(Tc
 
 An 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Abundant has been the crop of niagazine articles and 
 even more formal treatises on the Philippine Islands 
 since our war with Spain ; yet superabundant liave 
 been the showers of inquiries which the writer has 
 encountered time and again since his return from the 
 Islands, in connection both with a series of lectures 
 recently delivered upon the subject and with infonnal 
 talks from time to time. The existence of so much 
 available material and at the same time the lack of 
 precise information concerning the Philippines in those 
 who show a real interest in the matter have by the 
 very incompatibility thus suggested engaged his atten- 
 tion and seemed significant. The explanation which 
 alone seems possible, assuming that the interest is as 
 sincere and active as he has been led to believe, is that 
 this material has not been prepared and presented in 
 such a way as to attract the ordinary reader and enable 
 him easily to get an accurate and substantial knowledge 
 of the situation. ' 
 
 In the administration of his duties as general super- 
 intendent of education the writer was given abun- 
 dant opportunity of learning the actual conditions by 
 visits to practically every part of the archipelago, by 
 conferences, interviews, and personal association with 
 
 824465
 
 h 
 
 IV PREFACE 
 
 prominent Filipinos and naturally with American offi- 
 cials both civil and military, and bj correspondence 
 with assistants in every part of the field. Furthermore, 
 trips to such countries as Java, China, Japan, and India 
 have aided him, by the possibility of comparison thus 
 afforded, in his study of conditions in the Philippines. 
 
 To present the results of this observation in such a 
 way as to give an accurate and comprehensive idea of 
 just what our Philippine possessions are; to show the 
 real conditions, geographical, economic, social, and 
 political; to picture the people and their characteristics, 
 the different phases of this problem of tropical coloni- 
 zation, the possibilities and the prospects, — such is 
 
 the writer's endeavor. 
 
 FRED W. ATKINSON 
 
 Brooklyn, 1905
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter Page 
 
 Introduction 1 
 
 I. General Geography 19 
 
 II. History 45 
 
 III. From the Death ok Lkcasti through the Inter- 
 
 vening Period to the Uprising of 1896 .... 63 
 
 IV. From the Insurrection of 1896 to the Present 
 
 Time 99 
 
 V. Climate 122 
 
 Yl. Public Health 143 
 
 VII. Commercial Geography 163 
 
 VIII. Manila 203 
 
 IX. People 227 
 
 X. People (continued) 256 
 
 XI. People (continued) 286 
 
 XII. Superstitions and Religion 296 
 
 XIII. Government 337 
 
 XIV. Education 373 
 
 INDEX 413
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Of the few countries to-daj where the old order still 
 continues with but slight modification, where virgin 
 fields have awaited tlie student of politics, economics, 
 sociology, philology, ethnology, where such a diversity 
 of conditions, interests, and hinguages exists as to make 
 the problem bewildering in the infinity of its phases, 
 the Philippine Islands are among the foremost ; while 
 in us Americans who have assumed the tutelage of 
 these oriental islanders, who have taken upon ourselves 
 the solution of a problem that is unique, this general 
 interest becomes merged in the feeling of serious respon- 
 sibility which rests upon us for the ultimate successful 
 accomplishment of the task. 
 
 Opportunities for research are ample, and the Insular 
 Government through the employment of experts is 
 carrying on many lines of investigation, the result of 
 which will be valuable. What the conditions were 
 before Spain's influence began to be felt, and how much 
 the Spaniards did for the Filipinos it is difficult to say; 
 it depends, as all things Philippine depend, on the point 
 of view. The question is primarily one for the trained
 
 2 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 philologist, who, by a study of the dialects and their 
 acquisitions from the Spanish language, may learn 
 much concerning the early history and customs of the 
 Filipino people. It was of absorbing interest to the 
 writer while there in the Islands, bearing in mind 
 always what the past had been, to watch and study 
 the kaleidoscopic happenings, and to speculate on what 
 course the current will take in coming years. Such 
 events were likewise watched with a similar interest 
 by our thoughtful citizens at home, who were supplied 
 with a comparatively small amount of information, 
 which was essentially conflicting. 
 
 There seems to be a dearth of acciu^ate, whole-truth 
 information on the Philippine situation. The testi- 
 mony of an army officer on the one hand and that of 
 a civil official on the other, based upon different points 
 of view and perhaps a knowledge of entirely different 
 parts of the archipelago, could not be other than con- 
 tradictory ; and similarly with any reports which did 
 not first look beyond the immediate vicinity to confirm 
 impressions there gained, for the inaccuracy of any 
 such information varied directly with the distance from 
 the particular place in which the conditions were ob- 
 served. In short, it was unsafe to note the existence of 
 any peculiar practice, habit, or dialect without labeling 
 it with the exact locality where found, for such might 
 be but a far-removed, modified specimen of a most 
 diversified family ; and the error lay in assuming that 
 to be the generic which was merely the specific, — an
 
 INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 error which has led to a most unfortunate difference 
 of conceptions as to what the problem really is, and 
 what the solution ought to be. 
 
 The Philippines should not properly be a party issue ; 
 and the inclination of Americans generally to refrain 
 from reviewing the story of our acquisition of them, 
 and rather to center their attention upon the one pos- 
 sible phase of the question oj)en to discussion, — the 
 speed with which we can grant the inhabitants larger 
 powers of self-government, is cause for a feeling of 
 satisfaction. The Islands are a part of our country; 
 as a nation we have become responsible for their 
 external relations and their internal administration. 
 To the world, to the Filipino people, and to ourselves 
 we have a duty to perform, however unpleasant and 
 unpalatable it may be. The executive department of 
 our government took cognizance of this duty as soon 
 as the treaty of peace with Spain was ratified in 
 February, 1899 ; Congress later recognized our respon- 
 sibility by prescribing a form of government ; and our 
 Supreme Court has established the status of the Islands 
 as a part of the United States. The problem is thus 
 larger than any party ; and hence, even with a change 
 of party, a material variation from our present policy 
 would not be possible. In facing the situation to-day, 
 thoughts of what might have been will be rather a 
 hindrance than a help. A work, the very immensity 
 of which is just beginning to be perceived by us, has 
 been undertaken without any prospect of immediate.
 
 4 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 satisfactory completion ; but it is our task, and we have 
 made an encouraging start. 
 
 It would be well, indeed, if all here at home could be 
 led to join in the opinion of Americans in the Philip- 
 pines, of whatever party, that democratic principles of 
 government must be considerably modified when the 
 people to be governed have the racial qualities, tradi- 
 tions, and history of the Filipinos. Unless there be a 
 unity of sentiment among the American people, an eager- 
 ness of spirit to solve the problem in the best possible 
 way with the sole view of the welfare of the Filipino, the 
 experiment now inaugurated will fail. The difficulties 
 of the problem we are only now learning to appreciate ; 
 until the conditions are better known, we should suspend 
 judgment and certainly be less prone to destructive 
 criticism of the pioneer service now being performed. 
 
 No amount of books, magazine articles, and lectures 
 can transport the American at home to the Philippines, 
 nor adequately supply the results of a practical acquaint- 
 ance wdth the Islands. It is impossible for our legisla- 
 tors in Washington who have not been on the ground 
 to realize that this group is not the United States sim- 
 ply a few centuries younger ; and hence, in the present 
 discussion of the question of independence, comparisons 
 with conditions which existed just before our own Revo- 
 lutionary War are apt to be misleading. Vain specula- 
 tion without knowledge of facts is useless ; what did 
 happen in the Philippines could not have been pre- 
 vented from happening.
 
 I^^TRUDUCTIUX 5 
 
 The Filipinos are incapable of self-government ; in 
 their affairs they are managed by few ambitious leaders. 
 They have not yet cultivated a sense of fair play and 
 tolerance for those who differ in opinion. Although the 
 gift of self-government in full measure was not possi- 
 ble, yet to a degree it was bestowed by granting prac- 
 tical autonomy in provincial and municipal affairs. 
 Independence is a cherished ideal of the Filipinos, and 
 that they may ultimately realize this ideal is, the writer 
 believes, the unexpressed purpose of those who have 
 undertaken the tutelage of these peoples. How far 
 removed is this realization, it is beyond his power to 
 predict ; the proximity or distance of it must remain 
 a matter of opinion. Certainty that these peoples will 
 or will not become an independent nation is equally 
 out of the question. For some time to come the politi- 
 cal dependence of the Islands upon the United States 
 must be very real. Granting independence in any near 
 future would be a great error sure to result in serious 
 harm ; and in the policy of not attempting to fix the 
 day when the connection between the two countries 
 shall be merely nominal, we are pursuing a wise course. 
 The doctrine of the consent of the governed is indeed in- 
 cluded in our scheme of administration in these Islands 
 to the fullest extent to which it ever laid claim in the 
 minds of those who first propounded it, namely, the 
 granting of self-government to all who were compe- 
 tent to exercise it for their own Ijenefit and that of soci- 
 ety. The question of the right of a liigher civilization
 
 6 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 to dominate a lower is one capable of mncli discnssion ; 
 the only justification, sureh', for such an extension of 
 sovereignty is the material improvement and the intel- 
 lectual and moral elevation of the weaker race. 
 
 The United States Philippine Commissioners have 
 erred, if in any direction, in giving too great a degree 
 of self-government in both provincial and municipal 
 affairs. It is an open secret that they went farther 
 in bestowing local self-government than the Filipino 
 leaders themselves advised; in fact, as President Roose- 
 velt expressed it in a message, they reached the danger 
 point. Only, indeed, by our belief that the privilege of 
 voting is in itself an educative force in the state and 
 that it constantly increases the self-respect of the voter 
 can we justify the establishment of the present form 
 of civil government in the Philippines. 
 
 The Filipino people, taken as a body, are children 
 and, childlike, do not know what is best for them. 
 That they possess ideals and ideas creates a faith and 
 a hope that ultimately they may be able to institute a 
 republic modeled on the American lines. In the ideal 
 spirit of preparing them for the work of governing 
 themselves finally, their American guardianship has 
 begun. Our political sway has not been imposed upon 
 the people to any greater extent than was necessary; 
 and by the very fact of our superiority of civilization 
 and our greater capacity for industrial activity we are 
 bound to exercise over them a profound social influ- 
 ence. In speaking of the future of this country, the
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 one thing to be emphasized throughout is that all de- 
 pends upon the temper we exercise in the work wdiich 
 is mapped out for us. What is best for the Filipinos is 
 the foremost consideration ; and this desire to put their 
 
 The Taft Philippine Commission 
 Commissioner Worcester is not present 
 
 interests first rather than to foster American exploita- 
 tion has animated the United States Philippine Com- 
 mission in all its legislative and administrative acts. 
 
 The solution of the Philippine problem is in the hands 
 of men of large and generous sympathies, whose abili- 
 ties as practical statesmen have been shown. Governor 
 Taft's has been a brilliant career in which success is 
 attributable in no small degree to a personality that 
 won the love and admiration of the natives and the
 
 8 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 support of all thoughtful persous. Besides the five 
 Americans ou the Commissiou are three Filipino mem- 
 bers, who from the beginning have been left free to do 
 all they could do effectively. The details of the organ- 
 ization of civil government will be taken up fully 
 later ; suffice it here to say that by formulating civil 
 and criminal codes, and organizing on a comj^rehen- 
 sive scale departments and bureaus of government 
 which are modern and efficient, the Commission has 
 done much in the matter of paving the way to ultimate 
 success. 
 
 As a result of our general policy there are signs 
 of an increased friendliness between Americans and 
 Filipinos, and much now apjDears in the situation to 
 create a feeling of cheerfulness. Bitter memories of 
 w^hat has been naturall}^ still exist ; blood has been 
 poured out and money contributed ; and there are 
 Filipinos who view our presence with a feeling of dis- 
 like, the predominant reason for which is the natural 
 idea that through the Americans they have lost an 
 independence all but attained. Yet there is reason for 
 sounding a cheerful note in the fact, that in spite of all, 
 the large body of the people tolerate us even though 
 somewhat half-heartedlv ; and without overrating the 
 intensity and permanence of the manifestations of good 
 will which have greeted our efforts, we may feel that 
 the leading Filipinos, whether from expediency or real 
 appreciation, are cooperating with the Commissioners 
 and their subordinates. As we shall see, the danger
 
 INTRODUCTION' 9 
 
 lies in the conservatism of these people, who want to 
 do as they have always done, and in the dissimilarity 
 of the racial qualities, traditions, history, and manners 
 of the two peoples. 
 
 From a purely scientific point of view the experiment 
 is interesting as an attempt to do what has never been 
 done before with an oriental race of Malay origin in 
 the tropics. The Filipinos will become Americanized 
 only in the sense that they will speak English and 
 adopt American innovations as they are introduced; the 
 character of the people and their stronger, more in- 
 dividual characteristics will be retained. What is good 
 in Philippine civilization must not be handled roughly ; 
 the Filipino himself will always remain such as he 
 was under the Latinizing process of the Spaniards. 
 With such considerations in mind, those in authority 
 have been very careful not to go too far in the attempt 
 to introduce American ideas and institutions, in spite of 
 the demand by the press and public opinion at home 
 for a wholesale clearance of the native customs and 
 beliefs. Sweeping administrative reforms were found 
 necessary ; yet our government has not met with as 
 much to change that is Malay as that which is Spanish. 
 The Commission has attempted to establish a firm and 
 strong government as a condition precedent to the 
 country's political future ; but, on the other hand, it 
 has interfered just as little as possible with the cus- 
 toms, manners, ceremonials, and beliefs which go to 
 make up the individuality of a people.
 
 10 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 For nearly five years now our government has 
 been operating a free pul)lic-scliool system, tlie cardinal 
 point of which is the introduction of English, which the 
 Filipino wanted, and in teaching which not the slightest 
 attempt has been made to stamp out any of the native 
 dialects. Our educational efforts have possibly done 
 more to give these people a true conception of the bene- 
 fits of civilization and good government than all the 
 other influences we have brought to bear upon them ; 
 indeed, in tliis work is to be found the solution for a 
 large part of the problem. Up to the present time it 
 has hardly advanced beyond the teachings of the rudi- 
 ments of English, though considerable progress is now 
 being made in arithmetic, geography, and the other 
 elementary branches, while in the various centers work 
 of an advanced nature is carried on. Thus popular 
 education, on which naturally the whole structure in 
 this field must ultimately rest, has been strengthened 
 and broadened, steps have been taken in the direction 
 of higher training, and for tlie future, when the time 
 is ripe, a university has been planned as an apex of 
 the school system. Among the greatest difficulties that 
 the promoters of free education have to contend with 
 are the ajjathy of the lowest class and the antagonism 
 of the liighest. In democratic United States it has been 
 possible to advance popular education rapidly during 
 the past century because those who had influence were 
 men who themselves possessed a true conception of 
 its benefits and were able to see the whole question
 
 INTRODUCTION 11 
 
 in the proper perspective ; in the Philippines the masses 
 have learned little else than the catechism, and the 
 higher classes have acquired hardly more than a veneer. 
 Education is now desired apparently with the greatest 
 eagerness, but when the novelty wears off and hard 
 work is required the attendance decreases. Through 
 Spanish misteaching education has come to have a false 
 meaning there. Scarcely a Filipino understands its 
 significance ; his view is a narrow, social one, possibly 
 tinged with ecclesiasticism. To turn out facile penmen, 
 glib talkers, or formal observers of the faith will not 
 satisfy us. For the present, at least, a purely utilitarian 
 view of education must be accepted ; yet to the Ameri- 
 can teacher now and to the Filipino reformer of the 
 future the ideal must be a higher one, namely, develop- 
 ment of physical and intellectual powers, formation aud 
 strengthening of moral character, widening of the syui- 
 pathies, and, incidentally, preparation for citizenship. 
 Frequently in the jDress of the Dutch and English colo- 
 nies of the Orient, and occasionally in our American 
 papers, oj^inions have been put forth to the effect that 
 the institution of popular education in the Philippines 
 is likely to do more harm than good, and that the peo- 
 ple would remain better and happier without it. With 
 this view it is impossible to agree. The writer's liking 
 for the people and knowledge of their character arouses 
 the hope, sincere belief in the ability, tact, and courage 
 of the American teacher creates the faith, and personal 
 observation and judgment confirm in him the conviction.
 
 12 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 that the popular education of the Filipino, if not unduly 
 hurried and if conducted along practical lines, will prove 
 ah ultimate success. 
 
 We have not only made an encouraging start in gov- 
 erning this distant group of sixteen hundred islands 
 properly and efficiently and in furnishing an adequate 
 system of education, but we have already attempted 
 to develop then- rich resources. The economic aspect 
 of the question is by no means the least interesting. 
 Since the writer's return, the question whether the 
 Philippines will continue a great expense to the United 
 States without any corresponding profit has l^een fre- 
 quently asked, and has invariably revealed ignorance 
 of a fact which was supposed to be generally known, 
 namely, that the United States government pays only 
 for the expenses of the American army of occupation 
 and the Insular Government maintains itself from its 
 custom and revenue receipts. The Islands are exceed- 
 ingly fertile and productive, and yet the writer must 
 confess that he is not optimistic in his belief that the 
 Philippines will immediately pay largely in a commer- 
 cial AN'ay. This question depends upon many factors. 
 It involves a labor problem of exceeding seriousness; 
 the prolmbility of American colonization in the Islands ; 
 the investment of American capital ; the need of new 
 markets for American products, and the increase of Fil- 
 ipino wants ; the character of later congressional and 
 insular legislation ; the development of means of land and 
 interisland transportation ; and such kindred matters.
 
 INTRODUCTION 13 
 
 Among the resources timber is the richest, and yet 
 owing to the condition of the country, the difficulty in 
 getting the wood out, and the lack of labor, nearly all 
 the lumber used for the past three years in the Islands 
 has been Oregon pine. It would, indeed, be far easier 
 to prove to an academic reformer that in the Philippines 
 we have a great national duty to observe and an oppor- 
 tunity for individual service of trying pioneer character, 
 than to convince a practical business man that they will 
 pay. The wealth of this rich country may or may not 
 under American enterprise amount to as much as san- 
 guine Americans think, but there can be little doubt 
 that it is being governed with a consciousness of the 
 trust which has been assumed. 
 
 By accident the United States found itself in the 
 Philippines. Can any one question the advantage of 
 the change from Spanish domination to American pro- 
 tection ? First had to come war with the rifle, then 
 military commission with the rope, and finally civil 
 government with the benefits of American sovereignty, 
 — separation of church and state ; division and coordi- 
 nation of judicial, legislative, and executive powers ; 
 rights of suffrage, writs of habeas corpus, assembly, 
 and free speech ; abrogation of obligatory military 
 service and abolition of the practice of banishment. 
 Spain justified her conquest here only on religious 
 grounds and failed because she did not take upon her- 
 self in addition just that moral obligation which we 
 have accepted.
 
 14 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Thirty-nine years have now passed since the close of 
 the Civil War and the negro problem is still unsolved ; 
 at the end of a like period of time we shall be strug- 
 gling with the Philippine question. In trying to solve 
 it we must leave the tune element out of consideration; 
 and we shall be gravely disajDpointed if we do not look 
 the facts in the face and thus keep from building our 
 hopes too high. This is not sajang that we must be 
 discouraged or that we have not done much ; a careful 
 consideration of the real difficulties and complexities 
 will show us how much has really been accomplished. 
 One of our leading thinkers writes of American civili- 
 zation in a recent work : ^ " Our people are too imjDatient 
 for peerless fruitage from tlie slow-growing tree of lib- 
 erty ; we all expect sudden miracles of material and 
 moral welfare — we get only a slow development and 
 a halting progress." If this is true, how much less 
 should we expect in the way of fruitage if this very 
 tree is torn up and transplanted in the Philippines, — 
 a foreign soil where local government has hardly taken 
 root, and where the sanctions of order and justice which 
 promote industrial development are scarcely understood. 
 It is a huge and novel work — this training some six 
 or eight millions of tropical, indolent people for self- 
 government. 
 
 Social or rather political trustworthiness, respect for 
 the minority, and freedom from everything resembling 
 castes or insurmountable social or political barriers are 
 
 ^ President Eliot, More Muney for the Public Schools, p. 5G.
 
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 KeLIKF MaI' ok TIIK I'HILIPPIXE INLANDS 
 
 15
 
 16 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 requisite conditions for a democratic form of govern- 
 ment ; and these are lacking. In the past under Span- 
 ish domination these people were restricted by numerous 
 social limitations, with an ecclesiastical atmosphere per- 
 vading all. In our work we must assure to the Filipino 
 every\vhere free and prompt justice and security of 
 property in the interior, and must instill in him such 
 moral restraint and ideal standards as will help him 
 through the perils of an unknown freedom. 
 
 Although it is impossible in a day or in a generation 
 even to enable these peojDle to raise themselves from 
 the condition of semicivilization to the rank of a civ- 
 ilized nation, the difficulties of our task are not insu- 
 perable. The question is a national one, and to the 
 extent of his opportunities every citizen should do his 
 part in assisting by encouragement those to whom has 
 been assigned this difficult pioneer service. To judge 
 intelligently the results, one needs to be acquainted 
 wdth the situation ; to possess a knowledge of the cli- 
 mate and other geographical conditions, especially their 
 influence on Philippine character and civilization ; to 
 be acquainted with the history and life of the different 
 peoples ; and to know the ethnological constitution of 
 the Islands. A clearer understanding of certain elements 
 of native character also will lead to saner expectations 
 as to the results of the American protectorate. Unless 
 we inform ourselves on these matters, there is bound to 
 be disappointment in the future. And yet how is the 
 person at home to obtain this clearer understanding
 
 INTRODUCTION 17 
 
 from the mass of conflicting opinions which he hears ? 
 This is a difficult question to answer. To one the Fili- 
 pino is almost inhuman, detestable in his cold-blooded 
 warfare; to another he appears Western-wise, child- 
 like, gentle. A maze of contradiction is encountered 
 by one who studies the Filipinos. To one man our 
 endeavor to govern and educate him is to oppress 
 him, to uncreate him ; to another it is to teacli him 
 really to live. 
 
 With a view toward helping to gain this better 
 understanding of the true situation these chapters 
 are written. The plan of presentation is what has 
 seemed to the writer simple and natural : first, a con- 
 sideration of the general geography, treating of the 
 location, size, and physical features of the various 
 islands, mountain and river systems, volcanoes and 
 earthquakes ; and next, such a treatment of the dis- 
 covery, settlement, and history of the Islands as to 
 give a background of information sufficiently substan- 
 tial for a proper setting for later developments. Then 
 follows a consideration of these later developments, — the 
 end of Spanish dominion, the beginning of American 
 rule, and events under American sovereignty to date ; 
 a discussion of the commercial geography, products, 
 resources, and possibilities ; of the climate, meteoro- 
 logical conditions, and storms ; the question of public 
 health ; and a description of Manila itself. Attention 
 is later directed to a study of the people, their charac- 
 teristics and capacities, their superstitions and religion ;
 
 18 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 an examination is made into the former method of 
 government and administration, native and Spanish, 
 together with a survey of our own work of establishing 
 and operating tlie present systems, insular, provincial, 
 and municipal ; and finally, an account is given of the 
 educational work, the justification for introducing Eng- 
 lish, the kind of training needed, the results and pros- 
 pects, with a concluding estimate of what we have 
 already done and w^hat the outlook is.
 
 CHAPTER I 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 This group of more than sixteen hundred islands 
 forming the Philippine archipelago is situated almost 
 precisely on the opposite side of the globe to our Atlantic 
 coast, eleven thousand miles distant from and thirteen 
 hours four minutes earlier than New York, southwest 
 of Japan and Korea, some six hundred miles southeast 
 of China, and a few miles northeast of Borneo. It is 
 washed on the north and west by the China sea, on the 
 east by the Pacific, and on the south by the Celebes sea. 
 With its southern extremity less than 5° and its north- 
 ern limit 21° north of the equator, it is situated wholly 
 within the tropics and extends some eleven hundred 
 miles over a latitudinal expanse equal to that between 
 the southern shore of lake Superior and the northern 
 coast of the gulf of Mexico ; while the extreme breadth, 
 between 116° and 126° east, nearly seven hundred miles, 
 is greater than the longitudinal distance between Phil- 
 adelphia and Indianapolis. 
 
 The total area is 127,853 square miles, seven thousand 
 square miles greater than that of the British Isles ; or, 
 to use an American standard, larger than the combined 
 areas of the New England states with New York and 
 
 19
 
 20 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 New Jersey. And taken together with the waters which 
 surround and are included within the treaty lines of 
 boundary, the Islands extend over a space embracing 
 roughly 800,000 square miles of the earth's surface. 
 
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 IP^SUitJhKSy pSkSf 
 
 1^^ 
 
 
 
 
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 ^^^^^MUE^^^MBH 
 
 rillLll'I'INK \ KCKTATIOX 
 
 Of the total land area it is computed that tlie combined 
 extent of 1583 of the 1600 islands is less than GOOO 
 square miles, thus leaving almost the entire land por- 
 tion distributed among the comparatively few large 
 islands. Beginning at the north, the eleven islands 
 with an area of 1000 square miles or more are Luzon 
 (43,075), Mindoro (4050), Masbate (3872), Samar (5198), 
 Panay (4752), Leyte (3872), Palawan (4839), Negros 
 (4839), Cebu (1688), Bohol (1400), Mindanao (45,559). 
 Mindanao is a little larger, and Luzon a little smaller, 
 than Pennsylvania ; Samar, Negros, Panay, and Pala- 
 wan are each about tlie size of Connecticut ; Mindoro,
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 21 
 
 Masbate, and Leyte are each of the same area as Porto 
 Rico; while the remaining two, Bohol and Cebu, are 
 each the size of Rhode IsUind. 
 
 The country is everywhere very mountainous, the 
 chief ranges running along the greater axis of each 
 island, generally speaking, with several arms ])ranching 
 therefrom. Thus their general direction is from north 
 to south, with more or less inclination to the east or 
 west, according to the general direction of the largest 
 islands of the archipelago. 
 
 The mountain system of Luzon comprises principally 
 three large ranges, the nucleus of which is the Caraballo 
 
 C'ocoANrr (iiv<)\ I. 
 
 Sur. They are (1) Caraballos Occidentales, which form 
 the Pacific-China sea watershed of northern Luzon and 
 extend north for a distance of about 150 miles, dividing
 
 22 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 into two branches, the Cordillera Central and Cordillera 
 Norte, the northernmost peak of which, Mt. Irada in 
 the Babuyan island, is only ninety-three miles from 
 Formosa ; (2) Sierra Madre, or Pacific coast range, which 
 forms a continuous chain of mountains from the Cara- 
 ballos de Baler to cape Engailo, the extreme northeast- 
 ern point of Luzon, and is the longest continuous range 
 in the archipelago ; (3) and a third range starting from 
 the common point, the Caraballos Sur, and extending 
 south, one branch traversing Tayabas province, the 
 other the provinces of Camarines, Albay, and Sorsogon, 
 and terminating in the spurs of the volcano of Bulusan. 
 
 Besides these three principal ones are two other 
 ranges worthy of mention, — the Zambales range, 
 which, starting at cape Bolinao, the extreme north- 
 west point of Luzon, follows closely the China sea 
 coast to the end of the Bataan peninsula, fronting Cor- 
 regidor, the promontory at the entrance of Manila bay ; 
 and the Tagaytay range, which forms the boundary 
 between Cavite and Batangas provinces and contains 
 the Taal volcano. 
 
 While the larger islands have defined systems of 
 their own, these are brought by means of submarine 
 ranges into harmony with the general scheme of the 
 archipelago. The mountains of Marinduque, Burias, 
 Masbate, Romblon, and Ticao are simjjly elevated por- 
 tions of the hidden ranges connecting Luzon with the 
 systems of the Visayan grouj^ of islands, including 
 Panay, Negros, Cebii, Leyte, and Sttmar, which in turn
 
 23
 
 24 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 are continued in the lofty Cordilleras of Mindanao to the 
 southeast, and with less elevation in the hills of Basilan 
 and the larger islands of the Sulu archipelago to the 
 southwest. From Luzon, too, through Mindoro, the 
 Calamianes, and the long narrow island of Palawan, 
 extends another system, terminating with the peak 
 of Bahil)ac in the Sierra Empinada in the extreme 
 northwestern part of our possessions, less than fifty 
 miles distant from the northernmost point of Borneo. 
 
 The island of Panay has a single range extending 
 from the northern to the southern coast, separating the 
 province of Antique from Capiz and Iloilo and reaching 
 an altitude of more than seven thousand feet. About 
 midway it sends a spur to the east which forms the 
 boundary between Capiz and Iloilo. Various peaks of an 
 elevation of four thousand feet and upwards are to be 
 found in this chain. 
 
 Negros is traversed by a high range from the north- 
 west to southeast, dividing it into two parts so com- 
 pletely as to form naturally two narrow provinces. In 
 this system the volcano Canlaon or Malaspina is a 
 conspicuous feature. 
 
 Cebu has a spinelike chain similar to that of Negros, 
 almost parallel to it, and dividing the island likewise 
 into the eastern and western halves. 
 
 Bohol has no single well-defined range, but several 
 short ones traversing the island from the northeast to 
 the southwest and giving a general mountainous char- 
 acter to the surface.
 
 Tropical Vegetation ox the Tagsaxjan Kiver 
 
 25
 
 26 THE PHlLirri^E ISLANDS 
 
 Leyte and Siiniar are traversed similarly b}^ ranges, 
 continuations of the system of southern Luzon, running 
 the length of the islands from northwest to southeast, 
 with numerous spurs sent off on both sides, making the 
 land surface distinctly a broken one. 
 
 The system of Mindanao comprises four distinct 
 chains : the eastern in Surigao, which forms a Pacific 
 coast range running the entire length of the island ; the 
 central eastern, which extends north from Butuan and 
 constitutes the watershed of the great river systems of 
 Agusan on the east and Pulangui on the west, and is the 
 l)oundary between Surigao and the provinces of Misamis 
 and Lanao ; the central western, which branches from 
 the latter range at the lofty volcano of Apo, 10,312 
 feet high, and, following the northern boundary of Cota- 
 bato proA'ince from southeast to northwest, intersects 
 the western range and travels the entire length of the 
 Zamboanga peninsula to the Basilan strait, where it 
 ends, to rise again in the larger islands of Sulu ; and, 
 lastly, the western, which starts at the head of Iligan 
 bay on the north and, cutting across the island to the 
 south, traverses the peninsula inclosing 1 liana l)ay. 
 
 The Philippines, it is worthy of note, are united with 
 the Asiatic archipelago at three different points where 
 the straits filled with islands reach but little depth, 
 namely, north of Borneo by the islands of Balabac and 
 Palawan, on the northeast of Borneo by the island of 
 Jolo, and on the northeast of the Celebes by the islands 
 of Sanquin and Tahit. The whole Philippine group.
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 27 
 
 without doubt, therefore, belongs to the same geograph- 
 ical region as Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and the other 
 members of this extensive archipelago, and hence to Asia 
 rather than to Oceanica. In bearing out this view, the 
 analogy between the situation of the Sunda islands, the 
 Celebes, the Moluccas, and the Philippines with reference 
 to Asia, and that of the Antilles to America, is evident. 
 
 Banyan Tree 
 
 The unique connection that exists between the various 
 islands w^hich lie in the waters separating Asia and 
 Australasia has been shown by a writer who has treated 
 the subject in a most interesting manner.^ The greater 
 part of the Philippines, as is true of Java and other 
 islands of this general group, has been formed by vol- 
 canic action; and a semielliptical volcanic belt may 
 
 1 Wallace, Malay Archipelago, Chap. I.
 
 28 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 be traced in this Asiatic archipelago, passing tlirongh 
 Sumatra, Java, and the neighboring area, and then 
 up through the Philippines. These tropical islands of 
 volcanic origin all enjoy a uniform and very similar 
 climate, are covered with luxuriant vegetation, and are 
 subject to earthquakes, which recur continually with 
 slight shocks at intervals of a few weeks or months, 
 
 On the Imus River 
 
 and more severe ones, shaking down whole villages 
 and destroying life and property, sure to liappen in 
 some part of the volcanic belt during the year. The 
 Philippines, which agree in many respects with Asia 
 and the Asiatic archipelago, present on the other hand 
 certain anomalies which seem to indicate that they 
 were separated from the mainland at an early period 
 and have since become subject to various revolutions in 
 their physical geography.
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 29 
 
 Nowhere is there a more interesting, ahiiost entirely 
 unexplored field for the geologist than here. Judgino- 
 from the distribution of igneous rocks in the archi- 
 pelago, volcanoes dynamically powerful have exercised 
 a marked influence. As to the number of them there 
 is considerable diversity of opinion, some putting it as 
 
 A Country Road near Dagupax 
 
 high as fifty, — twenty of which are more or less active, 
 and thirty extinct and dormant. But in the absence 
 of data from accurate surveys, it seems wise to accept 
 the more conservative estimate of the Jesuit fathers 
 connected with that admirable institution, the Manila 
 Observatory, now the seat of the Philippine Weather 
 Bureau, who state that there are twenty-three volcanoes 
 in the group, eleven of them more or less active.
 
 30 THE nilLlPPlXE ISLANDS 
 
 In the islands north of Luzon arid only a short dis- 
 tance south of Formosa, are two active volcanoes, which 
 are known among mariners and natives as " smoking 
 mountains"; and similarly named is the well-defined 
 cone near cape Engaiio, the extreme northeastern point 
 of Luzon, which, however, has not been observed 
 smoking since 1860. Farther south, near Manila, is the 
 symmetrically conical Arayat, now dormant, in sight of 
 which most of the Philippine insurrections took place ; 
 and the magnificent Banajao, also dormant, which looms 
 uf) over the lake of Bay ; and still farther south, in 
 the extreme southeastern part of the island, is Bulusan, 
 the culmination of the third great mountain range of 
 Luzon, a second Vesuvius with its double cone. The two 
 most important active volcanoes in the island remain, 
 — Mayon, in Albay province, just north of Bulusan and 
 in the same range, and Taal, situated in lake Bombon 
 in the Tagaytay system, readily accessible from Manila. 
 Mayon is the most beautiful specimen of the volcanic 
 cone on a large scale that it has ever been the writer's 
 privilege to see ; it is the realization of that ideal 
 schoolboy conception of what a volcano ought to be, as 
 it rises majestically with perfect symmetry from the 
 center of a great plane to the height of nine thousand 
 feet, its lofty crater enveloped in and covered by a 
 great cloud of vapor. Frequent emissions of ashes 
 accompanied l)y lava flows occur, and the eruptions 
 with severe shocks associated with them at times liave 
 been very serious. One of deadly character took place
 
 31
 
 32 
 
 THE PIULirPlXE ISLANDS 
 
 in 1814, which buried practically whole towns under its 
 streams of lava and ashes, and destroyed twelve hun- 
 dred lives. During the last decade of the preceding 
 century there were light eruptions; and in June, 1897, 
 a violent eruption lasting twenty-four hours caused the 
 loss of three hundred and fifty lives and unich property. 
 
 Largest Cuatkr, Taal Volcano 
 
 Taal is also remarkable, with its once comparatively 
 large crater and several other small extinct ones near 
 by, forming in the lake an island of some two hundred 
 and twenty square miles. The crater is o\al in form 
 with a major axis of a mile and a lialf ; its walls are 
 steep, and on the crater floor are several small cones, 
 only one of which, however, is active, and this simply
 
 GENERAL GEUGKAPHY 33 
 
 to the extent of emitting great quantities of vapor. 
 There are within the crater also three boilina; lakes con- 
 taining metallic oxides and salts in solution, which give 
 to the waters of the smaller lakes a pure emerald green 
 color, and to those of the larger a reddish-yellow tint. 
 Though this volcano has been in an active state from 
 time immemorial, no serious eruption has occurred since 
 1754. 
 
 Concerning the remaining volcanoes little is known. 
 Mt. Apo in Mindanao, which towers to a height of ten 
 thousand feet or more, gives evidence of its activity by 
 numerous jets of sulphurous vapors that tower cloudlike 
 over the summit. Its name, Apo, signifies in the Tagalog 
 language both air and God, and its appearance besjDeaks 
 the real appropriateness of such an appellation. Very 
 few have ever ascended it ; ^ and among the difficulties in 
 attempting an ascent is tlie unwillingness of the natives 
 to act as guides, for they believe it is the abode of an 
 evil spirit. 
 
 Seismology is a subject of very special interest in 
 the Philippines and one that has received during the 
 past twenty years careful attention at the hands of 
 the Jesuits connected with the Observatory; the result 
 of which systematic study has been tlie collection of a 
 large amount of suggestive and valuable scientific data 
 on this matter of earthquakes. Certain laws as to the 
 
 1 A Frenchman in 1880, two German scientists in 1882, an Englishman in 
 1884, and two Americans in 1900 have, it seems, been the only white people 
 to make the ascent.
 
 34 THE PIIILIPPINP: ISLANDS 
 
 modification of the direction in wliicli seismological dis- 
 turbances travel as the result of local peculiarities of 
 conformation have been deduced ; the influence particu- 
 larly of mountain ranges has been shown, and the results 
 of other observers engaged in the same work in different 
 parts of the world confirmed. Under American rule this 
 study has been officially recognized, provision has been 
 made for better instruments, and some ninety official 
 earth(|uake stations have been established. 
 
 Manila is so situated that it experiences almost all the 
 shocks radiating from the different centers of Luzon, 
 being no more than thirty-five miles north of the active 
 volcano Taal and a little farther from the extiuct ones, 
 Banajao and Arayat. The ground of the capital is low 
 and soft and, in addition to the Pasig river, traversed 
 by a network of creeks or cstei^os. The total number 
 of earthquakes registered there during the eighteen 
 years between 1880 and 1897 is two hundred and 
 twenty-one, an average annual number of twelve. The 
 most serious one within the previous century occurred 
 in 1863, the shock of which lasted half a minute, and 
 by the falling buildings caused four hundred deaths and 
 injuries to two thousand others. The ruins from this 
 and other earthquakes are still to be seen within the city. 
 
 For the purpose of the seismo-meteorological service 
 now organized under our government the archipelago 
 is divided into four districts. 
 
 The first includes Luzon, except the southern prov- 
 inces, and Mindoro, and may be characterized as the
 
 (ioKUK OX THE PaG^AXIAN KiVER
 
 36 THE riiiLipriNE islands 
 
 Taal district. This region was visited by many destruc- 
 tive eartliqnakes in the seventeenth century, one histing 
 for the extraordinary period of seven minutes. In 1G45 
 a severe earthquake laid ahnost the entire city of Manila 
 in ruins ; and a subsecpient one in 1658 destroyed those 
 buildings which survived the preceding shock. During 
 the eighteenth century several churches were thrown 
 down ; and cracks in the walls surrounding old Manila, 
 caused by these disturbances, may still be seen. In the 
 last century, previous to the active period of 1880-1897, 
 already mentioned, there were several isolated disturb- 
 ances, one in 1851^ particularly serious, which did great 
 damage throughout Luzon. A point of interest is that 
 nearly all of these accompanied eruptions of Taal 
 volcano. 
 
 The second district includes the southern provinces 
 of Luzon, certain adjacent islands, Masbate, and the 
 northern part of Samar, and may be characterized as 
 the Mayon district. Here are grouped nearly all of the 
 most important seismic centers of the archipelago, and 
 here, too, have occurred numerous serious disturbances. 
 
 Tlie tliird district comprises the islands of Negros 
 and Panay and the western part of Mindanao. Com- 
 paratively few earthquakes have occurred in this region. 
 
 The fourth district embraces the southern part of 
 Siimar, tlie islands of Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, and the 
 greater part of Mindanao, and may be designated as 
 the A])o district, though there are various other vol- 
 canic centers in this reo-ion. Numerous destructive and
 
 37
 
 38 
 
 TTTE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 \\ ATi:i;i"Ai.i.s, Luzon 
 
 violent shocks have occurred here at various times, but 
 accurate data, particulai-ly as to the Mindanao portion, 
 are lacking. 
 
 As we should expect to find in a country of volcanic 
 origin, the islands abound in mineral springs, the waters 
 being medicinal in character and ranging in temperature
 
 ge:n^eiial geography 
 
 39 
 
 from cold through various intermediate degrees to 
 boiHng. By the deposits upon the rock surfaces adjoin- 
 ing, evidence is to be had of the existence of iron, 
 copper, and other minerals in solution in these springs. 
 The best known, perhaps, are Los Banos, on the lake 
 of Bay, close to Manila, an analysis of the waters of 
 which shows the composition to be very similar to that 
 of the Carlsbad products. 
 
 To understand the rough mountainous character of 
 the interior of most of the larger islands is of prime 
 importance in paving the way toward an intelligent 
 
 A River Caxyox 
 
 discussion of the physical aspects of the Philippines, 
 and particularly of the political and industrial phases, 
 for these rugged natural features have taken an impor- 
 tant part in creating conditions which have exercised
 
 ■iO 
 
 THP: PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 a direct and i)Owerful influence upon the very life of 
 these Filipino peo})lG. But there are also broad plains, 
 narrow valleys, and swamps, through all of which 
 innumerable streams take their course. In a tropical 
 
 country where roads are 
 expensive to build and 
 more so to maintain, on 
 account of the heavy rain- 
 fall, the ^vater courses 
 form the highways of 
 commerce. Yet few of 
 the rivers here are navi- 
 gable by seagoing vessels ; 
 
 others can be used by 
 smaller craft only during 
 the rainy season, when 
 there is sufficient water ; 
 and others again merely 
 in the dry season, when 
 they have ceased being 
 torrents. 
 
 Four principal river 
 ALONr, TiiK (.ovKKNMENT RoAi) systcuis cffcct thc dralu- 
 
 TO BeXGUET £ X ^ 
 
 ao;e ot Luzon : 
 The Cagayan, which has its source in the south Cara- 
 ballo mountains in the center of the island and, running 
 in a tortuous stream to the northern coast, drains with 
 its tributaries the entire northeastern half of the island, 
 an area of sixteen thousand square miles, — equal to 
 
 I
 
 41
 
 42 
 
 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 that of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 
 Like the Nile, this river overflows its banks annually, 
 thus fertilizing tlie Cagayjin valley and making it the 
 
 Kick Tekkaces 
 
 richest to])acco district in the Philippines ; yet the sand 
 shoals at the mouth, constantlv shifting, frequently close 
 the entrance to navigation. 
 
 The Agno, which rises in a mountainous range nearer 
 the west coast and some fifty miles from the source of 
 the Cagayan, drains the narrow intermountain areas of 
 Benguet and the central valle^^s of Nueva Ecija, Pan- 
 gasinan, and Tarlac, and empties by two mouths into 
 the gulf of Lingayen. 
 
 The Al)ra, which starts in the Cordilleras of Lepanto- 
 Bontoc and Abra, courses across the narrow intervening 
 strip of Ilocos Sur to empty into the China sea.
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 43 
 
 The Pampanga, which has its beginning in the same 
 range as the Cagayan, flows in the opposite direction, 
 northward, through an extensive fertile plain dotted 
 with populous villages, and empties by some twenty 
 mouths into Manila bay. 
 
 The island of Luzon is further drained by the lake 
 of Bay, which has its sea outlet through the Pasig to 
 Manila bay. 
 
 Mindoro, Samar, Cebii, and Letye have each from ten 
 to sixty rivers, which aside from the matter of drainage 
 are not important. 
 
 Panay has two important streams, — the Panay and 
 the Jalaur ; the former, one of the most majestic in the 
 
 A River Scene 
 
 archipelago, with a volume equal to that of the Caga- 
 yan, drains the northern portion of the island, while 
 the latter, also of great size, drains Iloilo province.
 
 44 THE rHiLirriNE islands 
 
 Negros has only one river of appreciable magnitude, 
 the Danao, which rises in the central range and, flowing 
 east to the sea, drains the eastern slope. 
 
 Mindanao has two great rivers, — the Rio Grande and 
 the Agusan ; the former, slightly longer than the Caga- 
 3-an of Luzon and exceeding it in volume, rises in the 
 center of the island, drains this central portion, and 
 empties on the west coast by five mouths ; while the 
 latter, the third in size in the archipelago, rises at a 
 distance of some twenty-five miles from the southern 
 coast and has its outlet on the northern coast. This 
 island is famous for its lakes, particularly Lanao, which 
 is the center of a large Moro population and is histori- 
 cally associated with the struggles between Christians 
 and Moslems during the period of the Spanish contest, 
 and l)etween these Moslems and our American troops 
 of recent date.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 HISTORY 
 
 Just as many important discoveries have from time 
 to time Ijeen incidental to the real purposes which ani- 
 mated the ex2)lorers in the efforts to realize their theo- 
 ries, and just as our own country accidentally became 
 known to the European navigator in searcli of oriental 
 riches, so were the Philippines unexpectedly found 
 lying in the path of that skillful, fearless explorer, 
 Magellan, while on an expedition in the interest of 
 the Spanish crown. Portuguese by birth, he lost favor 
 at the court of his own sovereign hj reason of the 
 jealousies of certain influential men of the realm, and 
 becoming a naturalized Spaniard, he thus gained for 
 Spain the group of islands which both by their geo- 
 graphical position, in accordance with an agreement 
 between the two countries, and by the nationality of 
 the discoverer should have become the possession of 
 Portugal. 
 
 At the end of the fifteentli century one great source 
 of wealth in the Orient attracted the attention of 
 Europe. Merchants by a few successful ventures had 
 realized fabulous profits ; shrewd masters of vessels 
 which made the journey for these same traders had
 
 46 THE riin.IPFINE ISLANDS 
 
 themselves received handsome returns on their private 
 investments, and had spread reports of the existence of 
 an eastern El Dorado ; and various adventurous spirits 
 had already started upon a search which offered so many 
 inducements, while others were hastening to follow. 
 The objective point of all these voyages was the Spice 
 islands, the center of the spice trade, of which the 
 profits had now become so widely known and so gen- 
 erally coveted. 
 
 But although the attractions were great, yet the 
 difficulties attending voyages to the East Indies were 
 increasing, for obstructions in Egypt were becoming 
 serious and the ascendency of the Turks after their con- 
 quest of Constantinople in 1493 menaced the security 
 of goods sent l)y this eastern route. A heavy premium 
 was thus held out for the discovery of an all-sea course 
 to these islands. 
 
 Efforts under such incentives were numerous and, as 
 we know, successful in discovering a western route, and 
 coincidently western lands. Diaz and da Gama accom- 
 plished this for Portugal, and Columbus in endeavor- 
 ing to do so for Spain found America itself. These 
 unexpected developments in the search for an all-water 
 route to the spice center naturally distracted the interest 
 which had concentrated upon this particular industry 
 itself, and led to the broader speculations as to the 
 possibilities and significance of the recent discoveries 
 of extensive lands hitherto unknown. The desire 
 to push these enterprises further and to dedne more
 
 HISTORY 47 
 
 accurately the limits of the new lands, to seek for addi- 
 tional territory which might perhaps exist, and to add 
 all this potential wealth to the mother country, while at 
 the same time reaping the apparently enormous j)rivate 
 harvests, became general ; and concessions to search for 
 unknown lands were freely granted. 
 
 Simultaneously with the Ijirth of this new interest 
 in discovery, however, and l)y the very reason thereof, 
 arose the solicitude on the part of the two great mari- 
 time nations of the da}^ Spain and Portugal, as to their 
 respective rights in the new dominions ; the former 
 desired a clear title for the foundation of her colonial 
 missions, and the latter was jealous of retaining the 
 valuable possessions in the East which she had already 
 acquired by right of discovery. Pope Alexander VI was 
 consequently appealed to as arbitrator, and he, desirous 
 of avoiding any trouble between the two great Catho- 
 lic countries, freely granted in the Demarcation Bull 
 of May 4, 1493, the right to Ferdinand and Isabella 
 to explore and take possession of all unknown and 
 heathen lands west of a certain meridian line in the 
 Atlantic, and to King John the title to all newly dis- 
 covered territory east of that line. This definition of 
 the field for discovery and the location of the dividing 
 line as a hundred leagues (approximately four hundred 
 miles) west of the Azores, nevertheless, failed to meet 
 w4th the approval of the Portuguese king, who claimed 
 the right by a previous treaty with Spain in 1479 to 
 a larger field for exploration; and as a result of his
 
 48 THE PJIILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 objections tlie line of division was fixed at a distance of 
 three hundred and seventy leagues from tlie Cape Verde 
 islands, and the general agreement as thus modified 
 was embodied in the Treaty of Tordesillas, June 7, 1494. 
 The real significance of Alexander's decision, however, 
 was not perceived at the time, and it remained for 
 Magellan in his explanations to King Charles of Spain, 
 when he was seekino- aid from this monarch to fit out 
 an expedition in search of the w^estern route to the 
 Moluccas and the home of the spices, to show that the 
 Avorld had thus been divided into hemispheres, with 
 Spanish rights of exploration and accession supreme in 
 one, and Portuguese in the other. Thus it followed that 
 Spanish expeditions sailed to the west and Portuguese 
 to the east on their tours of discovery, and conquests 
 were made in these respective fields. 
 
 On a previous expedition in 1511, Magellan had been 
 present at the taking of Malacca, in the Malay penin- 
 sula, and heard of the islands near 1)}'^ "where they 
 gather cloves and nutmegs " ; and later he received 
 from his intimate friend, Serrano, who was leader of 
 the expedition sent out by Portugal in search of these 
 islands and wlio dietl on the return voyage, a full 
 account of the discover}' of the Moluccas. In his letters 
 Serrano doubled the distance from Malacca to the Spice 
 islands in order to add to his reputation as a navigator 
 and increase his reward from the king ; and Magellan, 
 
 ^ Antonio de Morga, The Philippine Islamls, Moluccas, Siam, Cambodia, 
 Japan, and China, p. 12 et seq. Cited liereafter as Morga.
 
 HISTORY 
 
 4.9 
 
 certain of his ability to prove liis theory as to the 
 existence of a route by tlie west, and relying upon the 
 information and distances as given in his friend's letters, 
 proved to the Spanish king that the Moluccas were 
 within the areas granted by the pope to the crown of 
 Castile for exploration, and that the right of conquest 
 
 Route of Magellan's Fleet in the Philippines 
 
 of them was his in accordance with the decision of 
 Alexander. Conscious of the possibilities of this ven- 
 ture, strongly desirous of making these rich islands his 
 own, and willingly persuaded hj a man of such enthusi- 
 asm and confidence. King Charles assured Magellan of 
 the necessary aid. A contract was entered into, by 
 which the king was to have a certain share of the trade
 
 50 THE rillLIPPINK ISLANDS 
 
 profits, according to the number of islands discovered, 
 and also title to the lands, with Magellan as governor ; 
 and a fleet of five vessels, the largest of which was only 
 one hundred and thirt}' tons burden, with a crew of two 
 hundred and thirty-four men, was fitted out. 
 
 The little fleet, composed of the La Trinidad, com- 
 manded by Magellan himself, the San Antonio, Vic- 
 toria, Santiago, and Concepcion, left San Lucas, the port 
 of Seville, on August 10, 1519, and mapping a course 
 along the African coast and past the Canary islands, 
 reached Sierra Leone. Following then the South Amer- 
 ican coast, it arrived at Rio Janeiro in December, four 
 months out from Spain. Severe cold now compelled 
 Magellan to winter in the San Julian river, and here 
 he remained five months. From the beginning diffi- 
 culties similar to those which Columbus had experi- 
 enced had beset his path ; jealousies, discouragement, 
 superstitions, and mutinies among the sailors coupled 
 with shipwrecks combined to dismay him. One shif) 
 was lost in a storm and another deserted, so with only 
 three vessels he followed the laljyrinthine course be- 
 tween the islands at the extremity of South America, 
 discovering here the straits which bear his name, and 
 passed on to the broad Pacific, which ho reached still 
 early in the year 1520. 
 
 Plain sailing was now before him, and some three 
 months later he reached the group afterward named the 
 Ladrones l)y Legaspi, owing to tlio thievisli character of 
 the natives. But without linsJiering Magellan continued 
 
 o o o
 
 HISTORY 
 
 51 
 
 westward and in March reached Biituan, on the northern 
 shore of Mmdanao, where he landed and, raising a cross 
 on a small hill near by anrl celel)rating the first mass in 
 the Philippines, took 
 possession of the island 
 in the name of the kino; 
 of Spain, and began to 
 win over the people to 
 Spanish sovereignty. 
 
 Hardly had he be- 
 come acquainted with 
 the place, however, be- 
 fore he was convinced, 
 from the glowing ac- 
 counts given him of the 
 wealth and fertility of 
 an island called by the 
 natives Sabo, that 
 fairer lands lay to the 
 northward ; and accord- 
 ingly, setting out with 
 a native chief and some 
 of his Spanish follow- 
 ers, Magellan proceeded 
 north and entered Celju 
 harbor in April, 1521. 
 
 Hostility was at first showai the newcomers by the 
 Ce])uans, who gathered to prevent their coming ashore, 
 but through the good offices of the Butuan chief 
 
 Magellan Moxumknt ox Ma< tax 
 
 ISLAXD
 
 52 THE PllILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 friendliness replaced ill-feeling, formal oaths of good will 
 with drinking of blood each from the other's breast were 
 exchanged between Magellan and the native king, and 
 a treaty made in the name of Charles I of Spain. " The 
 friars of Magellan's party began at once to teach the 
 people, and many, among them the king himself, were 
 baptized. 
 
 In his zeal to cement the friendship of these natives 
 Magellan promised them aid in carrying on their war 
 against the inhabitants of the neighboring island of 
 Mactan, and for the purpose of impressing upon them 
 the superiority of the Spanish soldiers resolved to make 
 the expedition accompanied only by a few of his own 
 men. Arrangements were cpiickly completed, and less 
 than three weeks after his arrival at Cebu he started 
 on an enterprise which was to prove disastrous ; for in 
 his eao-erness he had not reckoned on the size of the 
 enemy. A landing by night was effected, but at day- 
 break the natives swarmed the shores and by force of 
 numbers repulsed the little group and killed man}', 
 among them Magellan. As a completion to the catas- 
 trophe, Barbosa, who succeeded to the connnand, and 
 a number of his officers, upon their return to Cebu, 
 were treacherously put to death by the Christian king, 
 who had invited them to a feast. ^ 
 
 So few Spanish soldiers now remained that the Con- 
 cepcion, the poorest of the three vessels, was sunk in 
 the harbor, and the long return voyage from the San 
 
 1 Morga, p. 14.
 
 
 Statue to ^Iagkllax 
 
 53
 
 54 
 
 THK rillLlPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 Lazarus islands, as Magellan had named this group, to 
 Spain was begun. On the "Sv^ay Portuguese in the island 
 of Ternate were encountered and difficulties experi- 
 enced ; but continuing their route by way of India 
 in one vessel, the Victoria, under the command of del 
 Caiio, the survivors of the famous expedition reached 
 
 Seville in 1-322, three 
 years from their de- 
 parture, after having 
 accomplished the first 
 circumnavigation of 
 the globe. 
 
 Various later expe- 
 ditions were then fitted 
 out at intervals, some 
 from Spain, others 
 from Mexico, one of 
 which, in command of 
 Villalobos, is of espe- 
 cial interest from the 
 fact that the island 
 which he reached — 
 Samar, or Leyte, as other authorities claim — he called 
 " Filipina " in honor of Prince Philip ; and from this 
 the name was extended to the whole group shortly 
 afterward by Legaspi, a Spanish nobleman residing in 
 Mexico, whose name was to become associated with 
 the establishment of Spain's dominion in these " Philip- 
 pines." For Philip, soon after ascending the throne, 
 
 Kixc Philip II of Spain
 
 HISTOKY 
 
 55 
 
 sent out an expedition to settle this country named in 
 his honor and selected Legaspi as leader. 
 
 An expedition capable of withstanding hardship, 
 including some four hundred soldiers and a few of the 
 Augustinian friars, Avas accordingly fitted out, and 
 sailed from Navidad, Mexico, November 21, 1564, to 
 found the rule of Spain in the new possessions. 
 
 Leyte, Bohol, and Mindanao were visited, and later, 
 contrary to the warning of his advisers, Legaspi dropped 
 
 Old Wall, City of Cebu 
 
 anchor in Cebu harbor. The date was April 27, 1565, 
 and the Spaniards were met with distrust and signs of 
 hostility on the part of the natives. In a few hours, 
 however, Legaspi succeeded in forcing his way to the 
 city and capturing it, and within a few months he had 
 won the people over and brought about complete peace. 
 For years all went well; but Spain's fierce rival in 
 all these early discoveries, Portugal, gave trouble. As
 
 56 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 we know, the archipelago by the decision of Pope 
 Alexander was in the Portuguese field of exploration ; 
 yet Spain Avas unwilling to relinquish control, claim- 
 ing her right l)y discovery and expressing her determi- 
 nation to uphold this claim, if necessary, by force of 
 arms. Legaspi was later put to such necessity and was 
 successful ; and though the Portuguese continued to be 
 troublesome, their claim was never realized. 
 
 Cebu was made the first seat of the general govern- 
 ment, which was transferred in 1509 by Legaspi to 
 Iloilo. Here he became governor general and started the 
 work of further exploration and pacification. Rumors 
 reached him of the existence of a great, rich island 
 to the north, and to verify them he sent his grand- 
 son Salcedo with another officer to investigate. Upon 
 their arrival in what is now Manila the two were well 
 received by both native rajahs, though later an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt at resistance was made l^y one of them ; 
 and Salcedo, after visiting other parts of the island, 
 sent word to Legaspi, who during this period was 
 administering affairs in the central Yisayan islands in 
 a way that enlisted the confidence of the natives, to 
 come north. Leaving; affairs in the hands of the native 
 chiefs now ruling for Spain, he proceeded to Luzon 
 and founded, in 1571, Maijiula, later Manila, the present 
 capital. 
 
 From the new center, Legaspi carried on the work 
 of pacification in the provinces of Luzon and surround- 
 ing islands, sometimes by peaceful means, often aided
 
 Legasi'i-Ukuaxeta Moxl'ment 
 
 57
 
 58 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 by the industry of the monks, and again by force. The 
 lands were apportioned to those who had pacified and 
 settled them ; governing heads of provinces and towns 
 which were founded were appointed in the name of 
 the crown ; and bodies were chosen to provide for exi- 
 gencies and raise money for the royal treasury. The 
 rate of tribute for all the islands was fixed by Legaspi ; 
 arrangements for yearly voyages to New Spain for sup- 
 phes were completed ; and various other matters relating 
 to the conversion of the people to Christianity and the 
 administration of their affairs determined. In the 
 midst of this important work Legaspi died, in 1574; 
 his death marks an era in the history of the Islands, 
 for through him Spanish rule first became established 
 there and of his efforts permanent results remained. 
 
 Without infringing upon the suljject of later chap- 
 ters treating of the different peoples of the Philippines, 
 we may pause here for a brief study of the inhal^it- 
 ants as they existed previous to the period of Spanish 
 domination, which will l^e of aid in determining later 
 the character of this rule and its effect. The Filipinos 
 to-day belong to two distinct families at least, the 
 Negrito and the Malayan, and possibly a third, the 
 Indonesian, may be added.' During this first stage 
 the several racial components which later merged are 
 clearly distinguishable ; they have not yet been mixed 
 
 1 Authorities differ as to the former existence of this people ; the weight 
 of opinion, however, tends to a confirmation of tlie view tliat the Indonesians 
 were a component family.
 
 HISTOEY 59 
 
 in the mortar of Spanish conquest. Our earliest glimpse, 
 indeed, reveals a race of very low type populating the 
 entire archipelago, from which are descended the Negri- 
 tos, or little negroes, — small, black, extremely sh}', and 
 without fixed abodes, with closely curling hair, flat 
 noses, thick lips, and clumsy feet. These aboriginal 
 savages, after a long period of undisturbed existence, 
 were later either killed or forced into the mountains by 
 the Malayan invaders, who form an important ethno- 
 logical element. 
 
 Others again, fewer in number, which the writer, 
 with the better authority, is inclined to accept as 
 Indonesian descendants, are confined to the single large 
 island of Mindanao and are not so well known. They 
 are physically superior to both the Negritos and the 
 numerous Malayans, and are fairer skinned, taller, and 
 better developed, with higher foreheads, larger noses, 
 more regular features, and often full beards. Many of 
 them are clever and intelligent; some fierce and war- 
 like ; others, with happier environment, peaceful and 
 industrious. Compared with the Negritos, who are 
 dwarfs averaging about four feet in height, these Indo- 
 nesians are giants, often six feet tall. 
 
 The large majority of the people are unquestionably 
 Malayan ; but to-day the race is not found jDure in any 
 island, and even at this earlier time intermarriage with 
 Negritos, Indonesians, Chinese, Japanese, Arabs, and, to 
 an extent, with the Spaniards themselves, had begun. 
 Three invasions by the Malays are supposed by some
 
 60 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 to have occurred : ^ the first, of people resembhng the 
 Dyaks of Borneo (particularly in barbarous practices 
 such as head hunting), from whom the present powerful 
 heathen Igorot tribes of northern Luzon may be de- 
 scended ; the second, similar to the previous one before 
 tlie arrival of the Spaniards, bringing the stock of the 
 existing Tagalog, Visayan, Bicol, Ilocano, and allied 
 tribes ; and the third, of Mohammedan jMalays or Moros, 
 probably an immigration from Borneo, which was inter- 
 rupted by the coming of the Spanish. All the Filipinos 
 of Malayan extraction are brown in color, of medium 
 stature, and have straight black hair ; in complexion 
 they are darker than the Indonesians and lighter than 
 the Negritos. 
 
 Essential race characteristics do not change in a day 
 even though modification takes place as time goes on ; 
 and the Malay race in the Islands to-da}', while in many 
 cases far removed from the savage state, still retains 
 much that was associated with this primitive condition 
 of existence. The same qualities evident now — unrelia- 
 bility, suspiciousness, treachery, craftiness, and super- 
 stition — are mentioned in the early Spanish analyses of 
 native character ; indeed, the colonists' first opinion of 
 the Malay may be pretty accurately stated in the terms 
 of a more recent epigrammatic characterization as "half 
 child and half devil." Yet, if such they were, all the 
 more effective and careful nuist have been the early work 
 of the Spanish trainers, civil and ecclesiastical, who 
 
 ' Blumeutritt, Die Phillppinen.
 
 HISTOKY 61 
 
 accomplished, as Ave shall later see, truly wonderful results 
 in the next half century following the death of Legaspi. 
 
 The natives, when the Spaniards first became ac- 
 quainted with them, had no strong political or social 
 organizations ; there were no well-constituted native 
 states, but rather a system of clans and nomadic tribes, 
 the heads of which were despotic and the offices heredi- 
 tary. Classes existed, including the nobility, composed 
 of the chiefs of these groups, or harangays, their kins- 
 men, and descendants; the free natives made up the 
 middle class; and the slaves and serfs belonging to 
 both nobles and plebeians constituted the lowest class. 
 Intermarriage between the classes was to an extent 
 possible, but was not common. A crude system of jus- 
 tice was in operation, by which disputes were decided 
 by representatives chosen from the harangays concerned, 
 on the basis of their unwritten usages ; and crimes of a 
 serious nature, especially robbery, were severely punished, 
 sometimes hy reduction to slavery, again by death. ^ 
 
 The natives were familiar with primitive methods of 
 gold, silver, and copper mining ; they understood the 
 manufacture of simple articles of ornament, swords, and 
 crude agricultural implements ; and had acquired the 
 art of weaving cotton, silk, and pineapple fiber. Writing 
 was early known in the different islands, according 
 to the Araljic fashion from right to left, in characters 
 which expressed the meaning intended " as fully and as 
 easily as is done with our Spanish alphabet."^ 
 
 1 Morga, p. 296 ei seq. ^ Ibid. , p. 294.
 
 62 THE PHlLlPriXE ISLANDS 
 
 Small boats hewn from trees, and larger sailing craft 
 were used on the numerous streams and water bodies ; 
 and trading was carried on between the natives and 
 the Boniese, Japanese, and Chinese. Money in a dis- 
 tinctive form was not yet known to them, and gold dust 
 was used as a medium of exchange.^ 
 
 Agriculture was an industry followed by some, and 
 rice, sugar cane, cocoanuts, native potatoes, and the like 
 were produced. Water buffaloes, goats and deer, dogs 
 and cats were the domestic animals ; horses and cows 
 there were none. Fishing and hunting were carried on, 
 and bows, arrows, and spears were commonly used both 
 in the chase and against the enemy .^ 
 
 Family life was of low standard, and the sanctity of 
 the matrimonial relation was hardly understood ; un- 
 morality, however, rather than immorality, perhaps, 
 existed. 
 
 Except in Sulu, INIindanao, and Manila, where Moham- 
 medanism had already gained a footing, heathenism held 
 sway. The sun and the moon, different creatures, and 
 various objects were worshiped. No common temples or 
 public places for prayer were known, for each had his 
 household gods ; ^ superstition reigned supreme. 
 
 Such is the picture painted by old chroniclers and 
 travelers of the conditions previous to the advent of 
 the Spanish ; the influence of the latter and the changes 
 they effected will be later seen. 
 
 1 Montero y Vidal, Jlistoria de Fillpinas, Vol. I, p. 63 et seq. 
 
 2 Morga, pp. 305, 306.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF LEGASPI THROUGH THE 
 
 INTERVENING PERIOD TO THE 
 
 UPRISING OF 1896 
 
 On the death of Legaspi a sealed dispatch from the 
 High Court of Mexico was found among his papers 
 naming Lavezares as successor to the governorsliip. 
 Mexico, or New Spain as it was called, really governed 
 the Philippines during this earlier period, and hence we 
 must conceive of the Islands then as a dependency of a 
 dependency, governed only indirectly by distant Spain. 
 Particularly in a legislative and a commercial way did 
 this group become closely connected with Mexico rather 
 than with the mother country, and we shall see the ill 
 effects of such an unwise scheme of administration. 
 
 With the advent of the new governor general 
 various events of importance began to take place. A 
 Chinese invasion first demanded the serious attention 
 of Lavezares, and by its threatening proportions caused 
 deep concern among the Filipinos. The Chinese people 
 had acquired dominion over certain parts of the archi- 
 pelago some time previous to the Spanish conquest, but 
 later had relinquished their control either voluntarily 
 or necessarily. They continued to carry on trade with 
 
 63
 
 64 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 the Islands, however, and it was by the capture of one 
 of the junks returning from Manila that a certain 
 Chinese buccaneer, Liniahong, learned of the Philip- 
 pines and the ease w^ith which the Spaniards had taken 
 possession of the Islands, and determined to wrest them 
 from the latter. A fleet of sixty or more war junks 
 was accordingly fitted out, carrying some four thousand 
 
 Old Fort at Zamboaxga 
 
 fighting men, fifteen hundred women, a number of 
 artisans, and necessary food and other supplies which 
 might aid in this expedition of conquest.' It reached 
 the northern coast of Luzon in November, 1574, and 
 after a short stay turned southward, making the capital 
 its objective point. 
 
 On account of their cruel treatment of the natives in 
 the north, however, the arrival of the Chinese soon 
 
 1 Montero y Vidal, p. 72 ct seq.
 
 FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 65 
 
 became known in Manila and preparations were made 
 to repel them. The fleet proceeded down along the coast 
 toward Manila, and had almost reached the bay when a 
 severe typhoon overtook it and destroyed several of the 
 junks and men. Limahong, nevertheless, confident of 
 
 Walleu Church built for Defense against Moro 
 
 Pirates, Cuyo 
 Numerous churches of this kind are found on this ishmd 
 
 victory, pushed on to the capital, landed a force of some 
 fifteen hundred men, and marched against the city. 
 
 An entrance was soon gained, and Goiti, the com- 
 manding officer, and others at his quarters were killed ; 
 but the pirates were repulsed in their attack on the 
 fortress by a small body of Spaniards, who fought 
 courageously and compelled their enemies to retreat 
 to the shore. A second attack soon afterward was led 
 by Limahong himself; and native troops having in
 
 66 THE riULlPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 the meantime been mustered, the Chinese were again 
 defeated. After this the fleet sailed away to the mouth 
 of the Agno river, and the pirate leader estabUshed 
 his kingdom in what is now Pangasinan province. 
 Houses and temples were built, crops were planted, 
 and in general steps were taken to make the place one 
 of permanent abode, so secure did these strangers feel 
 in their new home. 
 
 They had failed to reckon with the host, however, 
 for Salcedo, under orders from the governor general, 
 set out the following March, 1575, to mete out the 
 ])unishment which was their due. With some two hun- 
 dred and fifty Spanish and fifteen hundred native 
 troops, aided by a small fleet which included a war 
 junk sent by the emperor of China to capture Lima- 
 hong, this able grandson of Legaspi led the attack 
 successfully, and after a decisive victory pursued the 
 retreating Chinese into the mountains. Limahong him- 
 self, who had from the outset considered personal safety 
 of paramount importance, had been watching for the 
 opportunity to separate from the main body of his 
 troops and escape. The moment came when the Span- 
 iards started in pursuit of the routed pirates, and the. 
 leader then slipped away to his fleet and left his follow- 
 ers to do as best they could. ^ These latter took refuge 
 in the mountains and, it is claimed by some, became 
 the ancestors of the mixed Chinese-Filipino peoples of 
 these northern provinces to-day. 
 
 1 Montero y Vidal, p. 70.
 
 07
 
 G8 THE riilLlPriNE ISLANDS 
 
 During the next fifteen years important events are 
 chronicled. Salcedo died ; the first body of Franciscans, 
 Jesuits, and Dominicans, and the first bishop of Manila 
 arrived ; Spanish expeditions were made to Borneo, to 
 which Mindanao and Sulu were tributary, and to the 
 Moluccas against the Dutch. Two thirds of the city 
 of Manila, furthermore, was destroyed by fire; certain 
 towns revolted against the excesses of the militar}' 
 commander, and a conspiracy provoked by the thievish 
 Moros was discovered among the natives of Pampanga 
 and Manila ; the Santa Ana en route from Acapulco in 
 1585 laden with a valuable cargo was captured by an 
 English buccaneer ; and, perhaps most important of all 
 happenings during this period, a supreme court was 
 established. 
 
 The inadvisability of legislating for the Philippines 
 by way of Mexico became more and more evident as time 
 went on ; and the reason for the growing discontent on 
 the part of the natives Avas therefore not far to seek. 
 The Mexican code of laws was naturally unsuited to 
 these eastern islands, for the conditions and the people 
 there were almost as different from those in Mexico 
 then as they are from those in America now; and, fur- 
 tlier, the men who framed the laws for the Philippines, 
 first in Mexico and afterward in Spain, had no precise 
 knowledge of such conditions. Dissatisfaction, there- 
 fore, must have been inevitable. 
 
 Legaspi's followers were not as liberal and unselfish as 
 he himself; thev were far less considerate of the natives
 
 69
 
 70 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 and their forms of government. After him, as we shall 
 see, the tendency was to centralize too much authority 
 in the governor general and hence deprive the people 
 of their former degree of independence. Legaspi had 
 recognized and retained the ancient communal form of 
 government by wisely adopting the group of one hun- 
 dred as the unit of his administration, the body itself 
 being known as the harangay, and the chief, the cabeza 
 de harangay. His successors, however, did away grad- 
 ually but surely with the native rule ; tribal councils, 
 in which the peoj3le could be heard, disappeared, also 
 the native rulers; and thus the inhabitants lost their 
 representation, and arbitrary power became concen- 
 trated in the chief executive alone. The office of caheza 
 de harangay lost its honorable character and, soon trans- 
 formed into an instrument for collecting revenues, was 
 shunned by respectable Filipinos. 
 
 Even at this early day strife between the Spanish 
 officials themselves, civil, military, and ecclesiastical, 
 which in later years became so serious, was evident. 
 Misunderstanding between church and state arose 
 almost at the outset, and the royal court of justice later 
 became a party to the controversy. The tension soon 
 increased to such a degree that in 1586 the bishop of 
 Manila sent an ambassador,^ Alonzo Sanchez by name, 
 to lay matters before King Philip. The latter proved an 
 interested listener, and as a result of the mission a royal 
 decree was published in 1589 defining the respective 
 
 1 Morga, p. 01.
 
 FROM LEGASPl TU THE UPRISING OF 1896 71 
 
 fields of activity of church and state, doing away with 
 slavery, providing for the collection of a tribute to be 
 distributed in certain proportions to the civil, military, 
 and ecclesiastical departments ; provision was also made 
 for the maintenance of a fixed number of troops, the 
 erection of a hospital, the abolition of the Supreme 
 Court established such a short time previous, and the 
 appointment of a new governor general, Gomez Perez 
 Dasmariiias, besides treating of other matters relating 
 to administration. 
 
 In the midst of these domestic activities, toward the 
 close of the year 1591 came an ambassador, Kiemon 
 by name, from the emperor of Japan, who had heard 
 of the colonization of the Islands by Europeans, demand- 
 ing allegiance to his ruler. The coming of this ambas- 
 sador caused much anxiety, yet the governor general, 
 while treating him with every consideration, was firm 
 in his refusal to recognize the new sovereign. Kiemon 
 was told of Spain and its people, and soon became so 
 favorably impressed that he assented to the plan pro- 
 posed by the Spanish governor to make a treaty with 
 Japan for the purpose of furthering trade and friendly 
 interests. Representatives were accordingly sent to the 
 emperor, and the negotiations were soon agreeably con- 
 cluded. On the return voyage of the envoys to Manila, 
 however, it was their misfortune to become wrecked, 
 and the treaty was lost with them. 
 
 Steps were taken toward signing a second treaty; 
 and in May, 1593, two other envoys, Bautista and Ruiz,
 
 72 THE rillLlPPlNE ISLANDS 
 
 Franciscans, accomj)anied hy 8an Miguel and Garcia, lay 
 brothers of the same order, dejjarted with the Japanese 
 ambassador for Japan, where the new treaty was drawn 
 up. A copy was sent to Manila, and Bautista himself 
 remained in the country to carry on religious work. 
 
 Negotiations witli Japan had hardly been completed 
 when the governor general Avas visited hy the native 
 king of Siao, one of the Molucca islands, which were 
 under Dutch rule, who professed allegiance to Spain 
 and besought Dasmarinas to aid him in liis efforts 
 against the hostile Dutch sailors and some of the native 
 tribes of Ternate. The Spanish governor, ready to 
 extend Spain's dominion, particularly over the rich 
 Moluccas, promised help and set to work preparing an 
 expedition. In October of this same year, 1593, the 
 fleet set sail, composed of Spanish and native troops 
 and Chinese crews for the galleys. All seemed to promise 
 well when, a few days out from Manila, some of the 
 Chinese mutinied, killed the governor general, and took 
 his ship across to Cochin China as a prize. 
 
 This unfortunate turn of affairs put an end to the 
 expedition, and the fleet returned home. In the papers 
 of the dead governor was found the express wish that 
 his son be his successor, and Luis Perez Dasmariiias 
 was accordingly appointed to the office and became 
 governor general in December, IT) 93. 
 
 During his incumbency Manila was improved, new 
 buildings erected, and a home for orphans and desti- 
 tutes established. In 1595 an expedition to Nueva
 
 FKOM LEGA8P1 TO THE UPEISING OF 1896 73 
 
 Viscaya, Isabela, and Cagayan resulted in the subjuga- 
 tion of these regions. During this year also, by virtue 
 of a royal cedula brought by Antonio de Morga, appointed 
 lieutenant governor, each religious order had assigned to 
 it tlie province in which it might exercise administration 
 over spiritual affairs. Expeditions to Cambodia to help 
 in quelling a struggle against the king of Spain, and to 
 Mindanao, were sent out, but with indecisive results. 
 
 Dasmarinas was succeeded in 1596 by Francisco 
 Tello de Juzman, who assumed the office of governor 
 general under conditions that were hardly indicative 
 of a peaceful administration. The trouble with Japan 
 reached a climax in 1597 in the massacre of a number 
 of Spanish priests who had gone over to this country 
 from Manila to carry on their missionary work ; the 
 difficulties in Mindanao and Sulu were only beginning ; 
 and the Chinese and the ever-hostile Dutch were a con- 
 stant source of concern. The story of this period of 
 Philippine history is one of frequent conflict with some 
 one of these warlike j)eoples. Events not of a military 
 nature which were considered important enough to be 
 fully chronicled during this time were rare; works of 
 peace, it is true, continued ; the royal court of justice 
 was reestablished in 1598 with a jurisdiction extending 
 to the southern Mohammedan islands, Cambodia, parts 
 of the Moluccas, and the Cliina coast ; and the College 
 of San Jose was founded in 1000; yet the attention of 
 the people was distracted from matters of internal im- 
 provement by the threatening dangers from without.
 
 74 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 An expedition against the Moros in 1602 and further 
 conflict with the Chinese in the following year, due to 
 the arrival of two envoys from the emperor of China 
 charged with investigating the report as to the exist- 
 ence of a mountain of real gold in Cavite, served 
 only to aggravate the hostility which the natives en- 
 tertained for these foreigners. And of equal serious- 
 ness with these troubles were the frequent encounters 
 with Spain's old foe, the Dutch. Under the state of 
 war that existed between these two rivals until after 
 the middle of the eighteenth century the Islands fared 
 ill, for the galleons carrying valuable cargoes between 
 Mexico and the Philippines, and trading vessels from 
 Japan and China, were frequently seized as prizes, and 
 the Islands thus reduced to the sorest straits from want 
 of supplies, not to mention the heavy financial losses 
 incurred. The evil effects of this enmity on the part of 
 Holland were not finally averted until the restoration 
 of peace between the two countries in 1763. 
 
 Internal conditions during this first half of the seven- 
 teenth century were taking a similarly unsatisfactory 
 turn, and as soon as outside dangers had grown less im- 
 minent the efforts of the later governors were directed 
 largely toward quelling domestic revolts. Uprisings in 
 Luzon, Bohol, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, and Sulu, and 
 trouble with the Igorot tribes followed in close succession, 
 and in general only a temporary adjustment of the 
 difficulties was reached. In Cebii it was needful, always, 
 for Spain to keep a strong armed force.
 
 FKOM LEGA8PI TO THE UPRISIXCx OF 189G 75 
 
 As we pass over these years approaching the middle 
 of the century we find records, too, of crop faihires 
 and consequent famines, volcanic eruptions, and severe 
 earthquakes. One of the latter in the year 1645 is 
 especially noteworthy from the fact that it witnessed 
 the passing of old Manila, the beauty of which had 
 secured for it the name of Pearl of the Orient. So 
 serious was the shock that practically the entire city 
 was destroyed ; and in rebuilding it, convenience rather 
 than magnificence was the prime consideration. 
 
 A revolt in 1649, that spread from its source in 
 Samar throughout many of the provinces of the Visa- 
 yas and Luzon, of chief importance to us perhaps 
 because it was the first outbreak assumins; such o-en- 
 eral proportions, caused genuine alarm in the minds of 
 Governor General Fajardo and his associates. The prox- 
 imate cause seems to have been the severe methods 
 used by the governor general in forcing the natives 
 of Sitmar into the insular military service. The action 
 was resented, and under the leadership of a native, 
 Sumoroy by name, the uprising was ushered in by 
 putting to death a priest and sacking the churches 
 along; the east coast. Various battles were foucrht before 
 the native leader was driven into the mountains, and 
 then efforts were directed against the sympathetic in- 
 surrections in neighboring islands. Peace was secured, 
 but not until the real nature of a spirit of revolt that 
 was more than local had revealed itself. As an after- 
 math came an outbreak in Pampanga (which had
 
 70 THE PIIILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 hitherto been first in its loyalty to Spain) and Pangasi- 
 nan that spread to other parts of Lnzon. The imme- 
 diate results were not important, for dissension among 
 the insurgents themselves put an end to this revolt 
 without bloodshed ; yet, as in the case of the previous 
 rebellion, and to an extent in confirmation of what was 
 then forecast, signs of a popular dissatisfaction with the 
 character of the existing administration were unmis- 
 takable. 
 
 As we pass beyond the middle of the century we 
 find recurrences of troubles with which we have already 
 become acquainted, particularly with the Moros, and 
 again with the Chinese in 16G2, when a threatened 
 invasion by a Mongolian horde was prevented only by 
 the death of its leader, Kue-sing. We should remember, 
 nevertheless, that wars and internal strife formed only 
 one part of the history of these earlier years of Spanish 
 control, — an important part, it is true, — so numerous 
 and strong were outside enemies and so recalcitrant 
 were some of the native tribes ; yet during the whole 
 period religious activity of a most Avholesome kind con- 
 tinued to increase, and through the friar missionaries 
 and their native lieutenants converted to the Christian 
 faith the work of educating the people was seriously 
 begun. Those accepting Christianity as their new creed 
 were constantly growing in numbers, and the friars 
 were ever pushing farther into the interior, establishing 
 missions in the very midst of heathendom and utterly 
 indifferent to their own comfort and safety, carrying on
 
 FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 77 
 
 the work of God, in a manner that was at once most 
 praiseworthy and inspiring. 
 
 Conflicts between the monastic orders and the church 
 occurred, it is true, as might have been expected ; the 
 Jesuits were particularly active in asserting their rights 
 and maintaining their independent status, and the 
 Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Recoletos, 
 representatives of all of which orders had by this time 
 become established in the Islands, voiced similar senti- 
 ments. Yet these misunderstandings in ecclesiastical 
 circles were comparatively unimportant at the time 
 as far as the religious work was concerned, for all 
 interests were working toward a single general oljject, 
 — the conversion of the natives to Christianity and the 
 education of them in a religious-academic way ; and in 
 this a remarkaljle degree of success was attained. 
 
 As a part of this system of education, schools and 
 so-called colleges were founded, which, though neces- 
 sarily crude and meagerly equipped from our modern 
 standpoint, nevertheless did a most valuable work in 
 these earlier centuries. The mere existence of these at 
 this time, without inquiry into their efficiency, bespoke 
 for the friar founders, many of whom were martyrs in 
 the cause, a noteworthy energy and an appreciation of 
 what was needed. The establishment of educational^ 
 and charitable institutions, as well as hospitals,^ con- 
 tinued on a jliore pretentious scale, and side by side 
 
 1 See chapter on education. 
 
 2 Notably the Hospital of San Juan de Dies, erected in Manila in 1056.
 
 78 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 with these were erected smaller ones in tlie several 
 localities. 
 
 Turning for a moment now to questions of trade, 
 we find that the same close connection between the 
 Philippines and Mexico in an administrative way held 
 also commercially, for the Islands were limited, by leg- 
 islation that became more and more restrictive, to deal- 
 ing exclusively with New Spain. Free trade even with 
 the ports of China and Japan was nearly under the ban, 
 and absolute restriction seemed the tendency. 
 
 This traific with Mexico was carried on by galleons, 
 the regular departure of which from Acapulco was 
 established in 1664. Yearly trips were made between 
 the two countries, and annually was the year's product 
 of the archipelago subjected to the danger of loss by 
 storm, pirate, or enemy. When such losses occurred — 
 and they were rather frequent when these causes were 
 active — much hardship resulted in the Islands; and 
 yet, unsatisfactory as such an arrangement was, it con- 
 tinued without material modification as late as the first 
 part of the nineteenth century. 
 
 The story of the one hundred years following 1664 
 may for our purpose be passed over even more rapidly 
 than that of the previous period. Internal improve- 
 ment and religious activities of increased scope on 
 the one hand, and distress from crop failures and epi- 
 demics, Mohammedan and Chinese incursions, and pop- 
 ular uneasiness on the other are perhaps the chief 
 characteristics. Shortly after the beginning of the new
 
 FKOM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 79 
 
 century, in 1719, a serious rebellion in which the gov- 
 ernor general ^ and his son were assassinated, served as 
 an index of the hostile turn which relations between 
 church and state had taken. The beginning of the con- 
 troversy dated far back, and the refusal of the arch- 
 bishop at this time to deliver over criminals who had 
 evaded civil authority by taking advantage of church 
 asylum brought matters to a crisis. The archbishop" 
 
 Sentuy Box on Walls, [NIaxila 
 
 was imprisoned and thereupon the flames of revolt 
 broke out. Mobs gathered, stormed the prison, freed 
 the prelate and many others, and hunted down the gov- 
 ernor and his unfortunate associates. The archbishop 
 then assumed the office of governor and retained his 
 position for nine years, after which period he was trans- 
 ferred to Mexico. Different investigations from this latter 
 country were made, but with rather questionaljle results. 
 
 1 Fernando Manuel de Bustamente of Bustillo. ^ genor Cuesta.
 
 80 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 As the century progressed a firmer control of the 
 situation in many respects was gained by the Spanish 
 officials ; aggressive steps were taken against the Moros ; 
 the Chinese were forced to receive baptism if they wished 
 to remain in the Islands ; domestic quiet was in large 
 measure secured, — for the time being, as it proved ; and 
 the works of peace advanced in proportionate degree ; 
 yet the need for certain changes in the scheme of 
 administration was becoming evident to the Spaniards 
 themselves. 
 
 In the midst of these conditions, which were becom- 
 ing favorable from many points of view, an event hap- 
 pened that threatened to displace permanently Spanish 
 sovereignty in the Philippines, and though it turned 
 out to be of only a temporary nature, still its influence 
 was undoubtedly felt in later developments; this was 
 the occupation of the Islands by the British. 
 
 In Europe at this time had come a temporary lull 
 in the long-standing contentions between England and 
 France. It was the beginning of the reign of George 
 III, who ascended the throne in 1761, and peace 
 accompanied his rule for a short time. But the time 
 was indeed short, for the '' Family Compact," the alli- 
 ance entered into by France and Spain for the purpose 
 of mutual support against England, fanned the old 
 embers and the flame broke out anew. War was 
 declared the following year, 1762, against France and 
 Spain, and the campaign was vigorously pushed on the 
 part of England.
 
 < 
 
 81
 
 82 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Blows were struck at the Spanish possessions in both 
 the New World and the Orient almost immediatel}', and 
 were successful in both places. Havana and the Carib- 
 bean islands in the west were taken, and a British 
 squadron of thirteen sliips was then dispatched to 
 Manila. It arrived September 22, and the following 
 day the surrender of the city was demanded and 
 refused. A landing followed and preparations for a 
 siege began. 
 
 At the time of the arrival of the squadron there 
 were only six hundred Spanish soldiers garrisoned in 
 the city to oppose a force of some six thousand British 
 and Indian troops. Native regiments from the prov- 
 inces, however, were soon hurried in, and the city held 
 out under a severe bombardment until the lifth of 
 October. The victorious troops then crowded in, the 
 British flag was hoisted on Fort Santiago, and the city 
 given over to such reckless pillage that Draper, the 
 commanding general, on the third day put a stop to 
 all upon the earnest petition of the archbishop. The 
 former assumed control of the government, aided by a 
 council, and then returned to Eurojje leaving civil and 
 military matters in charge of his subordinates ; and until 
 January 30, 1764, when news of the Peace of Paris 
 reached Manila, the Philii3pines remained under British 
 sovereignty. By this treaty, concluded February 10, 
 17()o, the war Ijetween England and Spahi was termi- 
 nated, and as one of the conditions the Philippines 
 were restored to Spanisli dominion.
 
 FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 83 
 
 Peace restored, the civil machine was put into opera- 
 tion again and new energy applied. Under Governor 
 General Vargas, in 1778, an innovation was made in 
 the way of awakening an interest in systematic agri- 
 culture. He was a man able to see the profits that 
 might be realized from scientific methods of working a 
 soil so fertile, and accordingly he caused every induce- 
 ment to be held out toward careful husbandry, the 
 result of which would be a healthier condition of the 
 royal treasury. Fresh tobacco seeds from other coun- 
 tries were secitred and attempts made to introduce the 
 silk industry ; and in general a premium was put upon 
 conspicuously successful results in this work. Yet Uttle 
 permanent good came of these plans. 
 
 Tobacco cultivation had by this time become impor- 
 tant, and in 1781 the growing and selling of this com- 
 modity was made a government monopoly, which lasted 
 for an even century until terminated by a decree of 
 Alfonso XII. 
 
 With the beginning of the new century renewed 
 efforts to subvert Spanish authority followed closely 
 upon one another, but failed to meet with success. In 
 the tobacco districts uprisings occurred in 1807 and 
 again in 1814. Manila itself was the scene of a later 
 one in 1823, and Cebu and Bohol were in a state of 
 revolt four years later. In Luzon, again, in Tayabas 
 province, a more serious outbreak took place in 1841 
 under the leadership of the " King of the Tagalogs," as 
 he was hailed by his followers, who attributed to him
 
 84 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 supernatural powers ; and tliree years later a rebellion 
 in Negros, in which the governor general was killed, gave 
 much trouble. The last phase of the trouljlesome Moro 
 situation was also now approaching. Throughout these 
 years the Mohammedan pirates had carried on tlieir 
 depredations fearlessly, and not until 18G1, when steel 
 gunboats of light draught arrived, were the Spaniards 
 able to cope with them successfully. From eight hun- 
 dred to fifteen hundred persons had been annually carried 
 away by these marauders from Mindanao and Sulu, and 
 great property losses inflicted ; hence the decisive blow 
 dealt them at this time was of no little importance. 
 
 Conditions, however, were becoming less and less 
 favorable from the Spanish point of view, and relations 
 between the natives and Spaniards were growing so 
 irremediably hostile as to lead inevitably to such formi- 
 dable insurrections as soon took place in Cavite in 1872 
 and in Manila and vicinity in 1890. The former was a 
 daring attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke, led by 
 the distinguished Filipino, Dr. Burgos. The origin of 
 the trouble was native opposition to the Spanish friars, 
 particularly to their practice of retaining parochial ben- 
 efices to the exclusion of the secular priests ; which 
 was claimed to be illegal because contrary to the pro- 
 visions of the Council of Trent, and no longer within 
 the permission of the j)apal bulls granting to friars the 
 right to hold these church offices temporarily until there 
 should be native or Spanish secular priests to assume 
 them, since this condition had already been realized.
 
 FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 85 
 
 Plans had been carefully laid and friends of the 
 movement in Manila were to begin action in the capital 
 simultaneously with the forces of Cavite. The latter, 
 however, mistook the signal agreed upon and started 
 action independently. The arsenal was seized and a 
 determined resistance made, in which some of the 
 native troops took sides with the revolters. The regu- 
 lar troops after sharp figliting recaptured the arsenal 
 and soon had things in control. All who escaped death 
 were taken prisoners, and some of the leaders, includ- 
 ing Burgos himself, were executed, while others were 
 transported. The revolt itself was stamped out, but 
 the spirit remained and, nourished by influences which 
 then began to be felt in the Islands, appeared in for- 
 midable proportions in the revolution of 1896. 
 
 The character of Spanish legislation for the Islands 
 undoubtedly contributed much to increase the feeling 
 against the mother country, for it was often unnecessa- 
 rily harsh and inappropriate, and again it was unsatis- 
 factory in its provision for representation in the home 
 legislature. As late as the beginning of the nineteenth 
 century, for example, when other nations were seeking 
 trade and new opportunities for prosperity, Spain passed 
 a law forbidding foreigners to live in the Islands. 
 
 By 1812, however, a change in the right direction 
 had been made when, due to pressure brought to bear 
 by the Liberal party then in power, the so-called " Con- 
 stitution of 1812 " was passed, giving to each colony the 
 right to send one or more representatives to the Spanish
 
 86 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Cortes. Yet this measure proved a fleeting benefit, for 
 it was destined to go through a series of suspensions 
 and renewals, granting representation to the Filipinos 
 then recalling it, until the opening of the legislature in 
 1837, when it was voted finally to exclude the Filipino 
 members. This year is memorable also from the fact 
 tliat then, for the first time in the history of the church 
 in the Islands, the people demanded the substitution of 
 native priests for the Spanish friars. 
 
 The condition of affairs in a political way, which 
 resulted from the exclusion of representatives from the 
 Spanish parliament, was a trifle relieved the next year 
 by the establishment in Spain of a consulting committee 
 having in charge the business of tlie Islands. A royal 
 delegate, furthermore, was sent to the Philippines some- 
 what later, in 1862, to study the various phases of the 
 question of administration, and the following year the 
 position of minister for the colonies was created by 
 Spain. During all these years the slow mails were 
 the only means of communication between colony and 
 mother country, and herein lay a serious handicap to 
 the work of government, — one that continued until 
 1880, when cable communication between Manila and 
 Spain was effected. 
 
 The old-time tribute, the cause of so many earlier 
 revolts among the peojDle, was finally replaced in 1883 
 by the cedula jyersonaly or identification paj)er, which 
 every inhabitant above tlie age of eighteen was com- 
 pelled to have.
 
 FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPEISING OF 189G 87 
 
 Thus in the second half of the last century certain 
 improvements were brought about by Spain; but the 
 spirit of independence that was now becoming firmly 
 rooted in the minds of the Filipinos, seeking not so 
 much perhaps absolute separation from Spain as au- 
 tonomy in their own affairs, was hardly thus to be 
 appeased. An uneasiness was perceptible among the 
 natives and the symptoms of a general insurrection 
 were begnming to be discernible. Before we discuss 
 this last phase of Spanish dominion let us consider 
 briefly the nature and general results of this rule. 
 
 When the Spaniards first came to the Islands, as we 
 have seen in a previous chapter, some of the natives 
 had already begun to understand a few of the arts of 
 civilized people, but Spain it was, as the careful student 
 of history must admit, however critical he may be of 
 the character of Spanish leadership, who rescued the 
 Filipinos from barbarism and raised them to the condi- 
 tion of comparative civilization. Largely through the 
 instrumentality of the church was this elevation of the 
 people as a whole brought about ; the Christian religion 
 became practically universal among those of Malayan 
 blood; and from superstitious idolaters, worshiping 
 the powers of nature and trembling at the rustle of 
 every leaf, they became followers of Christ. These for- 
 eign tutors, further, taught their charges the restraints 
 of civilized society and established schools for their 
 instruction. They admitted them to a share, though a 
 small one, in the offices of the government, and advanced
 
 88 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 them in the domestic and textile arts, bringing to them 
 the comforts of the household. As a traveler in the 
 Islands, writing in 18G0, says of the Filipinos : ^ 
 
 They have adopted tlie religion, the manners, and the customs 
 of their rulers ; and though legally not on one equal footing with 
 the latter, they are by no means separated from them by the high 
 barriers with which, except in Java, the churlish reserve of the 
 English has surrounded the natives of other colonies. 
 
 Contact with Si)anish civilization developed a higher 
 type of Filipino. This development of the natives to the 
 stage in which our American government found them 
 may be traced most interestingl}' in the origin of Spanish 
 words in common use in the different dialects. Only one 
 very primitive article of dress is known by a Visayan 
 word, the language of the central islands ; all the other 
 words pertaining to articles of dress are Spanish. There 
 are words in this tongue for primary colors, too, but the 
 names of the secondary are Spanish. Ideas of God and 
 spirit are likewise expressed in the latter, though there 
 is a Visayan word for love. Nor are there any equiva- 
 lents in this dialect for the words for shirt and shoe. 
 Tables and chairs were not known before the arrival of 
 the Spaniards, and the Visayans naturally adopted the 
 Spanish names. It is interesting to note further that 
 there is no Visayan word for soap. 
 
 Similarly among the Tagalogs — the inhabitants of 
 Luzon and neighboring islands, looked upon as the 
 first peoj)le of the Islands — was this Spanish tutelage 
 
 ^ Jagor, Travels in the Ph'lippines, p. 30.
 
 FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 89 
 
 beneficial, as is evident from the words these people have 
 introduced into their dialect from the Spanish. The 
 word for teacher is the same in both tongues, and so 
 are the words for God, saint, angel, and other religious 
 terms; likewise the words for kitchen, hall, window, 
 door, lamp, lantern, table, clock, stable, glass, bench, 
 trunk, carpet, and so on through a long list. Although 
 the common people continue to use their fingers at meals, 
 those of the upper classes make use of spoons, knives, 
 and forks, the names for which are Spanish. As in the 
 Visayan, the words for shoe, stocking, handkerchief, rib- 
 bon, cravat, buttons, pin, thimble, bonnet, hat, and the 
 like are also Spanish. Ink, inkstand, pen, pencil, paper, 
 plate, pasteboard, gun, sailcloth, wire, bell, and boiler 
 are words all adopted from the newcomers. Likewise 
 of Spanish origin are cow, goat, horse, laml), goose, 
 grouse, lion, and tiger ; theater, store, office, mail, tele- 
 graph, school, college, and academy; all terms denoting 
 military and ofiicial rank, such as soldier, corporal, 
 inspector, captain, general, king, and president ; also 
 the words for calendar, almanac, hours, the names of 
 the days of the week, and of the months; and to con- 
 clude a list that might be much extended, the letters of 
 the alphal)et and the names of the arts and sciences. 
 Curiously enough, while most of the metals have native 
 names, zinc and tin have not. Names of natural things, 
 finally, are, as would be expected, of native origin. 
 
 In the dialects of the Mores, on the other hand, 
 whose immigration was interrupted by the Spanish
 
 90 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 invasion, various common words together with theo- 
 logical and legal terms are from the Arabic, for it was 
 through Arabian influences that these Malays became 
 Mohammedans previously to and soon after entering 
 the southern islands of the Philippines. 
 
 Language alone cannot be considered by any means 
 a sufficient criterion : on the one hand, certain foreign 
 notions may be accepted by a people and expressed in 
 terms of their own dialect ; and, on the other, an origi- 
 nal native idea may be expressed in terms of a foreign 
 language. Yet these philological facts in connection 
 with Spanish colonization of the Islands are rather 
 significant, and aside from the matter of deep interest 
 afforded by such a study of Filipino dialects, they serve 
 to supplement and confirm the historical side in show- 
 ing what a long step toward complete civilization was 
 taken under the Spanish regime. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Philippines at the time of the 
 settlement by Spain were not, like those the English 
 found in India, a people with a civilization as old as, 
 if not older than, that of their conquerors ; quite the 
 opposite was true, — the A'ery foundations of civiliza- 
 tion had yet to be laid. Native institutions not conso- 
 nant with existing social, moral, and political principles 
 at the time had to be abolished and others substituted, 
 — a work which required care and tact, and yet one 
 which, when being carried out, met with only a lack 
 of appreciation and ill-will on the part of the natives. 
 While the Spanish did away with all customs that were
 
 FEO:SI LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 91 
 
 contrary to natural right, tliey allowed others to sub- 
 sist; they abolished the arbitrary power of the chiefs, 
 yet maintained their social position and used those of 
 the higher class in the work of administration. Among 
 the first of their tasks they had to jDrohibit slavery; 
 and they solved this question of labor to the extent of 
 making the laborer a free agent in the sale of his com- 
 modity. The number of days of corvee, the obligation 
 of service owed by serfs to the chiefs, was also dimin- 
 ished. Spaniards, except officers of justice, were for- 
 bidden to enter the towns of the natives. Magistrates 
 were bound to visit all parts of their districts, and were 
 compelled to change then residence three times within 
 the year that they might more readily assist the natives 
 in the various localities. Natives were allowed to change 
 their residence when it was to a place where religious 
 instruction was already established, but otherwise not. 
 The conduct of the Spanish colonists was watched, 
 and as a punishment for crime they were sent to the 
 benches of the galleys side by side with Chinese and 
 native convicts. 
 
 In the beginning the Philippines enjoyed one great 
 advantage over the Dutch and English colonies in the 
 active cooperation of the friars, who, unburdened by 
 families, were able to devote themselves to their labors 
 in a whole-souled way. Of the early work of these mis- 
 sionaries mention has already been made, and it need 
 only be added that their efforts did much toward effect- 
 ing the true conquest of the Islands. The exceedingly
 
 92 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 small military force that was necessary during all the 
 early years is convincing testimony on this point ; in- 
 deed, as one writer ^ said, each friar was a general and 
 a whole army in himself. Nor were their activities con- 
 fined to religious instruction alone, for they introduced 
 improved methods in various branches of agriculture, 
 taught some of the finer arts, and in general worked an 
 economic and a social advancement among the people. 
 
 The Spanish conception of colonization was itself 
 essentially different from that of the English or the 
 Dutch, and the newly discovered territories that were 
 added to Spain's dominions never ceased to be primarily 
 fields for religious activity. Hence the important posi- 
 tion of the church in her colonies, and also, we must 
 add, the different kind of treatment which the Filipinos 
 received from that which was shown their neighbors in 
 other parts of the Orient ; it was a missionary work 
 with Spain, and such it remained during the whole 
 earlier period of Philippine history. When Philip II 
 was urged to give up the Islands because they would 
 not pay, he exclaimed : " What would the enemies 
 of Christ say if they perceived that the Philippine 
 Islands were left destitute of the true Light and its 
 ministers to propagate it, because they did not produce 
 ricli metals and other wealth like the rest of the fruit- 
 ful islands in Asia and America?" 
 
 If it were not for such sentiments as this, and the 
 sense of duty to extend the true faith, Spain might 
 
 1 Morga.
 
 FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 93 
 
 early have abandoned the PhiKppines, for the tradi- 
 tional Spanish view in regard to the value of the 
 archipelago is seen from the following extract from an 
 account of the first official historian of the Islands. 
 
 The Council of State, observing that the Philippine Islands 
 were rather an Expence than an Advantage to the Crown, being 
 many, and hard to be maintained, had proposed to King Philip 
 to quit them and withdraw the Court of Justice and Garrison 
 that defend them. They added the example of the Chineses, 
 who abandoned them tho' they are such near Neighbors, and 
 can relieve them with such Ease, as if they were joining to their 
 Continent. That as Spain governs them, the loss they occassion 
 is considerable without any Hopes that it will ever be altered 
 for the better ; a vast Quantity of Silver being sent thither from 
 New Spain. . . . They alleged that a Monarchy dispersed and 
 divided by so many seas and different climates could scarce be 
 united, nor could humane Wisdom, by settled Correspondence, 
 tye together Provinces so far removed from one another by 
 nature. Tliat these arguments are not the Offspring of Wit, but 
 of Experience, and Truths obvious to the senses. That all such 
 as might be urged against them were only grounded upon 
 Honour, and full of a generous Sound, but difficult of Execu- 
 tion ; and therefore the best Expedient was for the King to 
 strengthen himself in Europe, where his Forces can be ready 
 to meet all Dangers without being exposed to the Hazards of 
 the Sea and the Dominions of Others. 
 
 This was the argument of the antiexpansionists 
 nearly three hundred years ago; and with the numer- 
 ous foreign invasions, piratical attacks on the coasts 
 from the Moros, and tribal uprisings up to the very end 
 of the Spanish rule, it is perhaps not strange that there 
 was such a feeling.
 
 94 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 How careful and j)roductive of beneficial results for 
 the people was the early administration of the Spanish 
 we have now noted in a brief way; it remains to con- 
 sider the change that gradually took place and gave 
 rise to the later discontent and hostility which brought 
 matters to the crisis of 1896. 
 
 The same seriousness of purpose and regard for the 
 natives' best good which characterized the rule during 
 the earlier years was unfortunately lost sight of as 
 time went on ; officials less scrupulous than their prede- 
 cessors were not inclined to maintain the former stand- 
 ard, and personal interests began to influence their 
 policy ; priestly ambition and the desire for domination 
 began to supplant the religious zeal and sincerity of the 
 old missionaries ; and legislative restrictions both com- 
 mercial and political, putting fetters upon the infant 
 commerce of the Islands, on the one side, and depriving 
 the people of a proper share in their own government, 
 on the other, began to chafe. 
 
 Conditions were such as gradually to foster militarism, 
 ecclesiasticism, and officialism, which have never yet 
 brought in their wake great economic or social pros- 
 perity. The administration of justice under such cir- 
 cumstances began to deteriorate, and the feeling began 
 to gain footing that there was no justice for the poor 
 man. At the same time the brief representation in the 
 Spanish parliament had given the people a taste of 
 political freedom, and those who had sat in the Cortes 
 returned home filled with the idea of equal rights for
 
 FROM LEGASPI TO THE UPRISIXG OF 1896 95 
 
 all. They preached this doctrine to the people and their 
 words found ready hearers. 
 
 Soon in Luzon a group of young Filipinos gathered 
 with the aim of bringing about real reforms in the gov- 
 ernment and securing greater peace, prosperity, and 
 liberty for the people. The discontent among them 
 began to be of a more intelligent sort and to have 
 a more definite purpose. The few thinking Filipinos 
 in and round Manila, some of whom had studied in 
 Europe, Singapore, and other places away from home, 
 were arriving at a clearer idea of the nature of the 
 reforms needed in the country. Mexico had secured 
 her freedom from Spain, and her example was an en- 
 couragement to them to strike for their rights. They 
 had no idea of winning independence, but they desired 
 a change from a harsh, narrow, tyrannical, and un- 
 progressive rule to one of the nineteenth century with 
 its greater liberty and its insistence upon freedom of 
 belief. The conditions during the later stages of the 
 Spanish regime were hardly encouraging; learning, 
 except as it pertained to religious studies, was discour- 
 aged ; liberty of opinion was not tolerated ; attempts 
 at progress were not encouraged; the printing of sec- 
 ular books and papers was virtually prohibited ; and 
 Spain, when she saw the sign of awakening, stunted 
 political growth. 
 
 Excited by the ideas which the Spanish revolution 
 and that of the Spanish-American colonies had gener- 
 ated, a number of the Spanish Filipinos headed various
 
 96 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 revolts during the first half of the nineteenth century. 
 These were always quelled without disastrous results, 
 yet every uprising made it clearer to Spain, especially 
 to that party at home anxious to give the archipelago 
 a good government, that administrative reforms must 
 be brought about. 
 
 These, it is due to Spain to say, were often attempted. 
 Agriculture was encouraged by royal decrees, likewise 
 the cultivation of cotton and the introduction of ma- 
 chinery for making thread and cloth ; a mint was estab- 
 lished in jNIanila ; roads and bridges were constructed ; 
 civil and military governors were prohibited from en- 
 gaging in commerce ; l^odies of police were organized 
 in the provinces ; efforts to simplify and secularize 
 education Avere made ; commissioners were appointed 
 from time to time to study conditions and report to the 
 home government ; usury was suppressed ; the tobacco 
 monopoly was abolished ; and changes in the general 
 plan of civil administration were brought about. 
 
 These belated efforts were of too superficial a char- 
 acter, however, to reassure a people already grown dis- 
 trustful. Even the church seemed to have lost its hold 
 and was not wholly able to maintain obedience, as for- 
 merly, through its relations with the people. As one 
 studies Spanish history one learns that the Spaniard is 
 more of a theorist than a practical man of affairs. The 
 Spanish code of law, for example, was excellent in 
 theory, and the insular enactments were results of care- 
 ful colonial legislation aimed to prevent the repetition
 
 FROM LEGASPl TO THE UPRISING OF 1896 97 
 
 in the Philippines of atrocities similar to those of Pizarro 
 in Peru ; yet they proved defective as put into practice 
 in the archipelago by those who knew the laws imper- 
 fectly or were dishonest. 
 
 A scholarly Spaniard writing of these laws in 1854 
 says : 
 
 Perhaps there is not one of them which may not be presented 
 as an example of equity and discretion ; but among them some 
 stand forth which ought to be learnt by heart by those who take 
 pleasure in meeting with proofs of benevolence towards peoples 
 on the part of those that govern them, or by those who seek for 
 models for establishing the public administration upon a basis 
 of equity. 
 
 He refers to one law which provided that '"' offenses com- 
 mitted against Indians (natives) should be punished with 
 greater rigor than those committed against Spaniards." 
 
 Another defect in Spanish administration, one which 
 defeated every attempt at reform, was the too frequent 
 change of officials, who failed to stay long enough in 
 the country to become acquainted with it and its re- 
 quirements, and with the means of satisfying them. 
 During the last years of Spanish dominion, for exam- 
 ple, from the Cavite insurrection in 1872 to the revolu- 
 tion of 1896, there were eleven military governors and 
 eight acting governors. 
 
 It is supposed that several of those most prominent 
 in the Cavite uprising were members of the Cavite 
 masonic lodge, the first one in the Philippines, founded 
 in 1860. Whether this be true or not, the secret socie- 
 ties, which had been merely local lodges of the great
 
 98 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 brotherhood of freemasons, now became political bodies 
 with a definite aim, which was directed toward ecclesi- 
 astical and political reform. 
 
 " La Liga Filipina " was founded at this time by Dr. 
 Jose Rizal, of whom we shall hear more later, and sev- 
 eral young men who had been students of Dr. Burgos, 
 nearly all of whom were masons. Their object was 
 reform and not separation from the mother country, 
 as may be seen by their programme. 
 
 They demanded (1) expulsion of the friars and con- 
 fiscation of their estates ; (2) the same political, adminis- 
 trative, and economical concessions as had been granted 
 to Cuba, including freedom of the press and freedom 
 of association ; (3) equalization of the Philippine and 
 peninsular armies and a just division of civil service 
 posts between natives and Spaniards ; (4) return to 
 the owners of lands seized by the friars, and sale of 
 such as really belonged to the orders ; ( 5) prevention 
 of insults to the Philippine natives, either in sermons or 
 in the press ; (6) economy in expenditures ; reduction 
 of imposts ; construction of railways and public works. 
 
 The mysterious Katipunan, with its blood compact, 
 was also founded at about the same time, " to redeem 
 the Philippines from its tyrants, the friars, and to found 
 a communistic republic." The guiding spirit of the 
 organization was a warehouse keeper in the service of a 
 business firm in Manila, and the masses formed its main 
 constituency. That this society was a potent factor in 
 the uprising of 1896 seems beyond doubt.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 FROM THE INSURRECTIOX OF 1896 TO THE 
 PRESENT TIME 
 
 A body of thinking young men with enlightened 
 ideas and plans for greater liberty among their people 
 had been coming into prominence in the Islands during 
 the last quarter of the century. Many of tliem had been 
 in Europe, where they became strongly influenced by the 
 liberal doctrines which had become j)opular there ; and 
 they were now attempting a realization of these in their 
 own country. Burgos had headed the movement earlier ; 
 Jaena and Rizal were later leaders. All three were 
 lovers of their country, who urged reform in Spain's 
 medigeval system of government, not alone in the civil 
 service, but also in the church ; and each died for it : 
 Burgos was garroted ; Jaena died in great poverty in 
 Madrid, whither he went from his home near Iloilo, 
 against the will of his friar teachers, in the interests 
 of his native land; and Rizal was shot on the Luneta 
 in Manila. 
 
 Foremost among them all was the last named, Rizal, 
 a popular martyr in the cause of liberty for his people. 
 Born in tlie small town of Calamba, Laguna, on the 
 shores of the lake of Bay, in the year 1861, he was
 
 100 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 tutored by a Tagalog priest, and was graduated at 
 twenty from a Jesuit college in Manila, whence he went 
 to Europe to study medicine. The family name was 
 really Mercado, but an elder brother, a young man with 
 views too liberal for the church, who was also studying 
 at the capital and who had been expelled from the uni- 
 versity for having lived with Dr. Burgos, persuaded him 
 
 Celebration of the Anniversary of Rizal's Death 
 
 to change his name to Rizal that he might not be perse- 
 cuted because of his name and hindered in his studies. 
 
 From the University of Madrid he received the 
 degrees of Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Medicine, 
 studied for some time in Paris, and then went to Ger- 
 many, where he received another degree of philosophy. 
 While in Berlin he became a member of the anthropo- 
 logical society. Together with medicine he took up
 
 FROM 1896 TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 101 
 
 ethnological and linguistic studies ; he was also much 
 devoted to art, particularly music and painting, to which 
 he gave considerable time in the way of diversion while 
 preparing himself specially as an oculist in Paris and 
 Vienna. 
 
 After visiting nearly every European country he re- 
 turned home ; but so disagreeable was the attitude of 
 the friars, whose wrath was aroused l:)y Rizal's novel, 
 
 Statue i$y Kizal 
 
 Noli Me Tangere, written during his residence abroad, 
 that his stay in the Islands became exceedingly unpleas- 
 ant, and he decided to return to Europe. On his way 
 he spent some time studying in Japan, and then, after 
 visiting the United States, proceeded to London. Here 
 he continued his philological work and brought out in 
 Spanish a second edition of Morga's treatise on the 
 Philippines, in which he attempted to show that under 
 Spanish domination the Filipino had retrograded in 
 civilization. A little later, in 1890, he was engaged
 
 102 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 in newspaper work on a liberal journal published in 
 Barcelona, and was the author of various articles in 
 behalf of his country, in whicli he never asked for inde- 
 pendence, but always souglit reform. Rizal was a true 
 Catholic, who believed the Islands needed the guiding 
 hand of a progressive, civilized nation ; but nowhere 
 did he express the opinion that his people were ready 
 for self-government. 
 
 His attempts to arouse interest in the Philippine 
 question were not successful, so he retired to Belgium 
 to write his second political novel. El Filibusterismo. 
 This completed, he returned again to Barcelona, where 
 with great frankness and brilliancy he predicted the 
 downfall of Spain if she continued her harsh, unpro- 
 gressive, and illiberal policy of administration in the 
 Philippines. 
 
 Unable to keep away from his native country, how- 
 ever, Rizal turned homeward once more after prac- 
 ticing medicine for a short time in Hongkong. He 
 volunteered to return in order, as he wrote, "to help 
 heal the wounds reopened by the recent injustices "; 
 and closes his letter to the governor general by saying, 
 '" while seeking the good of my country I shall at least 
 be conscious of having done all in my power to pre- 
 serve her union with Spain through a stable policy 
 based upon justice and community interests." It was 
 with the promise of protection that he left for Manila, 
 but immediately upon landing he was arrested on a 
 charge of sedition and banished to Dapitan in Mindanao,
 
 FROM 1896 TO THE PRESENT TIME 103 
 
 where amid most dreary surroundings lie spent four 
 unhappy years, convinced of his innocence and yet 
 refusing opportunities to escape. 
 
 Wliile thus isolated he was visited by a Mr. Taufer 
 from Hongkong accompanied by his foster child, Miss 
 Bracken. This gentleman had come for eye treatment, 
 and during their stay Rizal fell in love with the daughter 
 and married her shortly afterward, just before his death. 
 
 The insurrection of 1896 had now broken out, and 
 Rizal, still at Dapitan and realizing his position, volun- 
 teered to go to Cuba as an army surgeon. His services 
 were accepted and he left for Madrid to be assigned. 
 On his arrival in Barcelona, however, he was arrested 
 and immediately returned to Manila to answer trial for 
 having instigated the insurrection then in progress. 
 Upon false testimony he was convicted and condemned 
 to death, and in accordance with the sentence was shot 
 on the Luneta on the morning of December 30, 1896. 
 
 Such is a very brief outline of this remarkable Fili- 
 pino's life, — one that presents many phases. He was, 
 above all, a lover of his fatherland ; but he was also a 
 social reformer, a prophet who saw with remarkable 
 clearness of insight and with a boundless hope the 
 future regeneration of the Filipino people ; and he was, 
 too, an intelligent leader, revealing in his writings the 
 highest educational ideals. Were he living to-day he 
 would rejoice in the reforms inaugurated by the Ameri- 
 can government, especially in the extension of the free 
 public school, the equalizer, and in the introduction of
 
 104 THE PHILlPriNE ISLANDS 
 
 common language, the nationalizer of a people. A 
 leading thinker of his time, in thought and character 
 he Avas larger than any country. His ideas and ideals 
 were presented with simplicity and directness in the 
 two novels already mentioned, one of which, Noli Me 
 Tang ere, has been well described as " a poet's story of 
 his people's loves, faults, aspirations, and wrongs." ^ 
 Physician, poet, reformer, martyr, Rizal has been called 
 by an eminent personal friend not only " the most 
 prominent man of liis own people but the greatest man 
 the Malayan race has produced. His memory will never 
 perish in his fatherland, and future generations of Span- 
 iards will yet learn to utter his name with respect and 
 reverence. An enemy of Spain he has never been." ^ 
 Already has his memory been perpetuated by the Ameri- 
 can government by making the anniversary of his death 
 a public holiday and naming a province in his honor ; 
 and everywhere is his name hailed by his countrymen 
 as that of the Philippine patriot. 
 
 As Howells says in his review of An Eagle Flight, 
 an adaptation of Noli Me Tangere: 
 
 But lie is gone, and his book remains. ... I don't know 
 whether it ought to be astonishing or not that a little saffron 
 man, somewhere in that unhappy archipelago, should have been 
 born with a gift so far beyond that of any or all the authors of 
 our roaring literary successes ; but these things are strangely 
 ordered by Providence, and no one who has read this pathetic 
 novel can deny its immeasurable superiority. The author learned 
 
 1 Introduction to yln, Earjle Flight, viii. 
 
 2 See Monwjraph on Rizal, by Blunientritt.
 
 FROM 189G TO THE PRESENT TIME 105 
 
 his trade from tlie modern Spanish novelists . . . but he has gone 
 beyond them in a certain sparing touch with which he presents 
 situation and character by mere statement of fact, without expla- 
 nation or comment. ... It is a great novel, of which the most 
 poignant effect is in a sense of its unimpeachable veracity. 
 
 The following, Rizal's dedicatory preface to his story 
 of his Tagal country, speaks for itself. 
 
 TO MY C()UNTRY 
 
 The records of liuman suffering make known to us the exist- 
 ence of ailments of such nature that the sliglitest touch irritates 
 and causes tormenting pains. Whenever, in the midst of modern 
 civilizations, I have tried to call up thy dear image, my country, 
 either for the comradeship of remembrance or to compare thy 
 life Avith that about me, I have seen thy fair face disfigured and 
 distorted by hideous social cancer. 
 
 As a true and sympathetic picture of the country 
 during the j'ears of preparation for the general uiDris- 
 ino; of 1896 this novel should he read. It shows a 
 thorough appreciation of the conditions at the tiinf> and 
 a diagnosis of the situation the accuracy of which was 
 later confirmed by developments. An almost prophetic 
 insight is here and there exhibited, and the fatal rup- 
 ture between rulers and subjects, wdiich followed so 
 soon as a climax to political events fast crowding one 
 another, was foretold wdth a confidence that was note- 
 worthy. " The sleep has lasted centuries," says one of 
 the characters, describing the conditions of the country 
 to the newcomer, who, though a native, has spent much 
 of his life abroad, "■ but some day the lightning will 
 strike."
 
 lOG 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 And within a few years after the publication of this 
 book the lightning did strike in Cavite province, in 
 August, 1896. In this insurrection, promising to be so 
 serious, we hear for the first time of Aguinaldo, who, 
 although a 3'oung school-teacher of twenty-seven, was 
 the head of a movement which had spread over all 
 Luzon and even into some of the central islands. Owing 
 to the ])orsecution of tlie people of the provinces, where 
 
 w\^ . 
 
 
 r ' m 
 
 
 FoKT Cavite 
 
 the secret societies were supposed to be strongest, some 
 five thousand Filipinos had signed a petition to the 
 emperor of Japan asking him to annex the Islands. 
 This was sent in the early months of 1896, and the 
 Japanese authorities forwarded it to Spain, thus appris- 
 ing the mother country of the organized plan of revolt. 
 Immediate action, however, was not taken, and not 
 until quantities of ammunition and supplies were found 
 at Taal were any arrests made. Even then Governor 
 General Blanco refrained from using force until every
 
 FROM 1896 TO THE PRESENT TIME 107 
 
 other means had been tried, for he wished to avoid open 
 conflict entirely, if possible, and at any rate until he 
 should receive reenforcements from Madrid. 
 
 By the last of August the revolt had gained full 
 strength, and encounters took place in which the rebels 
 were driven back from the capital. Martial law was pro- 
 claimed, and arrests of those even suspected were made 
 in such numbers that the jails were soon overflowing. 
 Province after province came over to the revolutionary 
 standard and soon all of lower Luzon was in arms. 
 
 A change of governments now brought Polavieja 
 over to the Islands as successor to Blanco, and a more 
 severe campaign conducted by a man who had had an 
 extensive and successful military experience began, in 
 which the Spanish troops met with success generally. 
 But failure on the part of the home authorities to 
 send reenforcements because of the serious outbreak in 
 Cuba, which occupied most of their attention and de- 
 manded an enormous number of troops, prevented Pola- 
 vieja from following up his victories, and discouraged he 
 resigned his office. 
 
 His successor, Rivera, now for a second time in the 
 Islands, began by offering amnesty to all who should 
 lay down their arms ; and many Filipinos, weakening 
 because of the cruelty of the campaign waged against 
 them, accepted. 
 
 The center of the insurrection, which had been in 
 Cavite province, was now farther north in Pampanga 
 and Bulacan provinces, with Angat and San Mateo the
 
 108 THE PHILIPPINE ISL'ANDS 
 
 two particular strongholds of the Filipinos, from which 
 they harassed the Spanish soldiers. The spirit was lag- 
 ging somewhat when an edict of July 2, 1897, putting 
 severe restrictions upon the movements of the people 
 in the towns and requiring their observance under pain 
 of being treated as rebels, fanned the flame and brought 
 the insurgents to a Avhite heat. They answered by pre- 
 paring a document urging all to take up arms, demand- 
 ing the expulsion of the friars, representation, freedom 
 of the press, and more just laws in general. The old 
 fire burned fiercely again ; and the governor general 
 perceived that some measure of reform was imperative. 
 
 Pedro Alejandro Paterno, a Filipino educated in 
 Em'ope, able and successful, was accordingly appointed 
 to negotiate with Aguinaldo, and after a series of con- 
 ferences with the insurgent leader, came to an agree- 
 ment which was embodied in the Treaty of Biac-na-bato. 
 By its terms the Filipinos were to give over aims 
 and ammunition, cease for three years from forming 
 designs against the Spanish sovereignty, and Aguinaldo 
 together with certain followers was to be deported for 
 a period to be determined by Spain. In return they 
 were to receive one million dollars Mexican currency as 
 indemnity, and those who had not taken up arms an 
 additional seven hundred thousand dollars of the same 
 money as reimbursement for losses suffered ; and reforms 
 for the Islands were promised. 
 
 But these reforms were apparently forgotten, for con- 
 ditions which began to look favorable now took a dark
 
 Aguinaldo 
 
 109
 
 IIU 
 
 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 tm*ii again. Misunderstandings arose, arrests for slight 
 offenses continued, and then unex^jectedly the native 
 regiments at Cavite refused to serve in the campaign 
 against the ladrones. In April, 181)8, a serious insur- 
 rection broke out in CeJju, in which five thousand 
 natives drove the Spanish out, cut off communications 
 with Manila, and took possession of the city. A few 
 
 WUKCK OF THK MaRIA CuKISTINA 
 
 days later, however, Spanish reenforcements arrived, 
 and the revolting natives were driven into the moun- 
 tains after a crushing: defeat. 
 
 Further dissatisfaction now arose because of the 
 arrival of a new chief executive and the return of 
 Governor General Rivera to Sj)ain before the promises 
 of reform were realized ; and as a climax war was 
 declared between the United States and Sj)ain.
 
 FROM 1896 TO THE rRE8E:S^T TIME 
 
 111 
 
 The results of this in the Philippines we know well 
 already, — the destruction of the Spanish fleet at Cavite 
 
 Mabini, the Brains of the Ixsurkectkjx 
 
 on May 1 ; the arrival of American troops two months 
 later, and the taking of Manila in August; and finally, 
 the cessation of hostilities and the consequent Treaty 
 
 Funeral of General Lawton 
 
 of Paris, December 10, ratified at Washington Febru- 
 ary 10, 1899, by which Spain ceded the Philippines to
 
 11:2 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 the United States. The first United States Philippine 
 Commission, sometimes called, from its president, the 
 Schurman Commission, arrived in Manila early in April 
 of the same year; and on the 11th the treaty of peace 
 was proclaimed to the Filipinos. 
 
 Later e^'ents since the American occupation have 
 hardly yet crystallized into history, and, further, are so 
 fixed in the memory of all that no detailed description of 
 them will be attempted here. Sufiice it to mention briefly 
 the principal points in this last phase of the movement. 
 
 Mount Arayat, Pampanga Province 
 
 General Aguinaldo returned to Manila, May 19, 1898, 
 on board a United States government boat, and started 
 in immediately to organize an army and a government 
 under the protection of the American gunljoats, — 
 whether with any reasonable belief that our government 
 would aid him in such organization, it is difficult to say. 
 Certain it seemed that he entertained such an opinion 
 and also that the Hongkong Junta was convinced that 
 our government would aid him and his followers to 
 this end; yet the evidence is clear that neither Admiral 
 Dewey, who had furnished some guns and ammunition, 
 nor General Anderson had made him any such promise.
 
 FROM 189G TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 113 
 
 To the Americans, Aguinalclo was the head of the army 
 cooperatmg with the American forces; to the Filipinos, 
 however, he was a dictator and the head of an organized 
 government. Immediately on reaching Cavite he issued 
 his first proclamation 
 to the effect that the 
 American govern- 
 ment was to exercise 
 a protectorate over 
 the Philippines, con- 
 sidering the natives 
 able to govern them- 
 selves, and that 
 restraint and order 
 should therefore be 
 observed and person 
 and property pro- 
 tected. The spirit of 
 this edict was in 
 sharp contrast to the 
 practices during the 
 uprising of 1896 ; and 
 there is no doubt that 
 the Tagalog leaders realized that more humane warfare 
 should be carried on, if they desired the United States 
 to assume protection of the Islands for at least long 
 enough to establish a government of their own. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, during the period of our own 
 military inactivity, pending our negotiations with Spain 
 
 American Soldiers in Possession 
 OF Railroad
 
 114 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 and before the rupture between the Americans and the 
 insurgents, the latter began to attack the Spanish, and 
 by a series of victories made themselves masters of the 
 whole of Luzon outside of Manila, and even sent expe- 
 ditions to the Visayas. 
 
 A second proclamation by Aguinaldo was now issued, 
 in which he assumed the responsibility of promising 
 national independence to his people on behalf of the 
 
 InsuugeNt Leaders deported to Guam 
 
 American government. He surrounded himself with a 
 cabinet, and then changed this dictatorial form of rule 
 to the revolutionary government with executive, legis- 
 lative, and judicial departments, recognition of which 
 by foreign powers was asked August G, 1898. 
 
 The insurgent Congress assembled September 15, at 
 Malolos, the new seat of the Philippine government, 
 and on January 23, 1899, the revolutionary government 
 gave way to the so-called " Philippine Republic," with 
 Aguinaldo as president.
 
 115
 
 116 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Gradually relations lietween Americans and Filipinos 
 became strained, and the tension increased after the 
 fall of Manila and the assumption of the affairs of gov- 
 ernment by the commanding general of the American 
 
 A.MKRicAN Soldiers fording a Ri\ ek 
 
 forces. In the operations against the capital no con- 
 ferences had taken place between Filipino and American 
 officers, and no cooperation of any sort between the 
 respective forces. Dissatisfaction on the part of the 
 native leaders was plainly evident, and little effort was 
 made to conceal it. 
 
 Yet we could not have recoQ;nized offhand the local 
 government which had been established. Aguinaldo's 
 haste and unwillingness to follow our leadership made 
 it impossible for our commanders to adopt a more sym- 
 pathetic and conciliatory attitude. They had no means 
 of knowing the amount of territory controlled by the 
 insurgent government nor the efficiency of their organ- 
 ization, hence they naturally hesitated. 
 
 It is possible that a way might have been found by 
 which a friendly alliance Ijetween the forces could have
 
 FROM 1896 TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 117 
 
 continued, thus making unnecessary the war that fol- 
 lowed. But whether this were possible or not, the Fili- 
 pinos can hardly be blamed for desiring independence, 
 nor can the American authorities be censured for refus- 
 ing to further such a plan before they were fully con- 
 vinced that the former were possessed of a sufficient 
 degree of civilization to govern themselves. The claims 
 of the ambitious Filipinos were natural enough but hardly 
 conclusive. It is not possible here to go into the in- 
 formation furnished the authorities in Washington rela- 
 tive to the ability of the people to govern themselves ; 
 it is sufficient to say that in the writer's estimation 
 
 Amkrican Soldiers on Mountain Trail 
 
 the refusal to grant independence was a wise decision. 
 Signs of rupture meanwhile were evident ; friction ex- 
 isted between the troops posted near each other, and 
 on February 4, 1899, six days before the ratification
 
 118 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 of the Treaty of Paris, hostilities broke out, started by 
 the shooting of a native soldier who attempted to cross 
 
 the American lines 
 in the darkness. 
 
 The conflict soon 
 became general, 
 with the result 
 wliich we know. 
 Our troops spread 
 over the archi- 
 pelago^ and scores 
 of engagements, 
 hardly to be called 
 battles, were 
 fought, generally 
 with little doubt 
 as to the outcome. 
 Malolos, the in- 
 8 urgent capital, 
 fell in August ; the 
 railroad was soon 
 secured; central 
 and northern Lu- 
 zon were subdued ; 
 and as soon as an 
 adequate miHtary 
 force was avail- 
 able attention was 
 General Cailles turned to southern
 
 FEOM 1896 TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 119 
 
 Luzon, and then to the central and southern islands. 
 By November, 1899, practically all organized opposi- 
 tion had been de- 
 stroyed, and small 
 garrisons scattered 
 over the whole 
 country had been 
 abolished. But 
 guerrilla warfare 
 and brigandage 
 continued. Agui- 
 naldo was finally 
 captured in April, 
 1901,byFunston; 
 and C allies, Mal- 
 var, Lucban, and 
 other insurgent 
 officers afterward 
 surrendered or 
 were captured. 
 On July 1, 1901, 
 the insurrection 
 was declared at an 
 end by proclama- 
 tion of the Presi- 
 dent of the United 
 States, and the administration of the Islands was form- 
 ally turned over to the civil government. Judge Taft, 
 president of the Commission, was made governor. 
 
 General Malvar
 
 Amkrican Soldikks at Santa Cruz 
 
 San Paiu.o, Lagi'na 
 Limits of concentration 
 
 120
 
 FROM 189G TO THE PRESENT TIME 121 
 
 At this stage we may be able to understand somewhat 
 the conditions of the miUtary problem which our forces 
 had to solve, — one bristling with new difficulties, to 
 cope with which there was for a long time an insuf- 
 ficient number of troops. The American army in the 
 Philippines is the American army of history, — equally 
 cheerful under hardships and criticism, equally ener- 
 getic, and equally brave. In later years the story 
 of the American subjugation of the Filipinos will be 
 written, and the honor and glory to which our officers 
 and soldiers are entitled will Ije theirs. Nor were their 
 efforts confined merely to stamping out the insurrec- 
 tionary movement, for mucli intelligent and efficient 
 reorganization was accomplished by them, which pre- 
 pared the way for the civil authorities.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 CLIMATE 
 
 Residents of the temperate zone cannot comprehend 
 the very different cHmatic conditions existing in the 
 torrid belt and their effect — physical, industrial, and 
 even moral — upon the life of the inhabitants. The influ- 
 ence exercised by climate is always a marked one, and 
 the Philippines are no exception ; yet the views as to 
 these effects have been so various and contradictory 
 that the attempt is made here to present a few of the 
 important facts as borne out by scientific data, for the 
 purpose of giving in a brief yet substantially accurate 
 way a general idea of what the climate in the Islands 
 is. The subject is a fundamental one, for it affects the 
 very character of these people ; it is closely allied with 
 the question of public health and that of commercial 
 geography ; and the results of its study, furthermore, 
 form a valuable contribution to the stock of scientific 
 information concerning the Islands. It is to be regretted 
 that extended consideration cannot be given it here ; 
 and yet this seems hardly necessary in view of the care- 
 ful and comprehensive government publications that 
 treat this question fully. 
 
 Mention has already been made of the excellent work 
 done by the Jesuits in the study of earthquakes ; and 
 
 122
 
 CLIMATE 123 
 
 even more time and labor liave been devoted by these 
 clerical scientists to the study of climate, especially of 
 storms and their causes. The practical value of the 
 Manila Observatory, where this study was carried on, 
 made itself first felt in the prediction of these storms ; 
 and so accurate were the forecasts and so great the aid 
 
 Manila Observatory 
 
 rendered to navigators and farmers that the importance 
 of this central weather station became early established. 
 The director of the Manila Observatory was the first 
 person in the Orient to predict the existence and dura- 
 tion and to determine the probable course of tlie violent 
 storms known in the China sea by the name of typhoons, 
 and in the Philippines by that of haguios. This predic- 
 tion was made in July, 1879, and was confirmed by the 
 events which followed. Later in this same year, on
 
 124 THE rniLirpiNE islands 
 
 the 18th of November, the director, Father Faura, 
 announced a second storm, which was to strike Manila 
 itself; the alarm caused by this information was great, 
 and the warning was heeded by all whom the news 
 could reach. Vessels were ordered not to leave port, 
 and the natives themselves took proper precautions to 
 avoid the destructive force of the hurricane. It swept 
 over the archii^elago almost precisely as it was forecast, 
 and the accuracy of the information given out by the 
 venerable director became evident. In those places to 
 which notices had been sent comparatively little dam- 
 age to shipping and to life resulted ; whereas in the 
 storm ports where because of lack of telegraphic com- 
 munication the news did not arrive in time, the destruc- 
 tive effects of the storm were very severe, forty-two 
 ships foundering in southern Luzon alone, and many 
 lives were lost. Almost remarkable was the skill dis- 
 played in these first storm predictions from the observa- 
 tory ; and the same standard has been since maintained, 
 with the result that from the very first this weather 
 bureau and its reports were depended upon by the 
 commercial interests. 
 
 We shall now turn to a discussion of some of the 
 separate phases of this general question of climate in 
 the Islands, particularly the matters of temperature, 
 atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, winds 
 and clouds, and storms.
 
 CLIMATE 125 
 
 Temperature 
 
 The monthly mean temperature m the months of 
 November, December, January, and February oscillates 
 between 77° and 79.7° F.; in the months of April, 
 May, and June it ranges between 81.5° and 83° F.; and 
 in the months of March, July, August, September, and 
 October this average is not less than 80° nor greater 
 than 81.5°. In accordance with these variations of 
 temperature the year is divided into three seasons : 
 (1) temperate, extending through the months of Novem- 
 ber, December, January, and February; (2) hot, covering 
 the months of April, May, and June ; (3) intermediate, 
 dm-ing the months of March, July, September, and 
 October, — March because it is midway between the 
 temperate and the hot months. 
 
 The mean annual temperature at Manila, based upon 
 deductions from twenty-four daily observations extend- 
 ing over a period of sixteen years, is approximately 80°. 
 The mean monthly temperature falls to only 77° in 
 the coolest months and rises to only 83° in the hot- 
 test. The mildest month is January, with a tempera- 
 ture of 77°, and the months of December and February 
 follow in the second place. In the month of March the 
 temperature rises considerably, attaining an average of 
 81° ; and in May the maximum is reached with a record 
 of 83°. From May until July a gradual diminution 
 takes place until 81° is reached again, and from August 
 to October this temperature remains unchanged. From
 
 126 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 October, finally, the decrease continues until the month 
 of January is reached once more. 
 
 The highest maximum temperature recorded which 
 has been found by tlie writer is 100° F., in May, 1889 ; 
 and the extreme minimum temperature reported is 61°, 
 in February, 1888. As a means of comparison let us 
 look at the temperatures of one or two of our own 
 large cities. Boston has a mean annual of 48.6°, a 
 minimum of 27°, and a maximum of 71°; New York 
 has a mean annual of 51.7°, a minimum of 30.5°, and 
 a maximum of 73.5° ; New Orleans has a mean annual 
 of 68.8°, a minimum of 53.8°, and a maximum of 82.2° ; 
 Chicago, a mean annual of 48.3°, a minimum of 23.4°, 
 and a maximum of 72°; and San Francisco, a mean 
 annual of 55.8°, w^ith a minimum of 50.1°, and a max- 
 immn of 60.4°. The highest maximum temjDeratures, 
 moreover, in these American cities are often over 100°, 
 as we know, and again the extreme minimum figures 
 are sometimes as low as 20° below zero. And so, by 
 comparing the figures for the Islands with those for 
 different parts of the United States, the extremely small 
 degree of variation of temperatures in the case of the 
 Philippines, as against the very great differences in our 
 own country, is at once noticeable. The annual varia- 
 tion in tlie archipelago is not uniform, since in places 
 nearest the equator it is less than in those localities 
 further away and of some elevation ; yet this difference 
 between the highest and lowest temperatures in any 
 part of the Islands is, at the most, very small. The
 
 CLIMATE 127 
 
 yearly oscillation at Aparri, for example, is 9.4°, the 
 greatest recorded; in Manila, 6.3°; in Negros, 3.6°; 
 and in Jolo, only 1.2° ; and thus the greatest variation 
 over a period of a year is found to be only slightly over 
 9°, a figure that is reached frequently in New York 
 within the short space of an hour. 
 
 As to the effect of these climatic conditions, the fol- 
 lowing paragraph, taken from the Official Guide of the 
 Philip2^ines, is of interest. It says : 
 
 As the archipelago is wholly situated within the tropical 
 zone, it has the climate which generally characterizes the coun- 
 tries which are found in the same position. The high and uni- 
 form temperature which the thermometer reaches throughout 
 the year is the chief reason which makes it disagreeable and 
 wearisome to live in this region, and which produces in the 
 natives the laziness and inertia which characterize them, and 
 a sensible prostration of forces in the Europeans who reside for 
 some years in the country. 
 
 In voicing this same opinion, although more in this con- 
 nection will be said later, the writer does not hesitate 
 to add here that these natural conditions, particularly 
 those of temperature, wield a determining influence 
 upon residents in the Islands in general, whether native 
 or foreign ; make the native himself, to a great extent, 
 what he is to-day ; and militate against efforts toward 
 systematic hard work for any very extended period of 
 time without incurring the danger of becoming run 
 down physically, and the consequent necessity for 
 recuperation.
 
 128 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Atmospheric Pressure 
 
 The barometer reaches its greatest mean height in 
 the month of February, and then continues to descend 
 at a rate of ahnost 1 mm. a month until July, when the 
 lowest average for the 3'ear is reached. A slight rise is 
 noted in August, after which it again descends slightly 
 during the month of September, although remaining 
 higher than the average for July. From October to 
 February, finally, the pressure decreases without inter- 
 ruption. The mean annual oscillation, or the difference 
 between this maximum monthly average of February 
 and the minimum of Jul}', is 4.02 mm.; and the annual 
 average pressure is 759.31 mm. 
 
 In the field of weather study in the tropics the one 
 thing noticeable is the regularity with which the va- 
 riations and oscillations of the three meteorological 
 elements, namely, pressure, temperature, and relative 
 humidity, are repeated every year. Exactness is thus 
 the more possible, and a careful study of the indica- 
 tions at such a ^^lace as the Manila Observatory enables 
 the initiated to know almost precisely every feature 
 connected with any particular storm or kindred dis- 
 turbance which is threatening. The scientific value of 
 this possibility of accuracy is at once apparent, and 
 the practical value is exceedingly great. The daily 
 oscillation of the barometer is so regular in these lat- 
 itudes that it is rightly compared to the movements 
 of a clock; and it may be said with certainty that the
 
 CLIMATE 129 
 
 least irregularity observed in it is generally the most 
 unmistakable indication of the proximity of some 
 atmospheric change. The tabulation of a large series 
 of such observations has enabled the directors of the 
 observatory to deduce several laws as to barometric 
 pressure and cyclonic storms by which these dangers 
 may be anticipated. The regular variations are worked 
 out by a long series of such observations, and thus any 
 departure from these can be quickly detected and the 
 greater or less violence of the coming t3^phoon foretold 
 with almost absolute certainty. How very different this 
 is from the case of our own weather predictions at home 
 and how much more simplified the work of forecasting 
 is made in the Philippines is quite apparent. 
 
 Humidity 
 
 The atmosphere of the archipelago is generally loaded 
 with a great quantity of water vapor, the existence of 
 which in such abundance is due, as is shown by the 
 official reports, to extraordinary evaporation from the 
 seas which surround it on all sides, and also in part 
 to the richness of its vegetation, and the different pre- 
 vailing winds of the various seasons of the year, accom- 
 panied by the heavy aqueous precipitation common to 
 tropical countries. The first two, namely, evaporation 
 and vegetation, may be considered as general causes 
 of humidity to be observed in all the islands ; and the 
 last two, the winds and the ordinary precipitation, 
 may influence the humidity of the different months
 
 130 THE PHILIPPINE I8LAXDS 
 
 of the year or that of local regions in the archipelago. 
 For this reason, during those months from October to 
 June when the prevailing winds are from the first 
 quadrant, i.e. northeast, and the rains are most abun- 
 dant on the eastern coasts, the humidity will be greater 
 in those towns situated nearest the Pacific and less 
 along the western coasts. These latter, however, will 
 possess a greater percentage of humidity from June to 
 October, when the prevailing winds are from the third 
 or opposite quadrant, i.e. southwest. 
 
 It is furthermore worthy of note that as the rains 
 from June to October are caused by general atmos- 
 pheric disturbances and extend their influence more 
 or less over the entire archipelago, it follows that the 
 humidity peculiar to these months is considerably in- 
 creased, not alone in the vicinity of the western coasts 
 but also to a certain degree in the interior and along 
 the eastern shores. And since it is true that from 
 November to March there is a higher percentage of 
 humidity on the western coasts, it is easy to see that the 
 yearly average degree of humidity must reach its maxi- 
 mum value in those regions that are most exposed to 
 the winds from the first quadrant, i.e. northeast. 
 
 Because of the excessively large amount of water 
 vapor found in the air even at any time during the 
 year, the high uniform temperature of the Islands is 
 doubly trying, and it is this atmosphere, filled almost 
 always to the saturation point, that causes such debili- 
 tation. In Manila, April is the month of least humidity ;
 
 CLIMATE 
 
 131 
 
 it then increases in degree during May, June, and July, 
 diminishes somewhat in August, again increases in Sep- 
 tember, when the maximum is reached, and finally begins 
 to diminish gradually and without interruption from 
 October until April. 
 
 Precipitation 
 
 Precipitation of water is one of the principal ele- 
 ments which influence the climate of any country, and 
 for this reason the rain records of the observatory 
 
 A Street in the Kaixy Season, Victoria, Tarlac 
 
 are full of interest, especially in the way of disproving 
 some of the absurd statements made in regard to the 
 amount and frequency of rainfall, and in confirming cer- 
 tain others which have the appearance of exaggeration.
 
 132 THE FHlLlPriXE ISLANDS 
 
 The statement is made that in Manila two hundred 
 and three days out of the year are rainy ; and again it 
 has been said that in the months of June, July, August, 
 and September one hundred inches of rain often fall in 
 the capital, and during the rest of the year twenty inches 
 more, — assertions which can hardly be supported by 
 the facts. 
 
 There are in general three causes of ^precipitation : 
 
 1. The first and principal cause is the atmospheric 
 perturbation, including not only the true cyclonic storms 
 but also the other centers or large areas of low pressure. 
 
 2. The second cause is to be found in the tornadoes 
 or local tempests accompanied by heavy thunder and 
 lightning, which frequently continue from May through 
 October, and occasionally occur in April and November, 
 though hardly ever during the period from December 
 to March. These rains are distinguished from the pre- 
 ceding ones in that while they are sometimes fierce 
 and come in torrents, still they are usually of short 
 duration. They rarely occur in the morning, but are 
 frequent during the afternoon and evening, continuing 
 during the night and sometimes even for several days. 
 
 3. Finally, the third cause of the rainfall is the 
 influence of the center of maximum pressure, which, 
 in the months of December and February, is found to 
 be situated in Siberia toward the north-northwest of 
 Luzon, frequently extending to Mongolia, northern 
 China, and the sea of Japan. The air currents of the 
 first quadrant, influenced by tlie maximum pressure,
 
 CLIMATE 133 
 
 cause great and frequent condensations, which in the 
 months of December and February are produced along 
 the eastern coasts of the Philippines, and at times 
 when especially abundant and extraordinary reach 
 the western shores. 
 
 The maximum of days of rain in Manila and vicinity 
 is during July, August, and Septemljer, and the mini- 
 mum in February and March. The ''rainy days," it 
 is to be understood, include all those during which 
 enough rain has fallen to be appreciated or measured 
 by the ordinary apparatus; days of passing showers 
 are not registered and hence not taken into account. 
 The average number of days of rain for the different 
 months in Manila during the years from 186 G to 1898, 
 inclusive, are: January, 5.1; February, 2.8; March, 3; 
 April, 3.7; May, 9.1; June, 15.6; July, 20.6; August, 
 20.3; September, 20.2; October, 16; November, 11.7; 
 and December, 7.9 ; making a total annual average of 
 135.9. The statement made that in Manila 203 days 
 out of the year are rainy is hardly scientifically accu- 
 rate ; 135.9, or in round numbers 136, days is, however, 
 a period extraordinary enough to astonish the foreigner 
 who comes from a continental country. The year 1898 
 shows a total of 198 days of rain, while in 1885 there 
 were only 89 days. Much care is generally exercised 
 by the writers on the climate of intertropical regions in 
 distinguishing between the two seasons, — the dry, which 
 lasts from November to May inclusive, and the humid, 
 wet, or rainy season, which continues during the other
 
 134 THE PHILIPPINE ISLA:t^DS 
 
 five months from June to October. In considering the 
 climate of the Philippines, however, it must be remem- 
 bered that this division can be applied only to the interior 
 and western coasts and not to the eastern parts of the 
 archipelago ; for along these coasts the season from 
 November to May is distinguished by much rain, and 
 the succeeding one from June to October is far from 
 being a distinctly wet season, as is the case on the 
 western coasts in the region of Manila. 
 
 The terms "rainy season " and " dry season " are apt 
 to be misunderstood by persons who have never lived in 
 a tropical country. This is the case with many who start 
 for the Philippines supposing that the rainy season is so 
 called because there is a constant fall of rain dming the 
 five months included under the term " rainy season." 
 If one stops to think a moment, of course, the so-called 
 rainy months — June, July, August, September, and 
 October — have long periods of dry weather ; and it 
 is not a rare occurrence for ten, fifteen, or even a 
 larger number of days to pass without any rain at all, 
 or at most with showers of but little importance. The 
 only practical significance in this distinction between 
 the seasons is that the total amount of water which 
 falls in the five months of the rainy season is greater 
 than the amount which falls in the other seven months 
 of the 3^ear. Out of the total annual average of 136 
 rainy days, 43 come within the dry season and 93 in 
 the rainy season ; or, in other words, thirty-one per 
 cent of the rainy days of the year are in the dry season
 
 CLIMATE 135 
 
 as compared with sixty-nine per cent in the wet season. 
 The average percentage of rainfall in inches is 20 for 
 the dry against 80 for the wet season. 
 
 One hundred and seventeen inches of rain fell at 
 Manila during the year 1867; and the next highest 
 amount during the years from 1865 to 1898 was in 
 1891, — approximately 105 inches. On the other hand, 
 the rainfall for 1874 was only 47 inches. The yearly 
 average for Manila is 75.5 inches, compared with 116 
 inches for Albay province, 45 inches for the city of 
 New York, and only 25 for San Francisco. 
 
 The heaviest rainfall which has been recorded in 
 Manila for any one month was in September, 1867, 
 when about 58 inches of water fell; and in contrast to 
 this is the month of September, 1885, when less than 
 2 inches was recorded. During the first July of Ameri- 
 can occupation, that is in 1899, 39 inches of rain fell, — 
 the second highest record for a single month that has 
 been found ; and September 24, 1867, is recorded as 
 having experienced for a period of twenty-four hours a 
 fall of 13 inches, the maximum amount for the space of 
 a day. Such statements, frequently heard, that 20 inches 
 of water fall in Manila in one day are thus, holding to 
 the facts, hardly true, although for parts of the day 
 really remarkable downpours have occurred. On May 21, 
 1892, between the hours of five and six in the after- 
 noon, 2^ inches of water fell, which is the record for 
 the period of one hour, and was indeed excessive. The 
 most noted storm in Philippine meteorological history.
 
 136 
 
 THE PHlLlPriNE ISLANDS 
 
 during wliicli the greatest quantity of water fell in tlie 
 least space of time, is the rainfall which occurred during 
 the tornadoes of August 28, 1897, amounting to 1.5 
 inches of water in the s^jace of only sixteen minutes. 
 
 Winds and Clouds 
 
 The prevailing winds in Manila and vicinity are 
 southwest for six months of the year,— from May until 
 October; northerly from November to January; and 
 during the other three months of February, March, and 
 April, easterly. May is the month of the veering of the 
 winds from east to southwest, and October the one dur- 
 ing which they change from southwest to north. The 
 
 Sunset, Manila Bay 
 
 particular winds of the Philippines are not monsoons in 
 the proper sense of the word, though this term is com- 
 monly used to describe them, for they have a local 
 action peculiar to themselves, and do not conform to
 
 CLIMATE 
 
 137 
 
 the regular semiannual changes which characterize the 
 monsoons of neisrhboring; countries. 
 
 The results of the study at the observatory of the 
 different features of the clouds are of much value, for 
 
 Sunset, Manila Bay 
 
 by attentively examining the height and direction of 
 those observed in the proximity of a cyclone and com- 
 paring these results with the height and direction which 
 have been found true under normal conditions, really 
 remarkable differences have been found, that have 
 opened new avenues of information and increased the 
 number of means by which it is possible to predict the 
 advent of these cyclonic disturbances. 
 
 The cloudiest month of the year, speaking for the 
 geographical region of Manila, is August ; and the clear- 
 est month, March. The number and volume of the 
 clouds increase progressively from April to August, and 
 then begin to diminish again, until the minimum degree 
 of cloudiness is reached in March.
 
 138 THE THILIPI'INE ISLANDS 
 
 Cyclones 
 
 True and typical cyclones possessing the genuine 
 movements of rotation and transference are found in 
 the Philippine archipelago and the seas that surround 
 it. These haguios, as the natives know them, or ty- 
 phoons, as they are frequently called by Americans, who 
 
 On the Luneta Beach ouKiNii a Typhoon ; looking 
 
 South from ^Manila 
 
 From stereograph. Copyright hy Underwood & Underwood, New York 
 
 have adopted the Chinese name for such storms, do not 
 fall short of equaling the cyclones of the Indian ocean 
 or the hurricanes of the Atlantic in their intensity and 
 destructive power. 
 
 During the years 1880 to 1898, 397 cyclones ap- 
 peared in the archipelago, — a yearly average of twenty- 
 one. Not one of these was obser\-ed in February, and 
 only 3 in the month of March. Their frequency
 
 139
 
 J 40 THE i'lliLiPi'l.NE i.SLA>^J).S 
 
 then increased from April, when 9 were found to have 
 occurred, to July, when 66 were recorded. There was a 
 slight decrease for the month of August, and the maxi- 
 mum of 79 was reached in September. The figures are as 
 follows : January, 6 ; February, none ; March, 3 ; April, 
 9; May, 24; June, 35; July, 66; August, 63; Septem- 
 ber, 79; October, 54; November, 40; December, 8. 
 The accuracy with which an individual observer may 
 determine by means of the barometer the almost exact 
 nature of a coming cyclone has already been mentioned. 
 There is, however, another means for the detection of 
 these disturbances, and that is the nebulous condition of 
 the atmosphere, particularly with regard to the conver- 
 gence of cirrus clouds, — a sign which is considerably 
 more valuable than the barometer, coming, as it does, 
 oftentimes two or three days before any indication of 
 an atmospheric change is shown by this instrument. 
 By observing these high clouds, which are small in 
 size, of very fine structure, and of clear opal color, 
 generally a|)pearing as elongated feathers, known to 
 mariners as '' cocktails," the position of the vortex of 
 the storm and the various movements may be deter- 
 mined with comparative ease. The first idea of utilizing 
 these clouds for the purpose of learning the storm 
 vortex is to be credited to Father Vines, director of the 
 Havana Observatory ; it is considered one of the great- 
 est discoveries won in the study of the meteorologi- 
 cal phenomena within recent years. Long before the 
 least sign of bad weather is observed, and in many
 
 CLIMATE 141 
 
 cases when the barometer is very high and under the 
 influence of the center of maximum pressure which 
 usually precedes a tempest, these small isolated clouds 
 appear in the upper regions of the atmosphere, banked 
 up in the blue vault of heaven and stretching away in 
 the direction of some one point on the horizon towards 
 which they converge. The foremost are few in number 
 but well defined and of the most delicate structure, 
 appearing like long filaments bound together and be- 
 coming invisible before reaching the point of conver- 
 gence. At the observatory at Manila they have been 
 seen at times when the vortex of the storm was more 
 than six hundred miles distant. As they are observed, 
 it is necessary to keep them in sight and, watch care- 
 fully their successive movements ; and the best time for 
 making these observations is the moment that the sun 
 rises or sets. When the sun nears the eastern horizon 
 the first clouds to be colored by its rays are the cirro- 
 stratus, — the heralds of bad weather ; on the other 
 hand, they are tlie last to appear after the sun has passed 
 below the horizon. After the point of convergence dur- 
 ing these moments has been carefully determined the 
 direction of the position of the storm center can be 
 approximately fixed. To determine this with accuracy 
 as it moves along, it is necessary to estimate at regular 
 intervals the points at which these cirro-stratus clouds 
 converge and compare them with the movements of the 
 barometer. By this means the general characteristics 
 of the storm are learned, and by further inquiries of
 
 142 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 a meteorological nature, aided by available weather 
 records, practically every feature of the disturbance is 
 discovered and proper steps taken to avoid any harm- 
 ful results. 
 
 In general, the work in meteorolog}' in the Islands 
 with the observatory as the center, has been of a high 
 grade and exceedingly valuable. The necessity for con- 
 tinuing this study of weather conditions was recognized 
 by the American government at the outset ; and steps 
 were taken to strengthen the department, as it had 
 been organized under the Spanish regime by the Jesuit 
 fathers, by enlarging the equipment and making the 
 observatory the official weather bureau for the Islands. 
 To-day the same careful, systematic study of the weather 
 conditions continues, and daily and other periodical 
 reports upon which the extensive commercial interests 
 of the Islands are dependent for safety, are sent out to 
 different points in the archipelago.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 
 
 The Spaniards epigrammatically describe the seasons 
 as consisting of six months of dust, six months of mud, 
 and six months of everything ; and we might supple- 
 ment this by adding that these seasons are by no means 
 successive, for when it is dusty in one place it may be 
 very muddy in another. It is quite a possible experi- 
 ence, indeed, to find the soil of one island parched by 
 the sun and yet be able to look across some narrow 
 strait and see daily storms furnishing nutrition for the 
 abundant tropical foliage of a neighboring island. This 
 variety and complexity of physical conditions we have 
 already noticed, and the elfect which these have upon 
 the subject we are now considering, that of public 
 health, is naturally obvious ; for while living conditions 
 might be exceedingly favorable in one place, they might 
 be almost the opposite in another not far distant. In 
 what we have to say here, therefore, we must observe 
 the same caution in refraining from speaking too gener- 
 ally, and we should limit what we do say in any general 
 way by the consciousness that conditions vary for every 
 part of the archipelago, and hence that it is difficult to 
 lay down any but a few broad directions which might 
 
 143
 
 144 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 be of service in preserving in this tropical country the 
 state of health which we enjoy in the United States. The 
 sanest and truest paragraph that has been written upon 
 this matter of residence in the tropics is, in the writer s 
 estimation, the following, written l^y an American who 
 has lived some years in the Islands. 
 
 Briefly stated, the facts are as follows : if one is permanently 
 situated in a good locality where he can secure suitable food 
 and good drinking water, if he is scrupulously careful as to his 
 diet, avoids excesses of all Jtinds, keeps out of the sun in the 
 middle of the day, and refrains from severe and long-continued 
 physical exertions, he is likely to remain well, always supposing 
 that he is fortunate enough to escape malarial infection.^ 
 
 The author finds himself in complete accord with 
 this view, and further agrees with the same writer that 
 though these words are true as they are here limited, 
 it is a different matter with the explorer, the engi- 
 neer, the timber cutter, or an}' other who would go into 
 the back country to take up any such severe work as 
 is involved in developing the latent resources of the 
 country. Good food, regular habits, little or no drink- 
 ing of alcoholic liquors, no exposure to the midday sun, 
 no undue physical or mental exertion, and no worry, — 
 these are the precautions which, if taken, will make it 
 ordinarily possilDle for the white man to live for a 
 period of from three to five years in the Philippines 
 without any real suffering ; and yet to fulfill these con- 
 ditions in the provinces is often particularl}' difficult. 
 
 1 Worcester, The Philippine Islands.
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 
 
 145 
 
 Our own people h.a,\e suffered thus far to a great 
 degree because of their lack of adaptability; and it is 
 quite true that the climate of such a place even as 
 Manila, which is at sea level and which is intensely 
 hot with a high percentage of humidity during certain 
 portions of the year, is not harmful to the constitutions 
 of healthy Europeans and Americans, provided that 
 
 Xativk Shack in Malate 
 
 they immediately choose a mode of living that is suit- 
 able to the country, and in the matters of clothing, 
 diet, habits, and recreations adapt themselves to the 
 new conditions. x\mericans as a rule have felt that 
 they could eat, drink, sleep, and work just as at home, 
 but the results unfortunately have convinced many 
 of their error. The doctrine of the strenuous life has 
 no place in the tropics ; the simple mode of living is 
 a much wiser one. Furtlier tlian this, persons over
 
 146 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 forty-five years of age (a limit which is also set by civil- 
 service requirements) and those with any chronic trouble 
 should not go to the Philippines wdth the view of living 
 there for any extended length of time. It is one of the 
 worst places in the world for consumptives ; it is not good 
 for people with catarrhal troubles or weak eyes ; nor is 
 it to be recommended for people who are suffering from 
 indigestion or possessed of shattered nervous systems. 
 
 Persons who are planning to go to the Islands gener- 
 ally read up about the conditions of life in Manila, and 
 do not realize sufhciently that residence in the provinces, 
 however comfortable it may be made, is still very differ- 
 ent from what it is in the capital. This difference is by 
 no means as great as it was before the coming of the 
 Americans, yet it is sufficient to act as a warning 
 against accepting as true for the back country the 
 descriptions concerning Manila itself. The conditions 
 outside are such as to make the writer feel warranted 
 in predicting that no extensive settlements of Ameri- 
 cans in the archipelago are likely to be made for years 
 to come, if ever ; extensive colonization by us seems to 
 be precluded. 
 
 No general statement can be made with any degree 
 of accuracy concerning the effect of the Philippine cli- 
 mate upon an American ; so much depends upon the con- 
 stitution and character of the individual, the locality 
 in the United States from which he comes, — whether 
 New England or Texas, — the place in the Islands where 
 he is to take up his residence, the work that he is going-
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 
 
 147 
 
 to follow, and the fact that he has or has not his family 
 with him and is to be surrounded by the precautions 
 and care of a good housekeeper. Home life and strength 
 of character to do certain things, such as taking exer- 
 cise, and to refrain from doing other things, such as 
 overeating or exposing one's self to the sun, are the 
 two prime conditions for a comfortable existence in the 
 
 The Chosen PLAVGRorND for Two Schools, Concepcion 
 
 tropics. There is no doubt that from the first the hot 
 months of April, May, and June are generally trying 
 to every American. The air at this time is steamy 
 and sticky with the closeness and heaviness which we 
 associate at home with a hothouse atmosphere. The 
 so-called '' temperate months," again, afford no bracing 
 change, and thus in time the never-ending sunnner 
 debilitates one. 
 
 In Manila the nights are found to be cooler than the 
 days, due to breezes from the bay, and refreshing sleep
 
 148 THE PHILIPPINE ISLxVXDS 
 
 is possible. A siesta after lunch, or tiffin, as it is called, 
 is taken by nearly every one, even Americans. The air- 
 less character of the atmosphere during the greater part 
 of the hot season makes it particularly difficult for those 
 who are in poor health or overtired. Hitherto it has 
 not been easy to get away from Manila to the purer air 
 of the hills, and there are no short trips possible from 
 the capital over Saturday and Sunday, which would fur- 
 nish much relief. When a man has finished the day's 
 work in the tropics he is usually fagged out and listless, 
 and desires nothing so much as the cool veranda and 
 the thinnest of clothing. The change from the northern 
 temperate climate of the United States to the tropical 
 one of the Philippines is invariably severe, and to the 
 writer's knowledge there is no one who has gone to the 
 Islands from any of the northern states wlio has not 
 suffered annoyance of some sort. Evil consequences 
 of this change of climate may be felt at the begin- 
 ning of one's stay or after several years' residence, or 
 even in rare cases after a return to the United States. 
 Dengue fever, a disease somewhat akin to malaria, is 
 common during this period of acclimation. Nearly 
 every one, too, suffers from prickly heat, a rash which 
 breaks out over the body, sometimes lasting for months. 
 Other more serious diseases unfortunately are within 
 the range of possibility if a certain amount of care is 
 not exercised. 
 
 Cleanliness attained b}^ the daily bath is absolutely 
 essential to good health. All water, furthermore, should
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 
 
 149 
 
 be boiled or distilled in order to be able to drink it with 
 imjiunity. Clothes washed in ordinary unboiled water 
 are sure to contain germs which give rise to a skin 
 disease known as " dhobie itch," which is extremely 
 annoying and disagreeable and often contracted in spite 
 of all precautions. 
 
 Among the innumerable variety of insects to contend 
 with, the ever-present mosquito is foremost, and no one 
 thinks of sleeping without a suspended netting care- 
 fully tucked in on all sides. Ants exist in great variety 
 
 Homes of Poorer Class ox Piles near a Caxal, Concepcion 
 
 and profusion, and they are ready to take immediate 
 possession of all eatables not properly protected. But 
 worse even than the mosquito is the Phihppine house fly, 
 although he appears only intermittently, for he sticks to 
 you as if he were glued and is often the source of much 
 irritation. Cockroaches of immense size skip across your 
 floors and eat the bindings off your books ; lizards crawl 
 over your walls, but after the first impressions are for- 
 gotten their chirp becomes a cheerful sound ; spiders 
 take up their abode in the bath rooms; and many
 
 150 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 other insects, their species varying at times according 
 to the locality, inhabit shoes, chests, and other possible 
 places around the house. Yet it is very easy for a good 
 housekeeper to minimize these discomforts, and it takes 
 a comparatively short time to get used to them, espe- 
 cially if one starts out at the beginning to make the 
 best of things. On the whole, life in the Islands is not 
 uncomfortable ; the experience is interesting, the daily 
 happenings absorbing, and there is a charm about it all 
 that is indescribable. 
 
 Now that the opinion of the writer has been given, 
 let us turn to the views of others wlio have been in the 
 Islands and see how nearly they coincide. The opinion 
 of a physician,^ who has lived for a long time in the 
 Orient and who was charged by certain insurance com- 
 panies in the United States to investigate the health 
 conditions of the Philippines and their suitability for 
 occupation by Americans, is that an" American of temper- 
 ate habits who is about to reside in the Philippines is a 
 " fair risk." The climate, in his estimation, is salubrious 
 as compared with other tropical countries ; and although 
 the Islands are subjected to the diseases which are com- 
 mon to the adjacent districts of Asia, particularly bubonic 
 plague, Asiatic cholera, beriberi, leprosy, dysenter}*, and 
 various malarial fevers, — epidemics which obey no law 
 of periodicity, — yet there is nothing to show that these 
 may not be avoided by prudent sanitary precautions. In 
 the opinion of the writer, however, the actuaries of the 
 
 1 Robert .J. Sloan, M.D., resident at Shanghai.
 
 PU15LIC HEALTH 
 
 151 
 
 largest insurance companies are not following tins phy- 
 sician's conclusions, as testified by the fact that from 
 forty to one hundred per cent is charged as an additional 
 annual premium by the majority of these companies. 
 
 An observing school-teacher in an interesting account 
 of the effect upon a person of residence in the Islands 
 
 After School, Concepcion 
 
 mentions the loss of memory as particularly noticeable, 
 and this is literally true, as can be testified from per- 
 sonal experience; loss of ability to spell is another 
 effect. It has been the opinion of the writer from the 
 beginning that the climate was indeed largely responsible 
 for most of the pessimistic reports sent home to our 
 papers concerning conditions and doings in the Islands.
 
 152 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Caucasians grow pessimistic and suspicious after a few- 
 years' stay ; and those who do not stand the climate are 
 apt to become hypersensitive and hypercritical. Yet 
 discomforts and hardships of pioneer work are what 
 try men's souls, and those who stick to their ideals 
 soon accustom themselves to these difficulties and fnid 
 great enjoyment in the work because it is of such a novel 
 and missionary nature. As Commissioner of Education 
 ^Y. T. Harris has said, "A person that is not always 
 ready to Ije born again upon a week's notice has no 
 business to go abroad and undertake missionary work 
 in a foreign land." 
 
 The effect which the climate has upon moral char- 
 acter is a question that should properly be left to those 
 whose interests qualify them to speak with accuracy 
 upon this matter ; and yet it is almost impossil^le to pass 
 such a subject without mentioning the unfortunate com- 
 bination of conditions which makes it so easy for persons 
 to become heedless of the restraints which they would be 
 wont to exercise at home and in their recklessness to go 
 into excesses of different sorts. The distance from home, 
 the climatic influences, the lack of sufficient means of 
 harmless entertainment, the general freedom and easi- 
 ness of the life, -^ all tend to encourage a departure from 
 that standard which had hitherto been maintained. 
 
 The following extract from the first report of the 
 Taft Commission bearing upon this question of public 
 health, gives a calm statement of facts officially pre- 
 sented, and is therefore helpful in understanding these
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 153 
 
 conditions in the Islands. It is perhaps based upon too 
 short a period of observation. 
 
 That health conditions are, on the whole, suprisingly good in 
 the Philippines is conclusively demonstrated by comparing the 
 sick reports of our troops while in camp in the United States with 
 the reports for the time during which they have been engaged in 
 active service in the Philippines. It is believed by this commis- 
 sion that no tropical islands in the world enjoy a better climate 
 tban do the Philippines. While this is true, two classes of dis- 
 eases have to be reckoned with here. These are, first, diseases 
 common to temperate and tropical countries, and second, dis- 
 eases especially characteristic of the latter regions. Under the 
 former head would fall smallpox, cholera, bubonic plague, and 
 leprosy ; . . . (under the latter) diarrhoea, dysentery, malarial 
 troubles, and beriberi. 
 
 The report later recommends the establishment at Ben- 
 guet, a province of some five thousand feet elevation in 
 northern Luzon, of a summer resort for the recuper- 
 ation of those government officials who from the effects 
 of the climate become run down. This recommenda- 
 tion was later realized by an act of the commission mak- 
 ing this place a summer home for Americans and the 
 seat of government during the hot months. Benguet 
 has thus become the summer capital of the archiioel- 
 ago and a genuine health resort for those connected 
 with the government service. The climate, temper- 
 ate in character, is a delightful change from that of 
 Manila and vicinity; and the cooler, cloudier atmos- 
 phere makes outdoor life and exercise possible and 
 furnishes just that stimulating force which is never 
 found in the capital. Pine woods and rugged mountain
 
 154 THE riilLiri'JNE JSL\N])S 
 
 scenery suggest our northern country at home and pro- 
 vide excellent opportunities for exercise by walking 
 and climbing. Baguio is the region chosen for this 
 resort, and by this time it contains a number of sub- 
 stantial houses for use during this summer season, 
 stores with the limited supplies, government buildings, 
 and, most important of all, a well-equipped sanitarium. 
 The distance to the nearest point on the railroad con- 
 necting with Manila is some thirty-five miles, with a 
 horse trail the only road over the mountains. A gov- 
 ernment road, however, is in course of construction up 
 through a river gorge, and although a great deal of 
 money and time and engineering skill are yet required 
 before its completion, owing to the almost insuperable 
 natural difficulties, when it is completed this summer 
 capital, the Simla of the PhilijDpines, can be reached 
 in a day's journey from Manila. 
 
 The sui'geon general of the United States army dif- 
 fered somewhat from the opinion ex^^ressed in the 
 report of the Taft Commission as to the effect of the 
 climate upon the health of the soldiers. He claimed 
 that it is enervating to the body and depressing to the 
 mind, and recommended, therefore, as a measure of 
 humanity, that the term of service of a soldier be lim- 
 ited to three years at the most, while two years he 
 considered a more prudent maximum term. 
 
 An American physician, formerly in the army and 
 now practicing his profession in the Cagayan valley of 
 northern Luzon, in a letter concerning the conditions
 
 155
 
 156 THE rillLiPPlNE ISLANDS 
 
 there, urged as one of the foremost needs an improve- 
 ment in sanitation and hygiene in the various towns. 
 He mentioned the death rate of four or five persons a 
 day in a town of not more than four thousand population, 
 caused b}' malarial fever, summer complaint, and the like, 
 in the dry season, and by cold and poor nourishment in 
 the wet months, — a record that is not extraordinary. It 
 is unfortunately true that native medical skill in the 
 provinces is of no A^ery high order, and on this account 
 the death rate among infants is unnecessarily high. 
 Owing to the climate of the country, fevers and intes- 
 tinal disorders are also common, bnt generally are not 
 serious, with the exception of dysentery, which has 
 proved to be a dangerous trouble to foreigners, many 
 of whom have died from its effects. 
 
 Of the most serious epidemics both bubonic plague 
 and cholera have occurred since the American occupa- 
 tion, with results that have been exceedingly unfortu- 
 nate, particularly in the case of the latter. Shortly after 
 the coming of the Americans the plague broke out in 
 the city of Manila in certain quarters, where filthy con- 
 ditions gave the growth of the disease every encourage- 
 ment. It seized upon the Chinese and lower classes of 
 Filipinos, and was spread by rats carrying the infection. 
 A systematic campaign was at once directed against 
 these creatures and sanitary conditions were improved, 
 with the result that after a run of something over a 
 year, in March, 1902, the disease was wiped out with 
 a comparatively small loss of life.
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 
 
 157 
 
 Almost immediately cholera appeared, and because of 
 the awful havoc it made in the archipelago it will long 
 be remembered. The 
 total number of cases for 
 the year^ was 123,000, 
 with over 70,000 deaths, 
 a mortality of more than 
 sixty-five per cent. Dur- 
 ing the awful ravages of 
 this epidemic work of 
 the grandest sort was 
 done by the Americans 
 in the insular, provincial, 
 and municipal bureaus 
 of health in the Islands. 
 Examples of self-sacrifice 
 that have seldom been 
 surpassed were here wit- 
 nessed and a zeal dis- 
 played for the welfare 
 of the natives that has 
 been rarely equaled. 
 Volunteers came from 
 all sides to the rescue 
 of these ignorant people, 
 
 J •, 1 J. J.1 • School Attike, Coxcepcion 
 
 and it was due to their 
 
 efforts that thousands of lives were saved by enforcing 
 
 some of the common principles of sanitation, which were 
 
 1 From March to December, 1902.
 
 158 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 unknown to the natives themselves. The work carried on 
 was indeed a vahiable object lesson to the Filipinos, — 
 one, however, that was almost misunderstood at times ; 
 for, as in a cholera outbreak of the past, the foreigners 
 were accused of poisoning the wells, and the most absurd 
 tales gained credence among the lower classes, which led 
 to the concealment of the sick, the escape of the infected, 
 and the throwing of dead bodies into rivers, the polluted 
 waters of which were fruitful sources of infection. 
 With such opposition on the part of these people, and 
 with the hostility of Spanish and native physicians, and 
 even sometimes of church authorities, the Americans 
 had to contend in the work ; yet by prompt action, 
 careful study, and strict surveillance of infected dis- 
 tricts the scourge was finally stayed, and steps were 
 taken towards preventing permanently its reappearance 
 on the extensive scale which it had reached. 
 
 In general, life in this tropical land may be made 
 much more comfortable and tolerable by the observance 
 of a few rules as to dress and conduct, and freedom from 
 many of the common complaints may thus be enjoyed. 
 
 The invigo ration of the four- or five-minute shower 
 bath is a good beginning for withstanding the wearying 
 and wearing dog-dayish air, and a second shower before 
 retiring without any strenuous rubbing of the skin is 
 refreshing and sleep conducing. 
 
 As to clothing, the thinnest underclothing, probably 
 white linen mesh, — a material that is easily permeable 
 by air and moisture, — should be worn; and next best to
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 
 
 159 
 
 this is cotton. Changes should be frequent and strict 
 cleanliness observed; if comfort is of any account, the 
 laundry Ijill should not be considered. All articles which 
 come in direct contact with the skin should be changed 
 as often as they become soiled; the sense of cleanli- 
 ness itself is cooling and tends to a feeling of self-respect. 
 
 Washing Clothes in Cagayan River 
 
 An abdominal band should be worn to protect the 
 internal organs in case of sudden changes in the tem- 
 perature, the material to be the thinnest Jaeger flannel, 
 and the l)and to be changed frequently. Thin, white 
 cotton stockings are the only ones permissible; and 
 shoes sufficiently large should be thin soled and of can- 
 vas or other porous material. White, openworked stock- 
 ings are suitable for women, while children should wear 
 none; — simply the heelless sandals now so popular.
 
 160 THE PHlLirriNE ISLANDS 
 
 The suit should be of white drilling or some similar 
 material, and the coat should button up, naval fashion, 
 to the neck and have a low standing collar. Nothing 
 should be worn over the undershirt, unless possibly a 
 negligee shirt ; with a nicely laundered cotton suit 
 cuffs and collars may be omitted. For women the ideal 
 costume is a low-necked dress of the thinnest white 
 muslin or organdie, with, elbow sleeves, no gloves, and 
 no hat. No clothing should be worn which constricts or 
 unduly confines any part of the l)ody ; there should be 
 free circulation of the blood and air as well as prompt 
 evaporation of the perspiration ; thus loose, open- 
 meshed clothing is best. Belts, waist and skirt bands, 
 and impermeable corsets are tabooed ; lower garments 
 should be suspended from the shoulders. A loosely 
 fitting Panama hat without any sweat l^and is the most 
 comfortable and is also the most hygienic, for it can be 
 washed frequently. 
 
 Little drinking should be done, and if one must drink, 
 cooled and not iced drinks should be used ; iced tea 
 and coffee and all alcoholic drinks should be avoided. 
 If one must have ice, let it be chopped ice ; sherbets are 
 all right, but it is a good rule to keep away from the 
 soda fountain. During the hottest weather one should 
 be scrupvdously careful of his diet, avoid rich, hearty 
 foods, and not overeat. Salads, fresh fruits, and eggs 
 are good foods for this climate. 
 
 Exercise should be taken before or after the heat of 
 the dav; and durinsji: tliis time the sun sliould ho. avoided.
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 161 
 
 If one is obliged to be out, a pongee silk sun umbrella 
 with a green lining may be carried. 
 
 One should take things easily and not get excited 
 over trivial matters. As the expression is, the "heat 
 gets on the nerves," and httle annoyances are greatly 
 magnified. 
 
 As much sleep as possible should be taken ; and 
 from our Philippine brothers we may well learn that 
 the afternoon siesta helps in combating the effects of a 
 hot da}^ This means for the busy man a short nap of 
 ten minutes, the beneficial part of which lies in the few 
 minutes' complete relaxation of the nervous system. 
 American women in Manila adopt completely the tropi- 
 cal custom of undressing and going to bed, and are not 
 expected to receive or make calls until five o'clock. 
 
 The wardrobe of every woman should contain at 
 least one attractive negligee costume so useful and so 
 comuion in the East, — the silk kimono of the Japanese 
 or the neutral-colored sarong of the Javanese. The 
 housekeeper found in such a costume on a hot after- 
 noon should not be looked upon as slack or immodest, 
 but rather as appropriately dressed, — a practice that 
 runs counter to the ideas of our New England grand- 
 mothers, but one which comports well with conditions 
 in the Philippines. 
 
 The night clothing for men should consist of a suit 
 of pajamas, which ought to be of wool, a material that 
 in the tropics best protects the wearer from the chilling 
 of the surface of the body during sleep; but if this is
 
 162 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 objected to in such a climate, they may be made of 
 linen mesh. 
 
 If people would only let common sense instead of 
 petty convention dictate what they should wear and 
 how they should live, they would find hot weather more 
 tolerable and themselves and those around them happier ; 
 and such is the principle to be observed especially in 
 these tropical islands.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Without a clear understanding of the physical aspects, 
 the climate, and the products of the Islands, there can 
 l)e no satisfactory treatment of the extent and scope of 
 Philippine trade and its future prospects. Like many 
 tropical countries, with 
 their beauty, their fertil- 
 ity, and their innate re- 
 soiu-ces, the Islands may 
 well symbolize the dia- 
 mond in the rough. And 
 yet, admitting the exist- 
 ence of this great natural 
 wealth, the staggering 
 question follows, Is it 
 
 •1 11 o ITT • T T ,-[ Native Sailboat 
 
 available : \V ill the 
 
 Philippines pa\- ? is the usual form of the inquiry. This 
 
 question we are as yet a long way from answering, but 
 
 as a preparation for later discussion of the topic, let us 
 
 look into the matter from the standpoint of commercial 
 
 geography. 
 
 Certain facts we have already learned, — the distance 
 from America, the extensive water area within the 
 
 16.3
 
 164 THE PHILIPPTXE ISLANDS 
 
 archipelago limits, and the comparatively small amomit 
 of land surface. AYe know that if we could look down 
 upon the group we should find the whole made up of 
 some dozen large islands, each surrounded by numerous 
 smaller ones, and each of the former traversed by 
 one or more spinelike ranges of mountains. With the 
 fertility of soil, due to the volcanic origin, we are 
 acquainted ; if we could examine it closely, we should 
 find it of a dark, reddish-brown color, composed of dis- 
 integrated lava mixed with deca3'ed vegetation. On 
 the slopes this soil is rendered extremely productive 
 by the tropical rains, and a heavy luxuriant vegetation 
 is the result. On the other band, this rain pom^s down 
 
 Bamboo Bridge, Morong, IIizal 
 
 into the plains and valleys and makes iimumerable 
 rivers, swamps, and lakes ; not all regions are equally 
 favored, nor is the supply uniform throughout the year ; 
 there are floods and droughts, and until this sm-plus
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGKAPHY 
 
 165 
 
 water can be controlled and stored for purposes of irri- 
 gation loss of crops and famines will result. 
 
 The water buffalo, or carabao, is an animal for which 
 no substitute can be found for the work in the field and 
 
 Plowing Rice Paddy 
 
 the heavy drays on the road ; yet dm-ing the past three 
 years rinderpest, an epidemic among the cattle, has 
 destroyed ninety per cent of these strong beasts ; and 
 glanders and surra have taken off the horses. Both 
 locusts and typhoons have proved disastrous to the 
 crops ; and plague, cholera, and smallpox have caused 
 the death of hundreds of thousands of the people. The 
 tropical climate breeds indolence, hence there is a lack 
 of willing labor at the outset ; while on account of the 
 climate American laljor in the fields is out of the ques- 
 tion. The great distance of the field of investment 
 and the unwillingness to invest where Americans can- 
 not become permanent residents may operate to keep 
 capital out. Ladrones, or brigands, intimidate the peo- 
 ple and in interior districts prevent the pursuit of the
 
 166 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 ordinary vocations ; and it is difficult to see how this 
 ladronism can be stamped out completely as long as 
 those engaged in it can flee to the mountain fastnesses 
 for refuge. The majority of the towns are on the 
 coast and often separated l)y great distances. There is 
 only one railroad in the archipelago, one hundred and 
 twenty miles in length, connecting Manila with the 
 port of Dagupan to the north ; nor do the physical 
 features of the country invite extension of railway 
 communication, for numberless streams, which become 
 torrents in the rainy season, would necessitate the con- 
 struction of iimumeraljle strong Ijridges, and tlie cost of 
 maintenance owing to the ravages of severe rains would 
 be heavy. Thus trade, although an economic question, 
 has its geographical aspect. 
 
 The question of interisland communication is a seri- 
 ous one. The coast line of the Islands, estimated to be 
 11,444 miles, includes numerous gulfs, bays, and ports 
 offering excellent anchorage but few good harbors. 
 Manila itself, with a harbor spacious enough to shelter 
 the fleets of the world, has urgent need for the improve- 
 ments now nearing completion to insure safety to ves- 
 sels. Traffic between the islands has been seriously 
 interrupted by the unsettled conditions of the country 
 due to the insmTections, and more recently by the quar- 
 antine restrictions placed upon shij^ping during the 
 prevalence of cholera. The facilities for this trade are 
 inadequate and unsatisfactory ; Spanish boats with a 
 conspicuous lack of cleanliness run irregularly, and
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 107 
 
 English vessels, again, are not what might reasonably 
 be expected. 
 
 The rivers afford the chief means of transporting 
 heavy products from the interior to the seaboard. In 
 Luzon the Cagayan is navigable for a distance of 
 seventy-five miles by craft of a certain construction, 
 though the course is greatly impeded by fallen timber, 
 trees, and debris which come floating dow^n durincr 
 
 Water Buffalo 
 
 the rainy season. The Abra, Agno, Pampanga, and 
 Pasig are likewise navigable for part of their distance 
 by smaller craft ; and what is true of Luzon is also 
 the case of each of the other large islands. There are 
 almost no rivers with clear entrances and channels 
 sufficient for boats of any size ; and until recently no 
 attempt had been made to improve these w^ater courses. 
 Similarly on land there is difficulty in getting about, 
 owing to the lack of good roads. The so-called general
 
 168 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 highways are little less tliau impassable iu the rainy 
 season not only by reason of cL\y, mud, and washouts 
 but because of the lack of bridges. Once roads are 
 built it is difficult to keep them in repair ; many excel- 
 lent ones, however, constructed by the military authori- 
 ties are now maintained by the provincial officials, and 
 others are being laid out and bridges built as far as 
 limited funds will permit. This work has but begun, 
 and in many places the horse trail is still the only road ; 
 indeed, one of the prime causes of the stationary char- 
 acter of Filipino civilization in its various phases, and of 
 the marked philological differences, has been this want 
 of proper ways of intercommunication. 
 
 Under such conditions the difficulties with which 
 the postal service throughout the archipelago has been 
 conducted may be surmised ; yet it has been as fully 
 organized as the facilities permit and is being constantly 
 extended in response to the demands of business and 
 administrative interests. A fleet of small vessels recently 
 built is now at the disposal of the Insular Government, 
 and is of great benefit in carrying on the interisland 
 government business, including mail, transportation of 
 officials and employees, and doing special work for the 
 various bureaus. 
 
 Since the last of August, 1898, the date of the 
 American occupancy, the signal corps of the army has 
 constructed some nine thousand miles of telegraph, tele- 
 phone, and submarine cable lines in the Islands ; and thus 
 a means of prompt communication, and consequently
 
 CO.MMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 16'J 
 
 executive control, from the very northern point of 
 Luzon to Siassi in the extreme south, close to Borneo, 
 connecting all the important islands except Palawan, 
 is afforded. In addition to these military telegraph and 
 cable systems are the lines of the Eastern Extension 
 and China Telegraph Company, approximating some 
 six hundred miles in length and joining Luzon, Panay, 
 Negros, and Cebii. A transpacific cable nearly eight 
 thousand miles long, from San Francisco by way of 
 Honolulu and Guam to Manila, has lately been com- 
 pleted, thus establishing with the home country a direct 
 connection the importance of which can hardly be 
 overestimated. The service hitherto by way of Asia, 
 Europe, and the Atlantic was not only slower and more 
 expensive but was without our control and hence not 
 trustworthy in critical moments. 
 
 Commercial Products 
 
 Turning now to a consideration of the products of 
 the Islands, we find that Manila hemp, tobacco, sugar, 
 copra for export, and rice for home consumption are 
 the staple ones ; while coffee, chocolate, corn, and indigo 
 are also produced in quantities. Sugar was for a long 
 time the chief article of export, and, indeed, it is related 
 that much of that used by the Forty-niners of California 
 was the Philippine product ; it was later superseded 
 in importance by the so-called hemp, which became 
 the principal Philippine product known to the outside 
 world.
 
 170 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 This fiber, coiTecth' speaking, is not hemp at all, and 
 does not belong to the flax fan)ily, Ijut is ol^tained from 
 a species of the plantain gronp called abaca.^ Its trunk 
 and leaves resemble the banana tree so closely that 
 the two can with difficulty be distinguished Ijy the ordi- 
 nary person. The Ijody may be pulled apart as easily 
 as a vegetable stalk, while only an ordinary knife is 
 
 Hemp Ready for Exportation 
 
 required to cut it down and a very crude implement 
 to shred the fiber. Althouo;h efforts have been made 
 to introduce the tree into Borneo, Sumatra, and other 
 eastern islands, they have been without results ; it 
 grows nowhere else in the world, and even in the Islands 
 its cultivation is limited to those regions where the soil 
 is open and moist but not swampy. Southern Luzon. 
 Samar, and Leyte are the centers of the industry, though 
 
 1 Musa textilis.
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 171 
 
 in general the Pacific slopes of the Islands are thus 
 naturally adapted to the plant, and with tlie expendi- 
 ture of a iiiiuimum amount of labor and care thousands 
 of tons of the liber are produced annually in these 
 regions, while much is to be found growing wild. It is 
 exported principally to the United States and England 
 either in its raw state or in the form of rope and cord- 
 age. The annual return to an owner of an abaca plan- 
 tation is from twenty -five to thirty per cent ; and this 
 
 Hemp Market, Cebu 
 
 with the use of such primitive instruments as are now 
 employed, involving waste both of material and of time. 
 With the advent of a machine invented by American 
 mechanical genius for accelerating and economizing the 
 process of preparing this important article of commerce 
 for the market, an increase in profits and a new era in 
 the industry will be realized. 
 
 Tobacco is the next best known and characteristic 
 product, and the quality of the leaf is excelled only by
 
 172 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 that of the Havana plant. Much of it has a disagree- 
 able, dry, pungent flavor, particularly that used in the 
 cheaper cigars and cigarettes, a liking for which can be 
 
 Rope ^Making, jMaxila 
 
 only an acquired taste. The people, however, become 
 acquainted with it at the earliest j)ossible age, and 
 indeed it is not an altogether uncommon sight to see 
 infants given cigarettes to suck immediately after they 
 have been fed at the breast. The cheroots smoked by the 
 poorer classes are of immense size and are passed round 
 from mouth to mouth in the family group. After each 
 has had a sufficiency the stump is put aside for future 
 enjoyment, or, as is sometimes the case among the moun- 
 tain tribes, it is stuck into the pierced lobe of the ear 
 like an earring. 
 
 As every one is a smoker, — men, women, boys, and 
 girls, — the home consumption of tobacco is large ; yet 
 over one hundred million cigars are exported annually
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 173 
 
 from Manila, chiefly to China, Japan, the East Indies, 
 the United Kingdom, Spain, and Australasia. In addi- 
 tion, some twenty million pounds of leaf tobacco are 
 exported principally to Spain. Although it grows 
 almost everywhere in the archipelago, it is only the 
 tobacco of the hotter climate that possesses an aroma ; 
 that raised in the Cagayan valley is considered the best 
 quality. As is also true of the hemp industry, tobacco 
 growing is to a great extent in the hands of foreigners, 
 who control large areas of the most desirable land. 
 
 Another important staple is sugar, which, although 
 grown in almost every island, has its home just as 
 
 Phimitive Slgak Mill 
 
 distinctly in the central islands, particularly in Negros, 
 as tobacco does in northern Luzon. Yet, due to the 
 primitive methods which characterize agriculture and
 
 174 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 manufactures in the Philippines in general, the product 
 is of an inferior quality, — perhaps the poorest in the 
 world, wliereas the geographical conditions warrant the 
 belief that the Islands are capable of producing the best. 
 Yet poor in grade as it is, the five hundred million pounds 
 produced is nearly all exported ; and in this connection 
 the fact that the majority of the planters sell the sugar 
 
 Tuba (Cocoanut Vine) Grove, Majayjay, Laguna 
 
 Bamboo poles from tree to tree as bridges 
 
 in tlie crude state well illustrates the natural inertia of 
 the Filipino, who is generally content to accept the 
 smaller profit rather than assume the task of refining 
 the product. As a result there is economic loss in the 
 transshipment of this heavy watery substance to China 
 for refinement. As to the yield itself, the fact that in 
 the Hawaiian islands, where the soil is less productive, 
 a planter usually obtains se\enty-five tons of sugar to
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 175 
 
 the acre, whereas in the Philippines he considers half 
 a ton a fair amonnt, and can make a profit on snch a 
 basis, bespeaks the character of the culture in the latter 
 islands. 
 
 Copra, another com- 
 mon article of commerce 
 produced generally, is 
 the dried meat of the 
 cocoanut, the fruit of a 
 species of palm. From 
 this an oil is extracted, 
 which is used in a 
 variety of ways, par- 
 ticularly for lighting 
 purposes and in the 
 manufacture of soaps 
 and perfumes. The 
 cocoanut plantations, 
 which are used almost 
 exclusively for the copra 
 trade, require little care 
 and yield a large return 
 on the investment. 
 
 These four principal 
 products — hemp, tobacco, sugar, and copra — consti- 
 tute over ninety per cent of the entire export trade of 
 the Islands. Rice, the universal food of all eastern 
 peoples, which takes the place of l^read among us, is 
 produced in large quantities, and yet so insufficiently 
 
 Climbing for Tuba
 
 17G 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 as to necessitate heavy importations from Asia, making 
 tliis in fact the chief article of import. Coffee, chocolate, 
 corn, and indigo are also important vegetable products ; 
 and the conditions in certain parts of the Islands, par- 
 ticularly the interior of Mindanao, seem favorable for 
 the production of rubber. In the case of coffee the 
 
 production has fallen off 
 very much during the 
 past fifteen years on 
 account of the inroads 
 of a destructive insect. 
 Chocolate and not cof- 
 fee, however, is the com- 
 mon morning drink 
 among the better class 
 of Filipinos, and the two 
 h u n d r e d thousand 
 pounds of cocoa yielded 
 is consumed at home in 
 the manufacture of 
 chocolate. Corn, or maize, is the food of the common 
 people where the soil is not suited to the cultivation of 
 rice ; and indigo, the last-named article of importance, 
 although formerly produced in large rpiantities for ex- 
 port, has suffered a falling off in demand of late owing 
 to the adulteration of this connnodity by the Chinese. 
 
 The primary source of wealth of the Islands lies in 
 the agricultural lands, which cover seventy-three million 
 acres, only six millions of which, according to present 
 
 tuaxsi'oiitixg cocoani'ts thkoruii 
 
 Canal neau Post Office, 
 
 Manila
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 177 
 
 estimates, are under cultivation. How crude and unsci- 
 entific are the existing agricultural methods is but too 
 evident; yet equally clear is the fact that modern 
 methods of husbandry, such as rotation of crops, pro- 
 tection from insects, proper fertilization, and irrigation, 
 would work a wonderful change in the way of increas- 
 ing the produce per acre, and hence the profits on the 
 
 Planting Rice 
 
 investment. Nor is this mere speculation, for the intro- 
 duction of such means both of increasing the yield and 
 nourishing the soil to prevent exhaustion is very possible; 
 and, indeed, any improvement over the present condi- 
 tions in this industry, particularly a restricted immi- 
 gration of Chinese into the Islands to teach the natives 
 farming, — a plan which meets with the favor of the 
 Commission and which should receive every encourage- 
 ment in spite of the general attitude assumed by us at 
 home with reference to the entry of these people into
 
 178 
 
 THE PH1L1PP1^■E ISLANDS 
 
 the United States, — would tend toward realizing greater 
 returns in this line of work. With the rest of the agri- 
 cultural land (by far tlie greater part) then brought 
 
 Pounding Kick to draw it i-kom the Husks 
 
 under a cultivation based upon these proposed present- 
 day principles, this great potential wealth would become 
 real and the industry attain to the position of impor- 
 tance which it deserves. 
 
 Fruits and Flowers 
 
 Although the necessary conditions — a warm climate, 
 an aljundance of tropical sunshine, a plenteous rain- 
 fall, and a soil highly fertile — all seem to be present, 
 there is nevertheless a conspicuous absence of sweetly 
 scented flowers and palatable fruits. The bananas, 
 though they exist in almost endless variety of form.
 
 Ikkigating Machine, Mokong, Kizal 
 
 Hand Irrigation, Morong, Rizal 
 179
 
 180 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 color, and taste, are, with the possible exception of one 
 species, the lakatan, not nearly so delicious as the ones 
 which we buy at home at almost the same price paid 
 for this best grade in Manila. The pineapple plant, 
 also common, is cultivated not for its fruit but for the 
 fiber which is obtained from its leaves and used in the 
 manufacture of a very fine fabric known as pina cloth. 
 
 The fruit itself lacks the 
 exquisite flavor of the 
 Hawaiian and Cuban 
 product, and here again, 
 as in the case of the 
 banana, is suggested 
 the possibility of add- 
 ing this particularly 
 desirable quality by 
 proper cultivation. 
 Oranges sweeter than 
 almost any which we 
 find at home, though 
 small, might by similar care in cultivation be made lar- 
 ger and more luscious, and, instead of falling to waste 
 where they grow wild, become a universally important 
 product. 
 
 Of the few distinctive fruits of the Philippines, the 
 one perhaps best liked by foreigners is the mango, 
 yellow in color, oval shaped, and some five or six inches 
 long, with an agreeable flavor and a pleasant odor. The 
 species found in the Islands is superior to that of Hawaii, 
 
 Breadfruit Tree
 
 CUMMEKCIAL GEOGKAPHY 181 
 
 Java, or the Straits Settlements, in all of which places 
 it has a commercial value both as a fresh fruit and as a 
 pickle. The mangosteen, a j^roduct of the equatorial 
 region, is found as an exotic in some of the southern 
 islands. By the Moros this is called the " king's fruit " 
 because it is so highly prized by their sultans ; and such 
 a name is by no means inappropriate, for the fruit is 
 most delicately flavored and suggests a fruit lemonade. 
 In appearance it very much resembles an orange except 
 for the white color of its parts. In addition to these 
 fruits may be mentioned the chico, about the size of a 
 peach, with a dark, dry skin and a mealy, edible j)ortion 
 with a very sweet, pleasant flavor ; the lanzon, a kind 
 of plum ; while various others less commonly known 
 and less generally used are to be found growing in 
 different regions of the archipelago. 
 
 Timber 
 
 Another important asset of material wealth is the 
 timber land, comprising some fifty million acres, in which 
 are to be found between six and seven hundred varieties 
 of hard wood indigenous to the archipelago which are 
 suitable for the different economic and artistic purposes. 
 The great drawback to the development of the lumber- 
 ing industry is not the lack of demand, but the im- 
 possibility of getting the timber out of the forests on 
 account of the want of roads, transportation facilities, 
 and reliable labor, combined with the character of the 
 distribution of these different woods, by reason of which
 
 182 THE PHlLlFriNE ISLANDS 
 
 the percentage of the amount of any particular variety 
 for a given area is generally small and oftentimes so 
 low as not to warrant the exj)enditure of the necessary 
 labor. The majority of these woods, furthermore, have 
 a specific gravity greater than that of water, and hence 
 cannot be shipped to market by stream except l)y raft 
 or other craft. 
 
 The woods in most common use are camagon, often 
 mistaken for ebony, a dense jjlack wood, highly valued 
 for cabinet work ; elDony, more intensely black and 
 denser than camagon, very valuable for furniture mak- 
 ing and also used in the manufacture of gunpowder ; 
 guijo, a durable, strong, tough, and elastic species, used 
 in the construction of vehicles and for flooring ; ijnly 
 excellent for buikling purposes and joiners' work and 
 also for railroad ties ; molave, called by the natives 
 the •• queen of woods." proof against sea worms, white 
 ants, and the action of the tropical climate, exceedingly 
 strong and durable, lasting well underground, and highly 
 valued for various uses ; narra, wrongly called mahog- 
 any and resembling it, capable of a beautiful polish and 
 much used in furniture work ; palms, the most common 
 class of wliich is the paJina hrava, used for rafters, 
 piles, and telegraph poles ; and calantds, the Philippine 
 cedar, used for cigar boxes and other light work.
 
 H 
 
 183
 
 184 THE PHILIPPIXE 18L.\NDS 
 
 Mineral Resources 
 
 Much attention, particularly since the American oc- 
 cupation, has been centered upon what has been hailed 
 as the enormous mineral wealth of the Islands; and yet 
 in the midst of these glowing accounts of the mining 
 possibilities, it is well to bear in mind the tendency 
 inherent in human nature to see visionary wealth in 
 regions as yet unopened, and to contemplate the exist- 
 ence of untold treasures in virgin fields with such fasci- 
 nation as to transform imagination into confident belief. 
 Practically all that has thus far appeared on this subject 
 is mere speculation, for as yet there is no available 
 reliable information based upon actual scientific inves- 
 tigation by Americans, and no evident proof, scientific- 
 ally speaking, that the Islands do or do not contain 
 mineral deposits in paying quantities. That the Span- 
 iards, known to be expert miners, failed to find exten- 
 sive deposits may not be conclusive evidence that there 
 are none, and yet may be a sufficient reason for a 
 feeling of skepticism as to the possibilities. 
 
 Gold, silver, and copper unquestionably exist there, — 
 the writer has seen them mined ; and marble has been 
 quarried to a limited extent. Pearls are to be found in 
 the Sulu archipelago. Lignite has also been found, 
 claimed by some to be of excellent quality, while 
 others say it is so mixed with sulphur as to be prac- 
 tically useless. According to the report of the mining 
 bureau, good coal has been found in the provinces
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 185 
 
 bordering upon the Lake of Bay, and the opinion is 
 expressed by the head of this bureau that the coal 
 wealth of the archipelago surpasses that of other 
 minerals that may be discovered. Such carboniferous 
 deposits as there are, liowever, have not been developed 
 on an extensive scale, and many of the obstacles which 
 
 ICiOUOT Gold Mixes 
 
 prevented successful mining during the Spanish domi- 
 nation remain at the present time, so that, should rich 
 veins be discovered, the physical ditticulties alone would 
 preclude any rapid development of them. True it is 
 that various specimens have been found showing an 
 encouraging range of deposit ; yet these isolated sam- 
 ples do not necessarily indicate dynamic mineral wealth, 
 and until more definite information is to be had a con- 
 servative attitude is best.
 
 186 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 The Village Blacksmith 
 
 Mechanical Industries 
 
 The country, notwithstanding the aptitude of the 
 people and the abundance of raw material for all kinds 
 
 of fabrics, is not a 
 manufacturing one. 
 Primitive instru- 
 ments and methods, 
 moreover, charac- 
 terize what indus- 
 tries there are. 
 Hemp and pine- 
 apple fiber, cotton, 
 and silk are used in 
 weaving, and the cloth is named sincmiay, piua, or jiisi, 
 according as it is made entirely from hemp, fi"om pine- 
 apple fiber, or wholly 
 from silk. Coarser 
 garments, such as 
 men's shirts and 
 women's waists and 
 skirts, are usually 
 made of sinamay ; 
 the gauzy outer 
 waist worn by the 
 women is also gen- 
 erally of the same 
 material, though the more expensive piiia is sometimes 
 used; and their more elegant garments are oijusi. 
 
 
 
 Jfk 
 
 h: 
 
 ':^£v.i_ 
 
 BlHXIXG I'uTlEKV XKAll I'ASHi. lllZAL
 
 Blacksmiths 
 
 Milk Peddleks, Manila 
 
 187
 
 188 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Bamboo, palm leaves, rattan, and a number of other 
 vegetable materials are used in the manufacture of 
 mats, hats, and household furniture. Bamboo, in par- 
 ticular, seems to have an infinite number of uses, for it 
 not only supplies everything necessary for building 
 houses and fences, and is employed largely in making 
 
 wagons and harness, 
 household and farm 
 implements, but also 
 is used for food, the 
 Ijulb when boiled 
 tasting much like 
 cabbage. Most of 
 the rope and cordage 
 is made from Manila 
 hemp in or near tlie 
 capital ; and here 
 also are the more 
 prominent cigar and 
 cigarette factories. 
 Throughout the Is- 
 lands are numerous 
 small stills where alcohol is manufactured from the 
 juice of the nipa palm, and in Manila there is a large 
 distilling plant and also a brewery. 
 
 In each of the large towns are carried on the com- 
 mon trades, such as carpentering, tinsmithing, metal 
 working, carriage repairing, and blacksmithing, in all 
 of which, however, with the exception of the last 
 
 An Elkven-Year-Old Cuyax Child 
 Weaving
 
 Water Carriers 
 
 Vegetable Garden at Jolo 
 Photograph by G. E. C Rest 
 
 189
 
 190 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 named, the Chinese are more skilled and in greater 
 demand. Metal molding in a crude way is understood, 
 even among the natives of Sulu ; and silversmithiug is 
 carried on, particularly by the Ilocanos, a skillful, intel- 
 ligent people of northern Luzon. Real ability has been 
 shown in ^vood carving, of which we shall make men- 
 tion later in considering the artistic possibilities of these 
 people. Shipbuilding, too, was formerly a successful 
 industry of considerable extent, but among the natives 
 to-day it is limited to the construction of small craft. 
 
 Fishing 
 
 Owing to the great water area, fresh and salt, nearly 
 every Filipino is a fisherman, and fish forms one of the 
 principal articles of food for the people in general ; but 
 
 as distinct industries, 
 marine and fresh-water 
 fishino: are not carried 
 on extensively. The 
 local markets are sup- 
 plied by those who make 
 this a regular occupa- 
 tion, and in the large 
 seaport towns a brisk 
 business is done by 
 
 I'liiMiTivK Way ok Fishin(; ,1 /• 1 i, x j. 
 
 these hshermen ; but at 
 most this branch is only of local importance, and no such 
 deep-sea fishing as has for centuries formed the occupa- 
 tion of multitudes of Chinese near by is carried on.
 
 Fishing 
 
 ]\Iaking Fish Nets, Cavite 
 Ifll
 
 192 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Animal Life 
 
 The water buffalo, and not the horse or the ox, is 
 the native beast of burden. Strong but slow and delib- 
 erate of movement, and easily affected by overwork 
 or disease, particularly rinderpest, which has recently 
 wrought such destruction, it is hardly an ideal one ; 
 yet given its necessary daily wallow in some muddy 
 creek, it serves the Filipino well at the di-ay and the 
 plow. Buffalo milk is drunk and the flesh of the ani- 
 mal is eaten by the natives, but this latter is tough 
 and stringy and to Americans unpalatable. Running 
 bulls, such as are found in India, and undersized horses 
 are also employed by the natives, but less generally, 
 and are hardly typical. 
 
 Deer and monkeys are found here, and are used for 
 food. Hogs of a black color are to be seen in the streets 
 of every village, roaming at will and performing the 
 useful service of scavengers, — perhaps the only reason 
 for tolerating them. In spite of their public function, 
 however, little hesitation is shown in killing, roasting, 
 and eating them immediately on any festival occasion. 
 
 Among the birds the flesh and eggs of which are 
 eaten are cocks and hens, several species of jungle 
 fowl, ducks, pigeons, and snipe. 
 
 Oysters, clams, shrimp, crabs, and lobsters abound 
 in the shallow waters. An enormous giant mollusk 
 is found with shells sometimes six feet in length and 
 hundreds of pounds in weight, the valves of which
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 193 
 
 are often used for baptismal fonts and at times for 
 making lime; while the translucent valves of certain 
 smaller mollusks are ground into thin plates and used 
 extensively in place of window glass. Coral beds, too, 
 exist in the southern islands, displaying beautiful forms 
 and colors in the depths below and evidencing the 
 activity of the 
 polypi. 
 
 Ants are pres- 
 ent in countless 
 numbers and va- 
 rieties, of which 
 the m o s t de- 
 structive is the 
 white ant, or 
 ternite, which 
 inflicts great 
 damage on 
 wooden structures. Bees also inhalnt the Islands, par- 
 ticularly the southern ones ; and honey forms an article 
 of food, and wax one of commerce. Mosquitoes spread- 
 ing malarial disease and locusts destroying the crops 
 fairly swarm the land. Myriads of flies and water 
 bugs, large and small, also exist ; and of the reptile, 
 rodent, and arachnid families are mnnerous represent- 
 atives including lizards, scorpions, centipedes, snakes 
 to a limited extent, spiders of all sizes, but rarely 
 poisonous, and rats, which have caused damage chiefly 
 in Manila l)y spreading plague infection. 
 
 "m^^^m 
 
 p 
 
 
 ^r^T% 
 
 - . * . . 
 
 ■- ;^gj| 
 
 Bull Cart used in 1'kovincf.s
 
 194 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Before conclucliusi: this consideration of the Islands 
 from the standpoint of commercial geography, let ns 
 direct our attention to some of the features of the 
 more important members of the group. 
 
 Interest naturally centers on Luzon, on which Manila 
 is situated. Next to the largest island in the grouj), 
 some four hundred miles in length and two hundred 
 in width, it was the first to be occupied by American 
 troops, and was the scene of the earliest and most impor- 
 tant military operations. It is divided into twenty-two 
 provinces, not including the municipality of Manila, all 
 under civil government. On account of the location of 
 the capital in Luzon, the island has Ijeen influenced more 
 than any of the others by outside civilizing forces, and 
 
 Taking Rice to Market 
 
 for the same reason has the largest and most diversified 
 trade and most of tlie more extensive industrial plants. 
 Outside of Manila, iiowever, tobacco and hemp growing 
 arc the principal industries. It is related tliat wlien
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 195 
 
 Magellan's party first landed on this island they saw a 
 woman pounding rice in a mortar made fi'om a tree 
 trunk, just such as is used to-day, and they made signs 
 
 Native Carriage, Manila 
 
 to her to inquire what she was doing. In reply she 
 lifted the large wooden pestle and called out "Looson," 
 which is the name given by the natives to the whole 
 instrument; and from this circumstance the Spaniards 
 named the island Luzon. 
 
 Mindoro is the least explored island of all ; it is 
 very mountainous, thickly wooded, and unpenetrated 
 by roads. Various traditions envelop this strange place 
 in a haze of fascinating mystery : wild tribes are said 
 to be there ; white people having all the appearance 
 of Anglo-Saxons, and supposed to be descendants of 
 those who were sent out early to form an English 
 penal settlement, have, according to the testimony of
 
 196 
 
 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 native priests and military officers, been seen in the 
 interior ; and great mineral wealth was reported to the 
 Spaniards as lying in the mountains inland, whence 
 the name, "mine of gold." Moro pirates formerly rav- 
 aged the coasts, and later desperate characters from 
 Luzon and near-by islands made this their resort. 
 
 Along the shores there are small towns having rattan 
 splitting as the chief industr}^; and honey, wax, and 
 
 IIa.M.MUC K^ (i()lN(i TO A.Nlirdl.o. liIZAL 
 
 tortoise shell are obtained from the neigliboring islands, 
 with Calapan as the trade center. 
 
 Masbate, named from a certain species of palm grow- 
 ing on the island, is traversed and broken by a semi- 
 circular mountain chain, and until the appearance of 
 the rinderpest was the center of a thriving cattle- 
 raising industry. Timber cutting is now the chief 
 source of wealth. The climate here is conspicuously 
 liealthful, the people industrious, and the natural 
 beauty unsurpassed. 
 
 Samar, third in size in the group, is almost a con- 
 tinuation of southern Luzon. Nearlv all tlie towns are
 
 C0:\OrERClAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 197 
 
 on the coast or along the main streams navigable for 
 native craft. The interior is rough and wild, uninviting, 
 and sparsely settled by mountain peoples. Hemp is the 
 principal product. 
 
 Leyte, separated from Samar by a narrow strait, is 
 very similar to the latter in physical character and 
 resources, and is likewise devoted chiefly to hemp pro- 
 ducing, though much sulphur, supplying the powder 
 
 Native Traxspoktathix 
 
 mills in Manila under the Spanish rule, was obtained 
 here. In spite of the general mountainous character it 
 is one of the best cultivated islands in the archipelago. 
 Here it was that Villalobos landed in 1543 and named 
 the place Filipina, which name was later extended to 
 the entire group. 
 
 Panay is mainly interesting because on it is situated 
 Iloilo, next to Manila the most important commercial 
 center in the Islands. It is one of the more prosperous
 
 108 
 
 THE PIIILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 of the group, with fertile soil, good means of communi- 
 cation Avith the interior towns, and contented people. 
 Hemp and sugar in general and various textiles from 
 silk, pineapple, and hemp filjer, such asy2<6'/.^.»//7rt, and sina- 
 niay manufactured in and near Iloilo, are the products. 
 Negros, almost separated into two ditt'erent islands 
 by its dividing chain of mountains, is the home of the 
 
 sugar industry. The 
 soil is particularly- 
 fertile, the people are 
 in comfortable cir- 
 cumstances, and al- 
 most no disturbances 
 have been known. 
 1 1 ere may be seen the 
 genuine haciendas or 
 plantations, and their 
 owners, the prop- 
 ertied class. 
 
 Cebu became early known to foreigners as a trading 
 center, and the city itself, next in importance to Manila 
 and Iloilo, has from the earliest times enjoyed an inde- 
 pendent ti'ade with Asiatic and European ports ; and 
 this intercourse has had the effect of elevatins; the 
 island, particularly that portion in the vicinity of the 
 capital, to a higher stage of civilization than that of its 
 neighbors. The mountainous interior, however, is not 
 yet properly opened up by the necessary roads, making 
 comnnmication from coast to coast possible. 
 
 I i;avelin(; in Bexguet
 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGKAPHY 199 
 
 Bohol is one of the most uninteresting islands of all. 
 Its soil is comparatively l^arren, the timber resources 
 are limited, and many of the towns luifortunatel}- were 
 razed during the w^ar. The interior is rocky and diffi- 
 cult of access, and the people have been turbulent. 
 
 Palawan, long and narrow, lying to the far south- 
 west, is the most inaccessible of the larger islands. 
 Spanish authority was recognized only along the coast, 
 but never affected the savage tribes of the interior; 
 and as yet American dominion has penetrated little 
 farther. The people are partly Mohammedan, mostly 
 heathen, and are far removed from the state of civiliza- 
 tion. Honey and wax are here produced hi quantities. 
 
 Mindanao, the name signifying " the peoples of the 
 lake," occupies the southeastern corner of the archipel- 
 ago, and is the largest in the group. The climate is more 
 equable and healthful than that of Luzon and, unlike 
 the latter, it is not exposed to the typhoons. Mountain 
 chains attaining great height traverse the island, and 
 forests largely unexplored and full of animal life 
 cover a great portion of it. The lake region of the 
 interior, practically none of which was under Spanish 
 control, is now accessible from the northern coast by 
 military roads, and the Mohammedan inhabitants are for 
 the first time making the acquaintance of an outside 
 power. 
 
 All the common products of the archipelago are 
 raised here, and in addition certain of the spices in- 
 digenous to the East Indies.
 
 200 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 The Sulu arcliiiDelago, lying to the southeast of Min- 
 danao, though ceded with the Phihppines, forms a dis- 
 tinct group of islands, smaller in size than the ones 
 we have been considering. The inhabitants are Mo- 
 hammedans, ruled by dattos, wdth the sultan at their 
 head, and have tastes, habits, and interests in common 
 rather with the Boruese and East Indians than with 
 the Filipinos. 
 
 Finally, it would be impossible to leave the present 
 subject without just a word regarding the commercial 
 position of the Islands with reference to the great 
 oriental world, and the significance in this connection 
 of the Isthmian Canal, soon to wield an influence in the 
 field of international trade. More than half the peoples 
 of the earth live in the countries which are within easy 
 reach from the Philippines : China, with its four hun- 
 dred millions or more of people; the East Indies, with 
 over three hundred and forty millions ; Japan, forty-two 
 millions; Australasia, five millions; Siam, nine millions; 
 and the Straits Settlements, one million ; making a total 
 poj^ulation ten times that of the United States. That 
 our possessions there will become a base for commercial 
 operations in the Far East is only a conjecture ; yet there 
 are those who see in Manila a second Hongkong, — a 
 great mart for the supply of the earth's products to the 
 millions of this vast Orient. With the capacity of the 
 home markets long since reached, where competition 
 has become almost stifling, trade has already sought 
 other fields ; and among them this oriental one, with
 
 COMMEKCIAL GEOGRAPHY 201 
 
 a demand for goods that seems unlimited, is the fairest. 
 It is but beginning to open up, and as its extent and 
 the various wants of these multitudes of human beings 
 are being revealed, the assurance comes that for ages 
 hence here will Ije the great center for commercial 
 activity, the scene of future trade conflicts, the objec- 
 tive point in the nations' race for wealth. And here 
 are the Philippines, an entrance, as it were, to this 
 tempting field, brouglit nearer to the home country by 
 the intercontinental canal, which thus will lend active 
 aid in gaining control of the held itself. The possibili- 
 ties are great ; time will determine the results.
 
 202
 
 CITY OF 3IANILA 
 
 EXPLANATION 
 
 City Boimdaiy 
 
 BounUarlcs of City Disiricta 
 
 ^luclcltoiiseB [o] 
 
 Kaliniad 
 
 BuildluKK <2a aud 
 Cemetery tSJ Cem. 
 Cburcbes *
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 MANILA 
 
 Manila, formerly jMaynila, or Bush Town, as the name 
 signifies, the Nuremberg of the Orient, with Ijut few 
 equals anywliere for quaintness, owes its foundation to 
 Legaspi, who on his northern expedition in 1571 took 
 
 
 
 
 :^f. 
 
 PlEUTA KkAL, AVaLLS OF ]\IaNILA 
 
 the ancient town at the mouth of the Pasig and, divid- 
 ing the land among his Spanish followers, set in opera- 
 tion plans for a well-laid-out city. Streets were cut and 
 houses constructed in squares, and a park was reserved 
 
 203
 
 204 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 in tlie midst of these, flanked by the cathedral church 
 on one side and municipal buildings on the other. Later 
 by some twenty years walls were built round the city 
 with drawbridge entrances ; and in 1G54 the cathedral, 
 now venerable, was begun. 
 
 Philip II had made the city the capital of the archi- 
 pelago, and its splendor soon won for it the name of 
 
 Pearl of the Orient. 
 Early writers de- 
 scribe it as beauti- 
 fully laid out and 
 built, indeed the 
 first city of the 
 East. It is cause 
 for regret that it 
 did not continue up 
 to the present time 
 in this ancient 
 form ; as we know, 
 the earthquake of 
 1645 wrouo;ht such 
 destruction as to 
 discourage any ef- 
 forts toward reconstructing on the same scale as for- 
 merly, and the city which Americans found on their 
 arrival six j'ears ago was the result. 
 
 Excellent judgment was shown by the early settlers 
 in selecting the site of the capital, for the position is 
 remarkably good commercially and strategically, with 
 
 Sentry Box inside Walls
 
 MANILA 
 
 205 
 
 the sea on one side, inclosed by a harbor some thirty 
 miles across, protected by a fortified promontory at the 
 outlet, the river flowing through the center of the 
 city, furnishing with its innumerable tributaries every 
 facility for water transportation. Direct communication 
 is also thus afforded to Laguna bay and the numerous 
 towns along the shores in this fertile region of central 
 
 Street in Walled City 
 
 Luzon; and other streams emptying into ]\lanila bay, 
 available for lighter craft, make it easily possible to 
 bring the product of the surrounding country into the 
 capital. 
 
 The location was less fortunate, however, from the 
 standpoint of climate, for, just at sea level, the city was 
 constantly subjected to the intense heat of a tropical sun, 
 which, with so much water near by, caused a high degree 
 of humidity and thus furnished conditions favorable for
 
 206 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Lighthouse at Entuaxce of Pask; Kinku on Manila Bay 
 
 the contraction of fevers and in general encouraged 
 the spread of diseases peculiar to such countries. 
 
 Manila to-day, with its cosmopolitan population num- 
 bering some two hundred and seventy-five thousand, 
 made up of Filipinos, Chinese, Americans, Spanish, Ger- 
 mans, British, Japanese, French, Portuguese, Indians, 
 
 C'liuucii IJl'1li)1N(;s, Manila
 
 MANILA 
 
 207 
 
 and nicany other peoples in small numbers, is a crowded 
 oriental city, unprepossessing, conspicuously barren of 
 the luxuriant tropical vegetation so noticeable elsewhere, 
 even just outside the city, at first most interesting for 
 its novelty and afterwards equally tiresome because of 
 its monotony. Low-lying and bounded by a range of 
 mountains in the back- 
 ground which makes it 
 appear even smaller, it 
 fails to impress the new- 
 comer, and not until he 
 has left the steamer and 
 traveled up the Pasig 
 to the landing point is 
 he able to make out the 
 real city and its activ- 
 ities. And then he be- 
 gins to form impressions 
 and simultaneously to 
 wipe off a rapidly 
 accumulating flow of perspiration, which seems to have 
 an abundant source and increases in volume with every 
 step he takes under the burning sun in his search for 
 some means of conveyance from the water front to the 
 hotel. Filipinos and Chinese in the employment of our 
 government are seen in numbers round the custom- 
 house and other buildings along the river; others again, 
 mainly Chinese, hurry along in the broiling sun carrying 
 burdens suspended from a piece of bamboo placed across 
 
 "Window in Walled City
 
 208 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 the shoulder ; native women with infants galore squat 
 round selling cigarettes, fried grasshojDpers, and cakes, 
 or await their laboring husbands, who are ever ready to 
 postpone work awhile for a smoke talk ; and occasion- 
 ally natiA'e vehicle drivers are to be seen, indifferent to 
 
 the new arrival's need 
 of some means of trans- 
 portation, and perhaps 
 asleep in their box, for 
 it is still hot. Finally 
 he reaches the hotel, or 
 if not this, then unfor- 
 tunately some one of 
 the numerous Spanish- 
 Filipino institutions in 
 the city which go by the 
 same name, but are sad- 
 looking competitors for 
 such a designation, as 
 the general interior ap- 
 pearance, absence of the 
 little things that are no 
 longer considered luxuries here at home, and the species 
 and quality of the food served soon testify. 
 
 After a stopping place has been found and, if imme- 
 diately possil)le, a change of linen and abandonment 
 of woolen clothes accomplished, the impression making 
 may continue. The sun has lowered in its course and, 
 no longer scorching, is settling over Mariveles across 
 
 Washing Clotiiks near Bridge 
 OF Spain
 
 209
 
 210 
 
 THE PlllLirriNE ISLANDS 
 
 the bcay and preparing one of the most beautiful siglits 
 imaginable as it sinks behind this rugged mountain, 
 casting long beams across the broad harbor and bathing 
 clouds and ships and church spires in a golden brilliancy. 
 The air has become pleasantly cool, and crowds riding, 
 driving, and promenading fill the Luneta, where a con- 
 cert is going on. The white costumes of natives and 
 
 Luneta 
 
 foreigners, so pleasing in effect, the vivacity of this cos- 
 mopolitan set, the sweetness of the music, the cooling 
 air, the beauty of this tropical sunset, — all together 
 comljine to satisfy again the mind that w^as Ijecoming 
 discontented. 
 
 By this time the general character of the city and 
 its contents has been perceived, — tlie division into sepa- 
 rate districts or wards; the queer old section within the 
 walls surrounded by a disease-generating moat and itself
 
 211
 
 212 THE riiiLirnxE islands 
 
 known as Manila ; the more recent bnsiness portions 
 on the opposite bank of the Pasig, where foreigners 
 have their establishments ; Chinatown, a typical Chi- 
 nese neighborhood; the narrow, crowded streets and 
 the low, strangely built houses, with stables below and 
 a second story projecting over a bit of sidewalk ; the 
 number of creeks or csteros forming a network of 
 canals through the city ; the public markets ; the differ- 
 ent types of people with such variegated costumes ; the 
 little horses and the deliberate water buffaloes ; and, per- 
 vading all, the constant chatter of the natives in their 
 guttiu\al Tagalog dialect, with an added bit of English 
 here, German there, or Spanish in another place. 
 
 Americans who live in cities which have water sup- 
 plies, systems of sewerage, gas and electricity, street 
 railways, well-paved streets, fire and police departments, 
 and public lil^raries can hardly imagine the elementary 
 condition of the cities of the Philippines. Manila alone 
 has a water supply, an electric-light plant, a street rail- 
 way, and a telephone system ; and these are primitive 
 and incomplete. The capital was the first to reap the 
 benefits of the new government, and consequently had 
 some of its most urgent needs attended to almost im- 
 mediately. Foremost among the improvements were a 
 well-organized department of sanitation, which has done 
 an immense amount of good ; a police department ; 
 a municipal ice plant, — a veritable blessing; and a 
 hospital. Yet much remains that has not yet been 
 accomplished; the cleansing j^rocess must be continued
 
 Calle Gkal. Solana, Manila 
 
 213
 
 214 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 in order to reduce to a miiiinium the chances of such 
 serious outbreaks of cholera, bubonic plague, and small- 
 pox as have occurred in the past; means of transpor- 
 tation must be extended, though this need does not 
 demand immediate attention now that an electric-car 
 line has been put into operation, — a great improve- 
 ment over conditions a short time ago, when it was 
 practically impossible to secure a vehicle when one was 
 most needed ; and, in general, streets remain to be 
 improved and various portions of the city to be beau- 
 tified Ijy parks and tropical vegetation, which needs 
 little encouragement and which improves these island 
 cities so wonderfully, as any one who has visited beau- 
 tiful Honolulu can testify. 
 
 The increasing number of Americans is already so 
 large and their energy and enterprise so dominant that 
 there is no large city in the East which has undergone 
 so complete a change. Three years ago the lack of 
 luxuriant tropical vegetation ; the dirty, narrow, poorly 
 paved streets; the inferior artificial light ; the miserably 
 equipped car line, patronized only by natives of the 
 poorer classes ; the groups of nipa shacks, more primitive 
 as a dwelling than the worst American shanty; the 
 narrow Escolta, the main business street; the sultry 
 climate ; the mixed currency ; the inability to speak the 
 language ; the difficulty in finding goods, both clothing 
 and food, which you especially wanted; the long dis- 
 tances ; the high hotel expenses ; the scarcity of public 
 conveyances, — all coml^ned to make the first impressions
 
 215
 
 210 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 of the newcomer hardly of the most pleasant sort. 
 But conditions have changed much even within this 
 short space of time, and the city is becoming more and 
 more American or, in other words, up to date. 
 
 Attractions are not by any means entirely lacking in 
 this city of novelty, as we have already seen; there is 
 the charm of a tropical climate, which may be called its 
 open-airness, — one is somehow a little nearer to nature. 
 
 Common ll<_iu?i: J.izai:d 
 
 The evenings at sunset, when the day's enjoyment 
 begins, are almost alwa3's cool, and the nights comfort- 
 able ; the freedom of the life is delightful. A cold 
 shower l^ath in the morning after a solid night of sleep, 
 and the donning of an immaculate white costume start 
 the day well ; a siesta during the hot early afternoon 
 adds to the comfort. Cockroaches may devour your 
 books and clothes, ants your furniture, lizards and 
 spiders keep you company at night, mice and rats in 
 the roof hold regular sessions, and mosquitoes get 
 under your netting, and yet you almost forget it all in
 
 MANILA 
 
 217 
 
 thinking of the pleasures and gazing at the bkie sky 
 overhead, the rich sunsets across the placid waters of 
 the bay lighting up the mountains on every side, and 
 the snowy, white-robed throngs taking their drives and 
 walks before a late dinner. 
 
 Tiu-ning to matters more practical, to one taking 
 up residence in Manila the house question is the most 
 
 House of an American Resident in Manila 
 
 difficult to solve; even a fairly good house is hard to 
 find. Rents are high, varying from fifty to one hundred 
 and fifty dollars a month; sanitary arrangements are 
 poor, and nearly every American must spend some fifty 
 or a hundred dollars in putting the house into proper 
 condition. If anything better than kerosene lamj)s is 
 desired, electric lights or an acetylene-gas plant must
 
 218 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 be put in by the tenant. Servants, again, are a source 
 of concern, for while the Filipinos are sometimes good, 
 they are often incompetent and unreliable. A larger 
 nundjer is needed than at home, and then the total 
 cost of domestic service is much higher. Wages in the 
 capital for native boys var}- from four to ten dollars a 
 
 Slsi'ension BiuDGE ovEU Pasig RiVKi: 
 
 month, and two or three of these are required. Filipino 
 cooks are unsatisfactory, and a Cliinaman, who demands 
 from fifteen to twenty-five dollars, becomes a necessity. 
 Laundry is sent out, and even though an exceptionally 
 good bargain has been struck, tliis becomes a material 
 item of household expense. In general, there is no 
 system of registering servants, and with the constant 
 change taking place in the American j)opulation, the 
 authors of the letters of reference cannot well be con- 
 sulted ; hence there is no means of telling whether or 
 not the bearer of the recommendation is the original 
 person for whom it was intended. After the servants 
 are finally hired petty thefts and unannounced depar- 
 tures are to be expected. 
 
 On account of the de[)lorable lack of any proper and 
 sufficient means of daily transportation until within
 
 MANILA 
 
 219 
 
 the last few months, when a modern electric railway 
 connecting the business and office districts with a part 
 of the residence portion was started, it has jjeen prac- 
 tically necessary for every family to own at least one 
 horse and some kind of a carriage. For their care 
 a hostler-coachman is needed, who, knowing nothing 
 about the proper care of horses and little more aljout 
 driving, is paid from eight to twelve dollars a month. 
 Many a person, annoyed and worried because of the vex- 
 atious delays in getting a public conveyance, has thought 
 the transportation cjuestion settled by providing him- 
 self with a rig. But he is mistaken; his trouljles have 
 only begun. The ponies are not hardy, there is a great 
 deal of sickness among them, and every season glan- 
 ders, surra, and other diseases carry them off l^y the 
 
 C'ascoks used in unloading Vksski-s in Manila IIakijuk 
 
 hundreds. They are expensive to keep, too ; in fact, it 
 costs as much to feed one of these ponies as it does to 
 board an American horse at a private livery stable in 
 New York City. Australian fodder, or American, when 
 it can Ije hud, is better than the native food, which
 
 220 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 consists of grass, — a valiial)le commodity in the Pliili]> 
 j^ines, — milmsked and powdered rice, and molasses. 
 Harnesses are cliea}), l)ut lack durability; the climate 
 rots the leather and they are always getting out of 
 order. Carriages, too, are cheap in the first instance, 
 l)ut dear in the end, for they are poorly constructed 
 and ahvays in need of repair. Every piece of wood in 
 them is wrenched one way in the dry season and the 
 
 other way in the 
 wet season ; indeed, 
 one season of wet 
 weather, aided by 
 the rough roads, will 
 age a carriage ten 
 years according to 
 home standards. 
 
 Meats and gro- 
 ceries are high and 
 of inferior quality; 
 at times, indeed, 
 it is impossible to procure certain articles, owing to 
 irregular shipments and other causes ; while the supply 
 of meat, wliieh comes from Australia in cold storage, 
 is very much interruiDted during the typhoon season. 
 The housekeeper is, in fact, kept busy from morning 
 to night in looking after her servants, doing errands, and 
 making purchases. 
 
 Manila, socially, is very gay. There are club and offi- 
 cial receptions, dinners, theater parties, launch parties, 
 
 P^SCOLTA BlUDGE AM) CaNAL, ]\IaNILA
 
 MAXILA 
 
 221 
 
 either on the bay or up the Pasig river, dances, concerts, 
 and horse races. Among the chibs are the Army and 
 Navy, the University, the American, and the Enghsh, 
 and there are various native, Spanish, and American 
 theaters. Athletic sports, which the British provide 
 
 A Manila Canal 
 
 for themselves wherever they go, are, however, not 
 popular with the Americans in the Islands, — a fact 
 that is to be regretted, for regular exercise of a light 
 character is one of the requisites of good health in 
 the tropics. 
 
 There are some eight or ten American and Spanish 
 newspapers, but difficulty is met with in getting together
 
 222 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 sufficient news to fill tlieir columns. Papers and maga- 
 zines from the States are a month old when they reach 
 Manila, and yet in spite of this fact their arrival is 
 always an important event. 
 
 Americans and Filipinos meet at receptions and ex- 
 change calls, but there is no intimate social relation 
 between them ; vmavailing efforts have been made to 
 bring them nearer together. Many of the richer Fili- 
 pinos live in handsome villas and entertain lavishly. 
 One is alwaj's perfectly welcome at whatever house he 
 enters and is urgently invited to partake of everything 
 the house affords ; and this is not only true at times of 
 marriage and on feast days, but in fact on every occa- 
 sion that presents itself. The tables are loaded with 
 cold meats, all kinds of pastry, preserves, confectionery, 
 and everything to drink, while entertainment is fur- 
 nished by the harp or piano, with dancing. In both 
 Manila and the provinces the writer has found these 
 people to be the most hospitable he has ever met ; 
 they are extremely free, open-hearted, and cordial, and 
 it seems as if they cannot do enough for their guests. 
 
 Lazy, sleepy, and mediceval are some of the epithets 
 applied to Manila by those who described the place pre- 
 vious to the coming of the Americans, and the monotony 
 of the business and social life was constantly jDointed 
 out. Now, however, strenuous, wide-awake, and modern 
 are more applicable terms for describing it. As one 
 clever American put it, Manila to-day is the oldest new 
 town and the newest old town in tlie Orient.
 
 MANILA 
 
 223 
 
 The influx of Americans has raised the cost of every- 
 thing ; what was thought to be a momentary sudden 
 excess of demand over supply in the matter of food 
 products, houses, and servants has continued up to the 
 present time; and the high standard of American hving, 
 even of those of moderate means, has astonished Euro- 
 peans themselves. The American lavishness, in fact, 
 
 Paco Cemetery 
 
 has already had the effect of raising prices throughout 
 the eastern world, and American extravagance has 
 become a byword. 
 
 The capital and its vicinity are not without their 
 points of interest, chief among which is Paco ceme- 
 tery, — a place of most singular construction, in the 
 form of a double circle. Betw^een the outer and the 
 inner circles there is a space left for the poor, who in
 
 224 THE PHILIPPINE ISLAXDS 
 
 Spanish times were interred without coffins. In the 
 thick, sohd walls there are three parallel rows of hori- 
 zontal recesses or niches, each capable of admitting a 
 good-sized coffin, and here are deposited the bodies of 
 those whose relatives are able to pay. After the funeral 
 ceremonies and interment in one of these spaces the 
 entrance is bricked up and a plate fixed outside stating 
 the name and age of the lonely occupant. He is thus 
 left undisturbed for a period of years, at the expira- 
 tion of which time the bones of the deceased are either 
 buried in one of the churches or else taken from the coffin 
 and thrown upon a bone pile in the rear of the cemetery. 
 
 The monuments which the Spaniards have erected 
 throughout the city are hardly remarkable and, archi- 
 tecturally, are deserving of little attention. The most 
 imposing structure in the city, if it must be confessed, 
 is the government ice plant, which, although not a 
 thing of particular beauty, is a real blessing. 
 
 Among the things peculiar to Manila which are 
 observed on a grand scale are the church processions. 
 The rites and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic 
 church affect the Filipino powerfully, and these pro- 
 cessions, suggestive of the time of the Crusades, are 
 objects of the greatest interest and reverence for the 
 natives. In the late holiday afternoons these may be 
 seen passing through the streets with all their pomp, 
 — then large crosses, torchbearers in long rows, musi- 
 cians, and images of the different saints and of the 
 Virgin with the infant Jesus, all dressed in beautiful
 
 MANILA 
 
 225 
 
 robes and glittering tinsel. Traffic is stoj)ped, and the 
 whole population turns out to witness the event. Natives 
 of every class take part, and girls and women with 
 lighted candles inarch along to the peculiar, slow, 
 solemn music. After a series of ten or more gorgeously 
 arrayed images come the priests, bringing up the rear. 
 Houses all along the route are 
 brilliantly illuminated and 
 decorated, and the atmosphere 
 is a distinctly religious one. 
 The spectacle is indeed im- 
 pressive, and the whole pro- 
 ceeding appeals dee23ly to the 
 people. 
 
 Previous to the coming of 
 the Americans no Protestant 
 missionary was allowed to set 
 foot in the Philippines, nor, 
 if known, was a Protestant 
 Bible permitted to enter. 
 Since that time several 
 churches have been started by the Episcopalians, Meth- 
 odists, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Christian Scientists 
 in Manila; and an active brauch of the Young Men's 
 Christian Association, the work of which is deserving 
 of high praise, has been established. The prospects a.s 
 to this Protestant church work, however, are not very 
 encouraging.^ 
 
 ^ Chapter on Superstitions and Religion. 
 
 Si'ixiMi-.N OF Wood Carving 
 IX Sr. Paterno's Home 
 
 Done by a Filipino
 
 226 TiiK rjULipriM-: islands 
 
 Finally, a word must be said as to the government 
 of Manila, which is very similar to that of the District 
 of Columbia. There is a municipal board consisting of 
 three commissioners, — the president, a Filipino at a 
 salary of five thousand dollars a year, and two Amer- 
 icans at forty-five hundred dollars each. There is also 
 a well-organized police force ; an efficient board of 
 health, which did splendid work in the city during the 
 ravages of the plague and cholera )jy maintaining a 
 careful inspection of the food and improving distinctly 
 the sanitary conditions in the poorer quarters of the 
 city; a board of puljlic works that has bettered the 
 streets and the surface drainage and beautified the city ; 
 a fire department efficiently organized ; several good 
 hospitals and a jail, both of which have been radically 
 imjDroved by the municipal authorities. The city as a 
 whole is undergoing a change for the better, partic- 
 ularly in its living conditions, and the near future will 
 find it as purely American as it is possiljle to make 
 such an eastern tropical place. 
 
 PaSIU KlVF.K
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 PEOPLE 
 
 The Philippine archipehigo forms an ethnic museum, 
 in which we can study the human race in its manifold 
 forms. Already a hint has Ijeen given of the widely 
 diverse conditions to which the Spaniards had to adapt 
 their administration and their laws ; they were obliged 
 to deal with Malay character more or less in its pure 
 form, while we Americans have to do with this same 
 character Latinized. From these diverse families — Ne- 
 gritos, Malayans, and possibly Indonesians — the popu- 
 lation of the Philippines has Ijeen composed. The first 
 attempts toward civilizing them fell to the Spaniards, 
 and although unfortunately the Spaniards have left 
 very few written records concerning the conditions in 
 which they found the natives, we have been able to 
 see in our consideration of the earlier history of the 
 Islands that an important work indeed must have been 
 accomplished by these Spanish tutors in lifting the 
 greater part of such a conglomerate population to the 
 position in which we found them six years ago. We 
 know that most of the natives, under the direction of 
 their rulers, advanced from a state of comparative bar- 
 barity to one of at least semicivilization ; that they 
 
 227
 
 228 THE PlllLlPriNE ISLANDS 
 
 gained many neAv ideas and learned various industries 
 from the Spaniards; and became in large jDart Chris- 
 tianized. Thus we know that the peoples with which 
 we became acquainted a few years ago are in quite a 
 different stage of development from their aboriginal 
 ancestors. Just what these former peoples were is a 
 fascinating subject for speculation to the person who 
 is interested in anthropology, and it is to be regretted 
 that not for some time to come — until the sciences of 
 comparative philology and ethnology have had an op- 
 portunity to throw light upon these early times and con- 
 ditions in the Philippines — shall we be aide to satisfy 
 a very lively curiosity. With the restoration of peace 
 and the establishment of civil government throughout 
 the Islands, these studies will surely be taken up by 
 American scholars, and a most fruitful field for inves- 
 tigation Ije thrown open. Many historical data, which 
 will undoubtedly be of aid in any such investigation, 
 still remain hidden away in churches, monasteries, and 
 official archives in both the Philippines and Spain. The 
 paramount position which the church representatives 
 won in the Philippines, their influence upon the native 
 race, and their social, religious, and semipolitical organ- 
 ization of this tropical people furnish a unique subject 
 for historical research. The practical importance, more- 
 over, of a thorough scientific study of the Filipino race 
 — their physical characteristics, their manners, customs, 
 laws, and languages — is not hard to see, for there can
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 a>6- 
 
 Ethnological Map 
 
 229
 
 230 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 be no (l(niljt that an understanding of the ideas and 
 modes of thought of an alien people in a relatively 
 low stage of civilization facilitates very considerably 
 the task of governing them. 
 
 The earliest information concerning the population 
 of tlie Philippines is for the year 1735, when the vari- 
 ous religious orders reported a total of 837,182 souls 
 under their jurisdiction. At the beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century the compilation made from the tax rolls 
 for the tribute showed a population of about two mil- 
 lion; and this, by the year 1840, had increased to three 
 million. During the Spanish rule there were two sources 
 which were almost always available for the purpose of 
 ascertaining with sufficient accuracy for all practical 
 purposes the number of inhabitants in the towns recog- 
 nizing the Spanish sovereignty. These were the assess- 
 ment lists and the parochial records. Independently of 
 these two regular means, the Spanish government took 
 an official census in 1887, the results of which showed 
 a population just under six million. Another official 
 census was started some nine years later, but the insur- 
 rection of 1896 interrupted it, and on this account it 
 was never completed, and the results, such as they were, 
 were not compiled. Thus at the time of the coming of 
 the Americans only very unsatisfactory data in regard 
 to the immber of people and their general characteristics 
 were available. The following is a comment upon the 
 conditions previous to the American occupation, by 
 Professor Carl C. Plehn of the University of California,
 
 PEOPLE 231 
 
 who held the position of chief statistician for one year, 
 1900-1901, with the government at Manila. He says: 
 
 The most striking feature of these tables is the slow growth 
 that is indicated. With a death rate which in normal years — 
 that is, in years not attended by some epidemic or other disaster 
 affecting the whole community — is between 30 and 35 per 1000, 
 and a birth rate of over 50 per 1000, the increase which might 
 be expected is much greater than appears. The fact is that 
 the growth of the population has been restrained by violent 
 epidemics of the most sweeping character. A single epidemic 
 of smallpox, cholera, plague, influenza, and other diseases will 
 easily sweep away the natural growth for several years. Thus 
 in 1879 the death rate is reported as 106.3 per 1000 against a 
 birth rate of 43.4 per 1000, while in 1896, which may be taken 
 as a fairly normal year, the death rate was 33.7 and the birth 
 rate 56.4. 
 
 As a basis of representation and also of election the 
 act of Congress, approved July 1, 1902, establishing a 
 government for the Philippines, required a census of 
 the population to be taken, the returns of which have 
 recently been compiled. These show a population of 
 7,572,199 and contain a large amount of exceedingly 
 valuable information concerning the different tribes 
 and their characteristics. 
 
 Fully five sixths of the inhabitants of the Islands are 
 of Malayan extraction and speak dialects of a Malayan 
 linguistic basis. These are the people to whom the term 
 Filipinos is popularly applied. The Spanish government 
 officially recognized thirty-five different languages in the 
 archipelago, and Blumentritt, in arranging a scheme
 
 232 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 for the Mala3\an population alone, the so-called Fili- 
 pinos, divided it into fifty-one linguistic groups. 
 
 Tlie Philippine archipelago has few large towns and 
 no great manufacturing centers. It is almost entirely 
 a rural country, and many of the so-called towns are 
 mere groups of villages. The town proper, ov puehlo, is 
 sometimes very small, with only fifty or sixty houses ; 
 the rest of the town, made up of harrios, may spread 
 over a much larger area. The term municipality often 
 means in the Philippines a collection of small villages 
 or hamlets for the purpose of local government; and 
 the pueblo, or the village selected as the seat of this 
 local administration, gives its name to the municipality. 
 The Philippines as a whole might support a population 
 much denser than its present one of fifty persons to a 
 square mile. If the struggle for existence is now some- 
 times hard, it is rather from lack of proper means of 
 irrigation than from want of sufficient area of produc- 
 tive land. With a little more energy and with somewhat 
 improved methods of agriculture, the country would 
 yield much more than just enough food for its inhabit- 
 ants ; and with better sanitary arrangements about the 
 home and a little knowledge of and obedience to ele- 
 mentary rules of health, the yearly work of disease 
 and death might be materially checked. The birth rate 
 is very high, but at the present time the death rate is 
 still higher; and the statement that has been made to 
 the effect that, eliminating all the deaths from cholera, 
 beriberi, and the plague, the death rate in Manila is
 
 PEOPLE 233 
 
 three times as large as in Boston is significant, and 
 indeed holds true for the provinces as well. In no part 
 of the Philippines are there more people than the land 
 can feed, but on the contrary there are vast tracts of 
 fertile soil, superior to much of that which is now 
 under cultivation, that are untouched. The native, 
 however, is immobile, and this explains the absence of 
 people in many of these productive regions. Railroads, 
 good roads, and other means of communication into the 
 interior and across the mountains are needed to open 
 up the country, and before these are supplied no great 
 activity in the way of settling many of these interior 
 sections can be expected. 
 
 A very brief summary of the ethnological elements 
 which compose the population has already been given 
 in connection with the history of the Islands. The 
 Spaniards, as we know, divided the Filipinos into 
 Christians, heathens, and Mohammedans ; the Ameri- 
 can government has adopted the term non-Christian to 
 designate the pagan and Mohammedan tribes in distinc- 
 tion from the Christian Filipinos dwelling in organized 
 provinces and towns. We have seen that the great 
 racial divisions of the people are the Negrito, the 
 Malayan, and probably the Indonesian ; and of these 
 the Spaniards, in their classification, termed the first 
 and third heathen, and the second they divided into the 
 two branches of Christian Malays and Mohammedan 
 Malays. The Americans, when they arrived, adopted 
 the division of Christian Malays made by the Spaniards
 
 234 THE PlIlLl^^l^■E islands 
 
 and used the term non-Christian to designate all the 
 other inha])itants, and such is its significance to-day. In 
 our discussion we shall deal hrst with the non-CIiristian 
 and then with the Christian tribes. 
 
 The pagan and Mohammedan tribes, or, as we have 
 now adopted the nomenclature, the non-Christian peoples, 
 are found in Luzon, IMindoro, Panay, Palawan, Negros, 
 Mindanao, and possibly in Siiniar. The areas inhabited 
 by them embrace hardly less than one half of the entire 
 archipelago, and their numbers range between one and 
 two millions. As has been said by one of the commis- 
 sioners,^ who speaks from experience, " there is a lamen- 
 table lack of information in regard to them upon which 
 to base intelligent legislation." Their presence and the 
 existence among them of head hunting, slavery, polyg- 
 amy, and other objectionaljle practices created serious 
 problems for the Insular Government. With a view 
 to investigating their actual conditions and conducting 
 scientific investigation, a bureau of ethnological survey 
 was established during the latter part of 1901, and this 
 work is now progressing. The classification of these 
 tribes and some of the data to be presented here are 
 based upon the work that has already been accomplished 
 by this bureau. 
 
 According to the information which it lias secured, 
 tlie tribes are classified as follows. 
 
 1. The Negritos, or little negroes, called the abo- 
 rigines. 
 
 1 Professor Worcester.
 
 235
 
 236 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 2. The great Igorot tribes of northern Luzon, a power- 
 ful and very numerous people numbering some seventy 
 thousand in Lepanto-Bontoc alone. They are the most 
 experienced agriculturists in the Islands, and have con- 
 structed wonderful terraces and irrigation works ; their 
 towns, too, are strong and compact. Head hunting 
 among them is a practice which still holds with the 
 force of an ancient custom. 
 
 3. The primitive tribes, some of which have a mix- 
 ture of Negrito blood, are all of a very low grade of 
 culture, including the Manguianes of Mindoro and the 
 Tagbauuas and Bataks of Palawan. In spite of their 
 low degree of civilization in general, these people con- 
 tinue to use ancient sjdlabic written characters which 
 suggest at least some culture. 
 
 4. A few small remnants of a more primitive Malayan 
 population than the present Christian Filipinos, like the 
 Igorots on Mount Isarog, the Buquidnones in the inte- 
 rior of Negros and Panay, and the Monteses, mountain 
 dwellers, sometimes called Remontados, a term applied 
 to natives who give up their civilized mode of life and 
 return to the mountain recesses again. In this class 
 are also included the primitive tribes of the interior of 
 Mindanao, — the Subanos in the west, the Montescos 
 further east, on the north coast, the Tirurays and Mano- 
 bos on the south, and the group of possible Indonesian 
 tribes on the gulf of Davao. 
 
 5. The Mohammedan tribes, or Moros, wliicli fall 
 into several groups: the Maguindanaos in the valley of
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 237 
 
 the Rio Grande; the Lanaos around lake Lanao, where 
 trouble still exists; the Illanos westward along the 
 coast from Malabang to the great peninsula of Zambo- 
 anga ; the Sulus of the Jolo and Siassi groups ; the 
 Samals scattered along the Zamboanga coast and about 
 the islands of Basilan, Siassi group, and Tawi Tawi ; 
 and the Bajans, or 
 sea gypsies, who are 
 born and die on their 
 boats, and shift 
 about in the archi- 
 pelago in little fleets 
 with the changing 
 of the prevailing 
 winds. 
 
 This fivefold divi- 
 sion of the non- 
 Christian tribes is a 
 purely tentative one, 
 and it is almost cer- 
 tain that the differ- 
 ent peoples shade off: from each other into a much 
 larger number of classes. 
 
 There are seven important Christian tribes, which are 
 classified in the order of their size. 
 
 1. The Visayans, who inhabit the islands named 
 after them in the central part of the archipelago, besides 
 the northern and eastern coasts of Mindanao. At the 
 time of the discovery of the islands they were in the 
 
 Negrito Boy
 
 238 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 habit of painting their bodies, and on this account 
 received from the Spaniards the name of Pintados, 
 which stuck to them down to the eighteenth centur\-. 
 2. The well-known Tagalogs, who inhabit Manila 
 and central Luzon and present the highest develop- 
 ment of the Malayan race in the Philippines. 
 
 Family of Negritos 
 
 3. The Bicols, who are found in the southern prov- 
 inces of Luzon. 
 
 4. The llocanos, who inhabit the northern province 
 of Ilocos Norte, Tlocos Sur, and Union, in Luzon, and 
 form the civic population of Abra. 
 
 5. The Pangasinanes, who inhabit the province of 
 Pangasinan in Luzon.
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 239 
 
 Negrito Wo:man 
 
 6. The Pampangans, 
 who inhabit the prov- 
 ince of Pampanga on 
 the same island. 
 
 7. The Cagayanes, 
 who dwell in the valley 
 of the Cagayan river in 
 northern Luzon. 
 
 Six of these chief 
 tribes are to be found in 
 Luzon, and the seventh, as we noted, is spread over the 
 central islands. The Tagalogs, Visayans, and Ilocanos 
 taken together form two thirds of the entire population. 
 Each one of these tribes has a language of its own; 
 that of the Visayans is divided into several dialects, 
 
 the two most impor- 
 tant of which are 
 those spoken inCebu 
 and Panay. Tagalog 
 is spoken in Manila 
 and in the vicinity 
 of Luzon; yet an 
 hour's ride on the 
 train will take one 
 to Pampanga, where 
 the local language is 
 spoken. A few hours 
 more brings one to 
 
 Negrito Shooting Pangasinan, where
 
 240 
 
 THE rillLlFPlNE ISLANDS 
 
 still another is used ; and only a short distance farther 
 north fi-oni liere are provinces in which the people con- 
 verse in Ilocano and still other dialects. 
 
 The representative races are the Negritos, the first 
 inhabitants of the archipelago; the Igorots, the most 
 numerous and most powerful pagan tribe; the Moros, 
 
 Igorot Carkiers on Mountain Trail 
 
 or Mohammedan Malays ; and the Christian Malays, 
 of which the Tagiilogs, the Visayans, and the Ilocanos 
 are the principal divisions. 
 
 The Negrito race is almost the smallest on the globe, 
 and while suggestively negroes in their dark color and 
 frizzly mops of hair, they have neither the projection of
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 241 
 
 the lower jaw nor the long skull of the African. They 
 are true savages, depending for food upon the chase and 
 wild roots ; they do not live in villages or even build 
 huts, but roam through the mountains in small groups 
 of a few families each. These people seem to be the 
 survival of the unfittest, and are physical and mental 
 weaklings ; their legs are like broomsticks ; their feet 
 
 Igokot Dance, Lepanto-Bontoc 
 
 are clumsy and large, and their bodies are covered with 
 tattoo marks in the form of long gashes. They are 
 timid and fearful of approach, and yet to a certain 
 extent they are feared by the more civilized inhabitants 
 of the Islands. Much study has been devoted to the 
 distribution of these people and their localities were 
 thought to be determined, but recent correspondence 
 conducted by the Ijureau of ethnological survey reveals
 
 242 
 
 TTTH rillLlPriNK ISLANDS 
 
 their jDresence in several hitherto unrecorded regions. 
 It has been invariably stated that their numbers are 
 dwindling, and recent estimates have placed them as 
 
 low as ten thousand ; 
 but the bureau's cor- 
 respondence and 
 field investigations 
 seem to indicate that 
 they are at least hold- 
 ing their own at the 
 present time, and no 
 less than thirty thou- 
 sand have been ac- 
 curately reported 
 from all parts of the 
 Islands. 
 
 The number of 
 problems presented 
 to the ethnologist by 
 these little blacks is 
 almost bewildering. 
 The question arises, 
 What place have they 
 in the evolution of 
 man? Their identity with the Sakais of the Malay 
 peninsula and the Mincopies of the Andaman islands is 
 almost certain, but their relation to those other pygmies, 
 the long-skuUed dwarfs of central Africa, is mere specu- 
 lation, and similarly their connection with the true negro 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^^B^HH^^''.''^^i^:£^ ^ 
 
 MM 
 
 
 qK^SS] .«^ 
 
 
 W ^' -^ 
 
 
 J|^T|r 
 
 I 
 
 1 K ^^ 
 
 f.-f 
 
 1l 
 
 - 1 «^ Jf' 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^amm 
 
 Igouot \\ ai;i;i(ii:
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 243 
 
 race of Melanesia close by. In general, the geographic 
 distribution of this Negrito people is such that the only 
 conclusion which seems possible is that at one time they 
 were practically the sole possessors of the Philippine 
 archipelago. 
 
 Unquestionably the first to arrive and dispute the pos- 
 session of this aboriginal race and to drive them into 
 
 Igohot Village 
 
 the mountainous interiors which they now occupy were 
 the tribes of primitive Malayans that still constitute the 
 most considerable element of the non-Christian pop- 
 ulation of the Islands. Among these are the great 
 Igorot family of the Cordillera Central of Luzon, while 
 in the great mountainous region of northern Luzon are 
 numerous other tribes speaking different dialects Ijut of
 
 244 
 
 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 common Malayan origin. These are on a similar plane 
 with the primitive Malayan tribes of the Malay archi- 
 pelago and have the same barbarous practices of head 
 hunting and ceremonial cannibalism, and wage similar 
 community feuds. 
 
 The Igorots number some two hundred thousand peo- 
 ple altogether, and in the opinion of those who have 
 studied them are a strong, splendid people, among the 
 
 Carrying Ca.motks to Makkki 
 Very typical of the occupation and appearance of the Igorot woman 
 
 most interesting and important savage races of the 
 world. They give promise of increasing, and, with 
 the exception of the Ilocano coast and the shores of 
 the Cagayan river, of dominating in some future time 
 this northern portion of Luzon. Rizal voiced this same
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 245 
 
 opinion when he said that the future of the Islands lies 
 in the people of the mountains. 
 
 A group of these people once visited the writer in 
 Manila and impressed him as being potentially strong 
 and possessing much solidarity. They had come down 
 from the Lepanto-Bontoc 
 mountains in charge of 
 a sympathetic American 
 miner, and were await- 
 ing an audience with the 
 governor for the purpose 
 of gaining permission to 
 kill a bad man who had 
 been robbing them, and 
 of securing from the 
 school department flags 
 and books which made 
 no mention of religion. 
 
 They are as a whole 
 simple, honest, frank, and 
 tractable, and possessed of a sense of humor not to be 
 observed in members of the so-called Christian tribes. 
 In regard to religion they seem to be much like the 
 North American Indian, nature worship prevailing; 
 the sun in their belief is the Father of All ; the moon, 
 a good big Igorot ; and the stars, good little Igorots. 
 If they are good, the sun smiles ; and if bad, it hides 
 its face and weeps. Christianity has never gained foot- 
 ing among these pagans, and their life has remained 
 
 Igorot Boy in Service of an 
 American Family
 
 246 
 
 THE PI11L1]*P1NE ISLANDS 
 
 unaffected by the changes ^vhich have influenced the 
 other parts of the archipelago. Their most ancient cus- 
 toms still hold, and as yet in the case of some of the 
 tribes the custom of securing the head and sometimes 
 the heart and hands of their victims as trophies to be 
 
 displayed at then' 
 feasts as relics, 
 though discouraged, 
 is not wholly stamped 
 out. The practice, 
 however, is not as 
 general as has often 
 been reported and is 
 dying out among the 
 minority with wdiom 
 it has been custom- 
 ary. The majority 
 of tlie Igorots, al- 
 though so hardy and 
 uncivilized, are any- 
 thing but fierce and 
 warlike; peaceful 
 and self-satisfied are terms that better describe them, 
 and the friendship which has grown up between 
 them and the Americans is tending constantly to 
 make them more so. 
 
 The Moros were the last of the pre-Spanish people to 
 arrive in tlio Islands, and probably began to come some 
 time subsequent to the thirteenth century, after their 
 
 Jgukot Mother
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 247 
 
 conversion to Mohammedanism in their former home 
 during the twelfth century. By the time of the Span- 
 ish advent their out- 
 posts reached as far 
 north as Manila bay, 
 and it is probably 
 true that their faith 
 in many places had 
 been imposed upon 
 
 Igouot Home 
 
 the Malay natives of the 
 central and northern regions 
 of the archipelago. The cen- 
 turies of conflict between the 
 Spaniards and tlie piratical 
 Moros of Mindanao, who 
 came as far as Manila itself, 
 have already been dwelt upon. 
 This group of Moros in gen- 
 eral, numbering at least a 
 quarter of a million, is of 
 great significance politically 
 to the American govern- 
 ment. They are the only 
 non-Christian people which 
 can offer any serious menace to public order or to the 
 peace of any important portion of the archipelago. 
 
 IgOROT WOiMAN
 
 248 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 During tlie earlier period of hostilities in the Philip- 
 pines the friendliest relations seemed to exist, and the 
 fierce and nncompromising inhabitants of the lake 
 
 Lanao region 
 were quiet. But 
 they are natu- 
 rally suspicious 
 of all foreigners, 
 and althouo;li the 
 American mili- 
 tary authorities 
 did everything 
 possible to win 
 their confidence, 
 it became evi- 
 dent later that 
 trouble was 
 bound to come ; 
 conflicts followed 
 and as a result 
 many of these 
 interior people 
 still remain recal- 
 citrant. 
 
 Among these 
 Moros slavery exists very generally, and this custom, 
 so utterly at variance with the principles of the consti- 
 tution which now extends over these dependencies, has 
 been the source of much concern. It is true, however, 
 
 ^loKO WaKHIOR
 
 MoRO Group, Zamboanga 
 
 ]\loRO Town, Mindanao 
 
 249
 
 250 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 that the practice, although widespread, is followed now 
 in a mild form only, and the old traffic in slaves has 
 almost entirely disappeared. Indeed, the fact that there 
 are slaves at all is strange enough to Americans, and 
 yet it should be remembered that this institution is by 
 
 no means confined to 
 the Moros, for it is 
 common also among 
 the wild Indonesian 
 tribes in the interior 
 of Mindanao and the 
 uncivilized Malayan 
 peoples of northern 
 Luzon, and the aboli- 
 tion of such a practice 
 must be patiently 
 awaited as one of 
 the results of the ex- 
 tension of civil gov- 
 ernment and the 
 American training of 
 these people. 
 
 The slaves are usually procured when children, either 
 l)y force or because of indebtedness. As they come to 
 maturity they become of less value, it being more diffi- 
 cult to retain them and make them work. Their condi- 
 i'um is far from unendurable, however, for their labor 
 is not arduous, and if they seriously desire it, it seems 
 always possible for them to i)ur chase their freedom. The 
 
 ^luKo Datto, Zamboanga
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 251 
 
 slave eats and sleeps in the same house as his master 
 and, indeed, is treated more like a retainer than a bond- 
 man. Views differ, nevertheless, as to the nature of this 
 servitude, and the writer has been informed by teachers 
 who have been close observers of this practice that it is 
 a cruel and vicious institution accompanied by inhu- 
 manity. Children, they report, can be bought and sold, 
 — little boys of tender years for from sixteen to twenty- 
 five dollars, and little girls for from thirty to thirty-five 
 
 MoRO Weapons 
 
 dollars. However true tliis may be generally, the man- 
 ner in which our government must necessarily discoun- 
 tenance any such custom is sure to have the effect of 
 shortening the life of such a practice. 
 
 In 1898 the w^ell-known Bates Treaty with the sultan 
 of Sulu, wdio is also the sultan of north Borneo and the 
 head of the Moro tribes of this whole region, Avas rati- 
 fied, with the reservation, however, that our government 
 could in no way recognize the existence of slavery in 
 the Moro dominions. This agreement provided for the
 
 252 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 extension of a protectorate over the Moro country, and 
 guaranteed to the sultan autonomy m local affairs, and 
 a yearly income to be paid by the United States. The 
 
 sultan is a despotic 
 ruler having abso- 
 lute power even as 
 to life and death, 
 and our government 
 found itself in rather 
 a strange position by 
 being bound to aid 
 in the maintenance 
 of such a form of 
 rule. Hence it be- 
 came early apparent 
 that some more 
 satisfactory arrange- 
 ment with the sultan 
 would have to be 
 made, and more 
 recently the treaty 
 has been abrogated. 
 The sultan is the 
 nominal head of his 
 people, with an army 
 of some twenty thousand troops, the equal of double that 
 number of Filipinos. But in reality he has no strong con- 
 trol over the different tribes, who are ruled immediately 
 by their respective clattos, many of whom are stronger 
 
 Moro Warkiok with Coat of Mail
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 253 
 
 personalities than the sultan himself, who is incapable 
 oftentimes, and particiilarl}- just now, of holding these 
 various local rulers with their followers in check. His 
 position is becoming more and more that of a nominal 
 rather than an actual ruler of these Mohammedan people. 
 
 As to the Moros 
 themselves, they are 
 a much hardier race 
 than the Christian 
 Filipinos, and are 
 fiercer and more 
 warlike. They are 
 strong, agile, of me- 
 dium height, with a 
 dark, copper-colored 
 complexion; their 
 hair is straia-ht, 
 black, and very abun- 
 dant; their eyes are 
 small, keen, and 
 black; and their 
 noses are broad Ijut not flattened. They are cunning, 
 deceitful, and suspicious ; they are possessed of the 
 greatest personal valor mixed with a strong religious 
 fanaticism, and at all times they display a complete 
 indifference to the feelings and sufferings of others. 
 Life itself is of no great value, and their religion 
 teaches them that it is glorious to sacrifice it in de- 
 stroying Christians. 
 
 ]MuKO WOMKX
 
 254 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 From early }outli the Moro is trained to arms and 
 lie habitually wears the native Av/.s, haroiuj, cainpilan, 
 and other weapons. To be seen without them is a dis- 
 grace, and to use them with effect in gaining the scalps 
 of their Christianized neighbors is a matter of pride. 
 Now and then it happens that a Moro, dissatisfied with 
 his master or disgusted with life or seized with religious 
 
 zeal, prepares him- 
 self for his depar- 
 ture to the lands 
 beyond. He will clip 
 his hair close, shave 
 his eyebrows, pare 
 the nails of his 
 fingers and toes, 
 and then start out 
 to kill whatever 
 Christians he may 
 meet, for the pur- 
 pose of winning a 
 heavenly reward. This fanaticism accounts for the 
 deaths by treachery of numljers of our soldiers among 
 these people, and the custom seems to hold even after 
 severe punishment. 
 
 The Moro problem is in every way a distinctly pecul- 
 iar and difficult one, as the people are so essentially 
 different in their institutions, their religion, and their 
 practices from those in other parts of the Islands ; and 
 the Philippine Commission has been wise in the manner 
 
 Mono WO.MAN
 
 PE( )PLE 
 
 255 
 
 in which it lias established for these people a separate 
 government with a military governor. Already there 
 have been results. The most important seat of Moro 
 
 GUOUP OF MOUO GlliLS 
 
 power — the country around lake Lanao — haS been cap- 
 tured. Successful expeditions have been undertaken 
 against insubordinate dattos ; slave hunting and mur- 
 dering have been put a stop to in many parts of the 
 island.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 PEOPLE (continued) 
 
 We come now to a consideration of the natives com- 
 posing the seven great tribes of Christians which form 
 jDolitically and socially the Filipino people. They are, 
 as we have seen, the Tagdlogs of central Luzon, the Vi- 
 sayans of the central islands and northern Mindanao, 
 the Ilocanos of the northwest coast of Luzon, the 
 Bicoh of the southeastern portion of Luzon, the Pcin- 
 (jasinanes and PamjKinrjans of the central plain of 
 Luzon, and the Cagayanes of Luzon, along the valley 
 of the river giving them that name. Almost certain it 
 is that these tribes came to the Philippines some time 
 subsequent to the arrival of the Igorots and the other 
 pagan tribes, and had, before the arrival of the Span- 
 iards, forced back into the mountains these less cultured 
 heathen people. From tlie uniform structural basis of 
 their languages scliolars infer that they were of a com- 
 mon Malayan source, and are probably the modern 
 descendants of the second great Malayan immigration 
 wliich took place between 100 and 500 a.d. From 
 some Aryan source they acquired alphabets, the knowl- 
 edge of writing, and other arts of civilization, wdiich 
 considerably elevated them above the plane of the 
 
 256
 
 PEOPLE 257 
 
 interior tribes ; and a Sanskrit element lias also been 
 found, at least in the Tagtilog language. 
 
 Ethnologically, the typical Filipino, using the term 
 to designate a member of one of these Christian Malayan 
 tribes, may be described as of small stature ; slender 
 frame ; In-ownish-yellow skin ; symmetrical skull ; prom- 
 inent cheekbones; low nasal bridge; nostrils prominent ; 
 
 Xative Tagalogs at Malabox, Luzon 
 
 eyes narrow, black, and brilliant, with thick curved 
 eyebrows and long lashes; mouth from medium to 
 large, with thick but not large lips ; chin short, round, 
 and almost hairless ; and hair black, heavy, and straight. 
 He is not as thickset as the real Malay of the penin- 
 sula, though the i\])e varies greatly among the different 
 peoples. 
 
 These Tagalogs, Visayans, Ilocanos, and the four 
 other Christian races constitute five sixths of the total
 
 258 
 
 T]IK IMIlLIPriNE ISLANDS 
 
 population. The Tagulog is the most important race 
 in the archipelago, with a distinct superiority in mental 
 capacity, energy, and ambition. Perhaps it is for these 
 
 reasons that it has 
 furnished nearly all 
 the insurrectionary 
 leaders ; and the 
 restlessness thus 
 displayed by them 
 may be attributed 
 to an admixture of 
 Chinese or other 
 foreign blood. The 
 Visayan type is pos- 
 sibly more uniform 
 and more robust 
 than the Tagalog, 
 whicli in turn seems 
 
 Wealthy Filipino Gikl to be more sympa- 
 
 A Tagalog thetic and more 
 
 characteristically hospitable than the former, due no 
 doubt to the greater frequency of contact with Euro- 
 peans. The more pronounced conservatism of the Vi- 
 sayans is also thus explained. Of all these tribes, the 
 Ilocanos are the most industrious, tractable, and open- 
 hearted. The other tribes have not preserved their 
 individuality to the same degree as have these three, 
 and the Pangasinanes and Pampangas in particular have 
 absorbed nnich of the Tau-iiloi? nature.
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 259 
 
 The crossing of blood with other peoples has further- 
 more modified all of these separate types and made 
 their classification the more complex. Admixture 
 of Negrito blood is shown in different individuals by 
 their small size, curling or undulating hair, and the 
 darker color of their skins. From the intermarriage 
 with Spaniards, again, there has sprung a race called 
 Spanish-Mestizos, a numerous and powerful class, whose 
 influence is felt strongly in political and industrial 
 affairs.^ The admix- 
 ture of Chinese blood 
 has also profoundly 
 modified the early 
 Filipino type, and in 
 fact, in the mixing 
 of this with the Fil- 
 ipino blood, the 
 former is so potent 
 that a small pro- 
 portion suffices to 
 produce a wide varia- 
 tion from the original 
 Malayan type, — a 
 fact that has a direct 
 bearing upon an im- 
 portant question in the Islands, that is, the admission 
 or exclusion of the Chinese. If no restriction were 
 
 Native Costume 
 A Tag 
 
 1 Dr. de Tavera, one of the commissioners, and Chief Justice Arellano 
 of the Supreme Court are both of this class.
 
 260 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 placed upon their coming, Chinese Ijlood might eventu- 
 ally take the place of the Malayan and we might then 
 have a Chinese dependency on our hands, — from which 
 condition we might well seek deliverance. The Chinese- 
 Filipino, or Chinese- 
 Mestizo, as this half- 
 breed is called, is apt 
 to be somewhat taller 
 than the typical Fil- 
 ipino, and his eyes 
 are more oblique. 
 This class is influen- 
 tial, particularly in 
 local trade and indus- 
 try, and the women, 
 too, have a keen busi- 
 ness instinct. The 
 Chinese infusion, on 
 the whole, turns out 
 a sharp, intelligent, 
 ambitious, but un- 
 trustworthy individ- 
 ual. 
 
 Of the foreigners in the Philippines mention should 
 not properly be made in this chapter, with the one 
 exception of the Chinese, who socially and industrially 
 are so closely intermixed with the natives themselves 
 as to require some consideration. It is thought that 
 this people, long before the arrival of tlie Spaniards, 
 
 Type of Stupid Chinese-Mestizo
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 261 
 
 carried on trade and commerce with the Malayan pop- 
 ulation of the Philippines, and that after the settle- 
 ment of the Spaniards had established commerce with 
 Acapulco, thus introducing Mexican silver, which was 
 greatly coveted by the Chinese, this trade became more 
 active and they came to the Islands in greater numbers. 
 
 Group of Visayan Children from the Best 
 Families, Cuyo 
 
 Natives, however, unable to get along industrially with 
 these people, formed a dislike for them at the outset and 
 seized every opportunity to show it. The rigid exclu- 
 sion of the Chinese has been one of the articles in 
 every revolutionary propaganda, and had it not been 
 for the large revenues which the Spanish government 
 received from the Chinese, this hated class would have 
 been at the least deported.
 
 262 
 
 THK PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Being an essential 1}' gregarious people, the Chinese 
 love large cities, where there are more opjDort unities for 
 making money, and hence nearly all of them in the 
 Philippines live either in Manila or in some half-dozen 
 other places. One fifth of the population of the capital 
 is composed of these people ; and they are engaged 
 in nearly every form of work, though their particular 
 sphere is trade. The small shopkeepers here, the car- 
 penters, tailors, shoe- 
 makers, furniture 
 dealers, and cooks 
 are practically all 
 Chinese ; they also 
 figure largely as 
 merchants, contract- 
 ors, shipbuilders, 
 blacksmiths, farmers, 
 and coolies. The 
 Chinaman possesses 
 the trading instinct 
 of the Jew plus a willingness to jjerform hard manual 
 labor which the Jew and, we might add, the Filipino 
 despise. He shows commendable adaptability in his 
 promptness in procuring American tools and food prod- 
 ucts, — just that sort of adaptability which the Filipino 
 lacks. As is true everywhere, the Chinaman is willing 
 to accept a smaller profit than any one else, and in 
 trading with the upcountry natives he shows a wonder- 
 ful patience. The one serious charge that is brought 
 
 Ilocano Women, Victoria, Tarlac 
 Taken to show manner of carrying babies
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 263 
 
 against him is liis practice of using false weights and 
 measures and of adulterating his stock ; but this cannot 
 now be carried on to any extent because of the laws 
 governing the matter. 
 
 However unpopular tlie Chinese may be, they have 
 no difficulty in obtaining Filipino wives. Thrift out- 
 weighs sentiment. The hard-working Chinaman makes 
 
 Ilocaxo A'illage 
 
 a good husband ; his children have far more energy than 
 the natives ; and they are superior to the pure Filipino 
 in ability and force of character.^ 
 
 We are now able to understand, to a degi^ee, of 
 wliat diverse and varied elements the population of the 
 
 1 Mabini, known as the "brains of the insurrection," was one of this 
 Chinese-Mestizo class, and his steadfastness to the cause won the respect of 
 every American.
 
 264 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Pliilippines is composed. Heterogeneity is its chief 
 characteristic, and the Filipino races hardly constitute a 
 people. The Spaniards used the term Indian in speak- 
 ing collectively of these seven Christian tribes and the 
 word Filipino in speaking of any one born in the Islands 
 without distinction as to religious beliefs ; even a child 
 of Spanish parentage born in the Philippines was, to 
 the home authorities, a Filipino. The Americans, for 
 obvious reasons, have not adopted the word Indian, and 
 have been very careless in the use of the word Filipino. 
 In the discussion of the non-Xegrito, non-Igorot, and 
 non-Moro natives upon which we are now entering, for 
 the want of a more accurate title the writer will use 
 the term Filipino, which is to be understood hereafter 
 to refer to the Christianized and civilized native. 
 
 A thorough understanding of Filipino character and 
 political capacity is at once recognized as interesting 
 and important for Americans who would attempt to 
 govern the Filipinos and advance their civilization. 
 The inhabitants of these Islands, like all eastern tropi- 
 cal peoples, are very unlike w^estern people of the tem- 
 perate regions. There is an entire want of sympathy 
 between oriental and occidental ideas, and it is almost 
 impossible, without long association, for one to be able 
 to understand the other. This is well illustrated in 
 the case of the Chinaman who cannot understand how 
 the American or European can go so long without 
 eating rice ; or why we all dress alike ; or how it is 
 that we seem to consider women the equal in rank
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 265 
 
 with men. And the same inal)ility to understand us is 
 found to be true of the Fihpinos in their way. Some 
 time ago a letter of complaint appeared in a Tagalog 
 paper to the effect that the noise made by the school 
 exercises one afternoon in a certain district interfered 
 greatly with the noon siesta of tliose in the neighbor- 
 hood. That the education of the children was a matter 
 of more impor- 
 tance than the 
 siesta of a few 
 people who prob- 
 ably did scarcely 
 more than three 
 or four hours' 
 work in twenty- 
 four did not of 
 course occur to 
 the complainant, 
 with whom the 
 editor also expressed sympathy. This trifling incident 
 is sufficient to suggest the difference of American and 
 Filipino viewpoints. It must also be understood that 
 although Filipinos are eager for education, their ambition 
 is Filipino, not American. They believe that education 
 means money without work ; as one keen, sympathetic 
 observer among the American teachers wrote, "While we 
 look upon learning as training for life work, they regard 
 it as a means of getting along without work." We 
 might also add that they consider it a means of obtaining 
 
 \'am I'am; a ( 11 1 1 m!! i:n
 
 206 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 power, a thing which they are always prone to worship. 
 Antipathy to work, especially of the manual sort, has 
 been a j)owerful ojDposing force to American endeavors 
 to introduce a system of education fundamentally in- 
 dustrial in character ; the extravagant expectations 
 prevailing at home of what education will do for the 
 Filipino races are based on a knowledge of American 
 and not Filipino character. Nor must we underrate 
 the conservatism of the Filipino ; for these people are 
 not nearly so anxious as a body to elevate themselves 
 to the plane of American civilization as it would at 
 first appear. 
 
 Let us first turn to the children, for it was these 
 with whom the writer had most to do during his stay 
 in the Islands, and in whom his interest and hope 
 centered. The children of the Philippines are those of 
 promise ; they are docile, quick, and mentally alert ; 
 they have an aptness for acquiring languages, a natu- 
 ral talent for the lesser mechanical arts, and they 
 draw and write well. The majority of the school chil- 
 dren are young looking and attractive, and, further, 
 there is no doubt but that they excel in docility, imi- 
 tativeness, and attentiveness. By docility is meant that 
 they are easy to manage and, in their willingness to 
 be taught, ready to assume a certain subordinate sta- 
 tion in their relations with the teacher. In this they 
 certainly surpass American children, who are prob- 
 ably the least docile ones that ever lived. That they 
 excel in imitativeness, too, is shown in everything that
 
 PEOPLE 267 
 
 they learn from the American teachers, such as draw- 
 ing and modeling, as well as writing, spelling, and 
 speaking. This superiority in imitative ability is also 
 to be observed among the Japanese, Chinese, Javanese, 
 and Hindu children ; but the Filipinos, in accomplish- 
 ing results with this parrotlike facility, lack the patience 
 of some of these other children. Persistency is a trait 
 that is not so often met with as among Americans. 
 And while it is possible to believe that the average 
 level of intelligence and ability is high among Filipino 
 school children, there seems reason to doubt that in- 
 dividuals of conspicuous intellectual superiority are 
 numerous. As American teachers reported, there are 
 not many who rise far above the general level of 
 ability and accomplishment. Reticence, probably due 
 to timidity, characterizes the native children ; and forti- 
 tude, which accompanies courage, is lacking. They are 
 likewise deficient in patient endurance and ability to 
 apply themselves to their tasks. The school qualities, 
 neatness and accuracy, are possible with them ; but 
 punctuality, regularity, truthfulness, and industry fall 
 short of their desire to learn. They surpass American 
 children in memory ; the American children are superior 
 to them in originality and also in the power to study, 
 to think, and to do. There is without doubt a greater 
 tendency to lie among Filipino children and a greater 
 readiness and skill in falsehood, not due to any innate 
 depravity, but rather perhaps to a '' certain careless- 
 ness and generous disregard of truth." One of the
 
 268 THE PHll.LPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 more experienced Anieriean teachers, in a letter to the 
 w]-iter comparing American city children of the poorer 
 classes with Filipino children, wrote : 
 
 It remains to be seen whether we can teach them to be honest 
 and truthful. At present they do not possess tliese virtues. I 
 believe they really love to lie, and they often do so without any 
 apparent cause. 
 
 With the large majorit}' there seems to he absolutely 
 no moral ol^ligation to speak the truth. These children 
 are not at all pugnacious, and a schoolboy fight is very 
 rare. Often they are inquisitive and not always deli- 
 cate in their questions. Affection is prominent among 
 their strong traits, and they are very fond of each other, 
 their parents, and their teachers. They are polite and 
 respectful toward strangers and superiors, and among 
 their companions are enthusiastic and full of life. They 
 have their own peculiar games, into all of which they 
 enter heartily, but the most popular are those contain- 
 ing a gambling element. 
 
 In his youth the Filipino boy is often attractive and 
 interesting, with his slight figure and rich brown skin, 
 suggestive of a bronze statue, his bright eyes, long 
 black eyelashes and eyebrows, and his expression of 
 cheerful carelessness. The girls are not as attractive ; 
 they need constant encouragement in the schoolroom 
 and are keenly sensitive to a look or word. The writer's 
 belief is that up to a certain point Filipino children are 
 quicker intellectually than American youths ; but this
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 269 
 
 view is not shared by all tlie American teachers, many 
 of whom reported that the Filipino child does not excel 
 the American child in anything. One teacher neverthe- 
 less supplemented her dissent by saying, " However, I 
 am delighted with what I consider the possibilities of 
 the Filipino child." Another added, "He has, however, 
 
 Bull in the Ring 
 
 a ready mind and a fairly retentive memory." Still 
 another, one of long experience in the Indian schools, 
 wrote, " Inferior even to the American Indian child." 
 One other, finally, gave the following interesting opin- 
 ion : " To my mind, the Filipino child does not excel 
 the American child markedly in anything. His appar- 
 ent extraordinary aptitude I attribute to his absolute
 
 270 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 ignorance of the subjects we teach. -This is illustrated in 
 the case of a man of normal intelligence who has never 
 learned to read. His memory will retain three times as 
 much of an article he hears read as that of his literary 
 neighbor, whose mind is crammed by constant reading." 
 
 As to the intellectual status of the adults themselves, 
 the opinion of one of the teachers of these grown-up 
 Filipinos in one of the night schools is very near the 
 truth. In his opinion, it is the ignorance of the people, 
 old and young, that is the pitiable aspect of the situa- 
 tion. Ignorance is evident both in quantity and quality, 
 so to speak, of mental content. Ideas are not only few, 
 but abstract ideas are rare. In the native learning Eng- 
 lish the use of nouns is acquired more readily than the 
 use of adjectives; so our task is not to enable him to 
 pass from one language to another as a medium of 
 thought and expression, but to furnish the material 
 of thought as well. 
 
 The Filipinos show no signs of becoming an intellect- 
 ual people. They have been compared with the Japan- 
 ese, and both are quick-witted and imitative, but Japan- 
 ese children are somewhat more persevering. Japanese 
 adults are not as intellectually apathetic as the Fili- 
 pinos, and they display a little more originality together 
 with a greater keenness in practical affairs. Always 
 excepting the name of Rizal, it must be admitted that 
 in the sphere of intellectual achievement, in scientific 
 progress and invention, in literature and philosophy, and 
 also in art, the Filipino people have accomplished little.
 
 PEOPLE 271 
 
 As to moral characteristics, these people have the 
 defects of most orientals, and hence it would be mifair 
 to judge them too harshly. In regard to truth and 
 honesty, they are at worst not inferior to the average 
 Asiatic, though considerably below the New England 
 standard. Some fall below the common moral level of 
 the inhabitants, while others again are models of civil 
 and Christian virtues. According to their lights they 
 are moral. Sexual morality to a fairly high degree 
 prevails, and temperance in its different forms is a trait. 
 The marriage relation, though void of formalities, is 
 nevertheless binding ; polygamy does not exist. They 
 are one and all childishly simple even to the point 
 of irresponsibility at times, and hence in many cases 
 the test which we apply must be correspondingly mild. 
 
 The Filipinos whom American government officials 
 meet in Manila and in the important towns of the 
 provinces belong largely to the Mestizo class, which 
 constitutes an important part of the population and 
 would under any form of an independent Philippine 
 government be the ruling one. The great mass of peo- 
 ple do not take much interest in public affairs ; they 
 are like the peasant classes of all oriental countries, 
 — simple, very mercurial of temperament, easily led by 
 those in whom they have confidence and by their super- 
 stitions. Tt is to Spain's hoiior that she drew no color 
 line and treated the rank and file with a certain degree 
 of easy condescension and tolerant familiarity. Such 
 training as they received from the church inculcated
 
 272 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 negation of initiative, passive obedience, uniformit}^ of 
 opinions and ideas, — in short everything that might 
 serve to rob them of their individuality. The church 
 authorities described FiHpino character as naturally 
 indolent and apathetic, but mention also a certain 
 inconsistency and volubility of this character due to 
 "the tropical climate, the exuberant vegetation, and 
 the imposing manifestations of the phenomena of nature 
 in these regions." 
 
 Of their conservatism we have already spoken ; they 
 want to do as they have already done. The restlessness 
 to be noted at the present time in the people is due in 
 part to the constant changes of government which have 
 taken place during the last five or six years, — a reign 
 of American military law pure and simple, following 
 the unsuccessful attempts to establish a Philippine rule ; 
 then in turn two civil experiments under military aus- 
 pices, which amounted to little because of the treachery 
 and untrustworthiness of the native civil officials, who 
 were really allies and spies of the insurgents in arms, 
 many of them being members of the Katipunan, a 
 society which aims to expel all foreigners from the 
 Philippines ; and finally, an established civil govern- 
 ment. Even now there is constant change in legislative 
 officials, whereas in view of this markedly conservative 
 trait of the Filipino people, stability of government 
 should characterize our efforts. 
 
 Our view of the history of the Islands has shown us 
 that quarrels among the people themselves or jjetween
 
 PEOPLE 273 
 
 the tribes, with the exception of the Moro invasions, 
 have been notably lacking; when undisturbed by for- 
 eign interference they have remained as a whole peace- 
 ful. There has, however, always been a brigand or 
 ladrone class ; and had Aguinaldo established a govern- 
 ment under our protection, he would have had this 
 brigandage to wipe out, though his efforts might have 
 been attended with earlier success than ours. 
 
 The soldier's opinion of the Filipino has been almost 
 always diametrically opposed to that of the civilian ; 
 both are founded equally on experience, but the experi- 
 ences have been different. As one commanding officer^ 
 said, "" No adversary has a pleasant aspect, and our 
 soldiers who are fighting the native have no use for 
 him." He immediately followed this, however, by the 
 statement : " But when the social machine is again 
 organized, and the asperities of conflict are forgotten, 
 the admirable and sweet traits of the Filipino will 
 emerge. Of course his character is not rugged ; but, 
 I repeat, it is lovable." 
 
 Speaking as a civilian official, the writer found the 
 educational work among them constantly interesting 
 and fascinating; and the Filipinos whom he met in 
 his office and in the country districts were polite and 
 easy in their manners, somewhat reserved on first 
 acquaintance, although never cringing, fluent talkers, 
 ready with promises of cooperation, and in fact gentle- 
 men. Teachers and superintendents who lived in the 
 
 1 (General MacArthur.
 
 274 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 towns with these same genial natives reported that very 
 few of them showed executive abihty, and some were 
 obstinately inefficient and inactive. When requested to 
 make repairs on school buildings or to get school furni- 
 ture, municipal officials are very ready with promises ; 
 but as has been well said, the Filipino never says 
 no but never does yes. When asked for information, 
 he studies you and is inclined to give the answer that 
 he thinks you desire. 
 
 Americans are too wilhng to assert, without giving 
 the matter sufficient thought, that Filipino indirectness, 
 the too frequent malfeasance in office, and the giving 
 of bribes are the bad results of Spanish domination. 
 There is, perhaps, no doubt that bribery and corrup- 
 tion characterized the later period of civil service under 
 the Spaniards ; but indirectness is a trait and the giv- 
 ing of gifts by subjects to those in authority a cus- 
 tom common to all eastern peoples, just as hospitality 
 is a sacred duty to them all. Bribes and propitiatory 
 offerings or, as the Spaniards called them, gratifica- 
 tions, are based on the principle that there is no use 
 in holding an office unless it can be turned to profit ; 
 and it is difficult for a Filipino to understand that 
 the giving of presents to government officials is not 
 quite proper. They are unable to believe that simply 
 because a man happens to be white he has any scru- 
 ples against such a practice, and look upon one who 
 refuses a consideration of this sort with a measure of 
 contempt.
 
 PEOPLE 275 
 
 One is tempted to say that there is nothing of the 
 spirit of trustworthiness necessary for a self-governing 
 people. False ideas and ideals have been incorporated 
 into their character, and mutual respect and confidence 
 are lacking, as are also a spirit of candor and the idea 
 of the equality of all citizens before the law. But, the 
 writer must repeat, the Filipinos are not to be measured 
 by our standards of thought and purpose. 
 
 In economic affairs the woman averages rather 
 higher than the man. In the Philippines she occupies 
 a position far better than that held by the women in 
 India or, indeed, in most other countries of the trop- 
 ical East, and is certainly the helpmate rather than the 
 handmaid, — an elevation that is due largely to the 
 Roman Catholic church. Among the upper classes 
 many capable and energetic women are found, some of 
 them ongaged in active business ; and before the law 
 they all have full property rights. 
 
 The manners and customs of the Filipino people ui 
 general show signs of Spanish influence ; and the more 
 one studies them, — their history, language, and char- 
 acter, — the more convinced one becomes that the Span- 
 iards accomplished a unique work in redeeming these 
 races from barbarism and heathenism and teaching them 
 the forms and manners of civilized life.^ Although much 
 of what has been taught must be modified, yet because 
 of the advancement made socially under their earlier 
 masters our work has been made infinitely easier. 
 
 1 This is not the usual American opinion.
 
 276 THE PHlLlPPmE ISLANDS 
 
 These people, however, have retained to a consider- 
 able degree those local customs which were consistent 
 with the new ideas imj)lanted by their earlier teachers ; 
 and to-day even the upper classes who adopted the 
 superficial habits of the Spaniards throw off many of 
 these in the privacy of the home and become thoroughly 
 Filipino again, laying aside conventionalities and con- 
 sidering such things as knives and forks, tables and 
 chairs, and shoes and stockings as mere superfluities. 
 As a story in point, it is related that a certain American 
 official, who had been attending a banquet which had 
 been as well served as far as silver, fine linen, and glass 
 were concerned as any of our dinners, was obliged to 
 return to his host's house for an article he had left 
 behind ; and thereupon found the women of the house- 
 hold, who had acted so gracefully and deftly as wait- 
 resses during the meal, all squatting upon the beauti- 
 fully polished table top eating with their fingers the 
 remnants of the feast. Formality was all right for a 
 while, but it proved too oppressive to observe it for a 
 longer time than actual necessity seemed to require ; 
 and such is the common conception as to the necessity 
 of holding to conventionalities of this sort. 
 
 To the ordinary observer the manners of the upper- 
 class Filipino surpass those of the average American 
 to be seen in the Philippines ; the uniform courtesy 
 and the cordial hospitality of the former are traits not 
 easily forgotten, and, it must be confessed, stand out 
 in rather sharp contrast at times to the brusqueness
 
 PEOPLE 277 
 
 closely analogous to rudeness of various representatives 
 of our own people. The critical European residents are 
 already commenting unfavorably upon the change in 
 manner of the natives since the arrival of the Americans, 
 particularly the lack of deference on the part of the 
 former to white persons generally. Such a transforma- 
 tion is undoubtedly taking place gradually, encouraged 
 
 Going to Town 
 
 as it is by the more liberal American spirit ; though in 
 the provinces the native meeting a foreigner continues 
 to salute him courteously. By this time the people have 
 learned that there are Americans and Americans, and 
 consequently are somewhat discriminating in their dis- 
 play of hospitality, though they are none the less ideal 
 hosts to those wdiose acquaintanceship they value. 
 
 The would-be Filipino aristocrat, with a super]} dis- 
 dain for manual work, entertains a contemptuous feel- 
 ing for the American who is engaged in such, who
 
 278 THE philippi:n"e islands 
 
 walks when he might ride, or who displays any of 
 the characteristics of the laboring man. A certain 
 carelessness of manner that we possess is ver}" often 
 misunderstood by Filipinos, even those of the lower 
 classes. Superficial, talkative, and showy Americans 
 are most popular with these people. Brusqueness is 
 fatal in an official, and modesty and quiet force are 
 not always understood. 
 
 One does not perceive in the FilijDinos of Manila and 
 the larger cities the happy carelessness which strikes 
 the observer as characteristic of such a closely allied 
 people as the Javanese. The ordinar}- Tagalog seems 
 almost sullen ; and the tribes in general exhibit a cer- 
 tain indifference and lack of emotion that hardly indicate 
 an enthusiastic nature. 
 
 Bathing is a frequent practice, though nice discrimi- 
 nation is not always exercised in the choice of a place. 
 Clothes are washed often, — many times, it is true, in the 
 water in which the natives have bathed; yet the process 
 is cleansing, and neatness of garb is a noticeable char- 
 acteristic of all classes of Filipinos. 
 
 Their dress is not particularly picturesque nor artis- 
 tic, and compares very unfavorably with that of their 
 neighbors, the Japanese and the Javanese. The colors 
 are too pronounced, black, green, yellow, and particu- 
 larly red, being the favorites. For the women, a gauzy 
 waist, a handkerchief, and a skirt with an apron over 
 it are the garments worn ; stockings are seldom used, 
 heelless slippers constituting the footwear. The men
 
 PEOPLE 279 
 
 wear trousers reaching to the feet and a kind of white 
 shirt hanging loosely over them ; in general, they go 
 barefooted. The children frequently come to school 
 wearing nothing but a blouse, and sometimes a derby 
 hat, often considered the next necessary garment and 
 much prized by the natives. Shoes and such luxuries 
 do not constitute pressing needs. 
 
 The houses are untidy, even dirty; and underneath 
 these dwelhngs are kept hens, horses, pigs, and often- 
 times carabaos. At their meals, ordinarily of fish, rice, 
 and fruit, the members of the family squat on the floor 
 and eat with their fingers from a common dish. They 
 usually all sleep together on the floor. 
 
 The framework of these houses is usually constructed 
 of bamboo ; the roof and walls are made from leaves of 
 the nipa palm ; and the floor is of small bamboos split 
 and put down with an open space between them. Open- 
 ings in the walls provided with shutters of palm leaves 
 answer the purpose of windows; bamboo ladders form 
 the means of entrance, for all the houses are built upon 
 piles with the object of avoiding deleterious vapors 
 arising from the ground and insuring comfort during 
 the rainy season. Very often there is but one room 
 within — kitchen, dining room, and bedroom combined 
 — for the whole family; and there are but few articles 
 of furniture, and ill kept at that. Although the Filipino 
 peasant is fond of his home, real comfort there seems 
 to concern him but little. Of course in a tropical cli- 
 mate people live more out of doors, — they really camp
 
 280 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 out, — and have less desire for abundant furnishings for 
 the home; and jet meager as are such in the houses, 
 there is always to be found a little altar with images or 
 pictures of saints for use in their devotions. In contrast 
 
 to the abodes of the ordinary 
 native, of which we have just 
 been speaking, the houses of 
 the better classes are of frame 
 
 D^^^M^^^Mt' structure, substantial, and 
 BwTl^^^^^' much more like our own. 
 
 They are very open, the win- 
 dows being constructed of 
 small panes of shell sliding 
 in grooves, and it is possible 
 thus to open up practically 
 the whole side of the house. 
 These are often luxuriously 
 fitted out with heavy polished 
 furniture and oiled floors, and 
 kept in splendid condition. The home life, too, of this 
 latter class is much more according to our own ideas. 
 
 Among the marked traits of these people is their 
 delight in festivals or Jiestas, and each church holiday, 
 birth, marriage, or death that occurs is made the occa- 
 sion for a celebration which lasts from one to three 
 days with banqueting, music, and gaming. All are 
 invited and all accept. Food of every sort, including 
 the indispensable unsalted boiled rice, hams and other 
 meats, chicken, fish of various kinds in numberless 
 
 Altar Piece 
 
 Designed and carved by a 
 
 Filipino
 
 PEOPLE 
 
 281 
 
 combinations, sweets, and fruits are provided in abund- 
 ance; wine and native gin are not lacking, nor cigars 
 and cigarettes in quantities. The food is served in 
 courses which follow one another in almost endless suc- 
 cession, and Americans who may happen to be among 
 the guests are compelled to cease early from active 
 participation in the eating. The chief dish is a pig 
 roasted whole, and a peculiar mixture of fish, eggs, 
 vegetables, and sauce — one which Americans have not 
 as yet become able to relish — is almost equally popular. 
 Through numerous courses, each with its particular 
 merit, the guests are conducted, until finally something 
 like satisfaction has been attained. Other forms of 
 entertainment are 
 then sought, perhaps 
 card playing and 
 dancing, and so the 
 merriment c o n- 
 tinues, with further 
 eating as the time 
 goes on. 
 
 The word fiesta 
 originally meant a 
 saint's day and the 
 word still retains its 
 religious significance, 
 though applied also to other celebrations. On the differ- 
 ent church holidays everywhere, as we saw to be true 
 of Manila, these festivals take place, — more religious in 
 
 Puxcii Bowl 
 Designed and made by a Filipino silversmith
 
 282 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 character of course than the ordinary affairs, and gener- 
 ally gorgeous and extremely impressive. On the more 
 serious occasions levity is forgotten, though the feasting 
 takes place, and a feeling of real piety is shown. 
 
 Another prominent trait of the Filipinos is their fond- 
 ness for elaborate funeral rites. Gaudy trappings and 
 the pomp of woe are greatly in favor with these people, 
 who like so much anything in the way of ceremony. 
 They seem hardly to realize the seriousness of the occa- 
 sion and, outside the immediate relatives, are apparently 
 attracted more by the interest of the event itself than 
 by any particular consideration for the deceased ; while 
 the bands of music accompanying the body are as likely 
 to play lively two-steps or street songs as anything 
 appropriate. 
 
 Still another side of these people is shown in their 
 intense interest in any game which possesses the gam- 
 bling element and their general dislike for ordinary out- 
 door sports. A native game of football played with a 
 wicker ball which is kicked from one to another in 
 the air is rather popular; and much riding is done in 
 the provinces, though more for business errands than 
 for pleasure and exercise. After all, cockfighting, horse 
 racing, and card playing, with bets and money in other 
 ways involved, are the chief delights, and oftentimes, 
 it seems, the main interests of the natives. With the 
 younger generation, however, a change is taking place, 
 and the more vigorous American sports are beginning 
 to gain a popularity that promises to equal that of the
 
 PEOPLE 283 
 
 coin games which the children play almost universally. 
 Card playing for money is the national game and has 
 such a fascination for these people that it nearly always 
 receives first consideration. Even among those of mod- 
 erate means very large sums at times change hands, and 
 a spirit of recklessness akin to that of the experienced 
 gambler of the western world is displayed. 
 
 Among the upper-class women there is a great fond- 
 ness for personal adornment in the shape of silk 
 brocaded dresses with enormous trains and jewelry, 
 especially diamonds. These trains are frequently most 
 inartistically painted, and the display of gems amazing. 
 Nor is that distinctively artistic touch given the gown 
 which is the case, for instance, with Japanese women. 
 
 The amount of really artistic work among these 
 people is very limited. Some of the embroideries of 
 piiia cloth are, however, exquisitely done ; and in the 
 ornamentation of a few of the churches there are wood 
 carvings of true merit. In Manila and various parts of 
 the provinces this carving forms a distinct industry, 
 and in Laguna a product closely resembling Swiss work 
 is turned out. Painting is a comparatively unknown 
 art, though very fair ability has been shown in the exe- 
 cution of native landscapes ; and at least one artist 
 — Luna^ — has been produced, whose work gained for 
 him admission to the French Salon. Some of the work 
 in metals, particularly silversmithing, also shows an 
 
 ^ Brother of General Luna, who was killed, as is alleged, by order of 
 Aguinaldo.
 
 284 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 originality in designing power and an appreciation of 
 the princii)les of grace and proportion. 
 
 In architecture little original talent has been dis- 
 played ; in general, the jDeople have been satisfied to 
 accept Spanish ideas, which in the Islands were influ- 
 enced by considerations of convenience rather than of 
 artistic beauty. The churches, however, which are the 
 principal buildings, are all interesting, and while some 
 are plain, barnlike structures, others are dignified and 
 well proportioned, with graceful towers and pleasing 
 facades. The walls and gates of old Manila and the 
 turreted forts constructed by the natives of Samar, 
 different monuments in the capital, together with 
 Magellan's tomb in Cebii harbor, are all interesting 
 historically but hardly so artistically, at least for us, 
 since the design of these works is not native but 
 Spanish; the same may be said with regard to the 
 statue of Sebastian del Cano in the Ayuntamiento and 
 the Legaspi-Urdaneta monument facing the Luneta, 
 both of which are splendidly executed. 
 
 Music, though not an art among these people, forms 
 a part of their very life. Little native music has been 
 written, and there is no composer who stands forth as 
 does Rizal the writer, or even Luna the artist ; yet one 
 hears the wilder, more racy strains of native composi- 
 tion and the livelier foreign airs everywhere and at all 
 times. During festivals, on the one hand, and labor, 
 on the other, the sound of violin or native instrument 
 is constantly heard, often accompanied by the peculiar
 
 PEOPLE 285 
 
 native singing which is at times so mournful. Every 
 town has its musical organization, and some of the 
 musicians perform very creditably, — indeed, the Rizal 
 Orchestra is as fine as anything to be found in the 
 Far East. The children take deep interest in this branch 
 of school work; and the teachers find that the pupils 
 pick up an air readily and memorize the words with 
 accuracy and faithfulness. 
 
 And such are these people, — childlike, curious, pleas- 
 ure-loving, immature, strange, unfathomable, elusive, — 
 a study for us, their tutors.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 PEOPLE {continued) 
 
 The character and pohtical capacity of the Filipinos 
 have such a direct bearing upon their government and 
 administration that the writer is loath to leave the 
 subject before presenting in addition to his own views 
 the opinions of certain persons who have had such 
 experience with these people as to make their obser- 
 vations valuable. 
 
 General Otis was particularly qualified to speak upon 
 the question, arriving, as he did, a short week after 
 the taking of Manila and acting as military governor 
 until May, 1900. In giving testimony before the United 
 States Senate Committee as to the character of the bulk 
 of the people, he informed his hearers that there is 
 everything in the Philippines from a high state of civil- 
 ization to the most degraded barbarism. The great mass 
 of the people, in his estimation, are ignorant and very 
 superstitious ; they prefer to remain at home quietly and 
 till the soil, free from outside interruption. In their 
 public conduct they depend largely upon the attitudes 
 and desires of their leaders; and the general run of 
 them, after the Spanish domination of three or four 
 centuries which developed the practice of secrecy among 
 
 286
 
 PEOPLE 287 
 
 them, are hardly capable of being trusted implicitly. 
 He agreed with the testimony that had been gathered 
 from former witnesses before the committee respecting 
 Filipino habits, that these people would sooner play 
 than work ; that they go off to dances, festivities, and 
 cockfights, and abandon their work; and if they get a 
 little money by winning on a favorite bird their absence 
 becomes extended. He added that almost every other 
 day with tliem is a holiday, and that he had a great 
 deal of difficulty on this account, even around Manila, in 
 keeping them at work. A good strong white man will 
 do as much in one day as three Filipinos, he believed, 
 and although there were many good laborers among 
 them, the average native was of about this quality. 
 They were found to work well in the early part of 
 the morning, but wdien noon approached siestas of one, 
 two, or three hours were necessary before the resump- 
 tion of labor in the afternoon. As to the development 
 of the Islands in any rapid way, he was convinced that 
 it would have to be done by means of labor secured 
 outside of the Philippines, preferably by the restricted 
 immigration of Chinese. 
 
 General MacArthur, who succeeded General Otis, said 
 of these people which he had helped to subdue : 
 
 I do not know where they got it, yet it is a fact that the Fili- 
 pinos alone in the Far East have somehow been imbued with the 
 nineteenth-century spirit. They have ideals. Their evolution 
 will be so swift it will surprise us, and I am sure they will 
 become thoroughly Americanized and an addition to the United 
 States to be proud of. If we ever have a war in the East they
 
 288 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 will fight for us. Of all the Eastern colonial soldiers they are 
 the best stuff. 
 
 In answer to an inquiry as to whether the Filipinos 
 wonlcl be content nnder American sovereignty, he said : 
 
 They have not longed for independence, for they are not a 
 nationality nor homogeneous. What they have been striving for 
 these years is personal liberty. Now they have come in contact 
 with an Anglo-Saxon people, and personal liberty is what Anglo- 
 Saxons have fought for during the last five hundred years. They 
 are learning that. They are already experiencing personal liberty 
 under Anglo-Saxon protection. ... I predict the time will come 
 speedily when these Filipinos and ourselves will admire each 
 other and affection will exist between us. 
 
 Governor Taft, Avho from the responsibilities and 
 anxieties of his position should be a pessimist of the 
 pessimists, is an extreme optimist. His views as to 
 these people and their possibilities are better known, 
 and yet the following quotations from speeches deliv- 
 ered during a recent visit to the United States while he 
 was still governor of the Islands are hardly superfluous: 
 
 They are a courteous, hospitable, and in many respects a 
 lovable people. They are not a licentious people, but they do 
 not regard the marriage tie as essential to the decent living 
 together of a man and a woman. Under the influences of the 
 tropical sun they are not an energetic or industrious people, 
 though I believe that organization can accomplish much in 
 making them a much more useful people for purposes of 
 labor than under the recently unsettled conditions tliey have 
 proved themselves to be. With the war passion they have 
 developed cruelty, but in peaceful times they are a sweet- 
 tempered people, decorous in their conduct. Their chief vice 
 is that of gambling. They are a very temperate peo})le, and
 
 PEOPLE 289 
 
 one rarely sees a drunken Filipino, although I think they all 
 take more or less vino, the distillation of the sap of the nipa 
 palm. Among the ignorant ninety per cent there is very little 
 political sentiment of any kind, except the desire for quiet, for 
 protection from ladroues or other disturbers of the peace, and 
 the feeling of deep hostility against the friars who represented 
 to them the political condition of subjection under the Spanish 
 rule and all its severity. Political conception, until the system 
 of education shall have brought this ninety per cent into sym- 
 pathy with modern ideas by giving them a common language, 
 must be generally confined to less than ten per cent who speak 
 Spanish, and the discussion of political parties must be limited 
 to that ten per cent. 
 
 As to the political responsibility of the people and their 
 ideas of popular government, the governor proceeded : 
 
 There are some of the Filipinos who have given a good deal 
 of study to the Constitution of the United States ; they are 
 to be found chiefly among the Federal party leaders, and possi- 
 bly there should be included among them a few of the revolu- 
 tionary leaders and irreconcilables. Their whole education has 
 been in the civil law and in the conceptions of civil government 
 and of liberty which prevail in France and among the so-called 
 republicans or social democrats of other European countries. 
 They have very little practical conception of individual liberty 
 as it has been hammered out in Anglo-Saxon countries by hun- 
 dreds of years of conflict. In spite of eloquent tributes to liberty 
 and freedom even the most advanced and practical of the Fili- 
 pino party leaders find it difficult to regard with favor limita- 
 tions of the executive in favor of the liberty of the individual, 
 when the right man is in the executive. The tendency among 
 them is always toward absolutism in the president of the town, 
 in the governor of the province, and in the representative of the 
 central government. 
 
 It is most difficult for them to conceive of a ruling majority 
 sharing equal rights with the minority. On the other hand, the
 
 290 IHE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 minority are, as President Wheeler aptly expressed it in remarks 
 made by him in San Francisco some time since, " bad losers," and 
 the defeat in an election is only a preliminary to violence and 
 revolution. It is the idea of practical individual liberty which 
 the Filipinos are to learn, — the practical elements of popular 
 government. 
 
 We know of the massacre of our troops at Balangiga 
 on the island of Sumar and of General Smith's campaign 
 there in which he was reported to have urged his soldiers 
 to make the island a howling wilderness. Although the 
 inhabitants there are Visayans, they are of a lower stage 
 of civilization than the other members of this family in 
 Panay, Negros, and the other central islands ; and they 
 are so different in character from these others that one 
 might have experiences among them which would not 
 apply to any of the other peoples of this same race. 
 This is only a single instance which might be multi- 
 plied almost without limit, indicating that local condi- 
 tions are the cause of striking differences among these 
 people, even though they may be members of the one 
 common Ijranch. A soldier's or a teacher's letter may 
 represent actual experience and be a true statement of 
 local conditions and yet not apply at all to the people 
 in the archipelago as a whole. And those who labeled 
 all the Filipinos as "cruel traitors" on account of this 
 barbarous massacre in S^imar are just as much in tlie 
 wrong as those who harshly condemned General Smith 
 without understanding that conditions on that island 
 warranted drastic military methods. This event served 
 only to emphasize the difficulty of knowing the people
 
 PEOPLE 291 
 
 generally and the mistake of assuming that some are 
 just like others. Before the loss of our troops occurred 
 at Balangiga, the people had been reported as having 
 their hearts and minds wholly wrapped up in insurrec- 
 tion and barbarism. Enlightenment had no place among 
 them ; and they were said to be so corrupt morally and 
 cruel naturally that it would be far from advisable to 
 send teachers to help such an unappreciative people, 
 who had all the cunning of a traitorous tribe. How 
 true this estimate of these people became was revealed by 
 the events which followed. General Hughes, in assign- 
 ing an othcer to that station, gave him a full account 
 of the character of the people among whom he was 
 to start operations ; the fact developed later that this 
 officer heeded but slightly the information which he 
 had received, owing to an unusual confidence which 
 he had previously learned to place in the natives in 
 Luzon; and the trust which he placed in these new 
 people was what made their treachery possible. 
 
 This same General Hughes, a shrewd, lovable gentle- 
 man as well as an excellent soldier and a practical 
 administrator, in stating his opinion of the character of 
 the Visayan people, the largest tribe, as we have seen, 
 in the archipelago and the ones whom he learned to 
 know so well, said : 
 
 The Visayan people are not understood, and I do not pre- 
 tend to understand them after living with them for two and a 
 half years. There is a small percentage, and it is a very small 
 percentage, of educated, fine people. In the towns, where these
 
 292 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 people are, there is another percentage, much larger, of people 
 ■R-ho have learned enough of good manners and good behavior 
 to appear very well and to behave very well ; but the great mass 
 of the Visayan people to-day are absolutely ignorant. They have 
 the general reputation of being a very gentle and pleasing people. 
 That is certainly true ; but I think that that is simply the pas- 
 sivity of indifference and ignorance. There is nothing that 
 interests them. They will not be disturbed by anything that 
 goes on around them. . . . These people do not know what inde- 
 pendence means. They probably think that it is something to 
 eat. . . . They want us driven out so they can have this inde- 
 pendence, but they do not know what it is. 
 
 Of the Filipinos in general he said : 
 
 They are lazy. They want at least three days in the week, if 
 you will give it to them ; they want to go to cockfights and they 
 want to gamble. As laborers they cannot do any heavy work. 
 They are weak when it comes to lifting. It would take a long 
 time to develop the Filipinos for the heavy work and the finer 
 part of the skilled work. As the old Chinaman who used to 
 come around to repair things in my house remarked, " No good, 
 no good ; Filipino man made it." 
 
 A native physician who has always lived in Manila 
 said of his people before the first Philippine Commission : 
 
 Ordinarily, the native Filipino, because he has been under the 
 influence of the friar for a long time, is stoical. . . . They are 
 fond of work up to a certain point. They will Avork as long as 
 it is necessary to gain a livelihood. They have not yet learned 
 to save what they earn by their work, for they have always been 
 obliged whenever they had any money to give it to the church, 
 and in this way they have become indifferent to saving. 
 
 The imagination of the Indian, when he talks in his own lan- 
 guage, may be easily seen to be very active and easily aroused, 
 considering the small amount of education which he has had.
 
 PEOPLE 293 
 
 On account of the education and fanaticism which they have 
 received they regard life as a transitory state, and they are indif- 
 ferent to death. It is not that they are brave but that they think 
 that in the next world they will enjoy a better life than here. 
 
 These Filipinos stand unique as the only large body 
 of Asiatics converted to Christianity in modern times, 
 and yet this common religion has not been sufficient 
 to efface tribal differences and make them one people. 
 The Spaniards were the first and only nation to Chris- 
 tianize a large group of tropical orientals ; and let us 
 hope the Americans may be the first to assist in their 
 development into a self-governing people. Certain Eng- 
 glishmen who have been for a long time residents in the 
 Malay states take the position that brown races, like 
 the Malays, are unfit for self-government ; that the in- 
 variable results of such a rule are misery, wrongdoing, 
 and retrogression ; and that such people can secure hap- 
 piness, progress, and welfare only by remaining subject 
 races under white rulers. 
 
 As one wrote concerning the Filipinos : 
 
 They have no unity, no patriotism, and no common tie to bind 
 and qualify them to be a self-ruling people. Their only destiny 
 in short is to be left under the tutelage and guardianship of the 
 superior race which now holds the Islands.^ 
 
 And another ^vrites : 
 
 There never has been and there never will be within any time 
 with which we are practically concerned such a thing as good 
 government, in the European sense, of the tropics by the natives 
 of these regions. . . . However we may be inclined to hesitate 
 
 1 Clifford, Blackwood''s Magazine.
 
 294 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 before reaching this view, it is hard to see how assent to it can 
 be withhekl in the face of the consistent verdict of history in the 
 past and the unvarying support given to it by facts in the present.^ 
 
 Still another, a keen observer of eastern peoples, says : 
 
 Those who liave been intimately connected with tlie Malays 
 have to a great extent fallen under the spell of a certain charm 
 in their character. They speak with enthusiasm of their bright- 
 ness and hospitality, of a certain tenderness of heart, and many 
 other traits which make them pleasant comrades. They are said 
 to be easy to rule so long as they recognize their master ; to be 
 brave and reckless though superstitious. But their most ardent 
 admirers, men like Swettenham and Clifford,'^ are the first to 
 allow that, whether physically or morally, they degenerate when 
 brought under the influence of western civilization, and fail to 
 acquire other traits which require the exercise of reason and 
 discipline. Another deficiency in their mental and moral equip- 
 ment is a lack of organizing power. . . . The Malay is always a 
 provincial ; moreover, he rarely rises outside the interests of his 
 own town or village. . . . The Malay is the laziest of orientals 
 and the Filipino is not the least lazy of Malays. The Malay, in 
 short, is a creature of limitations.^ 
 
 On this Malayan stock, furthermore, have been 
 grafted many shoots, the principal ones being Spanish 
 and Chinese, giving, as we have already seen, the Mestizo 
 class, an important one in the Islands. The natives of 
 Chinese mixture have the reputation of being among 
 the keenest and shrewdest of the population ; as a result 
 of the Spanish intermarriage, on the other hand, the 
 shortcomings and peculiarities of the Latin peoples have 
 become exaggerated in the offspring, and a thin veneer 
 
 1 Kidd, Control of the Tropics. 
 
 2 Swettenham, Malay Sketches ; The Heal Malay ; Unaddressed Letters. 
 Clifford, Studies in Broion Humanity ; In Court and Kampong. 
 
 3 Colquhoun, Mastery of the Pacific.
 
 PEOPLE 295 
 
 of western culture has been spread over the passions 
 and emotions of these orientals. 
 
 The foregoing are some of the various estimates of the 
 peoples of whom we have assumed charge, — estimates 
 which are undoubtedly based upon careful, fair-minded 
 observation, and which, it may be admitted, are rather 
 discouraging to those of us who would see our desire 
 to fit these natives for self-government realized in a 
 day. Any who are in fact cherishing such expectations 
 cannot be otherwise than discouraged, and satisfaction 
 with the results that are being accomplished can only be 
 attained by remembering just what the material is upon 
 which we are working, and adopting a more patient 
 attitude in looking for results. The thoughtful Amer- 
 ican official in the Philippines, if asked his opinion as 
 to the outcome of our efforts in the Islands, would be 
 inclined to say that he could do no more than hope that 
 the Filipinos might, though slowly, develop for them- 
 selves an efficient government under which they could 
 become an independent nation in accordance with their 
 acknowledged ideal 3 and such would be the happiest 
 solution for our own country of the very difficult prob- 
 lem, not to mention the confidence it would create in 
 the latent possibilities of tropical oriental nations gener- 
 ally. Enough evidence has it seems already been brought 
 forward to show that a solution is still not entirely 
 beyond the bounds of hope ; and from a first-hand 
 acquaintance with these natives the writer is willing to 
 assert the belief that they will develop for themselves 
 an efficient government ultimately.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 
 
 In large part the inhabitants of the Phihppines are 
 Roman Catholics, thongh the Negritos, Igorots, and 
 other interior wild tribes are pagans, while the people 
 of Mindanao and the Suln archipelago are Mohamme- 
 dans. The beliefs of those who have become converted 
 to Christianity are, as we should expect, considerably 
 modified, yet certain of the ancestral ideas remain ; and 
 the religions views of the pagan and Mohammedan 
 tribes comprise a maze of superstition, nature worship, 
 and tradition. 
 
 The Negritos display very few signs of possessing a 
 real religion, and merely observe certain principles in- 
 dicative of a belief in spirits, which is further attested 
 by the great reverence shown for their dead and by 
 their custom of inclosing the burial places and guard- 
 ing; them from tlie desecration of neighboring tribes. 
 Ancestral worship is a part of their creed ; and natural 
 things, — plants and animals, — as the embodiment of 
 different spirits, are objects of devotion among them. 
 To their children they give the name of the plant near 
 which they are born, or that of some bird or snake. 
 
 The most solemn functi(ni is the burial of their dead, 
 and yet this occasion is mixed with feasting and 
 
 296
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 297 
 
 drinking. When a death occurs notice is sent out and 
 tho.se in the neighborhood gather round, bringing with 
 thein the game which they have killed on the road. 
 The corpse is prepared for burial by enveloping it in the 
 thick bark of a certain tree, taken off entire, and filling 
 the ends of this cylindrical case with a mixture of earth 
 and resinous gum, by which means the body becomes 
 hermetically sealed. It is then left unburied for many 
 days, during which time a feast with more or less 
 riotousness is held. All the food and drink consumed, 
 they then proceed to complete the burial ceremony. A 
 vertical ditch is dug underneath the house of the de- 
 ceased, and the body lowered into it feet foremost so 
 that it remains in a standing posture ; the grave is 
 then covered with earth and the house burned over it. 
 This marks the end of the event, and the tribe members 
 disperse, feeling that their duty to the dead has been 
 performed. 
 
 Marriage celebrations and religious dances among 
 these people are full of ceremony, which is followed 
 to-day just as in the days of their aboriginal ancestors. 
 They all live close to nature and contemplate its forces 
 with reverence. 
 
 The Igorots believe in a Supreme Being, the creator 
 and preserver, known to most of them as Apo. He has 
 a wife, a daughter, and a son ; and besides these there 
 are two inferior gods who hold intercourse with man- 
 kind through the anitos, or ancestral spirits, some good, 
 others evil, who reward or chastise the people in this
 
 298 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 life according to their deserts. These spirits are repre- 
 sented by roughly carved idols of wood, and their good 
 will is invoked by family prayer. Tlie ancestral spirits 
 are the objects of greater veneration than tlie gods, 
 however, and for fear of incurring their ill will poultry, 
 swine, and dogs may not be slaughtered except in a 
 sacrificial manner. There is a priest in every village 
 who first consecrates the animal to the anitos and then 
 kills it and returns it to the owner, reserving, how- 
 ever, the choicest piece for himself. In company with 
 his first-born son he takes the lead at prayer meetings 
 or on special occasions such as illness, marriage, the 
 beginning of an important work, or the averting of 
 some threatening evil. 
 
 Near each village is a sacred tree regarded as the 
 abode of the anitos ; and outside the different houses 
 are placed small benches with rice or other food for 
 their refreshment. 
 
 According to the Igorots' belief there are two places 
 where the souls of the dead go, — one an agreeable resi- 
 dence provided with everything necessary to happiness, 
 and the home of the spirits who have died a natural 
 death ; the other a place of chastisement for those 
 who have been evil doers and escaped due punishment 
 on earth. 
 
 Turning now to certain other primitive tribes of a 
 very low grade of culture, of Negrito mixture, we 
 find religious conceptions of even a more elementary 
 nature. The Manguianes, or forest people, of Mindoro,
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 299 
 
 for instance, have denied any belief in a future life and 
 were found to have no word for any idea of a God. 
 No evidence either of idolatry, spirit worship, or any 
 other sort of worship has been found among them. 
 
 The Tagbanuas, literally the original inhabitants, of 
 Palawan, a Malay people with some Negrito blood, 
 show their common origin with the Negritos by their 
 manner of burying their dead. The body is incased in 
 a bamboo cottin and then placed in a grave which the 
 departed one himself has selected. With him are buried 
 his arms and utensils and a liberal ration of cooked 
 rice and condiments for his journey to the other world, 
 — a practice similar to the one followed by the Chinese 
 and our American Indians ; and around the grave is 
 built a strong wooden fence. Sometimes also dishes and 
 pots, after being broken, are used to mark the place ; 
 and as with the Negritos, feasting and drinking accom- 
 pany the exercises. 
 
 Similarly also to the American Indians, these people 
 have medicine men, half priest and half doctor. They 
 believe there are two gods, — one in heaven (the sky) 
 and the other beneath the ground. The former receives 
 and cares for the souls of the pure and good, and 
 the latter is his delegate and is charged with puri- 
 fying the souls of the wicked on earth. When a man 
 dies he enters a cave that leads into the depths of the 
 earth, and after traveling a long distance he arrives in 
 a chamber where sits a judge, — a giant, who stirs the 
 eternal fire. The monster asks the newcomer whether
 
 300 THE PHlLIPPmE ISLANDS 
 
 lie has been good or bad in the world overhead ; if bad, 
 he is cast into a dark and thorny place ; but if, on the 
 contrary, he has been good, he is permitted to j^i'esent 
 himself before the second judge, who may grant him en- 
 trance into paradise, where there are beautiful houses sur- 
 rounded by gardens, in which are the fathers, wives, and 
 relatives of the deceased, together with other good souls. 
 
 The Bataks, another of the various non-Christian 
 tribes, have a religion made up largely of superstition; 
 they worship animals, particularly singing birds. The 
 Tinguianes believe in the existence of the soul, which 
 leaves the body after death Init remains in the family. 
 They venerate anything strange, such as rocks or trees 
 having an unnatural appearance. 
 
 Scattered over the archipelago are a few remnants of 
 a Malayan population more primitive than the present 
 Christian Filipinos, and these in general have few if 
 any religious beliefs, or else very gross ones. They are 
 without exception filled with superstition, and, as is 
 the case with all these pagan tribes and oriental people 
 generally, ancestor worship is very common. Their reli- 
 gion is somewhat similar in conception to that of the 
 Igorots ; there is a chief god, the Supreme Being, who 
 sometimes has a wife and one or more sons and daugh- 
 ters, and a similar idea prevails as to the reward await- 
 ing those who have done good and the punishment for 
 those who have committed evil. 
 
 The Monteses, or hillmen, of Mindanao tell of a tree 
 that folds its limbs around the trunk of another and
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 301 
 
 hugs it to death; and the tree thus killed rots and 
 leaves a tube of tightly laced l^ranches in which are 
 creatures that bleed through tlie bark at a sword thrust 
 or an ax cut. We learn from the Jesuit fathers who 
 have studied these people that they believe in a future 
 life and are polytheists, worshiping particularly the 
 gods of the cardinal points. Another god takes care of 
 the horses and cattle, and as there is hardly a member 
 of this tribe who does not possess some of these animals 
 to assist him in his labor, the aid of this deity is con- 
 stantly invoked. There is also the god of the fields, to 
 whom prayers are offered for a good crop ; and a feast 
 corresponding to our harvest festival is held in his 
 honor. Still other spirits inhabit the trunks of trees 
 and intervene in the affairs of men to favor or hinder 
 them. To these propitiatory sacrifices are offered up and 
 their good will thus secured, — a practice similar to tliat 
 of the old lieathen Tagalogs in invoking the favor of 
 the Tic-Balan, spirits of the same nature as these. 
 
 An idol in the shape of a monkey is always worn 
 around the neck susjDended from a cord, and when on 
 a journey, if they fear an ambush, they hold out this 
 little image like a plumb line and let it spin. When it 
 comes to rest its face is turned in the direction where 
 the enemy are concealed, and they then carefully avoid 
 that place. 
 
 According to their belief, also, there are two devils 
 who must constantly Ije kept in good humor. It is wiser 
 in their estimation to honor them by sacrifices than
 
 302 THE PHlLiPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 to worship the beuevolent deities whose favor is always 
 assured. They believe iu omens and are careful to obey 
 the instructions given hy these signs. One most curi- 
 ous practice^ is oljserved : when a stranger enters a house 
 to visit and it happens that a fowl flies up and passes 
 in front of him, the bird is immediately killed and 
 cooked, and the family in company with the visitor 
 proceed to eat it as quickly as possible to allay the 
 fright of the newcomer and cause his soul to return to 
 the body. 
 
 The dead of these people are buried with lance, bolo, 
 and shield beside them ; and from a high post over 
 the grave is huno- a basr of rice, so that the soul of 
 the departed may have sustenance on its journey to the 
 highest peak in the vicinity, whence by one jump it 
 reaches heaven. 
 
 The bloodthirsty Mandayas, also of Mindanao, are 
 strongly attached to their idolatrous customs. They 
 believe in two good principles, father and son, and two 
 evil ones, husband and wife. The wildest among them, 
 it is reported, make human sacrifices ; and offerings of 
 animals are very common. 
 
 Superstitions abound among them, and some are 
 indeed peculiar. When an eclipse occurs they believe 
 a snake is devouring the sun or the moon, and in order 
 to frighten it and thus prevent perpetual darkness they 
 shout and create a great din by pounding upon vari- 
 ous objects.^ When there is an earthquake the same 
 
 1 Sawyer, Philippines, p. 342. 2 ibid., p. 367 et seq.
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND KELIGION 303 
 
 procedure is followed for the purpose of pacifying the 
 immense crocodile which causes this disturbance by 
 moving around in the center of the earth. 
 
 The Manobos are the most numerous of the pagan 
 people of Mindanao and in their rites and beliefs 
 resemble closely the Mandayas. They believe in three 
 principal divinities, which they imagine as powerful 
 animals inhabiting the forests and exercising dominion 
 over them. One watches over the snares and traps set 
 for deer and hogs, another is god of the crops, and 
 another is the cause of illness. There is also a god 
 of war, for whom it is customary to go on the war- 
 path after the liarvest is secured. Ancestral worship 
 is their religion, and they have their idols, or dinatas, 
 similar to the anitos of the Igorots. Natural phenom- 
 ena, as with the other tribes, seize upon their imagi- 
 nation strongly. Thunder is the voice of the lightning, 
 and a rainbow fills them with awe. Like the Tagalogs, 
 they look upon the crocodile as a sacred animal and 
 respectfully address it as grandfather. 
 
 The Bagobos, who inhabit the foothills of the volcano 
 Apo in central Mindanao, strangely enough do not use 
 idols. In their belief they have two souls, one of which 
 goes to heaven and the other to hell. A set of devils 
 exists with a chief who has his tlirone on Mount Apo ; 
 and this volcano belongs to him as the gateway to hell. 
 He has a thirst for human blood, and on this account 
 human sacrifices are made to him. All the other devils 
 are also worshiped that their wrath may be appeased
 
 304 THE miLlPPlXE ISLANDS 
 
 aud the people l)e allowed to live. The voice of their 
 god they hear in the singing of a certain species of 
 wood j)igeon, which is therefore greatly respected, for 
 it warns them of dangers that are imminent. 
 
 The Moros, the numerous people of the south, are 
 firm in their Mohammedan belief and desire nothing 
 outside the teaching of the Koran. The Jesuit mission- 
 aries of Mindanao have always dwelt upon the tenacity 
 with which these tribes hold to their beliefs and refuse 
 to accept any other form of religion. They are, as we 
 have seen, pure Malays from Borneo, who were con- 
 verted by Arabian missionaries and merchants from 
 the vicinity of the Red sea ; they habitually fix their 
 abode either along the beach or on the banks of some 
 stream so as to be able always to find water with w^hich 
 to perform the ablutions required of the followers of 
 Mohammed. Their abstinence from all alcoholic liquors 
 and other observances peculiar to their system of reli- 
 gion have Ijeen remarked by various ofiicers and civilians ; 
 yet the personal observation of the ^vriter, though it 
 was confined to the larger cities, was that the Moros 
 did not pay to the ceremonies of their creed anything 
 like the careful attention displayed by the Mohamme- 
 dans of India, for instance, or of Egypt. 
 
 Their religious hierarchy consists of a chief, or high 
 priest, who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca and who 
 can read and expound the Koran ; and the jmndifa, or 
 priest, who also as a rule is a pilgrim, and who per- 
 forms the ceremonies of marriage, circumcision, and
 
 SUPERSTITTON^S AND RELIGION 305 
 
 burial, and in the earlier days was wont to start the 
 holy wars. 
 
 The people are superstitious and fanatical, and are 
 quite firm in their belief that the killing of a Christian 
 is a sure passport to heaven, — the greater the number 
 killed, the larger the reward when they arrive there. 
 
 An army officer in writing of these people says : 
 
 Like most savage races the Moro is extremely superstitious. 
 They all wear hidden in their girdles some sort of charm, gener- 
 ally a verse from the Koran or a stone blessed by ajxuidita, guar- 
 anteed to protect them from death in battle and bad luck in general. 
 Some of the priests are wont to take advantage of this weakness 
 on the part of their followers. I know of one pandita who sells 
 his chin whiskers at the price of one dollar, Mexican currency, 
 per whisker, each hair being guaranteed to render harmless a 
 Krag-Jorgensen or a Mauser bullet. 
 
 In the rice fields one often sees a tiny nipa thatch 
 under which is hidden a letter, written by a priest, in 
 which a fatal attack of dysentery is promised any Moro 
 who attempts to steal the rice. From the writer's own 
 observation of these people and from all that he has 
 been able to learn concerning them, they are hardly 
 less superstitious than the pagan tribes. Their Moham- 
 medanism has in it a strong alloy of superstition ; it 
 places a few prescribed rigid rules of conduct before 
 them, but in no sense of the word has it been a 
 spiritual force. 
 
 Many of the inhabitants of the Philippines, even the 
 Christian natives of the lower class, share the idea that
 
 306 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 seems to prevail among all Malays, that the soul is 
 al^sent from the body during sleep, and that if death 
 occurs at that time the soul is lost. '' May you die 
 sleeping " is one of the most dreadful of their numer- 
 ous cm-ses ; naturally, then, they think it dangerous 
 and wicked to awaken anybody suddenly, and indeed it 
 is a* difficult thing to get a Filipino servant to wake 
 any member of his master's family. High mountains 
 form important factors in the religious beliefs of all 
 oriental peoples, especially tliose of a low state of civi- 
 lization ; and in the Philippines among all the non- 
 Christian tribes the notion is quite general that their 
 god, or Supreme Being, inhabits the highest peak in 
 their locality, and that this is the last earthly station 
 on the road to some heavenly land, — the point whence 
 the soul departs for the happy regions beyond. 
 
 After this discussion of the religion of the non- 
 Christian tribes, whose numbers amount to about one 
 sixth of the total population and whose creed is so essen- 
 tially enveloped in superstition, let us turn to a considera- 
 tion of the subject of religion in connection with the 
 remaining and greater portion of the inhabitants, like- 
 wise of Malayan origin but, on the contrary. Christians. 
 Even among these people who have become Christian- 
 ized there are certain superstitious ideas which seem 
 to be inseparable from JNIalay character ; in particular 
 the reverence now paid to the remains of the dead points 
 to the existence of a form of ancestor worship in the past 
 the traces of which have not yet been fully effaced.
 
 SUPEKSTITIONS AND KELICIION 307 
 
 The Jesuit fathers furnished for the report of the 
 first Philippine Commission a paper on Catholicism in 
 the Islands, in which they attempted to answer the 
 question as to what the Filipinos w^ere in a religious 
 way before the arrival of Magellan and Legaspi. They 
 were, in the opinion of these persons, what the im- 
 mense majority of the idolatrous Indians of Asia, the 
 Chinese, the Japanese, the Igorots, the Atas, the Mano- 
 bos, and the savages of the high ranges of jNIindanao 
 not yet converted to the Christian faith are to-day; they 
 were animists, or worshipers of the souls of their an- 
 cestors ; or Sabians, w^orshipers of the sun, moon, and 
 stars. They found gods in plants, birds, quadrupeds, 
 cliffs, and caves ; and certain of these, especially the 
 bluebird, the crow, and the crocodile, they honored 
 and worshiped. They had in their houses many small 
 strange-looking idols, which were known to some as 
 anitos and to others as dinatas, — spirits which, as we 
 have seen, are the objects of worship among different 
 pagan tribes. 
 
 Their idea of the creation of the world was expressed 
 in strange fables. In their belief the sky and the water 
 were formerly walking together when a kite interfered 
 between them, and in order to keep the water from 
 rising to the sky he placed islands on it; and thus the 
 world was formed, which for these people was composed 
 of a number of islands. This Filipino conception of 
 the creation of the world is unlike the common Malay 
 theory ; but their story of the creation of man and
 
 308 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 woman from a piece of bamboo is a common one in 
 Malay folklore. In this Jesuit account of the early 
 condition of the people in general many customs are 
 described, some of which are still observed by those 
 tribes ^vhich have not yet accepted Christianity. Omens 
 and superstitions formed an important part of their 
 creed ; the hooting of an owl and the song of the wild 
 dove, the sight of a serpent, the hissing of a lizard, — 
 all were to them so many messages from heaven. They 
 believed in an evil sprite known as the asuang, which 
 was feared by all as a demon or a witch, and a myriad 
 of fabulous and fictitious horrors were attributed to 
 it. Even to-day this dreaded monster is feared by 
 the average native. By some the asuang is supposed 
 to be a female sprite of the woods who is kept away 
 from the house during childbirth by the husband 
 mounting to the roof and maintaining a disturbance 
 for some hours; by others it is supposed to be a man 
 spirit, who, with his own blood, has signed a contract 
 wdth the evil ones by which he receives the privilege 
 of being able to turn himself into the form of a dog, 
 cat, pig, or other animal, and is also given the power 
 to fly, thus making it possible for him to arrive quickly 
 at the scene of his mischief. An insect, called the 
 tik-tik, always precedes him, announcing misfortune 
 to the fearful native. When its sound is heard in 
 the night he believes that the dreaded asuang is near, 
 and every effort is made to drive it away by various 
 charms.
 
 SUPEKSTITIUNS AND KELIGION 309 
 
 According to this belief, a man, after signing the 
 contract with the evil spirits and thus becoming an 
 asuang, suddenly finds that holes appear at once under 
 his armpits, the one visible mark by which this spirit 
 can be identified. All that the monster then has to do 
 if he wishes to change into an animal is to rub some 
 oil into these holes and the transformation takes place 
 immediately. To keep the spirit away, a light is kept 
 burning under the bed and garlic is placed at each 
 corner of the couch. So much, indeed, is this monster 
 dreaded even by those natives who still retain this belief 
 that they never make friends or become very intimate 
 with one before assuring themselves that he does not 
 possess these visible characteristics. This peculiar super- 
 stition is supposed to be entirely of native origin and 
 seems to have a hold upon many of the people, even 
 those who have been Christianized. 
 
 Many here at home have probably heard of the anting- 
 anting, a charm which our soldiers often found on the 
 bodies of Filipinos, — perhaps a bit of paper with writing 
 upon it, a coin, a button, a piece of stick or bone, or, in 
 fact, anything which could be worn, and which possessed 
 the mysterious power of protecting the wearer from 
 death. Various forms of these have been found, some, 
 as the writer has seen, consisting of pieces of paper 
 with sentences written thereon in the native dialect. 
 Another curious one that has been seen is a shirt, made 
 to be worn next to the person, well covered with signs, 
 phrases, emblems, and words that were supposed to
 
 310 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 protect the entire upper part of tlie body ; and the 
 practice was quite common among the native soldiers 
 of holding something in their mouths to j^rotect their 
 internal organs. 
 
 Among all these early peoples who later became con- 
 verted to Christianity the common Malay conception of 
 the human soul prevailed ; it was " a thin, unsubstantial, 
 human image, or manikin, which is temporarily absent 
 from the body in sleep, trance, and disease, and perma- 
 nently absent after death." ^ The idea of immortality 
 remained to be learned through the friar teachers of 
 Christianity. By their efforts came about the change 
 among the great mass of the people, making them what 
 they are to-day, in contrast to their pagan and Moham- 
 medan brothers in the Islands. Idolatry and systema- 
 tized superstition disappeared, and likewise slavery, 
 polygamy, usury, tribal warfare, and other signs of 
 paganism which characterized the great mass of Fili- 
 pinos at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. 
 
 The story of this early conquest in a religious way 
 has already been touched upon. Philip II, we know, 
 inspired by religious zeal, started the M'ork of estab- 
 lishing Christianity in the Philippines, which was con- 
 sidered the first o]:)ject in their colonization, by sending 
 Augustiuian monks with the Legaspi expedition that 
 reached the Islands in 1565. Other missionaries of this 
 same order soon followed to extend the work of the 
 church. Convents were established in Cebu, Manila, 
 
 1 Skeat, Malai/ Magic, p. 47.
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGIOX 
 
 311 
 
 and other centers, and parishes were organized in the 
 various provinces of Luzon and Panay. 
 
 The first expedition of Franciscans arrived in 1577, 
 and they likewise established convents and parishes in 
 and around Manila, particularly in Laguna and what is 
 now Rizal province, in the Camarines, and in Tayabas. 
 
 Dominican Priests 
 
 The first Ijishop of Manila reached the Islands in 
 1581, and with him came the third missionary body, 
 the Jesuits, who have since played such an important 
 part in an educational and scientific way in the Islands. 
 The members of this order started in immediately to 
 open schools for religious instruction, founded the col- 
 leges of Manila and Cebu, and sent out missionaries 
 all through the Visayas.
 
 ;i2 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Six years later, in 1587, the Dominicans came to the 
 Ishmcls ; and some twenty years after these, in 1607, 
 the Recoletos. 
 
 Thus, by the beginning of the seventeentli century, the 
 evangelization of the Philippines by the five great friar 
 orders was well under way, and a complete ecclesiastical 
 
 Church of Santo Nino, City of Cebu 
 
 system had been established, with the archbishop of 
 Manila as its head, assisted by the three bishops of Cebu, 
 Nueva Caceres, and Vigan, and other high dignita- 
 ries, — the provincials of the monastic orders. Besides 
 the members of these orders there was the secular 
 priesthood composed in part of Spanish and in part of 
 native clergy. In the earlier days these were greatly
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 
 
 313 
 
 outnumbered bj the regular clergy, who often refused 
 to acknowledge their allegiance to the bishops and 
 archbishop. 
 
 The activities of these various religious bodies soon 
 began to extend over the greater part of the archi- 
 pelago, and by a definition of their respective fields, 
 which became necessary within a short time, the orders 
 were confined to 
 
 their particular 
 territories, within 
 which was 
 carried on the 
 work of Chris- 
 tianizing, erect- 
 ing churches, and 
 founding schools 
 for religious 
 teaching, which 
 
 Bamboo Church, San Jose, Xueva Ecija 
 
 later added to their curriculum the common elementary 
 branches ; higher institutions of a broader scope were 
 established in the more important centers. Theirs was 
 the real conquest of the Islands, and proceeding quietly 
 but with untiring effort, often almost forgotten in the 
 midst of political strife, they gained a hold on the peo- 
 ple that proved permanent. 
 
 In regard to the religious life of these natives during 
 the process of their conversion, Friar Martin Ignacio, in 
 1584, writes: ''Such as are baptized doo receive the 
 fayth with great firmenesse, and are good Christians,
 
 314 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 and would be better if that they were holpen with 
 
 good ensamples." ^ 
 
 Morga, writing in 16U3, said of this religious work : 
 
 In strictest truth the affairs of the faith have taken a good 
 footing, as the people have a good disposition and genius, and 
 they have seen the errors of their paganism and the truths of 
 the Christian religion ; they have got good churches and monas- 
 teries of wood, "well constructed, with shrines and brilliant 
 ornaments and all things required for the service, — crosses, 
 candlesticks, chalices of gold and silver, — many brotherhoods, 
 and religious acts, assiduity in the Sacraments and being present 
 at Divine service, and care in maintaining and supplying their 
 monks, with great obedience and respect ; they also give for 
 prayers and burials of their dead, and perform this with all 
 punctuality and liberality. - 
 
 Another writer, in an account of the friars' work 
 
 written at the beginning of the last centiu-y, said : 
 
 Of little avail would have been the valor and constancy with 
 which Legaspi and his worthy companions overcame the natives of 
 the Islands if the apostolic zeal of the missionaries had not seconded 
 their exertions and aided to consolidate the enterprise. The latter 
 were the real conquerors, — the}' who, without any other arms than 
 their virtues, gained over the good will of the Islanders, caused 
 the Spanish name to be beloved, and gave the king, as it were by 
 a miracle, two millions more of submissive and Christian subjects.* 
 
 To quote, finally, from another^ who was well ac- 
 quainted with the conditions in the Islands, writing at 
 a considerably later time, in March, 1851 : 
 
 Without any governing power whatever, the greatest moral 
 influence in these possessions is that which the priests possess 
 
 ^ Mendoza, Ilistorie of the Kingdome of China, Vol. II, p. 263. 
 2 Morga, p. .310. 
 
 * Comyn, State of the Philippine Islands in 1810, etc. (trans, by Wm. 
 Walton), p. 209. * English coii.sul Farren. 1851.
 
 SUPEKSTITIONS AND RELIGION 
 
 315 
 
 and divide among the monastic orders of Augustines, Eecoletos, 
 Dominicans, and Franciscans (who are all Spaniards), and the 
 assistant native clergy. A population exceeding three million 
 souls is ranged into six hundred and seventy-seven pueblos, or 
 parishes, without reckoning the unsubdued tribes. In live hun- 
 dred and seventy-seven of these pueblos there are churches with 
 convents or clerical residences attached, and about five hundred 
 of them are in the personal incumbency of those Spanish monks. 
 
 Other writers who visited the Islands from time to 
 time during the two previous centuries might also be 
 quoted to show 
 how efficient was 
 the work of the 
 friars in religion 
 and education; 
 and although 
 some have de- 
 scribed the people 
 during this time 
 as bigoted and 
 the country as 
 priest-ridden, the 
 final statement of the work accomplished through the 
 instrumentality of the orders must l^e a favorable one. 
 The natives who came under the influence of these 
 Spanish missionaries became at the outset real Catho- 
 lics ; and though their Catholicism was tinged by cer- 
 tain local touches of superstition, it remained the object 
 of pious observance among them, in contrast with the 
 practices of those around them who failed to come under 
 this same influence. 
 
 Church and Campanile, Rosales, 
 Pangasinan
 
 316 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 The ceremonies and the solemnity of the Catholic 
 worship had for them a strong attraction, as did also 
 the solemn pomp in connection with the numerous 
 feasts and religious processions. Its mysteries were the 
 som'ce of deep curiosit}^ and its teachings possessed a 
 certain charm, perhaps because of the novelty and 
 strangeness of it all, perhaps because of the kind treat- 
 ment they received at the hands of these unknown 
 white-skinned missionaries, possibly for both reasons. 
 AVhatever the explanation, the new faith continued to 
 gain strength, and the influence of the church upon 
 the life of these people increased. After the religion 
 itself had been established the activities of the mission- 
 aries turned into other channels ; they began to take an 
 interest in the civil affairs of the various localities and 
 to assume certain administrative duties, such as the dis- 
 bursement of local funds ; and in this way ecclesiastical 
 interests and influence became a part of the everyday 
 life of the people. 
 
 As time went on the church organization increased 
 its scope ; Manila became the metropolitan diocese, and 
 Jaro was added as the fourth provincial one, thus divid- 
 ing the archipelago into five great dioceses. Additional 
 missionaries, too, came to the Islands later, and in recent 
 times other orders sent representatives, — the Paulists 
 in 1862, and the Capuchins and Benedictines more 
 recently, in 1886. Converts came over to the protecting 
 wing of the church wherever its influence reached, and 
 the people accepted the new faith with a sincerity and
 
 317
 
 318 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 piety that were the subject of comment hj ahnost every 
 traveler in the Islands. Public worship on the Sabbath 
 and holydays ^vas regularly attended ; and at home 
 little altars were erected with various images of Christ, 
 the Virgin, and the saints, — the objects of daily devo- 
 tion. The efficacy of prayer was taught the people, 
 and even to-day one may hear, as he passes along in 
 the night through almost any little village in the back 
 country, the recitation of the rosary and the singing 
 of different hj'mns, — practices that are particularly 
 common during the celebration of the great feasts of 
 the church. Such feast days as Christmas, the Epiphany, 
 Easter, and the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin are 
 observed with the greatest reverence, with processions 
 illustrating various biblical events connected with these 
 holydays of the church, general confession and com- 
 munion, and family prayer extending through the dura- 
 tion of the celebration. Among the most beautiful 
 of religious customs are the daily vespers at sunset 
 during these times and the solemn midnight masses 
 during the feast of the Nativity. The one noticeable 
 activity among the people in general has always been 
 their attendance at these various church services and 
 their careful observance of every holyday. On any 
 church day, long before the sun has risen, the throngs 
 may be met returning from service, and later in the 
 night, especially during the season of Advent, Holy 
 "Week, and other such occasions, their last prayers may 
 be heard. During all these years the church itself and
 
 319
 
 320 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 its practices have remained the object of the same kind 
 of fascination which first attracted these people. 
 
 In later times the part which the different orders 
 pla3'ed in the civil administration became more impor- 
 tant, and with their possession of rich estates and the 
 great political power which followed almost inevitably, 
 their character changed and they became something 
 more than mere ministers of the gospel. The assump- 
 tion by them of additional duties in the various munici- 
 palities soon gave them as a class a position that was 
 second in importance to none ; and the exercise of these 
 extensive powers later, in a way that proved injudicious, 
 laid the foundation for serious antagonism that began 
 to make itself felt on the part of the populace. This 
 feeling of opposition to the extension of the authority 
 of these monastic missionaries beyond their own field 
 of religious activity became more serious as the property 
 holdings of the orders increased and they became more 
 firmly established in their dual capacity of spiritual and 
 civil officials. The outcome was what has come to be 
 known to us as the friar question, — one which assumed 
 very serious proportions in the latter days of Spanish 
 rule, which was the underlying cause of the last revo- 
 lution against Spanish authority in the Islands, and 
 which, after remaining a puzzling problem for our 
 own government for the past six years, has finally, as 
 far as the political side is concerned, Ijeen brought to 
 a solution. The friar question a short year or two 
 ago was perhaps the most important one which the
 
 SUPEKSTITIONS AND RELIGION 
 
 321 
 
 Commission had to solve, and even now, though our 
 government has effected a satisfactory arrangement on 
 the political side by the purchase of the arable property 
 belonging to the different orders, it remains for the 
 Roman Catholic 
 church to com- 
 plete the solution 
 of the religious 
 problem. Akeady 
 from the United 
 States have ar- 
 rived an arch- 
 bishop and three 
 bishops, who are 
 zealously striving 
 to upbuild the re- 
 ligious institutions 
 that were injured 
 or destroyed by 
 neglect or war. 
 
 The so-called 
 friar question 
 dates rather far 
 back into the 
 previous history of the Philippines, to the times when 
 the members of these orders first began to act in other 
 than a purely religious capacity; it has been more of a 
 social, political, and economical question than a reli- 
 gious one, and it is only now that the religious aspect 
 
 Stone Pulpit
 
 Ok).) 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 alone is important. The loyalty to the Roman Catholic 
 church itself was never questioned; hostility to the 
 religious corporations was what caused the popular out- 
 burst of feeling against the friars, and the people looked 
 upon the church itself as entirely distinct from the Span- 
 ish missionaries 
 in their role of 
 land proprietors 
 and politicians. 
 The friar, by a 
 regular increase 
 in authority, had 
 come to take 
 active part in 
 family, muni- 
 cipal, and provin- 
 cial affairs. He 
 was inspector of 
 t h e p r i m a r y 
 schools and presi- 
 dent of the boards 
 of health, prisons, 
 and charity; was in cliarge of the collection of taxes; 
 acted as a sort of recruiting officer for the army; attended 
 all municipal elections and council meetings, and audited 
 municipal accounts and passed upon municipal budgets ; 
 he was, in fact if not in theory, the municipal ruler 
 and really controlled the political situation. His per- 
 manent residence in the country, compared with the 
 
 Padke
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 
 
 323 
 
 frequent changes of civil and military officials, gave 
 him an advantage in his contest for power, and thus 
 of all the Spanish officials he became the most inti- 
 mately connected with the natives. 
 
 Both the Schurman and Taft commissions were 
 instructed to investigate this question fully, and, as a 
 
 ^^^■l 
 
 ■■H 
 
 
 
 Hj 
 
 
 ■| 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^H 
 
 1 
 
 1 Hh 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 M 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 Padres studying in C'okiudor of Convent 
 
 first step, the purchase of the property holdings of 
 the various orders, amounting to some four hundred 
 and three thousand acres, was recommended. 
 
 The chief ground for hostility against the friars has 
 been in their exercise of far greater power than their 
 own position and interests justified ; in their embodi- 
 ment, practically, of the whole Spanish government 
 in the Islands, with all its distasteful features; and 
 their retention of parochial offices contrary to church
 
 324 TKE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 law, as the people claimed, which decreed that local 
 parishes should be filled b}' the secular clergy. In cer- 
 tain provinces, moreover, particularly in Cavite, Laguna, 
 and Bulacjin, as well as in the districts around Manila, 
 the political feeling against the friars had in it a trace 
 of agrarianism, where for years the friars had been 
 heads of great manors upon which of late they had 
 paid no taxes, and }'et from which they secured a con- 
 siderable income from the native squatters. 
 
 The friar was often the only man of intelligence and 
 training in the locality who knew both the native dia- 
 lect and the Spanish language well, and this knowledge, 
 in connection with his office as spiritual leader of the 
 people, had given him an important position as an 
 intermediary between the natives and the rest of the 
 world in almost every matter of importance. As was 
 reported by the Taft Commission : 
 
 At first actually, and afterward by law, he came to discharge 
 many civil functions and to supervise, correct, or veto every- 
 thing which was done or sought to be done in the pueblo which 
 was his parish. . . . The truth is that the whole government 
 of Spain in these Islands rested on the friars. . . . Once settled 
 in a parish, a priest usually continued there until superannuation. 
 He was, therefore, a constant political factor for a generation. 
 The same was true of the archbishop and the bishops. . . . The 
 friars were exempt from trial for offenses, except the most hei- 
 nous, in the ordinary civil courts of the Islands under the Spanish 
 rule. . , . 
 
 Besides these powers and privileges in the years just 
 preceding the American conquest, many of the residents
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AXD RELIGION 
 
 525 
 
 of the different pueblos were deported to distant south- 
 ern islands by reason of suspicion or because of minor 
 offenses ; and, whether wrongly or not, the friars w^ere 
 charged with having caused these deportations, and 
 thus came to be looked upon as possessing the additional 
 powers of life and death over their parishioners. They 
 always acted as 
 local agents of 
 Spanish author- 
 ity, and, in later 
 times, when mat- 
 ters had reached 
 such a crisis, and 
 arrests, imprison- 
 ments, and exe- 
 cutions became 
 so frequent, their 
 connection wdth 
 the government 
 
 that ordered these was an added incentive to the people 
 in seeking their removal. 
 
 Aguinaldo, in expressing his opinion to General Otis, 
 said that the primary cause of the revolution was the 
 ecclesiastical corporations which, taking advantage of 
 the corrupt Spanish administration, robbed the country 
 and stood in the way of progress and liberty. One of 
 the clauses of the Malolos constitution itself provided 
 for the confiscation of the property of these orders ; 
 and public denunciation of their members by different 
 
 Church and Bell Tower, Victoria, 
 Tarlac
 
 32G 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE I8LAXDS 
 
 native political organizations appeared from time to 
 time, charging the friars with political oppression of 
 the people, with extortion and immorality, always with 
 a saving clause, however, which asserted their faith 
 and loyalty to the church itself. 
 
 The Filipinos and also the American Catholics in the 
 Islands, with whom the writer discussed this question, 
 pointed out as a primary defect the lack of church 
 discipline among the orders. The friars, as they 
 said, were independent of the diocesan authorities. 
 
 CiiiRcn IX Capiz, Paxay 
 
 and at different times things were done that were 
 not sanctioned by the church officials, and yet there 
 seemed to be no way of reaching the offenders. One of 
 the witnesses who appeared before the first Philippine
 
 SUPERSTITIOXS AXD KELIGIOX 
 
 327 
 
 Commission, a Filipino of intelligence and, in the writ- 
 er's opinion, integrity,^ stated that almost everything 
 about the government was subjected to ecclesiastical 
 supervision ; that the friar has always been the enemy 
 
 Chukch in Tagbilaran, Bohol 
 
 of the Spaniards themselves and that his control en- 
 tered into the most private affairs of family life. His 
 opinion was the same as that of numerous other promi- 
 nent natives, — that antagonism to the religious orders 
 was one of the strong elements of the revolution against 
 Spain. Seiior Luzuriaga, now a member of the Com- 
 mission, testified at that time that as far as the island 
 of Negros was concerned the feeling of the people was 
 completely hostile to the friars, particularly because 
 
 1 Sr. Calderon, a successful native attorney.
 
 328 THE PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS 
 
 of their grasping spirit in seeking to be the civil and 
 military authority combined, and, in short, the com- 
 plete owners of a man's body and soul. In his opinion, 
 the friar was the personification of autocracy, and had 
 as his object the spiritual and material exploitation of 
 the native. The people of the island, he added, are in 
 general Catholics, and in opposing the friars they do 
 not attack the religion ; it is because they have made 
 use of this religion to exploit the country and take 
 money from the people that the feeling of hostility has 
 arisen. 
 
 Testimony of this same sort was heard on almost 
 every side by the commissioners, and showed that the 
 hatred for the friars was well-nigh universal, extending 
 through all classes. 
 
 At the time of the American occupation of the Pliilip- 
 pines in 1898 the total number of missions in the archi- 
 pelago was 907, having in their care, according to the 
 church registry of that 3'ear, 6,559,998 souls ; and of 
 the 746 regular parishes all but 150 were administered 
 by friars of the Dominican. Augustinian, Recoleto, and 
 Franciscan orders. By the revolts of 1896 and 1898 
 all the members of these four orders acting as parish 
 priests were driven from their parishes to seek refuge 
 in Manila. Some 40 were killed, while 403 were put 
 into prison and remained there until the advance of 
 the American troops. And to-day, of the 1124 monks 
 who were living in the Islands just before the outljreak 
 of 1896, only 472 remain; some of the others either
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 329 
 
 were killed or died, and the rest returned to Spain or 
 took up their missionary work elsewhere, some in China 
 and some in South America. Besides these four orders 
 there were some 42 Jesuits, 16 Capuchins, and 6 Bene- 
 dictines engaged in mission work ; and though many 
 of these left their missions because of the unfavorable 
 conditions, they were treated with more consideration 
 and suffered little, for these orders, together with the 
 Paulists, of whom there are a few engaged in teaching, 
 have done only mission work and have not aroused the 
 hostility which exists against the four great orders. 
 With the object of determining the extent of the ill 
 feeling against these religious orders, their influence in 
 administrative matters, the amount of property held by 
 them, and the possil^ility of their return to the Islands, 
 a careful inquiry was made by the Commission, before 
 which a host of witnesses, including members of the 
 orders and the secular clergy, native laymen, army 
 officers, Catholic and Protestant, and American Catholic 
 l)riests, were summoned; and, as a result of this search- 
 ing investigation, the Commission became convinced that 
 the deep feeling against the friars was founded in the 
 usurpation by these latter of the powers of government. 
 In the words of the Commission : 
 
 The Filipino people love the Catholic church. The solemnity 
 and grandeur of its ceremonies appeal most strongly to their 
 religious motives, and it may be doubted whether there is any 
 country in the world in which the people have a more pi'ofound 
 attachment for their church than this one. . . . The people 
 would gladly receive as ministers of the Roman Catholic religion
 
 330 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 any but those who are to them the embodiment of all in the 
 Spanish rule that was hateful. . . . We are convinced that a 
 return of the friars to their parishes will lead to lawless violence 
 and murder, and that the people will charge the course taken to 
 the American government, thus turning against it the resent- 
 ment felt toward the friars. . . . The question for the prelate 
 and statesman is not whether the bitter feeling toward the friars 
 is justified or not, but whether it exists. It does not seem to us, 
 therefore, to aid in reaching a conclusion to point out that all 
 the civilization found in the Philippines is due to the friars. 
 ... A popular bias or prejudice, deep seated in an ignorant 
 people, is not to be disregarded because it cannot stand the test 
 of reason or evidence. 
 
 After this hearing on the friar question had been 
 completed and it was decided to purchase all the prop- 
 erty of these orders, as a first stej) in this work a confer- 
 ence was held between Governor Taf t and Pope Leo XIII 
 at Rome, the result of which was that Papal Delegate 
 Guidi was sent to the Islands to aid in the arrange- 
 ments for this purchase. After a series of negotiations 
 extending over a considerable period of time, an agree- 
 ment Avas finally arrived at by which all the land held 
 by the different orders was delivered over to the pos- 
 session of the Insular Government for the sum of 
 $7,239,000. 
 
 Thus one element of the friar problem has been 
 eliminated by the purchase of their lands, and yet by 
 no means has the entire matter been settled. These 
 negotiations for the sale of their lands have been in 
 fact aside from the real friar question which to-day, 
 somewhat simplified, remains for the Catholic church
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND RELIGION 
 
 GO. 
 
 to solve. The return or nonreturn of these monastic 
 priests to their parishes now rests with the chiu-ch 
 itself, and in view of the earnest recommendation of 
 the Commission, the indelible impression which the 
 people seem to have gained of these clergymen, and the 
 golden opportunity which is open for the introduction 
 
 Ciiruc II IN Angeles, Pampanga 
 
 of American priests with their American sphit and 
 liberality, the only wise decision would seem to be to 
 substitute these latter in place of the friars. 
 
 The charges of immorality so frequently made against 
 the friars the writer had no adequate means of investi- 
 gating, yet he did observe all over the archipelago the 
 bitter feeling against members of these religious orders 
 and heard pretty definite reports of an evident relax- 
 ation of the hold of Catholicism on the people due to the
 
 332 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 personnel of the church. Immorality in a degree un- 
 doubtedly existed, and yet, as the bishop of Jaro said : 
 
 You must bear in mind it would be very strange if some 
 priests should not fall. To send a young man out to what might 
 be termed a desert, the only white man in the neighborhood, 
 surrounded by elements of licentiousness, with nobody but the 
 Almighty to look to, with the climatic conditions urging him 
 to follow the same practices as surround him, it is a miracle 
 if he does not fall. 
 
 Although there has from time to time been unmistak- 
 able evidence of misconduct in isolated cases, immorality 
 was not the principal ground for hostility to the friars ; 
 on the contrary, the native priests who have taken their 
 places to-day are certainly of no higher moral standard, 
 — by which statement the ^\Titer does not intend to 
 convey the impression that the standard of the friars as 
 a class was low, — and yet the people do not feel any 
 ill will as!;ainst them on such score. 
 
 It is the conviction of the writer that the return of 
 these friars to their parishes in the Islands would be in 
 the highest degree inadvisable. The work of winning 
 over these people to the American government and of 
 reconstructing the civil organism has thus far proceeded 
 so successfully that we can ill afford to invite failure 
 by any such means as this. The people throughout the 
 Islands are practically unchanged in their view as to 
 these friar missionaries, and have cultivated a con- 
 fidence in our administration in great part because of 
 their belief that through the new government the
 
 SUPERSTITIONS AND KELIGION 333 
 
 deliverance from these spiritual leaders is to be perma- 
 nent. The following opinion, which the writer knows 
 by observation is voiced by Filipinos almost everywhere, 
 comes from a devout Catholic, a native Filipino, one 
 of the justices of the Supreme Court. ^ He said with 
 reference to the return of the friars : 
 
 The clinging of the friars to the Philippines and their staying 
 in the towns under the name of parish priests, by virtue of 
 special grants obtained in Rome, to the detriment of the ordinary 
 and general laws of the Catholic church and to the prejudice of 
 ecclesiastical discipline, constitute, according to popular opinion 
 and the deep convictions of the Filipino people, a constant and 
 positive menace to their rights and liberties, which they believe 
 are guaranteed by the Constitution and flag of the Union ; and 
 point to the time, sooner or later, when the true liberal and 
 democratic character of the government which is to be definitely 
 established in the Islands will be warped and twisted out of 
 semblance to itself ; for the Filipinos in general see in the friars 
 only a lot of powerful feudal lords, hostile to their progress and 
 culture, to their rights and liberties, and they think that the 
 mere contact between the friars and the American officials of 
 all ranks will end in changing the nature and adulterating 
 the character and forms of the American administration, con- 
 verting it into a monastic one, similar to the former Spanish 
 administration. 
 
 As a liberal but sincere believer in some form of reli- 
 gion for every people, the writer has viewed with doubt 
 a certain tendency on the part of so-called enlightened 
 natives to the exercise of free thought. Conditions are 
 such as to urge the Roman Catholic church here in the 
 United States to send its best material just as soon as 
 
 1 Floreiitino Torres.
 
 334 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 an adequate supply can be made available to revivify 
 and reunite the Philippine Catholic church, for it is the 
 religion best suited to the temperament, spirit, and 
 character of the various Filipino races. 
 
 An illustration for the necessity of such work is the 
 recent anti-Roman Catholic movement which started 
 two years ago in Manila under the leadership of Padre 
 Gregoria Aglipay, who styled himself Archbishop of 
 the National Filipino Catholic church. The movement 
 seemed to gain footing at once ; and, with the active 
 support of Aguinaldo and a few other Filijjinos of 
 some prominence and of free-thought tendencies, it has 
 drawn to its standard a sufficient following to demon- 
 strate to the ordinary native mind that neither the law 
 nor those in authority will interfere with entire free- 
 dom of worship. 
 
 This leader of the new religion has been active in his 
 efforts, and has perfected an organization with bishops 
 in different parts of the Islands, though beyond this 
 the movement has not yet gone far. Aglipay himself 
 has attracted large native audiences in and around the 
 capital, and they have seemed apparently in sympathy 
 with the movement which he is trying to establish. 
 Little can be said of the effect of this as 3'et, though 
 nothing serious in the way of a schism seems to prom- 
 ise; and with the advent of an additional number of 
 American priests it is believed that certain malcontents 
 who are behind this movement will be reconciled and 
 return to the church.
 
 SUPEKSTITIONS AND RELIGION 335 
 
 Among the American Protestant bodies that have 
 taken up mission work in the Philippines are the Pres- 
 byterians, Baptists, Methodists, EpiscopaUans, Christian 
 Disciples, and possibly one or two other denominations. 
 Of the Protestant missionary movement there is not much 
 to be said as yet, though its agents have already estab- 
 lished themselves in many parts of the Islands. 
 
 The Episcopal mission is represented by a bishop, sev- 
 eral clergymen, a number of kindergarten teachers, and 
 many trained nurses ; and under its influence settle- 
 ment work and a free dispensary have been established 
 in Manila, and missionary stations have been founded 
 in the mountains among the Igorots. In Manila, too, 
 there are already established among the poorer classes 
 a few Filipino Protestant churches ; and an industrial 
 school has been started by the Presbyterians. Through- 
 out the archipelago the Bible is being translated into 
 the native languages and a certain number of converts 
 are undoubtedly being secured. A tendency is indeed 
 manifest here and there to fall away from the Roman 
 church now that conditions are changed and the period 
 of restraint seems to have passed; and there is some 
 degree of truth in the statement made by the Protestant 
 missionaries that conditions seem to furnish a favorable 
 opportunity for their church to do a service to the 
 Filipino people. 
 
 The pure form of Roman Catholicism found in Eu- 
 rope and America does not exist in the Islands. It has 
 drawn to itself superstitions of native origin and certain
 
 33G THE PHILIFPIXE I.SLAXDS 
 
 principles from the popular code in vogue there ; the 
 jDeople are more superstitious and more impressed with 
 no^'elty and perhaps therefore less constant. Yet Philip- 
 pine Catholicism is in reality the concrete embodiment 
 of the spirit and character of the people; it has become 
 so intermixed in their very fiber, it seems so naturally 
 fitted to them and accommodates itself so perfectly to 
 their nature, that it cannot be doubted, however loath 
 Protestant missionaries may be to accept the conclusion, 
 that it alone is the religion for these people and will 
 continue to be. Revitalization, more rigid discipline, 
 and American priests, — ^progressive, adaptable, and in 
 sympathy with American political ideals, — are the needs 
 of the Roman Catholic church in the Philippines, and 
 when they are supplied the religious problem in the 
 Islands will be settled.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 Through our study of the history of the Islands we 
 gained some idea of their government and administra- 
 tion ; and our discussion of the rehgion of these people 
 has thrown light upon the position of the ecclesiastical 
 body in its control of civil as well as church affairs. 
 For our purpose here it will be hardly necessary to 
 enter into any lengthy description of the tribal govern- 
 ments which prevailed before the conquest of the archi- 
 pelago by the Spaniards. In this earlier time, as we 
 know, the different peoples were living about on the 
 shores, fields, and in the woods, in groups of from fifty 
 to one hundred families, called harangays, which were 
 ruled by a chief or leading man to whom was given 
 the name of caheza. This ancient office, the head of a 
 hundred, or caheza de harangai/, was kept up, at least 
 in name, by the Spaniards ; but under them, as we have 
 already seen, the position ceased to be one of honor and 
 dignity ; the local chief became a mere tax collector, 
 an officer hated by the people and punished severely 
 by the government if the revenues were not forthcom- 
 ing. In this way the office, which before the coming 
 of the Spaniards was considered the highest and most 
 
 337
 
 338 THE rJLlLlPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 honorable of all local preferments, fell into such dis- 
 grace that it became necessary to pass a law com- 
 pelling service in this capacity. 
 
 Starting with this original territorial unit of the 
 group of one hundred, we find a development of it in 
 the ward, or harrio, as it was called, which was com- 
 posed of a number of harangans ; in the town or muni- 
 cipality, which embraced various barrios; and finally 
 in the province, w^hich included the various towns and 
 formed a large territorial and political division. 
 
 The governor general j)i"esided over the archipelago, 
 a governor supervised the affairs of each province, the 
 municipal council administered the affairs of the town, 
 and the head of the hundred represented the govern- 
 ment as a sort of agent in the harangaij. 
 
 The governor general was appointed from the home 
 country, as were also the provincial governors. The mu- 
 nicipal council members, composed of a captain and four 
 lieutenants, were elected by twelve delegates of thepri?i- 
 cipales, or first citizens of the town, who were qualified 
 Ijy having held certain offices and paid a land tax amount- 
 ing to at least fifty dollars ; and the caheza de haramjaij 
 was practically elected by this municipal tribunal. 
 
 A brief consideration of this scheme of Spanish gov- 
 ernment in practice in the archipelago during the period 
 preceding American occupation will assist materially in 
 understanding the character of our own endeavors in 
 the administration of the Islands. Durhig this survey 
 of political matters it must, however, be borne in mind
 
 GOVERNMENT 339 
 
 that in practice ecclesiastical influences were always 
 exceedingly strong and, to use the expression of the 
 head of one of the great orders, the friars were the 
 " pedestal or foundation of the sovereignty of Spain in 
 these Islands, which being removed the whole structure 
 would topple over." In tlie general government the 
 archbishop was in the last resort more powerful than 
 the governor general ; and in municipal affairs in actual 
 practice the parochial priest w^as local government itself. 
 The character of the Spanish colonization must also be 
 remembered, for in reality the archipelago formed one 
 great mission, and conversion to Christianity rather 
 than inculcation of ideal political principles was the 
 chief ol^ject in view. Political institutions indeed were 
 only a means toward the attainment of these religious 
 ends, and bearing this in mind we may be better 
 able to understand the paramount influence exercised 
 Ijy ecclesiastical officials, and the position of the chm^ch 
 in matters that seem to us quite without its domain. As 
 has been truly said, " The legal status of the Indians 
 before the law was that of minors, and no provision 
 w^as made for their arriving at their majority. The 
 clergy looked upon these wards of the state as the school 
 children of the church, — the only thought was to make 
 Christians and never citizens." ^ 
 
 The form of the general government of the archi- 
 pelago w^as that of a highly centralized colonial 
 
 1 Le Gen til (De la Galaisifere), Voyage dans les mers de VInde (Paris, 
 1781), Vol. II, p. 61.
 
 340 THE PHILIPPIKE ISLANDS 
 
 administration closely bound to and controlled by the 
 sovereign government of Madrid. The crown together 
 with the Spanish parliament made the supreme laws for 
 the government of the Islands ; and the royal power 
 was immediately exercised by the department for the 
 colonies presided over by a cabinet minister. There 
 was also an important advisory body in the Islands, the 
 Council of the Philippines, which aided in the work of 
 administration. 
 
 The governor general was appointed b}^ the crown 
 with the consent of the cabinet and upon the recom- 
 mendation of the minister for the colonies. He held 
 office for no stated term but rather at the pleasure of the 
 crown ; he was its personal representative and as such 
 was the chief administrative and executive officer, under 
 the immediate control of this minister for the colonies. 
 Within the Philippines he held the chief command of 
 the army and navy, and his appointing power embraced 
 all branches of the civil service in the Islands. His 
 authority extended to all matters pertaining to the 
 maintenance of the integrity of the territory, to the 
 conservation of public order, the observance and execu- 
 tion of the laws, and the protection of person and 
 property. 
 
 As a sort of cabinet to the governor general there 
 was the Council of the Philippines, already mentioned, 
 or, as it was sometimes called, the Board of Authorities, 
 comprising the archbishop of Manila, the lieutenant 
 general, the commander of the navy, the treasurer of
 
 GOVERNMENT 341 
 
 the archipelago, the director general of civil adminis- 
 tration, the chief justice of the Supreme Court, and the 
 attorney-general. This body was entirely advisory in 
 character and its decision was in no way binding upon 
 the chief executive. 
 
 There was, further, the Council of Administration, 
 which served as a mere representative advisory board, 
 having for its chief duty the consideration "of general 
 and local budgets and receipts. Its action was likewise 
 not binding upon the governor general. 
 
 Provincial governments organized upon a civil basis 
 were in Spanish times found only in Luzon, where they 
 numbered some twenty or more. No civil government 
 was established in the Visayan islands by the Spaniards, 
 although the islands of Negros and certain portions of 
 Panay were quite as far advanced politically as some 
 of the provinces which were given civil government in 
 Luzon ; and the rule in Mindanao and the Sulu archipel- 
 ago was always a strictly military one. The provincial 
 governors were the direct representatives of the governor 
 general and always subject to him. They were appointed 
 from Madrid and were invariably Spaniards. 
 
 Aiding these governors were provincial boards com- 
 posed of nine members, including the governor general 
 always as president ex officio, the attorney-general, the 
 treasurer, and several other civil officials, together with 
 two ecclesiastical members chosen from the religious 
 orders. The functions of this board, again, were solely 
 inspection and consultation ; in short, there was really
 
 342 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 no provincial government except the governor, who 
 represented the governor general. 
 
 Locally, the municij)al council, although subject to 
 the inspection of this provincial council and to the veto 
 and corrective powers of the governor and the governor 
 general, nevertheless within a narrow sphere, and ten- 
 tatively and conditionally, administered the affairs of 
 the toAvn, which thus had in a way a kind of popular 
 govermnent. Under a very late law ^ municipal councils 
 were established in the towns of Luzon and the Visayan 
 islands, composed first of the governor general by virtue 
 of his office, and in addition five other members, known 
 as the municipal captain and four lieutenants, who were 
 designated respectively the chief lieutenant, the lieu- 
 tenant of police, the lieutenant of the fields, and the 
 lieutenant of live stock. These offices were honorary 
 and ol)ligatory for those chosen to them. The term of 
 office was four years, and the method of electing mem- 
 bers was interesting chiefly because it showed the great 
 limitation of the franchise and the absence of anything 
 like universal suffrage ; for the system did not rest even 
 upon an educational or a property qualification, but con- 
 ferred the right of voting only upon the principal men 
 of tlie towns, who elected twelve delegates, who in turn 
 chose the members of the council. 
 
 We have seen how Spain became convinced of the 
 necessity for radical reforms during what turned out to 
 be the last period of her dominion in the Islands, and 
 
 1 In 1893.
 
 GOVERNMENT 343 - 
 
 how earnest were some of the efforts and how real the 
 results of her attempt to satisfy popular demand at the 
 thne. The excessive centralization which had always 
 characterized Spanish rule in the Islands became one 
 of the crying evils, and as a reform measure the minis- 
 ter for the colonies at the time, Senor Maura, drew up 
 the law mentioned above, which aimed to abolish this 
 feature and to restore to the people some of the func- 
 tions of local government which they had been accus- 
 tomed to exercise in the earlier centuries previous to 
 the Spanish conquest. The measure was not ill aimed, 
 but was, however, ill timed, and came too late to satisfy 
 the Filipino leaders of reform, A close examination, 
 moreover, will show that it was largely a mere pretense 
 of reestablishing the communal home rule of the ancient 
 regime. The governor of the province could admonish, 
 fine, or suspend the members of the municipal council, 
 while the governor general had the power to dismiss 
 any or all of them. Further than this, the captain, or 
 mayor, could set aside any action of the council as he 
 saw fit ; and the parish priest continued the most potent 
 factor in this local government. Briefly, centralization 
 extended down to the very towns themselves ; the 
 influence of the chief executive was felt in these local 
 governments ; and popular rule existed little more than 
 in name. 
 
 The defects of this Spanish system of administration, 
 as they have been pointed out in the report of the first 
 Philippine Commission, were (1) the boundless powers
 
 344 THE PHILIPPINK ISLxVXDS 
 
 of the governor general; (2) the centralization of all 
 governmental functions in Manila; (3) the absence of 
 representative institutions in which the Filipinos might 
 make their needs and desires known ; (4) the pernicious 
 system of taxation; (5) the plethora of officials who lived 
 on the country and by their numbers oljstructed the 
 public business which they professed to carry on ; (6) the 
 division of minor responsibilities through the establish- 
 ment of rival boards and offices ; (7) the expensiveness 
 of the system and the corruption thereby bred; and 
 (8) the confusion that resulted between the functions of 
 the state, the church, and the religious orders. 
 
 One who has devoted any study to this particular 
 phase of the question can hardly disagree with these 
 conclusions ; and as we progress we shall see to what 
 extent these abuses have been remedied and the people 
 permitted to participate in governing. This much, at 
 least, can be said now : a capable and honest govern- 
 ment under the American rule has been establislied; 
 state and church have been separated ; public revenues 
 are now used solely to defray the legitimate expenses 
 of the government and the cost of duly authorized 
 public works and improvements. Consideration for the 
 Filipinos as the people of the soil and the owners of 
 the country has been put foremost ; the making of citi- 
 zens is deemed of primary importance ; and the real 
 interests of the natives are consulted. 
 
 That it was reform in the scheme of government 
 which the Filipinos desired more than independence at
 
 GOVERNMENT 345 
 
 the time seems to be the only conclusion to be drawn 
 from the extensive inquiries made by the first Commis- 
 sion just after their arrival in the Islands in the early 
 part of 1899. Hundreds of witnesses testified before it 
 on the subject of the popular desire for independence, 
 and though all varieties of opinion w^ere expressed, 
 many of them from sympathizers wdth the insurgents, 
 yet they were agreed that because of the ignorance 
 and political inexperience of the masses, the number of 
 languages, the varieties of culture and modes of life, 
 and the difficulties in the way of intercommunication, 
 an independent Philippine government was at that time 
 neither possible nor desirable. And to-day even the 
 most patriotic Filipinos declare that the Islands cannot 
 yet stand alone ; they need the tutelage and protection 
 of the United States in order, in their oj)inion, that 
 they may become self-governing and independent. In 
 a w^ord, then, ultimate independence is the aspiration 
 and goal of the intelligent natives, — and yet an object 
 w^hich they are convinced is not possible of early realiza- 
 tion. Those who appeared before the first Commission 
 wanted immediately religious liberty, fundamental per- 
 sonal rights, and the largest measure of home rule. 
 They sought free speech, the right of association, the 
 right of petition ; they wanted the opposite of " arbi- 
 trary arrest, detention, prosecution, or imprisonment," 
 '' violability of the home, papers, and effects," "private 
 laws," " special tribunals," " unearned emoluments." ^ 
 
 1 Report of the First Philippine Commission, I, p. 82,
 
 346 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 We have already spoken briefly of the part the 
 Philippines played in our war with Spain, the insur- 
 rection which followed, and the final general pacifica- 
 tion of the Islands. On August 13, 181)8, as we know, 
 Manila surrendered, and Merritt, commanding general, 
 became governor. On the next day, the 14th, he issued 
 a proclamation in which he declared the existence of 
 
 Seat of Insurgent Government, IMalolos 
 
 war and the destruction of Spanish authority; assured 
 protection in civil and religious affairs ; announced a 
 government of occupation and the continuance of mu- 
 nicipal laws affecting private rights ; created a provost- 
 marshal district for police regulation ; opened the port 
 of Manila to the commerce of all neutral nations; 
 and extended protection to places devoted to religious 
 worship, art, science, and education. On August 15
 
 GOVERNMENT 347 
 
 general orders were issued for the assumption of civil 
 government by our military authorities in the city of 
 Manila and the district of Cavite, and assignments of 
 offices were made. The next day, the 16th, a cablegram 
 from Washington announced the cessation of hostilities 
 pending the conclusion of the treaty of peace. The civil 
 courts as they existed under the Spanish government 
 were soon permitted to reopen, subject to supervision 
 by the military autliorities. 
 
 The treaty of peace was signed in December, and dur- 
 ing this same month the proclamation was made that 
 municipal law should remain in force as far as appli- 
 cable and should he administered by ordinary tribunals 
 presided over by the representatives of the people, the 
 functions of civil and municipal government to be per- 
 formed by persons chosen as far as possible from the 
 inhabitants of the Islands. Pending the ratification of 
 the treaty, President McKinley appointed in January, 
 1890, the first Philippine Commission, which we have 
 come to know, from its president, as the Schurman Com- 
 mission. Shortly after, this body reached the Islands 
 and began its work of investigating the conditions of 
 the country and the capacities of the people. 
 
 Under General Otis the whole archipelago was consti- 
 tuted a military division with headquarters at Manila, 
 and separated into the various departments of northern 
 Luzon, southern Luzon, the Visayas, Mindanao, and 
 Jolo, each of which was set off into districts. The vari- 
 ous towns were recognized as municipal corporations,
 
 348 THE PHJLJPPINK ISLANDS 
 
 and under the supervision of the post commanders, 
 mayors, or jjresidentes, and councilors were elected ; and 
 by a series of general orders from headquarters steps 
 began to be taken toward establishing other local gov- 
 ernments. For the time being the commanding officers 
 of the military districts were constituted governors of 
 the provinces, as they had been defined by the Spaniards, 
 and thus a pretty comprehensive administrative system 
 became established in which lay the foundation for the 
 later civil government. The work performed by the 
 American arm}^ officials as civil administrators during 
 this military regime was excellent ; not only were mu- 
 nicipal governments reorganized, but roads and bridges 
 were constructed, courts were reestablished, and schools 
 in which soldiers were detailed as teachers were opened. 
 In a word, the civil experiments and administration 
 of our military officials prepared the way for the civil 
 Commission. 
 
 The second Commission was appointed March 14, 
 1900, composed of William H. Taft, president. Dean C. 
 Worcester, Luke E. AY right, Henry C. Ide, and Bernard 
 Moses ; this later became the Philippine Civil Commis- 
 sion, and with its advent into the Islands, June 3, 1000, 
 dates the real bes^innino; of civil administration under 
 the present American rule. 
 
 General MacArthur had succeeded General Otis as 
 commanding general and governor general and retained 
 this position of chief military official and the highest 
 legislative and executive officer until September 1, 1900,
 
 GOVERNMENT 349 
 
 when civil aifairs were turned over to the charge of the 
 Commission previously appointed. 
 
 Immediately upon its arrival in Manila the Philippine 
 Civil Commission began a series of investigations pre- 
 paratory to the establishment of a civil government. 
 It had been vested by the President, through the 
 Secretary of War, wdth authority to exercise duties of 
 a legislative nature, which were to Ije transferred from 
 the military governor to the Commission, beginning Sep- 
 tember 1 ; and it was left free to exercise this legis- 
 lative function in such a way as it should deem proper 
 and under such rules and regulations as it should pre- 
 scribe until the later establishment of a central civil 
 government. The same deliberation that was followed 
 by the previous Schurman Commission was observed 
 during this period of investigation from June until 
 September. Similar methods of calling witnesses from 
 all classes of Filipinos to give testimony as to the form 
 of government best adapted to the Islands and most 
 desired by the people were followed out. All evidence 
 taken, no matter wdiat the bias of the particular wit- 
 ness, showed that the masses of the people are ignorant, 
 credulous, and childlike, and that under any govern- 
 ment the electoral franchise must be very limited 
 because the large majority will not for a long time 
 be capable of exercising it independently. As the Com- 
 mission reported : " From all the information we can 
 get, it seems clear that a great majority of the people 
 long for peace and are entirely w^illing to accept the
 
 350 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 establishment of a government under the supremacy 
 of the United States." 
 
 The establishment of civil government in the Phil- 
 ippines dates from the time when the United States 
 Philippine Commission assumed legislative functions, 
 September 1, 1000. This was an important step, for it 
 permitted the organization of numicipal and provincial 
 governments, and of the various governmental bureaus, 
 many of which had their work already mapped out. 
 The chief executive was still the commanding general, 
 and the Commission remained, until later congressional 
 action, a civil body expressing the will of the President 
 and acting under military auspices. 
 
 During the rest of this year, 1900, and the first part 
 of the following year, while the American army was 
 contending with the insurgents, the commissioners were 
 investigating conditions, making laws, establishing addi- 
 tional bureaus, providing for highways, bridges, and har- 
 Ijor improvements, organizing a judicial system, and in 
 general picking up the remnants which had been left 
 by the Spaniards and creating out of them by the addi- 
 tion of new material and modern ideas a governmental 
 system on American lines. 
 
 A second important step toward the realization of 
 civil rule hi the Islands was taken July 4, 1901, 
 when civil executive power in the pacified provinces 
 was transferred from the military governor, General 
 MacArthur, to Judge Taft, who became civil governor. 
 A short two months later, September 1, a third step
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 351 
 
 was taken, when at the beginning of its second legis- 
 lative year there were added to the Commission three 
 Filipino members appointed by the President, Senores 
 Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, and Jose Luzuriaga. 
 In the same month the administrative duties were dis- 
 tributed among the four American members of the 
 
 Amu>u Tin: I'lXEs, m:ai; .Slmmek Cai'ital, JJknc.iet 
 
 Commission who became heads of executive departments: 
 Commissioner Worcester, of the interior ; Commissioner 
 Wright, of commerce and police ; Commissioner Ide, of 
 justice and finance ; and Commissioner Moses, of public 
 instruction. The salary of each was to be ten thou- 
 sand dollars, in addition to the five thousand dollars 
 which each received as a member of the Commission; 
 the salary of the governor was fixed at fifteen thousand
 
 352 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 dollars, besides the seventy-five hundi-ed dollars which 
 he received as president of the Commission. 
 
 From July 4, 1901, to July 1, 1902, the Commission, 
 with its executive, legislative, and judicial functions, 
 continued to act as the governing body for the Islands, 
 by virtue of the authority granted it by the President 
 of the United States. On this later date the action of 
 the President in appointing the Commission was rati- 
 fied by Congress in an act to provide temporarily for 
 the administration of civil government in the Philip- 
 pines and for other pm^poses. This congressional action 
 marked another important epoch in the affairs of the 
 archipelago, as it placed a limit on the President's 
 power by restricting the exercise of his authority, as 
 far as the Philippines are concerned, to conform to 
 this legislative act. His appointments must be con- 
 firmed b}' the Senate, and his policy with regard to the 
 administration of the Islands is to an extent dictated 
 by this legislative measure. By it the Philippine Com- 
 mission is made the legislature for the Islands and yet 
 is also limited in the exercise of its functions. Thus 
 the Islands are actually governed by the people of 
 the United States through Congress, for which body 
 the War Department in administering the affairs of the 
 archipelago acts through its secretary. In the near 
 future, now that the census has been taken, and pro- 
 vided that the present state of pacification in the Islands 
 continues, — conditions precedent to the taking of these 
 further steps, — another legislative body, the Philippine
 
 GOVERNMENT 353 
 
 Assembly, is to be established with a membership of 
 from fifty to a hundred, composed of representatives 
 from each province ; and two resident commissioners 
 are to be stationed in Washington. 
 
 The essentially different natures of the two systems 
 of government, the former Spanish and the present 
 American, are emphasized by a hrief comparison of 
 the two. At the outset we see a distinct separation of 
 state, church, and military interests under the present 
 rule, — a condition which was never found to exist 
 under the former regime, with the result that we have 
 seen. Under the Spanish rule all three functions of gov- 
 ernment were exercised by the governor general, who 
 was appointed by the crown on the recommendation 
 of the minister of the colonies. The people enjoyed no 
 representation in this rule ; the provincial governors, all 
 of whom were Spanish, acted as administrative agents 
 of the governor general, and even the municipal officials 
 were influenced and controlled by this central authority. 
 No such thing as representatives of the people sharing 
 this power of the governor general was known ; such 
 a body as a native congress which should have a share 
 in legislating for the Islands never existed ; and native 
 participation in affairs of government in any degree 
 resembling home rule was always out of the question. 
 Under the present American scheme, on the other hand, 
 the governing body itself is composed partly of Filipinos ; 
 the majority of the provincial governors are natives; the 
 chief justice and certain other members of the Supreme
 
 354 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Court are likewise Filipinos, and so also are A'arious 
 heads of the departments of government; the judges of 
 the courts of first instance ior the different districts are 
 largely native born, as are all the local justices without 
 exception; and the municipal officials, with the possible 
 exception of the health officer in certain places, are 
 always Filipinos. Wherever the opportunity presents 
 itself the natives are given a certain hand in the gov- 
 ernment ; election of municipal and provincial officers is 
 by popular vote ; and soon, as we have noted, a popular 
 assembly at the capital will share with the present 
 legislative body the power of governing. 
 
 After the establishment of the four departments of 
 government already mentioned, the first important work 
 to be taken up by the Commission was the organiza- 
 tion of the various bureaus, chief among which was 
 the civil service board, through the efforts of which a 
 more ideal system of civil service exists in the Islands 
 than is to be found in the United States. All offices 
 and nearly all positions in the insular service are classi- 
 fied, i.e. are to be filled through examination and certi- 
 fication by the board, whose action is always subject 
 to the approval of the governor. The principal excep- 
 tions are in the case of judges and heads of a few of the 
 bureaus, and by later amendments many of the latter, 
 which had been formerly excepted, were included within 
 the rules of the service. The law provides that pref- 
 erence in appointment shall be given first to natives of 
 the Philipj^ines, and secondly to honorably discharged
 
 GOVERNMENT 355 
 
 soldiers, sailors, and marines of the United States, — a 
 preference that is being observed wherever applicants 
 of these classes are found by examination to possess the 
 necessary qualifications. 
 
 The merit system, upon which this civil service law 
 has been based, has operated in a way to exclude the 
 exercise of favoritism and to give to the Filipino people 
 a larger measure of real liberty and an opportunity for 
 participation in the affairs of government. The chances 
 for promotion to vacancies of a higher grade, including 
 the heads of the departments, offer an incentive to 
 enter the puljlic service and furnish a practical demon- 
 stration of the declared purpose of our government in 
 assuming charge of the Philippines. 
 
 A bureau of puljlic health — under which have been 
 organized thirty-six provincial boards and more than 
 three hundred municipal ones, in all of which the native 
 members are in the majority, — has been established. 
 Its field is perhaps the most important in the Islands, 
 where such a careful inspection of health conditions is 
 always necessary ; in Manila particularly, where alone 
 some four hundred officials carry on the work, splendid 
 results have been accomplished. 
 
 Bmeaus of forestry and mining have also l:»een estal> 
 lished to take charge of the extensive interests involved in 
 a forest' area of some seventy-three million acres, and in 
 the various gold, silver, and copper mines, many of which 
 had been opened under the Spanish administration, and 
 numerous others by Americans immediately afterward.
 
 356 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 A bureau of the first significance is that of public 
 lands, "vvhich has the important work of adjusting land 
 titles. No attempt was made by the Spanish authorities 
 to settle this question of land tenure until the late date 
 of 1880, at which time a law was passed changing simple 
 possession to legal ownership, and thus placing j^roperty 
 upon a solid basis and enabling the inhabitants to enjoy 
 all the l)enefits Avhich result from the security of prop- 
 erty rights. The adjustment effected by this law, how- 
 ever, was very imperfect, and many of the natives, if 
 not the majority, who cultivated the soil remained real 
 squatters. To-day it is practically impossible to make 
 transfers on account of the insecurity of the titles, and 
 hence investment is not yet safe. The successful solu- 
 tion of this question of land ownership is closely related 
 to the healthy economic future of the Islands. 
 
 The bm-eau of agriculture is likewise of primary 
 importance, for, as we know, these various peoples are 
 essentially agriculturists, and the chief wealth of the 
 Islands has in the past come from the products of the 
 soil, as it promises to come in the futm-e. This indus- 
 try, nevertheless, has been carried on in a very primitive 
 fashion, and it remains for the department to introduce 
 modern scientific methods, — a work which it is begin- 
 ning to do by carrying on investigations and experi- 
 ments, distributing seeds and bulletins, and establishing 
 modern farms for instruction in improving cultivation. 
 
 A weather bureau and bureaus of geodetic survey 
 and coast guard and transportation are among the other
 
 GOVERNMENT 357 
 
 important departments established. In addition to 
 these are the burean of ethnological snrvey, of posts, 
 which has an organization that is exceedingly efficient, 
 in view of the transportation difficulties in the Islands ; 
 and the bureau of Philippine constabulary, or colonial 
 militia, which was created by an act of Congress, and 
 which has accepted from the military authorities the 
 responsibility of maintaining peace in all the provinces 
 that have been organized under civil rule. 
 
 Under the department of finance and justice have 
 been established the bureaus of the insular treasury 
 and the insular auditor, the work of which has brought 
 about a radical change for the better in the collection 
 of taxes and revenues and the accounting for public 
 funds. Since its institution, without as yet any increase 
 in the tax rate, the taxes have produced double what 
 they did in the best years of the former administra- 
 tion. Rigid control of the expenditures of the various 
 bureaus, proper systems of auditing and accounting, and 
 a reorganization of the principal receiving departments, 
 such as those of the customs and the internal revenues, 
 since these features stand in such contrast to what was 
 true formerly, have impressed the Filipinos of the office- 
 holding class deeply ; the increased amount of receipts 
 is actually a surprise to them ; and the result of all this 
 cannot but have a beneficial effect. Official extortion 
 is not possible under the present system and, although 
 there is still a weak spot in municipal expenditure 
 which needs to be cured, general abuses such as were
 
 358 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 the subject of complaint of the taxpayers at one time 
 are to-day impossible. 
 
 Directly under the treasurer of the archipelago is a 
 force of provincial treasurers, all Americans, who in 
 person or through responsible deputies collect all public 
 taxes and revenues, even municipal licenses, except such 
 as are received from day to day in the various towns, 
 which cannot be attended to by a monthly visit on the 
 part of tlie treasurer. Everywhere except in the mu- 
 nicipalities public moneys are handled by Americans, 
 as it has seemed inadvisable as yet to add this further 
 responsibility to the native officials ; and unfortunately 
 the experience with certain of the local presidentes has 
 proved the wisdom of this step. Unaccustomed as the 
 natives are to handling these funds, it will require the 
 same sort of training in financial as in other matters 
 before they are able to look after such receipts and 
 expenditures without the oversight of American officials. 
 
 A judicial system, comprehensive in its scope, is in 
 operation, comprising the Supreme Court with a Fili- 
 pino chief justice and six associates, three of Avhom are 
 also natives ; a series of courts of first instance holding 
 session in the different judicial districts of the archi- 
 pelago, in some of which Filipinos preside, and in 
 others Americans ; and a justice of the peace court in 
 every municipality in which there is a court of first 
 instance. All justices of the peace are Filipinos. Besides 
 this regular judicial system there are additional muni- 
 cipal and land courts, and a court of customs appeals.
 
 GOVERNMENT 359 
 
 Allied to this judicial organization is the bureau of 
 justice with the attorney-general and his assistants, the 
 solicitor general, a Filipino, and the various provincial 
 fiscals, all of whom are also Fili23inos. 
 
 The bureaus of customs and immigration, of internal 
 revenue, and of banks, banking, coinage, and currency 
 comprise a most important department of the govern- 
 ment, including, as it does, the sources of income of 
 the Insular Government, which is dependent upon the 
 revenue of the Islands for its suj)port. 
 
 The government has established laboratories, a neces- 
 sary adjunct to the Imreau of public health, and a 
 department where scientific investigation of microbe 
 activity and its relation to human, animal, and vege- 
 table life in the archipelago, is carried on. 
 
 The department of public instruction, finally, includ- 
 ing the bureaus of education, public charities, public 
 libraries and museums, statistics, public records, print- 
 ing, and architecture and construction, completed this 
 first work of setting in operation the civil-government 
 machine. 
 
 By the organization of these different departments 
 an important work was finished, since the various needs 
 of government, which suffered so seriously by their long 
 abandonment during the period of military operations, 
 now received attention, and matters began to move 
 again under the leadership of efficient Americans. Dur- 
 ing all this time, moreover, the Commission was busily 
 engaged in continuing its Avork of investigation and
 
 360 THE PHILIITJNE 1SLA^'1)S 
 
 meeting deputations of Filipinos, in carrying on hear- 
 ings, in passing various legislative acts to meet the 
 most urgent demands at the time, in drawing up pro- 
 vincial and municipal codes for the estaljlishment of 
 these more local governments, and in studying other 
 immediate needs of the Islands. 
 
 Preparatory to the promulgation of a provincial code 
 which should form the basis of government, tlie number 
 of the provinces and the size of each were determined, 
 largely by geographical considerations. In some cases 
 in the larger islands convenient mountain ranges and 
 rivers were constituted the boundary of the particular 
 province ; and in other smaller islands single provinces 
 were established. The insular and mountainous aspects 
 of the country and the mixed and ignorant character 
 of the people necessitated a centralized form of govern- 
 ment, and even under American rule the degree of 
 self-government in the provinces had of necessity to 
 be a limited one. 
 
 The general act for the organization of provincial 
 governments was passed early in 1001, after the Com- 
 mission had met the representatives of the various 
 provinces on a tour of inspection and inquiry. Thirty- 
 four provinces have since been regularly organized and 
 administered hy the native governors with marked 
 success, particularly in certain instances. 
 
 The two purposes of these provincial governments 
 are, first, the collection of taxes through a provincial 
 treasurer who is the common agent of the central,
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 361 
 
 provincial, and municipal governments ; and, secondly, 
 internal improvements. A further function lies in the 
 supervision of the police of the provinces and the 
 conduct of the municipalities. 
 
 The personnel of the provincial government consists 
 of five officers, provincial governor, secretary, treasurer, 
 supervisor, and fiscal or prosecuting attorney. The real 
 governing body, however, is composed of the governor. 
 
 Provincial Officials of Ilocos Norte 
 
 treasurer, and supervisor, forming a sort of triple- 
 headed executive power. 
 
 The governor is the chief executive and as such in 
 a certain sense has charge of the municipalities, which 
 he is obliged to visit twice in the year, and is in control 
 of the police power. He is elected biennially by the 
 municipal councilors in convention. Of these provin- 
 cial heads twenty-nine are Filipinos and five Americans.
 
 302 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 The secretary acts as the recordmg officer for the 
 governing board, l)ut has no vote in it. He is appointed 
 by the Commission under civil service rules which 
 require him to be able to speak and write Spanish. The 
 provincial secretaries are without exception Filipinos. 
 
 The treasurer is, as has been said, the collector of 
 revenues for all branches of the government. He is 
 appointed by the Commission, also under civil service 
 rules, and is required to give a large bond as security. 
 All of these officials are Americans and, it seems, must 
 be for some time to come. 
 
 Tlie supervisor has charge of roads, bridges, and 
 internal improvements ; he is appointed by the Com- 
 mission in accordance with the rules of tlie civil service, 
 
 * . . . 
 
 and must be a civil engineer and surveyor. All these 
 
 are Americans, though their assistants and agents in 
 the different municipalities are natives. 
 
 Tlie fiscal, likewise appointed hy the central gov- 
 ernment, is llie attorney for the governing board and 
 prosecuting attorney for the provinces. He must be 
 a member of the Philippine bar, and must be able to 
 speak and write Spanish. All of the provincial fiscals 
 are Filipinos. After January, 1906, English is to be 
 substituted for Spanish in this requirement affecting 
 these various officials. 
 
 Thus the ruling body of the provinces, that is, the 
 governing board, is made up of a chief executive chosen 
 every two years by the local governing bodies of the 
 various towns; the treasurer, who is a classified bonded
 
 GOVERNMENT 363 
 
 officer, always an American, and a man versed in finan- 
 cial matters ; and a supervisor, who must be a profes- 
 sional engineer, and hence, for some time to come, an 
 American. The majority of the members of the board, 
 that is, two out of the three, are Americans, and thus, 
 in theory, provincial affairs are under American control. 
 
 The act establishing various provinces is so framed, in 
 theory at least, that a governor who is capable and ener- 
 getic can do much good ; and also, that one who is inca- 
 pable or not well intentioned cannot do much harm. In 
 practice, however, these theoretical qualities sometimes 
 do not possess great value, and in spite of the American 
 majority as a check, an inefficient native governor has 
 it in his power to do a considerable amount of evil. 
 Fortunately only one or two of the provinces have 
 shown this possibility to be true, and with this small 
 exception the native governors as a class have mani- 
 fested Ijoth real ability and an appreciation and proper 
 use of their jDower, and by the results which have been 
 gained during their short periods of incumbency have 
 proved themselves efficient heads of these important 
 political divisions. 
 
 In establishing this system of provincial government 
 the Commission provided a further check upon the prov- 
 inces by granting the central government the power to 
 veto the selection of a governor, or after such selection 
 to suspend him should there be reasons for suspecting 
 his loyalty, should he be proved guilty of dishonest 
 practices, or for other sufficient reasons.
 
 304 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Provincial government in the Philippines, it is to be 
 noted, corresponds more closely to our county than 
 to our state administration. It is at best only a sem- 
 blance of self-government, and yet in view of such facts 
 as to the character of the people, especially their inca- 
 pacity for self-government, as have already been set 
 forth here, the only wise policy for the Commission 
 was to keep the control of affairs firmly in its own 
 hands. In the practical operation of this provincial 
 governmental machine it is to be feared that various 
 governors, who are neither loyal nor incorruptible, will 
 remain in office. In participation in provincial affairs 
 the natives have reached, if indeed they have not 
 passed Ijeyond, the limit of their capacity to legislate 
 wisely, and the granting of even the degree of power 
 which we have given to these native governors is a 
 liberal step to say the least, the prudence of which 
 we can judge only in later years when, after things 
 have been nmning in working order for some time, 
 the consciousness of strict surveillance by the central 
 government will not be felt so strongly. Yet it must 
 be said that results to date are exceedingly promising. 
 The whole scheme is a distinct advancement over the 
 Spanish plan of provincial rule and one that well 
 satisfies both American philanthropists and Filipino 
 patriots ; native executives with authority that savors 
 something of real sovereignty are now realities ; and 
 there is nothing to prevent the posts of treasurer and 
 supervisor from being filled likewise by Filipinos as
 
 GOVERNMENT 365 
 
 soon as they are able to demonstrate their fitness for 
 holding such positions. 
 
 This general scheme of government was further 
 elaborated by the enactment, early in 1901, of a muni- 
 cipal code under which the local governments through- 
 out the archipelago were organized. Mention was 
 made previously of the inauguration of civil muni- 
 cipal government under the direction of the military 
 authority by virtue of general orders issued in 1899 
 and 1900. Comparatively few towns, however, had 
 been organized under these orders before the Commis- 
 sion began to exercise its legislative functions ; and it 
 postponed further action upon any general plan of local 
 administration until the following year, when the code 
 was passed. 
 
 By this nuinicipal code the natives have in the main 
 the same control over their local affairs as is enjoyed 
 by residents of towns of corresponding size in the 
 United States ; it is like a blanket charter for small 
 cities in our country, adapted to the special conditions 
 existing there. It has been translated into Spanish, 
 Tagalog, Visayan, Bicol, and Ilocano, and distributed 
 to the people, and as amended is now in operation in 
 about seven hundred towns. 
 
 The government of each municipality is vested in a 
 president, a vice president, and a municipal council, all 
 of whom are chosen at large by qualified electors of the 
 towns for a two years' term of office. According to 
 population the various municipalities are divided into
 
 306 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 four classes, each class entitled to a certain number of 
 councilors, as follows : (1) 25,000 or more, 18 councilors; 
 (2) 18,000 to 25,000, 14 councilors; (3) 10,000 to 18,000, 
 10 councilors; (4) 10,000 and less, 8 councilors. 
 
 The electorate is limited to those who speak and 
 write Spanish or English, who pay a tax of fifteen dol- 
 lars a year, or who have filled municipal offices. 
 
 Although the municipal laws were drawn up on the 
 same general plan as those of the United States, some 
 of the leading characteristics of the Spanish system 
 were also preserved, particularly the custom of the 
 town president or mayor presiding over the meetings 
 of the council and in tlie case of a tie casting the 
 deciding vote. He also enjoys a veto power which can 
 be overruled only hy a two thirds' majority of the mu- 
 nicipal council. The powers of the president or mayor 
 in general are almost those of a person holding a similar 
 position here in the United States; in his absence the 
 vice president assumes charge of the affairs of govern- 
 ment ; the councilors are elected from among their 
 townspeople by popular vote ; and thus the municipali- 
 ties enjo}" to a great extent autonomy in local matters. 
 Althougli wide powers of initiative are thus given to 
 the towns and although they are practically independent 
 in managing their own affairs, a strict supervisory con- 
 trol is retained by the Insular Government, especially 
 in matters relating to sanitation, education, and police 
 powers; the provincial governor, further, has the power 
 to suspend any one suspected of malfeasance in office;
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 367 
 
 and the treasurer of the province has charge of the 
 taxes and supervises all municipal accounts. 
 
 That local self-government as far as was possible was 
 given to these towns is shown especially in the matter 
 of local expenditures, for there is little or no control 
 outside of the municipal council over the disposition 
 of municipal funds. By experience already gained the 
 
 Municipal Officials 
 
 saving feature of what seems to be almost too great 
 a degree of liberty in this system of local administra- 
 tion is the quarterly examination of accounts by the 
 provincial treasurer for the purpose of determining 
 whether all revenues are properly accounted for and 
 are expended for the public weal and not for private 
 or sectarian purposes.
 
 308 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 As is the case in the provincial governments, a fair 
 judgment of the efficiency of these town organizations 
 can be given better after a somewhat longer period 
 of time has elapsed and the period of trial has ended; 
 yet outside of the handling of public funds for which 
 the local authorities have not yet been trained, the 
 municipal administrative machine is beginning to run 
 smoothly, the people take an interest in its operation, 
 a feeling of satisfaction is perceptible among them, and 
 a certain degree of efficiency that is quite hopeful is 
 being attained by the local administrators. 
 
 Thus step by step, under the gravest difficulties, the 
 foundations have been laid for a fully developed struc- 
 ture of civil government, to be realized later. From the 
 awful chaos of affairs in the Islands and the complexity 
 of questions and duties, incapable of imagination at 
 this distance, the Commission has evolved a system of 
 order and plans of detail, all of which have been very 
 largely put into execution. At the same time that 
 it created the municipal and provincial codes and the 
 various departments of government, a multitude of 
 other measures, such as the incorporation of the city 
 of Manila, a code of civil procedure for the Islands, and 
 new tariff provisions, occupied its attention. 
 
 More civil government has been established over a 
 greater extent of territory than the leading Filipinos 
 themselves thought Avise. So far as has been possible, 
 the Commission has brought the nati\'es themselves into 
 active governmental relations, and in its appointments
 
 GOYERXMEXT 
 
 169 
 
 has given the Filipino first consideration whenever it 
 was possible to do so. Several former insurgent generals 
 and other sympathizers with the movement have been 
 appointed to positions of trust and responsibility, and 
 with good effect, for the appointees are anxious to do 
 their duty, and they do it. The plans in this general 
 scheme of administration have been as wise as human 
 
 Palace in Walled City: the Seat oe Government 
 
 good will and the best ability obtainable could make 
 them ; and an expression of American good feeling 
 such as has never before been displayed in any colo- 
 nial work has Ijeen given these people. No suggestion 
 from the home government has influenced in any way 
 the appointments in the Islands, and the fairness 
 with which they have been made has invohmtarily 
 elicited respect from the masses of Filipinos who were
 
 370 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE I8LAXDS 
 
 watching this work of civil reconstruction. As time 
 goes on a certain feeling of confidence which the more 
 intelligent Filipinos begin to experience increases and 
 finds frequent expression. The views of this class may 
 
 IIOTKL OlUEXTK, NOW (ioVERNMKXT OlFICK lUlLDIXG 
 
 be seen from the following extracts froui opinions which 
 have come from the three Filipino members of the 
 Commission, and may be taken for w^hat they are worth, 
 — in any event, they represent the attitude of the ma- 
 jority of the thinking inhabitants to-da}'. 
 Sehor Tavera wrote : 
 
 The promises of the lamented President, Mr. McKinley, that 
 America comes to the Philippines to aid them, and to give them 
 the principles of free government which rule the United States 
 and make it great, are being fulfilled. The complete autonomy 
 wliicli the municipalities now have could not be — I do not say 
 "proposed" — even hinted at imder the former regime. Fili- 
 pinos are convinced that the era of justice has begun. 
 
 Senor Legarda said : 
 
 The autonomy now enjoyed by the pueblos organized under 
 the provisions of the municipal code, promulgated by the United 
 States Philippine Commission, could not be more liberal. Never 
 have the Filipinos enjoyed such equal riglits, either under 
 Spanish rule or under the short-lived Malolos government.
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 371 
 
 The right of suffrage as exercised to-day is an entirely new 
 thing to the Filipinos. So also is the exercise of all the indi- 
 vidual rights which they enjoy under the American flag ; and it 
 is only those who obstinately refuse to see what is taking place 
 under their very eyes — those incorrigible obstructionists who 
 oppose all civilization and progress, and systematically find fault 
 with every measure that the American government has proposed 
 to carry out in these Islands — • who will deny the rapid advance 
 that has been achieved here in so short a time, not by restricting 
 liberty, but by extending it, and by fostering public education 
 everywhere. 
 
 All the above-mentioned advantages, coupled with the added 
 value which necessarily pertains to all rights guaranteed by a 
 
 Company of Philippine Constabulary under Command 
 OF American Inspector, Cuyo 
 
 strong and stable government, we in this archipelago have 
 enjoyed since the day that it pleased Providence to plant the 
 American flag on our soil. Even though many Filipinos cannot 
 for the present appreciate these advantages for the reason that 
 the ravages of war — cruel and bloody in some of the districts
 
 372 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 of the archipelago, but now happily drawing to a close — are 
 still too obvious, it is hoped that in time these evils will be 
 forgotten and that they will then be convinced of the sincerity 
 of the American government. 
 
 And Serior Luzuriaga added : 
 
 As a result of the authority of the United States we have to 
 acknowledge the great benefits that peace and all its wholesome 
 and profitable conditions have brought to the provinces as well 
 as to the pueblos under civil rule, where, aside from the advan- 
 tages of the municipal autonomy and the provincial regime, 
 the administration of justice is speedy and upright. Moreover, 
 schools have been so organized that the Americanization of this 
 country will be an accomplished fact within a few years if all 
 elements join, as it is to be hoped they will, for the purpose of 
 accomplishing this meritorious work in favor of the culture and 
 welfare of these peoples. 
 
 So long as abnormal conditions exist it does not appear to me 
 that it would be prudent or politic to introduce any change in 
 the established government of these Islands. 
 
 The first great work in connection with this civil 
 machine — its establishment — has been accomplished; 
 the developing and perfecting of its operation remain 
 as fnrther prol^lems. As to the whole there is no doubt 
 of the quality and the results, and experience will be 
 the means of remedying minor defects. The develop- 
 ment of this system will he further hastened by the 
 formation of the Philippine Assembly, and with it, as 
 an added element in the Insular Government, popular 
 rule on an even more extensive scale than obtains now 
 will be the result.
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 EDUCATION 
 
 The story of educational development in the Philip- 
 pines rightly begins with the advent of the Spanish 
 conquerors and their religious companions, whose early 
 activities we have just discussed ; for though certain 
 enthusiastic investigators are confirmed in the opinion 
 that a native written language and literature existed 
 among the different tribes previous to the arrival of 
 the Spaniards, the only fair conclusion to be deduced 
 from the weight of reliable evidence is that, with the 
 exception of a written alphabet of Arabian origin known 
 to the Moros and possibly to those peoples of Luzon and 
 the Visayas with which these Mohammedans came into 
 contact by their inroads into the northern islands, learn- 
 
 * 
 
 ing had made no real progress in the archipelago. And 
 notwithstanding the fact that some of these early peoples 
 had already become acquainted with certain practices, 
 particularly those of an industrial nature, which we com- 
 monly associate with a condition of semicivilization, even 
 this much could not have been true of the majority; 
 and the missionary fathers were the true pioneers in 
 the education of the inhabitants. In treating of the his- 
 tory of the Islands and of the work of the church in 
 
 .37.3
 
 374 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 converting these people to Christianity, we were able 
 to see how rapidly the missionary movement extended 
 and how active became the efforts of its agents, who 
 carried the word of God into the interiors where civi- 
 lized man had never set foot. We saw, too, how schools 
 were established in the very wilderness for the purpose 
 of teaching the catechism, explaining the faith which 
 seemed to have such powerful attraction for these 
 pagans, and making the principles of the church better 
 known. The masses who came over to the new creed 
 necessitated the extension of this school system, and the 
 foundino; of seminaries where natives could be trained 
 in church doctrine and thus be fitted to preach the 
 new gospel to their people. And this was the beginning 
 of the school system which w^e Americans found in 
 operation on our arrival, — a beginning founded upon 
 the necessity of extending the influence of the church 
 and making permanent converts to the Christian reli- 
 gion. During the earlier years school training had no 
 other object than this, and naturally so, for even in 
 Spain at this time education had not yet branched out 
 into the broader fields ; only such a system as the 
 religious needs of the Islands demanded became estab- 
 lished, and not for some time were higher institutions 
 even of a religious nature found, while a general 
 scheme of elementary schools somewhat more secular 
 in character never quite became a reality. 
 
 As the church began to be firmly established we 
 saw, however, that it became conscious of the need of
 
 EDUCATION 375 
 
 something higher as a means of training, and that con- 
 sequently a series of more advanced institutions than the 
 catechism schools of the missions began to be founded : ^ 
 San Ignacio, at the close of the sixteenth century, under 
 the supervision of the Jesuits ; Santo Tomas, soon 
 afterward in 1611, in charge of the Dominicans; and 
 San Juan de Letran, in 1640, by a philanthropic Span- 
 iard^ and later taken over by the Dominican fathers. At 
 about this time seminaries for the advanced education 
 of girls began to spring up : Santa Isabel in 1632 ; 
 Santa Catalina in 1696 ; Beaterio de San Ignacio in 
 1699; and Santa Rosa somewhat later in 1750. 
 
 In this way came about the abnormal development 
 of the system by the growth of higher institutions and 
 so-called colleges, soon after the establishment of the 
 strictly religious missionary schools and long before 
 anything like a general scheme for real elementary edu- 
 cation had been put into effect. Thus for some two 
 centuries the work proceeded under the direction of the 
 ecclesiastical authorities and was shaped to carry out 
 best the ends of the church. The scope of the various 
 institutions which were established was, it is true, en- 
 larged from time to time ; departures from the strict 
 study of church dogma and Catholic theology were 
 made at various times, and courses in science and in 
 pharmacy and medicine^ were introduced. From the 
 viewpoint of contemporaneous standards it cannot be 
 
 1 See chapters on history. 2 juan Geronimo Guerrero. 
 
 3 University of Santo Tomas.
 
 376 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 denied that work of good quality was done, evidencing 
 real efficiency. 
 
 The Jesuits in particular were the teacher missionaries 
 in the Islands, and their el^^orts more directly than 
 those of any of the other orders were devoted to the 
 primary instruction which seemed to be so neglected 
 during these 3'ears. Had they been allowed to remain, 
 it is possible that the charge which can with a consider- 
 able degree of justification be brought to-day against 
 the Spanish administration — that general elementary 
 education was too long forgotten — would be unfounded. 
 By a decree of Charles III, however, they were expelled 
 from the Islands and did not come back until 1859. 
 Immediately upon their return educational matters, 
 which had begun to lag, received a new impulse, and 
 additional agencies were created. These trained school- 
 men soon established the Ateneo de Manila, one of the 
 most flourishing church schools in the capital to-day ; 
 and a few years later, in 18G5, they organized a nor- 
 mal school for the training of teachers for primary 
 Avork, which had by this time been taken in hand by 
 the government. 
 
 Just at this time, too, additional higher institutions 
 for girls were founded, particularly the Escuela de 
 Maestras in 1864 and the Colegio de la Inmaculada 
 Concepcion in 1868. Within the next score of years 
 seminaries for preparing natives for the priesthood 
 were established in the archdiocese of Manila and the 
 episcopal seats of Vigan, Nueva Caceres, and Jaro.
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 377 
 
 During all this time the burden of carrying on the 
 work of education fell ahnost wholly upon the church, 
 and it was likewise regulated to the interests of the 
 church. A nautical school, it is true, had been founded 
 as early as 1620 and an academy of drawing and paint- 
 ing very much later, in 1845, both outside of church 
 control ; but the government itself made no important 
 
 Prize Scholars in Jp:s(:it School 
 
 move toward establishing a system of secular educa- 
 tion until 1863, when, to fill the urgent need for better 
 educational facilities in the Islands, particularly in the 
 way of a general elementary instruction, a royal decree 
 was passed providing for the establishment throughout 
 the archipelago of schools for primary teaching, and 
 also for the founding of higher schools for secondary 
 instruction, special schools, normal institutions, and
 
 378 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 colleges. According to the decree, schools for girls as 
 well as boys were to be opened, at least one of each 
 kind in every town ; common branches such as read- 
 ing, writing, geography, history, arithmetic. Christian 
 doctrine, Spanish, agriculture, and music were included 
 in the curriculum ; attendance was made compulsory 
 for those between the ages of seven and thirteen ; and 
 a supervising committee composed of the governor gen- 
 eral, the archbishoj), and seven others was appointed. 
 
 The measure was indeed adequate and would have been 
 productive of substantial results if carried out properly; 
 owing, however, to a small degree of interest at the time 
 in subjects so purely secular, to the inefficiency of the 
 native teachers charged with carrying on the work, and 
 to lax supervision, the purpose of the educators at home 
 fell short of its mark. The curriculum was followed 
 only half-heartedly by instructors who had themselves 
 received hardly sufficient training to instill confidence 
 in their own ability, with the result that Christian doc- 
 trine, a little reading, writing, and geography, together 
 with the elementary processes of arithmetic, were all 
 that the children usually had a chance to learn. 
 
 The provision requiring one male and one female 
 teacher Avas not carried out ; and there were no good 
 schoolhouses, modern furniture, or suitable text-books. 
 The schools were held in the residences of teachers or 
 in buildings rented by the municipality and used by 
 principals as dwellings, in some of which there were 
 wooden benches and tables, and in others not even
 
 EDUCATION 379 
 
 these. Very little of the instruction outside of that 
 given in a few large towns was in Spanish, since the 
 majority of the native teachers did not understand that 
 language ; and the pupils were compelled to learn 
 tediously by heart the exact words of the text-book, 
 and then in the manner of a phonograph they gave 
 back to the teachers what they had memorized without 
 seeming to have exercised any thinking power. To 
 the casual visitor instruction by the native master 
 seemed tiringly mechanical and noisy, hardly effective 
 or economical, and lacking in vitalizing power. 
 
 The teachers themselves were only partly trained, and 
 had no opportunity of perfecting themselves by attend- 
 ing normal institutes. They were inadequately com- 
 pensated for their services, even such as they were ; 
 therefore (perhaps we should add), quality of work 
 seemed to be less important than quantity, and profes- 
 sional enthusiasm was apparently absent. 
 
 In all this work there was lacking a centralized sys- 
 tem ; there w^as no definite guiding head ; and though 
 Manila and Mindanao were subcenters, they were inde- 
 pendent of each other and in no close connection with 
 their respective fields. The system lacked completeness 
 and sufficiency, and although it is true that at the time 
 of the coming of the Americans some 2150 public pri- 
 mary schools were in operation, a knowledge of the char- 
 acter of the work caiTied on in them detracts seriously 
 from the importance with which such a statement as 
 this might otherwise be received.
 
 380 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Meanwhile the higher church institutions had become 
 well estal)lished and dominated this elementary public- 
 school system. Higher education was for the select 
 class; and when a person wished to pursue such a 
 course he naturally attended the ecclesiastical schools. 
 With the more advanced colleges in existence so much 
 earlier than the great majority of lower schools, the 
 tendency was to deny the masses even a good elemen- 
 tary education and to center attention upon the few who 
 were hurried to so-called colleges or universities ; and 
 as a result a few persons among the inhabitants have 
 stood out as educated Filipinos, while the great mass of 
 the people have either not been educated at all or only 
 up to a certain point, — the acquisition of the mechani- 
 cal processes of reading and writing. Whatever doubts, 
 controversies, and conflicts of views there may be, the 
 American teachers, who have been in a position to make 
 careful observation, have but one opinion of the train- 
 ing heretofore provided, and that is briefly that the 
 Filipino children have been compelled to grow up with 
 a meager outfit as far as the quantity and quality of 
 schooling was concerned. 
 
 Just as with various nations in the past there have 
 been awakenings in educational interest coincident with 
 political crises which they have experienced, — Ger- 
 many, in a measure after the Peace of Westphalia, our 
 own country after the Civil War, and France after the 
 Franco-Prussian struggle, — which have resulted in 
 renew^ed effort, additional vigor, broader interpretation,
 
 EDUCATION 381 
 
 and new ideas, similarly the Philippines after the revo- 
 lutions of 1896 and 1898 and through the intervention 
 of the American government have awakened to pres- 
 ent needs, and since our coming have experienced an 
 enlivened interest in educational matters. A thirst for 
 western education was felt even hefore the American 
 occupation, and in every revolutionary propaganda there 
 was a provision for the establishment of schools and 
 colleges. Respect for learning is one of the redeeming 
 traits of the oriental, the Filipino being no exception ; 
 and under American management education was bound 
 to have a wider popular extension and a broader and 
 more liberal character. 
 
 No clearer expression of the purposes of our govern- 
 ment with regard to the Philippines could have been 
 made than that rendered by the reopening and organ- 
 izing of schools under the supervision of the military 
 officials, as soon as it became evident by the Treaty of 
 Paris that the sovereignty of the Islands was to be 
 transferred to the United States. The work of educa- 
 tion was immediately taken in hand ; and even after 
 the outbreak of the insurrection the plan of furnishing 
 free public-school instruction was not abandoned, for 
 wherever the conditions were at all favorable schools 
 were established and soldiers detailed as teachers. The 
 central military government purchased and distributed 
 large quantities of American schoolbooks and supplies, 
 and aided towns that were too poor to pay the salaries 
 of native teachers and the rentals of school buildings.
 
 382 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 The character of the work done in this transitional 
 period from the former Spanish methods to the present 
 American system was naturally far from systematic and 
 ideal, carried on as it was largely with the old machinery 
 and often necessarily in a desultory way; yet it was 
 
 an important step 
 toward the organization 
 as it now is, the children 
 Ijeiug given an introduc- 
 tion to the English lan- 
 guage, and the people 
 in part becoming ac- 
 quainted with the idea 
 of American schools. 
 The value of such a sys- 
 tem was recognized by 
 the military authorities, 
 to quote the command- 
 ing general at the time,^ 
 as " an adjunct to mili- 
 tary operations, cal- 
 culated to pacify the 
 people and to procure 
 and expedite the restoration of tranquillity throughout 
 the archipelago." The spectacle of the American soldier 
 acting in the role of teacher of his enemies was one that 
 might well have caused thoughtful Filipinos to reflect 
 and wonder if there were not something genuine in this 
 
 SuLUIKR TkACHER ON LeAVE OF 
 
 Absence in America and Two 
 Filipino Students ix America 
 
 Major General MacArtbur.
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 383 
 
 conduct of the agents of the new government, — some- 
 thmg that seemed to substantiate in a small way the 
 declarations of what American policy was to be. 
 
 With the estabhshment of civil government the pres- 
 ent educational organization came into being. Under 
 the immediate direction of the writer, and amid diffi- 
 culties with which this pioneer work fairly bristled 
 
 GiKLb' School, Manila 
 
 and which at times seemed almost insuperable, an 
 elementary school system was founded, which, in its 
 later development, in the writer's candid opinion, has 
 promise of a degree of success that was almost beyond 
 expectation. No precedent existed which might afford 
 helpful suggestion ; the field and its occupants were 
 utterly unknown to western educators; the problem 
 was unique. Yet by an immediate detennination to 
 make English the basis of instruction in spite of expert
 
 384 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 warning from certain quarters and the practical diffi- 
 culties involved in such a step, and by a steadfast adher- 
 ence to this decision, together with the aid of a corps of 
 efficient American supervisors and teachers to carry it 
 into effect, a progress that points to an ultimate suc- 
 cessful issue has resulted. 
 
 Immediately upon the writer's arrival in the Islands 
 in July, 1900, he began a careful study of the educa- 
 tional problem ; and by personal observation, and con- 
 sultation and correspondence with army officers, local 
 native officials, and others in a position to know, he 
 endeavored to learn the exact situation and the general 
 opinion as to the educational policy to be pursued. As 
 a great diversity of views was encountered, due undoubt- 
 edly to the variety of local conditions, and as the prob- 
 lems to be solved had already been formulated, he came 
 to believe that on some matters judgment must be sus- 
 pended until trips of personal inspection could be made 
 throughout the Islands ; and, furthermore, a new force 
 was recognized in the axiom about going slowly. After 
 an extended preliminary study of the conditions, the 
 general superintendent made recommendations to the 
 Commission in the form of a bill for the establishment of 
 a centralized system of free public schools ; and this meas- 
 ure in slightly modified form was passed by that body 
 on January 1, 1901. Its chief features were as follows. 
 
 A centralized system of free public schools was estab- 
 lished under the supervision of a general superintendent 
 who should have the entire work of organizing and
 
 EDUCATIOK 385 
 
 inaugurating, with ample and necessary powers granted 
 for the administration of his office. It further provided 
 for the appointment of ten division superintendents, 
 increasing the number later by amendment to eighteen ; 
 for deputy division superintendents, one for each organ- 
 ized province ; for one thousand trained teachers from 
 the United States ; and for the establishment and main- 
 tenance of normal, agricultural, and manual training 
 schools. The expenditure, furthermore, for the succeed- 
 ing year, of four hundred thousand dollars for the con- 
 struction and equipment of school buildings, and of two 
 hundred and twenty thousand dollars for the purchase 
 of text-books and supplies, was authorized. A superior 
 advisory board of education, to be composed of the 
 general superintendent, together with four qualified 
 natives, the latter to act in an advisory capacity to the 
 superintendent, and the board as a whole to make rec- 
 ommendations to the Commission for legislation, was 
 also provided for. The representation of the people in 
 a consultative and auxiliary way was also aimed at in a 
 provision for the construction of local school boards, of 
 which the president of the town was to l^e ex officio 
 chairman, while the other four or six members were 
 to be chosen one lialf by the municipal council and one 
 half by the division superintendents. The curriculum 
 to be followed throughout the Islands was that outlined 
 by the general superintendent ; the appointment of 
 Filipino teachers was provided for, their salaries to be 
 fixed by the division superintendents ; and all school
 
 386 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 buildings were to be designed after plans of the general 
 superintendent, subject to the approval of the division 
 superintendents. By this measure the central govern- 
 ment undertook to support the entire supervisory ma- 
 chine, pay the salaries of all the American teachers, 
 and provide text-books and school supplies. The towns 
 as a rule were to supply buildings either l^y construc- 
 tion or rental, equip them, and pay the salaries of native 
 teachers. The English language, as soon as it should 
 be practicable, was by the act made the basis of all 
 public-school instruction; the Faribault plan of religious 
 instruction, giving to every denomination the right to 
 send religious teachers at various times during the week 
 to the schools to give instruction to the children of 
 those parents who desired it, was adopted ; and no public- 
 school teacher was permitted to teach religion, and no 
 pupil was required to receive religious instruction. 
 
 Unlike the state systems of puldic instruction, the one 
 outlined by this school law showed a decided tendency 
 to centralized control, which was a natural consequence 
 of the social and political conditions of the Islands. 
 Owing to a lack of school accommodations, the edu- 
 cational act contained no general requirement com- 
 pelling school attendance, though, as is the case in the 
 United States, it was felt that such a measure was 
 necessary for the attainment of the best results. 
 
 Immediate steps were taken for putting into operation 
 the new educational machine which had sprung into 
 definite form by legislative enactment, and the warfare
 
 EDUCATION 387 
 
 against superficiality was begun. Instead of making 
 any flourishes by establishing high schools, colleges, and 
 ambitious universities first, in spite of the fact that 
 these were most in demand, primary schools were fos- 
 tered and an endeavor was made to insure to the Fili- 
 pino child a knowledge of English, clear ideas on a few 
 subjects, and a receptive and awakened intelligence. 
 
 Country School in Singalon, a Suburb of ^Manila 
 
 The archipelago, after much difficulty, — due to the 
 great area to be covered and the very inadequate means 
 of communication afforded, making even small distances 
 serious. — was divided into school districts by an appor- 
 tionment as practicable and convenient as was possible ; 
 and the few superintendents and teachers who happened 
 to be already in the Islands were sent out into the field. 
 To supply the necessary teaching body, men and women
 
 388 THE PHILIPPINE ISLAXDS 
 
 trained in the profession were brought from the United 
 States, and without any knowledge of Spanish or the 
 native dialects were started on the very difficult work 
 of imparting instruction to their charges in an unknown 
 tono-ue. The old texts were removed from the schools, 
 and more than half a milhon of American school books 
 and a vast quantity of supplies were soon distributed 
 throughout the various towns ; some twenty thousand 
 modern school desks were supplied as a start in the 
 equipment of the schoolhouses on something like a mod- 
 ern basis. During this earlier period instruction was 
 provided for in more than a thousand schools; and 
 by the opening of evening schools an opportunity for 
 learning English was offered those of mature age. 
 The salaries of the Filipino teachers were raised, and 
 a definite announcement made to them that the Ameri- 
 can teachers had come not to displace them but to pre- 
 pare them to take charge of their own schools. They 
 received daily instruction in the new language at the 
 hands of the American teachers, and plans were made 
 for furthering their education after they had progressed 
 sufficiently with the language itself. Vacation normal 
 courses began to be held in several of the school divi- 
 sions, and the normal, industrial, agricultural, and nau- 
 tical schools received a definite impetus. Every town 
 where peace had been restored was visited, its conditions 
 investigated, and its needs in so far as possible supplied. 
 In this way very definite steps were taken toward estab- 
 lishing our present educational organization.
 
 880
 
 390 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Certain difficulties were naturally to be expected in 
 this earlier part of the work, and though at the time 
 these were severe enough, as months went by they 
 seemed to work out their own solution. The matter of 
 appointing and assigning this large number of American 
 teachers was itself a serious one. Owing to the impos- 
 sibility of personal conference with the applicants, more 
 than half of the appointments were made through vari- 
 ous heads of normal schools and colleges together with 
 state officials on whom it was deemed wise to confer 
 a limited appointing power ; many of these, too, and 
 practically all of the later ones, were made directly by 
 letter on the basis of several thousand personally written 
 applications with various testlinonials attached. The 
 character of these teachers and applications was indica- 
 tive of a great interest in Philippine affairs. While 
 men of nearly every profession and doubtless a large 
 number without any profession applied for appoint- 
 ment, many capable and enthusiastic teachers hold- 
 ing good positions in the United States and vouched 
 for in the highest terms signified their willingness to 
 accept work in the Islands at the same salaries they 
 were receiving at home, and in some instances at even 
 smaller ones. In making the various appointments care 
 was taken to secure professional teachers, — men and 
 women in sympathy with the work, who are making 
 it their vocation in life. During the earlier months of 
 their new service unfavorable climatic conditions, dif- 
 ficulty in obtaining food supplies (particularly in the
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 391 
 
 interim between the closing of the military commis- 
 saries to civilians and the opening in an adequate 
 way of the civil supply stores), slight illnesses inev- 
 itable for new arrivals in the Islands, salary delays 
 owing to the inefficient mail service at the time, and 
 currency difficulties due to the depreciation of the 
 Mexican coins commonly used, combined to form a 
 source of considerable dissatisfaction on the part of the 
 
 AmEICICAN TkACHEU>, TAUlAr 
 
 teachers and presented serious problems for those direct- 
 ing the new movement. But the difficulties proved in 
 a large part temporary, and the teachers, after becoming 
 settled in their stations, became satisfied, interested, 
 and enthusiastic in their work. The comparatively 
 small amount of complaint from them was proof of 
 their determination to overcome ordinary discomforts, 
 often severe, which were attendant upon life in such
 
 392 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLxVKDS 
 
 ■■ 
 
 ^^^^^^V ^ ^^^^H 
 
 ■vPV 
 
 ^PV> H 
 
 HS^ 
 
 l^iHH 
 
 ^^^^^HjH^^-«- 
 
 
 ;i country as the Philippines. Means of commnnica- 
 tion and transportation, moreover, were so poor that 
 close connection between the central authorities and 
 those in the field was practically impossible ; on account 
 of the lack of good roads the supervising officers were 
 often unable to reach all their schools within the time 
 
 prescribed ; and for 
 a long period the 
 sending of supplies, 
 particularly after 
 the military officials 
 were compelled to 
 withdraw the aid 
 that had become 
 almost indispen- 
 sable, was a matter 
 attended with most 
 serious delays and losses. Certain weaknesses, too, were 
 discovered in the school law, especially in the control 
 given to local officials over the disbursement of the 
 funds for school purposes and the payment of native 
 teachers. Epidemics, i3articularly of cholera, and also 
 of other tropical diseases, played havoc with the system ; 
 various pests threatening the crojDs from time to time 
 kept the children away from school ; and in many 
 parts the spirit of revolt and ladronism was so active 
 as to handicap heavily the school work. Perhaps most 
 serious of all was the lack of anything like suitable 
 buildings for housing the children ; but in spite of 
 
 Building Dksks ok Commissary Box 
 LuMHEu, San Josk, Batangas
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 393 
 
 drawbacks the department forged ahead, remedying 
 defects and developing itself by the addition of new 
 featnres just as soon as the conditions justihed their in- 
 troduction. The policy followed throughout was steady, 
 slow-going, careful, fundamental work, looking to the 
 distant future alone for results, with hope centered in 
 the new generation. No attempt was made at display ; 
 nothing for wliich a need 
 did not exist was intro- 
 duced; and patience has 
 become a cultivated 
 characteristic. The fact 
 that to-day, after a four 
 years' period of trial has 
 passed, Englisii is spoken 
 in some degree by at 
 least a few in almost 
 every part of the archi- 
 pelago, and is used more 
 than Spanish in most of 
 the towns, not to mention 
 the various provincial 
 centers, is of no little significance and promise. There is 
 no doubt that English is much desired by the Filipino. 
 
 The past two or three years have witnessed certain 
 changes and additions to the system as first put into 
 operation, which have had the effect of making it more 
 complete ; and to-day it has reached a stage of develo|> 
 ment that really invites attention. 
 
 Xative Teach i:ii 
 A Taoaloo'
 
 394 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 The present organization comprises the secretary of 
 public instruction, who has general supervision of the 
 bureau, and with whom lies the power of initiative in 
 
 school legislation ; the 
 general superintendent, 
 in active control ; thirty- 
 five school divisions, 
 each generally coincid- 
 ing with a province, in 
 charge of division super- 
 intendents who are 
 directly responsible to 
 the general superintend- 
 ent; some seven hun- 
 dred and twenty-five 
 American teachers and 
 twenty-five hundred 
 native ones, having in 
 charge approximately 
 two hundred and fifty 
 thousand children for whom two thousand or more 
 schools are provided ; thirty-eight provincial secondary 
 schools, many with industrial departments; an insular 
 nautical school ; agricultural schools in embryo ; an 
 insular trade school; a series of normal schools, the 
 central one in Manila and the tributary institutes in 
 five important provincial centers; evening schools; va- 
 cation normal institutes ; and the superior advisory 
 school board together with local boards. 
 
 Two Native Tkacheks, Vu tokia, 
 Tarlac 
 
 The one at the left is a Paiupaiigo, 
 the other is an Ilocano
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 395 
 
 lu all this primary instruction, which is itself the 
 first object of the department, the American teacher 
 with his Filipino aids is the one who becomes most 
 intimate with the natives and holds the key to the 
 situation ; and if true to himself, his profession, and his 
 country, he is the chief factor at present. The success 
 of this entire experiment depends upon his ability to 
 establish sympatlietic relations with Filipino jDupils, 
 teachers, and parents by the exercise, aside from his 
 professional training, of ready tact, plain common sense, 
 a warm heart, and colossal patience. Many are far 
 removed in the interior, living on native food, miles 
 
 Boys' School, Malate 
 
 away from the nearest American, with only a glimpse 
 now and then of the outside world through the medium 
 of a poorly equipped mail service ; yet they see a bright 
 side withal, and are satisfied. Their responsibilities are
 
 396 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 great when the situation is viewed from a broad stand- 
 jjoint; but it is a grand opportunity to bring out man- 
 hood and womanhood, and that the majority are rising 
 to meet it augurs well for the success of the movement. 
 The influence of this American teaching body has been 
 a profound one in the work of pacification which our gov- 
 ernment has been fostering. The almost sacred regard in 
 which the teacher is held has been everywhere noticeable ; 
 and even political enemies have been friendly to him. 
 
 One of the handicaps which the work has thus far 
 felt most seriously is the common lack of efhcient native 
 teachers, — something that is hardly surjjrising in view 
 of the poor facilities for normal training which previ- 
 ously existed. The supervisory character of the work 
 of the American teacher often takes him away from 
 his own particular school, which is left in charge of 
 some native assistant ; and the imperative need for 
 better trained Filipino instructors then becomes ai3par- 
 ent. This is, however, not true of many individual 
 teachers who are doing excellent work; and in criticis- 
 ing them as a class perhaps we are expecting too much 
 too soon. Their position and their compensation, too 
 often dependent upon an uncertain source, — a local 
 treasury easily depleted, — are not yet what they ought 
 to be; and though their salaries have been increased 
 something like 33| per cent since the institution of the 
 American school system, they are still inadequate.^ As 
 
 ^ A possible monthly average of from twenty to twenty-five dollars local 
 currency for males and from fifteen to twenty dollars for females.
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 397 
 
 to their compensation, a remedy is promised by granting 
 to the division superintendent a controlhng power over 
 the disposition of local school funds ; and as regards 
 their training, a solution has already been arrived at in 
 the creation of a normal school system and the vacation 
 normal institutes. 
 
 This normal work is without doubt only second in 
 importance to the general primary instruction itself, and 
 
 First Manila Xormal School Faculty 
 
 indeed is a part of the latter, supplying the means for 
 its furtherance. In conjunction with the central normal 
 school in Manila have been organized five tributary 
 institutions in certain important provincial centers, — 
 Vigan, Neuva Caceres, Iloilo, Cebu, and Zamboanga. 
 Their cm'ricula embrace many of the higher branches 
 extending over a four years' com-se ; and the central
 
 398 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 school in Manila is distinctly a secondary institution. 
 It lias an attendance of some three hundred and twenty- 
 five students from the various provinces, a corps of 
 special American teachers, and a dormitory s^'stem for 
 the young women. The grade of work done is excel- 
 lent, and a trained body of young men and women is 
 being graduated that will without question raise the 
 quality of the native teaching force to the degree that 
 is desned. 
 
 The industrial school in Manila is another important 
 development of the educational system, and with facili- 
 ties for teaching all of the practical trades and also 
 telegraphy and stenography, it has already made its 
 value felt. Antipathy to manual labor, a trait of the 
 Filipino people in general, which has been a powerful 
 opposing force to American endeavors to introduce a 
 system of education fundamentally industrial and utili- 
 tarian in character, was one of the difficulties whicli 
 threatened for the time its successful operation. But 
 after this brief period of comparative indifference to 
 the opportunities offered by such a training, the school 
 became popular, and to-day, with an attendance of 
 some one hundred and twenty from various j^arts of 
 the Islands, and a demand for its graduates by the 
 government and private concerns, its success seems 
 assured. This industrial work is also carried on as a 
 separate course in connection w4th the different second- 
 ary schools ; and in some cases, as among the Igorots 
 and the Moros, maiuial training alone is taught.
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 399 
 
 The nautical school was among the first to start 
 operations after the American occupation, and was 
 really a continuation of the institution which existed 
 under the Spanish regime for preparing the natives for 
 service at sea. It has pupils from different parts of the 
 archipelago, one hundred and fifteen in number, who 
 are securing a training in navigation that v.-ill fit them 
 
 Girls' School, Binang 
 
 to take positions in the merchant marine. The school 
 may later, according to j)lans which have not yet crys- 
 tallized, develop into a real Philippine naval academy 
 conducted on the lines of modern institutions of such 
 character, with students appointed from each province. 
 Evening schools have been opened at practically 
 every place where an American teacher has been sta- 
 tioned, and their attendance now in the vicinity of
 
 400 
 
 THP: PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 twenty-five thousand indicates the interest taken by the 
 older people, particularly local officials and other ambi- 
 tious adults, who find English helpful in then work or 
 a desnable acquisition as a language. 
 
 Besides this system of primary, secondary, and special 
 schools, other work, such as music, drawing, sewing, 
 
 and, among the 
 Moros, weaving to a 
 certain extent, has 
 been done, in some 
 of which particular 
 aptitude has been 
 shown. In certain 
 cases the practical 
 side is prominent, for 
 in the case of weav- 
 inLn: and sewins; the 
 products are sold and 
 thus the school be- 
 comes the seat of an 
 industry. 
 
 As yet industrial 
 education, the common bread-winning means of the 
 masses, has not advanced to the (Jegree which the con- 
 ditions in the Islands demand. A model agricultural 
 school has been established and a certain amount of 
 common manual training has been going on in some 
 of the provincial centers ; but the progress in the 
 ordinary schools has far outdistanced that done in an 
 
 Igorot Schoolboys
 
 EDUCATION 401 
 
 industrial way, with the exception of the central trade 
 school in Manila. The growth of the two kinds of work, 
 academic and industrial, should be more nearly parallel 
 at least, and the only sense of comfort in the situation 
 at present as regards the latter is that it is still in its 
 infancy. The agricultural nature of the entire country 
 
 Igorot School 
 
 demands its extension ; the masses must always remain 
 dependent upon the soil for their maintenance ; and the 
 first step that has been taken will be followed soon, it 
 is hoped, by other more definite ones. 
 
 Another feature of the development of this s}-stem 
 is the provision for educating certain of the Filipinos 
 in the United States, whereby one hundred students 
 are now studying in southern California, preparing
 
 402 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 themselves to take up at home the active part m edu- 
 cational matters for which they will be fitted by their 
 four years' course here. This is the realization of a 
 recommendation which early seemed a wise one ; and 
 the benefits to be derived from the plan of sending 
 native students to the States for some time to come 
 
 cannot be over- 
 estimated. 
 
 With such a 
 system now in 
 successful opera- 
 tion the question 
 arises, What 
 further is to be 
 provided for the 
 satisfaction of 
 the desire for 
 education once awakened ? The need for higher institu- 
 tions hardly exists as yet, but nevertheless in the plan- 
 ning of the educational work for these people it was 
 impossible to avoid looking to the future and seeing 
 what might then be possible of realization. The step 
 has in some places already been made from primary to 
 secondary institutions, — grammar-high schools are now 
 in existence ; and something higher should be held out 
 for that class, perhaps not yet numerous, which will 
 pursue advanced courses. And so, early in the work, the 
 founding of a technical school with courses in mining 
 and civil and electrical engineering, to prepare young 
 
 SCHOOLHOUSE AT AkEVALO, PaNAY
 
 EDUCATION 403 
 
 men for practical work in developing their country, was 
 within view ; also schools of fine arts, music, and paint- 
 ing; and as an apex to the system, a university with 
 schools of law and medicine. Such an extension is at 
 present, of course, speculative, and yet it seems within 
 the bounds of possibility. Along with the academic side 
 of this development, however, should come the practical ; 
 and remembering experiences that we have had at 
 home, we should keep the utilitarian standpoint always 
 in view. 
 
 The decision on the part of those who had this educa- 
 tional work in charge to make English the language of 
 instruction has at various times been subjected to severe 
 denunciation on the part of certain critics at home, who 
 in the exposition of their views have shown what was, 
 to say the least, a lamentable lack of knowledge of the 
 conditions in the Islands upon which this decision was 
 based. "Destruction of their national hterature and 
 tongue by foisting the English language upon these peo- 
 ple " was hardly the proper expression to be used in con- 
 nection with a land where, as we have shown in this book, 
 there never was a common dialect, not to mention a lan- 
 guage ; nothing of importance in the way of native liter- 
 ature existed ; and there was such a confused number of 
 different tribes, each with its own tongue, that ethnolo- 
 gists themselves have not yet worked out their solution. 
 
 When the American educational authorities finished 
 their investigations there was but one thing to do, — 
 adopt English. This was the unanimous opinion of the
 
 404 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 military officials who had come to learn the people and 
 the conditions ; it was the eager desire of the people 
 themselves ; it was the only course open. Spanish, asso- 
 ciated with all that had gone on before, was out of the 
 
 Good I'^n(;lish .STroExr, Concepcion, Manila 
 
 question ; and even if this were not sufficient, it was 
 comparatively unknown in the interior. There was no 
 common language ; and racial antipathy argued strongly 
 against the adoption of any one of the dialects, which, 
 though somewhat similar in structure, are quite dif- 
 ferent in vocabulary, and have never shown signs of
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 405 
 
 fusion. Furthermore the paucity of the dialects and 
 their inexactness would never permit of the carrying 
 on of advanced instruction through their channels. 
 
 Various additional difficulties practically insurmount- 
 able would have pre- 
 sented themselves in the 
 adoption of the policy 
 of teaching in the differ- 
 ent native languages: 
 neither American nor 
 Filipino teachers had a 
 grammatical knowledge 
 of the dialects, and there 
 would have been no 
 available instructors in 
 the newly adopted 
 tongue except possibly 
 the expelled friars ; there 
 was no native dialect 
 susceptible to such 
 changes as the English, 
 and none possessed such 
 a possibility of variety 
 of expression ; also — a 
 most serious practical difficulty — suitable books could 
 not have been secured. Worse than this, however, would 
 be the tendency of any such educational policy toward 
 the disunion rather than the union of the Filipinos ; the 
 Tagalog would become more intimately Tagalog, and 
 
 Santa Teresa 
 Wooden statue carved by a Filipino
 
 40G THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 the Visayan would hold himself aloof with even more 
 earnestness than to-day ; and so would the other tribes 
 in which the spirit of exclusiveness would by this means 
 become more carefully fostered. 
 
 In the endeavor to give the Filipinos a language that 
 would bind them into an official and commercial, if not 
 domestic, nationality, the bull was taken hy the horns 
 and English introduced not as an exotic but as an 
 actual teaching language. The results of the past four 
 3'ears have demonstrated to the complete satisfaction of 
 the writer that this language has been accepted by the 
 Filipino people as a substantial necessity. The natives 
 favor the introduction of it, for soon it will become the 
 official language ^ and they wish their children to acquire 
 it in order that they may become eligible for office. 
 Again, Spain never made general education in Spanish 
 a ^possibility, but in fact rather discouraged it ; the con- 
 trast offered by the present policy flatters and pleases 
 the native, and he therefore desires it. English-speaking 
 Filipinos, further, are drawing larger salaries than those 
 who speak only the native tongue or Spanish, and the 
 others want this larger salary. Finally, the natives want 
 English because of the social position acquired by its 
 knowledge. 
 
 Common interests should be one of the chief objects 
 in our efforts among these people, and such will never 
 be possible through native dialects. For common inter- 
 course, as well as for training, these people need a foreign 
 
 1 In 1906.
 
 407
 
 408 
 
 THE PlilLTPPINK ISLANDS 
 
 speech ; to restrict them to their own dialect would be 
 to continue the condition of isolation in which we found 
 them, stunt them in their growth, and deny them the 
 material and the intellectual possibilities offered by 
 such a language as the English, with its wealth of lit- 
 erature and ideas and its value in the common inter- 
 course of life in the Orient, where it is the language 
 
 of the commercial and 
 industrial world. The 
 Filipinos have been 
 already convinced of 
 this ; their sincere desire 
 to know the new tongue 
 proves it. Without doubt 
 English is then the most 
 valuable language in 
 every way for them ; ma- 
 terial prosperity, official, 
 political, commercial. 
 
 She has acted as teacher to fill vacan- and SOcial life are witll- 
 cies for the past year • - 1 r •■ 
 
 ^ '' in the grasp or its pos- 
 
 sessor. And more than this, it is the great equalizer of 
 the natives inter se. 
 
 Up to the present time, aside from the public schools 
 and the church, there have l)een no other important 
 common sources of enlightenment among the Filipinos. 
 Public libraries, lecture courses, broad commercial re- 
 lations with foreign countries, a widespread daily press 
 to give publicity to all affairs of state and society, 
 
 A BuicjiiT Pupil, Twelve 
 Years Old
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 409 
 
 modern theaters, active participation in public affairs, 
 street-corner political discussions, — these and other 
 agencies of essential importance for the advancement 
 of culture must later, too, be included in that larger 
 system of training which our government is directing. 
 What the future has in store for the Filipino people 
 no one knows; much will depend upon the character 
 of the commg generation of teachers. The capacity 
 
 School in San Fernando, Union Province 
 
 of the Filipinos for education gives to our elforts the 
 promise of permanent results. There may be interrup- 
 tions and setbacks in this unique experiment, for the 
 field is large and bestrewn with difficulties; yet the 
 educational representatives of the American people with 
 the saving grace of common sense will in the end by 
 their genius and perseverance train up the Filipino 
 youths in a way that will regenerate their country. The 
 system that has been inaugurated will mean the elevation
 
 410 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 of the people of the lower classes, and the distressing 
 gap between illiterate ignorance and discriminating cul- 
 ture will be lessened. Heterogeneity will give place to 
 nationalit}', and pacification and prosperity will be more 
 firmly secured. 
 
 Popular interest has been aroused in education, and 
 in this lies in great part the success of the movement. 
 Too much we must not expect, however, for native 
 dialects will continue to be spoken; yet English will 
 become the medium for the transmission of modern 
 currents of thought, — in brief, present-day civilization. 
 The outcome of a broad and fnutful education, wisely 
 regulated, will be the lifting of this future new nation 
 far above its present position in the world's class, and it 
 will share with Japan the important work of breathing 
 western life into all eastern civilization. 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 In the foregoing pages we have been able to gain 
 some idea of just what our possessions in the distant 
 Pacific are ; and if the information has in any way 
 aided in reconciling conflicting reports, correcting former 
 impressions, or creating new ones as to this country and 
 its possibilities, and the nature of the work which our 
 American government is conducting, the writer feels 
 amply rewarded. Such is the variety of conditions that 
 confronts any observer there that it has been often- 
 times difficult to make unqualified statements of general 
 application with real accuracy. To state the situation
 
 EDUCATION 411 
 
 briefly, our government is attempting by the exercise 
 of tlie best possible effort to create homogeneity from 
 the heterogeneity which it found on its arrival, furnish 
 a strong civil constitution for the archipelago, and fit 
 the people to take charge of themselves. In this work 
 it has secured the confidence and the cooperation of 
 the main body of the Filipino people, and every sign 
 prophesies successful accomplislnnent. 
 
 The operation of the civil machine is yet retarded in 
 a measure by ladronism, the outgrowth of the extended 
 period of strife, and by the still devastated condition of 
 different provinces where military operations were espe- 
 cially active. The late ravage of cholera, crop pests, 
 and disease among the native animals, and, again, unex- 
 pected weakness of character of a certain few among 
 the administrative officers have been further impedi- 
 ments. These are surely disappearing, however, and an 
 unexpectedly rapid development in other ways has been 
 ample compensation; looking upon the movement as a 
 whole, one caimot avoid a feeling of proud satisfaction. 
 
 Even to-day the Islands are beginning to be able to 
 supply their own needs. In an administrative way this 
 is particularly true, for the general training in govern- 
 ment, which all the large office-holding class is receiv- 
 ing, and the special instruction in the government 
 institutions are both calculated to teach the natives 
 self-reliance. On the practical side, the development 
 of the agricultural industry by Chinese labor, by which 
 the natives will absorb the principles of husbandry,
 
 412 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 will tend toward the same result. One thing that im- 
 presses the newcomer deeply is the wond-erfiil possibility 
 of the archipelago in an agricultural way, and with the 
 transformation of these natives into a contented labor- 
 ing people the degree of self-support which is necessary 
 and possible will be realized. 
 
 The transition in this whole work must be a gradual 
 one; e\'en in those respects in which we feel that 
 Philippine laws and institutions can be Americanized 
 with advantage, the work must be done slowly and 
 surely if we would avoid superficiality and gain security. 
 For some time to come no jury system is possible, and 
 all public moneys must be handled by American officials 
 of integrity. In judging of fitness for self-government 
 on the American plan, the character and intelligence of 
 the masses rather than of the few must determine how 
 fast innovations shall be introduced ; and their natural 
 conservatism in many ways must be respected. 
 
 The outlook is bright for the Filipinos. They are 
 bound to develop in some way, and in the right one 
 if we persist in our present course. From their many 
 innate gifts something substantial is certain to result if 
 the conditions are at all favorable ; and it rests with the 
 people of the United States to determine the conditions. 
 They have already begun to participate in their govern- 
 ment, and as time goes on this participation will become 
 the more extensive. We have scratched a Malay and 
 at some future date we need not be surprised to find an 
 American, at least in spirit and initiative.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abaca. See Hemp, Manila 
 
 Abdominal band, 159 
 
 Abra : river, 42, 107 ; province, 42 
 
 Academy of drawing and painting, 
 377 
 
 Acapulco, 68, 78 
 
 Acclimation, 148 
 
 Acquisition of the Philippines, story 
 of, 3 
 
 Admission of Chinese, 259, 260 
 
 Admixture, 258-260 
 
 Aglipay, Padre Gregoria, 334 
 
 Agno river, 42, 167 
 
 Agrarianism, 324 
 
 Agriculture, 62, 96, 176, 177 ; bu- 
 reau of, 356 
 
 Aguinaldo, Emilio, 106, 108, 112, 
 113, 114, 116, 119, 273, 325, 
 334 
 
 Agusan river, 26, 44 
 
 Albay, province, 22, 30 
 
 Alexander VI, Pope, 47 
 
 Alphabet, written, 373 
 
 American army : tribute to, 121 ; 
 work of, 347, 348, 350 
 
 American and Filipino children com- 
 pared, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270 
 
 American ideal, 6 
 
 American guardianship, 6 
 
 American civilization, superiority 
 of, 6 
 
 Americans have greater capacity for 
 industrial activity, 6 
 
 American exploitation, 7 
 
 American occupation : events of, 
 briefly mentioned, 112-121 ; of 
 Manila in 1898, 111 
 
 American priests, introduction of, 
 331, 334, 336 
 
 American Protestants, 335 
 
 American teachers, 11, 267, 268, 
 269, 380, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 
 390, 391, 394, 395, 396, 398 
 
 Americans and Filipinos, 8, 9 
 
 Ancestral ideas, 296 
 
 Ancestral spirits, 297 
 
 Ancestral worship, 296, 306, 307 
 
 Andaman islands, 242 
 
 Anderson, General, 112 
 
 Angat, 107 
 
 Animal life, 192, 193 
 
 Aniraists, 307 
 
 Anitos, 297, 298, 303, 307 
 
 Anthropology, 228 
 
 Antiexpansionists, 93 
 
 Anting-anting, 309, 310 
 
 Antipathy to work, 266, 398 
 
 Antique, province, 24 
 
 Anti-Roman Catholic movement, 334 
 
 Ants, 149, 193, 216 
 
 Apo : a god, 297 ; volcano, 26, 33, 
 36, 303 
 
 Arabian influence upon Moro dia- 
 lects, 89, 90 
 
 Arayat, 30, 34 
 
 Archbishop (Fernando Manuel de 
 Bustamente), imprisoned, freed, 
 becomes governor, 79 
 
 Architecture, 284 ; and construction, 
 bureau of, 359 
 
 Area : of Philippines, 19, 20 ; of Lu- 
 z6n, 20 ; of Mindoro, 20 ; of Mas- 
 bate, 20 ; of Samar, 20 ; of Panay 
 20 ; of Leyte, 20 ; of Palawan, 
 20 ; of Negros, 20 ; of Cebii, 20 ; 
 of Bohol, 20 ; of Mindanao, 20 
 
 Arms, Moro, 251, 254 
 
 Artistic work, amount limited, 283 
 
 413
 
 414 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Asiatic and Philippine archipelagoes, 
 
 26, 27, 28 
 Asuang 308, 309 
 Ateneo de Manila, 370 
 Atmospheric pressure, 128, 129 
 Augustinians, 55, 77, 310, 328 
 Australasia, 27, 200 
 Autonomy in local affairs desired 
 
 from Spain, 87 
 Awakenings in educational interest, 
 
 380, 381 
 Ayuntamiento, 284 
 Azores, 47 
 
 Babuyan, 22 
 
 Bagobos, 303 
 
 Baguio, Benguet, 154 
 
 Baguios. See Cyclones and Typhoons 
 
 Bajans, or sea gypsies, 237 
 
 Balabac, 24, 26 
 
 Balangiga, massacre of, 290, 291 
 
 Bamboo, 188 
 
 Banajao, 30, 34 
 
 Bananas, 178, 180 
 
 Banks, bureau of, 359 
 
 Baptism, Chinese forced to receive, 
 
 80 
 Baptists, 335 
 Barangay, 01, 70, 337 
 Barbosa, 52 
 Bnrong, 254 
 Barrios, 232, 338 
 
 Basilan,237 ; peninsula, 22 ; strait, 26 
 Bataks, 230, 300 
 Batangas, province, 22 
 Bates Treaty, 251, 252 
 Bathing, 278 
 Bautista, monk, 71, 72 
 Beaterio de San Ignacio, 375 
 Beliefs, early, 02, 296. See Chapter 
 
 XII 
 Benedictines, 316, 329 
 Benefits of American sovereignty, 13 
 Benguet, 42, 153 
 Beriberi, 150, 153 
 Biac-na-bat6 Treaty, 108 
 Bible, 335 
 
 Bicols, 60, 238, 256 
 
 Birth rate, 232 
 
 Bishop of Manila, first, 68,70, 311 
 
 Blanco, Governor General, 106, 107 
 
 Blood compact. See Katipunan 
 
 Blunientritt, 231, 232 
 
 Board of Authorities, 340, 341 
 
 Bohol : area, 20 ; mountains, 24 ; 
 
 seismic centers, 36 ; visited by 
 
 Legaspi, 55 ; uprisings in, 74, 83 ; 
 
 commercial geography, 199 
 Bolinao, 22 
 Bombon lake, 30 
 
 Borneo, 19, 24, 26, 27, 60, GS, 304 
 Bribery and corruption, 274 
 Brigandage, 119. See Ladrones 
 Brigands. See Ladrones 
 Bubonic plague, 150, 153, 156, 165, 
 
 214 
 Buffaloes. See Carabaos 
 Bulacan, province, 107 
 Bulusan, 22, 30 
 Buquidnones, 236 
 Bureaus : organization of, 354-360 ; 
 
 civil service, 354 ; public health, 
 
 355 ; forestry and mining, 355 ; 
 
 public lands, 356 ; agriculture, 
 
 356 ; weather and geodetic survey, 
 356 ; coast guard and transporta- 
 tion, 356 ; ethnological survey, 
 IMiilippine constabulary, posts, 
 
 357 ; insular treasury, 357, 358 ; 
 insular auditor, 357 ; justice, 358, 
 359; customs and immigration, in- 
 ternal revenue, banks, 359 ; educa- 
 tion, printing, architecture, and 
 construction, 359 
 
 Burgos, Dr. Joseph, 84, 85, 98, 99, 100 
 Burial rites, 296, 297, 299 
 Burias, 22 
 Buttian, 26, 51 
 
 Caheza de barangay, 70, 337, 338 
 Cables, 8(5, 168, 169 
 Cacao. See Chocolate 
 Cagayiin : province, 73 ; river. 40, 
 167, 244 ; valley, 42, 256
 
 i:ndex 
 
 415 
 
 Cagayanes, 239, 256 
 
 Cailles, General, 118, 119 
 
 Calantds, 182 
 
 Camagon, 182 
 
 Camarines, 22 
 
 Cambodia, 73 
 
 Campilan, 254 
 
 Canals in Manila, 3-4 
 
 Canla6n or Malaspina, 24 
 
 Cape Eugaiio, 22, 30 
 
 Cape Verde islands, 48 
 
 Capiz, province, 24 
 
 Capucliins, 316, 320 
 
 Caraballos de Baler, 22 
 
 Caraballos Occidentales, 21 
 
 Caraballos Sur, 21, 22 
 
 Carabaos, 165 
 
 Caribbean islands, 82 
 
 Catholicism, 315, 316, 331, 332 
 
 Cavite : city, 110, 111; province, 22, 
 74, 106, 107 
 
 Cavite insurrection: of 1872, 84, 85, 
 97; of 1896, 103, 106-108 
 
 Cebii, city, 51, 110 ; Magellan entered 
 harbor, 51 ; Legaspi entered har- 
 bor, 55 ; seat of government, 56 ; 
 trade, 198; normal school at, 397 
 
 Cebu, island : area, 20 ; mountains, 
 24 ; seismic centers, 36 ; rivers, 
 43 ; uprisings, 74, 83 ; commercial 
 geograpliy, 198 ; language, 239 
 
 Cedilla j)ersonal, 86 
 
 Celebes islands, 26, 27 
 
 Celebes sea, 19 
 
 Census, 352 
 
 Change of officials, too frequent, 97, 
 272^ 
 
 Change of residence, 91 
 
 Changes of government, 272 
 
 Character, native, 264-276 
 
 Characteristic of the Malay race in 
 the Islands, 60 
 
 Charles I, king of Spain, 48 
 
 Charles III, king of Spain, 376 
 
 Chico, 181 
 
 Children, Filipino, 266-270 
 
 China, 19, 78, 200 
 
 China coast, 73 
 
 China sea, 19, 42 
 
 Chinese, 63-66, 72, 73, 74, 76, 80, 
 177, 190, 212, 258-263 
 
 Chinese-Mestizos, 259, 260, 203, 294 
 
 Chocolate, 169, 176 
 
 Cholera, 150, 153, 157, 158, 105, 214, 
 392 
 
 Christianity: accepted by natives, 76, 
 77; not accepted by Igorots, 245, 
 246 
 
 Christian Disciples, 335 
 
 Christian tribes, 237-240. See Chap- 
 ters X and XI 
 
 Church, 271, 272 
 
 Church and state, 70, 71, 79, 92, 
 327, 328, 339 
 
 Church discipline, lack of, 326 
 
 Church processions, 224, 225, 318 
 
 Churches, 284 
 
 Cigars, 172, 173 
 
 Circumnavigation of globe, the first, 54 
 
 Cirrus clouds, 140, 141 
 
 Civil service, 354, 355 
 
 Civil War, 380 
 
 Classes of society in pre-Spanish 
 times, 61 
 
 Climate, 28. See Chapter V 
 
 Clothing, 158-160 
 
 Clouds, 137 
 
 Clubs in Manila, 221 
 
 Coal, 184, 185 
 
 Coast guard and transportation, bu- 
 reau of, 356 
 
 Coast line, length of, 166 
 
 Cockfighting, 282 
 
 Cockroaches, 149, 216 
 
 Coffee, 169, 176 
 
 Colegio de la Inmaculada Concep- 
 ci6n, 376 
 
 College of San Jos^, 73 
 
 Colonization, 12 
 
 Color line, 271 
 
 Columbus, 46, 50 
 
 Commerce, 94. See Chapter VII 
 
 Common sources .of enlightenment 
 wanting, 408, 409
 
 416 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Comparative philologj-, 228 
 Compulsory school attendance, 386 
 Concealment of the sick, 158 
 Conception of colonization, Spanish, 
 
 92 
 Conclusion, 410-413 
 Conditions previous to the advent of 
 
 the Spanish, 61, 62, 373 
 Confiscation of property of the 
 
 orders, 325 
 Conflicts with the Dutch, 68, 72- 
 
 74 
 Conflicts with the Portuguese. See 
 
 Portugal and Spain 
 Congressional action, 352 
 Connection of the Philippines with 
 
 Asia, 26, 27 
 Consent of the governed, 5 
 Conservatism, 8, 9 
 Conspiracy in Pampanga and Manila, 
 
 68 
 "Constitution of 1812," 85, 86 
 Contact with Spanish civilization, 
 
 effect of, 88, 89 
 Contents, v 
 Convents, 310, 311 
 Conversion of natives to Christianity, 
 
 58, 76, 77, 293, 310-320, 339, 374 
 Copper, 184 
 Copra, 169, 175 
 Coral beds, 193 
 Cordage, 188 
 
 Cordillera Central, 22, 243 
 Cordillera Norte, 22 
 Corn, 169, 176 
 Corregidor, 22 
 Corvee or forced labor, 91 
 Cost of living, 223 
 Cotabato, province, 26 
 Council : of Trent, 84 ; of the 
 
 Philippines, 340 ; of Administra- 
 tion, 341 
 Courts, 358 
 
 Creeks or enteros, 34, 212 
 Curriculum of primary schools: in 
 
 Spanish times, 378, 379; in Ameri- 
 can times, 385 
 
 Customs and immigration, bureau 
 
 of, 359 
 Cyclones, 138-143. See Typhoons 
 
 Da Gama, 46 
 
 Danger, 8, 9 
 
 Dasmarifias : Gomez P^rez, 71, 72; 
 Luis P^rez, 72, 73 
 
 Davao, 236 
 
 Death : of Magellan, 52 ; of Legaspi, 
 58, 63 
 
 Death rate, 156, 232, 233 
 
 Defects of Spanish system of admin- 
 istration, 343, 344 
 
 De Juzman, Francisco Tello, 73 
 
 Demand for native priests, 86 
 
 Demarcation Bull, 47 
 
 l^emocratic principles applied, 4 
 
 De Morga, Antonio. See Morga 
 
 Dengue fever, 148 
 
 Destruction of Spanish fleet. 111 
 
 De Tavera, Pardo, 351 ; quoted, 370 
 
 Dewey, Admiral, 112 
 
 "Dhobie itch," 149 
 
 Diarrhoea, 153 
 
 Diaz, 46 
 
 Difficulties : of promoters of educa- 
 tion, 10 ; in establishing school 
 system, 390-393 
 
 Dinatas, 303, 307 
 
 Discomforts, 150, 152 
 
 Discontent and hostility, cause of, 94 
 
 Discovery of the Islands, 51 
 
 Diseases, prevalent, 148, 150, 153 
 
 Division of Philippine archipelago 
 into earthquake districts, 34, 36, 
 38 
 
 Division superintendents, 385, 394, 
 397 
 
 Dominicans, 68, 77, 312, 328, 375 
 
 Dress : and conduct, rules of, 158- 
 163 ; native, 278, 279 
 
 Drinks, 160 
 
 Droughts, 165 
 
 Dutch, 68, 72, 73, 74 
 
 Duty of the United States in the 
 Philippines, 3, 13
 
 INDEX 
 
 417 
 
 Dyaks of Borneo, 60 
 Dysentery, 150, 153 
 
 Early times and conditions in the 
 Philippines, 228 
 
 Earthquakes, 28, 36 ; number regis- 
 tered in Manila (1880-1897), 3-4; 
 stations, 34, 75 
 
 Eastern Extension and China Tele- 
 graph Company, 169 
 
 East Indies, 46, 200 
 
 Ebony, 182 
 
 Ecclesiastical system established, 
 312, 313, 316 
 
 Edict of July 2, 1897, 108 
 
 Educated Filipinos, few in number, 
 380 
 
 Education, 10-12; Filipino point of 
 view of, 265, 266 ; Filipino chil- 
 dren, 266-270 ; schools established 
 by the religious orders, 311; bureau 
 of, 359 ; previous to the advent of 
 the Spaniards, 373 ; Spanish at- 
 tempts at, 374-381; American 
 efforts, under military auspices, 
 381-383 ; American efforts under 
 military auspices bj' civil authori- 
 ties, 383-410. See Chapter XIV 
 
 Education of Filipinos in the United 
 States, 401, 402 
 
 Educational bill, 384, 385 
 
 Educational needs, future, 402, 403 
 
 Educational policy, American, 392 
 
 Effect of Philippine climate, 122, 127, 
 144, 145, 146, 147, 151, 152 
 
 El Dorado, 46 
 
 El Filibusterismo, 102 
 
 Embroideries, 283 
 
 Engafio, cape, 22, 30 
 
 England, 80, 82 
 
 English : rudimentary, 10 ; intro- 
 duced, 383 ; basis of instruction, 
 386 ; spoken, 393 ; in evening 
 schools, 400 ; language of instruc- 
 tion, 403-409 
 
 Englishmen, opinion of certain, of 
 native character, etc., 293, 294 
 
 Epidemics, 150, 156-158 
 
 Episcopalians, 335 
 
 Equal rights, idea of, 94, 95 
 
 Eruptions of Taal volcano, 36 
 
 Escolta, 214 
 
 Escuela de Maestras, 376 
 
 Estimates of native character. See 
 Chapter XI 
 
 Ethnological elements of the popula- 
 tion, 233-241 
 
 Ethnological survey, bureau of, 234, 
 357 
 
 Ethnology, 228 
 
 Evaporation, 129 
 
 Evening schools, 388, 394, 399 
 
 P^xclusion of Chinese, 259, 260 
 
 Executions of rebels in 1896, 99, 103 
 
 Exercise, 160, 221 
 
 Expeditions : of Magellan, 45, 48, 50- 
 52 ; of Villalobos, 54 ; of Legaspi, 
 55 
 
 Exports, 169 
 
 Expulsion : of friars, 108 ; of the 
 Jesuits, 376 
 
 Extent of Philippines, 19, 20 
 
 Fables, 307, 308 
 
 Fajardo, Governor General, 75 
 
 Falsehood, 267 
 
 " Family Compact," 80 
 
 Family life, 62, 279 
 
 Famines, 76 
 
 Faribault plan of religious instruc- 
 tion, 386 
 
 Faura, Father, director of Manila 
 observatory, 123, 124 
 
 Feast days, 318 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, 47 
 
 Fertility, 12 
 
 Festivals or fiestas, 280-282, 284, 285 
 
 Fiestas. See Festivals 
 
 Filipino : term defined, 264 ; indirect- 
 ness, 274 
 
 Filipinos : incapable of self-govern- 
 ment, 5 ; childlike, 6 ; and Ameri- 
 cans, 8, 9 ; and Spaniards, 9 ; in 
 official positions, 353, 354, 358
 
 418 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Fishing, 100 
 
 Fleet of Magellan, 50 ; of Insular 
 
 Government, 1(38 
 Floods. 16i 
 
 Flowers and fruits, 178, 180, 181 
 Foods, 100, 100, 102 
 Foreigners in the Islands, 85, 200, 
 
 261 
 Forestry and mining, bureau of, 
 
 355 
 Formosa, 30 
 Fort Santiago, 82 
 Forts, 284 
 France and Spain allied against 
 
 England, 80 
 Franciscans, 68, 77, 311, 328 
 Franco-Prussian War, 380 
 Freemasonry, so-called, 07, 08 
 Free thought, 333 
 Friar missionaries, work of, 7(), 77, 
 
 01, 92 
 Friar question, 320, 334, 339 
 Friars: of Magellan's party, 52; of 
 
 Legaspi'spartj', 55 ; Augustinians, 
 
 55,77,310; Dominicans, 68,77. 312; 
 
 Franciscans, 68, 77, 311; Jesuits, 
 
 68, 77, 311; Kecoletos, 77; other 
 
 orders, 310 
 Fruits and flowers, 178. 180, 181 
 Funeral rites, 282 
 Funston, General, 119 
 Future, 6, 7, 409. See " Conclusion," 
 
 410-413 
 
 Galleons, 74, 78 
 
 Games, 268, 282, 283 
 
 Garcia, monk, 72 
 
 General policy, results of, 8 
 
 General superintendent of education, 
 
 384, 385, 386, 394 
 Geodetic survey, bureau of, 356, 357 
 Geology, 29 
 Glanders, 165, 219 
 Gods, native, 297, 299, 300, 301, 303. 
 
 304, 306, 307 
 Goiti, 65 
 Gold, 184 
 
 Government, 12 ; tribal, 337, 338 ; 
 Spanish form of, 338-345 ; Ameri- 
 can, 344-353 ; comparison of the 
 two systems, 353, 354 ; work of the 
 Commission, 354-363 ; provincial, 
 363, 364 ; municipal, 36^3-368 ; civil, 
 established, 368-373. See Chapter 
 XIII 
 
 Great Britain declares war, 80 
 
 Guerrilla warfare, 119 
 
 Guidi, papal delegate, 330 
 
 Guijo, 182 
 
 Gutta-percha, 176 
 
 Half-castes, 59. See Mestizos 
 
 Harbors, 166 
 
 Hard woods, 182 
 
 Harris, W. T., United States Com- 
 missioner of Education, quoted, 152 
 
 Havana, 82 
 
 Head hunters, 60, 236, 246 
 
 Health of American soldier.s, 153, 154 
 
 Hemp, Manila, 160-171, 186, 188 
 
 High Court of Mexico, 63 
 
 Higher educational institutions, 375, 
 376, 377, 380, 387, 402 
 
 Historical data, 228 
 
 Hogs, 102 
 
 Holland, treaty of peace with, 74 
 
 Home life of natives, 279, 280 
 
 Home rule, 345 
 
 Honey, 193, 106, 109 
 
 Hongkong Junta, 112 
 
 Honolulu, 214 
 
 Hospitality, 222, 276, 277 
 
 Hostility against the friars, chief 
 ground for, 323, 324, 332 
 
 Hotel de Oriente, 370 
 
 House fly, 149 
 
 Houses, 279, 280 
 
 Howells, W. D., quoted, 104 
 
 Hughes, General, quoted, 291, 292 
 
 Humidity, 129-131 
 
 Ide, Henry C, 348, 351 
 Ignacio, Friar Martin, quoted, 313, 
 314
 
 INDEX 
 
 419 
 
 Ignorance, 270 
 
 Igorots, 60, 74, 236, 243-246, 2U6- 
 298, 335, 398 
 
 Iligan bay, 26 
 
 Illana bay, 26 
 
 Illanos, 237 
 
 Ilocanos, 00, 238, 239, 240, 256, 257, 
 258 
 
 Ilocos Sur, 42 
 
 Iloilo : province, 24, 43 ; seat of gov- 
 ernment transferred to, 50; situa- 
 tion, 197 ; normal school at, 397 
 
 Immigration, Malayan, 256 
 
 Imitativeness, 200, 267 
 
 Immobility of the natives, 233 
 
 Immorality of the friars, 331, 332 
 
 Immortality, idea of, 310 
 
 Independence, 4, 5, 95, 114, 117, 
 344, 345 
 
 Indian, 204, 339 
 
 Indigo, 109, 170 
 
 Individuality, 9 
 
 Indolence of the natives, 105 
 
 Indonesian race in the archipelago, 
 58-00 
 
 Industrial education, 400, 401 
 
 Industrial school. See Trade school 
 
 Information conflicting, 2, 3 
 
 Inhabitants as they existed previous 
 to Spanish conquest, 58-62, 90, 91 
 
 Insects, 149, 150 
 
 Insular auditor, 357 
 
 Insular treasury, 357, 358 
 
 Insurance companies investigate 
 health conditions, 150, 151 
 
 Insurgent Congress, 114 
 
 Insurgent government, 114 
 
 Insurgents, attack of the Spanish, 1 14 
 
 Insurrection : in Cavite, 84, 85 ; of 
 1896, 103, 100-108 ; in Cebu, 110 
 
 Intelligence : of Filipino children, 
 207 ; of Filipino adults, 270 
 
 Interest in public affairs, 271 
 Interisland connnunication, 100, 107 
 Intermarriage, 59, 259 
 Internal revenue, bureau of, 359 
 Internal strifes, 70 
 
 Investment of American capital, 105 
 
 Ipil, 182 
 
 Irada, mountain, 22 
 
 Irrigation, 165, 232 
 
 Isabella, province, 73 
 
 Islands, area of eleven largest, 20, 
 
 21 
 Isthmian Canal, 200 
 
 Jaena, 99 
 
 Jalaur, 43 
 
 Japan, 19, 71, 72, 73, 78, 200; rela- 
 tions with the Philippines, 02, 71, 
 72, 100 
 
 Japanese, 02 ; and Filipinos, 270 
 
 Jaro, 316 ; episcopal seat of, 376 
 
 Java, 27, 28 
 
 Jesuit fathers, 29, 301, 304, 307 
 
 Jesuits, 33, 08, 77, 122, 123, 311, 329, 
 375, 370 
 
 John, king of Portugal, 47 
 
 Jol6, 237 
 
 Judicial system, organization of, 358, 
 359 
 
 Jusi, 180, 198 
 
 Justice, administration of, 94 ; bureau 
 of, 358, 359 
 
 Katipuiian, 98, 272 
 
 Kieuion, 71 
 
 King of Cebu, 52 
 
 King Charles I of Spain, 48-52 
 
 King John of Portugal, 47 
 
 King Philip II of Spain, 54 
 
 King of Siao, 72 
 
 " King of the Tagalogs," 83, 84 
 
 Kue-sing, leader of invasion, 70 
 
 Koran, 304, 305 
 
 Korea, 19 
 
 Labor, 91, 165, 287, 292 
 Labor problem, 12 
 Ladrone islands, 50 
 Ladrones, 50, 105, 100, 273 
 Laguna de Bay, 30, 43, 205 
 Lakatan, 180 
 Lake of Bay, 30, 43
 
 420 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Lakes, 44 
 
 " La Liga Filipina," 08 
 
 Lanao : province, 20 ; lake, 44, 237, 
 248, 255 
 
 Lanaos, 237 
 
 Landing: of Magellan, 51; of Legaspi, 
 55 
 
 Land tenure, 356 
 
 Language, 90, 256, 257, 373, 403- 
 409 
 
 Languages, 231, 232, 239 
 
 Lanzones, 181 
 
 Latitude and longitude, 19 
 
 Lavezares, 63 
 
 Legarda, Benito, 351 ; quoted, 370- 
 372 
 
 Legaspi, Miguel Lopez de, 54-56, 58, 
 70, 2^, 310 ; followers of, 68, 70 
 
 Legaspi-Urdaneta monument, 284 
 
 Leo XIII, Pope, 330 
 
 Lepanto-Bontoc, 42 
 
 Leprosy, 150, 153 
 
 Leyte : area, 20 ; mountains, 24 
 seismic centers, 36 ; rivers, 43 
 name, 54 ; visited by Legaspi, 55 
 uprisings, 74 ; commercial geog- 
 raphy, 197 
 
 Life in the Philippines, 150 
 
 Lignite, 184 
 
 Limahong, 64-66 
 
 Lingayen, gulf, 42 
 
 Lizards, 149, 216 
 
 Local customs retained, 276 
 
 Local school boards, 385, 394 
 
 Locusts, 165, 193 
 
 Longitude and latitude, 19 
 
 Los Bafios, springs of, 39 
 
 Lucban, General, 119 
 
 Luna, Juan, 283, 284 
 
 Luneta, 210 
 
 Luxuriant vegetation, 28 
 
 Luz6n : area, 20 ; mountain system, 
 21, 22 ; volcanoes, 30, 32, 33 ; 
 earthquake of 1852, 36 ; river sys- 
 tems, 40-43 ; uprisings, 74 ; revolt 
 of 1649, 75 ; commercial geog- 
 raphy, 194, 195 ; inhabitants, 237, 
 
 238, 239 ; provincial governments 
 in Spanish times, 341 
 Luzuriaga, Senor, 327, 328, 351 ; 
 quoted, 372 
 
 MacArthur, General, quoted, 273, 
 287, 288, 348, 350 
 
 Mactan island, 52 
 
 Magellan, 45, 48-52 ; route, 49-51 ; 
 fleet, 50 ; straits, 50 ; tomb, 284 
 
 Manguindanaos, 236 
 
 Maintenance of schools, 386 
 
 Malabang, 237 
 
 Malacca, 48 
 
 Malaria, 150, 153, 156, 193 
 
 Malaspina. See Canlaon 
 
 Malay origin, 9, 58, 59, 256, 294 
 
 Malay peninsula, 242 
 
 Malay race, 60, 256 ; three invasions, 
 59, 60 
 
 Malfeasance in office, 274 
 
 Malolos: the insurgent capital, 114, 
 118; constitution of, 325 
 
 Malvar, General, 119 
 
 Mandayas, 302, 303 
 
 Mangoes, 180, 181 
 
 Mangosteen, 181 
 
 Manguianes, 236, 298, 299 
 
 Manila: situation in relation to earth- 
 quakes, 34; number of earthquakes, 
 34 ; earthquake of 1863, 34 ; earth- 
 quake of 1645, 36 ; arrival of 
 Salcedo, 56 ; destroyed by fire, 
 68 ; improved, 72 ; eartliquake of 
 1645, 75, 204 ; taken by English, 
 82 ; uprising, 83 ; taken by Amer- 
 icans, 111 ; mean annual tempera- 
 ture, 125 ; humidity, 130, 131 ; 
 rainy days, 133 ; rainfall, 135 ; 
 bubonic plague, epidemic of, 156 ; 
 harbor, 160 ; commercial posi- 
 tion, 200 ; name, 203, 204 ; foun- 
 dation by Legaspi, 203 ; walls, 
 204 ; site, 204-206 ; population, 
 206-208 ; Luneta, 210 ; improve- 
 ments under new government, 212, 
 214, 216; attractions, 216, 217;
 
 INDEX 
 
 421 
 
 housekeeping,217, 218; daily trans- 
 portation, 219, 220 ; meats and 
 groceries, 220 ; society, 220-222 ; 
 newspapers, 221, 222 ; cost of liv- 
 ing, 223 ; Paco cemetery, 223 ; 
 monuments, 224 ; church proces- 
 sions, 224, 225 ; Protestants, 225 ; 
 government, 226 ; inhabited by 
 Tagalogs, 238; language, 230; walls 
 and gates, 284; becomes metropol- 
 itan diocese, 316; normal school 
 at, 397, 398 
 
 Manila bay, 22, 43, 205, 210 
 
 Manners and customs, 275-286 
 
 Manobos, 236, 303 
 
 Marble quarrying, 184 
 
 Marinduque, mountains of, 22 
 
 Mariveles, 208 
 
 Marriage, 62, 297 
 
 Masbate : area, 20 ; mountains, 22 ; 
 seismic centers, 36 ; commercial 
 geography, 196 
 
 Massacre of Balangiga, 290 
 
 Maura, Sefior, 343 
 
 Maynila, 56. See Manila 
 
 Maydn volcano, 30-32, 36 
 
 Mechanical industries, 186-191 
 
 Melanesia, 243 
 
 Memory, loss of, 151 
 
 Merritt, General, 346 
 
 Mestizos, 59, 271, 294. See Chinese- 
 Mestizos and Spanish-Mestizos 
 
 Meteorology,characterof workin,142 
 
 Methodists, 335 
 
 Mexican code of laws, 68 
 
 Mexico, 95 ; and the Philippines, 63, 
 68, 74, 78 
 
 Military government, 346-351 
 
 Mincopies, 242 
 
 Mindanao : area, 20 ; mountains, 
 24 ; seismic centers, 36 ; rivers, 44 ; 
 visited by Legaspi, 55 ; Indonesian 
 descendants in, 59 ; tributary to 
 Borneo, 68 ; troubles with, 73 ; 
 uprisings, 74 ; commercial geog- 
 raphy, 199; religion of inhabitants, 
 296, 304 ; military government, 341 
 
 Mindoro : area, 20 ; rivers, 43 ; com- 
 mercial geography, 195, 196 
 
 Mineral resources, 184, 185 
 
 Mineral springs, 38, 39 
 
 Mining, early pursued, 61 
 
 Ministers for the colonies, created, 86 
 
 Mint, 96 
 
 Misamis, province, 26 
 
 Missionaries: Arabian, 304; Protes- 
 tant, 225; Jesuit, 304; sent out, 311 
 
 Missions, number of, 328 
 
 Mohammedanism, 62, 304, 305 
 
 Mohammedans, 296, 373 
 
 Molave, 182 
 
 Mollusks, 192, 193 
 
 Moluccas, 27, 48, 49, 68, 72, 73 
 
 Monastic orders, 315 
 
 Money, 62 
 
 Monsoons, 136, 137 
 
 Montescos, 236 
 
 Monteses, 236, 300, 301 
 
 Monuments, 284 
 
 Moral character, effect of Philippine 
 climate on, 152 
 
 Moral characteristics : of Filipino 
 children, 267, 268; of Filipino 
 adults, 271 
 
 Morga, 73, 314. See De Morga, 
 Antonio 
 
 Moros, 60, 68, 74, 76, 80, 236, 237, 
 246-256, 304, 305, 373, 398 ; large 
 population centering around lake 
 Lanao, 44 
 
 Moses, Bernard, 348, 351 
 
 Moslems : and Americans, 44; and 
 Spaniards, 44 
 
 Mosquitoes, 149, 193, 216 
 
 Mountains : general direction, 21 ; 
 ranges, in Luz6n, 21, 22 ; subma- 
 rine ranges, 22 ; ranges, in Panay, 
 Negros, Cebu, Bohol, 24 ; in Leyte 
 and Samar, 26 ; Mindanao, 26 ; 
 influence, 39, 40 
 
 Mount Isarog, 236 
 
 Municipal government : in Spanish 
 times, 342 ; under American rule, 
 347, 348, 360, 365-368
 
 422 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Municipality, 232 
 Music, 284, 285, 400 
 
 Narra, 182 
 
 National independence, 114 
 
 Native character, 10, 17 
 
 Native clergy, 312, 313, 324 
 
 Native medical skill, 156 
 
 Native officials, 273, 274 
 
 Native physician, testimony of, 2ii2, 
 293 
 
 Native teachers, 378, 370, 385, 394, 
 395, 396 
 
 Nautical school, 377, 394, 399 
 
 Navidad, Mexico, 55 
 
 Neatness of garb, 278 
 
 Negritos, the first inhabitants, 58, 59, 
 60, 234, 240-243 
 
 Negro problem, 14 
 
 Negros : area, 20 ; mountains, 24 ; 
 seismic centers, 30 ; rivers, 44 ; 
 rebellion, 84 ; commercial geog- 
 raphy, 198 ; hostility to the friars, 
 327, 328 ; political conditions in 
 Spanish times, 341 
 
 Nevrspapers, 221, 222 
 
 Noli Me Tangere, 101, 104, 105 
 
 Non-Christian peoples, 233-237 
 
 Normal schools : Spanish, 376; Amer- 
 ican, 394, 397, 398 
 
 Nueva Caceres: episcopal seat of, 376; 
 norn)al school at, 397 
 
 Nueva Ecija, 42 
 
 Nueva Viscaya,*72, 73 
 
 Number of islands, 20 
 
 Observatory of Manila, 123, 128, 129 
 Occupation by the British, 80, 82 
 Oceanica, 27 
 
 Official Guide of the Philippines, 127 
 Opinions of the Filipino : by a sol- 
 dier, 273 ; by General Otis, 286, 
 287 ; by General MacArthur, 287 ; 
 by Governor Taft, 288, 289 ; by 
 General Hughes, 291 ; by a native 
 physician, 292 ; by English resi- 
 dents, 293, 294 
 
 Opposition to the friars, 84 
 
 Oranges, 180 
 
 Origin of Spanish words in dialects, 
 88, 89 
 
 Otis, General : opinion of native char- 
 acter and political capacity, 286, 
 287; military governor, 347, 348 
 
 Outcome of American efforts, 295 
 
 Pacific, 19 
 
 I'acific-China sea watershed, 21, 22 
 
 Pacification of Islands by Legaspi, 
 56, 58 
 
 Paco cemetery, 223, 224 
 
 Painting, 283 
 
 Palawan : area, 20 ; mountains, 24 ; 
 uniting Philippines with archi- 
 pelago, 26 ; commercial geography, 
 199 
 
 Paluia brava, 182 
 
 Palms, 182 
 
 I'ampanga : river, 43, 1G7 ; province, 
 75, 107, 239 
 
 Pampangaus, 239, 256, 258 
 
 Panay : area, 20 ; mountains, 24 
 seismic centers, 36 ; rivers, 43 
 commercial geography, 197, 198 
 language, 239 ; political condition, 
 341 
 
 Panay river, 43 
 
 Pandita, 304, 305 
 
 Pangasinan, province, 42, 66, 76, 
 239 
 
 Pangasinanes, 238, 256, 258 
 
 Paragua. See Palawan 
 
 Participation of Filipinos in the gov- 
 ernment, 353, 354, 358, 361 
 
 Pasig river, 34, 43, 167, 205 
 
 Paterno, Pedro Alejandro, 108 
 
 Paulists, 31(5, 329 
 
 Peace : of Paris (1763), 82 ; of West- 
 phalia, 380 
 
 Peaceful character of the people, 
 272, 273 
 
 Pearls, 184 
 
 People : Spanish influence, 227, 228 ; 
 population, 230, 231 ; languages,
 
 INDEX 
 
 423 
 
 231, 232 ; distribution, 232 ; com- 
 position, 233-241, 263, 204; char- 
 acter of Filipino, 285. See Chap- 
 ters IX, X, and XI 
 
 Personal adornment, fondness of, 283 
 
 Personal rights,fundamental, wan ted, 
 345 
 
 Pessimism, 151, 152 
 
 Petition to emperor of Japan, 106 
 
 Philip II, king of Spain, 54, 70, 92, 
 204, 310 
 
 Philippine Assembly, 352, 353, 372 
 
 Philippine Catholic Churcli, 334 
 
 Philippine Commissions: first, 112, 
 343, 344, 345; second (see Taft 
 Commission) 
 
 Philippine constabulary, bureau of, 
 357 
 
 Philippine problem, 1-5, 7, 14 
 
 "Philippine Republic," 114 
 
 Philippines: situation, 19; area, 10, 
 20 ; points of union with Asiatic 
 archipelago, 20, 27 ; volcanic ori- 
 gin, 27; climate, 28; discovery, by 
 Magellan, 51 ; dependency of a 
 dependency, 03 ; and Mexico, 03 ; 
 commercial position, 200, 201 
 
 Philological facts, study of, in con- 
 nection with Spanisli colonization, 
 90 
 
 Pina, 180, 186 
 
 Pineapple, 180 
 
 Pintados, 238 
 
 Pirates, Moro, 84 
 
 Plehn, Prof essor Carl C, quoted, 231 
 
 Poisoning of wells, 158 
 
 Polavieja, Governor General, 107 
 
 Police, 96 
 
 Political dependence, 5 
 
 Polygamy, 271, 310 
 
 Ponies, 219 
 
 Pope Alexander VI, 47 
 
 Population, 230-232, 263, 264 
 
 Portugal and Spain, 46, 47, 55, 56 
 
 Position of the Filipino woman, 275 
 
 Posts, bureau of, 357 
 
 Precautions against climate, 144-146 
 
 Precipitation, 129, 131-130 
 
 Presbyterians, 335 
 
 President I^liot, quoted, 14 
 
 President McKinley, 347 
 
 President Koosevelt, 
 
 Presidents, 348 
 
 Pressure, atmospheric, 128, 129 
 
 Prickly heat, 148 
 
 Primary instruction, 395 
 
 Primary schools, Spanish system of, 
 377, 378, 379 
 
 Princijmles, 338 
 
 Printing, bureau of, 359 
 
 Processions, 224, 225, 318 
 
 Proclamations by Aguinaldo : first, 
 113; second, 114 
 
 Products, 109-178 
 
 Protectorate, 113 
 
 Protestants, 225, 335 
 
 Provincial government : in Spanish 
 times, 342 ; under American rule, 
 360-305 
 
 Provincials of the monastic orders, 
 312 
 
 Public health : bureau of, 355 ; labo- 
 ratories, 359. See Chapter VI 
 
 Public lands, bureau of, 356 
 
 Pueblo, 232 
 
 Pulangui river, 26 
 
 Racial antipathy, 261 
 
 Racial composition, 58, 59, 60, 23.3- 
 241 
 
 Racial divisions of the people, 233 
 
 Railroad, 106 
 
 Rains, 130-130, 164 
 
 Rainy season, 134 
 
 Rattan, 188, 196 
 
 Rats, 156, 193 
 
 Readiness for self-government, 275 
 
 Rebellion of 1719, 79 
 
 Recoletos, 77, 328 
 
 Reforms, 95, 98, 108, 342-345 
 
 Religion : Negritos, 290, 297; Igorots, 
 297, 298 ; certain primitive tribes, 
 298-304, 306, 307; Moros, 304, 
 305 ; Filipinos before the coming
 
 424 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 of the Spaniards, o07, 308. See 
 
 Chapter XII 
 Religious activity, 76, 313 
 Keligious ideas among the Igorots, 
 
 245 
 Religious instruction, 92, 311, 313 
 Religious liberty, 345 
 Remontados, 230 
 Representation in Spanish Cortes, 
 
 85, 86, 94 
 Residence in the tropics, effect of, 
 
 144 
 Resources, 12, 13 
 Respect for learning, 381 
 Revolts, 96 
 Rice, 109, 175, 176 
 Rinderpest, 165, 192 
 Rio Agno, 42 
 
 Rio Grande de Cagayan, 40, 42, 44 
 Rio Grande de la Mindanao, 44 
 Rio Grande de la Pampanga, 43 
 Rivera, Governor General, 107, 110 
 Rivers : Luz6n, 40-43 ; Panay, 43 ; 
 
 Negros, 44 ; Mindanao, 44 ; as 
 
 highways, 40, 107 
 Rizal, Dr. Jose, 98, 99-105, 244, 
 
 270, 284 
 Rizal Orchestra, 285 
 Roads, 97, 168 
 
 Roman Catholicism, 335, 330 
 Roman Catholics, 290 
 Rombl(5n, mountains of, 22 
 Route of Magellan, 49, 50, 51 
 Royal decree" of 1589, 70, 71 
 Royal delegate sent from Spain, 
 
 80 
 Royal court of justice, 73 
 Rubber, 176 
 Ruiz, monk, 71, 72 
 
 Sabians, 307 
 
 Sabo, 51 
 
 Salcedo, 56, 66, 68 
 
 Sakais, 242 
 
 Salaries, 226, 351, 352, 385, 386, 388, 
 
 396, 400 
 Silmals, 237 
 
 Samar : area, 20 ; mountains, 24 ; 
 seismic centers, 34 ; rivers, 43 ; 
 name, 54 ; uprisings, 74 ; revolt of 
 1049, 75 ; commercial geography, 
 196, 197 
 
 Sanchez, Alonzo, 70 
 
 Sanitation and hygiene: need of im- 
 provement in, 154, 155 ; common 
 principles of, enforced, 157, 158 ; 
 in Manila, 212 ; of the home, 232 
 
 San Ignacio, 375 
 
 San Juan de Letran, 375 
 
 San Lazarus islands, 52, 54 
 
 San Lucas, port of Seville, 50 
 
 San Mateo, 100 
 
 San Miguel, monk, 72 
 
 Sanquin, 26 
 
 Santa Ana, captured, 68 
 
 Santa Catalina, 375 
 
 Santa Isabel, 375 
 
 Santa Rosa, 375 
 
 Santo Tomas, 375 
 
 School system, free public, 10 ; or- 
 ganization of, 394 
 
 Schoolhouses, 378, 379, 385, 380, 392 
 
 Schools established by religious bod- 
 ies, 77, 78 
 
 Schurman Commission, 112, 343-345 
 
 Scientific study of the Filipino race, 
 228 
 
 Seasons, 125, 143 
 
 Seat of general government : Cebu, 
 50 ; Iloilo, 50 ; Manila, 50 
 
 Sebu. See Cebu 
 
 Secondary schools, 394, 402 
 
 Secretary of public instruction, 394 
 
 Seismological disturbances, laws of, 
 33, 34 
 
 Seismo-meteorological service, 34 
 
 Seismology, 33-38 
 
 Self-government, 5, 6, 295, 345 
 
 Self-sacrifice, examples of, 157 
 
 Seminaries, theological, 370 
 
 Serrano, 48, 49 
 
 Servants, 218 
 
 Sexual morality, 271 
 
 Share in offices of the government, 87
 
 INDEX 
 
 425 
 
 Shipbuilding, 190 
 
 Shower bath, 158 
 
 Slam, 200 
 
 Siao, king of, 72 
 
 Siassi, 237 
 
 Sierra Erapinada, 24 
 
 Sierra Madre, 22 
 
 Signal corps, army, 1G8 
 
 Silver, 184 
 
 Silversmithing, 100, 283, 284 
 
 Sinamay, 180 
 
 Situation, 19 
 
 Slavery, 71, 91, 248, 250, 251, 310 
 
 Sleep, 161 
 
 Sloan, Robert J., M.D., quoted, 150 
 
 Smallpox, 153, 165, 214 
 
 Smoking mountains, 30 
 
 Society in Manila, 220, 221, 222 
 
 Soil, 164, 233 
 
 Sorsogdn, province, 22 
 
 Soul, conception of, 310 
 
 South Caraballo. See Carahallos Sur 
 
 Spain and Portugal, 46, 47, 55, 56 
 
 Spain's conquest, justification of, 13 
 
 Spaniards and Filipinos, 9 
 
 Spanish code of law, 96, 97 
 
 Spanish colonization, 339 
 
 Spanish domination, 11, 13, 16, 87- 
 
 91, 95, 227, 274 
 Spanish education, 11, 96 
 Spanish influence, 1, 2, 60, 01, 87- 
 
 89, 226, 227, 275 
 Spanish legislation, character of , 85, 86 
 Spanish-Mestizos, 259, 294, 295 
 Spanish officials, strife between, 70 
 Spanish revolution, 95 
 Spanish system of schools, 379, 380 
 Spanish words in common use in the 
 
 different dialects, 88, 89 
 Spice islands, 46, 48 
 Spiders, 149, 193 
 Sports, 221 
 
 Statue of Sebastian del Cano, 284 
 Stockings, 159 
 Storms, 123. See Cyclones and 
 
 Typhoons 
 Straits of Magellan, 50 
 
 Straits Settlements, 200 
 
 Subanos, 236 
 
 Submarine ranges, 22 
 
 Sugar, 169, 173-175, 198 
 
 Sulu : tributary to Borneo, 68 ; 
 troubles with, 73 ; uprisings, 74 ; 
 sultan of, 200, 251-253 
 
 Sulu archipelago, 26, 200, 296 
 
 Sulus, 237 
 
 Sumatra, 27, 28 
 
 Summer capital, 153, 154 
 
 Sumoroy, leader of revolt in Samar, 75 
 
 Sunda islands, 27 
 
 Superior advisory board of educa- 
 tion, 385, 394 
 
 Superstition, 62, 315 
 
 Superstitions: among Negritos, 296; 
 among Igorots, 297 ; among certain 
 other primitive tribes, 298-304 ; 
 among Moros, 305 ; among Christian 
 natives, 305-310. See Chapter XII 
 
 Supreme Court, 71 
 
 Surgeon general, report of, on health 
 of American soldiers, 154 
 
 Surra, 165, 219 
 
 Taal, 22, 32, 33, 34, 36 
 
 Taf t Commission : report on public 
 
 health, 152, 153; report on friar 
 
 question, 329 ; appointment, 348 ; 
 
 work, 349, 350 ; enlarged, 351 
 Taft, William H., civil governor, 7, 
 
 8, 119, 288, 289, 330, 348, 350 
 Tagalogs, 60, 238, 239, 250, 257, 
 
 258, 278, 405 
 Tagalos. See Tagalogs 
 Tagaytay range, 22, 30 
 Tagbanuas, 236, 299 
 Taking of Manila, 111, 340 
 Talut, 26 
 Tarlac, 42 
 
 Tavera. See De Tavera 
 Tawi Tawi, 237 
 Tayabas, province, 22, 83 
 Telegraphs, 168 
 Telephones, 108 
 Temperature, 125-128
 
 426 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 Ternate, 54 
 
 Text-books: Spanish, 378, 370; 
 American, 381, 385, 386, 388 
 
 Ticao, 22 
 
 Tic-Balan, 301 
 
 Tlk-tih, 308 
 
 Timber, 13, 181-184 
 
 Tinguianes, 300 
 
 Tirurays, 23G 
 
 Tobacco, 83, m, 100, 171-173 
 
 Tornadoes, 132, 130 
 
 Towns, distribution of people in, 232 
 
 Trade, 78. See Ciiapter VII 
 
 Trade school, 304, 398 
 
 Trades, coniniun, 188, 100 
 
 Trading early carried on between 
 Boriiese, Japanese, and Chinese, 02 
 
 Treaty : of Tordesillas, 48 ; of Biac- 
 na-batd, 108; of Paris, 111, 118 
 
 Tribute : rate, collection, and distri- 
 bution, 71 ; fixed by Legaspi, 58 
 
 Turks, ascendency of, after conquest 
 of Constantinople, 40 
 
 Typhoons, 123, 124, 120, 105 
 
 United States Philippine Commis- 
 sioners, 6, 7, 8, 9 
 Uprisings, 74, 75, 83 
 
 Value of archipelago, Spanish view 
 
 of, 93 
 Vargas, Governor General, 83 
 Variation of temperature, small, 120 
 Vegetation, 28 ; cause of humidity, 
 
 129 
 Vigan : bishop of, .'!12 ; episcopal seat 
 
 of, 370 ; normal school at, 307 
 Villalobos, 54 
 
 Vines, Father, director of Havana 
 
 Observatory, 140 
 Visayan islands, 22 
 Visayans, 00, 237, 238, 230, 250, 257, 
 
 258, 341 
 Visayas, 75. See Visayan islands 
 Volcanic belt, 27, 28 
 Volcanic eruptions, 75 
 Volcanic origin, 27, 28 
 Volcanoes : influence, 20 ; number, 
 
 20 ; distribution, 34-38 
 Voting privilege, 
 
 AVar between United States and 
 Spain, 110, 111 
 
 Water buffaloes, 02, 105, 102 
 
 Water for drinking, 148, 149 
 
 Weatlier Bureau : seat of, 20 ; organ- 
 ized, 350, 357 
 
 Weaving, art of, early acquired, 01 
 
 Winds, 120, 130, 130, 137 
 
 Woman in economic affairs, 275 
 
 Wood carving, lUO, 283 
 
 Woods, 182 
 
 AVorcester, Dean C. : quoted, 144, 
 234 ; appointed member of second 
 Philippine Commission, 348 ; be- 
 comes head of the department of 
 the interior, 351 
 
 Wright, Luke E., 348, 351 
 
 Writing, early known, 01 
 
 Young Men's Christian Association, 
 225 
 
 Zambales : province, 20 ; range, 22 
 Zamboanga, 20, 237 ; normal school 
 at, 397 
 
 i
 
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