'-_ -z^ -r.tJ El^ ,.OFCAIIFO% viiaii-# ^ -< ■'UUJIIVJdU C7) CC \U-UNIVFR% ,^>,iOSANCflf_f,^ ■5E. < \^F-l'^HVFP,r,'-,, LU U U L il: wmmmm' and Sanchi. On several towers at the latter place a fourth step is added to the battlements as shown on the margin ; but both these features are so simple that they cannot Figs. 1-2. Towers from SAnchi be taken as worth any thing as tests. Two ashlers slant- ing towards each other, produce a triangular figure, and three ashlers of different sizes put one upon another, produce the other ; and children, playing with German toy bricks, produce them \\ithout any great effort of the inventive faculty. This remark would apply to the chevron and the cross- lined check mouldings, (Figs. 3 and 4) ; as also to the beading * The Satgarliha caves of Das'aratha have doors with sloping sides in the Egyptian style, but they are quite exceptional, and their counterparts have no- where else been met with in India. [ 13 ] round the necks of the As'oka's pillars, for no ornament sug- gests itself more readily than a band of beads round the neck. Fig. 3. Chevron moulding from Assyria. Fig. 4. Check moulding from Assyria. Fig. 5. Guilloche from Assyria. Fig. 6. Patera from Assyria. The interlacing circular moulding observable in Assyrian architecture (Fig. 5) occurs repeatedly on the temple of Bhu- vanes'vara, but the nature of the ornament is not such as to warrant any conclusion as to its origin. A wavy line is a figure which results almost instinctively when a pencil is at play in the hand of a boy, and another to interlace it requires but very little exertion of the imagination. Some of the pateras also are similar (Fig. 6) ; but the similitude is such as must result from the attempt of any primitive nation to deli- neate flowers by ranging four or more petals round a central dot. Certain it is that all these patterns may be seen very neatly carved on the hafts of hatchets from Polynesia where Assyrian art influence could not have been other than ;///. The drooping foliations of the capitals are more compli- cated ; and they certainly belong in common both to the As'oka and Assyrian pillars. To an Indian they appear very like the pendant filaments of the lotus after the petals have been removed from the receptacle, or the reverted petals of a lotus bud ; forms which are peculiar!}- ornamental and beau- tiful, and which have been employed in India as ornaments in a variety of ways, and in different places. It would not be safe, therefore, to take them as conclusive. [ 14 ] The so-called honey-suckle and lotus ornament, which is common both to the As'oka pillars and Assyria, might not, at first sight, appear to be so readily disposed off. With the people of this country the upright buds may well pass for spikenards, or flowers of the turmeric, or the spathes of the Nilakantha, a plant with beautiful deep purple flowers, and of the zingiber tribe quite common in India, and the open petaled flower with buds of the Muchukunda (Pterospermum acerifolium) ; the uprights are as unlike lotus buds or half- blown flowers as they well can be, and the intermediate buds with four dots not at all like honey-suckle buds. I take the open petals to be bunches of slender leaves tied together. But whatever they be, they are so peculiar that an imitation on the one side or the other may be readily assumed, and if this be assumed, the \\holc capital, and even the battlements and the mouldings, might be taken to be Assyrian, though logical- ly I cannot admit that the cumulative effect of a number of individually weak and scarcely tenable arguments, is conclu- sive by any means : the imposing chain of circumstantial evi- dence, which in sensational novels plays so exciting a part, invariably breaks down under the first stroke of the hammer of truth. But even admitting to the full extent their force, the similitudes do not by any means suffice to settle the date of Indian stone architecture — much less to affiliate it to the Grecians of Bactria. The relation of the I ndo- Aryans with Assyrians dates from a much earlier epoch than B. C. 250, and it is possible, though in the absence of proof not very probable, that the two nations did borrow from each other many elements and rc- (juircments of civilization ; but no deductions about the age of Indian architecture from the similitude of particular ornaments can be reasonable, or safe. Of course, if it could be establish- ed beyond a doubt that the I ndo- Aryans had no stone archi- tecture of their own down to a particular period, and that that period was later than the time when they came in contact with [ 15 ] the Assyrians, it could be argued that they had taken the art from the latter ; but in such a case it would be natural to expect that the early Indian style should bear a close resemblance to the Ass)'rian. It is to be regretted that sufficient materials are not at hand for a thorough comparison of the styles of the two na- tions ; but from what is available, it is clear that one of them is not a copy of the other. Most of the doors of Assyrian palaces and of some of their fortresses were rounded on the top ; but none were so in India. Indian upper roofs were mostly slant- ing, or curvilinear ; those of Assyria flat. The cornices of the two were alike, and supported on corbels ; but their styles were entirely different. The pilasters and pillars as seen at Khandagiri, and in the Sanchi bas-reliefs, are likewise, differ- ent from anything of the kind figured by Layard, Botta, or Fergusson. The verandas and balconies shown in Indian bas- reliefs have not their counterparts in Assyria ; and the point- ed horse-shoe pediments, which formerly surmounted Indian buildings, and were so peculiarly characteristic, are absent in Assyrian and Persian buildings. To make this clear I place on the next pages the figure of an Indian stronghold taken from the Sanchi bas-reliefs,* (Fig. 8.), beside one from Layard's Ninevehf (Fig. 7) and a glance at them will, we believe, de- monstrate that their styles are independent of each other ; at any rate their resemblances, whatever they are, are by no means such as to warrant the deduction of one of them being in any way related to the other. Plates 25, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, and 38, of the '' Tree and Serpent Worship," also offer very remark- able specimens of Indian buildings for comparison with the palaces of Khorsabad, Koyunjik, and Persepolis, as delineat- ed in Layard's illustrations of Nineveh buildings, and Mr. Fercrusson's woodcuts of ancient Persian palaces. * Tree and Serpent Worship, Plate XXXMII. t Layard's Nineveh, plate 66. [ i6 ] IIMZ] □ ri] Fig. 7. Fort from Assj-ria. The flying arch shown in the front of the Khorsabad Palace,* may be compared, and indeed bears a close resem- blance, to similar members of mediaeval Jain temples, but I cannot think that, on the strength of the similitude, anybody would venture to draw a definite conclusion regarding the genesis of Indian architecture. Nothing of this flying arch is noticeable in Indian buildings of the time of As'oka, and of his successors for two centuries. Under any circumstance the resemblances are by no means so close as to justify the sup- position that the Indian specimens are the handi-work of trans- Indian architects, entirely unaffected by other and indigenous influence ; for it would be absurd to suppose that the Assyrians in India erected edifices altogether after wooden models, while in their own country the public buildings were, to a large extent, of stone. If it be assumed that the architects were natives, who had learnt the principles of their art chiefly from Assyria, or Persia, or from a common source, it would be equal- ly strange that they should have perpetuated the construction of wooden models in India for centuries after they had seen better and more artistic designs with their tutors. A careful survey of these facts leads me to the inevitable conclusion that quarriers, masons, and sculptors existed in the * History of Architecture, I. 155, woodcut 60. [ r; ] Fig. 8. Stronghold from Sanchi. country long before the periods fixed by the learned author of the " History of Architecture," and by Mrs. Manning res- pectively, and that there likewise existed stone and brick edi- fices of some kind or other, and which, to judge from existing remains, were unlike any Greek, Egyptian, or Ass}'rian build- ing that I am acquainted with. For ought I know, there may have been a time when the Indians copied from the Assyrians, but it was at such a remote period in history that nothing precise can be said about it. It is to be regretted that specimens of architecture older than the date of As'oka are exceedingly rare ; but they are not altogether wanting. I have elsewhere shown* that the caves of Udayagiri date from the time of the Nandas, or be- fore the time of Alexander's invasion, and General Cunning- ham, than whom few can speak more authoritatively on the subject, assigned the Baithak of Jarasandha and the walls of 'Antiquities of Orissa," II. p. 28. [ i8 ] old Rajagriha to a time anterior to the 5th century before the Christian era. He says : — " To the Aryans belong the stone walls of old Rajagriha or Kusagarapura, the capital of Bimbisara, as well as the Jarasandha-ka-Baithak and the Baibhar and Sonbhandar caves, all of which date certainly as early as B. C. 500. " In the accompan}nng plate I have given a plan and view of the BaitJiak or throne of Jarasandha, as well as a plan and section of the Baibhar or Asura's cave. The identification of these two places has an important bearing on the history of Indian architecture. The cave itself is a rough excava- tion, which has been subsequently lined with a brick wall in the lower portion. But as the cave was undoubtedly the quarry from whence the stones for the BaitJiak of Jarasandha were derived, it follows that the BaitJiak itself must be as old as the cave ; that is, certainly coeval with Buddha in B. C. 500, and perhaps even older. Here, then, we have a specimen of an Indian stone building at least two hundred and fifty years older than As'oka. It is true that the stones are not dressed, but they are fitted together \\'ith great care and ingenuity, and the skill of the builder has been proved by the stability of his structure, which is still perfectly sound after the lapse of twent}--three centuries. " It may be urged that this rough stone building offers no proof that the ancient Hindus were acquainted with the art of stone-cutting. To this I reply by pointing to the other cave of Son-bhandar, which is entirely a chisel-cut chamber with a pointed arched roof, and a square-headed door and window. As this cave was in existence before the death of Buddha, it is of the same age as the other, which is a mere quarry hole, with a ledge of rock left overhead as a roofk I can also point to the stone walls of Girivraja itself, which arc still standing on the ridges of the surrounding hills. At the southern gate of the city, marked N in the plan, between [ 19 ] the two hills Sonagiri and Udayagiri, I found these walls 13 feet thick and in good order. As the city of Girivraja or old Rajagriha was built by Bimbisara, the contemporary of Buddha, we have another still existing example of Indian stone build- ing at least two hundred and fifty years older than the date of As'oka."* Should the dates of these relics be questioned, documen- tary evidence is not wanting to support the conclusion. In the Grammar of Panini, which was composed, according to Dr. Goldstucker, between the 9th and the i ith centuries before Christ,-f- we find the derivations given of such words as isJitaka (bricks), stanibJia (pillars), bhdskara (sculptors), rt'//(i///&(i (build- ings), &c., and they cannot but imply the existence of brick and stone buildings at the time and for some time previously. The ages of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata have not yet been satisfactorily settled ; but it is admitted on almost all hands, that those works existed long before the reign of As'oka, very probably from before the date of Buddha himself, and they abound in descriptions of temples, two-storeyed build- ings,balconies, porticos, triumphal arches, enclosing walls,flights of stone masonry steps in tanks, and a variety of other struc- tures all indicative of a flourishing architecture in the country. The great concourse of crowned heads which assembled at Indraprastha, on the occasion of Yudhisthira's royal feast, the Rcijasiiya, needed a great number of houses for its ac- commodation, and the poet thus describes the lodgings assign- ed to the guests: "O king, these and many other princes of the middle country (India proper) came to the great ceremonial, Rajasuya, of the sons of Pandu. By order of the virtuous monarch, to them were assigned dwellings replete with refresh- * ArchKological Survey Report, III. pp. 142-3. t Professor Max Miiller brings down the age of the grammar to the 6th cen- Uiry B. C, which of itself is at least three centuries anterior to the limit fixed by Mr. Fergiisson for the origin of Indian architecture. [ 20 ] ments of every kind, and having by them charming lakes, and ranges of ornamental plants. The son of Dharma welcomed them in due form. After the reception, the princes repaired to the several houses assigned for their accommodation. Those houses were lofty as the peaks of the Kailasa mountain, most charming in appearance, and provided with excellent furniture. They were surrounded on all sides by well-built high walls of a white colour. The windows were protected by golden lat- tices, and decorated with a profusion of jewellery. The stairs were easy of ascent ; the rooms were furnished with commodi- ous (///. large) seats, and clothing, and garlands ; and the whole was redolent with the perfume of the finest agallochum. The houses were white as the goose, bright as the moon, and look- ed most picturesque even from a distance of four miles. They were free from obstructions, provided with doors of uniform height, but of various quality, and inlaid with numerous metal ornaments, even as the peak of the Himalaya. The princes were refreshed by the very sight of those mansions."* * Tj^ "^J-^ ^ ^f g> TiT^T'fr ?t^^it^t: II ^^T-^fiT?^T:R-^r;5 ?T^fn;5 ^ozjiiTftrfTT^ ii ^^KDaTT^^^ciT^ ^f^Hf fs^>f^f^fn^ II 5^^T5Fr^fl^=^^T^TT^lJ3-^7rfa?^: II f^-«?TV5TT^ TTfTt^TIl^ij ^■^'T^T HHT^f^^n^ II Mahabharata, B. II. C. 34, As. Soc, Edition I. p. 354. [ 21 ] In the story of Nala, allusion is made to a lofty balcony from which men were seen from a great distance ; and in the Ramayana, the mischievous harridan, Manthara, looks out from an upper window of the palace to notice the rejoicings of the people in the street on the nomination of Rama to the Vice-kingship of Kos'ala. The description of the metropolis of Ayodhya is even more remarkable, and may be noticed as containing unmistakable proofs of the existence of stone, or brick, houses in Aryan India, at the time when that work was composed. It occurs in the 5th canto of the first book from which the following extract is taken. " On the banks of the Sarayu there was a great country named Kos'ala : it was happy and prosperous ; aud abounded in cattle, grain and riches. In that country was the renowned city of Ayodhya which had been of yore built by Manu, the lord of mankind. That great and magnificent city was twelve yojanas in length, and three in breadth, and included nine sub-divisions. Its principal gates, placed at proper intervals, were large and lofty, and its thoroughfares broad ; it was embellished with numer- ous highways, the dust on which was always allayed with showers of water. And there were crowds of merchants, and a profusion of jewels ; as also many large mansions, fortified places (durga), and pleasant gardens. It was surrounded by a deep and unassailable moat, and contained an immensity of arms of various kinds. Its arched gateway (torana) was provided with doors, and always guarded by numerous bodies of archers. The noble king, Das'aratha, who advanced the prosperity of the country, protected that city as his own, even This passage appears in Mr. Wheeler's History of India, (Vol. I. p. 165), in a very different garb, quite unlike what we meet with in the original. The word livasaiha "a house," is rendered by " a pavilion," which conveys the idea of a tent, or a temporary structure, and makes the whole description inconsistent, and at times absurd. In fact his extracts are generally taken from corrupt translations, and are not at all reliable. For purposes of critical enquiry they are utterly worthless. Vide Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal, for 1868, p. 44. [ 22 ] as Indra protects his capital. The high roads of the city were provided with strong gateways, and its market-places were well arranged and regularly disposed. There were in it lots of instruments, and arms, and numerous works of art. There were arms which could kill a hundred persons at a time (sata- ghui^ centicide, a primitive mitrailleuse, generally supposed to have been a kind of rocket,) and mighty clubs mounted with iron blades, and flags were flying over its triumphal gate- ways. There were also horses, and elephants, and war-chariots, and conveyances of various kinds. Ambassadors and travellers paced its streets, the sides of which were embellished by the wares of merchants and traders. The temples (devdyatajia) in this city were as resplendent as the sky. Its assembly-halls, gardens, and alms-houses (prapd. lit. where water is distribut- ed gratis) were most elegant ; and everywhere were arranged extensive buildings crowded with men and women, with learn- ed men, and seniors wise as the Devas. The houses were as mines of gems, and the abodes of the goddess of fortune. The steeples of the houses were as resplendent as the crests of mountains, and bore hundreds of pavilions, like the celes- tial palace of the chief among the Devas. The rooms were full of riches and corn, exquisitely gilt and decorated, and seemed as charming as pictures ; and they were so arranged that men could pass from one room to another without per- ceiving any inequality (in the floor), while the dulcet sound of enchanting music, proceeding from the mridanga, and the flute, and the vind, filled every place."* ■^ ^ira^ TT?T ^f^TT: ^^ oT^TTTt T=f r^ I ^^JTT 1TT^%silT "OT^ TTfJCf^rf^TTT II :t H ^T^TTTT ^^ ^ C "^ ITT^^lf^ T^TTTCt" I 'ft^TfTl- ?ftfm f^^m^ 5TW^TrfT II ^ II [ 23 ] The words torana " arched gateways," Jianuya " masonry houses," devdyatana " temples," sad/m " assembly haW," p'dsd da " palaces," s'ikJiara " steeples," and vi?ndna* " pavilions," in the above extract are noteworthy. None of them can consistent- ly be applied to huts and thatched houses, for which the poet invariably uses different words. Prurient fancy may extol and exaggerate, but it never suffices to create names of mate- rial objects which the fanciful have never seen or heard of ; — a Ruskin may amuse himself and his readers by building an -J t:t«it ^it?:^ 'tttt t'^t^t ti^^j-^'- i fft -^IC^ TTT'JT^UTT^ ^^^ ^^^TfT^ II ^ II ^TT-Rf^rSTT^V^^ 'TT^TflT^ni^Tf'^flT II i: II '^■'^^i:"2rw'iiT!iT* 'nTT^T^^jniT^t ii ^ ii %f TTTZIfT^^^ f^m^T>:^ "sftrHBT?? II ?o || ^T^^f?T^ TTsfl^t ITfTlH-TTfJTW f'^■^•. II n I' fg^TT^TiTfi^'ign^Tf^T'^^^T'RTrr^fi^?^ ii U ii ■^^^^Wt^T^t HW -JT^f^^lf^WT^ I nil I Riimdyana, B. I. C. W [ 24 ] imaginary palace in the air for the habitation of an imaginary queen of the air,* but his ideas are always of the earth, earthy, taken from material objects with which he is familiar. Mr. Wheeler has given a translation in his History of India of the passage quoted above, but, like the version of the Mahabharata above noticed, it is corrupt and quite un- reliable. Commenting on it, he says, " His (the Maharaja's) palace was magnificent and resplendent, but in describing the walls, the Brahmanical bard has indulged in a simile which furnishes a glimpse of the reality. They were so tall that the birds could not fly over them, and so strong that no beast could force its way through them. From this, it is evident that the walls could not have been made of brick or stone ; for in that case, the attempt of a beast to force his way through them would never have entered the mind of the bard. In all probability, the palace was surrounded by a hedge, which was sufficiently strong to keep out wild beasts, or stray cattle."-f' Unfortunately for this commentary, the text is entirely imagi- nary. I have examined five different editions of the Rama- yana, including those of Gorresio, and Carey, and eight MSS., but I have nowhere met with any passage that would give the idea of a tall wall, which the birds of the air could not fly over, or the beasts of the field could not force through. "Bees flying away from white lotuses, like brides from their hus- bands," "ducks and geese swimming in tanks," "brilliant king- fishers," "plantain trees round the tanks bending with the weight of the fruit, like reverential pupils bowing at the feet of their preceptors," and other objects prominently noticed by Mr. Wheeler, have likewise no place in the original ; and it is unnecessary, therefore, to refute the deductions that have been drawn from them. Probably the whole of the historian's extracts are taken from the Bengali version of Kirtivasa, writ- * The Queen of the Air, by John Ruskin, 1869. t The History of India, II. 8. [ 25 ] ten about three hundred years ago, and utterly unworthy of critical notice. Adverting to treasures, he says, "the treasures, which pro- bably contained the land revenue of rice and other grains, were placed for security within the enclosure," apparently disbelieving the possibility of any metallic wealth. The word in the original d/iana, however, leaves no option in the matter ; and seeing that in the time of the Rig Veda frequent mention was made of pieces of gold of a fixed weight and specific name. nisJika^ which were reckoned by hundreds, and present- ed to Brahmans and beggars on festive and other occasions ; that the nuptial present made to Sita, included "a whole measure of gold pieces and a vast quantity of the same precious metal in ingots ; " that " Das'aratha gave a full ayiita (ten thousand pieces) of gold, and a quantity of un- wrought gold to the value of an ayittcf ; and that descriptions are given of presents of from ten to twenty crores,-}- it would be a perversion of truth to assert that in the age of Das'aratha, there was no more convenient form of wealth accessible to Indian princes than corn, and that their treasuries were nothing better than granaries. It is scarcely likely that all these pro- ceeded from the imagination of poets, and had no substratum whatever of truth. At a much earlier age, Yaska, in his Nirukta (p. i8), * I, Kakshivat, "unhesitatingly, accepted a hundred nishkas, a hundred vigorous steeds, and a hundred bulls." Wilson's Rig Veda, II. 17. Again, "May he (the Raja) be rich in kine, in gold, in horses." According to Manu, a nishka was a weight of gold equal to four suvarnas (VII. 134). In the Amarakosha, it js put down at 108 suvarnas. That it was a -currency, if not coined money, admits of no doubt. In the Pcriplus, goods are said to have been exchanged for the native money, IrroTrtoi' vojUtcr/^a, and the Hindu gold coinage is termed '^'aATt?. Vaska, in his Nirukta (p. 13), quotes from the Vedas, eighteen different words, which convey the abstract idea of wealth, without naming grain, or cattle, or any other specific object. t Carey's Ramayana, II. 114. [ 26 ] quoted twenty-two different words from the Vedas, as the synonyms for houses, including several words which can be used for masonry houses only. At a still earlier age the authors of the Rig Veda hymns appear not to have been ignorant of stone forts, walled cities, stone houses, carved stones, and brick edifices. Cities (piira), as distinct from villages (grama), were well known, and chiefs have been described as owning a hundred cities.* Agni is invoked in one place to be a means of " protection for the posterity of his worshippers like unto the vast, spacious iron-walled cities of the Asuras."-|- In several other places he is called " the destroyer of cities." Indra is likewise " a des- troyer of cities.":|: He is said to have " quickl}' demolished the strongholds and seven-walled cities of Srukta and other Asu- ras."§ He overthrew ninety and nine cities of some Dasyu, and " occupied the hundredth as a place of abode." In one place he has ascribed to him the credit of demolishing "a hundred cities of stone for the pious Divodasa.|| Elsewhere he " demolished 90 cities for the same person,"ir and again " 99 cities."** He destroyed the "perennial cities" of the Asuras, and " humiliated their defenders ;"f f he " humbled the people suing for pardon, and destroyed their seven new cities,"j| as, also " the hostile and undivine cities of the Asuras," and broke down their " artificial defences."§§ Again he possessed " all the cities of the Asuras as a husband his wives."|||| Sarasvati is described " as firm as a city made of iron."irir Mitra and Varuna are invoked to grant "an unassailable dwelling that may be a secure shelter."*** Iron cities are also mentioned in * Wilson's Rig Vida, I. 147. t Ibid. IV. 5. J Ibid. II. 36. § Il)id. IV. 59. II Iljid. IV_ 30, 20. m Ibid. II. 34. "* Ibid. II. 256. tt Ibid. II. 38. Xt Ibid. II. 166. §§ Ibid. II. 168, 247. I'll Ibid. IV. 75. HIT Ibid. IV. 189. *** Ibid. IV. 12. [ V ] several other places,* figuratively, no doubt, to express great strength, but not without conveying an idea of the writer's knowledge of something more substantial than wattle and mud. In the first Mai/dala (S'ukta CXII. 7) Atri is described to have been " thrown into a machine room with a hundred doors where he was roasted. "f Vasis'htha, in a hymn to Paryanya, jongs to have " a three-storeyed dwelling" (tridJidtu Saranam).\ Dr. Muir notices the mention of cities which had a hundred enclosures or fortifications (satabhiiji) and is of opinion that, "although they arc alluded to as figurative expressions of the means of protection afforded by the gods, they no doubt sug- gest the idea of forts, consisting apparently of a series of con- centric walls, as actually existing in the country at the time."§ In the second Mandala, sovereigns are described "who, exer- cising no oppression, sit down in this substantial and elegant hall built with a thousand columns,"!! and dwellings wuth such halls are said to be " vast, comprehensive and thousand-door- ed."*r Commenting on these passages. Dr. Muir justly observes that " these are but exaggerated descriptions of a royal resi- dence, such as the poets had seen."** Pillars, spacious doors, and windows, though frequently mentioned, are not decisive intimations of the existence of masonry buildings ; but bricks could not possibly have originated unless required for such structures ; for it would be absurd to suppose that bricks were known and made, and yet they were never used in the con- struction of houses. Commenting on the state of civilization among the Hin- dus at the Vedic period, as apparent in the third volume of his translation of the Rig Veda Sanhita, the late Professor Wilson remarked : — * R, V. Mandala I. 58, 8, II. 20, 8, IV. 27, VII. 3, 7, VII. IS, 14, VII. 95, I, VIII. 89, 8, X. loi, 8. t Ibid. IV. 148. i Ibid. IV. 200. § Sanskrit Texts, V. 451. II Wilson's Rig Veda, II. 313. 11 Ibid. IV. 179. ** Sanskrit Te.xts, V. 455, [ 28 ] " Cities are repeatedly mentioned, and although, as the objects of Indra's hostility, they may be considered as cities in the clouds, the residences of the Asuras, yet the notion of such exaggerations of any class of beings could alone have been suggested by actual observations, and the idea of cities in heaven could have been derived only from familiarity with similar assemblages upon earth ; but, as above intimated, it is probable that by Asuras we are to understand, at least occa- sionally, the anti-vaidik people of India, and theirs were the cities destroyed. It is also to be observed, that the cities are destroyed on behalf or in defence of mortal princes, who could scarcely have beleaguered celestial towais, even with Indra's as- sistance. Indeed, in one instance (p. 173,) it is said that, hav- ing destroyed ninety and nine out of the hundred cities of the Asnra, Sambara, Indra left the hundredth habitable for his pro- tege Divodasa, a terrestrial monarch, to whom a metropolis in the firmanent would have been of questionable advantage. "That the cities of those days consisted, to a great ex- tent, of mud and mat hovels is very possible : they do so still ; Benares, Agra, Delhi, even Calcutta present numerous con- structions of the very humblest class ; but that they consisted of those exclusively, is contradicted in several places. In one passage (p. 180) the cities of Sambara that have been over- turned arc said to have consisted of stone ; in another (p. 470) the same cities are indicated by the appellative dehyah, the plastered, intimating the use of lime, mortar or stucco ; in another wc have specified a structure with a thousand columns, which, whether a palace or a temple, must have been some- thing very different from a cottage ; and again, (p. 288) sup- plication is put up for a large habitation which could not be intended for a hut : cities with buildings of some pretence must obviously have been no rarities to the authors of the hymns of the Rig Veda."* * Wilson's Rig Veda, III. p. XIV. I [ 29 ] To controvert these documentary proofs and arguments, the only fact of any moment that has yet been advanced is that Indian stone architecture in the first and second centuries before Christ shows evident signs of a transition from wood to stone, which could not have been the case had it existed and flourished from many centuries before it. It may at once be conceded that the caves of Behar and of the Western Ghats bear indications of their having been formed after wooden models. The same is, however, not the case with the excavations in Orissa. Were it otherwise, still the fact would not, I contend, necessarily imply that those caves indicate the first stage of transition from wood to stone. It is not to be denied that masonry houses must have followed huts and wooden struc- tures, and the peculiarities of the latter must necessarily, therefore, be traceable in the former ; but those peculiarities do not, by themselves, suffice to indicate the exact age when the transition from wood to stone first took place. There is a spirit of conservatism, a mannerism, or a survival of custom, in architectural ornamentation so strong that it preserves in- tact forms long after the lapse of the exigencies which first lead to their production. Many peculiarities in European architecture, even of this century, such as the Grecian triglyphs and mutules, avowedly the counterparts of wooden models, may be ascribed to this cause ; and in India such indications may be met with without number both in Hindu and in Muhammadan edifices of the last two centuries. In the fort at Agra may be seen, by the sides of the marble hall of the Divdn Khas, two small pavilions of white marble with curvi- linear roofs formed entirely after the model of thatched huts- They are repeated in the palace of Shah Jahan at Delhi, and likewise at Futtehpur Sikri, and other Muhammadan cities. Slightly modified, they may be seen also on the palace at Bharatpur, and on other Hindu buildings. Until the end of [ 30 ] the last century, a common form of temple for Kali in Bengal was a quadrangular oblong room with two sloping curvili- near roofs, with gable ends in exact imitation of the com- monest kind of hut known in the country. One of the kind still exists in Calcutta, close by the Nabaratna in Sobhabazar, and I have seen several at Chandernagar and elsewhere. Such structures bear the same name, bdngld, which is given to the huts of which they are counterparts, and in their details leave out nothing which can be easily imitated in brick, or stucco. Few, however, I fancy, would venture to appeal to them as evidences of a recent transition from wood to brick in Agra, Delhi, or Bengal. Mr. Fergusson is startled to find at Bijapur, some fifteen centuries after the Christian era, " a recurrence to the same principle. The balconies with their hoods, and the brackets which support these, are the principal ornaments in the four faces of this little monument" (Mehtari MaJial), " yet every part of their construction, every detail of their ornament, is evidently copied from a wooden original. We find the same balconies used at the present day ; and in any city between Benares and Boorhanpur similar objects might be found with almost identical details, but always constructed in wood. From the remains of Hindu temples we know that stone architecture did exist in the Deccan for centuries before Bejapoor was founded."* To account for this anomaly the learned author continues : " It is clear, however, that the Moslims could have had very little experience in building in stone when this work was undertaken, and as little knowledge of their own style as then practised at Agra and Delhi. They must also have been actuated by a wonderful aversion to anything savouring of Hinduism, when they designed a building so original as this, and one so manifestly unlike anything to be found in the country in which they had settled."f * Architecture at Bccjapoor, p. S7. t Loc. cit [ 31 ] Bearing in mind, however, that the Miish'm population of the south was formed of a miscellaneous collection of foreigners, — Pathans, Moghals, Abyssinians, and others, — the bulk proceeding from the north ; that everywhere these men adapted Hindu buildings and temples to serve as mosques ; and that the founder of the Bahminy dynasty, Allauddin Hussan, (1347 A. D.,) was a native of Delhi, who expelled the Emperor Muhammad Tughlak from Dowlatabad, where he had transferred the capital of the Pathan empire, it is difficult to believe they were so perfectly ignorant of stone architecture as to be under the necessity of copying from wood ; and still more difficult to suppose that those who built the largest dome on earth, between 1640 and 1660 A. D,, — larger even than that of St. Peter at Rome, — had, three reigns anteriorly, between 1550 and 1557, so little experience in building in stone, as to copy from wood, and that at a time when the intercourse be- tween the north and the south, was perfectly uninterrupted for considerably over three centuries. I believe survival of custom exerted a much more potent influence in such cases than ignorance. Adverting to the caves of Kennari, at Salsette, Mr. Fer- gusson observes : " Although the style begins in wood and ends in stone, it is not a little startling to find so little change either in the plan, or general disposition, of these caves, during the ten centuries through which we can certainly trace them,"* and to account for the peculiarity he adds, " The cave at Ken- nari, or the last at Ajunta, is practically identical with that at Karli, in so far as its general plan and design is concerned, and even the last retains so strongly a reminiscence of its wooden origin, that we have little reason to doubt, that the practice of erecting such halls in that perishable material was continued contemporaneously."-f- This solution of the diffi- culty, however, is by no means favourable to the position * Loc. cit + History of Architecture, II., p. 491. [ 32 ] assumed by the author, that architecture in India must have commenced after the invasion of Alexander, (250 B. C.,) be- cause all the earliest specimens show traces of their wooden origin. If those traces are visible in stone structures raised twelve centuries afterwards, and may be accounted for by the assumption of imitation from contemporaneous structures, the argument would lose little of its force when applied to the erections and excavations of the time of As'oka, and of his immediate successors. Wooden houses have existed at all times, and exist to this day ; but they afford no reason to suppose that races, who have known stone houses for a thou- sand years, in copying wooden features in stone, do so directly from wood, and not from stone which has preserved those fea- tures from generation to generation in a country, like India, where custom has exercised the most despotic sway, and held the mind of man in such abject slavery. The question may be here raised as to how far the ancient Aryans were indebted to the Tamulians for their knowledge of stone architecture ? On the one hand, the extracts from the Rig Veda given above, show clearly that the walled cities which excited the cupidity and envy of the Aryans, were mostly owned by the aboriginal Asuras ; and there is not quite as much said of lordly edifices constructed by the Aryans themselves. At a later date, Vyasa, in the Mahabharata ac- knowledges, that the great palace of Yudhisthira was built by a Danava, Maya by name, who had been overcome by Arjuna in battle ; and an admission like this, in a work designed exclusively to extol the greatness of the Aryan race, is of considerable importance. An abstract of a work by this Danava is still extant. Further, the remains of Tamulian architecture existing in the present day, are more voluminous, more extensive, and more elaborate than Aryan remains. And all these tend to show the superiority of the Tamulians in architecture, and the likelihood of their having been the first [ 33 ] teachers in the art to the Aryans. On the other hand, the oldest Indian specimens of the art are not Tamulian, but Buddhist ; and they do not bear a close family resemblance to the Tamulian specimens now available ; and the relative positions of the Aryans and the Tamulians in the scale of civili- zation were such as not by any means to warrant the assump- tion that the latter were the teachers and the former the taught, in so essential a civilizing art as architecture. The Rig Veda does not profess to treat of the comparative status of architecture among the Asuras and the Aryans, but to glorify the latter by showing how they overcame mighty ene- mies, — a feeling which has, even in modern times, very largely coloured the despatches of great commanders in the field of battle. The employment of Maya as an architect may be, likewise, due to a similar feeling, proving how complete was his subjugation. Besides all the mediaeval Tamulian temples are sanctuaries for divinities borrowed from the Hindus, and it is natural to suppose that the temples have followed the images from the same source, even as Nati\-e Christian Churches in India, in the present day, follow the order of architecture with which Christianity is associated by the proselytes, and prayers are held most appropriate under Saxon or Italian towers and steeples. On the whole, however, so little is known of ancient Tamulian art as distinct from Aryan, that no satis- factory conclusion can be arrived at under this head. But whatever the origin or the age of ancient Indian architecture, looking to it as a whole it appears perfectly self- evolved, self-contained, and independent of all extraneous ad- mixture. It has its peculiar rules, its proportions, its particular features, — all bearing impress of a style that has grown from within, — a style which expresses in itself what the people, for whom, and by whom, it was designed, thouglit, and felt, and meant, and not what was supplied to them by aliens in creed, colour and race. A few insignificant ornaments apart, its [ 34 ] merits and its defects are all its own, and the different forms it has assumed in different provinces are all modifications, or adaptations to local circumstances, of one primitive idea. It may, therefore, be treated by itself without reference to foreign art. Most of the oldest remains now accessible, are, as already stated, Buddhist, and they are all monumental in their charac- ter, either tumuli over the remains of the dead, or pillars and structures bearing royal mandates. As'oka is said to have built innumerable temples ; but only one unquestionably authentic remnant thereof is now to be met with. The caves of Khan- dagiri, which are likewise of Buddhist origin, afford examples of the style of dwellings common during the second and the third centuries before the Christian era, and probably for some time earlier ; but they include no structures that may be strict- ly called temples. The Bihar caves, however, which are of a somewhat later age, have halls with an apse at one end en- closing a chaitya, and designed expressly for public worship^ Some of the oldest caves of Western India improved upon this idea, and produced more ostentatious places for the pur- pose. Leaving them aside, and generalising upon structural temples, and temples only, we find the Buddha-gaya and the Nalanda Buddhist temples so closely similar to Hindu struc- tures of the same class that their style may be very strictly described as common to both the Hindus and the followers of S'akya on this side of the Nurbudda, and be appropriately designated, the Indo-Aryan, or Northern Indian. But as it took a wide range under the Buddhists, and assumed very diverse forms in different parts of India, as also in Burmah, Ceylon and Java, Mr. Fcrgusson has made two distinct classes of it, separating the purely Hindu forms of the class under the head of Northern Hindu, and leaving the rest as Buddhist. Both these classes have single chambers, surmounted with more or less sloping towers or steeples ; whereas the Tamulian tern- [ 35 ] pies are many-chambered and many-storeyed, the upper storeys gradually receding, till reduced to a single small chamber, which is surmounted with a domical structure. Thus' the lat- ter differ materially from the style familiar with the Northern Indian races, and form a separate class. It is, however, not unknown in Northern India, for both in Bengal and the Up- per Provinces, many examples of it under the name of Pan- cha-ratnn, N'ava-ratna* &c., may be met with, some of consi- derable age : there they appear as strictly Hindu — a variety, but still a variety, of Hindu structures, — and not Tamulian. The northern Hindu class of temples have several subordinate groups or orders, of which {a) the Orissan or Central Indian, {b) the Bengali, and {c) the Northern Indian, styles, are the most prominent. Examples of the first style are to be met with in the whole of Orissa, in Sambhalpur, in Chutia Nag- pur, in the eastern parts of Central India, and in the southern part of Bihar. The second style is confined within the limits of Bengal proper. The third takes the whole sweep of Nor- thern India, from Benares to Guzarat. The temples of Kash- mir constitute a class by themselves, being Indian in plan, but peculiar in their details and ornaments. Some of the later Northern Indian temples shew a considerable admixture of Saracenic elements in their composition, and these may be fitly included in a distinct order, the transitional, or mixed style. Thus we have — Class. Order. Northern Indian. I.— Buddhist, ^ Southern Indian. Singalese. Burmese. Javan. Nepalese. * One of the oldest, and most sumptuous of this class in Bengal is the temple of Kantanagar in Dinajpur. [ 36 ] IL— Jain. f I. Orlssan or Central Indian. 2. Bengali. III. — Northern Hindu,... ^ t.t .1 t j- 1 3. Northern Indian 1^4. Transitional or Indo-Saracenic. IV. — Southern Hindu or Tamulian. V. — Kashmi'rian. This classification of temples is no doubt tentative — purely provisional for the time, and adopted with a view to convenience, until a more reliable one is developed by further research. In drawing it out, I have directed my attention more to general outlines and plans, than to orna- ments and architectural details, for they have been so exten- sively interchanged, or used in common, that it would be relying on broken reeds to accept them as guides to classi- fication. Thus, for instance, the crucial capitals, which have been accepted by many as positively and unmistakably Buddhist occur alike on Buddhist, Hindu and Jain temples. Mould- ings, bands, brackets, cornices, niches, are also alike on Hindu and Buddhist fanes, and it is often difficult, if not impossible, to pronounce upon the character of a building in the absence of especial sectarian marks, or specially sectarian ornaments, such as the Buddhist rail and the like. It should be observed also that the classification here adopted is not recognised in old Sanskrit works on architec- ture. They all treat of the subject as one whole, without any reference to sects and nationalities. The treatise of Maya, the Danava, does not, in this respect, differ from that of \''is'vakarma, the architect of the gods. The differences of the two authors refer to details and modes of treatment, and uot to general principles, which are alike in all. For instance, the Mdnasara, an old and elaborate treatise on architecture, alludes to the peculiarities of Buddhist and Jain images, and the different modes of placing them in temples ; but [ 37 ] the rules of building and proportion are the same in it as in the Maya S'ilpa. It should be added, however, that when the different works whose names have already been met with are all discovered, and carefully examined, and compared with the detached notices which occur in the Puranas, the Tantras, and other works, the public will be in a better position than now to arrive at a positive opinion on the subject. Of works principally devoted to architec- ture. Ram Raz notices the following: viz., i, Manasara ; 2, Mayamata ; 3, Kas yapa ; 4, Vyaghanasa ; 5, Sakaladhikara ; 6, VisVakarmfya ; 7, Sanatkumara ; 8, Sarasvatyam. Of these different works he had considerable portions of the first four, and a few detached chapters of each of the rest. The Library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal contains a MS. of the first, but it does not correspond with the text of Ram Raz in any particular : it extends to forty-six chapters, while that of Ram Raz comprises fifty-eight, and the topics, though the same, are differently arranged. A manuscript received from Tanjore corresponds in the number of its chapters with the Asiatic Society's MS. ; but its chapters are shorter and very corrupt, and the topics are different. It differs from the others also in naming the work Manavasara instead of Manasara. Ram Raz's description of the second corresponds very closely with the Tanjore text, which bears the name of Maya S'ilpa, alias Maya-mata, alias Vastus'astra, alias Pritisthana Tantra. It is written in the Tantric st)'le, and evidently be- longs to a much later age than that of the Pandus for whom its reputed author, Maya,* built a palace, or that of Das'aratha * Dr. Weber surmises that Maya is the .Sanskrit form of Ptolemaios, the author of the Almagest. He writes the word Asiiraniaya ; in Sanskrit writings it often occurs in the form of Mayadanava ; but Asura and Daiiava are used as synonymous terms, both meaning a demon, a Titan, a giant, and therefore either term may be used at option as an epithet for Maya. Literally Maya may be accepted as the Sanskrit rendering of vtaios ; but it would leave the first two 91871 [ 38 ] for whom, according to Ram Raz, he is likewise said to have built a royal residence. The MS. is incomplete and corrupt. It is written in verse, and extends to nineteen hundred verses, divided into twenty-six chapters as follows : i, Architecture defined ; 2 — 3, Examination and purification of the grounds intended to be built upon ; 4, Measurement of land ; 5, Ascer- tainment of the points of the compass ; 6, Fixing of pegs to syllables, ptole, unaccounted for. Dr. Weber does not say in so many words that those syllables are represented by the epithet asicra, but he so uses the epi- thet along with Maya as to indicate that he means it. No recognised law of Phi- lology, however, will accept asura to be the Sanskrit equivalent of the Greek ptole. In the 13th As'oka edict, Ptolemaios appears as Turamdya, and the Mahabharata, if we take it to have been written after As'oka, should have adopted the same spelling. Claudius Ptolemy, the author of the Almagest, lived in the second century (140—160) A. D., and the date, therefore, of the Mahabharata has to be broucrht down to, at the least, three centuries after that ; so that an Ionian may be represented as a giant fighting with a Hindu prince, without causing any mis- giving in the minds of the readers of the narrative, as to its authenticity. But the Mahabharata, in the course of its hundred thousand verses, nowhere alludes to Buddhism or Buddha, and must therefore, and on other grounds not worth naming here, date from before the birth of S'akya ; or at least the 6th century B. C, and to bring it down to the middle of the fifth century of the Christian era, on the strength of Maya being similar in sound to the last two syllables of a Greek name, the first two syllables being overlooked, or represented by an epi- thet in direct opposition to all laws of Philology, would be to subvert all historical consistency. Nothing short of the intrepidity of a Wilford could accept such a major for an historical argument ; and I must confess my inability to appreciate the value of such a system of logic. Had the work of Maya as it originally existed been compared with the Almagest, or any other work on architecture by Ptolemy, and found to correspond, there would have been very good reason for accepting the surmise to be well founded ; but in the absence of such proof, it is futile to urge it as an argument. The Maya S'ilpa, as it now exists, treats of architecture solely as shown above, and the Almagest has "various problems of the ancients both in geometry and astronomy " for its subjects, and between the two there can be no comparison. Ptolemy also wrote a great work on geography, but that too cannot be compared with the Maya S'ilpa. He is said by Dr. Weber to have built some palaces, but nobody has yet asserted that he ever wrote any treatise on architecture. [I have been told that Mr. Wel)er has written a reply to this note in a Ger- man periodical, but I have not seen it. R. M. September 28, 1880.] [ 39 ] demarcate the spots for building ; 7, Offerings to gods ; 8—9, Measures for villages and rules for laying out towns and villages ; 10, Direction for laying out squares, octagons, &c. ; II, Laying the foundation of a house, and the ceremonies to be observed on the occasion; 12, Plinths; 13, Bases; 14, Pillars; 15, Stone work; 16, Joining and cementation; 17, Spires or tops of houses ; 18, One-storeyed houses ; 19, Two- storeyed houses ; 20— 21, Three, four, &c., storeyed houses; 22, Gopuras or gates ; 13, Mandapas ; 24, Out-offices, barns, treasuries, &c. ; 25, Open courts or choultrees ; 26, Linear measure. On the whole the work sticks pretty closely to architecture, and indulges very little in astrological vagaries, which prevail so greatly in the other works. Of the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th, and 8th works of Ram Raz's list I have as yet not been able to procure any exemplar. Ram Raz gives no detailed description of the 6th. I have seen three recensions of it. The first, from Tanjore is, like the Maya S'ilpa, written in the Tantric style, having S'iva, for its narrator. Its contents are: i. Origin of VisVakarma ; derivation of the words taksJiaka ( carpenter) vardhaki (sculp- tor), &c. 2. Height of man in the different ages of the world ; wood and stone for the formation of images. 3. Sacraments for sculptors and carpenters. 4. Halls for the consecration of S'iva and other gods. 5. Proportions of images of the planets and lingams. 6. Formation of cars. 7. Consecration of cars. 8. Forms of Brahmi, Mahes'- vari, and other goddesses. 9. Sacrificial or Brahmanical thread. 10. Sacrificial threads of gold, silver, and miinja fibre; the different sides where images of gods and goddesses are to be placed ; qualities of a kind of stone called Henias'ild or "golden stone," to be found to the south of the Meru moun- tain. II. Images of Indra, Mdhes'vari, and other gods and goddesses. 12-13. Crowns, crests, and other head orna- ments. 14. Movable and fixed thrones for images; crests [ 40 ] and other ornaments for the head ; repairs of temples. 1 5. Proportions of doors of temples for lingams. 16. Propor- tions of doors for other temples. 17. Temples for Vighnes'a. Most of these chapters appear imperfect and fragmentary, and the work is obviously incomplete. The second belongs to the Library of the late Raja Radha- kanta Deva. It bears the name of Vis'vakarma-prakas'a, and comprises thirteen chapters as follow : i. Introduction ; selec- tion of different kinds of land for building houses for Brah- mans, Kshatn'yas, &c. ii. Months appropriate for commenc- ing a building, the area whereof is to be regulated by the cubit of the owner, or that of his wife, or that of his son. iii. Astral influence on buildings, iv. Bedsteads, shoes, houses, roads, Mandapa and other objects, v. Offerings to certain gods. vi. Various kinds of houses, and making of bricks and other building materials, vii. Size of doors to be regulated by the planet which presided on the natal hour of the person who causes the house to be built, viii. Directions, for making houses, tanks, wells, &c. ix. Ditto for cutting down trees, x. Ditto for entering a new house, xi. Rules for building fortifications, xii. Removal of bones, &c. from the ground before building thereon, xiii. Characteristics of houses of different kinds, and their appurtenances. The third belongs to the Library of the Asiatic Society ( No. 629). In some places it bears the special title of Aparajita-prichchha, in others Jnana-ratnakosha. Like the preceding two, it is written in the Tantric style ; but the narra- tor, instead of being S'iva, is VisVakarma. It comprises thirty-five Sutras, some of which are evidently quotations from other works. It treats of architecture and sculpture, but in a \-cry desultory and imperfect wa}'. None of these works, however, has yet been analysed and reported upon, and there is so little before the public besides the details, meagre at best, in the essay of Ram Raz on Indian architecture, that [ 4T ] it would be quite unsafe to arrive at anything like a definite conclusion on the question. The Tanjore MSS. above refer- red to ha\'e been received through the kindness of Mr. A. C. Burnell of the Madras Civil Service, two* of the others I have obtained from Northern India. The South Indian treatises abound in Kanarese and Tamil words, and both the northern and the southern codices are full of technical terms, all but per- fectly unintelligible to me. The MSS. procured by Ram Raz were equally puzzling. Describing them he says : "Muti- lated as they invariably are in many important parts, almost every line of them is not only disfigured by gross errors, per- petuated by a succession of ignorant transcribers ; but the technical terms and memorial verses with which the whole abounds are so little understood either by the artists or the pandits of the present day, that it requires no ordinary ex- ertion to comprehend and explain the exact import of even a single section."-}- In Bengal there are no artists who have any knowledge of the subject, nor any Pandit who is acquaint- ed with more than the name of the S'ilpa S'astra, and, un- aided by practical knowledge, the subject would require a much deeper and a more thorough study than what I can at present afford, to ensure anything like a reliable and useful summary. A summary of the above remarks appeared in 1871, The remarks in full were first published in 1875. In 1878, I published a few further remarks which I here quote, with some slight additions by way of an appendix, to bring the discussion up to date. Mr. Fergusson is clearly of opinion that the art of sculp- ture and also that of stone-building were first introduced into India long after the invasion of Alexander the Great. He says : " It may create a feeling of disappointment in some minds when they are told that there is no stone architecture * S'ilpa S'astra, Vastuprach'pa. t Ram Raz's Architecture of the Hindus,— p. 3. [ 42 ] in India older than two-and-a-half centuries before the Chris- tian era ; but, on the other hand, it adds immensely to the clearness of what follows to be able to assert that India owes the introduction of the use of stone for architectural pur- poses, as she does that of Buddhism as a state religion, to the great As'oka, who reigned from B. C. 272 to 236."* Elsewhere he observes : " When we first meet the Buddhist style, it is in its infancy — a wooden st)'le painfully struggling into lithic forms." In one place he admits that " the Indian art in the mode of treatment is so original and so local that it is difficult to assign it any exact position in comparison with the arts of the western world. It certainly, as a sculp- tural art, is superior to that of Egypt, but is far inferior to the art as practised in Greece. The sculptures of Amra- vati are perhaps as near in scale of excellence to the contem- porary art of the Roman Empire under Constantino as to any other that could be named, or rather they should be compared with the sculptures of the early Italian renaissance as it culminated in the hands of Ghiberti and before the true limits between the provinces of sculpture and painting were properly understood. The case is somewhat different as regards the sculptures of Sanchi. These are ruder, but more vigorous. If they want the elegance of design at Amravati, they make up for it b}' a distinctness and raciness of expression which is wanting in those more refined com- positions. The truth seems to be that the Sanchi sculptures, like everything else there, betray the influence of the freedom derived from wood-carving, which, there can be little doubt, immediately preceded these examples, and formed the school in which they were produced. "-f- lie is nevertheless of opi- nion that "there can now be very little, if any, doubt but that this school of Indian art owes its origin to the influence of the Greek kingdom of Bactria," i.e., that which is so local Fergusson's Eastern Architecture, p. 47. f Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 97. [ 43 ] and so orii^inal ihal no comparison could be made of it with any art of the western world, is a mere copy of the western art, and that which was immediately copied from local wood- carving, was likewise at the same time a copy of Bactrian stone models. Again, " the knowledge that the architectural history of India commences B. C. 250, and that all the monu- ments now known to us arc Buddhist for at least five or six centuries after that time, are cardinal facts that cannot be too strongly insisted upon by those who wish to clear away a great deal of what has hitherto tended to render the subject obscure and unintelligible."* General Cunningham gives but a qualified and guarded assent to this opinion. He says : " I agree with Mr. Fergus- son in thinking that the Indians in all probability derived the art of sculpture from the Greeks. In the Punjab this would have been introduced as early as 300 B. C, and in a few years it would have found its way to the great capital of Pali- bothra. I speak now only of the sculptor's art, not of the mason's trade, for I do not suppose that building with stone was unknown to the Indians at the time of Alexander's in- vasion. On the contrary, I will show, in another portion of this report, not only that stone-buildings were in use before that time, but that some of these are still standing in the present day."-|- Adverting to the presence of mermaids in the Buddha-Gaya sculptures, he adds : " Their first appear- ance in the sculpture of As'oka's age is, in my opinion, a strong presumptive proof that the Indians derived the art of sculpture from the Greeks. It is a fact which receives fresh proofs every day that the art of sculpture, or certainly of good sculpture, appeared suddenl)- in India at the ver}' time that the Greeks were masters of the Kabul valley ; that it retained its superiority during the period of the half Greek rule of the Indo-Scythians ; and that it deteriorated more Tree and Serpent ^Yorbhip, p. 49. t Arch. Surv. Kcporl III, 97. [ 44 ] and more the further it receded from the Greek age, until its degradation culminated in the wooden inanities and bestial obscenities of the Brahmanical temples."* As regards architecture the reader has thus what are insist- ed upon with great earnestness by Mr. Fergusson as " cardinal facts" nev'er to be lost sight of summarily set aside by Gen- eral Cunningham, whose high scholarship, thorough know- ledge, personal experience of well-nigh half a century of almost every place of any archeeological interest in India, and official position as adviser of the Government of India on matters antiquarian, claim high respect for his opinion. And with such a marked difference of opinion on so fundamental a question in Indian archaeology among men who are the greatest experts in the matter, the public may well pause be- fore accepting either the one set of opinions, or the other. It might be added that, whatever may be the result of mo- dern reasoning on the subject, there are facts noticed in Greek history which cannot be easily set aside, and they all unquestion- ably prove that architecture of a considerably advanced kind existed in India at the time of Alexander the Great, or well- nigh three quarters of a century before the flourishing period of As'oka's reign. Alexander found in India more than one city furnished with walls and gates (Rooke's Arrian, Vol. II. pages 51-53-77). These walls were of bricks (pages 53-88), and strengthened at intervals by towers (pages 81-89). The city of Palibothra was found by Megasthenes " surrounded with a ditch which took up six acres of ground, and was 30 cubits deep ; and the walls were adorned with 570 towers and 64 gates" (page 222.) The wall was in existence when Hiouen Thsang visited Patna in the middle of the seventh century, and its remains are still in situ. " During the cold season of 1876, whilst digging a tank in Sheikh Mithia Ghari, a part of Patna almost equally distant from the Chauk (mar- * Arcli. .Suiv. Rc]>oit III. ji, loo. [ 45 ] kct-placc) and the railway-station, the excavators, at a depth of some 12 or 15 feet below the swampy surface, discovered the remains of a long brick-wall running from north-west to south-east. How far this wall extended beyond the limits of the excavation— probably more than a hundred yards — it is impossible to say. Not far from the wall, almost parallel to it, was found a line of palisades. The strong timber of which it was composed inclined slightly towards the wall. In one place there appeared to have been some sort of outlet ; for two wooden pillars, rising to a height of some 8 or 9 feet above what had evidently been the ancient level of the place, and between which no trace of palisades could be discovered, had all the appearance of door or gate posts."* Megasthenes distinctly refers to the palisades in his Fragment XXV. by the words C^'Xivov TreplBoXov. The passage in ^^•hich the words occur has been rendered by Mr. M'Crindle thus: "At the meeting of this river (Ganges) and another, is situated Palibothra, a city eighty stadia in length and fifteen in breadth. It is of the shape of a parallelogram, and is girded with a wooden wall, pierced with loopholes for the discharge of arrows,"-f- Rooke also uses the paraphrase " wooden wall." But looking to the relative positions occupied by the brick and the wooden walls the most idiomatic ren- dering appears to me to be palisade. Had the brick-wall been wanting, or had nowhere been referred to, I would have pre- ferred the word stockade. Anyhow, seeing that Megasthenes has used the woviX peribolon for brick walls, there is no reason to suppose that the zylinon peribolon of Fragment XXV. and pcribolon of Fragment XXVI. are intended to apply to the same structure. The former refers to a brick wall, and the latter to the palisade before it. In su})port of this view of the case I may observe that a palisade is a common military- contrivance in front of ramparts to the present day. * M'Crindle's 'Ancient India,' p. 207. t Ibid, p. 66. [ 46 ] Arrian in another place, quoting Megasthenes.says, — " The Indians allow no monuments to be raised in honor of the de- ceased, esteeming their good deeds sufficient to perpetuate their memory, for which reason they make odes and sing songs in praise of them. Their cities are so numerous as not to be easily reckoned. Those which are situate near the sea or any river arc built with wood ; for no buildings of brick would last long there, not only because of the violence of the rains, but also of the rivers which overflow their banks, and cause an annual inundation over all the flat country. But the cities ^\ hich are seated on any eminence are frequently built with brick and mortar."* When Mr. Fergusson brought out, in 1876, his " History of Indian and Eastern Architecture," my book, published a year before, was evidentl}' known to him ; for, adverting to the form of the Indian spires, he, in one place, says : — " In his work on the antiquities of Orissa, Babu Rajendralala Mitra suggests at page 31 something of this sort ; but if his diagram were all that is to be depended upon in favour of the hypo- thesis, I would feel inclined to reject it." (p. 47) But he did not make any reference to my objections to his conjecture about the origin of Indian architecture. He has, however, made an important concession. While persisting in the statement that Indian architecture before the time of As'oka was entirely of wood, he admits, " stone in those days seems to have been em- '■" Rooke's Arrian, Vol. II. p. 122. IIoAewi' Se (xat) apt^/^v oi'x tu'ai OA' drpexi'i avaypaxpai twi' tVStKwr, {'tto TrAvy^eo? aAAa yap ocrai Trapairo- Tap.uLL ai'Tftoi/ y TrapaSaAaorrtai, Ta'vras /xev ^cAtvas Troteecr^ai ov yap tivai e'x TrXii'dov Troieo/xfi'us 8tap-)(^€(TaL erri xpoyoi' toi' tc vSaros 'iv€)(^a. Tou e{ ovpavov )(^al on 01 irorap-ol avTolcriv oTrep^aAAovres virlp ra? o^- ^ttis, e/XTrtTrAarrt tov vSaroi ra VecSta. Megasthenes F.XXVI. (^uae vero in superioriljus ct suhliniiorilnis (fiuani inundalio) pra:ciinic vero nllis locis posilic sinl, ex latcrildis cl cacnicnlo facias esse. Sclnnicdcr's Tran->latiun, r 47 ] ploj'cd onl)' for the foundations of buildings, or in engineering works, such as city walls and gates, or bridges or embank- ments ; all else, as will appear from the sequel, were framed in carpentry."* Some of his arguments I have already referred to in my remarks on the supposed \\-ooden origin of the Buddhist rails.-f- The others appear to be of no great weight, and need not detain me here. The admission that the Indians did employ stone in building foundations of houses and in city- walls, gates, bridges, and embankments from long before As'oka's time, goes a great deal further than what its author wished it to go. It throws on the author the onus of proving that men, who could, and did, build stone walls, confined their talent to city-walls and embankments, but could not, or did not, extend it to the superstructure of their houses ; that having built a brick or stone foundation as high as the plinth, they encountered some obstacle, intel- lectual, material, or artistic, to push it higher, and bring it to the level of the ceiling until taught to surmount it by Greek adventurers or their half-caste descendants. The admission drives the reader to the inference that the men who, accor- ding to Megasthenes, had built walls 30 feet high, round Talibothra could not feel the advantage of having a masonry wall for their king's residence, or for the protection of his trea- sury. Such an inference is unjust to a nation whose inventive and intellectual faculties were second to those of no other race on earth, and which in the domain of philosophy attained an altitude which none has yet surpassed. The only proof the historian of architecture has yet attempted to adduce in support of his opinion is the appa- rent wooden character of the stone work now extant. But in many instances, as in the nail-head developing into a lotus,J the apparent similitude is more fanciful than real, and * History of Indian Architecture, p. 47. t Buddha-Gayd pp. I47f. J Loc. cit. [ 48 ] in others it is fully accounted for by that spirit of conser- vatism of the nation which led the good Abbe DuBois to des- cribe the habits and customs of the Indians to be as inde- lible as the spots on the skin of the leopard. In art this spirit of conservatism, or mannerism, or survival of custom, is as shown above (p. 29) peculiarly inveterate, and crops up even in the European architecture of the present day, and should not be held at all remarkable in the architecture of India twenty centuries ago. The question at issue is, whether those pecu- liarities, which are taken to be indications of direct copying from wooden models, are really so, or simply mannerisms of ancient date ? — and as yet nothing has been attempted to solve it. In history, as in other concerns of the world, it is infinitely better, on any given point regarding which sufficient data are wanting, to acknowledge the fact, than to conjure up hypotheses hedged in by flimsy pretences of " it seems," " it is probable," " it is very likely," which, when proceeding from men of high standing and undoubted talent, serve only to mislead the unwary public. Ancient Indian history, from its hazy charac- ter, has suffered particularly from hasty generalizations and ex cathedra assertions, and we cannot be too careful in guard- ing it against them. Since the date of the stone plinth and city, walls Mr. Fer- cfusson has made another concession. His latest remark on the subject occurs, in a speech delivered by him before a meeting of the Institute of British Architects ; it runs thus: " It is quite certain that the classical style with which it (Afghan style) is mixed never penetrated — except sporadically — be- yond the Indus. It was there met by a style with which we are perfectly familiar in the third centur)' before Christ and from that time onwards. It is perfectly Indian and original, and, if never carried westward out of India, it certainly never was imported. It was invented and perfected in India and spread eastward through the whole Indo-Chinese coun- [ 49 ] tries."* In so far the object with which the above remarks had been written has been completely attained. The position assumed by me that Indian Architecture was " self-evolved, and self-sustained" has been admitted without any qualification by the highest English authority on the subject — one who had entertained the strongest opinion against it, and the subject might have been fairly dropped. Mr. J. Burgess, Archaeo- logical Surveyor of Western India, has, however, put a commentary on the passage quoted which necessitates a few remarks. He says, " It is hardly worth while pointing out to your readers what Dr. Rajendralala himself fails to see. Mr. Fergusson holds that so far as we have any remains of early stone architecture in India, it dates from after B. C. 330 — the Macedonian invasion. He holds also that, though the Hindus of earlier days have left us no lithic remains, those of later times who have, do not seem to have copied the style of their works from Greeks or Bactrians, but like every race having truly living idea of art, invented and per- fected their own styles. These are two co-ordinate parts of a theory. Dr. Rajendralala, however, not only fails to see their consistency, but he seems to think the one distructive of the other. Now how can any one reason with an opponent who cannot understand that the Hindus of 300 years B. C. may have got the hint that buildings could be made in stone quite as well as wood, and, availing themselves of their lesson, they most naturally copied and adopted their own earlier wooden style to the new material. But we do not even say the Hindus had no stone buildings before the time of Alexander; we say, we know of none."-f- I feci pretty certain that this commentary has been written without the knowledge of Mr. Fergusson. I am disposed to believe also that he will not subscribe to it. Certain it is * Transactions of the Institute of British Architects. 1879. t Bombay Review, March, 31st 1S80, p. 214. [ 50 ] that in 1872, he repudiated the idea of dating the commence- ment of stone architecture in India from the time of Alex- ander (B. C. 328). He dates it from the time of As'oka B. C. 250. It is equally true that he, at one time, attributed the origin of Indian architecture to foreign influence. In support of this assertion I have to refer the reader to the numerous quo- tations given above. Two of them I shall here repeat by way of contrast. In his ' History of Architecture' (I. 171) he says, "THE Indians first learnt this art from the Bactrian Greeks," and in his 'Architecture of Bejapoor' (p. 87) he elabor- ated this by adding " we are not surprised to find wooden forms copied in stone in the early period of the Buddhists about the Christian era, because we know that NO STONE architecture existed in India till the Greeks taught them the use of the durable material." the reader has only to mark the contrast between "they did not copy the style of their works from Greeks and Bactrians ; " "they invented and perfected their own style," on the one hand, and they " first learnt the art from the Bactrian Greeks," and " the Greeks taught them the use of the durable material, " on the other, and he will easily perceive whether the contradic- tion is due to my obtuseness or perverseness, or to a change of front effected under cover of a shower of scornful remarks as unworthy of a gentleman in the position of Mr. Burgess, as of the subject on which he wrote. Doubtless the word "taught" in the extract might be appealed to as a help by the com- mentator, but it would subserve no useful end, for Mr. Fer- gusson, in the quotation given on page 46, admits that the Indians knew the use of stone, and did use it in the construction of walls, and plinths, and bridges before the time of Alexander, and his contention is limited to architecture proper as opposed to mere mechanical, or engineering, construction. The con- tention is based on the wooden theory, which, I believe, I have clearly shown to be untenable. II. PRINCIPLES OF INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. Shape of the original habitation of man. Oldest lithic monuments, rectangular. Indian temples, cubical. Module of Benares temples. Bengali temples. Orissan temples; their projections ; steeples ; upper chambers; plinths; pin- nacles ; porches ; dancing halls ; refectories ; court-yards ; entrance gates. Materials used in the construction of the temples, — laterite, sandstone, chlorite, granite, gneiss, bricks. Mode of building ; irregular, horizontal, and Cyclo- pean styles. Mortar ; clamps ; ghooting or kankar cement ; architraves ; beams ; wood. ONSIDERABLE differences of opinion exist as to the form which was first adopted by man for the formation of his dwellinsf. The models he had before him to work upon were natural caves or caverns, which were all more or less rounded, and deficient in sharp well-marked angles, and they led to the theory that the earliest habitations of the human race were circular in plan, and rounded in form. In support of this opinion, it is said that the dwellings of the ancient Gauls were circular huts built with wood, and lined with mud ; and the pile huts of Switzerland were of a similar nature.* On the other hand, nothing was likely to prove more troublesome to primitive builders than circular designs, and the earliest examples of dwellings still extant in America, Africa, and Oceania, are mostly rectangular, /. e., those houses which arc intended to be permanent and fixed, have straight sides, and rectangular corners, while those which are intended to be easily moved about, are more or less circular. Ascending * Lubbock thinks they were rectangular. Prehistoric Times, p. 126. [ 52 ] from wood, wattle and mud to bricks and stones, this view of the question appears to receive pecuHar confirmation ; for the oldest houses and temples were, with a few rare exceptions, straight-lined in their ground plan, and perpendicular for at least a part of their height. The oldest lithic monuments of human art still extant, are the Pyramids of Egypt, and their chambers bear out this opinion in every particular. They are all rectangular enclosures with upright walls. The temples of that country were also of the same character, and the palaces, of Assyria and Babylon did not anywhere depart from this rule. Some of the Pelasgic tombs in Greece enclosed circular chambers ; but as they were erected long after the time of the first ten dynasties of Manetho, and produced at a period when the art of building had been brought to a comparatively high state of improvement, they cannot controvert the theory re- garding the outline of the earliest buildings. It may be stat- ed, however, that while in buildings the circular form is difficult, in graves, it is the simplest, and most readily produced, nature helping in a few years to complete where the art of man fails to attain the object, and the transition from the circular to the rectangular plan, as in the Pyramids, implies a considerable advance in civilization and architectural ingenuity. As regards temples in Northern India, the rectangular plan was everywhere the most prevalent, Grouml-plans of temples. and it is difficult to notice an exception to the rule. At first sight the topes may appear to be different ; but if their character be carefully studied it will be found, that there was no departure from the rectangular design of temples. The Dchgopas of Burmah are mere local adaptations of the Indian tope, and none of them is of greater antiquity than the middle of the 6th century, A. D. ; and as they are funeral, or cinerary monuments, and not temples, they may be left altogether out of consideration. It is said that there are, in some parts of Bengal, temples designed for the observance [ 53 ] of the mystic rites enjoined in the Tantras, which are trian- gular in their ground-plan ; but as they are recent structures, designed for a sectarial purpose, they do not contradict the remark regarding the primitive form of Indian temples. Gen- erally speaking temples in Northern India are not only rec- tangular in plan, but cubical in the form of their body. From Orissa to the foot of the Himalaya, there is scarcely a single exception to this rule.* In the Agni Piirdna,-\ it is ordained, that the ground plan of every building should have four equal sides, and the J nd)ia-ratiia-prakds' a \ and the ]\Idnasdra sup- port the same opinion. Figures of Vishnu and some other divinities may be found located in oblong rooms, but such structures are nowhere reckoned as temples (niandirs). Again, in Southern India, the square chamber for temples appears to be the rule, and oblong cells the exception. At the same time I must add that in some of the largest temples I have measured, including the most ancient one at Buddha-Gaya, I have found a slight difference between the lateral and antro- posterior measures, amounting to about 2 to 6 inches in 20 feet or more. In the case of buildings other than temples, the ground- plan no doubt varied according to cir- G round -plans of houses. cumstances, and works on architecture describe a great number of forms. The Rdja-mdrtanda, an astrological work ascribed to Raja Bhoja of Dhar, enumerates sixteen different kinds as the most noteworthy. These are ; ist, * The chamber of the Jyesthes'vara temple on the Takht-i-SuIeman hill, in Kashmir, is circular, but its ground-plan is a square with the corners notched with three salient and four re-entering angles. Agni Puraiia, Ed. i!ib. Ind. p. 122. MS. As. Soc. J. R. r., fol, 51. [ 54 ] oblong, — A'yafa ; 2nd, square, — chaturasra ; ^rd, circular, — vj'itta ; /^th, oblong, with a rectangular court-yard in the mid- dle, very like the Roman compluvium, — bJiadrdsana ; $th, discus-shaped, i. e., circular with lunette projections, or wings, on the four sides, — chakt^a ; 6th, linear or long and narrow with two unequal wings, — visaniavdJm ; yth, triangular, — trikona ; Zth, cart-shaped, or quadrangular, with a long trian- gular projection on one side, — s'akatdkrita ; gth, staff-like, or long and narrow like a barrack, — danda ; lotk, quadrangular* with the opposite sides hollow-arched, or concave, like the mouth of the musical instrument called panava, — panavasafi- stJidna ; ii///, like the musical instrument called inuraja, (I know not what this is); I2//^, wide-fronted, — vriJianimikJia ; ilth, heart-shaped, like a palm-leaf fan, — vyajana ; 14///, circu- lar with five projections like a tortoise with its four projecting feet and head ; 15///, arched like a bow, — dhanuh ; \6th, horse- shoe-shaped like the winnowing fan, — surpa.* Of these the oblong with a rectangular court-yard in the middle was held in the highest estimation, and still continues the favourite, almost every Hindu dwelling house of any pretension in Ben- gal being built in that plan, whence bhadrdsana has become the ordinary name of a dwelling house in the present day ; and in the north-west it is very common. For comfort, con- venience, light, and ventilation, it is, perhaps, the best that could be designed in a warm climate, and it is worthy of note that European architects have of late adopted it in designing several public buildings in Bengal. This court-yard is the same with the Atrium of the Romans with its comphivuun and imphiznum, the cortile of the Italians, and the Patio of the Spaniards. Adverting to the last Mr. Digby Wyatt says : [ 55 ] "nothing can be more picturesque, or better suited to the ch'mate than these Patios, since owing to the deep arcades which sur- round the open court-yard (the cavedium) upon more storeys than one there is always some portion of the arcade in which shelter can be obtained from the sun or wind, and in which the occupants of the several apartments can sit and work, or lounge or smoke in abundant, but not unbearable, light and perfect comfort. This facility of outlet enables them, during the hour when the sun shines most fiercely, to keep the living and sleeping rooms dark and cool, and in exactly the state to make the midday meal and subsequent siesta truly luxurious and refreshing."* Replace the word Patio by Utlidna and the description would, word for word, apply to the Bengali court -yard of the better classes of houses. In the MricJicJiJia- katika, which dates from the first century before Christ, there is an account of a house of this description, which had suc- cessively eight court-yards.-f- In the Ain-i-Akbari the palace of Mukunda Deva, of Orissa, is said to have included nine such court-yards, and the Kaisarbag palace of the late king of Oudh included fourteen such court-yards.j And the gran- deur of a house is generally reckoned in almost every part of India in accordance with the number of court-yards it com- prises. The merits of these several kinds of houses are thus described in the Rdja-indrtanda : " The oblong insures success everywhere ; the square brings in money ; the circular promotes health and prosperity ; the rectangular with a court- yard fulfils all desires ; the lunetted-whcel causes poverty and the unequal-winged, bereavement ; the triangular makes the owner a king, and the cart-shaped leads to loss of wealth. Cattle die away if the plan be staff-like, and vision is lost by \\\Q. panava shape. The niiiraja shape causes the death of the * An Architect's Note-book in Spain, p. 4. t Wilson's Hindu Theatre, I, p. 82. % Antiquities of Orissa, II, p. 164. [ 56 ] owner's wife ; the wide-front, loss of wealth ; and the fan-shape, loss of situation. The tortoise leads to theft, so does the bow- shape ; while the horse-shoe form causes loss of wealth."* Regarding the nature of the ground on which the house is to be built, it is said ; " men prosper, if the ground slope to the east ; wealth is acquired, if the southern side be elevated, but it is lost if the west side slope down, and there is certain destruction if the north side be high."-|- As domestic archi- tecture, however, does not fall within the scope of this essay, it is not necessary to enquire into the subject further. According to the builders of Benares, the body of the Relative proportions temple is the module upon which the of Benares temples. j-gg^ of its parts are to be calculated. The length, breadth and height of the body should be the same, and its steeple. Surra, Sk. cliudd, should vary, according to the size of the temple and the number of pinnacles it is intended to bear, from i)i( and i}4 to 2 and 2}^ lengths.^ ?^ if^^ inf^ »T^T^^ If TTTWcTT (I '^^ ^Tfr^l^^^si ^^ f^^?T^T^% I SfS^f^ TTTT^ ^T^ TTTn% ^=^^^^: I ^^^ fig^^ ^T^^ ^B5n?rr ^^55^% n J Tlic head vi'tstri of the lilalu'irajt'i of Vizianagaram is iny principal autho- rity, anil I had his opinion tested by two other ]:iuildersat Benares. The practice is to divide the temple into three parts ; \st, the plinth or Jmrsi ; 2nd, the body ox janghi, including the cornice and the liase mouldings ; 3;'r/, the spire or cJii'idd, comprising base mouldings, spire proper, turrets, pinnacle, trident, and flagstaff. James Prinsep has noticed the same arrangement, but he does not give their relative proportions. Prinsep's Benares. Under the head of elevation of a Hindu Temple, Ram Raz, quoting Kasyapa, classifies all temples into five classes according to their respective heights. These are — \st, s'antika, " moderate"; [ 57 ] The plinth is to be one-ninth of the total length, /. e., one yard if the temple be nine yards high. The door in that case should be 7 feet 5 inches by 4 feet 9". In small-sized temples the door is generally one-fourth of the cube. The first mem- ber above the spire, is a thick square plate, named the Rdmarckhd, from certain denticulations on its edges, having some resemblance to the sectarial mark of the followers of Rama,— a common ornament Utr the upper edge of projecting stones. In a temple 9 yards in height, it should be 12 inches in depth. It is intended to cover the vent of the spire, and form the basement of the kalas'a, or crowning member of the spire. Above it is placed a small compressed ribbed dome, I 5 inches thick, the ainra, or auwas ild, so called from its re- semblance to the fruit of the emblic myrobalan. In \\\Q.Agni Pui'dna, and in the Mdnasdra, it is named Udunibara, and likened to the fruit of the Ficus gloincrata. It is surmounted by a ribbed conical construction called inord, and having very much the appearance of a ribbed, inverted funnel, or a lotus reversed, 9 inches long. It has been, by some, called an um- brella. Then follows, the WQck, gald, 2]^ inches, serving as the support of a rounded moulding, kangani^ 3 inches thick. A neck then follows and on it is placed a vase, or jar, named gagri, the counterpart of the Sanskrit kalas'a, a water jar. It should be 18 inches high. Upon it stands a second jar, 9 inches long, sometimes a third of a smaller size, which and, paushtika, "bulky;" yd, jayada, " triumphant ;" 4//;, adb/iuta, ''a.Cim.\x- a.h\Q-" 7i.r\(\ $tJi, Sarvakaina, " all-pleasing ;" the breadth of these five kinds of temples being divided into seven, si.x, five, four, and three parts, in due order ; ten, nine, eight, and seven of those parts are given to their respective heights, (.\rch. of the Hindus, p. 39). General Cunningham has reduced these propor- tions into the following tabular form. 1st Modest, height I'i breadth 2nd Bulky, 1 14 3r(l Triumphant, ,, I'.l 4th Wonderful, ,, i?/ ,, 5th All-pleasing ,, 2 ,, [ 58 ] supports the metal cap and the trident, or the discus, each of which should measure i8 inches in length. The steeple is generally slender, having straight sloping sides, but occasion- ally its outline is curvilinear. In its simplest form, the steeple rises from above the cornice without any basement ; but generally it has four little turrets or pinnacles, khii'kibhadras, on the four corners. In ornate forms the turrets are ranged in tiers, and their number is multiplied till, in the most elabor- ate specimens, there are as many as io8 of them, arranged in six tiers. No. 9, rrimitive Bennre.-, Temple. No. I o, Typical Benares Temple. Two specimens of this form of temples are shown above Various kinds of tern- (wOodcutS, Nos. 9. and lO). The first pies compared. (]S[o. 9) has bcen copied from an ori- ginal in the neighbourhood of Vis'ves'vara's temple at Benares. It is the simplest of its kind, and has a perfectly plain spire. The second (No. 10) has the surfaces of its walls [ 59 ] No. II, Typical Orissan Temple. and spire broken by slight projections, and its corners set off by partially attached turrets, but without any attempt at or- namentation. The most perfect specimens of this style are seen in the temples of Vis'ves'vara and Kedara at Benares.* If they be compared with the Orissan form as delineated in woodcut No. II, it will at once be perceived that the latter had supplied the model on which the former has been built, but that the builders have greatly improved upon the original plan. The thick heavy tower of the primitive design has been replaced by a slender steeple, the projections thereon by more or less attached turrets, the crowning ornaments reduced in bulk and improved in appearance, the walls of the body divested of heavy projections, and embellished with a number of delicate pilasters, and the whole set off on a well-raised and elegant plinth. All the improvements, additions and altera- Vide Prinsep's Illustrations of Benares. [ 60 ] No. i2,'ln(lo-Saracenic Temple. tions arc, however, strictly Indian and original, — nothing bor- rowed from people beyond the boundary of this country. In No. 12, the case is, however, entirely altered. In it the body of a pure Hindu edifice is embellished with foiled arches and decorated battlements in the true Saracenic st}'-le, and capped with a ribbed dome of the same order, — a combination which destroys the peculiarities of both, and results in a hybrid en- tirely devoid of majesty, elegance and beauty. Specimens of this mixed, or transitional, style of construction may be found in Benares, Allahabad, Mathura, and in the Western Presi- dency gencrall}'. [ 6i ] No. 13, represents a s p e c i - Henirali Temple. ^ ^ ' men of the Bengali style, where the cubical body of a northern temple is covered over by four curvilinear sloping roofs in exact imitation of thatch, and the point of junction at the centre surmounted by a minia- ture representation of the ori- ginal construction. This struc- No. 13, Bengali Temple. ture has no distinct cornice, its place being supplied by the arched ends of the projecting roofs under which ornamentations are produced with great care to represent the ends of the frame-work of the thatch. This style is distinct from that of Benares on the one side, and of Orissa on the other ; hence it is, that it has become necessary to divide into three groups the style which Mr. Fergusson has included under one name. The Orissan temple in its simplest form is a cube, rising Shape of Orissan tem- ^^m the ground without a plinth, and i'''^*- its tower is the result of four battered walls gradually approaching each other to supply the place of a roof, the top — a frustum — being closed in with a thick .slab, which in the Benares, or the Jain, style, is repre- sented b}' the Ramrekha. Such a cliamber dedicated to an image can require but one doorwa)-, and the first idea of or- namentation would be suggested by the necessity of a drip- stone, or hood-mould, or weather-moulding, over it to throw off rain. To render this moulding effectual, its projection should be considerable, and to support it, two pilasters become absolutely necessary. These produce the most primitive porch, and a great number of such structures may be seen in every [ 62 ] No. 14. part of Orissa and Central India. From pilasters to pillars, the transition is easy enough, but it has not been frequent, the great majority of temples having pilasters, and not pillars. The foun- dation of these pilasters causes the first break in the square ground-plan of the earliest temples. [Vide woodcut. No. 14.] A' priori, one may suppose that poverty of invention, or more probably a love for symmetry, would lead to a re- petition of the projec- ^'o- 15 tion on all the four sides of the temple-chamber, and this is exactly what is met with in the simpler forms of this class — a square outline with four projections as shewn on the margin : (woodcut No. 1 5.) The projections in such cases are not deep, and the pillars, when employed, occur only on the side of the en- trance. The proportion of the projection to the entire length of the temple varies from i to 3 to 2 to 5. The depth of the projections varies even more largely ; indeed it is doubtful if there ever was any fixed rule on the Subject. When the architectural advantage of these projections was once perceived, and the nakedness of large walls had to be covered, they were re- peated two, three or four times, as is to be seen in the temples of Rajaranf, Kapiles'- vara, Rames'vara, &c., &c. (woodcut No. 16). The next step towards improvement, was the development of these projections into di.stinct pilasters, such as are to be seen on \\\z temple of Ananta-Vasudeva at Bhuvanes'vara. The three-fold projec- tion of each side is there converted into seven pilasters by slight intermediate breaks, and the artistic effect is thereby very much heightened. On the great tower of lihuvancs'vara [ 63 ] and other large structures, the same arrangement has been carried out to great advantage. When these projections are particularly deep, and the intermediate spaces wide, they as- sume the character of buttresses, which add considerably both to the mechanical strength and the beauty of the buildings by an agreeable play of light and shade. But whether deep and wide, or flat and narrow, they are always carried on along the whole length of the structure to the top of the spire, and when divided into pilasters of low relief, they give a ribbed, or fluted, appearance to the whole. On richly ornamented temples they are, on the steeple, carved into strings of small models of temples in some relief, so as to obviate the aesthetic defect of slender pilasters of greath length. On the body of the building, the same object is attained by opening two or three tiers of niches for the reception of statues, or bas-reliefs. At Benares, the projections under notice are either omitted or shaped into pilasters, and the little models are more or less detached from the spire so as to produce distinct chaplets or pinnacles, which greatly improve the appearance of the building. In Jain temples, these pinnacles are completely detached so as to con\-ert them into little pavilions. In Bengal they are altogether wanting. Ignorant of the principles of the true arch, the architects of Orissa found the greatest difficulty Tower. \n co\-ermg large areas with a sub- stantial roofing. The Jain plan of triangular blocks cutting off the corners of the original square, and b)' two or three repetitions reducing No. 17. considerably its size, so as ultimately to be fit to be covered by a single block of a moderate size, (woodcut No. 17,) was not sufficient for them, and single slabs could seldom be found of sufficient length and breadth, and so free from de- fect, as to suffice for temples of the size of the Great Tower of Bhuvanes'vara. Their only resource was, therefore, the hori- [ 64 ] zontal arch of parallel projecting courses of stone in flat layers, or corbelling, which they could carry out to any extent they chose (woodcut No. 1 8). As they always built with stone, and that material was nowhere scarce, the great thick- ness required in thesupporting walls to resist the weight and thrusts of a large mass of superstructure was to them, a matter of no considera- tion, and the great height to which they had to carry their towers to close large areas by very gradual projections, served only to height- en the grandeur and majesty of their sacred piles. The edges of the projecting stones, both within and without, were so cut off, as to produce an even outline ; but some- times the inner edges were decorated with mouldings, or left untouched, giving to the ceiling the appearance of a flight of steps reversed. The plain of building adopted, was the simp- lest, and at the same time the most effectual. In the middle of the /th century when the Great Tower of Bhuvanes'vara was erected, the builders had acquired suffi- cient proficiency in balancing their materials in a projecting arch to avoid the necessity of lofty towers, and }'ct the artistic effect of the tower being highly prized, they generally utilised the space within it by dividing it into two or three storeys; the rooms being used for the deposit of jewelery and other valu- able treasures of the temple ; scr\-ing thus the same purpose which the opisthodomus did in Grecian sanctuaries. The chambers are never accessible to outsiders, but I noticed that they were sometimes lighted, and ventilated by small openings Xo. 1 8, Section of an Orissan Temple. [ 65 ] in the spire. The stairs arc enclosed within one of the walls ol the temple, and reached through the sanctuary itself. It is said by the priests at BhuvanesVara, that about a hundred years ago, a man had ascended with a lamp in hand to the upper storey of the Great Tower, but through the displeasure of the presiding divinity, he was suffocated to death before he could attempt to retrace his steps, and that, ever since, nobody had attempted to explore that much dreaded chamber. The tower of the great temple at Puri, has, likewise, some rooms within it, but they too are not in use now. These facts suggest the idea, that the openings for light and air are inefficient, and the mephtic vapours which have accumulated within, render them unapproachable. In the temple at Buddha Gaya, there are two moderate-sized windows to give light to the upper chambers. In plain temples, the plinth is, as already stated, generally wanting, and the body of the edifice rises from the surface of the ground with which the floor is flush. But in elaborate structures there is gener- ally a basement or platform of some pretension, varying in height from two to five or six feet, and diversified by a variety of bands and mouldings, or broken in their outline by pro- jecting pedestals of various shapes. The pinnacle includes most of the elements of the Benares Kalas'a, but their relative proportions Pinnacle. . , .„ , are entirely dmerent. 1 he square plate rdmarekhd on the top of the steeple, is small in size, and of slight thickness, having more the appearance of the plinth of a pillar, held very much within the flattened top of the steeple, than of a massive covering for the head, projecting consider- ably beyond its area. It is, besides, invariably plain, and has none of the denticulations which give it its peculiar name. Above it, a narrow neck of low height supports the am/as' ild, which, instead of being of the small size and insignificant appearance common at Benares, assumes the proportions of [ ^e ] a regular dome. It is invariably solid, compresed, and ribbed, having the appearance of a gigantic melon, the height being about half the horizontal diameter. In building it, eight stones are generally used, four above and four below ; but in small edifices one or two stones suffice for its construction : sometimes a great many stones are used, as shown in the section given above (p. 64). For the support of its projecting edge, four caryatides, or lions-couchant, or ugly dwarfs, are commonly employed, and they face the four sides of the body of the temple. The dome is surmounted successively by the mora and the kangni^ as at Benares, and there- upon is placed the kalas'a or jar, but its shape is remarkable, — quite different from that of the ordi- nary Indian pitcher of the present day. After a careful examination of several scores of specimens at BhuvansVara, Puri and the Behar district, I can compare it with nothing so close as a Grecian amphora. The body, the neck, and the oramentation of this vessel, appear to be pretty near copies of European models, and yet its presence on edifices, which have nothing else that could bear the most distant resemblance to foreign archetypes, precludes the idea of the model of these jars having been imported from Greece, or Italy. The intercourse which formerly existed between the nations of the East and the West, could easily account for the importation of amphorae and other Grecian vessels to India ; but it is impossible to suppose that sacerdotal bigotry would so far yield to aesthetic considerations, as to permit a foreign wine- cup to crown the spires of its holiest temples. I am disposed, therefore, to attribute it to an effort to improve upon the ordinary water jar of the period, resulting in an ornamented specimen of the ancient ghard. A well-filled pitcher, on the top of a thatched roof is an important measure of precaution, which the people of this country seldom forget, and that it should be reproduced in stone as an ornament among a pco- [ 67 ] pic, the most conservative of conservatives, is by no means extraordinary ; and that in its transit from earth to stone, it should be improved and embellished is but natural, and a mat- ter of course. In Orissa, the jar is never repeated, but in the North-Wcstcrn Provinces, where the people carry on their heads two, three and sometimes four pots of different sizes, the kalas'a is repeated two or three times on their temples. The Orissan name for this temple is dezvul Sanskrit viindna. It occupies the place of the European naos, cella, adytum, oZvTov, or sanctuary, being the abode of the visible representa- tive of the Godhead. It has an edos on the side opposite the entrance, on which the image or images are seated. In all well-ordered fanes this raised platform, or throne, is made of stone, and finished with great care; but in poor and more recent temples it is replaced by a wooden chair. In S'ivite temples, it is entirely wanting, and the image is placed in the centre of the floor. Allusion has already been made to the porch in its simplest form, consisting of two pilasters sustain- Porch. . . . , 1 1 • -n>i mg a projectmg weather-mouldmg. 1 he transitions from pilasters to detached pillars, and from a simple moulding to an architrave and cornice, appear to have taken place at an early date ; for this arrangement is observable in some of the oldest and least pretending edifices. Occasionally, but rarely, the pillars were placed in a recess made for the pur- pose in the wall, and it gave to the front somewhat the appear- ance of what in Grecian temples is called in antis evTrapaa-TdSi. In the North-Western Provinces two additional columns were soon added, which, with a pyramidal roof, produced a detached pavilion, or kiosk, in front ; and this has since been great- ly improved, particularly in Jain temples, by multiplying the columns and extending the area of the building. But in Orissa the change did not sort with the massive character of the larger temples, nor suit the requirements of the priests, [ 6S ] who, probably, thought the Hght admitted into the sanctuary through its single door too much for the mystic character of their rituals, and the generally unattractive appearance of the idols. A walled building was, therefore, preferred to an open, columnar, or arcaded, one ; and for the sake of variety, and to mark the distinction between the temple and its porch, its top was closed with a pyramidal roof instead of a steeple. The Orissan name for this structure is JagamoJian, " the fasci- nator of the world," or the ' audience chamber,' for it is from this place that the public are allowed to behold the divinity within. It may be compared to the prodronms or pronaos of ancient, and the vestibule of mediaeval, European temples. According to Kasyapa, it is the Antardla or ante-temple.* The ground-plan of this structure is generally, though not invariably, a square, and its walls are diversified with the same kind of projections as those of the temple itself. At first sight it would appear to differ from the temple in having four doors instead of one ; but as frequently, two of them, those on the flanks, are closed either by mullion bars, or lattice work, and the third is brought in contact with the entrance to the temple, there is virtually only one entrance to it.-|- But it differs from the temple in height, in the form of its roof, and in having, in structures of large dimensions, four or more pillars arranged in two rows, which divide its floor into a nave and two aisles, or make it a distyle hall. Its height is fully one-third less than that of the temple. The plinth is invariably of the same height, the walls to the cornice gener- ally correspond, but the pyramidal roof is entirely different, and so are the decorations on the walls. The roof is a repeti- tion of the cube of the body with the sides and top cut off * Ram Raz's Architecture of the Hindus, p. 49. ' t At Konarak, all the four entrances are left open, and embellished with large figures of horses, lions and elephants. Some of the minor porches, such as that of Purasurames'vara's temple at Bhuvanes'vara, have two or three doors on each side, and their ground-plans are oblong. [ 69 ] to produce its peculiar shape. This is, however, not invariably the case : in two or three instances the sloping roof after beings carried to some height is broken by a regular clear- story with windows opening all round at short intervals to admit light. The truncated top of the pyramid, where the pyramidal form is adopted, is surmounted by a domical struc- ture of which the most prominent members are the same as on the temple, vi.':;., the amla fruit, and the reversed lotus ; but they are repeated, the lower globe very much compressed, and the lotus elongated into an umbrella crown. The upper members remain untouched. The kalas'a is a repetition of what occurs on the temple. The constructive peculiarity of the roof will be best un- derstood by a reference to the plates annexed to my Antiqui- ties of Orissa. On the outside it is formed of courses of re- ceding stones, broken at intervals by projecting ledges so placed as to balance the materials, and throw the weight of the roof on the sustaining walls. These ledges are arrang- ed into one, two, or three groups, according to the size of the building, each comprehending, four tiers. Sometimes, the ledges are wanting as shewn in the woodcut No. 19. The outer borders of the ledges, where they exist, are richly ornamented with floral bands, or groups of animals in low relief The inner face, or ceiling, is built on the same prin- ciple, but it is not of a piece with the outer face. It is formed of three independent series of parallel projecting courses with the tops closed in by single slabs, or spanned by iron beams, and covered over by several flags of stone. Probably the ceilings were built first, and the outer structure afterwards and independently of it, for the ceilings have dropped down in several ruined porches, leaving the outer shell entire. In small porches, where no pillars are used, triangular slabs placed in the corners, sufficed to support the pyramidal superstructure. [ 70 ] Natmandir. Originally, nothing further was needed to complete a temple, but in course of time two other buildings were added in a line with the porch. The first was called the Ndtinnndir or "the dancing hall," Sanskrit Mandapa,^' and in front of it, (2nd), the BJiogauiandir ox "refectory"; and all large establish- ments now include this four-fold arrangement. The Natmandir, as its name implies, is a festive hall, large, spacious, and open on all sides, corresponding with the chanltry, or "mar- riage hall " of Southern India, except that the sides are not arcaded, but provided with doors, three to four on each side. Its ground plan, unlike that of the temple and the porch, is ob- long, and it is con- nected with the porch behind, and with the refectory in front. Its roof, like that of the porch, is support- ed on pillars, and constructed on exactly the same principle ; but the peculiar projecting ledges and the pinnacle are want- ing, and its slope is less. The walls are devoid of sculptures, and not quite so high as those of the porch. Woodcut No. 19 represents the roof of the dancing hall of the Great Tower at Bhuvanes'vara. The refectory is a square room having only two doors, one opening into the dancing hall, and the other in front. Its pyramidal roof gener- ally, though not invariably, corresponds with that of the porch, and its walls are profusely ornamented with a variety of floral scrolls and mouldings. It is, however, lower than the dancing hall, which on its part is lower than the porch Bhogamandir. Ram Raz writes, Mantapa, but that is not Sanskrit. [ 71 ] and is, in ever)- instance that I have noticed, a subsequent addition, and not synchronous with the temple. This fourfold building is generally surrounded by a high wall, enclosing a large area of ground Enclosing Wall. i • u r i i. • r- • ^ i which forms what was m Grecian temples called Upov or re/vero?, " the sacred enclosure," which included all the appurtenances of the sanctuary : sometimes a second wall was built round the first, producing two court-yards, an inner and an outer one. The walls, which may be likened to the 77£/)(/io/\o9 or sacred fence of the Greeks, were invariably plain, both inside and outside, in marked contrast to Buddhist railings which are most elaborately sculptured. At Bhuvanes'- vara the wall is capped with a simple coping, sloped on the upper surface, and having a projecting drip to prevent the wet from running down the surface of the wall ; but at Puri and Konarak, they are ornamented with Saracenic battlements. Originally the enclosure contained nothing beyond the main temple and the necessary out-offices, kitchen, &c. ; but the sanctity which attaches to such establishments, induced people to avail themselves of every opportunity of dedicating temples erected within the sacred area, and the result is, that the court-yards, as now found, are filled with a large number of fanes of various sizes and diverse pretensions, so crowded together as seriously to mar the beauty of the main buildings. All the principal temples face the East, so that the image of the deity within may face the risinef Direction. , ^ , , , . god of day, the natural visible emblem of the invisible Godhead. A similar feeling in Greece led, accord- ing to Vitruvius, to the entrance to the temples being turned towards the West, so that those who came to worship might behold the statues of the gods towards the East ; but it has also resulted in all its principal temples on the Acropolis and those in Attica, Ionia and Sicily, as also those consecrated to the goddess Athene — the Helenic Dawn, or Usha, — having [ 72 ] an easterly direction, and it may fairly be asked if such an idea has had anything to do with the orientation of many Christian churches ? It is worthy of remark that Burmese palaces are always so built as to face the East. The word Jhc in Burmese means both east and front,* and many of the chief Buddhist and Jain fanes also face the East ; but the principle which guided their position is unknown. In the case of minor shrines of the Hindus, this rule has not been very strictly observed, and many fanes may be seen that have fronts towards the West, South, or North. It is necessary to note here, with a view to prevent mis- apprehension, that the Chandivmndapas, or chapels in private dwellings in Bengal, face either the South, or the West, never the East, nor the North, and the priest when engaged in wor- ship, invariably sits with his face towards the East, facing the image of the god, when the chapel is turned towards the West, and having the image on his left side when its direction is towards the South, this is, however, not in accordance with the rules of the S'astra. According to the Kdlikd Purdna " the side sacred to Kuvera (North) is the most gratifying to S'iva ; therefore, seated with the face directed to that side, should Chandika be always worshipped." Digvibhdgetu kauvcn'dik sh'dpriti ddyini tatlid taiunukha dsiiia pujayecJicliandikdin sadd. At Puri and Bhuvanes'vara, with temples facing the East, the priests, I observed, were seated with their faces towards the South. This too is not consistent with the ordinances of the S'astra, for the Rudra-ydniala Tantra prohibits the East for S'ambhu, and the West and the North for S'akti. Na prdcJd- maghratha sanibhor nodicJiiin saktiniastJiitani na pratichlni yataJi prisJithauiatodakshar,i saiiids rayet. How the priest sits when a temple faces the North, I have never noticed. When people sit to repeat their sandh)'a prayers, they turn towards the East, if the worshippers be Vaishnavas, and towards the * Yule's Mission to Ava, p. 97. [ 73 ] North if they be S aktas. The followers of S'iva and Ganes'a prefer the North. This likewise is abitrary, and unsupported by the S'astra. The general rule, according to Vishnu, is that the worshipper may sit with his face towards the North or the East at his option. Prdnniiiko udaflnmkho vd npavisJito dJiydni dcvatdJi pi'ijayet. Vachaspati Mis'ra quotes an authority which improves upon this, and recommends the East for morning prayer, the West for evening prayer, and the North for prayer at night. P rdkpas cJiiniodagdsyat tii sdydni-prdtar-nis dsii cha. They never, however, have departed from one of the cardinal points of the compass, which was, according to the S'ilpa- S'astra, invariably ascertained with a gnomon before a building was commenced. The mode of ascertaining the sides with some precision, is thus described by Ram Raz : " On a smooth level piece of ground is erected a gnomon, which according to some ' should be sixteen angulas in height, and of the same diameter at the bottom ; the whole should be shaped like the leaf of an opening bud, tapering gradually from the bottom to the top.' Around this a circle is drawn with a cord of twice the height of the gnomon, by fixing one end of it to its base, and carrying the other round it. Points are marked in the circumference where the shadow of the gnomon projects, both in the forenoon and afternoon, that is, at any given hour after sunrise, and at the same time before sunset ; and between these points a right line is drawn so as to join them ; the point marked by the morning shadow will show the East, and that marked by the evening shadow the West. Then from each of these two points, and wath a radius equal to the distance between them, describe two more circles cutting each other, and resembling (in their points of intersec- tion) the head and tail of a fish, between which draw a right line, which will point to the South and North. Again, from the southern and northern points, which touch the circum- [ 74 ] ference of the inner circle respectively, and with the same radius, describe two more circles, and the points of intersec- tion on the two other sides will indicate the East and West."* It is obvious that that this is a very clumsy and unsatisfactory method ; and those who wish for greater precision select the equinoxes for their reckoning. For astronomical purposes the polar star is believed to be the best guide. The principal entrance to the temple is placed to the east, right in front of the temple. It is cover- Gateways. , , . ,.,,., ed by a spacious square buildmg, the torana or gopiira, with a pyramidal roof, having the figures or the nine Indian planets (navagraha) sculptured in more of less relief on the frieze under the weather-moulding. The structure, however, has neither the lofty storied character of the Tamulian gopiira,-\ which rises from five to fourteen storeys, nor the majesty and massive solidity of the Egyptian pylon, or propylon, but holds a very subordinate place in the whole composition. For guards it has two lions, either seated, or rampant on crouching elephants, a form of group- ing to which the Uriyas seem to have been very partial. At Konarak and Puri there are also horses and elephants for guards ; but they are not common, nor do they at all approach the gigantic size of the human-headed winged bulls and lions of the Assyrian palaces. At Puri there are gateways of about the same size on all the four sides of the enclosure of the great temple ; but originally such was not the case at Bhuvanes'varal the two small doors on the north and the south of the Great Tower .now visible, being manifestly subsequent additions : there is no opening in its western wall. The roof of the gate- way externally is a counterpart of that of the porch on a small scale, but internally it is so arched as to look like the under — surface of a hemispherical dome. * Architecture of the Hindus, 19. t Fjo'^ passim Fergusson's History of Architecture, II., 567. [ 75 ] The details above given refer mainly to Orissan temples. They are not in all respects consonant with the rules laid down in works on architecture. Varcihamihira, in his Brihat Sanhita* lays down the following general rules on the subject. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. " Lakes where groups of lotuses like umbrellas ward off the sun's darting beams, and the waters receive access of brightness by the rows of white water-lilies pushed aside by the shoulders of swans ; where swans, ducks, curlews and paddybirds utter their resounding notes, and fishes repose in the shade of Niculas on the brinks ; places where rivers flow, having curlews for their tinkling zone, singing swans for their melodious voice, the watersheet for their cover, and carps for their belt ; regions where streams have blooming trees on the margin, comparable to ear-oraments, confluences not unlike to buttocks, sandy banks like to high-swelling bosoms, and merry laughter from the swans ; tracts of land in the neighbourhood of woods, rivers, rocks and cataracts ; towns, with pleasure-gardens : it is such grounds the gods at all times take delight in. 9. The several sorts of soil which we indicated, when treating of house-building, as suited to Brahmans, etc., are likewise recommended to persons of the different classes, when they wish to erect temples. 10. Let the area of a temple always be divided into sixty-four squares, while it is highly commendable to place the middle door in one of the four cardinal points. 11. The height of any temple must be twice its own width, and the flight of steps equal to a third part of the whole height (of the edifice.) 12. The adytum measures half the extent (of the whole,) and has its separate walls all around. Its door is ^ of the adytum in breadth and twice as high. 13. The side-frame of the door has a breadth of % of * Journal R. A. S. N. S. VI., pp. 317-321. [ 7^ ] the altitude ; likewise the threshold ; the thickness of both doorposts is commonly stated to be equal to y[ of the breadth. 14. A door with three, five, seven, or nine-fold side frames is much approved. At the lower end, as far as the fourth part of the altitude of the doorpost, should be stationed the statues of the two doorkeepers. 15. Let the remaining part be ornamented with (sculp- tured) birds of good augury, ^rivrksha-figures, crosses, jars, couples, foliage, tendrils, and goblins. 16. The idol, along with the seat {i.e. pedestal), ought to have a height equal to that of the door, diminished by yi, of which two-thirds are appropriated to the image and one-third to the seat. 17, 18, 19. Meru, Mandara, Kailasa,Vimana-figure,Nandana, Samudga, Padma, Garuda, Nandin, Vardhana, Kunjara, Guha- raja, Vrsha, Hansa, Sarvatobhadra, Ghata, Sinha, Rotunda, Quadrangle, Octangle, and Sixteen-angle, — these are the names of the twenty kinds of shrines. I now proceed to describe their characteristics, following the order in which they have been enumerated. 20. The Meru is sexangular, has twelve stories, variegated windows, and four entrances. It is 32 cubits wide. 21. The Mandura is 30 cubits in extent, has ten storeys and turrets. — The Kailasa, too, has turrets, and eight storeys ; it measures 28 cubits. 22. The Vimana is 21 cubits in extent, and has latticed windows. — The Nandana has six stories and sixteen cupolas ; it measures 32 cubits, 23. The Samudga (z>., round box) is round. The Padma {i.e. lotus) has the shape of a lotus, measures 8 cubits, has one spire, and only one storey. 24. The Garuda and Nandin show the form of the sun- eagle, are 24 cubits wide, must be constructed with seven storeys, and adorned with twenty cupolas. [ n ] 25. The Kiinjara {i.e., elephant) has a figure like an ele- phant's back, and is 16 cubits long, and broad at the bottom. The Guharaja likewise measures 16 cubits. Both have a roof with three dormer windows. 26. The Vrsha {i.e. bull) has a single storey and one turret, is everywhere round, and measures 12 cubits. The Hansa has the form of a swan ; and the Ghata, being shaped like a water-jar, has an extension of 8 cubits. 27. The Sarvatobhadra has four entrances, many sum- mits, many beautiful dormer windows, and five storeys, its extent being 25 cubits. 28. The Sinha is a building with twelve angles, and is covered by lions ; it is 8 cubits wide. The four remaining (viz.. Rotunda, Quadrangle, Octangle and Sixteen-angle) are dark (in the interior.) The Quadrangle has five cupolas (whereas the rest have one only). 29. 30. A storey's altitude is of 108 digits, according to Maya, but Vicvakarman pronounces it to be of 3 cubits and a half {i.e., 84 digits.) As to this, however, able architects have declared that (in reality) there is no discrepancy of opinion, for, if you add the height of the crown-work, the smaller number will equal (the greater). 31. Herewith are the characteristics of temples described in compendious form ; it contains (in the main) the whole treatise composed by Garga on it. Of the voluminous works by Manu, etc., have I, in writing this chapter, only taken notice in as much as I remembered." In a country so abounding in stones of various kinds as Orissa, it is not to be supposed that Material — Laterite. any other material would be employed in the construction of buildings designed for the habitation of the image of the ever-present God, and intended to last for eternity, and accordingly it appears that they were the only substance used, and not a trace of bricks is anywhere to be [ 78 ] met with. Of stones, the most common is laterite, next sand- stone, and, lastly, imingni, or chlorite. For outer walls, kitchens, porticos, and all structures of secondary importance, the first is the best suited. It occurs almost everywhere in Orissa within a few feet under the soil, and in many places crops up to the surface. Around Bhuvanes'vara large tracts lie barren, or covered with stunted jungle, from the soil or mould having been washed away from its rocky substratum. In his note on this substance, Mr. W. T. Blanford says : " The form which generally appears at the surface (it being rarely that the lower kind is exposed by the denudation of the upper) consists mainly of round ferruginous nodules, about ^ to y^ of an inch in diameter, in a matrix of dark reddish- brown clay, which is generally more or less sandy. The nodules have a coating of brown hydrated peroxide of iron, and, when broken, some are seen to be black inside ; others appear to be formed of concretionary peroxide of iron ; others, again, are evidently ferruginous pebbles of decomposed gneiss, or of sandstone, if the rock prevail in the neighbour- hood. These little nodules are frequently scattered over the country by the denudation and disintegration of the deposit containing them. In places the substance is so soft that it may be cut, though with difficulty, with a spade ; in other places it hardens into a firm rock, sometimes cohering only in the form of large blocks, the intermediate portion remain- ing loose and gravelly, but frequently forming a hard mass, which covers the surface for considerable areas. It is only at the surface that the rock becomes thoroughly hardened ; the lower portion requires exposure to give it firmness and strength : when exposed it becomes cavernous, owing to the washing away of the softer portions, and apparently a chemical change takes place, whereby the iron becomes altered from the state of anhydrous peroxide (and per- haps also of magnetic oxide) into that of brown or hydrated [ 79 ] peroxide. To this chemical change the coherence may perhaps partly be attributed ; much, however, is doubtless due to the more thorough drying of the clay by the heat of the sun."* Dr. Oldham, commenting on the value of the laterite as a building material, observes : " Few rocks present greater advan- tages from its peculiar character ; it is easy to cut and shape when first dug, and it becomes hard and tough after exposure to the air ; while it seems to be very little acted on by the weather. Indeed in many of the sculptured stones of some of the oldest buildings, temples, &c., in the district, the chisel, marks are as fresh and sharp as when first built. It is per- haps not so strong, nor so capable of resisting great pressure, or bearing great weights, as some of the sandstones, or the more compact kind of gneiss, but it certainly possesses amply sufficient strength for all ordinary purposes. It is largely used at the present time, but has also been employed from the earliest period from which the buildings and temples of the country, date. * * * Another advantage it possesses over other rocks is the facility of transport, it be- ing generally found in the low grounds, and often at no great distance from some of the many streams which traverse the vicinity. Slabs from four to five feet long are easily procurable of this rock."-|- Exposure to water does not seem to affect its texture in any way, and it is, therefore, also largely used for the building of ghats and retaining walls on the sides of tanks. Being, however, a nodular conglomerate, it is full of cavities and soft interstices, and utterly unfit, not only for sculptures and fine works, but even for paving and other purposes, where a smooth even surface is required. Dr. Oldham alludes to "elaborate specimens of carving and ornament":]: made of this stone, but I have nowhere seen any. The simplest * Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, I, p. 281. t Ibid, 276. 4: Loc. cit. [ 80 ] mouldings of bands and fillets are all that have come under my notice. Sandstone is also abundant everywhere. The low range of hills which runs along the whole length Sandstone. ° of the province, dividing it into two parts, consists principally of this stone, and it is quarried and work- ed with ease. It is commonly of a grey colour and coarse grain ; but a finer variety of an ocherous tint varying in shade from a light fawn to dark brick-red, is met with at Atgharh in the Tributary Mehals, and in a few other places, and is largely used for outer facings of temples, and for sculptures. This variety is of small grain, homogeneous texture, and great firmness, admitting of very delicate carving without breaking or chipping. As it had, however, to be brought from a great distance, the builders generally tried to economise its use, and to replace it by the grey kind whenever it was practicable without injury to the appearance of their work. In Northern India the use of this variety of sandstone is common almost everywhere ; but in the Western Presidency it is replaced by trap and other stones. The Mungni is a kind of serpentine, or chlorite. It is of a dark slaty colour, and fine compo- Chlorite. . . ., , r i • i i r sition, susceptible of a high degree of polish, and when polished, it assumes, like slate, a black colour. In the present day it is largely employed in the manufacture of plates, basins, and other domestic utensils. "The rock yields a beautiful, compact and very tough material, though soft and easy to work. It is admirably suited for fine carv- ings, as may be well seen in some of the beautifully sculptured doorways of the Black Pagoda, w^hich are carved from this variety of rock. Blocks of almost any size can be obtained, the only impediment being the difficulty of transport from the high hills on which it occurs."* It is, however, not met * Oldham, in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, — I, p. 278. [ 8i ] with in Cuttack, and the distance from the Ni'lat^iri Hills, in l^alasorc, where it is quarried, to Bhuvancs'vara and Puri, was so great that its use had to be confined to statuary and finer kinds of sculpture, which were not intended to be much ex- posed to sun and rain. For facing the suffits and jambs of the entrance to temples, for the paving of the cells, as also for thrones of the sacred images, it was also largely employed ; in short, it supplied the place of marble which was not accessable to the Uriyas, and was, and is to this day, held in high estimation. In descriptions of Orissan antiquities, granite is frequent- ly mentioned by European writers, but Granite. . ,_,.,,. I have not seen it employed for buildmg- purposes cither at Puri, or at BhuvanesVara. According to Dr. Oldham, than whom few can speak with more authority on questions of Indian Geology, "throughout the country, south of the Mahanadi, dykes of all kinds are rare, trap is entirely wanting, and granitic veins are seldom seen."* It is probable, therefore, that, as in the infancy of geological science at the end of the last and the beginning of this century all hard grey-looking stones were mistaken for granite, non-professional men in Orissa, as elsewhere, frequently took the one for the other. Between thirty and forty years ago the As'oka pillars were described by more than one writer as made of granite, but it is now well-known that they are all formed of sandstone. In the same way Bishop Heber called several structures in Agra and Delhi as constructed of granite, which have since turned out to be sandstone or marble. If true granite, how- ever, is wanting, gneiss is common enough, if not abundant, and a granitiferous variety is frequently employed for statuary, particularly on the A'lti and the Nalti Hills : some of the statues of the Black Pagoda are also said to be made of this material ; but the bulk of them are of sandstone. * Oldham, in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey,— I., \\ 264. [ 82 ] No real marble is met with anywhere in Orissa, nor has it been used for temples in Northern Marble. , . , , „ India ; but m Rajaputana, Central India and Guzarat it has been often used, and the most pro- fusely sculptured temple in all India, that of Satrunjaya in Guzarat, is built of this material. Bricks are common everywhere, and have been so since the date of the Rig Veda ; but the details Bricks. . for manufacturing them have nov.-here been given at length. The Sulva Sutras supply rules for the making of bricks for fire altars ; thus in one place it is said " the following bricks are to be made for this Chiti ; I square brick of 20 angulas, 2, oblong bricks of 20 angulas by 30 angulas, 3 oblong bricks of 20 x 10 angulas (made by dividing a brick of the first mentioned class into two oblongs), 4 square bricks of 30 angulas."* These, however, are intended exclusively for altars, and not for houses and temples. The Agni Purana has a few verses for the pugging of clays and the making of bricks, but not of sufficient interest to be worth translation here. As in design, so in the art of building, Uriya architects ^ , ^ , ., , . display a sad want of variety. If their Style of buildnig. -^ -^ ^ temples are all of one plan, they arc built in almost the same order everywhere. Possibly at an early stage of their progress, they did try other modes of arranging their materials, but by the middle of the seventh century, they seem to have discovered what appeared to them the cheapest, and at the same time the most convenient, style of masonry, and continued ever after to practise it without any variation. This was to arrange courses of oblong ashlars of the same height, which were held together by their weight, by their perfect adjustment, and by the frequent intervention of bonders long enough to extend to a considerable distance * Pandit N. .S. I., p. 628. t 83 ] into, or entirely J-hrough, the wall. All the courses, however, were not of the same thickness, nor the stones always of the same size,* and the result was a kind of work which in refer- ence to Grecian buildings is denominated the " pseudoisodo- mum." This plan, however, was not followed in the construc- tion of walls of extraordinary thickness. It would have occa- sioned a great waste of labour and material to have filled up piers seven to ten or fifteen feet thick with carefully dressed blocks of the same size throughout, and a different style was there- fore deemed necessary. This was to build irregular horizontal courses with partially worked stones of various sizes, and to face them on both sides with isodomic walls of well-dressed flags. Occasionally unhewn masses were rudely piled toge- ther with no further adjustment than the insertion of small blocks in the interstices, in the true cyclopean style, but their sides were always faced with cut stones of a superior quality. It should be added, however, that I have not had many oppor- tunities of examining masonry work of great thickness in a dilapidated state, to be able to say with certainty whether the cyclopean, or the irregular horizontal style was the most pre- valent. The latter was met with in about half-a-dozen places, and the former only twice : they were in every instance covered with a layer of finely dressed stones, except of course in the foundations where such facings would have been thro^\•n away. In Orissa mortar seems never to have been used ; the mas- siveness of the blocks, and the accuracy, Mortar. . -^ ' with which they were cut and adjusted, rendered it unnecessary. Wooden wedges were also not used, or, * Sanskrit works on architecture insist on the ashlars being of uniform size, and the Agni Purana recommends squares of one cubit with a depth of 8 fingers as the most appropriate, bricks being of half that size ; but the rule seems never to have been respected. [ 84 ] if used, they are not now traceable. In the joining, however, of long projecting cornices and roof-stones, iron clamps were fre- quently employed. At Konarak I also noticed lead in the fissures and holes in the remains of cornices; but neither copper nor brass.* The iron has everywhere rusted and swollen, and produced serious cracks in the stones in which they are im- bedded, causing thereby more injury to the temples, than time and climate have done in course of centuries. The Uriya builders of old appear to have been, to some extent at least, aware of this source of danger, for iron clamps occur less frequently in the ancient temples of Bhuvanes'vara than in the more modern structures of Puri and Konarak. From the absence of mortar it might be argued that the ancient Uriyas had either no knowledge of it, or had no material at hand to be so employed. Such was, however, not the case. G/iuiin^ (nodular limestone conglomerate) abounds in almost every part of Orissa, and its ancient builders knew well the value of that article as a cement, and used it exten- sively for closing the joints on roofs, domes, &c., as also for plastering the interior of their houses and temples ; and abun- dant evidence of its employment may be everywhere seen. It entered largely also in the composition of their vases, and occasionally, but rarely, in the formation of architectural or- naments. In other parts of India particularly where bricks were used, mortar of powdered bricks mixed with ghuting lime was extensively employed. In plastering walls the quantity of powdered bricks was greatly reduced so as to allow the lime to give a white colour to the plaster. In some cases lime made from lime-stone as also shell-lime was used for plastering and Diodorus Siculus, speaking of the Inidgc which Scniiramis built over the Euphrates, states, that the stones were held together by iron clamps, the inter- stices of which were fdled up with molten lead. In ancient Egypt the same practice was common. [ 85 ] modelling ornaments. Ordinarily the ornaments were first made of the powdered brick mortar and then covered over with pure lime plaster and this is what is seen in the Nalandd temple in Behar. Varaha mihira, in his Brihat Sanhita, furnishes recipes for three kinds of cement which were used for stopping leaks and also for plastering, but looking to their composition I do not think they could have been used for plastering, however useful they may have been for the first-named purpose. They appear to be curious, and so I copy them here. I, 2, 3. " Unripe ebony fruits, unripe wood-apples, blos- soms of silk-cotton, seeds of Boswellia, bark of Dhanvan, and acorus ; combined with these substances, boil a drona of water, and, when the mass has sunk to an eighth of the volume, take the sediment, which combine with the following substances : turpentine, myrrh, bdellium, marking-nut, resin of Boswellia and of Shorea, linseed, and Bilva-fruit. The paste, being mixed with these, is termed Diamond-plaster. 4. This plaster, calified, is to be applied on the roofs of temples and mansions, on ^iva-emblems, idols, walls and wells, to last for a thousand, a million of years, 5. 6. Lac, resin of Boswellia (or of Deodar), bdellium, Grhadhuma, wood-apple, Bilva-kernels, fruits of Uraria, of ebony, of Madana, seed of Bassia, madder, resin of Shorea, m)-rrh and myrobalan ; from these is extracted a second sort of Diamond-plaster, having the same qualities with the former, and to be used for the same purposes, 7. Another plaster termed quasi-diamond is prepared from horn of cows, buffaloes, and goats, apes' hair, buffalo-hide, and cow-hide, combined with Azadiracht, wood-apple, and myrrh, 8. A mixture of eight portions of lead, two portions of bell-metal, and one portion of iron-rust is mentioned by Maya, and known b}- the name of Diamond-compound."* * Journal, Rl. A. S., N. S., VI. pp. 321-22. [ 86 1 Owing to imperfect cohesion of its grains sandstone is ill-adapted for architraves of large span ; Iron Beams. . . o i > hence it is rarely employed for such purposes. Chlorite resists lateral pressure somewhat better, but it was scarce, and its great weight rendered it generally unmanageable. Uriya architects, therefore, resorted to iron beams, which they could forge with ease, and move about with tolerable facility. The iron was probably obtained from Talchi'r, where it is smelted to this day, and was of excellent quality, well adapted for their purpose. At Bhuvanes'vara such beams may be seen in great abundance. The hyper- therions of the principal doorways are formed of bars four inches square, and ten to twelve feet in length ; the scantling of architraves being 4 x 6 to 5 x 7 inches, with a length of 1 2 to 1 5 feet. Roofs, as already stated, were formed by horizon- tal arches, but the projections from the opposite sides rarely closed in more than two-thirds of the space, the remainder was covered by flags of stone supported on iron beams. At Puri the beams are of larger dimensions ; and at Konarak there is one, 21 feet long with an average thickness of 8 X 10 inches. Its material seems to be of a superior quality, and the forging throughout perfect. But the most remarkable feature in the piece of iron is its arched upper surface, the ends being 8 inches, and the centre 11 inches, an arrangement of parts by which the highest mechanical strength was secured without any unnecessary waste of material. This displays an amount of knowledge of the laws of force and resistance on the part of the engineers which is highly creditable to them. In a country so infested by white-ants as Orissa, it is not surprising that wood has been so little Wood. \ . ^ , used in the construction of temples, though some of the finest woods of India, such as the teak and the sal, arc so abundant everywhere. The only purpose for which wood was employed was, for the making of doors, [ ^7 ] but, as most of the original doors have long since disappear- ed, and their places have been from time to time supplied by modern substitutes, it is impossible now to say how they were worked. The only ancient door now to be met with in Orissa occurs in the porch of the Great Tower of Bhuvanes'- vara, and that is made of sandal-wood, divided into square panels, and carved in a diaper pattern somewhat like the pat- terns on the celebrated gates of Somanatha, now deposited in the fort at Agra. Mr. William Simpson, in a letter to the Editor of the Daily Neivs, London newspaper, dated the 23rd December, 1871, doubts the gates to be those that were re- moved from the temple of Somanatha by Mahmiid Ghaznavi. He says, " I made a very careful sketch of them, including details of the ornament. As I sketched, it struck me as strange that the art contained nothing Hindu in its design. It was all purely Muhammadan. Out of the thirty two milli- ons of Hindu gods, there was not one of them visible. " He adds, " It was only on my return to England, and in conver- sation with Mr. Fergusson that I got confirmation of what I suspected. He agreed with me that the ornament was suffi- cient evidence that they could not possibly be the gates of Somanatha ; but he added that the gates in the Diwanikhas at Agra had been inspected with a microscope, and they are of ' Deodar pine, ' and not of sandal-wood. This fact, in spite of the proclamation " (of Lord Ellenborough) " would com- mand a verdict against them from any jury." The verdict however, it is to be supposed, would be to a great extent dependent on the nature of the jur}-, for were experts to be included in the panel they would not be able to join in the verdict so confidently expected upon the evidence adduced. The wood of the gate now at Agra has the colour, density (apparent), and grain of sandal-wood ; but admitting, for the sake of argument, that it is really not so, there is no- thing to show that deodar pine, the wood especially sacred to [ 88 ] the gods (from deva god and ddni wood), was inaccessible at Somanatlia and that the report regarding the original gates having been of sandal-wood, founded on the evidence of Mu- hammadan writers, was not a mistaken one, resulting in the appearance of the wood. The character of the pattern (diaper) is simple enough, and the like of it may be seen in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, engraved on the hafts of war-hatchets brought from the South Sea islands. It occurs likewise, slightly modified, on the panels of the Bhuvanes'vara temples, and it would require no ordinary amount of reckless- ness to say that the builders of Orissa in the seventh century and the South Sea Islanders got it from the Muhammadans. The prospect of finding some one or more of the thirty-three million gods of the Hindu pantheon carved on door-panels was so fanciful, that few natives of this country will feel at all sur- prised at its having so completely disappointed the writer. I must have visited at least five thousand temples in various parts of India, but I do not remember to have noticed any door-panel with figures of gods carved on it, certainly none in Orissa. It must be added, however, that there is no- thing but their decayed ancient look to show that the Bhuva- nes'vara doors are synchronous with the date of the Tower. In Northern India, beams of wood are not uncommon in temples, and the oldest specimens I have seen occur on the top of the third storey room of the great temple at Bud- dha-Gaya.* Some of the Puranas, as also the Mdnasdra, give detailed descriptions of various kinds of wood Season for building. adapted for use in making dwellings, the seasons when the trees which yield them should be felled, their respective values for different purposes, the ceremonies to be observed when proceeding to fell trees for obtaining supplies of timber, the mode of seasoning them, &c. The former, * My 15u(ldha-Gaya, p. 85. [ 89 ] likewise, afford directions rcgardincr the seasons and stellar conjunctions most favorable for commencing the building of temples and houses, and the ceremonies to be observed on such occasions. Thus the Matsya Purdna : " The man who commences a building in the month of Chaitra, earns ill-health ; he who does so in Vais'dkha gains wealth and jewels, but in Jyaistha, he encounters death. Should he begin it in the month of Ashadha, he will obtain slaves, jewels, cattle, and a good complexion. In S'ravana, he will secure friends, and in Bhadra lose them, A house begun in As'vina brings on the death of one's wife, in Kartika, the gain of wealth and corn, in Mdrgas'irsha, abundance of food, and in Pausha, the fear of thieves. It is ordained that the month of Magha ensures gain and learning, but it also brings on fire ; while Phalguna gives offspring, and gold. Such are the effects of seasons."* Of lunar constellations the following are described as the most appropriate, vis., As'vini, Rohini, Mula, Uttara Ashadha, Uttara Bhadrapada, Uttara Phalguni, Mriga-s'irsha, Svatf, Hasta, and Anuradha."-f- Of the days of the week, Sundays and Tuesdays are injurious, the rest are appropriate.:): Much weight is also laid on particular conjunctions, but as these * #,^ oznf>3?T^T-^rfT g> -fz-^ ^tt:%t:: I t'lTT% ■^J^TTTSfff^ ^^ ■'Sr^ cT^^ ^ II ^T^^ f»T?5(^I^ ^ =f Tf^ ^T^XT% TT^T II tiT^'TT'sf =g-T^^ ^Tf?,% -vr^trT^^ I ^TTTlft^ fT-SJ-T >T|R x?T^ fT^Tof F^ II ^T^^ ■qff^'in ^prrf^f «T ^T^W W ft" II Matsya Purdna. t ^f^^rt" ^f^^irl' wsTg=^T:T(5{^^r^i ii Matsya Purdna. [ 90 ] cannot be made intelligible to European readers without en- tering into tedious details, I shall not quote them here. The Hayas'irsha Panchardtra, a Tantra of the Vaishnavite class, has also some rules on the subject ; but they are scarcely worth noticing. According to it the rainy season is the most in- appropriate, and no building should be commenced in it. The first ten days of the wane, the second five days of the waxing moon, the 4th, the 9th, and the 14th of both the wane and the | waxing moon, are also said to be reprehensible.* It differs from the last authority, however, in rejecting only Sunday, and not also Tuesday, and approving of some of the Naksha- tras which the former condemns. The Matsya Purana affords detailed instructions for the selection and examination of the ground Ground fit for building. j- -j j u -i. • i. for buildmg. Earth is divided by it into four classes according to its colour ; the white is called Brah- mana, it is said to have a sweet taste ; the red is Kshatriya, and it produces an astringent taste in the mouth ; the yellow is Vaisya, it is hot and astringent to the taste ; and the black is S'lidra ; it is also astringent and hot. The merits of these different kinds of earth as substrata for buildings, or as mate- rials for brick-making, are reckoned according to their caste, the Brahmana being the best, and the S'udra the worst. Before commencing a building, the proper course is to dig a hole, measuring in every direction an aratni, or a cubit from the elbow to the end of the little finger. This being afterwards carefully plastered with mud, an unbaked saucer is to be filled with ghi, provided with four wicks on four sides, and placed on the bottom of the hole. The wicks being now lighted, if they burn uniformly and brightly, the ground is fit for building ; Matsya Purana. '^^^ TWiTt ^^7T fflf^^TftT =^g-^lf|- I [ 91 ] otherwise It is bad. Another and more practical and intelh'gible method is to press into the hole the earth excavated from it ; if the earth should fill up the hole and leave a surplus, the ground is good ; if it should barely fill it up, but leave no sur- ]>lus, the ground is indifferent ; but if it should prove insuffi- cient, the ground is positively bad* The prevalence or ab- sence of particular kinds of trees, and the readiness or other- wise with which seeds sprout when sown in the ground, are also held as tests of its fitness for building upon. After selecting the land great attention should be paid to remove whatever bones it may contain ; Removal of bones. ^ , ,• i i .1 r /-i for bones, particularly those 01 Lhan- ddlas, are reckoned to be highly injurious to buildings. If no bones are found, and still there should be any suspicion of the presence of any such offensive matter, a ceremony has to be performed named S'ailyoddhdra, which is esteemed as highly effectual in neutralising the evil effects of bones under a build- %aT TM^ cT^T TftrTT ^f^BIT ^t^T^^^lT: » ^rrpfTT^ ^ TT^ ^^f^^ "^ ^4 cT; (I [ 92 ] ing. Certain ceremonies have also to be performed before and after the completion of a building, of which an interesting account, by Babu Pratapachandra Ghosha, will be found in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1870, pp. 199, et seq. A summary of it here is scarcely needed. III. INDIAN SCULPTURE. The influence of common humanity on art. General appearance. Relative proportions. Local peculiarities. Vegetable figures. Animal figures. Human figures. Liibke's opinion. Reply thereto. Dsedalean school, .i^ginetan school. Etruscan school. Egyptian school. Assyrian school. Orissan school. General character of Orissan school. Muscles. Head. Forehead. Eyebrows. Eyes, chin lips and mouth. Nose and ears. Nationality. Pose. Group. Drapery. Relative proportions. Relief. Colour. Obscenity. Carving in situ. Libels against Indian art. Decoration. Respective symmetry. Uniform symmetry. Light and shade. N treating of sculptural representations of natural objects, it is necessary to bear in mind the common humanity of man in every part of the world. Even as poets dealing with the same subjects — the life and mind of man — produce similar images, whether tuningtheir lyre under the heat of the tropics, the genial climate of the temperate zone, or the biting cold of the north, so must artists, in their attempt to re- produce natural objects in stone, yield similar results ; and as in the former case differences must arise from unequal capacity and local colouring, so must they result in the latter. Thus when a Valmi'ki and a Homer sing of the same subject, local similies aside, the result must be closely alike, without any interchange of ideas taking place between them ; and similarly a Phidias of Greece and one of India, (had such a being ever existed) would have produced the beau-ideal of perfection in either country without borrowing from each other. Where the intel- lectual and artistic capacities are different, the results must necessarily be unequal ; but the tendency everywhere must be to the same goal, and more or less similarity must be manifest according to circumstances, owing to the fact of the human [ 94 ] mind being the same everywhere, and it being directed to the same end. It must follow that partial similitude in the general appearance of two statues is no more a proof of the one having been formed on the model of the other, than the similarity of two love songs from two distant countries is an evidence of one of them having been copied from the other. In judging of sculpture its general appearance is what we have first to deal with, but it is at the General appearance. same time the most misleading. It is an uncertain quantity, liable to be diversified under different circumstances and the knowledge and predilection of the ob- server, and what may be supposed by one to be decisively similar, may be pronounced by another as radically different in every line and feature. Doubtless, there is such a thing as style in painting and literary composition, which, however ethereal and undefinable, is nevertheless easily perceptible by experts, and the same may be said of sculpture ; but in the latter case the difficulty of determining it is so very excessive that it cannot be accepted as a satisfactory proof in settling any question at issue wath reference to any parti- cular piece of sculpture. There may be, in a statue, a sua- vity of outline, or free treatment of the position or dra- pery, or general finish in chiselling, — peculiarities which are associated with Greek art, — but they are of no import when closely inspected ; and when the enquiry is what is the nation- ality of a statue found in a foreign soil, it is a flagrant begging of the question to say it must be Greek because it is good. Among the generality of non-professional Europeans, the fallacy of such a decision may not be at once apparent. In their minds the idea of excellence in art with Greece is intimately associated from infiincy ; and even with professional men it is not an uncommon error, says IJacon, " to infest their meditations, opinions, and doctrines, with some ccnceits which [ 95 ] they have most admired, or some sciences which they have most applied; and" to give "all things else a tincture accord- ing to them, utterly untrue and improper." But for all that the fallacy exists, and to those who are above such influences, cannot but be striking. Sometimes, so thoroughly do our prepossessions become " bone of our bone and flesh of our flesh" that even the clearest reasoning docs not prevent the student of science from combining the acceptance of i newly discovered fact with continued belief in a theory whi(h that fact entirely disproves. Relative proportions have generally been acceptedas very good tests for determining the lation- Relative proportions. r^ . . ality of human figures. Seemg, however that, on the one hand, the human frame is in its ^eneral outline very much alike in all parts of the world, and that, on the other, no two masters of the Hellenic ar; adop- ted the same relative proportions, and further, thct they are subject to extensive variations according to age, sc^, and other causes, not to advert to the fact that specinens of ancient Indian art are generally of so primitive a claracter that they are not amenable to technical rules, it is hopless to deduce from them any reliable evidence for a general ]remiss. There are certain peculiarities in proportion which if jroperly studied by experts, — such for instance as the breadth of the head along the eyes, which in Greece almost unformly measured five eyes, — would doubtless be of value as cdlatcral proofs, but they can under no circumstance be acceptedis well- established majors for any universal conclusion. But while denying general appearance and relative pro- portions to be of much value ;s tests, Local peculiarity. I must admit that there are pmts m sculptures which must be accepted as conclusive. These refer to the representation of local peculiarities in art, and their value depends upon the amount of certainty wih which [ 96 ] their bcal character is established. Thus, for instance, the disposition of the hair of the head, which differed greatly at different times among different nations, and which, when- ever tie styles and their ages are well-known, must at once determine the nationality of the figures on which they are found. In the same way in well-finished statues the high cheek bones md other peculiarities of feature, as also drapery, may be accepted as good tests to that end. Posture or pose being generaly dependant on the nature of action intended to be indicated, and human nature being everywhere alike and liable to produce the same or similar postures under similar circumitances, is not always a safe guide; still there are even in it peculiarities which when well-known may be depended upon. Bit the most valuable tests are representations of local vegetaion, local styles of ornament, local dress, and the like. These can leave no room for doubt, and when they do exist, and thdr local character is fully established, we may with perfectsafety come to a positive conclusion. Tbe lotus, as may be expected from the circumstance of its being the most gorgeous and e^etme life, . ^ , . . , . , handsome flower m India, is by far the greates favourite, and in Orissa, as elsewhere, occurs every- where and in various forms, — in bud, in a half-open state, and in uU blown flowers. In some specimens, the attempt to delineate nature is very nearly succcsssful, but a con- ventionil form is what is generally adopted, in which single flowers of four, six, or eight petals are made to do duty for dense cbuble blossoms. Pedestals of statues and footstools for godlesses are often formed of large multipetaled lotuses, but in ach positions they are generally not so faithfully exe- cuted 3 in basso-rilievo scrolls, owing evidently to a want of proporton, their size and shape being regulated by the exi- [ 97 ] gcncies of their situation, and not by the relation they bear to man in nature. On the wliole, however, these lotuses, as well as all floral designs, are carved with great tact and ele- o-ance, and if sufficient allowance be made for the coarse ma- terial in which they arc developed, the attempt of the Orissan artist to represent vegetable forms will be readily acknow- ledged to have been much more successful than that of Egyp- tian and Assyrian sculptors. The superiority of marble over sandstone as a mate- rial for sculpture is overwhelming, and even very inferior carvings in it appear before the bulk of mankind with an amount of grace and beauty, which no other material can command. The most faithful cast in plaster of Paris of the Venus de Medici, or of the Apollo Belvedere, cannot for a moment produce the impression that the original does. That peculiar translucency of the surface of the finer kinds of marble, which invests all works carved in them with a characteristic charm, and completely cheats the eye of the beholder, is not possessed by any other material, and therefore, there is an initial disadvantage in comparing works done in sandstone with those made of marble. The superiority of marble, however, is due to nature and not to art ; and in judg- ing of artistic taste and capability, it would be but fair not to look to the material, but to the design and the manner in which sculptures are worked out ; and if this canon be ad- mitted, and the works of Uriya artists be judged by their aesthetic design, their freedom and boldness of outline, and general execution, they will not suffer much by comparison with those of any other nation of their time or of antiquity. " The Greek treatment of the acanthus and other vege- table forms may be," as noticed by Professor Lubke, " a model for all ages ; and Roman art also has produced leaf-work which is thoroughly perfect in style,"* but, due allowance being made * Liibke's History of Sculpture, i., p. 3. [ 98 ] for the difference of material, the differences between them and Uriya art as manifested in the dehneation of vegetable life, is not so overwhelmingly great as is apt to be supposed. Care- fully judged, many points will offer in which a comparison may be held without discredit to the latter. According to the author just quoted, " the representation of vegetable life is excluded from the sphere of sculpture." " Whenever consequently a vegetable creation is introduced into a work of" (Greek or Roman) "sculpture as an aid to the understanding of local and other relations, sculpture is obliged to give up all detailed delineation, and rather to pro- duce a symbolic intimation than an imitation of actual reali- ty."* The same, however, cannot be predicated of Orissan art. In it vegetable life forms just as much a subject of sculp- ture as any other object in nature, and, as a matter of fact, has been represented much more largely than animal, or human life. This peculiarity may be due to the amount of artistic talent necessary for carving vegetable forms being small, or to the fact of such forms sorting best with the genius and taste of the people ; but this is certain, that the Uriya artists depended very largely on the beauty of their vegetable forms for the success of their works, and introduced them as primary, and not as accessory, ornaments in their architecture much more extensively than any other nation of antiquity. It is not to be denied that vegetable representations in stone must necessarily be to a certain extent wanting in "de- tailed delineation," and also to some, but not to the full, extent implied by the words, " rather symbolic intimations than imita- tions of actual reality." Circumstances render this unavoidable, and Uriya works form no exception to the rule. There is, nevertheless, visible in the latter, a considerable amount of success in faithfully representing nature. It should also be ob- t Loc. cit. [ 99 1 served that " ornament has," as justly and very pointedly'put by Ruskin, " two entirely distinct sources of agreeableness : one, that of the abstract beauty of its forms ; * * * the other, the sense of human labour and care spent upon it. How great this latter influence we may perhaps judge, by considering that there is not a cluster of weeds growing in any cranny of a ruin which has not a beauty in all respects nearly equal, and, in some, immeasurably superior, to that of the most elaborate sculpture of its stones : and that all our interest in the carved work, our sense of its richness, though it is tenfold less rich than the knots of grass beside it ; of its delicacy, though it is a thousandfold less delicate ; of its admirableness, though a millionfold less admirable ; results from our consciousness of its being the works of poor, clumsy, toilsome man. Its true delightfulness depends on our discovering in it the record of thoughts, and intents, and trials, and heartbreakings — of re- coveries and joyfulness of successs : all this can be traced by a practised eye ; but, granting it even obscure, it is presumed or understood : and in that is the worth of the thing, just as much as of anything else we call precious."* This extraneous or adventitious value in Orissan floral ornament deserves especial mention. Combined with a considerable amount of faithful representation and integrity there is an amount of luxuriance of decoration, of picturesque arrangement, and of sumptuous display of successful human labour governed by- thorough intellectuality that claims a high meed of praise. In the representation of vegetable life in sculpture the . . , , artist has only form and motion to study Animal figures. but no life, such life and freshness as are visible in vegetation after a summer shower, or the depression noticeable under a parching hot sun, belonging to the province of the painter, and not being attainable by the sculptor's art. The task of the artist, therefore, is easier when he carves * The Seven Lamps of Architecture, p. 48. i 100 i foliage, flowers and trees than when he undertakes to reproduce the brute creation in stone. Then he has, besides form and motion, some ethereal, intangible, but at the same time most important elements, viz., sensuous passions to portray, and his undertaking becomes proportionately more arduous. But the Uriyas did not prove unequal to the task. They made con- siderable progress in it, and displayed much tact and ingenuity. In my work on Orissa reference has already been made to their life-like pictures of monkeys, and the success with which sensuous passions have been shown in them, (I.p. 47). The elephant has also been carved and chiseled with great skill. The horse at the southern gate of the Konarak porch is remarkably well proportioned, and representations of rats, parrots, geese, goslings, deer, and other animals shown in the illustrations annexed to my work on Orissa will, I imagine, be generally acknowledged to be pretty close imitations of nature. A colossal bull in the enclosure of the Great Tower is also worthy of note as a specimen of well-finished animal carving. The lion among animals is, however, invariably ill-carved. It has everywhere a conventional, unnatural half-dog half-wolf look about it that is as unlike a real lion as it well can be. Its claws, mane and position, either erect or rampant, are also al- together unnatural. It is generally represented as trampling on an elephant about one half to one sixth of its size, crouch- ing under its forelegs. Looking at groups like these, and the marked disparity in the size of the two animals, I am disposed to think that the lion had become extinct in Orissa when the sculptures were made, and the artists had to depend upon tradition and their imagination to produce its likeness. This inference receives some support from the fact of the lions in the Udayagiri bas-reliefs being much better shaped, and they, it is to be presumed, were delineated when the animal was common in the counlr)-. In central and western India lions [ loi i are still met with ;* but in Bengal they have long since be- come extinct, and the tradition is that, with the exception of a single animal, sacred to Bhagavati, now living in the wilder- ness near Kamakhya in Assam, there is no lion in existence in India. The Egyptians, as also the Assyrians, were superior to the Uriyas in this respect : their lions were not unoften carefully carved, displaying the mu. cles of their limbs to great advantage, and showing that when uncontrolled by religion the artists could imitate nature as successfully as their con- temporaries. Some of their winged lions, however, are quite as bad as those of the Uriyas. Winged bulls and lions are unknown in Orissa. Ascending from vegetable and animal to human life, we come to where the sculptor's art attains Human figures. its highest perfection. It is then that it attempts " the representation of the divine and the heroic," and the infusion into it of " the spark of divine life, the con- scious soul," and " a reflex of immortal beauty, idealizing life- less handicraft." Then it is that it becomes " an animated spirit-breathing art," which, according to Socrates in his dia- logue with the sculptor Clito, — " must represent the emotions of the soul by form." These predicates are, however, true only when applied to Grecian art in its perfection, and also to Roman art as a reflection of Grecian genius. No other ancient art made any near approach to that perfection. The Hindus were as far behind it as the Egyptians, Assyrians and Persians. The gulf between them and the Grecian artists of the golden age is wide and deep. The unique and inimitable perfection of the Phidian and the Praxitclian schools has hitherto been the great object of envy to artists of every age and clime, and it would be as idle to compare the works of the Uriya sculp- * In the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1868, p. 198, Dr. King adduces several instances of the true lion, not the maneless animal of Guzarat, having been recently shot by sporlsmen in Gundh, in Central India. [ 102 ] tors with the grand and the beautiful of the sacred land of art, as to compare the paintings of India with the chef d'muvre of Raphael. The schools which preceded them were, however, neither so perfect, nor so far above the ordinary run of art in other ancient seats of civilization as to remove them from the sphere of comparison. The Etruscan, the Egyptian, and the Assyrian schools, have peculiarities which may be corn- pared to advantage with those of Orissan sculpture to settle their relative merits. Doubtless they flourished long before the Orissan school, and a comparison between them cannot be fair to the ancient nations concerned ; but as the object here is not to award the palm of superiority to any one nation, but to ascertain the position which should be assigned to the Uriya artists in the history of art, it will, I think, not be held objectionable. The necessity for the comparison also arises from the cir- ^ . , , cumstance of there existing a very crro- (Jnssan art compared '^ ■' with ancient European neous impression on the subject in Eu- art. rope, owmg, doubtless, to a want of ade- quate information. Authors, who devote chapter after chapter, and not unoften entire works, to Egyptian and Assyrian art, refer perfunctorily, only as a matter of form, to Indian art, and simply to declare that it is unworthy of notice, or fit only to be condemned. The spirit in which the subject is generally taken up will be best illustrated by the following quotation from Mr. Westmacott's " Hand-book of Sculpture." After treating of the nature and character of Assyrian art, he says: "There is no temptation to dwell at length upon the sculpture of Hindustan. It affords no assistance in tracing the history of art, and its debased quality deprives it of all interest as a phase of fine art, the point of view from which it would here be considered. It must be admitted, however, that the works existing have sufficient character to stamp their nationality; and although they possess nej i)roi)erties that can make them [ 103 ] valuable as useful examples for the student, they offer very curious subjects of enquiry to the scholar and arch.xolof^ist. The sculptures found in various parts of India, at Ellora, Ele- phanta, and other places, are of a strictly symbolical or my- thological character. They usually consist of monstrous combi- nations of human and brute forms, repulsive from their ugli- ness and outrageous defiance of rule and even possibility."* Dr. Wilhelm Liibke, in each of his two magnificent works, "the History of Art," and "the Liibke's opinion. r r- i History of bculpture, has devoted a few pages to India ; but, like the author above noticed, only to come to the conclusion that the national religion of the people of this country could not favor the plastic art, and so they have none worthy of the name. After descanting on the effect of Hinduism and Buddhism on the mind of man, he says: " In such a tendency of mind, the works of sculpture have suffered most. No religion ever brought to light such bom- bast of confused and mystical ideas as that of the Brahmin. The character of the people inclines more than that of any other race to effeminate self-absorption and brooding specula- tion. Thoughtfulness degenerates at once into distorted ideas. The dreams of their wild imagination produced a mytholog}-, the forms of which seem to ridicule all plastic representation. The divine beings are opposed to ordinary men by the unna- tural number of their heads, arms, and legs. Thus the god Ravana is represented with ten heads and twenty arms ; Brah- ma and Vishnu with four ; S'iva with four or five heads — the latter sometimes, indeed, with one head, but in that case it is furnished with three e}'es. Occasionally Vishnu appears with a bear's or lion's head, and Ganes'a even with that of an ele- phant ; and, lastly, there are three-headed figures, denoting nothing less than the Indian Trinity (Trimurti), Brahma, S'iva, and Vishnu. * Westmacott's Iland-book of Sculpture, p. 50. [ 104 ] " The form, therefore, that would appear to us as a mon- ster is by them regarded as a god. How low is the stage of consciousness which can recognize the divine only in that which is unnatural, distorted, and monstrous ! and how should sculpture ever rise to higher forms when hand in liand with such a religion ! Langles, in his Monuments of Indian Art, gives the copy of a drawing by a Brahmin, from the Imperial Library at Paris, which exhibits better than many words the unplastic spirit of these religious ideas. The subject is the birth of Brahma. Vishnu is represented as a woman, lying feebly on a lotus leaf. All round are to be seen small fishes, and among them a floating man. This is the expiator, Mar- kandeya, who swims about in the Milky Way to save the world from destruction. Vishnu is naked, and is adorned with foolish ornaments ; after the fashion of a child, he holds his left foot with its large toes, in his mouth. The many-headed, many-armed, and many-legged Brahma is fastened to his um- bilical cord. This one instance of the theological ideas of Brahminical dogmatism will suffice. " It is almost exclusively subjects of mythology which engage Indian sculpture. A simple representation of actual life seems almost entirely lacking. How should art be inspired to delineate the circumstances of daily existence, when, ac- cording to the teaching of the Brahmins, the world was only to be regarded as a dream of Brahma's, or the production of Maya (delusion), and when, moreover, by the assumption of an endless transmigration of souls, the value of each indivi- dual creature became illusory ? Equally little can we look for the vigorous life of historical art on such a soil of mystical and speculative confusion. It is only exceptionally that we hear of such works, created as they are in a clearer and purer at- mosphere. Yet we must not forbear here to point expressly to the scantiness and unreliable nature of our sources of in- formation. Much as lias been said of the splendour and [ 105 ] fabulous magnificence of Indian works, the value of most of these reports is but small in a critical point of view. We lack, moreover, satisfactory drawings, which might compensate for the deficiency of information. For this reason, therefore, any accurate appreciation or historical representation of Indian sculpture has been hitherto impossible. We must, in conse- quence, limit ourselves entirely to certain general remarks. "We find the great mass of Indian sculpture as reliefs on the facades of their rock temples, or on the outside of the pagodas. These productions of an extravagantly luxuriant architecture are often completely covered with sculptures. Equally frequently are they introduced also in the interior, in niches and on capitals and cornices. The Brahmanical tem- ples surpass in richness and fantastic wildness the Buddhist shrines, although at a later period Buddhism also could not resist the more splendid decoration of its monuments. The insulated statue, the highest and truest production of sculp- ture, is lacking to Indian art. Even the frequently colossal images of the seated Buddha, in the principal niche of Bud- dhist caves, arc not statues but haut-reliefs. Deficient in free- dom as she appears intellectually, Indian plastic art shows herself thus also outwardly; she is the slave of architecture to which she must be subservient in all its caprices; mistress and slave, alike devoid of all pure artistic intention, combined in mystical confusion wild, fantastic, and monstrous."* Again, after commenting on what he describes as " the "ancient, fantastic, polytheistic belief of Brahmanism, which by its spiritless formula, its mechanical hypocrisy, and depress- ing creed of an everlasting migration of souls, had corrupted to the utmost the national mind of the Hindu people," Professor Liibke observes: "The feeling of the people, however, did not create these sacred images from distinct conceptions, nor from * History of Sculpture, I., p. I2, [ 106 ] pure human notions, but from dreamy fantastic ideas, and from mystical speculations. Art is here not merely the handmaid of religion, but the handmaid of a worship which finds approach to the idea of God in symbols of a monstrous kind. Wherever, therefore, the forms of the gods, or the history of their wonder- ful destiny, were to be portrayed, wherever deep and myste- rious awe of the unapproachable was to be manifested, the accessories were only outwardly symbolic, and the vague at- tempt at effect is produced by heaps of wings, hands, arms and legs, or quaint combinations of animal and human bodies."* The lack of information to which reference has been made in the above extracts will account for the many serious errors and misstatements, such as the absence of insulated statues and of simple representations of actual life, the relative dreami- ness of Buddhism and Hinduism, &c., which disfigure them ; and it is unnecessary to refute them in detail. But the general principle on which their main argument is based, is so obvious- ly and so entirely fallacious, that I cannot help expressing my wonder, that a professor, historian, and art-critic of Dr. Liibke's. standing and reputation, should have so readily adopted it. It is undeniable that religion exercised a most potent in- fluence in the development of the plastic art in the early states of human society ; and it is not surprising, therefore, that there should be observable prominent marks of a close alliance having existed between it and sculpture in former times. Then religion and sculpture often went forth hand in hand, and the light of the one frequently fell on the other. The same may be said of the fine arts generally, for poetry, music and archi- tecture, were as intimately connected with religion as sculp- ture. But they are nevertheless, by their origin and nature, as distinct and separate as the different intellectual faculties of * History of Art, I., p. S4. [ 107 ] man can well be, and in their progress each of them has fol- lowed its course without being very materially controlled by its allies. At any rate certain it is that plastic art attained its highest development, and called forth the greatest efforts of artistic genius, while living in close alliance with crass idola- try, and Christian Europe has hitherto failed to restore the lost hand of the " Laocoon" of idolatrous Rome. A far purer religion now prevails in Europe than was ever before known in Greece or Rome, and the conception of the nature of the Deity there among the different orders of the people, is cer- tainly better than that of the Grecians, class for class. But plastic art, instead of gaining by alliance with a higher state of intellectuality and a purer and holier religion, has positive- ly degenerated, and fallen back. It is futile, therefore, to take for granted that the grossness of the Hindu religion and its metaphysical dreaminess arc the only causes, or the chief causes, of the low character of the Indian plastic art, — or rather to assume, as the professor has done, that Indian plastic art must be low, because the Hindu religion is bad. It is nor for me to plead in favor of Indian mythology, nor am I its apologist; but very few intelligent persons will venture to maintain that Greek mythology was ever much superior to it. There exists a family likeness between the two which has induced several to attribute to them a common origin. If so, and the professor's major be right, it would fol- low that the influence of religion on the fine arts should be alike in India and Greece. Moreover, plastic and pictorial representations of mythological allegories must give rise to forms which are unnatural, distorted, and monstrous, and na- tions which look upon such mythology as sacred, do not hesi- tate to recognize the divine in such forms. It remains, how- ever, to be shown that this recognition of divinity in forms which to Europeans of the present day appear monstrous, necessarily destroys, or overpowers, the aesthetic faculty, and [ 108 ] that those wlio do so, are, as a matter of course, incapable of appreciating the beautiful. No nation of ancient or modern times has evinced a higher sense of the beautiful in art than the Grecians. The beau-ideal of perfection in the human figure was conceived and developed by them, and them only, and yet the same Grecians recognized in Triton, the " upper part of whose body was human, and the l(jwer part like that of a fish, with a tail turned in a lunar form," a god, and the son of their great god Neptune. They had also a god, Pan, " who had the body of a man, a red face with a flat nose, horns upon his head, and the legs, thighs, tail, and feet of a goat." Another of their gods, Typhoeus, son of Earth by Tartaros, was hundred-headed, and three sons of their great god Uranos, namely, Cottos, Briareos, and Gyes, had each a hundred hands (eKaroyx^V^O- These were certainly more, monstrous than the elaphocephalous Ganes'a, the four-headed Brahma, and the ten-handed Durga of the Indian mythology. As to the four hands of Vishnu, it would not be amiss to observe that aesthetically two pairs of hands for a single hu- man figure are not more unnatural than a pair of hands and a pair of wings on the same figure, such as the Greeks and the Romans clapped on even their handsomest Cupids. Vishnu with a lion's head has his counterpart in O'ceanos, who, ac- cording to Euripides, was "bull-headed" (rarpoKpaiw). Then for Ravana, whom Professor Liibke takes to be a god, but who is an avowed monster, and other Indian, abnormal re- presentations, the Grecians had their Sirens, who, whatever their original forms, were by their artists " furnished with the feathers, feet, wings, and tails of birds," and are so described by Apollonios (IV. 898);— their Gorgons, whom yEschylus calls the " three sisters of the Gra:ai, winged, serpent-fleeced, hateful to man, whom no one can look on and retain his breath ; i. c, live."— (Prom. 800 et seq.) ;— their Gra^ae, " the three long-lived maids, swan-formed, having one tooth and [ 109 ] one eye in common, on whom neither the sun with his beams nor the night-moon ever looks ;" (Op. cit.) ; — their Harpies, " odious, offensive monsters with female faces, and the bodies, wings, and claws of birds" ; — their Satyrs and Tatyrs and Centaurs. These arc beings which certainly inspire no very lofty sense of the ideal of beauty in the issues of Greciac gods and supernatural beings ; but they at the same timu afford unmistakable evidences " of attempts to produce effect by the quaint combinations of animal and human bodies," which, in connexion with the Hindus, Professor Llibke so emphatically condemns. Nor were these beings merely the dramatis persona; of myths and legends; most of them formed the subjects of plastic art among the Greeks, and their greatest artists, not only prepared them, but prized them most highly. It is said that Phryne, the Theban courtesan, after whom Praxiteles had chiseled two of his inimitable Venuses, wishing to possess the finest piece of work in the atelier of the great master, "sent one day a servant to Praxiteles to tell him that his workshop was in flames, and that his w^orks were in danger of being destroyed. Praxiteles rushed out in the greatest alarm and anxiety, exclaiming that 'all was lost if his Satyr and Cupid were not saved.'"* The exclamation gave the shrewd woman an idea of what was the most valuable in the estimation of Praxiteles, and she took the Satyr for choice. This shows that it was possible for the artist who conceived and perfected the renowned Cnidian Venus and the handsomest Cupid, like- wise to conceive and develope a Satyr, and, what is more, to hold the Satyr and the Cupid in equal estimation. It is evi- dent also that the nation which believed in a gross pol}-theis- tical religion, and accepted Triton and Pan for divinities, could appreciate, and, by its appreciation, lead to the production of * Westmacott's Hand-book of Sculpture, p. l8o. [ no i the finest works of art that human ingenuity has ever brought forth. The Romans, Hkewise, following an equally gross poly- theistical religion, and, believing in the divinity of the two- headed Janus,* did produce works which continue to this day the models of perfection. Looking to these facts, the only reasonable conclusion that can be arrived at is, that, however great the influence of religion on the plastic art, and great it certainly was at one time, it never was sufficient to destroy her separate existence, or even to control to any material extent her independent progress. When in alliance with religion, she served religion faithfully, by producing forms which it demanded, without any reference to taste, but she never lost her yearning to ad- vance to perfection, and that irrespective, and even in defiance, of the checks, which religion tried to impose on her. The yearning was strong enough even in the very early times of the ancient Egyptians, who had to lay down rules to prevent the statues of gods from being carved in other than the old conventional self-same way which their forefathers had approved during the infancy of the art. The Hindus did the same; and yet the Egyptians and the Hindus failed to pre- vent the delineation of simple objects of nature and scenes of cvery-day life, so as to make the attempt at imitation more and more faithful, and quite different from what the rules insisted upon. In the same way, when serving as a handmaid to poetry, plastic art, without forgetting her own true end, tried her best to give shape and form to poetical ideas and allegories, and did so without reference to the extent to * Janus Bifrons or Biceps. This divinity seems not to have been always satisfied with his two heads, for "it is said that at the taking of Falerii a statue was found with four faces ; and at Rome there was a temple of Janus Quadri- frons," — a veritable twiii-lirother uf the lliiulu Hraluna. See Keighlley's Mytho- logy of Greece and Italy, p. 463. [ III ] which she conformed to natural laws. Phidias, carving his celebrated figure of Minerva, thirty nine feet high, had to put on her hand a winged figure of victory, and this could be done by making a full grown and fully-dressed woman stand on the open palm of another, but the unnatural arrangement never deterred him from accom- plishing the task he had undertaken. In later times, Michael Angelo was called upon, by the nature of his subject, to intro- duce a monster's head with the horns of a ram, at the bottom of his unrivalled work of art, the Last Judgment. In the creation of Eve in Wells Cathedral, there is a composition in which a human figure is shown leaning on a bench, and from his back projects the upper half of a female figure, i.e., a monster with two heads, and two trunks supported on one pair of legs. The object of the artist, it is true, was only to represent a particular instant in the production of a natural being, but the resulting figure is abnormal for all that. Gio- vanni da Bologna had to reduce to shape the allegory of Mer- cury or rumour depending on human tongue, and he designed a lithe, agile, nude male figure w^ith a cap and wings on his head, leaping out of "expanding rays (but very material and like a bundle of sticks) issuing from the puffed cheeks, or rather mouth, of a zephyr, whose head only is exhibited, "-f- Again, Benvenuto Cellini, in his no less celebrated than magni- ficent group of Perseus and Andromeda, represents Perseus descending from mid-air to liberate the captive fair, and save her from the attack of a dragon issuing from flames, but, as travelling in mid-air, however natural to birds, is not quite consonant to human nature, the figure looks more like a man kicked down headlong from the top of a house than a hero descending for a fight with a monster. This offence against nature could not, however, be avoided. The story needed it, and the artist did what he could to preserve its substance. * Westmacott's Hand-book of Sculpture, p. 307. [ 112 ] Similarly, when the Hindu artist had to give shape to the allegory of the birth of Brahma, he designed, not a woman, as supposed by Dr. Liibke, but an infant reclining on a leafy couch to typify the perfection of innocence and purity, and made it suck its toe, as an emblem of supreme happiness, and it is questionable if there is any other object in nature which can symbolise those attributes with greater perfection than an infant so occupied. The ornaments on the infant may be "foolish" according to European notions regarding such things, but there exist such excessive differences of opinion and so much local prejudice even among Europeans regarding the propriety and beauty of particular personal ornaments, that a very good plea, I fancy, may be urged in their favour, founded on the spirit of the age when the sculpture was first designed, and on the attachment of the people of this country to orna- ments. The issue of an umbilical cord from the navel of such an infant, and the presence of a human figure,* Brahma, on the top of it, however unpoetical, are, on the whole, not quite so revolting as the Eve of Wells Cathedral. Besides mythology and poetical allegory there are other causes which lead to monstrous, unnatural, or incon- gruous representations in paintings and sculpture : these are caprice, artistic conceit, and extravagance, very similar to what are so common amongst poets. They lead to the pro- duction of rams issuing from the volutes of Corinthian or composite pillars ; of human figures whose nether halves are formed of undulating dockweeds, — compositions which first made their appearance on the frieze of Torre de Nerone, and long after got into fashion among the artists of the Renais- sance ; — of lions and bulls whose hind quarters are formed of the same weed ; and of a variety of other unnatural forms, * The multiplicity of hands and feet assigned by Dr. Liibke to Brahma is not autliorised by the allegory, and is probably due to a mistake, [ 113 1 some very pleasing, others grotesque and repulsive. But such vagaries, whether resulting from mythological, allegorical, poetical, or artistic causes, are mere accidents, and not the es- sentials of the plastic art, and their presence, therefore, does not afford sufficient a priori argument against the possibility of the Hindus attaining any great proficiency in sculpture. That they did not attain it is a fact not to be denied ; but the cause is to be looked for elsewhere than in their religion. What the cause was which led to this negative result I shall not venture to guess, seeing that European scholars have not yet been able satisfactorily to account for the positive supe- riority of the Greeks.* The different ancient schools with which Orissian art may be compared are the Daedalian, the Di-edalian school. . iEgmetan the Etruscan, the Egyptian, and the Assyrian. They all show manifest marks of an early state of art — of an art which had risen above the rude imita- tion of primitive races — of mere ingenious carving, — and fully assumed its position as an art, but was still wanting the genius of a great master — of a Phidias — who could emancipate it from its archaic and hieratic fetters, and may, therefore, be fairly put in juxta-position with the Uriya school, notwith- standing the fact of there being great differences in their ages. The general character of the school of Daedalus is well ex- emplified in " the self-same face, figure and action of Jupiter, Neptune, Hercules, and several heroic characters : " their " narrow eyes, their thin lips with the corners of the mouth turned upwards, their pointed chin, narrow loins, and turgid muscles,"-f- all bespeak a primitive age of art. The works of the /Eginetan agc(R. C. 580-480) are some- whatinadvanceof the last ; but "the heads /Eginetan school. are still either totally destitute of expres- * Westmacott's Hand-book of Sculpture, p. 76. t Westropp's Hand-book of ArchcKology. p. 126. [ 114 ] sion, or are all reduced to a general and conventional expres- sion," and by "the oblique position of the eyes and mouth, they present that forced smile which seems to have been the characteristic feature common to all productions of the ancient style."* Adverting to this era Mr. Westmacott, in his remarks on the celebrated collection of statues discovered in 1812 on the island of ^gina, observes : " Here again the archaic ele- ment steps in in the character of the head, which exhibits all the peculiarities of the more ancient schools before referred to. However earnestly engaged, and even when wounded or dying, each warrior or hero has a smiling expression ; the mouth being slightly open, as though the occupation of slaying and being slain was of the most pleasing and satisfactory nature."*!- Professor Lubke's estimate of the merits of this school is very much the same. Talking of Greek art of the end of the 6th century, he says: "We find animals fighting, then a lion tearing a roe to pieces ; then sphinxes and centaurs, human figures with fishes' bodies and other phantastic devices, side by side with scenes from actual life, such as men reclining at a social feast; and all in a heavy, stiff style, the figures strong- ly out of proportion and varying in size."^ The first style of the Etruscan art was far inferior to that of Dcedalus. "The rectilinear lines, the Etruscan school. . .... - ... rigid attitude, the nnperfect moulding ol the features, the want of proportion in the limbs, and the ob- lique eyes which characterise it, and which received from the Romans the contemptuous name of 'opera Tuscanica,'" and the exaggerated forms of its second style, the very opposite of all that is graceful, easy, and flowing, place them in a low stage. The superiority of the later Etruscan, as of the Roman, * West repp's I land -book of Archa;ology, p. 126. t Handbook of Sculpture, p. 109. X History of Sculpture, I, p. 82. [ 115 ] style is due to the influence of the Greek art of the golden age, and need not therefore be noticed in detail. Egyptian art is by far the oldest ; but by no means the most perfect. "Egyptian bas-relief," says Egyptian school. ^.^ Gardner Wilkinson, "appears to have been, in its origin, a mere copy of painting, its predecessor. The first attempt to represent the figures of gods, sacred em- blems, and other subjects, consisted in painting simple outlines of them on a flat surface, the details being afterwards put in with colour ; but in process of time these forms were traced on stone with a tool, and the intermediate space between the various figures being afterwards cut away, the once level sur- face assumed the appearance of a bas-relief. It was, in fact, a pictorial representation on stone, which is evidently the cha- racter of all the bas-reliefs on Egyptian monuments ; and which readily accounts for the imperfect arrangement of their figures. " Deficient in conception, and above all, in a proper knowledge of grouping, they were unable to form those com- binations which give true expression ; every picture was made up of isolated parts put together according to some general notions, but without harmony or preconceived effect. The human face, the whole body, and everything they introduced were composed in the same manner, of separate members placed together one by one according to their relative situa- tions : the eye, the nose, and other features, composed a face; but the expression of feelings and passions was entirely want- ing ; and the countenance of the king, whether charging an enemy's phalanx in the heat of battle, or peaceably offering incense in a sombre temple, presented the same outline and the same inanimate look. The peculiarity of the front view of an eye, introduced in a profile, is thus accounted for ; it was the ordinary representation of that feature added to a profile, and no allowance was made for any change in the position of the head. [ ii6 ] " It \vas the same with drapery : the figure was first drawn, and the drapery then added, net as a part of the whole but as an accessory ; they had no general conception, no pre- vious idea of the effect required to distinguish the warrior or the priest, beyond the impressions received from costume, or from the subject of which he formed a part ; and the same figure was dressed according to the character it was intended to perform. Every portion of a picture was conceived by itself, and inserted as it was wanted to complete the scene ; and when the walls of the building, where a subject was to be drawn, had been accurately ruled with squares, the figures were introduced and fitted to this mechanical arrangement. The members were appended to the body, and these squares regulated their form and distribution, in whatever posture they might be placed. " Thus then, as Diodorus observes of Eg>'ptian statues, various portions of the same figure might be made by several artists in different places, the style, and attitude having been previously agreed upon, which, when brought together, would necessarily agree and form a complete whole."* This uniformity, rigidity, and absence of nature and life which characterise the bas-reliefs, may likewise be notic- ed in the statues of Egypt. Page after page may be turned of the whole series of the ponderous tomes'j- of the savans who accompanied Napoleon the Great in his Egyptian expedi- tion, without encountering a single human figure which has any life, expression, or action — any dignity, grace, or case — about it; or is other than a stiff, formal, rude imitation of nature. The cause of this may be partly due to the law * Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, III., pp. 264f. t The writer regrets the necessity of depending here and elsewhere upon secondary evidence in the absence of personal knowledge of the originals. The evidence in the present instance, however, is generally acknowledged to be faithful. [ 117 ] referred to by Plato which forbade the artists to depart, in the slightest degree, in the execution of statues of the human form, from the type consecrated by priestly authority, but it implies likewise a primitive state of art, and want of apprecia- tion of, or inability to developc, the beauty of nature in stone. True it is, as justly remarked by Plato, " that the pictures and statues made ten thousand years ago arc in no one particular better or worse than what they now make."* The statues may be colossal in size, and vast in number, and, for the time when they were sculptured, highly creditable to the nation which made them; but they are neither natural nor beautful. The sculptures of Assyria are superior to those of Egypt. They display much more life, energy and Assyrian school. action. According to M. Beule, " Ce don de saisir I'cnergie de Taction et de caracteriser la force physique est le principal mcritc de la sculpture Ninivite ; elle constitute son originalitc. Jc ne sais trop si la race Assy- rienne fournissait le modelc de ces corps si bien charpentes, aux formes athletiques, aux muscles tendus comme des cor- dages ; je crois plutot que les artistes avaient exagere la nature et cree cette convention. De meme que les artistes Egyptiens effacent les saillies sur la peau, font la tete, les mem- bres, les extrcmites grcles, ct obtiennent un type ideal et prcsque immatcricl ; de mcmc les artistes Assyriens sc plaiscnt a faire les corps trapus, les epaules larges, la tete forte, le cou puissant, les bras et les jambes contures par la tension des veincs et des muscles."-f- They are, however, as deficient in the true spirit of art as the sculptures of Egypt. The author quoted above thus sums up the defects of Assyrian art : " Ce qui prouve que, dans I'un et I'autre pays, on etait arrive a unc convention absolue, c'est que les manoeuvres, les prisonniers, les ennemis qui habitent sur les frontieres les * Plato, II Book of Laws. t L'Art Assyricn, par M. Leulc ; Journal des Savants, Juillet 1S70, p. 422^ [ ii8 ] plus reculees, sont figures avcc la meme forme, qui n'etait plus qu'une sorte d'ecriture signifiant 1' hoimne ; de meme que toutes les tetcs ont la meme coiffure, la meme barbe bouclee, le meme nez, le meme ceil. Le costume ct la richesse des ornements servent seuls a distinguer le roi du dernier de ses soldats. Quant aux eunuques, ils ont le maintien lisse et la chevelure des femmes avec des membres et des muscles virils."* In all these there are peculiarities which may be more or less predicated of Orissan art ; but Orissan school. . . . at the same time there are pomts of excellence in it which are not to be met with in the ancient schools named. The conventionality of form, which is so marked in them, prevails to some extent everywhere in India. It resulted from indolence, combined with a desire to imitate art instead of nature, under circumstances which were particularly favourable to such mannerism. Untouched by extraneous influences, art in Orissa successively rose, became stationary, and declined with the civilization of the people, very much in the same way which marked its course in Egypt and elsewhere ; and its characteristics must to a certain extent be alike. The manner in which this conven- tionality takes the place of nature, has been most forcibly pointed out by Mr. Layard in his remarks on the decline of Assyrian art. " A certain proficiency," he says, " had been attained, and no violent changes took place to shake the established order of things, the artist, instead of endeavour- ing to imitate that which he saw in nature, received as correct delineations the works of his predecessors, and made them his types and his models. In some countries, as in Egypt, religion may have contributed to this result. Whilst the imagination, as well as the hand, was fettered by preju- * L'Art Assyrien, par M. Beule ; Journal des Savants, Juillet 1870, p. 422. [ 119 ] dices, and even by law, or whilst indolence or ignorance led t o the mere servile copying of what had been done before, it may easily be conceived how rapidly a deviation from correctness of form would take place. As each transmitted the errors of those who preceded him, and added to them himself, it is not wonderful, if, ere long, the whole became one great error. It is to be feared that this prescriptive love of imitation has excercised no less influence on modern art, than it did upon the arts of the ancients."* The art of the Uriyas had its foundation on the canons of the S'ilpa S'astra, which itself de- Its general character. duced them when Indian art had attained a certain pitch of excellence, for it conforms to them in all its main features ; and thus taking a text-book instead of nature for its model, it had an uphill work to exceed the limit of excellence which that text assigned it. The S'ilpa S'astra, however, dwelt on the forms, proportions, and features of gods, but it said nothing about ordinary human figures, and the artists had accordingly some liberty in dealing with the latter ; but as gods are only the ideal types of men, the advantage was not considerable. Never- theless, conventional forms are more frequent in the representations of gods than in those of mortals ; and the statues of gods and goddesses in Orissa, though carved in finer stones and finished with greater care and labour, are less successful as works of art than figures of ordinary men. This is best shown in Illustrations Nos. 63 and 64 of my ' Antiquities of Orissa.' The first is taken from a colossal figure of Bhagavati, "the mother of the universe," elaborately carved in black chlorite, and placed in one of the principal niches of the Great Tower of Bhuvanes'vara ; and the second, a mere ornamental figure of a dancing girl, in a side niche of * Nineveh, II, p. 282. [ 120 ] the Rajarani Temple ; and yet the mortal is far handsomer and more faithful to nature than the goddess. Illustrations Nos. 58, 59, and 60, also represent human figures, executed without much reliance on the rules of the S'ilpa S'astra, which may be taken to be average examples of the condition which the art of sculpturing such subjects had attained in Orissa. Generally speaking the forms of Orissan human figures are light and natural, and their action easy and lively. There is also manifest in them a kntnvledge of anatomy, a study of the organic contexture of the body, of the contour of its different members, a sense of the laws of gravity and motion operating on the body under different circumstances, and an excellence of imitation, carried to such a degree of truth as to give convincing proofs of an advanced step, and a higher stage in the development of art than are to be met with in Egypt or Assyria. The outlines, instead of being hard, stiff, and rectilinear, as in Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan, and Daedalean sculptures, are everywhere rounded, soft, graceful and in admirable repose. There is scarcely a single sharp angle, or a rigid straight line, in the whole composition to disturb its beauty ; and the execution throughout, though deficient to a certain extent in chiseling and finish, is such as to give the palm of superiority to Orissa. Even in small bas-reliefs, the easy grace of the king or the queen, the respectful attitude of the attendants, the versatility of the storyteller, and the gravity of the musician, are repre- sented with considerable success. The bas-reliefs of Udayagiri, though coarser and very much decayed, are even more full of life, action, and energy, and display a considerable amount of artistic conception. The bas-reliefs of Sanchi and Amard- vati are inferior to the last in this respect, but they are never- theless superior to those of h-gypt and Assyria. In some examples the poetical hyperboles of exceedingly slender waist and large hips, are attemi)tcd to be represented in stone [ 121 ] at a sad sacrifice of truth ; but they arc by no means the most finished samples of Uriya art. The busts are generally more protuberant than in Europe, Egypt, and Assyria, and to some extent offensive to European taste ; but this is probably due to a faithful representation of Orissan life, and not to a defect of art, or to a vitiated taste of the people re- flected on the artists. The female breasts are generally much more developed in India than in higher latitudes ; and in Orissa and Bengal they are particularly so, leading to early pendulosity to an extent unknown even in the North-Western Provinces. In the Punjab their size is generally not so large, nor does the declination commence until after the fortieth year, whereas in Bengal and Orissa it commences almost at the close of the teens, and the artist here, who would follow life, could not but produce something less beautiful than his brethren in Europe. This doubtless amounts to an admission that the artists failed to develop the ideal — to combine in one figure the finest points of beauty from a hundred living models — such as the Greeks did, and the Indian poet con- ceived in his Tilottama ; but the fact cannot be gainsaid. A similar attempt to represent nature faithfully has resulted in another defect, which Eu- Muscles. ropean artists cannot but complain of:* * Professor Liihke thus comments on this subject : "The org.inic structure of the body, the .articulation of the bones, and the network of muscles and sinews, disappear beneath the veil of soft voluptuousness. Everything indicat- ing vigorous strength and energy, and determination of will, is utterly repress- ed ; the figures are only qualified for a passive life of enjoyment, and for a vague dreaminess. They appear to us as devoid of free-will as the flower quivering on its stalk, or the leaf trembling in the breeze. Characteristically enough, Sakun- tala s arms are compared in poetry to supple stems. An insipid smile, indifferent and stereotyped, rests on the features of these figures." (History of Sculpture I., p. 17). These remarks are made with especial reference to certain bas-reliefs of Ellora, but they arc intended to be gener.1l, and to a certain extent .are true, as admitted above. The cause assigned is, however, entirely wrong. The absence [ 122 ] Indian statues are sadly wanting in muscles. The appear- ance of firmness, vigour, and strength, which so prominently characterises Grecian male figures, is due, to a great extent, to the bulging, knotty and rigid muscles they represent. The deltoid, the biceps, the pectoral, the gastrocnemius, and other muscles are all chiseled to perfection, and the)' strike the beholder with a sense of great strength and heroic manli- ness. Assyrian figures are, also, as stated above, well execut- ed in this respect ; but in Orissa prominent muscles are but too frequently wanting. Even the statue of Kartikeya, the mighty God of War, in the Great Tower of BhuvanesVara, to the execution of whose ornaments and garlands and brocade dress the artist has devoted uncommon attention and labour, appears without a single muscle projecting from under his skin. The calves, arms, breasts, shoulders, in short the whole body, is rounded, soft and plump, like that of a woman, Kartikeya, however, is a youthful divinity, partak- ing more of the Apollo than of the Hercules of the Grecian artists, and his plumpness, therefore, is in keeping, with his myth. The nude male figures at BhuvanesVara, Puri, and Konarak are, likewise, all rounded, soft and plump, and in them is seen the portraiture of the Uriya to perfection ; for he, like the Bengali, never attains anything like a well-developed calf, or a swelling deltoid. Rigid, knotty muscles are rarely to be seen in ordinary people, and even in acrobats and professed wrestlers they are generally ill-shown. A big, stout man is of muscles and sinews is not the result of the incapacity of Indian art, nor of the dreamy nature of the Hindu religion, but of successful art faithfully re- presenting the human form as modified by the Indian climate and oleagenous and vegetable diet. The sneer at the supple arms of Sakuntaki, is due to the ignor- ance of the appearance of a banana stem, and therefore calls for no remark. It may, nevertheless, be a matter of enquiry to many Indians if the " network of muscles and sinews" did, or did not, " ilisappcar bcncalli the veil of soft volup- tuousness" on the arms of the Venus de Mgdici ? t J23 ] always a fat man, never a muscular one ; and in the vernaculars of the country, the two are indicated by the same term. It is not to be expected, therefore, that muscular forms should be represented in a prominent manner in sculpture. As justly observed by Dr. Lubke, " Art can only attain to her highest aim in such epochs and among such nations as universally recognise the beauty of the human form, in which it is promoted by natural capacity and favourable conditions of climate, in which it is developed by uniform exercise ; and in which, lastly, the perfection of mind and body is equally cultivated."* In Bengal and Orissa, all these conditions are wanting ; the climate is not only not favourable to exercise and development, but it induces a habit of indolent, sluggish, passive state of life, in which one would rather see a dance while seated at ease than dance himself; and that dance is more liked which consists of a series of gentle posture- making than that which is an exuberant display of energy, as in Europe. The food of the people, also, is not only ill-calculated to develop the muscles, but it is exactly what is most favourable to cover the body with a supple coating of fat. In the North-Western Provinces, the people are taller, handsomer, and of better physique generally, but milk, ghi, and butter, being very largely used, and the climate for many months in the year being unfavorable to hard out- door exercise, their muscles are usually covered by a coating of fatty matter, and they fail to produce that idea of strength which prominent muscles are calculated to do. Egyptian sculptures arc, also, sadly deficient in this respect, and it may be a question as to how far the defect there is due to ethnic peculiarities. It should be added, however, that in those Orissan figures which are represented as undergoing violent exertion, or bearing heav\- weights, as in the dwarf under the architrave, in Illustration No. 7, of my " Antiquities of * History of Sculpture, I., p. 4. [ 124 ] Orlssa, the circumstance is indicated as much by appropriate attitudes and positions as by rigid and swelling muscles displayed in a high state of tension. This cannot at all be predicated of Egyptian art. The form of the head in Orissa is generally oval, and ^, , the features are natural. According to Head. *=> the Gariida Purdna, the top of the cra- nium of a well-formed head should be rounded like an um- brella, a flat one bespeaking poverty, and one like the bottom of a pitcher, a worthless character ;* and this rule is very closely followed by Indian artists. The crown is generally high, though owing to the top-knot and other ornaments on the head, it is impossible to measure exactly whether the height from the upper line of the forehead to the top of the crown would equal one-fourth of the face. The hair is soft and flowing, and always chiseled with great care. It is never curly, or shaped into rounded buttons, as on the heads of Buddhist statues and Assyrian sculptures. Of the various ways in which the hair is dressed, detailed descriptions will appear under the head of coiffure. According to the authority quoted above, men with low foreheads are always prone to cruel acts, and fit only to be exterminated. Very high protuberant foreheads are equally condemned ;f in women especially so. A woman, who has a high protuberant forehead and serrated teeth, is sure, says an old adage, to lose [ 125 1 her husband on the night of her wedding.* Nevertheless, the leaning is in favor of high foreheads. According to the Giinida Piirdna, a forehead of medium size, somewhat pro- tuberant, and shaped like a half-moon, the upper arch being formed by the hair of the head and the lower by the eye- brows, is the most appropriate. -|- The Sdiimdrika is not satisfied with this, and expresses its liking for a good, broad, prominent forehead, condemning the narrow-headed to an early death.:): In men of mature age a high broad forehead is generally preferred, and this is what is common in sculp- ture, both for men and women ; and in ordinary Uriya life, this is not unoften heightened by the hair being combed backward, so as to expose the roots of the frontal hair, i. e., in the " Alexandrine style," which Plutarch characterises by the words, dvaa-ToX^^v Trj'ing on the upper side, and the lower eyelid forming almost a straight line. In maidens and young women, the upper lid hangs down and gives an amorous, languishing look. As the province of scul])turc is not to indicate colour, no attempt has been made in large statues to indicate the iris or the pupils ; but in bas- * Tmf'^T -^^W":^^ •aTT-Srf^^T^TfH^ftTT: I ^^TTTWT vif^^ ^^ ^ TT'fcZTJTT W-ment. Music and singing and chess constitute the means of amusement ; poetry sings of love ; and the drama prohibits the exhibition of tragic scenes on the stage. It is but natural, therefore, that art here should take an easy, soft, voluptuous tone, very different from that which is most gratif}'ing in high latitudes. In the early states of Indian society, when the Aryans had not yet lost theirt rans- IIimal\-an energy and vigour, the heroic in art and literature readily recommended itself to them, but in the seventh cen- tury of the Christian era, on the sea-board of Orissa, the case was otherwise. [ ^33 ] There is also a propriety in tiic proportion of the differ- ent figures of a group in Orissa which we look for in vain in Egypt. Except under peculiar circumstances, such as that of fitting in a narrow tall niche a group which requires more breadth than height, or in representations of attendants on gods, where the attention of the beholder has to be concentrated exclusively on the principal figure, the enormity is never committed, as in the land of the Pharaohs, of making the king many times larger than his attendants. The relation to each other of the different individuals of a group in close union, or in a long procession, or in a narrative scene, — /". e. of the individual to the community, — has been to a great extent borne in mind, and perspective is everywhere attempted to be preserved, though not always successsfully. Of four-footed furniture the hind legs are always shown, and receding lines and angles follow to a certain, though small, extent the laws of perspective. In the delineation of drapery, Orissan artists have also displayed much greater proficiency than Drapery. 7 those of the ancient schools with whom I have hitherto compared them. The Egyptains ^\■ere, as already shown, the most defective in this respect. Anything like a graceful fold is nowhere to be met with in their works. The most colossal figures of sovereigns and other great men, such as that of Asymandyas at Thebes, appear all but nude, having nothing more on their persons in the way of dress than a strip of cloth round the waist, reaching a little below the middle of the thigh. On many females of rank a line across the legs and another near the neck indicate the limit of the dress, but its texture is nowhere else visible, and the figures, to all intents and purposes, are naked. The tunics on soldiers arc indicated by two oblique lines on the sides, but nothing like a fold appears anjwhcrc. The sculptures of [ 134 ] Assyria are equally defective in this respect, though the ornamentation on their cloth is more carefully shown than in Egypt. The most ancient specimens of Greek art are in this respect no better. Taking, for instance, the sculptures in the temple at Assos, now in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris, or the Metope from Selinus, representing Perseus and Medusa, now in the Museum at Palermo, or the seated figure of Minerva found at Athens and preserved at the Acropolis, or the statues from Miletus, now in the British Museum, the drapery appears, in a rude symbolical st)'le, without any attempt at imitation of natural folds. If the object of dra- pery be, " not fully to conceal the body, nor to disfigure its outline and structure, but to harmonise in its folds with the form and organization of the body, and with the grace of its move- ments, clinging to it and receiving from it its law, just as in music the instrumental accompaniment follows the melody which the human voice gives forth," — in short, if it be intend- ed as an adornment, and not a cloak, all the three nations named, viz.^ the Egyptians, Assyrians, and the Greeks of the 6th century, B. C, failed to employ it in its true character. Orissan artists, on the other hand, worked differently, and took considerable pains in most of their more finished works to display the folds of dress with every regard to nature ; and the success they attained in this branch of art was not small. The folds of the turban, the movement in the floating ends of the cJiadar or himation, the plaited fronts of the dhiiti, or ko)ichd, the folds of skirts of tunics and j'd //id, as also the wrinkling of cloth tied round the waist, and of sleeves, arc all delineated with care, and bespeak an artistic knowledge and capacity in many respects superior to those of the ancient schools. In tiie formation of the idols of gods the proportions laid down in the S'ilpa S'astra seem to Relative proportions. .... have been generalh', but neither invari- [ 135 ] ably nor very strictly, observed. According to the Manasara, the entire lengh of a figure from the crown to the heels should be divided into a hundred and one parts,* and these are taken as the units of measure by which the proportions of the other parts of the composition should be regulated. The thighs, according to this authority, "should measure two heads, or twice twelve parts in length. The knee-caps should be of the same size as the ears, and the legs equal to the thighs. The foot should be as high as the knee-caps, and slightly arched. Its length from the heel to the end of the great toe should be sixteen instants. The arm of twenty-four instants is reckoned the most apropriate. The elbow should measure two instants, and the forearm eighteen fingers. The hand to the end of the middle finger should be ten instants. The face should include eleven parts, and the neck four parts, or the same as the shoulder from the root of the arm or the expanse of the knee- The upper extremity should measure thirty-six fingers. Twenty instants for the chest from axilla to axilla is the most appropriate ; and fifteen for the waist across the navel. The expanse of the hip should be thrice seven instants; and of the waist above it, nineteen. The 7ipavuila (?) should be twelve instants wide ; the hip-joint, ten and-a-half, and the top of the legs seven, and-a-half; its middle, six, which will be continuous for four instants ; and its lower end, three and-a-half. The heel should be four and-a-half fingers. The foot should measure eleven instants. The forepart of the foot should be five instants, but the part along the great toe, should be four instants ; the toe itself should be two instants long, and the * The term used is tara or tdla, i e., an instant, it being borrowed from the measure of time in music, very much in the same way in which European artists use the word nnniile for a similar purpose, and reckon the size of particular members of the body by so many heads, parts, and minutes. The word augida, or the breadth of the thumb, is apparently employed as nn equivalent of /(/A?, but to prevent misapprehension I have, in the paraphrase given above, used the word fmger : a literal translation is scarcely needed. [ 136 ] nail half an instant wide; the second toe should be as long as the first; the third, fourth, and fifth, should successively be three, two and-a-half, and two instants, respectively, or seven, six, and five barley-corns, and the nails halves thereof. The middle of the arm should be seven instants, as also the elbow. The mid-forearm should be four instants, and the wrist three instants. The expanse of the palm at the beginning should be six fingers, and its end five fingers, the length of the palm should be six fingers. The middle finger should, likewise, be six fingers long, and the two on its two sides five and-a-half fingers each. The thumb and the little finger should not exceed half the length of the middle finger. Six barley-corns, seven barley-corns and six barley-corns, should be the thicknesses of the thumb and the fingers, respectively."* cTT^^ VT^MITT ^T^i;-^^^ ^l^^f^ I ^^KTfCJTf^^^^ ff^ ^^TT^Tp^-^?^ II ^T=^tt4^" t'^^TT ^2"f(5(^T^«l^ fl"5n II ^^ * * * titt: ^ tr^TiTT-^^ v[^7i II s ^q^wlf^TTT'?!^ ^T73TT^'?lf?TT5r^ I ^■^^T^f^TTT^ rj Tlitr^JiJ^^ V%57 II [ 137 ] lOI rooo 24 0-237 24 0-237 16 0-158 24 0-237 2 0-019 18 0-178 10 0-099 II OTOS 4 0-039 4 0-039 36 0-356 20 0-198 The measurement, may be thus tabulated — Instants. Decimals. Total length, Thigh, Leg, I'oot, Arm, Elbow, Forearm, Hand, Face, Neck, Shoulder, Upper extremity. Chest (width), ^55T^T7r^-qif^??rT-r ■JTfpfTTT^Tf^ ^Tpf^ij; I TTT^* ^ riT^' ^ ^^''W^TT^^^ II %7Tir^TT^^ ^ iTf^W;t-fpl^^^5F^ II Wir^^W^ ^ ^^TTH^TT^TTTF ^ I ^Zr I ^li^^r^^f -irM qRRB-T-^^^^^^T II *rT5TWT^ ^* ^«IT^ I Asiatic Society's MS. N.59. [ 138 ] Instants. Decimals. Waist (ditto), ... ' .., Hip, upper part (ditto), Hip, lower part (ditto). Hip, joint (ditto). Leg, breadth, Leg, middle, Leg, lower end,... Heel, Foot, Great toe from meta-tarsus, Great toe, Second toe, Third toe. Fourth toe, Fifth toe, Arm, middle, ... Elbow, Forearm, middle, Wrist, Palm, breadth (beginning),... Ditto, (end), ... Ditto, length, ... Middle finger, ... Index finger, Ring finger. Little finger. Thumb, The limits of the different members noticed not being given, the definitions of some of these measurements are not clear, but as far as they arc intelligible, and definable, they show that the measures given are fair averages of the human body, except in the length of the arm which appears to be excessive, and this, I strongly suspect, is due to an error in the 15 0-148 19 0-188 21 0-207 loK 0-103 7K 0-074 6 0-059 1% ■034 4K •044 II 0-108 4 0-039 2 0-019 4 0-039 3 0-029 2K 0-024 2 0*019 7 0-068 7 0-068 4 0-039 3 0-029 6 0-059 5 0-049 6 0-059" 6 0-059 5K 0-054 5>^ 0-054 3 0-029 3 0-029 [ 139 1 Ft. In. MS. of the Manasara — a very corrupt one — I have at hand to consult ; as it does not correspond with the total length of the upper extremity subsequently given. It might, however, be the measure of the perfect upper extremity reaching as low as the knee, which, according to one of the occult sciences, ensures to its possessor universal sovereignty ; the subsequent measure being ordinary. The palm of the hand, the thumb, and the index and the little fingers, are also made a little shorter than they should be. These rules regarding the arm and the finger are, however, except in the case of a few Buddhist statues, never strictly followed ; and even as regards them, the adherence to the rules is far from being universal. A large copper statue found at Sultdnganj, and now deposited in the Manchester Museum, is the most longimanous of its kind, but it has not its arms quite so long as described in the S'ilpa S'astra. Its dimensions are — From the top-knot on the crown of the head, along the back to the edge of the heel, From ditto, along the front to the sole of the foot under the instep, Round the head. Top-knot, From bottom of top-knot to forehead. Length of face from forehead to chin. From chin down to waist. From waist to sole of foot. Round the breast. Across the shoulders, ... From shoulder-joint to elbow. From elbow to wrist, ... From wrist to end of middle finger, Foot, from heel to end of second toe The above measurements were taken with a common ... 7 6 2 ... O 3 ... 2% ... o 10 2 o ... 4 o ... 6 7 2 4 ... I 6 I o I o I 0% [ 140 tape without any reference to the principles followed by artists in the calculation of the relative proportions of the different parts of the human figure. They disclose, however, some curious facts ; thus, omitting the top-knot formed of a collection of hair on the crown of the head, I find that the total length of the figure (7 feet) is to the head (12)^ inches) as 6if to I, or in the language of artists, 6 heads, 3 parts, 9 minutes, instead of the usual standard of 8 to i, and also considerably under that of the antique statues. In the Her- cules, the Apollo, and the Laocoon, the length of the body varies from 7 heads, 2 parts, 3 minutes, to 7 heads, 3 . parts, 7 minutes. The tallest statue known is that of Mirmillo, and it measures 8 heads. The length of the fathom, again, which, in Europe, is reckoned to be the same as the height, is in the statue fully one-third more. This is owing, no doubt, to the belief common in India that the simian pecu- liarity of the hands reaching down to the knees is an emblem of divinity and universal sovereignty. It is worthy of note, however, that in a table published by Dr. Emil Schlagintweit in his recent work on Tibetan Buddhism, the fathom of Brahmans of Upper India is represented to be greater than the length of their body, and the Bhots have the same pecu- liarity in a greater degree. It is remarkable also that the latter make Buddhas and Bodhisattvas have shorter fathoms than their genii and dragshcds. The increase in the fathom is effected by an inordinate prolongation of the hands, leav- ing the arm and the forearm less than their natural proportions as compared to those of Indian Brahmans, of Bhots, and of Bhotanese idols; but somewhat longer than the European standard of i head, 2 parts, and 3 minutes to the arm, and i head, i part, and 2 minutes to the forearm. The foot, accord- ing to modern artists, should be one-sixth of the body, but in the statue this has been exceeded by a few minutes. The torso is slightly shorter than the Grecian standard. The artist [ 141 ] had evidently adopted the tall North Indian, and not the squat Bhot, for his model.'* The proportions of Kartikeya in the Great Tower, are as follow: — Total length, From crown to navel, Ditto to pubes, ... From pubes to heel, From navel to heel, Leg, knee to heel, Foot, Knee to hip, (trochanter), Face, Breast, shoulder to shoulder Arm, Neck, ... ... ... o 2>^ 0-034 Putting the rule of the Manasara, and the proportions of the Sultanganj Buddha and of the Bhuvanes'vara Kartikeya by the side of a table published in Mr. Elim Schlagintweit's work on Buddhism, I have the following: — Ft. In. Decimal 6 o rooo 2 4 0-388 2 lO 0-472 3 2 0-527 3 2 0.6 II I 8 0.277 II 0-152 I 8 0-277 o 1 1 0-152 2 4 0-388 6 0-083 Total height, Head Peripherj. round the forehead, .. Length of fathom Do, .^rm Do, Forearm Do, Hand Do, Foot I 000 o"io8 0-237 0-178 o-ii8 o'loS 1 000 0-152 I 000 0-119 0-2S5 1-342 0-214 0-142 0-142 0-14S "o s a Is. ffl 2 I -000 I -000 1,000 0-145 0-149 0,166 0-322 0-345 0,350 1-02S 1-069 1,080 0-433 0-451 0,449 0-165 0,164 0,149 o'loy 0,110 0,110 0-I44 0,145 0,140 QO'o 1,000 o,t6o 0,420 1,117 0,430 0,155 0,110 0,144 * Author's paper on the Bhuddhist Remains of .Sultanganj in the Journal of the .-Vsiatic Society of Bengal, XXX. [ 142 ] The disparities observable under the different heads of the above are so great that I cannot in any way reconcile them. It should be noticed, however, that even in classic art the disparities are also glaring. Bearing also in mind the caprice of nature and of artists, the changes which the hu- man form undergoes from infancy to old age, and in different nationalities, climates, habits, and professions, as also the exi- gencies of art, it must be admitted that such measurements cannot be fixed by any ideal standard, nor can any deduction of material importance be drawn from them. This much, however, may be said, that the human figures appear gener- ally to be well-proportioned ; their hands and feet are small, the arms are in keeping with the body, and the lower limbs are divested of the great length so ungainly and peculiar to the aboriginal form. In several figures which I have measured, the feet are, all but exactly, one-sixth of the body, and the hand two-fifteenths. The feminine hands are generally very small, and the fingers light and taper. In some statues the second toe is somewhat longer than the great toe. The great bulk of the sculptures in Orissa are in low re- lief, showing from one-eighth to one- Relief. fourth of the round. Some are in high relief or alti-rilievi, representing more than three-fourths of tlie round attached to a back ground ; while a few are entirely round. Most of the figures of gods are of the last descrip- tion. On friezes the nature and exigencies of architec- ture do not admit of other than bassi-rilievi, the highest parts of the different figures being on one level ; but in niches, both attached and isolated figures arc arranged on different levels and heights, so as to secure such a distribution of light and shade as to produce some amount of aerial per- spective. This trait bespeaks a considerable advance in the theory and practice of the plastic art, which the Egyptians and the iV.ssyrians never reached. Among the Greeks, too, [ 143 ] says Dr. Lubke, " the relief is restricted to one uniform level, and to the representation of only two figures side by side."* In figures of gods and goddesses in Orissa, as well as in other parts of India, the eyes, eyebrows, Colour. , ^. ., ,. and sometimes the lips, are the parts which are generally painted ; the colour of the rest of the body being left to be represented by that of the material of which the figures are made. In metallic figures painting is also limited to the same extent ; but in wooden statues the whole is very thickly painted, or gilt, so as entirely to cover the original material. To what extent this rule was followed in the setting off of ornamental sculpture, it is impossible now to determine. A basso-rilievo horseman in the Dancing Hall of the Great Tower at Bhuvanes'vara is painted all over, so are some figures in the Dancing Hall of the Puri Temple. But with those exceptions, there is nothing to show that the lavish profusion of sculptured ornaments which are to be met with in every part of Orissa, ever had any painting on them. I carefully examined every nook and cranny — the deepest recesses of niches — to find traces of pigments, but found none ; and the surfaces of finished sta- tues, whether placed indoors or on the outside, bear no mark of ever having been painted. It may be presumed, therefore that architectural and ornamental sculptures were not set off with paint. It should be added, however, that the bulk of those sculptures have been exposed to tropical rains for near twelve hundred years, and it is futile now to expect any trace of paint on them, even if they ever had any. In describing the merits of Orissan art I must not for- get to notice the despicable taste which ^^^'^'^" the artists have displayed by making some of their figures most disgustingly obscene. By this * History of Sculpture, I., p. 3. [ 144 ] I do not refer to their nudity, for, as justly observed by professor Liibke, " the task of sculpture is to conceive man in his full natural beauty. Hence the nude figure in its strictest sense is required. The perfect harmony and beauty of the whole can only be displayed in the unclothed form. " This canon has been more or less accepted by artists and men of taste in every age and clime, and the Uriyas have rather evinced a true sense of the proper sphere of sculpture by chiseling the nude, and not thereby given offence to good taste.* But they have added thereto certain licentious representations which do not admit of description. Their number is small, and they by no means enter into the general scheme of ornamentation of the temples ; but there they are ; and their existence cannot but offer a violent shock to all modern sense of propriety and decency. I enquired of many learned pandits at Puri, as to why such offensive figures had been allowed to desecrate the sanctuary of the Divinity ; but they could tell me nothing worth hearing. In one instance obscenity in a temple has been accounted for on the supposition of its being expiatory. In a note on Kajraha with reference to Rashiduddin's men- tion of that town. Sir Henry Elliot states that "in the Prithviraj Rayasa mention is made of a Brahman woman, Hamavati by name, who had committed a little faux pas wuth the moon in human shape, and, as a self-imposed pu- nishment for her indiscretion, held a Bdnda jag, a part of which ceremony consists in sculpturing indecent represen- tations on the walls of temples, and holding up one's foibles to the disgust and ridicule of the world. "f The story * If of tlie two Venuses by Praxiteles, the originator and great master of the sensuous style of rich voluptuous beauty, the citizens of Oxus decided to take the draped figure, as the more modest of the two, the people of Cnidos refused to give up the nude one, the renowned Cnidian Venus, even to ransom their city from foreign conquerors. t Muhammadan Historians, I,, p. [ 145 ] occur.-! In the ist Canto of the Banarcs MS. of Chand, and in Mr. Growse's translation of it,* mention is made of the Bhan- dava sacrifice, but without any allusion to indecent represen- tations on temples, and I can nowhere find a description of the ceremony in any Sanskrit work. Possibly there may be some authority for it, and the obscenity on Hemavati's temple at Kharjinpur or Kajraha might be accounted for on the sup- position that she wished to expiate her fault by a disgustingly public confession. But it is scarcely to be supposed that all the principal sculptured temples of Orissa owe their indecent ornaments to a like cause, and I am disposed to think that the ex- planation is more ingenious than true. It is much more probable that the indecent figures on the old Central Indian temples were due to the same cause which produced them in Orissa. What that cause was, it is difficult now to say with perfect certainty. A vitiated taste, aided by general preva- lence of immorality, might at first sight appear to be the most likely one; but I cannot believe that libidinousness, however depraved, would ever think of selecting fanes dedicated to the worship of God, as the most appropriate for its manifestation ; for it is worthy of remark that they occur almost exclusively on temples and their attached porches, and never on enclos- ing walls, gateways, and other non-religious structures. "Our ideas of propriety," according to Voltaire, "lead us to suppose that a ceremony" (like the worship of Priapus), "which ap- pears to us so infamous, could only be invented by licentious- ness ; but it is impossible to believe that depravity of manners would ever have led among any people to the establishment of religious ceremonies. It is probable, on the contrar)', that this custom was first introduced in times of simplicit}', — that the first thought was to honor the dclt\' in the s\-mbol of life * Journal, As. Soc. XXXVII., I't. I., p. 121. [ 146 ] which it has given us; such a ceremony may have excited licentiousness among youths, and have appeared ridiculous to men of education in more refined, more corrupt, and more en- lightened times," but it never has its origin in such feelings. Besides, vicious propensities have, in India, been everywhere and at all times most emphatically denounced, and there is no creed known in this country which does not condemn it as hateful. It is out of the question, therefore, to suppose that a general prevalence of vice would of itself, without the autho- rity of priests and scriptures, suffice to lead to the defilement of holy temples. A religious sanction for it must be sought, and this, I believe, occurs in the fact of most of the temples on which the offensive figures are shown being dedicated to the mys- tical adoration of the phallic emblem. From a very early period in the history of religion, the phallic element has held a prominent place in the mind of man. Most of the leading religions of the ancient world — the Egyptian, the Chaldean,'the Assyrian, and the Mosaic — manifested it in some form or other; and in primitive unsophisticated states of soci- ety, when philosophical conceptions of the mystery of gener- ation "had not yet given to the various parts and members of the human bod}', those names which constitute the special vocabulary of obscenity of the present day, many symbols and representations were not only held inoffensive, but sacred," and their presence on ancient monuments, therefore, cannot be a matter of surprise. According to Dulaure the symbolic figure carried in procession during the festival of Osiris and Isis, (I's'varar^S'iva, and his consort I's'a) was a representation of the phallus of the bull.* In the Old Testament, allusion is made to Jewish women manufacturing phalli of gold and of silver.-|- In an interesting memoir on the worship of S'iva in * Dulavirc's Ilistoire abrcgce de diffcrens Cultes, II., 32. + L^ckicl, xvi., 17. 24. and 25. According to the Vulgate; " et cdificasli tibi [ 147 ] Kiiropc in former times, Professor Ilolmboe cites an extract from an ancient history of Kin^f^ St. Olaf, who introduced Christianity in Norwa}', in which mention is made of a pagan family residing in the province of Nordhind, "qui adorait Ic hnga d'un cheval, qu'on avait tuc, mais dont on avait con- serve Ic vcretrum. Les soirs cette piece passait de main en main non seulement parmi les personnes de la famille, mais encore parmi les hotes qui pusscnt etrc presents, chaqu'un rccitait un verset en dclivrant I'idole a un autre."* In one of the apartments of the great palace at Karnac, there are several figures representing "une offrande d'un heros Egyptien a la grande divinite de Thebes au Dieu regenerateur caracterise par le membre viril en erection,"-f- and these are repeated in the interior of its great granite Propylon and other places. In obscenity they are scarcely inferior to the works of the Uriya artists. These and innumerable other instances which could be easily multiplied, were it worth while, suggest the conclusion that the public exhibition of the phallus in the early ages had nothing in it which partook of indecency. "All ideas connect- ed with it were of a reverential kind. When Abraham, as mentioned in Genesis, in asking his servant to take a solemn oath, makes him lay his hand 'under his thigh,' it was that he requried, as a token of his sincerity, his placing his hand on the most revered part of his body ; as, at the present day a man would place his hand on his heart in order to evince his sincerity. Jacob, when dying, makes his son Joseph perform lupanor, gab et fecesti tibi prostibulum in cumelis plateis; ad omne caput vice xdificasti signum prostitvitiones tuce, et divisisti pedes (inguina) tuos omni tran- suenti." Again, (V. 31) "fabricanti lupanar tuum in capita omnis via; — nee jocta es quasi maritrix fastidio angens pretium sed quasi amelier adultera qure cujus vcrum suuni inducit aiienos." • Journal As. Soc. XXXVI., p. 182. t Description de 1' Egypte, Vol. Ill,, Plates Tfi and 47. [ 148 ] the same act. A similar custom is still retained among the Arabs. An Arab, in taking a solemn oath, will place his hand on his mcmbrum virile in attestation of his sincerity."* Thou- sands upon thousands of Hindus — men, women, and chil- dren — visit the Orissan temples every year ; they undertake long and tedious journeys in the most inclement of Indian seasons ; undergo the greatest privations, to have a sight of them ; and return home with the firmest conviction that they have by the pilgrimage freed themselves of all their sins, with- out even indulging in the merest shadow of an idea, that there is any thing improper or indecorous in all that they have seen. The whole to them is a mystery, — a mystery of ancient times hallowed by age and enveloped in everything that is pure and holy, — and none attempts to lift the veil, and pry into secrets, or their causes, which his ancestors for centuries left untouched. You may point out the offensive character of the representa- tions before him, and create a cloud of anxiety and uneasiness in his mind, but it is only a passing cloud that soon melts away before the fervour of his faith. Looking to these facts I am induced to believe that the offensive figures are due to a desire to typify a religious idea, and not to an inherent vicious taste in the artistSj-f* or their employers. It was not "to incite, excite, or gratify the lower feelings of the public," "to lower art to unworthy purposes * Journal of Anthropology, No. I., July 1S70, p. cxl. t By this remark it is not at all my wish altogether to exonerate the artists from some pruriency of imagination. Few artists of note have been above it. Even the renowned Phidias succumbed to it when he carved nude females rest- ing in a pronate position on supine youths on the throne of his glorious Olympian Jupiter— a work of art, which according to the Stoic Epictetus, "it was still con- sidered a misfortune for any of his contemporaries to die without having seen." What the figures represented is not positively known. According to I'ausanias, they were Sphinxes seizing Thcban youths ; others took them to be Hercules and Theseus fighting with Amazons; but whatever they might have iicen, they were certainly not in very decent positions. [ 149 ] by objectionable representations," but to symbolize a religious idea, that the offensive sculptures were carved ; and this was done without any perception of their offensive character. This is the more apparent in the circumstance of all the other ornaments being chaste, and their disposition thoroughly art- istic. Tendrils and young leaves, flowers and fruits, pretty birds and pet animals, young children and youthful maidens, — the most graceful objects in nature, — have everywhere been selected for ornamentation, and they have been so combined as to produce the most striking effects. They have been, perhaps, more profusely employed than the classic taste of the Grecians would have permitted ; but the accumulations being harmonious are not displeasing, and the main object being magnificence, they could not well be avoided. It may be added also that no object has anywhere been represented which is not calculated to inspire a sense of beauty in the beholder. The Romans made a grave mistake in this respect by placing skulls of men and oxen with cross bones between their triglyphs as objects of beauty. Long association may have altogether deadened the repulsiveness of those objects to the European eye, but, as Ruskin pointedly observes, " we may keep a skull beside us as long as we please ; we may overcome its repulsiveness ; we may render ourselves capable of perceiving many qualities of beauty about its lines ; we may contemplate it for years together if we will, it and no- thing else ; but we shall not get ourselves to think as well of it as of a child's fair face."* Nothing of the kind occurs in Orissan temples. Grotesque forms and unnatural combina- tions are not uncommon, but they are by no means more ob- trusive than in Greek or Roman art, and if the religious ele- ment and its monstrous conceptions could be eliminated, there would be little that would be disagreeable, or unpleasant. It * Modern Tainters, II., 30. [ 150 ] is worthy of remark also that at Bhuvanes'vara this reh'gious element is not particularly prominent ; and the bulk of the ornaments have been copied from nature, and arranged with considerable study and refinement of taste. In carving the ornaments, the Orissan artists followed the Assyrian plan of working in situ, and Carving/;; uttu not the Egyptian one of preparing the sculptures in their ateliers, and then fixing them in their pro- per places. The temples were first built with a casing of carefully dressed ashlars, the largest blocks being placed where large statues were to be carved, and the sculptures traced and cut after the buildings had been completed. This is evident from the number of tracings existing on temples which circum- stances afterwards prevented the artists from cutting and finishing : this plan was also followed in the ornamentation of the Sarnath Tower and the Bhilsa Tope. This doubtless must have entailed stupendous labour, but it minimised the risk of injury to finished works. Three lions on the shaft of the Konarak Temple measure eighteen feet in length each, and were origin all}' placed at a height of over sixty feet above the level of the surrounding country. In rough block, each of them must have weighed over ninety tons, and when being lifted to their places they must have been subjected to an amount of rough usage, \\-hich could never have spared the integrity of any carved work. In the case of ornamental bands and small bas-reliefs, the risk of injury, it is true, was not great ; but in the absence of cement, it was necessary for the sake of strength and solidity in the temples to adopt the course under notice. The rule, however, did not apply to the images of gods in the sanctuaries, and also to some of the more finished statues in niches, which were evidently first carved in the shops of the artists, and afterwards removed to the places designed for them. t 151 ] Reference has been made above to the cop[)cr statue of Buddha found at Sultanganj.* It is the Torculic art. ^ . . , largest metal figure of ancient times that has come under observation in this country. In artistic exe- cution it is in no way inferior to the ordinary run of stone statues of Buddha found at Behar, Sarnath, and other places in Northern India, showing that the people at the time were as competent in carving in stone as in modelling and mould- ing. But the most remarkable circumstance in connexion with it is the evidence it affords of the capacity of the people in melting and casting copper in such large quantities as to produce figures seven feet four inches in height. So extraor- dinary and improbable did this circumstance appear to some of the European officers of the East Indian Railway Company, when the figure was discovered, that they took it to be of Birmingham manufacture, sent out to this country for sale. There is, however, no doubt now about its Indian and ancient origin. Other figures of copper have been found, and there is ample proof in the ancient copper weapons of war that that metal was largely worked by the people of former times. It must be added, however, that on the whole, copper was never very largely used in the fabrication of statuary, and bronze never, that alloy being held impure. Brass is more readily melted ; it has a more attractive colour ; it takes a finer polish; and is firmer, more malleable, less liable to rust, and more easily wrought than copper. It has, therefore, been gcnerall)' preferred as a material for ornamental figures. In the formation of the statues of gods, it is also very largely employed ; but in such cases it is allo}-cd with small (luanti- ties of six other metals, viz., gold, silver, iron, tin, lead, and mercury, making, with the copper and zinc of brass, eight, wliich alloy is esteemed the purest and prized very highly as Journal of the Asiatic Society of Dengal, XXXIII., 360. [ 152 1 ashfadhdtu. Statuettes of pure gold or silver were also made, and in the Sastras much praise is bestowed on those who wor- ship idols made of them ; but no authentic ancient figure of the precious metals has come to my notice. The Tantras recommend lingams made of mercury as the most sacred ; but I have seen none, and know not how the metal was manipulated ; — probably it was used in the form of an amal- gam with lead or tin. In Orissa the metal figures of gods and goddesses are mostly of brass, and a few of ashtadhatu. They have been made by being first cast in moulds, and afterwards finished by chiseling and filing. The large figure of Lakshmi in the Great Temple of Puri affords the best specimen of its kind, and figures from i to 2 feet in height are met with in some of the minor temples. But, generally speaking, the ex- ecution of metallic figures of the Uriyas is inferior to the better specimens of their stone sculpture, and the size of such figures is generally so small that they are not worthy of any lengthened notice as specimens of the toreutic art. Nothing need also be said of legends on coins, inasmuch as no indi- genous coin of an ancient date has yet been found in Orissa. Metallic figures have been little cmplo}-ed for ornamental pur- poses, except as feet for thrones, stands for lamps, and for other articles of domestic use. But in their case the execu- tion is of a very primiti\-c kind. The researches of James Prinscp have clearly demon- strated that some of the Hindu princes of the first century of the Christian era borrowed their numismatic devices from the Bactrain Greeks. They failed, however, to preserve the beauty of the original designs, and in a few centuries so entirely debased them as to render them irrccognisable. To what extent this importation of the art of die-sinking reacted on Indian toreutic art gcncrall}' it is impossible now, in the utter absence of authentic, ancient, dated specimens, to deter- mine. The only work of real value known is the Sultanganj [ 153 ] Buddha ; but it has no date on it. Probably it is from sixteen to eighteen hundred years old ; and such as it is, it has no trace whatever in its composition of Greek art. None of the metal figures of gods and goddesses in ancient temples now extant, can confidently be said to of be a greater age than a thousand years : the great majority of them are about half that age ; and their forms are strictly Indian. After what has been stated above it is not necessary here Libels a'^ainst Indian ^^ notice at length the libels which have ^^^- been published from time to time against Indian art. Miiller sees art in India, "roaming about with inconstancy amid an abundance of forms, and if it almost by accident lights on the simple and grand, is incapable of using and carrying it out as an established and recurring form of art ; so that it is difficult to get rid of the idea that the architectonic and plastic sense in India was only awakened by impulses and communications of various kinds from without (probably from the Greeks or Javans), and that a nourishment was presented to it, which, however, it could not rightly digest."* His translator, who describes "the enormous pantheon at Ellora, in the Ghaut Mountains, destined at the same time for the reception of a hundred thousand pilgrims," ( ! ) notices in it "inverted acanthus capitals." Mr. Gwilt, comparing the essential differences between Indian and Egyptian architec- ture, quotes a passage from the E}icyclopcdie iiiethodiqiie which says: "In Egypt, the principal forms of the building and its parts preponderate, inasmuch as the hieroglyphics with which they are covered never interfere with the general forms, nor injure the effect of the whole ; in India the principal form is lost in the ornaments which divide and decompose it. In Egypt, that which is essential predominates; in India you are lost in a multitude of accessories. In the Egyptian architect- * Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 226. [ 154 ] lire, even the smallest edifices are grand ; in that of India, the infinite subdivision into parts gives an air of littleness to the largest buildings. In Egypt solidity is carried to the extreme; in India, there is not the slightest appearance of it."* Replies to most of these objections have already been given above; but for the sake of convenience, and to show how utterly unfounded and unfair these remarks are, I shall re-capitulate some of the principal points touched upon in this essay. Without at all subscribing to the accuracy of Mr. Ruskin's canon in which he lays down seven fundamen- tal principles — "the seven lamps" according to his fanciful style of expression — as controlling the architect, I shall examine how far they have been attended to in Orissa. The first of his seven is "Sacrifice." It refers primarily to Biblical atonement, and secondarily to the "value of the ap- pearance of labour upon architecture." The latter alone can concern the people of this country ; and it may be unhesi- tatingly stated that no competent, honest judge, who has be- held the temples of Orissa, can for a moment deny that the principle has been one of the cardinal agencies which governed the action of their builders. There is no sign whatever of labour having been anywhere shirked, but ample evidence everywhere most prominent to show that the most stupendous labour has been courted with a view to manifest "the spirit which offers for (devotional) work precious things, simply because they arc precious; — not as being necessary to the building, but as an offering, surrendering, and sacrifice of what is to ourselves desirable."-|- The second principle is that of "Truth," or the avoidance of architectural deceits, that is, "the suggestion of a mode of structure or support other than the true one, or the marking of * Kncyclopxdia of Arcliitectiire-, p. 30. ]■ Seven I.nmps of .Arcliilechire, p. 9. t 155 ] surfaces to represent some other material than that of which they actually consist," or the employment of ornaments which are calculated to produce a false impression on the beholder. No deception of any such kind has been practised by the architects of Orissan temples: all their structures openly avow what they are intended for; every member has its use; every ashlar or moulding, its meaning; no terracotta moulded figures supply the place of honest hard-wrought sculpture; no paint- ing deceives the eye into the belief that wooden panelings are variegated marble; no mark of mockery anywhere mars the beauty of truth. Of "power," the third lamp, by which massiveness as an element of architectural effect is indicated, enough has already been said in a preceding page (p. 8i). There certainly does not exist in the massiveness of Orissan temples that nakedness which removes the pyramids from the pale of architecture as a fine art; but it is not the less remarkable. The first impression that the sight of an Orissan temple pro- duces is its extreme solidity. No part of its construction ap- pears weak, or insecure, or liable to be easily injured. As the visible abode of the Sempiternal Divinity, it is expressly de- signed to typify, or symbolize, to man, the idea of eternity, defiant alike of time and of the tremendous elemental com- motions of the tropics. If its parts are subdivided, or rather diversified, it is not to subdue the spirit of power, but to tem- per it with beauty; and I have no reason to suspect that those Europeans, who have studied ancient Indian temples, will for a moment be disposed to side with Mr. Gwilt, and take them to be emblems of littleness. At any rate, in Indians they in- spire feelings of unit)-, solidit\-, beaut)-, and grandeur, the very reverse of what the critic named is inclined to think. The fourth canon is "l^eaut)-," or the disposition of archi- tectural ornaments in the most effective way. Of this much has already been said, and a few words more will follow. [ 156 ] The fifth is "Life," or "the making of an edifice the expo- nent of Hving things and of the men who rear it," — a living handiwork, bespeaking the immortal spark in the architect struggling "towards something unattained," and not the caput moytuum of a dead art. This yearning for advancement, to be really beneficial, should be controlled by "the Lamp of Obedi- ence," and so it is found in Orissa. From the time of the Great Tower of Bhuvanes'vara, in the middle of the seventh century, to that of the Black Pagoda of Konarak in the beginning of the thirteenth, the laws of the S'ilpa S'astra represented the Lamp of Obedience, while "the luxuriousness of perpetually varying fancy," producing endless forms of ornaments in every possible mode of combination, bore evidence to that of life. From the last-named date life ebbed rapidly, and in less than a century was entirely extinct. Little need be said of Orissan temples as " Lamps of Memory" — i. e., " as monuments of history, conservators of old ideas, and relics of the past."* Every detail on them is a living monument; — every figure — every flower — every scroll — records faithfully the feelings, desires and aspirations, the joys and the sorrows, the religion, the habits of life, and the social condition of a bygone age. They are not what Ruskin calls " the pitiful concretions of lime and clay which sirring up in mildewed forwardness out of the kneaded fields about our capital — those thin, tottering, foundationless shells of splintered wood and imitated stone — those gloomy rows of formalised minuteness, alike without difference and with- out fellowship," — but living emblems of eternity, hoaried by age, and hallowed by ten thousand associations, — pages of history in which the people of this country have read, and will read for centuries to come, lessons of a more endearing and stirring nature than can ever be acquired from the mist- encumbered folia of the bulkiest tomes. If they fail in any * Samson on the Elements of Art Criticism, p. 337. [ 157 ] one point as " Lamps of Memory," it is as regards politi- cal history. They bear no representations of battles with foreign foemen, no files of prisoners led in chains to swell the pageant of a mighty conqueror, no lines of potent kings seated in regal state, no varied groups of various nationalities to indicate the different races of men with which the kings of the country came in contact, such as endow the bas-reliefs and paintings of Egypt and Persia with engrossing interest. But it should be borne in mind that the structures on which such political representations appear are palaces and tombs, /. e., to use the terminology of Ruskin, " civil" and " memo- rial" edifices, and there they are most appropriate and be- coming ; whereas those which form the subjects of this work are " devotional," earthly abodes raised by weak man for the habitation of the visible emblem of Him who is without beginning and without end, before which all men are equal, and the vanity and pomp of potentates melt into insigni- ficance. Before them the sovereigns of Orissa assumed the humble title of " sweepers," and they could not venture to portra)' on such holy structures their own achievements and glory as sovereigns. Had their palaces been in existence, they would probably have shown some political bas-reliefs, but they have long since been swept away by the tide of time and the inundations of political vandalism. The "Lamp of Beauty" includes location, size, decoration, s\-mmctry, and the disposition of li^rht Decoration. ^ y > f & and shade. On each of these heads some remarks have already been made in different parts of the preceding pages I desire, however, to add a {q\\ ^\•ords regard- ing the last three. The excellence of decoration depends on the choice of forms, and their disposition in harmonious union. The two conditions have to be equally respected, or the object is defeated. It would be a trite axiom to say, that unless the forms thcmschcs be beautiful, no [ 158 ] combination can make them so ; but it is equally true that even the most beautiful objects lose their effect if not appropriately arranged. The Orissans of the seventh century paid particular attention to both these conditions. They were, as already stated (p. 149), very choice in the selection of only what are naturally beautiful for ornaments, and they tried their utmost to arrange them to the best advantage. If their attempt at arrangement has not proved quite so successful as could be wished, it is due as much to art in India not having attained to that pitch of excellence with which European critics are too apt to compare it, as to national habits and local prejudices ; for it must be borne in mind that, what is reckoned a most happy disposition ac- cording to one nation, does often appear incongruous and offensive to another. An apt illustration of this remark occurs in the " Seven Lamps of Architecture." Adverting to the disposition of garlands, Mr. Ruskin observes : "A garland is meant to be seen upon a head. There it is beautiful, be- cause we suppose it is newly gathered and joyfully worn. But it is not meant to be hung on a wall." * This may be true of England, and perhaps also of modern Europe generally ; but in India, where the universal practice is to wear garlands round the neck and not round the head, such a canon of taste cannot but be laughed at as absurd and ridiculous. It is usual here also to decorate houses, on festive occasions, with chaplets of leaves and flowers hung all o\cr the walls, and accordingly Indian artists have everywhere ornamented the necks of pillars, and the surfaces of walls with carved orna- ments of the kind, and the effect, instead of being incon- gruous and offensive, is positively beautiful. The festoons on the Corinthian frieze arc also most agreeable and j:)lcasing. Ideas of caricature and grotesque also differ in different * Seven Lamps of Aiclnlccluic, p, 105, [ 159 ] nationalities, and when they arc brought to bear on orna- mentation, diversities are produced, which, though not univer- sally appreciable, are still not on that ground faulty. In such cases all that can be demanded is harmony, and this, I ven- ture to think, is not wanting in Orissan temples. Symmetry may be treated under three different heads: I St.- — Propovtio)!, or the adaptation of the Respective Symmetry. . r ^ • dimensions of the several parts oi a thing to each other. 2}id. — Respective Synunetry, or such disposition of parts as to make the opposite sides equal to each other. 7/v/. — Uniform Synunetiy, or that disposition of parts in which the same ordonnance reigns throughout the whole. Regarding the first, some remarks have already been made at the beginning of the second article. The second, at first sight, may appear to be an unnatural formality, and therefore not an essential element of beauty. Nature does not arrange a landscape by two exactly similar halves, producing the same thing twice over; why should then man do so in building a house? The argument, however, is fallacious. In a beautiful landscape there is a balancing of its different parts so as to secure a considerable amount of symmetry, and artists study it carefully in grouping their subjects on canvas. A landscape, however, is not a single entity, but a collection of many ob- jects; and for the purposes of comparison with a house or other art creation, it is necessary that individual objects of nature should be selected, and not collections. If this be done it will be found that nature is particularly mindful of respec- tive symmetry in the formation of animated beings. With the exception of some of the lowest forms of organization, every animal is externally a compound of two symmetrical halves. Those halves may be so artfully united at the mesian line as to produce one individual, whose double character does not become manifest until after careful study, still the double character is nowhere wanting; and what is more, the beauty [ i6o ] of the form is in a great measure dependent upon it. Take away an eye or an arm from the finest figure, and its beauty is at once destroyed ; even the alteration by a hair's breadth of one side of the most exquisitely-shaped mouth will induce an amount of deformity not easy to be defined. And what is true as regards the human form, is equally so in works of art, for imitation of nature forms the cardinal principle of beau- ty in art, and she advances towards perfection the more close- ly she copies nature. To quote William Hazlitt: "the highest art is the imitation of the finest nature, or, in other words, of that which conveys the strongest sense of pleasure or power, of the sublime or beautiful."* Doubtless in architecture, where the proportions are large, very slight differences are not so easily perceptible as in small objects, but the principle is not thereby in the least affected. In Greek architecture this attempt to copy nature by adher- ing closely to the laws of respective symmetry is most prominent. All its nobler specimens, if cut longitudinally along the middle from their fronts, would invariably produce two exactly similar halves. The same is the' case in Orissa, and there is not a single exception. The front is a combina- tion of two halves reduced to unity by the intervention of the door and the coat of arms, or the dripstone moulding, over it, even as the human form is united by the nose and the mouth ; and the two sides are exact counterparts of each other. The sameness induced by this arrangement is never obtrusive nor offensive, as the two sides can never be seen in the same light at the same instant. Stand where the observer will, he can behold only one of two sides, or one full side and small por- tions of two other sides, together scarcely equal to two full sides, and these in such different lights, that they never produce two identically same pictures, while the sense of * Criticisms on Art, p. 257, [ I6i ] beauty produced by them is infinitely greater than any diver- sity in the forms of the sides could possibly produce. Indeed, if one were to conceive in his mind a peripteral temple with the columns of its left side different from those of its right, and feel the aesthetic effect of the arrangement, he will find no difficulty in appreciating the beauty of form which results from the similitude of the two sides of a house. This sym- metry has been marred in many Orissan temples by subsequent additions, even as in ancient Greek edifices, but the original conception of the building nowhere tolerated any departure from perfect symmetry. Another principle of art in which repetition of the same forms and ornaments, instead of mar- Uniform Symmetry. . i . , rmg, or cloying, the sense of beauty, enhances it, is itniform synivietry, or that disposition of parts in which the same ordonnance reigns throughout the whole. Whatever the number of columns required in a building, it must be made up of structures of the same size and shape, and they must be arranged in the same style, and at uniform distances, with almost mathematical precision ; no deviation being anywhere permitted, and the smallest change being reckoned prejudical to beauty and taste. This is the funda- mental law on which orders in architecture are founded, and it was most rigorously enforced by the Greeks. Indeed, the relative proportions of the several members of each Greek order are such, that it is impossible to mix any important member of one order with that of another without causing a frightful amount of deformity. In the absence of information regarding the different orders of architecture which prevailed in India in ancient times, and it being even questionable whether there were more than one order current, it is impossible to say how far there were restrictions in the way of employing orna- ments promiscuously ; but as regards particular classes of buildings the rule of uniform symmetry was strictly observed. [ i62 ] The roof appropriate to a porch was never put on a dancing hall, nor the mural decorations of the latter ever transferred to the former. The system of projections so peculiar to the square chamber of the temple and its porch could not be as- similated to the light, open, oblong dancing hall without altering its character, nor could the refectory be placed in im- mediate proximity to the temple to serve the purposes of a porch without destroying the symmetry of both. In short, each class of building has its peculiar character, peculiar dis- position, and peculiar ornaments, and these have been assign- ed to their respective uses with scrupulous care. Further, when out of a number of various decorations, a particular one has been selected, such as the typical pilaster with ophi- dian mermaids, it has been repeated as often as necessary, but never coupled with another of a different style. There are instances in which a whole fagade is not made up of the same kind of pilaster throughout, but of two or more kinds ; but in such cases the grouping is peculiarly ingenious and artistic, and by the repetition of the same arrangement on the op- posite sides, respective symmetry and harmony have been very happily preserved. All this is doubtless entirely arbi- trary and fictitious ; but, as justly observed by DeOuincy, " in every art there must be, with respect to truth, some fiction, and with respect to resemblance, something incomplete, "* and in regard to such a technical art as architecture, the mere fact of such rules having been laid down, and imperatively enforced, implies a highly advanced intellectual condition of the architects. Casual references have already been made to the plan adopted by Orissan artists of diversifying Light and Shade. '■ ,, , ^ . . . f their walls by frequent projections, with bevelled corners, and repeated chamfering, or splaying, and * An Essay on the Nature, the End, and the Means of imitation in the rine Arts, p. 1 13. [ i63 ] other devices, so as to produce varied contrasts of light and shade, and thereby secure the highest amount of picturesque effect compatible with a monochrome ground. This is a characteristic which, I bfelieve, is peculiar to this country. The Grecians effected this object by their magnificent columns, placed on high terraces, so as to set the whole structure in bold relief against their clear blue sky. The Romans at- tempted to secure it by introducing engaged pillars, which, however, though effectual in covering the nakedness of flat walls, were not sufficient to cast such strong shadows as to secure much relief. The Saracens failed completely in this respect. Their walls are the repositories of panelings in- numerable, but nothing high enough to cast a strong shadow. In Orissa, on the other hand, the elevations and depres- sions of the surface are so bold and varied, that there are marked differences of light and shade, and yet they are so artistically and harmoniously united as to produce the most charming effect. On the surfaces of the walls the eleva- tions are produced by buttress-like projections, with cham- fered corners, and the depressions by niches ; on pillars and pilasters by contractions and bands, supplemented by chamfering and other devices ; and on mouldings and orna- ments, by an intricate system of stops, scooping, and carv- ing, which changes the light into a variety of shades. On rounded forms a linc-of-beauty-like sigmoid scroll is a com- mon device. It is sometimes carved into foliage, but ordina- rily left bare. Its effect is very pleasing. It cuts the figure into two, and, by casting a strong dark line of shadow, brings out its contour to perfection. On flat bands and mouldings oblong tablets are frequently used, which break their con- tinuity, and effect an agreeable diversion. But the most generally adopted device is the RduiarekJid. Its use as a crest, though extensive, is secondary, com- pared to the part it pla}-s in regulating the fall of light [ i64 ] on mouldings, bands and fascias. Mr. H. H. Locke, of the Government School of Art, Calcutta, speaks in terms of great praise of this class of stops ; and as he has made a more thorough and scientific study of Orissan architecture than any other European artist or antiquarian, and can, from his perfect famili- arity with, and professional knowledge of, European art, speak on the subject with much authority, I avail myself of his per- mission to quote here a passage from a private letter of his to my address. He says : " These points are so many stops in the line of light and shade ; sometimes the pause is that of a light point amid shadow, sometimes it is a dark point upon a belt of light ; in both these phases the feature is extremely characteristic of the architecture you are writing about, and shews clearly how well the Orissan builders understood the value of a sharp line of cast-shadow across a varied surface. Place a rod in front of a long suit of mouldings and see how the cast-shadow of the stick, in winding and turning in and out of round and hollow, projection and depression, brings out the profile or contour of the different surfaces, and the more direct the sun's rays fall on them, destroying the local surface-shades, the stronger will be the effect of the cast-shadow. The Hindus, I am safe in saying, felt this thoroughly, and never allowed a long suit of mouldings to run the risk of appearing tame and uniform from loss of light and shade ; these ' stops,' as I have called them, arc always brought in every here and there, giving sharp cast-shadows which develope the forms of the moulded surfaces in a most effective and agreeable way. There seems, in fact, to have been a perfect thirst for light and shade — crisp, broken, light and shade — and these stops are so many ' traps,' not ' to catch sun-beams,' but to catch form-explaining shadows. Even in the bases of piers and pilasters, where the horizontal run of the mouldings barely exceeds a couple of feet, there is still the stop, which gives you a vertical ' contouring' midway, and the effect of the [ i65 ] mouldings, thus tied together by narrow strips left in the original surface-plane is, to my mind, charming in the ex- treme." IV. DRESS & ORNAMENT IN ANCIENT INDIA. Importance of dress in civilization. Evidence of the Rig Veda as to clothing ; material thereof, wool and cotton. Testimony of the Bible. Silk ; proofs in the Ramayana. Manu on woollen and hempen thread. Arrian's muslins. Specimens of ornamented cloth from sculptures. Dyed cloth. Style of dress. Vedic evidence thereof ; sculptural ditto. Ordinary every-day Uriya male dress ; full dress. Ancient Hindu male dress. Uriya female dress. Evidence of sculptured dress insufficient to settle questions of Indian ethnology. Mr. Fergusson's Dasyus ; their relations to the Vanaprasthas. Head dress ; coiffure ; caps ; turbans. Beard. Shoes, boots. Personal ornaments ; Vedic evidence ; that of Amaravati ; ditto of Bhuvanes'vara. Indian filigree. Crowns, cornets, and tiaras. Ear ornaments. Nose ornaments. Necklaces. Waist ornaments. Leg ditto. Material of ditto. Precious stones. HE first step in the march from barbarism to civiliza- tion is indicated by the dress of Importance of dress. a nation. Climatic and other causes, no doubt, influence the nature of dress; but no race can be said to have emerged from the grossest barbarism, or the most primitive simplicity, which has not risen to something more substantial, ample, and artificial, than the wardrobe of mother Eve. The skins of animals have supplied the place of cloth to wild races at all times ; but it is only after those nations learn to convert them into leather that they can be said to have reached the outskirts of a civilized life. The Hindus seem to have made considerable progress in this respect at a very early period in their Vedic evidence. ,. _, _ , • , r ■, -n-Tri history. The Sanhita of the Rig Veda, which dates with the Mosaic chronicles, contains many passages which shuw that even tlicn the people were perfectly familiar with the art of weaving, nut only for the necessaries, [ i67 ] but also for the luxuries, of life. The passages, it must be confessed, are brief and casual, occurring mostly by way of similes and comparisons in hymns designed for the glorification of particular divinities ; but they are not the less interesting and suggestive on that account. Thus the verse which describes night as " enwrapping the extended world like a woman weaving a garment,"* gives only a simile, yet that simile refers to a familiar fact, whose existence cannot be questioned. In the same way a hymn to the Apris makes " night and day interweave, in concert, like two famous female weavers, the extended thread to complete the web of the sacrifice."f Elsewhere we read of the fathers, who "wove and placed the warp and the woof." (X. 30). "Usha (dawn) is a goddess, in person manifest like a maiden, who goes to the resplendent and munificent sun, and, like a youthful bride before her husband, uncovereth, smiling, her bosom in his pre- sence.":]: Elsewhere, she, "like a wife desirous to please her husband, puts on becoming attire, and smiling as it were, dis- plays her charm."§ Again, "exhibiting her person like a well- attired female, she stands before our eyes, gracefully inclin- ing like a woman who has been bathing."|| " Ushas, the daughter of heaven, tending to the West, puts forth her beauty like a well-dressed woman." In other places she is frequently represented as "clothed with radiance." The idea is repeated in connexion with the altar, which, in one place, is described as decorated in the same way, "as a wife attached to her hus- band puts on elegant garments to gratify him."!! In a subse- quent hymn, "the vast offspring of the firmament, the seven eternal ever-youthful rivers," of the Vedic age are said to be " not clothed, yet not naked."** In the remarkable hymn, in * Wilson's Rig Veda II., p. 307. t Ibid. II., p. 218. t Ibid. II., p. 9. § Ibid. II., p. 12. II Wilson's Rig Veda III., p. 369. H Ibid. III., p. 122. ** Ibid. II., p. 230. [ i68 ] which Trita prays to be released from his confinement in a well, he says, "the ribs (of the well) close round me, like the rival wives (of one husband); cares consume me, S'atakratu, although thy worshipper, as a rat (gnaws a weaver's) threads,"* and the scholiast finds in this, not altogether without reason, a reference to the practice, well known in the time of Manu (VIII., 397), of sizing threads with rice water, for the purpose of weaving, and which made them palatable to rats. The whole passage, however, admits of a different interpretation. In a hymn to Indra, praises and hymns are com- pared to " elegant well-made garments ( VastrevabJiadra- stiknta), as being fit to be received as a respectful present "-f {UpasanJidravadgrdJiydni). Commenting on this passage, Wilson says, " If the rendering be correct, this shows the custom of presenting honorary dresses to be of Indian origin, and of considerable antiquity." Among largesses given to priests by Divodasa, the idea of a KJiilat again recurs : thus the priest says, " I have received from Divodasa ten horses, ten purses, ten clothes (a Khilat of ten parchas ?), and ample food. " As'vatha gave to Payu " ten lumps of gold, ten well-appointed chariots, a hundred head of cattle."j Gifts of " elegantly adorned and well-dressed female slaves" are recited in a subsequent book. The Yajur and the Sama Vedas, likewise, contain many references of the same kind to clothing, and in one place in the former, " gold cloth," or bro- cade for a counterpane, is distinctly mentioned ; § but as those works are to a certain extent of comparatively later date, it is not necessary to load these pages with quotations from them. No information is available in the Rig Veda regarding the material of which the clothing, it so often alludes to, was made. Cotton is Wool and Cotton. * Wilson's Rig Veda, I., 271. tllnd. III., 277. X Wilson's Rig Veda, III., 474. § Taittiriya Brahmana, III., 675. [ i69 ] nowhere mentioned. Rams and ewes arc described among domestic animals * but they arc not said to be the sources of cloth. It is, nevertheless, probable that both cotton and wool were the substances which were used in its manufacture ; for the term " weaving, " which is occasionally used, could not have originated and got currency in the Vedic language, without the existence of some material adapted to, and in com- mon use for, weaving. " It is difficult to conceive," says Dr. Muir, " that cotton (which, as we learn from Professor J. H. Balfour, is supposed to have been indigenous in India), though not mentioned in the hymns, should have been unknown when they were composed, or not employed for weaving the light cloth which is necessary in so warm a climate."f This argument would apply equally to woollen stuffs in many parts of the Punjab, the earliest Aryan seats in India, where the cold for some months in the year must have necessitated a much warmer covering than cotton cloth. In the Old Testa- ment there are references which show that the ancient Indians did produce enough of woven texture to be able to export a portion for the use of foreign nations. :|. "That the coloured cloth and rich apparel brought to Tyre and Babylon from dis- tant countries, were partly of Indian manufacture will scarce- 1>' be doubted," says Heeren, " after what has been already said of the extent of the Phoenician and Babylonian com- mcrce."s;j The case is different as regards silk. It is a substance which could have scarcely escaped notice, had it been known at the time of the Vedas ; but no mention of it has yet been met with. Panini, *" Who bestows easily-obtained happiness on our steeds, our rams, our ewes, our men, our women, our cows?" Wilson's Rig Veda, II., p. III. + Sanskrit Texts, V., 462. X Ezekiel, xxvii., 24. § Heeren's Historical Researches, III., p. 363. [ 170 ] however, has not only given words for wool, cotton, weaving, cloth, turbans, sewing, &c., all which were, at his time, per- fectly familiar, but also for silk for which he gives a special rule * In the time of the Ramayana silken, woolen, and cotton stuffs of various kinds were abundant, and in extensive use. According to Valmi'ki the splendid trousseau of S'l'ta consisted of "woollen stuffs, furs, precious stones, fine silk, vestments of divers colours, princely ornaments, and sumptuous carriages of every kind,"-f- The woollen stuff here adverted to, has been supposed by Heeren to have been shawls, for at a time when coarse woollen cloths were used to cover wagons, as was the case in the days of the Ramayana, nothing short of the pro- ductions of the looms of Kashmir, the finest and most precious of woollen fabrics, would have been suitable for presentation to a princess ; but the commentator Ramanuja believes it to have been a stuff from Nepal. That the " fine silk" was a manufactured article is evident from the frequent allusion in the work to silk vestments of various kinds, worn not only by queens and princesses, but also by other persons of qualit)'. When Rama and his brothers arrived at the capi- tal from Mithila with their new-married brides, Kausalya, Sumitra, the fair Kaikeyi, and the rest of the royal zenana, "eager to embrace their beauteous daughters, received the happy S'l'ta, the far-famed Urmila, and the two daughters of Kus'hadhvaja, all sumptuously dressed in silk, and entertain- ing each other with agreeable conversation, hastened to the ir^t ^ f^f^g'STT: II ^ II f ^'5^T!I^T?Tov i) Xeyo/ieyi] Mora;(;/. Wide In- dian muslins called Monakhe. * Wilson, in Journal Rl. As. Soc, VII., 140. t Royle, on llic I'lodiictive Resources of India, p. 117. [ 173 Cloth in sculpture. 2nd. — l'ay/y.aToy;/r>/. Musliiis in single pieces. ^rd. — XuSui'ov. Coarse muslins. He has also a coarse cotton fabric of the colour of the mallow of the name of MoAox'va, a fine muslin (? linen) of the name of XkvTui., and other muslins of the name of K-a/;7raVo9. His 2ii'Soi'e« ai 6iac/)oswTaTai rayytTtx^i, it IS evident, was also a variety of the finest Bengal muslin*. It is not to be expected that ancient sculpture should afford us any valuable information re- garding this branch of our enquiry. The material and quality of woven texture can be but ill-represent- ed in marble, and in such rough stones as the sculptors of India ordinarily had at their disposal, nothing of the kind was practicable. Nevertheless, they are not altogether silent on the subject. In the two principal statues in the great temple of Bhuvanes'vara, which are made of a superior kind of chlorite, and placed in deep recesses, completely pnjtected from the sun and rain, the artist has attempted to produce a vestment of rich brocade, proving that fabrics of that des- cription were then, as they are now, highly prized articles of luxur)', familiar with the people. A specimen of this cloth is represented in woodcut No. 20. A glance at it will show that in neatness, elegance, and richness of design and execution, it is in no way inferior to the finest Xo. 20. production of the Benares loom of the present da)'. In the temple of Baital Devi, or "the boat-sha[icd temple," several figures of dancing girls are dres- sed in clothes of variegated patterns, and one in ^pdydjduid ox drawers, of diagonal stripes enclosing designs of spots, and zigzag lines. (Woodcut No. 21.) A male figure in the same Vincent's /Vn/>//«, Appendix vol. I., pp. 40, 41, vol. II. pp. 18, 39, 5S, 66, 76. t 174 i temple, has a pair of short-drawers of a similar kind of cloth, the stripes being relieved by spots only. (Woodcut No. 22.) A petti- coat of a female figure has triple stripes but no spots, sprigs, or other design. (Woodcut No. 23.) On ^'o- 21. some of the statuettes in Lakshmi's Temple, there are also clothings of different designs, one of which with single stripes is shewn in woodcut No. 24. On a female figure playing with a child, brought from BhuvanesVara, and now in the Indian Museum, a double striped pattern with wavy lines is distinctly seen. (Woodcut No. 22. N0.25.) On another figure (No. 808) the ground between the wavy horizontal stripes is relieved with detached flowers of two kinds, and the border is elaborately wrought, woodcut No, 27, and the attendant of this figure has cloth with stripes, but no flowers. Woodcuts Nos. 28 and 29 exhibit clothes of the same kind, No. 23. but the flowers are of different I)atterns. In the group of Silenos in the Asiatic Society's Museum, which, is of Indian origin, and dates, at least, from the beginning of the Christian era, there is a male figure dressed in a chapkaii, the cloth of which is a kind of flowered muslin, having sprigs all over the ground. (Wood- X,,. 24. cut No. 26.) On another piece of sculpture in the same collection brought from Bchar, and from the character of the inscription on it, apparently of the eighth or ninth ccntur\-, there is a rci)resentation of J '/ /f A y ^ ' /^ ,// /^ / /y [ 175 ] a kind of cloth with diagonal stripes relieved by flowers of t\\o patterns. A Buddhist rail- post from Buddha Gaya, also Jn the same collection, shows cloth of a check pattern. (Woodcut No. 30.) No. 25. The selvage of cloth is repre- sented on many figures, and coloured borders on others. The fineness and transparency of scarfs are sometimes attempted to be shown, but the at- tempt has not been successful, and what appears now to be the success of art is probably due to inefficiency in representing the folds of the cos- tumes. Early Indian literature is silent with respect to the dif- Dyeing of cloth. ferent colours used in dyeing textile fabrics in ancient times. But the great abundance of vegetable dyes in India could not but have attracted the notice of such an intelligent race as the early Aryan settlers were, and, look- ing to the frequent mention of dye stuffs by Manu and other lawgivers, it is to be presumed that they were extensively used No. 27. b)- the people in colouring their clothing. The rude aborigines, such as the Bheels and Gonds, likewise availed themselves of the supply, and probably coloured their scant clothing and ornamental feathers and fibres to as large an extent as in the present da}-. Mention is frequently made of Aryan wo- men staining the soles of their feet, and the palms of their No. 26. [ 176 ] \ k£v ^( «y ! i 4' 4^ ii\\\ v f^^ A\ W^ hands, with a bright crimson dye extracted from sapan wood, and the practice of using colours for beautifying the face was not uncommon. In astrologi- cal works, black clothing is said to be appropriate to the planet Saturn, yellow to Venus, and red '^°- 2^- to Mars, and the sin-steeped awning of Parikshita is described to have been of a black colour. Krishna and other gods had, likewise, particular favorite colours for their dresses, and Indian poetry is eloquent on the charming effect of fair women dressed in blue cloth, which is often ' compared to a dark cloud re- No. 29. licved by the lightning flashes of beauty. No rules, however, appear to have been laid down for the use of distinctive colours by householders ; and with the solitary exception of hermits, who were re- quired to wear an ochre-coloured vestment, each indi- vidual was left perfectly free in the choice of colours for his dress. Indeed, in this respect the Indian Aryans differed entirely from the Egyptians, the Chinese and also from the ancient Irish, who had particular colours fixed to dis- tinguish the rank and caste of every or- der of society. In Ireland, King Eochaidh, it is said, first laid down the law, in the ^^t'^iiUlil^ year of the world 3664, regarding colours, J I it to mark the different ranks of the people, No. 30. tin<-l thence obtained the surname of Ead- ghadhach. His law required "one colour in the clothes [ ^77 ] clothes of slaves ; two in the clothes of soldiers ; three in the clothes of c^oodly heroes, or younc^ lords of territories ; six in the clothes of ollavs (professors) ; se\'en in the clothes of kings and queens."* The Egyptian rule, if not so strict, was still well-defined, ami among the Romans, the Tyrian purple, as is well known, was exclusively reserved for emperors. The Chinese are also particular in this respect. But in India no colour, or combination of colours, seems to ha\'e been forbidden to any one class or individual from the highest to the lowest. In the total absence of old paintings, it is, however, impossi- ble to obtain any evidence on the subject from ancient remains. The Vedas afford no information regarding the form and shape of the Hindu dress. Probably, Style of dress. ^ . . -^ ' the majority of the people did then, as they do now, wear scarfs or plaid-like articles (dJiitti) complet- ed in the loom for immediate use, keeping them in position by twisting and tucking round the waist, — "a form of dress than which," according to Col. Meadows Taylor, "anything more convenient to walk, to sit, or to lie in, it would be im- possible to invent."f The companions of Alexander noticed the same style of dressing nearly two and twenty centuries ago, and the costume of the masses at the present time dif- fers in no respect from what the Greek writers indicated in their descriptions. But the question may be fairly asked, were kings, princes, and chieftains, the nobles and men of quality, of former times content with the simple dhnti, and did they not differ in any respect from the people at large in their habiliments? Such a state of uniformity in dress is un- known even among the rudest community, and would be * Clanmacnoise Annalists, O'Donovan's translation, Apiul Catalogue of .Antiquities in the Royal Irish Academy, I. 297. t E(linburt:;li Review for July, 1867. [ 178 ] altogether improbable among a race who first established the system of castes. Nor is evidence wanting, circums- tantial though it be, to show that a very different state of things existed among the Indian Aryans in early times. The mention of the needle and sewing in the Sanhita of the Rig Veda,* cannot but suggest that even at that earl}' period, made dresses, or such as had been prepared ^\•ith the aid of scissors and needle, were not unkno\\-n. The word used is s'ucJii, the same which is used to this day to indicate a needle, and it is not likely, therefore, that the word then meant only a thorn, or other small pointed object. The existence of such words as needle (s'l'ichi) and sewing (siva)i) in the Vedic language cannot be ac- counted for, except on the supposition that the people who used them, knew and had what they meant. It may also be argued that it is very unlikely that the heroes of the Vedic times, who were able to forge and were in the habit of using armour and mail coats, never came to the idea of fashioning their clothes into made dresses ?-f- The sculptures of Sanchi, Amara\-ati', and Orissa, leave Sewed dress in Sculp- "^ doubt on the subject. ThoUgh, OW- ^""^' ing to causes to be presently noticed, the bulk of the human figures the}' represent are nude, or very scantily clothed, still there are some which bear unmis- takable evidence of the existence of made dresses. Among the Sanchi bas-reliefs, there are several figures dressed in tunics which could never have been made without the aid of needles. The tunics of the two archers on plate XLIII., Fig, 3, of Mr. Fergusson's work are particularly * Wilson's Rig Veda II. p. 2S8, IV. p. 60. t ''Sivyain apah s'luhya cJi/ieJyaiitniiaya, "may she sew the work with a needle, that is not capahle of being cut or broken,— with one, of which the stitches will endure, in like manner as clothes and the like wrought with a needle last a long time, according to the coniUR'ntator," Wikon's Rig Veda. II.. 2S8. [ >79 ] No. remarkable, inasmuch as llie chapkaiis tlierc sliown, arc unmistakable. (Woodcut No. 32.) Plates XXVIII., Fig. I, XXXIV., Fig. 2, XXXVI., Fig. 2, and XXXVIII., Fig. i, are also worthy of notice as afford ing unquestionable evidences of the use of made dres- ses. A flag-bearer on an ele- phant has a dress, the sleeves of which are distinctly shewn. (Plate XL., Fig, 2.) On a Buddhist rail-post from Bud- dha-Gaya, which probably dates from a time earlier than the Siinchi rail, there are two figures fully dressed from the neck to the middle of the leg, in a garment which appears strongK' like \.\\q. jama of the present day. Woodcut No. 30. I'urning from them to Amaravati, the reader will find, among an endless host of nudes and seminudes, figures, the shape of whose habiliments is unmistakabi}' due to the tailor's art. (Plates LXVI and LXXXIV., P^ig. 2.) The figures of Buddha and of priests are also everywhere clothed in a decent attire from the neck to the feet, though in their case the habit seems to be formed of loose plaids thrown lightly over the person, and not needle-made. The sculptures of Orissa offer even more positive in'oofs. In the Queen's palace {Rdninai(r) among the rock-cut caves of Udayagiri, there is a statue, four feet six inches in height, cut out of the solid rock, which is dressed in a close-fitting tunic or chapkan, with the skirts hanging down four inches below the knee, and having sleeves down to the wrist. According to Rev. T. Acland,* over the cJiapkan, there was "a short A roiHil.ii- Account uf the Manners and Custuuia of India, p. 120. [ i8o ] shirt of scale armour," the sleeves of which reached the elbow. This, however, is not now visible. A light scarf passes round the waist and over the left shoulder, the ends float- ing in the air, exactly in the way in which the Hindus throw the scarf on their persons in the present day. A girdle ox karnarbandxoMW^ the waist holds, on the left side, a short sword_ The head is partially mutilated, but there are traces on it of a twisted turban. The legs and the feet are enclosed in thick, high boots or bus- kins. The figure has suffered by long exposure to rain and sun, but enough is preserved in the M'oodcut, No. 32, to show that the coat of the figure is made unmistakably of sewed cloth. If the arguments regarding the age of the Udayagiri caves, adduced, in my " Antiquities of Orissa" be tenable, the figure is over two and twenty centuries old ; and at that period, the Buddhists evidently knew the use of made dresses. The habit is so entirely Indian in its charac- ter, that none will venture to sp)' in it any resemblance to the chiton, the c/i/ai/ijs, or such other vestments as the soldiers of Alexander brought to India,-|- even if it were possible to sup- pose that it would be at once imitated in stone man)' hundreds of miles away from the place where it was first exhibited, and the invetcrately con.servative Indians could be imagined to •|- II may lie rini.Tikccl cii /^avsaiit that, accoidinj^ lo Plutarch, instead of Alexander teaching the Asiatics the use of made dresses, that liero liimself adapt- ed an Asiatic dress. He first put on a Parthian moile. He thought, however, "tlie h;d)il maile t(;o still and exotic an appearance, and thereRae took not the [ I8I ] have resigned, against the common instinct of civilized man in every part of the \\orld, their national attire at the first sight of a foreign garb. The tunic may be compared to that of the Assyrian foot-soldier, but its sleeves are long, and come down to the wrist, whereas the Assyrian sleeve, as far as can be made out from Laj-ard's plates, never reached below the elbow, leaving the forearm bare. The boots are particularly worthy of notice, as nothing of the kind has anywhere else been seen in India of so old a date. Three warriors at Amaravati are habited \-cr}' nearly in the same wa}-, but with- out the boots. For ready reference I have copied as much of t\\o of them as is visible in Mr. Fergusson's plates. Woodcuts Nos. 33 and 34. Among the sculptures on the temples of Bhuvanes'vara, there are also several rei)resentations of needle-made dresses. A basso-rilievo horseman in the dancing- hall of the Great Tower, is dressed in a perfect Jdind, of the pattern to be seen on the Rajput horsemen figured in Col. No. 33. Tod's Rajasthan. Its date, however, is doubtful. Several statuettes on the Muktes'vara temple are dressed in petticoats or kilts, the Indian ^/',rFi,'-;v? held round the waist by a jewelled girdle or zone. The outline of this habit is so well defined that it leaves no doubt in the mind of its shape antl form being due to scissors and needles. The statuette represented in woodcut No. 35, offers a remarkable lireeches, or the sweeping train, Init adapting something between the Median and Persian mode, contrived vestments more pompous llian the former, and more majestic than the latter. At first he used this dress only before the barbarians, or his particular friends within doors; but in time he came to wear it when he ap- peared in pul)lic, and sat for the despatch of business." Langhorne's Plutarch, p. 483. Of course this was most prol)al)ly done witli a view to conciliate the con- quered people ; but it is not very favorable to the theory of Greek dress having been readily adopted by the latter. [ 182 ] No. 34. instance of this habit. The bust of the fit^ure is enclosed in a tight bodice such as is now in common use in many parts of India, and a long scarf, the substitute for a Grecian himation and the North Indian iirna or cJiadar, is thrown over the shoulders, with its two ends floating in the air. As the figure shewn in the woodcut is that of Annapurna, a form of Durga, offering a cake in a ladle to her lord, S'iva, it is impossible to suppose that the artist has dress- ed the goddess in a foreign garb, e\-en if it could be shown that foreign models of the kind were accessible to him. The pdyajdind no- ticed above, (^\•oodcut No. 36), is held round the waist b)- a string with a chain and girdle o\-cr it, in the same wa}' as IVIuhammadan women now wear it, but there is a piece of cloth passed between the thighs tucked be- hind, probably also so secured in front, the use of which appears quite inexpli- cable, unless it be assumed to be an imitation of the cloth which wrestlers use over their short-drawers to tic their bod}' firmh'. The short-drawers on the same temple, shewn, in Illustration No. 80, of ray " Antiquities of Orissa," though well defined on the figure appear to be doubtful, as thc\' have, besitlcs the Ujngitudinal piece noticed above, a cross belt tied a little above the hip-joint, very much in the same way as the figures of the shc])herd Krishna arc dressed at Vrindax'ana ill the present da\', and in their case it is the diuiti that is arranged so as to represent short-drawers, and no .sewed cloth is used. [ i83 ] Amonuri:;h Revictv, for July, 1S67. t Wilson's Hindu Theatre, II. 384. t Martin's Eastern India II. 699. § Sanskrit Texts, V. 462. Textile Manufactures of India, II. [ i84 ] It has been somewhere said that had the ancient Hindus needle-made garments they would have had in their language Sanskrit names for "ames for them as well as for tailors; tailors. but that they have none such in San- skrit, This is, however, a mere assumption. The case is quite otherwise. In the Vocabulary of Amara Sinha, there are two words for workers A\ith needle, one applying exclu- sively to those who confine their profession to darning, and the other to general tailoring. * The first is tiDuiavdya, a word very similar to tantuvdya "a weaver," and the other, S'aiichika or S'lkhika, general worker with the needle. The profession of the latter was of sufficient importance to neces- sitate the establishment of a separate tribe, and a mixed class, the lawful issue of Vaisyas by S'udra women, was, according to the ancient law-book of Us'anas, destined to live by it, and other manual arts.-}- These bore the distinctive tribal name of S'auchi or needlemen. It is not to be denied that in Bengal, with the exception of the Acharyas who are employed in making dresses for idols, and noted for their expertness in darning, tailoring is now the special profession of Musalmans ; but elsewhere the case is not so. Mr. Shcrring observes: " In addition to the Muhammadans engaged in this calling, there is a considerable number of Hindus of an inferior caste who pursue it like- wise. They arc a separate tribe, and are di\-ided into seven sub-castes or clans, as follows: — i, Sri Bastak ; 2, Nam Deo ; 3, Tanchara ; 4, Dhanesh ; 5, Punjabi ; 6, Gour ; 7, Kantak." An eighth is also found in Benares named Takseri.:|: ^^* fW^ ^^ffT II Amarakosha. :;: Hindu Castes and Tribes of Benares, p. 341. [ IBS ] As regards the names of made dresses, it I's to be observ- ed that the forms of the ancient garments having become Sanskrit names of obsolete for centurles, their names have made dresses. h'kewise fallen into disuse, and what formerly indicated particular forms arc now accepted as com- mon terms for dress. There are, nevertheless, some words, the import of which cannot be mistaken, such as kancJinka, kancJiolika,angika,cJiolaka, cJiola, kiirpdsaka, adJiikdnga, uhi.Sic. The most important of these is the first. It is defined as " a soldier's dress, shaped like a bodice," a made garment for the body, hanging either as low as the hip or lower down to the legs, /. e., a jacket or a coat. The word sanndha, used in its definition,* and which is used for a mail coat, as well as a coat of quilted cotton, has led to its being occasionally con- founded with the varnia or chain-mail, and in some modern dictionaries, it is described as " an iron garment for the pro- tection of the body from arrows" ; but that it was formerly made of cloth is evident from its having been used by other than warriors. The sages and hermits, who came to the great coronation festival of Yudhishthira, are described in the Mahabharata as being dressed in turbans and kanchu- kas,-f- and in their case it would be inconsistent to accept the coat as a hauberk or a cuirass. The immediate, ordi- nary, every-day attendants on kings, who should always be old, arc also said to be so attired, and from various de- scriptions it would seem that the garment was made of cloth in the shape of the well-known Indian Jama. The ordi- nary term for the eunuchs, who guard the zenana of a king, is kanchitkinas or " persons clothed with the kanchuka," and it is not to be believed that they generally moved about in chain-mail, or solid breast-plates. In the Ratndvali of t f^^^'i ^HT f^arr ^^Iwt^T T?"JT^^Wr: l Mahabharata. [ 186 ] S'n'harsha, a warder of this class offers protection under the folds of its kanchuka to a dwarf who had been frightened out of his wits by a little monkey getting loose from its chains and gambolling about, * and this could not have been possible unless the coat had been of cloth with skirts hanging down close to the ankles. In the present day the flowing forepart of the dhiiti, which looks very like the folds of the skirt of the Jdmd, is called konchd. Fair maidens in noble families are said to have, likewise, draped themselves in this garment to heighten their beauty, and it would be absurd to suppose that they used metallic jackets for such a purpose. The dimunitive of the Kanchuka is kanchulika, and it is universally known to be a cloth bodice, and all respecta- ble women, and even goddesses, are said to have worn it. Its modern name is kdncJmU, and it is in common use all over India, except among family women in Bengal. Over it is worn a thin, light jacket reaching to the waist, with sleeves to the elbows. This is called angid; Hindi, kiirtd. To those who know the Prakrit language, this will at once appear to be a corruption of the Sankrit angika, the k being, by a well-known rule, changed into a. It is probable that the name of the male jacket angarkJid of the present day is a modification of the same word, unless it be a corruption of anga^ body, and raksliyd, protection. In Wilson's Dic- tionary the word cJioIa is explained as " a short jacket or bodice ;" but it was more like a waistcoat, something closely x(isQ.u\\i\\\\^ z. fattii, ox sadri of the Muhammadans, for In- dian tailors still call the torso or the body part of a coat chold^ and its appendages dstin, sleeve; and ddiiian skirts, and the Sanskrit cholaka is explained to be a breast-plate. The word nivi is also remarkable. It is the name of * ^'tT: ^^f^^^^^ f^irr?r PiT^T^^r ^t*it: i [ i87 ] the tape with which drawers (pdyajdnid) or the petticoat (ghdgrd) is tied round the waist. It could not have had an existence in the language if there had been no pdyajdnid or ghdgrd to tie. Sculptural evidence regarding the style of dress is not always reliable, artistic and other Style of dressing. causes being agamst a faithful repre- sentation of the current style of dress. Subject to this reser- vation and relying on sculpture for our guide, the ordinary style in which Uriyas of quality used to put on the dJiuti, twelve hundred years ago, may be assumed to be what is shewn in my "Antiquities of Orissa," figs, Nos. 8i and 58. It does not differ from the mode of the present time, except in the jewelled girdle with a pendant in front. This append- age, however, was probably introduced to heighten the artistic effect of the figures, and was not in common use. The statue of Kcirtikeya in the great Tower of BhuvanesVara has the dJinti tied firmly round the waist, in keeping with the martial character of that divinity. Figures, Nos. 82, 85 and 86, of that work, represent the dJiuti as worn by common people and labourers. In Sanchi and Amaravatf, the same style is delineated with but slight differences. The cJiddar or scarf occurs plentifully in all the three places, and the mode of wearing it was the same as at the present day. For full dress the chapkan-\'{k.Q tunic shown on the archers at Sanchi was probably the prevailing garb for kings, princes, and men of quality ; while the longflowing jdmd was kept for lower officers of state, warders, and atten- dants on kings. The scarf was invariably used, either thrown over the shoulders, or tied round the waist as a kaniarband. The body-cloth under the outer coat was probably the dhuti in the generality of cases, as we see it now in the Bhatia of Bombay and Guzarat, military officers of high standing occa- sionally replacing it by drawers of some kind or other. The [ 188 ] jdmd may have been brought by the Aryans from Central Asia, but as it is still now seen it is thoroughly Indian and of ancient date. The Parsis accepted it from the Hindus about twelve hundred years ago, and have since preserved it, with a few modifications and mutilations, as their national dress ; the modifications in their hands, however, have not been so extensive, as in that of the Moslims in India, who in Akbar's time adopted it as a court dress. The pattern preserved in Rajput sculptures figured by Tod, and on the horseman in the Bhuvanes vara temple, is perhaps the nearest approach to the ancient habit: it differs from the modern style principally in having short skirts. The prevailing character of the ordinary female dress in sculptures is very much alike in the Female dress. three places, and Mr. Fergusson's des- cription of Sanchi and Amaravati, apply equally to Orissa. " The costume of the women," he says, " is difficult to describe, though this is principally in consequence of its scantiness. Both at Sanchi and Amaravati, the women always wear enormous bangles about the ankles and wrists,* and generally strings of beads round the neck, but their body clothing is generally limited to a bead belt round the body below the waist. From this belt slips of cloth are sometimes sus- pended, more generally at the sides or behind than in front, and sometimes also a cloth worn something like the dJmti of the male sex is also added, but when that is the case, it is represented in the sculptures generally as absolutely transparent." -f- It may be questioned, hcjwever, as to whether these habits were really the prevailing costumes of the country at *The same bangles are still in common use by the lower orders of the people in Orissa, but in sculptures they are generally replaced by articles of lighter and more elegant designs. ■|' Tree and Serpent Wursliii), y2. t 189 ] the time, or only the conventional modes of representing the female form ? Mr. Fergusson, who has devoted his attention for some time t(j Indian antiquity, is disposed to accept the first branch of the alternative, and it is certainly not easy to question the testimony of authentic graven stones. That testimony, however, is in direct conflict with the evidence of equally authentic written records. The passage from the Rig Veda quoted above (p. 167) in which Usha is compared to " a youthful bride before her husband, uncovering, smiling, her bosom in his presence," depicts a peculiarity of Indian female dress, which it would be difficult to conceive had altogether disappeared from the land when the sculptures were incised, and that a bead girdle was the only attire for the body left even to queens and princesses ; when improve- ments in other respects of social life were marked and progressing ; when people lived in two and three storeyed houses of brick and stone, such as the Sanchi bas-reliefs represent ; when they drove about in carriages and wagons ; freely wrought in gold, silver, copper, and iron ; and manu- factured woven fabrics enough to be able to export large quantities of them to the, for the time, highly civilized countries of the West, where they were highly prized. The veil, the bodice, and body-clothes, are repeatedly mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata ; and both in the Hindu and the Buddhist codes of law and morality, modesty of dress in women is everywhere insisted upon as a matter of paramount importance. In the ancient code of laws by S'ankha, there is an ordinance which says, " Let no woman go out of the house without permission ; nor without a sheet over her dress ; nor should she be allowed to run or walk very fast ; nor speak with male strangers, unless they be trades- men, hermits, old people, or medical practitioners ; nor allow her navel to be seen : she should be so dressed that her cloth- ing should hang down to the ankles ; and the breasts ^.hould [ 190 ] never be exposed." * Gobhila enjoins that " women should always wear a sheet, (the Grecian peplos or the Roman palia) over their body-clothes."-|- Harita says, " the first duty of woman (in the morning) is to bathe and put on (clean) clothes -"X and among the most important daily duties of wo- men, Rishyasringa enumerates, " cleanliness, attention to the duties of the house, the polish of the household utensils, bathing, dressing, plaiting the hair in braids, and putting flowers thereon."§ Other authorities are equally particular in this respect, and everywhere the most important duty enjoined on husbands and relatives is to supply good clothing to the ladies of one's house. Manu even goes the length of prohibiting husbands from looking at their wives when en- gaged in the mysteries of their toilette, and of denouncing the sight of nude females as sinful. || The veil, as a mark of propriety and modesty before seniors and strangers, is everywhere insisted upon, and this idea is carried to the ridiculous extent of prohibiting the offering of t RTfWt ^^>xrT|-f ^ Tl^^7[ 1 ^ M^-S TT^^^^ ^3T^T^> f^-sTtrTH: II 88 H 5n%tg[ irf^^^jsa t ^ ^^^^ Tr?TTTT^g ii ^■^•. h — i^ H " Lei nol a Brahman, who desires manly strength, behold his wife setting off her eyes with collyrium, or anointing herself with oil, or when she is in des- habille, or liringing forth a child." IV. 44. " Let him not blow the lire with Ills mouth, lot him not see a woman nak- ed, let him not throw any foul thing into the fire, nor let him warm his feet in it." Manu, IV. 53. [ 191 ] the funeral cake to a grandfather without first covering the cake to the mother with kus'a grass, as emblematic of her veil, for even in spirit she should not appear before her father-in-law with her face uncovered * In the case of men not only is nudity prohibited, but even a single garment is held insufficient for propriety. Manu forbids a single gar- ment when at meals,-f- and the Vishnu Purana ordains that " a man must neither bathe, nor sleep, nor rinse his mouth, whilst naked ; he must not wash his mouth, nor perform any sacred rite, with his waistband unfastened ; and he must not offer oblations to fire, nor sacrifice to the gods, nor wash his mouth, nor salute a Brahman, nor utter a prayer with only one garment on.":|: In the SamayacJidrika-dJiarvm-sutra of Apastamba, even a Bramhachari, just returned from his noviciate, is required to dress himself with d^jdind (kancJiuka) over his body-clothes, and to move about with either shoes or pattens on.§ The Buddhists are equally particular in this respect, and have many positive injunctions against impropriety in dress. Mr. Fergusson suspects, that the story given in the Dulva of a lewd priestess, who created great scandal by wearing in public a piece of muslin of so thin a texture that she appeared naked, and the canons which sa}', that to go about with thin dress on is absolutely immoral, are of modern origin ; but notwithstanding the lavish freedom with which the theory of interpolation has been of late worked i^T*iV ^T ^T2Zr^ flT^TT^^TTTfwf^: II ■^^J^^ II t Manu IV. 45. + Wilson's Vishnu Purana, III. 139. ^T^f iJTn^T^'^ ^T'J'^ I ]Uihlci"s A'pastamba, p. 14. [ 192 ] out in support of particular ideas, it is not at all likely that anybody will attribute the simile in the Rig Veda to a mis- chievous tampering with the original by interested and unscrupulous Brahmans. The only reasonable inference that can be drawn from the passage is, that in the times of the Rig Veda, the covering of the bust was deemed an essen- tial element of female modesty by, at least, certain classes of the community ; and that that idea has been since kept alive by their descendants who composed the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and other later Sanskrit works, is so manifest in those records that little need be said in support of it. The greatest insult which the wicked Kurus could offer the Pandus, was to order their wife, Draupadi, to be disrobed in open court, and that lady in her anxiety, most piteously prays Krishna to save her modesty. In the first century before Christ, Pururavas exclaims at the sight of his ladylove : " Soft as the flower, the timid heart not soon Foregoes its fears. The scarf that veils her bosom Hides not its flutterings, and the panting breast Seems as it felt the wreath of heavenly blossoms Weigh too oppressively." * Even woodland maidens at the time could not go about without a coV'Cring for their bust, and in the cJief (Tmivre of Kdlidasa, S'akuntala complains of her bodice being too tightly tied about her chest ; whereupon the king remarks : — " This youthful form whose bosom's swelling charms By the bark's knotted tissue are concealed, Like some fair bud close folded in its sheath, Gives not to view the blooming of its beauty." -f- In the original Sanskrit, the mode of tying the bodice by a tape behind the neck is distinctly indicated. * Wilson's Vikrama and Urvasf, Act I. See. I. II. p. 200. t WJliauis' S'akiuilala, [). 15. t 193 ] That there were certain races or tribes then, as there are to this day, who, like the Kiikis, the Patuas, and the Gonds wore little or no clothing, is of course a fact not to be questioned. But it is more than probable that they were then, as now, on!)- wild savage tribes who skirted the civiliza- tion of the Aryans, and did not represent the social condition of the country : certain it is, that they were not the builders of the Sanchi gateways, nor of the Amaravati rails, nor of the temples of Bhuvanes'vara. The annals of the S'akya race as preserved in Sanskrit, Pall, Tibetan, and Chinese, represent them to have belonged to the foremost of the Aryan race, the Kshatriyas, whose mode of life, if any faith is to be reposed on those records, was entirely different from that of the Patuas and of the Kiikis. When Siddhartha retired from home, he went forth, it is said, in the full court-dress of a prince, which he ex- changed for the humble }-ellow vestment of a hermit, when he arrived at a neighbouring wood. If the sculptures are to be accepted without any qualification, the whole of these records must be entirely rejected, and we must believe that kings and princes, as shewn on Mr. Fergusson's plate, XXXI., went about with their bodies all uncovered, while the priests were clothed to the neck with scrupulous care ; that Siddh^ir- tha gave up a narrow dJmti for something that covered his person from neck to ankles ; and that the attire of Mayadevi, the mother of Buddha, was somewhat less ample than the traditional " fig leaf" of Eve, consisting, as it does in sculp- tures, solely of a narrow bead cincture below the waist. The large Amaravati stone in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, represents Mayadevi reclining on what ap- pears like a stuffed cushion spread on a cot and provided with a large pillow or tdkid ; she is attended by armed male guards, and waiting maids holding cJiauris\ but she has on her person iiothini: bcN'ond a bead "irdlc to cu\cr her modest v.* A [ 194 ] prince on one of the Amaravati stones is seated on a high- backed, cushioned chair with what looks like a stuffed pillow behind him, but he has on his person little beside a cloth gir- dle two or three inches round the waist by way of dress. His ladies, seated on chairs without cushions or pillows, content themselves with only girdles of beads.-f- Occasionally the bead girdle is supplemented by a narrow slip of cloth attached to it and hanging behind, but not in front. In one instance in the same collection a Raja and his little boy are dressed in dhutis reaching close to the ankles, but the attendant ladies are all in absolute dis/iabille.\ In the garden scenes at Sanchi, the lovers always appear dressed, but in two out of four instances, the belles are nude, the other two being decently draped.§ Again, in a grand procession all the men are clothed and turbanned, and even the leading horse has a rich housing, but the ladies of the raja, who look at the procession from the veranda and balcony of the palace, like the king's guards in a certain island in the South Pacific Ocean, whose full-dress consist- ed of a cocked hat and a pair of spurs, all confine their habiliments to a single article, a bead girdle amidst a gor- geous display of jewellery. One of them has a suspicious looking drinking cup in her hand, and a waiting maid is ready to replenish it from a covered flagon. It is worthy of note, that in some instances, women bear a large thick band of cloth round the waist, but it never reaches so low as the hip- joint. The so-called Dasyus, too, are everywhere represented as poor and degraded, but they are invariably dressed, and dressed decently enough for tlic position they occupy ; but the women of tlic proud Ar\-ans who despise them, and take * Tree ami .Serpent W(ii>hip, pliUe LXXIW t Il)id, plate XXXIII. X Ibid, plate XXXI. § Ibid, plate XXX\ II. [ 195 ] the lead on every occasion, though richly jewelled, are gener- ally devoid of all clothing. At Bhuvanes'vara the same scenes are by no means wanting ; stuffed cushions shewing traces of buttons or tufting, which held the stuffing in its position, and large thick pillows (takids), such as are now held in requisition by men of rank and position, arc repeatedly delineated, but the people who use them are mostly nudes. It must be observed also that in Sanchi and Amaravati', perfectly nude males have been carefully avoided, and at Bhuva- nes'vara arc comparatively few, whereas the female figure is very largely exhibited in all the three places in a state of nature, without any artificial covering. Had the nudity and spare clothing been due to race peculiarities, or tribal customs, they could not have been so markedly different among the two sexes. The habits and customs of the wild races now extant in different parts of the earth do not shew that where men and children have been clothed, the female sex has been left cntircU' without any garment. On the contrary, several primitive hill tribes in India and elsewhere, among whom the men and children go about without any covering for their persons, are particular in providing garbs of leaves or bark for their females ; for there seems to exist, even among them, a sense of decency — a very imperfect and nebulous one, no doubt, formed after their very primitive conditions — but still a sense of decency about covering the person, which prompts them to devise the means of doing so. A notable instance of this is offered by Col. Dalton in his interesting work on the Ethnology of Bengal. Noticing the Juangs of Keunjhar, he says: "The females of the group had not amongst them a particle of clothing, their sole covering for purposes of decency consisted in a girdle composed of several strings of beads from which depended before and behind small curtains of [ 196 ] leaves. Adam and Eve sewed fig leaves together and made themselves aprons. The Juangs are not so far advanced ; they take young shoots of the A'san (Terminalia tojuentosa), or any tree with young soft leaves, and arranging them so as to form a flat and scale-like surface of the required size, the sprigs are simply stuck in the girdle, fore and aft, and the toilet is complete. The girls were well developed and finely formed specimens of the race, and as the light leafy costume left the outlines of the figure entirely nude, they would have made good studies for sculpture. * * * * Next day they came to my tent at noon, and whilst I conversed with the males on their customs, language, and religion, the girls sat nestled together in a corner, for a long time silent and motionless as statues, but after an hour or two elapsed, the crouching nymphs showed signs of life and symptoms of un- easiness, and, more attentively regarding them, I found that great tears were dropping from the down-cast eyes like dew- drops on the green leaves. On my tenderly seeking the cause of their distress, I was told that the leaves were becoming dry, stiff, and uncomfortable, and if they were not allowed to go to the woods for a change, the consequences would be serious, and they certainly could not dance. It was a bright, dry day, and the crisp rustling, as they rose to depart, con- firmed the statement."* The tears of the Juang nymphs arc remarkably expressive. A similar instance is narrated by Lieutenant, after- wards Commodore, Lambert, in the voyage of one of Her Majesty's ships in the Pacific Ocean. The ship was at anchor close by an island inhabited by savages, who used the smallest possible amount of clothing " that could be made to serve the purposes of decency," and yet when they beheld the ship's crew jumping into the sea-water for Ualloii's Ucscriptive Elhnfilogy of I'.cngal, p. 155. [ 197 ] a bath, without an)' clothing on their person, the}' were sorely scandalised. Other instances it would be easy to adduce ; but they are not wanted. Taking the facts here noticed into con- sideration I am led to the conclusion that as regards dress, the prevailing character of the bas-reliefs is due, not so much to ethnic, or social causes as to the exigencies of art. No doubt, the scantily clad Tamulian aboriginal races formed the great bulk of Buddhist congregations, and were more freely and plentifully represented on the monu- ments of their co-rcligionists than the Aryans, but their pre- sence alone does not suffice to account for all the peculiarities noticed above. It is probable, therefore, that a conventional rule of art, such as has made the sculptors of Europe prefer the nude to the draped figure;* or a prevailing desire to dis- play the female contour in all its attractiveness; or the unskil- fulness of early art ; or the difficulty of chiseling drapery on such coarse hard materials as were ordinarily accessible in this- country; or a combination of some or of all those causes, exercised a more potent influence on the action of the Indian artist than ethnic peculiarities, in developing the human form in stone. There were, likewise, it is to be presumed, a sense of humour which manifested itself in oddities, caricatures, and grotesque representations, a longing for a display of variety, and a pruriency of imagination which made the males appear in dresses of diverse kinds, and the females in a state of nature. At Bhuvanes'vara a religious sentiment, that of veneration for the creative energy, of which some traits have been already noticed (p. 145) wasevidentlyalso brought to bear upon art, and to produce an effect highly offensive to good * This is well illustrated in the nude statue of Achilles set up in honor of the Duke of Wellington, in Hyde Park, to the West of Apsley House, and in that of Charles H. in the great quadrangle of Chelsea Hospital, in which the "Merry Monarch" is dressed as a Roman commander. [ 198 ] taste. But whether so or not, it would, I think, be as effec- tual to draw conclusions regarding the costumes of the ancient Indians solely and exclusively from the sculptures they have left behind them, as it would be for the New-Zealander of Macaulay to do the same with reference to the Europeans of the 19th century from the collections of modern statuary in the Crystal Palace, the Kensington Museum, and the Louvre. The argument would apply with equal force to the sculp- tures of the ancient Egyptians. The paintings and painted bas-reliefs of those people unmistakably show that the higher classes among them were well and sumptuously clothed from the neck to the ankles, and yet their statues and untaint- ed sculptures entirely belie this. Kings, queens, high priests, and persons of rank appear in them with scarce anything better than rags to hide their nudity, and in many instances even those rags are wanting. The colossal statue of Minerva and that of king Asymandias at Thebes, have nothing more than each a strip of cloth from the hip to the middle of the thighs by way of dress.* The transparent clothing noticed by Mr. Fergusson at Sanchi, which hides no part of the female form, occurs almost evcrj-whcre in Egypt, and in some of her most finished carvings. Among the bas-reliefs under the gallery of the western temple in the Island of Phil.ne, in the sanctuary of the temple of Hormonthis and elsewhere, there are several figures of goddesses, or ladies of rank, seated on chairs, and decorated with rich head-dresses, and ornaments in profusion round the neck, but totally de- void of clothing round the waist. The attendants and the priests before them arc all decently draped. -j- It would be as reasonable to argue from them tliat the ancient Egyptians were ill-clad as to deduce from the Sanchi ba-reliefs that the * Description de 1' Egypte, vol. II., plates 22 and 28. t Loc. cit., vol. I., plates 22, 27 and 96. [ 199 ] Ilincius therein represented, were a naked race. It is true, as justly observed by Carlyle, in his "Sartor Resartus," that "by nature man is a naked animal^ and only in certain circum- stances, by purpose and device, masks himself in clothes." Il may be true, likewise, as the same author endeavours to show, that " the first purpose of clothes was not warmth or decency, but ornament" ;* and taking it in that light, it must follow that for decoration man must have clothes, and when he has once got them, his passion for ornament will alone suffice to make him retain them, despite even the "philosophical nakedness" of Shelley's friends,-f- or that of Carlyle, which resulted in pictures of "a naked duke addressing a naked House of Lords, naked kings wrestling with naked women," and other vagaries of fancy. \ It is not to be denied that it is difficult to decide authori- tatively the exact form of the female dress which prevailed from twelve to twenty centuries ago in India, but after a care- ful survey of the sculptures extant, and the notices to be met with in ancient Sanskrit records, I am disposed to believe that the bulk of the women of the country wore the sari ; that all who could afford it, added thereto a bodice ; that respectable women put on a jacket (dug id) over the bodice, and covered the whole with a scarf or cJiddar ; and that some habited themselves with the ^QX.'i\co-&.\.(gJLdgrd) or the drawers (pdyajdmd,) along with the bodice, the jacket, and the scarf. These dresses were, however, not common all over India, for local peculiarities and custom undoubtedly gave pre-eminence to some of them over others at particular places; but they were kno\\'n and more or less in use by the people in c\cry part of the coimtr\\ * "Not for either of these, but to hide the shame of sin," says the Bible, t Hogg's Life of Shelley. i Sartor Resartus. [ 200 ] Mr. Fergusson has attempted to develope an ethnography of the races represented at Sanchi and Dasyus. , Amaravati from their costume ; but the deductions he has drawn do not appear to be well-founded, since the dresses depicted are, as I assume, themselves not always complete representations of what they originally were when in use in a complete suit, and their evidence can go but little way to indicate the nationality of the figures on which they are placed. This remark applies particularly to the class which Mr. Fergusson denominates "the Dasyus." They "are* generally represented as people of the woods, living in thatched huts, wearing a small dhuti wrapped round the waist, and possessing no ornaments. Their head-dress consists occasionally of a plain skull-cap, but frequently of plaited or matted hair wound round the head, and tied on the crown in a conical form. Occasionally they allow the hair to hang behind in loose tresses. Most of them have beards : a few appear with shaven chins. They sit with their knees raised and legs crossed and tied round with a strip of cloth or a napkin, and are occupied in splitting wood or other domestic task ; occasionally navigating in rude canoes ; but they never seem to mix with the community at large, except for the observance of religious rites." They have invariably by them a chaffing dish with a blazing fire, a pair of tongs, and a bowl, which, from its shape, appears to be made of the hard shell of the gourd. It was carried about hanging from the left hand. In one instance a man has a stand of the shape of a viord, over which he holds something, which ap- pears to me, from the tracing of writing on it, to be a scroll or a mass of written paper ; a companion of his is folding or unfolding a similar scroll or bundle, and a third is taking * The remarks which follow on the Dasyus are quoted from a i)a])er of mine published in the Indian Anl'tinuny for February, 1872, pp. 36, cl scq. [ 201 ] up some burning charcoal with his tongs. Mr. Fcrgusson, following General Cunningham, takes the first scroll to be a flagon from which the man is pouring something into his fire-pot, and the second a fan with which the owner is enliven- ing his fire ; but the appearance of the scrolls and the posi- tion and action of the hands, according to several intelligent European gentlemen, including two professional artists, are entirely against this supposition. Mr. Fergusson himself half suspects them to be hermits, and says they are repeated in the Amaravati sculptures, but attributes it to scarcity of Dasyus at the time.* Some of these figures are repeated on the temples of Bhuvanes'vara. They appear old and emaciated, having by their sides a pair of tongs, a gourd pot, and a chaffing dish. The scene is scrupulously true to life, and may be found to this day, not only in every part of India, but even be- yond it, and everywhere it represents an Aryan of the third order, z. e., a hermit or ascetic ( VdnaprastJia) seated at his ease, reading his prayer book, or attending to his domestic occupations, and not a non-Aryan. Adverting to some of these hermits on the shores of the Caspian Sea, M. de Pauly observes : " Ou trouve en outre a Bakou quelques adorateurs du feu, dont la personnalite est particulicrement enteressante. L'aspect de ces feux perpctuels, sortant spontanement de la terre, offre un coup d'ceil vraimcnt magique, surtout pendant la nuit ; dans le voisinage de ces feux se trouve une sorte de temple ou de couvent dans lequel Ics derniers debris des antiques adorateurs du feu, representes par quelques vieux Indous dessdchds, presque nus, semblables a des fantOmes ambulants, pratiquent sur eux-memes leurs macerations contre nature, et celebrent leur culte idolatre, triste et miserable parodie de la doctrine de Tserdouchit."-|- * Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 208. t Feuples de la Russie, p. 148. [ 202 ] ' General Cunningham, from his thorough knowledge of Domestic Ties of Her- Indian life, at once took the Sanchi '"'^^- Dasyus for ascetics, and no one who has once seen groups of Sannyasis at Hurdwar, Benares, or other sacred places, could for a moment mistake them. The head- gear, the style of sitting, the tongs, the gourd, and the blaz- ing fire, are so peculiar and characteristic, that I, as a Hindu, perfectly familiar with the scene, cannot possibly mistake it, and have no hesitation in asserting that the Dasyus in such scenes are entirely imaginary. It might be said that the hermits of the present day are generally celibates, whereas the Dasyus of the Sanchi tope have women and children about them. But the objection is of no moment, as there is ample evidence to show that the ancient Aryan hermits or sages were not altogether free from domestic ties. Accord- ing to Manu, "when the father of a family perceives his muscles become flaccid, and his hair grey, and sees the child of his child, let him seek refuge in a forest : abandoning all food eaten in towns and his household utensils, let him repair to the lonely wood, committing the care of his wife to her sons, or accompanied by her, if she choose to attend him. Let him take up his consecrated fire, and all his domestic imple- ments for making oblations to it, and departing from the town to the forest, let him dwell in it with complete power over his organs of sense and of action."* This state of her- mitage, or vdnaprastJia, was subsequently exchanged for that of the Sajiiiydsi, or houseless mendicant, but the distinction was rarely very rigidly observed, and the transition, when it did take place, was so gradual as to be imperceptible. Hence it is that ancient sages arc generally described as living in woods and retired places, but not without women and children about them. Ajigarta, according to the Aitareya Brdhiiiana of the Rig Veda, lived with his wife and three sons in a * Manu, \'I., 234. [ 203 ] wood. Kalidasa makes the sage Kanva live in a wood with about half a dozen maidens, including S'akuntala, in his hermitage. Kas'yapa, in the same ^^'ay, has his retreat full of women of different ranks, and a boy. Si'ta is said to have lived in the hermitage of Vas'ishtha with her two sons who were born there ; and almost every ancient story book has its tale of hermitages having feminine and juvenile residents. No doubt those works treat of avowed fictions, but it is not to be supposed that their authors outraged the sense of pro- priety of their readers by describing hermits having wife and children and female lodgers in their cells, if they had not found such things to be common in their times. The Vedas, the Upanishads, the great epics, and the Puranas, also de- scribe sages, rishis, and munis having females about them ; and the presence of such persons cannot, therefore, be taken as inconsistent with ancient Indian ascetic life. ' The same practice also prevailed among the Buddhists, Story of Dukula and ^"^ priestcsscs of female mendicants — ^'''>'"'^- the Se/xfat of Clement of Alexandria — are frequently named in the Avadanas, the Jatakas, and other legendary writings as living in woods. In Mr. James D'Alwis' translation of the Attanagiila Wansa there is a remarkable instance of this. As the story there given is of importance, in connexion with the question at issue, and can- not readily be had for reference, I shall quote it entire.* It forms a part of the Siima Jataka and runs as follows : — " Once upon a time, when Piliyuk was king of Baranes, Gotama was born unto a hermit, named Dukula, and was named Sama. After the son had grown up, Dukula and his wife Parika went one day into the jungle in quest of roots and fruits. There they encountered a storm, and being much wet, were obliged to take shelter under a tree close to a hole * Since the above was written the story has been separately published in Enfrland. [ 204 ] inhabited by a malignant serpent. Whilst the venerable pair were standing there, dripping from their garments, a cobra issued a venomous blast, whereby they were instantly struck blind. In this helpless condition their son discovered and conducted them home, and began to nourish and maintain them with the affection of a dutiful son. Some time after- wards the king went upon a hunting expedition, and rested on the banks of the Migasammata, not far from the hermi- tage. He had not, however, been long there before he saw the footsteps of deer that came down to the river to drink ; and, thinking that he could kill them, lay in ambush. Imme- diately a remarkably handsome person with a pitcher came down to the river surrounded by a flock of deer. Amazed at the sight and wishing to ascertain whether it was a nymph of the forest whom he thus beheld, he issued a dart, which, alas ! severely wounded him. In the agonies of death the wretched man put his pitcher by him, and, falling on the ground, began to exclaim, ' Who can be the enemy of a person that was devoted to the religious duties of the eight s'ilas and ten his alas ? Who, indeed, could desire the flesh of an innocent person like myself?' Hearing these cries, the king approached his victim, proclaimed that he was Piliyuk, king of Baranes, explained the motive with which he had shot him, and desired to know who or what he was. Where- upon Sama replied, ' I was born in this forest, I am the only prop and support of two parents, both aged and blind. Little do they know of the mishap that has happened to me. They will indeed be much grieved and distressed when they find me thus delaying. I alone gave them what they desired. Twice daily have I washed them, and thrice have I fed them. Who indeed will give them a drop of water even after asking ten times? They will be parched like fishes out of water. Wlio, alas ! will succour and help those, who, probably, at this very moment, arc anxiously waiting my return, and are [ 205 ] watching for the first sounds of my footsteps ? ' Thus lament- ing, he began to weep, not for himself, but for the destitution in which he would leave his feeble parents. Horror seized the king at the reflection that his conduct was calculated to deprive of life three persons who had exercised the duties of Brahmachariya, and that he could not escape the torments of hell, if they all died ; and, touched by the lamentations of the youth, he promised to succour and help his parents until his death. Sama, relying upon his faithful promises, blessed the king, and, desiring him to convey his respects and the sad tidings of his death to his blind parents, closed both his eyes, and dropped down as if he had expired. " Instantly a goddess named Bahusodan', who had been Sama's mother in his tenth birth before the present, perceiv- ing the danger to the hermit boy and also to his parents, as well as the king, made her appearance on the spot ; and, after rebuking the king for his conduct and advising him how he should behave towards Sama's parents, watched over Sama. " The king, sorely afflicted with grief, picked up the pitcher which had been filled up by Sama, and, taking the path which had been directed, reached the humble cottage of the blind pair, who sat anxiously watching the return of their son. They now heard the sound of advancing footsteps, but, knowing that they were not those of their son, inquired, 'who approached the door?' The stranger announced that he was Piliyuk, the king of Baranes ; and entered with them into a conversation, in the course of which he delicately dis- closed their son's fate and the particulars connected with it, offering at the same time to succour them through life. Un- bounded was now the grief of the hapless parents, to which they gave utterance in the language of despair, falling down, and each bitterly crying, ' Oh son Sama, from the day I have lost my sight, have I, by thy unceasing attentions, felt that [ 206 ] ^ I have acquired divine eyes. Where hast thou now gone? How shall I henceforth live ? Son, thou hast never done nor con- ceived any evil towards us, or any other being. Thou hast never uttered a falsehood. Thou hast never committed life-slaughter ; ever hast thou maintained the observance oi Xho^ paiicJia s'ila! The king tried his utmost to console them, but without success. Afterwards, turning to the king, the blind parents addresed him, saying, that they had no faith in his proffered protection, and that all the favour they desired was to be led to the place where Sama lay. The king complied by leading the point of a stick which the blind ones held in their hands When they reached their destination, the bereaved parents again gave vent to their feelings by much weeping, and praying to their titular god. The mother, on examination, finding that all signs of life had vanished, gave utterance to the following Satya Kiriyd : — ' If it be true that my son Sama unceasingly devoted himself to the duties of Brahmachariya, and that he has ever maintained the ordinances of the AttJia s'ila\ and if it be also true that I have entertained no other faith ex- cept Buddhism, and that I have ever performed tilakuim Bhavana, may, by the power of those truths, my son receive life.' By the influence of this Satya Kiriyd, and by the might of the gods, Sama moved from one side to another. When the father had also uttered a similar Satya Kiriyd, Sama again moved to a side ; and by the power of the goddess already named, he revived, and the parents received their lost sight. Instantly the morning sun arose, and Sama dismissed the astonished king, after preaching to him on the merits of nour- ishing one's parents, and, above all, of leading a religious life, as they were testified to by his miraculous restoration to life."* ' This story will no doubt appear as a Buddhist adapta. tion of the anecdote of Das'aratha and the blind sage An- dhaka as given in the Ramayana ; but it has been reproduced * A/laiiagiila-wansa, pp. 167, ct scq. [ 207 ] in stone on the standing pillar of the Western Gateway of the Sanchi tope, and we see in it Gotama as Sama wounded by the king, and his parents, the hermit and his wife, dressed in the same garb which has been assigned to the Dasyus. According to the Jataka, Sama recovered from his wounds, and was restored to his parents, as is shown in the sculpture. The Ramayana kills the boy, and sends his parents to the funeral pyre, to immolate themselves. ' The following is Mr. Griffith's version of the Ramayana story as related by the king to the blind hermits : — " High-minded saint, not I thy child, " A warrior, Das'aratha styled. " 1 bear a grievous sorrow's weight " Born of a deed which good men hate. " My lord, I came to Sarju's shore, " And in my hand my bow I bore " For elephant or beast of chase " That seeks by night his drinking place. " There from the stream a sound I heard " As if a jar the water stirred. " An elephant, I thought, was nigh : " I aimed, and let an arrow fly. " Swift to the place I made my way, " And there a wounded hermit lay " Gasping for breath : the deadly dart " Stood quivering in his youthful heart. " I hastened near with pain oppressed : " He faltered out his last behest, " And quickly, as he bade me do, " From his pierced side the shaft I drew. " I drew the arrow from the rent, '■ And up to heaven the hermit went, " Lamenting, as from earth he passed, " His aged parents to the last. [ 208 ] " Thus unaware, the deed was done : " My hand, unwitting, killed thy son. " For what remains, O, let me win " Thy pardon for my heedless sin,"* ' Mr. Fergusson has published this scene in his great work (plate XXXVI.), but he says that " it represents, one of those transactions between the Hindus and Dasyus which have probably only a local meaning, and to which, therefore, it is improbable w'e shall ever be able to affix a definite meaning."-f- To those, however, who are familiar with the story of the Ramayana and the Jataka, the improbability will give place to unmistakable certainty, the only difficulty being the presence of a companion of the king in the scene of action, due probably to the Buddhist version having included such a personage in the tale whose name has been omitted in Mr. D'Alwis' abstract, as unimportant. According to the Ramayana, the king went to the wood in his car and w^as attended by his charioteer. General Cunningham takes the blind hermits to be ascetics, and observes, " I am unable to offer any explanation of this curious scene, but it may possi- bly have reference to some event in the early life of S'akya."+ Mr. Fergusson appeals to the scene as an evidence of the Aryans or Hindus having formerly indulged in the wicked pastime of shooting the inoffensive Dasyus ; but if my iden- tification be correct, the inference will of course lose its only foot-hold. ' Exception might also be taken to my identification of Domestic Duties of the so-called Dasyus with such hermits Ilerniits. j^,,-, ^]^q ground of its being inconsistent for such people to engage in domestic and pastoral occupa- * Griffitli's R;'un;iy Naga ; but as the Hindu recognised in it an emblem of the sempiternal divinity Ananta, and the Buddhist, a race of superhuman beings, worthy of adoration, dev^otion to it would not be by any means unbecoming a her- mit, who is required to observe all the necessary regular and periodical rites and ceremonies. 'The last and most important argument of Mr. Fergus- son in support of the non-Aryan origin of the Dasyus is founded upon their * Manu VI., 9—10, Features of Dasyus. [ 210 ] features ; but in Sanchi the figures are generally so small, so rough, and so weatherworn, that their indications of the aboriginal broad face and flat nose cannot be relied upon. That the appearance of youth, and beauty, and rank, and wealth, should be different from age, decay, decrepitude, and squalid poverty, is a fact which none will question, and therefore what are taken in the sculptures for ethnic pecu- liarities, may be entirely due to a desire to mark the distinc- tions of condition. ' It may be added that the term Dasyu itself is Arj^an Origin of the word ^"^ indicates an Aryan, and not a non- ^^^y"' Aryan, race. According to Manu, " all those tribes of men who sprung from the mouth, the arm, the thigh, and the foot of Brahma, but who became outcasts by having neglected their duties, are called Dasyus or plun- derers."* And the designation, therefore, fails to convey the idea which the learned author of the History of Architecture wishes to attach to it. At BhuvanesVara Pun, and Konarak, some of the statues (not of Dasyus) are from four to five feet high, and many of the statuettes and bas-reliefs are from eighteen inches to three feet in height, and their faces, contour and style, as already stated in the preceding chapter, are of an Indo-Aryan caste. Next to clothing for the body, the arrangement of the hair or the decoration of the head, Coiffure. forms the most important element of dress. It has in all ages and in every state of society engaged particular attention, and among savages has often had prece- dence of most other modes of ornamenting the person. With females, it has been a subject of the most earnest solicitude, and the extravagance to which they have been led in this respect under the fascinating sway of fashion, has often been made the subject of keen satire, of unpitying * Manu, X, 45. [ 211 ] ridicule, and severe reproof. But the lashings of the wit and the anathemas of the moralist, have invariably proved too weak to set the hair of the head, the loveliest ornament bestowed by nature on the human form, free of unnatural restraints and the most grotesque disfigurements. The glossy ringlets of a young lady drooping gracefully in their native lu.Kuriance, is a style too genuinely beautiful and natural to be let alone by art ; and in their place, therefore, the fair sex has everywhere resorted to the most extraordinary, the most extravagant, and the most fantastic contrasts conceivable. In Europe braids and plaits steeped in oils, pastes and po- mades, or the tower, the commode, and the chignon of outlan- dish piles of borrowed hair powdered and curled and bolstered up with bows and pads and basket frames, have always reigned in some form or other ; and in India they seem to have exercised their potent sway with no less vigour and influence. Even in the early days of the Rig Veda, the arrange- ment of the hair was a subject of concern, and peculiarities were often noted. Thus, Rudra is praised as having braided hair (Kapardi). * Pusha, in the same way, has a braid on his head,-)* and the epithet is, likewise, applied to the Tritsus.:]: In the tenth Mandala, a young female, handsome and brilliant, is said to wear four of these braids, " ChatusJikapardd yuvatih siipes'dh ghritapratikd vaytindni vastel' and in VII. 33 — i, the priests of the family of Vas'ishtha are said to wear four of these braids." j| The Ramayana and the Mahabharata contain frequent notices of the braid, and of the neglect of the coiffure as a mark of grief, or violent excitement. Draupadi', when insulted by Dus's'asana in open court, resolved never again to dress her hair until Bhima should keep his promise, and tie it up with * Wilson's Rig Veda, I,, 301. % Ibid, IV., 171. t Ibid, III., 496. !l Muir's Sanskrit Texts, V., 462, [ 212 ] his hands reeking in the blood of the offender, and had her resolution carried out after the lapse of thirteen years. Ac- cording to the Ramayana, a single braid was the most appropriate mark of anguish for women during their separa- tion from their husbands, and the Yaksha, in the Meghaduta, is all anxiety to — " Urge his trembling fingers to unbind The mourner's braid of hair for his long absence twined."* ]\Ianu lays down rules for the tonsure, and the different modes of arranging the hair on the crown of the head proper Dressing of the Hair ^oi' different orders of the people.f in Sculpture. L^^^^. Sanskrit authors are profuse in their praises of the various forms of coiffure in vogue in their times ; but their descriptions are not precise, and it is not always easy to make out the forms they allude to. This is, however, not much to be regretted, as the available sculptural evidence on the subject is ample. The artists of Orissa seem to have paid particular attention to the subject, and their works represent the dressing of hair and head-dresses in great vari- ety. The specimens shown in the annexed woodcuts, Nos. 37 to 48, Mill convey some idea of the forms which the Uriyas, twelve hundered }'ears ago, No. 37. thought the most attractive and elegant. The simplest and most natural of these was the chignon repre- sented in No. ^^J, taken from the Great Tower of Bhuvanes'- vara. It occurs on a great number of heads, and is generally ornamented with a shieldlike boss of gold on the coil, and three double strings of pearls or gold chains on the head. It still prevails in Orissa and in some parts of the Southern Presi- dency, where the dancing girls seem particularly attached to Griffith's Scenes from the l\.-iinayann, ]). 177. i' Manu, II., 27, 35, 65. [ 213 ] it. From its bulk, it is evident that some pacldinf,^ or stuffing, or a profuse admixture of false, or borrowed, hair was used to swell it out. In the present day, bits of ra^^, or braided strings of false hair, are the stuffings commonly resorted to. No. 38, from the Temple of Muktes'vara, offers a variety of this form in which the ornaments are replaced by a single string of pearl encircling the head like a fillet, and the chignon proper has two gradually receding tiers of hair placed o\-er it. In front two thick locks arc made to curl upwards on the temples. On the Great Tower, several male heads have the same style of chignon, but without the curls. The next most common form is shewn in No. 39. It resembles the modern European chignon as copied in No. 40 from a plate of Parisian fai;h- ions in the Illustrated London Neivs for 1867, so closely in its make and outline, that little need be said to describe it. It is worthy of remark, however, as affording a notable instance of how fashion repeats itself even under such dissimilar circumstances as those of Orissa in 66"] and of Europe in 1867, A. D., and how little taste as regards chignons in the boudoirs of Paris in the present day, differs from that of the belles of Cuttack twelve hundred years ago. A form very similar to it was in vogue in Bengal in the last century ; but it has been alto- gether discarded now. Some male figures at Bhuvanes'vara have head-dresses of a similar, but not exactly the same, form. The chignon of Annapurna at Muktes'vara, (wood- cut No. 31) p. 182, is peculiar, and seems to have been uncom- No. 39, No. 40. [ 214 ] mon. There are some loose curls on the left temple, the counterparts of which are not to be seen on the opposite side. The style shewn in No. 41 was common enough. Its great peculi- arity is that the chignon, instead of being placed behind the head, is brought, to the left side, and made to rest on the shoul- No. 41. der. It is tied across by a jewelled band having a pendant star on each side. A fringe of short hair covers the upper part of the forehead, and upon it is set a triangular tiara of jewels. In the Rig Veda the descendants of Vas'istha are described as wearing their chignons sideways, but in their case the right side was preferred.* In the present day many Europeans must have noticed Madrasi ayahs with their coil of hair on the left side, and the dan- cing girls of Oudh, until very recently patronised the same fashion. Woodcut No. 42, exhibits a modification of this style. The hair in it is parted into two coils, and placed on the two sides, leaving the occiput flat. This is common both to men and women. In No. 43, the true chignon disap- pears, and is replac- ed by a fantastic cone, curling and twisting upwards ; and the form is further modified in No. 44, in which the hair is tied by a jewelled band two or three inches from the back of the head, and then braided into No. 42. No. 43. behind the head No. 44. • " The white-corn plexioncd accomplishers of holy ceremonies, wearing the lock of liair on the right side, have afforded me delight,'' &c. Wilson's Rig Veda, IV., 86. [ 215 1 No. 45. an cnormou.s ball about two-thirds the size of tlie head. To preserve these coiffures undisturbed, the ladies who patronised thena, must have abjured reclining as long as it was necessary to keep them in position. Passing over a great number of modifications of these styles, of which no drawings have been taken, I come to woodcut No. 45, in which the coiffure is raised to an angle of 50 degrees, and tied round by a string of pearls. Upon the coil is a round button-like protuberance, but whe- ther of hair or metal, it is difficult to make out. The forehead is encircled by a tiara. This form, without the tiara and button, may still be seen among the poorer classes of Uriyas, and the figures on which they have been seen, occupy positions which indicate that formerly it was likewise confined to the lower orders of the people. The transition from an angle of 50° to the crown of the head was easy, and the forms in which the hair was arranged there were various. The most com- mon, and perhaps the most graceful of its kind, is shown in woodcut No. 46. It has much the character of the military forage cap which was in use until the first quarter of this century, v.-ith the cheek strap passing across from the forehead backward. The strap is edged with two strings of pearls or beads, and has a metal button on the top. The brow has a double string of pearls with a star in the middle and an ornament on each side very much like a peacock's crest. Judging from the character of the figures on which it occurs, I am disposed to think that this st)'le was in fashion among the frail sister- hood of ancient Orissa. The lady shown in Illustration No. 58 of my " i\ntiquitics of Orissa," has no strap, and only N. 46. [ 2i6 ] No. 47. one string of pearls on her brow; the upper coil of her chig- non is larger and made of hair. Her male companion has his hair tied in the same way, but it being short, is seen curling into a mass on the top of the tie, A modification of this style may be seen in woodcut No. 47, where the strap and crests are omitted, the pearls are replaced by a tiara, and the hair is entwined with oblique courses of what, in the present da}% in India is gold lace or embroi- dered ribbon. Woodcut No. 48 re- presents another modification in which the central coil is reduced in size and raised considerably above the crown, and the crests are supplanted by curl- ing masses of hair. Illustrations Nos. 59, 60, 62, and 64, of my "Antiquities of Orissa," show other variations of fashionable coiffure, and illustrations Nos. 63 and 83 such as are appropriate to gods and goddesses. In some cases the hair, instead of being massed into a ball or coil of some kind or other, is allowed to hang in loose masses on the back,* or woven into one or more braids and allowed to hang behind, very much in the style common in Persia and Turkey, Occasionally the outer- most i)laits are allowed to fall behind the ears and float on the breast, San- skrit poets are fond of dwelling at great length on the charms of these braids. No. 49. but with a sad want of gallantry, or No. 48 * At Amaravati, Mr. Fergusson notices a comb behind the head to hold these loose nia.sscs of liair-logcthcr, biU il has not Ijccn met with at lihuvancs'vara. [ 217 ] No. 50. with a silly poetical conceit, they generally compare them to hissing serpents. In woodcut No. 49 these braids are twisted into six rays, and kept in an erect position by waxing and enclosing sticks or wire within them. A fringe of short hair covers the brow, and on it is placed a triangular tiara with a crest. In woodcut No. 50, the rays are greatly multiplied and arranged in a double row, and the tiara is provided with three crests. Both these are taken from the figures of goddesses. Woodcut No. 51, likewise, represents the head-dress of a goddess. In it the hair is disposed in the form of a hemispherical casque over the head, then tied round by a band and crest, and the end is made to arch over back- wards in three separate masses like the horse-hair plumes of a Grecian hero. The head of Kartikeya in the Great Tower of BhuvanesVara is coiffed in the same way, but without the tie in the middle, in excellent keeping with his martial character as the acknowledged great god of war, though he occupies the position of a lieutenant of S'iva. Woodcut No. 52, is siii generis. In it the hair is disposed in curling horizon- tal bands on the two sides of a long up- right crest rising from a jewelled tiara. The ordinary rule regarding warriors and athletes, however, is not to have knots or chignons, but to cut the hair, close, and to represent it in a thick, short, crisp slightly curled state, the effeminate chignon No. 51. [ 218 ] and knot being reserved for common people, and espe- cially for beaus and men of pleasure. This effeminacy still exists among some Uriyas, and in Bengal it was not un- known at the beginning of this century, though the more common st)'Ie among men of fashion was long curling locks hanging down to the shoulders. This was very like the ancient Greek style, which Miller describes as consisting of " expanding hair curling down over the cheeks and neck in long curved lines," and which " was regarded as the sign of a soft delicate nature."* In the various styles of dressing the feminine hair, there is one peculiarity worthy of special notice, — it is the want of the parting of the hair along the mesian line from the fore- head backwards. This parting is regarded by modern Hindu women as a special mark of married life, and no Bengali lady wlio has her husband living, will, on any account, allow this to be disturbed. Constantly parting the hair at one parti- cular spot, and tying the locks of the two sides tight away, often lead to baldness along the middle line ; but the dread of widowhood is too strong to override the custom. This peculiar style of parting is well known in Europe in the present day, and may also be noticed in many antique female heads. For the demi-monde and dancing girls the Alex- andrine st}-lc of combing back the hair without any parting is the most favourite fashion. Where the body is generally nude or ill-clothed, it is not to be expected that much will be Turbans and Caps. , , . , i i • seen on the head besides the han- ; but examples are not wanting of various kinds of caps, tur- bans and other ornaments for the head. Turbans are rarely seen at Bhuvanes'vara, though this part of the male dress was held in considerable esteem in India, and frequent mention of it is made in Sanskrit writings. Under the name of Ushnis'a, * Millar's Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 334, [ 219 ] it is alluded to in the Atharva Veda * and in the Lalita Vistara, the Bodhisattva, when appointing Maitreya to the Viceregency of Tushita, placed, byway of investiture, his own silk turban on the head of his deputy. In the bas-reliefs of Sdnchi and Amara- vati, a great many varieties of it are repre- sented. Woodcuts Nos. 53, 54, 55, and 56, are taken from the temples of Bhuvanes'vara, and show the turban as worn by durwans and sannyasis. The forms differ in no Nos. 53. respect from those in common use in the pre- sent day. Caps too are not of frequent occurrence. There are, nevertheless, several specimens of rich caps which are worthy of notice. One in the Temple of Vaitiil Devi is very like the forage cap which was in common use by officers in the English army until the begin- ning of this century. A brocaded speci- men of it occurs on the head of a dancing girl in the same temple. (Woodcut No. 57). Caps of various kinds may also be seen in the bas-reliefs of Sdnchi, Amaravati, and Udayagiri. The modern bridegroom's light-wood crown, the fopar, is common everywhere. The turbaned figures are all bearded, while those of men of ^^^'^ ' rank and position are Nos. 55. '■ all smooth-chinned. In fact, the practice of cultivating the beard has never been in fashion among the ancient Hindus, and even among the earliest Aryans of the Vedic times, the razorf Nos. 54. Wilson's Rig Veda, * Muir's Sanskrit Texts, V., 462. t " Sharpen us like a razor in the hands of a barber." IV,, p. 233. " Driven by the wind, Agni shears the hair of the earth like a barber bhav- ing a beard." Rig Veda Mancjala X., 142—4- [ 220 ] No. 56. and the barber were in every-day requisition. It is true that certain days of the week, particularly Saturdays, and cer- tain constellations, are reckoned inauspi- cious ; but this is overridden by the ordi- nance which requires that all vows, fasts, and s'raddhas, should be preceded by shaving and paring of the nails, the penalty for the wretch, who neglects it " being a sojourn in the next life for twenty days or twenty years in a vat full of hair and nails, during which he has to eat nails and hairs, and be constantly beaten with a stick."* The ordi- nary practice of householders is to shave frequently, not unoften every day. In this peculiarity the Hindus closely re- ^-:g:;^^ semble the ancient Egyptians, who, says Hero- dotus, " only let the hair of their head and beard grow in mourning, being at all other times shaved." " So particular, indeed, were they on this point, that to have neglected it was a subject of reproach and ridicule ; and w'henever they intended to convey the idea No. 57. of a man of low condition, or a slovenly person, the artist represented him with a beard. "Itisamusing to find," adds Sir Gardener Wilkinson, "that their love for cari- cature was not confined to the lower orders, but extended even to the king : and the negligent habits of Rameses VII. are in- dicated in his tomb at Thebes, by the appearance of his chin blackened by an unshaven beard of two or three days' growth."-)- TffT W=^^^^ n^rffl'^^ :^^ ^>iZn^: II t Ancient Egyptians, III., p. 357. [ 221 ] The ancient Greeks and the Romans entirely differed from the Hindus and the Egyptians in this particular. The Romans cultivated the beard until the year 299 B. C. when P- Ticinus Mena, having brought barbers from Sicily, introduced the custom of shaving at Rome, and, as Pliny states, " Scipio Africanus was the first Roman who shaved every day."* The Greeks, down to the time of Alexander the Great, failed to appreciate the comfort and cleanliness of a shaved chin, and on that account were held in such abhorrence by the Egyptians, who followed the cleanly Indian custom of shaving that, ac- cording to Herodotus, " no Egyptians of either sex would on any account kiss the lips of a Greek, make use of his knife, his spit and cauldron, or taste the meat of an animal which had been slaughtered hy his hand."-f* Among Indians, sages, hermits, and men who had renounced the pleasures of the v/orld, as also men in mourning, kept it as a mark of penance like the Egyptians;): and the Jews,§ and unlike the Greeks, who shaved on those occasions. The bearded Hussar officer who is so irresistible among the lasses in Europe, would have found scant chance among the damsels of India, who seem to have detested the beard, and to account for the blindness of Dhritarashtra, a story is told in the ]\Iahabharata, in which a lady closes her eyes at the sight of her brother-in-law in a beard. Of ancient shoes, I have met with only one variety, the slipper with a slightly upturned front, but Shoes and Boots. ^^ t> J' t^ y all the carvings of it that have come to my observation were, owing to their small size, and the decay of ages, so indistinct that I have not been able to take any drawing that would be worth having. In my Antiqui- ties of Orissa, vol. I. plate XXIII. fig 8;/, shows the only * Pliny, VII., 59, apud Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, III., 359. t Herodotus, II,, 41 and 91. X Ibid. II., 36; and III., 12. § Genesis, xii. 14. [ 222 ] specimen which I could clearly make out. Two or three pairs of pattens, khadimis, seen were also in the same predica- ment. It is probable that in India these articles of dress were held in about the same requisition formerly as now ; but that they were well-known and in common use by all who could afford to get them, is evident from there being more than one Sanskrit name for them. The circumstance related in the Ramayana of Bharata's placing on the vacant throne of Ayodhya a pair of Rama's slippers, and worship- ping it during the latter's long protracted exile, shows that shoes were important articles of wear, and worthy of atten- tion. The episode on the subject is one of the most affect- ing in the Ramayana, and displays to perfection the mastery with which old Valmiki, the Homer of India, touched the tenderest chords in the heart of his reader.* In Manu and the Mahabharata, the slippers are also mentioned, and the time and mode of putting them on pointed out ; and * When Rama expressed his firm resolve not to return home, even were *' the cold to forsake the Hills of Snow, and the Ocean to retire from its shore," Bharata said — " Put, noble brother, I entreat, "These sandals on thy blessed feet : "These, lord of men, with gold bedecked, " The realm and people will protect." Adding — " Through fourteen seasons will I wear " The hermit's dress and matted hair : "With fruit and root my life sustain, ' ' And still beyond the realm remain, " Longing for thee to come again. • ' The rule and all affairs of state "I, to these shoes, will delegate. " And if, O tamer of thy foes, "When fourteen years have reached their close " I see thee not that day return, "The kindled fire my frame shall burn." Grillilh's Rdnuiyaiia, II., p. 453. [ 223 ] mcdi.neval Sanskrit authors allude to them pretty frequently. The Vishnu Purana enjoins all who wish to protect their per- son, never to be without leather shoes.* Manu, in one place expresses great repugnance to stepping into another's shoes, and peremptorily forbids it,-}- and the Puranas recommend the use of shoes when walking out of the house, particularly in thorny places, and on hot sand. Arrian says : " They, the Indians, wear shoes made of white leather, and these are elabo- rately trimmed, while the soles are variegated, and made of great thickness, to make the wearer seem so much taller." (I\rCrindle's translation, p. 220.) This description would be true to the letter of the Uriya shoe of the present day, though I am not prepared to say that the object of the thick soles was really the same with that of the heels in the tiny boots of European ballet girls. In the " Toy Cart" of S'udraka, which dates from the first century before Christ, the mother of a rich courtezan is described as arrayed in flowered muslin with her feet thrust into a pair of slippers,]: showing that in ancient times, as in the present day, women of the town were in the habit of wearing shoes. Whether family women ever used them I have not yet been able to discover ; but there is no text forbidding such use that I am aware of At Sanchi there is a corps of musicians dressed in kilts, and wearing sandals, tied to the leg by crossed bands, very much in the same way in which the ancient Grecians fastened their sandals. Nothing similar to them has any- Vishnu I'lirana, Book II., chap. 2i. t I\Linu, Ch. IV. 66. X ^Jai/nya. — "And pray who is that lady dressed in flowered muslin, good- ly person truly ; her feet, shining with oil, thrust into a pair of slippers? she sits in state on a gorgeous throne." ////. "That is my lady's mother. " Wilson's Hindu Theatre, II., p. S7. [ 224 ] where else been noticed in India. (Woodcut No. 58.) The boots at Udayagiri, reaching up to the knee, have been ah-eady alluded to, and I have seen several specimens in other parts of India. No. 58. Woodcut No. 59 shows a boot taken from a figure of Surya found near Surajpokhar in Behar, which, from the circumstance of the worship of Surya, a Vedic divinity, having become obsolete for over a thousand years, I believe to be about twelve hundred years old. Its top is cut aslant like that of a Hessian boot, and the rim is decorated by a border of lines and dots, the Udayagiri specimen having the top plain and evenly cut like that of a W^ellington boot. Woodcut No. 60 is from an attendant of this Surya, and differs from the last in having the whole of the leg part of it ornamented by oblique lines, leaving the foot plain. A second image of Surya, found in the same locality and of about the same age, shows a bootee, or some- No. 60. thing like a ploughman's highlow, covering about one-third of the leg, and having both its leg and foot parts marked with diagonal lines: it resembles very closely the side-spring boots of the present day, but without the springs. (Woodcut No. 61). On another figure of Surya, found near Murshidcibad, which, judging from its material and make, I take to be of about the same No. 61. age as the preceding t\V(i, there is a boot, the No. 59. [ 225 ] top of w'hicli has a Vandyked edge marked with double Hncs. (Woodcut No. 6i). The desecration of this figure by a European, lately formed the subject of a criminal prosecution in the High Court of Calcutta, and it was then brought to light that its true character was unknown to the people, and that it was wor- No. 6i. shipped as an image of Vishnu. A sixth style is to be seen on the temples of Kedares'vara and IMuktes'vara as also on the back frame of the Murshidabad Surya, and in it the top is so cut as to leave a flap like the Napoleon flap projecting in front and another behind, the sides showing triangular notches. This boot is also remark- able from the circumstance of its being worn by a lady: her lover has boots of the same kind. Curiously enough the figures on which these boots have been found are all dressed in d/mtis, having the upper part of the body bare. None of the boots shows any marking for the sole or heel, and so they may be taken for moccasins, or buskins without the cork soles which were used to add to the height of actors on the Grecian stage. That the boots or buskins under notice are genuine Hindu articles of dress, and not borrowed from foreigners is evident from their having been known from very ancient times. Panini notices a variety of boots which covered the whole of the foot and was tied at the ankle. Its name is iDuipadind. It must have been common enough at the time to serve as an example for the illustration of a rule in grammar, and already so old and familiar as to have lost its radical derivation in the mazes of antiquity.* Amara Sifiha describes it as a kind of shoe that covered the whole of the foot, Padi'ipanat strl saivdnnpadind paddyatd, and most of his commentators, who lived after the ad\ent of the Muhammadans in this country, * 11^1^1 ^^T:T^T% ^T^^^T ^"^ITT^IT ^^^Tf'TT ^i?l^(T I [ 226 ] explain it by reference to the familiar Persian boot called imijdh: vwjd iti khydtdh. Pandits of the present day, finding that in India the word innjdh is used for stockings or socks, suppose that amipadind means that article ; but neither the interpretation of Amara, nor the original meaning of the Persian word supports their inference. Bharata Mallika says that it was an ankle-boot: t^"^ ^m^Tfi; xr^T^TTfT tT^T^T^TT^T^T%^ ^oZT^^TT^: I ^^TTT ■STTTtfcT ^^^T^^TT I \r\\.\\Q Aviarakosha- mdld of Paramananda, we read il^'ttrT^^ t^^^?TT^t^ht -i\^\ %fT '^mm Trsr^^VT^: I As. Soc. MS. 448, fol. 412. That the Persian mnjdJi, when first introduced into India, was a boot or buskin, /. e., an outer leather covering for the foot, is evident from such phrases as ^t5>i(/« <^ )^ 'i>';yf> "to have one's imijdh stuck in clay" i.e.^ being under a difficulty — ^^i^ v!^'* "to put forth the vmjdh " for proceeding on a journey, having become idiomatic and proverbial in the Persian language. The last is equivalent to the American slang " pull-foot," which again is a Yankee version of the "dvaipwv ck Sw/xarwv 7ro6a" of Euripides. Had the innjdh meant a sock, or an inner covering protected by outer leather shoes, it could never have been used for starting on a journey. The material for these boots and shoes was ordinarily bovine leather, and even the hide of the sacrificed cattle was not excepted. According to S'aiivatya quoted by A's'vala- yana, the hide of the cattle sacrificed at the S'ulagava cere- mony, was fit to be converted into shoes and other useful articles.* In a Vcdic verse quoted by Savara S'vdmi in his commentary on the Mi'mansa aphorisms, mention is made of hog-skin as a fit material for shoes. VdrdJil Upanahau I. p. 70. [ 227 ] Tlic passion for personal ornaments and decoration is common to every state of society. It Ornaments, may have been chastened and modified under particular circumstances, but it has never and nowhere been altogether suppressed. The jackdaw's feathers and cowrie-shell necklets of some of the Pacific islanders may have been replaced in the boudoirs of Paris and the drawing- rooms of England by the magnificent plumes of the ostrich and brilliants of unrivalled lustre, and in Asia by the pinions of the bird of paradise and orient pearls of exquisite per- fection, but the desire for them remains the same, and equally ardent everywhere. It is not remarkable, therefore, that it prevailed to an inordinate extent in ancient India, under conditions, climatic and social, the most favourable to its growth. To judge from the records and relics now accessible, the passion seems to have manifested itself in an inordinate fondness for gold jewellery for different parts of the body, and the deities of the Rig Veda constantly present them- selves adorned with a variety of them, Rudra is described as "firm with strong limbs, assuming many forms, fierce and tawny-coloured, shining with brilliant golden ornaments,"* and wearing " an adorable, uniform necklace." The Maruts decorate their persons " with various ornaments ;"-|- " they are richly decorated with ornaments ;" and " shining necklaces are pendant on their breasts.":]: The As'vins are also adorned with golden ornaments. The Asuras, like their rivals, had, likewise, plenty of "gold and jewels,"§ and human beings, whose ornaments were no doubt the prototypes of their celes- tial counterparts, were certainly not without their due share. Accordingly we find the sage Kakshivat praying for a son "decorated with golden earrings and jewel necklace;"!! and * Wilson's Rig Veda II. 221. t Ibid II. 179. t Ibid IV., 124 — 298. § Ibid I. 91. II Ibid II. 6. [ 228 ] among largesses to priests and Brahmans, gold in lumps or in ornaments, is prominently mentioned. In the Nirukta of Yaska and the grammar of Panini, not only ornaments, but names of various kinds of them, are enumerated, and Manu defines the nature and duties of the caste whose especial vocation was to manufacture them, and the punishment meet for fraudulent adulteration of gold. The old vocabulary of Amara Sinha gives names for crowns, crests and tiaras for the head ; of rings, flowers and bosses for the ears ; of neck- laces of one to a hundred rows, and of various shapes and patterns ; of armlets and bracelets ; of signet and other rings for the fingers ; of zones and girdles for the waist for both men and women ; as also of ornaments of bells, bands and chains for the leg and ankle. Although fashion has rendered the forms of many of the ancient ornaments now obsolete, most of the names are still current in connexion with their substitutes, and the sculptures of Bhuvanes'vara afford us a pretty fair idea of what their shapes were twelve hundred years ago. The bas-reliefs of Sanchi and Amaravati also exhibit specimens of a great variety of ornaments for the hands, feet, waist, neck, and head. In the absence of positive information regarding the ethnography of the peoples represented in these three places it would be wrong to take the ornaments shown as illustrations of the jeweller's art as extant among a single race from the second or the first century before Christ to the seventh century of the Christian era; but taking India as a whole, they show a gradual, steady and marked advance towards refinement. The bangles, bracelets, and anklets of Sanchi, are the clumsiest possible. They are thick, rough, and heavy, almost devoid of workmanship, and large enough to cover from one to two-thirds of the legs and fore-arms. Judging from specimens still in use among the lower orders of the people awa}' from urban influ- [ 229 ] cncc, they must have been made, in most instances, of brass or bell-metal. The bangles and armlets of Amaravati, though mostly of the same patterns, arc smaller, lighter and neater, and the anklets arc somewhat less ponderous. At l^huvancs'- vara they are not onl\' reduced in size and weight, but greatly improved in appearance. Amidst a few of the older forms there is quite an abundance of specimens, which for neatness, elegance, and beauty, would not stand in any great disadvan- tage besides the finest specimens of their times from any other part of the world. Nor is this remarkable, considering the celebrity which India has enjo)'ed from remote antiquity for the excellence of her ornaments. Adverting to it, Mr. Maskel}me, in his Report on Jewellery and Precious Stones in the French Exhibition of 1866 (class XXXVI), says: "It is said that even that delicate and most sensitive instrument of touch, the hand of the Hindu, is not sufficiently sensitive for fashioning the finest sorts of Indian filigree, and that child- ren alone are employed in the manipulation of such a spider- web of wire. Of fabrics so delicate, nothing is to be seen among the jewellery at Paris, indeed the best of the Indian filigree, and that by no means worthy of its source, is to be found among the articles exhibited under the goldsmith's class. It is to be remarked of this elegant and primitive, perhaps very earliest, form of ornament in precious metal, that it had probably reached its limits for delicacy and design at a very archaic period, and has made no real progress in recent times ; that, in fact, the early Greek filigraner worked with as much facility and delicacy as the Hindu artisan of our day, who inherits the skill and the methods he uses by the direct descent of an immemorial tradition. But there are other forms of the goldsmith's art scarcely less venerable than that of the filigranes, possessed of great native beauty, and which also have survived in India, through the long roll [ 230 ] of centuries, as the Zend and Sanskrit languages have sur- vived there, the inheritance of famihes or clans. Those forms of art are perishing one by one, as the family in whom it may have been handed down becomes extinct or lets the thread be broken, each of these hereditary industries of India moves on with time to its extinction." It is of course impossible to expect specimens of filigree in sculpture, but the orna- ments exhibited by no means fail to support the preten- sions of the country to superior excellence in the goldsmith's art. When treating of coiffure frequent references have al- Crowns, coronets and ready been made to crests, coronets and i'^^^^^- tiaras. Crowns were held in much higher estimation ; and carvings of a great variety of them, some of elaborate workmanship, are to be met with. The richest crown that has come to my notice, is one worn by the god- dess Indrani at Yajapur. In outline, it is very like an Iranian cap, but most sumptuously bedecked with jewels all over. Illustrations Nos. 63 and 142 in my 'Antiquities of Orissa,' Vol. I., exhibit crowns for gods, but of less pretension. The circlet in Woodcut No. 62 is so like a ducal coronet that it may be mistaken for one from the head of Richard C?eur-de-lion. The AsJita- ndyikds of Yajapur show other and remark- No. 62, able specimens. Ornaments for the ears are also exhibited in great variety, but, owing to their small size Ear ornaments. , . , , and the rough usage to which the hands, nose and ears of most of the statues had been subjected by Muslem invaders, I have not been able to obtain drawings of a sufficient number of perfect and well-marked speci- mens. My drawings include representations of only five varieties, but they arc characteristic, and will, it is believed [ 231 ] prove interesting. Woodcut No. 63, is from a female figure in the Great Tower of Bhuvan- es'vara. Its drooping plume and fan- like appendage are peculiar, and have been noticed on several male figures. Sometimes the fan, probably made of party-coloured fringed cloth, is surmounted by floating ribbons. The tdlapatra, or "palm leaf ear orna- ment," named in the Amarakosha, was probably no other than this fan. Woodcut No. 64, from the same place is worn on the ears, hooked ^°- ^^' in a hole in the helix or outer rim, or tied to the hair near it. It is still in use on the top or sides of the head and is known in Bengal, where it is made of jewelled gold plates and strings of pearls, by the name oi jiunind. Wood- cut No. 65 is called karuapJmla or "the ear- flower," and has a pretty tulip, drop; it has been taken from a figure of the boar incarna- tion in a small temple adjoining the Great Tower. The ornament was a great favourite of Durga, and the famous Manikarnika at No. 64 Benares derives its name from the circums- tance, says the legend, of the goddess having, by accident, dropped an ornament of this kind at that sacred spot. Woodcut No. ^6, from the Markanda Tank in Puri is the representation of an ornament which is now kno\\n in Bengal by the name of dhcnri. It is a shield-shaped disk of gold worn on the lobe of the ear, sometimes with, and sometimes without, a pendant. Woodcut No. 6^, from the Great Tower represents two ornaments, a tulip drop, hung from the antitragus, and a stud with pearl fringe and [ 232 ] No. 65. pendant, attached to the lower edge of the lobule. Several other forms may be noticed in some of the illustrations attached to my ' Antiquities of Orissa.' Studs and rings for the nose set with stones or pearls are Nose ornaments. great favourites in the present day, and were probably not un- known in former times, In the Sdradd- ti'laka, mention is made of an Andhra lady " whose graceful ear is decorated by the scroll of gold ; whose nose-ring set with pearls trembles to her breath ; and over whose bosom spreads the saffron-dyed vest ;" * but no such ornaments have been met with in sculpture. Of necklaces, the finest specimens are to be seen in the large statues in the niches of the Great Tower at Bhubanes'vara shown in the illustrations annexed to my 'Antiqui- ties of Orissa.' In their lockets the collets for the setting of precious stones on a gold frame is distinctly indicated. Some of the pendants of the large necklace of the male figure, Kartikeya, appear as if in- tended to represent tiger's claws mounted on gold, a favourite charm still in use I^-y 55 in some parts of India. The small neck- lace is formed of small lockets edged with pearls. The garland across the chest was probably formed of flowers, though the bcll-shapcd pendants of Bhagavati's garland would suggest the idea of its being the representation of a metallic ornament. The necklet of Bhagavati is formed of Necklaces, bangles, bracelets, &c. * Wilson's Hindu Theatre II., p. 3^5- [ 233 ] Oinnnicnts for the Hand. Stars of five pearls or gold beads each, and a string of pearls is worn between the principal necklace and the necklet. A string of bells des- cends from the right breast, and a string of pearls or beads passes from the right shoulder to the left side. Of ornaments for the forearm the most important in the present da)- is the bdid, a ring of metal of a cylindrical form, ordinarily plain, but sometimes twisted, or otherwise wrought, which Bengali women reckon as the em- Nq 67 blem of their married state, and never open it as long as their husbands are living. If made of gold or silver it generally encloses a bit of iron, but a separate annulet of iron is also commonly worn, which then forms, like the European mar- riage ring, the emblem of the married state. In Orissa the /)d/d is replaced by the k/idrn, which differs from the former in being flat, and not cylindrical. Its under surface is flat and smooth, but the upper is wrought in various patterns, a beaded form being the most prevalent. In sculpture it is the commonest, and in rich specimens has an elaborate boss or crest-like appendage on the top. Wood- No. 68. cut No. 6^. The beaded pat- No. 69. tern is sometimes edged in by rims of which woodcut [ 234 ] No. 6(^ offers No. 70. No. 71.] a good specimen ; at other times it is doubled omitting the crest, (woodcut No. 70), or the spaces between the two circlets widened, or arched, or otherwise developed and ornamented. Woodcuts Nos. 71, 72, 73 and 74. In Calcutta the last is in common use, and is known under the name of paturi ; it is the exact counterpart of the European bracelet. Woodcuts Nos. 75 and "jG exhibit the well-known conch- shell ornament (sankJia). It is formed by cutting the shell, {Maza rapa, of Lamark, Turbinella rapa and Vohita No. 72. No. 73. No. 74, gravis, of Sir K. Tcnnant,) into annulets, and eight or ten of tl'.cm are arranged in a tapering form, and t 335 ] then mounted with gold beads, bosses and other decora- tions ; some of the annulets are left white, while others are d)^ed with lac of a bright crim- son colour. It has now entirely gone out of fashion in Calcutta, but among the poorer classes in Orissa it reigns supreme, A form of it made of gold and buffaloe horn, or of gold and horn set with precious stones and called petd cJiudi, has also lost its hold in Calcutta ; but it still continues a favourite amongst Uriya belles. For the arm the bdju, the tdbij and the tad were, until recently, the leading ornaments, and wood- 74, 75 and -JJ, exhibit very choice specimens. The bdju is apparently mounted with precious stones, but the others are simply wrought metal. In woodcuts Nos. 7i,and 72, B, there are two specimens of ^'°- 77- the A?7;//' quite different from what is known in the present da}', and No. 6''^, improves upon No. 71, by adding to it a fringe of small bells. Woodcuts Nos. 69 and 74 show various kinds of finger rings and the mode of wearing them. The figures of Bhagavati and Kartike}-a bear on them some rich speci- mens of armlets and bracelets. 'Antiquities of Orissa,' illustrations Nos. 68 and 142. No. 76. No. 75- cuts Nos. [ 236 ] With the Grecians the zone was a most important article of attire, for it served not onlv as an Waist ornaments. ornament, but as a belt to tie the chiton round the waist, and produce those graceful and charming folds in the drapery which have formed the theme of admira- tion to all lovers of the classic art. In India it had not this double duty to perform, but it was, nevertheless, held in high estimation, not only by the fair sex, but even by grown up men ; and in sculptures all persons of consequence are de- corated with it. It was made of various forms, but a fringe of bells was held in the highest favour, and known under different names. Sometimes it was worn tight like a belt, but at others, loosely like a garland of many rows. The form most in requisition was called cJiaiidrahdra, or " the garland of moons," Uriya gotc, and the most gorgeous specimen of the mediaeval style of it is seen on the figure of Bhagavati above noticed. It is formed of three massive chains of a curious diagonal pattern, set with spangles, and held together in front by a rich and elaborate clasp, having a jewelled pen- dant. From the lowest chain hang a series of bells and pendant chains festooned all round the bod}'. The zone of Kartike}-a is quite as magnificent, and its principal pendant is even more elaborate and gorgeous. Zones of less pretensions may be seen on plate XXII., of my 'Antiquities of Orissa.' The exigencies of climate have not permitted European Lee and Foot orna- hidies to dcvote any attention to orna- '"f^"^^- ments for the legs and feet, except in the decoration of their boots and shoes, as also the garter, which in the middle ages was an important female ornament. The case has been very different in India, and rings for the toes and anklets and leglets of various kinds have been cur- rent from an early epoch. The most favourite among them was a chain band fringed with little bells, round the feet, or small metal shells filled with shots, which made a jingling [ -n ] sound when in motion. It was called kinkini\ and worn by No. 78. Xo. 79. No. So. both sexes. A form of it, called pd)ijara from the Persian Pdyzeb, is in Bengal now given to brides onl}-, and rejected within a year or two after marriage ; but up-country wo- men and Muham- madan ladies wear it till an advanc- ed age. Modifica- No. Si. tions of this orna- Xi^,. S2. ment are shewn in woodcuts Nos. 78, 79 and 80. The chain is sometimes replaced by hollow tubes filled with shots. These are called Nupnra in Sanskrit. Woodcuts Nos. 8r, 82 and 83 represent anklets, of which No. 82 and the upper one of No. 79 are the onI\- ones now in use. They are called Gujri, from having been first introduced by the belles of Guzrat.* They arc made hollow and filled * Tims in the S.iradd-tilaka : " There goes the maid of Gurjara, blooming a? with perpctvial youth, having e\'cs like the c/i:i/ccni, of the complexion of the [ 238 ] with shots, or fringed with bells. The ornaments exhibited in woodcuts Nos. 84, 85, and the upper one of y8, were con- fined to Orissa and Telingana where the dress worn was gener- ally short, and the leg was left sufficiently bare to display them. They were worn by both sexes, but on one leg onl}^ A modi- fication, consisting of a curiously bent rod, is still in use in some parts of Orissa, and is known under the name 'of bd)ik]>iala. It was unknown at Sanchi and Amaravati. Woodcut No. Z^ shows some toe rings. It is scarcely necessary to observe that, with the excep- I'earls and precious tion of the Col- ^^°"'^^- lets noticed above, there is nothing in the sculptures to show what the ornaments were made of; but seeing that pearls have been fished alonsj; the Coromandcl Coast from No. 83. No. 85. yellow rochatiii, and a voice nuisical as ihnl of the parrot. She wears anklets of silver, large earrings set with pearly and her bodice is biilloncd below the hips with gems." Wilson's Hindu Theatre, II. 3S4. [ 239 ] long before the time of Alexander's invasion ; that pearls, pre- cious stones, and gold, as elements of ornament, have been known in the country from times immemorial ; and that Manu ordains a fine for " piercing fine gems, as diamonds or rubies, and for boring pearls or inferior gems improperly," there need be little doubt as to what their materials were. Of course it is possible that what I take for pearls may have been only beads of metal, or stone, or baked cla}% and the bangles may have been of bell-metal ; but it is not very probable that the l)rinces, under whose orders the temples were designed and built, always satisfied their passion for ornaments with no- thing more precious. In the Brahmana of the old recension of the Vajur Veda, which dates from at least eight centuries before the Christian era, jewellery is recommended to be strung in gold.* The word used for jewellery is Kdc/ia, which may mean glass, or glass beads; but it would be unreasonable to suppose that those who set glass on gold, did not follow the same procedure with diamonds, rubies, and other precious stones, for which they had names, and which they knew and prized. In the first century before the Christian era, S'udraka, in his play of the 'Toy Cart,' did not think it inconsistent to describe in the court-yard of a common courtezan's house, jewellers' shops, "where skilful artists were examining pearls, topazes, sapphires, emeralds, rubies, lapislazuli, coral, and other jewels; some set rubies in gold, some work gold orna- ments on coloured thread, some string pearls, some grind the lapislazuli, some pierce shells, and some cut coral. "f Nor were the people satisfied with such originals; the requirements of society rendered the fabrication of false jewellery a commonly practised art. This is evident from a passage in the same play, in which a question is raised about the identity of certain ornaments produced in a court of justice, where- upon the Judge asks: TaiUiriya BnUiniana, III. 665. t WilsnnV Hindu Theatre, II. p. 85. [ 240 ] Looking-glasses. Judge. " Do \'ou know these ornaments ?" Mother. "Have I not said? They may be different, though like. I cannot say more; they may be imitations made by some skilful artist. Judge. "It is true. Provost, examine them ; they ma}- be different, though like ; the dexterity of the artists is no doubt very great, and they readily fabricate imitations of ornaments they have once seen, in such a manner, that the difference shall scarcely be discernible."* Eight centuries after that time Uriya Rajas may be sup- posed, without any great stretch of imagination, to have had some such bijouterie. Looking-glasses deserve to be mentioned as a part of the toilette, for in ancient India, they were rarely designed as ornaments for rooms. The most rudimentary form of this article appears in finger rings, in the shape of bits of cr\-stal set on foils. Such rings were formerly, as at present, worn on the thumb, and many sculptured nymphs may be seen beholding the reflection of their countenances on their rings. Larger specimens of a circular, oval, or oblong shape, framed and mounted on handles are not wanting, and these invariably occur in the hands of young ladies. Woodcut No. 86. What the reflectors were made of, whether foiled glass or crystal, or polished metal plate, I cannot ascertain. In the Sanskrit language there are several words to indicate mirrors, and most of them arc dcri\cd from roots implying reflection, but none a metal, or polishing. In the mediaeval and later ancient works, the words are largely used, but I have not yet met with any of them in the Rig Veda No. 86. Wilson's Hindu Theatre. [ 241 ] Safihitd. To persons acquainted with crystals and metal foil and familiar with the art of preparing false jewellery, the idea of setting small plates of crystal on foil for the manu- facture of looking-glasses would be easy enough, and that is the way, most probably, in which ancient Indian mirrors were made. Polished metal plates were, however, frequently used, and in the present day orthodox people prefer them to foiled glass in connexion with religious ceremonies. Such plates are usually made of silver, steel, brass, or a speculum metal in which silver predominates. The ancient Egyptians preferred copper, or an alloy of copper and tin, ?. e., bell-metal ; but the Hindus hold that alloy as impure, and never use it for religious purposes. For ordi- nary, every-day, domestic utensils and ornaments, however, it was, and indeed is, very largely employed, and, seeing that it is cheap, and the Uriyas are particularly successful in produc- ing it of a very superior description, rivalling silver in colour and brightness, it was probably also used in the fabrication of mirrors. The word kdcha for glass occurs in works con- siderably over two thousand years old, and seeing that the Singhalese, who borrowed all the arts of civilized life from the Hindus, make mention, in the Dipawanso, of a "glass pinnacle" placed on the top of the Ruanawellc dagoba by Suidaitissa, brother of Dutugaimuna, in the second century before Christ, and of a " glass mirror," in the third century B. C.,* and Pliny describes the glass of India being superior to all others from the circumstance of its being made of pounded crystal (Lib. XXXVI., c. GG), it would not, I fancy, be presumptuous to believe, that it was, in ancient times, used in India in the formation of looking-glasses ; but I have no- thing to show that mercury was used in fixing the foil on it. The looking-glasses used in the decoration of the marble * Tennent's Ceylon. I. p, 454. [ ^42 ] bath in the palace at Agra, were foiled with a film of lead and tin poured in a melted state in large glass globes which were afterwards broken to form small mirrors. This mode of foiling is still in common practice in many parts of India. A counterpart of the mirror shown in the woodcut occurs in the garden scene at Sanchi. A female figure from Bhuvanes'- vara, in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 806, is seen holding a circular convex mirror by a cross strap on its back. The handled mirror shown in the woodcut is, in appearance, very like the looking-glasses of the ancient Egyp- tian ladies. In the finer specimens of such articles the handles were probably carved, as in Egypt, or ornamented with metallic mountings, but I have met with no such specimen. V. FURNITURE, DOMESTIC UTENSILS, MUSICAL INS- TRUMENTS, ARMS, HORSES AND CARS IN ANCIENT INDIA. Furniture, — bedsteads, bedding, footstools, chairs, folding-stools, teapoys, thrones, tables. Mode of sitting. Umbrella. Chamara. Fans. Domestic utensils. Drinking cups ; water carafes; goblets; spittoons; betel boxes; courier bags; leather bottles ; dressing cases. Musical Instruments. Boats, Food and drink. Offensive arms, — bows, arrows, swords, lances, discuses, lassos. Defensive arms, — shields, armour. Flags. Trumpets. Horse. Harness, Whips. Chariots. Wagons. HE most prominent characteristic of the Indian mode Furniture and Domes- o^" lining has ahvays been cx- tic Utensils. Bedsteads, treme simpHcity. It is not re- markable, therefore, that there should be wanting traces of any great variety of furniture and domestic utensils among them. The four-poster was probably never known ; and of almirahs, chests-of-drawers, and the like, there are no names in the Sans- krit langugae. The bedstead of the ancient Uriyas was ordi- narily, like the ancient Egyptian and modern Indian charpoy, a rope matting stretched on a ^°- ^7- simple frameof wood sup- ported on four legs. For men of consequence and wealth, the matting was re-placed by tape, (palang),ot hodirds,( takhtaposk)y the frame-work set off with mouldings and carved work, and the legs cut into various shapes. According to the Bri/iat Sanhitd, which dates from the middle of the sixth century, the woods most esteemed for bedsteads were those of the Asana {'asan, Pentaptera touiciitosa), Syandana (Dalbcrgia [ 244 ] oiigemensis), Chandana (sandal \\ood, Pterocarpus santalinns), Haridra* Siiraddni (deodar pine, Pimis dcodarii), Tindiiki (a kind of ebony, Diosperos gliitiiiosa), Sdla (SJiorea rohista)^ Kasniari (gambhar, Gmelina arborea), Aiijaiia (Micheelea chajupaka) Paduiaka (?) a Nepalese timber tree yielding a red coloured wood much used in dying medicated oils) Sdka (teak, Tectona grandis), and Sinsdpa (sisu, Dalbeigea sis2i).-\ These include some of the best timber-producing trees of India ; the wood of most of these trees is hard, close-grained, susceptible of a good polish, and in every way well-adapted for cabinet work. The value of sandal, ebony, teak, sisu and gambhar for such purposes is too well known to need iteration : the last is particularly esteemed for the fabrication of the sounding-boards of musical instru- ments. It is worthy of note, however, that the list does not include the toon, which now-a-days is so extensively employ- ed in furniture-making. The Silpa S'astra and some of the Puranas give detailed directions for felling these trees at, particular seasons when the circulation of the sap has stopped. and for seasoning the wood after- wards so as to prevent unequal contractions and No. SS. 1 • J • cracks m drymg. *Dr. Roxburgh takes Ilaridra to be the Sanskrit name of Mesua ferrea, but the Mesua never attains any great size, and cannot yield any timber fit for making bedsteads ; the Ilaridra of tUt tc.xt, therefore, evidently refers to some other tree than Mesua ferrea. Brihat Sardiita, p. 39S [ :^45 ] Trees, which have been struck by h'j:jhtning, or knocked - down by inundations, storms or elephants, or which have fallen towards the south side, as well as those which grow on burial, burnings or consecrated grounds, or at the confluence of large rivers, or by the road-side, also those which have withered tops, or an entanglement of heavy creepers on them, or bear thorns, or are the receptacles of many honey-combs and bird's nests, are reckoned unfit for the fabrication of bedsteads, as they are inauspicious, and are sure to bring on misfortune, disease and death.* Some of the woods com- mended are supposed to be most propitious when used singly, such as the gambhdr, the asan, the sisu and the sandal ; others may be used singly or jointly, such as the teak and the sal, and the haridra and the kadamba; but the Dalbcrgia OKgeinensis and the mango should never be used separately ; the last may be used for the legs of bedsteads, but the frame- work should be of some stronger wood. The sandal wood is good enough by itself; but it is most highly prized when mounted with gold and jewels.f But the best of all materials for bedsteads, according to the Brihat Sauhiid, is ivory. It should be used solid for the legs, and in thin plates for in-laying or veneering on the frame-work, which should be of some choice wood. In selecting ivory about two thicknesses at the root of the tusk, which is hollow, should be rejected, if the animal from which it is taken come from the plain ; but ^^^^^^T^ ^ TJ«T n ^Tiri:^T«lTf^^^fcf fTT: II H II Brihat Sauhiid, p. 399- Brihat Sanhitd, p. 401. t 246 ] if it be a mountain grazer, somewhat less.* Great stress is also laid on the venation of the ivory. If the figures formed by the venation be of auspicious objects, the substance is good, otherwise it should be rejected. In the case of wood venation is approved, but large knots, hollows, and perfor- ations by worms or insects, are strongly condemned, and de- tailed descriptions are given of the different kinds of misfor- tune which await the unfortunate wight who happens to sleep on a bedstead with knots in the end, in the shaft, in the glo- bular central bulging, or in the top of its legs. The frame- work, according to the authority quoted, should have mould- ings above and below, or be carved in various ornamental figures, or inlaid with gold, ivory and precious stones. The standard measure for carpenter's work is the angtila, No. 89. or finger's breadth of eight barley-corns divested of their husk, and laid side by side. This finger would be all but exactly equal to an inch ; practically native carpenters, both in Bengal and the North-Western Provinces, take the Eng- lish inch to be equal to eight barley-corns or Jews. Of this scale, the royal bed should measure a hundred, that is eight feet and four inches in length. For princes, a length of ninety T^^ •*?^TTf?:fT^ f^rT"?Tfr irtoT^j ^•^^^^tr 1 ^f>if^iT^TT^?:T^t ^# fTfT;=^TfT;wt f^f^cr 11 ^o 11 Brihal bauhita. p. 401. [ 247 ] inches, or seven feet six inches, is held sufficient. The prime minister comes in for eighty-four inches, the commander-in- chief for seventy-eight, and the high priest for seventy-two.* The rule as laid down is imperative; but I fancy the author intended some exceptions, otherwise, His Grace the Hindu Archbishop, who happened to be somewhat of a grenadier in height and of Falstaffian proportions, would have made a sad time of it in his bed of barely six feet, unless he got over it by a special dispensation. The breadths of these several bedsteads measured three-fourths of the length, that is four feet six inches to six feet, and the height one-fourth, or one foot six inches to two feet one inch.-|- Nothing has been said in the BriJiat SafiJiitd about the size of bedsteads for ordinary people, but it is to be presumed that its measure was not sub- ject to any sliding scale. As none of the bedsteads carved on the temples is of natural size, it is impossible to ascertain how far the rules of the Brihat Saflhiid, as regards this class of furniture were res- pected in practice. The breadth of the bedsteads seen, as far as I can guess, is about three-fourths of the length, but the height is not always exactly one-fourth of the length, or even near it. The principal causes of diversity, however, are the legs. Unlike the North Indian charpoy, whose legs are al- most invariably of the same shape, the Uriyd bedsteads dis- Brihat Sanhita. p. 399. The ordinary angula is much less than an inch, twenty-four of it going to a cubit, or a foot and a half. If that measure be accepted the royal bedstead would be reduced to six foot, and that of the lii.i;]i priest to a little over four feet. Brihat Sanhita. p. 400, [ 148 ] play legs of at least a score of different fanciful shapes quite unlike each other, some of them very similar to European designs of the present day, or such as may be copied to ad- vantage. The woodcuts Nos. 87 to 91, exhibit some of the No. 90. typical forms, but they are by no means the most select. They were copied as they were met with, without careful comparison and selection ; but such as they are they will most likely prove interesting. Woodcut No. 87, from Muk- tes'vara, exhibits a very simple form with a plain border and legs, carved like lion's paws. No. 88, from the same loca- lity, is remarkable for the manner in which the lion paws are fixed to the platform, not at the angles as usual, but consider- ably within the borders. No. 89, from the Great Tower, has very chastely designed legs, and the border of the platform is set off with a complicated scries of mouldings. The legs of No. 90, from the same place, are somewhat like those of the last, but its platform has a bevelled edge and no moulding. Before it are seen a footstool with turned legs, and a curiously shaped vessel, which I take to be a spittoon — two articles of frequent occurence as accessories to bedsteads. To a nation so inordinately addicted to chewing betel leaves, the spittoon is a most indispcnsible article of furniture, and in groups and court scenes, it often occurs in the hand of an [ 249 ] attendant. The footstool, when i)h\ced besides a bedstead, served the pur- poses of a step for ascending on the bed ; but it was also used as a stand for the betel-box, drink- ing cups, water carafes,or flagons No, 91. for wine. Wood- cut No, 91, from the Great Tower, exhibits the richest bedstead I have seen in Orissan sculpture. It is mounted on an elaborately carved dais, and has very pretty legs of a square pattern, the like of which are very common in Bengal in the present day. On one side of the bedstead is attached a semi-circular head-piece, designed to prevent the pillow from falling over. The bedding (Sanskrit talpa) appears to have been stuffed, and the stuffing kept in its place by tufting. There was a large thick pillow on its upper side, but my artist forgot to copy it. From a slightly projecting mark under the frame, I fancy that such bedsteads were sometimes provided with secret recesses for the deposit of valuables and jewellery, as is still the case in some parts of the country. The bedsteads were used both for sleeping, and as ottomans or sofas. The throne designed by Phidias for his renowned 01>'m- pian Jupiter was a large, high-backed arm-chair, elaborately carved, and sump- tuously decorated, but still a chair, or a seat for one person, as the word S^wvq^ originally meant in Greek, in contradis- tinction to the (^((^/)o^ or couch for holding two or more persons, and the Egyptian thrones, as preserved in sculptures and paintings, are all huge chairs of some kind or other, The Thrones, [ 250 ] Indian throne differed entirely from these. It was founded on the model of the takJitaposh or bedstead, and was distin- guished from it only by its mountings and decorations. Ac- cording to the Yukti-kalpa-taru two sizes were common, one eight cubits square and four cubits high, and the other four cubits square and two cubits high. The former was called Rdjdpdtra, and the latter Rdjdsana. The angles of the square, however, were not always left entire, and by thewa}' in which they were cut off, the seat became six, eight, or ten-sided. The great height of the seat necessitated a flight of steps in front ; but whether the steps extended to the whole length of a side, or only covered a portion of it, I cannot ascertain. Around the platform, there was a railing, but there is nothing to show that there was any raised back to lean upon : pro- bably there was, as the large pillow or takiyd, which formed an important element of the seat, rendered a support necessary. The name of the throne, Sinhdsana^ is supposed to have been derived from the images of the lions (Siriha), which originally formed its supports, but the secondary mean- ing of a state-chair or throne, soon set aside the derivative meaning of a "lion-seat," and such solecistic words as Padina-siilhdsaiia, "lotus-lion-seat," Gaja-sifiJidsana, "ele- phant-lion-seat," like the Yankee " neck-handkerchief," got into currency from very early times. The objects ordinarily selected for the decoration of the legs were images of lotuses conch-shells, elephants, geese, lions, pitchers, deer, and horses. The thrones were named differently, according to the forms in which the legs were carved. Thus a throne made of gam- bhdr wood with mountings of gold and rubies, having the sides festooned with carvings of lotus flowers, and the feet shaped like lotus buds, was named the " lotus-throne." It had a lining of scarlet cloth, and for supports of the frame- work eight to twelve human figures, each twelve fingers long. A thr()ne made of the abo\c-namcd wood with sih'er and [ 251 ] crystal mountings, white lining, and carvings of shells on the frame and the feet, was called the "conch-shell-throne," Sankha-sifihdsana. It had twenty-seven figured supports. A throne made of jack wood, with gold, amethyst, coral and lapislazuli mountings, scarlet cloth lining, and carvings of lines of elephants on the frame, and of elephant heads at the feet, was called an " elephant throne." In the same way, the "goose-throne," ( Hansa-sinhdsaiia), was so-called from having figures of geese carved on the frame and on the feet. It was made of sala wood, mounted with gold, topazes and agates, and lined with >'ellow cloth. It had twenty-one human figures for supports. The " elephant-throne " was made of sandal- wood, mounted with gold, diamonds, mothcr-o' pearl, and lined with white cloth. It had, as its name implies, carvings of elephants on the frame and on the feet, and twenty-one human figures for supports. The "pitcher-throne," (GJiata- sifihdsan.i) was made of champaka wood, and mounted with gold and emeralds ; it had lines of pitchers carved on the frame, lotus buds on the feet, and blue cloth for lining. Its figured supports numbered twent}'-two. When the throne happened to be made of Nima wood, ( Malea nzadiracJita), mounted with gold and sapphires, carved with lines of deer on the frame, and deer heads on the feet, and lined with blue cloth, it was called a " deer-throne," ( Mriga-sin/idsana ). And when it happened to be made of the Haridra wood, mounted with gold and diverse kinds of jewels, lined with various coloured cloth, and carved with figures of horses, and horses' heads at the feet, it was called a " horse-throne," ( Haya-siflhdsaiia ). It had seventy-four human figures for supports. Besides these, the Garuda-throne, (Gantddsana), for Vishnu ; the Bull-throne (Bris/idsaim) for S'l'va, and the Peacock-throne for KartikcN'a, arc frequentl}' mentioned. But I have seen none of these in sculi^turc. .V i)lain takJitaposh, with carved legs, and moulded franies, is what is most com- [ 252 ] mon, and carvings of animals and human figures arc rather exceptions than otherwise. Even the two large thrones of Jagannatha, in the Pun' and the Gundicha temples, are per- fectly plain and uncarvcd. It should be added, however, that it is possible that the structures which 1 have taken for siflJid- sanas, or thrones, were intended only for pifhas or ottoman seats and not thrones. Of ottomans, five kinds are described in books; the first Sofas, chairs, benches, measuring three feet by one foot six '^^*^- inches, with a height of nine inches, called SukJidsana ; the second, six feet by three, with a height of one foot six inches, called Jaydsana ; the third, nine feet by four feet six inches, with a height of two feet three inches, called Snbfidsana ; the fourth, twelve feet by six, with a height of three feet, called Sidliydsana ; and fifth, fifteen feet by seven feet six inches, with a height of three feet nine inches, called Scxmpdtdsaiia. Others, called Jaiiaka, Rajapitha, Keli- pitha and A7tgapitJia, are also occasionally mentioned. These were made, according to choice, of metal, stone or wood, and carved into various shapes. Of metals, gold, silver, copper, and brass, were most esteemed, and iron condemned, except for purposes of incantations.* Of stones, the gritty sandstone alone was condemned, and the other kinds recommended, with the proviso, that the colour of the stone should cor- • In ancient Persia iron bedsteads were used only for biers, and the Parsis still use them for conveying the dead to their Towers of Silence. Formerly, Mu- hammadans also used iron frames, for biers, and Sheikh Sadi describes death as " iron passage," d/uitig raf/au, as in the verse — c/iit lUiaiig raflan kuiiad Jdii i pdk,che bar takht viurdan die bairii i kliak. " When the pure soul is making its iron passage, what avails it whether death takes place on a throne or on the face of bare earth ?"' The Romans named death Ferrius soi/iiius, iron sleep, and the coincidence of the use of tlie word iron for such an idea among the Persians and the Romans is remarkable, but there is nntliin;.; to sliow llial it is otiier than a mere coincidence. The hardness of iron is aluiie LiiuUi;li lo accnunl fur il. [ ■^6 respond with that of the i)hinct which presided for the time being on the destiny of the person who was to use tlie seat; thus, when a man happened to be under the influ- ence of Saturn, lie had to use a stone seat of a blue colour; but if Venus happened to be the presiding planet, a bright yellow stone was the most appro[)riate. Crystal formed an exception to this rule, and was reckoned fit for use at all times. As regards wood, the mango, the jeiman, the kadamba, and all \-ery light woods, were, as a matter of course, held unfit, as also all very heavy, knotty wood with irregular veins. The most appropriate woods were the sandal, gambhara, siila, sisu, ebony, teak, bakula, &c. Seats of these various descriptions arc frequently met with in sculpture. A ver\- good specimen of the first kind of sofa occurs in the second compartment of the Amaravati stone now in the Indian Museum where it is provided with corner posts and a tester frame, and is being carried about on the shoulders of men in a procession. Images of gods and Hindu bridegrooms are to this day carried about in sedans of this description, and they are known under the old name of SNk/idsajur. Their short height makes them peculiarh' fitted for this purpose. The other kinds were intended to be ke[)t as fixtures, /. <'., not much mo\-ed about. In sculpture, the ends of their legs are frequenth' car\-ed into the form of lion's paws, or eagle's claws, and the shafts of the legs are sometimes, but not often, shaped like the legs of those animals. Cane moras are also frequentl)- met w ith. shaped very much in the same wa\- as now. Woodcut No. 92^ A \ariet\" of it with a raised back is show n in woodcut No. 92, taken, like the last-named Illustration, from one of Mr. h'ergusson's plates of Amara\ati sculptures. .Scats similar to it are cominon enough in the North-Western I'rcjN inces, though the rctjuire- No. 9: No. 92. t 254 ] ments of Europeans have caused a change in the form of the back-rest. That they were common in former days is evident from a verse in Kahdasa's Kiandra-sain- bJiava, where the mountain-king Hi- malaya is described to have offered such seats to the seven sages, who came with the proposal of marriage of his daughter Uma with Maha- deva.* At a much earlier period we find in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and even in the Rig Veda, scats or chairs of gold des- cribed as invariable accompaniments of royalty. Thus Apamanyot, "the grandson of the waters," in the last-named work, is pourtrayed as "of golden form, of golden aspect, o^ golden hue, and shining, seated on a seat of gold."-f- The mention of carpenters in that work;]: implies the \o. 93. existence of wooden furni- ture, and beds and chairs and tools would be the most proba- ble articles of that description that would be turned out by such arti- /ans; for had they been employed, j^^,j 04. '1-^ h^'^ been supposed by some, in the Aibrication of (jnl}- cars and waggons, they would have been named Rathak\v-as, and not Si'itradharas or Takshakas. In the time of ^ylanu's Laws, the demand for cabinet-ware was sufficicnti\' brisk to render the establishment of a distinct HIira J Caiitu VI., v., 43. 1 + Wilson's Ki^ \cila, II., 301. ; Ibi.l I., 162, 175, I\'., S5. [ 255 ] class or caste of men necessary for exclusive devotion to carpentry. In Orissa, wooden stools and cane moras were, it seems, the ordinary form of raised seats. The mora is identical!)- of the same shape as is common now. Wooden stools appear under different forms. Woodcut No. 93 exhibits a well- finished specimen: it occurs repeatedly on the Great Tower. But the most remarkable among the stools arc those wlu'ch are mounted on crossed legs, very- much like the folding camp- stools of the present day (wood- cuts Nos. 94 and 95); though, whether they were so made as ^*^" ^^" to fold or not, it is of course impossible now to determine. Fold-stools like these are not unfrequently represented in the illuminations of mediaeval European manuscripts, and formerly, when a bishop was re- quired to officiate in any but his own cathedral church, where his throne was erected, a folding stool was placed for him in the church, and he frequentl}- carried one with him in his journeys. Among the ancient Egyptians and Ass\-- rians, they seem to have been ver}' common, as both Wilkin- son and Layard have figured a great variet}- of them. In Orissa, they occur both on the Great Tower, and on the Temple of Muktes'vara. Occasionally these folding stools were used as tables, and on the Great Tower, one ma)- be seen holding either chessmen, or dice, or a roll of paper, with two persons seated on the o{)posite sides. In the Temple of Muktes'vara it is used as a book-stand. Of benches and chairs with back and arm-rests, no speci- mens have been seen among Bhuvancs'vara sculptures, but at Amaravati, long benches, with high backs of different designs, not unoften of the Buddhist rail pattern, are common. Some [ 256 ] of them have arm-rests. Woodcut No. 96 represent.^ a very common form ; it has well- carved and turned legs, battened seat, and a slop- ing back of carved work. Woodcut No. 97 has arm- rests with rounded tops, No- 96. the back being made of a single wavy bar without any intermediate support. These were used sometimes with and sometimes without, cushions and pillows. The last had a foot-stool of a rich pattern in front, which is shown under a separate head. (Page 260, woodcut No. 103.) Chairs with or without arm-rests, are likewise fre- No. 97. quently met with, and of designs which, for their time, were certainly remarkable, though by no means display- ing the taste, elegance, and richness, which characterised ancient Egyptian and Assy- rian furniture. For easy refer- ence, a few of these, like the benches, have been copied on the margin from Mr. Fergus- son's "Tree and Serpent Wor- ship," but so delineated as to show their character and j^T^ g perspective more fully than canbc pcrcei\c(l in llic positions th^y occup\- in Mr. I'crgusson's [ 257 ] plates. Woodcut No. 98 shows a form wliicli occurs re- peatedly as a repository for some sacred object, or a throne for a ro}'al or distinc^uishcd personage. Its seat is of about the same height as that of an ordinary chair, so that one can sit on it wliilc resting his feet on the ground ; its sides and tlic back arc protected b}- rails, strength- ened b\- a double line of ornamented cross bars. Its arm-rests, scat-frame and the bar on the top of the back are all neath' car\'ed, and the last terminates on each side in an alligator head, an ornament which, under the name of inakara- iiiiikha, is of frequent occur- rence in Indian sculpture and carved work. The legs of the chair are formed b}- doubling the leg of the tukhtaposh, No. 91, with an inter\-oning ribbed globe. There is nothing to sho',\- how the seat was formed, but from traces of cushions and pillows, I think it was boarded. No. 99, is as hca\'}' and primi- tive as the last, but it has no arm-rest and its back is low. In its general character. No. 100 belongs to the same class with the preceding two; but there is more art and finish in its details. The legs are slender, well-turned, and on the whole as good as those of ordinary chairs of the pre- sent da}'. The ends of the tup bar of the back projects No. 99. No. 100. [ 258 ] far out. have the usual makara head terminals, and arc sup- ported by figures of rampant lions ; the fore ends of the arm- rests bend out laterally, and have similar terminals and sup- ports, and the railing is light and chaste. No. loi belongs to a different class, and resembles a modern chair much more closely than the preceding. Its legs are turned, carved, and finished much more carefully, No. loi. the back and arm-rests are light and comfortable, and the whole has a modern look about it. No. 102 looks like a dwarf chair; the construction of its reclining arched back is peculiar, and its seat is semicircular behind, but in its construction there is very little to indicate its old primitive cha- racter. The legs are particularly worth)- of notice. Joiner's art seems to have made Sufficient progress at the time these chairs Xo. 102. were made, and that at the lowest computation about two thousand years ago, to enable the carpenters to fix the legs with sufficient firmness by tenon and mortise joints, to dispense with the necessity of cross bars at the lower end — a provision often found unavoidable for the sake of strength in ill-made furniture of the present da\'. The fact of such chairs and benches having been made for ordinar)- use, indicates a much higher state of civilization, tlian could be assumed if Mr. Fergusson's theory of the nude figures, which frequently occu- py them, being of the so-called Dasyu, or aboriginal, race, be accepted. As alread)' stated, these chairs were most likel}- fitted with stuffed cushions, as they are not unfrequentl\- pro- ■B^= [ 359 ] \iclccl with pilhjws near the back; but in the absence of colour and details, it is difficult to make out how they were set off. The ordinary mode of sitting on ottomans in saloons in the company of friends, or on cere- Mode of silting. ... monial occasions, was an erect one with the legs crossed; but when at ease, the reclining position with one arm thrown o\'er the takiya was preferred. This latter was also the practice of the Romans, who sat reclined sup- ported b)' the left elbow, "et cubito rcmanete presso."* On stools, chairs, and benches, the most common st}-le was to sit with one leg hanging and the other placed on the opposite thigh. Sometimes the legs were crossed ; at others, both the legs were allowed to hang in the European st)'le, the feet resting on low stools; and this was evidently reckoned by far the most dignified mode of sitting ; for figures of gods arc generally so seated; they also occur with one leg hanging and the other folded, but never on the ground, or on a cushion with the legs crossed, as is usual with men in the present da}-. That persons of rank also adopted the same st)'le, is more than probable, as we find Kaikeyi in the Rama}'ana — "When she saw her son, so long away, Returning after many a day, And from her golden seat in jo)-, Spring forward to her darling bo\-."-|- Other instances of the same description ma}' be easily multiplied. When men of rank are represented seated on sofas, they are attended by servants holding chauris and an lunbrclla; but in zenana scenes the attendants bear betel boxes and palm-leaf fans. The ordinary attendant in such cases is a pot-bellied, big-breasted, elderl}' stor}'-teller, seated in front. Sometimes female musicians and songstresses arc also delineated. The mistress general!}- sits cross-legged, * Ilor. I., Oa. XXII., 8. t Griffith's Translation, II., 289. [ 260 ] Footstools. occasionally having in her hand a flat, small, circular mirror with a long projecting handle, a requisite of female toilet which seems to have been a great favourite A\-ith ancient In- dian belles, and is frequently alluded to in old Sanskrit works. The footstool, like the (/)/)v/rr9 of the Greeks, and the sc'ir- bclhijii of the Romans, was an impor- tant article of furniture in Indian house- holds, and frequent mention of it is made in ancient works. I'^or gods and goddesses the most appropriate footstool was a full-blown lotus. It had a charming effect in setting off a piece of sculpture, and typified a most elegant poetical idea. For such personages seats of lotus flowers were not uncommon. For obvious physical reasons, such a style of depicting footstools could not be very congruous for human beings ; and yet for the setting off to advantage of seated figures, footstools of some kind or other were absoluteh- re quired. Accordingly, we see a great number of sculptured- footstools of various designs and patterns. Two of these are shown on the mar- gin. (Woodcuts Nos. 103 and 104.) They arc as closely like modern Fng- lish footstools as can well be imagined. The first is from Amaravati, and the second, from Bhu\anes'\ara. The stool shown in woodcut No. 90, is a form of which counterparts, under the name of j.ihrchaiiki, occur in almost every l^engali house. At s'raddhas and marriages, such stools in\ariabl\' form parts f)f the consecrated gifts. The curious reader will notice man)' other forms, some of elaborate work- manship, in Mr. I'crgusson's work u\\ Tree and Scr[)cnt Worship. No. 103. No. 104. [ -61 1 As stands fur bclcl boxes, dn'nkiii!:; cups ;iik1 llic like, the first kind of footstool. (Woodcut No. Teapoys. 90) was, as already described, gener- ally used, but it would seem from some bas-reliefs on the I^huvanesVara temples, that another kind (jf stand was j^re- fcrred for such purposes in rich houses. It resembled vcr\- closely the modern teapow but without the characteristic three legs, it being fixed in a thick heav}- carvetl block, which ga\e it much greater firmness on the groinid than modern teapo\-s can claim. The stems of all the specimens were carved into a series of balls fixed upon each other, or formed into a twisted flute, and the tops carved in various designs. Woodcut No. 105 exhibits a plain spe- cimen, and No. 106 a rich one, both taken from the Great Tow- No. 105. cr; the latter had a No. 106. betel box on its top, but in such a deca}-cd state that no trust- worthy drawing could be made of it. In so iiot a climate as that of India, a fan is an absolute necessity, and it has been in use from a vcr)' archaic period. It does not seem, however, to have, in earl\- times, attained any great excellence in its formation. In scul[)ture, it alwa)-s appears as a circular, or an oval, disk of some light material, such as palm-leaf or matting, mounted on a long slender handle, or provided \\ith a haft on one side of the riin, so closel}' similar to what is manu- factureel in the present da\-, that the specimens shown on the next page, i^woodcuts N(^s. 107, loJS, loy;, copied from originals Fans. [ 262 ] No. 107. on the Great Tower, may well be taken for modern articles. In Sanskrit works, fans of cloth, peacock's feathers, cane, bamboo, and other articles, are frequently mentioned; but everywhere pre-eminence is assigned to the well known palm, Boras- sus flabellifoniiis. In treatises on medi- cine some fans are said to overcome phlegm, others bile, and others heat ; thus the Rdjavallablia, quoted in the Sabdakalpadniina of Raja Rcidhakanta De\a: "The palm- leaf fan o\'ercomes disturbances of all the three humours, and is light and agreeable ; the bamboo fan causes heat and irritability, and promotes inordinate secre- tion of the airy and the bilious humours ; the cane, the cloth, and the peacock feather fans, o\-ercome disturbances of the three humours; the hair fan is invigorating, &c."* According to some practitioners, the palm-leaf fan promotes phlegm, and for patients suffering, from diseases due to an excess of phlegm, a cloth fan, or a palm-leaf fan covered with cloth, is generally recommended The umbrella and the chamara are represented very largely, but in no great variety. As in- signia of ro}-alt}' they were held in greater estimation than e\-cn the crcjwn ; and for goddesses, saints, and men of consequence, they arc rarely forgotten. In Europe in the present day, the umbrella, though a highly use- ful article as a parapliiic or a parasol, carries with it an idea of No. loS. No. 109. Umbrella. [ 267, ] cftcminac)'. In ancient times ito\' was held b)' Aristo- phanes as a lady's toy, and the Romans assigned it to their gentle women, as an article befitting their delicacy. The Greeks, nevertheless, used it as a mystic symbol in some of their sacred festivals, and the Romans introduced the custom of hanging an umlM-clla in the basilican churches as a part of the insignia of office of the judge sitting in the basilica. It is said that " on the judgment hall being turned into a church, the umbrella remained, and in fact occupied the place of the canopy over thrones and the like," and l^eatian, an Italian Herald, says, "that a vermilion umbrella in a field ar- gent symbolises dominion."* It is also believed that the cardinal's hat is a modification of the umbrella in the basili- can churches. Among the ancient Egyptians, the umbrella carried with it a mark of distinction, and persons of qualit)- alone could use it. The Ass}-rians reserved it for royal per- sonages only. "The umbrella or parasol," says Layard, "that emblem of royalt}- so uni\-ersall)' adopted by Eastern nations, was generally carried over the king in time of peace, and sometimes even in war. In shape it resembled very closel)- those now in common use; but it is alwa}'s seen open in the sculptures. It was edged with tassels, and was usuall)- orna- mented at the top b)- a flower or some other ornament. On the later bas-reliefs a long piece of embroidered linen, or silk, falling from one side like a curtain appears to screen the king completel}' from the sun. The parasol was reserved ex- clusively for the monarch, and is ne\-er represented as borne over any other person. "-f- The Moslim sovereigns of India were likewise ver)' particular about the use of the umbrella b}' other than royal personages. But the Indians, like the Egyptians, * Patents of Inventions, Alnidgmcnts of Siiccifications relating to Umhrel- hs, rar.-isols .ind Walking Sticks, 17S, 1S66. t Layard's Ninevcli, II., 327. [ 264 ] were not so exclusive. They permitted the cJthdtd to be used by other than kings, though they entertained the idea that the right to bear an umbrella, belonged chiefly to persons of considerable distinction. The king {■^ par t\xce!te)ice the Chliatrapati, or "the Lord of the Umbrella," ami the title is even now JicUl in higher estimation than that of Rdjd or Maharaja. The king of Burmah is proud to call himself "the Lord of T\vent)'-four Umbrellas," and the Emperor of China carries that number of parasols even to his hunting field. The Mahabharata makes frequent mention of the umbrella as a mark of roj'al dignity, and, in the Ddiiadharma section, enjoins the gift of white umbrellas having a hundred ribs, as a religious act calculated to ensure the donor a long residence in the hea\-en of Indra, respected by gods, hcavenl}- choristers and Brfdimans.* Panini mentions the chliatra, and gives its dcri\-ation (V^I, l\', 97), and the Smritikaras, both ancient and mixlcrn, all follow the ^Jahabharata in praising the gift of the umbrella, as an act of great merit. According to the Yiiktikalpataru umbrellas are of two kinds, special or royal, anci ordinary. The latter is again of two kinds, according as it is handled — sadauda or handle- le.s.s — nirdanda.-\ The former was adapted to open and shut at t fg^-q-^TW ^THT^' W^f^ f^fg^jr fHTT ^^Ti^lTW f^-i^" fi^^%2f f^f--"W ^^: I [ 265 ] l)le.isui-e. Its principal parts were the stem, sliding frame, ribs threads, cloth, and pin. The stem or handle, in a well-made umbrella, should be in the present age four cubits long, the sliding frame two spans, the ribs three cubits, and the cloth twice the length of the ribs. The pin, which supplies the place of the modern spring to lock the sliding frame, is reckoned at eight fingers. These proportions, howev^er, should, in the opinion of the author under notice, vary according to the rank of the owner. Rules are also given b}- him for royal umbrellas of various kinds. An umbrella with the stem and frame of choice wood, and of ribs of selected bamboo, and thread and cloth of a red colour, is good for kings. It is called Prasdda. The Praidpa is made of a blue stem and cloth, with a golden top T:^^ T:3iT ^'I'Tl T% Wi^TT^T^ ^XT^^^fnT l| W^T^f'Ff fT UTIT^T'W I 5rt^ 7?!^^ g^^ fun:: Wf^m ^T^W: I ^'Iw ^^1:t^^ TTfTT-q- ^^^■^ fW^?r*|[ II ^P{ ^'ft=^T ^TtTT ^W^^TTlfVfiTW^ II XlffflfT T:^^T^-ff% ^^li^^^>qfr I ^T ^T^^Ti^TT^ -^(k ^^H^TVI=»f?T II ^^^^V^TT^T^T^ ■^^'gW'T f^fwHT: I ■^■^■^ ^^W^^TT ^TI^ TT^^T^lfl- 1 1 1imTT>T^ fVTf?^HT^Tf?^^T^^?T I f *WT^T5^ ^'^T^T 'TWTrpfTfjf T^^VT II ^^TTfr w^^TTfff f^^i -^t:4 ^%^ II [ 266 ] and hinge; it is the most appropriate for princes. If the stem and slide be made of sandal-wood, and the threads and cloth be of a pure white colour and the top be surmounted with a golden kalasa or knob, the umbrella would be most auspicious for kings. It is called Kanakadanda. The most important, however, was the one which was named Xava- danda, and recommended to be used on great state occasions, such as coronations, royal marriages, &c. Its stem, sliding frame, ribs and lock-pin, were made of pure gold ; its cloth and strings of choice colour, and it was decorated with golden knobs, figures of ducks and cars, and fringes of thirty-two strings of pearls, each formed of thirty-two beads. Its top used to be surmounted with a pure white brilliant, and the lower end of the stem with a ruby and a cornelian, and its most appro- priate appendage was a tassel of yak tail, one cubit long. The Agni Purana (C. 224) does not enter into any great detail, but recommends other materials besides cloth for the construction of royal umbrellas. According to it, " it is conducive to the good of princes to have their um- brellas made of the feathers of geese, or of peacocks, or of parrots, or of herons (vaka) ; but they should not be made of feathers of various kinds mixed together. The colour of the umbrella, when intended for the use of Kshatriyas, should be white, and when for that of Brahmans, other than of that colour. Its handle should be made of a cane from three to eight joints in length." The Brihat Sanhita recommends the feathers of geese, fowl, peacocks, and cranes (sdras), as also new cloth, as the best materials for the covering of white umbrellas, the decorations to No. no. consist of pearl fringes, garlands and crj'stal mountings, the handle being of gold, six cubits long, and divided into seven or nine sections, and the area one-half the [ 267 ] length of the handle. For crown-princes, queens, gencralissi- tnos and chief judges, the haft should be reduced half a cubit, and the area, to be two and a half cubits. For ordinary people, the umbrella may be of cloth or peacock's feathers, according to choice, the shape being square, and the handle rounded.* The woodcut in the margin, No. i lO, represents the only kind of chhata that has been met with in sculpture; it has two tassels of yak's tail for ornaments. The sliding frame is visible in some specimens, but not in so distinct a form as to enable one to make out its exact character. From La}'ard's drawings, it would seem that the Ninevitc umbrella had a sliding frame. The chd)}iara or fly-flapper reckons next in importance to the umbrella, among royal insignia. It Chamara. is frequently referred to in Sanskrit works, and the Yuktikalpatani of Rhoja Raja dwells on it at great length. According to it, there were two classes of chamaras in use in former times, one "mountain-born," and the other "sea-born." "The former were made of the hair of cattle common on the Meru, the Himalaj-a, the \^indh\-a, the Kailasa, the Mala}-a, the Udaj'a, the Asta, and the Gandha- madana mountains. The chamara of the Meru mountain was of a deep yellow colour; that of the Himala\-a, white; that of the Vindhya, white and dense; that from Kailasa black and white mixed; that from Mala}-a, white and }-ellow, mixed; that from Udaya, blood-red ; that from Asta, blue and white shades mixed ; and that from Gandhamadana, some- times black, and sometimes pale yellow."-f- Of these varie- * Brihat Sanhita, p. 377. ^T-iftfJ^^^-g W^f«T flT-^T ^«ITIT^ J^T^^K^T: fj^^ffT^ II tn ■JnWJ^ H^^T 53^^^^^^^ l>^T^^TlTf5r ^ •SFTTH^lf^ 11% II [ 26S ] ties, those which had long', light, bright and dense hair, were reckoned the best, and those which had short, heavy, dis- coloured and dull hair, were condemned as bad. The first set of qualities ensured to the owner of the chamaras possessing them, long life, great valour, fame and enduring prospcrit}-, while the second set brought on shortness of life, disease, sor- row and death * The sea-born chamaras are said to come from the seven Pauranic seas. The animals which yield them are believed to dwell in those seas, and marine animals bite the bushy part off from their tails and cast them on the shore, where fortunate people collect them. Each sea has its own peculiar kind of chamara, and the author describes them in detail. He adds that the most characteristic quality of the mountain-born chamara, is the ease with which it burns when thrown on the fire, and the peculiar ;/n's mis sound which it produces when burning. The sea-born chamara does not irTT f^^T^^ f^5^ ■^5rT% »T^^ 7IWT 1 1 Xjg^H'a ■$%Y^T^?T^ H^firT f^ II BTTTT ^T^^^ ^7^?T ^T?T^?5f*TVT wfq I ^TxrtHT: ^T^Tf^^T f^JlflTt: -^^^IT^HT f^5«TaTT: ^-ill^T^f^flT: f^TfTT ^^?T5TT: "^^T^^T fsi^^T: I Sf^r: %^5r TT^^r^rT^TJT^T: TTT-^I^fi^xr^TJITT: II »3WT^(^T?: TW?r ^TH^T^ni Tr^f^rri: II ^^fTT '3^frT ^^ ^^^ ^rfsi'TT^TrT i Tt^T^^ir T^?t =^mrT»nT q^f»FrfT: II ■i\ii ^T^ETTf TITTtffI ^^IT ♦Ttfaf^^I^'T I ■^^ «jT^^^I=^Wjt -ET^ ^•. f^^?T-«lT; II [ 269 ] easily take fire, but when it does burn, it emits profuse, dense smoke, and i)roduces a crackling sound like chat cliaf.-\ It is e\ident that b}- the mountain-born chamara the author refers to the tail hair of the Yak, Gour, Gayal and other bovine animals which continue even to this da)' to )'ield chamaras of various kinds; but what he means b\- sea-born cliamaras, I cannot make out ; and yet from the details of their colour, length, density and sound produced when burning, it is obvious that he alludes to some imported articles which he had seen. Of these several kinds of chamaras the Brihat Sanhita notices only the yak chaury, which, it says, is sometimes yellow, sometimes white, and sometimes black, the best being that which is white, glistening, soft, dense, beautiful, and enclosing only a few small tail bones. Its handle may vary in length from a span to a cubit ; it should be made of some choice w ood, mounted with gold, silver, and jewels.:): Of the handles appropriate for the various kinds of chamaras, the articles of which they should be made, — gold, silver, and the like ; — the mountings the}' should ha\e, — ^jeweller)' of various kinds; — their thickness and length with reference to the respective ranks of the persons for whom the)- are to be made, the author also gives elaborate descrip- tions ; but they are not sufficiently interesting to be worth translating. The Smritis also describe various kinds of chamaras, and speak of the merit of presenting them to Brahmans on particular occasions, but I shall forbear to quote from them, as it is impossible to identif)- in sculpture the different varieties mentioned b)- them. The article itself is frequently met with in sculpture, and represented as a mass t l.'riluTt Sanhita, p. J7S. [ 270 ] of flowing hair mounted on a handle more or less ornamented The woodcut on the margin (No. iii) shows the typical form, but the mass of hair of which it is formed is not always made of a uniform thickness. In some specimens, the hair is short, but thick-set and very bushy; in others it is long, flowing and light. The pellicles of the tail feathers of peacocks, and the crested tops of those feathers were also used in making chamaras; but I have not seen them delineated in sculpture, nor have I noticed any mention of horse-hair as a material for chamaras. Of household vessels and utensils, the sculptures Domestic vessels, uten- of Bhuvanes'vara represent ^'^^' ^^- but little. They are subjects which the domestic economy and the religious obligations of the Hindus, studiously drove to the back-ground, and it is not to be expected that they would occupy any prominent position in sculptural decoration. Even in that great sanctuary of ancient art, the sacred land of Greece, where the taste of the people and the ingenuity of artists endowed everything with the halo of beaut}', the number and variet}' of domestic vessels to be seen in sculpture is extremely limited. There was, however, one exception, and it referred to the class which included vessels for fluids. In a country where drinking wine was prevalent and fashionable, vases, and tazzas, and goblets could not but attain some eminence, and the exquisite perfection to which they attained, has hitherto claimed the highest meed of praise. In India even this class of vessels has not attained the distinction which they deserved. With the exception of the ka/ds'a or jar, there is no vessel for fluid which is worthy of notice for the beaut}' of its form, or the elaboration and art in its finish. V.xcw the kalas'a as a domestic vessel has no claim to any iesthctic excellence. In sculpture, however, it No. III. [ 271 ] has been treated with c^rcat taste and elegance. As the crown- ing member of temples, it is generally well-conceived and elaborately finished, and the various forms it has assumed under different treatment arc all remarkable for taste and beaut}'. On the temple of Yames'vara, to the west of the Great Tower of Bhuvanes'vara, there are at least fifty differ- ent varieties of kalas'as, many of which can be placed besides Grecian and Roman vases without reflecting any discredit on the taste of their arti- ficers. Woodcut No. 112, from this tem- ple, represents a typi- cal figure ; and its elegant outline and chaste ornamentation will doubtless com- mend it to the appro- bation of connois- seurs. Woodcut No. 113 is from the top of the Great Tower, and is also a typical specimen on the model of which most of the crowning kalas'as of Bhuvanes'vara temples have been fashioned. Jars for the storage of water were formed on the same model, but they had no broad base to rest upon, and, in the majority of instances, their height did not exceed their breadth, and accordingly they looked dumpy. Of smaller vessels for water, woodcut No. 114 shows a remarkable specimen from the Great Tower; it is a water carafe or goglet, in which water was served out, or kept for read}' use. In Calcutta, a vessel somewhat similar to it was in use until thirty }xars ago, when it went out of fashion. (Wood- cut No. 115). It was made of metal, ^'''- "4- No. 112. No. II' [ 272 ] No. 1 1 6. No. 117. cither brass or silver, and known under the name of auiriti or the " nectar bottle," from which it would not be unreasonable to infer that it was likewise used for holding more potent fluids than water. In shape it was very much like a hock bottle, and it stood from nine to fourteen inches in height; it was capacious enough to hold from a pint to a quart-and-a- half of fluid. It was set before guests, who poured out the fluid into a smaller vessel or lota for use. Woodcut Nos. 116, 117, 118 and 119, also represent vessels into which fluids were dra\\'n from the kalas'as or jars, and kept until required for use, when their contents had to be poured out into cups or goblets. They occupied the place of the modern lota, but differed from it in being provided with covers. From several illustrations in Mr. Fcrgusson's "Tree and Serpent Worship," it would seem that they were used largely as decan- ters for wine, and in this respect they occupied the same position in the domestic economy of the Hindus which No. iiS. the api'(TTtxo'?i wpi'TttU'a, apvcrr/jp and ^'o- ''9- ^{•afxx: did in that of the Greeks, or the siiiipuluni and tndla in that of the ancient Romans, the kalas'a representing the mixing vase or xP'^'^hp- O^ cups or gob- lets for drinking wine, woodcut Nos. 120 and 121, show t}'pical specimens. No. I20. They are common both at Khuvanes'- no. 121. vara and Sanchi. This distinction of decanters and drinking cups is indicated in Sanskrit works, in which decanters, or vessels for scr\-ing out wine, (tnadya- parivesliana-pdtra,) arc named severally saraka and anutar- sana, and the drinking cups pdnapdtra, cltasaka, pari, and pdrika. The mudcrn Hindi and Bengali sordi is a corruption [ 273 ] of the sdra/cn, and the name is now apph'cd to a goglet. The cup for drinkint^ wine was made of a very small size, and the Tantras limit its capacity to two, three, or five tolas,* the lart^est containing; barely two ounces, and, considering that the liquor drunk was generally raw spirit, it was the largest that would be convenient. It is worthy of note, however, that the largest was just of the same size as a modern English wine glass, and the smallest a liqueur glass. For curries, sher- bets, and other articles of food and drink, cups were of course made of a larger size. One of them is shown in woodcut No. 122. It is remarkable as being four-sided, and not circular, as cups usually are. Woodcut No. 123 shows a large bowl such as is now used for milk, soup, and other fluids drunk in large quantities. No. 124 is a large, handsome bowl designed for holding solid food ; it occurs in the hand of Ganes'a in the Great Tower, and is repre- sented holdine: a No. 122. No. 123. No. 124. No. 125. number of ball-shaped sweetmeats (matichura) which the elaphocephalic divinity is leisurely taking up with his trunk. The betel-box and spittoon have already been noticed. Water- pots with a spout on one side, (Sk. bhringdya) are common in BhuvanesVara, and a vessel very like a tea-kettle appears at Sanchi. (Woodcut No. 125.) It was used for sprinkling holy water before a sacred procession, even as the Garu is in the present day, As'valayana recommends urns with spouts as appropriate for the sepulchre of relics of females. :ve [ 274 ] Tangible evidence is wanting to show what these vessels were made of. The bulk of them, doubtless, were of baked clay, or terra cotta, such as are now so common in e\'ery part of India. In the Rig Veda, frequent mention is made of earthen cooking pots (kapdlas), and for the dressing of the piiroddsa cake, the CliJidndoga-paris ishta recommends hand- made platters as purer than those turned on the potter's wheel.* The practice of using fresh pots on every separate occasion, a practice which was also observed by the Buddhists, and is noticed in the Mahawanso,-f- gave great importance to their manufacture. Manu, Parasara and others assigned to a particular mixed caste, the issue of a garland-maker ( uidld- kdrd) by a frail daughter of a blacksmith, the kumbhakaras,;!: the special vocation of fashioning earthen pots. References are also not wanting to wheels for the formation, and kilns or furnaces for the baking, of such vessels. From descriptions accessible, it is probable that the old wheel did not differ from what was in use in Egypt§ in former times, and what we are familiar with in the present day. Clay, however, was not the only material in use for the fabrication of domestic vessels in ancient times. The Rig Veda alludes to golden cups ; and silver, copper, brass and bronze, which were well-known and used in the formation of weapons, were, it is to be presumed, not neglected. The Sutras and the Mahabharata, however, leave no doubt on the subject: they frequently refer to vessels of other than gold B^^ '^^TErfjff ^l^Tf^ f f^^ *{^^ II •^T7?Tt^ I + Maluiw.inso, li. C. l6i, Cli. XXIX., p. 173. X Tlie lirahmavaivarta I'urdna raises their status by calling them the issue of Vis'vakarma by a S'udrdni. § Wilkinson's Ancient EgyiMians, III., p. 164. [ 275 ] .iml clay. Tvashta, the V'ulcan of the Jliiulu pantheon, was the most celebrated artificer of metallic arms, but the Ribhus ^i^reatly excelled him in the formation of sacrificial vessels of wood and metal, and on one occasion Tvashta is said to have sought to slay his rivals (IV. 33, 5, 6), and on another, " to have applauded their design, and admired the brilliant results of their skill."* In a mediaeval work, the Kdlikd Pitrdna, plates made of gold, are described to remove excesses of the three humours, and promote the strength of vision ; those of silver, favourable to vision, and inimical to bile, but calculated to increase the secretion of wind and phlegm; those of bronze, agreeable and intellectual, but favourable to undue excite- ment of blood and bile; those of brass, wind-generating, irri- tating, hot and heat and phlegm-destroying ; those of mag- netic iron, most beneficial in overcoming anasarca, jaundice and anaemia; those of other stones and clay are inauspicious; those of wood wholesome, but phlegm-generating; those of leaves, wholesome, in\igorating and poison-destroying."-f- The Yiiktikalpatayu recommends that drinking cups for royal personages should be made of gold, silver, cr}-stal or glass; I and other authorities are equally precise on the subject. * Muii's Sanskrit Texts, \'. ]i. 226. T^lli H^fTT ^^^^T f^Tl^^ ^"tF^TrTireT 1 1 + cTq[ XTT^iITlii KtrT^TT cf^^^ '^^^ ^V: I [ 2/6 ] Reference has already been made to the knowledge which the Hindus had of glass as a material for the fabri- cation of ornaments, but from a passage in the work above- quoted, it appears that it was also used for drinking cups or tumblers, the physiological effect of drinking water from vessels of glass being described to be similar to that of vessels made of crystal* What this glass was made of, I cannot ascertain from any Sanskrit work, but according to the opi- nion of Pliny, already quoted (ante. p. loi), it was made of pounded crystal, and was therefore superior to glass of all other countries. That this substance was the litJiia diaphanys of the Greeks, there are many reasons to believe,^ and Mr. Vincent, the editor of Arrian, says, " that clear or flint glass assumed its name from 'YaAi;, crystal, is still more apparent from a passage of Diodor, Sic. Lib. ii., p. 128, ed. Wessel, where mention is made of both sorts, the factitious and native ' YeAov' as he writes it. The glass coffin of Alexander is called ' YaAt'vr;' by Strabo.";): There was most probably another substance, porcelain, which was to some extent used in the formation of drinking cups and other domestic vessels, for there is little reason to doubt that the Murrhine cups, for which such fabulous prices were paid, were made of oriental porcelain, which, according to the Periplus, was "brought down from the capital of Guze- rat, Ozene, (Ougein) to the port of Barj-ga/a or Baroach." "All this," adds Vincent, "seems to confirm the opinion that it was porcelane procurable in India at the time, as it now is; and that it was brought into Egypt by the ships that went to India."§ "Elsewhere," he says, "the mention of Carmina by t Ani.iirs I'diplu^ of lli(j lCi)lhic.in Sea, II., Ap. p. 45. X Il)i.l. II., .\i.. p. 48. I S IMil. II., Ap. p. 40. i -V7 ] Pliny, as the counliy where the niunhiiid were (obtained, favors the supposition of procuring these vessels from India ; for the communication of Carmina with Scindc and Guzerat is almost immediate, and certainly prior to the navigation from Egypt to that coast. But in Guzerat they were obtained, when the author of the Periplus was emplo}-ed in that trade; and their arrival at the market of Baroach, from the interior of India, may induce us to suppose that they came into India from the north." Another material which was used in the manufacture of domestic vessels was leather. In the time of the Rig Veda leather masaks for water were well known, and Indra is praised as piercing the rain-confining skins or masaks of the cloud.* Bottles of the same material also were evidently in common use, for Agastya in his poison-neutralizing mantra, says, " I deposit the poison in the solar orb, like a leather bottle in the house of a vendor of spirits."-f- In the Laws of Manu, masaks for water are alluded to under the name of drki, and its peculiar form with the four feet left intact is pointed o\xX..\ Directions are also given for the purification of leather arti- cles.sij Other Smritis ordain that oleaginous articles preserved in leather bottles do not become impure b)' the contact of the impure cow-hide; and in the present day jars of that material are in extensive use in Bengal and the North-West Provinces for the storage of oil and ghi. In the latter place, leather bags are universally used for raising water from wells, and according to the law books of Sankha and Likhita, J! that water is declared pure which is kept in old leather bottles. AtriH * Wilson's Rig Veda, II., 28. i t Ibid II., 204. X Manu, II., V. 99. | § Iliid. V., v. 199. [ vs ] is likewise of the same opinion, and adds that flowing water, and that whicli is raised by machincr)-, are not defiled. The use of such words, as cJiannaiita, cJiannapatti, vdratm, chasa-handha, &c., in old Sanskrit works indicates that straps, bands and strings of leather were in common use, and sails were also made of leather or hide. No articles of the kind, however, have been seen at Bhuvanes'vara. In the boat scene at Sanchi, leather masaks are used for swimming,* and their counterparts ma}' be seen in Laj-ard's plates of Assyrian sculpturcs.f Of leather bottles and jars no trace can be found in sculpture, but a remarkable article, probabl\- of leather, occurs on an attendant on a lady of rank from Bhuva- nes'vara now in the Indian Museum ; *'^"' '"^' it is a courier bag of a check pattern with a flap, slung from the left shoulder. (Woodcut No. 126.) I have seen nothing of the kind in any other sculpture in India. Of boxes, scrutaires, and the like, I have also seen nothing. The Maiijiisd, or trunk made of cane, is frequently referred to in Sanskrit works; but what it was like I cannot ascertain. Woodcut No. 127. appears to me to be a specimen of the kind. It is an ornamented casket for jewellery or other toilet requisites, and was probabl)' copied from a cane-made original. In Bengal, e\'cn to this day, the most important clement of the trousseau is a small casket of wicker work with cloth lin- injTf and silver or kouri-shell mountings, very No. 127. *=• ^ > J much like the one under nc^tice, and intended lo hold pomades of bccs'-wax, red-lead or siiidiir, combs, * Tree and Serpent Worship, jilale XXXI. + The Monuments of Nineveli, phitcs X\' and X\T. Kas'iUhanda, Chap. IV. [ 279 ] plaited hair strings, stibium, and other nicknacks of feminine use. The most important of these articles in the estimation of Bengali ladies is the red-lead, because with it is associated their married condition. According to a verse in the Afd?-- kaii(/n Piirdua, "no faithful wife who desires the longevit\- of her husband, should ever forego turmeric, saffron, redlead, stibium, boddice, betel leaf, auspicious ornaments, dressing of the hair, chignons, bangles, and earings."* But modern belief is that red-lead and an iron bracelet are the onl\' two things which no married women should be without for a mo- ment, and the rest are ornaments which may or may not be put on according to choice. The red-lead is used for mark- ing one or more spots on the top of the forehead, just where the hair is parted along the mezian line. Formerly, paper stencils, representing elaborate floral devices, were in use for marking the forehead with sindiir or sandal paste, and they accordingly found a prominent place in the dressing case, but, except for brides on the day of marriage, the}' are not thought of now. On the Great Tower a scene represents churning, and the instrument delineated is identically the same with w hich we are now familiar, a churning stick, worked in a large earthen pan, with a twisted rope held in the two hands of a milk-maid. The stick is kept in situ by two rings attached to an adjoining post. A kitchen scene at Sanchif exhibits a winnowing fan, kula, a wooden pestle and mortar, ok/ili, (both very like what is common now) ; a curry stone, si'/a, * ^frjj 151^5^ U-r^X ^^«^ /(7. The yXmaravati harp is in appearance very like the ancient Egj'ptian instrument, but it was held on the lap in a horizontal position, whereas the latter, when in use, was kept in an upright position on the ground, or on a stool. Ko, 129. The Amaravati guitar shown on the stone in the Museum of the Asiatic Society, has a sounding board at the lower end, and seven keys, but no bars. The Kalpa Sutra of Katyayana notices a harp with a hundred strings, but what it was like I cannot say. Monochords, Bichords, and Trichords are largely described in text-books. Of percussion instruments, the dJiolaka, played either on one or both sides, is the most prevalent representative to be met with everywhere; and was made of various shapes. Some were of large size with small ends and broad centres, like the yi/;7^rt;/^(^ of our day; others less protuberant in the middle, but with broad ends like i\\e pdkhaiudj; others, again, of a very small size. Of the large military drum played with a stick, the ranadJiakkd and ihcjajadhakkd, with which the heroes of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are said to have inspired their legions with military ardour in the battle-field, no specimen has been met with at Bhuvanes'vara, but a small variety, probabl}' the tini-tiuii, Anglicc tom-tom, or the kettledrum, so pla}-cd, is not rare. The tambourine, khanjani, is also met with. At Sanchi the large war drum is common. The ceiling of the Muktes'vara porch has several scenes of concerts, in most of which the central figure is represented singing to the accompaniment of a dholaka and c)-mbals. [ 285 ] Of pneumatic instruments, flutes with or without lateral blowing holes, pipes and trumpets arc the leading forms. Flutes were usually perforated with three to seven holes ; the last was probably the highest number, and the pla)-er, who could manage so many holes was deemed highly pro- ficient, for we find in the Toy Cart a servant of a courtezan claiming great superiority on that score. He says, "A pretty situation for a man of my talents ; for one who can pla}' the flute with seven holes, the v{>/d with seven strings ; who can sing like a jackass, and who acknowledges no musical superior, except, perhaps, Tamburu or Narad a."* The conch-shell scarcely deserves to be reckoned as a musical instrument, but as it was so used, and is common at Bhuvanes'vara, it is necessary to name it. It was of the modern shape and used very much in the same way as in the present day. The conch-shells of commerce are contributed by three different species: ist, Turbine/la rapa ; 2nd, Mazza rapa ; and yd, Volnta gravis. Of these the first produces the largest shells, best adapted for wind instruments, in making which the only ingenuity required is to drill a hole at the base in such a manner as not to injure the whorls. When blown through, the wind, passing through the different whorls, pro- duces a loud, sharp, shrill, piercing sound, which spreads far and wide, and by its nature quickly attracts attention. Hence the conch was held in great esteem as a war trumpet. In the present day, it is used as a trumpet in the temples to mark the close of a religious ceremony called drati, in course of which lights, napkins, and other articles are turned repeatedly in front of an image, and also at quasi religious ceremonies, which the fair sex celebrate to mark particular domestic occurrences. The second species produces the most elon- gated shells, and thc\' are used for offering water to the gods * Hindu Theatre. I. p. 93. [ 286 ] during the drati aforesaid, for bathing the images of Vishnu, and for lustrations generally. For this purpose no perforation at the base is needed, but the whorls within have to be cut out clean. Occasionalh', but very rarely, the whorls are so cut as to represent five consecutive shells, one within the other, and these are described to be so many separate shells coalesced into one, or five separate mouths, pauchajiiuk/ia, of one shell. It is held to be particularly sacred. I have seen only one specimen of this kind ; but it had onl}' three interior shells. It is generally as high-priced as the abnormal vari- ety called dakshindvarfa, "in which the whorls, instead of running from right to left, as in the ordinary shell, are re- versed, and run from left to right." " It is," sa)-s Sir Emerson Tennent, " regarded with such reverence that a specimen for- merl}' sold for its weight in gold, but one may now be had for four or five pounds." This high price is due to the virtues ascribed to it in the Puranas. One of them, the Vdrd/ia, sa)-s, "He who, going to a river flowing towards the east, performs an abJiisJieka ceremony on himself \\-ith a right-handed san- kha, purges himself from all sin. He who, in such a river standing up to his navel in water, pours sesamum seed and water profusely on his head from a right-handed sankha, instantly destroys all the sins of his life."* Of the virtues of sankhas generally the Padnia Puj-dini gives a detailed account. According to it, "He who bathes Vishnu with the milk of a gold-coloured cow (Kdpild) filled in a sankha, ac- quires more merit than can be attained by performing a hun- ?i(2tTfH^^ f^f>J^^ TTfi: T?T^: TT?^^ 1 1 [ -^87 ] drcd million Yajnas. He who bathes the Great Lord with the milk of other than golden-coloured cows, obtains the rank of Brahma. Pouring Ganges water into a sank ha, he, \vho bathes Madhava, saying at the same time " salutation to Narayana," avoids the evil of all future transmigration. What is the use of bathing in the Ganges for him, who, turning a Sankha filled with water before Kes'ava, pours the water on his own head? He, who offers to Vaishnavas, in a sankha, water mixed with sesamum and tulsi leaves with which the feet of Hari have been washed, acquires the merit of per- forming a chdndrdyaua ceremony."* The BraJiina-vaivarta Pnrdna says, "Water in a sankha is most gratifying to the gods, and is as holy as the waters of sacred pools, except to Sambhu. The goddess of fortune remains fixed in those places where the music of the sankha resounds. He is bathed in the waters of all the sacred pools, who bathes in water from a sankha. Hari abides in the sankha ; wherever there iT^f^:;^T: -^W W^T ^^^ ^Ti^tT Q ^T^^ 1 1 TTi^^T H^%^ ^^' -^-^ -ST^ ^fTfW^r I [ 288 ] is a sankha there is Hari. There also abides Lakshmi, and evil of every kind flies away from it."* The fabricators of bracelets make no distinction of these three varieties, and use them promiscuously for their work. In the " Detailed List of Articles contributed by Bengal to the Vienna Universal Exhibition of 1873 (p. 89), Mr. Locke, of the Calcutta School of Art, has the following interesting note on the subject: " The Shankharis, or shell workers at Dacca, distinguish the several shells and their various qualities by the names Titknri, Pdti, Ldlpdti, Alabeld, Dhala, Kulai, and SJnirti ; the Titkuri" (that is, those imported from Titicorin) " being the best in quality of grain, lustre, and suitability for fine cutting and delicate finish. There is considerable variety in the patterns of these sankha bracelets, from the rude broad flat ring, to the thin delicate annulet, rounded, or with notched or beaded edges, carved with tigers' heads, enriched with ornamental incising, and illuminated by touches of tinsel, lac-colour, gilding, &c." It should be noticed, however, that those bracelets which are made of entire pieces or annulets cut out of the shell, require the last named species, which from its size yields rings just large enough for the human wrist. The first two varieties are too large for such annulets, and their chips and cuttings are therefore used only in inlaying. Their superior density and gloss adapt them well for this purpose. It should be borne in mind, also, that the different species vary greatly in size, according to age, and it is often difficult to identify them in the dry state. ■^'. ^Trr: 'Fi^frr'^^ ^: ^th: Tr^^ifir^T 11 [ 289 ] Of concussion instruments, cymbals, large (Karatdla) and small (Mandira), are common everywhere, but all of the ordinary modern form. In one instance I noticed, what appeared to me to be, a pair of castanets, such as are in use in the present day, and I think that castanets were not unknown in ancient times in India. They occur among the sculptures of Thebes, and Wilkinson supposes they were not only used in the Egyptian army, but by the buffoons, who danced to their sound."* At Bhuvanes'vara, they are repre- sented on the ceiling of the Muktes'vara temple. The gong (kdns'eya) is also common, and deserves no notice, and the same may be said of bells which form so important an element in the paraphernalia of workship. That in the time of the Vedas, and for some time after- wards, the Hindus were familiar with ships adapted for sea voyages, is a fact which is now no longer doubted. The frequent mention, in ancient Sanskrit literature, of pearls, which could not have been procured without the aid of boats that could brave the ocean-wave, is of itself sufficient evi- dence on the sub- ject. But others are not wanting. Allusions to the ocean and to ships are numerous even in the Sahhita of V ..r. the Rig Veda, rvo. 130. • ^ " The greatness of the Agastyas," is said to be " as profound as the depth of the ocean. "-f- " He, Varuna, who knows the path of the birds Boats Ancient Ejjyptians, II., 365., \ t \\'il»on"s Rig \Vufl, I\'., 89. [ 290 1 flying through the air, he, abiding in the ocean, knows also the course of ships."* "May Ushas, dawn to-day, the excitress of chariots which are harnessed at her coming, as those who are desirous of wealth (send ships) to sea."t " Do thou (Agni), whose countenance is turned to all sides, send off our adversaries, as if in a ship to the opposite shore," (a remarkable prayer for transportation at so early an age). " Do thou convey us in a ship across the sea for our welfare,":): Again, " Tugra, veril)-, As'vins, sent (his son) Bhuj}ai to see, as a dying man parts with his riches ; but you brought him back in vessels of your own, floating over the ocean, and keeping out the waters. Three nights and three days, Nasa- tyas, have you conveyed Bhujyu in three rapid, revolving cars, having a hundred wheels, and drawn by six horses, along the dry bed of the ocean to the shore of thesea. This exploit you achieved, As'vins, in the ocean, where there is nothing to give support, nothing to rest upon, nothing to cling to; that you brought Bhujyu, sailing in a hundred-oared ship, to his father's house."§ This story of Bhujyu is repeat- ed in a subsequent hymn where the " tossing ocean and swift ships " |l are again alluded to. Again, "you constructed a pleasant, substantial, winged bark, borne on the ocean waters for the son of Tugra, by which, with mind devoted to the gods, you bore him up, and quickly descending (from the sky,) you made a path for him across the great waters. Four ships, launched into the midst of the receptacle (of the waters, sent by the As'vins,) brought safe to shore the son of Tugra, who had been cast headlong into the waters (by his foes,) and plunged in inextricable darkness."ir Agni is prayed in one place "to bestow a boat fitted with oars." The great sage Vas'ishtha declares, " "When I, (Vas'ishtha) and Varuna as- * Wilson's Kitr Veda, I., 65. + Ibid. I., 128. t Iljid. I., 254. § Ibid. I., 306. II Ibid. I., 317. •T Ibid. II., 1S2. [ 291 ] ccnd the ship togcllicr, when we send it forth into the midst of the ocean, when we proceed over the waters with swift (saiHng vessels), then may we both undulate happily in the prosperous swing. So Varuna placed Vas'ishtha in the ship, and by his mighty protection made the Rishi a doer of good works."* The Kapinjala bird is said " to foretell what will come to pass, by giving due direction to its voice, as a helms- man guides a boat." In the Introduction to the third volume of his translation of the Rig Veda, Professor Wilson says, " The same familiarity with the sea that has been previously commented on occasionally occurs, with sufficient explicitness to lea\-e no doubt of the meaning of the text : thus in one place the rivers are said, ' to rush to the ocean eager to mix with it' (p. 59); and again, 'the rivers disappear in the ocean' (p. 221), where also it is said that 'those desirous of profit are engaged in traversing the ocean,' clearly indicating mari- time traffic : the Maruts, or personified winds, are said ' to toss the clouds like ships,' or as the Scholiast amplifies a rather elliptical phrase, as the ocean tosses ships ; in another place (p. 425), although the particular expressions may be equi- vocal, yet it is undeniable that the passage is intended to con- vey the idea of the crossing of the ocean by certain indivi- duals under the guidance of Indra."f At a later date Manu lays down rules for the guidance of maritime commerce, and the Ramayana alludes to merchants, who traffic beyond the sea and bring presents to the king (III. 237). In the Maha- bharata mention is made of a large boat provided with machinery, which could defy the hurricane; but it was intended for moving only on a rix'cr. Kalidasa, in the S'akuntala, gives the story of the merchant Dhanavriddhi, whose immense wealth devolved to the king on the former's perishing at sea, and leaving no heirs behind him ; and in Wilson's T'^ig Veda, IV. 178. | t Ibid III., p. 16. [ 292 ] the Hitopades'a, a sliip is described as a necessary requisite for a man to traverse the ocean, and a story is given of a certain merchant, "who, after having been twelve years on his voyage, at last returned home with a cargo of precious stones." The details of Vijaya Sinha's piratical expedition to Ceylon are familiar to the readers of the history of that island. Arrian alludes to the KoIandipJiontas, (apparently a corruption of the Sanskrit Koldntarapota, " ships for going to foreign shores,") or " large ships on the coast of Travancour, in which the natives traded to Bengal and Malacca," in con- tradistinction to the Moiwxyla of Pliny, which was probably the same with the Sangara and made of one piece of timber, for coasting and river trade.* Other notices of the sea and ships may be multiplied ad Hbituni, to shew that the ancient Hindus were accustomed to venture out on the "black waters" in search of wealth. No proof of sea voyages, however, is to be had in sculp- ture. At Sanchi only two boats have been seen,f one "a rude canoe made up of rough planks rudely sewn together by hemp or string"; and the other, "a stately barge with a long arching prow carved to represent the head and fore paws (winged) of a lion with the beak of a hawk, and the stern shaped like the tail of a fish curved upwards." Such fanciful prows, it would seem, were common enough in former times ; for the Yuktikal- patarii names the heads of lions, buffaloes, serpents, elephants, tickers, birds, frogs and men, as the most appropriate for fio-ure-heads of boats.! "Boats not unlike the Sanchi speci- men in design," says Mr. Fcrgusson, "may still be seen op- posite the ghats at Benares on festal occasions, on the lakes at Oudypore, or whenever a Hindu palace has a lake attached * reriplusof the Erythrean Sea, I., p. 23. t Tree and Serpent Worship, plate XXXI. I %irrr ^f^^r tttTt T^t;^ ^T"^ ^^=^ i [ 293 ] to it."* Both the Sanchi boats, however, appear amidst lo tuses, which in this country never grow in the running water of rivers, and are obviously not intended for the ocean. At Amaravati too there are no ships, and at Bhuvanes'vara, no marine or boat scene has come to notice. Considering that the place is situated so near the sea, the total absence of such scenes argues that, at the time, the Hindus had all but entire- ly retired from the sea. At Puri, the Bhoga Mandapa of the Great Temple represents a boat, but it is evidently intended for a river. (Woodcut No. 130). As already stated {ante p.p. 270 f.), drinking vessels arc common at Bhuvanes'vara, but they are Drinking. never shaped like animals' heads as in Assj'ria and Etruria. Of the nature of the beverages which they contained, nothing can be said. The religion of S'iva, and that of his consort, recognise the use of spirituous liquors as an element of devotion, and it is to be supposed that the people who followed those forms of religion did avail themselves of the license to a con- siderable extent. Six hundred }'ears before that time, we find that drinking wine and spirits was almost as com- mon amcng the Indians as it is now in Europe. In the S'akuntaki, when the fisherman, who brought the lost ring to the king, proposed to give to the policemen half of the monc}' he had received as a present from Dushyanta, the Superintendent, joyously accepting the offer, remarked : ' Thou good fisherman, }'ou are an excellent fellow, and I begin to feel quite a regard for }-ou. Let us seal our first friendship over a glass of good liquor. Come along to the next wine shop, and we will drink your health ;"f and the whole party agreed to the proposal to make the fisherman MS. No. 445, in the Library of Maharaja Jotindramohan Tagore, JJahaclur, of Calcutta, Fol. 71 A. * Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 127. t William's Translaiion, p. 154. [ 294 ] stand a treat, saying " by all means." Nothing short of free and undisguised use of spirit by the ordinary people of the country could have justified the poet in introducing such a scene. That the practice was not confined to the lower orders of the people, is evident from the fact of the Superin- tendent having been a relation of the king. It is also manifest from the Sanchi bas-reliefs, among which more than one lady of high rank may be seen standing in a balcony on the roadside with a drinking cup in her hand, and a maid with a decanter by her side ready to replenish it. In the garden scene two of the lovers have tazzas in their hands with an urn before them, clearly indicating indulgence in something more potent than \\-ater or sherbat. Commenting on this scene, Mr. Fergusson justly observes, " We ought not to be surprised that drinking should be a favourite indulgence in these days. The Mahabharata is full of drinking scenes, and many of its episodes, turn on the results of intoxication. Even the gods in those days got drunk on soma juice ; why not poor mortals ? In addition to this, we must bear in mind that though the Hindus of the plains are so remarkable for their temperance, all the hill tribes drink joyously to the present day. No ceremony, civil or religious, takes place without drinking and dancing, and the festival generally is brought to a close by all — the men, at least — being so drunk as to be unable to continue it."* No doubt the S astras con- demn indulgence in wine, especially by women, as sinful ; but neither the anathema of the moralist, nor the ordinance of the lawgiver, seems to have put a stop to the manufacture of spirit- uous liquors in the country, or to the importation of valuable foreign wines such as are mentioned in Arrian's Periplus, which were evidently destined for the use of men of wealth and consequence. The essay further on, on " Spirituous Drink in Ancient India," will afford full details. Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 139. [ 295 ] 1 1 is usual among luiropcaii authors to treat the history of arms under four different heads : isf, the age of stone ; 2n(f, the age of bronze ; 3;v/, the age of iron ; and 4///, the middle ages. An earlier age would be that of wood, for of all artificial arms, a club, or a stick, would suggest itself sooner to a primi- tive race than a celt of chipped flint ; and certain it is that among the many barbarous races still extant in different parts of the globe, the wooden spear and the bow and arrows appear much more universal than celts and stone hatchets. Wood, however, is not lasting, and the earliest relics available being made of stone, the fourfold division is the most convenient for the arrangement of ancient arms In museums and public collections, and to a certain limited extent for the treatment of the subject in historical disquisitions, using the words "age of stone," or "age of bronze," &c., in the same way as geologists use the phrases, the age of reptiles, the age of mammals, &c., implying a prevalence of particular class of objects over, and not the total exclusion of, others. In India, the same arrangement would no doubt be desirable. The number of stone weapons, chiefly celts, knives, and arrow-heads collected In the Indian Museum at Calcutta, fully testifies to the extensive use of such arms by the inhabitants in an historic age ; and ancient Sanskrit litera- ture also bears evidence to the fact. The monkeys of Rama are said to have thrown stone implements against their enemies, and the thunderbolt of Indra ( Vajra, Asaiii) was a lithic missile ; but hitherto not a single authentic specimen of any Aryan stone weapon has been met \\-ith in this country, and bronze arms seem to be all but unknown. From the time of the Rig Veda to the present day, wood and iron have been the chief, if not the on I)-, materials employed in the fabrication of offensive weapons ; and as both those articles have been used promiscuously at all times. It is impossible [ 296 ] to divide the subject into an age of wood and another of iron. The classification adopted by the Hindus differs con- siderably in different works. The most common arrange- ment is a twofold one, including under one head all missiles (astra) and under another, all non-missiles (sastra). The former is then subdivided into four orders, viz: — ist, missiles cast by machines, Yantnwiiikta ; 2nd, ditto hurled with the hand, Pdniimikta ; jrd, ditto hurled by force of spells, Diantra- mukta ; and ph, arms that can be hurled and then retracted, nmktasaiidJidrita. The second class included two orders. In Wilson's Essay " On the Art of War as known to the Hindus,"* the classes and orders are reckoned together. This is based closely on the Agni Purana which gives a fivefold division, thus: i, missiles cast by machines, such as bows; 2, cast by the hand, such as javelins; 3, retrac- tive missiles, such as the lasso and the bomerang; 4, non- missiles, such as spears, &c. ; 5, natural weapons, as the fist.f Omitting the last, which is purely theoretical, the practical division is fourfold, and I shall adopt it as the most con- venient tentative plan. Of the first class the oldest, the most important, and the most generally adopted national weapon of the Hindus from prehistoric times to the end of the middle ages, was the bow, and heroism in this country was invariably associated with superior proficiency in the use of that arm. No one rose to distinction as a * Works, \-ol. I\'. p.p. 299. f. t ^^^^ TjTf?^:^yif^ ^^ffiT TTT^?T>£rTfT rTlf^ ^ II ^ 1| + Works I\'., p. 291. [ 298 ] we subdue w ith the bow all (hostile) countries. This bow- string, drawn tight upon the bow, and making way in battle, repeatedly approaches the ear (of the warrior), as if embrac- ing its friend (the arrow) and proposing to say something agreeable, as a woman whispers (to her husband). May the two extremities of the bow, acting consentaneous!)-, like a wife sympathising (with her husband) uphold (the warrior), as a mother nurses her child upon her lap ; and ma\- the\', moving concurrentl}', and harassing the foe, scatter his ene- mies."* The Ramayana and the Mahabharata extol it even more highl\% and the stor\' of the great bow of S'l'va, which Rama snapped asunder and won a beautiful bride, shows that large heavy bows were held in estimation. Proficienc)' in archery was also greatl}- prized, and the Panda\'a brothers obtained a princess as the reward of successfulh' shooting at a mark while looking at its shadow in water. Of the material of which the bow was made, little is said in ancient works, except that horn Materials of Bows. was sometimes used for the purpose. Jkit the Agni Purana, which in its chapters on archer)' and arms, and on regal administration, is, according to Wilson, distinguished b)' an entirel)' Hindu character, and must have been \vritten long anterior to the Muhammadan invasion,-f- supplies the deficiency. In its chapter on arms it gives the following : " Bows, O best of the twice-born, are formed of three things, to wit, metal, horn, and wood ; and the string of the bow is likewise made of three substances, viz., saua fibre (Crotalarea juncea), hemp (BJiaiii^d, Cannabis sativa), and skin of hide. The most appropriate length for a bow is four cubits, three and a half cubits being middling, and three cubits inferior ; it is to be so prepared that there may exist no unevenness from its centre to the extremities ; the middle part * Wilson's Rig Veda, I\'. p. 23. t Wilson's \'ishnu Purana Mall's cd Picfacc, p. xlxi. [ ^99 1 shoiiUl be juinctl w illi a spare piece of wood, so that il nia\- be tinnly held. The ends of tlic bow arc to be made thin and taj)erint^',so as to resemble the e\-e-bro\vs of a handsome woman. Metal and horn bows should be made either of ])ure iron, or of ir(jn and horn separate!}', or of those two substances con- jointl}'. The horn}- bo\\' is to be formed of a L;ood shape and decorated with c^'old. l^ows which are crooked, or ha\'e cracks or holes in them, are not g"ood. The metallic bow- is to be made of gold, siK-er, copper and black iron. Horn}- bows made of the horns of the buffaloc, the Sarabha, and the Rohisa arc good. Bows are also made of sandal wood, rattan, the sal wood, the Dhavana, (a kind of Hedysaruiii), and the Kakubha ( Poitaptcrd arjinia). "But the bow made (jf bamboos which grow in the Sarat or clear sea.son of autumn, and which are cut and taken at that time, is the best of all. Bows and scimitars are to be worshipped b}' repeating mantras capable of fascinating the three regions S\'arga, Martya, and Patala." The most remarkable fact in the abo\e extract is that the elastic bamboo is most extolled. The black iron was probably steel, and the other metals were used as ornaments ; they are too inelastic to form a bow themseh'es. The liorn}- bow was greatly esteemed, and Vishnu claims it as especial Iv his own. Homer refers to the horn}- bow in the i lOth \erse of the 4th book of the Iliad, and Arnold thus explain.s it : K'u Til. //€!■ — TiKTMv. Tlic liom-w-orkcr wrought {dirK;](Tiis) the horns, and fitted (^/'''/'^^ ''•/""" '^P^'^' I^- '^4-) the two lower ends of them to each other, so that they now made one bow."* The size appro\ed, four cubits, is nearly the same as that of the Eg}'ptian bow, which, according to Wilkinson, measured from fi\e feet to fi\e feet and a half in length ;+ and among the materials for bow-strings we have mention of * Arnold's Homer's Iliad, p. 112. t Wilkinson's Ancient Egyp.ians, I., \k 304. [ 300 1 hide, which was likewise used for that purpose by the Eg\-p- tians, as well as the Greeks of the time of Homer * The Agni Purana does not mention the Miirva, ( Sansevicra zeylanica), as a fit plant for yielding the finest and strongest fibres for bow-strings ; but other authorities, mostly older ones, are full of praise of that plant as a source of valuable fibre for the purpose, and Manu especially assigns it as well-suited for girdles for warriors. From specimens to be seen in sculp- tures, the ancient bow seems to have been of the same shape as the modern Indian arm, made either of bamboo or horn (sdraiiga), and provided with a strip of deer skin, or a murva cord for string. At Bhuvanes'vara, a specimen has the body of the bow strengthened by knots tied at short intervals ; but at Sanchi and Amaravati nothing of the kind has been seen. Some Indian bows have an inward bulge in the middle, so that their shape includes segments of three circles, — the " triple bent" bows of the Ramayana ; — their counterparts were not unknown in Egypt. In ancient Greece, the tips of the bow, according to Homer, used to be mounted with stag horn, but the sculptures in this country do not make them apparent. The manner of carr)'ing the bow was ordinarily to sling it from the left shoulder, or to bear it aloft in the left hand. In stringing the bow, one end of it was placed on the ground, the inner side of the middle resting against the knee, and the upper part pressed inw ards witli the left hantl, w hilc with the right hand the loop of the string was slid to the notch at the upper end. This is exactly tlic process which the Egyptians followed in former times, and the Hindus practise to this day. Of the most ancient arrow, the Rig Veda gives the follow ing description : " The arrow puts Ancient anows. on a feathery wmg : the horn of tlic deer is its p(;inl: it is bound with the sinews of the coW'."i' The v€U|oa ^oeta llonicr, II., \>. 113. f Wilson's Uig Veda, IV., 26. [ 301 ] commciUalor in one place su[)i)()scs thai the {)oint.s of .such arrows were poisoned,* and in another [)lacc the Veda itself describes the arrow as made of the sara reed with its blade of iron and point anointed with i)oison.-f- The dccr-horn point was undoubtedly the most ancient form, and must ha\'e prevailed for some time ; but, seeing that the arms and armour of Greece in the time of Homer (B. C. 1,000) were for the most part of bronze, though iron was known and is often s[)okcn of under the name " of difficult to work in," it ma\' be fairly asked, — did the Ar)'ans, to any large extent, emplo)- iron for the fabrication of their arms during the early Vedic period of the Rik Sanhita, notwithstanding occasional men- tion in it of the iron-pointed arrow? To meet this question, it is necessary to enquire to what extent that metal was known and worked. The quotations given from the Rig Veda (ante. p. 26) about ii'on-walled cities, clearly show that Knowledge of iron. the hardness of u'on was well-known ; but the epithet being in those cases metaphorically used, they do not suffice to prove that the metal was worked into shape. In the passages in which Indra is described as hurling his iron bolt upon the quick-moving Asuras, ^ or where his horse is described as having feet of iron, the same exception ma\- be easily taken, though the last description may be accepted as an indication of the practice of shoeing horses. But swords (II. 156), spears (IV. 25), javelins (II. 292), lances (I. 774), (IV. ii. 288), and hatchets (I. 120), are frequently mentioned ; and these weapons are " bright as gold," or golden (IV. 19), "shining bright" (I. 175), "blazing" (IV. 93), "sharp" (IV. 113), and "made of iron" (I. 226); they are "whetted on a grindstone" (II. 36), to improve " You (As'vins) carried oft" Jahuslia to the top of the mountain in your triumphant chariot, and slew the son of N'is'vanch with a poisoned (arrow)." Wilson's Rig Ved.a, I., 317. |- Wilson's Rig N'cila, I\'.. 27. 1; Wilson's Kig Ncda. I., 328. III., 23. [ 302 ] their keenness (I. 150), and "polished to enhance their brightness" (II. 326). There are also allusions to razors, which would be utterly worthless unless made of iron, and it may be ver\- fairK- presumed that those who could and did forge razors of iron, could not forget the value of that metal as a material for pointed or edged M'eapons. It may be added that, according to Sha^\•, " the hardest tools in ancient Egypt, such as drills for working the granite obelisks, were made of Indian iron." Pliny says : " Ex omnibus generibus pa! ma Serico ferro est. Seres hoc cum \'estibus suis pelli- busque mittunt. Secunda Parthico, neque alia genera ferri ex mera acie temperantur, caiteris enim admiscetur." (Lib. XXXIX. C. 14.) .According to al PIdrissi, " in montibus Kabel in\eniuntur ferri fodinai, celeberrimie, et humanis usibus aptissimai, producunt enim ferrum acutum et venustum." According to Nearchus, King Porus gave 3otbs. of steel to Alexander as the most precious present he could offer ; and to "give an Indian answer," meaning "a cut witii an Indian sword," is a common Arabic proverb in Arabshah, (apud Vincent's Periplus p. ^64]. It would be inconsistent to suppose that the race which produced such iron and swords did not know how to use, or, knowing, did not use them. Of the shape of the Indian arrow-heads, the Vedas Shape, size and afford no information, but the Ra- niaieria! of arrows. ma\-ana and the l\Iahal)harata fully supply the deficiency. According to those authorities most of them were barbed ; some were spear-shaped, others crescent-shai)ed, with the cutting edge either concave ov convex : some needle-pointed, dentiform, or serrated; others square with two, three or more points. In sculptures, some of these forms are distinctly visible. Of the size and make (if arrows, the Agni Pun'ina gi\es the following descriiHion : " Arrows should l)c m.ule of bamboos or sttrd reed, ( Sdc- [ 303 1 cJianiiii sara ), wliich must he free iVoni spots, Src. Thc\' should be straig'ht, golden coloured, and have feathers of birds attached to their lower extremities." The Homeric arrows were likewise feathered, Trre/ioerTa, " and the feathers of large brids of pre)' were esteemed the best." Tlie length of the arrow (is'u) varied greatly ; but the most approved was three cubits on over four feet. " Besides the arrows commonl)- used, the Dhanurveda describes another kind, the Naracha cntirelx' of iron. Curtius, perhaps, alludes to this Naracha when he sa}-.s, " some of the archers shot with arrows u hich were too heav}- to be very manageable."* Ordinarii)- the ciuiver was probabl)- made of hide or basket-work ; but sometimes metal Quher. plates were also used in its fabrication. The Rig Veda often names quivers of gold, but it is not certain whether they were actually made of that metal, or were so called only by a poetical license. They were slung on the back (Woodcut No. 31) ; sometimes two behind the two shoulder.s, tied in front by a cross belt. At Bhuvanes'vara quivers are pretty common, but being placed behind figures in bas-relief, their size, form, and make cannot be full)- ascer- tained. The manner of drawing the bow up to the ear, as in modern Europe, while standing with Drawing of bows. , • 1 . . the body turned sideways, is ponitcd out in the extract from the Rig Veda given above ; and is confirmed by several passages in the Rama}'ana, the Maha- bharata and other ancient works in which the merit of aiming with the arrow drawn in a line with the c}'e to the car (dkarnasa)idhdna) is highly extolled. In the Sanchi sculp- tures, the same st}'le is distinctly visible, and that this was the most perfect mode of using the bow, is e\ident from its adoption b\' some of the most civilized nations of * Wilson's Works, IV., 299. t Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, I., 308. [ 304 ] antiquit}', such as the Egyptians. The ancient Greeks. however, thought and acted differently. According to Homer, the bow should be held right in front, and the string drawn to the body, revpi)r /ih ji HW^T^T ^f^^iftr ^itg^oT: II ?^ II fST^ STTTT H%%7rf ^T^^T^sj^TZTff II !8 II ti4 fg^FZ-^f^^' f^^^T^rin^ff ii u '• ^^^ f^fw^r^^ 1RW7 xrf^^'^f^ff ii?'S (I ?-^%f ^IWT^T^r ^^lTTir^?TT^ff II JC II '* Ancicnl Egyptians, I,, p. 2^7- [ 3^7 ] The destructive power of fire must ha\'c from the earli- Fire-arms Catn- ^^^ period suggested the idea of fire, in pulls, &c. some form or other, being used as an offensive agency, and instruments of some kind or other must have been designed for casting it among enemies. That such was at least the case with the ancient Hindus is evident. They cast boih'ng oil, explosive oils, melted rosin (kalpala) of the Sal tree and fire-tipped darts at their enemies, and they could not have done so safely to themselves without having at command mechanical means for the purpose. And from the frequent mention of the Agni Astra or " fire-arms," in ancient works, it is to be inferred that the Hindus had some instruments for hurling shells or balls of burning matter against their enemies. No sculptural representation of any such has, however, )'et been met with. There are two scenes of sieges among the Sanchi bas-reliefs ; but no traces in them of bat- tering-rams,* or catapults of any kind for breaking down walls, or for hurling stones amidst the ranks of the enemy, or of en- gines for casting burning matter to a distance to set fire to besieged towns and fortresses, are visible. There are several martial processions and battle scenes at BhuvanesVara ; but they too are devoid of any evidence on the subject. In the Udyoga Parva of the Mahabharata, Yudhisthira is described as collecting large quantities of rosin, tow, and other inflam- mable articles for his great fratricidal war ; but no details are given there of any engine with which they could be hurled against his enemies. The only instruments named, which could be assumed to have belonged to this class, are the A^nlika, " the tubular weapon," through which fire darts were discharged, MaJidyantra or " the great engine," and the SatagJini or "centi- cide," a mitrailleuse which could kill a hundred at a time; but what they were like, and how they worked, are not mentioned. * The Ni'tiprakas'ika calls this instrument the Parigha and describes it as^ of " round shape as big as a palmyra tree, and of good wood ; experts know that a whole troop is required to make it move and strike." Oppcrt's Weapons, p. 22. [ 308 ] European writers on Indian fire-arms have been hitherto confined solely to a priori and inferential arguments on the subject. The arguments are set forth at considerable length in Wilson's Essay " on the Art of war as known to the Hindus;" in Sir Henry Elliot's note "on the early use of Gunpowder in India," in his " Index to the His- torians of Muhammadan India ;" in Lassen's Indische Alter- thiimshuide (II„ p.p. 641 f); in Maclagan's "Early Asiatic Fire Weapons," in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1876; and in casual notices in different works. The question has, however, assumed quite a different aspect by the recent discovery of two new works on Ni'ti. One of these, the S'likraniti, was first found by me in 1875, and a short extract from it was published by Babu Ramadasa Sen in the Indian Antiquary. The entire work was soon after published at Bombay under the auspices of the Maharaja of Jodhpur. The work is attributed to S'ukra Acharya, the preceptor of the Asuras, and has been often cited in ancient Sanskrit works. The other is the Niti- prakdsikd of Vaisampayana, the credit of discovering which is due to Dr. Gustav Oppert, of Madras. I have not as yet seen it, nor is it known on this side of India. But Dr. Oppert has published long extracts from it, in his valuable essay " on the Weapons, Army Organization, and Political Maxims of the ancient Hindus." It would be foreign to my purpose here to enter at length on the authenticity of the works in question ; but in an attempt to describe, however briefly, ancient Indian arms, it would be improper to omit all mention of the net results of the discovery. Those results are that in the Nalika or "tubular weapon " we have the ancient Indian gun. The accounts given of the gun in these works arc alike. The Ni'tiprabasika says : " the Nalikd (musket) has a straight body, is thin-limbed, and hollow in the middle. It pierces the vital parts, is dark, and discharges the missiles of the [ 309 ] Dronachapa. When it is to be used, it is taken up, ignited, and pierces the mark. These arc the three actions connected with the Nalika."* According to the S'ukraniti. 135. "The tubular weapon should be known as being of two kinds, divided into large and small. 136. "The tube is five spans long, its breech has a per- pendicular and horizontal hole; at the breech and muzzle is always fixed a sesam bead for aligning the sights. 1 37. " The breech has at the vent a mechanism which, car- rying stone and powder, makes fire by striking. Its breech is well wooded at the side, in the middle is a hole an angula broad. 138. "After the gunpowder is placed inside, it is firmly pressed down with a ramrod. This is the small gun which ought to be carried by foot-soldiers. 139. "In proportion as its outside (bark) is hard, its hole is broad, its ball -is long and broad ; the ball reaches far. 140. "A big tube is called (that gun) which obtains the direction of the aim by moving the breech with a wedge ; its end is without wood ; but it is to be drawn on cars, &c. ; if well welded it gives victory. 141. "Five weights (pala) of saltpetre, one weight of sulphur, one weight of charcoal, which consists of Calatropis (^igantea, of Euphorbia neriifolia, and other (plants) and is prepared in such a manner that the smoke does not escape. 142. "If all this is taken after having been cleansed, is then powdered, and mixed together, one should squeeze it with the juice of Calatropis gigantca, Euphorbia nerilfolia and Allium sativum, and dr}- in the sun ; having ground this like sugar, it will certainly become gunpowder. * srf^^T ^^ %-%■• ^T^ T^ Tft^^fT ^TfT^JT ^ I ^^f^^^^T^ HTTTT: TT3r ^T ^(SfT^ JJW ^T I TFT^^t '^^TH^Tt TTHljfT^T ^^^JHT ^T I ^^^ ^f iTT^m ii^VTigH^^^nr wt ii f^fzr^^^T^^^^* ^^mfrrfKTir^fr?? ;i ^^Tr5§^ TT^g-^ ^^f^^^w^ ^ II ^i^^f^ ^ %tITT:: ^fs^^THlfj^f?^ ^ I f^qf^ =^Tf»5T"^^'TTfI 7ri^^# g^T^'nJ^ II r^T^iriifi rT^ ^n^^T ^T^^% u-m 1-f ?j II [ 312 ] to set it aside ; but the arguments urged by Dr. Oppert are strong and I must leave them to speak for themselves. He has appealed to some sculptural evidence which will be found on pp. 56 f of his essay. Of the arms of the second class, viz., missiles to be Javelins, Spears and hurled with the hand, the only two La"ces. worthy of notice are the javelin and the discus. The former, under the name of s'ela, is frequently mentioned, and warriors mounted on horses or elephants used it largely; but it passes so insensibly to the lance or the thrusting weapon, that I have not been able to ascertain its exact form. I shall, therefore, notice the various kinds of spears and javelins seen in sculpture under one head. The discus, or quoit, is an old Indian favourite, of which mention is made even in the oldest Vedas.* Unlike the Sikh weapon of the present day, which is a simple ring with a sharp cutting edge, it had cross bars in the middle, and sometimes flame-like or pointed projections round the periphery. Its ancient name is cJiakra or " the wheel ;" but one of the com- mentators on Amara identified it with the Prdsa. It occurs both in sculpture, and also (formed of iron, and mounted on spires of Vaishnavite temples) as a sectarial mark, like the cross of the Christian churches. Formerly certain classes of Vaishnavas used to have a figure of it branded on the arms, or the breast of devotees ; the S'ivites replaced it by the trident.f Javelins were highly important weapons, and Sanskrit writers are full of their praise. They were made of bamboo, pointed with blades of steel, iron or copper, and balanced with an iron knob or spike at the lower end. The * " Endowed with augmenlcd vigour he hurled (against the foes) the wheel of the chariot of the sun." III., 35. If the suggestions of Sayana be omitted, the wheel would be a discus. t See a story on the origin of Vishnu's discus in Muir's Sanskrit Texts, IV., p. 159. [ 313 ] light ones were probably used as javelins, while the heav}- ones were reserved for thrusting. Occasionally they were made entirely of iron. In some instances they had a small pennon below the blade. Woodcut No. 131, shows a copper blade now in the Indian Museum ; and Woodcut No. 132, from Sanchi, shows a pennon. These weapons are, however, not well represented in sculptures, except as tridents, Piiidka or Tris'uht, of whicli there is a great number and of different forms. (Woodcuts Nos, 133, 134 and 135.) One of a ^, short mace-like form, mounted with three prongs and No. 131. ' i & a small axe blade, is peculiar, and a drawing of it is given in woodcut No. 136. It may be compared to a Euro- pean halberd, except in its shaft which is not nearly as long. Of the retractive missiles included under the third class of the Agni Purana the Lasso and the liumarang are the leading types. The Lasso, udgapdsa, "the noose of the Nagas," or simply Pdsa, was largely used, and is frequently alluded to. About its form and use I extract the following description from the Agni Purana : "The Pdsa should be ten cubits long, with one end of which a circle should be made a cubit in diameter. It should be constructed of the strings made of hemp, or of flax, or of viiDija grass, or of bhaiigd, (Crotalarca juncea), or of ysiidyu (tendon or muscle of beasts, supposed to be what is understood b}- the word tdnt in common Bengali), o'i arka skin, (fibre of the Calotropis gigan- tea,) and other things of which strong thread may be made. The Pdsa should be prepared of thirty pieces of thread twisted together. The learners should make a running knot in the Pdsa; and, having M held one end of it with the left hand, and twisted it No. 133. [ 314 ] round on the right, they should turn it over their heads, and afterwards throw it on the throat of a human figure, made of wicker-work, or reeds. They then should do the same to a real man, after covering his bod}' with skin. After this, they should try to throw the string on the neck of a horse at full gallop, or of animals jumping about, or such as are moving fast. This practice should be repeated many times, in order to be accustomed and well-skilled in it. In this manner, being masters of their hands, they will begin to bind (their enemy) with the Pdsa." This lasso is sometimes exhibited in sculpture. On the Rani Naur frieze at Udayagiri, there arc two or three nooses seen on the body of a crouching ele- phant in a cave, and one also in the hand of one No. 134- of its assailants ready to throw it on the animal. The Bumarang (scatterer,) dstara is thus described in the Niti-prakds'ikd, " it has a knot at the foot, a long head, and is a hand broad. Its middle part is bent to the extent of a cubit, it is sharp, black-colored and two cubits long. Whirling, pulling, and breaking are its three actions, and it is a good weapon for chariot- eers and foot-soldiers." Commenting on this Dr. Oppert says, "the general belief is that the bumarang is a weapon peculiar to the Australians ; but this is by no means the case. It is No. 135. ■\vell-known in many parts of India, especially in its Southern Peninsula. The Tamulian, Maravar and Kallar employ it when hunting, and throw it after deer. In the Madras Government Museum are shown three bumarangs, two ivory ones, which came from the armoury of the late Raja of Tanjore, and a common wooden one, which hails from Pudukota. The wood of which the bumarang is made is very dark. I possess four black wooden and one iron bumarang, which I have received from Pudukota. In the arsenal of the [ 315 ] Pudukota Raja is al\va}'s kept a stock (jf these sticks. Their name in Tamil is valai tadi " bent stick," as the stick is bent and flat. When thrown a whirh'ng motion is imparted to the weapon which causes it to return to the place from which is was thrown. The natives are well acquainted with this peculiar fact. The length of the astara or bumarang is not always exactly the same, the difference amounts often to more than one cubit."* Of arms of the non-missile class sticks, clubs, and maces were the most ancient. 1 hough they could be hurled at an enemy when hard pressed, they were ordinarily not intended for such a purpose. No. 136. Various kinds of clubs are shewn on the Great Tower of BhuvanesVara, but they call for no remark. Woodcut No. 137 shows a fancy top. Woodcut No. 138 shows a large mace or club, five feet high, tied with ornamen- tal metal bands. Its body is ribbed, and the ends are mounted with thick knobs. It has been taken from the hand of a guard at the entrance to the Bhoga Mandapa at Puri. The battle-axe was in India, as much as in ancient Europe, a dreadful weapon of l!atlle-axe. . destruction, and various forms of it ma)' be seen at Sanchi', Amanivati and Bhuvan- ■"■ cs'vara. Woodcuts Nos. 139, 140, 141 and 142, repre- sent some of the commonest kinds, and a very elaborate one is shewn in woodcut No. 143, taken from the hand of a statue of Ganes'a in the Great Tower. The most important weapon of this class, however, is the sword. Its oldest forms are shewn in Swords. , ^T 11 woodcuts, Nos. 144, and 145, taken * Oppert's "Weapons," &c., p.p. 18 f. [ 3i6 ] from two copper weapons in the Indian Museum. Their histor}- is not known, but apparently they are the oldest Indian metal arms that have been preserved to our time. Both of them are double-edged, and ribbed in the middle, to lighten the weight and at the same time to give them sufficient strength : neither has a guard or quillon above the hilt : but the second has two quillons in the place of the pummel, and the first only one. The swords are thick and heavy, and must have been very inconvenient to use. The edges of both are in places jagged from having been repeatedly struck upon some hard substance. It is impossible to say if the old Vedic swords were of this shape ; but both at Sanchi and Bhuvanes'vara forms very like it, but with some- what better handles, are not uncommon. (Woodcut No. 146). At the latter place, the ordinary Indian sabre, the asi of Sanskrit writers, whence proba- bly the acinaces of the Romans, is common ; it was generally worn on the left side, and, not as among Greeks and Roman.s, on the right side. Its blade is short and curved, but not quite so much as that of the scimitar. It is single-edged, except near the point, where it is sharp on both sides. Its handle is provided with quillons and pummel, rarel}' also with a guard. At Sanchi there is a straight broad sword in a scabbard, ver)^ like a Scotch cku-more ; and straight swords like the na\>' cutlass are also met with at Bhuvanes'\ara. (Woodcuts Nos. 147 and 148). But the most important instrument of the sword class at the hitter place is the kJidndd, No. 139. a, heavy, broad, single-edged sword with a turned- up point, something like a Chinese sabre-knife. It was the favourite weaj^on of ihc goddess Durga in Jier different No. I ;8. [ i^7 ] manifestations. In the present da)- it is used for sacrificial purposes, being too heavy for warfare. It is always carried in the hand, never slung from the waist. A modification of it, i. called (//lup, w^as for some time the ordinary offensive Yff arm of the Bengal paik. The Mahrattas called YKJ their long, straight broadsword by the name of kluiudd, and in Duff's History of the Mahrattas there is a drawing of the famous KJinnddrdjd, or " king of Khandas," of the great patriot S'ivaji ; and its counter- part has been seen in Orissan sculptures. In the temple of Gauri at Bhuvanes'vara there is a double- bladed straight sword ; but it was probably a fancy No. 140. weapon, not of much actual use. (Woodcut No. 149.) The following extract from the Brihat Sailhita of Varaha Mihira, (chap. 4) affords many curious traits of the super- stitions which formerly prevailed, and to a certain extent still prevail in India in regard to swords and their uses : — 1. "A sword of the longest description measures fifty digits ; the shorte;>t is of twenty-five digits. A flaw on such a spot (of the sword) as corresponds with an odd number of digits, must be deemed ill-ominous. 2. Yet flaws resembling a Bilva fruit, Vardhamana figure, umbrella, emblem of S'iva, earring, lotus, banner, weapon, or cross, are held auspicious. 3. Flaws shaped like a lizard, crow, heron, carrion bird, headless trunk, or scorpion, and several flaws along the upper edge, are not lucky. 4. A sword that shows a chink, is too short, blunt, damaged at the ui)per edge, unpleasing to eye and mind, and without tone, is inauspicious. The reverse qualities forebode favourable results. 5. The rattling of a sword (of itself) is said to portend death ; its not going out of the sheath (when drawn) augurs defeat. There will l)e strife when the sword jumps out of the scabbard by itself, but victory when it is seen flaming. 6. The king ought not to unsheath it without reason, nor rub ii, nor look at his own face in il, nor tell its price. He should not mention the place whence it has come from, nor take its measure, nor, without precaution, touch the blade. 7. The most esteemed swords are those that are fashioned like a cow's tongue, a lotus-petal, a bamboo leaf, and an oleander leaf, rapiers and scimitars. [ 3iS ] 8. If a wrought sword i)roves too long, it may not be shortened by striking oft" a portion of it, but should be polished till it has the length required. The owner dies, if a piece is struck off at the upper end ; and his mother dies, if the same is done at the point. 9. From a flaw on the hilt you may infer the existence of a corresponding flaw on the blade, just as you may conclude on seeing a mole in the face of a damsel, that there is another such in her hidden parts. 10. And by observing which part of the body is touched by a swordsman, when consulting the diviner, the latter will be able to indicate the place of the flaw on the sword in the scabbard, provided he (the diviner) knows the following rules. II — 15. If the man touches his head, the flaw is at the first digit ; the second digit corresponds with the forehead ; the third with the spot between the brows ; the fourth with the eyes ; the fifth with the nose ; the sixth with the lips ; the seventh with the cheeks ; the eighth with the jaws ; the ninth with the ears ; the tenth %\ ith the neck ; the eleventh with the shoulders ; the twelfth with the breast ; the hirleenth with the armpits ; the fourteenth with the paps ; the fifteenth with the heart ; the sixteenth with the belly ; the seventeenth with the loins ; the eighteenth with the navel ; the ninteenth with the abdomen ; the twentieth with the hip ; the twenty-first with the pudendum ; the twenty-second with the thighs ; the twenty-fourth with the knees ; the twenty-fifth with the legs ; the twenty-sixth with the part between the legs ; the twenty-seventh with the ankles ; the twenty-eighth with the heels ; the twenty-ninth with the feet ; the thirtieth with the toes : such is the theory of Garga. 16 — 19. The consequences to be foretold from a flaw in the first, second, third digit, and so forth, up to the thirtieth digit, are as follows : death of a child, obtaining of wealth, loss of riches, good fortune, captivity, birth of a son, quarrels, acquiring of elephants, death of a child, acquiring of wealtli, destruction, getting a wife, grief, gain, loss ; getting a wife, death, prosperity, death, content- ment, loss of wealth, acquiring of riches, death without salvation, obtaining of wealth, death, good fortune, jioverly, dominion, death, kingly power. 20. Upwards of the thirtieth digit no consequences are specified ; in general, however, the flaws at the odd digits are injurious, at the even ones auspicious. But according to some authorities, the flaws from the thirtieth digit upwards to the sword's point are of no consequence at all. 21. A sword that smells like oleander, blue lotus, elephant's frontal juice, ghee, saffron, jessamine, or Michelea champaka, brings good luck ; but ill- omened is one that has the odour of cow-urine, mud, or fat. 22. A smell similar to that of tortoise blubber, blood, or potash, avigurs danger and pain. A sword glittering like beryl, gold, and lightning, brings victory, health, ;in/ij'H or sacrificial knife of the Vedic times was a dao-o-er ; but it was made entirely of wood. Besides these there are a great number named, but their descriptions are not forthcoming. See Oppert's " Weapons." Of defensive arms the first object which demands Defensive arms, "otice is the shield. In ancient shields. India it was made of hide ; No. 144. hence its name cJiarma, or leather /-^r excellence. But hard wood was subsequently used for the purpose ; and accordingly the Yiiktikalpntaru defines the clianna o.^ "an arm which covers or protects the bod}'. It is of two kinds, according as it is made of wood or hide. It should protect the body, and be firm, light and tough. That which is insuffi- cient to cover the body, or is heavy, soft, easily penetrable, or made of an offensive material, is defective."* With the [ 321 ] Egyptians and ihc Grecians tlic material was commonly bull's hide with the hairy side outwards,* and Homer gives sevenfolds of it to the shield of Ajax, and nine to that of Achilles ; but the Hindus preferred the hide of the buffaloe and of the rhinoceros, and their superior toughness rendered folding unnecessary. At a sub- sequent period metal seems to have been likewise used in the fabrication of shields, and specimens have been met with both in iron and copper. Two of the latter metal are preserved in the Indian Museum, but their ages are unknown. 145. ^j^^ shape of the instrument was ordinarily cir- cular, as in the woodcut No. 155, from the temple of Blui\-anesVara ; but it was not invariably so. Woodcut No. 156 shows an oval shield ; and oblong shields made of boards, or wicker-work covered with leather, with sometimes an iron rim, very like the scutum of the Romans, were not unknown ; and small bucklers of an oblong or irregular shape were common. The former occur repeatedly at Bhuvanes'vara, (woodcut No. 157, taken from a figure in the Indian Museum,) ^ and the latter at Sanchi. (Woodcuts Nos. 158 and No. 146. 159, taken from General Cunningham's ' Bhilsd Topes.') At Khandagiri there is a shield, the top and sides of which are rectilinear, and the lower part pointed. Judging from the extent of the body it covers, it was probabl}' two and a half feet long, and had a prominent ridge in the middle. At Sanchi, two instruments have been noticed of a similar fv^^f•'"• ' 54. was a "quilted jacket such as is still sometimes worn." This leather, or quilted coat was probably longer than the chain-mail, and reached the knees. Something like it is described in the fol- lowing passage from the Utta-ra-rduia- charita in which Janaka expresses his first impression of Rama : " You have rightly judged His birth : for see, on either shoulder hangs The martial quiver, and the feathery shafts Blend with his curling locks : below his breast. Slight tinctured with the sacrificial ashes, The deer skin wraps his body : with the zone Of Murva bound, the madder- tinted garb ^°- 'S^*- Descending vests his limbs ; the sacred rosary Begirts his wrist, and in one hand he bears The ///^/ staff, the other grasps the bow."^ The picture, however, is ideal, and pourtrays what the poet thought had been the attire, some twent)' centuries before * Wilsons Rig Veda. IV., 27. t Ibid. IV., 80, % Ibid. IV., 300. § Ibid. IV., 239. I' Ibid. I., 83. • Hindu Theatre, I., 346. No. 155 [ 3=6 ] Q him, of a military student in his noviciate, long before he had earned his spurs. It cannot be accepted as a safe guide for any historical conclusion. The great S'atanidriya hymn of the Vdjasaiieyi S'afi- Jiitd of the Yajur Veda, which dates from a much earlier period, is, however, precise on the subject. It addresses Rudra as No. 157. girt in " cotton-quilted cuirass," and " iron- mail" and " armour."* The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are more positive on the subject, and state the Kavacha to be an iron armour, though they are silent as to whether the form was that of beaten plates sewed on cloth or leather, or of chain-mail. In the latter, some mail coats are described to be of iron plated over with gold ; others white and lined with steel, and studded with a hundred e}'es.f At a later age Arrian, adverting to the wound received by Porus on his right shoulder, sa\-s, "that place alone was bare during the action, for his coat-of-mail, being excellent both for strength and workman- \o. 159. ship, as it afterwards appeared, easily se- cured tlic rest of his body.":); Sanskrit lexicographers are, likewise, universall)' of opinion that the kavacha was made of iron ; but they too afford no positive information as to its make. Judging from the prevalence of chain-mail among the Marhattas, I am disposed to think that a shirt of mail No. 15S. Muii's Sanskiil Tcxls, IV., p. 270. N'irata raivn, Cliap. 31. l\or)|;i''-^ Tinn'^l.ition II., p. 39. [ r-7 ] ■ formed of small iron or steel rings interwoven was preferred to solid breast-plates ; but leather was not altogether rejected. The Marhattas used mail with inlaid plates ; and coats of rhinoceros or bufialoe hide boiled in oil were also common. Allusion has already been made to the fore- arm guard noticed in the Vedas (ante. p. 304). K,,. ,(3o. In tlie Mahabhcirata it is also mentioned, as also a \-is(jr,* but there is no name in Sanskrit for shoukler. leg and thigh guards, or other article of defensive equipment. The Marhattas had a large steel gauntlet, but it has no ancient name ; at least I know of none. Immediatel)- after arms and armour it would Flags, trumpets an.l '^^^ ^^ '"T^'-^'^ to notice three war-cries. objects, which, though per- fectly harmless by themselves, exercise the most \o. 161. potent influence in warfare, viz., the flag, the trimipet and the war-cry. As a rallying point for soldiers in action, or for the assemblage of troops, the flag is of the highest importance, and a feeling of chivalrous devotion to it has at all times been cherished as a point of military honor. " The idea of such a signal," says an able writer on the " Scope and Uses of Military Literature and IIistor\-," " is universal, and the external cause of its adop- tion obvious. However little accustomed men may be to act in concert, it is alwa)-s possible to unite them in one mass by the cons[)icuous display of a striking object in a central position. If the u[)- lifling (jf this ensign be accompanied by the shout of a strong-voiced man, or the commanding tone of a loud instru- ment, the appeal to two organs of sensation, t)oth tlic c,ir N.). 162. • Dronacliarya, when wounded, is said to have raised his visor, and Arjuna loot; the opi'oilunily to aim at his face, an arrow \shicli proved fatal. [ 3:^8 ] and the eye, must be followed by an increased degree of alertness on the part of the troops so summoned," (p. 159). The Hindus, from a very early period in their history availed themselves of all the three, virj., the standard, the war-cry, and the trumpet, or what \\as the same, some instrument for creating shrill wide-spread ing sounds. The Rig Veda alludes to No. 163. banners,* and in the Mahabharata, the heroism of knocking down the enemy's standard is everywhere highly extolled. The war-cry is, likewise, mentioned in the Rig Vcda,f and in the great epics. The words used were either religious sayings, or the name of the leader added to the word Jdja or victory, such as Joyn Rdiiux, " victor)' to Rama," or Jayastu Pdnduputrdndui, " success to the sons of Pandu," or some other word suited to the occasion, very much in the same way as in Europe, and \\-hence, as Sir S. Megouk supposes, armorial mottoes had their origin. According to the Rig Veda, the most ancient instrument for calling troops together, or con\-e\'ing orders to them, or exciting them to valorous deeds, was the drum. Thus : " War drum, fill with your sound both heaven and earth; * Wil.son'.s Translation, I., 265, II., 11, 321, 1\'., 145—266. t Il;id. I., 105. [ y-9 ] and let all things, fixed or moveable be aware of it : do thou, who art associated with Indra and the gods, drive away our foes to the remotest distance. Sound loud against the (hostile) host : animate our prowess : thunder aloud, terri- fying the evil-minded : repel, drum, those whose delight it is to harm us : thou art the first of Indra ; inspire us with fierceness. Recover these our cattle, Indra ; bring them back : the drum sounds repeatedly as a signal : our leaders, mounted on their steeds, assemble : may our warriors, riding on their cars, Indra, be victorious."* But Vyasa in the Mahabharata, does not allude to it. He replaces it by pdn- cJiajanya, and other forms of conch-shells, with which the heroes of the Great war of Kurukshetra rallied their several corps d'armee.-|- The conch-shell, however, was not unknown in the time of the Rig Veda, and Kusta refers to "those appliances with which the As'vins sound the conch-shell in the battle for their share of the booty.":): It is remarkable that at a much later age on the other side of the world the Mexicans were noted for their use of the conch-shell as a military trumpet. Prescott, in his "Con- quest of Peru" in one place says: "the Spaniards were roused b}- the hideous clamour of conch, trumpet, and atabal mingled with the fierce war-cries of the barbarians, as they let off volleys of missiles of every description." In the most ancient sculptures, such as those of Sanchi the flag is represented as an oblong piece of cloth with or without diagonal crossed stripes like a St. George's cross, or a number of stars. (Woodcuts Nos. 164 and 165, copied from Cunningham's Bhilsa Topes). At Bhuvanes'vara, it is invariably triangular and of plain ground. The staff is sur- * Wilson's Big Veda, III., 476. t Very different was the use to which Poseidon assigned the Concha, when he cni|3U)yed his son Triton to blow it to soothe the restless waves of the sea. X Rig Veda, I., 2S7. [ 330 ] mounted, according to the religious faith of the people who bore it, by either a trident or a discus. In ancient literature mention is made of Garudas, Hanumanas and crescents, as mountings for the tops of flag-staffs ; also as armorial emblems on the ground of the flags. " Thus Aryuna's flag bore the monkey Hanu- mana, Bhishma's a palm tree, Duryodhana's a serpent, Kripa's a bull."* The last was also the emblem of S'iva whence his name VrisJta- ketaiia or " bull-flagged." The Harivansa makes mention of birds painted on the ground of flags, No. 164. and in the Ramayana, Janaka has the title of Sitddhvaja, from his standard having borne the figure of a plough. The Agni Purana makes a distinc- tion between the large standard dJivajd and /^~\jfa =n the banner patdkd of minor divisions.-|- It (//'^^^--Jr notices, likewise, particular colours as belong- ing to particular chiefs. The Kumara-sam- bhava describes flags of China silk set up in the palace of the mountain king Himalaya on the occasion of his daughter's marriage.;]: But ordinarily, I suppose, cotton cloth was No. 165. * Wilson's Works, IV., 296. '^T^^ t^^f r^»3W ^W ^T trfTi^^^g I ■g^T=^T?TT:f3Ffl;^T vfETTf* •q'TtTTT'Jr'f || T^^ ^T^^ f5%^T TTTTT^T ^TT^T^f^ 'ans first came to India, they depended upon their horse, with a very superior breed of which, the progenitor of the modern Arab horse, they were familiar in their primitive homes in the plateau of Central Asia. In India, they sub- jugated the elephant ; but soon after, both the horse and the elephant held a lower position than the chariot, though in the time even of the Mahabharata, elephants disputed the supre- macy with cars, and such distinguished chiefs as Bhagadatta, Uttara, Duryodhana, Anvinda and others, issued forth to battle, mounted on their elephants. At the time of Alex- ander's invasion, elephants had all but completely superseded cars, for the Greek historians, while dwelling largely on the mighty phalanx of king Porus' elephants say nothing of his war-chariots: this may, however, be accounted for on the supposition that the elephants were novel and startling, whereas the car was familiar to the Greeks, and on the whole not very dangerous to them. The Hindus knew exactly the purposes for which horses and elephants were most valuable, and placed them in the wings of their arm}', where the)' could be manceuvred without interfering with the action of the infantry in the centre, on which they depended, as the mainstay of military arra)'s. They also wrote several treatises on the management of those animals in health and [ 332 ] disease. Unlike most other nations of antiquity, they em- ployed the horse in war, both for the draught of their chariots and for the saddle, and that from the very earliest period of which we possess any notice. Driving was perhaps more fashionable than riding, for the principal heroes always ap- peared in battle, as among the ancient Assyrians* and Egyp- tians, on chariots, and prized themselves on being rathis or owners of cars. Mounted troops, however, were more com- mon, and in the Rig Veda Agni is in one place invoked " to come mounted on a rapid courser,"-|- and in another place is likened to "a rider-bearing steed.":|: The As'vins made Pedu "mount a swift charger."§ Madhuchhandas, son of Vis'va- mitra, prays that he may, "under the protection of Indra, repel his enemies, whether encountering them hand to hand, or on horseback." I The horse was, likewise, used as a beast of burden, and the As'vins are accordingly invoked to come to the sacrifice " with viands borne on many steeds."1I Of the particular broods of horses the Hindus used before the Christian era, some information will be given elsewhere. The Vedas praise highly a species called Nayitt. Subsequently the most noted and highly prized was a Central Asian race called BdJilika or of Balkh.** Guzerat, Beluchistan, Kam- boja, -f"f- (ancient Cabul) and Persia, also yielded many hardy animals, which were generally esteemed by the heroes of the great war of the Mahabharata. Of their likeness, however, wc have no remains in stone. The horses figured at Sanchi, Amaravati and Bhuvanes'vara arc so much alike, that it is impossible to decide upon their caste. * " The chariots appear to have been used by the King and the highest officers of State, who are never seen in battle on horseback ; or, except in sieges. on foot." Layard's Nineveh, II., 348. + Wilson's Rig Veda, II., 220. J Ibid. I., 179. § Ibid. IV., 154. il Ibid. I., 20. 11 Ibid. I., 78. ** Ibid. IV., 137. tt Mahal )h;'uata Sabha Parva. [ 333 ] The favourite colour in Vcdic times was the chestnut or the colour of the sun, aruiia. This is what was to be expect- ed, for the Central Asian sire of the Arab was a chestnut; but it is worthy of note that the partiality for the colour should have been common both among the Vedic Arj'ans and Arabs. Among the latter the belief has been immemorial that the chestnut ahvaj-s betokened superior merit, and this is characteristically evinced in one of their precepts, which says: "If you arc told that a horse has been seen flying in the air, ask what colour it was ; and if the answer be ' chest- nut,' believe it." There is also a stor)-, often told, of an old chief, dim with age, who, when flying before his enemies, enquired of his youthful son on whose eyes he had to depend, "What horses do they ride?" "My father," said the youth, "they be white horses," " Go we, then, towards the sun, and they will melt away, as the snow." After a while the chief asked again, "What horses now, my son?" "My father, they be black horses." " Go we, then, on the hard ground, and their hoofs will cleave to the earth." A third time the chief asked, "What horses now, my son?" "My father," was the answer, " they be chestnut horses." " Quick then, quick," exclaimed the old chief " or we be dead men." It is of course impossible in the present day amidst such high breeding and constant crossing as obtain in England, to determine by the colour the quality of a horse, and it would be easy to get a counterpoise for the long array of chestnuts, such as Stockwell, Thormanby, Kettledrum, Blair Athol, Her- mit, Favonious, Fille de 1' Air, and other distinguished winners of the blue ribbon of the English Derby, but the fact of the belief in such early times as those of the Rig Veda is signi- ficant. It is scarcely likely that even the most inveterate believer in the moderneity of the Vedas would assume that they got it from the Arabs. In one or two places the sun is described as having glorious white horses ; spotted mares, (dap- [ 334 ] Saddle and bridk pie greys ?) are also alluded to,* but subsequently, milk-white coursers were preferred. In the Lalita-Vistara,-f- the dark grey, of the colour of the cloud (iron-grey), is most extolled as befitting an emperor. The equipment for saddle horses, as seen in sculptures, consist generally of a thick large pad- ding kept in its place by a girth, a crou- piere, sometimes trellised, and a breast-band, and covered over with a housing or saddle cloth of a rich pattern. Nothing like a wooden saddle is an\-where perceptible, and stirrups are also wanting. This is, however, not the case with padded saddles on lions ; at BhuvanesVara they are invariably pro- vided with well-formed stirrups, and human feet arc repre- sented thrust in them. In a piece of sculpture, apparcntl}- of an old date, in the Indian Museum, there are distinct deli- neations of stirrups formed of a ring with a broad, flat foot-rest. The}' are hung with straps proceeding from under the saddle-cloth, or pad. The bridle includes a forehead strap, cheek pieces, gullet, and nose band, all stud- ded with metal bosses. Tassels near the ears are frequently met with. A chamfron, sometimes straight, and sometimes crossed, is also generally added, and a martingale of cloth is not uncommon. The rein is single and plain, never studded as the other parts of the bridle are. It was most probably knotted or sewed on the bit, but in a piece No. i66. of sculpture in the Indian Museum, brought from BhuvanesVara, the joint dis- * "Maruts, together worshipped with sacrifices, standing in the car drawn by spotted horses, radiant with lances, delighted 1)y ornaments." Wilson's Rig Veda, II., 303. t Lalita Vistara, p. 17. [ 335 ] plays a chaste floral ornament, most likely the representation of a metal boss, occupying; the place of the buckle. (Wood- cut No. 1 66.) A positive buckle in the sense in which the word is now understood I ha\e now here met witli in ancient Indian sculptures, nor a description of it in Sanskrit literature. The form of the bit is not perceptible, but rings are occasional Iv seen which sucrcfcst the Snaffles. , r ' m , , . idea of a snafnc; and the Agni Purana recommends five different kinds of snaffles as the most ap- propriate. One of these is said to have been wavy (goiniitra)^ another, crooked (kutila), a third, twisted or plated (veiii) the fourth, a chain of lotuses or rings ( Padmaniandalanidld),, and the fifth, jointed (garbJiika). These are very different from what Arrian describes in his Indica. He says, " the Indians have neither saddles nor bridles, like those which the Greeks and Celts make use of; but instead of bridles they bind a piece* of raw bullock's hide round the lower part of the horse's jaws, to the inner part of which the common people fix spikes of brass or iron, not very sharp, but the richer ones have them of ivory. Within the horse's mouth is a piece of iron like a dart to which the reins are fastened,"* Commenting on this passage, Mr. Fergusson observes, "If this was the mode employed by the Indians in Alexander's time, they seem to have benefited by their intercourse with the West before the Sanchi sculptures were executed. If any one will compare the head stalls of the bridles represented in the plate XXXIV. with figs. 6, / and 8 of Plate III., they will see how perfect the head gear of these horses had be- come."-|- Arrian, however, drew^ his materials from Megas- * Indica, Chap. XIV, t Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 134. In support of this deduction Tro- fessor Weber's conjecture of the Sanskrit word for a snaffle, Khaliiia (\\'. takes it for the bridle) being derived from the Greek i^uAiros, may be quoted. But the admission by Arrian of the use of an iron bit, and the fact of reins for horses bcinj; mentioned in the Rig Veda arc adverse to the lheor> • [ 336 ] thenes, and the latter says, "When it is said that an Indian by springing forward in front of a horse can check his speed and hold him back, this is not true of all Indians, but only of such as have been trained from boyhood to manage horses; for it is a practice with them to control their horses with bit and bridle, and to make them move at a measured pace and in a straight course. They neither, however, gall their tongue by the use of spiked muzzles, nor torture the roof of their mouth."* With this flat contradiction by a higher authority it would be futile to rely on the statement of Arrian, or the ac- curacy of the deduction drawn from it ; but it seems rather un- accountable, why the people, who guided their horses by put- ting an iron dart inside the mouth and tying the reins thereto, should put a spiked band on the nose ? Not being attached to the reins, it could serve no useful purpose in checking the horse, and the idea, therefore, suggests itself that it was the mar- tingale with its studded nose-piece which Arrian mistook for a substitute of the bit. As to the effect of Alexander's tran- sient visit, all we have to say is that, intercourse with Euro- peans for near three centuries, and a century of English domination, have not yet made the Hindustani exchange his chdrjdind or pad for the wooden saddle. If it be impossible to suppose that the Indian Aryans had the capacity to design a bridle for their horses which they brought with them from the plateau of Central Asia, at least two thousand years before Christ, and used from time immemorial, and a model be really required for them to copy, the Assyrians or Persians were more likely to afford it than Alexander or his succes- sors, the Greco-Bactrians. Looking at the caparisoned horses in Layard's plates, and comparing them with similar figures in Khandagiri and Sanchi', one sees a great deal of similitude to form a conjecture; a close examination, however, brings to light many marked peculiarities which leave no room for * McCrindlcb TrauslaLion : rragmcnl XXX\'., p. iJg. L :^i7 J doubt as to their origin being different. The mode of dress- ing the mane and forelock was also different. The Assyrians hacked the mane, or braided it. No Indian ever hacked the mane, but braiding was not unknown. In our days it is common enough. The Hindus dressed the forelock in the form of a flowing arching crest; the Assyrians tied it in three tiers or in three separate tufts. Sometimes the bulk of the forelock in India was increased by the addition of false hair ; and the following passage from the VikratnorvasJd of Kali- dasa describes a yak-tail crest: "The waving chowrie on the steed's broad brow Points backward, motionless as in a picture ; And backward streams the banner from the breeze We meet — immoveable."* In one or two instances, I noticed something like a crinet on the neck, but in the absence Armour for horses. . r ^ i ■ ^ of iron accoutrement of other kmds, I imagined it was due to a peculiar style of dressing the mane. In Rajputana there are several sculptures of complete suits of iron armour including the chamfron, the crinet, the gorget, the poitrel, the croupiere a jitpe, and the leg-guard ; but they are of the middle ages, and were probably copied from the chargers of the Moslem invaders. I have nowhere met with a name for iron shoes for horses ; but a passage in the Rig Veda referred to above, (p. 301), suggests the idea of such shoes. The harness for draft horses in the olden time included Harness for draft ^ body-rollcr, a collar, and a bridle, lioises. The body-roller was apparently plain, and tied where, in our times, the surcingle is buckled ; but without any padding or cloth underneath ; differing in this respect from the Assyrian harness, which always included a * Wilson's Hindu Theatre, I.; p. 199. i 338 ] rich saddle-cloth.* It was intended to prevent the traces from hanging low when the horse was checked, or backed. The collar was light below, but heavy at top, something like the wooden frames which were until recently used for keranchi tattoos. In fact, the idea of a collar was derived from a bullock's hump, and the contrivance was designed with a view to give a false hump to the horse, and the traces were so adjusted as to throw the weight much higher up than the point which bears the greatest strain under an ordinary collar. The remnant of this hump is represented in English dray horse-harness by a semicircular piece of leather on the top of the collar, and until recently it also appeared prominently in gig harness. The Egyptian harness-saddle was designed in the same way, placed on the highest point of the withers, and kept there by two bands, one forming a collar, and the other a girth. This was also the case with the ancient Greek harness, in which the yoke was tied on the withers by two bands, one of which served the purpose of a girth, the other, the XenaSvov, was, according to Arnold, *'a broad strap which fastened the neck of the horse to the yoke." The Assyrian breast-band, as described in the note below, was very much of the same kind. The Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Assyrians, however, differed from the Indians in making their horses draw their chariots * The following is Mr. Layard's description of the earliest Assyrian har- ness : "Round the necks of the horses were hung tassels, rosettes, and engraved beads. Three straps, richly embroidered, passing under the forepart of the belly, kept the harness and chariot pole in their places. A breast-band, adorned with tassels, was also supported by these straps. To the yoke was suspended a very elegant ornament, formed by the head of an animal, and a circle, in which was sometimes introduced a winged bull, a star, or some other sacred device. It fell on the shoulder of the animal, and to it was attached three clusters of tassels. Embroidered cloths, or trappings were frequently thrown over the backs of the chariot-horses, and almost covered the body from the ears to the tail. They were kept in their place by straps passing round the brenst. the rump, and the belly." Layard's Nineveh, II., 354. [ 339 ] hy a yoke, while the latter depended on traces, and had no yoke. Wilkinson says, that the former " had traces, but on the inner side only." Such traces could not have been very effectual either for steady draught, or for preventing the horses from falling out, and the main dependence must have rested on the yoke, which he adds " sufficed for all the purposes of draught, as well as for backing the chariot ; and being fixed to the saddle, it kept the horses at the same distance and in the same relative position, and prevented their breaking outwards from the line of draught."* In Indian rich trappings, a trellised croupicre was added to serve the purpose of a kicking-strap, but it was not com- mon. The bridle differed in no respect from what was used for saddle-horses, except, perhaps, in having gaudy plumes and rosettes over the head, and by the ears. The housing for the elephant, like that for the saddle- horse, consisted of a thick padding Elephant trappings. -^t • r covered over with a piece of carpettmg, or embroidered cloth, or trapping of some kind or other, and a smaller one of the same style for the neck ; the former held to its place by girths, croupiere and kicking-straps, and the latter by ropes tied round the neck. By way of orna- ments, strings of bells round the neck and the rumps, and pendant from the head, were freely employed. In some cases metallic chains were used instead of ropes ; but this was not common. (Illustrations Nos. 29 and 30 in my 'Anti- quities of Orissa.') No howdah has anywhere been met with ; but in the Agni Purana allusion is made to one " which should be made of wood cut ou't of trees that emit a milky sap when wounded ; it should be fifty fingers broad, and three cubits long, painted and decorated with gold ; " and Professor Wilson says, " the more usual riders on elephants were soldiers of a lower grade, several of whom were placed on the animal's back * Aacient Egyptians, I., 353. [ 340 ] Chariots. in a kind of chair or howdah, and were armed with bows and arrows and other missiles. According to Megasthenes, as quoted by Strabo, each Indian elephant carried three archers besides the driver, and his account agrees well enough with what may be inferred from incidental notices of Sanskrit writers."* The oldest Indian car of which we have a drawing occurs among the paintings of the reign of Thothmes III., (B. C. 1495). It is said to have been a present from a vanquished people of the name of Rot-n-no, Sanskrit RatJiina or " charioteers," who have been indentified by the late Henry Torrens, author of the Scope and Uses of Military Literature, with theVedic Aryans of the Panjab.f In style and make it closely resem- bles the war chariot of the Sanchi bas-re- liefs, a car on two wheels, with a curricle body, open be- hind, and drawn by two horses ; but it has only one pole with a * Essays, II., 295. t Mr. Layard does not subscribe to this. He quotes Mr. Birch, who "is inclined to identify the Ruten-nu, or Lodan-nu, of the statistical tablet of Karnak with the Cappadocians, or Lcuco-Syrians, inhabiting the country to the North and South of the Taurus, who, he conjectures are also represented at Khorsabad." lie adds : " That the Ruten inhabited a country adjoining the Assyrians, may be inferred, from their being mentioned in geographical lists between Naharaina, Mesopotamia) and Singara (Sinjar)." Layard's Nineveh, II., 405. No. 167. [ 54^ ] yoke at the end, whereas the Sanchi specimens have three or rather one long pole in the middle curving upward near the neck of the horses, and two short shafts on the sides reaching only as far as the flanks, but no yoke.* (Woodcut No, 167). For a two-horse conveyance this is the simplest contrivance, and the ordinary practice was to drive pairs, in the matching of which, great attention was paid by their owners.-f* 15ut one-horse chases were not altogether unknown ; perhaps they were more common, but, not being worthy of laudation, were not often noticed in the Rig Veda hymns, though in one place we find a verse beginning with the words ; " This invigorating praise, like a horse attached to a car, has been addressed thee, who art mighty and fierce." ]. The Ramayana makes mention of cars drawn by asses. In the time of the Rig Veda, there were three shafts to each cai", and they arc described as triangular. " Come As'vins with your three-co- lumned triangular car." § " We have placed you, Dasras, in your golden three-shafted chariots, going by an easy road to heaven." || Probably the central pole with the two short side shafts made the triangular three poles. But whether the triangle was formed by the projection of the long central pole or by the body itself, does not appear. The quadriga of the Etruscans must have bad three poles to drive four horses about.H The wheels were usually two, but a third was some- times added, as tri-wheeled carriages are greatly extolled. * By a curious mistake on the part of the artist, the outer trace in Mr. Fergusson's drawings, plates III., XXXIV. and XXXVIII., is tied to the tail of the horse. In plate XXXV., it is made to go round the rumps like a kick- in"-strap. In plate XXXIII., the form of the shaft is unmistakable, but it is made of a piece with the periphery of the wheel. In the woodcut above given, the true form has been attempted to be restored. t The old Assyrian chariot had three horses, and in this respect differed from the Indian and Egyptian which had two. Layard's Nineveh, II., 350. t Wilson's Rig Veda, IV., 151. § Ibid. I., 126. || Ibid. II., 60. H Denny's Cities and Cemeteries of Elrurca, [ 342 ] The dash board was in the finer specimens panelled, but in common vehicles made either of cane-work, or open with a bar in front, like the Greek and Etruscan aulyx, for the reins to rest upon. It also yielded considerable support to the warrior in the attempt to hurl a heavy missile, and for other purposes. The chariot of the sun is described in the Puranas as having one wheel, one having been taken away by Indra. The ancient Roman chariot had large scythe-like blades projecting from the axles, rendering approach to the cars from the sides by enemiies dangerous. A similar method of arming the wheels was probably adopted by the ancient Hindus, for we read in the Rig Veda, of "golden wheels, armed with iron weapons."* But the Sanchi models show no trace of these. The number of spokes to each wheel was originally five ■,f but a greater number was subsequently introduced, and in the Sanchi chariot above shown there are sixteen. The earliest Assyrian and Egyptian chariots had six. Ordinarily the body was made of a wooden frame-work covered with leather,;]: and open above like that of a tan- dem ; but sometimes an awning on top was put upon three posts, and the whole surmounted by a flag. The Maha- bharata describes a square body with four posts, like the modern ekkas of northern India. It is possible that both styles were common during the Vedic epoch. In the Sanchi specimens the accommodation available in these vehicles was barely sufficient for two persons to stand or sit side by side.. The Grecian Att/)pos, as its name implies, was intended only for two persons ; and the Roman bore only the del/ator, or warrior, and the aurega, or driver. The Egyptian could carry three persons. The sculptures of Assyria and Persia show no more than two persons in each. But the Rig Veda alludes to three benches as fixtures in each car, and the * Wilson's Rig Veda, I., 226. t Ibid, III., 475- X Ibid. IV,, 73- [ 343 J space sufficient for several persons and some goods.* The Rathas of the Ramayana and Mahabharata were, Hkewise, large and commodious, and generally carried a large supply of arms, differing in this respect from those of Egj'pt, Persia and Greece, which never had any covering, awning, or hood, and were seldom large enough for more than three persons, all standing or seated abreast on one bench. The Grecian chariot, though differing in some respects in the make of its wheels, poles, &c., from the Vedic model, bore a close relation to the Seinchi examples ; and to make that mani- fest, I shall here quote Homer's description of the curricle of Achilles. *'"H^i; S' dfX(j) o;)(eecrcri ^ow? f^dXe KajiTrvXa KVKXa, T^aA/cea, OKTaKvqfxa, a-iSvpecp a^ort d/xcfit';. Twi/ I'jToc )(^pvpo<; Se xpvcreouri ko.I apyvpkoujiv Ijida-iv iVTirarav Sotai Se TrepiSpojxoi dvrvyes elcri. Tou 5' e^ apyvpeos pu/xos TreAev avrap eV uKpui ^rja-e x/aiVetov KaXuv (I'yov, ev 8e AeTraSi'a KaX' epaAe, ^pvaa^ vtto Se ^vyhv ijyayet' "Hprj 67r7roi'S WKVTToSas, /leixavl eptSos Kal aiirvys." Iliad, e. 722 — 732. * The following extracts from Wilson's Rig Veda contain allusions to the form and appurtenances of the Vedic car. " Let your spacious, and bright- rayed chariot, Mitra and Varuna, blaze before them, like the sun, filling them with fear." (II., 6.) "Showerer of benefits, harness the car which has three benches, three wheels, and is as quick as thought ; with which, embellished with three metals, you come to the dwelling of the pious worshipper, and in which you travel like a bird with wings." (II., 184.) " With that chariot, lords of men, which is your vehicle, which has three benches, is laden with wealth, "&c. (IV., 153.) "Conduct here, As'vins, your radiating wealth-laden chariot." (IV., 153.) " Agni, kindled into flame, come to our presence in the same chariot with Indra, and with the swift gods." (II., 331.) L 344 J On the whole, it may be well said that the ordinary war chariots of the six great nations of antiquity, Indian, Egyp- tian, Assyrian, Persian, Grecian and Roman, were very much alike, though not without peculiarities to mark their ethnic relations. The many- wheeled car, such as that of Jagannatha, has not been met with ; in sculpture but a square platform set on four wheels, and having an awning on four posts, occurs on the temple of Halabeed in Southern India, and this is, perhaps, the first germ of the more elaborate structures of the present day. The ancient chariots were highly prized, and great pains were taken to embellish them in a manner befitting the rank of the owner. In the Rig Veda, they are frequently described as of "gold" or "golden." One is described as ornamented with "three metals"; supposed to have been gold, silver and copper; others as having gold fellies, or wheels, and golden trappings. " The Pajras, the kinsmen of Kakshivat, rub down the high-spirited steeds decorated with golden trap- pings."* " Harness with traces to thy car, thy long-maned ruddy (steeds to come) to the sacrifice."-f- "Savitri has mounted his high-standing chariot, decorated with many kinds of golden ornaments, and furnished with golden yokes."+ "Indra, the abounding in acts, the bountiful, has given us, as a gift, a golden chariot."§ "May Indra bestow, upon me ten handsome golden chariots."|| "Ascend, As'vins, your sky-touching chariot with golden seat and golden reins. Golden is its supporting shaft, golden the axle, both golden the wheels."1f " Rapid as thought (come) with your golden chariot drawn by quick-footed steeds."** "Dasras, riders in a golden chariot, drink the sweet beverage."f f Many other passages like these may be easily cited to show, that the * Wilson's Kig Veda, II., l8. t Ibid. II., 335. t Ibid, I., 98. § Ibid. I., 77. II Ibid. IV., 5. U Ibid. IV., 238, ** Ibid. IV., 239. ■\f Ibid. IV,, 253. [ 345 ] Vcdic cliariots were i^encrally very richly ornamented. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata, in the same way, talk of l)carl fringes and jewelled decorations for the chariots of great chiefs and distinguished warriors; and flags and banners for their tops were held in great requisition, and the glory of knocking down a banner from the top of a car was highly esteemed. The Puranas are even more fulsome in thei-,- praise of the ornaments of ancient Indian cars, but their descriptions lead mc to suppose that their ideal of a car was the ratha of the modern times, a tower-like structure of many storej's, mounted on a number of wheels, a very cumbrous api)aratus altogether, utterly unfit for warlike purposes, and not founded on the model of the Sanchi chariot. Thus the Rrahmavaivarta Purana, in describing a chariot of Vishnu which certain Brahman women beheld descending from the sky, says: "It was a most excellent car, made of gold, mounted with mirrors made of crystals, covered over with jewels, furnished with posts made of precious stones, capped with kalasas of valuable jewels, having white yak-tail chauris hanging from different places, lined with cloth pure as fire, bedecked with garlands of Parijata flower, mounted on a hundred uniform wheels, quick moving like thought, and most charming."* The Devi Purana thus describes a car for the goddess Durga, who, it seems, was formerly taken about in a car much in the same way as Jagannatha is in the present day, and Buddhist relics were in former times: "The posts should be made of ivory, mounted with TTTniSTTTrn'^^T^T iTT^T^l^f^TTf^TT II [ 346 ] showy golden ornaments, and set with rubies and other jewels. The car of the goddess should have seven magni- ficent storeys, with curtains of silk cloth and mountings of crescents, and decorated with bells, large and small, gongs, chdiiiaras, rings, pennons, flags, and looking-glasses. Such a car should first be worshipped, Indra, with flowers of the Jessamin tribe, and the Parijata, with agallochum and sandal paste, with the aroma of fragrant pastiles, and then the image of the goddess should be placed in it."* Nor was this fondness for the decoration of their chariots a peculiarity among the Hindus. The other great nations of ancient times were equally ardent in their desire to dis- pla}' their wealth and consequence by profuseh- ornamenting their cars. " The latter chariots of the Assyrians," says Mr. Layard, "were often completely covered with orna- ments ; those represented on earlier monuments had a very elegant moulding or border, round the sides. They were probably inlaid with gold, silver and precious wood ; and also painted. Such were the chariots obtained by the Egypt- ians from Naharaina, (IMcsopotamia), fifteen centuries before Christ. In the statistical tablet of Karnak are mentioned thirty chariots worked with gold and silver with painted poles as brought from that countr}\"-f- These, as already fgf^p{Xf^^T7n-^?TfTtTr«^xr7frfW: II TTTf?:5iTrf^TJHT^ ^^^^*T^^^: I! t Layard'b Niiicvuli, II., 352. t 347 ] shown above, arc believed b)' a competent archn;ologist to have been of Indian oric^in, {(iiitt\ p. 340). Much of the precious ornaments mentioned by Sanskrit writers was doubtless, due to lively fancy and poetical imagery; but their descriptions impl\' a substratum of some ornament in addition to the absolute constructive requirements of the vehicles. What those ornaments exactly were, it is of course impossible to ascertain ; but the frequent mention of gold and precious stones as materials of decoration, would suggest the idea of their having been to some extent used, the rest being made up of brass knobs and plates, many- coloured cloths, fringes of netting, and tassels. Such orna- mented chariots were intended for ordinary use, and they were also provided with hoods or coverings, tops and screens, for protection from sun and rain, and other appli- ances. In the Dictionary of Amara Sinha, separate names are given for such vehicles, such as Dvaipa and Vaiydghra for cars having coverings of tiger skins; PantiukainbaUya, Kdnibola, Vdstra, for woollen-covered cars ; PushparatJia, non-military car, &c. Hemachandra, in his Sanskrit voca- bulary, enumerates several kinds of chariots adapted for various purposes of life. The names he gives are SdtcDiga- rat/ia, Syaiidaiia-ratha, PusJipa-ratJia^ Mariid-ratJia, Yogya- ratJia, Parighdtika, Karni-ratJia, and RathagarbJiaka. The first two were intended for proceeding to the battle-field ; the third for enjoyment ; the fourth, for carrying about images of gods ; the fifth, for magistrates ; the sixth, for travelling ; the seventh, for fighting ; and the eighth, for ascending in the air. How these several vehicles were con- structed, and in what respects they differed from each other, the author does not notice. Most of the words have been of late used in Sanskrit literature as synonymous terms; in the Rama)-ana, the Push[)aratha has been assigned to Rama for his journc)' from Ccxdon to Oudh ; and the ]\iiiidyika, which [ 348 ] appears like an epithet for Jogya-ratlia in the passage quoted,* is explained by Professor Wilson as a war-chariot, and not a state carriage. It may fairly be presumed that the various names given in the vocabulary are not synonyms, but terms denoting vehicles differing from each other in shape, size, make, and character, and that vehicles of various kinds, large and small, were in use among the ancient Hindus, though we are not in a position now to point out their distinctive peculiarities. Covered carriages are frequently mentioned, and, see- ing that the constructive ingenuity necessary for convert- ing an open cart into a covered vehicle is exceedingly small, there is no reason to doubt the former existence of such conveyances. It is worthy of note, however that in the Sanchi bas-reliefs, the open war-chariot shown above in the woodcut is the conveyance selected for a religious procession, and the sacred object placed in it is shielded from the rays of the sun by an umbrella held over it. It may be asked, had the people conveyances with hoods or awning for use at the time, why should they have rejected them and brought forth so insignificant a vehicle for a cere- mony, the main object of which was to produce a grand impression on the minds of the common people ? A large covered van or car is far better adapted for decoration and show than an ancient war-chariot, and the testimony of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata leaves no room for doubt that such large structures were known. To reconcile this conflict, I can only suppose that custom — and custom in matters of religious ceremonies is all-powerful — must have decided in favour of the war-chariot. In the beginning of * g^fS =gpP^-^T^ ITflT^: ^^^ T^: I [ 349 ] the fifth ccntiir}-, Fa 1 1 fan, however, f(nincl in l^char some- thing- very hke the modem ratha used in carrying about lUid- dhist images in religious processions. Me says, " ]^"very )-ear, in celebration of the eighth day of the moon viao, they (tlie people) prepare four-wheeled cars, on which they erect bamboo stages, supported by spears, so that the\' form a pillar two clumg high, having the appearance of a tower. They cover it with a carpet of white felt, upon which they place the images of all the celestial divinities, which they decorate with gold and silver and coloured glass. Above they spread an awning of embroidered work ; at the four corners are chapels, ha\'ing each a Buddha seated, with Rodhisattvas standing beside him."* The driver of the chariot, among all the six races, generally occupied the left side ; but they never held the subordinate position which Jehu does in the present da}-. Looking to the manner in which Homer makes his heroes treat their charioteers and the familiarity with which a driver is represented as talking with a son of the Great Rameses, Sir Gardener Wilkinson thinks "that we may conclude that the office in Egypt and Greece was filled by persons of con- sideration, who were worthy of the friendship they enjoyed. "f In India, in the same way, the Sdrat/ii was always held in high respect, and even the great Krishna did not think it unbecoming his dignity to become the charioteer of Arjuna. Arjuna, on his part, acted in the same capacity for Uttara, son of Virata ; and Matuli, the Sarathi of Indra, is re- presented as an adviser in many points to Rama and Dushmanta :l Other charioteers seem to have enjoyed equal distinction. In fact, the warriors and the charioteers were either men of ncarl)- equal rank, and both joined "in the labours and glor\- of the fight," or the office was awarded * Laidlay's Fa Mian, p. 255. t Ancient Kgyptians. I. 337. :;; S'akuntala, Acl \\\. [ 350 ] " as a mark of distinction and trust" for distinguished service. Hence it is that the art of chariot-driving was held as an important gentlemanly accomplishment, and the heroes of ancient days always prided themselves upon their proficiency in it. The numbers of chariots employed for military purposes were great. According to the Amarakosha, every battalion (vdhiiii) of four hundred and five foot-soldiers included eight)'-one cars and two hundred and forty-three horse ; three such battalions formed a pritand ; three pritands formed a cJtauiii ; three cliauuis constituted an anikini ; and ten such aiiikinis an akshau/iiiil or complete brigade, including twenty-one thousand eight hundred and seventy cars, the same number of elephants, sixty-five thousand six hundred and ten horse, and one million nine thousand three hundred and fifty foot-soldiers.* It is doubtful if any prince had anything approaching to such a mighty host for his corps (Tarnice, but the arrangement and nomenclature in a dictionary indicate that large assemblages of cars were not quite uncommon. If this be admitted it must follow that roads for such vehicles were also extant. The great epics describe urban roads as wide and spacious, lined on both sides with shops of various kinds and private mansions of elegance and beauty. The Ramayana notices the practice of watering the street to allay the dust, (ante. p. 21), and refers to a large trunk road extending from Oudh to the Panjab. The Vedas also make mention of roads for cars and waggons, and they offer very strong presumptive evidence of a settled, civili/.cd life among the people as distinct from a nomadic or purely pastoral existence. It is impossible to say whether the roads were ever metalled with stones or bricks : perhaps they were not ; but in a country so abounding in kankar, * Olhcr numl)cis arc given in otliers texts. See Oppert's Weapons, p. 5. [ 35r ] as the North-Wcstcni Provinces arc, and occurrinc^ as that substance docs often on the very surface of the earth, it could have scarcely escaped the notice of men who made roads, and watered them to keep down dust. The Rig Veda makes mention of waggons ; so do the great national epics ; and the lexicon, Waggons. '^ r A --. , • ,. . of Amara bniha gives distmct names for covered conveyances of several kincis, as also for open carts for the carriage of goods. The Mric/ich/inka/i, which as alread}' stated, dates, according to Wilson, from the second century before the Christian era, and under the lowest computation cannot be brought down below the beginning of that epoch, takes its name from a fictile model of a cart, which had been given to a child as a substitute for a golden one, \\hich it had seen with a pla)'mate, and wished to have, but which could not be provided by his indigent parents. In the pla}- itself, there are descriptions of roads blocked by a great number of carts, of covered litters provided with cushions, having doors behind, and drawn by two bullocks, and carts and litters of different qualities, — all which cannot but be accepted as indications of vehicles of various des- criptions ha\-ing been in common use. I do not remember to have any where read of a one-bullock cart ; but in the tenth mandala of the Rig Veda, mention is made of a waggon or car which was drawn by a team of whicli one was a bull and the other a buffaloe. A sage, named Mudgala, is said to have achieved great success in the battle- field by driving this ill-matched pair. And seeing that mention is made in that work of a team of four bullocks yoked to a plough, it may be ver)- reasonabl)^ concluded that occasionally waggons had more than a pair. Three and four bullocks to a cart or waggon is common enough in the present day in the North- Western Provinces, The nature of the countrv never rendered such large teams as [ 352 ] of ten to twenty bullocks, so common in Cape Colony, necessary, or desirable, in India. Of the form of the covered waygon we ha\'e only one example in the Amara\'ati' sculptures, and it corresponds pretty closely with the description i^iven in the Mrichchhaka/i, a two-wheeled vehicle drawn by a pair of bullocks, and opening behind to receive the riders, the driver being seated in front in the same way as in the present day. (Wood- cut No. i68, copied from Fe r gu sson's " Tree and Serpent Wor- ship," plate LXV.) Indeed, the pcrsistenc)' of custom in this respect appears so great, and the progress of art so cramped, that no appreciable change has been effected within the course of the last sixteen hundred years, and the North Indian waggon of to- day seems to differ in no respect from what was in use in the fourth century of the Christian era. The whi[) as delineated at Sanchi is a stiff leather thong attached to a short handle, very like W'hii) and "oml. , , i , > t , n i / ' the modern kona. It was called kasa, and under that name is fre(iuently mentioned in ancient writings. J'^or elephants the aiikiis'a, or a short staff mounted with an iron cr(X)k, was the only instrument in use for guid- ing them, and it remains unchanged to this day. The ankus'a shown in Woodcut No. 169, taken from the Sanchi bas-reliefs, differs in no resi)ect from the instrument of that class now in use all o\er Intlia. 168. [ 353 ] The palankeen ( Sivikd) is frequently named in the great epics and other Sanskrit works; but it has not yet been met w with in sculptures, and its ancient -^ Palankeens, iSic. form, therefore, remains un- known. In its place we have a sort of a moveable kiosk, or sedan, with four posts bearing a canopy, and carried on men's shoulders on two poles. The body of the vehicle is a square wooden platform mounted on four short legs, and provided with rich cushions No. 169 and pillows. It is used to this day on ceremonial occasions, and is known under the name of CJiahirdola. It bears a close resemblance to the Sukhasana noticed in con- nexion with thrones, (ante, p. 250), and is in fact a variety of it. VI. BEEF IN ANCIENT INDIA. Motlern Hindu repugnance to beef. Ancient feeling different. Wilson's notice. Mistaken notion about slaughtered animals having been revived. Notices in Uttararama-charita, Mahavira-charita, Smritis, Manu, As'oka's edicts, Maha- bharata, Ramayana, Charaka, Sus'ruta, Kalpa and Grihya Sutras. Sacri- fices noticed in the Black Yajur Veda. Panchasaradiya S'ava. S'lilagava Gavamayana. Atiratra rite. Nirudha-pas'ubandha. Distribution of the slaughtered meat. Pas'ukalpa. Dressing of the meat. Madhuparka rite ; the necessity of eating beef on that occasion. Date of prohibition. HE title of this paper will, doubtless, prove highly- offensive to most of my countrymen ; but the in- terest attached to the enquiry in connexion with the early social history of the Aryan race on this side of the Himalaya, will, I trust, plead my excuse. The idea of beef — the flesh of the earthly representative of the divine Bhagavati — as an article of food is so shocking to the Hindus, that thousands over thousands of the more ortho- dox among them never repeat the counterpart of the word in their vernaculars, and many and dire have been the san- guinary conflicts which the shedding of the blood of cows has caused in this country. And yet it would seem that there was a time when not only no compunctious visitings of conscience had a place in the mind of the people in slaugh- tering cattle — when not only the meat of that animal was ac- tually esteemed a valuable aliment — when not only was it a mark of generous hospitality, as among the ancient Jews, to slaughter the "fatted calf" in honor of respected guests, — but when a supply of beef was deemed an absolute necessity by pious Hinrlns in their journey from this to another world, and [ 355 ] a cow was invariably killed to be burnt with the dead * To Englishmen, who are familiar with the present temper of the people on the subject, and to a great many of the natives themselves, this remark may appear quite startling ; but the authorities on which it is founded are so authentic and in- controvertible that they cannot, for a moment, be gainsaid. To the more learned among my countrymen the fact is not unknown that the Vcdas, at one time, enjoined a cere- mony called GoniedJia, or the sacrifice of cattle ; but they imagine it was typical, and did not involve the actual slaugh- ter of the animal, and accordingly envelope it in mystery, so as to render it completely unintelligible to the uninitiated, or intelligible in a manner that takes them entirely away from the truth. When the subject attracted the attention of the late Professor Wilson, the attempt at mystification was so far successful that he was made to waver,-f- though the light of truth could not be altogether withheld from a scholar and critic like him. In a note in his translation of the Meg/mdiita, Professor Wilson said, " the sacrifice of the horse or of the cow, the gomedJia or as'vamcdJia, appears to have been common in the earliest periods of the Hindu ritual. It has been conceived that the sacrifice was not real, but typical ; and that the form of sacrificing only was per- formed upon the victim, after which it was set at liberty. The text of this passage, however, is unfavorable to such a notion, as the metamorphosis of the blood of the kine into a river certainly implies that blood was diffused. The expres- sion of the original, literally rendered, is ' sprung from the blood of the daughters of Surabhi' that is, kine, Surabhi bein«- * Viiie the paper on the ' Funeral Ceremonies of the Ancient Ilindtis ' in the next volume. t This was, however, done at the early part of his .Sanskrit studies, when he had not come to the fountain-head, and was obliged to depend on his pandits. Subsequently he had no dnubi whatever on the subject. \'v\q his note in the Uttaia-itUna-chaiila, Hindu Theatre, I. 34. [ 356 ] a celebrated cow produced at the churning of the ocean, and famed for granting to her votaries whatever they desired. ' Daughter of Surabhi' is an expression of common occurrence, to denote the cow."* This argument of the learned Professor, however, had suggested itself to the people of this country long before his time, and it was met by some by the assertion that the word blood had been used only to complete the meta- phor of the sacrifice. Others, more amenable to the plain meaning of the old texts, but at the same time more daring, assume that the animals so sacrificed were immediately after invariably revived by the supernatural powers of the sacrificers. Such a line of argument, however satisfactory to the pious pro- letariat, takes the question so entirely out of the domain of reason, that it may fairly be left to itself; but even the or- thodox Hindu might fairly ask, how was it then that the vene- rable old poet and hermit Valmfki, when preparing to receive his brother sage Vas'ishtha, the author of one of the original law books (Smritis) which regulates the religious life of the people, and a prominent character even in the Vedas, slaugh- tered a lot of calves expressly for the entertainment of his guests? The revivification in that case must have followed the consumption of the meat of the slaughtered animals by them. The passage in which Valmiki's preparation for the reception of Vas'ishtha, described in the Uttara-7'di/ia-charita, is so remarkable, that I need not offer any apology to quote it entire. The scene is laid in front of the hermitage of Valmfki, where two disciples of the sage discourse on the bustle within. " BJidn'1dya)ia. Behold, Saudhataki, our humble dwel- ling ! Valmiki's holy hermitage assumes The face of preparation ; he expects * Essays II., p. 353. [ 357 ] Unwonted guests to-day ; the wild deer feed Upon unusual fragments, and the air Is filled with savoury odours. Saudhdtaki. There must be Some wondrous cause, to make our grey beards lay Their lectures by to-day. Bhdri. There is a cause, And that of no mean import. Sa2{. Tell me, I pray you, What venerable ox may we expect To visit us ? Bhdn. For shame ! refrain from jests : The great Vas'ishtha hither brings the queens Of Das'aratha, with Arundhati, From Rishyas'ringa to our master's dwelling. San. Vas'ishtha is it ? Bhdn. The same. San. I crave his pardon. I had thought, at least, It was a wolf or tiger we should look for. Bhdn. How so ? San. Why else was there provided The fatted calf for his regale ? BJian. Why, know you not. The Vedas, which enshrine our holy law, Direct the householder shall offer those Who in the law are skilled, the honied meal And with it flesh of ox, or calf, or goat, And the like treatment shall the householder Receive from Brahmans learned in the Vedas.*" Vasishtha, in his turn, likewise, slaughtered the "fatted calf when entertaining Vis'vamitra, Janaka, S'atananda, Jama- * Hindu Theatre I, 339. This rendering is a little too free, but the main facts remain unaltered. For a literal translation of the passage, see Mr. Tawney's version of the work, Act IV. [ 358 ] dagnya and other sages and friends, and in the Mahdvira- charita, when pacifying Jamadagnya, tempted him by say- ing : " The heifer is ready for sacrifice, and the food is cooked in ghee. Thou art a learned man, come to the house of the learned, favour us (by joining in the entertainment)."* These are, doubtless, examples quoted from avowed fic- tions, but it is not to be supposed for a moment that their authors would have alluded to such a subject, and offended the feelings of their readers, had they not ample authority to be satisfied that their readers would go with them. Colebrooke noticed the subject in his essay on " the Religious Ceremonies of the Hindus," in which he says, " it seems to have been anciently the custom to slay a cow on this occasion, (the reception of a guest) and a guest was therefore called a goghna or ' cow-killer.'-f- When noticing the mantra for the consecration of the cow at the marriage ceremony, he observes : " The commentator whose gloss has been followed in this version of the text, introduces it by the remark, that a guest, entitled to honorable reception, is a spiritual preceptor, a priest, an ascetic, a prince, a bride- groom, a friend, or, in short, any one to welcome whose arrival a cow must be tied for the purpose of slaying her ; whence a guest is denominated goghna, or cow-killer.";]: Manu authorises the consumption of animal food at all seasons with the slight restraint of first offering a bit of it to the gods, or manes, or guests. He says : " having bought flesh meat, or obtained it by aid of another, he who cats it after worshiping the gods or manes commits no sin." V. 32. But he does not expressly name beef as an article of food. In his list of animals fit for human food he, however, observes ; t Asiatic Researches VII, 2S8. Il)id. VII, 289. [ 359 ] " the hedge-hog and porcupine, the lizard godJid (guana), the gandaka (rhinoceros), the tortoise, and the rabbit or hare, wise legislators declare lawful food among five-toed animals, and all quadrupeds, camels excepted, which have but one row of teeth."* And this would include cows which were well known to him as animals having one row of teeth. Had he wished to exclude them, he would have for certain thought of them, and linked them with camels. It is, however, not necessary by such a line of argument, to infer what he in- tended, as he is quite explicit in his directions about the use of beef on the occasion of a Brahmachari's return home. He says : " Being justly applauded for this strict performance of his duty, and having received from his natural or sph'itual father, the sacred gift of the Vedas, let him sit on an elegant bed, decked with a garland of flowers, and let his father honour him, before his nuptials, with the present of a cow, according to the Madhuparka rite."-f- In a subsequent pas- sagcj' he recommends the Madlntparka or the " honied meal" with beef for the reception of kings and other great dignita- ries. As'oka, who in his first edict, says " formerly in the great refectory and temple of the heaven-beloved king Piyadasi, daily were many hundred thousand animals sacrificed for the sake of meat food,"§ does not specify the kind of animals which were slaughtered, but, bearing in mind that when the animals were sacrificed he was a Hindu, and followed the ordinances of the Sastra, it is to be presumed that he did not confine himself to the meat of kids and sheep. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana allude to the go- viedJia or slaughter of cattle for sacrifice ; but they do not ilford any details, nor is it clearly mentioned that bovine meat was used as food. * Manu, V, i8. + Ibid III, 3. % Ibid. Ill, 1 19-120. § Journal, Asiatic Soc, \'II, \\. 249. [ 360 ] . The ancient medical works are, however, more precise. The Charaka Saiihitd, which dates from the 5th or 6th century, B.C. has, in its chapter on food, a verse which says " the flesh of cows, buffaloes and hogs, should not be eaten daily*"; which clearly indicates that it was then an article which was reckoned as food, but too rich for everyday use, like fish, curds, and barley cakes, which are also prohibited for everyday use. Elsewhere the author of that work recom- mends beef for pregnant women as it is calculated to strengthen the foetus. Sus'ruta, in his section on food, points out the particular diseases in course of which beef should be avoided-f*. In other medical works of ancient times the same instruc- tions appear, and nowhere is it absolutely forbidden. In some mediceval works beef soup is especially recommeded for people recovering from fainting fits. I The Sutras, both Kalpa and Grihya, and the Vedas themselves, display even less reserve or reticence. They distinctly affirm that bovine meat was used as food, and in detail point out the different occasions when cattle should be slaughtered and eaten. Gobhila recommends beef for s'raddhas.§ In the Brahmana of the Black Yajur Veda, that grand store-house of Vedic rituals, which afford the fullest insight ^ 7[^\ -^il ^^w;t tit I t 301 ] into the religious life of ancient India, mention is made of scores of different ceremonies, which required the meat of cattle for their performance, and considerable stress is laid on the kind and character of the cattle which should be slaughtered for the supply of meat for the gratification of par- ticular divinities. Thus, among the Kdinya Ishfis, or minor sacrifices with special prayers (B. Ill, c. viii), we have to sacrifice a dwarf ox to Vishnu ; a drooping-horned bull with a blaze on the forehead to Indra as the author of sacrifices or as the destroyer of Vitra ; a thick-legged cow ( PrisJini- saktha) to the same as the regent of wind ; a white-blazed drooping-horned bull to the same, as the destroyer of ene- mies, or as the wielder of the thunderbolt ; a barren cow to Vishnu and Varuna ; a cow that has lately miscarried to Aushadhayah ; a bull that has been already sanctified at a marriage or other ceremony to Indra and Agni ; a polled ox to Brahmanaspati ; a black cow to Pushan ; a cow that has brought forth only once to Vayu ; a brown ox to Indra, the invigorator of our faculties ; a speckled or piebald ox to Savita ; a cow having two colors to Mitra and Varuna ; a red cow to Rudra ; a white barren cow to Surya ; a white ox to Mitra ; a cow that has miscarried from taking the bull unsea- sonably to Vayu ; a cow fit to conceive to Bhaga, &c., &c. In a rule in connexion with the As'vamedha, the same authority lays down that sacrificial animals should differ in caste, colour, age, &c., according to the gods for whom they are designed.* In the larger ceremonies, such as the Rajasuya, the Vajapeya, and the As'vamedha, the slaughter of cattle was an invariable accompaniment. Of the first two, the Gosava formed an integral part, and it ensured to the performer inde- pendent dominion in this world, and perfect freedom in the * Taittiiiya Brahmana, III, p. 658. ■ [ 362 ] next to saunter about as he liked, even as the cow roams untrammelled in the forest.* In its account of the As'vamedha, the Taittiri'ya Brahmana recommends i8o domestic animals to be sacrificed, including horses, bulls, cows, goats, deer, Nilagaos,-f- &c. A number of wild animals were, likewise, on such occasions, brought to the sacrificial posts, but they were invariably let loose after consecration. The authority, however, does not distinctly say how many heads of cattle were required for the purpose ; the number perhaps varied according to the exigencies of the guests among whom crowned heads with their unwieldy re- tainers formed so prominent a part, and whose requirements were regulated by a royal standard. But even the strictly cere- monial offering was not, evidently, completed with a solitary cow or two. Out of the " ten times eighteen" heads required, a great many must have been bulls, cows and heifers of diverse colours and ages. The Brahmana notices another ceremony in which a large number of cattle were immolated for the gratification of the Maruts and the enjoyment of their worshipers. This was called the Panchas dradiya sava, or the "quinquennium of autumnal sacrifices." It evidently held the same position in ancient India which Durgapiija does in the liturgy of the modern Hindus, It used to be celebrated, as its name im- plies, for five years successively, the period of the ceremony being limited to five days on each occasion, begining with the new moon which would be in conjunction with the Vis'a- kha constellation. This happened in September or October. The most important elements of the ceremony were sevcn- V^f?r 1 Taittiiiya A'lanyaka. *^^TJ I Taittiiiya Biuhmana, II, 651. [ 363 ] teen five-year-old, humpless, dwarf bulls, and as many dwarf heifers under three years. The former were duly consecrated, and then liberated, and the latter, after proper invocations and ceremonial observances, immolated ; three on each day, the remaining two being added to the sacrifice on the last day, to celebrate the conclusion of the ceremony for the year. The Tandya Brahmana of the Sama Veda notices this cere- mony, but it recommends cattle of a different colour for each successive year. According to it the /th or 8th of the waxing moon in AsVina for the first year, and the 6th of Kartika for the following years, were the most appropriate for it.* The origin of the Yaj'na, according to a Vedic legend, is due to Prajapati. Once on a time he wished to be rich in wealth and dependents ; " he perceived the Panchas'aradiya ; he seized it, and performed a sacrifice with it, and thereby be- came great in wealth and dependents." " Whoever wishes to be great," adds the Veda, "let him worship through the Pan- chas'aradiya. Thereby, verily, he will be great."-}- Elsewhere it is said that this ceremony ensures thoroughly independent dominion, and that a sage of the name of Kandama attained it through this means. ;]: In the As'valayana Sutra mention is made of several sacrifices of which the slaughter of cattle formed a part. One of them in the Grihya Sutra is worthy of special notice. It is called Sulagava or " spitted cow," /. e.. Roast Beef It was performed either in the autumn (sarat), or the spring season ; when the moon was in the constellation Ardra.§ The animal appropriate for it was a cow of other than fawn * ^^iTo in:f^ ^if=s% inf^ ^k i ^■ji'ziT^^^it ^i^^airru^ t Tait. Brahmana, II, 2. ■^^ I ^r^TW ^^f«T I Taitlinya Brahmana, II, 781. § TT^lf^ ^^^- WT^^T 1 8, d, < I [ 364 ] color, spotted with white,* and the choicest of the fold.f Black spots were, however, not deemed objectionable,:|: and a uniform black or blue color with a dash of red in it, i. e., of a pur- plish tinge was reckoned unexceptionable.§ As soon as such an animal was selected, it was bathed with water in which paddy and barley had been steeped, and let loose,|| as long as it did not attain all its permanent teeth, being all the while kept dedicated to Rudra, by a Vedic mantra which says, " May you thrive in the name of Rudra, the great god, &c."1T The proper place for the sacrifice was an unfrequented spot, outside, and to the east, or the north, of a village, or town, whence the village was not visible, nor was it visible from the village. The time was after midnight, but some authorities preferred the dawn.** All the necessary arrangements being complete, the priest, a Brahman versed in the details of the sacrifice and experienced by former performance of it, ff should begin the ceremony by making certain offerings to the fire with appropriate mantras, and then plant a sacrificial post of the usual size, but of a green palas'a branch, uncarved and un- * ^lifB^Tsr^ I 8; d, a I t ^^-^-^ 3r^^ I 8, &, ^ I X -^^T^ffT^^ I », 1 I § SRTit ?r«»TiJTT^>=^^T^fI I 8, &, ^ I II rtf=^^^^rrtfH^%i:fHfw'=Er i a, ^, ^ i H "^^T^ ^^'[%^^■^ ^^ ^i^fw i 8 «f , ^ i I am not sure whether the Rudra in lliis jjassage should he the noun, and Mahadeva "great god," adjective, ur the hitler the noun, and Rudra " fierce" the epithet. In the present day animal sacrifices are rarely offered to Mahadeva. To Sarasvati, likewise, no meat offering is now made, though the Vedas enjoin it repeatedly. ** ^ITTT^T ^t^^TTpITg I ^f^rT T^^ 1 8. ^» ?^ I it For obvious reasons tliis condition could not ha\-i- been in\"nriabl)' carried out, [ 365 ] adorned, the practice in other ceremonies being to carve and decorate the post (Yupa) very elaborately. Two pieces of string are now to be provided, one made of kus'a grass, and the other of a kind of creeping palas'a, vratati. One of these is tied round the post, and the other to the right horn of the victim, which is then attached to the post facing the west ; each of these operations being performed while re- peating a mantra. The animal being then immolated in the usual way, an offering is made to the fire with the liver held in a vessel made of palas'a wood or leaves. The mantra for the purpose is formed of the twelve names of S'iva thus — "To Hara, Mn'dha, S'arva, S'iva, Bhava, Mahadeva, Ugra, Bhi'ma, Pas'upati, Rudra, S'ankara, and Is'ana, may this be welcome."* It is, however, optional with the priest to repeat the whole of this mantra, or only a part of it including the last six names, or simply to say "to Rudra, may this be welcome !" Offerings of cooked rice and other articles being now made, four bundles of kiis'a grass are spread on the four sides of the altar, and a little cooked rice and some beef are offered to Rudra as the regent of the four quarters. This is followed by four mantras addressed to Rudra from the four quarters. The husks (tusJia) and broken grain (kituda) of the rice used in cooking the rice offering, together with the tail, hide, tendons and hoofs of the victim are then to be thrown into the fire, and the effused blood, which at the time of immolation was held in a vessel, should be thrown on bundles of kus'a grass. At a time when the people knew not how to utilize bovine hair and hoofs, their burning was a matter of course, but the destruction of so useful an article as hide was not in keeping with the views of the Bentha- mites of the day ; accordingly Sambatya, a sage, recom- mended that it should be made subservient to human use, by * ^%T^fi ''TfT^ ^^^IT far^T^ W^T^ 'T^T|n^':rT^ »fl"»IT7T XT-q- [ 366 ] being manufactured into shoes and the like * The priest is then to stand up, facing the north, and covering his face with a cloth, repeat a mantra offering the blood which had been spilled on the ground at the time of sacrifice to serpents to whom it belongs. The final offerings ( svisJitakrit ) are now made, and the spit being removed from the chest of the victim, the ceremony is concluded by an address to Rudra in praise of his greatness. The remains of the ceremonial offer- ings, says the Sutrakara, should not be admitted into the village, nor children be permitted to approach the sacrifice. But the sacrificers, should, says the text, " eat of the oblation in the usual way, after the benediction (svastayana)r-\ Some forbid this consumption of the beef, others make it optional^ The ceremony ensures to the performer long life, wealth, high position, great religious merit, and numerous herds and children ; and every householder is required to perform it at least once in course of his life ; it being reckond among those which must be performed. A modified form of this ceremony is recommended to be performed in a paddock, where cattle are piquetted at night, should a murrain break out in the fold. It is to be regretted that the account of the ceremony given in the Grihya Sutra, though full in other respects, is entirely silent as to how the meat of the animal is to be cooked. The use of the spit or skewer and its presence in the chest of the victim whence it is to be withdrawn at the conclusion of the ceremony, leaves little doubt, however, as to the manner in which the meat was dressed.§ * vM{ '^^^T liH^nffT Trtsffzr: i irt^fg^T^m-. '^^iwr »rtT- ^qTT^Tf^ IT^^ffT ^-^^ I 8, d, ^8 I t f^T^TTTTT TTT^^TH ^^^T TT^ I «, £, \\\ ^T I H, i,,\\\ [ 1^7 ] The next ceremony I have to notice is named Gavd- inanayana or the sacrifice of the cow, otherwise called Ekdsh- takd. It was held for four days from the eighth of the wane in the month of Magha, or for four days, either immediately before, or immediately after, the full moon of Phalguna, or Chaitra. Its details are in many respects similar to that of the ordinary Pas'ubaiidha, of which some account will be given below. It seems to have formed a part of the MaJid- plava, Dvddas'dha and other ceremonies, and not to have constituted a distinct ceremony by itself. Several other ceremonies also required a supply of beef for their consummation. In connexion with the Atiratra ceremony Katyayana recommends the sacrifice of a barren cow (a spotted one being preferred)* to the Maruts, and seventeen, black, polled, entire oxen to Prajapati, permission being granted to dispense with one or two of the charac- teristics if all the three cannot be secured.f I have not yet been able to obtain a Prayoga for the performance of any of these ceremonies, and am not, therefore, in a position to supply all the details which were observed in performing them. I have, however, got three short Prayogas for the performance of \.h.eNin'tda-pas'iibaiid/hTr, from one of which (MS. No. 1552, Sanskrit College of Calcutta) I have compiled the following abstract of the ceremony. This ceremony should be performed during the six months of the northern declension of the sun, when the * ^fHT:T?5(TT»s[.^TTT3r?zr ^irt Yf^*!^^! ^^^«r; " ^to -^o ^« !»» >, \\ I t 368 i moon is waxing in one of the Deva-nakshatras, or on the day when the moon is in the constellation Revati, or on the day of the new moon. On the day preceding the ceremony, the performer should celebrate the s'raditha called Ndndinmkha, and at night observe the Udakas'dnti and the pratisara- bandha. The first consist in sprinking holy water with appro- priate mantras on the householder, and the latter in tying a thread on the right wrist in a prescribed form to serve as an emblem of engagement, to be kept on until the comple- tion of the ceremony for which it is tied. In Bengal this thread is now tied only on the occasion of a marriage, or the investiture of the sacrificial thread ; but in the North-West it is used for several other ceremonies. On the day of the ceremony, the first duty is to attend to the five obligatory duties of bathing, offering of water to the manes, reading of the Vedas, offering of oblations to the household fire, giving of alms to beggars, and cooking of rice for the Vaisyadevah.* The animal to be sacrificed is then to be thought of, while repeating the mantra beginning with the word Priyatdm, &c. Proceeding then to the Garhapatya fire, the institutor and his wife should sit beside it on kus'a grass, holding at the same time a bundle of that article in their hands, and then thrice inaudibly and thrice loudly repeat a mantra, and, having duly ordained the priests, solemnly resolve to perform the ceremony. The Adhvaryu should now come forward, produce in due form the sacrificial fire by briskly rubbing two pieces of wood against each other, sanctify it by proper mantras, light the Ahav/nya fire altar, and thereon offer oblations of clarified butter. If the fire used be an ordinary one, and not produced by friction, a different form of sanctification is to be adopted to that recommended in the first instance. The oblations, however, [ 369 ] are the same, and they are five-fold, the last two being in favor of the sacrificial post and the axe with which it is to be cut. Now proceeding by the eastern gate of the town, the in- stitutor should proceed to the tree from which the post is to be cut out. There, standing before the tree with his face to the west, he should address a mantra to the tree, and then anoint its trunk with a little sacrificial butter. The post being subsequently cut, a piece of gold is to be put on the stump, a little water is to be sprinkled thereon, and four offerings of butter made to it. The post should be five aratiiis and four fingers long, each aratiii being equal to about i6 inches, that is, of the length of the forearm from the inner condyle of the humer- ous to the tip of the little finger. From nine inches to a foot of the lower end of the post should remain unshorn for the purpose of being buried in the earth ; but above that the shaft should be pared and made either octagonal, or square. The top, to the extent of four fingers, should be cut into the form of a tenon, whereon is to be fixed a round wooden band or ferule, for regulating the proportion of which as also for the various operations of cutting, chiselling, scraping, appro- priate mantras are provided. The sha\-ings should be collect- ed, partly for the cooking of frument)', and partly for fixing the post in the earth. The place where the post should be fixed has next to be determined. For this purpose, a peg is to be fixed in front of the Ahavaniya fire at the distance of two feet from its northern edge. Proceeding northwards twelve feet therefrom, a second peg is to be fixed, and then taking a piece of string 1 8 feet long and having a loop at each end, it is to be fixed to the fore peg, and then, drawing it tight at the thirteenth feet, a third peg is to be fixed, a hole being dug between it and the peg at the twelfth feet, and another at the four- i 370 ] teenth feet. The string being now drawn towards the south, pegs are to be fixed as above. These opposite points are called the s'roni^ or the hips of the altar. The string is next turned to the east and west successively, and pegs fixed at the distance of fourteen feet on each side from the centre. These constitute the two shoulders of the altar (skandha). To the west of the twelfth foot pegs, eight inches of space should be kept for the post, and beyond it a peg should be fixed to mark the boundary of the spot. Beyond it, in a straight line at the distance of yoke-pin, another peg is to be fixed, and beyond it a square altar of the length and height of a yoke-pin should be made similar to the Ahavani'ya altar. This is called the Uttaravedi. Upon this there should be another, a span square and four fingers or a span high, having a depression in the centre like a foot-mark. This is the northern navel_, UttarandbJii. Measuring two or three feet straight to the west of the altar pin, and then turning to the north two or three feet, a hole is to be dug of the size of a yoke-pin. This is called CJidtvdla. Measuring again four feet straight to the west of the altar, and then turning to the north one foot, a peg is to be fixed marking the place of the Utkara or refuge field. The Yajamana now sheds his hair, rubs butter on his body, ornaments his eyes with collyrium, and then eats something, leaving the next operations of the ceremony to be performed by the priests. The first duty of the Adhvaryu priest is now to cut two plaksha branches (Ficns infectoria), and to arrange all the different articles required for the sacrifice, including among other things a peg of Gambhari wood (Gnielina arborea) of the length of the Yajamana's face, for driving it into the victim's chest. (Kasmaiyainayaui Jiridaya-s I'llain yajamdnd- mnkha-sainniitani.) Now follows a scries of offerings to the different sacred fires, and the repetition of a number of [ 371 ] mantras by the different priests, the Yajamana and his wife, which, however important in a ceremonical point of view, are neither likely to interest the public in the present day, nor to contribute to throw any light on the subject of this paper. I shall pass on, therefore, to the details connected with the treatment of the sacrificial animal. On the conclusion of the different offerings above refer- red to, the victim should be brought forward, rubbed over with a paste of turmeric, emblic myrobolan and oil, well washed, and then led between the Chdtvdla and the Utkara^ to a spot between the Ahavaniya fire and the sacrificial post and there made to stand before the latter, facing the west. The animal should be of the colour appropriate for Indra and Agni, for the whole ceremony is addressed to them. But should one of that colour be not available, any sound ox may be employed, provided it be not defective by reason of having only one born, or bored ears, or broken teeth, or docked tail, or being dwarf, deaf, mangy, or undivided- hoofed. After the bathing, the Adhvaryu should offer certain ex- piatory oblations with the nitydjya, stiidlydjya, and vasdlioina- havaiii, in course of which he should invoke Agni, Indra, Vayu and Prajapati. Then taking a bit of kus'a grass he should place the same with the aid of the Yajamana, on the head of the victim between the horns, while repeating the first verse of the Yajur Veda, Is'etvd, &c. This is called Updka 77r;/rt or emblematic sacrifice. It is to be followed by the repe- tition of certain mantras declaratory of the resolution to sacrifice the animal. Other mantras now follow, accompanied with offerings to the different fires, and repeated manipulations of the sacrificial vessels. These done, the animal is tied b\' the right horn, the rope passing two or three times round the eye of that side, so as to leave the left horn free. A little water [ 372 ] is then sprinkled on the victim, which is allowed to have a good drink of water from a vessel brought near it for the purpose. An offering of butter to the fire with the s'ruk spoon is next made, and with the remainder of the sanctified butter in the spoon, spots are marked on the forehead, the hump, and the two hind quarters. Another series of mantras and offerings having been gone through by the Adhvaryu, an axe is placed in the hands of the immolator, a spike stuck into the string with which the victim is tied, and the victim is anointed with some butter. These operations accom- plished, the Agnidhra takes up a flaming brand from the Ahavaniya altar, and proceeding between the Chdtvdla and the Utkara to the front of the Sdniitra fire, thrice circumam- bulates the victim by the right side with the brand in his hand, and then placing the brand near the Ahavaniya altar, repeats the circumambulation, while the Adhvaryu offers an oblation after every turn, and then continues his offerings to Prajapati Agni, Vayu, and Vis'vedevah, The Pratiprasthata now comes forward, and taking some burning charcoal from the Gdrhapatya altar, removes it to the Sdniitra altar. The victim is then led northward between the sacrificial post and the northern altar by the Agnidhra with a flaming brand in his hand, and the Adhvaryu and the Yajamdna touch it with the vessel intended for holding the liver (vapdsrapaui ). The former next sanctifies the animal by a mantra, and the Agni- dhra places before the immolator the burning brand which is cast aside by the Adhvaryu, who orders the immolation with an appropriate mantra ending with the word sanjnapaya "immolate." The immolator now casts the victim on spread kus'a grass so as to have its head towards the west, and the feet pointing towards the north, and completes the slaughter, saying at the end " it is immolated" (sanjnapta). The insti- tutor of the sacrifice and llic priests should sit during the operation with their faces a\-crtc(l, so as not to lochold the [ 373 ] sanguinary work, and the Adhvaryu sliould go on making expiatory offerings to obviate the evils likely to arise from the victim's lowing, or shivering, or attempting to run away, or dying by natural causes during the ceremony. A number of mantras, mostly from the Sanhitas of the Rig and the Yajur Vedas, are given for the various operations and offerings men- tioned, as also for an interminable and unsufferably tedious series of offerings whicli are to follow the immolation ; but it would be foreign to the subject of this paper, to describe them here. I must, therefore, refer the curious to the MS. from which these details have been taken. That the animal slaughtered was intended for food is evident from the directions given in the AsValayana Sutra to eat of the remains of the offering ; but to remove all doubt on the subject I shall quote here a passage from the Taittin'ya Brahmana, in which the mode of cutting up the victim after immolation is described in detail; it is scarcely to be supposed that the animal, would be so divided if there was no neces- sity for distribution. The passage runs thus: "celestial and human executioners, (Samitara) commence your work ; carry the victim for the purpose of cutting it up. Anxious to divide the victim for the masters of the ceremony, collect the nliinika fire for the animal brought here (to the shambles). Spread the kus'a grass ; obtain the permission of the mother, of the father, of the uterine brother, of the fricndl}' members, of the herd of the victim. Place it so that its feet may point towards the north ; let the eyes reach the sun ; let its vital airs attain the regent of the mind ; let the ears attain the regents of the quarters ; let its life reach the ether above ; let its body abide on the earth. Separate its hide so that it may remain entire (without rents). Before cutting open the navel separate the fat. Close its breath that it maj- remain within ; (I. r., hy t)ing up the mouth). Cut open its breast so as to make it appear like an eagle (with spread wings). Separate the fore- [ 374 ] arms ; divide the arms into spokes ; cut out the shoulders (clods) in the form of a tortoise ; remove the hips (rumps) so as not to injure them ; divide the thighs (rounds) with the bone entire in the shape of a door, or of the leaf of the oleander ; separate successively in order the 26 ribs ; divide the different members so that none be less than what it should be. Dig a trench for burying the excrements. Throw away the blood to the Rakshasas. Extract entire (and do not puncture in the middle) that part of the entrails which is like an owl in shape (the stomach, vanisJitii). Your offspring and their children will live in peace and never weep (i. e., these operations being done according to the ordinances of the s'astra, no injury will befall your family). O slayer of cattle, O Adhrigu, accom- plish your task ; acomplish it according to rules ; O Adhrigu, accomplish it."* The Taittiri'ya Brahmana is silent as to what should be done with these different parts, but the Gopatha Brahmana of the Atharva Veda supplies the omission. It gives in detail the names of the different individuals who are to receive shares of the meat for the parts they take in the ceremony. The total number of shares into which the car- ^^^ ^TfTT ^;3T5rTWT ■5^^*5": I ^^ ^^T ■SrrtT I TJ^^T-^ t?f^^T^^I«TTfT I -^TT 'TTWfT ^flf'ST^'t ^TTT^^fW^- [ 375 i cass is to be divided is thirty-six, and the following persons are to receive one or more shares, each, tv's'. .- — "The Prastata is to receive the two jaws along with the tongue ; the Pratiharta, the neck and the hump ; the Udgata, the eagle-like wings or briskets ; the Adhvaryu, the right side chine with the shoulder ; the Upagata, the left chine ; the Pratiprasthata, the left shoulder ; the Brahma and the wife of the Rathya, the right rump ; the Brahmanachchhansi, the right hip lower down the round ; the Pota, the thigh (leg?); the Hota, the left rump; the Maitravaruna, the left round ; the Achchhavaka, the left leg ; the Neshta, the right arm (clod) ; the Sadasya, the left clod ; the master of the house the sirloin and some part of the abdomen (flank ? sada and aimka) ; his wife, the loin or pelvic region, which she is to bestow on a Brahman ; the Agnidhra, the stomach (va- nishtii), the heart, the kidneys, and the right fore leg (vdhu) ; the Atreya, the left leg ; the householder who ordains the sacrifice, the two right feet ; the wife of the householder who ordains the sacrifice, the two left feet ; and both of them in common, the upper lip ; the Gravastut, three bones of the neck, (vertebra) and the inanirjd, whatever that be ; the man who leads the cow, three other vertebree and a half of the perineum ; the Chamasadhvaryu, the bladder ; the Subrahmanya, the head ; the man who invites people to a Soma sacrifice, the hide."* Diverse imprecations are hurled against those who [ 376 ] venture to depart from this order of distribution. Directions similar to these occur also in the Aitareya Brahmana. The luckiest recipients were no doubt those who got the tongue, the hump, the rounds, and the sirloin ; but some of the inferior officers, such as those who got the feet, the bladder, and the like, could have made but poor use of their shares. They were, however, all allowed plentiful libations of the Soma beer to wash down their shares of meat. The general rules to be followed in slaughtering animals including cattle, are given by some of the Sutrakaras. They are of course liable to be modified by special rules in con- nexion with special ceremonies, but in the absence of any such special rule, they should be regularly followed. As'va- layana gives these rules under the head of Pas'iikalpa^ in the eleventh section of the first book of his Gn'yha Sutra. Accord- ing to them, after offering oblations of clarified butter to the sacrificial fire, a hearth is to be made to the north of it, for the Sdiiiitra or cooking fire. This done, the animal to be slaughtered is to be made to drink plentifully, then bathed, and then made to stand before the sacrificial fire, facing the west. After this two oblations of clarified butter are to be offered with the mantra beginning with the words Di'itanh &c. The animal should then be touched on the back with a green branch bearing leaves, while announcing the resolution, " for the gratification of so and so (naming the god), I slaugh- ter thee." A little water in which paddy and barley have been steeped, is now to be sprinkled on the forepart of the animal, [ 377 ] and the aforesaid resolution again repeated. This done, the animal is to be made to drink a part of that water, and the remainder of it is to be thrown on its right fore leg. It is then to be led round the fire three times silently without any mantra, and then carried to the north side, with a burning faggot held before it. When brought to the spot where the cooking hearth has been made, the faggot is to be put into the hearth, and a good fire kindled in it. The master of the ceremony then is to take up two stout sticks of Kas'mar}-a* wood, one with, and the other without, leaves, and succes- sively touch the animal and the Adhvaryu. This done, he should spread some kus'a grass on the west of the hearth and the animal, having been laid on it with its head towards the east or the west, and the feet pointing towards the north is to be killed by the Samita. The instrument of destruc- tion is not named, and it is doubtful whether a knife was used, or a spike of hard wood, one of the gambhari sticks alluded to above, was driven into the region of the heart to effect the destruction. Both methods are noticed elsewhere, and the spike was called sphya. But however effected, imme- diately after the immolation, the master of the ceremonx- should cover the right hypochondriac region with a little kus'a grass, and make an oblique incision to extract an important organ from the abdomen. If the immolation be made with the animal's head to the cast, it will be necessary to turn the carcass over to come to the spot. The organ to be extracted is called Vapd, and in Sanskrit dictionaries it is set down as a synonym of fat or marrow. Some take it to be the omentum, but the commentator of As'valayana * Gmelina arhorea. The wood of this tree is reputed to be remarkably dense, hard and tough. The technical name of the stick is Vapds'rapanl. A s'rapani is ordinarily a cooking pot, but in the present instance, as one of them should be ^^T^IT "without leaves" and the other "^ITT^T with leaves, I infer that sticks are meant. [ 378 ] describes its place to be a hollow above, and to the right of the navel,* which takes us exactly to the region of the liver, and knowing hov/ eagerly such Hindus as take flesh-meat in the present day, like the liver of goats, as a delicacy, I am disposed to believe that the word means the liver. Such a titbit would be much more worthy of the gods than the skinny omentum, which is almost unfit for human food. The liver being thus extracted, it should be cut, stuck on the two gambhari sticks, washed, and then heated on the cooking fire. Proceeding then to the sacrificial fire, an offer- ing is to be made to it with a bit of the liver. Sitting then on the south side of that fire, the meat is to be cooked, and butter be dropped on it while cooking. The roast being in this way completely dressed, it should be placed on the leaves of the plaksha tree (Ficiis infectoria), and further offerings made to the two fires. On this occasion rice is like- wise cooked, and the carcass being then cut up into eleven principal parts, such as the heart, the tongue, the briskets, &c., besides other minor parts, they are all to be cooked at the _ o ^flfw 5IT^%^^ ITfSr^fir^^ ^t^^^XTT^ TT'^' ■^^R^ffT -Jrf^ifrT I f^TlfufW^Sf ff^T^ irifJT^ ITfTTTZI, TTfTTXT^^ iJ^^Tfs? ^TTW^tI- !:?!( f^>n^TfT I cTfT: TTlffTpJ^ fiT fTT TTf^TJ^^^^iTr'n^^^Tfj^ q-q-f ^(3[U^ ^fWUfT ^T^rl^r: ^TTf^(3jT ^XTf^ffT fit ^TTT?Tf^^T2a- ^f^fEf '?T%ffT I [ 379 ] samitia fire. The heart is to be stuck on a spit and carefully roasted over the fire so as to make it tender, clarified butter being subsequently poured on it to complete the dressing * On the completion of the operation, the different kinds of cooked meat and rice should be ofTered to the sacrificial fire with appropriate mantras, each ending with the word svdJidJi. If the meat and rice be offered separately, then separate S7'ishfakrit or final offerings are to be made for each of them, otherwise one final-offering would suffice for all. The roast should be offered last without any mantra. The mantras enjoined are all extracts from the Sanhi'ta of the Rig Veda. These rules, simple as they are, are, nevertheless, too com- plicated for a feast to be improvised whenever a respectable guest honours a house ; and for such a purpose, therefore, a separate set of rules have been provided, in which the order of the guest to slaughter, given in a Rig Vedic verse, followed by another when immolating, is held sufficient. The cere- mony is called Madhuparka, or the offering of "honied meal." The persons for whom this ceremony was imperative, were ritvigs, kings, bridegrooms, Vedic students on their return home after the completion of their studies, Acharyas or tutors coming to a house after a year's absence, fathers-in- law, uncles, and generally all men of high rank.f The first duty of the householder, on the arrival of a guest belonging to anv of these classes, was, after salutation, to offer a seat. ^%^T^-Jr«R>i^T^flT ^T=!T^Tf^ ^^Tf^f ^^T^fq" ff^^^T ?:T^t!TT^' I ^^■^TTff, fffTTS^TT^Tf^ II U II Kullvika Dhatta ; Manu, III, 120. [ 380 ] This was ordinarily a mat made of kus'a* grass, and in the case of ritvigs or officiating priests, it was the most appro- priate ; but the word used for it by As'valayana is vishfara, which means bedding, or an article to sit upon, and it may have been a carpet, a stool, a chair, or a couch. Wooden seats are particularly mentioned in different works. After the guest was seated, the most appropriate article for refreshing him, in a warm country like India, was water to wash his feet with. This was called pddya ; and the rule on the subject required that a Brahmana guest should have his right foot washed first, and then the left, the order being reversed in the case of S'lidras ; the Kshatri'yas and Vaisyas being left to follow their own inclination in the matter. The washing was repeated three times. The next offering was the arghya, which consisted of a little water with scents and flower garlands,-|- and was no doubt much more appropriate than what is offered to gods in the present day, which consists of sandal wood paste and a few grains of rice thrown on a flower and sprinkled over with water. The mantra for the offering was repeated three times. A glass of water for washing the face next followed, and the guest was expected to drink of it as much as he liked. The Mad/uiparka strictly so called was next brought forward. It consisted of curds and honey held in a small cup, butter being substituted when honey was not at hand. When bringing it, the host was required to look at it, and repeat a mantra three times. The guest received the cup while repeating a mantra, then looked at it while repeating another, and mixing the ingredients in llie cup with his index finger or the thumb or the little finger with a third, and cleared his finger by giving it a jerk while repeating a fourth mantra. He was required then to repeat t TT^g^T^lf^^^^^^^^"^^ I (iaii^andidyana's \'ntli on AVva- hiyana, I05. [ 381 ] three mantras successively, throwing a h'ttlc of the mixture after each repetition upwards into the air with the tip of his finger, offering it to Rudra, Aditya, and VisVcdevah. Then placing the cap on the ground, he tasted the mixture three times, repeating a mantra on each occasion. According to some, he had to cat the whole of the mixture in three mouths- ful, but according to others, a portion was left behind to be given to a Brahman, or should such a person to receive it happen not to be at hand, to be thrown into water.* A drink of water after this honeyed meal was of course a neces- sit}^, which was met in the same way as the first drink before the meal, the mantra for it being the same ; but a second drink followed with a different mantra. The order to give the remains of a tasted food to a Brahman is worthy of note. It would be the direst insult to a Brahman in the present day to ask him to receive such an offering. A cow was next brought forward and offered to the guest ; whereupon he said, " My sin is destroyed, destro)-ed is my sin," and then ordered the immolation of the animal with the words Oni kiini, " accomplish, Amen."f The host there- upon immolated the cow in the name of some appropriate divinity. If it were desired that the cow should be sanctified and let loose, then the guest repeated the mantra : " This cow is the mother of the Rudras, and the daughter of the Vasus, the sister of the Adityas, and the pivot of our happi- ness ; therefore I solemnly say unto all wise men. kill not this harmless sacred cow. Let her drink water and eat ^T^^HT^TW 5Efxrg f^f^%^ II ti. II t ^r^T^^^T^ 7TT %^^^ II ?^ II ^^ II ^8 '> [ 382 ] grass."* He then ordered it to be let loose, and the same was accordingly done. Lest this should lead to the idea that the feast at this ceremony may be celebrated without flesh- meat, As'valayana emphatically ordains that no JMadJiiiparka should be celebrated without flesh-meat,f and his commen- tator Garganarayana provides for this by saying that "when the animal is sacrificed, its meat supplies the requirement of the feast ; should it be let loose, flesh-meat should be pro- vided by other means, but on no account should the feast be without that article.":]; In this he has followed the ordinance of Manu, who declares that the man who, having in due form performed a (Madhuparka or other) ceremony, fails to eat flesh-meat, will be doomed to be born an animal for twenty-one generations ;§ and that Brahma having created animals for sacrifices, their immolation at a Vedic ceremonial cannot be injurious, and that animals, beasts, trees, tortoises, and birds, destroyed in the performance of sacred rites, rise after death in the scale of creation.;! Convenient as the ceremony of Madhuparka was for the celebration of a feast, it was not calculated to afford a ready and cheap supply of meat to persons given to its use, and accordingly Manu ordained (ante. p. 361,) that flesh-meat * 3?T?rr ^^TTHT ^f'^'fTT ^■^^T\ ^^TSjfH-rSJTTTJT-*??!^ Tlfw: I This m.intra occurs in llic ceremony of letting loose the cow which used to l)c led liefore a corjise to the Winning ground at a funeral. Vide 'Article on the l-'uneral Ceremony of the Hindus,' further on. ^^'UtT^ ?f^t%ST Ht^'T, ^-(^^^q^ flt^TJrl^T!! 1 AVv.ilayana I, 24-26. ^ .Manu \'. 35. U.i.l \". 394. [ 383 ] purchased at a butcher's stall was pure, and fit for con- sumption by pious Hindus. I have nowhere noticed that butchers were required, as among the Muhammadans, to observe any ceremonial rite before slaughtering animals, and am disposed to believe that none was observed, and that the only restriction was that the person purchasing meat for food had to offer a portion of it, after dressing it, to the gods, manes, guests, or beggars, which sufficed to accomplish a-yaj'tja. It is worthy of note here, that while killing of Brah- mans, drinking of spirituous liquors by Brahmans, stealing of gold belonging to Brahmans, defilement of the bed of spiri- tual preceptors, and association for a year with those who are guilty of the aforesaid four crimes, are reckoned by "\'ajna- valkya among the most heinous crimes — Mahdpdtaka, the mischievous killing of cattle is included among secondary or iipapdtaka offences, and the expiation for it is comparatively slight. A Brahman guilty of drinking spirits cannot expiate his crime without suicide produced by a draft of molten metal, while a cow^-killer is let off by Samvarta with a fort- night's short-commons, consisting of barley-meal, milk, curds and butter, a feast to Brahmans, and the gift of a cow.* Yajna- valkya is a little more exacting; he insists upon drinking of the five products of the cow, pancJiagavya, following a cow as it roams about, sleeping in a cattle-shed regularly for a whole montli, and ending with the gift of a cow, or a fine equal to the value of the animal destroyed.-f- He also recommends other forms of expiation, and his rival Smritikaras have each liis own scheme; but none insists upon any thing approaching suicide. XT^TT-ai flT^^ TTtW^ ^R-TTTTTTTT'rr TTTTT: I [ 384 1 The author of the NdrasinJiiya Prayoga-pdrijdta has copied verbatim As'valayana's rule about the necessity of eating beef at the Madhuparka ceremony, but qualified it by a quotation from the Aditya Purana which says that in the present Kali age the Madhuparka should be celebrated without slaughtering a cow. This quotation has been given at length by Parasara*, Hemadri and other compilers, and runs as follows : — " Protracted Brahmacharya, carrying of the beg- ging pot called Kamandalu, production of issue by a brother- in-law, gift of a daughter once already given away (widow marriage), marriage with girls of other than one's own caste by the twice-born classes, killing of noble Brahmans (versed in the Vedas) in fair warfare even if they come to the attack, entrance into the Vanaprastha state according to law, reduc- tion of the period of mourning on account of duty, or ser- vice, or for reading the Vedas ; expiations on the part of Brahmans involving loss of life ; condemnation for association with criminals ; immolation of animals at the Madhuparka ; acceptance as sons, of other than legitimate and adopted sons ; boarding together on the part of the twice-born house- holders with a servant, cowherd, friend of the famil}% and persons with whom agriculture is jointly carried on if thc\' be S'udras by caste ; pilgrimage to very remote places ; cooking of food by S'udras for Brahmans; expiatory suicide by falling from very high places, or into the fire ; suicide on account of extreme old age, and the like have been abstained from by noble and learned men at the beginning of the Kali Yuga for the well-being of mankind. The practice of revered persons is proof as potent as that of the Vcdas."-!- * I suppose this is a compiler and not the aullior of the Saiihita, for the latter (Iocs not fiuote authorities in support of his rules and ordinances. TTt^^l^ ^=^ ^Jzr* VT7 W% ^'^W^: I [ 385 ] The Vrihannaradi'ya Purana follows the above very closely, but at the same time it omits some acts and prohibits others which are not condemned by the former. The additional acts condemned are, suicide by getting one's self drowned in the sea, offering of flesh meat at S'raddhas, human sacrifice, horse sacrifice, Gomedha sacrifice, and Vedic yajnas involving sacri- fices of cattle.* It is worthy of note, however, that this prohibition in the Aditya Purana is not positive and explicit, but implied : " Because certain noble and wise men did not do so, and the practice of pious men is proof as potent as that of the Vedas," ergo they should not be done, the author ^T^^Tf^^ '^^ T7^fTTf^f:^^Tftr ^ I ^iT^^TfiT ^T'kj^t TT?TTW ^^^f ^^^ 1 1 ^^^T^w=^^^' ^i:%^T^ir'i^W^ II T.m^ ti^^ ^f^^TT ^5ol3^5n^??Jrtf^?Jl: I [ 386 i wished to say, but did not do so in so many words. Both these extracts proceed from Upapuranas of probably not more than eleven or twelve hundred years of age. Accord- ing to Professor Wilson, the Upapuranas are not older than the twelfth centur\', but seeing that the Vrihannaradi'ya has been quoted as an authority by Vallala Sena in his Dana- sagara, and he lived in the eleventh century, it must be at least four or five centuries older ; but they have been so care- lessly preserved, and are so full of interpolations, and altogether are of such questionable authenticity, that even the most orthodox Hindu holds them to be of very secondary rank compared to the Vedas, the Smritis and the Sutras. Thus it is said in the Prayoga-pdrijdta that where the S'ruti and the Smriti disagree, the S'ruti should prevail. Again the Smritis are more venerable than the Puranas, and of the Smritis Manu is the most authoritative.* In the opinion of Paulastya, who is himself an ori- ginal Smritikara, Manu must yield to the Kalpa Sutras, which, being derived immediately from the Vedas, are of greater authority than the Smritis.-|- This has not been contradicted by any lawgiver or commentator. The Upapuranas hold a lower rank than the Puranas, and have nowhere been allowed to override the latter, much less the S'ruti and the Smriti ; the order of precedence being, according to the above, ist S'ruti or Veda, 2nd Sutra, 3rd Smriti, 4th Puranas, 5th Upapurana. It is not a little remarkable, therefore, the last should be allowed in the present instance to prevail over the first four. The author of the Niniava-sindhu assumes even a lower [ 387 ] ground. He begins by quoting an unnamed authority which says, "Works which lead not to paradise, and are condemned by pubh'c opinion, should not be performed;" and then argues, " Thus, the slaughter of large bulls and large sheep for Brahmanas versed in the Vedas, though duly ordained, should not be done, being detested b}- the public. Further, the rule, let a cow fit for offering to Mitra and Varuna, or a barren cow, or one that has ceased to bear after first calving, be sacrificed, is dul)- ordained ; still such sacrifice being opposed to public feeling, should not be performed."* If such be the case, the question arises, whence comes this public feeling against the ordinances of the Vedas ? And we can nowhere meet with a more appropriate reply than in the fact that when the Brahmans had to contend against Buddhism, which emphatically and so successfully denounced all sacrifices, they found the doctrine of respect for animal life too strong and too popular to be overcome, and therefore gradually and imperceptibly adopted it in such a manner as to make it appear a part of their S'astra. They gave prominence to such passages as preached benevolence and mercy for all animated creation, and so removed to the back- ground the sacrificial ordinances as to put them entirely out of sight. Such a process is even now going on in Hinduism ^Txrt '^ ^W[ ^^T ^Tf^i'^Tf^rf^ f^f^fTT II [ 388 ] under the influence of Christianity, and, as the Hindu mind was during the ascendancy of Buddhism already well pre- pared for a change by the teachings of the Buddhist mission- aries, no difficulty was met with in making faith, devotion, and love supply the place of the holocausts and unlimited meat offerings ordained by the Vedas. The abstention was at first, no doubt, optional, but gradually it became general, partly from a natural disposition to benevolence, and partly out of respect for the feeling of Buddhist neighbours, such as the Muhammadans now evince for their Hindu fellow- subjects by abstaining from beef in different parts of Bengal, that writers found it easy to appeal to the practice of the people and public feeling as proofs even as potent as the Vedas, and authoritatively to declare that sacrifices were forbidden in the present age. This once done, the change was complete. In short, the Buddhist appeal to humanity proved too much for the Smriti, and custom has now^ given a rigidity to the horror against the sacrifice of animal life which even the Vedas fail to overcome. VII. SPIRITUOUS DRINKS IN ANCIENT INDIA. Denunciations against spirituous drinks. Craving for Ihem universal. Muham- madan addiction to them. Ancient Indo-Aryans' attachment to them. Pro- hibition by S'ukra A'charya. Do. by Krishna. Do. in the Smritis. Expia- tions. Failure of prohibitions. Notices of the use of spirituous liquors in the Ramayana, in the Mahdbharata, in Buddhist works, in the works of Kdlidasa, and Magha, in the Purdnas and the Tantras. Drinking Circles. Rules for drinking. Injunctions to drink, in the Matrikdbheda Tantra and the Kamd- khyd Tantra. Different kinds of si^rituous liquors. Arrack of the Vedas. Aniseed liquor. Jujube liquor. Rum greatly condemned. Seasons appro- priate for particular kinds of liquor. Foreign wines. Mode of drinking. Wine-glasses. Diseases resulting from drink. Fermented beverages. Soma beer. AGES and moralists have, in all ages and in every clime, expatiated in strong terms on the impro- priety of indulgence in spirituous drinks, and some physiologists have recently discovered that such drinks do not possess any of the virtues which tradition has all along ascribed to them. We arc told that they do not add to our strength, or power of digestion ; they have no influence on the heart's action ; they are powerless to increase the tem- perature of the body ; they cannot help us to resist the chilling effect of cold ; and are inert as aliments, failing alike in affording fuel for the lungs and material for the formation of the tissues. But neither the anathema of sages and moralists, nor the dicta of the professors of science, have anywhere sufficed to suppress their use. They prevail in some form or other in almost every part of the world ; and those primitive races which have no knowledge of them, seize them with the greatest avidity the moment they find them ; for, like tobacco, spirituous drinks have a peculiar charm [ 390 ] which enables them, if not to defy, at least to hold their own alike against the deductions of science and the mandates of religion. In the eye of reason, voluntary inebriation may appear in the most offensive light ; but there seems to be a craving in human nature to elevate the spirit above the dull routine of every-day existence, and to produce a tempo- rary exhilaration during which the cares and troubles of life are forgotten, and trains of delightful ideas fill the mind, which nothing can completely eradicate. The history of Muhammadan civilization affords a most striking illustration of the truth of this assertion. None con- demned the use of wine more emphatically than the Prophet of Arabia, and }'et there is no Muhammadan countr}- where the consumption of wine is other than considerable ; or, as the great historian. Gibbon, has aptly expressed it, "the wines of Shiraz have always prevailed over the laws of Muham- mad." The annals of the Indo-Aryans }-ield a no less remark- able illustration. The earliest Brahman settlers were a spirit- drinking race, and indulged largely both in Soma beer and strong spirits. To their gods the most acceptable and grate- ful offering was Soma beer, and wine or spirit (for in con- nexion with India the two words may be used synonymously, there never having been any such thing as pure wine,) was publicU' sold in shops for the use of the communit)'. In the Rig Veda Sahhita a h)-mn occurs which shows that wine was kept in leather bottles,* and frcel)- sold to all comers. The said wine was, likewise, offered to the gods, and the Saiitrdiiiani and the Vdjapaya rites, of which libations of strong arrack formed a prominent feature, were held in the highest esteem. Doubts have been entertained as to the nature of the Soma beverage, and people arc not wanting * " I deposit the poison in the solar orl), like a leather bottle in the house of a vendor of spirits." Wilson's Rig Veda, II, y. 204. [ 391 1 who repudiate its intoxicating nature ; but none will venture to deny that the sici'd of the Sautrdniani and the Vdjapaya was other than arrack manufactured from rice-meal, and that will sufifiice to show that the Vedic Hindus did countenance the use of spirit. As to the Soma, if any reliance is to be placed in the directions given for its preparation, and on the Vedic descriptions of its effect on the gods, it is im- possible to take it to have been other than a fermented intoxicating beverage. Of this, however, I shall treat lower down. In the hot plains of India, over-indulgence in spirituous drinks, however, gradually, bore its evil consequences, and among the thoughtful a revulsion of feeling was the result. The later Vedas accordingly proposed a compromise, and, leaving the rites intact, prohibited the use of spirit for the gratification of the senses, in language very similar to Elihu Burrit's "Touch not, taste not, smell not, drink not," sa}-ing "Wine is unfit to be drunk, unfit to be given, and unfit to be accepted."* They denounced drinking to be heinous in the last degree, quite as bad as the murder of a Brahman. The Smritis, following in their wake, included the sin of winc- bibbing among the five capital crimes or niahdpdtakas, and ordained the severest punishment against the offender. It is said that the prohibition was first promulgated by S'ukra Acharya, the high priest of the Asuras, who was dis- gusted by the remembrance of certain excesses to which he himself had been led by over-indulgence in strong drink. The Mahabharata has euphemi/.cd the story in the 76th chapter of its first book. According to it, Kacha, son of Vrihaspati, had become a pupil of S'ukra Achar}-a with a view to obtain from him the charm of reviving dead men, which none else knew. The Asuras came to know of this, and, dreading lest the pupil should obtain, and afterwards impart, the great i 392 i secret to the Devas, assassinated him, and mixed his ashes with the wine of his tutor, and thus transferred him to the bowels of S'ukra Achar}-a. It happened, however, that during his pupilage Kacha had won the affection of Devayani, the youthful and charming daughter of S'ukra Acharya, and that lady insisted upon her father to restore the youth to her, threatening to commit suicide if the request was not complied with. S'ukra, unable to decline the favour to his daughter, repeated the charm, and anon, to his surprise, found the youth speaking from his own belly. The difficult}^ now was to bring the youth out, for this could not be accomplished without ripping open the abdomen of the tutor. S'ukra Acharya thereupon taught the }-outh the great charm, and then allowed himself to be ripped open, and Kacha, in grateful acknowledgement of his restoration to life, revived his tutor. Now S'ukra Acharya, seeing that it was the influence of drink which had made him insensible, and swallow the ashes of a Brahman, and that Brah- man his own pupil, prohibited the use of wine by Brahman s. " From this day forward," said he, " the Brahman, who, through infatuation, will drink arrack (surd) shall lose all his religious merit ; that wretch shall be guilty of the sin of killing Brah- mans, and be condemned in this as well as in a future world. Let all pious Brahmans, mindful of their duty to their tutors, as also to the Devas and mankind in general, attend to this rule of conduct for Brahmans ordained by me for all the regions of the universe."* S'ukracharya was followed by Krishna, who also cursed the wine-bibber, because his kith and kin, the Yadavas, proved the most intractable and unrul}' of drunkards. [ 393 ] The legends on which these prohibitions arc foundccl may be, for ought we know, after-thoughts, designed to illus- trate the heinousness of excessive indulgence, and to give weight to the prohibitions, b\' invoking the authority of great men against over-indulgence. Ikit the fact remains unques- tioned that, from an earl)- period, the Hindus have denounced in their sacred writings the use of wine as sinful, and two of their greatest lawgivers, Manu* and Yajnavalkya,-f- held that the only expiation meet for a Brahman who had polluted himself by drinking spirit, was suicide b\- a draught of spirit or water, or cow's urine, or milk, in a boiling state, taken in a burning hot metal-pot. Angira, Vas'istha and Paithi'nasi restricted the drink to boiling spirits alone.:J: Devala went a step fur- ther, and prescribed a draught of molten silver, copper or lead as the most appropriate.§ Even in cases of accidental drinking of spirits through ignorance on the part of any of the three twice-born classes, nothing short of a repetition of the initial sacramentary rites, effecting a complete regenera- tion, is held sufficient to purge the sin. The Brahman woman who transgresses this law, is denied access to the region of her husband, and is doomed to be born a slut, or a cow, or a vulture.*! Manu, likewise, provides for judicial cog- nisance of such offence by Brahmans, and ordains excommu- * M.inu XI, 91 to 96. grT^T^^fT^f Tft(3(T ?TT:mT^f^^=^frT I + ?5rTXTgT|;^T^^T ^Tfi^^?nt ^TTT fTT%?T I [ 394 ] nication and branding on the forehead the figure of a bottle as the most appropriate punishment. " 237. For violating the paternal bed, let tJic mark of a female part be impressed on tJie forehead ivitJi hot iron; for drinking spirits, a vintner's flag ;* for stealing sacred gold, a dog's foot ; for murdering a priest, the figure of a headless corpse, " 238. With none to eat with them, with none to sacri- fice with them, with none to read with them, with none to be allied by marriage to them, abject and excluded from all social duties, let them wander over the earth. " 239. Branded with indelible marks, they shall be de- serted by their paternal and maternal relations, treated by none with affection, received by none with respect : such is the ordiance of Manu." (IX.) Even drinking of water kept in a wine-bottle is held sinful, and various expiations arc recommended for remov- ing the sin.i" Other authorities on law and religion arc in no respect less stringent. And yet it would seem that at no time in their history have the Hindus as a nation altogether abstained from the use of spirituous drinks as a means of sensual grati- fication. Elders, anchorites, sages and learned men, forming the bulk of the priestly race, doubtless scrupulousl}' abstained frcjm them, as they do now in this and other countries ; and a good number of pious and respectable householders, and men of rank and position of the other classes followed their example, even as they do now ; but as they constituted but a * The words arc gOXn^ gTrT^afW- H " For .Irinkinj; sura, a liquor-nag,"' 1ml as there is no Hag known as peculiar to arrack, or arrack-sellers, commenta- tors take the term utrddhvaja to m<^.\n the particular kin-1 of jar or flagon which was formerly used to hold liquor. What the >hape of this jar was, I cannot ascertain. [ 395 ] fraction of the sum total of the communit)-, their abstinence could not lead to abstinence on the part of the whole nation, or the bulk of it. There was probably also a considerable amount of hypocris)-, or outward expression of liorror against wine on the part of the higher orders of the people, such as wc know does prevail in the present day ; but Sanskrit litera- ture, both ancient and mediaeval, leaves no room for doubt as to wine ha\ing been \-cr}' extensi\-el\' used in this countr)' at all times, and b}- all classes. Manu, notwithstanding his stern anathema, found the public feeling or practice so strong against him as to be under the necessity of observing in one i)lace that " there is no turpitude in drinking wine," but "a virtuous abstinence from it produces a signal compensation."* Elsewhere he provides that the soldier and the merchant should not deal in spiri- tuous liquors, leaving the S'udras to follow the trade at their pleasure.-f- The prohibition in the case of the soldier and the merchant refers to arrack onl)', so they were at liberty to take all other kinds of liquor, and accordingly the IMitakshara comes to the conclusion that Brahmans alone have to abstain from all kinds of spirituous drinks, the Kshatn'ya and \'aish}'a from arrack or Paishfi, lea\-ing the S'udras to indulge in what- ever they liked.:|: Coming from the age of the Vedas to that of the Sutras, I find that not only the Soma and the Sura of the Sahhitas and the Brahmanas retained their firm hold on the people, but several new candidates for public favour appeared in the forms UsfTltWT Vrn^TT f^TlfTl^ ^T^ITF^T l| t X, Sg. fH^>j: I "^l^^ ^ ^ ^T:iTTffi^>rt ^Tlftr ?T^TTf5?if^fi^5flT ^TZJ ^^B f"^ "^^^ I jh^ f^flT ^cT^^^Tt 1T:T II II VincciU's rciii)lu> II, .Xiii'ciuiiN, \<. O7. [ 417 ] stuff, to remove the pungency or smarting- caused in the mouth by the raw spirit. For this purpose fruits, roasted mince-meat, and cakes were most approved by the higher classes, but the lower orders had to content themselves with parched or fried grains and pulses seasoned witli salt and chilli. These wine biscuits were held in great requisition, and were known by various technical or slang names, such as Upadars'a, Upadansa, Avadansa, Chakshaiia, Madyapdsana, J\//idrd, &c. I ha\-e nf)ticed the word nakuli also so used in the Bengali Chandi and some of the Tantras, but I am not able to put my hand on the text of the latter just now. The word probably came from nakuli, flesh-meat ; but I learn from m}' friend Mr. Blochmann, that in Arabic the word is used in the same sense, and it is possible that some of the modern Tantras borrowed it from the Muhammadans. Anyhow, the word has become generally current, and one of the names of S'iva is Nakiiles'a or " lord of wine biscuits," and no drinking party was formcrl}' complete without a good suppl}- of these tit-bits. Looking to the nature of the climate, the character and temper of the people, and the anathemas which the Sastras have, from time to time, hurled against the drunkard, it might be taken for granted that men of the higher castes, and good people generally, did set their faces against drinking, or, at least, did preserve an outward appearance of horror against those who openly outraged the mandates of the Smriti ; but it would seem that for all that cases of delirium tremens turned up pretty frequently, and several very expressive names were current in the country at one time to indicate the disease. One of them means "wine horror," inaddtanka ; another "wine disease," niddatyaya ; a third "wine complaint," madavyddha ; &c. The descriptions of the disease, as given in Sanskrit medical works, arc detailed and precise, discriminating care- full)- between the illness caused b)- excess, and that by sudden [ 4i8 ] abstinence after a protracted over-indulgence. These names and descriptions could not have come to existence, had there not been immoderate drinking in many instances to give rise to the complaint. There is another indication in medical works which is worthy of note ; it is the multiplicity of receipts for removing the odour of wine from the mouth. None but the rich or well- to-do could have required such prescriptions to guard against the accusation of having taken wine, and the existence of the recipes implies the existence of a class of men who were ad- dicted to drinking, and yet wished to pass among their neigh- bours for teetotallers. Of fermented beverages, which were drunk without pre- vious distillation, four kinds are mentioned, vi.-:. cocoa toddy, palm toddy, date toddy, and the Soma nectar. The first was known only to those who inhabited the sea coasts, where alone the tree which }'iclded it is met with. The acetous fermen- tation in its case was so rapid, that transmission of the liquor from one part of the country to another was out of the ques- tion, and none but those who lived in the neighbourhood of the tree could drink the juice in a vinous state. The date and the palm toddies suffered in the same way, and were unfit for transmission to distant places ; but the trees which yielded them were common almost all over India, and so the)' were more easily accesible, and more widely known. But the}' never seem to have attained any great popularity. The soma nectar was likewise open to this objection ; for it, too, had no keeping quality, and, for aught we know, was never manufactured for sale; but it was associated with the earliest history of the Aryans, even before they separated from the ancient Persians, and enjoyed the proud pre-eminence of a god as long as Vedic rites governed the conscience of the people. The Rig Veda Sanhita is most lavish in its praise, and all the four Vedas furnish innumerable mantras for repetition at every stage of its [ 419 ] manufacture, and from the moment a resolution was made to commence one of the rites at which it was to be used (and all the principal rites such as the Dars'a, Piirnamasa, Jyotish- toma, Ukthya, Shodas'iman, Vajapeya, Atiratra, Aptaryama, &c., could not be celebrated without it), nothing could be done without appropriate mantras, and the ritual throughout was most complicated and tedious. It would be foreign to the object of this paper to describe in any detail the several steps in the nianufacture of the beverage ; suffice it to say that it was made with the expressed juice of a creeper {Asdc- peas acida^ or Sarcostema viiniiialis), diluted with water, mixed with barley meal, clarified butter, and the meal of wild paddy (iiivdra), and fermented in a jar for nine days.* The juice of the Soma creeper is said to be of an acid taste, but I have not heard that it has any narcotic pro- perty ; I am disposed to think, therefore, that the starch of the two kinds of meal supplied the material for the vinous fermentation, or, in other words, played the part of malt, and the Soma juice served to promote vinous fer- mentation, flavour the beverage, and check acetous decom- position, in the same way that hop does in beer. Any- how, it may be concluded that a beverage prepared by the vinous fermentation of barley meal, should have strong intoxi- cating effects, and it is not remarkable, therefore, that the Vedas should frequently refer to the exhilaration produced by its use in men and gods. The addresses to Indra, Agni, Mitra, and other gods in the Rig Veda are full of allusions to exhilaration caused by the use of the soma. " The sacred prayer, desiring your presence, offers to you both, Indra and * Stevenson's Sama Veda, p. 5., Hang's Aitareya lirahmana, I., p. 6. Manning's Ancient India, I., p. S6. For the mantras used in llic course of preparing the soma beverage vide, Taittiriya Sanhita, Kanda I. I'rapaihalcas II., III., IV., and Kanda, VI., I't. I. to IV. The Kalpa .Siitras and the Soma- prayogas supply the details. [ 420 ] Agni for your exhilaration, the Soma libation. Beholders of all things, seated at this sacrifice upon the sacred grass, be exhilarated by drinking of the effused libation." (I., 7., xxvii., 4, 5.) Other quotations on this subject may be easily multiplied, but they arc not needed. Suffice it to say that the object of drinking the Soma is expressly stated to be in- toxication : niaddya arvenehi somakdniani tvdJie rayavi sutas- tasya pud maddya ; and Indra drinks it in such large quan- tities, that his belly becomes enormously distended. Univya chdjatliani avrishasva. As regards men, its effects are de- scribed as equally exhilarating and inebriating. A story occurs in the Black Yajur Veda in which a sage, Vis'varupa by name, son of Tvashtu, while engaged at Soma sacrifice, is said to have indulged so inordinately in the exhilarating beverage as to have vomited on the animals brought before him for immolation. For this, however, no proof is wanted, for the effect of Soma on the gods could have been onl\- assumed by a knowledge of what it was on the worshippers. The' Soma beer lasted for several days after its nine da}'s' fermentation. In some of the rites it certainly lasted for twelve days, but how much longer I cannot ascertain. It is certain, however, that it could not be kept sound for any great length of time, without distillation, and in a distilled spirit the Soma would be of no use. Accordingly, we find that no Soma juice was used when arrack was distilled from fermented meal. The liquor, thus prepared, was, as already stated above, called sura, and it was used as an article of offering to the gods in two important rites, namely, the Saiitrdviani and the Vdja- piya. The mode of preparing it is described in the canons of ]5audhd\-ana and Katya}'ana. They recommend three articles, viz., sprouting paddy, the sprout brought on b)' steeping paddy in water, very much in the same way as malt is produced, sliglitly iKirchcd barlc)- steeped in curds and diluted buUcr-miils-, and coarse powder of the same steeped [ 421 ] in whey. After proper fermentation, this was distilled in the usual way, and the liquor produced was poured in obla- tions on the sacred fire in lieu of the soma beer. Tlic Tait- tiriya Drd/unaija supplies a number of mantras for the pre- paration of the litiuor, but I can nowhere find any description of the still in which the distillation was effected. Katyayana recommends that the different articles required for the manu- facture of the liquor should be obtained by barter, and not b}' purchase with coins. In the Sautramani rite, the offcrin<^ of the liquor should be preceded by the immolation of three animals, a bull being one of them. The worshippers were required to partake of the remnant of the offerings, as the ceremon)' w(nild be incomplete without^thc repast. VIII. A PICNIC IN ANCIENT INDIA. The religious obligations of ancient Indians. The obligations rested piincipally on Brahmans. Want of information about ancient social life. Principal characters in the Picnic. The scene. Association with courtezans. Bala- (leva's constancy. Drinking. Varieties of spirituous drinks. Wine biscuits. Banquet. Buffalo-meat. Dressing of meat. Game birds. Sauces. Carving. Cakes. Presence of ladies at the festive board. Dancing. Partners at dancing. Music and dancing masters for ladies. Maidens prohibited to join in picnics. The picnic. The Party. Recreations in the sea'water. Repast. Cruising. Dramatic exhibitions. Dancing. Narada's frolics. A second series of aquatic recreations. The banquet. The bill of fare. Mu.sic, sing- ing and dancing. The Chhalikya tune. HE Vedas represent the ancient Indo-Aryans to have been eminently religious in all their actions. According to them, every act of life had to be accom- panied by one or more mantras, and no one could rise from his bed, or wash his face, or brush his teeth, or drink a glass of water, without going through a regular system of purifi- cations, salutations, and prayers ; and if he really did practice all the rites and ceremonies enjoined in those works, his life doubtless must have been an unbroken chain of religious observances from birth to burning-ground. It would seem, however, that the bulk of the community did nothing of the kind. Certain sacraments antl initiatory rites everj'body had to go through, and well-to-do persons had to celebrate feasts and fasts from time to time ; but in all such cases, the heaviest burden they had to bear was a pecuniary one, the actual performance of the ceremonies being left to the priest- IkkkI. Ik'fure the Tantric fuvm of worship got currency in the country, the S'udra had literally nothing to do by way [ 423 ] of religious exercise beyond evincing a reverential devotion when he employed one or more Brahmans to perform a sacri- fice, or get through a sacrament, and to salute and bow as often as required. No Vcdic mantra could be repeated by him even when offering water to the spirits of his ancestors, and there was, for him, no other set form of prayer wherewith to address the Great Father of the universe. The Vais'ya and the Kshatriya, as belonging to the twice-born classes, and having the right to wear the sacrificial cord, were at liberty to repeat Vedic mantras, and had to repeat them when going through particular sacraments, or performing s'raddhas ;. but, like the S'udras before the Tantric period, they had no regular ser\-icc for daily observance, beyond one or more salutations to the great soul of the sun, or the repe- tition of the Gayatri. At the periodical feasts and fasts they, as Yajamanas, or the institutors of sacrifices, provided the wherewithal to perform the rites and ceremonials, installed the priests in their respective offices, and recompensed them for their labour. But in the actual work of repeating man- tras, offering oblations, and going through the ritual, they took but a slender share. It was the Brahman only for whom the Vedas enjoined an endless round of rites, ceremonies and observances, innu- merable mantras for repetition on different occasions, and a host of fasts and penances extending from a single night to many years. But as they formed but a small section of the general communit}-, their examples, however well calculated to restrain immorality and induce a religious spirit, did not keep the people engaged in actual religious ceremonies for any protracted period, or too frequent!}-. At any rate, the claims of religion on their time and attention were not greater than what they were on those of other nations of antiquity ; and the people at large ate and drank and enjoyed life without any serious let or hinderance. Even Brahmans, [ 424 ] when not actually engaged in the performance of sacrifices, were not debarred from the sweets and pleasures of the world ; and the most ancient treatise* on the various ways of enjoying the society of women, /. e., on the ars erotica^ is due to a hoar)' sage named S'ankhayana, whose ordinances are held to be quite as sacred as the Vedas themselves. Little is, however, known as to how the people enjoyed themselves in their light moments, and of the games, pas- times, recreations and entertainments which pleased them the most. I think, therefore, that the following extract from the Harivahs'a Parva of the Mahabharata, (chapters i46-47)-f- affording a most graphic picture of an ancient Indian Picnic, will not be uninteresting to those who are curious on the sub- ject. It depicts a state of society so entirely different from what we are familiar with in the present day, or in the later Sanskrit literature, that one is almost tempted to imagine that the people who took parts in it were some sea-kings of Nor- way, or Teuton knights carousing after a fight, and not Hindus ; and yet, if the S'astras are to be believed, they were the Hindus of Hindus, the two most prominent characters among them being no less than incarnations of the Divinity, and another a holy sage, who had abjured the world for constant commu- nion with his maker, and whose law-treatise (Ndrada San- Jiitd) still governs the conscience of the people. The scene of the Picnic was Pindaraka, a watering- place on the west coast of Guzarat, near Dvarka. It is des- cribed as a tirtJia or sacred pool, and the trip to it is called tirtha-ydtrd, or a pilgrimage to a holy place ; but the sequel shows that the trip was one of pleasure and had nothing reli- gious about it. The party, headed by Baladeva, Krishna, and Arjuna, issued forth with their families and thousands of * .S'dn1o^ ^«n^ U^SJ! ?^^: I [ 427 ] displaying it were crowded b>- customers. In Kashmir, such meat, I am told, is regularly sold in the present day to Hindu purchasers, and the lower orders of the people in Bengal, such as Muchis, are particularly fond of it. The meat was roasted on spits, ghi being dropped on it as the dressing proceeded, and seasoned with acids, sochel salt, and sorrel leaves. In the time of the Rig Veda the meat was cooked with milk, and there is a passage in which Vishnu is described as carrying away the broth made of a hundred buf- faloes and a hog.* Elsewhere it is said (VI., 17, 11.) "For thee, Indra, whom all the Maruts, in concert, magnified Pushan and Vishnu cooked a hundred buffaloes. For him three lakes discharged the Vritra-slaying, exhilarating Soma."-f- Venison was liked in a boiled state, dressed in large haunches, and garnished with sorrel, mangoes, and condi- ments. Shoulders and rounds of other kinds of meat in large pieces were boiled, roasted on spits, or fried in ghi, and sprinkled over with sea-salt and powdered black-pepper. Beef, however, is not mentioned as forming an ingredient in the feast, although the Mahabharata elsewhere describes a king named Rantidcva who used to slaughter daily two thousand heads of cattle, besides as man)- other animals, for use in his kitchen. He is described as a most virtuous king. \\ho acquired great religious merit by daily feeding innu- merable hosts of beggars with beef.^ ■STfT ?Tf^WT^ W^^^T^lft^^' giTT^fJT^ tj^^ II VIII., 66., lo. t Muir's Sanskrit Texts IV. 70. [ 428 ] Curries were likewise prepared with meat ; but they did not take a prominent part in the bill of fare. Even little birds were preferred roasted on spits to being fried or curried. The text is silent as to the species of the birds used ; but in the Grihya Sutra of AsValayana, partridges (tittiri) are re- commended as appropriate for infants just beginning to take solid food, and ducks, doves, pigeons, and ortolans were formerly in common use. For sauces and adjuncts, tamarind, pomegranates, sweet- basil, sub-acid herbs, ginger, assafoetida, and radishes were largely used. The text is not clear as to whether the buffalo meat was roasted entire, or in cut pieces, but the haunches, shoulders, and rounds, dressed entire, must have necessitated some kind of carving. As no allusion is, however, anywhere made to knife and fork, it is to be supposed that " the cooks, who, under the superintendence of diligent stewards, served at the feast," must have carved the meat before offering it to the guests, in the same way as is done in Persia, Arabia, and other Muslim countries. It was in fact the French custom of carving on the side-board, which is so fast gaining ground in England. The idea of such carving just before serving, is horrifying in India in the present day, and no meat food is dressed in larger pieces than what can be served to one person. Sweetmeats and cakes, when intended for offerings to gods, are sometimes made very bulky, but when prepared for man they are scldon made larger than what would suffice for one individual. Of cakes, the text does not afford a good list, nor does it mention their constituents in any detail. Sugar and cheese are the only substantial materials named, and salt, ginger, saffron, and ghi as adjuncts. The only three kinds of made- cakes I can recognize arc drdra, a cake made of sugar and cocoanuL graliiigs spiced with ginger, now called ddraki ; [ 4^9 ] candied sugar coated with tila seed — khandaka, now known as virakhandi ; 2.v\6. gJinta-purnakd a compound of flour, sugar, and ghi, common in the present da\' in the North-West under the name of ghevar. These were partaken along with wine as dessert, after the first course of meat had been finished. It is not distinctly mentioned whether the ladies joined the party at the first meal, but as they were present at the dessert and regaled themselves with spirits, roasted birds, and sweetmeats, and the elders, who did not partake of flesh-meat and spirits, remained in the company, and made their repast on vegetables, fruits, curds, milk, whey, cream and the like, the inference becomes inevitable that the woman- kind did sit with their lords at the first course, and partake of the meat food. This may appear shocking to modern Hindu ideas of propriet}-, but where the whole course of life and rules of social relationship were entirely different, this departure from strict etiquette, even when opposed to the maxims and canons of the S'astras, cannot be taken to be such as not to be probable. The descriptions of dancing, singing, music, and dra- matic exhibitions speak for themselves, and call for no remark. In dancing, the practice seems to have been for each man to take his wife for his partner, and accordingly we see Baladeva dancing with his wife Revati', Krishna with Sat}-abhama, and Arjuna with Subhadra, Those who had no wives with them, danced with public women ; but the)^ all danced and sang together, in the same arena without an}- sort of restraint. Those who were so unfortunate as not to get partners danced b)' themselves, and often became the butt of their neighbours' wit and humour. The part which the sage Narada takes in dancing, gesticulation and mimicr\-, and as the butt of cxcry practical joke, is worth)- of parti- cular nutc, as show inq; that the saintK' character of ancient [ 430 ] Indian sages, was by no means a bar to their joining in fun and frolic, and partaking of the pleasures of the world. Dancing with one's own wife will doubtless appear to Euro- peans in the light of a sample of Eastern jealousy ; but to modern Indains the mere fact of ladies of rank dancing before a large assemblage, and in the presence of seniors, will not fail to strike as highly reprehensible. To qualify the ladies for taking a becoming part in such entertainments it was formerly necessary to employ music and dancing masters in every respectable household. As in Italy two centuries ago, so in India many centuries before that, eunuchs were much esteemed for the sweetness of their voice, and held in great requisition as teachers of music, and in the Virata Parva of the Mahabharata, Arjuna becomes a eunuch, in order to serve as a music master to the daughter of a king. I do not find any reference to maidens as forming mem- bers of the picnic party, and the description in a subsequent chapter of Bhanumati, the maiden daughter of Bhanu, a Yadava chief, having been abducted from her home by the demon Nikumbha, while the Yadavas were away from Dvarkd engaged in their carousals, would suggest the inference that they were not taken to such gatherings. The description of the picnic in the Harivans'a is given below. The translation is anything but literal, and many epithets and repetitions have been omitted, but not a single word has been put in of which there is not a counterpart in the original, or which has not been rendered necessary for the sake of idiom. "When Vishnu of unrivalled vigour dwelt at Dvaravati',* he once desired to visit the sea-side watering-place-f- of Tin- * Dvarka, so called from its having had many doors, " the city of a hundred gates." t Lit. ihilui a sacred podl, hut the sequel will sliuw tluU tlie triji was one in quest of pleabuie, and not a iiil};iimat;e for religiou.^ merit. [ 431 ] daraka. Appointing king Vasudcva and Ugrascna regents for the management of state affairs, he started with the rest (of his family). "The wise Balade\-a, the lord of regions, Janardana and the princes, earthly lords of god-like glory, issued forth in separate parties. Along with the handsome and well-adorned princes, came thousands of prostitutes. These dealers on their beauty had been originally introduced into Dvdravati by the mighty Yadavas, who had brought them awa)' from the palaces of the Daityas whom they had conquered. These were common harlots who had been kept for the entertain- ment of the Yadava princes. Krishna had kept them in the city with a view to prevent unseemly brawls which, at one time, used to take place on account of women. " Baladeva went out with his affectionate and only wife, Revati, on whom the glorious chief of the Yadu race, enter- tained the feeling which the Chakravaka has for his mate.* Adorned with garlands of wild flowers, and jubilant with draughts of kadamba wine, he disported with Revati in the ocean waters. * The Brahmani drake, Anas ru/i/a, is said to be the most constant of husbands. Separated at night from each other, the drake and the duck, mourn their hard fate, and send forth from the opposite banks of a river tlieir lamen- tions to each other; " Chakwi, may I come?" "No, chakwa." " Chakwd, may I come?" "No, chakwi," being the burthen of their woe. The legend has it that two lovers, for some indiscretion, were transformed into Brahmani drake and duck, and condemned to pass the night apart from each other on opposite banks of a river. A Bengali epigram says, a fowler shut up a drake and a duck in the same cage at night, whereupon said the duck : " How happy even this sad state when the fowler appears kinder than our fate.'' f%fif ^z"^ ^ft^ ^t^ - from their homes, these women had been o\-ercome b\- the sua\-it\' of the princes ; and the latter in their turn were delighted with the singing and acting and dancing of these excellent persons. " iVt this time, Krishna sent for Panchachiuhi, Kau\cri, .M.Uiendri, and other accomplished A[)sarases to heighten the pleasures of the entertainment, and when the}-, with folded hands, appeard before him, and saluted him, the Lord of the universe spoke to them most encouragingl}-, and desired them to join the fete without fear. ' I-'or m}- sake,' said he, ' O fair ones, entertain the Yadus ; exhibit to them }-our rare profi- ciency in dancing and singing, as well as in acting and music of diverse kinds. These are all m}-self in different persons, and if you entertain them well, and acquit voursel\-cs becom- ingly, I shall grant }-ou all \uur desires.' " The charming Apsarascs respectfully received the order- of Hari, and entered jo}-fully the pleasant throng of the noble heroes. Their advent on the waters shed new lustre on the wide ocean, like lightning playing on the breast of heavy dark clouds. Standing (jn water as on land, they played on aquatic musical instruments, and enacted heavenly scenes of delight. By their aroma and garlands and toilette. by their coquctr}-, blandishment, and wanton dalliance, the.se sweet ones with beaming e}-es robbed the minds of the heroes. By their side glances and hints and smiles, by their assumed arrogance and mirth and comi)laisance. they completel}- charmed their audience. When the princes were overcome [ 434 ] with wine, these bewitching actresses Hftcd them high in the air, and anon held them in their hand^, looking at them with enchanting grace. " Krishna himself commenced the same pastime with his sixteen thousand wives for their gratification, and this did not excite the ridicule or wonder of the Yada\-as, for they knew his worth and nature, and preserved their gravity. Some ran to the Raivataka hill, some to houses, and some to the jungle, whatever suited them best, and returned immediateh- after. By order of Vishnu, the lord of regions, the undrink- able water of the ocean then became drinkable, and the dam- sels ^^'ith beaming eyes, taking each other by the hand, walked on the water as on land, now di\ing deep, and anon rising on the surface. " Of eatables and drinkables, of things to be chewed, of things to be swallowed, of things to be sucked, and of things to be licked, there was nothing wanting, and whatever was desired was immediately forthcoming. " Wearing fresh garlands, these faultless women, never to be overcome, entertained themselves in private in the cabins of pleasant boats even as do the gods. " Having thus bathed, the Andhakas and the Vishnis in the afternoon entertained themselves by perfuming their persons with unguents on board their boats. Some of the cabins in these vessels were wide, others square, others circu- lar, others like the svastika, others like the Mandara hill, while others like the Kailasa and the Sumeru mountains. Some were shaped like birds, some like wolves, some like the paint- ed Garuda, some like cranes, some like parrots, and some like elephants; some painted with gateways of lapis-lazuli, some gilt, some bedecked with rubies and pearls and lapis-lazulis, and other gems, — all designed for the purpose by Vis'vakarma. Guided by able seamen, these boats, bright as gold, added new lustre to the billows. Pleasure boats and lenders and large [ 4>5 1 \'es.sels with coinintulious cabins adorned the breast of the flowing main. When these noble vessels n"io\-ed about on the sea, they seemed like the abodes of Gandharvas floating in the air. The heavenly architect, Vis'vakarma, had, in these cabins, depicted gardens and trees and tanks and festal halls and cars in imitation of those in the Nandana Park of Indra. and the)' were in no way inferior to their heavenly archetx-pes. " B)' order of Vishnu birds were singing sweetly and delightfully in the forest ; white cuckoos of paradise cooed mellifluentl}' for the gratification of the heroes ; peacocks, surrounded b\' their hens, danced gracefully on the tops of the cabins resplendent as moonbeams. The flags of the \essels bore the pictures of birds ; and the garlands on the vehicles were musical with the hum of bees. By order of Nara}-ana the trees (in the neighbourhood) produced fragrant flowers of all season. The zeph)'r, loaded with the pollen of \arious flowers and the aroma of the sandal-wood, blew gentl}', driving awa\- all exhaustion — now warm and anon cool according to the varying desires of the picnicians. No hunger, no thirst, no langour, no ennui, no grief assailed them, when through the grace of Vasudeva, they were engaged in this delightful fete of music, singing and dancing. '' Thus did these god-like heroes, protected b}- the wielder of the discus, occup\' themselves in their aquatic recreations, spreading over man\- leagues (yojanas) of the sea, the abode of waters. " For the sixteen thousand wives of Krishna, Vis'vakarma had provided appropriate vessels bedecked with the choicest jewels to be found in the three regions of the unixerse, and fur- nished with becoming wardrobes. Each wife had her separate cabin, decorated with lapis-lazuli, gold, and floral treasures of every season, and reciolent with the finest perfumes. " The long armed and hantlsomc Baladeva, covered with sandal paste, w ith c\-es glowing crimson under the influence [ 436 ] of kadambari wine, and unsteady steps, paid his attention solely to Revati. Dressed in two pieces of sky-blue cloth, bright complexioned as the moon, and languishing-eyed, he appeared charming, like the moon partially hidden under a cloud. With a beauteous ear-ring on the left ear only, and a pretty lotus on the other, beholding the smiling face and arching glance of his love, he entertained himself with her. " Now, by order of Krishna, the destroyer of Kans'a and Nikumbha, the charming band of heavenly n}'mphs repaired to the place of Baladeva to enjoy the sight of Revati. The\- saluted Revati and Baladeva, and then spreading around them, some of the fair and loveh^ ones danced, while others sang to the sweet cadence of music. Earnest in their desire to entertain Bala and his consort, the lovely daughter of king Revata, and by their desire, they exhibited various dramatic scenes, such as they thought would prove entertaining. Some of the damsels of fascinating forms, assuming the dress, lang- uage, and action of particular places, acted with great delight, beating time with their hands. Some sang the auspicious names of Sahkarshana Adhokshaja, Nandana, and others. Some enacted romantic scenes from the life of Krishna, such as the destruction of Kans'a and Pralamba ; the overthrow of Chanura ; the tying of Janardana round the waist by Yasoda, which spread wide her fame ; the slaughter of the giants Arishta, Dhcnuka, and S'akuni ; the life at Vraja ; the breaking of the two iVrjuna trees ; the execution of Vrikas, (wolves) ; the discomfiture of the wicked Naga king Kali'ya in a whirlpool of the river Yamuna ; the recover}' of certain blue lotuses from a lake after destroying the demon S'ankha ; the holding U}) of the liill Go\ardhana for the protection of kine; the straightening of the humpback of the .sandal-i^astc-grin- dress Kubja ; the reduction cjf Krishna's own faultless body into a dwarf; the overthrcnv of the Saubhas, the aerial city of 1 laris'- chandra ; Llic assum^Aion <>! tlu' name llalii}iidlKi, (.)r wieldci' [ 437 ] of the ploughshare ; the destruction b)- him of the enemies of the Devas ; the defeat of the might)- kings of Gandhara, tying them behind his car, and the rape of their daughters ; the abduc- tion of Subhadra; the victory over Balahaka and Jambumah' ; the loot of jewels, through his soldiers, from Indra. These and others, most delightful subjects, gratifying to Baladeva and Krishna, were enacted and sung by those beautiful women. " Inflamed by plentiful libations of kadamba liquor. Halarama the majestic, danced in joy w itii his wife, the daughter of Revata, sweetly beating regular time with his own hands. Beholding this, the damsels, were delighted. The wise and noble Krishna, to enhance the enjoyment of Bala, commenced to dance with his wife. Sat}-abhama. The mighty hero Partha, who had come to this sea-side picnic with great delight, joined Krishna and danced with the slender and lovely Subhadra (his wife). The wise Gada, Sarana, Prad)-umana, Samba, Satyaka, the heroic son of the daughter of Satrajit (Satyabhama), the handsome Charudeshna, the heroic princes Nisata and Ulmuka the sons of Baladeva, Safikava, the generalissimo of the army of Akrura, and others of the heroic race, danced in jo}-. B}' the grace of Krishna, the pleasure boats flourished under the dense crowd of the foremost dan- cers of the Bhaima race. Through the godlike glory of the heroic and most ardent dancers of the Yadu race, the creation smiled in joy, and all the sins of the princes were subdued. " The Brahman sage Narada, the revered of the gods, came to the scene for the gratification of Madhusudana, and in the midst of the noble Yadavas began to dance with his mat- ted locks all dishevelled, fie became the central figure in the scene, and danced with many a gesticulation and contortion of his bod}', laughing at Satyabhama and Kes'ava, at Partha and Subbadra, at Baladeva, and the worthy daughter of the king of Revata. B)- mimicking the action of some, the smile of others, the tlemeanour of a third set, and bv similar other [ 438 i means, he set all a-laughing who had hitherto preserved their gravity. For the delectation of Krishna, imitating the mildest little word of his, the sage screamed and laughed so loudly and repeatedly, that none could restrain himself, and tears came to their eyes (from immoderate laughing). By desire of Krishna, the ladies gave to Narada presents of costly jewels and dresses of the rarest description ; they showered on him also pearls and celestial garlands of the choicest kind, anci flowers of every season. *' When the dance was over, Krishna took by the hand the venerable sage Narada of imperturbable mind, and coming to the sea water along with his wife Satyabhama. Arjuna and others, addressed Sat}aki with a smile, saying. ' let us enter the delightful water with the ladies in two parties. Let Baladeva with Revati be the leader of one party, consisting of m}- children and half of the Bhaimas ; and let the other half of the Bhaimas and the children of Bala be on my side in the sea water." Turning then to the regent of the sea, who stood with folded hands before him, the delighted Krishna said to him : ' Let thy waters be Iragrant and clear, and di\'ested of noxious animals ; let them be cheering to the sight, and ornamented with jewels, and pleasant to walk upon. Knowing by my grace what is in each person's mind, render }'ourself agreeable to one and all. Render thy waters drinkable or undrinkable, according to each individual's choice ; let thy fishes be inoffensive and diversified in colour like gold and jewels and pearls and lapis-lazuli. Hold forth all thy jewels, and lotuses, red and blue, blofjming and fragrant and soft, full of sweet-flavored hone}-, over w hich the bees should pour their hum. Place on thy waters urns full of maireya,* madhvika,-|- sura,| and * .Spirituous liquor made of the l)lo.ssoms of Lytliru;ii frn/icosttiii with sugar, t Ditto made of the blossoms of the Bassia latifolia. % Ditto of lict-uical, — arrack. [ 439 ] asava,* and suppl)- tlie Hhaimas s^roklcn goblets wliorcuith to drink those liquors. Let thy mighty waters be cool and calm and redolent with rafts full of flowers ; and be mindful that my Yadavas be not in any way incommoded.' " Having thus issued his orders to the sea, he com- menced to play with Arjuna, while Satyabhama, incited by a wink of Krishna, began to throw water on Narada. Then Balarama, tottering with drink, with great glee fell into the water, and beckoning the charming daughter of Revata by his side, took her b}' the hand. The sons of Krishna and the leading Bhaimas, who belonged to the party of Rama, joyous and bent on pleasure, unmindful of their dresses and ornaments, and excited by drink, follo\\cd him into the sea. The Bhaimas belonging" to the part}'- of Krishna, headed by Nishatha and Ulmuka, arra\'ed in manj'-coloured garments and rich jewels and bedecked with garlands of parijata flowers, with bodies painted with sandal-wood paste and unguents, ex- cited by wine, and carr)-ing aquatic musical instruments in their hands, began to sing songs appropriate for the occasion. By order of Krishna, hundreds of courtezans, led by the hea\enly Apsarases, played various pleasing tunes on water and other instruments. Alwa3-s bent on love, these damsels, proficient in the art of pku'ing on musical instruments in use on the aerial Ganges,-|- played on the instrument called Jala- darddura\ and sweetly sang to its accompaniment. With eyes glorious as lotus buds and with chaplcts of lotuses on their crowns, these courtezans of paradise appeared resplendent as new-blown lotuses. The surface of the sea was covered by the reflection of hundreds of moon-like feminine faces, seem- ing as if by divine wish thousands of moons suddenly shot forth in the firmament. The cloud-like sea was relieved by * Ditto of sugar, — ruin. t It is supposed that there is a counterpart of the terrene Ganges in the air. X I cannot find any description of this instrument in treatises on Music. [ 440 ] these damsels like dazzling streaks of the charming mis- tresses of the thunderbolt, — even as the rain-bearing cloud of the sky is set off by lightning. Krishna and Narada, 'with all those who were on their side, began to pelt water on Bala and his party ; and they in their turn did the same on the party of Krishna. The wives of Bala and Krishna, excited by libations of arrack, followed their example, and squirted water in great glee with syringes in their hands. Some of the Bhaima ladies, over-weighted by the load both of love and wine, with crimson e}'es and masculine garbs, entertained themselves before the other ladies, squirting water. Seeing that the fun was getting fast and furious, Krishna of the discus-hand, desired them to restrain themselves within bounds ; but he himself immediately joined in play with Narada and Partha to the music of the water instruments. Though they were ardently engaged in their entertainment, still the moment Krishna expressed his wish, the Bhaima ladies at once desisted, and joyously commenced to dance for the gratification of their lovers. " On the conclusion of the dance, the considerate lord Kri.shna rose from the water, and, presenting unguents to the learned sage, put them on himself. The Bhaimas, seeing him rise from the water, followed his example, and, putting on their dress, repaired by his order to the banquetting hall There they took their seats according to their respective ranks, ages, and relationship, and cheerfully commenced the work of eating and drinking. Cleanly cooks, under the superintendence of diligent stewards, served them large pieces of meat roasted on spits, and meat cooked as curries, and sauces made of tamarinds and pomegranates ; young buffaloes roasted on spits and dressed by dropping ghi there- on ; the same fried in ghi, seasoned with acids and sochel salt and sorrel leaves ; large haunches of venison boiled in different ways with sorrel and mangoes, and sprinkled over [ 441 ] with c( •Klinicnts ; shoulders and rounds of animals dressed in ghi, well sprinkled over with sea-salt and powdered black- pepper, and garnished with radishes, pomegranates, lemon, sweet basil, ( Ocymiim gmtissinium,) assafoetida, ginger, and the herb Andropogoii scluciiaiitlius. Of drinkables, too, of various kinds, the party partook most plentifully with appropriate relishes.* Surrounded b\' their loved ones, they drank of marieya, madhvika, sura, and asava, helping them on with roasted birds, seasoneel with [)ungcnt condiments, ghl, acids, sochel salt, and oil ; cakes of rich flavour, some made with clayed sugar, some colored with saffron, and some salted ; ginger comfits, cheese,-f- sweet cakes full of ghi, and various kinds of candied stuffs. " Udhvava Bhoja and others, respected heroes who did not drink, heartily feasted on various kinds of cooked vege- tables and fruits, broths, curds, and milk, drinking from cups made of shells fragrant rasdla of diverse kinds'^ and milk boiled with sugar. " After their feast the gallant Bhima chiefs, along with their ladies, joyfully commenced again to sing such choice delightful songs as were agreeable to the ladies. The Lord Upendra (Krishna) was pleased at night to order the singing of the chhdlikya song which is called Devagandhaiim. There- * L'padarasa. The commentator Nilakantha takes this word for drinking goblets. Wilson in his dictionary explains it to mean, "a relish, or something to promote drinking." The last has the support of ancient lexicons. t Rasdla is a kind of sherbet made with cream, curds, sugar and spices large- ly diluted with water. % The commentator Nilakaiilha lias failed completely in explaining some of the wortls ; kildla for instance, he takes to be an adjective meaning things made of bufi'alo milk, whereas its true meaning is cheese, and the word in the muti- lated form lit is still current in the vernacular fur decomposed or curdled milk. The two words preceding it in the text are lavamuinitdii, drtii\ui, salted and moist or juicy, i.e., saltetl plump cheese. The commentator, however, takes the wortl dnhdii for a noun meaning ginger comfits. [ 442 ] upon Niirada took up his Vina of six octaves whereon could be played all the six musical modes (ragaj and every kind of tune, Krishna undertook to beat time with cymbals, and the lordly Arjuna took up a flute, while the delighted and excellent Apsarases engaged themselves in playing on the mridanga and other musical instruments. Then Rambha, the accomplished actress, cheerfully rising from one side of the court, delighted Rama and Janardana by her acting and her exquisitely slender figure. " Then Urvasi, of the sparkling eye, Hema, Mis'rakes'i, Tilottama, Menaka, and others, for the gratification of Krishna, acted and sang whatever was calculated to prove agreeable and pleasing to the company." After this follows an eulogium on the Chhalikya tune, which wsis sung in six octaves, and in various modes. The young and the old alike joined in the song, in order, evi- dently, to bring all the six octaves into play which no single human voice could compass. Originally, it was a specialite in the concerts of Indra in heaven. On earth Baladeva, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba were the most proficient in it, and they taught it to the other Yadavas. Songs for this tune, I understand from my friend. Raja Saurendramohan Tagore, who has made the Hindu science of music his special study, and possesses a critical knowledge of the subject, were composed of lines of 26 Syllables, and scanned in groups of four syllables, the first two being long, the next short, and the last circumflex. The measure of time (tdla) for singing it was the same. /. c, of two double instants, then one single instant, and lastly a triple instant, making together a measure of eight instants. This measure was called ChachcJiatpnfa. The subject of the song was always something fierce and heroic. I annex at, foot the Sanskrit quotations from the Sahgita Rntndvali and the Saiigita Darpaini furnished mo by m\^ friend in sup- [ 443 ] port of his explanation.* On the conclusion of this song which was sung by different parties, and repeatedly encored Krishna rewarded the dancing girls and the heavenly ac- tresses, and the company broke up. frT% ^^tqT ^"^^r tI^^t: ^^€T^^: I *ITf5T TTl^^^rif^ ^^UTT^TH ^^STTfTT^ ^^t^i^ TT^ f^>? 5^171 TTT^ T- STjTTcTcn^f^-^^: I (T^Wf* ¥^^?i'5'^^ 1 fn% ^^^2" ^^ ^S"^ ^'^ ^"f INDEX. Abhiras, blankets made by the 172 Abraham 011 swearing ... J 47 Abyssinia, efifect on architec- ture of British expedition to 9 Abyssinians, immigrants to India ... ... 31 Acarnanians, use of sHngs by the ... ... 306 Achaens, use of slings by the 306 Achilles ... 197, 321, 343 Acland, Rev. T. Popular Ac- count of the Manners and Customs of India ... 179 Acropolis, temples of, facing the east, 71. Metope of Silenus ... ... 134 Adam, dress of ... ... 196 Adhokshaja, a Yddava prince 436 Adhrigu, slayer at a Vedic sacrifice ... ... 374 Adhvaryu, an officiating priest 368, 370, 371, 372, 377 Adiparva, quoted ... 398 ^ditya, the sun ... ... 381 Aditya Purina, quoted 384, 385 yEgina, sculptures of ... 114 y^schylus, on the Gorgons ... 108 Afghans, conservatism in ar- chitecture, of the ... 10 Africa, dwellings in ... 51 Africanus, Scipio ... 22 Agamavagis'a, a celebrated S'akta ... ... 413 Agastya, a sage ... 277 Agastyas, a clan ... 289 Agni, 26, 219, 290, 324, 332, 343, 361, 371, 372, 4i9» 420 Agnidhra, a Vedic priest ... 372 Agnihotri, one who preserves a sacred fire ... ... 409 Agni Purdna, the, quoted 53, 57, 82, Zt,, 266, 296, 297, 298, 300, 302, 305. 313, 330, 335, 339 Agnivarna, a priace ... 402 Agra, ■ 28, 29, 30, 81, 87, 242 Ahavinya altar, the 370, 372 Pagfu. Ahavinya fire, the 368, 369, 371 Ain i Akbari, quoted ... 55 Aitareya Brdhmana 202, 376 Ajanta, 31. Paintings at ... 129 Ajax ... ... 321 Ajigarta ... ... 202 Akbar ... ... 188 Akrura, the army of ... 437 Alexander the Great, 3, 6, 9, 10, 17, 32, 4E, 43, 44, 49, 5°, i77, 'So, 221, 276, 302, 335, 336. Invasion ofFndia ... 172239,331 Allahabad ... ... 50 Allauddin Hussain ... 31 Almagest Z7, 3^ Alti Hills ... ... 81 Amd... ... ... 407 Amarakosha ^ 25, 184, 231, 350 Amarakoshamala ... 226 Amara Siiiha, 225, 226, 228, 312. The Vocabulary of 184 347 351 Amardvati, 42, 120, 178, 179, 18 r, 187, 188, 193, 194, 195, 200, 201, 216, 2E9, 228, 229, 238, 253, 255, 260, 283, 284, 293, 305, 315, 324, 332, 352 Amazons, the ... ... 148 America ... ... 5' Ananta ... ... 209 Ananta-Vdsudeva ... 62 Andhaka ... ... 206 Andhakas, the ... ... 434 Andromeda ... ... m Angira ... •••393 Aniruddha ... 442 Ankausa or goad ... 353 Annapurnd, 182, 213 Anthropology, Journal of ... 148 Antiquities of Orissa 17, 46, 55, 69, 119, 123, 124, 180, 182, 187, 215, 216, 221, 230, 232, 235, 236, 339 Anurddhd ... ... 89 Anvinda ... ... 331 Apamanyot ... ... 245 Apardjitii-prichchhd ... 40 Apastamba ... ... 191 INDEX. Pages. Apollo ... 122, 131, 140 Apollo Belvedere ... 97 ApoUonios ... ... 108 Apris ... ... 167 Apsarases 397, 433, 439, 442 Apsley House ... ... 197 Arabs, the ... 148,333 Arabia ... ... 428 the prophet of ... 390 Architecture, Classification of Indian ... ... 35 European ... 29 Greek ... 160 Indian, its origin i — Orissan ... 164 Principles of In- dian Temple... 51 Sanskrit works on ;i7 Tamulian ... 32 Archaeological Survey Reports 19, 43. 44, 129 Architraves, in Indian Temples ... ... 86 Ardra ... ... 363 Arishta ... ... 436 Arjuna 32, 327, 349, 398, 399, 424, 429, 430, 438, 439, 442 Arms, Offensive... ... 295 Defensive... ... 320 Arnold, Edwin ... 299, 338 Arrack . . . 408 Arrian 44, 46, 172, 223, 276, 292, 323, 326, 335, 336 ••• 335 Periplus of the Ery- thrian Sea, 25,172,276,277, 292, 294, 302, 416 Arrows, Ancient, 300, Material • of 302, Shape of 302, Size of 302 Art, the Ai^ginetan school of 113 Aryan ... 2,3 117 113 115 114 118 357 21 Arrian's Indica Assj'rian Doedalian Egyptian Etruscan Orissan Arundhati Aryan India Aryans i, 4, 5, '8, 32, Z2„ '32, 187 193, 194, 197, 208, 210, 219 301, 331,418 Aryans, the Indian 176, 178, 336 Ashddha ... ... 89 Pages. Asia ... ... 4, 5, 227 Central ... 188, 331, 136 Asiatic Researches ... 358 Asiatic Society of Bengal, Li- brary of the ... 37, 40 Journal of the. {See Journal) —Proceedings of the. See Proceedings As'oka 2,6,7, 10, II, 16, 18, 19, 32, 34, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46„ 47, 50, 359 the pillars of, i, 13, 14, 17, 81 Aspasia ... ... 172 Assam ... ... loi Assos ... ... 134 Assyria 12, 14, 15, 16, 52, 117, 120, 121,129,293,342 Assyrian architecture ... 13 monarchs, ... 5, 9 pillars ... ... 13 religion ... 146 towers ... 12 Assyrians, the, 9, 14, 15, 16, loi, 134, 142, 255, 263, 304, 332, 336 32,7, 338, 340 Asta mountain, the ... 267 Asuramaya ... ... yj Asura's cave ... ... 18 Asuras, the 26, 28, 32, ;iT„ 227, 301 30^, 391 As'valdyana 226, 273, 376, 377, 380 382, 384, 428 Siitra 2,(^3^373 As'vamedha 335, 361, 362 As'vatha ... ... 168 As'vint ... ... 89 As'vins, the 227, 290, 301, 324, 329 332, 341, 343, 344 Asymandiyas, king 133, 198 Atgharh ... ... 78 Atharva Veda ... 219,374 Athene ... ... 71 Athens ... ... 134 Atirdtra ceremony, the ... 367 Atri ... ... 27, 277 Atthas'ila ... ... 206 Attica ... ... 71 Augustus ... ... 126 Australians, the... ... 314 Avadanas, the ... 203, 399 Ayodhy;! ... 21, 222 INDEX 111 Babylon Bacchus Bactria -the Grecians of Pa^es. .. 52 .. 42 14 Bactrian Greeks, the 2, 11, 50, 152 Bactrians, the ... 49, 50 Bilhlika ... ... 2i2i^ Bahminy dynasty, the founder of the ... ... ... 31 Bahusodari ... 205 Baibhdr caves ... ... 18 Baitdl Devi ... ... 173 Bala 436, 437, 438, 440 Baladeva 398, 402, 414, 424, 425 426, 429, 431, 435> 436 437, 438, 439, 442 ,the sons of ... 437 Baldhaka ... ... 437 Balar^ma ... 437, 439 Balasore ... ... 81 Balearic Islands, the ... 306 Balfour, J. H. ... 169 Baikh ... ... 332 Bangles ... ... 232 Baranes ... 203, 204, 205 Baroach ... 276, 277 Barygaza ... ... 276 Battle-axe ... ... 315 Beams, Iron ... ... 86 Beard ... ... 219 Beatian ... ... 263 Bedding ... ... 249 Bedsteads ... ... 243 Beef in ancient India, 354. Mo- dern repugnance, 354. Ancient feeling, 354. Wilson's notice, 355. Mistaken notions, 356' Notices in ancient works, 356. Different rites, 360. Slaughter- ingof carcasses, 373. Dressing of meat, 374. IMadhuparka rite, 379. Eating of beef, 382. Date of prohibition, 384 Behar 2, 35,66, 85, 151, 174 224, 349 the caves of 11, 29, 34 Bejapoor, 30. Architecture of, 3, 30, 50 Beluchistan ... ... 332 Benares 28, 30, 35, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61,63,65,66, 173, 231,292 —temples, relative proportions of ... 56 Pages. Benches ... ... 252 Bengal 30,35,41,52,54,63,72, loi, 121, 123, 128, 130, 172, 173, 184, 186, 213, 218, 231, 237, 246, 249, 277, 278, 281, 282, 292, 317, 348, 388, 396, 403, 404, 405, 406, 427 Beuld, Monsieur, 117. On Assy- rian Art 117, 118 Beverages, fermented ... 418 Bhagadatta ... ... 331 Bhdgavata Purdna 399, 403 Bhdgavati, loi, 1 19, 232, 235, 236, T,. . 354 Bham-ia race, the, 437, 438, 439, 440 BhAndava sacrifice, the ... 145 Bhdndayana ... 356, 357 Bhd:numati, the maiden daughter of Bhdnu ... 430 Bharadvaja Bharata 171, 222, 306, 396, 398 .. 226 .. 29 ■• 365 ,. 175 ,. 150 .. 129 II, 365 •• 2>lo 293, 315 .. 70 S3, 267 .. 441 .. 140 40, 141 .. 290 10 -Mallika Bharatpur Bhava Bheels, the Bhilsa Tope Bhilsd sculptures Bhima Bhishma Bhoga Mandapa Bhogamandir ... Bhoja, of DhAr, Rdja Udhvava 396 Bhotanese idols Bhots Bhujyu Bhutanese, the ... Bhuvanes'vara 62, 65, 66, 68, 71,72, 74, 7d>, 81, 84, 86, 88, 122, 141, 150, 173, 174, 181, 188, 193, 195, 197, 201, 210, 213, 216, 218, 219, 228, 229, 242, 255, 260, 270, 272, 273, 278, 283, 284, 285, 289, 293, 300, 303, 307, 315, 316, 317, 320, 321, 322,324, 329, 332, 334 Bhuvanes'vara, the great Tower of 62, 63, 64, 65, 70, 74, 87, 88, 100, 119, 122, 141, 143, 156, 181, 187, 212, 213, 217, 231, 232, 248, 249, 255, 261, 262, 271, 273, 279, 315, 3=0 Bhuvanes'vara. the temple of 13, 88 Bimbisara ... 18. 19 IV INDEX. Pages. Birch, Mr. ... ... 340 Black Pagoda, the 80, 81, 156 Black Yajur Veda, the 360, 420 Blair Athol ... ... 333 Blanford, W. T. ... 78 Blochmann, J ... ... 417 Boats ... ... 289 Bodhisattvas ... ... 140 Bodhisattva, the 219, 349 Bombay, Bhdtias of ... 187 Bombay Review ... 49 Bones, removal of ... 91 Bonheur, Rosa ... ... 11 Borhanjjur ... ... 30 Boots ... ... 221 Botta, M ... ... 15 Bow, 296. Attitude in drawing the, 305. Drawing of, 303. materials of... ... 298 Boyd, Ralph ... ... 400 Bracelets ... ... 233 Brahma ... 407, 408, 409 Brahma 103, 104, 108, 112, 210, 287, 382 Brahmacharya 205, 206 Brdhmans 25, 40, 75, 104, 140, 171, 191, 192, 228, 264, 266, 269, 383, 384, 387, 392, 393, 395, 403, 404, 405, 407, 408, 409, 423 Brahmanaspati ... 361 Brahmavaivarta Purana 274, 287, 345 Brahmi ... ... 39 Briareos ... ... 108 Bricks ... ... 82 Bridle ... ... 334 Brihat Safihita 243, 244, 245, 246 247, 266, 267, 269, 317 Briseis ... ... 126 British Museum, the ... 134 Bucephalus, Alexander's horse 9 Buchanan-Hamilton, Mr. 183, Buddha 18, 19, 38, 105, 140, 151, 153, 179, 193, 349 Buddha Gaya 34, 43, 47, 53, 65, 88, 175, 179 Buddhism 38, 42, 103, 105, 106, 140, 206,388,399 Buddhist art ... ... 33 Buddhists, the 2, 5, 34, 50, 180, 203, 274 Buddhist temples ... 36 Building, Ground fit for, 90. Sea- son for, 88. Styles of, 82, Pages. I5umarang, the 313, 314 Burgess, James 49, 50 Burmah, 34, 264, the Dehgopas of ... ... 25 Bumiese, the ... ... 10 Burnell, A. C. ... ... 41 Burrit, Elihu ... ... 391 Cabul ... ... 332 Calanus, the gymnosophist ... 9 Calcutta, 28, 30, 130, 164, 234, 235 271, 282, 406. The High Court of Cape Colony Capitol, the Cappadocians ... Caps... Carey, W. 24, R^mayana Carlyle's Sartor Resartus Carmina Camatic Cars in Ancient India Carving in situ ... Assyrian plan of Egyptian plan of -Orissan plan of 25, 225 352 129 340 218 390 ... 199 276, 277 ... 172 ... 340 150 150 150 150 201 Caspian Sea, the Catalogue of Antiquities in the Royal Irish Academy Catapults Cellini, Benvenuto Celts Centaur Ceylon ... 34,292,397 Chairs ... ... 252 Chaitanya Chaldean religion Chdmara Chanddlas Chand, Benares MS. of the Poems of Chandernagor ... Chancji Chandikd, Chdnura Charaka Saiihita Chariots Charles II Chdrudeshna Chdturmasya Yaga Chelsea Hospital Chhandoga-paris'ishia Chin in sculpture 177 307 III 335 109 404 146 267 91 >45 30 417 72 436 360 340 •97 437 5 197 274 128 INDEX. 172, 330 ... 264 176, 177 ... 82 ... 80 35 177 203 lOI 175 315 144 China the Emperor of Chinese, the Chiti... Chlorite Christ, Jesus, 336, 346 172, 223, 228 Chutid Ndgpur ... Clanmacnoise Annahsts, O'- Donovan's Translation ... Clement of Alexandria Clito... Cloth-in Sculpture, 173. Dye- ing of Clubs Cnidos Coiffure Colebrooke, C. T. 358. Reli- gious Ceremonies of the Hindus ... ... 358 Colour in sculpture ... 143 Constantine ... ... 42 Corinthian columns 11,112, frieze ... 158 Coromandel Coast ... 238 Coronets ... ... 230 Cotton ... ... 168 Cottos ... ... 108 Crowns ... ... 233 Crystal Palace ... ... 198 Cunningham, General A. 17, 43, 44, 57, 128, 201, 202, 208, 280. Bhilsa Topes 208, 280, 321, 329 Cupid 108, 109, 400, 401, 402 Curtius, Quintus 280, 303 Cuttack 81, 213, 282, Dacca ... ... 288 Doedalus ... 113,114 Daggers, ... ... 319 Dahomey, the capital of ... 11 Daityas ... ... 431 Dalton, Colonel C. T. 195 Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal 195, 196 D'Alwis, James, 203, 208. Trans- lation of the Attanagula Wansa 203, 206 Dancing Hall, the ... 143 Das'aratha, 21, 25, 37, 206, 207,357. The palace of i, 2. The Satgarbha caves of ... 12 Dasras ... 34 'i 344 Dasyu, Origin of the word 210 Dasyus, the 26, 194, 200, 201, 202 207, 208 209, 210, 258 Features of ... 209 Decoration ... ... 157 Delhi 28, 29, 30, 31, 81, 323 Denny's Cities & Cemeteries of Etrurea ... ... 341 De Quincy ... ... 162 Essay on the Nature, the End and the Means of Imitation in the Fine Arts Derby, Lord the English Description de 1' Egypt .. 162 .. 127 •• 333 12, 147 198 393 Devala Deva, Sir Raja Rddhakdnta 40, 262, 412 S'abdakalpadruma 262,411 Devas, the ... 22, 392 the destruction by Krishna of the enemies of the ^ ... ... 437 Devaydni ... ... 392 Devi Purana, the ... 345 Dhanavriddhi ... ... 291 Dhanur Veda ... 297,303 Dharma, the son of ... 20 Dhenuka ... ... 436 Dhupa, a broad sword ... 323 Dhritarashtra ... ... 221 Diamond-plaster ... 85 Didymus, the scholiast of Homer ... ... 127 Dindjpur ... ... 35 Diodorus Siculus 84, 116, 276 Dipawanso ... ... 241 Direction of temples ... 71 Diseases produced by intem- perance in wine ... 417 Divdn Khds, the 29, 87 Divinity, the Sempeternal ... 155 Divoddsa ... 26, 28, 168 Domestic utensils ... 270 Doric columns ... 11 Dowlatdbdd ... ... 31 Drapery in sculpture ... 133 Draupadf ... 192,211,398 Dress, importance of, 166. Evi- dence in the Rig Veda, 167. Materials of, 168. Wool, Cot- ton, 186. Silk, 169. Places of VI INDEX, Pact's. manufacture, 171. Anian's mus- lins, 172. Ornamented cloth, 173. Dyeing of cloth, 175. Style of, wearing 177, 187. In sculp- ture, 178. Sanskrit names for tailors, 184. Ditto for made dresses, 185. Uriya dress. An- cient Hindu male dress, 187. Female, do 188. Sculptures in- sufificient to settle questions regarding dress 189 Female, 188. Importanc of, 166. In Sculpture, Sewed, 178. Style of, 177. Sanskrit names of made, 185. Style of, 186 Drinking in India 389 ... 293 Dronachdpa ... ... 309 Dron^chdrya ... ... 327 Du Bois, Abbe ... ... 48 DufPs History of the Mah- r^ttas ... ... 317 Dukula and Piliyuk, Story of 203 Dulaure, M. Historic abregee de difterens Cultes 146 Dulva ... ... 191 Durgd 108, 131, 182, 231, 316, 345 403 Durgdpiija ... ... 362 Duryodhana ... 330, 331 Dushyanta ... 293, 349 Duss'asana ... ... 211 Dutugaimuna ... ... 241 Dv4das'dha ... ... 367 Dvdrdvati ... 430, 431 Dvdrkd ... ... 430 Eadghadhach ... ... 176 Ear ornaments ... ... 230 Ears ... ... 130 Edinburgh Review 177, 183 Edrissi, al ... ... 302 Egerton, Mr. Illustrated Hand-book of Indian Arms, 323 Egypt, 5, 42, 84, 116, 117, 118, 120 121, 128, 129, 130, 133, 134, 153, 154, 157, 172, 198, 242, 274, 276, 300j 343, 349 Egyptian architecture ... 153 religion, ... 146 Egyptians, the 4, 9, 11, loi, no, 133, 134, 142, 176, 198, 220, 221, 241, 255, 263, 300, 304, 321, 331, 338 Pa^es. Egypt, the Pyramids of ... 52 Ekdshtakd ... ... 367 Elephanta ... ... 103 EUenborough, Lord ... 87 Elliot, Sir Henry, 144. Index to the Historians of Muhammadan India, 308. Muhammadan His- torians, 144. Note On the early use of Gunpowder in India, 308 Ellora ... 103, 121 Enclosing wall of temples ... 71 Encyclopoedia Brittanica ... 12 Encyclop^die methodique ... 153 England 87, 158, 203, 227, 333, 428 Eochaidh, King ... 176 Epictetus ... ... 148 Etruria ... ... 293 Etruscans, the ... 341 • Euphrates ... ... 84 Euripides ... 108, 226 Europe 4, 10, 102, 107 121, 123, 140, 147, 158, 197, 211, 213, 218, 221, 282, 293, 303, 315, 324, 328, 334 Europeans 10, 107, 112, 198, 201, 214, 254, 336,430 Eve III, 112, 166, 193, 196 Eyebrows ... ... 126 Eyes ... ... 126 Ezekiel ... 146 ,169 Fa Hian Falerii Fans Fattehpur Sikri Favonious 1 1, 349 .. no .. 261 .. 29 Fergusson, James, 2, 4, 8, 12, 15. 19, 30, 31, 34, 4i,43» 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 61, 87, 178, 181, 188, 189, 191, 193, 198, 200, 201, 208, 209, 216, 253, 256, 258, 260, 272, 292, 294,335,341. Eastern Architec- ture 42. History of Architecture 2, 16, V, 31, 50, 74- History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 46, 47, 210. Lecture on Indian Architecture, 2. Tree and Ser- pent Worship, 2, 15, 42, 43, 194, 201, 208, 256, 260, 272, 278, 279, 292, 293, 294, 322, 324, 335, 352. Fermented beverages ... 4'8 Figures, Animal ... 99 INDEX. vu Figures, Human ... loi Fille dc r Air ... ... 333 Fire-arms ... ... 307 Flags ... ... 327 Foot ornaments ... 236 Footstools ... ... 260 Forehead ... ... 124 Foucaux, M. Edward ... 127 Furniture ... ... 243 Gadd ... ... 437 Gindhdra ... ... 437 Gandharvas, the abodes of ... 435 Ganes'a T2>, 103, 108, 273, 315 Ganges ... 45, 287, 397, 439 the ccrial ... 439 Ganjdm ... ... 172 Garga ... 77, 318 Garganardyana 382. Vritti on As'valdyana ... ... 380 Gdrhapatya ... ... 368 Garuda ... 76, 330, 434 Purdna, the 124, 125 126 Gateways ... ... 74 Gauls, the ancient ... 51 Gauntlet ... ... 304 Gauri ... 317, 320 Gautama ... ... 379 Gavamanayana ... ... 367 Genesis ... ... 147 Ghata ... 76, 'j'j Ghats, the Western 2, 29 Ghaut Mountains, the ... 153 Ghiberti ... ... 42 Ghosha, Bdbu Pratdpachandra 92 Gibbon ... ... 390 Giovanni da Bologna ... iii Girivraja 18, 19 Goad ... ... 352 Gobhila ... ... 360 Goldstiicker, Dr. T. ... 19 Gomedha ... 355, 385 Gonds ... ... 175 Gopatha Brahmana ... 374 Gorgons ... ... 108 Gorresio 24. Ramdyana ... 171 ... 361 203, 207 ... 436 ... 432 ... 108 ... 81 Gos'ava Gotama Govardhana, the hill Govinda Graese Granite Greco-Bactrians, the /'<^, 357 432, 436,442 . . . 400 ... no no ... no 17-18 207, 399 ■ •• 34 ••• 153 ... 312 221, 354 ... 40 ••• 53 ... 308 147 of 308, 359 des Savants 117, n8 Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britian 75, 85, 172, Juangs ... 195. Julia, daughter of Titus Jung Bahadur, Sir Jupiter Olympian Jyesthes'vara temple, the Kabul Kacha 391, Kaikeyi Kailasa mountain, the 20, Kaisarbag" Kajraha Kakshivat 25, Kdkutstha Kalas'a Kdli, Temple of 30, Kdlidasa Kdlika Purdna, the 72, 2 Kaliya, the Ndga king Kali Yuga Kallar, a wild tribe Kalpa Sutra, 360, 386, 319 196 126 10 ... \\2> 148, 249 ••• 53 • •• 43 392, 407 170, 259 76, 267, 434 ... 55 144, 145 227, 344 • •• 397 ... 66 407, 410 400, 401 ... 410 275, 407 ... 436 ... 384 ... 314 395 419 Kamakhya Tantra, the Kdmboja, a country Kdmbojas, a tribe Kdniya Ishtis Kiindama Kankas Kans'a Kdntanagar, temple of Kanva Kapiles'vara Karli Karnac Karnak Kartikeya Pages. lOI 410 332 172 361 363 172 436 35 203 62 31 147 346 "32 340, 2, 141, 187, 217, 235,236,251 Kashmir^ 3,35, 53, 170,427 Kashmiris, the ... ... 10 Kas'u, son of Chedi ... 325 Kas'yapa yj, 56, 68, 203 Kiityayana 367,420, 421, Kalpa Siitra Kaus'alya Kauverf Kaveri Kedftra KedaresVara Keightley, Mythology of Greece and Italy Kensington Museum, the ... Kern's Translation of the Bri- hat Sanhita ... 284 170 433 400 59 225 no 19S 319 287, 437 Kes'ava Kettledrum, a race horse, ... jjj Keunjhar ... ... 195 Khandagiri 15, 321, 33^ the bas-reliefs of 12 the caves of n, 34 Kh^nddnija, a sword ... 317 Kharjinputa ... ... 145 Khorbilbud, 340. The palace of, 15,16 Kichaka ... ... 399 King, Ur. ... ... 10 1 Kinnari ... ... 31 Kirtiviisa ... ... 24 Kishkindha ... ... 398 Konarak, 68, 71, 74, 84, 86, 100, 122 156, 210, 322. Temple of, 15, Kos'ala ... ... 20 the \'ice-kingship of... 21 Koyunjik ... ... 15 Kripa ... ... 330 INDEX. Krishna 130, 176, 182, 192, 349, 392, 398, 424, 429, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 44o, 441, 442, 443 Kshatriyas 40, 193, 266, 324, 380, 395, 408 Kubja, the sandal-paste-grin- dress ... ... 436 Kiikis ... ... 193 Kulluka Bhaita ... ... 379 Kumara-samb)hava 192, 203, 291, 254, 330, o2>l, 401, 402 Kunjara ... 76, ■]■] Kurukshetra, the (^reat war of ... ... ... 329 Kurus ... I, 192 Kusagdrapura ... 18 Kushadhvaja ... ... 170 Kusta ... ... 329 Kuvera ... 72, 403 Lahore ... ... 323 Laidlay, J. W. Translation of Fa Hian's Travels ... 349 Lakshmi ... J52, 288 Lakshmi's Temple ... 174 Lalita Vistara 127, 219, 334 Lamark, M. ... ... 234 Lambert, Commodore ... 196 Lamp of Beauty ... 157 of Memory 156,157 of Obedience ... 156 Lances ... ... 312 Landseer Mr. ... ... 11 Langhorne's Plutarch 10, 181 Langlcs, M. 104. Monu- ments of Indian Art ... 104 Laocoon, the ... 107, 140 Laodicea ... ... 416 Lassen, C. Indische Alter- thumskunde ... ... 308 Lasso, ... ... 313 Last Judgment, the ... in Laterite ... ... 'j'j Layard, >L J. 15, 1 18, iSi, 255, 263, 267, 278, 304, 336, 338, 340, 346. Nmeveh 15, 119, 263, 278, 332, 1)1^, 340, 341, 346 Leg ornaments ... ... 236 Leuco-.Syrians, the ... 340 Light and .Shade ... 162 Likhila ... ... 277 Lips ... ... 128 Pa^cs. Locke, H. H. 164, 288. Detailed List of Articles contributed by Bengal to the Vienna Universal Exhibition of 1873. •■• 288 Lodan-nu ... ... 340 Looking-glasses ... 240 Lou\ re, the ^Museum of the 134, 198 Lowth, Bishop ... ... 280 Lubbock, Mr. Prehistoric Times ... ... 51 Liibke, Professor, 97, 105, 106, 108, 109, 112, 114, 121, 123, 143, 144. History of Art, 103, 105, 131, History of Sculpture 97, 103, 105, 114, 121 123, 143 Macaulay, Lord ... 198 Macedonian Invasion, the ... 49 Maclagan's Early Asiatic Fire Weapons ... ... 308 M'Crindle's Ancient India, 45, 223, z-'-z, 336 Madhava ... ... 287 Madhuchhandas ... 332 Madhuparka rite, the, 359, 379, 380, 382, 384 Madhusudana ... ... 437 Madonna ... ... 396 Madras Government Museum, 314 Mahabharata, 1,19, 20, 24, 32, 38, 171, 185, 189, 192, 211, 221, 222, 254, 264, 274, 291, 294, 302, 303, 307, 324, 326, 327, 328, 329, Vcy"^, 332, 342, 345, 348, 359, 39i, 398, 424, 426, 427, 430 Mah;ideva 254, 364, 365 Mahanadi Mahilplava Mah;ivira-charita Mahawanso Mdhendri MAhes'vari Mahis'a Mahnn'id Ghaznavi Mahratuis 317, Maitreya Malacca Malaya mountain, the Mdnas'ara, 36, ^:,-], 57, Mandara Manavasara «l ... 367 ... 358 ... 274 ••• 433 ••• 39 ... 403 ... Zi 326, 327 219, 223 ... 292 ... 267 58, 135, '39, HI ... 76 3r, 53 INDEX. XI Manchester Museum Mandara mountain, the ^Fanetho Manikarnika Mannin<,% Mrs. 3 Manthar.i, Manu, 21, 25, 77, 191, 202, 209, 210, 239, 274, 291, 300; 393, Laws of Maravar Marble Markanda Tank at Purf Mirkandeya Purana Pages. •• 139 ■• 434 ... 52 ... 231 3, 9, 17, 419 21 168, 175, 190, 212 222 22 ■? 358, 359, 379^ 394, 395- 'Phe 171, 254, 277 ... 314 82 231, 320 104 279, 403 Mars ... ... 176 Martial ... ... 125 Martin's Eastern India ... 183 .Maruts,the, 227, 291, 323, 325, 334, 367, 427 Maskelyne's Report on Jewel- lery and Precious Stones at the French Exhibition Materials of temples Mathunl M4trik.ibheda Tantra Matsya Purana, Matsyas'ukta Tantra Mdtuli Mausala Parva ... Maya, a Danava, 32, 33, Mayadanava ]\Iayadevi Mayamata Maya S'ilpa Medusa Mcs^asthenes Meghaduta Megouk, Sir S. ... Mehtari Mahal ... Alenak;! Mena, P. Ticinus Mercury Meru Mountain ... Mesopotamia jVIetope of .Silenus Mexicans, the ... Midnapur Migsammata Miletus 229 ... n 60, 128, 129 ... 408 89,90 ... 411 ••• 349 ••• 399 36, 37, 38, 77,85 ... 37 ... 193 ... n i>i, 38, 39 ... 134 44, 45, 46, 47, 335, 340 212, III, 39, 76, 340, 355 328 30 442 221 131 267 346 134 329 172 204 '34 Miller's Ancient Art and Remains Mimansa aphorisms, the in, Minerva Mirmillo Mis'rakes'i Mitakshard Mithia Ghari, Sheikh Mithild Mitra 26, 343, 361, Moghals Mondkhi Mortar Mouth Moslims Mrichchhakati ... Mrichchhakaiika M rid ha Mriga-s'irsha Mudgala Muhammadans, the, 8 186, 225, 252, 38,3 IMuir, Dr. J 27, 169, \i skrit Texts, 27, 169, 183, 275, 312, Muktes'vara 213, Temple, 181, ; Mukunda Deva ... I\Iula AUiller, Professor Max Muller's Ancient Art and Remains Murshidabad INIuscles Museum, Asiatic Society Bengal, 88, 174, 193, : Indian Musical Instruments Alusulmans Mysore -3J, f'tii^es, its ... 21.S ...4, 226 134, 198 ... 1 40 ... 442 395,412 ... 44 170 386, 419 ... 3r ... 172 ... 83 ... 128 ... 18S 351, 352 55, 172 ... 365 ... 89 ••• 35t , 88, 184, 388,417 [3. San- 211,219, 326, 427 248, 284 :i3, 225, 255, 289 ... 55 ... 89 19, '53 its ••• '53 224, 225 ... 121 of !42, 284, 322 278, 280 ... 283 ... 184 172, 183 Nabaratna at Sobhabazar, the, 30 Nadia ... ... 413 Nagananda ... ... 400 Nagas, the 209,313 Worship of ... 209 Naharaina 340, 346 Nakules'a ... ... 417 Nala, the story of ... 2t Nalanda, Puddhist temples at, 34,85 Xll INDEX. Pas-cs. Pa.^es. Nalti Hills Nandana Park 76, Nandas, the Nandimukha Nandin Nandini Napoleon the Great 116, Narada 429, 437, 438, 439, 440, Narasinhiya Prayogaparijata, Narayana 287, Nasatyas Natmandir Nearchus Necklaces Nepal Neptune 108, Nikumbha 430, Nilakantha Nirnayasindhu, the Nirudha-pas'ubandha Nisata Nishatha Nitiprakds'ika, 307, 308, Nordland Noith-Western Provinces, 246, 277, 282, 351, 368, Norway 147, Nose ornaments Nurbudda 81 436 435 17 348 76 209 225 442 384 435 290 70 302 232 170 113 436 441 386 367 437 439 314 147 253, 426 424 130 232 34 143 51 108 177 81. Obscenity in sculpture Oceania Oceanos ODonovan's Translation of Clanmacnoise Annalists Oldham, Dr. T. 10, 79, Memoirs of the Geolot^ical Sur\ey of India 79, 80, 8i Opera Tuscanica ... 114 Oppert, Dr. Gustav, 307, 308, 310, 312, 314 315, 320, 350 Orii;in of Indian Architecture i Orissa, 29, 35, 53, 55, 61, 62, 67, 77, 78,81,82,83,84,86, 87, 88, 96, 100, 101, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 129, 132, 133, 142, 143, i45> 152, 154, 156, 157, 160, T63, 178, 179, 188, 212, 213, 215,233, 235. 238, 255, 281, 319, 320, 323 Orissan art compared with anicent European art, 103 119 227 146 214, 347, 350 292 276 331 144 276 76 286 Orissan art, the general character of Ornaments Osiris Oudh 55, Oudypore Ougein Ovid... Oxus Ozene Pacific islanders, the Padma, a bedstead Purana ... Paithinas'i ... ... 393 Pajras, the ... ... 344 Palankeens ... ... 353 Palermo, the Museum at ... 134 Palibothra ... 43,44,45,47 Pan ... 108, 109 Panchachuda ... ... 433 Panchasaradiya sava 362, 363 Pandus, the 19, 37, 192, 298, 328 Pandit, the ... ... 82 Panini, 169, 225, 264. The Gram- mar of ... 19, 228 Paramananda ... ... 226 Parasara 274, 384 Paras'ur;tmes'\ara's temple ... 68 Parika ... ... 203 Parikshita ... ... 176 Paris 97, 134, 213, 227, 229 —the Imperial Library at, 104 Prasi's, the 188, 252 P^rtha 437, 440 Parvati ... 403 Paryanya ... 27 Pas'ubandha ... 367 Pas'upaii ... 36> Pdtdla ... 299 Pathdns ... 31 Patna ... 44 Patuiis ... 193 Paulastya ... 386 Pauly, M. de 201. Peu pies de la Russie, ... 201 Pausanias ... 148 Paya 168, 297 Pearls ... 238 Peculiarity, Local, ill art ... 95 Pedu ... 33^ Pelasgians, 4 Pelasgic tombs,... ... 52 INDEX. Xlll 306 9 134 5: 148, Pellet-bou Peritas, Alexander's pel dog, Persepolis Perseus ... in Persia, 4, 12, 16, 157, 216, IZ-^-, 342, 343> 428 Persians, the, 9, 10 1, 252, 336, 418 Pharaohs, the land of the, Phidian school ... Phidias 93, in, 113, PhilcE, the Island of Phryne Picnic in ancient India, A Piliyuk Pindiiraka Pinnacles of temples Plato Plinth Pliny 221, 241. Plutarch, 9, Lansfhorne's 133 lOI 249 198 109 422 203, 204, 205 424,430,431 ... 65 276, 125, Polynesia Porch Porus Pose Poseidon Pradyumna Prabhdsa Prajapati Pralaniba Praxiteles Praxitelian school 26, 117 65 302 181 ID 13 67 111 437, 130 329 442 ... 399 2>^Z, 367, 371, ZT"- ... 436 109, 144 ... 101 Prescott's Conquest of Peru 329 Priapus, the worship of 145 Principles of Indian Temple Architecture ... ... 51 Prinsep, James, 56, 152. Arch- aeology of the Hindus, 57. Il- lustrations of Benares 56, 59 Prithviraja RAyasd, ... 144 Pritisthuna Tantra ... 37 Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal 7, 21, 101 Prokris, the Athenian ... 432 Proportions of temples, Rela- tive of figures, Propylon Ptolemaios Ptolemy, Claudius Pudukota Pulastya Panjdb 43, i: yi 95 134 147 ,38 314, 315 410, 414 169, 340 350 Pages. Puranas, the, 137, 203, 209, 223, 24^, 286, 345, 386, 402, 426 Puri, 65, 66, 71, 72, 74, 81, 84, 86, 122, 144, 210, 231, 293, 315, 320, 324 Temple 143, 152, 252, 293 Pururavas 192 Pusha ... ... 211 Pushan 361, 427 Pushpa-ratha ... ... 347 Quadrangle, of temples 76, ']'] Queen's Palace, the, a cave 176 Quiver ... '-'11}, Raghu ... ... 400 Raghunandana ... ... 28 f Raghuvahs'a ... ... 402 Raivataka hill, the ... 401 Raivata mountain, the ... 398 Rdjagriha ... 18, 19 Riija-miirtanda ... 53> 55 Rajamundri ... ... 400 Rajardni Temple, the, 62, 120, 128 R(ijasuya, the ... 19, 39i Rajputana ... 82,337 Rakshasas ... ... 374 Rama 21, 57, 103, 170, 222, 295, 298, 325, 328, 347, 349, 396 397, 398, 439, 442 Ramanuja ... ... 170 Ramarekha ... 57, 61, 163 Ramayana, the, 19, 21, 23, 24, 170, 171, 189, 192, 206, 207, 208, 2 n, 212, 222, 254, 259, 284, 291, 298, 300, 302, 303, 306, 323, 326, 330, 341, 343, 345, 347, 348, 350, 359, 395 Rambh^, an actress ... 442 Rameses, the Great ... 349 Vn. ... ... 220 RdmesVara ... ... 62 Ram Raz, 2>1, 38, 39, 40, 41, 56, 70, 1^. Architecture of the Hindus, 41, 68, 74 Rani-naur ... 179, 314 Rantidcva ... ... 427 Raphael ... ... 102 Rashiduddin ... ... 144 Rati ... ... 402 Ratnavali ... 185, 283 Ravana ... 103, 108, 39S Relief ... ... 142 XIV INDEX. Pas,es. Revata, fhe king of, 436, 437, 439 Revati, 402, 425, 429, 431, 436, 438 the constellation ... 368 Ribhus, the ... ••.275 Richard, Cceur-de-lion ... 230 Rig Veda, the 3, 25, 26, 28, 32, Z2>, 82, 189, 192, 202, 211, 214,219, 227, 254, 274, 277, 295, 297, 300, 301, 303, ,323 324, 328, 329, 332, Zl>^^ 335, 337, 341, 342, 344, 35 1, 396, 419, 427. The Sanhita, of the, 166, 178, 240, 241, 289, 301, yii, 379, 390, 418 Rishyas'ringa 19°, 357 Rohini ... ... 89 Roman art ... ... 149 Empire, the ... 42 Romans, the, 54, 108, no, 114, 149, 163, 176, 221,252,259,260,272, 316 Rome ... 107, no, 221 Rooke ... 45,46 Rooke's Arrian ... 44, 326 Rotunda ... 76, 77 Roxburgh, Dr. ... ... 244 Royle, on the Productive Resources of India ... 179 Ruanawelle ... ... 241 Rudra, 131, 2n, 227, 361, 364, 365, 381 Rudrayc4mala Tantra ... 72 Rukmini ... ... 432 Ruskin, John 23, 24, 99, 149, 156, 157, 158. Modern Painters, 149. Queen of the Air, 24. Seven Lamps of Architecture, 99, 154, 158 Ruten ... ... 340 Panes, Salsette ... ... 31 Sdma 203, 204, 205, 206, 207 Jataka ... ... 203 Veda, the 168, 363 Samayacharika-dharma-sutra, 191 Sdmba ... ... 442 Sambara ... ... 28 Sambartta ... ... 383 Sambatya ... ... 365 .Sambhalpur ... ... 35 Sambhu 72, 287 Samson's Elements of Art Criticism ... ... 156 Samudga ... ... 76 Samudrika, 125, 126 Sanatkumara ..■ ... 37 Sanchi, 42, 178, 187, 188, 193, 194, 195, 198, 200, 210, 219, 223, 228, 238, 272, 273, 278, 279, 280, 283, 284, 292, 293, 300, 303, 313, 315* 316, 319, 321, 329, 332, 335, 336, 341, 342, 343, 345, 352, 399 the bas-reliefs of, n, 12, 15, 120, 178, 189, 198, 209, 294, 307, 340, 348 tope Sandstone Sangita-darpana ratnavali S'ankara Sankarshana S'ankha the demon Sankhayana Kama Sutra S'akya 7, 34, 38, 127, 193, 208 Sambya ... ... 437 Sankava ... ... 437 Sanskrit College of Calcutta 367 language, the 230, 243 202, 207 ... 81 ... 442 ... 442 ... 365 ... 436 189, 277 ... 436 424 Rutennu ... 340 .S'aiivatya Saracens, the ... ... 226 ... 163 Sabha Parva 171 Sarada-tilaka 183, 232, 237 Saddle 334 SArana .-. 437 Sddi, Sheikh ... 252 Sarasvati 26, 364 Sailyoddhara ... 91 Siiraswatyam ... n .St.Ceorge's cross 329 Sarathi ■ ■■ 349 St.Olaf, King ... 147 Sarayu, the river 21 St. Peter at Rome ... 31 Sdrnath ... 151 Sakakldhikara ... 2,1 Tower ... ... 150 .S'akti 403 404 S'arva ... 36s .S'akuni 436 vS'arvatobhadra 7(>,77 S'akuntala 121, 122, 192, 203, 291, 1 Sastras, the, 294,410, 417, 424,425, 293, 439 1 429 INDEX. XV S'atakratu Sati Satrunjaya Saturn Satyabhamd Sdtyaka Sdtyaki Satya Kiriya Satyrs Saubhas Saudhataki Pages. ... i68 ... 183 ... 82 176, 253 429j 437, 438, 439 .- 437 ... 438 ... 206 ... 109 436 357 420, 421 361 344 10 356, Sautramani, 390, 391, 403, 408, S'avita S'avitri Saxon, the style ... towers ... ... 2)1> S'ayana ... ... 312 Schlagintweit, Dr. Emil, 140, 141 Schmieder s Translation of Megasthenes ... ... 46 Scinde ... ... 277 Sculpture, Indian ... 93 Dr. Liibke's opini- on Indian ... 103 Dressing of the hair in, 212. Vegetable life, 96. Ani- mal life, 99. Human figure, loi. Head 124. Forehead, 124. Nose, 130. Ears, 130. Eyes, 121. Muscles, 126. Grouping 133. Nationality, 130. DiX^dalian school, 113. Agenetan school, 113. Etruscan school, 114. Egyptian school, 115. Assyrian school. 117. Orissan school, 1 18. Symmetry, 1 59. Light and Shade, 162. Obscenity, 143. Carving 171 situ, 150. Drapery, 133. Pose, 130. Indian mythological ideas compared with Greek and Roman ditto, .. 106 Scythians .. 172 Semiramis .. 84 Semites, the 4 Sen, Babu Ramadi Isa .. 308 Shah Jahan .. 29 Shahnameh ■= 331 Shaw .. 302 Shelley .. 199 Sherring, Mr. 5, 184. ■ Hindu Castes and Tribes of Benares 184. Sacred Cit> of the H indus 5 Shields Shiraz, the wines of Shoes Sicily Siddhartha Sikimites Silence, Towers of Silenos Silk ... Pages. ... 320 ... 390 221 ... 71 ... 193 10 2'?2 134, 174 169 S'ilpa Sdstra, 41, -j-^^ 119, 120, 134 139, 156, 244 Simpson, Mr. William ... 87 Singara ... ... 340 Sinha ... 76, 77 Sinjar ... ... 340 Sirens ... ... 108 S'is'upala-badha... ... 402 Sit^ 25, 170, 203, 283 396, 397 Sitadhvaja ... ... 330 Sitting, Mode of ... 259 S'iva 39, 40, 72, 71, 103, 131, 146 182, 217, 251, 293, 298, 317, 330 365,403,404,407,408,417 S'ivaji ... ... 317 Sling ... ... 306 Smritis, the 369, 277, 386, 388, 391 410, 417 Snaffles ... ... 335, Socrates ... ... loi Sofas ... ... 252 Somanatha ... 2,7, 88 Soma-beer ... ... 418 Soma-prayogas ... ... 419 Sonagiri ... ... 19 Sonbhandar caves ... 18 South Sea Islanders ... 88 Spaniards 54, 329 Spears ... ... 312 Sphinxes ... ... 148 Spirituous drinks, 389. Denun- ciations against, 391. Craving for them, 390. Muhammadan ad- diction to them, 390. Ancient Indo-Aryan's attachment, 390. Prohibitions, 391. Expiations, 393. Mention of use in ancient works 395. Injunctions to use, 404. Drinking circles, 405. Rules for drinking, 406. Different kinds of liquors, 410. Arrack of the\'edas, 413. Aniseed liquor, 413. Jujube liquor, 414. Rum emblematical, 406. Particular seasons for parti- XVI INDEX 119 186 26 386 419 Pages. cular liquors, 415. Foreign wines, 416. Mode of drinking, 416 Wine glasses, 273. Wine biscuits, 417. Diseases resulting from wine, 417. Fermented beverages, 418. Soma Beer S'riharsha S rukta S'ruti Stevenson's Sama Veda Stockwell, a race horse Stones, precious... Strabo ... 276, 340 Stuft's, various places where manufactured, ... 171 Subhadra ... 429, 437 Sudeshna ... ... 398 S'udraka 172, 223, 139 S'udraka, the " Toy Cart" of 223, 239, 285, 319 S'udras, the, 184, 380, 384, 395, 423, Sugriva ... ... 398 Suidaitissa ... ... 241 Sukhasana ... ... 353 S'ukra Acharya, 308, 391, 392, 406, 409 S'ukra-niti Siilagava cei^emony, the Sultanganj 139, 141 Sulva Sutras Sumeru mountain, the Sumitra 355> 224, 225, Surajpokhor Sarabhi Surya Sus'ruta Svarga Svdti Switzerland Swords, 315. Double-bladed, Symmetry, Respective Uniform .Syria 308, 309 226 151, 152 ... 82 • •• 434 ... 1 70 224 356 361 368 299 89 51 159 i6r 416 Tagore, the Library of Maharaja Jotindramohan 293 ,R;vja Saurendramohan 442 Tailors, .Sanskrit names for... 184 Taittiriya Aranyaka ... 362 IJrdhmana 168, 239, 361, 362, 363, 373, 374,421 Sanhita ... 419 Takti-i-Suleman hill, the ... 53 Talchir Tamulian architecture temples Tamulians, the Tandya Brahmana Tanjore Tantras, the, ■^i^, 5; Pa^es. 86 J- 33, 34 32, ZZi 3'4 ••• 363, 39, 314 152, 273, 403, 404, 405, 406, 414, 417 Tara... ... ... 410 Tartaros ... ... 108 Tatyrs ... ... 109 Taurus ... ... 340 Tawney, Professor Charles Henry 127, 357 Taylor, Colonel Meadows, 177, 183 Teapoys Talinganii Temple Bengali Orissan Indian Northern Indian Indo-Saracenic Jain 261 ... 238 ... 6i ... 59 ... 51 ... 58 6 16, 36, 60 Temples compared, various kinds of 58 Tennant, Sir Emerson 234, 286 Testament, the old 146, 169 Theban youths in sculpture... 148 Thebes 133, 198, 220,289, Theocritus ... ... 126 Theseus ... ... 148 Thormanby, a race horse ... -^12, Thothmes III ... ... 340 Thrones ... ... 249 Tiaras ... ... 230 Tilottam.-f 121, 442 Tirhut Pillars, the ... 8 Titicorin ... ... 288 Tod, Colonel ... 181, 188 Toreutic art ... ... 151 Torre de Nerone ... 112 Torrens, Henry. Scope and Uses of Military Literature and His- tory ... 327, 340 Tower ... ... 63 Trappings, Klephant ... 339 Travancour ... ... 292 Trita ... ... 168 Triton 108, 109, 211, 325 Trumpets ... ... 327 Trunk, Armour for the ... 324 IXDEX. xvii Pa mad Tiighlak, Emperor Muham Tiigra Tiikharas Turamaya Turanians, the ... Turbans Turkey Tushita Tvashta Tvashtu Typhoeus Tyre ... Udakas';lnti Udayagiri, 17, 19, 100, ;2o, 179, 224, Udaya mountain, the Ugra Ugrasena ... Uhnuka 437, Ulysses Umbrella the Lord of the... Umbrellas, the Lord of Twenty-four Upanishads, the Upapuninas, the Uranos Uriyds, the, 74, 81, 82, 84, 100, 119, 144, 152, 1S7, 212, 215, 240, 241, Urmila Urvas'i Us'anas 184, Usha 71, 167, 289, 283, Utensils, Domestic Utpatti Tantra ... Uttara , Ashiidha... Bhadrapada Phalguni Uttaranima-charita 325, 355, 31 290 172 3^ 4 218 216 219 275 420 108 169 368 2:9, 314 180 267 365 431 439 126 262 264 264 203 386 108 101, 218, 281 170 442 318 290 243 408 331 89 89 89 356 Vaisampayana Vaishnavas Vais'ya Vais'yadevdh Vais'yas ... 30S 72, 2S7, 312, 404 • •• 395 ... 368 184, 380 Vaital Devi, the Temple of 219 Vajapeya rite, the 390, 391, 361, 419,420 Vajasaneyi Sanhitd ... 3-6 Paces. Valhalla ... ... 132 \';ilmiki 93, 170, 222, 356 Van a Parva ... ... 426 Vanaprastha ... ... 384 Vardha Mihira, 75,85,317. Brihat Sanhita 75, 85, Varaha Punina ... ... 286 Vardhamana ... ... 317 Vardhana ... ... 76 Varuna, 26, 289, 290, 291, 343, 361, 387 Vas'ishiha 27, 203, 209, 211, 214, 190, 291, 356, 357, 393, 396 Vastu-pradipa Vastu-s'astra VAsudeva Vasus, the Vayu 41 ••• 2>7 431, 435 ... 381 361, 371, 372 Vedas, the 25, 26, 169, 177, 203, 289, 302, 312, 327, 332, ^y^, 350, 355. 356, 357, 359, 360, 364, 368, 384, 3S5, 386, 387, 388, 39', 395, 407, 409, 413, 418, 422, 423, 424 Vegetable life in sculpture ... 96 Venus, 97, 109, 129, 144,176,253. Cnidian 109, 144. de Medici 122 128 Vighnes'a ... ... 40 Vijaya Sifiha ... ... 292 Vikramorvashi ... ... 337 Vincent, Mr. 276. Periplus of the Erythrean Sea ... 173 Vindhya Mountain, the ... 267 Viramitrodaya ... ... 403 Virata ... ... 349 ^Lahdrilja ... 398 Parva 326, 398, 430 Vis'akha constellation, the ... 362 Vishnis ... .. 434 Vishnu, 53, 72,, 103, 104, 108, 225, 251, 286, 299, 312, 345, 403 427, 430, 434 •Purdna Sanhita Vis'vakarma "JJ 36, — prakiisa Vis'vakarmfya Vis'vamitra Vis'vAnch, Vis'varupa VisVedevdh Vis'ves'vara's temple 126, 191, 223 ... 411, 39, 40, 274, 434, 435 ... 40 ;■; .V 2>2>-i 357 ... 3or ... 4-0 372, 381 58; 59 XVUl IXDEX. Vitra Vitruvius \'izianagram, the Mahdnija of A'oltaire A'raja \'rihannaradiya Purdna 385, Vrihaspati 391, 403j 4°? A'rikas, the execution of ... 436 Paees. .. 361 71 56 145 436 -,86 \'rinddvana \'rishaketana "\'risha \'ulcan \'ulgate, the V'yaghanasa Vydsa — Sanhitd. .. Vyavahdra-tatt\ a Waggons Waist ornaments 182 ■ •• 330 76, 77 ... 275 ... 146 ... 37 32, 329 ... 281 ... 281 ••• 351 236 71 327 5 Walls, enclosing, of temples War-cries Wasso, the Watson, Dr, F., 183. Textile Manu- factures of India ... 183 Weber, Dr. Albrecht 2>7i 38 WelHngton, the Duke of 197, 224 Wells Cathedral in, 112 Westmacott, Mr. .,, 114 Westmacott's Handbook of Sculature 102, 103, 109, in, 114 Westropp's Handbook of Archaeology in. 114 Wheeler, Mr. J, Talboys, 24. History of India I, 2, 21, 24 Whip ... ... 352 Wilford, Colonel ... 38 Wilkinson, Sir Gardiner 1 15, 220, 255, 289, 299, 306, 339, 349, Ancient Egyptians 116, 220, 221, 274, 289, 299, 303, 304, 306, 321, 339, 349 Williams, Monier, Translation of S'akuntahi 293, 400 Wilson, Professor 168, 172, 291, 297, 298, 325, 339, 348, 351, 355, 386, 405, 441. Dictionary 186, 441. Essay "On the Art of war as known to the Hindus". 296, 307. Hindu Theatre. 55, 183, 223, 232, 238, 239, 240, 285, 319, 325, ?>1>7, 355, 357- Trans- lation of the Rig Veda, 3, 25, 26, 27, 28, 167, 168, 169, 178, 211, 214, 219, 227, 254, 277, 289, 290, 291, 298, 300, 301, 323, 394, 325, 328, 329, 332, 334, 341, 342, 343, 344, 390 Winckelmann's History of An- cient Art 125, 131 Wood ... ... 86 Wool ... ... 168 Writing materials ... 280 Wyatt, Mr. Digby, 54. Architect's Note-book in Spain ... 55 Yadavas, the 392, 399, 425, 430, 431, 434, 437,442 Yadu race, the 431, 437 Yadus, the ... ... 433 Ydjapur ... ... 230 the Ashtandyikds of 230 Ydjnavalkya 383, 393 Yajur Veda 168, 239, 326, 371, ^7}, Yames'vara ... ... 271 Yamund 397, 436 Yaska 25, 228 Ydska's Nirukta 25, 228 Yas'odd ... ... 436 Yogini Tantra ... ... 281 Yudhisthira, 19, 32, 171, 185, 307, 399 Yuktikalpataru, 250, 264, 267, 275, 292, 320 Yule's Mission to Ava ... 72 Zend language, the 320 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 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