dictionary defines a "plant" as "the 
 fixtures, machinery, tools, apparatus, etc., necessary to carry on any 
 trade or mechanical business, or any mechanical process or operation." 
 
2 So The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SHOP MANAGEMENT. 
 
 displacing entirely the old. The most practical schemes 
 seem to be those in which the workman is able to partici- 
 pate in the profit on a given piece. That is, he is given 
 opportunity to reduce cost of production and is allowed an 
 increase of wage for so doing. 
 
 PIECE-WORK PLAN. 
 
 The piece-work is the most widely introduced of any 
 system in which the machinist shares in his increased pro- 
 ductiveness. It consists in paying a fixed price for a certain 
 piece of work. Although it was originally intended to 
 benefit the manufacturer, in its first result it most directly 
 benefited the workman, as he received an increase of 
 wage, while the price per piece remained constant to the 
 manufacturer, who, however, gains something by the greater 
 output of his plant. 
 
 THE DIFFERENTIAL PLAN. 
 
 The differential plan consists of paying a man a high 
 price per piece in consideration of his reaching a certain 
 high- water mark of production per day, and a lower price 
 per piece provided he falls below this rate of production. 
 This plan congregates the ablest of workmen, but leaves 
 the medium men considerably in the shade. It necessi- 
 
 NOTE. "A tour of the machine shops of the United States and 
 the newer works of Europe gives few impressions more striking than 
 the one created by the widespread evidence of growing thought for the 
 comfort of the workman. Humanitarian considerations aside, it 
 pays pays in quality and lower cost of output when the worker is 
 kept well nourished and in good hygienic surroundings. It is not, of 
 course, possible for all works to go so far as some others, but the 
 general principles are everywhere applicable." The Editors of the 
 Engineering Magazine. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 281 
 
 PIECE-WORK AND PREMIUM PLANS. 
 
 tates a radical change from the method of paying by the 
 hour, but perhaps conforms more closely than any other 
 plan to the true theory of having the wage proportionate 
 to the production. 
 THE PREMIUM PLAN. 
 
 The premium plan consists of setting a " time limit " 
 upon the piece, within which limit the piece is expected to 
 be completed. The man is paid his hourly wage for every 
 hour he works upon the piece, and a specified premium for 
 every hour he saves or does not work upon the piece inside 
 the " time limit " set. The " time limits " and premium 
 rates are not changed or cut. The advantages of this plan 
 are : First, adaptability to ordinary work fitting in along- 
 side of regular day work ; second, its self-regulating feature, 
 whereby the cost per piece is reduced to the employer and 
 the wage per hour increased to the workman every time 
 any improvement is made in production ; third, its flexibil- 
 ity, due to the opportunity at the start of fixing a premium 
 rate adapted to the conditions or business in hand, and the 
 opportunity thereafter of setting either a liberal or close 
 " time limit " to regulate cost per piece. It does not crowd 
 out the medium machinist, but gives him encouragement 
 to become better. 
 
 It also serves the foreman as the best indicator possi- 
 ble for setting the rates of men per hour, by affording him 
 an opportunity to note the amount of product turned out 
 in a given time. 
 
 Of these three plans of co-operation, the piece work 
 plan requires the least knowledge in fixing prices ; the 
 differential plan requires a most extensive, minute and 
 
282 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SHOP MANAGEMENT. 
 
 complete knowledge of the exact maximum rate of pro- 
 duction. The premium plan requires a fair knowledge 
 and judgment of machine-shop operations, in order to set 
 a reasonable " time limit," but with proper premium rates 
 the " time limits " may vary considerably, without varying 
 the actual cost to a dangerous extent. 
 AN EQUITABLE METHOD. 
 
 An equitable method of scaling the rates for machine 
 labor would tend to clear the atmosphere for those who 
 are in doubt. An even rate for all machinists greatly 
 handicaps the most skilled labor and benefits most the 
 incompetent. 
 PLANNING A SHOP. 
 
 In planning a shop, however small, the possibility of 
 its steady growth for many years to come, should be kept 
 constantly in mind. No building should be erected that 
 does not conform with part of the whole scheme of what 
 the plant might be in the remote future. Another con- 
 sideration is to provide for the unity of the plant, even 
 though it trebles or quadruples in size. 
 
 NOTE. A notable example of forethought in guarding against 
 this possibility is the new Allis-Chalmers shop at Milwaukee. Pro- 
 vision has been made not only for its doubling, but for its expansion 
 indefinitely, without loss of its integrity. The foundry and pattern shop 
 run parallel to each other. At right angles and abutting the foundry 
 are three machine shop bays, and at the other end of these bays, run- 
 ning out at right angles to them, is the erecting shop, so that the 
 castings from the foundry go through the various machine shop bays 
 and into the erecting shop by the most direct routes. But the finest 
 feature of this whole plant is that more bays may be added and the 
 foundry, pattern shop and erecting shop lengthened without damaging 
 the correct proportions of these departments relatively to each other, 
 and without their growing apart. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 283 
 
 DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 As an army is divided into divisions, brigades and 
 companies, so are the large shops of the present day 
 divided into departments, each of which has its official 
 head. 
 
 A description of one will be sufficient to indicate the 
 management of many. It is that of a well ordered pattern 
 shop, which constituted a department in an extensive 
 establishment. 
 
 The closing paragraphs of the article are especially 
 worthy of attention : 
 
 " The shop was on the second floor of a separate building, having 
 windows on all sides. Benches were around the outer walls, each hav- 
 ing a window over it. Windows had shades to roll from both top and 
 bottom, thus getting all possible light without the glare of the sun. 
 Each bench had a tool rack at back of same for tools most commonly 
 used, and drawers built in the bench for workmen's supplies and such 
 tools as were only occasionally used. A small clothes closet with 
 towel, rack and mirror over each bench completed the individual 
 equipment. Bach workman was required to leave his bench clean and 
 in order at night. 
 
 " The shop floor was swept every night, and the refuse taken out, 
 thereby lessening fire dangers. The lumber was kept in racks on edge, 
 one size above another, the heavier pieces near the floor. In ihis way 
 any piece could be taken out without moving any other. There was 
 but one scrap pile in the shop. Instead of being thrown on the floor 
 in a heap, pieces of lumber were properly sorted in a rack next 
 the band-saw, shelves being provided for the smaller pieces and cross- 
 bars for longer ones. But little time was lost getting nearly the right 
 piece. No scrap was allowed under the benches. All pieces left had 
 to be put in the rack or thrown in the waste. The floor under the 
 benches was kept as clean as the rest of the shop. 
 
 "The machines were in groups in the center of the shop at one 
 end, leaving a large floor space at the other end. This made the ma- 
 chines accessible from all sides. All machines were belted from below, 
 thus avoiding belts across the shops. All face-plates, centers, wrenches, 
 calipers, etc , were kept on shelves under the lathe, and back of same 
 to be easily accessible. Each workman was required to leave machines 
 clean and in order. 
 
284 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SHOP xWANAGEMENT. 
 
 " A great deal of work was only sandpapered after sawing. 
 Some was only sawed. Saws were kept in order by the foreman and 
 hung alongside the machine. The buzz planer was kept in the best pos- 
 sible condition. The 30- inch grindstone ran 450 revolutions per minute, 
 taking water on its side, centrifugal force carrying it out. The stone 
 was properly hooded, had tight and loose pulleys and iron frame. 
 This machine had the fast cutting qualities of an emery grinder with- 
 out its heating disadvantages. There was a small bench drill taking 
 small twist drills and the ordinary wood bits up to one inch. There 
 was one large trimmer and iwo smaller ones conveniently arranged 
 about the shop. Round, concave and convex sandpapering blocks of 
 standard sizes and curves were kept in a rack for that purpose. 
 
 " Time slips and approximate amount of material used were turned 
 in to the foreman every night. The aim in this shop seemed to be to 
 waste nothing ; to do work at as low cost as possible ; to do good 
 work ; to be considerate of the comforts and conveniences of the men, 
 and to have good order and cleanliness everywhere." 
 
 Mr. Sibley, in the same journal, tells of a new foreman 
 who reformed a shop noted for its untidiness : 
 
 " Shortly after his appearance on the scene, he started a crusade 
 against dirt and rubbish ; he had the carpenter build a bin in one cor- 
 ner of the yard, which was roofed over and fitted with a door, made in 
 sections which could be successively inserted as the bin filled, after 
 which he sawed in two a half dozen empty oil barrels, which were 
 painted a bright red and on which were inscribed in large white letters the 
 legend " Refuse ; " these were located in convenient places. A laborer 
 was selected and given an outfit consisting of broom, rake, shovel and 
 wheelbarrow, and to him was assigned the task of raking up and 
 wheeling away all litter from the yard ; also once a day cleaning out 
 the chips and scraps from the various boxes around the machine tools 
 and depositing them in the bin. 
 
 " It is an axiom that ' Like begets like,' and the result of such 
 surroundings was to make the men more careful and painstaking in 
 their work, reducing the loss from waste and spoiled jobs, and also 
 having the effect of drawing and holding a much better and more 
 intelligent class of workmen than could otherwise be obtained for the 
 same wages." 
 
 THE FOREMAN. 
 
 The man upon whom the success, comfort, character, 
 and continuance of a "works" depends in the ultimate is 
 the model foreman ; he has been described as follows : 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 285 
 
 THE FOREMAN. 
 
 " A foreman is a chief or leading man, with those 
 whom he is appointed to manage and direct ; a success- 
 ful foreman must be two-sided. He must not only 
 keep the machinery under his charge in proper order, 
 but he must discipline, direct and control the animated 
 human machine that operates the inanimate tools. He 
 should be a good mechanic as well as a good leader of 
 men. 
 
 " To be a leader of men, he should cultivate perfect 
 patience, forbearance and self-control, remembering that 
 no man has controlled others who did not start by control- 
 ling himself. He should be even-tempered, or, if not born 
 so, should not let anyone discover it. He should be strictly 
 just, granting cheerfully everything due his employees, 
 while jealously guarding his employer's interests, curbing 
 his generosity in spending funds intrusted to him. A 
 man so qualified should make a successful master mechanic, 
 but will not long remain one in the present day of keen 
 competition in all branches, calling for competent men for 
 advancement." 
 
 The shop manager should be keen to remove and 
 keep removed from the foreman such tasks as do not bear 
 directly upon the production. The foreman must turn 
 out the maximum of good products. To do this he must 
 have his materials supplied to him without effort on his 
 part. He must be left time to pick and choose the men 
 best suited to the various classes of work. He must train 
 them into rapid and skillful workmen. He must keep the 
 machine tools in good order and see that they are worked 
 to their full capacity, and the organization of which he is a 
 
286 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 SHOP MANAGEMENT. 
 
 part must make it possible for him to do all this, and must 
 not distract his attention with anything else. 
 GANG BOSSES. 
 
 Gang bosses are now common on the erecting floors of 
 even small shops, and there is no reason why gang bosses 
 should not be appointed to oversee work on tools also. 
 For example, the best lathe hand in a group of three or 
 four is paid a trifle more and put in authority over them. 
 The foreman instructs this man in regard to the work laid 
 out ahead for these lathes, while the man in turn sees that 
 it is carried out in detail. He is still a producer, but at the 
 same time he is relieving the foreman of a considerable 
 burden. In this way the foreman is left freer to plan out 
 the more important details of his work. 
 
 A quotation expresses a strongly-felt need for in- 
 formation: "There are a great many problems for the 
 small shop to solve, and the methods of the big shops 
 furnish no solution. I mean the small shop that is just 
 big enough to have troubles, but not big enough to have 
 a fine organization where one man has to do many 
 things where the question of commercial expediency 
 turns up daily. I mean the shop employing from twenty- 
 five to fifty hands and doing a variety of small work 
 sometimes a quantity of pieces, sometimes a limited num- 
 ber of special machines. Something a little beyond the 
 jobbing machinists, but away behind the great sewing 
 machine companies and small arms companies and type- 
 writer concerns. / sometimes think the manager of such 
 a shop has a tougher job than a man with one ten times 
 as large" 
 
288 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 " A machinist must love the tools he uses. They 
 are his work-day companions during life ; he learns 
 to handle them with skillful gentleness ; he learns to 
 regard them with that sort of warmth of feeling 
 which, during the long years of association with 
 them, unfolds itself into a genuine love for those that 
 have stood by him have remained good to the last.' 
 They are his 'never fail me's,' and with certain ones 
 he would not part for ten times their cost to him." 
 
WORKSHOP RECIPES. 
 
 A recipe, in popular usage, is a receipt for making 
 almost any mixture or preparation. 
 
 Shop recipes pertain to the shop, and embrace a thou- 
 sand processes, receipts, kinks and formulas, in common 
 report among mechanics ; these are passed along from man 
 to man and frequently are printed and thus pass into liter- 
 ature. 
 
 Each establishment has its own particular collection 
 of recipes, and many of them are applicable only in their 
 own home-land, where necessity has given them birth. In 
 the same way, each machinist, engineer and artisan should 
 possess, as a part of his private equipment, a good store of 
 these useful and most helpful items of knowledge. 
 
 Each one is advised to keep a memorandum-book in 
 which he may record, from time to time, such recipes as, 
 in his line of activity, may be considered valuable, elimi- 
 nating and omitting like old lumber all such as belong 
 to outside affairs and hence of no service to the compiler 
 of what may be properly called a " list of useful recipes." 
 
 A few only, of many of such in current use, are here 
 presented, more as a guide for such collections which each 
 one can make for himself, rather than as a complete 
 exhibit of recipes and formulas. 
 
 BABBITT METAL. Babbitt metal is an alloy, com- 
 posed of tin 45.5, copper 1.5, antimony 13, lead 40 parts. 
 
 Formerly the alloy, originated by Isaac Babbitt, was 
 used for all purposes, but there is no one composition that 
 will bring equally good results in all kinds of machinery, 
 hence are given the following : 
 
 289 
 
290 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECIPES. 
 
 Babbitt metal for light duty is composed of 89.3 parts 
 of copper, 1.8 parts of antimony, 8.9 parts of lead. 
 
 Babbitt metal for heavy bearings is composed of 88.9 
 parts of copper, 3.7 parts of antimony, 7.4 parts of lead. 
 
 SOLDERS. Alloys employed for joining metals together 
 are termed " solders," and they are commonly divided into 
 two classes : hard and soft solders. The former fuse only 
 at a red heat, but soft solders fuse at comparatively low 
 temperatures. Common solders are composed of equal 
 parts of tin and lead ; fine solder, two parts of tin to one of 
 lead ; cheap solder, one of tin and two of lead ; common 
 pewter contains four lead to one of tin ; German silver 
 solder is composed of copper 38, zinc 54, nickel 8 parts=ioo. 
 How TO SOLDER ALUMINIUM. In soldering alu- 
 minium, it is necessary to bear in mind that upon exposure 
 to the air a slight film of oxide forms over the surface of 
 aluminium, and afterwards protects the metal. The oxide 
 is 'the same color as the metal, so that it cannot easily be 
 distinguished. The idea in soldering is to get underneath 
 this oxide while the surface is covered with the molten 
 solder. With the following procedure quick manipulation 
 is necessary: I, clean off all dirt and grease from the 
 surface of the metal with a little benzine ; 2, apply the 
 solder with a copper bit, and when the molten solder is 
 
 NOTE. The best treatment for wrought steel, which has a knack 
 of growing gray and lustreless, is to first wash it very clean with a stiff 
 brushand ammonia soapsuds, rinse well, dry by heat if possible, then 
 oil plentifully with sweet oil, and dust thickly with powdered quick 
 lime. Let the lime stay on two days, then brush it off with a clean 
 very stiff brush. Polish with a softer brush, and rub with cloths until 
 the lustre comes out. By leaving the lime on, iron and steel may be 
 kept from rust almost indefinitely. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 291 
 
 HOW TO SOLDER ALUMINIUM. 
 
 covering the surface of the metal, scratch through the 
 solder with a little wire scratch-brush. By this means you 
 break up the oxide on the surface of the metal underneath 
 the soldering, and the solder, containing its own flux, takes 
 up the oxide and enables you, so to speak, to tin the sur- 
 face of the aluminium. 
 
 To TIN A SOLDERING IRON. File the bolt clean 
 over the part to which the tinning is to be applied. Wet 
 this part with soldering fluid. Heat the bolt till it is hot 
 enough for use and rub it into solder placed upon a piece 
 of tin. If this does not secure an even coating, heat the 
 bolt again and attend to the bare spots in the same man- 
 ner as before. If you use a soldering pot, you can keep 
 sal-ammoniac on top of the solder, and dip the iron into 
 the solder through the liquid. 
 
 BRAZING CAST IRON. The reason that cast iron can- 
 not be brazed with spelter as wrought iron can, is that the 
 graphitic carbon in the former prevents the adhesion of the 
 spelter, as a layer of dust prevents the adhesion of cement 
 to stone or brick. A process to remove this graphite has 
 been patented in Germany, consisting essentially in apply- 
 ing to the surfaces to be united an oxide of copper and 
 protecting them against the influence of the air with borax 
 or silicate of soda. When the joint is heated the oxide of 
 copper gives up its oxygen to the graphite, converting it 
 into carbonic oxide gas, which escapes in bubbles, while 
 particles of metallic copper are deposited on the iron. 
 
 NOTE. For removing rust from iron the following is given : Iron 
 may be quickly and easily cleaned by dipping in or washing with nitric 
 acid one part, muriatic acid one part and water twelve parts. After 
 using wash with clean water, 
 
292 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECIPES. 
 
 Any oxide of iron which may be formed is dissolved by 
 the borax, and the surfaces of the iron, thus freed from 
 graphite, unite readily with the spelter which is run into 
 the joint before it cools, the copper already deposited on 
 the iron assisting the process. The inventor claims that 
 cast iron can in this way be readily brazed in an ordinary 
 blacksmith's forge. 
 
 A CHEAP LUBRICANT FOR MILLING AND DRILLING. 
 Dissolve separately in water, 10 pounds of whale-oil soap 
 and 15 pounds of sal-soda. Mix this in 40 gallons of clean 
 water. Add two gallons of best lard oil, stir thoroughly, 
 and the solution is ready for use. 
 
 SODA WATER FOR DRILLING. Dissolve three-fourths 
 to one pound of sal-soda in one pailful of water. 
 
 FUSING POINTS OF TIN-LEAD ALLOTS. 
 
 Tin i to lead 10, 
 
 o, 
 
 . . . 558 F. 
 
 Tini> 
 
 z to lead i, . 
 
 . 334 F. 
 
 5, 
 
 . . . 511 F. 
 
 " 2 
 
 " " I, . 
 
 . ... 340 F. 
 
 3, 
 
 . . . 482 F. 
 
 " 3 
 
 " " i, . 
 
 . | 356 F. 
 
 2, 
 
 . . . 44i F. 
 
 " 4 
 
 T 
 1 > 
 
 . . 365 F. 
 
 I, 
 
 . . . 370 F. 
 
 " 5 
 
 " " i, . 
 
 i . 378 F. 
 
 USE OF LIME TO KEEP SHOP FLOORS CLEAN. In 
 the Elevated Railroad shops of Chicago it has been found 
 that the use of lime aids in cleaning up the shop floors and 
 in keeping them in good condition. This lime is simply 
 swept over the floor every day, in addition to the regular 
 cleaning. Very little remains on the floor after the sweep- 
 ing, but it is sufficient to counteract the effect of the oil 
 
 NOTE. Among all the soft metals in use there are none that 
 possess greater anti-friction properties than pure lead ; but lead alone 
 is impracticable, for it is so soft that it cannot be retained in the recess 
 of a bearing. In most of the best and most popular anti friction metals 
 in use, sold under the name ' ' Babbitt, ' ' the basis is lead. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 293 
 
 MARKING SOLUTION. 
 
 and grease, and to make it easy at the beginning of each 
 day to clean up what has fallen the previous day, as well 
 as to improve the appearance of the floor. 
 
 NICKEL-PLATING SOLUTION. To a solution of 5 to 
 10 per cent, of chloride of zinc (5 grains, drams or ounces, 
 to 95 of water, or 10 parts to 90 of water) add enough 
 sulphate of nickel to produce a strong green color, and 
 bring to boiling boint in a porcelain or stoneware vessel. 
 The piece, or article, to be plated must be free from grease 
 (by dipping in dilute acid) ; it is introduced by hanging on 
 wire by a stick across the vessel, so that it touches the sides 
 as little as possible. Boiling is continued from 30 to 60 min- 
 utes, water being added to supply that lost by evaporation. 
 During boiling, the nickel is deposited as a white and 
 brilliant coating. Boiling for two or three hours does not 
 increase the thickness of the coating. As soon as the 
 object appears to be plated, wash in water having a little 
 chalk in suspension, and then carefully dry. Polish the 
 article with chalk. The chloride of zinc and nickel suL 
 phate must be free from metals precipitable by iron. If, 
 during the precipitation of the nickel on the articles, the 
 solution becomes colorless, more nickel sulphate should be 
 added. The liquid spent may be used again by exposing 
 it to the air until the contained iron (from the articles) is 
 precipitated, filtering and adding the salts as above. 
 W. B. BURROW in Power. 
 
 MARKING SOLUTION. Dissolve one ounce of sulphate 
 of copper (blue vitriol) in four ounces of water and half a 
 teaspoonful of nitric acid. When this solution is applied 
 on bright steel or iron, the surface immediately turns cop- 
 
294 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECIPES. 
 
 per color, and marks made by a sharp scratch v.'wl will be 
 seen very distinctly. 
 
 FOR BLUING BRASS. Dissolve one ouivvc (or any 
 other unit in the same proportions will do) of antimony 
 chloride in twenty ounces of water and add three ounces 
 of pure hydrochloric acid. Place the warmed brass artic)e 
 into this solution until it has turned blue. Then wash i*. 
 and dry in sawdust. 
 
 To PROTECT BRIGHT WORK FROM RUST.- Use: i. 
 a mixture of one pound of lard, one ounce of gum camphor 
 melted together, with a little lamp-black ; or, 2, a mixture 
 of lard oil and kerosene, in equal parts ; or, 3, a mixture o j 
 tallow and white lead ; or, 4, of tallow and lime. 
 
 VARNISH FOR COPPER. To protect copper from oxi- 
 dation a varnish may be employed which is composed of 
 carbon disulphide I part, benzine I part, turpentine oil I 
 part, methyl alcohol 2 parts and hard copal I part. The 
 varnish is very resisting; it is well to apply several coats 
 of it to the copper. Die Werkstatt. 
 
 To REMOVE THE SAND AND SCALE FROM IRON 
 CASTINGS. Immerse the parts in a mixture composed of 
 one part of oil of vitriol to three parts of water ; in six to 
 ten hours remove the objects, and wash them thoroughly 
 with clean water; this is called "pickling." A weaker 
 solution can be used by allowing a longer time for the 
 action of the solution. 
 
 NOTE. A common sewing needle held in a suitable handle makes 
 an excellent scriber for accurate work. It is so cheap that grinding is 
 unnecessary, as, when dull, it can be simply replaced by a new one. 
 The point on a needle is ground by an expert, and is far superior to 
 anything possible by the ordinary machinist. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 295 
 
 EXTRACTING BROKEN TOOLS. 
 
 RUST JOINT COMPOSITION. This is a cement made of 
 sal-ammoniac I lb., sulphur \ lb., cast-iron turnings 100 Ibs.; 
 the whole should be thoroughly mixed and moistened with 
 a little water; if the joint is required to set very quick, add 
 i lb. more sal-ammoniac. Care should be taken not to use 
 too much sal-ammoniac, or the mixture will become rotten. 
 
 RUST JOINT (slow setting) Two parts sal-ammoniac, 
 I flour of sulphur, 200 iron borings. This composition is 
 the best, if joint is not required for immediate use. 
 
 CEMENT FOR FASTENING PAPER OR LEATHER TO 
 IRON. The following ingredients are required : I pound 
 best flour, % pound best glue, ^ pound granulated sugar, 
 YZ ounce powdered borax, ^ ounce sal-ammoniac, % ounce 
 alum. Soak the glue in three pints of soft water for 12 
 hours, or if you have glue already melted, pour in the 
 quantity. Mix the flour in one quart of soft water, mix all 
 together, and boil over a slow fire, or cook with a steam 
 jet. When cool it is ready for use. The face of the pul- 
 ley or surface where the leather is to be applied must be 
 thoroughly clean and free from grease. 
 
 EXTRACTING BROKEN TOOLS. To extract the frag- 
 ment of a drill, punch or steel tool, which has broken off 
 while working any metal but iron or steel. The object 
 containing the broken-off piece is immersed in a boiling 
 solution composed of I part common alum to 4 or 5 parts 
 of water. This solution may be held in a vessel of stone- 
 ware, porcelain, copper, etc., but not of iron. The object 
 should be so placed that the gaseous bubbles that form as 
 the alum attacks the metal are easily disengaged. At the 
 end of a short time the fragment of the tool is entirely dis- 
 
296 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECIPES. 
 
 solved. A piece of steel spring, one-sixteenth of an inch 
 thick, dissolved in a concentrated solution of alum in three- 
 quarters of an hour. Herr Bornhauser, Prussia. 
 
 LUBRICANTS FOR USE IN CUTTING BOLTS AND 
 TAPPING NUTS. Dissolve i^ pounds of sal-soda in three 
 gallons of warm water, then add one gallon of pure lard 
 oil. This is called a soda solution. Pure lard oil is the 
 best for fine, true work. Never use mineral oil. Acme 
 Machinery Co. 
 
 SOLDERING FLUIDS. Add pieces of zinc to muriatic 
 acid until the bubbles cease to rise, and the acid may be 
 be used for soldering with soft solder. 
 
 Mix one pint of grain alcohol with two tablespoonfuls 
 of chloride of zinc. Shake well. This solution does not 
 rust the joint as acids are liable to do. 
 
 When soldering lead, use tallow or resin as a flux, and 
 use a solder consisting of one part tin and \\ parts lead. 
 
 PREVENTING RUST ON TOOLS. To prevent rust on 
 tools, use vaseline, to which a small amount of gum cam- 
 phor has been added ; heat together over a slow fire. 
 
 IN LAYING OUT WORK on planed surfaces of steel 
 
 or iron, use blue vitriol and water on the surface. This 
 
 will copper-plate the surface nicely, so that all lines will 
 
 i show plainly. If on oily surfaces, add a little oil of vitriol ; 
 
 this will eat the oil off and leave a nicely coppered surface. 
 
 A METAL THAT WILL EXPAND IN COOLING is made 
 of 9 parts lead, 2 parts antimony, and I part bismuth. 
 This metal will be found very valuable in filling holes in 
 castings. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 297 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED. 
 
 To COPPER THE SURFACE OF IRON OR STEEL 
 WIRE. Have the wire perfectly clean, then wash with the 
 following solution, when it will present at once a coppered 
 surface : Rain water, three pounds ; sulphate of copper, I 
 pound. 
 
 To KEEP WATER FROM FREEZING. Common salt is 
 the best material, and by using common (agricultural) salt 
 the expense is the least. 
 
 AN OIL THAT WILL NOT GUM. Take good Florence 
 olive oil and put it in a bottle with some strips of zinc and 
 shavings of lead, which should be clean. Expose the bot- 
 tle to sunlight until the curdy matter ceases to be depos- 
 ited ; this will require considerable time, but the oil when 
 decanted will be of very fine quality and will not gum. 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED IN ACCIDENTS. 
 
 A noted surgical writer has said that the fate of an 
 injured person depends upon the acts of the one into 
 whose hands he first falls. In the time of an accident, the 
 presence of a person with a knowledge of what to do and 
 the presence of mind to carry such knowledge into effect, 
 is invaluable. 
 
 NOTE. Few subjects can more usefully employ attention and 
 study than the proper treatment and first remedies made necessary by 
 the peculiar and distressing accidents to which persons are liable who 
 are employed in or around machinery; under the title of "First Aid," 
 etc., there are most helpful instructions printed and distributed, well 
 worth the study of the advanced machinist ; where enough in number 
 of the trade are together, it would be worthy of praise, for owners to 
 provide each year, a short course of lectures, illustrated, for the benefit 
 of those unfortunately injured, as they are sure to be from time to 
 time, and in a greater or less degree. 
 
298 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL, RECIPES. 
 
 A clear head, a steady hand and some practical know- 
 ledge of what is to be done, are what are needed in the first 
 moments of sudden disaster of any kind ; an experienced 
 machinist or engineer is nearly always found, in the con- 
 fusion incident to such a time, to be the one most compe- 
 tent to advise and direct the efforts made to avert the dan- 
 ger to life, limb or property, and to remedy the worst after- 
 effects. 
 
 To fulfill this responsibility is worth much previous 
 preparation, so that the best things under the circumstances 
 may be done quickly and efficiently. To this end the fol- 
 lowing advice is given relating to the most common accidents 
 which are likely to happen, in spite of the utmost care and 
 prudence. 
 
 I, Keep cool. 2, Summon a surgeon at once. 3, Send 
 a written message, describing the accident and injury if 
 possible, in order that the surgeon may know what instru- 
 ments and remedies to bring. 4, Remove the patient to a 
 quiet, airy place where the temperature is comfortable. 
 $, Keep bystanders at a distance. 6, Handle the patient 
 gently and quietly. 
 
 IN CASE OF WOUNDS. 
 
 Arrange the injured person's body in a comfortable 
 position; injuries to the head require that the head be 
 raised higher than the level of the body ; when practical 
 
 NOTE. An entire chapter on " Accidents and how to avoid them," 
 would be useful ; the first advice might be this : To resolve firmly to 
 be constantly careful, and determine, with all the solemnity of an oath, 
 neither to be injured oneself, nor to cause injury to another. This has 
 been the author's rule and it has resulted well ; again : always to look 
 in the direction in which one is moving. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 299 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED. 
 
 lay the patient on his back with the limbs straightened out 
 in their usual natural position. Unless the head be injured, 
 have the head on the same level as the body. Loosen the 
 collar, waist-band and belts. If the patient should be faint, 
 have his head rather lower than his feet. If the arm or leg 
 be injured, it may be slightly raised and laid on a cushion 
 or pillow. 
 
 Watch carefully if unconscious. 
 
 If vomiting occurs, turn the patient's body on one side, 
 with the head low, so that the matters vomited may not go 
 into the lungs. 
 
 If a wound be discovered in a part covered by the 
 clothing, cut the clothing in the seam. Remove only 
 sufficient clothing to uncover and inspect the wound. 
 
 All wounds should be covered and dressed as quickly 
 as possible. If a severe bleeding should occur, see that 
 this is stopped, if possible, before the wound is finally 
 dressed. 
 
 Bleeding is of three kinds : I, from the arteries which 
 lead from the heart ; 2, that which comes from the veins 
 which take the blood back to the heart ; 3, that from the 
 small veins which carry the blood to the surface of the 
 body. In the first, the blood is bright scarlet and escapes as 
 though it were being pumped. In the second, the blood is 
 dark red and flows away in an uninterrupted stream. In 
 the third, the blood oozes out. In some wounds all three 
 kinds of bleeding occur at the same time. 
 
 The simplest and best remedy to stop the bleeding is 
 to apply direct pressure on the external wound by the 
 fingers. Should the wound be long and gaping, a compress 
 
3oo The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL RECIPES. 
 
 of some soft material large enough to fill the cavity may be 
 pressed into it ; but this should always be avoided, if pos- 
 sible, as it prevents the natural closing of the wound. 
 
 Pressure with the hands will not suffice to restrain 
 bleeding in severe cases for a great length of time, and 
 recourse must be had to a ligature , this can best be made 
 with a pocket handkerchief or other article of apparel, long 
 enough and strong enough to bind the limb. Fold the 
 article neck-tie fashion, then place a smooth stone, or any- 
 thing serving for a firm pad, on the artery, tie the handker- 
 chief loosely, insert any available stick in the loop and proceed 
 to twist it, as if wringing a towel, until just tight enough to 
 stop the flow. 
 
 Examine the wound from time to time, lessen the 
 compression if it becomes very cold or purple, or tighten 
 up the handkerchief if it commences bleeding. 
 
 Some knowledge of anatomy is necessary to guide the 
 operator where to press. Bleeding from the head and 
 neck requires pressure to be placed on thj large artery 
 which passes up beside the windpipe and just above the 
 collar bone. The artery supplying the arm and hand runs 
 down the inside of the upper arm, almost in line with the 
 coat seam, and should be pressed with the finger or thumb. 
 
 The artery feeding the leg and foot can be felt in the 
 crease of the groin, just where the flesh of the thigh seems 
 to meet the flesh of the abdomen, and this is the best 
 place to apply the ligature. In arterial bleeding, the 
 pressure must be put between the heart and the wound, 
 while in venous bleeding it must be beyond the wound, to 
 stop the flow as it goes toward the heart. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 301 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED. 
 
 In any case of bleeding, the person may become weak 
 and faint ; unless the blood is flowing actively, this is not a 
 serious sign, and the quiet condition of the faint often 
 assists nature in staying the bleeding, by allowing the 
 blood to clot and so block up any wound in a blood vessel. 
 
 Unless the faint is prolonged or the patient is losing 
 much blood, it is better not to hasten to relieve the faint 
 condition ; when in this state anything like excitement 
 should be avoided, external warmth should be applied, 
 the person covered with blankets, and bottles of hot water 
 or hot bricks to the feet and arm-pits. 
 
 IN CASE OF CUTS. 
 
 The chief points to be attended to are: I, arrest the 
 bleeding ; 2, remove from the wound all foreign bodies as 
 soon as possible ; 3, bring the wounded parts opposite to 
 each other and keep them so ; this is best done by means 
 of strips of adhesive plaster, first applied to one side of the 
 wound and then secured to the other ; these strips should 
 not be too broad, and space must be left between the strips 
 to allow any matter to escape. Wounds too extensive to 
 be held together by plaster must be stitched by a surgeon, 
 who should always be sent for in severe cases. 
 
 For washing a wound, to every pint of water add 2j 
 teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid and 2 tablespoonfuls of gly- 
 cerine if these are not obtainable, add 4 tablespoonfuls of 
 borax to the pint of water wash the wound, close it, and 
 
 NOTE Severe bleeding is not usual after machinery and railroad 
 accidents, as the wounds inflicted are such that the blood vessels are 
 generally closed, because they are torn and twisted off. This is not 
 the case with cuts. 
 
3O2 T/ie Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL RECIPES. 
 
 apply a compress of a folded square of cotton or linen ; wet 
 it in the solution used for washing the wound and bandage 
 down quickly and firmly. 
 
 If the bleeding is profuse, a sponge dipped in very 
 hot water and wrung out in a cloth should be applied as 
 quickly as possible if this is not to be had, use ice, or 
 cloth wrung out in ice water. 
 
 Wounds heal in two ways: I, rapidly by primary 
 union, without suppuration, and leaving only a very fine 
 scar ; 2, slowly by suppuration and the formation of 
 granulations and leaving a large red scar. 
 
 Do not touch the wounds with the hands either during 
 examination, or while applying dressings, unless they have 
 been previously made clean. 
 
 After dressing a wound, do no more to the patient 
 unless necessary to restore him to consciousness or relieve 
 faintness. 
 
 If suffering from shock, place him in a comfortable 
 position and await the arrival of the surgeon. 
 
 IN CASE OF BROKEN BONES. 
 
 The treatment consists of: I, carefully removing or 
 cutting away, if more convenient, any of the clothes which 
 
 NOTE. " Bones do not break directly across ; they break zig-zag 
 and one bone overlaps the other, sometimes with many sharp points, 
 and if you pick up a patient and do not pay special attention to how 
 you carry him, the first thing you know, one sharp end of the bone will 
 be sticking out. This is a great element of danger to the case. If he 
 is to be conveyed some distance, and no one is on hand to attend 
 to him, the best thing to do is to apply a splint and bandage. Take a 
 piece of board about four inches wide and two and one-half feet long 
 and put it on the back side of the leg, then put two or three turns of 
 the bandage around it. This will answer well enough to convey the 
 patient some distance." J. EMMON BRIGGS, M.D. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 303 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED. 
 
 are compressing or hurting the injured parts ; 2, very gently 
 replacing the bones in the natural position and shape, as 
 nearly as possible, and putting the part in a position which 
 gives most ease to the patient ; 3, applying some tempo- 
 rary splint or appliance, which will keep the broken bones 
 from moving about and tearing the flesh ; for this purpose, 
 pieces of wood, pasteboard, straw, or firmly folded cloth 
 may be used, taking care to pad the splints with some soft 
 material and not to apply too tightly, while the splints 
 may be tied by loops of rope, string or strips of cloth ; 4, 
 conveying the patient home or to an hospital. 
 
 To get at a broken limb or rib, the clothing must be 
 removed, and it is essential that this be done without 
 injury to the patient ; the simplest plan is to rip up the 
 seams of such garments as are in the way. Boots must be 
 cut off. It is not imperatively necessary to do anything to 
 a broken limb before the arrival of a doctor, except to keep 
 it perfectly at rest. 
 
 How TO CARRY AN INJURED PERSON. 
 
 In case of an injury where walking is impossible, and 
 lying down is not absolutely necessary, the injured person 
 may be seated in a chair, and carried; or he may sit upon 
 a board, the ends of which are carried by two men, around 
 whose necks they should place his arms so as to steady 
 himself. 
 
 Where an injured person can walk he will get much 
 help by putting his arms over the shoulders and round the 
 necks of two others. 
 
 A seat may be made with four hands and the person 
 
304 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL RECIPES. 
 
 may be thus carried and steadied by clasping his arms 
 around the necks of his bearers. 
 
 If only one person is available and the patient can 
 stand up, let him place one arm round the neck of the 
 bearer, bringing his hand on and in front of the opposite 
 shoulder of the bearer. The bearer then places his arm 
 behind the back of the patient and grasps his opposite hip, 
 at the same time catching firmly hold of the hand of the 
 patient resting on his shoulder, with his other hand ; then 
 by putting his hip behind near the hip of the patient, much 
 support is given, and if necessary, the bearer can lift him 
 off the ground and as it were, carry him along. 
 
 To carry an injured person by a stretcher (which can 
 be made of a door, shutter or settee with blankets or 
 shawls or coats for pillows), three persons are necessary. In 
 lifting the patient on the stretcher it should be laid with its 
 foot to his head, so that both are in the same straight line ; 
 then one or two persons should stand on each side of him, 
 raise him from the ground and slip him on the stretcher; 
 
 NOTE. A broad board or shutter may be employed as a stretcher; 
 but if either of them be used, some straw, hay, or clothing should be 
 placed on it, and then a piece of stout cloth or sacking ; the sacking is 
 useful in taking the patient off the stretcher when he arrives at the 
 bedside. 
 
 Always test a stretcher before placing the patient on it. Place an 
 uninjured bystander upon it and let the bearers carry him a short dis- 
 tance, practicing placing him upon it, laying down, raising up, turning 
 around, etc. 
 
 Never allow stretchers to be carried on the bearers' shoulders. 
 
 Always carry patient feet- foremost, except when going up a hill. 
 In cases of fractured thigh or fractured leg, if the patient has to be 
 carried down hill, carry the stretcher head-first. 
 
 In carrying a patient on a stretcher, care should be taken to avoid 
 lifting the stretcher over walls or ditches. -Johnson's First Aid Manual. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 305 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED. 
 
 this to avoid the necessity of any one stepping over the 
 stretcher, and the liability of stumbling. 
 
 If a limb is crushed or broken, it may be laid upon a 
 pillow with bandages tied around the whole (i. e., pillow 
 and limb) to keep it from slipping about. In carrying the 
 stretcher the bearers should " break step " with short 
 paces ; hurrying and jolting should be avoided and the 
 stretcher should be carried so that the patient may be in 
 plain sight of the bearers. 
 
 IN CASE OF BURNS AND SCALDS. 
 
 Burns are produced by heated solids or by flames of 
 some combustible substance; scalds are produced by steam 
 or a heated liquid. The severity of the accident depends 
 mainly, I, on the intensity of the heat of the burning body, 
 together with, 2, the extent of surface, and, 3, the vitality 
 of the parts involved in the injury; thus, a person may 
 have a finger burned off with less danger to life than an 
 extensive scald of his back. 
 
 In severe cases of burns or scalds the clothes should be 
 
 NOTE. The immediate effect of scalds is generally less violent 
 than that of burns ; fluids not being capable of acquiring so high a 
 temperature as some solids, but flowing about with great facility, their 
 effects become most serious by extending to a large surface of the body. 
 A burn which instantly destroys the part which it touches may be free 
 from dangerous complication, if the injured part is confined within a 
 small compass ; this is owing to the peculiar formation of the skin. 
 
 The skin is made up of two layers ; the outer one has neither 
 blood vessels nor nerves, and is called the scarf-skin or cuticle; the 
 lower layer is called the true skin, or cutis. The latter is richly sup- 
 plied with nerves and blood vessels, and is so highly sensitive we could 
 not endure life unless protected by the cuticle. The skin, while soft 
 and thin, is yet strong enough to enable us to come in contact;with 
 objects without pain or inconvenience. 
 
306 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL RECIPES. 
 
 removed with the greatest care they should be carefully 
 cut, at the seams, and not pulled off. 
 
 In scalding by burning water or steam, cold water 
 should be plentifully poured over the person and clothes, 
 and the patient then carried to a warm room and laid on the 
 floor or a table, but not put to bed as there it becomes 
 difficult to attend further to the injuries. 
 
 The secret of the treatment is to avoid chafing, and 
 to keep out the air. Save the skin unbroken, if possible, 
 taking care not to break the blisters ; after removal ot the 
 clothing, an application to the injured surface, of a mixture 
 of soot and lard, is, according to practical experience, an 
 excellent and efficient remedy. The two or three following 
 methods of treatment also are recommended according to 
 convenience in obtaining the remedies. 
 
 Take ice well crushed or scraped, as dry as possible, 
 then mix it with fresh lard until a broken paste is formed ; 
 the mass should be put in a thin cambric bag, laid upon 
 the burn or scald and replaced as required. So long as the 
 
 NOTE. A method in use in the New York City Hospital known 
 as the "glue burn mixture," is composed as follows: "7^ Troy 02. 
 white glue, 16 fluid oz. water, i fluid oz. glycerine, 2 fluid drachms 
 carbolic acid. Soak the glue in the water until it is soft, then heat on 
 a water bath until melted ; add the glycerine and carbolic acid and 
 continue heating until, in the intervals of stirring, a glossy, strong skin 
 begins to form over the surface. Pour the mass into small jars, cover 
 with paraffine papers and tin foil before the lid of the jar is put on and 
 afterwards protect by paper pasted round the edge of the lid. In this 
 manner the mixture may be preserved indefinitely. When wanted for 
 use, heat in a water bath and apply with a flat brush over the burned 
 part" 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 307 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED. 
 
 ice and lard are melting, there is no pain from the burn, 
 return of pain calls for a repetition of the remedy. 
 
 In burns with lime, soap, lye or any caustic alkali, 
 wash abundantly with water (do not rub), and then with 
 weak vinegar or water containing a little sulphuric acid 
 finally apply oil, paste or mixture as in ordinary burns. 
 INSENSIBILITY FROM SMOKE. 
 
 To recover a person from this, dash cold water in the 
 face, or cold and hot water alternately. Should this fail, 
 turn the patient on his face with the arms folded under his 
 forehead ; apply pressure along the back and ribs and turn 
 the body gradually on the side ; then again slowly on the 
 face, repeating the pressure on the back ; continue the 
 alternate rolling movements about sixteen times a minute 
 until breathing is restored. A warm bath will complete 
 the cure. 
 HEAT-STROKE OR SUN-STROKE. 
 
 The worst cases occur where the sun's rays never pene- 
 trate and are caused by the extreme heat of close and con- 
 fined rooms, overheated workshops, boiler-rooms, etc. The 
 symptoms are : I, a sudden loss of consciousness ; 2, heavy 
 breathing; 3, great heat of the skin, and 4, a marked 
 absence of sweat. 
 
 Treatment. The main thing is to lower the tempera- 
 ture. To do this, strip off the clothing, apply chopped ice 
 wrapped in flannel to the head ; rub ice over the chest, and 
 place pieces under the armpits and at the side. If no ice 
 can be had use sheets or cloth wet with cold water, or the 
 body can be stripped and sprinkled with cold water from 
 a common watering pot. 
 
308 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL RECIPES. 
 FROST BITE. 
 
 No warm air, warm water, or fire should be allowed 
 near the frozen parts until the natural temperature is nearly 
 restored ; rub the affected parts gently with snow or snow 
 water in a cold room ; the circulation should be restored 
 very slowly ; and great care must be taken in the after- 
 treatment. 
 To REMOVE FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE. 
 
 Take hold of the upper lid and turn it up so that you 
 can look on the inside of the upper lid. Have the patient 
 make several movements with the eye ; first up, then down, 
 to the right side and to the left. Then take a tooth-pick 
 with a little piece of absorbent cotton wound around the 
 end and moistened in cold water, and swab it out. The 
 foreign body will adhere to the swab and you will get the 
 object out of the eye without any trouble. 
 DEATH SIGNS. 
 
 The note following is added with some doubt as to its 
 useful application, but this whole subject relates to very 
 serious occurrences, and it may be well, considering all 
 things, to print it. 
 
 NOTE. Hold the hand of the person apparently dead before a 
 candle or other light, the fingers stretched, one touching the other, 
 and look through the space between the fingers toward the light. If 
 the person is living, a scarlet red color will be seen where the fingers 
 touch each other, due to the still circulating fluid blood as it stows 
 itself between the transparent, but yet congested tissues. When life 
 is extinct this phenomenon ceases. Another method is to take a cold 
 piece of polished steel, for instance a a razor blade or table knife, hold 
 this under the nose and before the mouth ; if no moisture condenses 
 upon it, it is safe to say that there is no breathing. 
 
 In cases of severe shock, etc., it is not sufficient to test the cessa- 
 tion of the heart-beat by feeling of the pulse at the wrist. An acute 
 ear can generally detect the movement of the heart by the sound when 
 the ear is applied to the chest or back. The electric battery may be 
 used under the advice of a physician in doubtful cases. 
 
Ti.e Advanced Machinist. 309 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED. 
 
 THE D'ARSONVILLE METHOD OF RESUSCITATION FROM 
 ELECTRIC SHOCK. 
 
 The proof of the efficacy of this method is now so 
 complete that no one following pursuits in which there is 
 danger from electric shocks, is justified in neglecting to 
 make himself familiar with it. 
 
 First, it must be appreciated that accidental shocks 
 seldom result in absolute death unless the victim is left 
 unaided for too long a time, or efforts at resuscitation are 
 suspended too early. 
 
 In the majority of instances the shock is only sufficient 
 to suspend animation temporarily, owing to the momentary 
 and imperfect contact of the conductors, and also on 
 account of the indifferent parts of the body submitted to 
 the influence of the current. It must be appreciated also 
 that the body under the conditions of accidental shocks 
 seldom receives the full force of the current in the circuit, 
 but only a shunt current, which may represent a very insig- 
 nificant part of it. 
 
 When an accident of this nature occurs, the following 
 rules should be promptly adopted and executed with due 
 care and deliberation : 
 
 i. Remove the body at once from the circuit by 
 breaking contact with the conductors. This may be 
 
 NoTH. The introduction of electricity as an industrial and use- 
 ful agent has been attended with many distressing accidents, causing 
 great suffering and frequently loss of life; while happily these accidents 
 are becoming less frequent, none the less it is important to both know 
 and observe the rules for safety so constantly repeated. 
 
 Currents of electricity passed through the limbs affect the nerves 
 with certain painful sensations, and cause the muscles to undergo invol- 
 untary contractions. The effect experienced by the discharge with 
 nigh potential difference is that of a sharp and painful shock. 
 
3 TO The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 RESUSCITATION FROM ELECTRIC SHOCK, 
 accomplished by using a dry stick of wood, which is a non- 
 conductor, to roll the body over to one side, or to brush 
 aside a wire, if that is conveying the current. When a 
 stick is not at hand, any dry piece of clothing may be util- 
 
 Fig. 299. 
 ized to protect the hand in seizing the body of the victim, 
 
 unless rubber gloves are convenient. If the body is in con- 
 tact with the earth, the coat-tails of the victim, or any loose 
 or detached piece of clothing, may be seized with impunity 
 to draw it away from the conductor. When this has been 
 accomplished, observe Rule 2. 
 
 Fig. 300. 
 2. Turn the body upon the back, loosen the collar 
 
 and clothing about the neck, roll up a coat and place it 
 under the shoulders, so as to throw the head back, and then 
 make efforts to establish artificial respiration (in other words, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 311 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED. 
 
 make him breathe), just as would be done in case of 
 drowning. To accomplish this, kneel at the subject's head, 
 facing him, and seizing both arms draw them forcibly to 
 their full length over the head (as shown in fig. 299), so as 
 to bring them almost together above it, and hold them 
 there for two or three seconds only. (This is to expand 
 the chest and favor the entrance of air into the lungs.) 
 
 Then carry the arms down to the sides and front of 
 the chest, firmly compressing the chest walls, and expel 
 the air from the lungs (as shown in fig. 300). Repeat this 
 manoeuvre at least sixteen times per minute. These 
 efforts should be continued unremittingly for at least an 
 hour, or until natural respiration is established. 
 
 3. At the same time that this is being done, some 
 one should grasp the tongue of the subject with a hand- 
 kerchief or piece of cloth to prevent it slipping, and draw 
 it forcibly out when the arms are extended above the head, 
 and allow it to recede when the chest is compressed. 
 
 This manoeuvre should be repeated at least sixteen 
 times per minute. This serves the double purpose of free- 
 ing the throat so as to permit air to enter the lungs, and 
 also, by exciting a reflex irritation from forcible contact of 
 the under part of the tongue against the lower teeth, fre- 
 quently stimulates an involuntary effort at respiration. If 
 the teeth are clenched and the mouth cannot be opened 
 
 NOTE. Linemen's rubber gloves are designed to prevent the fre- 
 quent and often fatal accidents occurring to linemen from shock while 
 handling electric light wires or other wires in contact with the same, 
 and also the dangers of line work from lightning in stormy weather. 
 The gloves are also useful in handling the strong acids of batteries, 
 being impervious to the same. 
 
312 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 USEFUL RECIPES. 
 
 readily to secure the tongue, force it open with a stick, a 
 piece of wood, or the handle of a pocket-knife. 
 
 Commence always with pulling the tongue, but the 
 method of artificial respiration should be applied at the 
 same time if possible. 
 
 Concurrent efforts should be made to bring back the 
 circulation by rubbing the surface of the body, smartly 
 striking it with the hands or wet towels, throwing from 
 time to time water on the face, and causing the victim to 
 inhale ammonia and vinegar. 
 
 The dashing of cold water into the face will sometimes 
 produce a gasp and start breathing which should then be 
 continued as directed above. If this is not successful the 
 spine may be rubbed vigorously with a piece of ice. Alter- 
 nate applications of heat and cold over the region of the 
 heart will accomplish the same object in somd instances. 
 It is both useless and unwise to attempt to administer 
 stimulants to the victim in the usual manner by pouring it 
 down his throat. 
 
 While this is being done, a physician should be sum- 
 moned. 
 
 COLIC. 
 
 Apply heat in the form of hot water bags, or bottles, 
 hot plates, and mustard plaster over the seat of pain. Hot 
 baths are sometimes useful. 
 
 VOMITING. 
 
 Give large amounts of hot water, as hot as can be 
 taken. Patient should always lie down. Small bits of 
 ice held in the mouth or swallowed, will relieve vomiting 
 caused by indigestion. A lump of ice held against the pit 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 313 
 
 AID TO THE INJURED. 
 
 of the stomach will sometimes bring relief. When other 
 means fail, apply a mustard plaster to the pit of the stomach. 
 
 BANDAGES. 
 
 These are frequently made by cutting a piece of linen 
 or calico forty inches square into two pieces crosswise, and 
 may be used either as a " broad " or " narrow " bandage. 
 The broad is made by spreading the bandage out, then 
 bringing the point down to the lower border, and then 
 folding into two folds. The narrow is made by drawing 
 the point down to the lower border, and then folding into 
 three ; a bandage should always be fastened either by a 
 pin or by being tied with a reef-knot. 
 
 When rolled into strips, the following sizes have been 
 found advantageous ; for hand, ringers, and toes, one inch 
 wide, one to two yards in length ; for arms, legs, and 
 extremities, two and a half inches wide, seven yards in 
 length ; for thigh, groin, and trunk, three inches wide and 
 eight to ten yards in length. 
 
 POULTICES. 
 
 These outward applications are useful to relieve sud- 
 den cramps and pains due to severe injuries, sprains and 
 colds. The secret of applying a mustard poultice is to 
 apply it hot and keep it so by frequent changes if it gets 
 cold and clammy it will do more harm than good. A poul- 
 tice to be of any service and hold its heat should be from 
 one-half to one inch thick. To make it, take flaxseed, oat- 
 meal, rye meal, bread, or ground slippery elm ; stir the 
 meal slowly into a bowl of boiling water, until a thin and 
 smooth dough is formed. To apply it take a piece of old 
 linen of the right size, fold it in the middle, spread the 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF EMPLOYERS. 
 
 dough evenly on one-half of the cloth and cover it with 
 the other. 
 
 To make a " mustard paste " as it is called, mix one 
 or two tablespoonfuls of mustard and the same of fine flour, 
 with enough water to make the mixture an even paste ; 
 spread it neatly with a table knife on a piece of old linen, 
 or even cotton cloth. Cover the face of the paste with a 
 piece of thin muslin. 
 CARE OF SELF. 
 
 Want of care is the cause of more injuries than want 
 of knowledge; hence care and knowledge should be well 
 commingled. It is easier to form a habit than to break 
 one off, therefore we should strive to form correct habits 
 in relation to avoiding accidents. 
 
 PRINCIPLES INVOLVING THE RESPONSIBILITY OF EM- 
 PLOYERS FOR THE SAFETY OF THEIR WORKMEN. 
 
 The following are abstracts chiefly from recent decis- 
 ions in the higher courts of various states. In general 
 they are indicative of the law throughout the country : 
 
 The risks and dangers assumed by an employee are 
 such as are incident to his employment, such as are known 
 to him, and such as are obvious and patent. (Pa. p Dist. 
 Rep. 2pi.) 
 
 To show that an employee assumed the risks con- 
 nected with the operation of a machine it must appear, not 
 only that a defect was patent, but that he knew the dan- 
 ger of operating it in its defective condition. (Minn. 92 
 N. W. Rep. 
 
 NOTE. -The portions of the above abstracts printed in italics are 
 the Law References to cases which have established and confirmed 
 verdicts in test cases. The American Machinist is entitled to the 
 credit for this list of cases. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 315 
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF EMPLOYERS. 
 
 A minor cannot recover for an injury received while 
 working a machine when the danger of the machine is such 
 as can readily be seen, and he was duly instructed in its 
 use, and the machine was in good condition. (Pa. 17 L.L. 
 Rep. 247.) 
 
 Where an employee is injured while obeying the 
 orders of his employer to perform work in a dangerous 
 manner, the employer is liable, unless the danger is so 
 imminent that a man of ordinary prudence would not 
 incur it. (88 III. App. Ct. Rep. 169.) 
 
 In order to recover for defects in the appliances of 
 the business, the employee must establish by proof three 
 propositions : First, that the appliance was defective ; 
 second, that the employer had notice or knowledge of such 
 defect, or should have had ; third, that the employee did 
 not know of the defect, and had not equal means of know- 
 ing with the employer. (87 III. App. Ct. Rep. 55/.) 
 
 It is incumbent on an employer to exercise ordinary 
 care to provide and maintain a reasonably safe place and 
 reasonably safe machinery and appliances in which and by 
 means whereof an employee is to perform his service. 
 (U. S. Ct. App. 163 Fed. Rep. 265.} 
 
 It is not only the duty of an employer to warn his 
 employee against the danger that lies in the unskillful or 
 careless operation of machinery, involved in his employ- 
 ment or task, but he should also give suitable instructions 
 as to the manner of using the same so as to avoid danger. 
 (ij Pa. Sup. Ct. Rep. 21 p.) 
 
 While it is settled law that an employee assumes the 
 ordinary and apparent risks of his employment, he does 
 
316 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF EMPLOYERS. 
 
 not assume the risk from defects in the plant itself, which 
 the employer is bound to make and keep in a reasonably 
 safe condition. (Me. 4.6 At I. Rep. 804..} 
 
 An experienced workman of mature years cannot con- 
 tinue to operate a machine, which he knows is dangerous, 
 without assuming the risk, simply because the employer 
 has assured him that it is safe, when the workman has just 
 as much knowledge of the danger arising from its use as 
 the employer. (Mich. 82 N. W. Rep. 7^7.) 
 
 The burden of proving that an accident arose out of 
 and in the course of the workman's employment lies on 
 the employee ; but the burden of proving serious and will- 
 ful misconduct lies on the employer. (Eng. 80 L. T. J/7) 
 
 If the negligence of the employer operates as a con- 
 curring and efficient cause of an injury to an employee, his 
 liability will not be relieved by the negligence of fellow- 
 employees also concurring. (88 III. App. Ct. Rep. 162.) 
 
 To constitute fellow-servants they must either directly 
 co-operate in the particular business so that they may 
 exercise an influence on one another promotive of proper 
 caution, or their duties must be such as to bring them into 
 habitual association so that they may exercise such influ- 
 ence on each other. (88 III. App. Ct. Rep. 169.) 
 
TftlftlT 
 SNStL 
 
 I 
 
 r, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
TABLES 
 USEFUL FOR MACHINISTS. 
 
 The speeds required for machining advantageously 
 the different materials, according to the different diameters, 
 may be termed " surface speeds." Roughly speaking, the 
 surface speeds for the different materials vary in compara- 
 tively narrow limits. We may assume the following speeds 
 for the following : 
 
 TABLE OF SURFACE SPEEDS. 
 
 Cast iron 30 to 45 feet per minute. 
 
 Steel 20 to 25 feet per minute. 
 
 Wrought iron. . . .30 feet per minute. 
 Brass 40 to 60 feet per minute. 
 
 For cast iron as found in Europe, we may assume 20 
 to 35 feet per minute. This is owing to the fact that 
 European iron is considerably harder. 
 
 SPEED OF SAWS, ETC. 
 
 Band saws for hot iron and steel run at about 200 to 
 300 feet per minute. Plain soft iron discs run at a rim 
 velocity of 12,000 feet per minute, and are sometimes used 
 to cut off ends of steel rails, jets of water playing on the 
 circumference of the saw. 
 
320 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 AVERAGE CUTTING SPEED FOR DRILLS. 
 
 The following table represents the most approved 
 practice in rate of cutting speed for drills ranging from -^ 
 inch to 2 inches in diameter. 
 
 Diameter 
 of 
 Drills 
 
 Speed 
 on 
 Steel 
 
 Speed 
 on 
 Cast Iron 
 
 Speed 
 on 
 Brass 
 
 Diam ster 
 of 
 Drills 
 
 Speed 
 on 
 Steel 
 
 Speed 
 on 
 Cast Iron 
 
 Speed 
 on 
 Brass 
 
 | 
 
 1,712 
 855 
 
 2,383 
 1,191 
 
 3,544 
 1,772 
 
 iF 
 
 72 
 
 68 
 
 1 06 
 102 
 
 180 
 
 170 
 
 
 571 
 
 794 
 
 1,181 
 
 I T 3 TT 
 
 64 
 
 97 
 
 161 
 
 X 
 
 397 
 
 565 
 
 855 
 
 IX 
 
 58 
 
 89 
 
 150 
 
 Tff 
 
 3I g 
 
 452 
 
 684 
 
 ITIT 
 
 55 
 
 84 
 
 143 
 
 M 
 
 265 
 
 377 
 
 570 
 
 \y^ 
 
 53 
 
 81 
 
 136 
 
 $ 
 
 227 
 
 183 
 
 323 
 267 
 
 489 
 
 412 
 
 $ 
 
 50 
 46 
 
 77 
 74 
 
 130 
 122 
 
 1 
 
 163 
 
 238 
 
 367 
 
 I Yff 
 
 44 
 
 7i 
 
 117 
 
 M 
 
 147 
 
 214 
 
 330 
 
 1^6 
 
 40 
 
 66 
 
 
 H 
 
 133 
 
 194 
 
 300 
 
 J TF 
 
 38 
 
 63 
 
 I0 9 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 168 
 
 265 
 
 1% 
 
 37 
 
 61 
 
 105 
 
 H 
 
 103 
 
 155 
 
 244 
 
 I T! 
 
 36 
 
 59 
 
 IOI 
 
 8 
 
 96 
 
 144 
 
 227 
 
 Ift 
 
 33 
 
 55 
 
 9 8 
 
 if 
 
 89 
 
 134 
 
 212 
 
 III 
 
 32 
 
 53 
 
 95 
 
 
 76 
 
 H5 
 
 I 9 I 
 
 2 
 
 3i 
 
 51 
 
 92 
 
 SIZE OF DRILLS FOR U. S. STANDARD TAPS. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Threads 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Threads 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Threads 
 
 Diam. 
 
 of Tap 
 
 per inch 
 
 of Drill 
 
 of Tap 
 
 per inch 
 
 of Drill 
 
 of Tap 
 
 per inch 
 
 of Drill 
 
 K 
 
 20 
 
 ft 
 
 H 
 
 9 
 
 u 
 
 I 3 / 
 
 5 
 
 jI/4 
 
 tV 
 
 18 
 
 X 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 I#J 
 
 5 
 
 if6 
 
 H 
 
 16 
 
 
 iH 
 
 7 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 
 ijj 
 
 T$ 
 
 14 
 
 
 1/4 
 
 7 
 
 i-fg 
 
 2M 
 
 4% 
 
 i|-|- 
 
 % 
 
 13 
 
 
 l# 
 
 6 
 
 *T5 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 T \ 
 
 fa 
 
 II 
 
 
 l)& 
 
 6 
 
 I-^g 
 
 2^ 
 
 4 
 
 2 T 7 ^ 
 
 y< 
 
 10 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 5/2 
 
 lit 
 
 3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 321 
 
 TABLE OF EMERY WHEEL SPEEDS. 
 
 Diam. 
 Wheel. 
 
 Rev. per Minute 
 for 
 Surface Speed 
 of 4,000 ft. 
 
 Rev. per Minute 
 for 
 Surface Speed 
 of 5,000 ft. 
 
 Rev. per Minute 
 for 
 Surface Speed 
 of 6,000 ft. 
 
 i in. 
 
 15,279 
 
 19,090 
 
 22,918 
 
 2 " 
 
 7,639 
 
 9,549 
 
 n,459 
 
 3" 
 
 5,093 
 
 6,366 
 
 7,639 
 
 4 " 
 
 3,820 
 
 4,775 
 
 5,370 
 
 tec 
 
 3, 56 
 
 3,820 
 
 4,584 
 
 
 
 2,546 
 
 3,183 
 
 3,820 
 
 I"' 
 
 2,183 
 1,910 
 
 2,728 
 2,387 
 
 3,274 
 2,865 
 
 10 " 
 
 1,528 
 
 1,910 
 
 2,292 
 
 12 " 
 
 1,273 
 
 i,59 2 
 
 1.910 
 
 14 " 
 
 1,091 
 
 1,364 
 
 i,637 
 
 16 ' 
 
 955 
 
 1,194 
 
 1,432 
 
 18 " 
 
 20 " 
 
 849 
 764 
 
 I,o6l 
 
 955 
 
 1,273 
 1,146 
 
 22 " 
 
 694 
 
 868 
 
 1,042 
 
 24" 
 
 637 
 
 796 
 
 955 
 
 30" 
 
 509 
 
 637 
 
 764 
 
 36 " 
 
 424 
 
 531 
 
 637 
 
 The above table designates the number of revolutions 
 per minute for specific diameters of emery wheels to cause 
 them to run at the respective periphery rates of 4,000, 
 5,600 and 6,000 feet per minute. 
 
 The medium of 5,000 feet is usually employed in 
 ordinary work, but in special cases it is sometimes desir- 
 able to run them at a lower or higher rate, according to 
 requirements. 
 
 The stress on the wheel at 4,000 feet periphery speed 
 per minute is 48 Ibs. per square inch; at 5,000 feet, 75 Ibs.; 
 at 6,000 feet, 108 Ibs. 
 
322 
 
 The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 U. S. STANDARD SCREW THREADS. 
 
 
 4 
 
 Diameter of Tap 
 at Root of Thread. 
 
 
 
 
 fl " * 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 *- a 
 
 
 
 
 O ' M ^ - W 
 
 
 
 Size of Tap Drill, 
 
 8-0 
 
 ^*O 0* c u 
 
 Nominal 
 Diameter of 
 Screw. 
 
 || 
 
 giving a Clearance 
 of Y 3 the Height 
 of the Original 
 
 _ r. 
 
 Sill* 
 
 
 
 
 Thread Triangle. 
 
 f 
 
 *3 -2 jC^o 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 <j 
 
 ^ "'n C^ 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 l^fl 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 Inches 
 
 Nearest 64ths 
 
 Inches 
 
 Nearest 64ths 
 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 X 
 
 .250 
 
 20 
 
 .185 
 
 3 
 
 .I 9 6 
 
 - 
 
 5 f- 
 
 .027 
 
 162 
 
 
 .312 
 
 18 
 
 .240 
 
 jjj- 
 
 -252 
 
 
 1 4+ 
 
 .045 
 
 270 
 
 y* 
 
 -375 
 
 16 
 
 294 
 
 
 
 307 
 
 - 
 
 r 5 s~ 
 
 .068 
 
 408 
 
 T$ 
 
 .437 
 
 14 
 
 345 
 
 
 
 -360 
 
 
 
 n+ 
 
 -093 
 
 558 
 
 % 
 
 -500 
 
 13 
 
 .400 
 
 
 
 .417 
 
 2 7 
 tf 
 
 .126 
 
 756 
 
 Iff 
 
 -562 
 
 12 
 
 454 
 
 'ft 
 
 .472 
 
 
 14- 
 
 .162 
 
 997 
 
 If 
 
 -625 
 
 II 
 
 .507 
 
 
 
 .527 
 
 
 1 
 
 .202 
 
 1210 
 
 
 .687 
 
 II 
 
 -569 
 
 yV 
 
 
 .589 
 
 
 I- 
 
 .254 
 
 1520 
 
 34- 
 
 750 
 
 10 
 
 .620 
 
 
 
 .642 
 
 
 |- 
 
 
 .302 
 
 1810 
 
 13 
 
 .812 
 
 10 
 
 .683 
 
 H- 
 
 .704 
 
 
 
 
 .366 
 
 2190 
 
 y% 
 
 -875 
 
 9 
 
 .731 
 
 tr 
 
 
 -755 
 
 
 IT 
 
 
 .420 
 
 2520 
 
 it 
 
 937 
 
 
 793 
 
 
 
 .817 
 
 j 
 
 1- 
 
 
 -494 
 
 2960 
 
 i 
 
 1. 000 
 
 8 
 
 .838 
 
 \\~ 
 
 
 -865 
 
 1 
 
 Ir 
 
 
 551 
 
 33oo 
 
 j i 
 
 1.062 
 
 8 
 
 .900 
 
 II- 
 
 
 927 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 -636 
 
 3810 
 
 ii^ 
 
 1.125 
 
 7 
 
 939 
 
 T5- 
 
 
 .970 
 
 \ 
 
 i- 
 
 
 .694 
 
 4160 
 
 j 8 
 
 1.187 
 
 7 
 
 .002 
 
 I 
 
 
 .032 
 
 I- 
 
 S- 
 
 
 .788 
 
 4720 
 
 *X 
 
 1.250 
 
 7 
 
 .064 
 
 I T5~ 
 
 
 095 
 
 
 
 
 .893 
 
 5350 
 
 J^ 
 
 1-375 
 
 6 
 
 .158 
 
 J A~ 
 
 
 215 
 
 I 
 
 ns 
 
 1.057 
 
 6340 
 
 I K 
 
 1.500 
 
 6 
 
 283 
 
 I 9 5 - 
 
 
 -345 
 
 I 
 
 IT" 
 
 
 1.295 
 
 7770 
 
 J^j 
 
 1.625 
 
 5K 
 
 .389 
 
 lfl- 
 
 
 .428 
 
 I 
 
 [*- 
 
 
 1-515 
 
 9090 
 
 1% 
 
 i.75o 
 
 5 
 
 -490 
 
 I fl~ 
 
 r 
 
 534 
 
 I 
 
 . i- 
 
 
 1.746 
 
 10470 
 
 ify 
 
 1.875 
 
 5 
 
 -615 
 
 1\\- 
 
 - 
 
 659 
 
 I- 
 
 fr 
 
 
 2.051 
 
 12300 
 
 2 
 
 2.000 
 
 
 .711 
 
 lll- 
 
 
 .760 
 
 I- 
 
 
 2.302 
 
 13800 
 
 * 
 
 2 250 
 2.500 
 
 4 
 
 .961 
 2-175 
 
 1ft 
 
 2||+ 
 
 2.OIO 
 2.230 
 
 2 
 
 
 3-023 
 3.719 
 
 18100 
 22300 
 
 -2% 
 
 2.750 
 
 4 
 
 2.425 
 
 
 h 
 
 2.480 
 
 2 
 
 " 
 
 4.620 
 
 27700 
 
 3 
 
 3.000 
 
 
 2.629 
 
 2^- 
 
 - 
 
 2.691 
 
 2 
 
 4- 
 
 5.428 
 
 32500 
 
 3^ 
 
 3-250 
 
 3/i 
 
 2.879 
 
 2%- 
 
 
 2.941 
 
 2 
 
 |-|- 
 
 6.510 
 
 39000 
 
 
 3- 5 
 
 3/^ 
 
 3.100 
 
 3A- 
 
 
 3.167 
 
 3 
 
 T 
 
 7.548 
 
 453oo 
 
 3M 
 
 3-750 
 
 3 
 
 3.317 
 
 
 
 3.389 
 
 3 
 
 | 
 
 8.641 
 
 51800 
 
 4 
 
 4.000 
 
 3 
 
 3-567 
 
 3iV 
 
 
 
 3- 
 
 ii- 
 
 9.063 
 
 59700 
 
 Machinery, New York. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 323 
 
 %&i 
 
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 III 
 
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" Any shop which makes it a fixed rule to discharge 
 any man for any act, not distinctly malicious or re- 
 vealing incurable habits of carelessness or negligence, 
 will soon lose its best men, and the average of skill 
 and reliability in its force cannot fail to deteriorate. 
 
 "It is just the same the other way, too. A man 
 shouldn't be in too much of a hurry about discharging 
 his boss. His job calls for skill as much as any 
 other, and the skill that is required to do a first-class 
 job of bossing is just as rare, and takes as much sift- 
 ing and training to produce, as any other. 
 
 " To retain an employer it is necessary sometimes 
 to overlook some of his shortcomings. As he learns 
 by experience that it will not do to discharge every 
 man whenever he proves that he is not quite perfect, 
 so it is well to remember, on the other side, that you 
 can't run things very well or very long without a 
 boss, even if he may not be the most satisfactory boss 
 in the world. It is a rather poor boss who is not gen- 
 erally better than none at all." 
 
 TECUMSEH SWIFT. 
 
INDEX 
 
 FOB THE ADVANCED MACHINIST. 
 
 ABRASIVE, definition, 215. 
 ACCESSORY, definition, 266. 
 ACCIDENTS AND HOW TO AVOID 
 
 THEM, note, 298. 
 ADDITION, 28. 
 
 Of decimals, 46. 
 
 Of fractions, 42. 
 AID TO THE INJURED, 297-316. 
 
 Note on the importance of the 
 
 subject, 297. 
 
 ALGEBRA, definition, 23. 
 ALUMINIUM, how to solder, 290. 
 AMERICAN STANDARD THREAD, 120. 
 
 ANGLE OR SPIRAL CUTTERS for 
 
 milling machines, illustrations, 
 188. 
 
 ARBOR PRESS, description and illus- 
 trations, 251-253. 
 
 ARC, complement of the, definition, 83. 
 ARISTOTLE, quotation from, 34. 
 ARITHMETIC, formulas, 22. 
 Note, 19 
 
 Summary of, 19-56. 
 AUTOMATIC SCREW CUTTING DIES, 
 
 238. 
 
 Illustrations, 234, 238, 239, 240, 241. 
 AUXILIARY MACHINES, 243-262. 
 
 BABBITT METAL, recipe for, 289. 
 BAN DAGES, how to make, 313. 
 BAND-SAWS, speed for cutting hot 
 
 iron, 319. 
 
 BEVEL PLANING TOOL, 161. 
 BIRMINGHAM GAUGES, illustrations, 
 
 92. 
 
 BLADES, flexible for hack-saws, 249. 
 BLEEDING, how to stop, 299, 300, 301. 
 
 Of three kinds, 299. 
 BLOCK, rope sheave, illustration, 270. 
 
 Snatch, illustration, 270. 
 BLUING BRASS, recipe, 294. 
 BOLT-CUTTING, speed for, 241. 
 
 Thread cutter, 235. 
 BONES, broken, how to treat in case of 
 
 accident, 302. 
 BORING-BAR, illustrations, 140, 141. 
 
 With adjustable cutter, description, 
 148, illustration, 150. 
 
 BORING MACHINES, horizontal, 142. 
 
 Taper holes in the lathe, illustra- 
 tion, 143. 
 
 Vertical, 147. 
 BORING MILL, advantages of, 140. 
 
 Description, 144-150. 
 
 Facing a valve in a, illustration, 147. 
 
 Illustrations, 138, 144, 146. 
 
 Tools used in a, illustrations, 149, 150. 
 BORING-OPERATIONS, 139-150. 
 BOSSES, gang, 286. 
 BRACKETS, definition, 21, 55. 
 BRASS, recipe for bluing, 294. 
 BRAZING CAST IRON, recipe, 291. 
 BROAD FINISHING TOOLS, descrip- 
 tion, 148 ; illustration, 149. 
 
 Nose planing tool, 161. 
 BROKEN BONES, the treatment for, 
 
 in case of accident, 302. 
 BUFF MACHINE, illustration, 273. 
 BURN MIXTURE, recipe, 306. 
 BURNS, treatment of , 305, 306, 
 
 325 
 
326 
 
 Index. 
 
 CALCULATION, definition, 19. 
 
 CANCELLATION, 40. 
 
 CALIPERING MACHINES, illustrations, 
 
 87,88. 
 
 CARE OF SELF, 314. 
 CASTINGS, recipe for "pickling," 294. 
 CAST IRON, cutting angle for, 157. 
 Recipe for filling holes in, 296. 
 Surface speed for machining, 319. 
 CEMENT, for fastening paper or leather 
 
 to iron, 295. 
 CHANGE-WHEELS, illustration and 
 
 description, 122-128. 
 CHASERS, illustrations, 104, 105, 106,107. 
 Operation of, 104-108. 
 Note, 105. 
 CHUCKS FOR DRILLS, 206, 207. 
 
 The swivel, illustration and descrip- 
 tion, 159. 
 CIRCLE, circumference and area of a, 
 
 65-67. 
 
 Definitions, 65. 
 Degrees of a, note, 82. 
 Parts of a, 82. 
 Radius of a, definition and illustra- 
 
 tration, 82. 
 
 Rule for finding diameter of a, 66. 
 "CLAMPS," illustration and descrip- 
 tion, 268. 
 
 CLAPPER-BOX, illustration, 158. 
 CO, definition, 83. 
 
 COLLET, description and illustration. 
 
 25. 
 COMPLEMENT OF AN ARC, definition, 
 
 83. 
 
 CONSTANT, a, definition, 81. 
 COPPER, varnish for, recipe, 294. 
 
 To, iron or steel wire, recipe, 297. 
 COSECAN I OF AN ANGLE, definition, 
 
 82. 
 
 COSINE, definition and illustration, 82. 
 COTANGENT OF A CIRCLE, definition 
 
 and illustration, 82. 
 COUNTERSHAFT, illustration, 249. 
 CRANE, wall, illustration, 271. 
 CUBE, definition, 72. 
 CUTS, how to treat, 301. 
 CUTTERS, for milling machines, 188, 
 
 190, 192, 193. 
 
 Side and other, in operation, illus- 
 tration, 194. 
 
 CUTTER-SPEEDS, explanation for fig- 
 uring, description. 189. 
 CUTTING ANGLES, for cast and 
 
 wrought iron and brass, 157. 
 CUTTING-OFF MACHINES, descrip- 
 tion, 245. 
 Planer tool, 161. 
 Saw, description, 247, illustration, 
 
 247. 
 
 Tools, illustrated, 246. 
 CYLINDER, rule for finding the sur- 
 face of a, 69. 
 
 DECIMAL POINT, location of, 21. 
 DECIMALS, 44. 
 
 Reading of, 26. 
 
 DEFINITIONS, arithmetical, 20. 
 DEGREES OF A CIRCLE, note, 82. 
 DENOMINATE NUMBERS, 35. 
 DEPARTMENTS IN SHOPS, 283. 
 DEVICE, for setting planer and shaper 
 
 tools, 168. 
 
 Use on twist drills, illustration, 209. 
 
 DIAMOND-PO:NT PLANING TOOL, iei. 
 
 DIE HEAD, screw-cutting, description 
 
 and illustration, 259. 
 DIE OF POWER PUNCH, illustration, 
 
 232. 
 
 DIES, automatic bolt-cutting, illus- 
 trations, 234, 238, 239, 240, 241. 
 Lubrication of, 235. 
 Revolutions of, 241. 
 DIFFERENTIAL PLAN OF PAYMENT, 
 
 280. 
 DISCS, plain iron, speed for cutting off 
 
 ends of steel rails, 319. 
 Standard reference* illustration, 87. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 327 
 
 DIVIDING HEAD AND TAIL STOCK, 181. 
 
 Illustrations, 181, 183. 
 DIVISION, 32. 
 
 Of decimals, 47. 
 
 Of fractions, 43. 
 DODECAHEDRON, the, definition, 81. 
 
 DRESSING-TOOLS FOR EMERY 
 
 WHEELS, 268. 
 
 DRILL CHUCKS, description and illus- 
 trations, 206, 207. 
 Turret, illustrations, 257, 258. 
 DRILLING MACHINE, adjustable 
 
 reamer for, illustration, 2^3. 
 Description of parts, 203. 
 Drill chucks, illustration, 206. 
 Radial, 206. 
 Recipe for a cheap lubricant for, 292. 
 
 DRILLING MACHINE, shell reamer, 
 
 illustration, 209. 
 Socket or drill collet, description 
 
 and illustration, 205. 
 Speeds for twist drills, 210, 211. 
 Special forms of, 203. 
 Twist drill, grinding gauge, 209. 
 Vertical, illustration, 202. 
 DRILLING OPERATIONS, 201-211. 
 DRILLS, how to grind flat, 207. 
 
 Table of average cutting' speeds 
 
 for, 320. 
 Table of sizes for U. S. standard 
 
 taps, 320. 
 
 Table of speeds, 211. 
 Twist, illustration. 208. 
 Variations of, 205. 
 DRIVER AND DRIVEN WHEELS, 130. 
 
 ELECTRIC SHOCK, how to resuscitate 
 
 from, 309-312. 
 
 ELLIPSE, rule for finding area of, 68. 
 EMERY, description, in note, 226. 
 
 Grinders, illustrations, 212, 214, 215, 
 216, 218, 219; in operation, illustra- 
 tions. 220, 221, 222. 
 EMERY WHEEL DRESSING TOOLS, 
 
 illustration, 266. 
 Speeds, table, 321. 
 Grade of, by numbers, 225. 
 44 Points" relating to, 226. 
 
 EMERY WHEEL DRESSENG TOOLS, 
 
 stress per square inch when run- 
 ning, 321. 
 
 EMPLOYERS' responsibility to work- 
 men in case of accident 314. 316. 
 
 ENLARGING DRILL, illustration, 208. 
 
 "EQUIPMENT" IN SHOPS, 279. 
 
 EVOLUTION, 50. 
 
 EXPANSION OF A STEEL ROD, 84. 
 
 EXTRACTING BROKEN TOOLS, recipe, 
 295. 
 
 EYE, treatment for removing foreign 
 bodies, 308. 
 
 FACE OR STRADDLE MILL IN OPERA- 
 TION, 185. 
 
 FACTORS, definitions, 24, 30. 
 
 FEED MECHANISM, milling machine, 
 
 184. 
 Illustration, 184. 
 
 FELLOWS' GEAR SHAPER, illustra- 
 tion, 165. 
 
 FILES, equivalent grades of emery, 225. 
 
 FIVE REGULAR SOLIDS, illustration, 
 
 FOREMAN, who reformed shop, 284. 
 
 Model, 284, 285, 286. 
 FORMULA, definition, 22. 
 FRACTIONS, 37. 
 
 Addition of, 42. 
 
 Division of, 43. 
 
 Subtraction of, 42. 
 FRENCH SYSTEM OF MEASURES AND 
 
 WEIGHTS, 56. 
 
 FROST BITE, treatment for, 308. 
 FUSING POINTS OF TIN-LEAD AL- 
 LOYS, 292. 
 
323 
 
 Index. 
 
 GANG BOSSES, 286. 
 
 GAUGE, U. S. standard, illustrations, 
 
 92,136. 
 GAUGE FOR MEASURING ANGLES, 
 
 illustration, 93. 
 
 GAUGES, adjustable parallel meas- 
 uring, illustration, 91. 
 Corrective standards, illustration, 
 
 87. 
 
 English or Birmingham, illustra- 
 tion, 92. 
 Inside micrometer, illustrations, 85, 
 
 86. 
 
 Internal and external limit, illus- 
 trations, 89, 90. 
 
 GAUGING ANGLE OF LATHE CEN- 
 TRES, 137. 
 
 GEAR SHARER, Fellows', illustration, 
 165. 
 
 Example of work, 160. 
 GENERAL MANAGER, 277. 
 
 GLOSSARY, definition, 20. 
 GREEK LETTER 7T, definition, 21. 
 GRINDING, a face or straddle mill, 
 illustrations, 220, 221. 
 
 A spiral tooth cutter, illustration, 
 221. 
 
 Cutting tools, 224. 
 GRINDING MACHINES, definition, 215. 
 
 Description of parts, 217. 
 
 Self-acting, universal and surface, 
 
 217; illustrations, 218, 219. 
 GRINDING OPERATIONS, 214-226. 
 
 Hardening, 226. 
 
 Sharpening a circular saw, illustra- 
 tion, 215. 
 
 Sharpening a twist drill, illustra- 
 tion, 214. 
 
 Sharpening a tap, illustration, 222. 
 GRINDSTONE TROUGH, illustration, 
 271. 
 
 Note relating to, 272. 
 
 HACK SAW BLADES, flexible, illustra- 
 tion, 249. 
 
 Magazine coil, description, 248. 
 Power, illustration, 248. 
 
 HEXAHEDRON, the, definition, 81. 
 HOG-NOSE ROUGHING TOOL, descrip- 
 tion, 148. 
 Illustration, 149. 
 
 ICOSAHEDRON, the, definition, 81. 
 INDEX- PLATE FOR CHANGE-GEAR 
 
 SHAFT, 133. 
 INVOLUTION, 53. 
 
 IRON, cast, recipe for brazing, 291. 
 Cutting angle for cast and wrought, 
 
 157. 
 IRON PIPE, table of sizes, 323. 
 
 JACK-SCREW," illustration, 269. 
 
 I "JIG," definition, 266. 
 I 
 
 Note, 266. 
 
 K 
 
 KEYSEATING MACHINE, illustration, 
 261. 
 
 KEYWAY CUTTING MACHINE, 172-174. 
 
 Illustration of, 174. 
 " KINK," shop, definition, 266. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 3 2 9 
 
 LATHE, arrangement of, for cutting 
 
 screws, 108. 
 Centers, manner of gauging angle 
 
 of, 137. 
 
 Pan, illustration, 264. 
 Screw cutting in the, 103-137. 
 LAYING OUT WORK, recipe for mark- 
 
 ing surface on steel or iron, 296. 
 LEAD, as an anti-friction metal, 293. 
 
 LEFT-HAND "SIDE" PLANING TOOL, 
 
 161. 
 LIME, use of, to keep shop floors clean, 
 
 recipe, 292. 
 
 LIMIT-GAUGES, illustrations, 89, 90. 
 LOGARITHM, definition, 23. 
 LUBRICANT, recipe for milling and 
 
 drilling, 292. 
 For use in cutting bolts and tapping 
 
 nuts, 296. 
 
 M 
 
 MACHINE, bolt cutting, 235-241. 
 Cutting-off, description, 245. 
 For buffing, illustration, 273. 
 For shaft straightening, illustra- 
 tion, 254. 
 
 Keyseating, illustration, 261. 
 Screwing, illustration, 235. 
 MACHINES, auxiliary, 243-262. 
 MANAGER, works or general, 277. 
 MANDREL, how driven into work, 25. 
 MARKING SOLUTION, recipe, 293. 
 
 Presses, illustration, 265. 
 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES, value of, 34. 
 MEASURING-MACHINE, standard 
 
 form, illustration, 87. 
 End rod, illustration, 85. 
 MEASURING MACHINES, TOOLS AND 
 
 DEVICES, 84. 
 MECHANICS' POCKET REFERENCE 
 
 BOOKS, note, 70. 
 MENSURATION, 58. 
 METAL, a, that will expand in cooling, 
 
 recipe, 296. 
 
 METER, definition, 56. 
 METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND 
 
 MEASURES, 56. 
 MILLING MACHINES, a cheap lubricant 
 
 for, 292. 
 
 Bevel or angle, in operation, illus- 
 tration, 196. 
 
 MILLING MACHINES, cutters, illustra- 
 tions, 185, 186, 188, 190, 192, 193. 
 
 Cutter in operation, illustration, 185. 
 
 Descriptions, 177-197. 
 
 Illustrations, 176, 178, 180. 
 MILLING CUTTERS, dividing head and 
 tail stock, description, 181 ; illus- 
 trations, 181, 182. 
 
 Feed mechanism, description and 
 illustration, 184. 
 
 Horizontal, plain, illustration, 180. 
 
 Horizontal with vertical head, illus- 
 tration, 178. 
 
 Operation of, 177-197. 
 
 Rose cutter in operation, illustra- 
 tion, 195. 
 
 Rule for finding the speed of cutters, 
 187. 
 
 Side cutter in operation, illustra- 
 tion, 194. 
 Traverse feed, 191. 
 
 Used with keyseating machines, 
 
 sizes of, 261. 
 
 MILLING MACHINE, "universal," 177; 
 illustration, 176. 
 
 Vise, description and illustration, 
 
 183. 
 
 MONITOR LATHES, why so named, 254. 
 MULTIPLICATION, 30. 
 
 Of decimals, 46. 
 
 Of fractions, 42. 
 
330 
 
 Index. 
 
 N 
 
 NEEDLE FOR "SCRIBER," 294. 
 NICKEL-PLATING, solution, recipe, 293. 
 NOTATION, 25. 
 
 Arabic, method of, 25. 
 Roman, 27. 
 
 NUMBER, a compound, 35. 
 A simple, 35. 
 
 NUMBERS, definition, 24. 
 Denominate, 35. 
 Powers of, 54. 
 Roots of, 54. 
 
 NUMERATION, 25. 
 
 Table, 26. 
 
 OCTAHEDRON, the, definition, 81. 
 OIL-PUMPS, described, 235, 237. 
 
 "ORGANIZATION," in shop manage- 
 ment, 279. 
 
 PAN, shop, illustration, 262. 
 PARALLELOGRAM, definition, 63. 
 PARTS OF A CIRCLE, 82. 
 PATTERN SHOP, a model, 283, 284. 
 PENTAGON, definition, 64. 
 PERSON, an injured, how to carry, 303, 
 
 304. 
 
 "PICKLING" CASTINGS, recipe, 294. 
 "PIECE-WORK," definition, 280. 
 PIPE, rule for finding sectional area of 
 
 a, 68. 
 
 Wrought iron, table of sizes, 323. 
 PLANER, the open side, illustration 
 
 and description, 159. 
 PLANER CENTERS, illustration, 160. 
 PLANER OPERATION, centers, 160. 
 PLANER TOOLS, device for setting, 168. 
 PLANING, tools used in, 15r. 
 PLANING MACHINE TOOLS, descrip- 
 tion and illustration, 161. 
 Illustrations, 152, 154, 159. 
 PLANING OPERATIONS, 153-174. 
 
 Cutter or cross-bar head, illustra- 
 tion, 158. 
 
 Cutting tool, illustration, 156. 
 Cutting tool, speed of, 156. 
 Device for setting tools, 167 ; illus- 
 tration, 168. 
 
 Tool post and clapper head, the, 157. 
 PLANNING A SHOP, 282. 
 PLANS OF PAYMENT, piece work, dif- 
 ferential and premium, 280, 281. 
 " PLANT," definition, 279. 
 
 PLATE STEEL AND IRON GAUGES, 
 
 illustration, 92. 
 
 PLATEN, definition, 157, 
 
 "POINTS," relating to emery wheels, 
 
 226. 
 Relating to grinding operations, 222. 
 
 POLISH FOR WROUGHT STEEL, 290. 
 
 POLISHING MACHINE, illustration, 273. 
 
 POLYGON, definition, 61. 
 
 POWERS OF NUMBERS, 55. 
 
 PREMIUM PLAN OF PAYMENT, 281. 
 
 PRESS, arbor, description and illustra- 
 tions, 251-253. 
 
 PRESSES, properly punches, 229. 
 
 PROPORTION, or rule of three, 48, 
 
 PROTRACTOR, bevel, illustration, 94. 
 
 PUMP, for lubricating with oil, 235, 237. 
 
 PUNCH END OF MACHINE, illustra- 
 tion, 231. 
 
 PUNCHING AND SHEARING, similar 
 operations, 230. 
 
 PUNCHING AND SHEARING MA- 
 CHINE, eccentric driven, illus- 
 tration, 231. 
 Illustrations, 228, 231. 
 Lever punching, description, 233; 
 
 illustration, 231. 
 Presses for stamping, 229. 
 Why combined, 229. 
 
 PUNCHING AND SHEARING OPERA- 
 
 TIONS, 229-234, 
 
 Action of the punch, 230; illustra- 
 tions, 231, 232. 
 
 PUNCHING TOOLS, set of , description, 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 33t 
 
 QUANTITY, definition of, 24. 
 
 | QUOTATIONS, 274, 276, 288. 
 
 RADIAL DRILL, description, 205; illus- 
 tration, 200. 
 
 RATIO, definition, 22, 48. 
 REAMER, adjustable, description, 148; 
 illustration, 150. 
 
 Adjustable shell, 209. 
 
 Finishing, illustration, 208. 
 
 Fluted shell, 209. 
 
 For milling machines, illustration, 
 
 194. 
 
 RECIPES, useful, 287-316. 
 RECTANGLE, definition, 63. 
 REDUCTION, 35. 
 
 Of decimals, 45. 
 
 Of fractions, 38. 
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF EMPLOYERS, to 
 workmen in case of accident, 314- 
 316. 
 
 RIGHT HAND SIDE PLANING TOOLS, 
 161. 
 
 ROMAN NOTATION, 27. 
 
 ROOT, square, 50. 
 
 ROOTS OF NUMBERS, 54. 
 
 ROPE SHEAVE BLOCKS, illustrations, 
 270. 
 
 ROSE CUTTER FOR MILLING MA- 
 CHINE, 192. 
 
 ROUGHING DRILL, illustration, 208. 
 Tools, description, 148 ; illustration, 
 149. 
 
 ROUND-NOSE TOOL, description, 148; 
 
 illustration, 149. 
 RULE, addition, 29. 
 
 Addition of decimals, 41. 
 
 Addition of fractions, 42. 
 
 Adjusting change wheels, 122-130. 
 
 Cancellation, 41. 
 
 Division, 32, 33. 
 
 Division of decimals, 47. 
 
 Division of fractions, 43. 
 
 Extracting square root, 50, 51. 
 
 For notation, 26. 
 
 RULE, Multiplication, 30. 
 
 Multiplication of fractions, 42. 
 
 Reduction of fractions, 38. 
 
 Subtraction, 29. 
 
 Subtraction of decimals, 46. 
 
 Subtraction of fractions, 42. 
 RULE FOR FINDING, the diameter of a 
 circle, 65, 66. 
 
 The length of a circle, 65, 66. 
 
 The solidity of a cone, 77. 
 
 'The solidity of a cylindrical ring, 
 76. 
 
 The solidity of a pyramid, 78. 79. 
 
 The solidity of a segment of a 
 sphere, 75. 
 
 The solidity of an irregular solid, 80. 
 
 The solidity or capacity of any fig- 
 ure in the cubical form, 71, 72. 
 
 The speed for milling cutters, 187. 
 
 The surface and contents of the five 
 regular solids, 81. 
 
 The surface of a cylinder, 69. 
 
 The surface of a sphere, 70. 
 
 RULE FOR FINDING THE AREA, of a 
 
 circle, 67. 
 
 Of an ellipse, 68. 
 
 Of a parallelogram, 63. 
 
 Of a pentagon, 64. 
 
 Of a polygon, 64. 
 
 Of a rectangle, 63. 
 
 Of a square, 62. 
 
 Of a trapezium, 61. 
 
 Of a triangle, 60. 
 RULE FOR FINDING THE CONTENTS, 
 
 Of a hemisphere, 74. 
 
 Of a rectangular solid, 72. 
 
 Of a f rustrum of a cone (cubic), 78. 
 
 Of a solid cylinder (cubic), 76. 
 
 Of a sphere (cubic), 73. 
 RULE FOR PROVING, division, 34. 
 
 Multiplication, 30. 
 
 Multiplication of decimals, 46. 
 
332 
 
 Index. 
 
 RULE FOR PROVING, the correctness 
 
 of addition, 28. 
 RULE OF THREE, 48. 
 RULE FOR USING THE VERNIER, B. & 
 
 8., 97. 
 
 RUST, to protect bright work from, 
 recipe. 394. 
 
 Iron, recipe for removing, 291. 
 On tools, to prevent, recipe, 296. 
 RUST-JOINT COMPOSITION, 295. 
 
 SADDLE, illustration, 158. 
 
 SAWS, speed of, 319. 
 
 SCALDS, treatment of, 305, 306. 
 
 Important note, 305. 
 SCREW-CUTTING DIE-HEAD, descrip- 
 tion and illustration 259. 
 Example showing use of index 
 
 plate, 133. 
 Machine, 235. 
 Section of seven pitch V-thread, 
 
 129-134. 
 SCREW-CUTTING IN THE LATHE, 
 
 103-137. 
 
 American standard thread, illus- 
 tration, 120. 
 Change wheels, 122-130. 
 Cutting a double square thread, 
 
 118; illustration, 113. 
 Cutting a single square thread, 
 
 illustration, 113. 
 
 Gauge for setting in tool, illustra- 
 tions, 111, 112. 
 Hand tools, illustrations, 104, 105, 
 
 106, 107. 
 
 Head screw, the, 124. 
 Illustrations, 104-138. 
 Pitch of screw, 124. 
 The cross-slide feed screw, illustra- 
 tion, 116. 
 
 V-thread, illustration, 119. 
 With automatic cutting tools, 108- 
 137; iJ lustrations, 109, 110, 111, 112. 
 Without changing the wheels, 132- 
 
 135. 
 
 SCREW-JACK, illustration, 269. 
 SCREW THREADS, U. S. Standard, 
 
 table, 322. 
 
 "SCRIBER," sewing needle for, 294. 
 SELF, care of, 314. 
 
 SET OF PUNCHING TOOLS, descrip- 
 tion, 232. 
 
 SHAFT-STRAIGHTENING MACHINES, 
 
 illustration, 254. 
 
 SHANK CUTTER FOR MILLING MA- 
 
 CHINE, 191. 
 SHAPING MACHINE, description, 163- 
 
 168; illustrations, 163, 164. 
 
 Fellow's gear, 164 ; illustrations, 165, 
 166, 167. 
 
 Fellow's gear, operation of, 166. 
 Setting tools in, device for, 167 
 
 illustration, 168. 
 Speed of Tool for, 163. 
 Travelling head, 163. 
 SHEET METAL GAUGE, U. S., illustra- 
 tion, 92. 
 
 SHEARS, definition, 229. 
 SHOCK, electric, how to resuscitate 
 
 from, 309-312. 
 SHOP, planning a, 282; note, 282. 
 SHOP FLOORS, use of lime to keep 
 
 clean, 292. 
 
 "SHOP-KINKS," definition, 266. 
 SHOP MANAGEMENT, 275-286. 
 SHOP-PANS, illustrations, 262-264. 
 SIDE PLANING TOOL, 161. 
 
 And other cutters in operation, 
 
 illustrations, 194-197. 
 SIGNS, arithmetical, 20. 
 SINE, definition, 82. 
 
 SKIVING TOOL, description, 148; illus- 
 tration, 149. 
 SLOT, provided for drill, 205. 
 SLOTTING MACHINE, description, 169- 
 
 174; illustration, 170. 
 For cutting keyways, 172; illustra- 
 tion, 174. 
 
The Advanced Machinist. 
 
 333 
 
 SLOTTING MACHINE, Operation, 169 ; | 
 
 illustration, 173. 
 Relief-tool block, 172; illustration. 
 
 172. 
 
 SNATCH-BLOCK, illustration, 270. 
 SOCKET FOR DRILL, description and 
 
 illustration, 205. 
 SOCKETS, size of, 205. 
 SODA WATER FOR DRILLING, 292. 
 SOLDERING FLUIDS, recipe, 296. 
 SOLDERING IRON, how to tin, 291. 
 SOLDERS, recipes for, 290. 
 SOLIDS definition, 71. 
 
 Five regular illustration, 80. 
 SPEED, for bolt cutting, 241. 
 Of emery saws, 319. 
 Of emery wheels, table, 321; note, 
 
 224. 
 SPHERE, rule to find the surface of a, 
 
 70. 
 SQUARE ROOT, 50. 
 
 STOCKING PLANING TOOL, 161. 
 STRIPPER, OR PULL-OFF, OF POWER 
 
 PUNCH, illustration, 232. 
 SUBTRACTION, 29. 
 Of decimals, 46. 
 Of fractions, 42. 
 SUN OR HEAT STROKE, treatment 
 
 for, 307. 
 
 SUPERINTENDENTS, 277. 
 SURFACE FOR LAYING OUT WORK, 
 
 recipe, 296. 
 SURFACE SPEEDS OF IRON, STEEL 
 
 AND BRASS, table, 319. 
 SURFACES, definition, 60. 
 SWING FRAME OR SWIVEL-HEAD, 11- 
 
 lustration, 158. 
 
 SWIVEL APRON, illustration, 158. 
 SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFI- 
 
 NITIONS, 20-24. 
 "SYSTEM" IN SHOP MANAGEMENT, 
 
 quotation from Chordal's letters, 
 
 278. 
 
 TABLE, of average cutting speeds for 
 
 drills, 320. 
 
 Of cutting angles, 157. 
 Of cutting speeds for dies, 241. 
 Of fusing points of tin-lead alloys, 
 
 292. 
 
 Of the grades of emery, 225. 
 Of Roman notation, 27. 
 Of speeds for emery wheels, 321. 
 Of speeds for milling cutters, 189. 
 Of speeds for twist drills, 210, 211. 
 Of standard sizes of wrought iron 
 
 pipe, 323. 
 
 Of surface speeds. 319. 
 Showing the periphery speed of 
 
 milling cutters, 191. 
 TABLES USEFUL FOR MACHINISTS, 
 
 319-323. 
 
 TJ. S. Standard screw-thread, 322. 
 TANGENT OF AN ANGLE, definition 
 
 and illustration, 83. 
 
 TAP, sharpening a, illustration, 222. 
 TAPPING NUTS, lubricant for, 296. 
 
 Speed table for, 241. 
 
 TAPS, adjustable collapsing, descrip- 
 tion and illustration, 259. 
 TETRAHEDRON, the, definition, 81. 
 TIN, to, a soldering iron, 291. 
 TIN-LEAD ALLOYS, fusing points of, 
 
 292. 
 TOOL, angle for planer, table, 157. 
 
 Broad finishing, description, 148; 
 
 illustration, 149. 
 Four-lipped roughing drill, 150. 
 Hog-nose roughing, description, 148 ; 
 
 illustration, 149. 
 
 Round-nose, description, 148; illus- 
 tration, 149. 
 Side, description, 148; illustration, 
 
 149. 
 
 Skiving, description, 148; illustra- 
 tion, 149. 
 
334 
 
 Index. 
 
 TOOL CHEST, illustration, 273. 
 TOOL-GRINDER, wet, illustration. 212. 
 TOOL-POST, description, 157 ; illustra- 
 tion, 158. 
 
 TOOL-POST APRON, illustration, 158. 
 TOOLS, broken, how to extract, 295. 
 
 Cutting off, illustration, 246. 
 
 To prevent rust on, recipe, 296. 
 TRAVELING-HEAD SHAPER, 163; illus- 
 tration, 162. 
 
 TRAPEZIUM, definitional. 
 TRIANGLE, definition, 60. 
 TRIGONOMETRY, definition, 83. 
 
 TURNING AND BORING, operation of, 
 103. 
 
 TURRET, fitted on the bed of a lathe, 
 
 illustration, 255. 
 
 TURRET-DRILL, illustrations, 257, 258. 
 TURRET LATHE, advantages of, 256; 
 
 illustration, 256. 
 
 TURRET LATHES, description in note, 
 254. 
 
 TURRET MACHINES, description, 254. 
 TWIST DRILLS, illustration, 208. 
 
 Note, 210. 
 
 Sharpening, illustration, 214. 
 
 Table of speeds for, 210. 
 
 u 
 
 UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE, de- 
 scription, 177 ; illustration, 176. 
 USEFUL RECIPES, 287-316. 
 
 UTILITIES AND ACCESSORIES, 263,274. 
 UTILITY, definition, 265. 
 
 VARNISH FOR COPPER, recipe, 294. 
 VERNIER, the, and its use, 95 99; illus- 
 trations, 95, 96, 98, 99. 
 VERTICAL DRILLING MACHINE, 203. 
 
 VERSED SINE, definition and illustra- 
 tion, 82. 
 
 VISE FOR MILLING MACHINE, descrip- 
 tion and illustration, 183. 
 
 w 
 
 WALL CRANE, illustration, 271. 
 
 Drilling machine, description, 204: 
 
 illustration, 198. 
 WATER, to keep from freezing, recipe, 
 
 297. 
 WET TOOL GRINDER, 217; illustration, 
 
 21','. 
 
 WHITWORTH 
 
 120. 
 
 THREAD, illustration, 
 
 WORKS MANAGER, 277. 
 WOUNDS, how to treat, 298, 299. 
 
 Recipe for solution for washing, 
 301, 302. 
 
 Two ways of healing, 302. 
 "WRINKLE," definition, 266. 
 WROUGHT STEEL, polish for, 290. 
 
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 * I / HE trade of the machinist 
 is peculiar in that it is a 
 preparation for so many 
 
 positions outside of it. 
 
 It takes a man of good natural 
 ability and of considerable educa- 
 tion- not always from books to 
 make a first-class machinist ; so 
 that when one is well qualified he 
 is also prepared for many other 
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 The aim of this work is to point 
 the way of advancement to those 
 who become fitted to assume these 
 responsibilities and rewards. 
 
 The advanced machinist is a 
 work of sterling merit, a few of 
 the hundreds of subjects are here 
 named, but they in no way show 
 the scope of this work, which 
 must be seen to be appreciated ; 
 
 A Course in Machine Shop 
 Mathematics; Various Measuring 
 Instruments and Their Uses; 
 Screw Cutting; Boring; Milling; 
 Drilling ; Grinding ; Punching and 
 Shearing; Bolt Cutting Machinery ; 
 Special and Auxiliary Machines; 
 Shop Management: Work Shop 
 Receipts and Devices, etc., etc. 
 
 The personal character of the 
 book appeals to all in any way 
 associated in the machinery and 
 allied trades. 
 
 This book is a companion volume to Progressive Machinist 
 and is uniform in binding and style, but more advanced m 
 the subject of Machine Shop Practice containing about the 
 same number of pages, illustrations, etc. 
 
 -PRICE, $2, Postpaid 
 
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 63 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
 4 
 
PROGRESSIVE MACHINIST $2 
 
 ^ I f HIS is a valuable volume 
 for all Metal Workers ; 
 J. the following are a few 
 of the many subjects 
 treated : 
 
 Materials. Definitions; Qual- 
 ities of Matter ; Iron, Steel ; Va- 
 rious Metals, Alloys, etc. ; Gravity 
 and Tables; Three I^aws of 
 Motion ; Strength of Materials ; 
 Fatigue of Metals ; Table of Melt- 
 ing Points of Solids; Useful 
 Weights and Measures. 
 
 Shop Drawing. Free-hand 
 Drawing; Instruments; Pencil, 
 ing; Inking; lettering Drawings; 
 Dimensioning ; Shading ; Section- 
 Lining ; Reading Working Drawr 
 ings; Problems in Geometrical 
 Drawing Points Relating to 
 Drawing. 
 
 Gearing. Cog Wheels, Sput 
 and Bevel Wheels ; Mitre Wheel 
 Mortise Wheel ; Worm Gearing \ 
 Helical Wheel ; Designing Gears ; 
 Speed of Gear Wheels. 
 
 Bench and Vice. Tempering- 
 and Hardening Metals; Grades 
 of Steel; Cementation Process; 
 Bessemer and Siemen-Martin Pro^ 
 cess ; Case- Hardening ; Anneal- 
 ing ; Hand Tools ; Machine Tools ; 
 Work Benches ; Sledge and Anvil ; 
 Surfacing; Red Marking; Hand 
 Drilling ; Broaching ; Screw Cut- 
 ting by Hand ; Pipe Cutting. 
 
 Tools and Machines. 
 Machine and Hand Tools ; Port- 
 able Tools ; Action of Machines ; 
 Classification of Machine Work ; 
 Turning and Boring; Planing; 
 Milling; Drilling; Grinding; 
 Punching and Shearing. 
 
 Irathe Work. Forms and 
 use of Foot loathes ; Hand loathes ; 
 Chuck or Surfacing loathe; En- 
 gine loathe ; Parts of the loathe ; 
 Cutting Tools Used in the loathe ; 
 Tempering of loathe Tools Rule ; 
 loathe Practice ; Measuring Instruments ; Mandrels ; I^athe- 
 Dogs ; Driving Work Between Centers ; Turning Work Between 
 Centers : loathe Speed ; Chuck and Face-plate Work ; Drilling; 
 and Boring in the loathe ; Proportion of Parts of a loathe ; Use- 
 ful References ; Tables and Index. 
 
 Description of Binding. The book is handsomely bound 
 in black cloth, with gold edges and titles, printed on fine paper, 
 illustrated with 330 diagrams and drawings of practical work, 
 containing over 360 pages of valuable information, and 1081 
 ready reference index for quick information. This volume will 
 be mailed to any address postpaid upon receipt < 
 
AUDELS GAS ENGINE MANUAL $2 
 
 * I ^HIS volume just published 
 gives the latest and most 
 helpful information re- 
 specting the construction, care and 
 management of Gas, Gasoline and 
 Oil Engines, Marine Motors and 
 Automobile Engines, including 
 chapters on Producer Gas Plants 
 and the Alcohol Motor. 
 
 The work is divided into 27 
 Chapters as follows: Historical 
 Development Laws of Per- 
 manent Gases Theoretical Work- 
 ing Principles Actual Working 
 Cycles Graphics of the Action 
 of Gases Indicator Diagrams of 
 Engine Cycles Indicator Di- 
 agrams of Gas Engines Fuels 
 and Explosive Mixtures Gas 
 Producer Systems Compression, 
 Ignition and Combustion Design 
 and Construction Governing and 
 Governors Ignition and Igniters 
 Installation and Operation 
 Four-Cycle Horizontal Engines 
 Four-Cycle Vertical Engines 
 Four-Cycle Double-Acting En- 
 gines Two-Cycle Engines^ 
 Foreign Engines Oil Engines 
 Marine Engines Testing In- 
 struments Used in Testing Nature 
 and Use of Lubricants Hints on 
 Management and Suggestions for 
 Emergencies The Automobile 
 Motor Useful Rules and Tables. 
 
 Each chapter is illustrated by diagrams which make it a 
 thoroughly helpful volume, containing 5 1 2 pages, 1 56 drawings, 
 printed in large clear type on fine paper, handsomely bound in 
 rich red cloth, with gold top and title, measuring 5>^ x8j inches 
 and weighing over two pounds. 
 
 The book is a practical educator from cover to cover and is 
 worth many times the price to any one using a gas engine of 
 any type or size. PRICE $2.0O POSTPAID. 
 
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MOTOR CAR PRACTICE $2 
 
 A Good Book for Owners, Operators, Repairmen and 
 Intending Purchasers. 
 
 ^T'HIS work is now 
 the accepted 
 standard o n 
 the practical care and 
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 principles of construc- 
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 and fully illustrated 
 with many diagrams 
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 it of value to the intend- 
 ing purchaser, driver 
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 The subjects treat of 
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 behind the wheel, and 
 are presented clearly, 
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 manner easy to under- 
 stand by the reader, be 
 he a beginner or an 
 ^expert. 
 
 The treatise on 
 the gasoline engine 
 cannot fail to prove 
 valuable to anyone 
 interested in explosive 
 motors, which are daily 
 coming to the front as the 
 readiest and most convenient 
 source of power. 
 
 Contains 608 pages, over 400 diagrams 
 and illustrations, printed on fine paper, 
 size 5M by 8*4 inches, with generously 
 
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PUMPS AND HYDRAULICS $4 
 
 2 PARTS 
 
 ris with pleasure we call your attention to the recent publi- 
 cation on pumping machinery. This work, issued under 
 the title of " ROGERS' PUMPS AND HYDRAULICS," is a 
 complete and practical handbook, treating on the construc- 
 tion, operation, care and management of pumping machinery ; 
 the pnnciples of hydraulics being also thoroughly explained. 
 The work is illustrated with cuts, diagrams and drawings of 
 work actually constructed and in operation ; the rules and 
 explanations of the examples shown are taken from everyday 
 practice. No expense has been spared in the endeavor to make 
 
 this a most helpful instructor 
 on the subject, useful to all 
 pump attendants, engineers, 
 machinists and superintend- 
 ents. 
 
 Subjects Treated 
 
 The Air Pump ; Air and Vac- 
 uum Pumps. Air Compress- 
 ors ; The Air 1,1ft Pump ; The 
 Steam Fire Engine ; Miscella- 
 neous Pumps ; Mining Pumps; 
 Marine Pumps; "Sugar- 
 house" Pumps; Circulating 
 Pumps ; Atmospheric Pumps ; 
 Ammonia or Acid Pumps; The 
 Screw Pump ; Aermotqr 
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 ugal Pumps ; Turbine Pumps ; 
 Injectors and Ejectors; Pul- 
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 Attachments, ^ Tools, Valves 
 and Piping, Pipes, Joints and 
 Fittings, Useful Notes; Ta- 
 bles and Data ; Glossary of 
 Pump and Hydraulic Terms ; 
 Elementary Hydraulics; Flow 
 of water Under Pressure r 
 Water Pressure Machines 
 Water Wheels; Turbine 
 Water Wheels; Turbine 
 Pumps ; Water Pressure En- 
 nes ; Hydraulic Motors ; Hydraulic Apparatus ; Hydraulic 
 : ack ; Hydraulic Press ; Hydraulic Accumulator ; Hydraulic 
 alam: Pumps as Hydraulic Apparatus : Classification of Pumps ; 
 Hand Pumps ; Power Pumps ; Belted Pumps ; The Electric 
 Pump ; The Steam Pump ; The Duplex Pump ; Underwriter 
 Fire Pump ; Specifications of the National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers Relating to Duplex Fire Pumps. 
 
 These two volumes of nearly nine hundred pages, illu?~ 
 trated with about seven hundred wood cuts, are admirable 
 specimens of bookmaking ; they are printed on fine white 
 paper in large clear text, with ample margins, and bound in 
 black vellum cloth with titles and tops in gold. In size they 
 are six by nine inches. 
 
 PRICE, $4, DELIVERED 
 
MARINE ENGINEERING $2 
 
 treatise is 
 the most com- 
 plete published 
 (or the practical en- 
 gineer, covering as it 
 does a course in math- 
 ematics, the manage- 
 ment of marine engines, 
 boilers, pumps, and all 
 auxiliary apparatus, the 
 accepted rules for figur- 
 ing the safety-valve. 
 
 The book is divided 
 into two parts : Part I, 
 Construction: Part II, 
 Operation; it contains 
 700 pages. 
 
 The volume is illus- 
 trated with plate draw- 
 ings, diagrams and cuts, 
 having an Index with 
 more than 1 ,000 ready refer- 
 ences.SOyQuestions on practical 
 marine engineering are fully answered 
 and explained. 
 
 Size is 5# X 8K inches, 1 ^ inches thick, 
 and weighs nearly three pounds, strongly and 
 durably bound in rich green cloth, with full gilt edges, and is the 
 accepted standard on Marine Engineering. 
 
 Price $2, sent free to any address in the world. 
 Money will be refunded if not entirely satisfactory. 
 
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 63 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
 
 9 
 
MECHANICAL DRAWING $2 
 
 '> 
 
 * I 'HE work has been carefully arranged according to the 
 fundamental principles of the art of drawing, each theme 
 being clearly illustrated. A list of the subjects are given 
 
 below ; " 
 
 Chalk Work ; Preliminary Terms 
 and Definitions ; Freehand 
 Drawing; Geomet- 
 rical Drawing ; 
 Drawing 
 
 Mate- 
 
 ^ rials and In- 
 struments; Mechan- 
 ical Drawing; Penciling; 
 Projection ; " Inking in " Draw- 
 ings ; Lettering Drawings ; Dimensioning 
 Drawings ; Shading Drawings. 
 
 Section Lining and Colors ; Reproducing Drawings ; Draw- 
 ing Office Rules ; Gearing ; Designing Gears ; Working Draw- 
 ings; Reading Working Drawings; Patent Office Rules for 
 Drawings ; Useful Hints and Points ; Linear Perspective ; Useful 
 Tables ; Personal, by the Editor. 
 
 The book contains 320 pages and 300 illustrations, consist- 
 ing largely of diagrams and suggestive drawings for practice. It 
 is bound in dark green cloth with full gold edges and titles ; it is 
 printed on fine paper, size 7x10 inches; it weighs 33 oz., and 
 will fit into any engineer's or mechanic's library to good advan- 
 
 tage. PRICE, $2, Postpaid 
 
 THEO. AUDEL & CO., 63 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
 
 10 
 
ELECTRICITY FOR ENGINEERS $2 
 
 ^ I *HE introduction of electrical machinery in almost every 
 power plant has created a great demand for competent 
 engineers and others having a knowledge of electricity 
 and capable of operating or supervising the running of elec- 
 trical machinery. To such persons this pocket-book will be 
 found a great benefactor, since it contains just the information 
 that is required, explained in a pratical manner* 
 
 Plan of Study 
 
 The following is a par- 
 tial list of the topics dis- 
 cussed and illustrated : 
 
 Conductors and Non- 
 Conductors ; Symbols, 
 abbreviations and defini- 
 tions relating to electric- 
 ity ; The Motor ; The Care 
 and Management of the 
 Dynamo and Motor. 
 
 Electric lighting ; Wir- 
 ing; The rules and re- 
 quirements of the Na- 
 tional Board of Under- 
 writers in full ; Electrical 
 Measurements. 
 
 The Electric Railway; 
 I^ine Work: Instruction 
 and Cautions for linemen 
 and the Dynamo Room ; 
 Storage Batteries ; Care 
 and Management of the 
 Street-Car Motor ; Electro 
 Plating. 
 
 The Telephone and 
 Telegraph ; The Electric 
 Elevator; Accidents and 
 Emergencies, etc., etc. 
 
 One-third of the whole book has been 
 devoted to the explanation and illustrations 
 of the dynamo, and particular directions relat- 
 ing to its care and management ; all directions 
 being given in the simplest and kindly way to assist rather 
 than confuse the learner. 
 
 It contains 550 pages with 300 illustrations of electrical ap- 
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 pocket), with full gold edges and is a most attractive hand- 
 book for Electricians and Engineers. 
 
 PRICE, $2, Postpaid 
 
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 II 
 
EXAMINATIONS $2 
 
 * I 'HIS work is an important aid to engineers of all grades, 
 
 and is undoubtedly the most helpful ever issued relat- 
 
 ing to a safe and sure preparation for examination. It 
 
 presents in a condensed form the most approved practice in the 
 
 care and management of Steam Boilers, Engines, Pumps, 
 
 Electrical and Refrigerating Machines, also a few plain rules 
 
 of arithmetic with examples 
 of how to work the prob- 
 lems relating to the safety 
 valve, strength of boilers 
 and horse power of the 
 Steam Engine and Steam 
 Boiler. 
 
 It contains various rules, 
 regulations and laws of 
 large cities for the examina- 
 tion of boilers and the 
 licensing of engineers. It 
 contains the laws and reg- 
 ulations of the United States 
 for the examination and 
 grading of all marine en- 
 gineers. 
 
 The book gives the under- 
 lying principles of steam 
 engineering in plain lan- 
 guage, with very many sam- 
 ple questions and answers likely 
 to be asked by the examiner. 
 
 It also gives a short chapter on the " Key 
 to Success" in obtaining knowledge necessary 
 for advancement in engineering. 
 
 This helpful volume contains 300 pages of valuable informa- 
 tion not elsewhere obtainable ; it is bound in rich red leather 
 with full gold edges and titles ; it measures 5x7}$ inches and 
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 12 
 
STEAM BOILER PRACTICE $2 
 
 THIS book of Instruction on 
 boiler-room practice will be 
 of great help to firemen, en- 
 gineers and all others who 
 wish to learn about this imporart 
 branch of Steam Engineering. 
 
 It treats on materials, coals, wood, 
 coke, and oil and gas, fuels, etc., their 
 composition, properties, combustive 
 value, also on combustion and evap- 
 oration. 
 
 HRRfflTiPiil Giving the practical rules to be 
 
 UkKlitUlMlLllkgjM observed in firing with various fuels, 
 
 management of steam boilers, pre- 
 
 ____.._ yention of foaming, tools and fire 
 
 'IHIIMiMil irons; covering stationary, marine 
 
 MiHIilfcAii an( j locomotive boilers. 
 
 It enumerates sixty important 
 points of cautions to be observed in 
 the proper management of boilers. 
 
 It contains a description of and full 
 treatise on stationary, marine and 
 locomotive boilers, and the historical 
 development of boilers ; specifications 
 for boilers; riveting; bracing; rules 
 for finding pressure or strain on 
 bolts. 
 
 It gives inspectors rules relating to 
 braces in steam boilers. Also rules 
 and tables for calculating areas and 
 steam and water space of boilers. 
 
 It treats on boiler tubes, construc- 
 tion and drawing of boiler sections ; 
 defects and necessary repairs ; inspec- 
 tion of steam boilers ; mechanical 
 stokers' corrosion and scale, boiler 
 compounds, feed water heaters, 
 injectors, pumps, boiler settings; 
 pipes and piping ; steam heating, 
 chemistry of the furnace ; boiler 
 making ; plumbing, and hundreds of 
 other useful subjects. 
 
 It states several plain rules for the 
 calculation of safety valve problems 
 and those sanctioned by the U. S. 
 inspectors. 
 
 The volume has 330 pages and 185 illustrations and di- 
 agrams. It is 6x8^ in. in size and weighs 28 ounces. The 
 binding is uniform with that of the " Calculations " and " Cat- 
 echism of the Steam Engine," being bound in heavy green cloth, 
 with ornamental titles and edges in gold. 
 
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CALCULATIONS FOR ENGINEERS $2 
 
 THE Hand Book of Calculations 
 is a work of instruction and 
 reference relating to the 
 steam engine, the steam boiler, etc., 
 and has been said to contain every 
 calculation, rule and table necessary 
 to be known by the Engineer, Fire- 
 man and a steam user. 
 
 Giving a complete course in Mathe- 
 matics for the Engineer and steam 
 user; all calculations are in plain 
 arithmetical figures, so that the av- 
 erage man need not be confused by 
 the insertion of the terms, symbols 
 and characters to be found in works 
 of so-called "higher mathematics." 
 
 Mechanical Powers; Natural or 
 Mechanical Philosophy ; Strength of 
 Materials ; Mensuration ; Arithmetic ; 
 Description of Algebra and Geom- 
 etry. 
 
 Tables of Weights, Measures, 
 Strength of Rope and Chains, Pres- 
 sures of Water, Diameter of Pipes, 
 etc. ; The Indicator, How to Compute ; 
 The Safety Valve, How to Figure ; 
 The Steam Boiler ; The Steam Pump ; 
 Horse Powers, How to Figure for 
 Engines and Boilers ; Steam, What It 
 Is, etc. 
 
 Index and Useful Definitions. 
 
 This work contains 330 pages and 150 illustrations ; it is 
 durably and handsomely bound, uniform in style and size with 
 the " Instructions for the Boiler Room " and the " Catechism oi 
 the Steam Engine ; >r it has gold edges and titles, ana weighs 
 over 28 ounces. 
 
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 14 
 
STEAM ENGINE PRACTICE $2 
 
 | NEW j 
 CATECHlsl 
 
 "It has been well said that en- 
 
 ineers are born, not made ; those in 
 euiand to fill the positions created 
 by the great installations of power- 
 producing machinery now so com- 
 mon, are men who are familiar with 
 the contents of good books, and as 
 well, are the product of a hard bought 
 practical experience." 
 
 rHIS work is gotten up to fill a 
 long- felt need for a practical 
 book. It gives directions for 
 
 gines that are to-day in the market. 
 
 A list of subjects, which are fully 
 yet concisely discussed, are as follows : 
 
 Introduction ; The Steam Engine ; 
 Historical Facts Relating to the Steam 
 Engine: Engine Foundations; The 
 Steam Piston; Connecting Rods; 
 Eccentric; Governor; Materials; 
 Workmanship; Care and Manage- 
 ment; Lining up a Horizontal or Ver- 
 tical Engine ; Lining Shafting; Valve 
 Setting ; Condensers ; Steam Separa- 
 tors ; Air, Gas, and Compressing En- 
 gines: Compounding; Arithmetic of 
 the Steam Engine; Theory of the 
 Steam Engine ; Construction. e 
 
 There also is a description of nu- 
 merous types of the engines now in 
 operation, such as the Corliss, Westing-. 
 house, and many others. 
 
 The book also treats generously 
 upon the Marine, Locomotive and Gas 
 Engines. 
 
 This is a rarely fine book, handsomely bound in green silk 
 cloth, with full gold edges and titles ; it contains 440 pages, 325 
 illustrations ; in size it is 6x8J4 inches, and weighs 2 pounds. 
 
 PRICE, $2, Postpaid 
 
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 63 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
 15 
 
STEAM ENGINE INDICATOR $1 
 
 f I ^HE work is designed for the use of erecting and operating 
 engineers, superintendents, and students of steam engineer- 
 ing, relating ; as it does, to the economical use of steam. 
 
 The following is a gen- 
 eral outline of the subjects 
 denned, illustrated and pre- 
 sented most helpfully in 
 the book. 
 
 Preparing the Indicator 
 for use; Reducing Mo- 
 tions ; Piping up Indicator ; 
 Taking Indicator Cards ; 
 The Diagram ; Figuring 
 Steam consumption by the 
 diagram; Revolution Coun- 
 ters; Examples of Di- 
 agrams; Description of 
 Indicators; Measuring Di- 
 agram by Ordinates ; Plani- 
 meters; Paragraphs, Ta- 
 bles, etc. 
 
 He who studies this 
 work thoughtfully will reap 
 great benefit and will find that there 
 is nothing difficult or mysterious about the 
 use of the Steam Engine Indicator. This knowl- 
 edge is necessary to every well-informed engineer and will 
 undoubtedly be highly appreciated and a stepping-stone toward 
 promotion and better things. 
 
 The work is fully illustrated, handsomely bound, and Is in 
 every way a high grade publication. 
 
 PRICE, $1.00 
 
 THEO. AUDEL & CO.. 63 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 
 
 16 
 
TELEPHONE ENGINEERING $t 
 
 TE " A B C of the Telephone " is a book valuable to all 
 persons interested in this ever-increasing industry. No 
 expense has been spared by the publishers, or pains by 
 the author, in making this the most comprehensive 
 handbook ever brought out relating to the telephone. 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 29 CHAPTERS 
 
 The Telephone Apparatus and its 
 Operation ; A Brief Survey of the The- 
 ory of Sound, Necessary to an Under- 
 standing of the Telephone ; A Brief 
 Survey of the Principles of Electric- 
 ity; Electrical Quantities; History 
 or the Speaking Telephone ; I,ater 
 Modifications of the Magnet Tele- 
 phone ; The Carbon Microphone 
 Transmitter ; The Circuits of a Tele- 
 phone Apparatus ; The Switch Hook 
 and its Function in Telephone 
 Apparatus ; The Switchboard and the 
 Appliances of the Central Station ; 
 The Operator's Switch Keys and 
 Telephone Set; Improved Switch- 
 board Attachments ; Switchboard 
 lyamp Signals and Circuits ; The Mul- 
 tiple Switchboard; lyocally Inter- 
 connected or Multiple Transfer 
 Switchboard ; Exchange Battery Sys- 
 tems ; Party I^ines and Selective 
 Signals ; Private Telephone I^ines 
 and Intercommunicating Systems ; 
 Common Return Circuits ; Private 
 Telephone lyines and Intercommuni- 
 cating Systems; Full Metallic Cir- 
 cuits; I/arge Private Systems and 
 Automatic Exchanges ; Devices for 
 Protecting Telephone Apparatus 
 from Electrical Disturbances; The 
 General Conditions of Telephone I<ine 
 Construction ; Telephone Pole lyines ; 
 Wire Transportations on a Pole I^ine. 
 Telephone Cables and their Use in 
 Underground and Pole I^ines ; Circuit 
 Balancing Devices; The Microtele- 
 phone ; Wireless Telephony ; Useful 
 Definitions and Hints on Telephone 
 Management. 
 
 WITH READY REFERENCE INDEX 
 
 The volume contains 375 pages, 268 illustra- 
 tions and diagrams ; it is handsomely bound in 
 black vellum cloth, and is a generously good 
 book without reference to cost. 
 
 PRICE, $1, Postpaid 
 
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Hawkins* Dictionary, $3.50 
 
 THIS volume 
 is the most 
 
 useful book 
 in Mechanical 
 Literature. 
 
 If constantly 
 referred to will 
 enable the stu- 
 dent to acquire a 
 correct knowl- 
 edge of the 
 words, terms and 
 phuases in use in 
 Mechanical En- 
 gineering and its 
 various branches 
 ^Its greatest 
 value lies in this: 
 
 that no man rep- 
 resenting the me, 
 chanical profess- 
 ion can find 
 excuse fer not 
 knowing the use 
 and meaning of 
 the terms used in 
 his work. 
 
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 explains and de- 
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 language the use 
 of all words and 
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 or heretofore 
 used in the 
 Mechanic Arts. 
 Trades and 
 Sciences. 
 
 It JS_ an unequaled reference work, and is the one book of per- 
 manent value no student or expert should dispense with; 
 Complete from A to Z. Highly endorsed. 
 
 Contains 704 pages, handsomely bound, price $3.50 
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